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Les diagrammes suivants iiiustrent la mithode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 i/^'^^^- I "f T icr IP. - ■; 2X xa.EASini.T^a' HisT'Oax. n P ►- a o < V) e o CONSISTING OF A SEJRJ1JE5 OIF SIEFAVIRATE HI;STO]RJIjES * ) % I N •?C»''!." > \ ■ TME W '15 BS 3- © ; Pit Err. HE i> n\ y '"'^ ■*..•• -l^ I;. , . iik*' IBY ^^A5W!131£!L i!W A HJ) i^ [D E K . ^ /V/^' Trrtisniy i>f' l\iir>w/tfff/'' T/ir Srirnti/ir A-/.//«n/rv 7}ynriirv"Scr. NCW EOITIOJN. ,»,.. ;1«^ .:S^- •■1. •«y LONGMAN, ItKOWN. C.KKKN.X LONGMANS. % , t •■,-: .:isv '-K w I w ♦ w I ) THE • TEEASUKY OF HISTOEY ; / OOMPRISINO A GENERAL INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE Of UNIVERSAL HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN; AND A EVERY PRINCIPAL NATION THAT EXISTS ; THEIR RISE, FROQRESS, PRESENT CONDITION, &c. ' Ne quid fal^ diccre audcat» ne quid veri non audeat historicua." BY SAMUEL MAUNDER, AUTROm OV THB " TRBAtKRY OF KNOWLBtHlB/' ^ BIOaRAmiCAX. TRBAIURV/' " LITBRARV ANU tCIBNTiriO TRBASURV/' &C. &C. "d . , ,-■ ■ SECOND EDITJON. LONDON: LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, FATERKOSTER ROW. MDCCCXLIV. i '»M ^ '» ,1 1 ■/' London : " Printed by A. Spottis^oodi,* New-Street-Square. W rt'M CONTENTS. Page PRBLIMINART OB8BRVATION8, HuTOalCAL, CORONOLOQICAL, AMD GftoaiArHicAL ix Turn DiTisioKi or IIktokv . . . x OiRiBAii HiBToni or Mooikn Ev- BOtB Xi Cbbomolost xvi OlOSBAFHICAK SkBTCH OV THB YTOBLD XTi DiTisioRi or TBB Eabih .... Xfii INTBODUCTORT OUTLINE SKETCH OF GENERAL HISTORY. CHAPTER I. or the Origin of the World, Bnd the Frimitive Condition of Mankind .. 1 CHAPTER II. From the Deluge to the Settlement of the Jews in Canaan ...... 2 CHAPTER III. The Fabulous and Heroic Ages, to the Initittttion of the Olympic Games . 4 CHAPTER IV. From the Institution of the Olympic Games, to the Death of Cyrus . . 5 CHAPTER V. From the Erection of the Perrian Em- pire, to the Divison of the Grecian Empire ^fter the Death of Alexan- der 6 CHAPTER VI. From the Wars of Rome and Carthage, to the Birth of Christ 7 CHAPTER VII. From the beginning of the Christian Era, to the Appearance of Mahomet 8 CHAPTER VIII. From the Rise of Mahomet, to the Commencement of the Crusades . 8 CHAPTER IX. From the First Crusade, to the Death ofSaladin 11 Page CHAPTER X. From the Death of Saladin, to the End of the Crusades 13 CHAPTER XI. From the Time of Genghis Khan, to that of Tamerlane IS CHAPTER XII. From the Time of Tamerlane, to the Sixteenth Century 16 CHAPTER XIII. The Reformation, and Progress of Events daring the Sixteenth Century 16 CHAPTER XIV. From the Commencement of the 8eTen> trenth Century, to the Peace of Westphalia 18 CHAPTER XV. From the Civil War in England, to the Peace of Rysvricl( 30 CHAPTER XVI. Commencement of the Eighteenth Century, to th* Vcace of Utrecht . S3 CH-tr i"3R XVII. The Age of Chari !s XII. of Sweden, and Peter the Great of Russia . . 94 CHAPTER XVIII. The Affairs of Europe, from ,the Esta. blishment of the Hanoverian 8ucces> aion in England, to the year 1740 . 26 CHAPTER XIX. From the Accession of the Empress Theresa, of 'Austria, to the Ceace of Aix-Ia-Chapelle 27 CHAPTER XX. Progress of Events during the Seven Tears* War in Europe, America, and the East Indies SB CHAPTER XXI. From the Conclusion of the Seven Years' War, to the flual Partition of Poland 81 mmpm — w Contents. Face Page CHAFTKR XXII. CHAPTER VI. From the Commencement of the Ame- The Reigns of Ethelbert and Ethelred 61 rican War, to theBecoKnition of the Independence of the United State* . 33 CHAPTER VII. CHAPTER XXIII. TheReignof Alfred the Great ... 63 From the Commencement of the French CHAPTER VIII. KeTolution, to the Death of Bobea- History of the Anglo-Saxons, from the Death of Alfred the Great to the piorro ••••••••••• 34 Reign of Edward the Martyr ... 68 CHAPTEE XXIV. From the Ettabliihmentof the French CHAPTER IX. Directory, to the Peace of Amiens . 3S From the Accession of Edward the Martyr to the Death of Canute . . 76 CHAPTER XXV. From the Recommencement of Hosti- CHAPTER X. lities, to the Treat/ of TU«t . . . 3'/ The Reigns of Harold and Hardicanute 83 CHAPTJIR XXVI. CHAPTER XI. The French Invasion of Spain, and sub- The Reign of Edward the Confessor . 84 sequent Peninsular War 3S CHAPTER XII, CHAPTER XXVII. The Reign of Harold the Second . . 88 From the Invasion of Russia hj the French, to the Restoration ot the NORMAN LINE. Uniirbnnii .......... 39 CHAPTER XIII. AJUUBWIIO .."....... CHAPTER XXVIII. The Reign of William I., usually styled From the Return of Buonaparte from "William the Conqueror" .... 91 Elba, to the general Peace .... 41 CHAPTER XIV. ^^^^ The Reign of William I. (continued.) 96 EuBDFB.— Asia.— AvBicA,— Ahkbica. 42 CHAPTER XV. The Reign of William II 103 A SERISS OF SEFARATJE CHAPTER XVI. HISTOBIJilS. W'^^t T^iatoxis of lEnglanlY. The Reign of Hknbt 1 108 CHAPTER XVII. The Reign of STsrHBH 115 BRITISH AND ROMAN PERIOD. PLANTAGENETS. CHAPTER I. CHAPTER XVIII. The British and Roman Period— to the The Reign of Hbn by II. : preceded by subjugation of the Island by the Saxons , . . . . Observations on the right of the < 43 English to Territory in France . .119 THE HEVTARCHT. CHAPTER XIX. - CHAPTER II. The Heptarchy, or the Seven King- The Reign of Hbhbt II. (continued) . 126 CHAPTER XX. doms of the Saxons in Britain . . . 60 The Reign of Hbnby II. (concluded) . 138 CHAPTER III. CHAPTER XXI. The Heptarchy (continued) . . . 61 TheReignof RicuABD 1 137 CHAPTER IV. CHAPTER XXII. The Heptarchy (continued) .... 65 The Reign of John 146 ANGLO-SAXON KINOS. CHAPTER XXIII. CHAPTER V. The Reign of Henby III 167 The Anglo-Saxons after the Dissolu- tion of the Heptarchy.— Reigns of Egbert, Ethelwolf, and Bthelbald . CHAPTER XXIV. 58 The Reign of Edward 1 167 f 119 136 138 187 146 167 167 r- — 1 Contents. V Pate CHAPTEB XXV. TheReignofEDWABDU 179 CHAPTER XLV. The Beign of Mabt (continued) . , Page SI7 CHAPTEB XXVI. ThcBcignofEowABiiIII. . . . . 184 CHAPTEB XIVI. The Beign of Emiabbtb .... S35 CHAPTER XXVII. The Beign of Richabd II 800 CHAPTER XLVII. The Beign of Ei.»abbth (continaed) 345 EOUaS OP LANCJSTER. HOUSE OP STUJRT. CHAPTEB XXVIII The Reignof Hbhbt IV 810 CHAPTER XLVIII. TheBeignof Jaubs I 851 CHAPTEB XXIX. The Beign of Hbnbt V 315 CHAPTER XLIX. The Beign of Jaubi I. (continaed) . 858 CHAPTEB XXX. The Beign of Hbrbt VI 333 CHAPTEB L. The Beign of Chabi.bs I. . . .304 CHAPTEB XXXI. The Beign of Hbmbt VI. (continaed) 330 CHAPTEB LI. The Beign of Cuablbs I. (continued) 368 CHAPTEB XXXII. The Beign of Hbhbt VI. (concluded) 337 CHAPTEB LII. The Beign of Chablb* I. (concluded.) 378 HOUSE OP rORK. THE COHMOyWEALTH. CHAPTEB XXXIII. The Beign of Edwabd IV 343 CHAPTEB LIU. Tab Common wbaltb . 382 CHAPTER XXXIV. The Beign of Euwabd V 854 CHAPTEB XXXV. The Beign of Bicbabd III 368 HOUSE OP TUDOR. HOUSE OP STUART. CHAPTEB LIV. The Beign of Chabi.b« II. ... CHAPTEB LV. TheBeignof Jambs II . 390 . 308 CHAPTER XXXVI. The Beign of Hbrbt VII.. ... 261 CHAPTEB LVI. The Beign of William III. . . ■ . 403 CHAPTEB XXXVn. The Beign of Hbhbt VII. (continaed) 367 CHAPTEB LVn. TheBeignof Annb . 406 CHAPTEB XXXVIII. The Beign of Hbn bt VII. (concluded) 873 CHAPTEB XXXIX. The Beign of Hbnbt VIII 375 CHAPTER XL. The Beignof Hbnbt- VIII. (continued) 280 CHAPTEB XLI. TheBeignof Hbnbt VIII. (continued) 387 CHAPTER XLII. The Beign of Edwabd VI 899 CHAPTER XLIII. The Beign of Edwabd VI. (continued) 304 CHAPTER XLIV. The Beign of Mabt 309 HOUSE OP BRUNSWICK, CHAPTER LVin. The Beign of Gbobob I CHAPTER LIX. TheBeignof Gbobob II CHAPTER LX. The Beim of Gbobob III. . . . . 410 . 414 . 493 CHAPTEB LXI. The ReignofGioBSB III. (continued) 485 CHAPTEB LXII. The Reign of Gbobob III. (continued) 447 CHAPTEB LXIII. The Reign of Gbobob III. [the Rb- obnct] 450 1 Contents. Page CHAPTEB LXIV. TheneignofOioKoitlV. 473 CHAPTER LXV. The Ecign of William IV 483 CHAPTBB LXVI. The Reign of VicTOBiA 492 JS-ftz lliiston; of SttlanTl. 619 622 624 626 631 CUAPTIB I CsArTBB II Cbaftiib III -■ Cbavteb IV t • Chaftbr V Chaftkb VI 633 ChaftbbVII 637 Chaftkb VIII 639 Chaftbb IX 543 Chaftbb X 662 Chaftbb XI 653 ^l^e ^{stors of S^cotlant^. CHAVTjia 1 566 CHAPTER II. The House of Stvabt 672 CHAPTER III. The Reiga of Mabt.— House of Stuart 676 CHAPTER IV. The Accession of James the Sixth of Scotland, and the Fihst of Eno- LAMD 582 CHAPTER V. From the Accession of Chablbs I. to the Death of William III. . . .686 CHAPTER VI. The Union of the two Kingdoms . . 687 ^l^e llistore of ^France. The Merovingian Dynasty, or First Race ■ . . 690 The Carlovingian Dynasty, or Second Race 591 FiBST Bbanch.— The Capetine Dy- nasty, or Third Race 621 Sboohd Bbamch.— House of Valois . 692 The House of Valois-Orleans . . . .692 The House of Valois-Angoulime . .692 Thibd Bbanch.— House of Bourbon Thb Fbbhch Rbtolution.— 1. The Limited Monarchy . . . 2. The Republican OoTemment . 8. The Consular Government . . THE BISTORT OF SPAIN Pace . 69S . 59< . S»7 . 699 614 THE HlfiTORI OF PORTUGAL . . 639 THE HISTORY OF GERMANY.— [AusTBiAH Emfibb, Gbbmam Statbs, &c.] . 644 HCHSABT 651 THE HISTORY OF PRUSSIA . . 663 THE HISTORY OF THE NETHER. LANDS, coMFBiBiMfl Holland anb BiLoiUM 668 THB HISTORY OF SWEDEN, DEN- MARK. AND NORWAY. SWBDBM . . k 670 Dbnmabk 675 NoBWAT 678 THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA ... 679 THE HISTORY OF POLAND ... 690 THE HISTORY OF SWITZERLAND 697 THE HISTORY OF ITALY . . . . 703 THE HISTORY OF VENICE . . .711 tS'^t l^istore of JSkOtuz. The Roman Republic 736 The Roman Empire 732 Papal Romb, ob Statbs ov thb Chvboh 732 ^':- 1 703 711 Contents. Til Pace NAVI.BS 741 SiciLv 7-13 Saboimia 744 iamoA 74S . . . . . . » 1' •..tfi. t BAVABIA 746 BANOVEa 747 7S>%t I^Ostore of (l&rtece. Cbaf»r 1 749 Cha'tbb II 761 Chavtbb III 764 THE HISTORY OF THE OTTO- MAN OR TURKISH EMPIRE . 763 The Rise and Progreai of Mabombt. ANiaM 768 THE BISTORT OF INDIA ... 773 THE BISTORT OF PERSIA . . .786 Ababia 791 Pace CaiBBBa 81S Thb Molucca*, ob Sficb laiARoa . 816 Tbb Bamoa, ob NuTNBe Iai>Ba . . 816 Tax PHiumsB IiiiAhs* .... 816 tS,%t l^istotn of ®|ina. 793 796 797 801 803 CBArTBB I CUArTBBlI Chaptbb III ChaptbbIV Cbaptbb V. Chavtbr VI 806 Cbavtbb VII 808 CBAriBB VIII 810 THE BISTORT OF JAPAN . . .813 %%t lEast SntJia 3Eslant(s. Cbtlon . ^ 813 Sdmatra . 814 Pbihcb of 'W4i,Ba'8 Ibland . . . .814 Jaya 814 BOBHBO 815 THE BISTORT OF PALESTINE. ABB MOBB rABTICDlABLT Or *BB 3*\:' ........... 817 The State of the Jewi afaice the I>e« atruetion of Jemaalem 830 Abmbhia 833 AliBABIA .......833 TBE BISTORT OF EOTPT. witb Stbia 833 Albzardbia , . . . 838 Ahtiocb 839 TBE BARBART STATES .... 830 AliOIBBI 831 Wi^t Ilistotn of ^mcifca. Tbb Unitbd Siatbb 835 Mbxioo . . . . , 839 Tbb RaruBLic ov Tbzai. ... . .841 Canada 841 NawroDMBtANo 843 SOUTB AMERICA. Fbbc 843 Caui . 84S Bbabil 848 Tbb BarDBLic or La Plata, ob Unitbo Pbotircbi 844 Colombia 848 Bolivia 846 OviAifA 846 AiiAaoiiiA 846 ^l^e WLtsA Sntlia 3£s1antl8, (Sometmu called tht Archipelago tf the Weit.) Cdba 846 Hatti, or St. Domikoo ..... 846 PoRTO-Rico 849 Babbaoobb 850 St. CunisTOFHBR'a; or, St. KiTt'a . 851 Tiii Contents. Page NiTis 851 Antibua. . . • 851 MoiftSKBBAT • 851 Jamaica 851 Martiniqub 852 goadalovpb ......>.. 853 St. Lucia 864 St. Tin cim t 854 dohirica ...» 855 Gbbnada 865 Tbimidad . . • .855 8r. EuiTAxii/B 865 TOBASO 85S TBB BAHAMA! 86S Page HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. Nbw HoIiLaii d . 857 Nbw Zbaiard 859 Ladbobbi, OB Mabiamnb Islahos . 860 FbIBMDIiT I(I>AnD8 860 SOCIBIT laLAIIVS 861 Sarowicb Islaiidb 861 ICELAND 863 GREENLAND 864 Page 867 859 860 860 861 861 863 864 ' i PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS, HISTORICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL, AND GEOGRAPHICAL. " It is not without reason," says RoUin, ' that History has always heen considered as the light of ages, the depository of events, the faithful evidence of truth, the source of prudence and good counsel, and the rule of conduct and manners. Confined with- out it to the bounds of the age and country wherein we live, and shut up within the narrow circle of such branches of know- ledge as are peculiar to us, and the limits of our own private reflections, we continue in a kind of infancy, which leaves us stran- gers to the rest of the world, and pro- foundly ignorant of all that has preceded, or even now surrounds us. What is the small number of years that make up the longest life, or what the extent of country which wo are able to progress or travel over, but an imperceptible point in com- parison of the vast regions of the universe, and the lung series of ages which have suc- ceeded one another since the creation of the world ? And yet all we are capable of knowing must be limited to this impercep- tible point, unless we call in the study of History to our assistance, which opens tu us every age and every country, keeps up a correspondence betwixt us and the great men of antiquity, sets all their actions, all their achievements, virtues, and faults be- fore our eyes ; and bj the prudent reflec- tions it cither presents, or gives us an op- portunity of making, soon teaches us to be wise before our time, and in a manner far superior to all the lessons of the great- est masters. * * * It is History which fixes the seal of immortality upon actions truly great, and sets a mark of infamy on vices, which no after-age can ever oblite- rate. It is by History thnt mistaken merit, and oppressed virtue, appcnl to the incor- ruptible tribunal of posterity, which ren- ders tlicm the justice their own age has sometimes refused them, and without re- spect of persons, and the fear of a power which subsists no more, condemns the un- just abuse of authoritj with inexorable rigour. * ♦ • Thus History, when it is well taught, becomes a school of morality for all mankind. It condemns vice, throws off the mask from false virtues, lays open popular errors and prejudices, dispels the delusive charms of riches, and all the vain pomp which dazzles the imagination, and shews, by a thousand examples, that are more availing than all reaso; ings whatso- ever, that nothing is great and commend- able but honour and probity." The fore- going exordium is as iust as it is eloquent —as apposite as it is complete. It has been very truly remarked, that the love of fame, and a desire to commu- nicate information, have influenced men in almost every age and every nation, to leave behind them some memorials of their ex- istence, actions, and discoveries. In the earliest ages of the world, the mode of conveying to posterity an account of im- portant facts was very vague and uncer- tain : the most obvious and easy was first resorted 'to. Thus, when Joshua led the twelve tribes of Israel over the river Jordan, in a miraculous manner, he set up twelve stones for a memorial ; but it was necessary for tradition to explain the circumstances which gave rise to it ; and he said, accordingly, " When your children shall ask their fathers, in time to come, what mean these stones? Then ye shall let your children know, saying, Is- rael came over this Jordan on dry land." (Joshua, c. iv., v. 21.) Poets who sung to the harp the praises of deceased warriors at the tables cf kings, are mentioned by Homer; the Scandinavians, Gauls, and Germans, had their bards; and the sa- vages of America preserved similar memo- rials in the wild strains of their country. To supply the defects of such oral tradi- tion as this, founders of states and leaders of colonies gave their own names to cities and king'iums ; and national festivals and games were established to commemorate extraordinary events. From such imperfect attempts to r(>scue the past from the ravngcs of time and ob- ^rcUminaru ©fiscrbationa. livion, the progres* to inscriptions of va> rious kinds was made soon after the inven- tion of letters. The Babylonians, recorded their first astronomical observations upon briclcB ; and the most ancient monuments of Chinese literature were inscribed upon tables of stone. In Greece and Rome very similar methods were sometimes adopted ; two very curious monuments of which are atiU extant— the Arundelian marbles, upon which are inscribed, in Greek capital let- ters, some records of the early history of Greece ; and the names of the consuls re- gistered upon the Capitoline marbles at Borne. Such was the rude commencement of annals and historical records. But when, in succeeding times, nations became more civiliced, and the Tarious branches of literature were cultivated, persons em- ployed themsches in recording the actions of their contemporaries, or their ancestors ; and history by degrees assumed its proper form and character. At length " the great masters of the art arose, and after repeated essays, produced the harmonious light aud shade, the glowing colours and animated groups of a perfect picture." " All history," says Dryden, " is •:> ily the precepts of moral philosophy, reduced into examples." He ajso observes, " the laws of history in general are truth of matter, method, and clearness of exvression. The first property is necessary, t.> keep our un- derstanding from the impositions of false* hood, for history is an argument framed from many particular examples or induc- tions : if these examples are not true, then those measures of life which we take from them, will be false, and deceive us in their consequence. Tlie second is grounded oa the former ; for if the method be confused, if the words or expression', of thought be obscure, then the ideas which we receive must be imperfect, and if such, we are not taught by them what to elect, or what 'o shun. Truth, therefore, is required as the foundation of history, to inform us ; dispo- sition and perspicuity, as the manner to in- form us plainly." The manner in which History ought to be studied is the next important conside- ration. To draw the line of proper distinc- tion, says a Judicious writer on this sub- ject, is the first object of the discerning reader. Let him not burden his memory with events that ought perhaps to pass for fables; let him not fatigue his attention with the progress of empires, or the suc- cession of kings, which are thrown back into the most remote ages. He will find that little dependence is to be placed upon the relations of those pfTairs in the Pagan world, which preceded the invention of let- ters, and were built upon mere oral tradi- tion. Let him leave the dynasties of the Egyptian kings, the expeditions of Sesos- tris, Bacchus, and Jason, aad the exploits of Hercules and Theseus, for poets to em- bellish, or chronologists to arrange. The fabulous accounts of these heroes of anti- quity may remind him of the sandy de- serts, loft^mountains, and fioxen oceans, which are laid down in the maps of the ancient geographers, to conceal their igno- rance of remote countries. Let him hasten to firm ground, where he may safely stand, and behold the striking events and memo- rable actions which the light of authentic record displays to his view. They alone are amply sufficient to enrich his memory, and to point out to him well-attested examples of all that is magnanimous, as well as all that is vile;— of all that has debased, and all that has ennobled mankind. THE DIVISIONS OF HISTORY. ConaiDBEBD with respect to the nature of its subjects. History may be divided into General and Particular; and with respect to time, into Ancient and Modern. Ancient History commences with the creation, and ends in the year of Christ 476, with the destruction of the Roman empire in the West. Modbrn IIistodt commences from the fall of that empire, and extends to the present time. Ancient History is divided into two parts, or ages ; the/a&M/ous and the hittoric. The Fabulous Aob begins with the first em- pires, about 2000 years before the birth of Christ, and closes with the foundation of Rome : a period which comprehends 1246 years. The Historic Aob had its beginning at the foundation of Rome, 7S3 years before Christ, and terminated with ancient his- tory. The foundation of Rome is chosen for the commencement of this important division, because at that time the clouds which were spread over the historic page began to dissipate daily ; and because this period, in the end, has served as an era for all the West, and also a part of the East. This age presents us with the grandest re- volutions in Europe and Asia. In the lat- ter, the entire destruction of the Assyrian empire, and the foundation of three cele- brated monarchies upon its ruins. In Europe, the establishment of the princi- pal republics of Greece, the astonishing progress of legislation, and the successful cultivation of the fine arts. This division embraces 1230 years. l^istoiital, 0^I)ronologita1, anti (l^cograplbital- xi A.D. 476 A.S. 800 GENERAL HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE. Tub Listory of Modbbn EuBor* com- mences with the fall of the Roman empire in the West, and continue* to the prewnt time : it embraces nine remarkable periods, the epochs of which are, — 1. The fall of the Western Empire 2. The re-establishment of that empire by Charlemagne 3. The translation of the Empire to Germany, by Otho the Great 963 4. The accession of Henry IV. to the imperial crown, and tlic Crusades 1074 5. The elevation of Rodolpk of Hapsburg to the imperial throne 1373 6. The fall of the Empire of the East 1453 7. The peace of Westphalia 1648 8. The pence of Utrecht . 1713 9. The French Revolution, to the present time .... 1789 800 . 963 1074 1373 1453 1643 1713 1739 FiBBT rBRion.— (476— 800.) In the fifth century many of the modem monarchies of Europe had their commence- ment : the empire of the East having been, about that period, brought to the very verge of ruin by the innumerable hosts of barba- rians from the north, which poured in upon it, and, at length, subdued it in the year 47C.— TheVandals, the Suevi, and the Alans, were the first adventurers. These were soon followed by the Visigoths, the Bur- guiulians, the Germans, the Franks, the Lombards, the Angles, the Saxons, and the Huns. These depredators taking different routes, armed with fire and sword, soon subjected to their yoke the terrified vic- tims of their ferocity, and erected their conquests into kingdoms. The Visigoths, after having driven out tho Vaudnls, destroyed the Alans, subdued the Suevi, and founded a new kingdom in Spain. Tlie Angles and the Saxons made a con- quest of Britain from the Romans and na- tives, and formed the Heptarchy, or seven kiii[;doms. Tlic Huns established themselves in Pan- nonin, and the Germans on the banks of thn Danube. — The Heruli, after having destroyed the Western empire, founded a state in It»ly, which continued but a short time, being driven out by the Oftrogoths. —Justinian retook Italy from tlie Ostro- goths.— The greater part of Italy soon after fell under the power of the Lombards, who formed it into a kingdom. The exarchate of Ravenna, raised, by them, to the empire of the East, enjoyed it bnt a short time.— The exarchate being conquered by Char- lemagne, wai aettled, by him, on the Pope, which may be properly styled the epoch of the temporal grandeur of the Roman pon- tiffs, and of the real commencement of the combination of church and state. Numerous bodies of people, from various countries, having taken possession of Gaul, founded therein several kingdoms, which were, at length, united by the Franks, un- der the name of France. Fharamond was its fintt monarch; and under Clovis it arrived at considerable eminence. Pepin le Bref (the Short) expelled, in the person of Childeric III., the race of Pharamond (called the Merovingiau) from the throne, and assumed the government. His son, Charlemogne, the greatest prince of his time, retrieved the honour of France, des- troyed the Lombardian monarchy, and re- newed the empire of the West, being him- self crowned emperor at Rome. At ' i\t the middle of this period, Maho- met, styling himself a prophet, by success- ful imposture and the force of arms, laid the foundation of a considerable empire, the East, out of the ruins of which are formed the greater part of the present ex- isting monarchies in western Asia. SBCOND FKBIOD.— (800— 962.) Under Charlemagne, France was the most powerful kingdom of Europe; and the title of Roman emperor was renewed by one of the descendants of the destroyers of that empire : the other monarchies, hardly form- ed, were eclipsed by the lustre of this new kingdom. Spain was subdued by the Saracens, who formed a new kingdom in the mountains of Asturias.— The Moors and Christians arm- ing against each other, laid waste this beau- tiful country. The seven Saxon kingdoms, which form- the Heptarchy, were united by Egbert, who became the first king of England: but the incursions of the Danes prevented that power from making any considerable figure among the states of Europe. The North was yet plunged iu barbarism, without laws, knowing even but very little of the arts of the first necessity. The French monarchy, which had risen to such a high pitch of grandeur under Charlemagne, became weak under his suc- cessors. — The empire was transferred to the kings of Italy ; which event whs ful- lowed by civil and foreign wars in France, in Germany, and Italy ; w hilc the llunxn- mm r XII ^reUmlnari) Sbsetbations, rians, from Tartary, augmented tlie troubles. — Otlio the Great subdued Italy, which lie united to Germany with the dignity of em- peror, and shewed to a barbarous age, the talents of a heio and the wisdom of a great legislator. TUIBD FXBIOD.— (962— 1074.) The German empire during this period reached the summit of its grandeur under Otho the Great. Conrad II. joined the kingdom of Burgundy to his possessions ; grce of power; but was soon after brought into a state of decay by the influence of its nobles, and by the feudal government. Spain, although desolated by the con- tinual wars between the Visigoths and the Saracens, was again divided by the diffe- rences of worship of those two rival na- tions. In France the Carlovingian kings were deposed by the usurpation of Hugh Capet, chief of the third or Capetian race of kings. The Danes ravaged England, and now became masters of it under Canute the Great, who conciliated the love of his new subjects. Edward the Confessor succeeded the Danish princes. He was succeeded by Harold II., a virtuous prince slaiu in bat- tle by William duke of Normandy, who made a conquest of England.— At the same time the Normans established themselves in Sicily, aud laid the foundation of a new kingdom. Italy, oppressed by little tyrants, or de- voted to anarchy, offered nothing of in- terest, if we except Venice, which was every day extending its commerce. — The other states of Europe did not furnish any important event, being at this period plun- ged in obscurity and barbarity. Fouiivn rBBioD.— (1074— 1273). The quarrels between the emperors and the popes diminished the grandeur and power of the empire ; the discords which b3gaii under the emperor, Henry IV., ngi- tated Germany and Italy during several centuries; the factions of the Guelphs and the Ghibelinss (the one partisans of the popes, and the other of the emperors) were alternately destroying each other.— Frede- ric 1. and Frederic II. endeavoured to up- hold the majesty of the empire; but the house of Hohenstauffen at length yielded : they were despoiled of their possessions, and driven from the throne. The empire was much weakened by the incapacity of is chiefs, the disunion of its mcmlicrB, and the authority of the popes, ever aiming at their further aggrandizement.— The Cru. aadea commenced : a part of Asia Minoi, Syria, and Palestine, were presently wrest- ed from the infidels; and the banner of the cross was planted on Mount Sion. In the meantime the crusaders established a kingdom in Jerusalem, which was of short duration.— It was during the time of the Crusades, that the Greek empire, sapped to its foundation, passed to the Latins. — Mi- chael Paleologus, emperor of Nice, retook Constantinople. — The Crusades finished in 1231. It is said, that to them was owing the origin of armorial bearings, military orders, and tournaments. Spain continued to be the theatre of wars between the Christian kings and the Moors. The kings of Castile, Arragon, and Navarre signalized themselves by their con- quests over the Saracens. In France, the number of great vassals was somewhat diminished ; but the conti- nual wars with the English exhausted it both of men and money. The power of England increased consi- derably; the navy became puissant; and, in consequence of the civil wars between the king and the people, the royal autho- rity became more weakened, and a prepon- derance was given to democratical insti- tutions. The provinces of Naples and Sicily were erected into a kingdom. Roger, prince of Normandy, was the first king ; and his fa- mily possessed the crown till 1194. It then passed into the house of Hohenstauffen, which house was dispossessed by that of Anjou. Denmark increased in power under Wal- idemar II., but the influence of Sweden seemed to be of little weight in the Euro- pean system. Russia groaned under the yoke of the Tartars, who also made incursions into Po- land. — Bohemia, and the island of Sardi- nia, were erected iuto kingdoms.— Genoa and Venice were increasing in power: by the strength of their navies, they support- ed an extensive commerce. — Venice be- came possessed of Dalmatia, and a part uf the islands in the Archipelago. FIFTH FBBIOD.— (1273— 14S3.) The states of Europe enjoyed an equality or equilibrium during this period. Rome alone seemed to possess superior power at first, but this power very soon diminished considerably : it laboured without effect to drive the Ghibelines out of Italy, and to re- unite the Greeks to the church. The empire of Germany, confined to its own limits, underwent some clmngcs. Its t.— The Cru- ' Asia Minoi, iiently wrest- he banner of lint 8ion. In established a I was of short e time of the )ire, sapped to I latins.— Mi- f Nice, retook les finished in em was owing rings, military he theatre of kings and the !, Arragon, and jsby tlieircon- f great vassals but the conti- h exhausted it icreased oonsi- puissant; and, I wars between le royal autho- , and a prepon- ocratical insli- and Sicily were Loger, prince of ng ; and his fa- il 1194. It then Hohenstauifen, ised by that of wer under Wal- nce of Sweden ht in the Euro- he yoke of the ursions into Po- island of Sardi- gdoms. — Genoa g in power; by s, they support- e. — Venice be- ta, and a part of ago. 73-1483.) oyed an equality period. Home iperior power at loon diminished without effect to : Italy, and to re- urch. confined to its ne cUnngcs. Its "i 1^ti$toiital, (!n)ronol0g(cal, anD (!Eicogvapf)icaI. x\\\ I chaotic government was rendered smnc- what more clear ; and emperors of different house* successively occupied the throne. At the death of Sigismund, Albert II., of the house of Hapsburg, or Austria, was elected ; from which time to the present day, this family, with little exception, have possessed the imperial crown. France was considerably agitated by in- testine feuds, but became more powerful by the expulsion of the English. Legisla- tion and police were beg[inning to be un- derstood, which served to soften the man- ners of the people, and promote the tran- quillity of the nation. Edward III. rendered England the ter- ror of its neighbours : he heHF at the same time three kings prisoners; and France was reduced, by his prowess, to the con- dition of a humble supplicant.— The fac- tious of the red and lohUe ro$ei, (the first as the supporters of the title of the house of Lancaster, and the latter that of York,) were deluging their native land with the blood of each other at the close of this period. Spain continued to enrich itself with the spoils of the Saracens ; who, notwithstand- ing the efforts of the Spaniards, were yet masters of all the southern parts. In Portugal, the legitimate descendants of Henry became extinct, and an illegiti* mate prince of the same house ascended the throne.— Sicily was taken by Peter of Arragon, of the house of Anjou, ftho also held the kingdom of Naples. Margaret, queen of Denmark, the Semi- ramis of the north, united in her person the three crowns of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. This union, made at Cal- mar, continued but a short time. The Swedes broke the treaty, and chose for themselves a king. Russia (hitherto under the yoke of the Tartars) was delivered from slavery and ob- scurity.— In Poland, the royal dignity be- gan to have permanency.— In Hungary, the house of AnJou mounted the throne; the crown of which, as well ns that of Bohemia, soon after passed to the house of Austria. Othman, sultan of the Turks, erected a monarchy, which arrived to great power under Mahomet II. This prince took Con- star dnople, and put an end to the empire of the East. The consequence resulting friimthe capture of this fine city, was a reflux of letters from the East to the West, which contributed to the estnblishment of the arts. Printing, engraving of prints, paper-making, painting in oil, gunpowder, and the mariner's compass, were the prin- cipal, among many other useful inventions. 8IXIU PRBioo.— (1453— 1648.) The history of Europe during this period becomes very interesting. The discovery of the East Indies and America, and the great changes bronght about in religious opinions by the successful endeavours of Luther, Calvin, and others, gave a new ap- pearance to many states in this quarter of the world. The house of Austria increased in terri- torial possession*. — Europe appeared like a vast republic, the balance of power therein being at this time on a better footing than it was in Ancient Greece. Almost every state in Europe underwent important revolutions.— Germany was con- siderably improved in its legislation under Maximilian I. ; the Imperial Chamber and Aolio Council were established.— The re- ligious disputes brought on a succension of cruel and destructive wars ; they were, however, terminated by the treaty of Pas* sau, the peace of 1565, and that of West- phalia. lu France, the feudal government was at length destroyed by Charles VII. and Louis II. The wars against England suc- ceeded those of Italy ; and those were fol- lowed by intestine wars against the Hu- guenots, or Protestants, which were termi- nated by the reduction of Rochelle, and the expulsion of the Protestants. In Spain, the three Christian kingdoms were united. This monarchy, founded by Ferdinand V., surnamed the Catholic, ar- rived at its zenith of power under his grandson, Charles V. It lost a part of its splendour under Philip III. and Philip IV., princes without genius, valour, or re- sources. Portugal became formidable under Ema- nuel; but grew weak after the death of Sebastian. The kingdom submitted to the Spanish yoke; whifh it shook off in lU-lO, when the bouse of Braganza, by an unex- pected revolution, ascended the throne. England gained strenKth under Henry VII., and became, from time to time, more powert'ul under his sueoessors, the Tudors, by its policy and its commerce, and parti- cularly so during the reign of queen Eliin- bcth. After the death of Elizabeth, James VI., king of Scotland, ascended the Eng- lish throne, and took the title of James I., king of Great Britain ; but neither hiiiiscir, nor his successors. possesHcd the genius, or the nriivity of that celebrated princess. Italy was d vided into innny sninll siiites. —Tuscany, Parma, «d Plreentin, hereto- fore cities of the kingdom of Italy, were raised to the dignify of lUikcdoms.-Tlic xiv ^reliminarQ ^bsctbatfons princei of Florence encouraged the pro* grcH of the arts and iciences by honours and rewardt.— Venice waa Icsi consider- able for its commerce than formerly; the discovery of the compass enabling other nations to partake with the Venetians in the profits arising from navigation.— Genoa also experienced a considerable diminution of commerce from the same cause. The Seven United Provinces, viz. Hoi' land, &c. threw off the Spanish yoke, and became free; whilst the Swiss, in the centre of their rocky fastnesses, formed governments for the protection of their liberty. Denmark, under the kings of the house of Oldenburg, now began to make a figure among the powers of Europe.— The Swedes threw off the Danish yoke, and elected Gus> tavus Vasa for their king, who redeemed the lustre of the nation. Gustavus Adol- phus added considerably to its power by his valour and his victories. Russia also assumed a new face. Iwan Basilowiti delivered his country from the Tartarian yoke. Iwan Basilowitz II. ex- tended the empire. The house of Bomanof ascended the throne, and commenced those grand schemes which the genius and per- severance of Feter the Great afterwards executed. Poland flourished under the Jagellon race of princes ; but these becoming ex- tinct, foreigners were introduced to the throne. — Hungary and Bohemia, after hav- ing had kings of different nations, fell to the house of Austria. The Ottoman empire augmented its grandeur and power under Solyman II. After his death, the government falling into the hands of indolent and effeminate princes, became considerably weakened, and the unbridled power of the Janissaries now arrived at its highest pitdi. ■BTinTB PUBIOD.- (1648— 1714.) The political system of Europe expe- rienced a change at the commencement of this period. France extended its ter- ritory, and became very powerful under Louis XIV.; but the wars carried on by this prince against Spain, Holland, and the empire, exhausted the resources of the kingdom. Germany presented some interesting changes. — Leopold established a ninth electorate in favour of the house of He* nover. — Augustus, elector of Saxony, was elected king of Poland ; and George, elec> tor of Hanover, ascended the throne of Great Britain.— Prussia was erected into a kingdom under Frederic, the third elec- tor of Brandenburg, who took the title of Frederic I. Spain lost power under the latter princes of Austria, and was dismembered by the "succession" war, which terminated in favour of the house of Bourbon. Alphonsus VI., king of Portugal, was deposed, and the kingdom declared in« dependent of Spain by the peace of Lis* bon. In England, Charlea I. was beheaded, and the monarchy abolished.— Oliver Cromwell was declared protector of the Common- wealth, which lasted but a short time after his death.— The Stuart family were esta- blished agaiu on the throne.— James II. abdicated. -4 William, stadtholder of the United Provinces, was elected king, and secured the succession to the house of Hanover at the death of Anne. Italy underwent an almost entire change by the peace of Utrecht : the bouse of Aus- tria was put in possession of its most fer- tile countries. At the same time the house of Savoy, profiting both by the war and the peace, increased its possessions in Italy, and thereby raised its influence in Europe. The United Provinces increased in riches and power: their independence was secured by the peace of Westphalia; but they en- gaged in wars, which drained them of their treasures, without augmenting their power. The republiea of Switzerland and of Ve- nice appeared to be of less consequence among (he European states than hereto- fore ; but the former continued to be happy in its mountains ; the latter, tranquil among its lakes. Sweden, whose power was prodigious under Charles X. and Charles XII., lost much of its grandeur after the defeat of the latter prince at Pultowa.— Russia be- came almost on a sudden enlightened and powerful, under the auspices of Peter the Great.— Poland, unfortunate under John Casimir, was made respectable under John Sobieski.— Hungary was desolated by con- tinual intestine war, and deluged with the blood of its own inhabitants. The Ottoman empire continued weak under princes incapable of governing, who placed the sceptre in the hands of mini- sters altogether as weak and incapable as themselves. BIOHTU KBIOD.— (1714— 1780.) This period was replete in negotiation, in treaties, and in wars. The balance of power, intended systematically to produce perpetual peace, had, on the contrary, been the means of exciting continual war. — The peace of Utrecht, signed by almost all the I^istorital, Cl^i^onologital, anD (!IxeograpI)i(aI. XV powers of Europe, failed to reconcile the emperor and the king of Spain.— Philip V. commenced war.— The English and Dutch procured the treaty of Vienna, in 1731, which put an end to that calamity; but a new war commenced on the election of a king of Poland.— France declared war against the emperor, which terminated by the peace of Vienna.— The death of Charles VI., 1740, produced a new war, more im- portant than the former was, and of longer duration. France took the part of the elec- tor of Bavaria, as a competitor for imperial dignity against the house of Austria. The success of the arms of the French and Ba- varians, induced the queen of Hungary to detach the king of Prussia from the alli- ance. The defection of this prince changed the face of affairs ; and the subsequent vic- tories of marshal Saxc obliged the bellige- rent powers to conclude the peace of Aix- la-Chapelle, which afforded bnt a short Aalm to ensanguined Europe.— The houses of Bourbon and Austria, so long enemies and rivals, now united their efforts to maintain the balance of power. But the English and French soon found pretext for new disagreements, and war was again de- clared. The king of Prussia took part with the English, and the king of Spain with the French. This war terminated much in favour of the English, and peace was concluded in 1763. In Italy, the houses of Austria and Bour- bon had the principal sway.— Savoy, as- sisted by England, augmented its power: the island of Sardinia was given in ex- change for Sicily.— Charles Emanuel III. joined a small part of the Milanese to this territory, and Corsica became a province to France. In Holland, William IV., prince of Orange, was declared stadtholder of the SevenUnited Provinces. Sweden, after the death of Charles XII., underwent an entire change: the house of HoUtein-Eutin ascended the throne. Gus- tavus III., the second king of this family, seized upon the liberties of his people, and became a despot. In Russia the four princesses who had held the sceptre since the death of Peter the Great, rendered the empire worthy of the great genius who may be styled its founder. Poland was dismembered by its three powerful neighbours, Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Prussia, which had not ceased to aggran- dize itself since the elector of Brandenburg received the title of king, was raised to the height of grandeur and spwer under the wise government of that celebrated hero and philosopher, Frederic II. In Turkey, Achmet III. was obliged to surrender his crown to his nephew, Maho- met V. Mustapha III. espoused the cause of the Poles against the Russians, and sus- tained great losses. Hii successor, Achmet IV. put an end to this unfortunate war by a peace,toigain which he made great sacrifices. The English colonies in America revolt- ed from the mother country, threw off ita yoke, and declared themselves independent. France, Spain, and Holland, declared in their favour ; when after a war of eight years, it was terminated in 1 783 bv a peace, where- by they were acknowledged at an indepen- dent nation. MlilTB rBBIOD.— (1839— 1815.) This period was ushered in by one of the greatest revolutions that ever happened in Europe, or the world. The French, so long habituated to despotism, threw o£^ as it were in a moment, the yoke imposed upon ihem and their forefathers for many ages. Their king, Louis XVI., apparently joined in the effort, but at length, wanting firmness for so trying an occasion, prevaricated, and at- tempted to fly ; he was seized, tried, ini- quitously condemned, and executed. His queen, Antoinette of Austria, suffered also under the guillotine.— The powers of Eu- rope, headed by the emperor and the king of Prussia, coalesced together to crush the revolutionary spirit of France. Great Bri- tain, Spain, Russia, Holland, Sardinia, Na- ples, the Pope, and a variety of inferior powers, joined the confederacy : to this was added a powerful party in the interior, and the flames of civil war spread far and wide. Massacre, rapine and horror, stalked through the land; notwithstandiug which, the Convention formed a constitution, le- vied numerous armies, and conquered Hol- land, the Netherlands, and all the country west of the Rhine. Italy submitted also to the Gallic republicans; and Germany was penetrated to its centre. Several changes took place in the govern- ment. Buonaparte conquered Egypt ; and, in his absence, France lost great part of his conquests in Italy. He returned, and assuming the government under the title of first consul, reconquered Italy. Soon after, he established the Italian republic ; was himself constituted president; and made peace with England, which lasted but a short time. — A new war commenced. —Buonaparte was elected emperor of the French. Great Britain, notwithstanding the part it took in the confederate war, pushed its 3Z3B XVI ^9rcliminart> ©fiacrbationa, commerce and manufactures to an extent heretofore unknown. It made leTeral con- quests, nearlf annihilated the French navjr, and obliged their army to evacuate Egypt- Peace was restored, but was of short dura- i;on.— War agkin commenced: a military spirit showed itself throughout the nation, and tremendooa efforts were made. — French impetuosity and British valour were for years witnessed in the Spanish peninsula. — Rus- sia was invaded by a powerful host under Napoleon Buonaparte but the invaders were utterly annihilated. The crowning act of the war was the ever-memorable battle of Waterloo, whereby the overthrow of Na- poleon was effected, and the peace of the world restored, after gigantic efforts and sacrifices, on all sides, which have no par- allel in history. CHRONOLOGY, ' CoMPABiTiTBLT Speaking, the science of Chronology is but of recent origin ; for many ages elapsed before the mode of com- puting time, or even of giving dates to im- portant events, was at all regarded: nay, after the value of historical writinKS was felt and acknowledged. Chronology long remained imperfect ; the most ancient his- torians leaving the precise periods they record undetermined. When Homer nod Herodotus wrote, and for centuries after- wards, there was no regular distribution of time into such parts as months, weeks, and hours; nor any reference to clocks, dials, or other instruments, by which the perpetual current of time was subdivided. The divisions of time which are consi- dered in Chronology, relate either to the dif- ferent methods of computing days, months, and years, or the remarkable eras or epochs from which any year receives its name, and by means of which the date of any event is fixed. The choice of these epochs is for the most part arbitrary, each nation pre- ferring its own most remarkable revolu- tion as the standard by which to regelate its measurement of time. Thus, the Greeks have their Argonautic expedition, their siege of Troy, their arrival of Cecrops in Attica, and their Olympic Games. The Romans reckoned from the foundation of their city ; but in their annals they also fre- quently advert to their various civil appoint- ments and external conquests. The mo- dem Jews reckon from the Creation ; and the Christians from the Birth of Our Sa- viour. From this we count our years back- ward towards the beginning of time, and forward to the present day. But it was not till the year 632 that this plan was in- troduced ; and even then the abb£ Diony- sius, who invented it, erred in his calcula- tions: nor was his error discovered for upwards of six centuries afterwards, when it was found to be deficient four years of the true period. Bat as an alteration of a system which had been adopted by nearly all Europe, would have occasioned incalcu- lable inconveniences in civil and ecclesias- tical affairs, the error was, by general con- sent, suffered to remain, and we continue to reckon from what is called the " vulgar era," which wants four years and six days of the real Christian epoch. It cannot be denied that there are many difficulties in the way of fixing a correct Chronology; but still there are four data from which satisfactory conclusions relative to certain events may be drawn ; and, by as- certaining whether others occurred before or after them, we may in general arrange the most remote transactions with a degree of regularity that at the first view might have appeared hopeless. These ore, 1. As- tronomical observations, particularly of the eclipses of the sun and moon, combined with the calculations of the years and eras of particular nations. 2. The testimonies of credible authors. 3. Those epochs in history which are so well attested and de- termined as never to have been contro- verted. 4. Ancient medals, coins, monu- ments, and inscriptions. —We have also some artificial distinctions of time, which nevertheless depend on astronomical cal- culation; such are the Solar and Lunar Cycles, the Roman Indiction, the Feast of Easter, the Bissextile or Leap-year, the Ju- bilees and Sabbatic Tears of the Israelites, the Olympiads of the Greeks, the Hegira of the Mahometans, &c. But it must be borne in mind, that the study of Chrono- logy, though to useful to the clear under- standing of historic records, is a distinct science, and requires to be studied me- thodically. Our purpose in this place is merely to point to it as one of " the eyes of history." GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE WORLD. Bx Oboobafut is understood a descrip- tion of the Earth. It is divided into Phy. •teal or Natural Geography, and Civil and Political Geography. The first, or Pnxsi- CAi. tiBooRAPnT, refers to the surface of the earth, its dirisions, and their relative situations ; the climate and soil ; the face of the country; and its productions, ani- mal, vegetable, and mineral. The second, or Civiii GaoaBAPiiY, includes the various nations of the earth, as divided into em- n l^tetorical, Cf^ronologital, Bntf Scograp^ical. xvh pirei, kingdom!, republics, provincei, &c. and the origin, language, religion, goveni- ment, political power, commerce, educa> tion, and manners and customs of those nations. The form of the earth is very nearly sphe- rical ; the polar axis being only about 38 miles shorter than the equatorial ; and as the diameter is nearly 8000 miles, so alight a difference in a globular body would be imperceptible. In the study of Geography, maps and globes are in^spensable ; but, owing to their form, globes give a better idea of the relative sizes and situations of countries than can be learned from maps. Tlie earth has an annual and a diurnal motion; it moves completely round the sun in about 365 days, 6 hours ; and turns completely round, as if on an axis or spin- dle, from west to cast, in about 24 hours : an imaginary line, therefore, passing through its centre, is called iU Aai$. The extre- mities of the axis are called PoIm— North and South— the one nearest to the country we inhabit being the North Pole. A line drawn round a globe is obviously a circle; and as various circles are de- scribed on artificial globes, for reasons hereafter mentioned, we speak of them as though they were really so delineated on the earth's surface. The principal circles on the globe are the Equator, the Ecliptic, the Tropic of Cancer, the Tropic of Capricon, and the Arctic and Antarctic circles. All circles are considered as divisible into 360 equal parts, called de- grees', each degree into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds: a degree is thus marked ", a minute thus ', and a se- cond thus " : so that 28o 62' 36" means 28 degrees, 52 minutes, 36 seconds. And as a whole circle contains 360 degrees, a ««mt- circle (or half a circle) will contain 180o, and a quadrant (or ^Barter of a circle) 90o. That circle on the surface of the globe which is everywhere equally distant from each pole, is called the Equator: and it divides the globe into two equal parts or Hemitphere$, the Northern and the South- em. The appellation Equator, or Equi- noctial [noetei aguantur), is given to it, be- cause when the sun, through the annual motion of the earth, is seen in this circle, the days and nights are equal in every part of the world. The Ecliptie is so called because all eclipses of the sun or moon can only take place when the moon is in or near that circle. This circle is described on the terrestrial globe solely for the purpose of performing a greater number of problems. The Trtviei are two parallels to the equator, drawn through the ecliptic, at those points where the ecliptic is at the greatest distance firom the equator ; which is about 23° 30" from the equator, on either side. When the sun is opposite to one of the tropics, those people who are as far from the corresponding pole as the tropic is from the equa^ r, see the sun for more than twenty-four hours. This is the case with every part nearer to the poles, but never with any part farther from them. To point out this peculiarity, a circle is described on the globe, 23)" from each pole. One of these Polar Circle* is called the Aretie, the other the Antaretie; signi- fying the north, and that which is oppotit* to the north. The Zone* (so called from a Greek word signifying belts or girdles) denote those spaces between the several principal circles before described. Thus between the poles and polar circles are the two frigid zones, between the two frigid cones and the tro- pics are the two temperate zones, and be- tween the two tropics the torrid cone ; de- riving these appellations from the tempera- ture of the atmosphere. The Latitude of a place is its distance from the equator. It is measured by the number of degrees, Ac, in the arc of the meridian, between the place and the equa- tor ; and is called North or South, according as the place is north or south of the equa- tor. Longitude is the distance of any place from a given spot, generally the capital of the country, measured in a direction eatt or teeit, either along the equator or any circle parallel to it. The English measure their lon([itude east and west of Greenwich, the French east and west of Paris, &c., &c. Meridian*, or circles of longitude, are so called from tneridie*, or mid-day ; because, as the earth makes one complete revolution round its ovra axis in twenty-four hours, every part of its surface must in the course of that time be directly opposite to the sun. The sun, therefore, at that point, will ap- pear at its greatest altitude, or, in other words, it will be mid-day or noon. Divisions or tbb Earth. It was usual until the present century to speak of the great divisions of the Earth as the Four Quarter* of the World, viz. Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. But a more sci- entific distribution has since been generally adopted ; and the chief terrestrial divisions of the earth's surface are now thus enume- rated: Europe, Atia, Africa, North and South America, Auttralia, and Polynetia, ! - XTiii ^reliminart! ^^i^sctbations, Of theM, Enrope, Asia, and Africa, fonn the Eaitnm Hemitphere, (or the Old World); and Ameriea the Weatem Hemia- phere. which, from ita not being known to Enropeana till the doaa of tin 16th een- tory, ia odled the New World. Anitn^ inclodea that extenaire n^ion called New Holland, together with New Zealand and adjacent iaiea ; and Folyneaia comprehenda the nomerona groupa of volcanic and co- raline ialanda in the Paeifie Ocean, extend' ing eaatward to tho Philippine Ialanda and fkom New Guinea to the eoaat of America. The 0€ttt» oecupiea about two thirda of the earth'a aurfaee { and ita watera are con- atantly eneroaehing npon tha land ia aome plaeea, an^ receding from it in othera. To thia canae may be attributed the formation of many ialanda in difbrant parte of the world. The greateat depth of the ocean which haa been aaeertained ia about 900 fathoma ; ita mean depth ia eatimated at about 3HM fiUhoma. Near the tropica it ia extremely aalt, but the aaltneaa conaider- ably dimfaiiahca towarda theitolea. Thia immanae expanse of water ia di- vided into amaller oceana or aeas, gnlfa, baya, ftc limited partly by real, partly by imaginary boundariea.— The Paeifie Ocean, which covera nearly one third of tha earth'a aurfaee, and ia about 10,000 miles in breadth, lies between the eastern coaat of Asia and Australia, and the weatem coaat of America. —The Atlantie Oeta* liea between Europe and Africa on the east, and America on the west.— The Pacific and Atlantic Oceans are each distinguished into North and South. The Indian Octan is bounded by Asia, Africa, and Australia. Tiie Aretie or Frofen Ocean, lies to the north of Europe, Asia, and part of America. The Southern Ocean lies south of all the continenta. In thia condensed WorV which we now submit to the public, it will not be ex- pected that the manifold uses and advan- tages of a knowledge of History could be discussed, or that many facts and reason- ings whiclk might elucidate obscure or con* troverted passages could be brought for- ward; but we trust it will generally be found that the materials we have made use of have been derived from the most ac- curate sources of historical information; that while a great mass of matter has been brought together, it may, at the same time, appear, that judgment and circumspection have been used in proportion to the im- portance and difficulty of the task; and, mor'>over, that truth and impartiality have been regarded beyord all other considera- tions. Upon events which have recently occurred, or are ia progress at the present moment, we know that different opinions will prevail ; and therefore, in relating such transactions, an honest and fearleaa regard for truth and the good of aociety is the bounden duty of every one who presumes to narrate them. By thia golden rule w« have endeavoured to abide, aad humbly hope we have succeeded. The idea of making the TaaaauaT or HistoBT extend to two vohtwu$ waa at first entertained; and, in truth, no amall portion of it waa prepared under aa im- presuoa that such was inevitable. If, therefore, it should appear that some of the Histories have not due space allotted to them, this fact is offered aa our most valid. reason for such apparent inequality: but it is by no meana intended aa an ex- cuse for the length of the Histo;ry of Eng- land; for it is almost impossible to speak of any great eventa which have occurred among civilised nations— especially within the last century— that do not, directly or indirectly, bear on British interests, and which consequently come within our pro- vince to notice. It seems, however, that a few words of an explanatory or apologetic nature are still necessary. To be brief, then s— A uni- form method ot spelling foreign proper names has not always been rigidly adhered to; or, it may be, anch names are apelt dif- ferently in other works. For instance, we have written Genphii-Kkan, aa the moat usual orthography ; but we have found it elsewhere written ZingU Mhan, Cingie Khan, and Jenghie Khan, The name of Mahomet, or Mohammed, is written both ways, and each haa ita advocates, thoug|i modem custom, we think, is in favour of the latter method. Many others might, of course, be mentioned; but in none are ao many variations to be found aa in the Chinese names.— It may also happen that the transactions of one country may ap- pear to be given more fully than necessary in the history of another ; and etc* eir«d. The necessity of avoiding needless repeti- tions, in a work so condensed, and the.de. sire at the same time to omit nothing of importance, must plead our excuse for such faults; while the too fireqnent absence of a vigorous or elegant style of composition, may be thought to require a similar iqto- logy. We are, indeed, fully sensible that, with all our care, many imperfections will be found, luid that we must rely chiefly npon the candour and liberality of that public, whose kind support and encouragement on former occasions we have felt and grate- fully acknowledged. \ COBO.'tOtOGT AKU SROOnAmT ABK TBtlLV TBKMID TBB "Bill" Or nilTOBT a B i< a o M »■ •J :« O IB ■ % O a o M m m B o — OBAia or abam, a* tab aob o» tSO tbabb. ^^tttlinc Ziitulf of m the : a se ae- ^ ^ rie evi- occn- o enton M }Berve, 4 occu- M nen in H B uni- 8 icount leaven o edeep •< odde- H >ff the o }thing e fur- istinct n in the M in the ■ depo- O to the owing f >f the 0) A spired 1 m the r^ d his S , with . e are !• nount 1 Noah ; 6 leigh- 2 cture. J )rtion ; * after- 1^ 4.11. 1043 — B.O. 3963. — ABTB put, AT VHI AOB OV 913 TIABI. Outline %kt\^ of (Stncral l^istori). 3 wards assembled on the plsine of Shinar, where the^ engaged in buildin); • tower, with the foolish and impious intrriiitN) of reaching the skies, or, in die language of Scripture, "whose top ni'it reach unto heaven." But this attempt, wc are informed, was frustrated by the Almighty, who con- founded their iMgnage, so that th m N m m o < n o A. M. 1658— B. C. 2446. — SHBM, THB BXCOND boh of NOAH, BOBIV. A.M. 3029 — B.C. 973. — SurABATION OV TUJS KINGDOM OF ISBABL ARD JUDAU. • (i^utline ^iitttl^ of (!&eneral I|is(ori). pericnce instructs i*-. : and arts are invented or improved. As men multiply, the earth is more closely peopled ; mountains and precipices are passed; first rivers, then seas, aie crossed ; and new habitations es- tablished. The earth, which at the begin- ning was one immense forest, takes another form : the woods cut down make room for fields, pastures, hamlets, towns, and cities. They had at first to encounter wild beasts ; and in this way the first heroes signalized themselves. Thus originated the Invention of arms, which men turned afterwards against their fellow-creatures." Tiie first considerable national revolution on record is the migration of the Israelites out of £g>'>t, and their establishment in the land of Canaan. This event was at- tended with a terrible catastrophe to the Egyptians. The settlement of the Jews in the land of Canaan is supposed to have happened about 1491 b.c. For nearly 200 years after this period we find no authentic account of any other nations than those mentioned in Scripture. CHAPTER III. The Fabuloua and Heroic Aget, to the Insti- tution of the Olympic Gamei. Wb now perceive, in profane history, the dawn of what is called the heroic age ; in which historical facts, though still tinc- tured with the iiisrvellous, begin to assume something like the appearance of truth. Egypt is seen gradually recovering from the weakness induced by the visitation of the destroying angel, and the memorable disaster of the Red Sea, by which her no- bility and the flower of her army had been engulphed. Greece rapidly emerges from obscuritj, and makes otlier nations feel the effects of that enterprising and martial spirit for which her sons were afterwards so renowned. Various migrati«ns take place in E^pt and Asia, and make settle- ments in different parts of Europe. Thus was civilization greatly extended; for by the concurrent testimony of all writers it appears, that whilst the descendants of Sncm and Ham, who peopled the east and south, were establishing powerful king- doms, and making great advances in the useful arts, the posterity of Japhet, who settled in the west and north, by degrees had sunk into a state of barbarism. To the Egyptian colonists, therefore, were they in- debted for their laws and religious mys- teries ; and they also excited amongst them a taste for science and the arts, while the Phcenicians taught them writing, naviga- tion, and commerce. Tlie Greeks were now gfrowing great and formidable, and their actions had an im- mense influence on the destinies of other nations. About 1184 vears b.c. thuy dis- ting[uished themselves by their expedition agamst Troy, a city of Phyrgia Minor j wliich, after a seige of ten years, they plun- dered and burnt. i'Eneas, a Trojan prince, escaped with a small band of his country- men into Italy ; and from them the origin of the Roman empire may be traced. At the period we are now speaking of we find the Lydians, Mysians, and some other na- tions of Asia Minor, first mentioned in history. Though we necessarily omit, in this brief outline, a multitude of important transac- tions which are recorded in the Bible, the reader must not lose sight of the fact that the sacred volume is full of historical in- terest ; and we shall have frequent occasion to refer to the actions of " God's chosen geople " as wc describe events mentioned y profane writers. For the present it is suflicient to state, that about 1060 years before the birth of Christ the kingdom of Judoa, under king David, approached its utmost extent of power ; that in the glo- rious reign of his son, the wise and peaceful Solomon, which followed, that stupendous and costly edifice, " the temple of God," was completed, and its dedication solem- nized with extraordinary pietv and magni- ficence; that the revolt of the ten tribes took place in the reign of Rehoboam, the son and successor of Solomon, by which Jerusalem was rendered a more easy prey to the Egyptian king, called in Scripture Shishak, and supposed to be the great Sesostris, whose deeds make so conspicuous a figure in the history of his country. After the lapse of another century, we learn that Zera, an Ethiouian, invaded Judea with an army composea of a million of infantry and three hundred chariots, but was defeated with great slaughter by Asa, whose troops amounted to about half that number. By this time the Syrians had become a power- ful people ; and, taking advantage of the rivalry which existed between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, aimed at the subjuga- tion of both. The Syrian empire was, how- ever, eventually destroyed by the Assyrians, under Tiglath Filesar, in 7^0 b.c. ; as was also the Kingdom of Samaria by Shalma- neser his successor, in 721 ; and such of the people as escaped death, were carried cap- tives into Media, Persia, &c. While the resources of the mif hty nations of the east were expended in effecting their mutual destruction, the foundations of some powerful empires were laid in the west, which were destined, in process of time, to subjugate and give laws to the eastern world. About eight centuries before the Christian era the city of Carthage, in Africa, was founded by a Tyrian colonv, and be- came the capital of a powerful republic, which continued 724 ycors; during the greater part of which time its ships tra- versed the Mediterranean and even the At- lantic, whereby it was enabled to monopo- lize, as it were, the commerce of the whole world. In Europe a very important revo- lution took place about 900 b.c, namely the invasion and conquest of the Pelopon- nesus by the Heraclida;, or descendants of Hercules. Of this event, and its conse- quences, we shall have to speak at greater length, in its proper place, in the body of the work ; we shall, therefore, merely re- mark here, that the Peloponnesus is a large M H a a o n n H H I: A. M^ 3097— B.C. 907. — ABOUT THIS TIMS HOMBB AND UB8I0D rLOUBIBHED. A.M. 3320 — B.C. 634. — THK orriCB or ABCnoK, at atdens, establisusd. « (i^utline Siietif) of General l^istor)). peninsula, situated at the southern ex- tremity of Greece, to which it is joined by the isthmus of Corinth. It is of an irregu- lar figure, about 563 miles in circumference, and is now called " The Morea." On the isthmus stood the city of Corinth; while the Peloponnesus contained the kingdoms and republics of Sicyon, Ar^os, Lacedeemon or Sparta, Messenia, Arcadia, and Mycenee. CHAPTER IV. From the Institution of the Olympic Oames, to the Death of Cyrus. In 776 B.C., the Olvmpic games, insti- tuted by Hercules, and long discontinued, were revived, and with their revival we find the history of the Grecian states, and the affairs of the world generally, are more to be depended on ; in short, the period which Varro calls fabulous ends, and the historical times begin. This is mainly attributable to the continuance of the Olympic games, which greatly facilitated not only the wri- ting of their history, but that of other na- tions; for, as each olympiad consisted of four years, the chronology of every impor- tant event became indubitably fixed by re- ferring it to its olympiad. They also great- ly contributed to the civilization of the Grecian states, and to the general advance- ment of the polite arts. At this period Rome, which was one day to be mistress of the world, arose : its foundation being laid by Romulus about 750 years before the com- mencement of the Christian era. Forty- three years after, the Spartan state was remodelled, and received from Lycurgus those laws which alike contributed to the renown of him who made and they who ob- served them. If we take n glance at the general state of the world in the following century, we shall find that the northern parts ot Eu- rope were thinly peopled, or inhabited by unknown and barbarous nations. The Gomerians, or Celtic tribes, had possession of France and Spain. Italy was divided into a number of petty states, among which the Romans had already become formida- ble, linving enlarged their dominions by the addition of several cities taken from their neighbours. Foremost among the states of Greece were those of Athens and Sparta: the mi.rtial character of the institutions of Lycuiius had rendered the latter famous in wa\ . while the former were enriching themselves hy navigation and commerce. Corinth, Thebes, Argos, and Arcadia, were the other states of most consideration. The sceptre of Bithylun was at this time swayed hy Nebuchadnezzai", by whom the kingdom of Judea was totally overthrown, 687 D. c, and its temple burned to the ground in the following year. He also took and demolished the city of Tyre, despoiled Egypt, and made such prodigious con(|uest8 both in the east mid west, that the fame of his victories filled the world with awe: till at length his empire comprehLMided Phoenicia, Palestine, Syria, Uabylonia, Me- dia, Persia, and part of India. One great object of his pride and ambition was to render his capital beyond all exam<)le gor- geous; nor can we consider the wonders of that city, as related by Herodotus, at all incredible, when we remember that the strength and resources of his mighty em- pire were made subservient to the purpose. The next important event that occurred was the revolution occasioned by the mis- conduct of Evil-merodaeh, Nebuchadnez- zar's son, who, without provocation, wan- tonly attacked and began to plunder and lay waste the country of the Medes. This produced an immediate revolt, which quick- ly extended over all Media and Persia. The Medes, headed by Astya^es and his son Cyaxeres drove back the intruder and his followers with great slaughter; nor does it appear that the Babylonish monarch was afterwards able to reduce them to subjec- tion. We now come to the period when the brilliant career of Cyrus demands our notice. He had signalized himself in va- rious wars under Astyages, his grandfather, when, having been appointed generalissimo of the Median and Persian forces, he at- tacked the Babylonish empire, and the city of Babylon itself fell V?fore his victorious arms. Cyrus now issued a decree for the restoration of the Jews, and the rebuilding of their Temple. By a succession of vic- tories he had become master of all the East, and for some time the Asiatic affairs continued in a state of tranquillity. It is necessary to observe in this place, that the Medes, before the time of Cyrus, though n great and powerful people, were eclipsed by the superior prowess of the Babylonians. But Cyrus having conquered their king- dom, by the united force of the Medes and Persians, it appears that the great empire of which he was the founder must have taken its name from both nations; so tliut the empire of the Medes and that of the Persians were one and the same, though in consequence of the glory of its wise and victorious leader it subsequently retained only the latter name. Meanwhile, it con- tinued to extend itself on every bide ; and at length Cambyses, the son and tiuccessor of Cyrus, conquered Egypt, and added that country to his already overgrown dominions. CHAPTER V. Vrom the Krection of the Persian Empire, to the Division of the Grecian Empire after the Death of Alexander. Tug Babylonians, groaning under' the oppressive yoke of their Persian masters, in 617 D.c. made a desperate effort to shake it off; but they were signally defeated by Darius Hystaspis, who besieged the city of Babylon, demolished its fortifications, and caused its walls to be lowered from 2(10 to 60 cubits. Darius then turned his arms against the Scythians ; after which he di- rected his course eastward, and reduced the country as far as the Indus. In the mean- time the lonians, who had submitted lo Cyrus, revolted, which led to the invasion of the Greeion states, and those disasteri CO A.M. ;i413— B.C. 691.— THB rYTIIIAN QAMRS PIBSI CBLBDRATED AT UKLfUI. [B3 ; A, II. 3373 — B.C. 431. — TUK HISTOBT OF TUB OLD TESTAMEIfT SNDS. 6 Outline S^iietcl^ of General llistory. to the Persians by land and sea, which we have elsewhere related. In 439 b.c. the Egyptians made an ineffectual attempt to regain their independence. They also again revolted in 413 b.c, and, being assisted by the Sidomans, drew upon the latter that ter- rible destruction foretold by the prophets, while they more firmly rivetted the chains which bound themselves to the Persian rule. The Persian historv exhibits every cha- racteristic of oriental cruelty, treachery, and despotism; and, with a few splendid exceptions, presents us with a series of monarchs whose lust of power was equalled only by their licentiousness. But the great- ness of the Persian empire was soon about to be humbled. Ten thousand Greek mer- cenaries had served under the younger Cy- rus la his rebellious attempt to seize the throne of his elder brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon; but he was defeated and killed at the battle of Cunaxa, near Babylon ; and his Grecian allies, though in a strange country, and surrounded on all sides by enemies, effected their safe retreat under Xenophon, whose conduct on this occasion has neen extolled both by ancient and modern writers, as exhibiting a matchless union of prudent caution and military skill. In this rapid sketch we shall not stop to notice the various contests which took place between the Grecian states, though they make a considerable figure in their respec- tive histories ; but pass on to the time of Philip of Macedon, who, taking advantage of the wars and dissensions which were gra- dually weakening the neighbouring states oi'Greece, began to meditate their conquest ; and by sometimes pretending to assist one state and sometimes another, he finally effected his object. Ilnving become master of all Greece, he projected the conquest of Asia : his death, however, by assassination, left that great achievement to be attempt- ed by his ambitious and warlike son, Alex- ander, sumamed the Great. No man who ever lived, perhaps, pos- sessed the necessary qualities for the exe- cution of this mighty project in a more eminent degree than the youthful Alex- ander. Brave, skilful, and impetuous, he marched from victory to victory; till at length the power of the Persians was to- tally overthrown at the battle of Arbela, 331 B.C., and an end put to the empire by the murder of Darius by Bessus in the fol- lowing year. Alexander having subdued Persia, his victorious arms were now di- rected against the countries which bounded Persia; and having reduced Ilyrcania, Uac- tria, and several other independent king- doms, he entered India and subdued all the nations to the river Hyphasii, one of the branches of the Indus. At length the pa- tience of his troops became exhausted ; they saw that the amnition of their leader was boundless, and refused to gratify his pas- sion for universal conquest by proceeding farther. He died at Bahylon in tlie year 833 B.C., leaving the affairs of his vast em- pire in a most unsettled state, and not even naming his successor. In the western world, at this period, great kingdoms were evolving from obscurity, and events of the highest importance suc- ceeding each other with unexampled ra- pidity. The first object that here claims our attention is the establishment and rapid growth of the Itoman republic. In 509 B.C. Tarquin, the last king of Rome, was expelled, and the government entrusted to two magistrates, annually elected, called consuls. Thus the republic proceeded, though amid perpetual lealousies and con- tentions, till It reached Its highest pitch of power and grandeur, by the successive con- auest of Italy and her isles, Spain, Mace- donia, Carthage, Asia Minor, Syria, Pales- tine, Gaul, Britain, and Egypt. It was, nevertheless, exposed to the greatest dan- ger from the ambition of individuals : the civil wars of Marius and Sylla, and the con- spiracy of Catiline, shook its very centre ; and by the contention arising out of the rivalry of Julius Ceesar and Pompey, it was ultimately overthrown. On the death of Alexander the Great, four new empires immediately, as it were, sprang up. He had left behind him a large and victorious army, commanded by generals who, bred in the same school, were not less ambitious of sovereign rule than their master. Cassander, the son of Anti- pater, seized Macedonia and Greece ; Anti- gonus, Asia Minor ; Seleucus marked out for his share Babylon and the eastern pro- vinces ; and Ptolemy, Egypt and the west- em ones. Furious wars soon succeeded this division of Alexander's wide-spread empire ; and several provinces, taking ad- vantage of the general confusion, shook off the Macedonian yoke altogether. Thus were formed the kingdoms of Pontus, Bithynia, Pergamus, Armenia, and Cappa- docia. Antigonus was defeated and killed by Seleucus at the battle of Ipsus, 301 b.c, and the greater part of his dominions fell to the lot of the conqueror. The two most powerful and permanent empires were, in fact, Syria, founded by Seleucus, and Egypt by Ptolemy Soter. But there was also another empire at that time existing which demands our notice. The Parthians, origi- nally a tribe of Scythians who had wan- dered from their own country, at length settled in the neighbourhood of Ilyrcania, and were successively tributary to the As- syrians, Babylonians, Medes, and Persians. The country in which they settled obtained from them the name of Parthia; and when Alexander invaded Asia, they submitted, with the other dependencies of the Persian empire. After the death of the Macedonian conqueror, Parthia was subject, first to Eumenes, then to Antigunus, and finally to the kings of Syria and Babylon. In the reign of Antiochus Theos, the rapacity and crimes of Agathocles, the Syrian governor, roused the npirit of the Parthians ; and, under Arsaces, a man of great military talents, they expelled their oppressors, and laid the foundation of an empire which ultimately extended over Asia, b.c 260. The Syrians attempted in vain to recover e u A IS •< M a o A.M. Sn04 — B. C. 400. — SOCRATBS rUT TO DBATH 8T TUB ATBBHIAIIS. great curitf. sue- U 1 ra- « aims £ and 2 • In 8 Lome, H usted »• sailed B eded, g , con- M tch of g con- H Mace- S Pales- " was, ■ t dan- g : the M e con- g entre; g of the a it was g Great, g were, >s iiim a S led by g , were «9 ! than ^ Anti- B Anti- £ ed out S •n pro- g ! west- •» cceded ipread Ja ngad- g )0K off H Thus S ontuB, * » g 1 B.C., g ns fell S 1 most g ire, in j Egypt *; also S which g origl- wan- « ength g cania, « ,cAs- g Bians. n aincd "f ■cover A.M. 3S37— B. C. 157.— TUB HH8T LIBRAaV FOUNDED AT ROME. Outline ^ktuJ) of dBcncral l^istori}. this proviuce. A race of able and vigilant princes, who assumed the surname of Jria- cida, from the founder of their kingdom, not only baffled their efforts, but so in- creased in power, that while they held eighteen tributary kingdoms, between the Caspian and Arabian seas, they even for a time disputed with the Romans the empire of the world. CHAPTER VI. From the Wan of Rome and Carthage, to the Birth of Christ. The Romans, who for more than five liundred years had been constantly victo- rious, met with an opponent in Hannibal, commander of the Carthaginian forces, whose consummate generalship for a time turned the tide of fortune, and, making Italy the battle-field, he gallantly opposed on their native soil the hardy veterans of Rome. Long and doubtful were these san- guinarjr contests ; but in the end the Car- thaginian armies were recalled into Africa, which the Romans had invaded; and he who, at the battle of Cannae, had struck the Roman legions with terror, was totally defeated at Zama ; by which the second Funic war was concluded, in the year 188 B.C. In forty years from that date the fate of Carthage was ultimately decided. The Romans having declared war against it a third time, used all their energies for ac- complishing its final destruction. The city was long and fiercely assailed; the genius of the younger Scipio at length triumphed over the desperate valour of the besieged; and Carthage, once mistress of the sea and the most formidable rival of Rome, was reduced to ashes, and for ever blotted from the list cf independent nations. During the contentions between Rome and Carthage, a confederacy was formed by the states of Greece, under the name of the Acha;an League, which soon eclipsed, in splendid achievements and power, both Athens and Sparta. Weary ot the tyranny of the Macedonians, the Grecian states had entered into this compact for recovering their liberties; but having imprudently given the Romans an opportunity of inter- meddling in their affairs, they were eventu- ally reduced to a Roman province, under the name of Achaia. TIuh celebrated leogue was begun about the year 284 b.c, and con- tinued formidable for more than I.IO years, under oiUcers called Pro!tor», of whom Arntus and I'hiloiiccnien were the most re- nowned. About this period we read of the direful oppressions of the Jews by Antiochus Kpiphnncs. After their return from the Bahylotiish captivity, they continued in subjection In the Persians till the time of Alexander; and subsequently, as the for- tune of cither Egypt or Syria happened to prevail, they were under its dominion. On the subjugation of Egypt by Antiochus Epiphancs, the Jews being treated with great severity by liini, they naturally, but imprudently, expressed their joy on hearing a report of his death ; and it was not long before the enraged monarch took the fiercest vengeance on thein. He marched at the head ot a powerful army, took Jeru- salem by storm in 170 B.C., and committed the most horrid cruelties on the inhabi- tants. Their religion was for awhile abo- lished, their altars defiled, and every indig- nity offered to the people that tyranny and hate could suggest. An image of Jupiter Olympius was erected in the holy place, and unclean beasts were sacrificed on the altar of burnt offerings. But the Jews soon rallied; and under Mattathias the true wor- ship was restored in most of the cities of Judea; the temple was purified by Judai Maccabteus, 165 B.C. ; and a long series of wars ensued between the Syrians and the Jews, in whieh the latter gained many sig- nal advantages. About 150 years before the birth of Christ the principal empires and states of the world may be thus enumerated. In Asia were the empires of Syria, India, and Par- thia— each of them powerful and extensive —with Arabia, Pontus, Armenia, and some other countries of less importance. In Africa were the kingdoms of Egypt, Ethi- opia, Numidia, Mauritania, and Getulia; the last named three, now that Carthage was destroyed, appearing to the eyes of the ambitious Romans as their easy prey. In Europe there were none able to oppose the Roman legions, save the Gauls and some of the nations inhabiting Spain. It was not long, therefore, after the conquest of Car- thage and Corinth that the final subjuga- tion of Spain was resolved on ; for all the possessions which the Carthaginians held in that country had already fallen into the hands of the victorious Romans. They ac- cordinglv began by attacking the Lusita- ninns ; out this brave people, under the conduct of Viriatus, a leader whose skill, valour, and prudence, eminently qualified him for his post, long bid defiance to the Roman arms : in the field he was not to be subdued ; and he at last met his death from the hands of assassins hired by his treache- rous enemy. The Romans now, in the wan- tonness of their power, scrupled not to use the basest and most corrupt means fur re- ducing the whole country; and though many tribes bravely maintained their inde- pendence for years, Spain ultimately be- came a Roman province. But all-powerful as Rome had now become, her civil and poUtical condition was far from enviable. Her conquests in Greece and Asia brought luxury, cruelty, and general corruption in their train ; and those heroic virtues for which in the early days of the republic she was renowned, had totally disappeared. We must, however, reserve for its proper place an account of the civil commotions, pro- scriptions, and assassinations which fol- lowed ; and pass onward in our brief recital of such events as peculiarly appertain to general history. Attalus, king of Pergamus, had left all his goods ond treasures, by will, to the Roman people ; upon which his kingdom 9 H m m a M A W. 3860 — B.C. 135. — THE UIBTORT OP TRH ArOCniVUA ErlDB. A.M. 3941— B.C. 63. — CATILIIO'S CONSFinACT OEFBATKD BT CICERO. 8 inan p. were, ® ,dby § )n8of g le ar- s> long S rsai/ g e em- m n pri- •* to be S de- g on of ►• •, was u erous g osc m y dcsig- c their S there ^ them K wcver, g ath of c udius, r from g 1, who J stored " s ene- { Under re was t ustre ; t ward ; ) the form, Maxi- a West, H anner a U the M }0 re- pt itium, >camc y n end itions ;raced H ors of T ,oman lirone z )penly e was A persc- , how- i was its in- inucd which !K>cms tption A.D. -CG. — TUB R0MA:«B take TEEIR final nKPABTUUK mOU BRITAIN. M ©tttline Slictcl^ of ffienetal l^istorn. 9 and injustice rendered the government odious at home, its frontier towns were at- tacked and its distant provinces overrun by tierce and uncivilized hordes issuing from the north, cast, and west. It is at this pe- riod that we read of Alaric, the Visgoth, who plundered Rome, a.d.4(I9: of Genseric, the powerful king of the Vandals ; and of Attila, the Hun, emphatically termed " the scourge of God." In fact, the Scythians, Sarma- tians, Goths, Huns, Vandals, and other barbarous nations, watched all occasions to break into it : and though some of the em- perors bravely withstood their attacks, no elForts could finally stem the ruthless tor- rent which kept pouring in on all sides. At length the Heruli, a people who migrated from the shores of the Baltic, and had grown formidable as they proceeded southwards, appeared in Italy. They were headed by the valiant Odoacer; and being joined by other tribes, quickly became masters of Italy, and the city of Rome itself surrendered to their victorious arms, a.d. 476. The fall of the western empire was thus consummated; but the Romans still main- tained their sway at Constantinople. The eastern empire, in fact, at this time compre- hended all Asia Minor and Syria, Ei^ypt, and Greece; but neither its domestic manaj^e- ment nor its military prowess gave hopes of a lengthened dominion. Luxury, effe- minacy, and superstition sapped its vitals ; continual wars with the Persians, Bulga- rians, and other barbarous nations, ex- hausted its strength ; and a similar fate to that of the western empire anpeared to await it at no very distant period. Still, as we follow the stream of history, we shall find that it not only survived the wreck for several centuries, but at times displayed an energy and power worthy of the Roman name. Revolutions succeeded one another among the savage conquerors of the west with fear- ful rapidity. The Heruli under Odoacer were driven out by the Goths under Theo- doric. The Gotha were expelled by the Romans under their able general Belisarius ; but while he was absent quelling an in- surrection in Africa, they regained their footing, and again took possession of Rome. The Franks next invaded Italy, and made themselves masters of the province of Ve- netia; but at last the superior fortune of the emperor Justinian prevailed, and the Goths were finally subdued by his pro-con- sul Narses, a. b. 552. From that time till the year 5()8, NarseB governed Italy with great prudence and success, as a province of the eastern empire; but having incurred the emperor's displeasure, Longinus was appointed to succeed him, and was invested with absolute power. He assumed the title of exarch, and resided at Ravenna, whence his government was called the ex- archate of Ravenna; and having placed in each city of Italy a governor, whom he dia- tinguislied with the title of duke, he abo- lished the name of senate and consuls at Rome. But while he was establishing this now sovereignty, a great portion of Italy was overrun by the Lombards. In short, we tind that they steadily marched on from Pannonia, accompanied by an army of Saxon allies, and were not long before they became masters of all Italy, with the ex- ception of Rome, Ravenna, and some of the eastern sea-coast. A warlike nation, called Franks, who were divided into several tribes, had been gradually rising into importance; and quit- ting the banks of the Lower Rhine, they had made themselves masters of no incon- siderable part of Gaul. A warlike and am- bitious chief among them, named Clovis, undertook the conquest of the whole coun- try; and having defeated and killed his {)Owerful rival, Alaric, king of the Goths, le possessed himself of all the countries lying between the Rhine and the Loire, and thus became the founder of the French monarchy, a.d. 487. A few years before the conquest of Rome by the Heruli, the Visigoths erected a king- dom in Spain; and as they advanced east- ward, about the same time that Clovis was extending his conquests tn the west, the river Loire was the natural boundary of the two kingdoms ; but a war soon broke out between them, which ended in favour of Clovis. Another kingdom had previously been founded in the western parts of Spain by the Suevi, who were subdued by the Goths under Theodoric, in 4U0 ; and even- tually, A.D. 584, these restless warriors sub- jugated nearly the whole of Spain. CHAPTER VIII. From the Rite qf Mahomet, to the Commenee- ment of the CrueaJee. Lrt u8 now turn our attention for b mo- ment to a general view of the world as it existed in the sixth century of the Christian era. The Roman empire in the west was annihilated, and various nations of north- ern extraction were either fiercely contend- ing with each other, or meditating new conquests ; the eastern empire was con- tinually at war, contending with the Per- sians on one side, or harassed by the at- tacks of the Huns and other tribes on its northern frontiers ; while it was agitated and weakened by religious and political animosities. The ludians and other ori- ental nations, unaccustomed to war, were ready to fall a prey to the first powerful in- vader ; while tlie fiery inhabitants of Ara- bia, from their earliest origin accustomed to bold and predatory warfare, were as ready to undertake any enterprise which seemed to promise an adequate reward. This, then, was the very nick of time most favourable for such a revolution in the world as was undertaken by the wily and daring Mahomet (or Mohammed), who foreseeing the power and glory that awaited him if success should crown his efforts, as- sumed the title of " prophet," and professed to have received a airect commission from God to become the founder of a new re- ligion, A.D. 622. This forms a marked epoch in chronology, and is designated the Hejira, A.D. 600.— the SARAcens overrun byria and riiosNiciA. A.O. 788*— ri-EADINOS IN COUBTS OV JUSICATUBB IlfSTITCTBD. 10 Outline %iitU^ of General l^istorg. or Flight of Mahomet. He at first en- deavoured by the force of his psrsuasive eloquence alone to make proselytes; but finding himself ere long at the head of many thousand warlike followers, who ac- knowledged that " there was but one God, and that Mahoraet was his prophet," he took advantage of their enthusiasm, and proceeded in the work of conquest. With a celerity truly surprising, the armies of the prophet and his successors overran all Sy- ria, Palestine, Persia, Bukharia, and India. On the west their empire soon extended over Egypt, Barbary, Spain, Sicily, &u. But Mahomet, who died in the 63rd year of his age, did not sccuit: the succession, or give any directions concerning it ; and the con- sequence was, ihat the caliphate was seized by many usurpers; dissensions broke out among the "true believers;" and in the course of time this great empire, like the others which we have noticed, declined in importance. The religion, however, still exists, and the temporal power of those who profess it is by no means trifling. While this extraordinary revolution was going on in the East, and the Arabian arms were conquering " in the name of God and the prophet," the western nations as zeal- ously upheld the doctrines promulgated by the pope. From the days of Constantine the Roman pontiffs had been gradually extending their power, temporal as well as spiritual ; and at the period of which we are now speaking, not only was their sacer- dotal dominion firmly established, but their political influence was often exerted for or against those princes of surrounding states as best suited the interests of the church. When, in 72H, Luitprand, king of the Lom- bards, had taken Ravenna, and expelled the exarch, the pope undertook to restore him, and his restoration was accordingly speedily effected. The authority of the Bv- cantine emperors in Rome was, indeed, little more than nominal; and the interference of the popes in the temporal concerns of the different European monarchies was of the most obnoxious and intolerable kind. We have seen that the reduction of Gaul was effected by Clovis, the Frank, who is styled the founder of the French monarchy. That kingdom, it may be observed, was sub- sequently divided into several petty sove- reignties; and while the princes weakened each other by their contests, the nobles in- creased in power, leaving their kings little more than the shadotvot royaltv. At length they gave themselves up to a life of indo- lence and ease, and abandoned the reins of government to oHicers called mayors of the palace ; of whom the most celebrated were Charles Martel, and his son Pepin the Lit- tle, who deposed Childevic, and oecnme tbi founder of the Carvolingian or second royal race in France. Of the princes of this race we shall here only have to speak of Carolus Magnus, afterwards called Charlemagne, on account of the extent of his conquests, his restoration of the western empire, and the splendour of his reign. Very soon after his accession to the throne, the Saxons, who bad long been tributaries to France, revolted, and bravely and obstinately con- tended for their freedom ; but they were at last obliged to submit. In 774, after the re- duction of Pavia, and the capture of Didier, the last king of the Lombards, Charle- magne repaired to Milan, and was there crowned king of Italy. From this time he was engaged in an almost unceasing warfare against the Moors in Spain, the Saxons and Huns in Germany, the party of the eastern emperor in Italy, and the Normans, who in- fested his maritime provinces. Having sub- dued his enemies, he repaired to Rome, in the year 8U0, for the fourth and last time ; and on Christmas-day, while assisting at the celebration of mass, the pope, Leo III., suddenly and unexpectedly crowned him emperor of the Romans, from which time he was honoured with the title of Charle- magne, or Charles the Great. At the time of his death, which occurred in 814, he had reduced all that part of Spain which lies between the Pyrenees and the Ebro ; seized Italy, from the Alps to the borders of Calabria ; and also added to his dominions all Germany south of the Eyder, and Pan- nonia. The world was therefore once more shared among three great powers. The em- pire of the Arabs or Saracens extended from the Ganges to Spain; comprehending al- most all of Asia and Africa which has ever been known to Europeans, China and Japan excepted. The eastern Roman empire was reduced to Greece, Asia Minor, and the pro- vinces adjoining Italy. And the empire of the west, under Charlemagne, compre- hended France, Germany, and the greatest part of Italy. The son and successor of Charlemagne was Louis I., at whose death the restored empire of the west was divided, in 840, among his four sons : Lotharius was emperor ; Pepin king of Aqui taine ; Louis 1 1, king of Germany ; and Charles II. surnamed the Bald, king of France: a division that proved the source of perpetual contentions. The French retained the imperial title under eight sovereigns, till 912, when Louis III. the last king of Germany, of the race of Charlemagne, dying without male issue, his son-in-law, Conrad, count of Franconia, was elected emperor of Germany. Thus the em- pire passed to the Germans, and became elective, by the suffirages of the princes, lords, and deputies of cities, who assumed the title of electors. During the period we have been de- scribing, the union of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms was effected by Egbert, the king of Wessex, A.n. 327. The pirates of Scandi- navia, too, about this time began to make their appearance in large fleets, and spread devastation on the shores r' France and other kingdoms of conti"'-".it ■' i f .'.rope. In England, where they weic. -juUed Danes, these Northmen hnrossed the coast in a similar manner; and, thoup^h frequently re- pulsed, in the course of time they ^ad the satisfaction of seeing nionarchs of their own nation seated on tlie throne of England. The Saxon race was, however, restored in 1041, in the person of Edward surnamed A.D. SIO.— TUB NOUHANS INTADB FRANCB FOB THB FIBST TIMK. ice, on- e at re- ier, i rle- » lere S Blie S fare S and ^ tern ^ 9 in- H sub- g B,m £ me; g g at ■ III.. 5 him (, time H arle- o time g , he M rhich g .bro ; « era of g nions g Pan- >« more ^ eem- g from "" ig al- S 1 ever ». lapan S e was g c pro- o ire of Pa npre- ® jatest g or of « death S irided, ^ ■ was B lis II. I amed ! 1 that g t tioni. ' inder * 9 i 4 1 III. ce of e, his ' 3 I, was , K e em- 3 came 5 nces, H umed B n 1 de- o u laxon H king » andi- i raake Dread ! and !. In ancs, in a ly re- el the rown land. ed in amed , 1 A.D. 993 AND 1007.— OBEAT EBUTTIONS OF TESUTIV8 OCCUR. Outline Slketcl^ of dicneral l^istorp. II the Confessor, who, dying without issue, nominated William, duke of Normandy, to be his successor. Here we may just remark, that the predatory tribes of Northmen, of whom we have before spoken, at different times overran and ravaged most countries of Europe; and a party having entered France, under their leader Rollo, Charles the Simple ceded to them, in 912, the pro- vince of Nenstria. On this occasion Rollo embraced Christianity, changed his own name to Robert, and that of his duchy to Normandy. From him was AVillinm the Conqueror descended. At no period of the history of the world do we And it in a more confused and dis- tracted state than at the epoch to which we have now arrived. It appears, indeed, like one vast battle-tield. Our attention, how- ever, is principally attracted by the prepon- derating influence of Germany, in the west ; the decline of the Byzantine empire, and the increase of that of the Turks, in the east; the divisions among the Saracens of Spain, and their subjugation by those of Africa. Civilization was taking a rctrogade course; and while the feudal system and the spirit of chivalry, assisted by the papal superstitions, were rivetting the chains of barbarism in one part of the world, the conquests and spoliations of the Turks, like those of the Goths and Hims before noticed, were fast obliterating the faint traces of human science and learning that remained in the other. At last the Cru- sades (though they must ever be deplored as the wretched offspring of enthusiasm and misguided zcnl), by directing the attention of Europeans to one particular object, made them in some measure suspend the slaugh- ter of one another, and were the means of extricating Christendom from a state of political and moral bondage. CHAPTER IX. From the First Crusade, to the Death of Saladin. The world, as we have seen, was at this time divided into two praiid religious par- ties, namely, the Christians and the Malio- metans, each of whom affected to regard the small territory of Palestine, which they called the Holy Land, as an invaluable ac- quisition. The origin of the crusades may tlierol'ore be attributed to a superstitious vnupration for the places where our Saviour had lived and performed his miracles, which annually brought vast numbers of pilgrims from M parts of Christendom to visit the city of Jerusalem, and those particular spots in Its vicinity which had been rendered es- pecially memorable by his preaching, suf- t>ring8, ond death. Although the Saracens, ni.der Omnr, their second caliph, had taken .Terusalcm, and coiKiuercd Palestine, in the 7th century, they allowed the pilgrims to continue to visit their favourite haunts on payment of small tribute. In 1065, how- ever, the Turks wrested the holy city, as it WHS styled, from the Saracens; and, being j much more fierce and barbarous, the pil- grims could no longer with safety perform their devotions ; and Europe resounded with complaints against the intidel possessors of Palestine, who profaned the holy places and so cruelly treated the devotees. Eu- rope was at the time full of entbusiastio warriors, who wanted but little stimulus to lead them to the field of glory ; and pope Gregory VII. had already meditated and urged the union of Christendom against the religion of Mahomet. Besides the re- ligious motive of freeing Jerusalem from the dominion of the Turks, some views of ambition might have induced the court of Rome to engage in this project. But what- ever might have been the chief motives, an opportunity soon presented itself, which was seized with avidity. A bold enthusi- ast, named Peter, who from his ascetic life was called the Hermit, having been on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, represented the oppression of the holy city, and the cruel treatment which the Christiana suffered, in terms so appalling to Urban II. (who filled the papal sec at the time), that the pontiff listened to his scheme for uniting all the Christian states against the Turks, and leading armies into Asia, sufficient in number and prowess to conquer theje war- like people by whom the Holy Land was held m subjection. In consequence of this a council was summoned, and a meeting of clergy and laity took place in a field in the neighbourhood of Placentia, at which 4(JU0 ecclesiastics and 30,000 seculars were pre- sent. Both Peter the Hermit and the Pope represented in the most vivid colours the direful situation of their brethren in the East, and the indignity offered to the reli- gion of Christ. Their speeches were suited to tlie passions of their hearers, and so well seconded by the adventurous spirit of the times, that a violent and tumultuous decla- ration of wnr burst forth from all sides ; and the assembled multitude devoted them- selves cheerfully to a service that they be- lieved to be meritorious in the sight of Heaven. The zealous Peter next visited the chief cities and sovereigns of Christen, dom, calling upon them to rescue the se- pulchre of their Saviour from the tyrannous grasp of the Turks. Another council whs speedily held at Clermont, in Auvergne, which was attended by many princes, and the greatest prelates ond nobles; and vvlien Urban and (he Hermit renewed their pa- thetic declamations, the whole assembly burst forth in a general exclamation, "It is the will of God !" words which were im- mediately attributed to divine inspiration, and adopted as the signal of rendezvous and battle. Men of all ranks now flew to arms with the utmost ardour ; and a crons of red cloth was affixed to their right shoulder; hence the names of crusade (or crniaade) and crusaders were derived to express this new expedition professedly undertaken on religious grounds. However imprudent the project, the prevailing taste and prejudices of the age occasioned its being adopted without examination. Independent of this, their passions were absorbeain their love of o .A.D. 1009. — THE SARACENS DESECRATE THE UOIT PLACES IN JKRUSALKM. A. U. IU4U.~TIIII VIT« Uf IMVUN* IIKITItOV Kit UV AN MAHtimUAKH. ► ' IJI utUn( Shcici) of (Tinurnl HHfttorij. w«rt they w«ir«dell|i)itit iIik iiiMtpIo lo poixitlitr it n« Mil Mloiioiiii^iil I'oi' tlirir oiiia. No wonder timii lliMt tlm iiiiiiihiir of ml- vtiti). Souii) win'ti cliid'il ut llm lutupitel* of worlilly HtlvituliiK<> wliit'li 0)i()utHl lo llmir viitw hi ilixy bt^lmlil in \wv- *ii«olivo tlm rii'li ooni|uoitii in AhIii; ollior* Ihouiclil of tlm uxp'.nliou of llmii* ofl'rucnt in tint luninlt of wnr, hiuI r«-joii'iiil llitil limy ooulil |[i-Htlfy llmir iuvliuuliou* wliile iior- ftiiniiuit n »Hcr«til duly. If limy mu'i'i-oiicd. tlu-ir l\n'tuim ii*vumu lu lit* upourud in lliii world 1 if limy dit'd. n vrown of uiiirlyi'diuu WHi |ironiiai*d in llm ntixt. Mo nmuy I'nni*'* uuittuK lind Hlniont nn iunnruuiuutublii )uiwiir; Hud llmir ooucurrent'o i« oun of tlu> inoti vurioun iihvnumouH lo bu met with in hiitory. An uiidiiciulincd mulliludo, rompulod nt Ihrvo liuudri'd ibouiHud mou, lud llm wiiy, uiuUir tlm vommnud of VvHit thti llitrmll, Hiid N loldier of fortunu, cnllod \Vnllitr llio Mouvylv**. Tlicy |iH«ir wrinU, ihoy mmlo no iiroviiion for luluiitciioo on tlicir mnroh. 'llioy wertf, in fHi'l, oom|io8tcled, thut llm cnritKi'd iuliiibitHnts of tlm cuuutrioa wUit'li tbcv |>illM||fd foil n|ion mid nctirly HnuiliiUlod tbt-mi Aulioeh Hiul KdesaH in lODS, mid Inatly, Jerusnleni, in 109!> ; of wliieli city (iodfrey of lt>iuillou wni chosen kiiii;'; hut Imret'uaed to I'earthHt title in the Holy I. nod; niiddied in I loo. In no,:, nn niniy of '.'lUMHH) men leA ''au'oiio on the aniim (lestinntion ; they ^)ori^hed. however, partly on theinnreh, nmi pnrtly by the aworii of the sultan of Ieo« Ilium. Sueh was the isniie of tlm first cru- sade: but tlm .ipirit which lind been thus r.vciled whs not to be so rcadilv cxtiu> Kulahed i n second, n third, nnd ■evernl other eruaAdei were nndertnken dnriiiK h sneeeaaion of nlinoat Iwo hundred yenrs, nnd ended in very siinihir reaull*. Ill lUIII, llm town of Acre, nr I'lolemnis, In which llm deseendnnla of (iodlVey still iilHllllHlned tlm rcKnl title, wna plundered by llm iiilluii of KKypi. Hud llm ('liiisimns were driven out of Myrin, Thren niiinnslie nnd milllnry orders, llm lloaiiitnlliira, llm Teiii|ilni'a, Hiid Teiitoiile kulKlilN. were iusliliited ni JernsHleni, lo proleel llm |iilKriiiis from llm nltncks of llm Turks. In this hko the snered wns so eon- founded VK'ith llie prol'nue, llmt it was tliouulit llm Virtues nud niialerilles of llm monk miKhl he united with llm wnrlike tjunlilles nnd pnisUiiis of the soldier. The new orders, hmded with wentlh Hiid pnrli- culnr prIvlleKeH, in h short tinm beennie greedy, lieentions, nnd iusident wnrriora, enemies of one niiotber, nnd by their mn- tuul linlred wenkeiied the chuso of Chriail- nnity. Wliut liHpiiened before In Itnrope WHS likewise seen in Asini every lord wuiit- cd lo erect nsoverelKn \iovver; prinelpnlillea were subdivided iiilo llefs) discord iirevniled, nud tlm Turks would soon hnve destroyed Ihem, if they bnd not likewise been dlvhlcd nmouit themselves. Tlm iMirlsiinn eniiiire in tlm Knst ex- tended Ht this (leriod from the borders of Kgypt In ArmeniH ; hut it was encomiinssed by powerful enemies, nnd its popululion, llionKh brnve, wns by no nmHiis coiiHlder- nble. Tlm Turks bnd nlrendy Inken Kdeaun, nnd there wns Krent renson to be nppehen- sive for the fnte of JernsHleni, when Knue- nius III,, fifty yenrs nftcr the hcKiiiniiiK of the crusades, whs solicited by deputies from the Knst to renew them. This time the monk 8t. Ilernnrd took upon himself the oHIec of its chief ndvocnle. lie is repre- sented ns runnliiK from town to town, nnd Ihoux'h i){iiornnt of the InoKunKe of thu country, yet mnkiuK llm people folhiw him, Hud performiuK numberless mirncles. He HccordiiiK'Iy everywhere itnined nn infinciiee, of which there had been no pHrnlleli yet his success could scnrcely keep pace with hiaicHlouswiahes. I'mler the humble habit of n monk, Ilernnrd enjoyed n Krcnlcr re- spect Ihnn wns paid lo the mo^tt powerful princes : be wns ns elo(|uent ns be wns en- ibusiHstic, and obinined nn unbounded in- fiuence over the minds of the people. Tlm rmiicmr Conrnd, who first listened lo him will) H resolution to niipose Ihose diinirer- ous eini)(rHlions, concluded with enrolUii); himself. Neither could I.ouisVII., king of l''rance, resist tlm appeals of the orator. The people abundoned their hahilntions in ci-owds ; llm nobles sold their Iniids, nnd laid the price nt his feet; nnd nenily n mil- lion of men Rulieiled to bo enrollen amonic the champions of Cbriatinnity. It is said lliut cneh of the nrmies had 7(>>IHH) 'men nt arms:' these consisted of the nobility, who were heavy Hrnied, and followed bv a much inoro numerous body of IIkIiI cavalry, Tlie number of infantry whs immense, 'i'hc emperor Conrad wns llm first tlinl set out : o ■J H H e M H n A.O. lOS.t.— TIIK QKKKK CUVHril SRrAH.lTKS VUOM TUR ROMAN. A. p. ll72,''N«Nnr ii. or »noi.*nu takii* roiiaii««iuH im iuhlasu. <2DutIinc Skctd) of dKcncral l^UtotQ. 13 li tliKt itinilar unvnimt* wimlillie voni> Hilltcil liy till) rriunilRrii «« In tlii: f JrriuHlKin, und rnturnitil to Kuritpi) with • iiiiTii hniiilful of niitn, hoiiU ni«t with liniilnr UUmilDrii, ami followitd thn iixtkiiipli) iifronrndi no that wlwn ihi>ywi!rn I'oiu- iii-IIimI III withdraw, thnv Ifft thn Koljr Land III a iiiiKth weaker i-oiidltiun than thuy had found it, l'.i(|>iiditlon« 10 ill plannnd and ill con- dui!li-d, Ritrvnd only to aiiiinatt) thnTiirki to thn di^Rt ruction of thu Chrlitian* of JcruRa- Ifiii, und to (how thnm the tittlit dllHculty llii-rn would Im in iix|ii-lliiiK thxui. Noradin, whom I liny clioait for their Ifader, promoted thi«d«iiKn,itnd NnUdiii, hit lueeeiior, eoin- pleled llie work, 'lint latter, after having uiiirpnd Myria, triumphed over thn Pariiani, conquered KKypt. and made liiinielf inaatcr of duminiona that extended to thn Oxua, returned by lea, in order to atrip the Kuro- penni of the plncea they atill retained. I)a> nmacui, Aleppo, and Acre, opened their Kate* to the counuernr. who, after having •rtAilly drawn the Chriatian army into narrow detlloi, where he commanded the naaiea, obliged them to aurrender, with Luiitrnan, their king I a. d. 1IM7. He then marolied toward* Jcruialnm, which, being in a manner dcfeneeleM, waa caiilv taken ; and tliua he dealroved for ever the little kingdom which haa not aubaiiited a cen- tury, and for the nci|uiiiition of which by tlie Chriitiana ao much intereat had been excited, and ao much blood bad been abed. The newa of the loia of the Holy Land ■iiread conaternnlion in Europe. Urban III., who had exerted all bia innuence, •pi- ritual and temporal, to prevent that mUfor- tune, died of grief toon after the fatal ncwa reiu'lied Ium cur. The Chrialian princea «u«pended their quarrel*, and the dcairc of rei'overiiig JcruNulem produced a third cru> Rudoi A.u. IIHU. Tliia waa inttnitcly better planned than the former onei, and j[fave the moit iplendid ho|>e(. Three pnncea of diNtinguiihed merit, who would have ex* cited the admiration of any age, were tha leadera of tliia expedition. Frederic I., (urnamed llnrbaroiia, one of the moat dii- tiuguiHlicd emperori that ever governed (ierinany, ailvancod by land, at tiie head of l&il.UUU men t Fbllin-Auguitua, king of ' l''i'aiice, aUo conducted tbitner • large and wcU-eppoiiitcd army : while Richard Caur- lie- Lion, king of England, the hero of tbia cruiade, set out with hit nobles and the Hower of hia troopi. Isaac Angelua, the emperor of Constantinople, looking upon the cruRnderi an intruderi, had formed an aliinucc with Haladin and the sultan of honium; hut Frederic triumphed over the obstacles which were opposed to hira ; nnd tliough he found hostile armies every- where on his march, he obtained many sig- nal victories. In this manner hn was pro- ceeding towards I'alestiiie, ytUn). after crossing C'ilieia, he met his death from having Incautiously bathed in the (,'ydiius, the extreme coldness of which bad flfleen hundred years before nearly proved fatal to Alexander. I'hiliii of France, and Ilichard thn "lion- hearted" king of England, thoiiKh anihi- tioii* rivals, were apparently united in their design of carrving on the holy war; and, in order to avoid the (ireeks, they prudently preferred going by sea. I'bilin, wlio ar- rived lirst, distinguished liimseff in several engageiiients with the Kararens, timk many places, and having inaile biinitelf master of the open eountrv, laid siege to Acre. In the meantime, fliebard was advancing to second the efforts of the Freneb monarch ; and on his arrival tbev found that their united forces amounted to about ,'t(Kl,IM)0 men. There was, however, no real union among the leaders. Fhilip, jealous of the heroic character of bis rival, imd tired of the fruitless exjiedition, embarked with the greatest part of his army to France, having iirat sworn not to attack the possessions of Ilichard until the return of both to tlieir dominions, (.'iKur-deliioii now became sole master of the operations ; resumed the siege of Acre, which at length capitulated; .t marching in a country to which they were strangers, thought it necessary to secure ;he heights, and reconnoitre the places through which they were to pass, before they proceeded any farther. The cardinal, conauiting only the dictates of impetuous ardour, treated their prudence as timidity, and declared for pursuing the barbarians immediately. Find- ing the two kings opposed bis opinion, he assumed the style of a superior, shewed them the pope's order, and being supported bv the Knights of St. John and the Tem- plars, obli -cd them to pay a blind obedience to his will '"He army thus governed by this ecclesiastik, Usily committed new blunders, and at length was hemmed in between two bi'anches of the Nile. The Saractns then opened their sluices, and were preparing to drown the Christians, who thougnt them- selves happy to preserve their lives, by sup- plicating the mercy of the enemy, and be- inj allowed to return to Europe, though covered with disgrace. The crusades seemed now to be at an end ; forthe dire misfortuneswhich attended thcEe distant expeditions had quite Atinguished the zeal of Christian warriors ; and the fer- ment which pervaded all Europe would not allow sovereigns, however martial or ambi- tions, to leave their respective countries. But there was yet another struggle to be made for the possession of the Holy Land, the relation of which, although it carries us too forward in our attempt at chronological order in. this outline of general history, must be given here. Louis IX. of France, better known by the name of St. Louis, having recovered from a dangerous illness, made a vow to take the cross ; and, with all the zeal of one who was desirous to signa- lize himself in the places that had been sprinkled with the blood of his Redeemer, he invited his people to follow his example, and effect the deliverance of Palestine from the power of the inlidels. His consort, Margaret of Provence, marched at his side, in order to share his dangers ; his brothers and the principal nobility of the kingdom, * O I 3 < A.D. 1190. — THB TEUTONIC OHDBB OF KNIOBTIIOOD INSTITUTED. A.D. 1215. — THE OBDBB OV SOMIHICAIf B BBTABLISBBD I.f FARIS. Outline ZktU}) of (Sieneral l^istonj. li accompanied biiu. Nor was the French monarch lel'c to contend with the enemy siugle-handcd. Prince Edward, the valiant son of the kine of England, followed with a large train ot £ngh sued a sentence of excommunication, a.d. 1520 ; but he was skreened from its effects by the friendship of the elector of Saxony. Ou the election of Charles V. to the im- perial throne of Germany, his first act was the assembling a diet at Worms, to check the progress of Lutheranism. In the pro- gress ot bis arduous work, Luther hud the assistance of several learned men, among whom were Zuinglius, Melancthon, Carlos- tadius, &c. ; and tlicre was the greatest pro- bability that the papal hierarchy would have been overturned, at least in the north of Europe, had it not been for the opposition of the emperor Charles V., who was also king of Spain. On the death of Frederic, his brother John succeeded to the electorate of Saxony, by whose order Luther and Me- lancthon drew up a body of laws rclatiug to the form of ecclesiastical government, the mode of public worship, fiC, which was pro- claimed by heralds throughout the Saxon dominions : this exur^ple was immediately followed by all the princes and states of Germany who had renounced the papal su- premacy. In a diet held at Spires, in loii), the edict of Worms was confirmed ; upon which a solemn protest was entered against this decree by the elector of Saxony and other reformers; from which circumstance they obtained the name of Pbotbstants, — an appellation subsequently applied to all who dissented from the doctrines of the Romish church. In the same year the elector of Saxony ordered Luther and other eminent divines to commit the chief arti- cles of their religion to writing, which they did; and, farther to elucidate them, Me- lancthon drew up the celebrated " Con- fessions of Augsburg," which, being sub- scribed by the princes who protested, was delivered to the emperor in the diet as- sembled iu that city, in 1S30. From this time to the death of Luther, in 1646, various negotiations were employed and schemes proposed, under pretence of settling reli- gious disputes. Whilst these transactions occupied the public attention in Gcrmar.yT, the principles of the reformers were makmg a rapid pro- gress in most other countries of Europe : in some they were encouraged by the govern- ing powers, while in others they were dis- countenanced, and their advocates sub- jected to cruel persecutions. The Turks were now menacing Hungary, and Charles V. thought it prudent to forget his dificrences with the protestant princes and their subjects, for the sake of engaging them to assist him against the general enemy ; but on the aproach of the emperor at the head of 100,000 men, although the army of Solyman was at least double that number, 'he latter retired; and Charles re- turned to Spain, and engaged in an expe- dition to Tunis, against tlie famous corsair Uarbarossa, whom he deposed f^om bis as- sumed sovereignty. A long and obstinate war had been carried on between the rival sovereigns of Germany and France ; and the former, at the head of 60,000 men, invaded the southern provinces, while two other armies were or- dered to enter Picardy and Champagne. Francis laid waste the country, and forti- fied his towns; so that after the lapse cf a few months, disease and famine so reduced the army of the emperor, that he was glad to retreat, and a truce was effected at Nice under the mediation of the p^e, a.d. 1638. Charles had also to quell a serious insur- rection in Ghent, and endeavoured in vain to arrange the religious affairs of Germany at the diet of Ratisbon. The progress of the Turks, who had become masters of nearly the whole of Hungary, and his de- sire to embark in an expedition against Al- giers, induced him to make concessions to the protestants, from whom he expected assistance. The conquest of Algiers was a favourite object of Charles ; and in spite of the remonstrances of Doria, the fomous Genoese admirnl, he set sail in the most unfnvourable season of the year, and lauded in Africa: the result of which was, t'uM the greatest part of the armament v. Li de- stroyed by tempests: a.d. 1641. The desire of Charles V. to humiiie the protestant princes, and to extend his own power, continued to manifest itself in every act. At length, being wholly free from do- mestic wars, he entered France ; but the gallant defence of the duke of Guise com- pelled him to raise the siege of Metz, with the loss of 30,000 men. In the following year he had some success in the Low Coun- tries ; but the Austrians were unfortunate in Hungary. In Germany a religious peace was finally concluded by what is called the "recess of Augsburg." It was during the progress of this treaty that Charles V., to the great astonishment of all Europe, re- signed the imperial and Spanish crowns, and retired to spend the remainder of his life at the monastery of St. Just, in Spain, where he died three years after, aged 58. A.D. 1566. Charles was succeeded by his son Philip, and no monarch ever ascended a throne under greater advantages. The Spanish arms were everywhere successful, and the rival nations appearing unanimous in their desire for repose after a series of devastating wars, peace was re-established between France and Spain, which included in it, as alliei on the one side or the other, nearly all the other states of Europe. At this time Elizabeth filled the throne of England, and Protestantism had there not merely gained the ascendancy, but it was established as the religion of the state. In France also the reformed religion was making considerable progress ; but its mem- bers, who in that country were called Hu- guenots, met with the fiercest opposition. (4 C k. O M ei 3 H »i «1 U H a f e K a r. ¥4 o A.D. 1533.— CAbVIN, TUB RBfORMSB, TEACHB8 HIS DOCIBIIfBa IN FBAHCE. [C'3 i m'< ft -v « " ' — A. D. 1533. — THB 8FAIIIABDS VlfOEB FI2ARR0 CONQVEB PERU. f : 18 (©tttline ftiictti) of (Scncral l^lstorp. from tlie courts of France and Spain, who joined in a " holy league," and a rancoro'is civil war raged for several years in many of the French provinces. The duke of Anjou commanded the catholics; the protestants were led by Coligni and the prince of Conii. At length a hollow truce was made the pre- lude to one of the most atrocious acts that stain the page of history — the savage and indiscriminate massacre of the Huguenots throughout France, on the eve of St. Bar- tholomew (Aug. 24, 1572). The account of this diabolical deed, by which 60,000 persona met with a treacherous death, was received in Rome' and Spain with ecstacy ; and pub- lic thanksgivings were offered up in their churches K)r.— THB ROYAL OnSETRATOBT AT CnBENWICB BUILT. 22 ©utlirte Sfeettf) of CTicneial l^istoro. of his danfter until the expedition was on the point of sailing. At length tlie stadt- holder landed in Torbay ; and the unfortu- nate monarch, finding the situation of his affairs desperate, hastily quitted the Eng- lish shores, and souglit an asylum in France. A convention was then summoned, the throne declared vacant, and the prince and princess of Orange, as "king William III. and queen Mary," were proclaimed king and queen of England. This was followed by the passing of the " Bill of Bights" and the "Act of Settlement," by which the fu- ture liberties of the people were secured. At the head of the league of Augsburg was the emperor Leopold ; but J^ouis, not davnted by the number of the confederates, assembled two large armies in Flanders ; sent another to oppose the Spaniards in Catalonia ; while a fourth was employed as a barrier on the German frontier, and ra- vaged the palatinate with fire and sword; driving the wretched victims of his barba- sous policy from their burning houses by thousands, to perish with cold and hunger on the frozen ground. In the next cam- paign his troops achieved several important victories, and the French fleet defeated the combined fleets of England and Holland off Beachy-head, a.d. 1690. Thus the war con- tinued for the three following years, ex- hausting the resources of every party en- gaged in it, without any important change taking place, or any decisive advantage being gained by either that was likely to produce a cessation of hostilities. With all the military glory that France had acquired, her conquests were unproductive of any solid advantage; her finances were in a sinking state; her agriculture and com- merce were languishing; and the country was threatened witn tl-e horrors of famine, arising from a failure of the crops and the scarcity of hands to cultivate the soil. All parties, indeed, were now grown weary of a war in which nothing permanent was ef- fected, and in which the blood and treasure of the combatants continued to be profusely and uselessly expended. Accordingly, in 1697, negotiations were commenced, under the mediation of the youthful Charles XII , king of Sweden, and a treaty concluded at Ryswick, by which Louis inade great con- cessions, restoring to Spain the principal places he had wrested from her; but the renunciation of the Spanish succession, which had been the main object of the war to enforce, was not even alluded to in the treaty. CHAPTER XVI. Commencement <\f the Eighteenth Century, to the Peace qf Utrecht. Tna declining health of Charles II. king of Spain, who had no children, engaged the attention of the European powers, and kept on the alert those princes who were claimants of the crown. The candidates were Louis XIV., the emperor Leopold, and the elector of Bavaria; and it was mani- festly to the interest of those who wished to preserve the balance of power in Europe that the choice should fall on the latter; but he was unable to contend with his rivals. A secret treaty of partition was therefore signed by France, England, and Huiland, by which it was agreed that Spain, America, and the Netherlands, should be given to the electoral prince of Bavaria ; Naples, Sicily, and the Italian states, to the dauphin ; and the duchy of Milan to the emperor's se- cond son, the archduke Charles. This treaty coming to the knowledge of the king of Spain, he was naturally tudignant that his possessions should thus be disposed of during his life ; and he immediately made a will in favour of the electoral prince. This well suited the views of England and Holland; but the intention was scarcely made known, when the favoured prince died suddenly, not without suspicion of having been poisoned. The prince's death revived the apprehensions of England and Holland, and they entered into a new treaty of par- tition. But the king of Spain bequeathed the whole of his dominions to the duke of Anjou, second son of the dauphin, who was universally acknowledged by the nation after the death of Charles, who died in 1701 ; and the young king was crowned under the title of Philip V. Thb emperor Leopold being determined to support the claims of his son, war im- mediately commerced, and an army was sent into Italy, where he met with great success. Prince Eugene having expelled the French from the Milanese, a grand alli- ance was formed between Germany, Eng- land, and Holland. The avowed objects of this all janee were "to procure satisfaction to his imperial majesty in the case of the Spanish succession : obtain security to the English and Dutch for their dominions and commerce ; prevent the union of the mo- narchies of France and Spain ; -ind hinder the French from possessing the Spanish dominions in Amcnca." James II., the exiled king of England, died at St. Germain's, in France, on the 7th of September, 1701; and was succeeded in his nominal titles by his son, James III., better known by the appellation of the Pretender. With more magnanimity than prudence, Louis XIV. recognised his right to the throne his father had abdicated, which could not be considered in any other light than that of an insult to William and the English nation ; and the parliament strained every nerve to avenge the indig- nity offered to the monarch of their choice : but before the actual commencement of hostilities, William met with his death, oc- casioned by a fall from his horse, a.d. 1703. Anne, second daughter of James II. and wife of George, prince of Denmark, imme- diately ascendcu the vacant throne; and, declaring her resolution to adhere to tlic grand alliance, war was declared by the three powers against France, on the same day, at London, the Hague, and Vienna. liei reign proved a scries of battles and of triumphs. Being resolved to pursue the plans of her predecessor, she entrusted the A.D. 1688. — SIR IIAAU NBWTOIf rVBLISHKB HIS SYSTEM OF FUILOROPItY. > n is •s M (a O » O o u H m H >4 * o »■ PS* < C A.S. 1C92. — TRB BVCHT Of BAHOTBK IS BKICTBD IRTO Alt BLVCTORATX. 1 Europe le latter; liis rivals, therefore Holland, America, ;en to the es, Sicily, jhin 1 and eror's se- ;8. This f the king ]ant that isposed of tely made d prince, gland and s scarcely irince died of h<^ving ,th revived i Holland, ity of par- equeatlied lie duke of 1, who was he nation 10 died in s crowned letermined n, war im- array was with great ijf expelled grand alli- lany, Eng- l objects of latisfaction lase of the irity to the linions and if the mo- |ind hinder ,e Spanish England, on the /th [cceeded in fames III., Ion of the jimity than d his right abdicated, . any other 'illiam and ,iarliament the indig- cir choice i jcement of death, oc- , A.D. 1702. les II. and irk, iinme- [one; and, lere to the |ed by the the same jd Vienna, [tics and of Hirsue the rusted tho Inv. (f^tttline SiktXtff of (Slrenetal l^istorg. 23 command of the army to the earl of Marl- borough, who obtained considerable suc- cesses in Flanders; while the combined English and Dutch fleets captured the gal- leons, laden with the treasures of Spanish America, which were lying in Vigo bay, under the protection of a French fleet. Meanwhile, the French had the advantage in Italy and Alsace ; but in Flanders the genius of Marlborough (now raised to a ukedom) continued to be an overmatch for the generals opposed to him. Having secured his conquests in that country, he resolved to march into Germany, to the aid of the emperor, who had to contend with the Hungarian insurgents as well as the French and Bavarians. He accordingly crossed the Rhine, and meeting prince Eugene at Mondlesheim, a junction was agreed on and etfected with the imperialists under the duke of Baden ; and, thus united, they advanced to the Danube. The rival armies each amounted to about 60,000 men. The French and Bavarians were posted on a hill near the village of Blenheim, on the Danube; but though their position was well chosen, their line was weakened by detachments, which Marlborough perceiv- ing, he charged through, and a signal vic- tory was the result. The French com- mander, Tallard, was made prisoner, and 30,000 of the French and Bavarian troops were killed, wounded, and taken; while the loss of the allies amounted to 5,000 killed, and 7,000 wounded : a.d. 1704. By this bril- liant victory the empeiror was liberated from all danger ; the Hungarian insurgents were dispersed ; and the discomflted army of France hastily sought shelter within their own frontiers. In Spain and Italy the advantage was on the side of the French ; but the victory of Blenheim not only com- pensated for other failures, but it greatly raised the English character for military prowess, and animated the courage of the allies. Among other great exploits of the war was the capture of Gibraltar by admiral Sir George Hooke and the prince of Hesse. This fortress, which had hitherto been deemed impregnable, has ever since con- tinued in possession of the English, who have defeated every attempt made by the Spaniards towards its recovery. In the following year (1705) the empe- ror Leopold died, and was succeeded by his son Joseph. In Italy the French obtained I some considerable advantages ; while in Spain nearly all Valencia and the province I of Catalonia submitted to Charles III. The ' hopes and fears of the belligerents were thus kept alive by the various successes ' and defeats they experienced. Louis ap- peared to act with even more than his usual ardour: he sent an army into Germany, who drove the imperialists before them ; while his Italian army besieged Turin, and marshal Villeroy was ordered to act on the offensive in Flanders. This general, with a superior force, gave battle to Marlborough at Ramillies, and was defeated, with a loss of 7000 killed, 0000 prisoners, and a vast Suantity of artillery and atamunition. All trabant, and nearly all Spanish Flanders, submitted to the conquerors. The allies, under prince Eugene, were also successful in Italy; while, m Spain, Philip was forced for a time to abanaon his capital to the united forces of the Enghsh and Portu- guese. Louis was so disheartened by these reverses that he proposed peace on very advantageous terms ; but the allies, insti- gated by the duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene, rejected it, although the objects of the grand alliance might at that time have been gained without the fhrther effusion of blood. Thus refused, Louis once more exerted all his energies. His troops having been compelled to evacuate Italy, he sent an additional force into Spain, where the duke of Berwick (a natural son of James II.) gained a brilliant and decisive victory at Almanza, over the confederates, who were commanded by the earl of Gal- way and the marquis de las Minas ; whilst the duke of Orleans reduced Valencia, and the cities of Lerida and Saragossa. The victory of Almanza restored the cause of the Bourbons in Spain ; and marshal ViU lars, at the head of the French army in Germany, laid the duchy of Wirtemberg under contribution. The general results of the war hitherto had miserably disappointed the English ; Marl- borough felt that a more brilliant campaign was necessary to render him and his party popular. He therefore crossed the Scheldt, and came up with the French army, under Vendome, at Oudenarde. They were strong- ly posted ; but the British cavalry broke tlirough the enemy's hues at the first charge ; and though the approach of night favoured the retreat of the French, they were put to a total rout, and 9000 prisoners fell into the hands of the English. Shortly after. Lisle was forced to surrender; and Ghent and Bruges, which had been taken by Vendome, were retaken. About the same time the islands of Sardinia and Minorca surrendered to the English fleet, and the pope was compelled to acknowledge the archduke Chanes as the lawful king of Spain : a.d. 1708. The treasury of Louis being greatly ex- hausted, and his councils distracted, he again expressed his willingness to make every reasonable concession for the attain- ment of peace, offering even to abandon the whole of the Spanish monarchy to the archduke ; but his proffers being rejected, except on terms incompatible with national safety or personal honour, the French king, trusting to the affection and patriotism of his people, called upon them to rise in de- fence of the monarchy, and in support of their humbled and aged king. His appeal was patriotically responded to. Every nerve was strained to raise a large army, and the salvation of France was confided to mar- shal Villars. The allied army was formed nn the plains of Lisle ; the French covered Oouay and Arras. Eugene and Marl- borough invested Mons. Villars encamped within a league of it, at Malplaquet, H I A.D. 1696.— AlOP TAKBN FROM TUB TURKS BY FBTBR TBR QRBAT. h H II t k.D. 1703. — TUa CITI OF ST. FETERSBUBO FOUNDED BT FBTER THB OBKAT. 24 (!^utltne ?tiitui) of general l^istori). Elated with past success, the conrederates attacked him in his intrenchments : the contest was obstinate and bloody : and though the allies remained masters of the Aeld, their loss amounted to about 15,nu0 men ; while that of the French, who re- treated, was not less than 10,000. (Sept. 11. 1709). Louis again sued for peace ; and conferences were opened at Gertruyden- burg early in the following spring: but the allies still insisting upon the same conditions, the French monarch again re- jected them with firmness. The war con- tinued, and with it the successes of the allies in Flanders and in Spain, where the archduke again obtained possession of Madrid. But the nobility remaining faith- ful to Philip, and fresh succours arriving from France, the duke of Vendome com- pelled the allies to retire towards Cata- tonia, whither they marched in two bodies. The English general Stanhope, who com- manded the rear division, was surrounded at Brighuega, and forced to surrender, with 6000 men ; and though the principal divi- sion, led by Staremberg, compelled Ven- dome to retreat, and continued their march in safety, they were unable to check the victorious progress of Philip's arms. The expenses of a war so wholly unproduc- tive to England had by this time exhausted the patience of the nation ; and a change had taken place in the Brititih cabinet that was unfavourable to Marlborough and his de- signs. Through the death of the emperor Joseph, which had just occurred, the arch- duke Charles succeeded to the imperial dig- nity ; thus giving a new turn to the politics of the sovereigns of Europe, who were in alliance to prevent the union of the Spanish and German crowns : a great obstacle to the restoration of peace was therefore re- moveii. Hostilities however continued, but with so little energy, that no event of im- portance occurred during the whole cam- paign. At length the English and French plenipotentiaries concurring in the same desire for peace, preliminaries were signed between England and Franco, at I^ondon, Dec. 1712. The following year a congress was held at Utrecht for the general paci- fication of Europe; and a definitive treaty of peace was signed on the Slst of March, 1713, by the plenipotentiaries of nil the belligerent powers, except those of the em- peror and the king of Spain. It was stipu- ated that Philip should renounce all title to the crown ot France, and tlio dukes of Berri and Orleans to that of Spain ; that if Philip should die without male issue, the duke of Savoy should succeed to the throne of Spain ; that the Spanish Netherlands, Naples, Milan, and the Spanish territories on the Tuscan coast should be secured to Austria; that the Rhine should be the boundary between France and Germany ; and that England was to retain Gibraltar and Minorca. In the following year the emperor signed the treaty of Ilastadt, the conditions of which were less favourable to him than those offered at Utrecht ; nnd FhiUp V. acceding to it some time after. Europe once more enjoyed tranquillity. Shortly after having thus extricated him- self from all his difficulties, the long and eventful reign of Louis XIV. was termi- nated by his death; and his great grand- son, Louis XV. being a minor, the duke of Orleans was made regent of France. CHAPTER XVII. The Agt i\f Charles XII. of Svoeien, and Peter the Great 0/ Ruiiia. TuouQH we have confined our attention to the wars which occupied the south and west of Europe at the latter end of the 17th century, we must not overlook the events which took place in the north and east, through the rivalry and ambition of two of the most extraordinary characters that ever wielded the weapons of war, or controlled the fate of empires : these men were Charles XII. of Sweden, and Peter the Great of Russia. It is here necessary to retrace our steps for a few years. In 1661 the people of Den- mark, disgusted with the tyranny of their nobles, solemnly surrendered their liberties to the king ; and Frederic, almost without any effort of his own, became an absolute monarch. His successor. Christian V. made war on Charles XI. of Sweden, who defended himself with great ability, and, dying in 1697, left his crown to his son, the valiant and enterprising Charles XII. During the reign of Alexis, Rissia began to emerge from the barbarism into which it had been plunged by the Mongolian in- vasion and the civil wars occasioned by a long course of tyranny on the part of its rulers. His son Theodore pursued an en- lightened policy, reforming the laws, en- couraging the arts, and introducing the manners and customs of more civilized nations. At his death he bequeathed the crown to his younger brother Peter, in preference to his imbecile brother Ivan, who vas several years his senior. Through the intrigues of their ambitious sister So- phia, a rebellion broke out ; and owing to the incapacity of one brother and the youth of the other, she continued to exercise the whole sovereign power. Being accused, however, of plotting the destruction of her youngest brother, she was immediately or- rested and imprisoned; and Ivan having retired into private life, Peter became sole and undisputed master of the Russian em- pire, whicli was destined, through Ins ef- forts, to acauire eventually an eminent rank among the leading powers of Europe. Endowed with an ardent thirst for know- ledge, gifted with the most persevering courage, and animated by the hope of civi- lizing his nation, Peter I., deservedly sur- nnmed the Great, exhibited to the world the unusual spectacle of a sovei'eign de- scending awhile from the throne, for the purpose of rendering himself more worthy of the crown. Having regulated the in- ternal nShirs of Russia, Peter quitted Mos- cow, nnd visited France, Holland, and Eng- land incognito; investigating their laws. A.D. 1722.— TUB JK8i;iT. o c« f> Q < Hi H H f a Studying their arts, sciences, and manu- factures, and everywhere engaging the most skilful artists and mechanics to follow him into Russia. But his desires did not end there: he wished also to become a con- queror. He accordingly, in 1700, entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, for the purpose of stripping the youthful diaries XI 1. of the whole, or of a part of his dominions. Nothing dismayed, the he- roic Swede entered into alliance with Hol- land and England, laid siege to Copen- hagen, and compelled the Danish govern- inent to sue for peace. Tlie Russians had in the meantime besieged Narva with 80,000 men. But Charles having thus crushed one of his enemies, in the short space of three weeks, immediately marched to the relief of Narva, where, with only 10,000 men, he forced the Russian entrenchments, killed 18,000 and took 30,000 prisoners, with all their artillery, baggage, andammuniticn. Peter being prepared for reverses, coolly observed, " I knew that the Swedes would beat us, but they will teach us to become conquerors in our turn." Having wintered at Narva, in the fol- lowing year Charles defeated the Poles and Saxons on the Duna, and overran Livonia, Courland, and Lithuania. Elated with his successes, he formed the project of de- throning Augustus, king of Poland. Com- bining policy with the terror of his arms, he entered Warsaw, and, through the in- trigues of the primate of Poland, he ob- tained the deposition of Augustus, and the election of Ins friend, the young palatine Stanislaus LeczinskI: a. d. 1704. Though Peter had been unable to afford his ally Augustus much assistance, he had not been inactive, Narva, so recently the scene of his discomfiture, he took by storm, and sent au army of 60,000 men into Poland. The Swedish king, however, drove them out of the country ; and, at the head of a n'>ble and victorious army, he mairched on- wards with the avowed intention of de- throning his most formidable enemy, the czar of Russia. Peter endeavoured to avert the storm bv sending proposals of peace ; which being haughtily rejected, he retreated beyond the Dnieper, and sought to impede the progress of the Swedes towards Moscow, by breaking up the roads, and laying waste tlie surrounding country. Charles, after having endured great privations, and being ur»ed by Maceppa, hetman or chief of the Cossacks, who offered to join him with 30,000 men, and supply him with provisions, penetrated into the Ukraine. He reached the place of rendezvous ; but the vigilance of Peter had rendered the designs of the hetman abortive, and he now appeared rather as a fugitive, attended with a few hundred followers than as a potent ally. The Swedish army had still greater dii- appointments to meet with. No supplies were provided ; and general Lewenhaupt, «ho bad Been ordered to join the king with IS, 000 men from Livonia, had been forced into three engB)(cinents with the Russians, and his army was reduced to 4000. Brav- ing these misfortunes, Charles continued the campaign, though in the depth of win- ter. In the midst of a wild and barren country, with an armv almost destitute of food and clothing, and perishing with cold, he madly resolved to proceed. At length he laid siege to Pultowa, a fortified city on the frontiers of the Ukraine, which was vigorously defended. His array was now reduced to 30,000 men ; and he was suffer- ing from a wound which he had received while viewing the works. The czar, at the head of 70,000 men, advanced to the relief of Pultowa ; and Charles, carried in a lit- ter, set out with the main body of his army to give him battle. At first the impetuosity of the Swedes made the Russians give way ; but Charles had no cAnnon, and the czar's artillery made dreadful havoc in the Swedish lines. Nothwithstanding the desperate va- lour of the troops, the irretrievable ruin of the Swedes was soon effected ; 8000 were killed, 6000 taken prisoners, and 12,000 fu- gitives were forced to surrender on the banks of the Dneiper, from want of boats to cross the river. The Swedish army was thus wholly destroyed. Charles, and about three hundred men, escaped with much difficulty to Bender, a Turkish town in Bes- sarabia, where he was hospitably received, and where he remained inactive during se- veral years, buoyed up with the hope that the Ottoman Porte would espouse his cause, and declare against the czar of Russia. In one fatal day Charles had lost the fruits of nine years' victories; and the shattered remnant of that army of veterans, before whom the bravest troops of other countries quailed, were transported by the victorious czar to colonize the wild and inhospitable deserts of Siberia. But the inflexible king of Sweden had not even yet abandoned all hope of hum- bling the power of his hated rival. At length, in 1711, war was declared against Russia by the Porte, and the vizier Baltagi Mehemet advanced towards the Danube at the head of 200,000 men. By this immense force, the Russian army on the banks of the Pruth was closely surrounded, and re- duced to a state of starvation. At this cri- tical juncture, the czarina Catherine, who accompanied her husband, sent a private message to the vizier, and procured a ces- sation of hostilies preparatory to opening negotiations, which were speedily followed by a treaty of peace. Charles, who had calculated on the total destruction of the czar, felt highly incensed at this disappoint- ment of hia most ardent hopes, and even- tually procured the lismissal of the vizier. His successor, however, still less favourable to the views of the royal warrior, persuaded the sultan Achmet III. to signify his wish that Charles should quit the Ottoman em- pire. But he resolved to remain, and the Porte had recourse to compulsory measures. His house was invested by Turkish troops, and after a fierce defence on the part of him- self and his few attendants, he was taken and conveyed as a prisoner to Adrianople. The enemies ot Sweden were, in the a H > O < H ». O oi o H u H a O H s c > a '4 IK H *. M ». . ©1 M w s H a M OS »• I a A. D. 1707.— TU8 BMrRROn JOSBPU SBIZBS TnS KINODOM OP NAFLKI. [» A.s. 1715.— vrwABDi OF 15,000 ruBSOMS siK or thi VLAora at tienna. 26 ^tttlme %iitulf of (Sicneral 1|istorp. 8 m O it n a o m bt SB < n M «» H H H iS M Da M M A M M O M H h M H s cr o u a H I. IIS mean time, prosecuting their successful career. Stauislaus, whom Charles had placed on the throne of Poland, had been compelled to yield it to Augustus; and the Swedish frontiers were threatened on every side. General Steinbock, after having gained a brilliant victory over the Danes and Saxons at Gadcbusch, and burnt Al- tona, was besieged in Tonningen, and forced to surrender with the whole of his army. Roused at this intelligence, the king of Sweden quitted Turkey, and after travers- ing Germany without any attendant, ar- rived safely at Stralsund, the capital of Swedish Pomerania. At the opening of the next campaign, (a.l. 1713) Stralsund was besieged by the Prussians, Danes, and Saxons, and though obstinately defended by the king, wa<> forced to capitulate, while he narrowly escaped in a small vessel to his native shorns. All Europe now considered that his last effort had been made, when it was suddenly an- nounced that he had invaded Norway, He had fouad in his new minister, baron de Goertz, a man who encouragecL his most extravagant projects, and who was as bold in the cabinet as his master was undaunted in the tield. Taking advantage o. a cool- ness that existed between Russia and the other enemies of Sweden, Goertz proposed that Peter and Charles should unite in strict amity, and dictate the law to Europe. A part of this daring plan was the restora- tion of the Stuarts to the throne of Eng- land. But while the negotiations were in progress, Charles invaded Norway n second time, and laid siege to Frederickshall ; but while there a cannon-ball terminated his eventful life; and his sister Ulrica ascended the throce: a.d. 1718. By the peace which Peter signed with Sweden, he obtained the valuable provinces of Carelia, Ingria, Esthovia, and Livonia. On this glorious occasion he exchanged the title of czar for that of emneror and autocrat of all the Russias, which was re- cognized by every European power. One year after (a.d. 1725) this truly extraordi- nary man died, in the 63rd of his age, and the 43rd of a glorious and useful reign. Peter the Great must be considered as the real founder of the power of the Russian empire; but while history records of him many noble, humane, and generous actions, he is not exempt from the charge of gross barbarity, particularly in his early years. He must not, however, be judged according to the standard of civilized society, but as an absolute monarch, bent on the exalta- tion of a people whose manners were rude and barbarous. Catharine I. who had been crowned em- press the preceding year, took quiet pos- session of the throne, and faithfully pur- sued the plans of her illustrious husband for the improvement of Russia; obtaining the love of her subjects by the mildness of her rule and the truly patriotic zeal she evinced for their welfare. She died in the second year of her reign, and left the crown to Peter II. son of the unfortunate Alexis, and the regency to prince Mcnzicoff, who was afterwards disgraced and banished to Siberia. After a short and peaceable reign Peter II. died, and with him ended the m^e line of the family of Romanof : a. d. 1730. CHAPTER XVIII. tht Affair* of Europe, from the Estahlith- ment f^f the Hanoverian Succetlion in Eng- land, to the year 1740. Abbitbd at a period of comparative re- pose, we may now take aretrospective glance at the affairs of Great Britam. In 1707, Scotland and England had been united un- der this appellation ; and the act of union introduced equal rights, liberties, commer- cial arrangements, and a parliament com- mon to both nations. During the life of William III. the protestant succession had been decided, by act of parliament, in fa- vour of the countess palatine Sophia, duchess of Hanover, wife of the first elec- toral sovereign of that territory and mother of George I. This princess died a short time before queen Anne ; and George I., upon that event, took the oath of succes- sion, b^ which he engaged to observe and maintain the laws and liberties of Britain ; not to engage that kingdom even in defen- sive wars, on account of his electorate ; and to employ no other than British ministers and privy counsellors in the administration of government. As George I. in a great measure owed his succession to the crown to the Whig party, he openly avowed himself their friend and patron ; and they were no sooner in office than they used their power to crush their political adversaries, the Tories. One of the first acts of his reign was the impeach- ment of the duke of Ormond, and the lords Oxford and Boliugbroke. Oxford was committed to the Tower ; but Bolingbroke and Ormond made their escape to the con- tinent. The evident partiality of the mo- narch for the Whigs, and their vindictive proceedings, gave great umbrage to many persons, and roused the anger of all who were favourable to the Stuart dynasty. These feelings more especially prevailed in the Highlands of Scotland, and a plan was formed for a general insurrection in favour of the Pretender, whom they proclaimed, under the title of James III. By the au- thority of the prince, the earl of Mar had raised his standard, and the clans quickly crowded to it, so that he was soon at the head of 9,000 men, including several noble- men and other persons of distinction. But their plans were prematurely formed, and their want of unanimity in conducting the necessary operations proved fatal to the cause in which thev were embarked. . They were attacked and completely routed by the royal forces at Preston Pans, a.d. 1716. The Pretender and the earl of Mar effected their escape; but most of the insurgent chiefn and officers were doomed to suffer death as traitors. The rebellion being thus suppressed, an act was passed for making parliaments septennial, instead of triennial. I •i * if A. I>. 17m. — TRKATT OP ALLIANCE BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN A«D UOLLAND, ENNA. - zicoff, who lanithed to eable reign < id the ma ie K L.S. 1730. H H H Establith. H ion in Eng. s arative re- tive glance ^ In 1707, united un- K t of UDion t 1, commer- M nent coin- m the life of m etsion had < M ent, in fa> e Sophia, a first elec- □d mother a d a short M George I., M of succes- a aserve and as f Britain ; in defen- •e irate ; and R ministers A nistration S B owed his hig party, riend and H r in office cf ush their M One of ^ impeach- S and the A Kford was *t lingbroke H 1 the con- H ' the mo- Q Hndictive IS to many ' all who % dynasty. » vailed in plan was M n favour m (4 >claimed, the au- Mar had H quicisly a in at the nl noble- u on. But H ned, and a :ting the to the 1. They 1 utcd by t-. D. 17I6. t<» effected ' ' surgent A suflter < ingthus making ienuiof. &eneral l^ifitoti). 27 VTe now return to the affairs of Spain and other continental states. We have seen that the death of the emperor and the ac- cession of the archduke Charles to the im- perial throne, left Philip V. undisputed mas- ter of Spain and of its colonies. His ftrst queen being dead, he married ElUabcth Farnese, heiress of Parma, Tuscany, and Placentia; a woman of masculine spirit, who, having a powerful influence over the mind of her husband, and being herself di- rected by the daring cardinal Alberoni, his prime minister, indulged in the pros- pect of recovering those possessions which had been wrested from Spain, and confirm- ed by the peace of Utrecht. The schemes of Alberoni, in fact, went much farther; by the aid of Charles XII. of Sweden, and Peter I. of Russia, he designed to change the political condition of Europe ; he de- sired to restore the Stuarts to the throne of England; to deprive the duke of Or- leans of the regency of France ; and to pre- vent the interference of the emperor by engaging the Turks to assail his dominions. These ambitious projects were defeated bv what was termed the "quadruple alliance" (A.n. I7I6) between Austria, France, Eng- land, and Holland. The court of Spain for a time resisted this powerful confederacy; but its disasters, by land and sea, compelled Philip to accede to the terms which were of- fered him, and Alberoni was dismissed a. d. 1720. A private treaty was afterwards con- cluded between the king of Spain and the emperor ; and another, for the express pur- pose of counteracting it, was concluded be> tween England, France, Holland, iS'ussia, Denmark, and Sweden. This led to a short war between England and Spain ; the Eng- lish sent a fleet to the West Indies to block up the galleons in Porto-Bello, and the Spaniards made au unsuccessful attack on Gibraltar. Neither party having gained by the rupture, the mediation of France was accepted, and a treatv was concluded at Seville, by which all the conditions of the quadruple alliance were ratified and con- firmed. One of its articles providing that Don Carlos, son of the queen of Spain, should succeed co Parma and Placentia, the Spanish troops now took formal pos- session of those territories. It was also agreed that the " pragmatic sanction," or law by which the emperor secured the succession of the Austrian dominions to his female heirs, in failure of male issue, should be guaranteed by the contracting powers. George I., king of England, died in 1727 ; but his death made no change in the po- litics of the cabinet. Sir Robert Walpole continuing at the head of affairs after the accession of George II. Some few years previous to the death of his father, the na- tion had experienced much loss and con- fusion by the failure of the "South-sea scheme," a commercial speculation on so extensive a scale that it had well-nigh pro- duced a national bankruptcy. It was a close imitation of the celebrated " Mis- sisippi scheme," which had a short time before involved in ruin thousands of our Gallic neighbours. The pacific disposition of cardinal Fleury, prime minister of France, and the no less pacific views of Walpole, for nearly twenty vears secured the happiness and peace of both countries. But tne pugnacious spirit of the people, and the remembrance of old grievances on both sides, led to new alter- cations with the Spaniards, which were f-eatly aggravated by their attacking the nglish employed in cutting log-wood in the bay of Campeachy. A war was the con- sequence, and France became the ally of Spain, a. d. 1739. A small force being sent to the West Indies, under admiral Vernon, the important city of Porto-Bello wr "ap- tured ; which success induced the T ish to send out other armaments upon a i^rger scale. One of these, under commodo:'e Anson, sailed to the South Seas, and after encountering severe storms, by which his force was much diminished, he ravaged the coasts of Chili and Peru, and eventually captured the rich galleon annually bound from Acapuico to Manilla. The other ex- pedition was directed against Carthagena; but it proved most disastrous, owing to the mismanagement and disputes of the com- manders, and to the unhealthiness of the climate, not less than 15,000 troops having fallen victims to disease. CHAPTER XIX. From the Aeceuion of the Empreea Therita, efAuttria, to the Peace o/Jix-la-Chapelle. Wb now return to the state of affairs in northern Europe. On the death of the em- peror, Charles VI., his daughter, Maria Theresa, by virtue of the pragmatic sanc- tion, took possession of his hereditary domi- nions ; but she found that she was not likely to retain peaceable possession of them. The kings of Poland, France, and Spain, exhibited their respective claims to the whole Austrian succession ; and Frederic the Great, king of Prussia, who had just ascended his throne, looking only to the aggrandizement of his dominions, joined her enemies in the hope of obtaining a share of the spoil. At the head of a well-ap- pointed army, lie entered Silesia, took Bres- lau, its capital, and soon conquered the province ; and in order to retain his acqui- sition, he offered to support Maria Theresa against all her enemies, a.s. 1741. This proposal was steadily and indignantly re- jected by the princess; though she was well aware that the French and Bavarians were on the point of invading her territories, for the express purpose of elevating Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, to the imperial dignity. Under the command of the prince, assisted b^ the marshals Beileisleand Brog- lio, the united armies entered Upper Austria, took Iiintz, and menaced Vienna. Maria Theresa being compelled to abandon her capital, fled to Hungary; and having con< vened the states, she appeared before the assembly with her infant son in her arms, and made such nn eloquent appeal, that the e H M m A m M H m M M f M ■ m < M m m M O K M a n e n A.D. 1727.— nn. DRADI.ET DISCOVBRB THE ABEnnATION OF THB riXBD STABS. *.l). 1728— A COLOUT of DANES passes into GBEBNLANO TUIS tKAB. I I 28 (i^utline Sketch of (ilieneral l^istorg. nobles with one accord swore to defend her cause till death. "Moriamurpro beob nostro Maria Theresa." Nor were these mere idle words : her patriotic subjects rushed to arms ; and, to the astonishment of her enemies, a large Hungarian army, under the command of Prince Charles of Lorraine, marched to the relief of Vienna, and the elector was obliged to raise the siege. A subsidy was at the same time voted to her by the British parliament, and the war assumed a more favourable aspect. The Austrians took Munich, after defeating the Bavarians at Meniberg; and the prince of Lorr!<.ine expelled the Prussidns and Saxons from Moravia. The elector, how- ever, had the gratitication, on retiring iuto Bohemia, to take the city of Prague ; and having been crowned king of Bohemia, he proceeded to Frankfort, where he was chosen emperor under the name of Charles VII., A.D. 1742. The king of Prussia having obtained a brilliant victory over the Austrians at Czarslau, took immediate advantage of his position, and signed a separate treaty with the queen of Hungary, who ceded to him Lower Silesia and Glatz, on condition of his remaining neutral during her contest with the other powers. The conduct of Frederick gave just cause of offence to the court of France ; for, thus deprived of its most powerful ally, the French army must have been inevitably ruined, but for the superior abilities of marshal Belleisle, who effected one of the most masterly retreats through an enemy's country that has been recorded in the annals of modern warfare. Louis XV. now made offers of peace on most equitable terms ; but the queen, elated with success, haughtily rejected thera. In consequence of a victory gained by prince Charles of Lorraine, she had also soon the gratification of recovering the imperial dominions from her rival Charles VII., who took refuge in Frankfort, and there lived in comparative indigence and obscurity. England had now become a i)rincipal in the war; and th<> united British, Hano- verian, and Austi '.n forces marched from Flanders towards Germany. The king of England had arrived in the allied camp ; avA the French commander, marshal dc Noailles, having cut off all their supplies, the destruction of the Bn.'sh and Austrian army was anticipated ; either by being cut to pieces if they attempted a retreat, or by their surrender. They commenced their retreat ; and, fortunately for them, the good generalship of Noailles, who had taken possession of the village of Dettingcn, in their front, was counteracted by the rash- ness of his nephew, the count de Gram- mont, who advanced into a small plain to give the allies battle ; but the impetuosity of the French troops was met by the re- solute and steady courage of the allies, which obtained for them the victory of Dettiugen. The marshal retreated ; but the allies, owing to the irresolution of George II., obtained no farther advantage. The haughty and ambitious conduct of the empress, who avowed her intention of keeping Bavaria, gave great offence to se- veral of the German princes ; and France, Prussia, and the elector palatine, united to check the growing power of Austria. The French arms were victorious in Flanders : the king of Prussia, who had invaded Bo- hemia, was defeated with great loss, and forced to make a precipitate retreat into Silesia, a. d. 1744. Not long after this the death of the elector of Bavaria removed all reasonable grounds for the continuance of hostilities, his son having renounced all claims to the imperial throne, while Maria Theresa agreed to put him in possession of his hereditary dominions. During the campaign of 1745 the impe- rialists lost Parma, Placentia, and Milan. In Flanders a large French army, under marshal Saxe, invested Tournay ; while the allies, under the duke of Cumberland, though greatly inferior in numbers, march- ed to its relief. The king of France and the dauphin were in the French camp, and their troops were strongly posted behind the village of Fontenoy. The British in- fantry displayed the most undaunted va- lour, carrying everything before them ; but they were ill supported by their German and Dutch allies, whose indecision or want of courage lost the day. The capture of Tournay, Ghent, Ostend, and Oudenarde by the French, was the immediate con- sequence of this important victory. In England the fatal battle of Fontenoy disappointed the expectations of the people, and produced great irritation in the public mind; while it at the same time revived the hopes of the Jacobites, who thought it a fortunate time to attempt the restoration of the Stuart family. arles Edward, the young Pretender, acc^.dingly landed in Scotland, where his manly person and en- gaging manners won the hearts of the Highlanders, who were everywhere ready to give him a hearty welcome and join his standard. Thus supported by the High- land chiefs and their clans, he took pos- session of Dunkeld, Perth, Dundee, and Edinburgh. Having proclaimed his father, he marclied against Sir John Cope, the royal commander, over whom he obtained a victory at Preston Pans. After receiving some reinforcements he crossed the English border, took Carlisle and Lancaster, and marched boldly on to Derby. But being disappointed in his hopes of powerful as- sistance from the English Jacobites, he took the advice of the majority of his offi- cers, and retraced his steps. On his re- turn to Scotland his forces were consider- ably augmented ; and, receiving a supply of money from Spain, he prepared to renew the contest with spirit. But though he was at ftrst successful, by taking the town of Stirling, and defeating the troops sent against him at Falkirk, the approach of a larger army, commanded by the duke of Cumberland, soon compelled the prince to retreat to the north. On reaching CuUo- den Moor, near Inverness, he resolved to ■■1 ■1 2 9 o o o CO e n A.D. 1729. — TQB COnSICANS BBVOLT FROM TUB BBrURLIC OF OBNOA. ^'Tr- \n. induct of ention of nee to se- d France, united to ria. The r'landeri : raded Bo- A loss, and A reat into < r this the n moved all Duance of anced all M ile Maria session of n A he inipe- K id Milan. ly, under n while the » uberland, s, march- fH ance and H amp, and f d behind s ritish in- M noted VB- Ph lem; but ^ German » n or want H apture of R< udenarde Pk late con- r. H Fontenoy K le people. U lie public M vived the n ight it a storation o vard, the >9 nded in ■4 M H 1 and en- of the > M re ready M . join his n le High- M ook pos- i Ice, and H is father. M ope, the e )taiiied a » ■eceiving lEngUsh M s ter, and O It being M ;rful as- 1 ites, he ^H his offl- R 1 his re- FH onsider- R upply of 4 renew >ugh he lie town >ps sent ch of a iuke of rince to : Cuiio- >lved to A.D. 1738. — KADIB BUAB INTADSS BINDOSTAIf, AIID FLl'NDEDS DELHI. Outline Siictclb oi €ieneral l^tstorQ. 29 make a stand. Ai usual, the Highlanders made a furious onset ; but their desperate charge was received by a close and galling fire of musketry and artillery, which in a very short time proved decisive. Giving up all for lost, Charles Edward desired his partizans to disperse, and became himself a wretched and proscribed fugitive, in the hourly dread of falling into the hands of his merciless pursuers ; who, after their victory, with fiendlike barbarity, laid waste the country with fire and sword. After wandering in the Highlands for several months, and receiving numerous proofs of the fidelity of his unfortunate adherents, whom the reward of 30,0002. for his capture did not tempt to betray him, he escaped to France ; a.d. 1746. In the mean time the French troops un- der marshal Saxe were overrunnini; the Netherlands; Brussels, Antwerp, and Na- mur were captured; and the sanguinary battle of Boucoux ended the campaign. In Italy, the arms of France and her allies were not equally successful; and after a series of battles in Germany and the Low Countries, in which the fortune of war was pretty equally balanced, conferences were opened at Aix-la-Chapelle, and prelimi- naries of ^eace signed : A. d. 1748. The basis of this treaty was the restitution of all places taken during the war, and a murial release of prisoners. Frederic of Prussia was guaranteed in the possession of Silesia and Glatz ; the Hanoverian suc- cession to the English throne was recog- nised, and the cause of the Pretender aban- doned. 'We brought our notice of Russia down to the death of Peter II. in 173P. When that occurred, a council of the nobles placed on the throne Anne Iwannowa, daughter of Ivan, Peter's eldest brother, who soon broke through the restrictions imposed upon her at lier accession. She restored to Persia the provinces that had been con- quered by Peter the Great ; and terminated a glorious war against Turkey, in con- junction with Austria, by surrendering every place taken during the contest : A. D. 1735. She is accused of being at- tached to male favourites, the principal of whom was a man of obscure birth, named John Uiren, who was elected duke of Cour- land, and who governed the empire with all the despotism of an autocrat. Previously to her death, Anne had bequeathed the throne to the infant Ivan, and appointed Biren regent; but the latter enjoyed bis high dignity only twenty-two days, when he was arrested and sent into exile in Si- beria, Russia has ever been noted for its cabals, intrigues, and revolutions. The soldiery had been induced to espouse the cause of Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, Anne was arrested and imprisoned; the infant emperor was confined in the fortress of Schusselburg ; and Elizabeth was immediately proclaimed empress of all the Russias. This princess concluded an advantageous peace with Sweden ; and lent her powerful assistance to Maria The- in her war with the king of Prussia, for whom Elizabeth felt a violent personal enmity. CHAPTER XX. Progren of Events during the Seven Tearif War in Europe, Jmerica, and the Eatt Indies, DuRiNo the period we have been describ- ing, in which the west and the north of Europe resounded with the cries of distress or the shouts of victory, the throne of Hiu- dostan was filled by Mahmoud Shah, a voluptuous prince ; who, in order to avoid becoming the object of personal hatred, confided all public business to the nobles and his ministers : these officers offended or neglected the subahdar of the Deccan, who invited Nadir Shah to invade the East Indies. In 1738 the Persian warrior marched into that country at the head of an army inured to war and greedy of plunder, and defeated with the utmost ease the innu- merable but disorderly troops of the mogul. The crown and sceptre of Mahmoud lay at the feet of his conqueror : Delhi, his capi- tal, was taken ; every individual whose ap- pearance rendered it probable that he was acquainted with concealed treasures, was subjected to the most horrid tortures ; and it in asserted that 100,000 persons were massacred in one day I He plundered the country of upwards of thirty millions sterl- ing, and extended the bounds of his empire to the banks of the Indus. After commit- ting the most revolting; acts of cruelty, he was assassinated by his own officers, who placed his nephew, Adil Shah, on the vacant throne : a. d. 1747- We will now take a view of European interests in that distant region. Among other stipulations in the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, it was agreed that the Eng- lish settlement of Madras, which during the war of the succession had been taken from the English by the French, should be re- stored. Dupleix, the French governor of Fondicherry, had long sought an opportu- nity for adding to the dominions of his countrymen in India; and the continual disputes of the native princes favoured his schemes, inasmuch as the interference of the French was generally solicited by one of the parties, who remunerated their Euro- pean allies by fresh concessions of territory on every such occasion. This naturally roused the jealousy of their English rivals ; who adopted a similar line of policy ; so that whenever there was a rupture between the native princes, they each found allies in the European settlers. A fierce conten- tion arose tor the nabobship of the Car- natic. The French supported the claims of Chunda Sahib ; the English being applied to by Mohammed AH, sou of the late na- bob of Arcot, espoused his cause ; a. n. 17o] , It was at this time that Mr. Clive (after- wards lord Clive) appeared in the capacity of a military leader. He had been originally in the civil service of the East India Com- pany ; but he now exchanged the pen for the sword, an < soon proved himself more A. S. 1741, — TBB KINO OP rBDSSTA OOMFIjETBR TBB CONQUBST OF SltESIA. [Da ^ ^ ' I! I I I i ii i I! V r A.I>. 1752. — GREAT rlKB AT CONSTA:«TINOrLE : 36U() HOUSES OBSTHOTED. 30 ©utline Slietc!) of (Scneral "^jistoro. than a match for all the talents which were brought into play against him. With a small force he took Arcot ; and he after- wards successfully defended it against Chundah Sahib, who besieged it with a numerous army. Many brilliant victories followed on the side of the English and their allies. The Rajah of Tanjore and other independent chiefs joined them. The French lost most of their acquisitions : Mohammed All's claim was acknowledged ; and a treaty was entered into between the French and English, that neither party should in future interfere with the affairs of the native princes. Time proved how useless was such a stipulation t The peace of Aix-la-Chapclle was not of long duration. France and England were still at war in the East Indies, and their differences in respect to the boun.' ries of their respective colonies in North Ai;ierica still remained for adjustment. Another war in Europe was the inevitable conse- (]uence ; and from the term of its duration it obtained the name of " the seven years' war." England united with Prussia; and an alliance between the emperor, France, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony, was imme- diately concluded: a. s. 1766. The com- mencement of the campaign had a discou- raging aspect for the king of Prussia ; the Russians were advancinjr through Lithu- ania, a Swedish army occupied his attention in Pomerania, and the united forces of the French and imperialists were advancing through Germany. With his characteristic boldness, Frederic anticipated the attack of his numerous foes, and invaded both Saxony and Bohemia ; making himself master of Dresden, routing the Austriuns at Lowesitz, and compelling 17,000 Saxons to lay down their arms at Parma. In the ensuing campaign the marshal d'Estrees crossed the Rhine, with 80,000 men, to invade Hanover. The Hanoverians and Hessians, under the command of the duke of Cumberland, were driven out, and the French became masters of the elec- torate. Unawed by the formidable prepa- rations of his enemies, Frederic again as- sumed the offensive, and penetrated into Bohemia ; but a victory obtained at Kolin, by the Austrian geperal Daun, compelled him to retreat hastily into his dominions, which were now threai ened in every direc- tion. The French hai.' rapidly advanced upon Magdeburg; the victorious Russians threatened the north of Silesia, whilst the Austrians had attacked the south, and even penetrated to Berlin, where they levied heavy contributions ; and the prince of Brunswick Severn had delivered up Bres- lau. In this extreme emergency, Frederic could scarcely expect to acquire any fur- ther lame; but, with his accustomed en- ergy, he hastened to Dresden, assembled an army, and with half the number of his French and German opponents, gave them battle at the village of Rosbach, and ob« tained over them a most brilliant victory. His loss amounted to only live hundred men, while that of the enemy was nine thousand, in killed, wounded, and prisoners. In lour weeks after he obtained the far more important victory of Lissa, and reco- vered Breslau. During the campnig^n of l/ai^, the Prus- sian monarch recovered Schweidnitz, and invested Ulmutz. In the meantime prince Ferdinand of Brunswick crossed the Rhine, defeated the French at Crevcit, and pene- trated to the very gates of Louvain in Bra- bant. No commander, perhaps, ever en- dured the vicissitudes of fortune in more rapid succession than did Frederic in this campaign ; but though he was several times in the most imminent peril, he at length compelled his formidable rival, marshal Daun, to raise the sieges of Dresden and Leipaic, and to retire into Bohemia, while Frederic himself entered the former city in triumph. It is in crises like these that the destiny of states is seen to depend less upon the extent of their power, than upon the quali- fications of certain eminent individuals, who possess the talent of employing and increasing their resources, and of animating national e.iergies. This was in an especial degree the case of Frederic the Great. He was engaged with the powerful and well- disciplined armies of Austria ; with the French, whose tactics and impetuosity were undisputed ; with the immovable perse- verance of the Russians; with the veterans of Sweden, and with the admirably orga- nized forces of the empire. In numerical strength they far more than trebled the Prussians ; yet he not only kept them con- stantly on the alert, but frustrated their combined attacks, and often defeated thein with great loss. At the opening of the next campaign (1759) the fortune of war was on the side of the Prussians. They destroyed the Rus- sian magazines in Poland, levied contribu- tions in Bohemia, and kept the imperialists in check. Prince Ferdinand, in order to protect Hanover, found it necessary to give the French battle at Minden, where success crowned his efforts. And had it not been for the unaccountable conduct of lord George Sackville, who commanded the ca- valry, and disobeyed or misunderstood the order to charge the discomfited French, a victory as glorious and complete as that of Blenheim would, in all probability, have been the result. A decided reverse soon succeeded ; the combined Austrian and Russian army of 80,000 men attacked the Prussians at Cuncrsdorf, and after a most sanguinary conflict the latter were defeat- ed. Frederic soon retrieved this disaster, and the war continued to proceed with du- bious advantage ; but the English grew tired of this interminable kind of warfare, and turned their attention from the actions of their intrepid ally to matters affecting their colonial interests in the East and West Indies, and in America. The bold and skilful operations of Clivc in the East Indies attracted great notice. Having reinstated the nabob of Arcot, his next great exploit was the recapture of A.D. 1765. — QUITO, IN FRRU, DE8TR0TED DV AN EARTHQUAKE. ■^V1 S:^jp ss^jfc-r-:^ A. D. 1765. — THE CUKVAIIER HE ST. OEOnOK, (THE FRBTENDBR) DIER, AOBO 70. Outline Slictcfj of CSeneral l^lstorn. 31 H M < O 9 H M ■< M Calcutta, which had been taken by the nabob of Bengal. This was followed by the unexampled victory of Plassy, and the tinal establishment of the British in north- ern India. — In America, admiral Boscawcu burned the enemy's ships in the harbour of Louisburg, and compelled the town to sur- render; the islands of St. John and Cape Breton were taken by general Amherst ; and brigadier Forbes captured fort Du Quesue ; while the French settlements on the African coast were reduced. The island of Guada- loupe, in the West Indies, was also taken by the English. Crown Point and Ticondc- rago were conquered by general Amherst, and Sir William Johnson gained possession of the important fortress of Niagara. The French, thus attacked on every side, were unable to withstand the power and enthu- siasm of their enemies : and general Wolfe, who was to have been assisted in his attack on Quebec by Amherst, finding that the latter general was unable to form a junction with him, Tesolved to attempt the arduous and hazardous enterprise alone. With this view he landed his troops at night under the heights of Abraham, and led them up the steep and precipitous ascent ; so that when momitig dawned, the French com- mander, the marquis de Montcalm, to his astonishment saw the English occupying • position which had before been deemed inaccessible. To save the city a battle was now inevitable ; both generals prepared with ardour for the conflict. Just as the scale of victory was beginning to turn in favour of the British, the heroic Wolfe fell mortally wounded. With redoubled energy his gal- lant troops fought on ; till at length the French fled in disorder ; and, when the in- telligence was brought to the dying hero, he raised his head, and, with his last breath, faintly uttered, " I die happy ; " nor was the death of Montcalm less noble or soldier- like. He had been mortally wounded ; and he was no sooner apprised ot his danger than he exclaimed, " So much the better : I shall not live to witness the surrender of Quebec." The complete subjugation of the Canadaa quickly followed. And, amidst the exploits of his army and navy, George II. expired suddenly at Kensington, in the 34th year of his reign, and was succeeded by his grand- son, George III., a.d. 1760. On the European continent the last cam- Eaigns were carried on with less spirit than efore : both sides were exhausted by their Sreyious efforts, and the party which was esirous of peace endeavoured to avert such occurrences as might revive the hopes of the enemy. A family compact was now con- cluded between the courts of Versailles and Madrid; and seeing no chance of gaining any colonial advantages over Britain while its navy rode triumphant on the ocean, they resolved to try their united strength in at- tempting the subjugation of its ancient ally, Portugal. That country was defended tnore by its natural advantages than by its military force; the progress of the Spaniards being retarded by the miserable condition of the roads, and by the neglect of all provision for their sustenance. An English force of 8000 men, together with a large supply of arms and ammunition, was sent to assist the Portuguese ; and, though several towns at flrst fell into the hands of the Spaniards, the British and native troops displayed a decided superiority throughout the cam- paign, and compelled them to evacuate the kingdom with considerable loss. In Germany, prince Ferdinand and the mar- quis of Granby not only protected Hanover, but recovered the greater part of Hesse. At the same time Frederic experienced an un- expected stroke of good fortune. The em- press Elizabeth of Russia died ; and Peter III., who had long admired the heroic king, and who had never forgotten that the in- fluence of Frederic had especially contri- buted to the foundation of his hopes and greatness, had no sooner ascended the throne than he made peace with him, and restored all the conauests of the Russians. From that time the King was not only ena- bled to concentrate his whole force against the Austrians, but was supported by Peter, who concluded an alliance with him, and despatched to his aid a corps of 20,000 men. The reign of Peter III. was, however, of very brief duration ; and Catherine II., al- though she conftrmcd the peace, recalled the auxiliary Russians from the Prussian army. Meanwhile the English were extending their conquests in the West Indies. They took Ilavannah and Manilla from the Spa- niards; with Martinique, St. Lucie, Gre- nada, and St. Vincent from the French. Tired of a war which threatened the whole of their colonies with ruin, the cabinets of France and Spain were glad to find that the British minister was equally anxious to bring the war to a close. Peace, which was now the universal object of desire to all parties, was concluded at Versailles, on the 10th of February, 1763, between Great Bri- tain, France, and Spain ; and five days later, at Hubertsburg in Saxony, between Aus- tria and Prussia. This memorable contest, which had required such an extraordinary expenditure of blood and treasure, — a war in which the half of Europe had been in arms against England ancf Prussia, — was concluded with scarcely any alteration in the territorial arrangements of Germany, and without producing any great or last- ing benefit to either of the belligerents, so far, at least, as their interests in Europe were concerned. But in the East and West Indies, as well as in America, it had added greatly to the colonial possesaions of Great Britain. CHAPTER XXI. From the Conclution of the Seven Yeart? War to the final Partition of Poland. The " seven years* war," the principal features of which we have given, left most of the contending powers in a state of great exhaustion ; but none had been more af- fected by it than France. While that coun- try, howerer, was declining, Russia, under A.D. 1764. — THE SOCIETY OF TUB JESUITS IS ADOLISIIED IN rRA.>CE. <*^ ii( i' 'i 'V ' I r A. D. 1767- — THE BKFCDLIC OF GENOA CEDES CORSICA TO I'RA^CK. 32 <©utllnc Sfeetc^ of C&encral l^isforo. the empress Catherine II., was rapidly ac- quiring a preponderating influence among the nations of Europe ; and no opportunity of adding to her already extensive territo- ries were ever neglected. On the death of Augustus III., king of Poland, the diet as- sembled at Warsaw to choose a successor. Catherine espoused the cause of Stanislaus Poniatowsky ; and as the discussions were not conducted with the temper which ought to characterize deliberative assemblies, the prudent empress, as a friend and neighbour, sent a body of troops thither to keep the Seace. This had the desired effect, and tanislaus ascended the throne. But Po- land had long been a^tated by disputes, both religious and political ; and the new sovereign was unable to control the ele- ments of discord by which he was sur- rounded. The animosity which existed be- tween the catholics and the dissidents, as the dissenting sects were called, had risen to a height incompatible with the safety of the kingdom. The dissidents, who had been much oppressed by the catholics, claimed an equality of rights, which, being refused, they appealed to foreign powers lor protec- tion — those of the Greek church to the empress of Russia, and the Lutherans to the kings of Prussia and Denmark. A civil war now arose in all its horrors ; and its miseries were greatly aggravated by the insolence and brutality of the Russian troops which Catherine had sent to the aid of the dissidents. The catholic nobles formed a confederacy for the maintenance of their privileges and their religion : but it was useless to contend against the over- whelming forces brought against them. Cracow, where they for a long time held out aga'^nst famine and pestilence, was at length taken by storm, and the unhappy fugitives were pursued beyond the Turkish frontiers. Tlie protection which the confederates received in Turkey, and mutual complaints concerning the incursions of the wandering hordes of Tartars and Cossacks, had, some vears before, furnished a pretence for war between the Porte and the Russians. It was impossible that Mustapha III. could any longer contemplate with indifference the transactions which took plncc in Po- land: not only was the security of his northern provinces endangered, but he felt justly indignant at the violation of his do- minions, lie, accordingly, remonstrated with the empress ; and she speciously re- plied, that havinij- been requested to send a few troops to the assistance of her unhappy neighbour, in order to quell some internal commotions, she could not refuse. ISut a body of Russians having afterwards burned the Turkish town of Uulta, and put all its inhabitauts to death, war was declared, and the Uuropean and Asiatic dominions of the Porte summoned to arms. While all the officers who were to compose the suite of the grand vizier were preparing at Constan- tinople for thoir departure, the multifarious hordes of militia assembled themselves out of Asia, and covered the Bosphorus and Hellespont with numerous transports. On the other hand, the different nations composing the extensive empire of the autocrat of all the Russias, most of whom were but a few degrees removed from bar- barism, put themselves in motion; and a body of troops selected from among the corps dispersed over Poland was assembled on the side of the Ukraine. The capitation tax of the Russian empire was raised, and a war contribution of 20 per cent, levied on all salaries. Large armies on both sides advanced against the Danube ; and in the spring of 17()9 the Turkish standard was dis- mayed on the frontiers of Russia, where the Ottoman troops cominitted frightful ra- vages, and drove the enemy across the Dneister : they, however, suffered a severe defeat at Choczim; and a more decisive blow was soon after struck by the Russians, who twice defeated the Turkish fleet, and at length burnt fifteen of thuir ships of the line in the bay of Chesm£. Meantime, the Russian landforces were equally successful ; the grand Ottoman army was totally over- thrown near the Pruth, and the capture of Bender, Ismail, and other places, quickly followed. Greece, long accustomed to subjection, was but ill provided with troops, and the inhabitants pursued their own affairs un- molested: but when they received intelli- gence of the enterprise of the Russians — a Christian people of the Greek church — to deliver the Greeks from the yoke of the barbarians, the love of liberty was rekin- dled in many of their hearts. All Laconia, the plains of Argos, Arcadia, and a part of Achaia, rose in insurrection, and spared none of their former rulers. The Turks, in the mean time, crossed the isthmus in order to relieve Patra ; and the pasha of Bosnia, with .30,000 men, advanced with little re- sistance into the ancient Messene ; at Mo- don the Greeks were defeated with g^eat loss, and it was evident that their hope of regaining their freedom was a delusive one. At the end of the campaign the plogue broke out at Yassy, and spread to Moscow, where it carried off 90,000 persons, at the rate of nearly ]0U0 victims daily. The Crimea was seized by the Russians, and the grand vizier was forced to retreat into Ueemus : the janizaries rose, put their oga to death, and set fire to their camp. The Porte in the meantime was delivered from Ali Bey, the Egyptian pasha, who fell in battle against his brother-in-law, Mo- hammed. Lurope had taken a more lively interest in his adventures, because ho ap- peared to be elevated above national pre- judices ; but his fault consisted in his mani- festing his contempt for those errors too early, and in too decided a manner. The Russians nt length crossed the Danube, and the janizaries gave way. They were twice compelled to abandon the siege of Silistria, and they lost a great part of their artillery near Varna. But a reverse of fortune was nigh : for not long after, Hassan Pasha, a man of great courage and intelligence, by birth a Persian, and who was high in tho (3 O r A. D. 1769.— TRB nOTAI, AOADXHT BSTABIiIIRBD IN IiONOON. n M a M H b> U H a A.b. iJSS. — THE oniiEii or kmguts of st. patbick foundbd in Ireland. ©inline Sfeeicl) of General l^lsionj. 33 favour of t)ie sultan, swore that not a Rus- sinn slipuld pass the autumnal equinox on the Turkish side of the Danube ; and he faithfully kept his word. Mustapba III. died in 177'1> and was suc- ceeded by his brother, Abd-ul-Hamcd. But neither the sultan nor his people appeared inclined to prosecute the war. About the same time, Pugatcheff the Cossack, at the head of many warlike hordes, broke into open rebellion ; and this convinced Cathe- rine that peace was not less desirable for Russia than for the Porte. A treaty was accordingly entered into, by which the lat- ter ceded a considerable portion of territory to the empress, together with a right to the free navigation of the Black Sea. Return we now to notice the melancholy fate of Poland. An attempt on the per- sonal liberty of Stanislaus having been made by the turbulent and bigoted nobles, it served as a pretext for the empress of Russia first to send an army into the country, and afterwards, in conjunction with Prussia and Austria, to plan its dismemberment. Each party to the compact had some old pretended claims to urge in behalf of the robbery ; and as the other nations of Eu- rope were not in a condition to wage war against the powerful trio, their mediatorial interference would have been ineffectual. A diet was called to give a colour to the transaction, and a majority of votes being secured, the armies of the spoilers severally took possession of the districts which had been ;>rcviously parcelled out ; and little else remaiaed of Poland — independent Poland — buc its language and its name : a. o. 1773. CHAPTER XXII. Prnn the Commencement of the American V'ar, to the Recognition of the Indepen- dence of the United States. /'o describe, with chronological order, evi n a limited portion of the momentous evmts of the period to which we are now ai proachiug, would be impossible in an out- I. no sketch of oenkral histort. We shall itieret'ure content ourselves with merely al- luding to some of the leading features which present themselves; and then enter upon our series of separate uistoribs. The Hrst great event, then, which in this place demands our attention, is the Ame- rican war. Our notice of it, as a matter of course, will be most brief and cursory. Among the earliest settlers in North Ame- rica, were many who emigrated from Great Britain on account of civil or religious per- secution—men, who being of republican principles, and jealous of the smallest en- croachments of their rights, naturally in- stilled those principles into the minds of their children ; and thus laid the foundation of that spirit of resistance to arbitrary acts of power, which kindled the flames of war between the mother country and the colo- nies, and ended in the establishment of a powerful republic. The constitution of the American colonies bore the original impress of liberty. Under the protection of Great Britain, North America stood in fear of no foreign enemy ; and the consciousnessof her native strength was already too great to per- mit her to feel much apprehension even of her mothor country. Religion was every- where free from restraint ; agriculture was held in honour ; and peace and order were protected against the attempts of parties, and wild and lawless men. Toe people, like the country they inhabited, appeared to be in the full vigour of youth; ardent, inde- pendent, and capable of astonishing exer- tions when aroused by the stimulus of the passions. In 1765 a stamp-duty on various articles was imposed by the British parhament on the colonists ; but on their remonstrating, the act was soon after repealed. Subse- quently a duty was laid on tea: this was resisted, and at Boston the tea was thrown into the sea. Coercive measures were then tried; and in 1775 a civil war began. In the following year the Americans issued their declaration of independence. Many battles were fought, but nothing very de- cisive took place till the year 1777i when general Burgoyue, the British commander, was surrounded at Saratoga, and compelled to surrender, with about 40U0 men. With a blind infatuation, little dreaming of the danger of espousing principles pro- fessedly republican, and with no other view, indeed, than that of humbling a powerful neighbour, — France now entered the lists as the ally of the Americans ; and Spain no less blindly followed the example. But England had augmented the number of her troops, and placed them under the command of lords Cornwallis and Rawdon, who defeated the American general Washington; while admiral Rodney displayed his superiority in a naval engagement with the Spaniards. But it was not merely the hostility of the French and Spaniards that the EnKlish had to cope with: the jealousy of the conti- ncntal powers displayed itself by their en- tering into an armed neutrality, tne avowed object of which was to resist the right of search which England's long established naval superiority had taught her to exer- cise as a right over the vessels of other nations. Holland was now added to the list of enemies, the faithless conduct of that state having induced the British go- vernment to declare war against it ; and many of the Dutch possessions in South America and the West Inc^ies were taken from them. Meantime the war in America, as well as on its coasts, was carried on with increased vigour; the French exerting them- selves not as mci'e partisans in the cause, but as principals. It wau evident that, al- though the war might be long protracted, the recovery of the North American colo- nies was not likely to be accomplished! and as the English had been several times out-generaled, and the last loss on their part consisted of COOO men at York-town, under Coi.,walli8, who had been compelled to surrender to a powerful combined French and American army commanded by Wash- ington, England began to think seriously A, D. 1783. — A MOST WONOBRPUL BRUPTION Of MOUNT UBCLA TAKES FLACB. it A.D. 1786.— 0CSTATD8 III, ABOLiaUES TUB USB Or lOUTURB IN SWEDEN. 34 Outline Zlttti) of Scneval Itstory. of making up the quarrel with her rebel- lious sons. During the latter part of the war admiral Rodney gave the French fleet, commanded by count de Grasse, a memorable defeat in the West Indies ; whilst general Elliot shewed the French and Spaniards liow fu< tile were their attempts against Gibraltar. In short, great as were the disadvaritages with which the English had to contend, the energies and resources of the nation were still equal to the task of successfully coping with its enemies in Europe ; while iu the vast empire of British India fresh laurels were continually gathered, and the French were there dispossessed of all their settle- ments. On the 20th of Januai7, 1"83, the inde- pendence of the United States was formally acknowledged by England ; and George Washington, the man who had led the ar- mies and directed the councils of America, was chosen president. CHAPTER XXIII. From the Commencement of the French Re- volution, to the Death of Robespierre. The most eventful period of modern his- tory now bursts upon our view. In the course of the ages that have passed succes- sively before us, we have witnessed sudden revolutions, long and sanguinary contests, and the transfer of some province or city from one sovereign to another at the ter- mination of a war. These have been ordi- nary events. We have also marked the gradual rise and fall of empires, the subju- gation of kingdoms, and the annihilation of dynasties; but they bear no comparison to that terrilic era of anarchy and blood fami- liarly designated "the French Revolution." The history of that frightful period will be elsewhere related; we shall not here at- tempt to describe its causes, or nptice the rise of that stupendous military despotism which so long threatened to bend the whole civilized world under its iron sceptre. The apologists of the French revolution tell us that it was owing to the excesses of an ex- pensive and dissipated court; to the ex- istence of an immense standing armv in the time of peace; to the terrors of the Bastile; to lettree de cachet (or mandates issued for the apprehension of suspected individuals), and to a general system of espionage, which rendered no man sale. Others nscribe it Eartly to the "spirit of freedom" imbibed ythe French soldiers during the American war ; but, still more, to the gnneral diffu- sion of political, philosophical, and istidcl writings, which, replete with sarcasm and wit, were levelled equally at the pulpit and the throne, and thus, by unsettling the minds of (he people, destroyed the moral bonds and safeguards of society. But whatever mi^ht have been the true causes, certain it is, that vague ideas of freedom beneath republican institutions had unsettled the minds of men, not merely in France, but throughout Europe. It was in that country, however, that public discon- tent was most strongly manifested. The people were ripe for innovation and change ; and Louis XVI. though amiable as a man, had not the necessary energy or abilities to counteract public feeling or direct the storm. In 1789, when the public income of France was inadequate to the wants of the state, it was thought advisable to convoke the states-general, or representatives of the three orders — nobles, clergy, and tiert-ttat or commons. At first some salutary reforms were agreed to : but the commons wished to assume too great a share of the power ; and, being the most numerous body in this national asiembly, they carried tneir fa- vourite measures in spite of the court and privileged orders, lo check the rising spirit of turbulence and faction, the king was advised to collect a large body of troops in the environs of Paris, and he also dis- missed Necker, his minister of linance. Both these measures were highly unpopu- lar; and the mob, excited by the demo- crats, committed great excesses. Among other acts of outrage, they seized the arms deposited in the hotel of the Invalides, at- tacked the Bastile, and levelled that ancient fortress with the ground. From that hour may be dated the fall of the monarchy. The terrified king tried every mode of con- cession; but the infuriated populace, led by artful and interested demagogues, and now familiar with scenes of blood and tumult, were not to be appeased. The capital was divided into sections ; and the national guard was formed, and placed under the command of the marquis dc La Fayette, who had earned his popularity in the American wor. Meanwhile the as- sembly abolished the privileges of the nobility and clergy; confiscated the pro- perty of the church ; divided the kingdom into departments; and subverted all the ancient forms and institutions: a. d. 1790. A very general emigration of the nobles and clergy took place; and Louis, aban- doned even by his own brothers, was virtually a prisoner, or a mere tool in the hands of his enemies. And now arose that democratical society, afterwards famous in the blood-stained annals of the revolution under the name of Jacobins. From this focus of rebellion issued numerous emis- saries, who founded similar societies, or clubs, in every part of France ; and thus their contaminating influence spread around till the whole political atmosphere became one corrupt mass. Surrounded on every side by enemies, the king and the royal family ut le.ig'th resolved to seek refuge in one of the frontier towns ; but tliey were discovered ut Varenncs, and brought back to Paris amidst the insults of the rabble. The most violent Jacobins loudly demanded his death; a. d. 1791. War had commenced on the part of Austria and Prussia, and the French at first met with some severe checks ; but on tlie advance of the Prussians, the duke of Brunswick published a violent manifesto against the French nation, which did much 8 A.D. 1787.— imfbaoumint or wAnnsn bastinos, wnosB tuial bboins. A. O. 1794.— THB rULISB PATRIOTS DXFSAT TUB BUSIIAXIS AT WARSAW. iE O K O hi M M n H M M H ^ is •t h) u •I M M N M M M u O ft f H M Outline ftfectti; of C&encral l^istori). 33 injury to the cause it advocated. A decree was issued for suspendin;? the kin|; from all his functions, as well as for the immediate convocation of a national convention. He and his family were closely confined in the tower of the Temple ; and the eommune of Paris, at that time under tlie control of Danton, Robespierre, and Marat, began its tyrannical reign. Under a pretence that the royalists who were contiucd in the dif- ferent prisons were domestic enemies of France, the forms of justice were dispensed with, and they were inhumanly butchered. Royalty was next formally abolished ; and it was resolved ere long to bring the king to the scaffold. Meantime two powerful parties appeared in the assembly ; the Girondists, or Brissotines, led by Drissot, who vera sincere republicans ; and the Jaco- bins, or motttitain party, so called from the upper scats which they occupied, acting under Robespierre and his friends, whose sole objects were anarchy and bloodshed. Dumonriez, at the head of the French army, had found it impossible to prevent the entrance of the duke of Brunswick into Champagne; but disease and famine ar- r:;sted his progress, and he was compelled to abandon all his conquests. The Aus- t"- Ans were also obliged to retreat. Savoy V i conquered by a republican force, and ' ' craany invaded. The Austrians were sig- nally defeated at Jemappe; and this was quickly followed by the reduction of Brus- sels, Leige, Namur, and of the whole of the Netherlands, which were declared free and independent states. In December, 1793, the royal captive was led to the bar of the Convention, where, afier undergoing a long and insulting ex- amination, he was unanimously declared guilty of conspiring against the national liberty, and sentenced to die by the guillo- tine. He conducted himself with dignity, and heard the decision of his fate with firm- ness and resignation. Thus perished, in the 39th year of his age and the 19th of his reign, Louis XVI., the omiable and unfor- tunate descendant of a long line of kings. Soon after this judicial murder, a decree of the national Convention promised assist- ance to every nation desirous of throwing off the yoke of its rulers. This was na- turally regarded as a virtual declaration of war against all the kings of Europe ; and England, Hollan'', and Spain were now ad- ded to the list of its enemies. The war for a time assumed anew feature; a British army, commanded by the duke of York, re- duced Valenciennes, and attacked Dun- kirk ; and the French lost their conquests ns rapidly as they had acquired them. But before the Close of the year 1793, the for- tune of wnr was again in their favour; the duke of York was obliged to raise the siege of Dunkirk, with great loss ; while the Aus- trians were driven within their own fron- tiers. The horrors of civil war now rnged in France with uniritiKiitcd fury. T'.ie fero- cious Robesuicrre was at the head of the tlcieest Jncoliins ; and rnrisdiiily witnessed the execution of the most respectable of its citizens. Nearly all, indeed, who were re- markable either for rank, property, or ta- lents, were the victims of the reigu of ter- ror; and among the number who fell by the axe of the guillotine was the unfortu- nate queen, Marie Antoinette, who had been for some time immured within the dungeon of the Conciergerie. The royalists in La Vended dared to oppose the revolu- tionary decrees; but the cities which re- sisted the regicide authorities, particu- larly Lyons and Nantes, were visited with the most horrid persecutions. Hundreds of victims were daily shot or guillotined, and the whole country was laid waste with demoniac vengeance. In the mean time extraordinary measures were taken by the convention to increase the armies by levies en matte; and private property was arbi- trarily seized to support them. The Eng- lish took possession of Toulon, bul were soon forced to abandon it to the troops of the Convention. It is worthy of remark, that on this occasion the talents of Napo- leon Buonaparte were first signally distin- guished; this young officer having the com- mand of the artillery of the besiegers. The war in the Netherlands was carried on with vigour, victory and defeat alternately chang- ing the position of the allied armies. The progress of the French revolution was naturally watched with feelings of in- tense interest by the people of England, but with sentiments very opposite in their nature ; and it required all the talents and vigour of those who were at the helm of state to uphold our ancient institutions, and direct the national councils with safety. During the year 1794 the French armies were pretty generally successful. But whilst they spread terror abroad, the French nation groaned under the sanguinary despotism of Robespierre and his ruthless associates. The time had at length, however, arrived when this monster was to pay the forfeit of his own wretched life for the outrages he had committed, and the unparalleled misery he had caused. Being publicly ac- cused of treason and tyranny by TalUen.he was arrested, and executed the following day, along with twenty- two of his principal accomplices, amidst the merited maledic- tions of the spectators. In a few days, above seventy members of the commune also shared a similar fate. CHAPTER XXIV. From the Eilabliihmenl of the Fi-encA Li' rectory, to the Peace of Amitnt. A great naval victory over the French was achieved by lord Howe on the 1st of June ; and several West India islands were taken from them. The French troops were uniformly successful in Holland; the stadt- holder was compelled to seek an asylum in Eiii,r|nnd; and tlie country, under the new nnniu of the Batavinn republic, was incor- porated with France. Soon after this, Fvancn received a new constitution, which placed the executive power in the hands of FN A.i). 1701.— unEADFUf. KHuriio:* of vrnuvius. Till! lAVA covnniso 6000 Acnss. A.D. 1797.— IN KHSLANO A TAX IB LAID ON PBOPBBTY AND INCOMX. 36 (i^utUne %ltUfi of 6^eneral I|tstorp. D R pa ta »i O M t< ■4 M P I five directors, aud the legislative in a coun- of elders, and a council of " five huu- dred." In 1795 Prussia and Spain made peace with France, which gave the repuhlicans an op- portunity of bearing with their whole force on the frontiers of Germany. The royalists in La Vended again rose, but were speedily reduced. About the same time the Cape of Good Hope and several of the Dutch East Itidia possessions were takeu by the English, whilst admirals Bridport, Hotliam, and Cornwallis defeated the French fleets. Once more let us revert to Polish affairs. The late partition of Poland had opened the eyes of Europe to the probable future en- croachments of the courts of Vienna, Pe- tersburgh, and Berlin ; and the Poles, aware of their impending fate, resolved to oppose the designs of their enemies by a vigorous and unanimous effort. Under the brave Kosciusko they gave battle to the Russians, and maintained a long and sanguinary con- test, which ended in their driving the enemy out of Warsaw, with immense slaughter. But the armies' of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, invaded Poland on every side ; and Suwarrof, at the head of 50,000 men, anni- hilated their army, recaptured Warsaw, which they pillaged, and, sparing neither age nor sex, put to the sword nearly 30,000 individuals. The final partition of the kingdom then took place. The campaign of 1796 opened with great vigour on the part of the allies as well as on that of the French, and numerous se- vere battles were fought in Germany, the advantage inclining rather to the side of the allies. Moreau, who had pursued his vic- torious career to the Danube, there received a check, aud was forced to retrace his steps to the Rhine ; but though often nearly sur- rounded by the Austrians, he effected one of the most masterly retreats of which we have any record in modern times. But it was in Italy that the most bril- liant success attended the French arms. The command had been given to Buona- parte. Having routed the Austrians and Piedmontese at Monte Notte and Millcsimo, he compelled the king of Sardinia to sue for peace. Then followed his daring exploit at tlie bridge of Lodi, and his seizure uf Bologna, I'Vrrara, and Urbino; till, at length, finding himself undisputed master of the north ot Italy, he erected the Trans- padane and Cis-padane rej)ublics. — Among the other events of the year may be noticed the capture of St. Lucia and Granada, in the West Indies, by Sir Ralph Abercrombie ; the failure- of a French expedition sent to invade Ireland, which was dispersed by ad- verse winds ; the abandonment of Corsica by the British ; some fruitless negotiations for pence between England and France; and the demise of the empress Catherine II. The papal states were next overrun by the French; and the pope was under the ne- cessity of purchasing peace, not only with money and the surrender of taany valuable srittuea, paintings, &-o., but by the cession of iiart of his territories. Buonaparte then resolved to invade the hereditary states of the emperor ; and the French armies hav- ing gained considerable advantages over their adversaries, the French directory took advantage of their position, or offered terras of peace, and a definitive treaty was even- tually signed at Campo Formio. By this treaty the Venetian states, which had been revolutionized by Buonaparte during the negotiations, were ceded to Austria, while the Austrian possessions in the north of Italy and the Netherlands were given to France in exchange. Genoa about the same time was revolutionized, and assumed the name of the Ligurian republic. — At the lat- ter end of this year lord Duncan obtained an important victory over the Dutch fleet off the coast of Holland. The French having no other power than Great Britain now to contend with, the year 1798 was ushered in with rumours of a speedy invasion ; and large bodies of troops, assembled on the opposite shores of France, were said to be destined for this grand at- tack, which was to be under the direction of the victorious general Buonaparte. These preparations were met in a suitable manner by the English, whose effective male popu- lation might almost literally be said to be embodied for the defence of the country. At the same time a dangerous and exten- sive rebellion broke out in Ireland ; but the vigilance of the government defeated the intentions of the rebels, and they sub- mitted, though not without the severest measures being adopted, and the consequent effusion of blood. A secret naval expedition upon a large scale, with a well-appointed army on board, under the command of Buonapatte, had been for some time preparing. It at length set sail from Toulon, took possession of Malta on their way to Egypt, and, havmg eluded the vigilance of Nelson, safely landed near Alexandria, which town they stormed, and massacred the inhabitants. The vete- ran troops of France everywhere prevailed over the ill-disciplined Mamelukes, and the whole of Egypt soon submitted to the con- queror. Meanwhile admiral Nelson dis- covered and totally destroyed the French fleet in the bay of Aboukir. Whilst these events were passing in E((ypt, the French government prosecuted its revolutionary principles wherever its emissaries could gain admittance. Rome was taken by them, the pope imprisoned, and a republic erected. Switzerland was also invaded, and notwithstanding the gallant efforts of the Swiss patriots, the country was united to France under the title of the Helvetian re- public. The territory of Geneva was also incorporated with France. These unjusti- fiable invasions showed so plainly tlie ag- grandizing policy pursued by the French directory, that the emperors of Russia aud Austria, the king of Naples, and the Porte united with Euglaud to check their am- bitious designs. The year 1799 presented a continued scene of active warfare. The Neapolitans, who had invaded the Roman territory, were IS IE M H H H P PS o « c S « o a r. I o. I>. A.D. 179s.-— Sin SVUNKY BMITU KFFBCTS HIS BSCAPB FROM TUB TBMPLB, AT PAHIS. A. D. 1797. — FOLITICAL CLUBS AND BBAOINO BOOMS SVPrRBSSBD IN ORBAT BRITAIN. O m n ates of •8 hav- !8 over ry took 1 terms g even- By this id been ng the 1, while orth of ;iven to tie same aed the the lat- ibtained ch fleet ver than ith, the >urs of a f troops, 'France, ;rand at- lirection e. These ! manner lie popu- lid to be country, id exten- ; but the lated the bey sub- severest nsequent I a large board, te, had length issiou of having landed tormed. The vete- prevailed and the the con- son dis- French Ut these French utionnry could akcn by republic tded, and ts of tlic mited to etian rc- was also unjusti- the Bg- Frencn sain aud he Porte heir Bin> ontinued ipolitans, ory, were FAltlS. .4 IS e M H M K P X < c (" r, s S n o o u K (9 O. (■Outline %ltu}) of CEicncral ')|istoiQ. 37 not only driven back, but the whole king- dom of Naples submitted to the French, and the king was compelled to seek refuge in Sicily. The French armies also took possession of Tuscany and Piedmont : but the operations of the allies were conducted with vigour and success. The archduke Charles routed the French under Jourdan in tbe bard-fought battles of Ostrach and Stockach; and the Austro-Russian army obtained a decisive victory at Cassano, and drove the enemy to Milan and Genoa. The arms of the republic were equally unfor- tunate in other parts. Turin, Alessandria, and Mantua were taken; and the French under Joubert and Moreau, were totally routed at Novi. Switzerland afterwards became the principal scene of action ; and there also the army of Suwarrof was suc- cessful; but another Russian army, com- manded by Koraskoif, was attacked and de- feated by Massena, and Zurich taken by storm. In Italy, however, success still at- tended the allies. The French were ex- pelled from Naples and Rome, and the papal chair was soon after occupied by Pius VII. While these important military opera- tions were occupying the armies in Europe, Buonaparte had reduced Egypt, and formed the resolution of invading Syria. £1-Arish, Gaza, and Jaffa had surrendered ; and, with the confidence of certain success. Acre was invested ; but there, as in days of old, a British warrior was its defeuder. The courage and activity of Sir Sidney Smith resisted the repeated assaults of the French during a siege of sixty-nine days ; and Buonaparte, though at the head of 12,000 veterans, was completely foiled in all his attempts, and was obliged to retreat into Egypt. He was afterwards successful in several encounters with the Turks, particu- larly at Aboukir; but foreseeing tliat the expedition would ultimately prove disas- trous, he confided the command to general Kleber, and secretly returned to France. Buonaparte's invasion of Egypt was consi- dered as preparatory to an attempt on In- dia ; where, at the very time, the British arms were crowned with great success — Seringapatam Laving been taken, and our forniidaule enemy, Tippoo Saib, being found among the slain. Discord and anarchy reigned throughout France, under the weak, yet arbitrary, ad- ministration of the directory; and the sud- den appearance of Buonaparte was the signal lor a new revolution in the govern- ment. At the head of the conspiracy was his brother Lucien, president of the coun- cil of Ave hundred, who was supported by Cnmbaceres, Talleyrand, Sidyes, Fouch^, &c. The directory was speedily overturned, a senate and three consuls were appointed, and Buonaparte was chosen first consul. One of Ins first acts was that of making pacific overtures to England, which were rejected. He then put himself at the head of the army, crossed Mount St. Bernard, aud marched from victory to victory, till the memorable battle of Marengo decided the fate of Italy. The successes of the French in Germany were of a less decisive nature; but the defeat of the allies at Hohenlinden induced Francis II. to sign the treaty of Luueville, by which he ceded some of his possessions in 'Germany, and transferred Tuscany to the duke of Parma. At the beginning of 1801 England was without an ally, and had to contend with another formidable opponent in Paul I. of Russia, who had induced Sweden and Den- mark to unite with him in forming an armed neutrality. To crush this northern confederacy in the bud, a large fleet was sent to the Baltic, under the command of Sir Hyde Parker and lord Nelson ; Copen- hagen was attacked, and the whole of the Danish ships were either taken or destroyed. This victory gave a fatal blow to the northern confederacy, which was eventually annihi- lated bv the death of Paul, and the acces- sion of his son Alexander, who immediately released the British vessels detained in his ports, and otherwise shewed his inclination to be on amicable terms with England. In Egypt general Kleber had been assas- sinated, and the command of the French troops devolved on Menou. An English army, under Sir Ralph Abercrorabie, had now arrived; and a decisive victory was f gained by them at Alexandria; but they lad to lament the loss of their gallant com- mander, who fell in the action. Grand Cairo, Rosetta, and Alexandria, soon after surrendered, and the French agreed to evacuate the country. The other events of the year 1801 were of minor importance; and in the spring of the following year peace was signed at Amiens. England con- sented to surrender all its conquests, with the exception of Ceylon and Trinidad ; the Ionian islands were to form a republic ; and Malta was to be restored to its original possessors. A new constitution was given to France in 1802, by which Buonaparte was decla-ed chief consul for life ; the whole of the ex- ecutive authority, and even the appoint- ment of his two colleagues being vested in him. New constitutions were also given to Switzerland and the Italian republics. About this period Buonaparte sent a con- siderable force to reduce the island of St. Domingo, where Touisaant L'Ouverture, a negro, had erected a republic. After an obstinate and sanguinary contest, the re- bellious negroes submitted, and Touissant was treacherously seized and sent to France ; but the French were unable fully to recover the island. CHAPTER XXV. From the Recommencement qf Hottilitiet, to the Treaty of TiUit. Thb treaty of Amiens was little better than a hollow truce ; and many disputes arising respecting its fulfilment, the war was resumed. In open violation of the law of nations, Buonaparte immediately com. mandod the arrest of all the English whom business or pleasure had drawn into France. A.D. 179H.— TIIF. OllANl) SBIONTOU DRCI.ARBS WAft AOAINST PRAXCB, SBTT. 13. t« A.D. 1300. — BDONAFAHTK CB0SSB8 HOUHT ST. BERNARD, AND INVADBB ITALY. t a n! 36 ©utline Slietc]^ of dJcneral 1|istorp. Hanover was invaded and plundered ; and an immense force was collected on the French coast, for the avowed purpose of annihilating the British power: but this, as before, proved an empty boast. Holland, being placed under the control of France, was dragged into the war, and soon lost her colonies. St. Domingo threw off its forced allegiance to France, and Dessalines, the successor of Touissant, was made president of the republic of Hayti, the ancient name of the ibland. The English at this time were very su''.cessful in India, under the government ol the marquis of Wellesley. The personal ambition of Buonaparte was every day n.ore evident, and he at length resolved to annihilate the republic, and crown himself with an imperial diadem. Having procured the assassination of the duke d'Enghein, and by the basest arts im- pressed on the minds of the people an idea that treasonable practices were carrying on against him, the servile senate, desirous, as they said, of investing him with the highest title of sovereignty, in order the more effec- tually to establish his authority, proclaimed him emperor of the French, — a title which was acknowledged immediately by all the sovereigns of Europe, Great Britain and Sweden alone excepted : a.d, 1804. During the following year Buonaparte assumed the iron crown of Lombardy, under the title of king of Italy, which aroused the indignation of Francis II., who united with England and Russia. But an event which of all others was most calculated to raise the hopes of the allies, Tvas the unexampled victory gained by Nelson off Trafalgar (Uct. 21) over the combined fleets of France and Spain. In Germany the Austrian army was doomed to suffer great loss. At the head of 140,000 soldiers. Napoleon crossed the Rhine ; and at Ulm, the Austrian gene- ral Mack surrendered his whole force, con- sisting of 140,000 men. Vienna was soon after entered by Napoleon, and at length the Austrians were completely defeated at the battle of Austerlitz. This induced Francis to sue for peace ; and a treaty was concluded at Fresburg, by which he ceded to France the states of Venice, and resigned the Tyrol, &c., to the newly-created king of Wirtcmburg. Early in 1806 the English re-took the Cape of Good Hope from tlie Dutch. About the same time Naples was invaded by the French, and Napoleon gave his brother, Joseph Buonaparte, the crown of that king- dom, its legitimate sovereign having pre- viously retired to Sicily. Holland was also erected into a kingdom, and given to his brother Louis. Amidst these and other important changes for the aggrandizement of his family, Buonaparte formed the " con- federation of the Rhine," the name given to those states whose rulers renounced iho ancient laws of the empire. The continued encroachments of France now roused the king of Prussia, who rushed precipitately into a war, and imprudently staked his for- tune on the chance of one battle. This was the celebrated battle of Jena, where 110,000 Prussians and Saxons contended with 150,000 of the French, and were de- feated and closely pursued. Berlin fell into the hands of the victors, and the Prussian general Blucher, after a brave resistance, was forced to capitulate. Prince Hohenloe and his army surrendered at Prentzlau. Silesia was overrun by the French, who pe- netrated into Poland, and excited the Poles to assert their independence. The Rus- sians, who were now advancing, met and defeated the French at Pultusk ; and, not- withstanding the combined efforts of Murat, Lasnes, and Ney, they were also successful at Golomyn. In the insolence of power. Napoleon, at Berlin, issued his famous de- crees, prohibiting all commercial inter- course with the British isles, and command- ing the confiscation of every article of Bri- tisii manufacture ; which scheme of exclu- sion he dignitied with the name of the " continental system." The grand Russian army under Benning- sen, encountered a superior French force near Eylau, where a sanguine but indeci- sive conflict ensued. Dantzic surrendered to Lefevre; and a complete victory being gained by the French at Friedland, it was shortly followed by the treaty of Tilsit. The Russians and Prussians submitted to all the imperious demands of Napoleon ; but Gustavus, king of Sweden, alone le- fused to treat with him, or to recognise his imperial dignity. The Danes having yielded to the influ- ence of France, an expedition was sent thither by England, for the purpose of preventing the Danish fleet from falling into the Itands of the French. Copen- hagen surrendered after a few days' siege, and the ships and naval stores were deli- vered to the English. This act of aggres- sion was resented by the emperor of Rus- sia, w^io declared war against England. Among other remarkable events of this year, were the departure of the prince re- gent of Portugal and his court to the Brazils ; the conquest of Portugal by the French; and the erection of Saxony into a kiugdom. CHAPTER XXVI. The French Invasion of Spain, and aubte- quent Peninsulav Wnr. Wkat open force could not effect, was carried by intrigue and treachery. Napo- leon having invited Charles IV. king^ of Spain, to a conference at Bayonne, seized his person, compelled him to abdicate, and transferred the crown to Joseph Buona- parte, whose place at Naples was soon after occupied by Murat, Napoleon's brother- in-law. Snain was filled with French troops, and no opposition was dreaded; but as soon as the Spainiards recovered from their consternation, the people rose in all parts, and proclaimed Ferdinand VII. The patriots began the war with great spirit ; the usuper fled from Madrid ; whilst Palafox and the brave iahabitants A.D. 1802.— BUONAFARTB IS DECLARBD CONBUIi FOR LIFE, MAY H. S8 IT ALT. Jena, where IS contended »nd were de- erlin fell into the Prussian 'e resistance, ice Hohenloe it Prentzlau. inch, who pe- ted the Poles >. The Rus- ing, met and isk ; and, not- irts of Murat, Iso successful ice of power, 8 famous de- lercial inter- ndcommand- irticle of Bri- eme of exclu- name of the ider Benning- French force e but indeci- s surrendered victory being edland, it was aty of Tilsit, submitted to of Napoleon ; en, alone lo- I recognise his to the influ- ion was sent B purpose of from falling nch. Copeu- w days' siege, res were deli- ICt of BggTCS- peror of Rus- nst England, vents of this he prince re- court to the tugal by the Saxony into and enbie- It effect, was hery. Napo- IV. king of yonne, seized abdicate, and seph Buona- ras soon after in's brother- ivith French k'as dreaded ; ds recovered people rose Ferdinand le war with rom Madrid ; iahabitants t'. w M H H H 14 O »k H O B< H m H a in < M 6< M »< ■< O tr, m a H M n n M O u IB O A. D. 1803. — rSACB CONCLVDBD WITH THE If&TITB FBIHCES OF INDIA. Outline Skettl^ oC ^lencral llistori). 39 of Saragossa gained immortal honour by the invincible courage they displayed in defending their town against the furious attacks of the French, who were eventually compelled to retreat. The Portuguese followed the example of the Spaniards ; and a British army, com- manded by Sir Arthur Wellesley, landed and defeated the French general Junot at Viiniera. But Sir Hugh Dalrymple ar- riving to assume the command, the con- vention of Cintra was entered into, by which the French army, with all its bag- gage, artillery, &c., were to be conveyed to France. An English army of 30,000 men, under Sir John Moore, landed in Spain, and advanced as far as Salamanca ; but the French force in that country amounted to 150,000. Madrid was taken ; and the Eng- lish, not being well supported by the Spaniards, were compelled to retreat. At Corunna a severe battle was fought, aud Sir John Moore was mortally wounded. Austria having declared war against France, Napoleon entered the &elf\ re- pulsed the Austrians at Eckmuhl; and took possession of Vienna. The archduke Charles gave him battle near Essling, which was desperately contested, and ter- minated in favour of the Austrians ; but soon after, at Wagram, the French gained an important victory. The brave Tyrolese in this campaign made the most heroic ef- forts against the French; but the patriot Hoffer was taken and shot. A most unsuccessful expedition was un- dertaken by the English against Antwerp. It was composed of nearly 40,000 men; great numbers of whom were swept off by a pestilential fever while in possession of the island of Walcheren ; and the remainder returned without effecting any useful ob- ject. In other parts the English were more successful, having taken Cayenne, Marti, nigue, and three of the Ionian islands. In Turkey the sultan Selim had been as- sassinated; Mahmoud was seated on the throne ; aud peace was concluded between the Porte ond Greot Britain. After a pro- tracted negotiation with Napoleon, the emperor of Austria signed the treaty of Vienna, by which he was obliged to sur- render to France, Bavaria, and Russia, a considerable portion of his dominions. Sir Arthur Wellesley had now the chief command in the Peninsula. He forced the passage of the Douro, recovered Oporto, and drove Soult out of Portugal. He then defeated the French, with great slaughter, at Talavera; but the enemy being rein- forced, he was obliged to retreat. His great services were, however, duly oppre- ciatcd, ond he was created baron Welling- ton. At the close of 1809 the Spanish pa- triots sustained some severe det'cati, uiid Gerona was taken by them. Marshals Junot and Ney commenced the ensuing campaign with the capture of Astora and Cuidud Rodrigo; while Masscna entered Portugal, and took Almeida. At Busaco lord Wellington defeated him ; and, reach- ing the impregnable lincsof Torres Vedras, he took up a strong position, from which the French could not dislodge him; and Massena soon afterwards commenced a dis- astrous retreat. The campaign of 1811 was distinguished by a series of battles, in which the con- tending armies displayed great bravery, but without any decided advantage to either in the end. Among those in which the allies were most successful, were Badajoz, Albuera, aud Barrosa. The year 1811 was also memorable as the period when tlio Spanish American colonies began to nounce their allegiance to Spain, and sti . .j;- gle for independence. In 1812 the events of the war assumed a new complexion. A change had taken place in the government of opain, and more earnestness and energy vas displayed in its councils. Lord Wellington com- menced with the capture of C lidad Rodrigo and Badajoz : then advancing into Spain, he gained a decisive victory ever Marmont near Salamanca; which was followed by his entrance into Madrid, where he was received with the most enthusiastic accla- mations. In the mean time the patriot armies in the north of Spain were emi- nently successful; and in the south the French were compelled to raise the siege of Cadiz, and ev,': 'te Granada, Cordova, Seville, &c. CHAPTER XXVII. From the Invasion of Russia by the French, to the Restoration '/ the Bourbons. Wb must now take a rapid review of those extraordinary scenes m the North which rivetted the attention of all Europe, and tilled every breast with anxious ex- Kectation. The emperor Alexander felt imself humiliated, and his country in- jured, by that rigid observance of the " continental system " which Napoleon had insisted on ; and the boundless am- bition of the latter, added to his hatred of all that was English, led him to attempt the subjugation of the Russian empire. He concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with Austria, Prussia, and the confederation of the Rhine, whose forces were destined to swell his ranks. The im- mense army, amounting to above 475,000 men, now nmrched towards the Russian frontiers; and the Russians gradually re- tired at the approach of the enemy, who, though checked and harassed in every way possible, pressed onward with amazing rapidity. At length a tremendous battle was fought under the woils of Smoleusko, and the city was quickly after evacuated, the Russians i-etrcating on Moscow. Hav- ing received daily accessions of troops, among whom were numerous bodies of Cossacks, Kutusoff, the Russian com- mander, determined on hazarding a grand battle; when a most sauguiimry contest ensued, in which the French lost about 40,000 and the Russians 30,000 men. But Napoleon being reinforced, he wns enabled to take possession of Moscow ; he hud M »• O H o B) H f N n H O H «! M O S A. D. 1810.— BKRNADOTTB IB CliOSBN CROWN FRINCB OF SWEDEN. A. D. 1815. — THB IONIAN ISLANDS ABB DECLABBO i-RBB ANU INSBPBNDBNT. i i l» 40 (Outline Zlttti) of general l^^istoru. scarcely, however, taken up Lis head quarters in the Kremlin, before he dis- covered that the city was set on fire in several places, by order of Bostopchin, its patriotic goTernor, and the greater part of It was soon reduced to a heap of ruins. Thus being in a moment, as it were, de- prived of shelter, and feeling the severity of a Russian vrinter fast approaching. Na- poleon endeavoured to negotiate ; but Alex- ander, who, at the commencement of the French invasion had declared that "now the sword was drawn he would not again sheath it as long as an enemy remained in his dominions," indignantly rejected every proposition. Cut off from all supplies, and exposed to the incessant attacks of the ex- asperated Russians, among whom were hordes of Cossacks, the wretched troops commenced one of the most disastrous re- treats ever recorded in history. Again and again had they to sustain the vigorous at- tacks of their pursuers, till the whole route was strewed with baggage, artillery, and ammunition, and with the mangled and frozen bodies of men and horses. Of the mighty force that invaded Russia, only 30,000 i^turned to France ; 400,000 perished or were made prisoners ; while the author of all their unparalleled sufferings basely deserted his army, travelled through Po- land and Germany in disguise, and reached his capital in safety. The unexampled reverses of Napoleon were hailed by the nations on the continent as the signal for their deliverance from his iron grasp. Alexander concluded an alliance with Sweden and Prussia, and they prepared for hostilities. Some san- guinary but indecisive battles were fought, and a short armistice was agreed upon, daring which time Austria joined the league, and all parties prepared for the renewal of the contest with increased vi- gour. The greatest unanimity prevailed in the councils of the allied sovereigns. Their armies made a formidable attack on Dres- den, though they fbiled in their object of taking the city by a coup-de-main : but the veteran Blucher defeated the enemy at Katzbach, and thereby delivered Silesia. Vandamme was beaten at Culm, and Ney at Jutterbock. It was now resolved that the whole of the allied armies should make a simultaneous effort to crush the common enemy. The forces of Napoleon were con- centrated at Leipsic, and there it was that the allies attacked and totally defeated him. The sanguinary battle raged from dawn of day till night; both sides suffered immense loss, but that of the French was by far the greatest. Consulting his own personal safety, as in his retreat from Rus- sia, Buonaparte hastily reached Paris : whilst the French garrisons which occu- pied the Saxon and Prussian fortresses were abandoned to their fate. The victory of Leipsic aroused every nation yet in alli- ance with France to throw off the op- pressor's yoke. Among the number was Holland, whose inhabitants expelled the French, and recalled the prince of Orange. The Russian campaign and the war that now raged in Germany, had proved bene- ficial to the Spanish cause, by withdrawing many of Napoleon's experienced generals and veteran troops. Lord Wellington crossed the Douro, and, marching north- wards, came up with the Frenctt army, commanded by marshal Jourdan, at Vit- toria, where he obtained a decisive victory, June 21, 1813. The memorable siege of St. Sebastian, and the defeat of marshal Soult, to whose skill the task of defending the frontiers of France was confided, were the other most prominent events of the campaign ; and France was soon after en- tered on the south-west by the English and Spaniards, and on the north-east by the combined armies of Russia, Prussia, and Austria. In the meanwhile the French emperor obtained a levy of 300,000 men, to oppose the threatened invasion. Several engage- ments took place ; but the allies marched steadily on, by different routes, and at length approached the city of Paris, which capitu- lated. On the following day (March 31, 1814), the emperor of Russia and the king of Prussia, accompanied by their gpenerals and staff, made their triumphal entry into Paris, amidst the acclamations of the in- habitants, who, whether sincere or not, made the air resound with reiterated cries of " Vive I'Empereur Alexandre ;" " Vivent les Bourbons ;" " A bas les tyran," &c. In the mean time the marquis of Wellington had defeated Soult near Toulouse, and was advancing towards the capital. Napoleon finding that the senate had denosed him, and that the allied powers were aetermined not to enter into any treaty with him as so- vereign of France, he abdicated his usurped crown at Fontainbleau; and the isle of Elba, with a suitable income, was assigned him for his future residence. Louis XVIII. was placed on the throne of his ancestors ; the other sovereigns who had been deprived of their dominions were restored ; and all Eu- rope once more hailed a general peace. We must not omit to notice, that the Ame- ricans havinp; been dissatisfied with the Bri- tish orders in council, resulting from the Berlin and Milan decrees of Napoleon, thought proper, in 1812, to declare war against England, and forthwith invaded Canada : they were, however, speedily dri- ven back ; but the war was prosecuted with more of animosity than energy, and was chiefly confined to conflicts on the lakes, and actions between frigates. At length, some of the regiments which had served in the peninsular campaigns were sent across the Atlantic : the city of Washington was taken ; - and a peace was concluded at the latter end of 1814. CHAPTER XXVIII. From the Retnrn of Buonaparte from Elba, to the general Peace. In March, 1815, whilst the plenipoten- tiaries and the allied sovereigns were occu- pied at the congress of Vienna in laying A.D. 1815. — TUB ALLIES INVBST TUB CITY OF PAHIS, WUICU SUBBENDBBB JULY 3. I DBKT. le war that oved bene- ithdrawing ?d eenerali Wellington linK north- men army, an, at Vit- sive victory, siege of 8t. rahal Soult, 'ending the Sded, were ents of the m after en- English and east by the 'russia, and ch emperor ), to oppose ral engage- ics marched nd at length hich capitu- (March 31, nd the king leir generals kl entry into s of the in- lere or not, :erated cries Bj" "Vivent an,"&c. In ■ Wellington ISC, and was Napoleon )0sea him, ietermined him as so- his usurped isle of Elba, ssigned him XVIII. was lestors ; the deprived of and all Eu- peace, lat the Ame- rith the Bri- g from the Napoleon, leclare war th invaded peedily dri- ecutedwith and was the lakes. At length, had served were sent Washington Dncluded at ry. from Elba, plenipoten- were occu- in laying JULY 3. A. D. 1815.— Alf ABMV OF OCCUPATION (1S0,000) IS LBtl llf FBANCE. 'i ■ '.I'M Outline %Mtff of Scneral '^^istoc;). 41 the foundation of a permanent peace, the astounding news arrived that Napoleon had left Elba, and landed in France, with about IISO followers. Such was the encourage- ragement he received, that when, on '•.he 19th, he reached Fontainbleau, he was at the head of 15,000 veterans, with the cer- tainty that numerous corps were advancing on wVtry side to join his standard. Frepara- tiras wt<« made to arrest bis progress ; but c J his ma^'ch he was powerfully reinforced, and he reached Paris unmolested. Louis bad previously quitted the capital, and now sought an asylum in the Netherlands. The allied sovereigns in the mean time issued a manifesto, in which it was declared, that Napoleon Buonaparte, by violar;;g the con- vention in virtue of which he had oeen set- tled at Elba, had forfeited every claim to protection, and he was solemnly pronounced an outlaw. In answer to this manifesto Napoleon published a declaration, asserting that he was recalled to the throne by the unani- mous wish of the French people. Large armies were assembled with all possible ex- pedition ; and Buonaparte, with extraordi- nary celerity, opened the short but ever- memorable campaigQ, by attacking the ad- vanced posts of the Prussians on the 15th of June. On that and the following day considerable success attended his arms ; but on the field of Waterloo (June 18) the genius of Wellington and the steady valour of the British troops gave a death-nlow to his hopes, and once more rescued Europe from its degrading thraldom. Having wit- nessed the irretrievable ruin of his army, he fled with the greatest precipitation from the field of battle ; while the residue of his discomfited troops were pursued by the Prussians under Blucher. The comhined armies now rapidly advanced towards Paris ; and Buonaparte finding that his reign was at an end, fled to the sea-coast, in the hope of making his escape to America. In this, however, he was foiled by the vigilance of the British cruisers; and he at length surrendered to captain Maitland, of the Bellerophon, who, at his request, brought him to the British shores, though he was not permitted to land. After some dis- cussion it was resolved that he should be imprisoned for life in the island of. St. He- lena, whither, accompanied by a small train of attendants, he was forthwith sent. Louis XVIII. was a second time restored to his throne. An act of amnesty was passed; from which a few of Napoleon's most stre- nuous supporters were excluded ; whilst Ney pnd Labedoyfere were shot. Br the terms of the treaty entered into between France and the allied powers, it was agreed that sixteen of the frontier for- tresses of France should be garrisoned by the allies for five years, and that 150,000 al- lied troops, under the duke of Wellington, should be maintained in that kingdom for the same space of time. The following ar- rangements were also concluded at the congress of Vienna ; Prussia was enriched by the annexation of a portion of Saxony, and recovered Lusatia; Russia received a large part of Poland ; the Venetian territo- ries were given to Austria; Genoa was as- signed to the king of Sardinia ; the Papal dominions were restored ; while the United Provinces and the Netherlands were formed into a kingdom for the prince of Orange. England restored to the Dutch some of tne colonies she had taken firom them, and various minor changes also took place. A confederation was then entered into by the sovereign states of Germany for mutual defence and the prevention of internal war. And, to crown the whole, the emperors of Russia and Austria, with the king of Prussia, bound themselves by a solemn compact, called the Holy Alliance ; the professed object of which was to preserve the peace of Europe, and to maintain the principles of Christianity in their respective domi- nions. Having brought our "Outline Sketch of General History " down to a period so mo- mentous, we shall leave all subsequent events for narration in the Histories of se- parate countries which follow. In the brief and cursory Infrnduction we have given, the reader has had a rapid view of the rise and fall of empires, the excesses of despotic power, and some of the countless evils at- tendant on a state of anarchy. Still it must be remembered thf.t in this slight sketch we have only pioneered the way. As we proceed, it will De our aim more tully to de- velope the motives, while we describe the actions, of those responsible individuals in whose hands the destinies of nations are entrusted; and the judicious reader, im- pressed, as he cannot fail to be, with the mutability of human institutions and the instability of human grandeur, will be na- turally led to contemplate and admire the overruling conduct of Divine Providence in the moral government of the world. M M n » H u M n ►? b ■< *4 M K *■ O H K H aa n at H O y colonizing low scarcely ed the globe ts. The pre- ced from the ! Tartars. It low the scries ation, which, erspread the Indeed, the :vated in the •e above their ^ people and •om Asia Mi- d learning. pt, there arc /e of science ttention than ve enshrined yrs, from the :he inhuman rising Euro- r civilization ill its splen- rision of the ared; and of my, rest upon it.' lumbus, vast lade this con- Aty being at- ies it seemed themselves : yluni for the ous persecu- g with every comfort and ice of its Eu- Iriven its ori- jative homes, the curse of TUB " DUBOTIIIGBS" INUADITKD OORSETSUinK.— TUS " ATTRBBATII," DBBK8. IS o £L SSRXZSS OF SXSPABATS HISTORIES. THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Tub propriety of commencing our series of separate hittories with Enoiaiid must, we think, be obvious to every reader. Its pre-eminent rank iu the scale of nations; its unrivalled commerce and extensive foreign possessions ; its naval and military prowess; and the intelligence, enterprize, and unexampled industry of its inhabitants — fully entitle it to the honour of precedence. But this is not all: the love of our country excites in us a laudable curiosity to inquire into the conduct and condition of our ancestors, and to become acquainted with the \nemorable events of their history ; while our reverence fo)- the glorious Constitution by which our most valuable privileges are secured, prompts us in nn especial manner to trace its rise and progress, and thoroughly to ascertain upon what foundation our political and religious liberties are based. " If an Englishman," said the great Frederic of Trussia, " has no knowledge of those kings that filled the throne of Persia, if his memory is not embarrassed with that infinite number of popes that ruled the church, we are ready to excuse him ; but we shall hardly have the same indulgence for him, if he is a stranger to the origin of parliaments, to the customs of his country, and to the different lines of kings who have reigned in England."] CIIAPTF.Il 1. The Rfitish and Roman Period — to the Sub- jayaiion qf the IsliinU by ike Saxojis. TiiK rule laid down by the celebrated his- torian, David Hume, for his treatment of early British history is so reasonable, so obviously the only rule by which the his- torian can avoid disfiguring his narrative of realities, by connecting it with fables and rigments, that it would be to the last dcsroo unwise to depart from it, even wr' • laid down by a writer of far less cek'. -. y and guniiis. We cannot better account for tlic silence with which we pass over the very early ages of Uritain, than by quoting the short para- gtaph m which the eminent writer to whom we have referred, at onee suggests and vin- dicates that course. "The fables," says he, "which are com- monly employed to supply the place of true history, ought to be entirely disregarded ; or if any exception be admitted to this general rule, it can only be in favour of the ancient Grecian fictions, which are so celebrated and so agreeable, that they will ever be the objects of the general attention of mankind. Neglecting, therefore, all traditions, or ra- tiuT tales, concerning the more early history, of Britain, we shall only consider the state of the inhabitants as it appeared tu the Romans on their invasion of this country. We shall briefiy run over the events which attendi'd the conquest made by that empire as belonging more to Roman than to Bri- tish story. We shall hasten through the obscure and uninteresting period of ii^axon annals, and shall reserve a more full narra- tion for those times when the truth is both so \Acll ascertained and so complete as to promise entertainment and instruction to the reader." That Britain, like Gaul, was originally inhabited by a tribe of the Cclto;, is as well ascertained as such n remote fact can be with respect to a people destitute of let- ters; language, manners, government (such as it was), and religion, all tend to show their common origin. But the Britons, from their insular situation, retained their full rudeness and their primitive manners and customs long after the Gauls, from their intercourse with the inhabitants of other parts of the continent, had consider- ably improved in both respects. The British people were divided into many kingdoms or tribes; and though each tribe had a monarch, each monarchy was prin- cipally founded upon physical force, and of course greatly tempered by it. For des- potism, indeed, there was but little oppor- tunity, whatever the inclination of the king. War was the principal occupation of tribe TUB " DAMMOMl" INUABITRD COaNWALt, AND l/GVONSUIBE. THE "CAMTII;" KEMT.— 1HB " DOtVHl i" 0L0UCSITBB8HIBE AND OXON. 44 V^fit ^xtamx^ of l^iatorp, $cc. against tribe, and hunting at once the chief amuacment; and, next to the feeding of flocks and herds, the most important means of subsistence. Wandering hither and thi- ther in search of pasture for their cattle, these wild tribes were perpetually coming into collision with each other ; and so fre- quent and fierce were their wars, that but for the interference of the Druids — in this respect, a body of men as useful as in many respects they were mischievous — their mu- tual rancour would have proceeded well- nigh to mutual annihilation. x'hough we have stated the Britons to have been free from kingly despotism— though, in fact, the king was only the first freembn of a tribe of freemen, there yet was a despotism, and a terrible one, for both kin^ and people — the despotism of the Druids. The Druids were the priests of the Britons ; and they were also their teachers, their lawgivers, and their magistrates : and the peculiar tenets which were inculcated upon the British from their earliest child- hood, were such as to render the Druid Eriests omnipotent, as far as that term can e applied to men and man's attributes. He who dared to offend the Druid priest in any one of his multifarious offices, lost all peace in thia world, even if his life were spared; he was excommunicated, utterly and hopelessljr ; shunned by his fellow men, who dared neither to aid nor to soothe him, he could but retire to the deepest solitudes of the forest, battle for his precarious ex- istence with the forest brutes, and perish like them, obscure and unregarded. Nor was the pang with which he closed his eyes for ever upon this world mitigated by any bright and cheering hope in a future life. The metempsychosis had been a part of his belief from infancy, and he who died under the fearful ban of the Druids died in the assured and terrible conviction that he would live for ever under successive fonns, each more obscene and contemptible, or more hated, persecuted, and tortured, than that which had preceded it. With such means of upholding their power over a rude people, it will easily be believed that the Druids had little trouble in ruling both king and subjects. And, de- testable as were their cruel sacrifices of human victims, this exceeding power over the minds of the people was so far valuable, that it supplied the want of more legiti- mate power to prevent wild courage pro- ceeding to frenzied ferocity, and to prevent war from being prosecuted to the extent of extermination. Humanity can never fail to regret the miseries and the crimes that characterize wan, or to detest the injustice and the in- solence of the feeling which prompts the strong to trample upon the weak, and the wealthy to plunder the poor. But, while we necessarily look with tnese feelings upon invasion and war in the abstract, we must not close our eyes to the fact, that the suf- ferings, however great, of a barbarous peo- ple invaded and overrun by a civilized peo- ple, are but temporary, and are followed and more than counterbalanced by a per- manent deliverance from the squalid mi- series and the menial darkness by which savage life ii every where characterised. The poet may tune his harmonious lay to the bliis of those primeval ages, ' When wild in woods the noble savage ran ;' But the sterner pen of history, informed by the actual experience of the voyager, must give no such nattering; picture of barbarism. Whether in the prainea of America, or in the wild bush of New Holland, we find the savage invariably a miserable and mere ani- mal ; superior to the other animals in con- formation, but alas ! even more subject to disease and famine than they are. We may sympathize with the terror which the poor savage feels when civilized man invades his haunts, and we have every right to demand that conquests be effected with the least possible cruelty ; but we still must admit that it may become a great and enduring mercy to the conquered. Britain, whose fleets are upon every sea, and upon whose conquests and possessions the sun, literally, never sets, was the home of numerous tribes of mere savages long after the mighty name of Rome was heard with awe or admiration, with love or hate, in every civilized nation of the earth. Dwelling in wattled huts of the meanest construction, most of these tribes shifted their habitations from place to place as new pasture became necessary for their cattle ; but some tribes were stationary and practised agriculture, which, though of the rudest kind, served to improve their sub- sistence. Julius Ceesar, the renowned Roman, hav- ing overrun Gaul at the head of his irresisti- ble legions, had his attention attracted to Britain b.c. 65. He determined to conquer it, and it is to his invasion that we primarily owe our present splendour and importance. From his own history of his Gallic wars it is that we chiefly derive our knowledge of the state of Britain ; and it is on his au- thority that we describe its rude and poor condition. The conquest of such a country could have nothing but the love of conquest for its motive ; but to a Roman, and, above all, to a Cassar, that motive was sufficient to incite to the utmost enterprize, and to reconcile to the utmost danger and the ut- most suffering. Not far from the present site of the town of Deal, in Kent, UKsar made a descent upon Britain. The savage appearance of the natives, and the fierce reception they at first gave to their invaders, struck a tem- porary terror even into the hearts of the veteran soldiers of Rome. But the check was only momentary, A standard-bearer leaped upon the inhospitable shore, and the legionaries followed their eagle. Caesar advanced some distance into the country ; but every mile of progress was made under harassing attacks of the natives, whose de- sultory mode of warfare, and their intimate acquaintance with the wild country, made them formidable in spite of their want of THE " CATTIBVCHLANI ;" BUCKINaBAUSUlBE, BEDFOBD, AND HBRTS. TUK "l>E]|ET«l" rSMDBUKB, CAHDIGAR A»D CAEnMABTUKN. ^nglantt.— 13rltts^ ants IRomen ^tvioti. 45 discipline and the rude nature of their onus. Dut the steady perRcvcrancc and serried ranks of the Rfiraans enabled them still to advnnce; and thev gained so much advantage, that when Ca;snr deemed it ne- cessary to return to his winter quarters in Gaul, he was able to extort promises of a peaceable reception when he should think proper to return, and received hostages for their fidelity, lie withdrew accordingly, and the Britons ijoiorant and, like all bar- barous people, incapable of looking forward to distant consequences, flagrantly failed to perform their engagements. Disobedience was what the Roman pov\'cr would not at that time have brooked from a people far more civilized and powerful than the Bri- tons, and Caesar early iu the ensuing sum- mer again made his appearance on the coast of Kent. On this occasion he found a more regular and organized force await- ing him ; several powerl'ul tribes having laid aside their domestic and petty differ- ences, and united themselves under Cassi- belaunus, a brave man, and so superior to the majority of the British* kings, that he was possessed of their general respect and confidence. But mere valour could avail little against the soldiery of Home, inured to hardships, rather enjoying than fearing danger, thoroughly disciplined, and led by so consummate a soldier as Julius Ca:sar. The Britons, accordingly, harassed him in his march, and disturbed his camp with frequent ni;{ht alarms ; but whenever they came to actual battle they were ever defeat- ed, and with dreadful loss. This time Csesar made his way far into the country, crossed the Thames in face of the enemy, and in despite of the precaution they had taken to stake the bed of the river, destroyed the ca- pital of Cassibelnunus, and established as king of the Trinobantes a chieftain, or petty king, nained Mandubratius, who, chiefly in disgust at some ill treatment, real or ima- gined, which he had suffered at the hands of his fellow-countrymen, bad allied himself with the Romans. But though Csesar was thus far success- ful, the wild nature of the country and the nomadic habits of the people prr''cnted him from achieving anything more than a nominal conquest of the island. He was obliged to content himself, once more, with the promises which the islanders the more readily made him because they never in- tended to fulfil them, and he again left the island, never to return to it ; for the domestic troubles of Rome, greatly caused by his own ambition and daring genius, left neither him nor the Roman people any leisure to attend to a poor and remote island. His successor, the great Augustus, wa^ wisely of opinion that it rather behoved Rome to preserve order in her already vast empire, than to extend its bounds. Tiberius was of the same opinion ; and Caligula, flighty and tickle, if not absolutely mad, though he made a demonstration of completing the work which Ctesar had begun, seized no spoils more valuable than cockle-shells, in- flicted only a fright upon the Britons, and gave Rome nothiuK for the vast expense of his eccentric expedition, save materials for many a merry pasquinade and hearty laugh. For nearly a century after the firet descent of Ca-sar, the Britons enjoyed peace un- broken, save by their own petty disputes. But in the reign of the emperor Claudius, A.D. 43, the design of conquering tlie island of Britain was again revived ; and Flautius, a veteran general, landed and fairly estab- lished himself and his legionaries in the country. As soon as he received tidings of the success and position of his general, Claudius himself came over ; and the Cantii, the Regni, the Trinobantes, and other tribes of the south -eastern • . art of the island, made their formal submis' on to him, and this time, probably, witV. jomet^iing like sin- cerity, as they had e .periencf"d the pi^jvcr of the Roman arms ;md the aupericriiy of the Roman discipline. The more inland Britons, liowever, ipero still fiercely determined to niaiutf;-i their liberty and preserve the.r territory ; and se- veral tribes of them, united under the com- mbnd of Caractacus, a rann of courage and of conduct superior to what could be anti- cipated in a mere barbarian, made a stout resistance to all attempts of th- Wor \ans to extend their progress and pow> v : < . •,.-. 50. Indignant that mere barbarians i nould wen in a slight degree limit thefligii of tin Jc- Btroying eagle, the Romans now scut over reinforcements under the command of Os- torius Scapula, whose vigorous conduct soon changed the face ot nlTairs. He beat the Britons further and farther bact al every encounter, and penetrated into the country of the Silures, (now forming part of South Wales), and here in a general cn,'3,;ement, he completely routed them and took a vast number of prisoners, among whom was the brave Caractacus. This brave though unfortunate prince was sent to Rome. Arrived in that mighty city, he was scarcely more astonished at the vast wealth and grandeur which it contained, than at the cupidity of the possessors of such a city, and their strange desire to deprive a peop' -n uoor as the Britons of their wild liberc <•-.) wattled huts. It is to the honour ; ■ .o Romans of that day, that Caractacus was treated with a gene- rosity which was at once equal to his me- rits, and in strong contrast with the treat- ment whi>li Rome usually reserved for de- feated kifi^^s who had dared to oppose her. And th'i generositv of the Romans to Ca- r 'ct. ous individually is the more creditable and the more remarkable, because his cap- ture by no means prevented his compatriots from continuing the struggle. Though always distressed, and otten decisively worsted, the Britons still fought bravelv on for every acre of their fatherland ; and as they improved in their style of fighting, even in consequence of the defeats they received, Britain was still considered a battle-field worthy of the presence of the best officers and hardiest veterans of Rome. Irritated at the comparatively slow pro- gress of their arms against so poor and rude 1 1 '»'"> ■ "OHDOVICBSj" MONTOOMEKY, HEBtONBTH, CARNAnTOX, FLINT, AND OBNBIOH. ~r- V i i i ? I THE "OTTADIIfl;" NOBTHUMBBBLAMD TO TBB BITBB TWBBD. 46 W)t ^reaanrs of 1|(storw, §cc. a people, the Romans now ^ave the chief command of their troops in Britain to Suetonius Paulinus, a man of equal courage and conduct, and noted even among that warlike race for unwavering sternness. This general perceived the true cause of the British pertinacity of resistance in the face of 80 many decisive defeats and severe chas- tisements. That cause, tlie only one, prob- ably, which could so long have kept such rude people united and firm under misfor- tune, was the religious influence of the Druids, whose terrible anger had more terror for their deluded followers than even the warlike prowess and strange arras of the Romans. Suetonius, then, determined to strike at the very root of British obsti- nacy; and as the little isle of Anglesey, then called Mona, was the chief resort of the Druids, he proceeded to attack it, rightly judging that by making a terrible example of the chief seat of their religion and their priests, he should strike more terror into the refractory Britons than by defeating them in a hundred desultory battles. _ His landing was not effected without consider- able difficulty J for here the naturally brave Britons fought under the very eyes of their Sowerful and dreaded priests, and with the ouble motive of desire to win their praise, and terror of incurring an anger whicli they believed to be potent in the future world as in this. Urged by such considerations, the Britons fought with unexampled fury and determination, and the priests and priest- esses mingled in the ranks, shrieking strange curses upon the invaders, waving flaming torches, and presenting so un- eartiily and startling an appearance, that many of the Roman soldiers, who would have looked coolly upon certain death, were struck with a superstitious awe, and half imagined that they were actually engaged in personal warfare with the tutelar de- mons of their mortal foes. But Suetonius was as disdainful of superstitious terrors as of actual danger, and his exhortations and example inspired his men to exertions that speedily put the ill-armed and undisciplined Britons to flight. The worst crime of which the Druids were guilty was that of offering to their gods human sacrifices. Even in times of peace, victims selected by the Druids, either m actual malice or in mere and wanton recklessness, fed the devouring flames. But it was more especially in war time that these truly horrible sacrilices were frequent, and the victims numerous. Confident in their hope of defeating the Romans by force, and the terrors of their superstition, the Druids of Mona on this occasion had pro- mised their cruel deities a plenteous sacri- fice. The fires were prepared; but tliey who were to have been the ministering priests became the victims ; for Suetonius, as cruel as those against whom he fought, burned the captive Druids at ttieir own altars. Having wreaked this cruel vengeance, and cut d jwn or burned the dense groves in which thj Druids had for ages performed the dark rites of their mysterious religion, he left Anglesey and returned into Britain, confident that the blow he had thus struck at the most venerated seat of the British faith would so shake the courage and con- fidence of its votaries, that he would have for the future only a series of easy triumi>h8. But his absence from the main island might have been of more disparagement to nis cause than his feats at Mona had been to its advantage. Profiting by their brief free- dom from his presence, the scattered tribes of the Britons had re-united themselves, and under a leader who, though a woman, was formidable both by natural character and shameful provocation. Boadicea, widow of the king of the Iceni, having offended a Roman tribune by the spirit with which she upheld her own and her subjects' rights, was treated with a shameful brutality, amply sufficient to have maddened a far feebler spirit. She her- self was scourged in the presence of the Roman soldiers and amid their insulting jeers ; and her three daughters, scarcely arrived at the age of womanhood, were sub- jected to still more brutal outrage. Haughty and fierce of spirit even beyond the wont of her race, Boadicea vowed that tlie outrages to which she had been sub- jected should be amply avenged in Roman blood ; and the temporary absence of Sue- tonius from Britain was so well employed by her, that he found on his arrival from Mona that she was at the head of an im- mense army, which had already reduced to utter ruin several of the Roman settle- ments. The safety of London, which was already a place of considerable importance, was his first care ; but though he marched thither with all possible rapidity, he was not able to save it from the names to which Boadicea had doomed it, and all those of its inhabitants who were not fortunate enough to make a timely escape. Nor was tlie Ro- man discomfiture confined to London or its neighbourhood. Successful in various direc- tions, the Britons were as unsparing as suc- cessful; and it is affirmed— though the number has always appeared to us to be very greatljr exaggerated— that of Romans and the various strangers who had accom- panied or followed them to Britain, no fewer than 70,000 perished in this deter- mined and sanguinarjr endeavour of the Britons to drive the invadnrs from their shores. Even allowing somewhat for the error or exaggeration of early historians, it is certain that the loss inflicted upon the Romans and their adherents by Boadicea was immense. But the return of Suetonius inspired his countrymen with new spirit ; and the tide of fortune soon left the native islanders. Flushed with numerous suc- cesses, and worked up to a frenzy of enthu- siasm even by the cruel use wiiich Uicyhad made of their success, they collected all their forces for one final and mighty effort. Suetonius and Boadicea in person com- manded their respective forces. The latter harangued her troops with great spirit ; the former contented himself with making his A.V. 60.— LONDON FOBTtVIEO DY TUK HOMANB ADOUT TUIS TIMB. ^^^H « ^I^H o H^^H Q MB^B M BKulH i4 ■ without giving n to trcnible at ) conic, Kvcn find so severely ', that tlicy had 3 Count of the ar duty it was upon their own nt them from nincd to apply o a I ?5! A. D. 475- — VOnTIMBIl rOISONBD BY HIS MOTUEB-IN-LAW, ROWENA. IIST INVASION. lEiglan^r.— 13riti»!) anlJ KRomaa ^eriotr. 49 to the Saxons for aid, two brothers, by name Hengist and Horsa, were the most famous and respected warriors among that warlike people. They were reputed de- scendants of the god Woden ; and this fa- bulous ancestry joined to their re«l ]^er8onaI qualities and the great success which had attended them in their piratical expeditions had given them great influence over the most daring and adventurous of the Saxons. Perceiving that the Romans had abaudonod Britain, they were actually contemplating a descent upon that island when the British envoys waited upon them to crave their aid as mercenaries. To a request which har- monized so well with their own views and wishes the brothers of course gave a ready assent, and speedily arrived at the isle of Thanet with sixteen hundred followers, inured to hardship and in love with danger even for its own sake. They marched against the Picts and ScotS; v.uo speedily fled before men whose valour was as im- petuous as their own, and seconded by superior arms and military conduct. \Vhen the Britons were thus once more delivered from the rage and cupidity of their flerce neighbours, they became anx- ious to part with their deliverers on such fritmdly terms as woald insure their future aid should it be required. But the Saxon leaders had seen too much of the beauty and fertility of the country, and of the weakness and divisions of its owners, to feel any inclination to take their departure ; and Ilengist and Ilorsa, so far from making any preparations to return home, sent thither for reinforcements, which arrived to the number of Ave thousand men, iu seventeen war-sliip!<. The Britons, who had been unable to resist the Picts and Scots, saw the hopelessness of attempting to use force for the expulsion of people as brave and fnr better organized; and therefore, though not without serious fears that those who liad been called in as mercenary sol- diers would prove a more dangerous enemy than the one they had so flerccly and ef- fectually combatted, the Britons affected the most unsuspecting friendship, and yielded to every encroachment and to every inso- lence with the best grace that they could command. Bui it is no easy matter to con> ciliate men who are anxiously watching for a plausible excuse for quarrel and out- rngc. Some disputes which arose about the allowances oi provisions for which the Saxon mercenaries had stipulated, fur- nished this excuse, and, siding with the Picts and Scuts, the Saxons openly de- clared war against the people whom they had been liberally subsidized to defend. Desperation and the indignation so natu- rally excited by the treacherous conduct of their quondam allies, roused the Britons to something like the vigour and spirit of their warlike ancestors. Their ttrat step was to depose Vortigern, who was before unpopular on Recount of his vicious life, and who was now univi'i'sally hated on account of the bad CDiiseiiucncos of the ineosure ho had recom- mended, though, as we have already ob- served, when he suggested the subsidizing of the Saxons, the Britons were in such a position that it would not have been easy to suggest a better measure. His son Vor- timer, who had a good reputation for both courage and military conduct, was raised to the supreme command, and the Britons fought several battles with great courage and perseverance, though with almost inva- riable ill fortune. The Saxons kept ad- vancing ; and though Horsa was slain at the battle of Aylesford, Hengist, who then had the sole command of the Saxons, show- ed himself fully equal to all the exigencies of his post. Steadily advancing upon the Britons, he at the same time sent over to Germany for reinforcements. These con- tinued to arrive in immense numbers ; and the unfortunate Britons, worsted in every encounter, were successively chased to and from every part of their country. Whether with a desire to make terror do the work of the sword among the sui-vivors, or with a real and savage intent to exterminate the Britons, Horsa made it au invariable rule to give no quarter. Wherever he conquered, man, woman, and child were put to death ; the towns and hamlets were again razed or burned, and again the blackened and arid fields bore testimony to the presence and the unsparing humour of a conqueror. Dreadfully reduced in numbers, and suf- fering every description of privation, the unfortunate Britons now lost all hope of combating successfully. Some submitted and accepted life on the hard condition of tilling as slaves the laud they hod owned as freemen; others took refuge in the mountain fastnesses of Wales, and a still more considerable number sought refuge in the province of Arinoriea in Gaul ; antl the district which was there assigned them is still known by the name of Britanny. Hengist founded the kingdom of Kent which at first comprised not only the county now known by that name, but also those of Essex and Middlesex, and a portion of Surrey. Being still occasionally disturbed by revolts of the Britons he settled a tribe of Saxons in Northumberland. Other north- ern tribes, learning the success of Hengist and his followers, came over. The earliest of these was a tribe of Saxons, who come over iu the year 477, and, afte;' much iiglit- ing with some of the Britons who had par- tially recovered their spirit, founded tlie kingdom of Sussex. This kingdom, of which the Saxon MWa was the founder and king, included the present county of Sussex and also that of Surrey. Though from many causes there is consi- derable dilHculty in ascertaining the exact dates of the events of the very earliest Saxon adventurers in Britain, it is pretty certain that the victorious and successful Hengist enjoyed the possession of his ill-acquired kingdom until the year 488, when he died at Canterbury, which city he had selected as his capital. In the year 495 a tribe of Saxons landed under the commnnd of Cerdic and his sou Kenric. He was warmly resisted by the M M a S o > »• o M a H o a n N H >r M M O A. I). 478.— VOKTIGKUN WITH 300 OP HI8 NOlll.ItS ASSASSINATKn. [r 1 i! )i TBB KINGDOM OF KSMT BBSAR A. D. 455, AND BNDGD IN SOS. dO Vt))t ©rcaaure of l^istorg, 8cc. Britons, who still remained attached to their country and in arms for their free- dom, and he was obliged to seek the assist- ance of the Saxons of Kent and Sussex to enable him to maintain his ground until re- inforcements could arrive from Germany. These at length came under the command of his sons Meyla and Bledda, and having consolidated their forces with his own he brought the Britons to a general action in the year 508. The Britons, who mustered in numbers far greater than could have been expected after so many and such great losses, were commanded by Nazan Leod. At the beginning of the day the courage and skill of this leader gave him greatly the advantage, and had actually broken the main arm^ of the Saxons, which was led by Cerdic in person, when Henric, who had been more successful against another divi- sion of the Britons, hastened to his father's aid. The fortune of war now turned wholly against the Britons, who were completely routed, with the loss of upwards of five thousand men, among whom was the brave Nazhn Leod himself. Tlie Saxons under Cerdic now established the West Saxon kingdom, or Wessex, which included the counties of Hants, Wilts, Dorset, and Berks, and the fertile and picturesque Isle of Wight. The discomfited Britons next api'-adfor aid to their fellow-countrymen of Wales, who, under the prince Arthur, whose real heroism has been so strangely exaggerated by romance, hastened to tlieir aid, and inflicted a very severe defeat upon Cerdic, in the neighbourhood of Bath. But this defeat, though it prevented him from extending the kingdom he had founded, did not disable him from maintaining himself in it. He did so until his death in 634, when he was succeeded by his son Kenric, who reigned there until his death in 560. In other parts of the island other tribes of adventurers had been equally successful with the two of which we have more parti- cularly spoken ; but as a mere repetition of fierce invasion on the one hand, and of resistance, often heroic but always unsuc- cessful, would neither amuse nor instruct the reader, we at once pass to the event, which was that the whole island, save Corn- wall and Wales, was conquered by bands of Saxons, Jutes, and Angles, and divided into seven petty kingdoms, and called by the name of Angles-laud, subsequently cor- rupted into England. Of each of these kingdoms we shall give a very concise ac- count up to that period when the whole island was united under one sole sovereign, and at which the history becomes at once clearer in its details and more interesting. CHAPTER II. The Heptarchy, or the Seven Kiugdomi qf the Saxons in Britain. It has already been seen that Hengist, the earliest Saxon invader of Britain, found- ed the kingdom of Kent, and died in estab- lished and secure possession of it. Ho was succeeded by his son, Escus. This prince. though he possessed neither the military prowess nor the love of adventure which had distinguished his father, maintained hit place in peace, and not without dignity, to ins death, which occurred in 512, when he was succeeded by his son Octa. Octa, like his father, was a man of me- diocre talent, and unfortunately for him he lived in a time when his neighbourhood was anything but tranquil. The kingdom of the East Saxons, newly established, greatly extended its limits at his expense, and at his death, in 534, he left his Kingdom less extensive than he had received it by the whole of Essex and Middlesex. To Octa succeeded his son Ymrick, who reigned in tolerable tranquillity during the long period of thirty-two years. Towards the close of his leign he associated with him in the government his son Ethelbert, who in 566 succeeded him. While the kings of the Heptarchy were as yet in any danger of disturbance and reprisals on the part of the outraged Britons, the mere instinct of self- preservation had prevented them from hav- ing any considerable domestic feuds : but this danger at an end, the Saxon kings speedily found cause of quarrel amongthem- selves. Sometimes, as we have seen in the case of Kent, under Octa, one state was en- croached upon by another ; at another time the spirit of jealousy, which is inseparable from petty kings of territories having no natural and efficient boundaries, caused struggles to take place, not so much for territory as for empty supremacy ; mere ti- tular chiefdom. When Ethelbert, himself of a very adven- turous and ambitious turn, succeeded to his kingdom of Kent, Ceaulin, king of Wessex, was the most potent prince of the Heptarchy, and used his power with no niggard or moderate hand. Ethelbert, in the endeavour to aggrandize his own do- minions, twice gave battle to this formid- able rival, and twice suffered decisive de- feat. But the cupidity and tyrannous tem- per of Ceaulin, having induced him to annex the kingdom of Sussex to his own already considerable possessions, a confe- deracy of the other princes was formed against him, and the command of the allied force was unanimously voted to Ethelbert, who even in defeat had displayed equal cou- rage and ability. Ethelbert, thus strength- ened, once more met his rival in arms, and this time with better success. Ceaulin was put to the rout with great loss, and, dying shortly after the battle, was succeeded both in his ambition and in his position among the kings of the Heptarchy by Ethelbert, who very speedily gave his late allies abun- dant reasou to regret the confidence and the support they had given to him. He by turns reduced each of them to a complete dependence upon him as their chief; and having overrun the kingdom of Mercia, the most extensive of all the kingdoms of the island, he for a time seated himself upon the throne, in utter contempt of the right and the reclamations of Webba, the son of Crida, the original founder of that king- is A M A IE H a IE «; t^ U3 fl -i IB s H n TBI KINGDOM OF THB WBST KAXONB BSGAN A.D. 631, AND ENDED IN 800. TUB KINGDOM OV TBS VAST ANSIiKS BBeAII A. D. 571| AND ENDED IS 79'2 lEnglantJ.— ^I^e 1|cptartljy. 51 dom. But whether from a sense of the in- justice of his conduct, or from fear that a continued possession of so extensive a ter- ritory, in addition to that which of right belonged to him, should arm against him- self a league as compact and determined as that by the aid of which he had tri- umphed over his formidable rival Ceaulin, he subsequently resigned MerciatoWebba, but not without imposing conditions as in- sulting as they were wholly unfounded in any right save that of the strongest. From the injustice which marked this portion of Ethelbert's conduct, it is pleasing to have to turn to an important event which shed a lustre upon his reign— the introduc- tion of Christianity to tha Saxon popula- tion of England. Though the Britons had long been Chris- tians, the terms upon which they lived with the Saxons were especially unfavourable to any religious proselytism between the two people ; and, indeed, the early historians do not scruple to confess that the Britons con- sidered tneir conquerors to be unworthy to participate in the blessings of Christian knowledge and faith. Ethelbert, fortunately, was married to a Christian lady, Bertha, daughter of Cari- bert, king of Paris, who, ere he would con- sent to his daughter's marriage with a pagan, stipulated that the princess should fully and freely enjoy her own religion. On leaving her native land for England she was attended by a bishop, and both the princess and the prelate exerted their utmof.t credit and ability to propagate the Cli' stian faith ill the country of their adoptiui: ; and as Bertha was much beloved at the court of her liusband, she made so much progress to- wards this good end, that the pope, Gre- gory the Groat, flattered himself with the hope of converting the Saxons of England altogether, a project which even before he became pope he had conceived from having accidentally seen some Saxon slaves at Rome, and been much struck with their sin- gular personal beauty and the intelligence with which they replied to his questions. Encouraged "by the success which had attended the efforts of Bertha, Gregory dis- patched Augustin and forty other monks to Britain. They found Ethelbert, by the influence of his queen, well disposed to re- ceive them hospitably and listen to them patiently. Having provided them with a re- sidence in the Isle of Thanet, he gave them time to recover from the fatigues of travel, and then appointed a day for a public inter- view ; but friendly as the brave pagan was towards the co-religionists of his wife, he could not wholly divest himself of supersti- tious terrors; and lest the stranger preach- ers should have some evil spells of power, he appointed the meeting to take place in the open air, where, he thought, such spells would be leas effective than within the walls of a building. Augustin set before the king the inspi- ring and consoling truths of Christianity. Doctrines so mild, so gentle, so free from earthly taint, and from all leaven of ambi- tion and violence, struck strangely, but no less forcibly, upon the spirit of the bold Ethelbert. But though much moved, he was not wholly convinced ; he could admire, but he could not instantly embrace tenets so new and so different from those to which from infancy he had been accustomed. But if he could not on the instant abandon the faith of his ancestors for the new faith that was now preached to him, he was entirely convinced that the latter faith was, at the least, incapable of injuring his people. His reply, therefore, to tlie addresses of Augus- tin was at once marked by tolerance and by caution ; by an unwillingness to abamUm the faith of his youth, yet by a perfect wil- lingness so allow his people a fair oppor- tunity of judging between that faith and Christianity. "Tour words and your promises," said he, " sound fairly ; but inasmuch as they are new and unproven, I cannot entirely yield iny confidence to them and abandon the principles so long maintained by my ancestors. Nevertheless, you may remain here in peace and safety ; and as you have travelled so far in order to benefit us, at least as you suppose, I wUl provide you with everything necessary for your support, and you shall have full liberty to preach your doctrines to my subjects." Well would it have been for mankind if all potentates in all times and countries had been os wisely tolerant as this pagan Saxon of an early and benighted age. The degree of toleration that was thus accorded to Augustin was all that he re- quired; his own faithful zeal and well culti- vated talents assured him of success ; and so well and diligently did he avail himself of the opportunities that were o&brded to him by the king's toleration and the queen's favour, that he speedily made numbers of converts. Every new success inspired him with new zeal and nerved him to new ex- ertions. His abstinence, his painful vigils, and the severe penances to wtiich he sub- jected himself, struck these rudo people with awe and admiration, and not merely fixed their attention more strongly than any other means could have done upon his preachings, but also predisposed them to believe equally in the sincerity of the preacher and in the truth of his doctrine. Numbers, not only of the poorer and more ignorant, but also of the wealthier and better informed, became at first attentive auditors and then converts. They crowded to be baptized, and after a great majority of his subjects had thus been admitted into the pale of Christianity, the king himself became a convert and was baptized, to the great joy of Rome. Augustin had constantly impressed upon the king that conversion to the Christian faith must be the result not of force or thrcatenings but of conviction; that the religion of Christ was the religion of lovo and of perfect faith in doctrines set forth in faithful preaching. He had constantly exhorted the king to allow no worldly mo- tives to weigh in his own conversion, and M a M ■J THIS KINODOM OF MBRCIA DEOAN A. D. 684, AN BMDKD IN 828. A. v. 520. — TUB BISHOPRIC OF ST. DATID'b FOUNDED BT PBIHCX ABTHUB. 62 ^I)e ^reasurp of '^istorp, $cc. by no means to exert his authority, or the terror of it, to produce an unwilhiig assent on the part of any portion of his people, however humble, seeing that in the sight of Heaven, and in things spiritual, the huinhlcst peasant was as important and as precious as the proudest and must powerful inonnrch. But Gregory the .Great was zealous in the extreme in the cause of prosclytism, and by no means backward in availing himself of temporal power for the fulfilment of spiritual ends. And as soon as he learned that Ethclbert and a considerable portion of his subjects had embraced Christianity, he sent to the former at once to congratu- late hiui upon his wise and happy conver- sion, and to urge him, by his duty as a mo- narch and by his sympathies and faith as a Christian, not any longer to allow even a Sart of his subjects to wander on in the nrkncss and error of paganism. To have the kingly power, he argued, implied and included the duty of using it in all ways that could conduce to the welfare of his subjects; and what more weighty and tre- mendous matter could concern them than the possession of that true faith which alone could secure their happiness in this world and their safety in the world to come. Exhorting the king to blandishment and persuasion, he also exhorted him, in the case of those means failing with any, to resort to terror, and threatening, and even chastisement. So different were the policy of the papal statesman and the pious and sincerely Christian feelings of his zealous missionary 1 Gregory at the same time sent his in- structions to Augustin, and verjr particular answers to some singular questions put by the missionary as to points of morality which he thought it necessary to enforce upon the understandings and practice of his new and numerous flock; but these questions and answers would be out of place here, as they only tend to illustrate either the exceeding grossncss of the flock, or the exceeding simplicity and minute anx- iety of their spiritual pastor. Well pleased with the zeal of Augustin, and with the success with which it had thus far been crowned, Gregory made him archbishop of Canterbury, sent him a pall from Rome, and gave him plenary autho- rity over all the British churches that should be erected. But though Augus- tine was thus highly approved and ho- noured, Gregory, who was shrewdly ac- quainted with human nature, saw, or sus- pected, that the good missionary was very proud of a success which was, indeed, little less than miraculous, whether its extent or its rapidity be considered. At the same time, therefore, that he both praised and exalted him, he emphatically warned him against allowing himself to be seduced into a too great elation on account of his good work ; and, as Augustine manifested some desire to exert bis authority over the spiri- tual concerns of Gaul, the pope cautioned him against any such interference, and ex- pressly informed him that he was to consi- der the bisliops of that country wholly be- yond his jurisdiction. Strange contradic- tions in human reasoning and conduct ! We have the humble missionary dchorting a newly converted pagan from persecution ; a pope, the visible nead of the whole Chris- tian world, and the presumed infallible ex- pounder of Christian doctrines, strongly and expressly exhorting him to it ; and anon we have the ambitious and despotic patron of forcible proselytism wisely and reasonably interposing his authority and advice to prevent the recently so humble missionary from making shipwreck of his character and usefulness, by an unbecoming and unjustifiable indulgence in the soaring ambition so suddenly and strongly awaken- ed by the gift of a little brief authority I It was not only in the influence that Bertha had in the conversion of the Saxon subjects of her husband to Christianity that she was serviceable to them, though compared to that service all others were of comparatively small value. But even in a worldly point of view her marriage to Ethclbert was of real and very important benefit to his subjects. For her intimate connection with France led to an inter- course between that nation and England, which not merely tended to increase the wealth, ingenuity, and commercial enter- prise of the latter, but also to soften and polish their as yet rude and semi-barbarous manners. The conversion of the Saxons to Ciiristianity had even a more extensive in- fluence in these respects, by bringing the ficopic acquainted with the arts and the uxuries of Italy. Stormv at its commencement, the reign of Ethelbcrt was subsequently peaceable and prosperous, and it left traces and seed of good, of which the English are even to this day reaping the benefit. Besides the share he had in converting his subjects to Christianity, and in encouraging them to devote themselves to commerce and the useful arts, he was the first Saxon monarch who gave his people written laws ; and these laws, making due allowance for the age and for the condition of the people for wliose government they were promulged, show him to have been, even if regarded only in his civil capacity, an extremely wise man and a lover of pcacefulness and jus- tice. After a long and useful reign of fifty years, Ethclbert died in the vear 616, and was succeeded by his son Endnald. History but too frequently shows us the ftower of worldly passions in perverting re- IgiouB faith. During the lifetime of his father, Eadbald had professed the Chris- tian religion ; but when he became king he abandoned it and returned to the grosii errors of paganism, because the latter al- lowed the indulgence of an incestuous pas- sion, which he had conceived, and which Christianity denounced as horrible and sin- ful. It is much to be feared .that among the vcrjr earliest converts, in the case of the conversion of a numerous people, many, if not even the miOority, are guided into the M I M ' U en { A. D. 685, — TUB 8AX0NH CUANOB TUB NAME OP CAMBRIA INTO WALKS. A.o. 604. — ST. padl'b church, lohdon, founded bt etbclbbrt. as to const- f wholly be- I contradic- 1 conduct ! y dchorting icrsccution ; trhole Chris- nfallible ex- es, strongly to it; and nd despotic wisely and tUority and so humble nreck of his unbecoming the soaring igly awaken- ithority I luence that if tlie Saxon Christianity lem, though hers were of It even in a marriage to ry important [ler intimate to an inter- nd England, increase the crcial enter- a soften and ni-barbarous he Saxons to jxtensive in- iringiug the irts and the it, the reign ly peaceable ces and seed are even to Besides the subjects to lug them to rce and the con monarch laws ; and ince for the le people for promulgcd, if regarded tremely wise ess and jus- reign of fifty ear 616, and aid. hows us the ervcrting re- •time of his . the Chris- iccame king to tlie gross he latter al- estuous pas- , and which iblc and sin- ,that among le case of the pie, many, if dcd into the lEnglantJ — ^]^e l^eptarcljp. 53 H U H I. new way rather by fear, policy, mere fashion, or mere indolence, than by sincere convic- tion. In the present instance this is la- mentably apparent ; for on Gadbald re- turning to the gross and senseless prac- tices of bis forefathers, the great body of his subjects, outwardly at least, returned with him. So completely were the Chris- tian altar* abandoned, and so openly and generally was the Christian faith deride-l, that Justus, bishop of Rochester, and M< - litus, bishop of London, abandoned tho ■ sees in despair, and departed the kingd^^a. Laurcntius, who had succeeded Augustin in the archieniscopal dignity of Canterbury, had preparea to follow their example ; but on the eve of his departure he determined to make one striking and final effort to bring back the king into tho fold of the church. When excessive zeal has to deal with ignorance and rudeness — and even yet the Saxons were both ignorant and rude — we arc taught by all history that even the sin- cerest men, wrought upon by excessive zeal for what they consider to be a righteous and important work, will descend to pious frauds to accomplish that for which the plain truth would not under the circum- stances suffice. Laurentius was no excep- tion to this common rule. Seeking an in- terview with the king, he threw off his upper garments, and exhibited his body covered with wounds and bruises to such an extent as denoted the most savage ill treatment. The king, though evil passion had led him formally to abjure Christianity, was not prepared to see, unmoved, such Eroof of brutality and irreverence having een shown to the chief teacher of his abandoned creed ; and he eagerly and in- dignantly demanded who had dared thus to ill-treat a personage so eminent. Lauren- tius, in reply, assured him tliat his wounds had been inflicted not by living hands, but by those of St. Peter himself, who had ap- peared to him in a vision, and had thus chastised him for his intended desertion of a flock upon which his departure would in- evitably draw down eternal perdition. The result of this bold and gross invention showed how much more powerful over gross and ignorant minds are the coarsest fables of superstition, tlian the sublimcst truths or the most affectionate urgings of genuine religion. To the latter, Eadbald had been contemptuously deaf; to the former, he on the instant sacriflced his incestuous pas- sion and the object of it. Divorcing him- self from her, he returned to the Christian pale; and his people, obedient in good as in evil, returned with him. The reign of Eadbald, apart from this apostacy and rc-conversion, was not remarkable. The power which his father had established, and the prestige of his father's remembered ability and greatness, enabled hiin to reign peaceably without the exertion, probably without the possession, of any very remark- able ability of his own. After a reign of twenty-five years, he died in 640, leaving two sons, Emiinfrid and Ercombert. Ercombert, though the younger brother, succeeded his father. Uercignedfortwenty- four years. This reign, too, was on the whole peaceable, though he showed great zeal in rooting out the remains of idolatry from among his people. He was sincerely and zealously attached to the church, and he it was who first of the Saxon monarchs enforced upon his subjects the observance of the fast of Lent. Ercombert died in 664, and was suc- ceeded by his son Egbert. This prince, sensible that his father had wrongfully ob- tained the throne, and fearing that factions might be found in favour of tne heirs of his father's elder brother, put those two princes to death — an act of barbarous policy which would probably have caused his character to descend to us in much darker and more hateful colours, but that his zeal in enabling Dunnina, his sister, to found a monastery in the Isle of Ely caused him to find fa- vour in the eyes of the monkish historians, who were ever far too ready to allow appa- rent friendliness to the temporal prosperity of the church to outweigh even the most fla- grant and hateful sins against the doctrines taught by the church. It is nevertheless true that, apart from his horrible and merciless treatment of his cousins, this prince displayed a character so mild and thoughtful as makes his commis- sion of that crime doubly remarkable and la- mentable. His rule was moderate, though firm, and during his short reign of only nine years he seems to have embraced every opportunity of encouraging and advancing learning. He died in 673, and was suc^ ceeded ny his brother Lothaire; so that his cruel murder of his nephews did not even prove successful in securing the throne to his son. Lothaire associated with himself in the government his son Richard, and every thing seemed to promise the usurpers a long and prosperous reign. But Edric, the son of Egbert, unappalled by the double l^ower and ability which thus barred him from the throne, took shelter at the court of Edilwalch, king of Sussex. That prince heartily espoused his cause, and furnished him with troops ; and after a reign of eleven years, Lothaire was slain in battle, A.D. 684, and his son Richard escaped to Italy, where he died in comparative ob- scurity. Edric did not long enjoy the throne. His reign, which presents nothing wortliy of record, was barely two years. He died in 686, and was succeeded by his son Widred. The violence and usurpation which had recently taken place in the kingdom pro- duced the usual effect, disunion amonj the nobility ; and that disunion, as is also usually the cabe, invited the attack of ex- ternal enemies. Accordingly, Widred had hardly ascended the throne when his king- dom was invaded by Ccdwalln, king of Wessex, and his brother Mollo. But though the invaders did vast damage to the king- dom of Kent, their appearance had the A.o. 560,— TUB BI8H0FHIC OF BT. ASAPH FOUNDBD BY KBNTIOEn, A SCOT. [F3 f« I'! I i A. D. 679. — THE BIBHOFBIC OP WOBCBSTBR FODHDBD BT KIHS BTHBLBXD. < e; 54 ^1)t ^xcasutB of l^istors, $;c. );ood effect of puttiuff an end to domestic disunion, and Vvidrea was able to assem- ble a powerful force for the defence of his throne. In a severe battle which was fought against the invaders, Mollo was slain ; and Widred so ably availed himself of the opportunity afforded to him by this event, that his reign extended to the long term of thirtv-two years. At his death, in 718, he left the kingdom to his family; but at the death of his tliird successor, Alric, who died in 794, all pretence, even, to a legitimate order of succession to the throne was abandoned. To wish was to strive, to conquer was to have right; and whether it were a powerful noble or an illegitimate conneciion of the royal family, every pre- tender who could maintain his claim by force of arms seemed to consider himself fully entitled to strike for the vacant throne. This anarchical condition of the kingdom, and the weakness and disorder which were necessarily produced by such frequent civil wnr, paved the way to the utter annihila- tion of Kent as a separate kingdom, which annihilation was accomplished by Egbert, king of Wessex, about the year 82U. CHAPTER III. The Heptarchy {continued). The kingdom of Northumberland first made a considerable figure and exercised a great share of influence in the Heptarchy under Adclfrid, a brave and able but ambi- tious and unprincipled ruler. Originally king of Bemicin, he married Acca, daughter of Alia, king of the Deirl, and at the death of that monarch dispossessed and expelled his youthful heir, and united all the country north of the Huraber into one kingdom, the limits of which he still farther extended by his victories over the I'icts and Scots, nnd the Britons in Wales. An anecdote is related of this prince which seems to indi- cate that he held the clergy in no very great reencct. Having found or made occasion to lay siege to Chester, he was opposed by the Uritons, who marched in great force to compel him to raise the siege, and they were accompanied to the Acid of battle by up- wards of a thousand monks from the mo- nastery of Bangor. On being informed that this numerous body of religious men had come to the field of battle, not actually to fight against him, but only to exhort their countrymen to fight stoutly and to pray for their success ; the stem warrior, who could not understand the nice distinction between those who fought against him with their arms and those who prayed that those arms might be victorious, immediately detached some of his troops vith orders to charge upon the monks as heartily as though they had been armed and genuine soldiers ; and so faithfully was this ruthless order obeyed, that only fifty of the monks are said to have escaped from the sanguinary scene with their lives. In the battle wliich immedi- ately followed this wanton butchery the Bi'itons were completely defeated, and Adel- frid having entered Chester in triumph, and I strongly garrisoned it, pursued his march to the monastery of Bangor ; resolved that it should not soon again send out an army of monks to pray for his defeat. The early years' of the sway of Catho- licism in every country were marked both by the numbers of the monasteries and the vast expense that was lavished upon them. This was especially the case in both Eng- land and — as we shall hereafter have to remark — Ireland ; but in neither of these countries was there another monastery which could, for extent at least, bear com- parison with that of Bangor. From gate to gate it covered a mile of ground, and it sheltered the enormous number of two thousand monks : the whole of this vast building was now sacrificed to the resent- ment of Adelfrid,who completely battered it down. But the warlike prowess of Adelfrid was fated to prove insufficient to preserve him in the power which he had so unrighte- ously obtained by depriving a young and helpless orphan of his heritage. That or- phan, now grown to man's estate, had found shelter in the court of Redwald. king of the East Angles. This monarch's protec- tion of the young Edwin, and that young prince's reputed ability and courage, alarm- ed Adelfrid for the stability of his ill-acquired greatness ; and he had the ineffable base- ness to make offers of large presents to in- duce Redwald to deprive the youn^ prince of life, or to deliver him, living, into the power of the usurper of his throne. For some time Redwald returned positive and indignant refusals to all propositions of this kind; but the pertinacity of Adelfrid, who still increased in the magnitude of his offers, began to shake the constancy of Redwald, when, fortunately for that monarch's cha- racter, his queen interposed to save him from the horrid baseness to which he was well nigfh ready to consent. Strongly sympa- thising with Edwin, she felt the more inte- rest for him on account of the magnani- mous confidence in her husband's honour which the young prince displayed by tran- quilly continuing his residence in East Anglia even after he was aware how strong- ly his protector was sued and tempted to baseness by the usurper Adelfrid. Not contented with having successfully dis- suaded her husband from the treachery of yielding up the unfortunate and dispos- sessed prince, she farther endeavoured to induce him to exert himself actively on his behalf, and to march against the usurper while lie was still in hope of having an af- firmative answer to his disgraceful and in- sulting proposals. The kinf; of the East Angles consented to do this, and suddenly marched a powerful army into Northumber- land. In the sanguinanr and decisive bat- tle which ensued, Adclfrid was slain, but not until after he had killed Redwald's son, Regner. Edwin, who thus obtained possession of the kingdom of Northumberland, passing at once from the condition of an exiled and dependant fugitive to that of a powerful A.D. 680. — THE BISUOFBIC OP HEHGFOBD FOUNDED BT MILFRIDK, A NOBLEMAN. A.v. 604. — THB Bisnoriiis or lohson rouxDiD bt bthblbirt. lEnglantr.— ^^e l|cptarc^B« 55 monarch, displayed ability equal to the lat- ter lot as he had displayed firm and dieni- fied resignation in the former. Just, out inflexibly severe in restraining his subjects from wrong-doing, he put such order into the kingdom, which at his accession was noted for its licentiousness and disorder, that of him, as of some other well-governing princes, the old historians relate that he caused viduable proijerty to be exposed un- guarded upon the hi^h roads, and no man dared to appropriate it. A mere figurative and hyi^erbolical anecdote, no doubt ; but one which evidences the greatness of the truth on which such an exaggeration must be founded. Nor was it merely within even the wide limits of his own kingdom that the fine character of Edwin was appreciated ; it pro- cured him admiration and proportionate in- fluence throughout the Heptarchy. His be- nefactor, Redwald, king of the East Angles, being involved in serious disputes with hin subjects, was overpowered by them and put to death. The conduct of Edwin, both while a fugitive and a sojourner among them and in his subsequent prosperity and greatness, caused them to offer him their throne. But they were incapable of understanding the whole greatness of his spirit. He had too deep and abiding a sense of gratitude for the favours he owed to Redwald, and, still more, to the queen of that prince, to see their offspring disinherited ; and, instead of accepting the offered throne, he threatened the East Angles with chastisement in the event of their refusing to nive possession of it to the rightful owner, Earpwold, second heir of the murdered king. Earpwold ac- cordingly ascended the throne, and was protected upon it by the power and reputa- tion of Edwin. Edwin married Ethelborga, daughter of Ethelbert, king of Kent, by Bertha, to whom, chiefly, that monarch and his people had owed their conversion to Christianity. Of such a mother, Ethelburga on the occa- sion of her marriage proved herself the worthy daughter ; she, as her mother had done, stipulated for full and free exercise of her religion, and she also took with her to her new realm a learned bishop, by name Faulinus. Very soon after her marriage she began to attempt the conversion of her husband. Calm and deliberate in all that he did, Edwin would not allow the merely human feeling of conjugal affection to de- cide him in a matter so vitally important as an entire change of religion. The most that her affectionate importunity could obtain, was his promise to give the fullest and most serious attention to all the arguments that might be urged in favour of the new faith that was offered to him ; and, accordingly, he not only held frequent and long confer- ences with Paulinus, but also laid before the gravest and wisest of his councillors all the arguments that were urged to him by that prelate. Having undertaken the enquiry in a sincere p.nd teachable spirit, he could not fail to be convinced ; and the truth having fallen brightand full upon his enlightened mind, he openly declared him- self a convert to Christianity. His conver- sion and baptism were followed by those of the greater part of his people, who were the more easily persuadea to this great and total change of faith when they saw their chief priest, Coifl, renounce the idolatry of which he had been the chief pillar and pro- pounder, and excel in his conoclastic zeal against the idols to which he had so long ministered, even the Christian bishop, Pau- linus himself. The reign of Edwin produced gnat bene, fit to his people, but rather by nis activity and industry than by its length, he being slain in the seventeenth year of his reign in a battle which he fought against Csed- walla, king of the Welch Britons, and Penda, king of Mercia. At the death of Edwin the kingdom of Northumberland was dismembered, and its inhabitants for the most part fell back into paganism. So general, indeed, was the defection from Christianity, that the wi- dowed Ethelburga returned to her natal kingdom of Kent, and was accompanied by Paulinus, who had been made archbishop of York. After the dismembered kingdom of Nor- thumberland had been torn by much petty but ruinous strife, the severed portions were again united by Oswald, brother of Eanfrid, and son of the usurper Adelfrid. Oswald was strongly opposed by the Britons under the command of the warlike Cadwalla; but the Britons were so desperately beaten that they never again made any general or vigorous attack upon the Saxons. As soon as he had re-established the unity of the Northumbrian kingdom, Oswald also re- stored the Christian religion, to which he was zealously attached. It is, probably, rather to this than to any of his other good qualities, that lie owes the marked favour in which he is held bv the monkish historians, who bestow the highest possible praises upon his piety and charitv, and who more- over affirm that his mortal remains had the power of working miracles. Oswald was slain in battle ag^ainst Penda, the king of Mercia. After his death the history of the kingdom of Northumberland is a mere melange of usurpations, and of all the distractions of civil wr ., up to the time when Egbert, king of Wessex, reduced it, in common with the rest of the Hep- tarchy, to obedience to his rule. CHAPTER IV. The Heptarchy (continued). Trk kingdom of East Anglia was founded by Uffa; but its history affords no instruc- tion or amusement : it is, in fact, in the words of an eminent historian, only " a long bead-roll of barbarous names," until we arrive at the time of its annexation to the powerful and extensive kingdom of Mercia, to which we now proceed to direct the read- er's attention. Mercia, the most extensive of all the kingdoms of the Heptarchy, could not fail A.D. 710.— THB WOnSBIP OP IHAOBS INTRODUCES ISTO ENQLAND. i i A. D. 739. — THX LOBD's PBATBB and CBBBD TAVeBT III THB SAXON TONOUB. 66 ^^e ^reasurg of ^istor^) Sec. to be verjr powerful whenever ruled by a brave or wise king. Situatedin the middle of the island, it in some one point or more touched each of the other six kingdoms. Fenda. in battle against whom we have already described Oswald of Northumber- land to have lost both throne and life, was the first really powerful and disting^shed king of Mercia; but he was distinguished chiefly for personal courage and the tyran- nous and violent temper in which he so exerted that quality as to render himself the terror or the detestation of all his con- temporary English princes. Three kings of East Anglia, Sigebert, Egric, and Annas, were in succession slain in attempting to oppose him— as did Edwin and Oswald, de- cidedly the most powerful of the kings of Northumberland; and yet this monarch, who wroup^ht such havoc among his fellow- princes, did not ascend his throne until he was more than fifty years of age. Oswy, brother of Oswald, now encountered him, and Penda was slain ; this occurred in the year 65fi, and the tyrannical and fierce war- rior, whom all hated and many feared, was succeeded by his son, Penda, whose wife was a daughter of Oswy. This princess was a Christian, and, like Bertha and Ethel- burga, she so successfully exerted her con- jugal influence, that she converted her hus- band and his subjects to her faith. The exact length of this monarch's reign is as uncertain as the manner of his death. As regards the latter, one historian boldly as- serts thct he was treacherously put to death by the order and connivance of his queen ; but this seems but little to tally with her acVnowledged and affectionate zeal in con- verting him to Christianity; and as no- thing m the shape of proof can be produced to support BO improbable a charge, we may pretty safely conclude that either ignorance or malice has given a mistaken turn to some circumstances attending his violeut death. He was succeeded by his son Wolf- here, who inherited his father's courage and conduct ; and not merely maintained his own extensive kingdom in excellent order, but also reduced Essex and East Anglia to dependance upon it. He was succeeded by his brother, Ethelrcd, who showed that he inherited his spirit as well as his kingdom. Though a sincere lover of peace and willing to miuce all honourable sacritices to obtain and preserve it, he was also both willing and able to show himself a stout and true soldier when the occasion really demanded that he should do so. Being provoked to invade Kent, he made a very successful in- cursion upon that kingdom ; and when his own territory was invaded by Egfrid, king of Northumberland, he fairly drove that monarch back again, and slew Elfwin, Eg- frid's brother, in a pitched battle. He reign- ed creditably and prosperously for thirty years, and then resigning the crown to his nephew, Kendrid, lie retired to the monas- tery of Burdney. Kendrid, in his turn, be- coming wearied of the cares and toils of royalty, resigned the crown to Ceolred, the son of Ethelred; he then went to Rome, and there passed the remainder of his life in devout preparation for another and a better world. Ceolred was succeeded by Ethelbald, and the latter by Offa, who as- cended the throne in the year 7^9 : he was an active and warlike prince. Very early in his reign he defeated Lothaire, king of Kent, and Kenwulph, king of Wessex ; and annexed Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire to his already large dominions. But though brave, he was both cruel and treacherous. Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, had ' paid his addresses to the daughter of Offa, and was accepted as her affianced husband, and at length invited to Hereford to cele- brate the marriage. But in the very midst of the feasting and amusements incident to 80 important and joyful an event, the young prince was seized upon by order of Offa, and barbarously beheaded. The whole of his retinue would have shared the same fate, but that Elfrida, the daughter whom OSh thus barbarously deprived of her affianced husband, found out what cruelty had been exercised upon their master, and took an opportunity to warn them of their danger. Their timely escape, however, did not in the least affect the treacherous ambition of Offa, who seized upon East Anglia. As he grew old, Offa became tortured with remorse for his crimes, and, with the super- stition common to his age, sought to atone for them by ostentatious and prodigal libe- rality to the church. He gave the tithe of all his property to the church ; l&vished do- nations upon the cathedral of Hereford; and made a pilgrimage to Rome, where his wealth and consequence readily procured him the absolution of the pope, whose es- pecial favour he gained by undertaking to support an English college at Rome. In order to fulfil this promise, he, on his return to England, imposed a yearly tax of thirty Eence upon each house in his kingdom ; the ke tax for the same purpose being subse- quently levied upon the whole of England, was eventually claimed by Rome as a tri- bute, under the name of Peter's pence, in despite of the notorietjr of the fact that it was originally a free gift, and levied only upon one kingdom. Under the impression or the pretence that he had been lavoured with an especial command revealed to him in a vision, this man, once so cruel and now 80 superstitious, founded and endowed a magnificent abbey at St. Albans, in Hert- fordshire, to the honour of the relics of St. Alban the Martyr, which he asserted that he had found at that place. Ill as Off'a had acquired his great weight in the Heptarchy, his reputation for cou- t&ge and wisdom was so great, that he attracted the notice and was honoured both with the political alliance and the personal friendship of Charlemagne. After a long reign of very nearly forty years, he died in the year 794. Offa was succeeded by his son Egfrith, who, however, survived only the short space of five months. He was succeeded by Ke- nulph, who invaded the kingdom of Kent, barbarously mutilated the king, whom he A. D. 7S8.— OROAHS FIBBI INTBODDCBD INTO DITIHB WGBSHIF. A.O. 7(>0> — All IlfTBNSB rSOST WHICH I.ASTRO PROM OCTOBBB TO FIBBUAB . lEnglanTJ — tH^t l^cptartl^e. 67 took prisoner and dethroned, and crowned bis own brother Cuthred in his stead. Ke- nulph, as if by a retributive justice, was killed in a revolt of the East Anglians, fof whose kingdom he held possession, through the treachery and tyrannous cruelty of Offa. After the death of Kenulph the throne was usually earned and vacated by murder; and in this anarchical condition the king- dom remained until the time of Egbert. And here we may remark, en pattant, that neither in its political nor civil organiza- tion did the Anglo-Saxon state of society exhibit higher examples of social order than are usually to be found in communities en- tering on the early stages of civilization, Essex and Sussex were the smallest and the most insignificant of all the kingdoms of the Heptarchy, and deserve no particular mention, even in the most voluminous and detailed history until the union of the whole Heptarchy, to which event we shall now hasten. We have already spoken of the stout re- sistance which the Britons made to Cerdic and his son Kcnric, the founders of the kingdom of Wcf sex. A succession of am biticus and warlike kings greatly extended the terrttoi-y and increased the importance of this kingdom, which was extremely powerful, though in much internal dis- order, when its throne was ascended by Egbert, in the year 800. This monarch came into possession of it under some pe- culiar advantages. A great portion of his life had been spent at the court of Charle- magne, and he had thus acquired greater polish and knowledge than usually fell to the lot of the Saxon kings. Moreover, war and the merit attached to unmarried life had so completely extinguished the original royal famiUes, that Egbert was at this time the sole male royal descendant of the ori- ginal conquerors of Britain, who claimed to be the descendants of Woden, the chief deity of their idolatrous ancestors. Immediately on ascending the throne, Egbert invaded the Britons in Cornwall, and inflicted some severe defeats upon them. But before he could completely sub- due their country, he was called away from that enterprize by the necessity of defend- ing his own country, which had been in- vaded in his absence by Bernulf, king of Mercia. Mercia and Wessex were at this time the only two kingdoms of the Heptarchy which had any considerable power ; and a struggle between Egbert and Bernulf was, as each felt and confessed it to be, a struggle for the sole dominion of the whole island. Ap- parently, at the outset, Mercia was the most advantageously circumstanced for carrying on this struggle: for that kingdom had placed its tributary princes in the kingdoms of Kent and Essex, and had reduced East Anglia to an almost equal state of sub- jection. Egbert, on learning the attempt that Bernulf was making upon his kingdom, hastened by forced marches to arrest his progress, and speedily came to close quar- ters with him at Elandum in Wilts. A sanguinary and obstinate battle ensued. Both armies fought with spirit, and both were very numerous; but the fortune of the day was with Egbert, who completely routed the Mercians. Nor was he, after the battle, remiss in following up the great blow he had thus struck at the only En- glish power that could for an instant pre- tend to rivalry with him. He detached a force into Kent under his son Ethelwolf, who easily and speedily expelled Baldred, the tributary king, who was supported there by Mercia ; Egbert himself at the same time entering Mercia on the Oxfordshire side. Essex was conquered almost with- out "n effort : ind the East Anglians, with- out wai, i(r f"-. the approach of Egbert, roseagairsic tie power of Bernulf, who lost his life in th'j attempt to reduce them again to the servitude which his tyranny had ren- dered intolerable. Ludican, the successor of Bernulf, met with the same Inte after two years of constant struggle and frequent defeat ; and Egbert now found no difliculty in penetrating to the very heart of the IMercian territory, and subduing to his will a people whose spirit was thoroughly broken by a long and constant succession of calamities. In order to reconcile them to their subjection to him, he skilfully flattered them with an empty show of in- dependence, by allowing their native king, Wiglaf, to hold that title as his tributary, though with the firmest determination that the title should not carry with it an iota of real and independent power. He was now, by the disturbed and turbu- lent condition of Northumberland, invited to turn his arms against that kingdom. But the Northumbrians, deeply impressed with his high reputation for valour and success, and probably sincerely desirous of being under the strong stern government of one who had both the power and the will to put an end to the anarchy and con- fusion to which they were a prey, no sooner heard of his near approach than they ren- dered all attack on his part wholly unne- cessary, by sending deputies to meet him with an offer of their submission, and with power to take, vicariously, oaths of allegi- ance to him. Sincerely well pleased at being thus met even more than half way in his wishes, Egbert not only ^ave their en- voys a very gracious reception, but also voluntarily allowed them the power to elect a tributary, king of their own choice. To East Anglia he also granted this flattering but hollow and valueless privilege; and thus secured to himself the good will of the people whom he had subjected, and the interested fidelity of titular kings, whose royalty, such as it was, depended upon his breath for its existence, and who, being on the spot, and having only a comparatively limited charge, could detect and for their own sakes would apprise him of the slight- est symptoms of rebellion. The whole of the Heptarchy was now in reality subjected to Egbert, whom, dating from the year 827, we consider as the first king of England. A. D. 762. — BURIALS, FOHMERLT IN TUB UIOUWAY3, NOW FEBMITTBD IN TOWNS. ■lit' It. • k \ I' ' f^ I li \ .|i THB RBLISIOIf OF TBI* FBBIOD CONSISTXD OF lOBH* ANB '" 58 ^l^e ^Ycasuro of l^istory, $cc. CHAPTER V. 7A« Anglo-Saxont ofter the Vinolution cf iht Heptarchy. — Reign* a body of these bold and unscrupulous pirates landed in that kingdom. That their intention was hostile there can be little doubt ; for, when merely questioned about it, they slew the magistrate, and hastily made off. In the year 794 they landed in Northumberland, and completely sacked a monastery; but a storm preventing them from making their escape, they were sur- rounded by the Northumbrian people, and completely cut to pieces. During the first five years of Egbert's supreme reign in England, neither domes- tic disturbances nor the invasion of foreign foes occurred to obstruct his measures for promoting the prosperity of his people. But about the end of that time, ana while he was still profoundly engaged in promot- ing the peaceable pursuits which were so necessary to the wealth and comfort of the kingdom, a Lurae of Danes made a sudden descent upon the isle of Sheppey, plundered the inhaoitants to a preat amount, and made their debarkation in safety, and almost without any opposition. Warned by this event of his liability to future visits of the same unwelcome nature, Egbert held him- self and a competent force in readiness to receive them ; and, when in the follovring year (a.d. 632), they landed from thirty-five Bhi;;.8 upon the coast of Dorset, they were suddenly encountered by Egbert, near Charmouth, in that county. Au obstinate and severe contest ensued, in which the Danes lost a great number of their force, and were, at length, totally defeated ; but, as they were skilfully posted, and had taken care to preserve a line of communication with the sea, the survivors contrived to escape to their ships. Two years elapsed from the battle of Charmouth before the pirates agt^in made their appearance; and, as in that battle they had suffered very severely, the English began to hope that they would not again THB PEOPLE CONSISTED OF TWO CLASSES— FREEMEN AND SLATES. A.D. alO. — TBM (COT* BT OOHTINVAI. WAMI MAS BXTIkrAHD tm* PICTf. oadcd into rc- rty bjr tire, and by the aword, gan Saxons of 1 Jutland and though incor- iatian faith by ian champion a former hati'- if the cruelties bleand dividod ide the French d invaders, the :s, and Saxons, general name made descents ies of France, astating enter- d, as we have ity to France, a marauders as 3 country ; and ually Christian Uly hated, and 8 of spoliation the reign of (Vessex, in 787, unscrupulous im. That their : can be little estioned about :e, and hastily they landed in letely sacked a eventing them they were sur- an people, and :» of Egbert's leither domes- sion of foreign measures for >f his people, me, and while ;ed in promot- which were so comfort of the nade a sudden pey, plundered amount, and ety, and almost arned by this 'e visits of the bert held him- 1 readiness to the following rom thirty-flve rset, they were Egbert, near An obstinate in which the Df their force, lefeated; but, and had taken immunication contrived to the battle of es ag^in made n that battle y, the English uld not again rss. lEnglantr.— 'iSnglo^S^axon Kings. 69 return to molest them. But the Danes, knowing the ancient and abiding enmity that existed between the Saxons and the British remnant in Cornwall, entered into an alliance with the latter, and, landing in their country, had an easy and open road to Devonshire and the other fertile pro- vinces of the West. But here again the activity and unslumbering watchfulness of Egbert enabled him to limit their ravages merely to their first furious onset. He came up with them at Hengesdown, and again tney were defeated witn a great di- minution of their numbers. This was the last service of brilliant im- Iiortance that Egbert performed for Eng- and; and just as there was every appear- ence that his valour and sagacity would be more than ever necessary to the safety of the country, he died, in the year 838, and was succeeded by his son Ethelwolf. The very first act of Ethelwolf's reign was the division of the country which the wisdom and ability of his father, aided by singular good fortune, had so happily united. Threatened as the kingdom so fre- quently was from without, its best and chiefcit hope obviously rested upon its union, and the consequent facility of con- centrating its whole fighting force upon any threatened point. But, unable to see this, or too indolent to bear the whole go- vernment of the country, Ethelwolf made over the whole of Kent, Sussex, and Essex, to his son Athelstan. It was fortunate that, under such a prince, who at the very outset of his reign could commit an error so capital, England had, in most of her principal places, magistrates or governors of bravery and ability. Thus Wolfhere, governor of Hampshire, put to the rout a strong party of the ma- rauders who had landed at Southampton, from no fewer than three-andthirty sail; and, in the same year, Athellielm, gover- nor of Dorsetshire, encountered and de- feated another powerful body of them who had landed at Portsmouth : though, in this case, unfortunately, the gallant governor died of his wounds. Aware of the certain disadvantages to which they would be ex- posed in fighting pitched battles in an enemy's country, the Danes, in their sub- sequent landing, took all possible care to avoid the necessity of doing eo. Tiicir ^lan was to swoop suddenly down upon a retired part of the coast, plunder the country as far inland as thejr could prudentlv advance, and re-embark with their booty before any considerable force could be got together to oppose them. In this manner they plun- dered East Anglia and Kent, and their de- predations were the more distressing, be- cause they, by no means, limited them- selves to booty in the usual sense of that term, but carried off men, women, and even children into slavery. The frequency and the desultoriness of these attacks, at length, kept the whole country coastward in a nerpetual state of anxiety and alarm ; the inhabitants of each place fearing to hasten to assist the inhabi- tants of another place, lest some other party of the pirates, in the mean time, should ravage and bum their own homes. There was another peculiarity in this kind of warfare, which, to one order of men, at least, made it more terrible than even civil war itself; making; their descents not merely in the love of gain, but also in a burning and intense hatred of Christianity, the Danes made no distinction between laymen and clerks, unless, indeed, that they often showed themselves, if possible, more inex- orably cruel to the latter. Uaving their cupidity excited by large and frequent booty, and being, moreover, flushed with their successes on the coast of France, the Danes or Northmen at length made their appearance almost annually in England. In each succeeding year they appeared in greater numbers, and conducted themselves with greater audacity : and they now visited the English shores, in such swarms, that it was apparent they contem- plated nothing less than the actual con- quest and settlement of the whole country. Dividing themselves into distinct bodies, they directed their attacks upon different fioints ; but the Saxons were naturally war- ike; the governors of most of the import- ant places seaward were, as we have al- ready remarked, well fitted for their impor- tant trust ; and the very frequency of the at- tacks of the Danes had induced a vigilance and organization among the people them- selves which rendered it far less easy than it had formerly been to anrprize them. At Wiganburgh the Danes were defeated with very great losa by Ceorle, governor of Devonshire ; while another bod* of the marauders was attacked and defeated by Athelstan, in person, off Sandwich. In this case, in addition to a considerable loss in men, the Danes bad nine of their vessels sunk, and only saved the rest by a pre- cipitate flight. But in this year the Danes showed a sign of audacious confidence in their strength and resources which pro- mised but ul for the future repose of Eng- land; for though they had been severely chastised in more than one quarter, and had sustained the loss of some of their bravest men, the main body of them, instead of retreating wholly from the island, as they usually had done towards the close of the autumn, fortified themselves in the Isle of Sheppy, and made it their winter quarters. The promise of early recom- mencement of hostilities that was thus tacitly held out was fully and promptly fulttUed. Earl^ in the spring of 852, the Danes who had wintered in the Isle of Thanet, were reinforced by the arrival of a fresh horde, in 350 vessels; and the whole marched from the Isle of Thanet inland, burning and destroying whatever was not suffi- ciently portable for plunder. Brichtric, who — so far had Ethelbert allowed the dis- junction of the kingdom to proceed — was now g^ovemor and titular khig of Mercia, made a vain attempt to resist them, and was utterly routed. Canterbury and A.D. 864. — STHBI.WOI.V ORANIS OBKAT FRITILB0B8 TO IHB CLBROT. ' 8 i I ETnKLBBIIT's REION WAS ONB CONTINUED SCENE OF DANISU INVASIONS. 60 ^ffz SFreasure of l^istory, $cc. London were sacked and burned, and the disorderly bands of the victorious onem/ spread into the very heart of Surrey. Ethel- wolf, though an indolent kinji;, was by no means destitute of a certain princely pride and daring. Enraged beyond measure at the audacity of the marauders, and deeply Krieved at the sufferings which they in- flicted upon his subjects, he assembled the West Saxons, whom, accompanied by his second sou Ethelbald as his lieutenant, he led against the most considerable body of the Danes. He encountered them at Okely, and, although they fought with their usual reckless and pertinacious courage, the Saxons discomfited and put them to flight. This victory gave the country at least a temporary respite j for the Danes had suf- fered so much by it, that they were glad to postpone further operations, and seek shelter and rest within their intrenchment in the Isle of Thanet. Thither they were followed by Huda and Ealher, the governors of Surrey and Kent, who bravely attacked them. At the commencement of the action the advantage was very considerably on the side of the Saxons : out the fortune of war suddenly changed, tht Danes recovered their lost ground, and the Saxons were totally routed, both their gallant leaders remaining dead upon the field of battle: A.D. 8S3. Desperate as the situation of the country was, and threatening as was the aspect of the Danes, who, after defeating Huda and Ealher removed from the Isle of Thanet to that of Sheppey, which they deemed more convenient for winter quarters, Ethclwolf, who was extremely superstitious and bi- gotted, and who, in spite of the occasional Hashes of chivalric spirit which lie exhi- bited, was far more fit for a monk than for eilher a monarch or a military commander, this year resolved upon making a jiilgrim- uge to Rome. He went, and carried nith him his fourth son, the subsequently " Great" Alfred, but who was then a child of only six years old. At Rome Ethclwolf re- mained for a year, passing his time in prayer ; earning the flatteries and the favour of the monks b^ liberalities to the church, on which he lavished sums whiuh were but too really and terribly needed by his own im- poverished and suffering country. As a specimen of his profusion in this pious squandering, he gave to the jiapal see, in Serpetuity, the yearly sum of tnree hun- red maucuses — each uiaucus weighing, says Ilumc, about the same as the Englisn half crown, — to be applied in three equal portions : 1st, the providing and maintain- ing lamps for St. Peter's ; ind, for the same to St. Paul's, and Srdli/, for the use of the pope himself. At the end of the year's re- sidence which he had promised himself he returned home ; happily for his subjects, whom his prolonged stay at Home could not have failed to impoverish ; his fooliKli facility in giving, being not a whit more re- markable than tlic unscrupulous alacrity of the papal court in taking. On reaching England, f court in taking, he was far more astonished than gratified at the state of affairs there. Athel- stan, his eldest son, to whom, as we have before mentioned, he had given Kent, Sussex, and Essex, had been some time dead ; and Ethelbald, the second son, hav- ing, in consequence, assumed the regency of the kingdom during his father's absence, had allowed filial affection and the loyalty due to a sovereign to be conquered by am- bition. Many of the warlike nobility held Ethclwolf in contempt, and did not scruple to affirm that he was far more fit for cowl and cloister than for the warrior's weapon and the monarch's throne. The young and ambitious prince lent too facile an ear to these disloyal deridcrs, and suffered himself to be persuaded to join and head a party to dethrone his father x'-.i set him- self up in his place. But Ethclwolf, though despised by the ruder and fiercer nobles, was not without numerous and sincere friends ; his party, long as he had been ab- sent, was as strong and as zealous as that of the prince ; both parties were of impe- tuous temper and well inclined to decide the controversy by blows ; and the country seemed to be upon the very brink of a civil vnr, of which the Danes would no doubt i>.ive availed themselves to subject the island altogether. But this extremity was prevented By Ethclwolf himself, who volun- tarily proffered to remove all occasion of strife by sharing his kingdom with Ethel- bald. 'fhe division wan accordingly made ; the king contenting himf^clf with the eastern moiety of the kingdom, which, be- sides other points of inferiority, was far the most exposed. It were scarcely reasonable to expect that he who had not shrewdness and firmness enough to protect his own rights and inte- rests, would prove a more efficient guardian of those of his people. His residence at Rome had given the papal court end the clergy a clear view of the whole extent of the weakness of his nature; and the faci- lity with which he had parted with his cash in exchange for hollow and cozening compliments, marked him out as a prince exactly fitted to aid the English clergy in their endeavours to aggrandize themselves. And the event proved the correctness of their judgment ; for at the very same time that he presented the clergy with the tithes of all the land's produce, which they had never yet received, though the country had been for nearly two centuries divided into parishes, he expressly exempted them and the church revenues, in general, from every sort of tax, even though made for national defence ; and this at a moment when the national exigencies were at their greatest height, and when the national peril was such, that it might have been supposed that even a wise selfishness would have in- duced the clergy to contribute towards its support ; the more especially, as towards them ond their property the Danes had ever exhibited a ncculiar malignity. Ethclwolf died in 857, about two years after he had granted to the English clergy the important boon of the tithes ; and he. 2 li h : nUniNG RTIIBI.DAM) S It'ilON KNOI.AND WAS UNMOLESTED DY TUB DANES. A8I0NS. there. Athel- 1, as we have given Kent, in some time :ond son, hav- d the regency [her'8 absence, jd the loyalty quered by am- 1 nobility held lid not scruple re fit for cowl rrior's weapon The young 10 facile an ear and suffered 9in and head a r »<-.i set him- elwolf, though fiercer nobles, s and sincere e had been ab- cealouB as that I were of impe- lined to decide nd the country brink of a civil i-ould no doubt subject the 1 extremity was self, who volun- all occasion of om with Ethel- ordingly made ; isclf with the lorn, which, be- rity, was far the c to expect that IS and firmness lights and into- Kcient guardian is residence at . court and the vhole extent of i; and the faci- )Brted with his w and cozening out ns a prince iiglish clergy in lizc themselves. correctness of very same time y with the tithes which they had the country had ries divided into apted them and leral, from every lade lor nationiu anient when the It their greatest tional peril was been supposed s would have in- buto towards its ally, as towards the Danes had mllgnity. about two years e English clergy i tithes ; aud he, a HR DANES. A. D. 869. — THE TMiNBS SET FIBR TO TDB CITT OF YORK. ^EnglanU.— 'anglo=Saxon ISings. 61 by will, confirmed to Ethelbald the western moiety of the kingdom, of which he had already put him in possession, and left the eastern moiety to his second eldest surviv- ing son Ethelbert. The reign of Ethelbald was short; nov was his character sur\i as to make it desir- able for the sake of his people that it had been longer. He was of extremely de- bauched habits, and gave especial scandal and disgust to his people by marrying his mother-in-law, Judith, the second wife of his deceased father. To the comments of the people upon this incestuous and dis- graceful connection he paid no attention ; but the censure of the church was not to be so lightly regarded, and the advice and aut hority of Swithin, bishop of Winchester, induced him to consent to be divorced. He died in the year 860, and was succeeded by his brother Ethelbert; and the kingdom thus, once more, was united under one so- vereign. CHAPTER VI. The Reign* qf Ethelbert and Ethelred. The reign of Ethelbert was greatly dis- turbed by the frequent descents of the Danes. On one occasion they made a fu- rious attack upon Winchester, and did an immense deal of mischief in the neighbour- hood, but were finally beaten off with great loss ; and, on another occasion, the horde of them that was settled in the Isle of Thanet, having thrown Ethelbert off his guard by their apparent determination to keep sacred a treaty into which they had entered with him, suddenly broke from their quarters, inarched in great numbers into Kent, and there committed the most wanton outrages in addition to seizing im- mense booty. Ethelbert reigned solely over England but little more than five years ; he died in 8fifi, and was succeeded by his brother Ethelred. He, too, was greatly harassed by the Danes. Very eariy in his reign, con- nived at and aided by the East Angles, who even furnislicd them with the horses neces- sary for their ]predatory expedition, they made their way into the kingdom of Nor- thumberland, and seized upon the wealthy and important city of York. iElla and Osbrlcht, two high-spirited Northumbrian princes, endeavoured to cxiiel them, but wore defeated, and perished in the assault. Flushed with this success, the Danes now marched, under the command of their ter- rible leaders, Hubba and Hinguar, into Mercia, and after much carnage and rapine establisbed themselves in Nottingham, from which central situation they menaced the ruin of the whole kingdom. The Mercians finding that their local authorities and local forces were no match for desperadoes so numerous aud so determined, dispatched messengers to Ethelred, imploring his per- sonal interference on their behalf; and the king, accompanied by his brother Alfred, who had already begun to display those ta- lents which subsequently won him an im- perishable fame, inarched to Nottingham with a powerful army, a.b. 8/0. The gallantry and activity of the king and his brother speedily drove the Danes from Mercia, and they retired into Nor- thumberland with the apparent design of remaining there quietly. Uut peace was foreign to their very nature ; and, forgetful of their recent obligations to the treachery of the East Angles, they suddenly rushed forth upon them, butchered Edmund, their tributary prince, in cold blood, and com- mitted the most extensive havoc and depre- dations, especially upon the monasteries. The Danes having, in 871, made Keading a station, from which they greatly harassed the surrounding country, Ethelred deter- mined to dislodge them. On desiring the aid of the Mercians he was disloyally re- used; they, unmindful oi the benefit they had received from him, being desirous of getting rid of their dependance upon him, and becoming a separate people as in the Heptarchy. Even this shameful conduct of the Mercians could not move Ethelred from his purpose. Aided by Alfred, from whom, during his whole reign, he received the most zealous and cftlcicnt assistance, he raised a largo force of his hereditary sub- jects, the West Saxons, and marched against Reading. Being defeated in an ac- tion without the town, the Danes retreated within the gates, and Ethelred commenced a seige, but was driven from before the place Dy a sudden and well-conducted sally of the garrison. An action shortly after- wards took place at Aston, not far from Reading, at which an incident occurred which gives us a strange notion of the man- ners of the age, A division of the English army under Alfred commenced the battle, and was so skilfully surrounded by the enemy while yet in a disadvantageous posi- tion, and not fairly formed in order of bat- tle, that it was in the most imminent dan- ger of being completely cut to pieces. Alfred sent an urgent message to his brother for assistance; but Ethelred was hearing mass, and positively refused to stir a step until its conclusion. Had the day gone against the Saxons, Ethelred's con- duct on this occasion would probably have been censured even by the priests ; but as the Danes were put to the rout, and with signal slaughter, the whole credit of the victory was given to the piety of Ethelred. Beaten out of Berkshire, the Danes now took up a strong position at Basing, in Hants. Here they received a powerful re- inforcement from abroad, and sent out marauding parties in all directions witb great success. Such, indeed, was their suc- cess, that Englishmen of all ranks began to contemplate, with unfeigned terror, the near probability of their whole country being overrun by these merciless and greedy invaders. The anxiety of Ethelred occasioned by these gloomy prospects, which were still further increased by the impatience of the Mercians and others un- der his rule, so much increased the irrita- tion of a wound he had received in the bat- n m a r. A iJ O u n •* H iJ W m a b o « o a m H H H »< A < H O a TIIK llRinN OF UTUKI.UKn WAS MF.MUUAULK I'OU A OtlEAT I'l.AOVE. t« i k ^' i I t A.D. 876. — THIS TKAB ALFBVD POUOHT SBVEN BATTI.B8 WITH THB DANES. 62 ^^e treasure of l^fetore* ^c tie at Basing, that it terminated his li''. > in the year 871. CHAPTER VII. The Reign of Alfrti the Great. Alfred succeeded his brother Ethelred; and scarce were the funeral rites performed before he foand it necessary to march against the enemy, who had now seized upon Milton. At the outset, Alfred had considerably the advantage ; but his force was very wrak compared to that of the enemy, and, (Advancing too far, he not only missed the opportunity of completing their defeat, iiut even enabled them to claim the victory. But their victory — if such it was — cost them so manv of their bravest men that they became alarmed for the conse- quences of continuing the war, and entered into a treaty by which they bound them- selves altogether to depart from the kirig- dom. To enable them to do this they were conducted to London, but on arriving there the old leaven became too strong for their virtuous resolutions; and, breaking oflf from their appointed line of march, they began to plunder the country round London for many miles. Burthrcd, the tributary prince of Mcveia, of which L'ludon formed a part, thinking it improbable after his shameful desertion of Alfred's brother on a former occasion, that Alfred would now feel in- clined to assist him, made a treaty with the Danes, by which, in consideration of a con- siderable sum of money, they agreed to cp'ise from ravaging his dominions, and re- move themselves into Lincolnshire. They BO far fultiUed their part of the agreement a? to march into Lincolnshire; but they i . on former occasions laid that county waf '^0, and finding that it had not yet so far covered as to promise them anybootv woi'th having, they suddenly marched hack again upon Mercia ; then establishing them- selves at Repton, in Derbyshire, they com- menced their usual career of slaughter and rapine in that neighbourhood. This new instance of Danish perfidy filled Burthred with despair ; and seeing no probability of his being able either to chase the Danes away, or to render them peareably disposed either by force or bribe, he abandoned his territory altogether, proceeded to Rome, and there took up his abi de in a monas- tery, where he continued until his death, Burthred, who was brother-in-law to Alfred, was the last titular and tributary king of Mercia. The utter abandonment of the English cause by Burthred left it no other leading defender but Alfred ; a.d. H78. Brave anil able as that prince was, his situation was now truly terrible. New swarms of Danes came over, under the leadership of Guth- ruui, Osital, and Amund. One band of the host thus formed took up their quar- ters in Northumberland, luid another in Cambridge, vilience the latter marched for Wareham in Dorsetshire, and thus nettled thomsclvos in the very midst of Alfred's territory. This circumstanee, fnmi Alfred's superior knowledge of the country and his facility of obtaining supplies, gave him ad- vantages of which he so ably and promptly availed himself, that the Danes were glad to engage themselves to depart. They nad now, however, become so notorious for breaking their treaties, that Alfred, in con- cluding this one with them, resorted to an expedient very characteristic of that rude and superstitious age. He made them con- firm their pledges by oaths upon holy re- liques. He thought it unlikely that even Danes would venture to depart from an agreement made with a ceremony which was then thought so tremendous ; and even should they be impious enough to do so, he felt quite certain that their awful perjury would not fail to draw down utter destruc- tion upon them. But the Danes, who hated Christianity, and held its forms in utter contempt, lio sooner found themselves freed from the disadvantageous position in. which Alfred had placed them, than they fell with- out warning upon his astounded army, put it completely to flight, and then hastened to take possession of Exeter. Undismayed by even this new proof of the faithless and indomitable nature of the enemy, Alfred Lxerted himself so diligently, that be got together naw forces, and fought no fewer than eight considerable battles within twelve months. This vigour was more ef- fectual against such a foe than any treaty however solemn ; and they once more found themselves reduced to an extremity which compelled them to sue for peace. As Alfred's sole wish was to free his suhjects from the intolerable evils incident to hav- ing their country perpetually made the theatre of war, he cheerfully agreed to grant them peace and permission to settle on the coast, on the sole condition thet they should live peaceably with his sub- jects, and not allow any new invaders to ravage the country. While they were dis- tressed, and in danger, the Danes were well pleased with these terms, but just as the treaty was concluded a reinforcement arrived to them from abroad. All thouglit of peace and treaty was at once laid aside by them ; they hastened, in all directions, to join the new comers, seized upon the important town of Chippenham, and re- commenced their old system :>! plundering, niurdering, and destroying, in every direc- tion, for miles around their quarters. Tue Saxons, not even excepting the heroic Alfred himself, now gave up all hope of success in the struggle in which they haii so long and so bravely been engaged. Many fled to AVaUs and the continent, while the gen^- rality submitted to the invaders, contented to save life and laud at the expense of na- tional honour and individual freedom. It was in vain that Alfred reminded the chief men among the Saxons of tl>e sanguinary successes they had achieved in the time past, and endea>oured to persuade them that new successes would attend now ef- forts. Men's spirits were now so utterly subdued that the Danes were looked upon as irresistible; and the heroic and uni'ur- AT ALPRBn's COnONATION TUB CBUEMONY OP ANOINTINO WAS FIHST USBO. J i « ^ s A.D. 880. — TUB NATAL FOVBB OF ZNOLA.ND ORIOINATED WITH ALFRED. "1 ■ y and his re him ad- , promptly were glad They nad arious for ed, in con- »rted to an that rude them con- )n holy re- that even t from an ony which i; and even :o do 80, he ful perjury er destruc- , who hated \g in utter selves freed m in. which ey fell with- 1 army, put :n hastened Jndismayed uthlesa and ;my, Alfred that he got lit no fewer ties within as more ef- n any treaty ' I more found emity which peace. As his subjects lent to hav- made the , aRrced to ion to settle ndition thet .th his sub- invaders to ley were dis- Panes were , but just as linforccment All thought ;e laid aside 1 directions, ;d upon the am, and re- I plundering, every direc- artcrs. Tue heroic Alfred of success in . so long and riaiiy fled to ilc the gpn"- r», contented pense of na- Ireedom. It (led the chief e sanguinary in the time TBuade theui tend new <'f iw so utter)/ lookiid ujj.jn '. and unl'or- IT USKO. lEnglantf "anglosSaxon lyings. 63 tunate Alfred, unable to raise sufficient force to warrant him in again endeavour- ing to save his country from the yoke of the foreign foeman, was fain to seek safety in concealment, and to console himself in his temporary inactivity, with the hope that the oppressions of the Danes would be so unmeasured and intolerable, that even the most peace-loving and indolent of the Saxons would, at no distant day, be goaded into revolt. Unattended even by a ser- vant, Alfred, disguised in the coarse habit of a peasant, wandered from one obscure hiding-place to another. One of theso was the lowly hut of a neatherd, who had, in happier days, been in his service. The man faithfully obeyed the charge given to him by the king not to reveal his rank even to the good woman of the house. She, unsus- picious cf the quality of her guest, was at no pains to conceal her opinion thai bo able a man, in full health, and with an ex- tremely vigorous appetite, might find some better employment, bad though the times were, than moping about and muttering to himself. On one occasion she still more strongly gave hes" opinion of the idleness of her guest. lie was seated before the ample wood fire, putting his bow and arrows in order as she put some wheaten cakes down to bake ; and being called awny by some other domestic business, she desired Alfred to ' "ind the cakes, giving hiin especial charge to turn them trequently, lest they should be burned. The king promised due obedience, but scarcely had his imperious hostess left him when he fell into a pro- found reverie, on his own forlorn and aban- doned condition, and the manifold miseries of his country. It is probable that, during that long sad day-dream, more than one thought suggested itself to Alfred, by which England, at a future day, was to be greatly benefited. But, assuredly, bis thoughts were, for tl;at time at least, of little benefit to his hostess, who, on her return to the cottage, found the king deep bu/ied in his gloomy thoughts, and her cakes done, in- deed, but done— to a cinder. The good woman's anger now knew no bounds ; oaf, lubber, and lazy loon, were the mildest names which she bestowed upon him, as, with mingled anger and vexation, she con- trasted his indolence in the matter of ba- king, with his alacrity in eating what ho found ready baked for his i se. So successful had Alfred been in de- stroying all traccti of his vanderings, that Hubba and other leading Danes, who had at first made search aftei him with all the activity and eagemess of extreme hate, not unminelcd witli fear, ai length became pernuaded that he had cither quitted the country altogether, or pcrishr . miserably ere he could find means and o lortunity to do BO. Finding that his ent...ie8 had dis- continued their search after him, Alfred now began to conceive hones of being able once more to call .tome frienis to his" side. For this piirposo ho betook himself to SomersetRliire, to r. spot with which he had accidentally become acquainted, which singularly united obscurity and capability of being defended. A morass formed by the overflowing of the rivers Parret and Thame had nearly in its centre about a couple of acres of firm land. The morass itself was not safely practicable by any one not well acquainted with the concealed paths that led through it to the little terra Jlrma, and it was further secured from hostUe visitors by numerous other morasses no less diffi- cult and dangerous,whileby a dense growth of forest trees it was on every side envi- roned and sheltered. Here he built him- self a rude hut, and, having found means to communicate with some of the most faith- ful of his personal friends, it was not long before he was placed at the head of a smafl but valiant band. Sallying from this re- treat under the cover of the night, and al- ways, when practicable, returning again belorethe morning, he harassed andepoiled the Danes to a very great extent ; and his attacks were so sudden and so desultory that his enemies were unable either effect- ually to guard against them, or to conjectu: e from what quarter they proceeded. liven by this warfare, petty and desultory as it was, Alfred was doing good service to his CGiintry. For with the spoil which ho thus obtained he was enabled to subsist and from time to time to increase his fol- lowers ; and while his attacks, which could not be wholly unknown to the Saxon popu- lation, gave them vague hopes that armed friends were not wholly lost to them, they moderated the cruelty ^nd imperiousness of the Danes by constantly reminding them of the possibility of a successful and general revolt of the Saxons. For upwards of a year Alfred remained in this secure retreat, in which time he had gathered together a considerable number of Followers j and now at length his perse- verance had its reward in ar opportunity of once more meeting his foe? in the formal array of battle. _ Hubba, the most warlike of all the Da- nish chiefs, led u large army of his country- men to besiege the castle of Kinwith, in De- vonshire. The earl of that county, a brave and resolute man, deeming death in the battle field far nreferable to starving within his fortified walls, or life preserved by sub- mission to the' hated Danes, collected the whole of his garrison, and, having inspired them with his own brave determination, made a sudden sally upon the Danish camp in the darkness of night, killed Hubba, and routed the Danish force with immense slaughter. He at the same time captured tho enchanted Renfen, the woven ra.en which adorned the chief standord of tlie Danes, and the loss of which thtir super- stitious feelings made more terrible to them than that of their chief and their comrades who had perished. This Renfen had been woven into Hubba's standard by his three sisters, who accompanied their work with certain magical formulw which the Danes firmly believed to have given the rcDrcsent- cd bird the power of predicting the good or evil success of any enterprise liy the mo- A.D. 881. — TUB WELSH rniNCBB DID UOMAOK TO AI.PREn AS TBIBtJTARIKS. A. D. 888.— AirilBD BKSTOBBD LBABMINO IN TBB VNIVEBBITY OV OXFORD. f ; 64 '^\)z ^TrcaButB of 1|(store, $cc. tion of its wings. And, considering the great power of superstition over rude and untutored minds, it is very probable that the loss of this highly valued standard, co- inciding with not only the defeat, but also this death, of its hitherto victorious owner, struck such a general fear and doubt into the minds of the Danes, as very greatly tended to dispose them, shortly after, to make peace with Alfred. As soon as Alfred heard of the spirit and success with which the earl of Devonshire had defended himself and routed the most dreaded division of the Danish army, he re- solved to quit his obscure retreat and once more endeavour to arouse the Saxon popu- lation to arm)!. But as be had only too great and painful experience of the extent to which his unfortunate people had been depressed in spirit by their long continued ill fortune, he determined to act delibe- rately and cautiously, so as to avoid an ap- peal made cither too early to find the Sax- ons sufficiently recovered to make a new effort for their liberty, or too early to allow of the'r oeing prepared to make that effort successfully. Still leaving his followers to conceal themselves in the retreat of which we have spoken, he disguised himself as a harper, a very popular character in that day, and one which his great skill as a musiciaa enabled him successfully to maintain. In this cha- racter he was able to travel alike among Danes and Saxons without suspicious recog- nition ; and his music at once obtained him admission to every rank and the opportunity of conversing with every description of peo- ple. Emboldened by finding himself unsus- pected by even his own subjects, he now formed the bold project of penetrating the very camp of the enemy to note their forces and disposition. To soldiers in camp amuse- ment is ever welcome, and the skiltul music of Alfred not merely gratified the common soMiers and inferior ofilcers, but even pro- cured him, from their recommendations, admittance to the tent of Guthrum, their prince and leader. Here he remained long enough to discover every weak point of the enemy, whether as to the position of their camp, which was situated at Eddirgton, or as to the carelessness of discipline into which their utter contempt of the " Saxon swine " caused thcin to fall. Having made nil necessary observations he took the ear- liest opportunity to depart, and sent mes- sages to all the princii^ilSnxons upon whom he could depend, requiring them to meet him on a specified day, at Brixton, in the fo- rest of Selwood. The Saxons, who had long mourned their king as dead, and were groan- ing beneath the orutal tyrannies of the Danei, joyfully obeyed his summons, and at the appointed time he found himself sur- rounded 'ly a force so numerous ond so en- thusiastic as to give him just hopes of being able to attack the Danes with success. Knowing the importance of not allowing this cntnusiasm to cool, he wasted no time in uspless delay or vain form, but led them nt once to Guthrum's camp, of which his recent visit had made him acquainted with the most practicable points. Sunk in apa- thetic indolence, and thinking of nothmg less than of seeing a numerous band of English assembled to attack them, the Danes were so panic-struck and surprised that they fought with none of their accus- tomed vigour or obstinacy, and the battle was speedily converted into a mere rout. Great numbers of the Danes perished in this affair ; and though the rest, under the orders of Guthrum, fortified themselves iri a camp and made preparations for con- tinuing the struggle, they were so closely hemmed in by Alfred, that absolute hunger proved too strong for their resolution, and once more they offered to treat for peace with the mon whose mercy they had so often abused, and whose valour and ability they had long since believed, and exultingly be- lieved, to be buried in an obscure and pre- mature grave. The enduring and persevering inclination to clemency which he constantly displayed is by no means one of the least remarkable and admirable traits in the character of Alfred. Though he now4iad the very lives of his fell and malignant foes in his power, and though they were so conscious of their powerlessness that they offered to submit on any terms however humiliating, he gave them their lives without attempting to im- pose even moderately severe terms. Peace for his subjects was still the great lode-star of all his wiBhes and of all his polity ; and often as he hod been deceived by the Danes, his real magnanimity led him to believe that even their faithlesssness could not always be proof against mercy and indulgence ; he, therefore, not only gave them tlieir lives, but also full permission to settle in his country, upon the easy condition of living in peace with his other subjects, and hold- ing themselves bound to aid in the defence of the country in whose safety they would have a stake, should any new invasion ren- der their assistance necessary. Delighted to obtain terms so much more favourable than they had any right to hope for, Guth ■ rum and liis followers readily agreed to this ; but Alfred's mercy had no taint of weakness. He, with his usual sagacity, perceived that one great cause of the persevering hostility of the Danes to his suojects was their dii- ference of religion. Reflecting that such a cause would be perpetually liable to cause the Danes to break theirjpeaeeable inten- tions, he dem.inded that Cfuthrum and his people should give evidence of their since- rity by embracing the Christian religion. This, also, was consented to by the Danes, who were all baptized, Alfred himself be- comi) g theeodfatherof Guthrum, to whom he gave the iionourablc Christian name of Athelstan. The success of this measure fully justified the sagacity which had sug- gested it to Alfred. The Danes settled in Stamford, Lincoln, Nottinghom, Leicester, and Derby, were called the Five Burghers, and tlipy lived as peaceably as any other of Alfred's subjects, and gave him as little trouble. For some years after this sigr.al A.D. 890. — AI.KllKD INTIIODVCKD SI)lLUI!Va WITH DllICK AND STONK. }BD. .nted with ik in apa- f nothing 9 band of them, the Burpvised icir accus- the hattle ncre rout, erished in under the hemselves IS for con- so closely ite hunger ution, and for peace ad so often ibility they iltingly he- re and pre- inclination y displayed remarkable laracter of e very lives his power, )U8 of their to submit ig, he gave itmg to im- ms. Peace at lode-star polity; and ■ the Danes, believe that [not always ence; he, their lives, ttle in his of living and hold- he defence they would asion ren- Delighted favourable for, Guth . eed to this ; 'weakness, ceived that g hostility ,s their dit- :hat such a to cause able inten- mi and his heir since- n religion, the Danes, liimself be- n, to whom m name of measure li had RUj;- scttled in Leicester, Burghers, any other im as little this sigr.Al A.D. 997. — A MOST OESTBUCTITB VLAOUB CONTIKUEO FOH TBIIBB IIAKS. O c •«! M H > H BQ A M H < aa K •1 M 'I o H u «9 » O r. < M lEnglantJ — 'angIo=Saion 3Xin9». 65 triumph of Alfred's prowess and policy, England was unmolested by foreigt. in- vaders, excepting on one occasion when a numerous fleet of Danes sailed up the Thames, beyond London. They committed considerable havoc on their route, but on arriving at Fulham they found the country so well prepared by Alfred to resist them, that they made a panic retreat to their ships, an'vl departed with buch spoil as in their haste they were able to secure. Freed from the v/arlike bustle in which so large a portion of his hfe had been spent, Alfred now devoted himself to the task of regulating the civil affairs of the kingdom. He committed the former kingdom of Mer- ciato the government of his brother-in-law, Ethelbert, with the rank and title of earl or duke ; and in order to render the incorpora- tion of the Danes with the Saxons the more complete, he put them upon the same legal footing in every respect. In each division of the kingdom he established a militia force, and made arrangements for its concentra- tion upon any given point in the event of any new invasion. He also repaired the va- rious towns that had suffered in the long dis(>rders of the kingdom, and erected for- tresses in commanding situations, to serve both as depots for armed men, and as ral- lying points for the militia and levy, en maiae, of the country urouud, in case of need. But though the admirable military dispositions thus made by Alfred, made it certain that any invaders would find themselves hotly opposed in whatever quarter they might make their attack, Alfred was more anxious to have the internal peace of the country wholly unbroken, than 'o be obhged, how- ever triumphantly and surely, to chastise the disturbers of it; he therefore now turn- ed his attention to the organi7,ation of such a naval force as should be sulilcient to keep the piratical enemv front landing upon hi-i shores. He greatly increased the nuinbei- and strength of his shipping, and practised a large portion of hiii people in naval tactics, to which, considering their insular situa- tion, tl •' kings and people of Eng'end hud hithcito been strangely indifferent. The good effects of this wise precaution were soon manifest : squadrons of his armed ves- sels lay at so many and at such well-chosen positions, that the Danes, thnugjh they often cnme in great numbers, were either wholly prevented from landing, orinterceptedwhen retiring from before the land forces, and de- prived of their ill-gotten booty, and their chipH cither captured or sunk. In this man- ucr Alfred &„ length got together a hundred and twenty vessels, a very powerful fleet for that iimo ; and as his own subjects were at the outs«'t but indifferent sailor' i , ap- plied that defect by sparingly dib .ting among them skilful foreign seamen, from whom they soon learned all that was known of nnval tactics in that rude age. For some years Alfred reaped the reward of his admirable policy and untiring in- duEtry in the unbroken tranquillity of il"- country, which gave his subjects thr »>)ipi.r- tuuity of advancing in ail the useful acts, and of gradually repairing those evils which the long-continued internal wars had done to both their trade and their agriculture. But a. new trial wap still in store for both Alfred and his subjects. A. D, 893. Hastings, a Danish chieftain, who some years before had made a short predatory incursion into England, but who recently had confined bis ravages to France, finding that he had reduced that country, BO far as he could get access to it, to a con- dition which rendered it unproductive of farther booty, suddenly appeared this year off the coast of Kent, with an immense horde of his pirates, in upwards of three hundred vessels. Disembarking the main body in the Bother, and leaving it to guard the fort of Apuldore, which he surprised and seized, he, with a detachment of nearly a hundred vessels, sailed up the Thames as far as Milton, where he established his headquarters, whence he sent out his ma- rauding parties in everv direction. As soon as tidings of this new incursion reached Alfred, that gallant monarch concentrated an immense foice from the armed militia in various parts of the country, and marched against the enemy. Setting down before Milton and Apuldore, Alfred, by his supe- riority offeree, completely hemmed in the main bodies of the pirates, and their de- tached parties were encountered as they returned with their booty, and cut off to a man. Finding that, bo far from having any prospect of enriching themselves, they were, in fact, compelled to live in England upon the pluuder that they had seized i-.iival]ation around the pirates, delibe- ra'riy sat down with the determination of •itarving them into submission. They held out for some time, slaying their horses to sul»ist upon; but, at length, even'this mi- serable resource failing them, they sallied out in utter desperni:''!!. The most consi- derable portion of ili m fell in *be fierce contest that ensued; but a still formidab'e body escaped, and, rev.'igmg the country hi they passed along, wire pursued by Alfreti to Watford, in HenforJiihire. Hrre ano- ther severe action ensued, and the Danes were again defeated with great loss. The remnant found shelter on board the fleet of Sigefort, a Northumbrian Dane, who possessed ships of a construction very su- perior to th ISO of the generality ot his countrymen. The king pursued this fleet to tlie coast of Hampshire, slew a great number of thj pirates, captured twenty of their ships, and — even his enduring mercy being now wearied— hanged, at Winches- ter, the whole of his prisoners. The efficient and organized resistance which had of late been experienced by the pirates, and the plain indications given by the Winchester executions that the king was determined to show no more lenity to pirates, bui. to consign them to an ignomi- nious death, as common disturbers aud enemies of the whole human race fairly struck terror even into the hitherto incor- rigible Danes. Those of Northumberland and East Anglia, against whom Alfred now marched, deprecated his resentment by the humblest submission, and the most solemn assurances of their future peaceable beha- viour ; and their example was imitated by the Welch. The same admirable anangements which had enabled him to free his country from the Danes, were rtvw of infinite service to Alfred in restcing and enforcing order among his own subjects. It was almost inevitable tivat great disorders should pre- vail among a people who su fiequently, and during so many years, had been subjected to all the horrors and tumults incident to a country which is so ur happy as to be the theatre of war. In addition vo making very extensive and wise provisions for the true and efficient administration of justice in the superior courts, and framing a code for their guiuance, io excellent that its sub- Btancd and spirit subsist to this day in the common law of England, he most effec- tually provided for the repression of petty offences, as well as more serious ones, whether against persons or property ; and the manner in which he did so, like the manner in which he, as it were, made his whole kingdom a series of garrisons to re- strain the Danes, shows, that he, with ad- mirable genius, perceived the immense im- portance of an attention to details, and the ease with which many graduated efforts and arrangements will produce a result, which would be but in vain aimed at by any one effort however vast. Of what may be called the national police established by Alfred, we take the follow- ing brief and condensed, but extremely lucid and graphic, account from Hume : — " The English," says Hume, " reduced to the most extreme indigence by the con- tinued depredations of the Danes, had shaken off all bands of government ; end those who had been plundered to-day, be- took themselves on the morrow to the like disorderly life, and, from despair, joined the roobevs in pillaging and ruining their fel- V^v.-citizens. These were the evils for which it was necessary that the vigilance and ac- tivity of Alfred should provide a remedy. " That he might render the execution of justice strict and regular, he divided all England into counties; these counties he subdivided into hundreds, and the hun- f'reds again into tithings. Every house- holder was answerable for the behaviour of his family and his slaves, and even of his guests if they lived above three days in his house. Ten neighbouring householders were formed into one corporation, who, un- der the name of a tithing, decennary, 'v IIB WAS ALSO THE TRANSLATOH OP " OHOSlUs's HISTORY OF TUB PAO.iNS." ALFREU FBErABED A CODB OW LAWN IR THB LAST TBAB OF BIS BEIOX. lEnglantJ— ^n9lo=Saxon IKinga. 67 fribouTg, were answerable for each other's conduct, and over whom one man, called a tithing-man, headbourg, or bondholder, was appointed to preside. Every man was puuished as an outlaw who did not register himself in some tithing; and no man could change his habitation without a warrant or certiticate from the bondholder of the tith- ing to which he formerly belonged. When any person, in any tithing or de- cennary, was guilty of a crime, the bond- holder was suKmoned to answer for him; and if he were uot willing to be surety for his appearance and his clearing himself, the cnminal was committed to prison, and there detained till his trial. If he fled, either before or after finding surety, the bondholder and decennary became liable to enquiry, and were exposed to the penal- ties of the law. Thirty-one days were al- lowed them for producing the criminal ; and if the time elapsed without their being able to find him, the bondholder, with two other members of the decennary, was obliged to appear, and. together with three chief members of the three neighbouring decennaries, making twelve in all, to swear tha'. his decennary was free from all pri- vity, both of the crime committed and of the escape of the criminal. If the boud- huldcr could not find such a number to answer for their innocence, the decennary was compelled, by fine, to make satisfaction to t]ie king, according to the degree of the offence. By this institution every man was obliged, by his own interest, to keep a watchful eye over the conduct of his neigh- bour ; and was in a manner surety for the behaviour of those who were placed under the division to which he belonged ; whence these decennaries received the name of frank pledges. Such a regular distribution of the people, with such a strict confinement in their hesitation, may not be necessary in times w jn men are more inured to obedience and justice ; and it might perhaps be re- garded as destructive of liberty and com- merce in a polished state ; but it was well calculated to reduce that fierce and licen- tious people under the salutarv restraint of law and government. But Alfred took care to temper these rigours by other in- stitutions more favourable to tlie freedom of the citizens ; and nothing could be more popular or liberal than his plan for the ad- miniatration of justice. The bondholder summoned together his whole decennary to assist him in deciding any lesser difference which occurred among the members of this small community. In affairs of greater moment, in appeals from the decennary or ifl controversies arising between members of different decctiuaries, the caiisi; was brought before the hundred, which con- sisted of ten decennaries, or a hundred fa- milies of freemen, and which was regularly assembled once in four weeks for the de- ciding of causes. Their method of derision deaervcs to be notcl, as being the origin of juries; an institution admirable in itself, and the best calculated for the preset vation of liberty and the administration of just ice that ever was devised by the wit of man. Twelve freeholders were chosen, who having sworn, together with the hundreder, or pre- siding magistrate of that division, to admi- nister impartial justice, proceeded to the examination of that cause which was sub- mitted to their jurisdiction. And beside these monthly meetings of the hundred, there was an annual meeting appointed for a more geueral inspection of the police of the district, for the ini^uiry into crimes, the correction of abuses in magistrates, and the obliging of every persou to show the decennary in which he was registered. The people, in imitation of their German an- cestors, assembled there in arms, whence a hundred was sometimes called a wapen- take, and its courts served both for the sup- port of military discipline, and for the ad- mmistration of civil justice. The next superior court to that of the hundred was the county court, which met twice a-year, after Michaelmas and Easter, and consisted of the freeholders of the county, who possessed an equal vote in the decision of causes. The bishop presided in this court, together with the alderman ; and the proper object of the court was the receiving of appeals from the hundreds and decennaries, and the deciding of such con- troversies as arose between men of different hundreds. Formerly the alderman possess- ed both the military and the civil authority ; but Alfred, sensible that this conjunction of powers rendered the nobility dangerously independent, appointed also a sheriff to each county, who enjoyed a co-ordinate au- thority with the former in the judicial func- tion. His office also empowered him to guard the rights of the crown in the county, and to levy the fines imposed, which in that age foi-med no contemptible part of the public revenue. There lay an appeal, in default of justice, from all these courts to the king himself in council ; and as the people, sensible of the equity and grent talents of Alfred, placed their chief confidence in him, he was soon overwhelmed with appeals from all parts of England. He was indefatigable in the dis- patch of these causes, but finding that his time must be entirely engrossed by this branch of duty, he resolved to obviate the inconvenience by correcting the ignorance or the corruption of the inferior magistrates, from which it arose. He took care to have oil his nobility instructed in letters and the law: he chose the earls and sheriffs from .tmong the men most celebrated for pro- bity and knowledge; he punished severely all malversation in office, and he removed all the carls whom he found unequal to their trust, allowing only some of the more elderly to serve by deputy, till their death should make room for more worthy succes- sors." Without any (:|unliflcation or allowance for the age ind circumstances in which he lived, the military, nnd even more the civil, talents of Alfred, and their noble and con- sistent devotion to the mngiiiticcnt task of ALrilBu'S DAUUUTEU ALFHITUA MAnntF.n BALDWIN, COUNT OF FLAMDGIIS. AliFBSD DIED III HIS 52llD TBAB, AND WAS BVBIBD AT WincUBBTBB. I f 68 ^ift treasure of l^istorp, $cc. makiuK a great and civilized nation out of a people disunited, rude, ignorant, fierce, and disorderly, would justly entitle him to the praise of being among the greatest and best monarchs that have ever existed. But when we reflect that he had to contend against a late, an imperfect, and irregular education; that he, who, in a compara- tively short life, so largely figured both as wamor and sage, was twelve years old ere he began to learn even the very elements of literature; and that, during the latter years of his glorious life, he laboured under frequent and painM fits of illness almost amounting to bodily disability, it would not be an easy task to exaggerate his me- rits. Good as well as great, a patient and thoughtful student, as well as a mighty chieftain in the field and a sage statesman at the council board, he probably ap- proached as nearly to perfection, both as man and monarch, as is possible for one of our fiQlible and firail race. To the English of his own age he gave benefits, some of which have descended even to our own ge- neration ; his renown shines forth in the page of history like some bright particular star, a beacon of greatness to things and of goodness to private men ; and sad will that day be for England, and degraded will be the English character, when the general heart shall fail to throb with a lively, a grateful, and a gladly proud emotion at the mention of him whom their sturdy fathers, heartily and justly hailed by the proud name of Alvbsd thk Gbbat. CHAPTER VIII. Hittory of ihe Anglo-Saxont, from the Death (ifJlfred the Great to the Reign of Ed- ward the Martyr. Alvbxd tub Gbbat, who died in the year 901, had three sons and three daugh- ters by his wife Ethelswitha, the daughter of an earl of Mercia. His eldest son, Edmund, died before him, and he was suc- ceeded by his second son, Edward, who, be- ing the first Ent^lish king of that name, was surnamed the Elder. Though Edward was scarceljr, if at all, inferior to his truly great father in point of military talents, his reign was, upon the whole, a turbulent one, and one that by no means favoured the growth iu the king- dom of that civilized prosperity, of which Alfred had laid the foundations both deep and broad. But the fault was not with Edward ; he had to contend against many very great difficulties, and he contended against them with both courage and pru- dence. He had scarcely paid the last sad offices to his royal father when hfs title to the throue was disputed by his cousin Ethclwold, son of Etlielbert, the elder brother of Alfred. Had the hereditary and lineal descent of the crown been as yet strictly settled with a regard to primogeni- ture, the claim of Ethelwold would have, undoubtedly, been a just one. Dut such was far from being the case j many circum- stances, the character, or even the infancy of the actual heir, in the order of primo- geniture, very often inducing the magnates and people, as in the case of Alfredf him- self, to pass over him who in this point of view was the rightful heir, in favour of one better qualified, and giving higher promise of safety and prosperity to the nation. Ethelwold had a considerable number of partisans, by whose aid he collected a large and imposing farce, and fortified himself at 'Wimborne, in Dorsetshire, with the avowed determination of referring his claim to the decision of war. But the military condi- tion in which Alfred had left the kingdom now rendered his son good service. At the first intimation that he received of his cou- sin's opposition, he, on the instant, col- lected a numerous and well appointed army, and marched towards him, determined not to have the internal peace of the whole kingdom disturbed by a series of petty struggles, but to hazard life and crown upon the decision of a single great battle. As the king aj^proached, however, the in- formation of his overwhelming force that was conveyed to Ethelwold so much alarmed him, that he suddenly broke up his army and made a hasty retreat to Normandy. Here he remained inactive for some time ; but just as all observers of his conduct imagined that he had finally abandoned his pretensions, he passed over into Nor- thumberland, where he was well received by the Danes of that district, who were glad of any pretence, however slight, for dis- avowing their allegiance to the actual king of England. The five burghers, who had so long been in a state of rarely broken tranquillity, also joined Ethelwold, and the country had once more the prospect of end- less and ruinous internal warfare. Ethel- wold led his freebooters into Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, and Oxfordshire, and made their escape good, with an immense booty, ere the royal forces could come up with them. But the king followed his foes into East Anglia, and fearfully retaliated upon that district the injuries that had been in- flicted upon his peaceable subjects. When, laden with spoil, he gave the order to re- tire, a part of his army, chiefly Kentish men, disobeyed him. They were, conse- quently, left behind in the enemy's coun- try, and, while busily engaged in adding to their already rich bootv, were suddenly and furiously set upon by the Danes. The bat- tle was obstinate on both sides. In the end the Danes were victorious ; but though they remained masters of the field of battle, they lost their bravest leaders, and among them the original promoter of the war, Ethelwold himself. The East Anglians were now glad to accept the terms of peace of- fered to them by the king; and he, having now nothing to fear from them, turned his whole attention to subduing the Danes of Northumberland. He accordingly fitted out a fleet, under the impression that by carrying the war to their own coast, he would, infallibly, compel them to refrain from plundering his people, by the neces- sity they would experience of staying at CAMDniDOB UNIVERSITY IS SAID TO HAVB BBXN VOUNDBD BY BOWABD. EDWAnn DIED AT FABBINODOIf, A!fD WAS BUBIBD AT WINCRBSTBB. 1EngIant».— 'anglo-Saion Itfngs. 69 home to defend their own property. But the consequence of thin manoeuvre was the direct contrary to what the king had, and not illogically either, supposed it would be. They judged that the king's fleet carried the main armed strength of England ; and, trusting the safety of their own property to concealment and the chapter of accidents, they no sooner saw the royal fleet appear off their coast than they made a land in- cursion upon the English. But they, too, had reasoned with more seeming than real correctness. Edward was fully prepared to meet them by land as well as by sea; and he attacked them at Tetenhall, in Staffordshire, put a great number of them to the sword, re- covered the whole of the spoils they had taken from his subjects, and drove all those of them who escaped death or captivity, in a most desolate and poverty-stricken state, into their own country. During the whole remainder of Edward's reign he was engaged with one party or another of the English Danes. But he chastised each party severely in its turn; and, hy constant care and unsparing libe- rality, he fortified Chester, Warwick, Col- chester, and many other cities, so strongly, as to leave them little to fear from any sud- den incursion of their persevering and ran- corous enemies. In the end he vanquished the Northumbrians, the East Anglians, the British tribes of Wales nearest to his fron- tiers ; and compelled the Scots, who had recently been very troublesome, to submit to him. He was much aided in his vari- ous projects by his sister Ethelfleda, wi- dow of the Mercian earl Ethelbcrt, who was a woman of masculine genius as well as masculine habits and feelings. Upon the whole, though the reign of Edward the Elder was a victorious, it can scarcely be called a fortunate one; for in it many of those Danes who had long lived in habits of peace returned to their old taste for plundering, and so many battles fought in his own country could not, even when he was the most signally victorious, be otherwise than injurious to both the pros- perity and the morals of his people. Edward died in 925. We have already remarked upon the unsettled state of the law of succession to the throne in that age. Another instance of it occurred now. Edward left legitimate children, but they were of years fer too tender to admit of their assuming the reins of government, under any circumstances, and especially so in the then imminent danger of England bein^ again convulsed by the Danes. The chiet people of the nation therefore passed those young children by, and gave the throne to Athelstan, an illegitimate son ot the deceased monarch. But though Athel- stan had the general suffrages of the great men, there were some exceptions. Among those were Alfred, a Saxon nobleman of great influence and popularity, who en- deavoured to organize an armed opposition to the new king. But the king's suspicion fell upon this nobleman before his con- spiracy was ripe for execution, and he was seized and charged with the offence, or rather with the intent of offending. He by some means ascertained, or he boldly presumed, that the king, however vehe- mently he might suspect him, had in re- ality no tangible evidence, and he offered to clear himself of the imputed crime by an oath taken before the pope. Such was the awful respect in which the pope was then held, and such was his sanctity supposed to be, that it was finally and universally be- lieved that the fate of Ananias and Sap- phira would inevitably befal any one who should dare to make oath falseljr in his pre- sence. This belief, absurd as it was, had singular corroboration given to it by the fate of this Alfred. He was permitted to purge his guilt in the way proposed by himself, and he took the required oath in the presence of pope John ; but had scarcely pronounced the words dictated to him ere he fell into convulsions, in which he continued till his death, which occurred in three days. This story has been spoken of as being a pure monkish invention. We think differently. The monks frequently did exaggerate and even invent, but that is no reason for assuming their guiltiness of like conduct where there is no proof against them, and where, without attaching the slightest consequence to the alleged sanc- tity of the pope's person, we can explaiu the actual occurrence of the event by a simple physical cause. And what more easy than to do so in this case ? Supersti- tion was in those days by no means con- fined to the poor and the lowly. Ignorance — in the scholastic sense of that word — was the birthright of the powerful baron as well as of the trampled and despised churl, long after the time of Althestan; and many a noble who defied all human laws, and looked scornfully upon all merely physical danger, would blench and cower at tales that the simplest village lass of a more enlightened day would smile at. There is nothing upon record to lead us to bt'lieve that this Alfred was more sceptical in such matters than th"^ generality of nobles. Urged by a desire of safety for life and possessions, and perhaps enter- taining a hope of escape from the conse- quence alleged to await perjury such as he proposed to commit, be might be buoyed up sufficiently to commit the peijury, and yet, at the very moment of committing it, terror, compounded of the consciousness of a tremendous guilt, and terror of the tre- mendous consequences which from infancy he had heard predicated of such guilt, would surely be not unlikely to affect his brain. Men have maddened on the instant at beholding some horrible sight ; others have grown ^ey in a single night of intense and harrowmg mental agony; why then should we suppose it impossible that the awful feelings incident to such a situa- tion as that of Alfred should produce sud- den epilepsy and subsequent death ? The result was as fortunate for Athelstun as it was disastrous to Alfred. The king EDWARD WAS THREE TIMES MARRIED, AND HAD FIFTEKN CHILDREN. A.D. 928. — ATHBLSTAN DE8T«0TBD TUB CABTLB OF VOBK. m-"'^ i! i 70 ^l^e treasury of l&tstorp, Sec. was freed from the opposition of a noble who mieht have been verv troublesome to him, and the manner of that noble's death was to all ranks of men a most convincing proof not only that Alfred had been doubly Kuilty, first of conspiracy and then of per- jury, but also that the king was the right- ful possessor of the crown, and that to dis- pute his right was so incur all Alfred's dan- ger and much of Alfred's guilt. The king took care to strengthen and confirm this feeling by confiscating the whole of Alfred's property, as though nis death, under the circumstances, were tantamount to a judi- cial sentence ; and, as he prudently be- stowed this large property upon the already wealthy monastery of Malmsbury, he made the fall of a single powerful enemy the im- mediate means of securing the friendship of an infinitely more powerful corporation. Having thus become free from what at first seemed a very imminent peril, Athel- stan turned his attention to quieting the Northumbrian Danes, who just at this time were very discontented under the English rule. On his arrival he saw reason to be- lieve that he could better secure their obe- dience by giving them a tributary prince of their own race than by the utmost severity ; and he accordinely gave the title of king of Northumberland to Sithric, a powerful Da- liish chieftain, to whom he also gave the hand of his own sister Editha. But, though this was sagacioui*, and seemed to be espe- cially safe policy, it gave rise to considerable ^fflculty. Sithric, who was a widower when honoured with the hand of Editha, died abo'.it a year after this second marriage, and Anlaf and Godyfrid, his sons by the former Tnarriage, asai.vned the sovereignty of Nor- thumberland, as a matter of permanent and settled hereditary tenure, and not of the king's favouv and conferred during his plea- sure. Highly offend °d at this presumption of the young men, Athelstan speedily cgect- ed thera from their assumed sovereignty. Anlaf took shelter in Ireland and Godefnd in Scotland, where be was very kindly and honourably treated by Constantine, then king of that country. Athelstan, on learning that the presump- tuons Dane who was so likely to prove a troublesome enemy to bin* was protected by Constantine, importuned bim to put his guest into the English power. De.nrous of avoiding, if possible, an open quc.rrei with so powerful a prince as Athelstan, the Scot- tish monarch gave a feigned consent to a proposal which it was almost as infamous to make as it would have been to have com- plied with ; but he gave Godefrid private intimation which enabled him to get to sea, where, after making himself dreaded as a pirate, he at length finished his life. Athelstan, who, probably, was well in- formed by spies at the Scottish court of the part which Constantine had taken in aiding the escape of Godefrul, marched a numer- ous army into Scotland, and so mi'ch dis- tressed that country, that Constantine found himself obliged to make his submission in order to save his country and himself from total ruin. Whether his submission went to the extent of Con;' tiintine's actually ac- knowledging himseii' to hi'ld his crown in realvassuage to the kiviij. which some his- torians stoutly affirm and others just as stoutly deny, or whether it went no farther than apology and satisfaction for actual of- fence given, certain it is, that Constantine took the earliest and most open opportunity of showing that he looked upon the king of England in any other rather than a friendly light. For Anlaf, brother of Con- stantine's deceased protege, having gotten together a body of Welsh malcontents and Danish pirates, Constantine joined forces with him, and they led an immense body of marauders into England. Undismayed by the numbers of the invaders, Athelstan marched his army against them, and, chiefly owing to the valour and conduct of Turke- tul, the then chancellor of England, the in- vaders were completely routed. In this bat- tle, which was fought near Brunanburgh in Northumberland, a great number of the Welsh and Danish leaders perished, and Anlaf and the Scottish king, after losing a great part of their force, were barely able to effect their own escape. It is said, that on the eve of this great battle Anlaf was the hero of an adventure in the English camp, like that of Alfred the Great in the camp of Guthrum the Dane. Habited like a minstrel, he approached the English camp, and his music was so much admired by the soldiers, that they obtained him admission to the king's tent, where he played during the royal repast, so much to the delight of the king and his nobles, that on being dismissed he received a very hand- some present. Too politic to betray his dis- guise by refusing the present, the noble Dane was also far too haughty to retain it ; and as soon as he believed himself out of the reach of observation, he buried it in the earth. One of Athelstan's soldiers, who had formerly fought under the banner of Anlaf, had at the very first sight imagined that he saw his old chief under the disKuise of a minstrel. In the desire to ascertain if his suspicion were correct, he followed An- laf from the royal tent, and his suspicion was changed into conviction when he saw a professedly poor and wandering minstrel burying the king's rich gift. He accord- ingly warned the king that his daring enemy had been in his tent. At first the king was very angry that the soldier had not made this discovery while there was yet time to have seized upon the pretended min- strel; but the soldier nobly replied, that having served under Anlaf, he could not think of betraying him to ruin, any more than he now could peril the safety of Athel- stan himself by neglecting to warn him of Anlafs espionage. To such a mode of rea- soning there could be no reply, save that of admiring praise. Having dismissed the sol- dier, Athelstan pondered on the probable consequence of this stealthy visit paid to his tent by Anlaf; and it having struck him that it was very likely to be followed by a night attack, he immediately had his tuut A. n. 937- — A SBVERE VUOST IN EMiLAND, WHICH LASTl^U FOUR MONTHS. KOMVND WAS TUR rlHST EINO THAT FUNISHSD BOBBBBT WITH DBATH. ■lEnglantJ.-— 'anglosSaxon ISings. 71 his submission went itiiiiine's actually ac- to iuld his crown in dr.- which some his- 1 and others just as her it went no farther sfaction for actual of- t is, that Constantine most open opportunity looked upon the king other rather than a inlaf, brother of Con- jroteg^, having gotten /^elsh malcontents and stantine joined forces ;d an immense body of land. Undismayed by c invaders, Athelstan ainst them, and, chiefly and conduct of Turke- Uor of England, the in- ely routed. In this bat- ght near Brunanburgh , a great number of the lenders perished, and tish king, after losing a force, were barely able •scape. in the eve of this great le hero of an adventure p, like that of Alfred the of Guthrum the Dane. Btrel, he approached the his music was so much tiers, that they obtained He king's tent, where he oyal repast, so much to ting and his nobles, that he received a very haud- ) politic to betray his dis- the present, the noble ;oo haughty to retain it ; believed himself out of ation, he buried it in the thelstan's soldiers, who ht under the banner of rery first sight imagined cliief under the disKuise the desire to ascertain if correct, he followed An- tent, and his suspicion conviction when he saw and wandering minstrel s rich gift. He accord- ng that his daring enemy it. At first the king was le soldier had not made lile there was yet time )on the pretended min- dier nobly replied, that der Anlaf, he could not ■ him to ruin, any more peril the safety of Athel- eglecting to warn him of To such a mode of rea- , he no reply, save that of Having dismissed the sol- >ndered on the probable lis stealthy visit paid to and it having Btruck him ikely to be followed by a mmcdiately had his tent liD FOUR MONTHS. removed. The bishops of that day were to the full as brave and as fond of war as the laity, and on that very night a bishop ar- rived with an armed train to the aid of his sovereign. The prelate took up the station which the king had vacated; and at night the king's suspicion was verified with great exactitude. A sudden attack was made up- on the cirop, and the enemy disdaining all meaner prey rushed straight to the tent which they supposed to be occupied by the king; where the belligerent bishop and his immediate attendants were butchered before they had time to prepare for their defence. Tl fi decisive battle of Brunanburgh gave Atht-l.'«iion alarmed the robber for his o\M> i'e, is uncertain ; but from which ever cuitsc, Leolf suddenly drew bis dagger and killed the king on the spot: A. D. 946. Edmund was succeeded by his brother Edred ; another instance of irregularity in the succession, as Edmund left children, but so young that they were deemed unfit for the throne; and it would seem that the mutual jealousy of the Saxon nobles as yet prevented them from thinking of a tempo- rary regency, as a means at once of pre- serving the djrect order of succession, and remedying the nonage of the direct heir to the crown. The new king had no sooner ascended his throne than the Danes of Nor- thumberland proved how justly Athelstan had judged of their sincerity, by breaking the peace to which they had so solemnly pledged themselves. But Edred advancing upon them with a numerous army, they met him with the same submissive aspect which had disarmed the wrath of his predeces- sor. The king, however, was so much pro- voked at their early disobedience to him, that he would not allow their humility to prevent him from inflicting a severe punish- ment upon them. He, accordingly, put many of them to the sword, and plundered and burned their country to a considerable extent ; and then, his wrath appeased, he consented to receive their oath of allegiance and withdrew his troops. Scarcely bad he done so when these ever-faithless people again broke out into rebellion, perhaps Erompted on this particular occasion less y any merely mischievous feeling, than by the real and terrible distress to which the king's severity hnd reduced them. This new revolt was, however, speedily quelled, and he appointed an English governor of Northumberland, and placed garrisons in all the chief towns to enable him to sup- port liis authority. Edred about this time also made Malcolm of Scotland repeat his homage for his fief of Northumberland. Though Edred, as his conduct thus early in his reign demonstrated, was both a brave and an active prince, he was extremely su- perstitious. He delighted to be surrounded by priests ; and to his especial favourite Dunstan, abbot of Canterbury, he not only committed some of the most influential and EDMUNn WAS BURIED AT GLASTONBURY, WREBB DUNSTAN WAS ABBOT. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 5< A f/. 7/ 1.0 I.I 1.25 ;: li^ 12.0 1.8 U III 1.6 % V) C^m ■ . o>^ -> 7 '/ /A Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 873-4503 I !' EDBBO, AT A VAST F.XFENSB, BEBUILT OLASTONDUBt ABBBIT. 72 ©Ije S^rcaaure oi l^istori), $cc. important offices of the state, but also, to a very ridiculous extent surrendered the guidance of his own common sense. Of a naughty temper, and extremely ambitious, this monk, in order to have tools for the accomplishment of his wide-spreadin^ipur- poses of self-aggrandizement, introduced into England a great number of a new order of monks, the Benedictines, who, lay- ing a stress upon celibacy beyond that laid by any former order, and professing gene" rally a more rigid way of life and a greater punty of heart, were, in truth, the mere tools of the vast and still increasing ambi- tion of Rome, to which the practice of celi- bacy among the priesthood was especially favourable, as they who thus debarred them- selves from conjugal and paternal ties could not fail to be more willing and passive ser- vants. To introduce this new and entirely sub- servient order of monks into England was greatly desired by the pope ; and the am- bitious policy of Dnnstan,' and his almost despotic power over the superstitious mind of Edred, afforr ed full opportunity for doing so. The influence of Dunstan, indeed, was very great over the people as well as over the king ; though he commenced life under circumstances which would have ruined a man of less determined ambition, and of less pliant and accomplished hypocrisy than his. Of noble birth, and enjoying the g^reat advantage of having been educated by his uncle, the accomplished Adhelm, arch- bishop of Canterbury, he entered the church early in life, but v/ith so little of real vocation to the sacred profession, that his way of life procured him a most unen- viable character ; and king Edmund, in whose reign this famous saint of the Romish calendar commenced his career, looked coldly upon a priest whose debauchery was represented to be such as would disgrace even a layman. Enraged at finding his am- b.tion thus suddenly checked, he was not the less determined that the check should be but temporary. Affecting to be suddenly stricken with penitence and shame, he se- cluded himself, at ftrst from the court, and then altogether from society. He bad a cell made for his residence, of such scant dimensions, that he could neither stand fully upright in it, nor stretch himself out at full length when sleeping ; and in this miserable dwelling, if dwelling it can be called, he perpetusily turned from prayer to manual labour, and from manual labour to prayer, during all his hours, except the very few which he allowed himself for sleep. The austerity of his life imposed upon the imaginations of the superstitious people, who considered austerity the surest of all proofs of sanctity; and when, whether in mere and unmingled hypocrisy, or in part hypocrisy and part self-delusion, he pre- tended to be frequently visited and tempted by Satan in person, his tale found greedy listeners and ready believers. From one degree of absurdity to another is but an easy step for vulgar credulity. It being once admitted that Satan, provoked or grieved by the immaculate life and fervent giety of the recluse, visited him to tempt im into sin ; what difficulty could there be in supposing that the recluse resisted a long time only with prayer, but at length resorted to physical force, and held the flend by the nose with a red hot pair of tongs, until he shrieked aloud with agony, and promised to abstain for the future fhim his unholy importunity 7 Such was the tale which Dunstan, the recluse, had the auda- city to offer to public belief, and such was the tale to whicn the public listened with attentive ears, and gave " faith and full credence." Vvhen a long seclusion, and carefully circulated rumours of his piety and self-mortification, had done away with the ill impressions which had been excited by vrildcr, but, in reality, far less censur- able conduct of his earuer days, Dunstan once more made his appearance at court ; and, as Edred was deeply tinged with su- perstitious feeling, the priest was kindly re- ceived at first, and very soon favoured and Sromoted above all the other courtiers, laised to the direction of the treasury, and being, moreover, the king's private adviser in all important concerns, Dunstan had immense power and influence, which he used to advance the great object of Rome in substituting the devoted monks for the comparatively independent secular clergy, who, having family ties and affections, were not sufliciently prostrate or blindly obe- dient to suit the papal purpose. During nine years— the length of Edred's reign — the monks made immease progress in Eng- land. They enlisted the feelings of the people on their side by their severe and pas- sionate declamations against the worldly lives, and especially against the marriage, of the secular clergy, whose wives they per- sisted in calling by the opprobrious name of concubines. And though the secular clergy, who possessed both talent and wealth, exerted themselves manfully, not only to defend their own lives, but also to expose the hypocrisy, pretended purity, and actual and even shameful worldliness and sensuality of their opponents, the power and credit of Dunstan weighed fearfully against them. The death of Edred, which occurred in 966, revived their hopes, and threatened to stop the progress of the monks, and to lower the credit of their patron, Dunstan. The children of Edred were still in their infancy when he died; and his nephew, Edmund's son Edwy, who had himself been passed over in favour of Edred on the same account, now succeeded to the throne. He was at the time of his accession only about seventeen years of age, and blessed with a fine person and a powerful and well-trained mind. But all his natural and acquired good qualities were rendered of but little use to him by tha enmity of the mci'Vs, with whom he had a serious quarrel at the very commencement of his career. Opposed to the marriage of clerks alto- gether, the monks were scarcely less hostile to the marriage of laics within the degrees inRRO BKIONBn NINB YRAnS, AND WAS BinilKD AT WINOllEBTEn. fe and fervent him to tempt :y could there luse resisted a but at length and held the ed hot pair of id with agony, :he future firom ch was the tale , had the auda- , and such was B listened with faith and full seclusion, and ■8 of his piety lone away with id been excited ar less censur- days, Dunstan ranee at court ; inged with su- it was kindly re- u favoured and rther courtiers, le treasury, and I private adviser I, Dunstan had ence, which he object of Borne I monks for the secular clergy, [affections, were or blindly obe- irpose. During Edred's reign— jrogress in Eug- fcelings of the severe and nns- .ist the worldly It the marriage, i wives they per- [probrious name igh the secular ith talent and Is manfully, not jives, but olao to pded purity, and Iworldliness and ints, the power iighed fearfully if Edred, which teir hopes, and jrogress of the credit of their bre still in their ]id his nephew, ad himself been ^ed on the same Ithe throne. lie Ision only about blessed with a ind well-trained ll and acquired ^d of but little Jof the mci'-ts, Is quarrel at the career. of clerks alto- Icely less hostile liin the degrees THB II0KK8 OKNEBALLT WERE WELL SKILLED IN "UK MKCBANICAL ABTS. lEnglantl.— 1lnsIo=Saxon Ittngs. 73 of affinity forbidden by the canon law. Edwy, passionately in love with the prin- cess Elgiva, to whom he was related within those degrees, was too inexperienced to perceive sJl the evils that mir,ht result to both himself and the fair Elgiva from his provoking the fierce, bigoted, and now very powerful monks ; aud in despite of all the advice and warnings of the ecclesiastics he espoused her. The coarse and violent cen- sure which the monks took occasion to pass upon the marriage aggravated the dis- like which, on account of their gloom and severity, Edwy had always felt to the monks, whom he took every occasion to disappoint in their endeavours to possess themselves of the convents belonging to the secular clergy. If the king had disliked the monks, the monks now hated the king with a most bitter hatred. By his marriage he had of- fended their rigid bigotry, by nis favour to the seculars he disappointed their aching avarice ; and, favourea and advised as they were by a personage at once sc able, crafty, audacious, and powerful as Dunstan, it needed not^the spirit of prophecy to fore see thi victim. see that Edwy would infallibly be their ropn 'allil As if to show that they were determined to carry their hatred to the utmost extent, they chose the very day of the coronation for their Arst manifestation of it ; the day upon which they had sworn fealty to the sovereign, at which to outrage him as a man, and commit little less than treason- able violence upon him as their kinK I So little does the rancour of mingled bigotry and avarice regard even the forms of cou- listency and decency. The Saxons, like their ancestors the an- cient Germans, drank deep, and were wont to be but riotous and uncouth companions in their cups. Both from his youth and his natural temper, ^idwy was averse to tbis rude and riotous wassail; and as his nobles, at his coronation feast, began to pass the bounds of temperance, he took an oppor- tunity to quit the banqueting apartment and go to that of his young and lovely queen. He was instantly followed thither by the haughty and insolent Dunstan, and by Odo, archbishop of Canterbury. These presumptuous churchmen upbraided him in the most severe terms for his alleged uxoriousness, applied the coarsest epithets to the alarmed oueen, and finished by thrusting him back into the scene of riot and drunkenness from which he had so latelv escaped. Eawy had not sufficient power and influ- ence in his court to take immediate and direct revenge for this most flagrant and disgracefiil insult ; but he felt it too deeply to pass it over without visiting it, at the least, with indirect punishment. Aware that Dunstan was bv no means the imma- culate and unworldly person he was sup- posed to be by the ignorant multitude, and strongly suspecting that ( lo extremely beautiful that it was no wonder the renown of her charms reached the court, and the inflam- mable Edgar resolved that if report had not exaggerated the beauty of the lady he would make her his wife ; the wealth, power, and character of her father forbidding even the unscrupulous and lewd Edgar from hoping to obtain her on any less honourable terms. Being anxious not to commit himself by any advances to the parents of the lady until quite sure that sne was really as sur- passingly beautiful as she was reported to be, he sent his fkvourite and confidant, the earl Athelwold, to visit the earl of Devon as if by mere accident, that he might judge whether the charms of Elfrida really were such as would adorn the throne. Earl Athelwold fulfilled his mission verr faith- fiillT, as regarded the visit, but, unhappily for himBelfThe found the charms of Elfrida so much to his own taste, that he forgot the curiosity of his master, and sued the lady on his own account. Well knowing that with the king for an avowed rival his suit would have little chance of success, his first care was to lull the eager anxiety of Edgar by assuring him that in this case, as inmost cases, rumour with her thousand tongues had been guilty of the grossest ex- aggeration, and that the wealth and rank .of Elfrida had caused her to be renowned for charms so moderate, that in a woman of lower degree they would never be noticed. But though the charms of Elfrida, earl Athelwola added, bj no means fitted her for the throne, her fortune would make her a very acceptable countess for himself, should the consent and recomn^endation of his gracious master accompany his suit to her parents. Fully believing that his favourite really was actuated only by mercenary views, Edgar cheerAilly fare nim the permission and recommendation he solicited, and in quality of a favoured courtier he easily procured the consent of the lad^— to whom he had already made himself far from in- different— 'and of her parents. He had scarcely become possessed of his beautiful bride when he began to reflect upon what would be the prooable consequences of a detection bv the king of the fraud that had been practised to gain hi!\ consent to the marriage. In order to postpone this de- tection as long as possiole, he framed a variety of pretences for keeping his lovely bride at a distance firom the court ; and as his report of the homeliness of Elfrida had completely cooled the fancy of the king, earl Athelwold began to hope that his de- ceit would never be discovered. But the old adage that " a favourite has no friends" was proved in his case ; enemies desirous of ruining him made his fraud known to the king, and spoke more rapturously than ever of the charms of Elfrida. Enraged at the deception practised upon him, but carefully dissembling his real motives and purpose, the king told Athelwold that he would pay him a visit and be introduced to his wife. To such an intimation the unfortunate earl could make no objection which would not wholly and at once betray his perilous secret: but he obtained permission to pre- cede tiie kin^, nnder pretence of making due preparation to receive him, but in reality to prevail ufion Elfrida to disguise her beauty and rusticate her behaviour as far as possible. This she promised, and probably at first intended to do. But, on reflection, she naturally considered herself injured by the deception whicjr had cost her the throne, and, so far from complying with her unfortunate husband's desire, she called to the aid of her charms all the as- sistance of the most becoming dress, and idl the seductions of the most graceful and accomplished behaviour. Fascinated with her beauty, Edgar was beyond all expres- sion enraged at the deceit by which his favourite had contrived to cheat him of a wife so lovely ; and having enticed the un- fortunate earl into a forest on a hunting excursion, he put him to death with his own hand, and soon after married Elfrida, whose perfidy to her murdered husband made her, indeed, a very fit spouse for the murderer. Though much of this monarch's time was devoted to dissolute pleasures, he by no means neglected public business, more especially of that kind which procured him the indulgence of the monks for all his worst vices. Much as the monks and the king had done towards wresting the church property from the hands of the secular clergy, much still remained to be done; and Edgar, doubtless acting upon the advice of Dun- stan, summoned a council, consisting of the prelates and heads of religious orders. To this council he made a passionate speech in reprobation of the dissolute and scanda- lous fives which he affirmed to be notoriously led by the secular clergy : their neglect of clerical duty ; their openly living with con- cubines, for so he called their wives ; their participation in hunting and other sports of the laity; and — singular fault to call forth the declamation of a king and em- ploy the wisdom of a solemn council — the smallness of. their tonsure I Affecting to blame Dunstan for having by too much lenity in some sort encouraged the disorders of the secular clergy, the accomplished dis- sembler supposed the pious Edred to look down from Heaven, and thus to speak : " It was by your advice, Dunstan, that I founded monasteries, built ciiurclies, and expended my treasures in tne support of religion and religious houses. You were my councillor and my assi it ant in all my scnemei ; you were the di' ector of my con- science; to you I was i.i all things obe- dient, when did you cal'. for supplies which I refused you? Was uiy assistance ever withheld from the poor 7 Did I deny esta- blishments and support to the conventSiiind the clergy. Did I not hearken to your in- structions when you told me that these charities were, beyond all others, the most grateful to my Maker, and did I not in consequence fix a perpetual fund for the H m H at e n m H M O f a M m U M M Q K f K BT TBB rATOVR OV TBB MONKS BDOAB WAS OANONIBEn A8 A SAINT. i* • \> DVNSTAN WAS BORN Ilf 925 AT OLASTOMBVRT, AND THBBB BBUCATBD. 76 ^f)e f:rea0urB of l^istorij, $rc. support of religion 7 And are all our pioua endeavours now to be frustrated by the dis- solute lives of the clergy? Not that I throw any blame upon you ; you have rea- soned, besought, inculcated, and inveighed, -but it now behoves you to use sharper and more vigorous remedies; and, conjoining your tpiritual authority with the civil power, to purge effectually the temple qf God from thieves and intrudere." The words which we give in Italics were decisive as to the whole question; the inno- cence of the secular clergy, as a body, could avail them nothing against this union of civil power and spiritual authority, backed and cheered as that union was by the people, whom the hypocritical pretences of the monks had made sincerely favourable to those affected purists ; and the monkish discipline shortly prevailed in nearly every religious house in the land. Much as all honourable minds must blame the means by which Edgar preserved the favour of the formidable monks, all candid minds must award him the praise of hav. ug made good use of the power he thus preserved in his own hands. He not only kept up a strong and well-disciplined land force, in constant readiness to defend any part of his kingdom that might be at- tacked, but he also bu.It and kept up an excellent navy, the vigilance and strength of which greatly diminished the chance of any such attack being made. Awed by his navy, the Danes abroad dared not attempt to invade his country ; and constantly watched and kept in check by his army, the domestic Danes perceived that turbu- lence on their part could produce no effect but their own speedy and utter ruin. His neighbours cf Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and the adjacent isles, held him in equal re- spect; and, upon the whole, no king of England ever shewed himself either more desirous or more able to preserve to his kingdom the invaluable benefits of peace at home and respect abroad. In proof of the extent to wliich he carried his ascend- ancy over the neighbouring and tributary princes, it is affirmed, that being at Chester, and desiring to visit the abbey of St. John the Baptist, in the neighbourhood of that city, he actually caused his barge to be rowed thither by eight of those princes, in- cluding Kenneth the Third, king of Scot- land. The useful arts received a great impulse during this reign from the great encourage- ment given by Edgar to ingenious and in- dustrious foreigners to settle among his subjects. Auotuer benefit which he con- ferred upon his kingdom was that of the extirpation of wolves, which at the com- mencument of his reign were very nume- rous and mischievous. By giving rewards to those who put these animals to death, thcfy were at length hunted into the moun- tainous and woody country of Wales, and in order that even there so mischievous a race iniitht find no peace he commuted the money tribute due from Wales to England to a tribute of three huudred wolves' lieadi to be sent to him annually, which policy speedily caused their utter destruction. After a busy reign of sixteen year* this prince, still in the flower of his age, being onlv thirty-three, died, and was succeeded by nis son Edward in the year 97S. CHAPTER IX. Prom the Accession of Edward the Martyr to the Death qf Canute. Edwabd II. subseauently snmamed the Martyr, though his aeath had nothing to do with religion, was the son of Edgar by that prince's first wife, and was only fifteen years of age when he succeeded to the throne. His youth encouraged bis step- mother, Elfrida, to endeavour to set aside his succession in favour of her own son and his half-brother, Ethelred, who at this time was only seven years old. This ex- tremely bad woman pretended that the marriage of her husband to his first wife was on several accounts invalid, and as her beauty and art had been very successfully exerted in securing favour during the life of Edgar, she would probably have suc- ceeded in her iniquitous design had the circumstances been less favourable to Ed- ward. But though that prince was very young, he was at least much nearer to the a^e for reigning than his half-brother; the will of his father expressly gave him the succession ; many of the principal men of the kingdom imagined that the regency of Elfrida would be an extremely tyrannical one ; and Dunstan, who was in the pleni- tude of his power, and who reckoned upon the favour and docility of young Edward. EowerfuUy supported him, and crowned im at Kingston, before Elfrida could bring her ambitious plans to maturity. "The prompt and energetic support thus given by Dunstan to the rightful heir would entitle him to our unqualified applause, were there not g^d and obvious reason to believe that it originated less in a sense of i'ustice than in anxiety for the interests of lis own order. In spite of the heavy blows and great discourag:ement of Edgar, the secular clergy had still many and powerful friends. Among these was the duke of Mercia, who no sooner ascertained the death of king Edgar than he expelled all the monks from the religious houses in Mercia, and though they were received and pro- tected by the dukes of the East Saxons and the East AngHans, it was clear to both Dunstan and the monks that there was a -lutHcient dislike to the new order of eccle- siastics, to render it very important that they should have a king entirely favourable to them. And as Dunstan had watched and trained Edward's mind from his early childhood, they well knew that he would prove their fittest instrument. But though they had thus secured the throne to a king as favourable and docile as tliey could desire, they left no means untried to gain the voices of the multitude. M the occa- sional synods that were held for the settle- ment of ecclesiastical disputes, they pre- THKBB ABB NIIMBROUS FOFUT.AR LBOKNOS BBLATIVB TO OLASTONBUBT. .'ii--. A.l>. 987.— ■TRXLmiO II. WAI CBOWlfID AT KIIfOSTON BT DUICSTAK, APXIb 14. lEnglanti.— Unglo^Saxon Itlngs. 77 tended that miracles were worked in their favour ; and, in the i|^orant state of the people, that party who could work or in- voke the most miracles was sure to be the most popular. On one of these occa- sions a voice that seemed to issue from the great cmcifii which adorned the place of meeting, proclaimed that he who opposed thf establishment of the monks opposed the will of Heaven; on another occasion the floor of the h^ fell in, killing and maiming a great number of persons, but that portion which supported the chair of Dunstan remained Arm; and on another occasion, when the votes of the synod were so unenectedly against him that he was unprovided with a miracle for the occasion, Dunstan rose, and, vnth an inimitably grave impudence, assured the meeting that he hnd just been favoured with a direct revelation from Heaven in favour of the monLs. So utterlv stultified was the general mind, that the populace received this impudent falsehood with so much fervent favour, that the party hostile to the monks actually dared not support any farther the view of the question upon which they had a clear and acknowledjced majority I Edward's reign deserves little further mention. No great event, --ood or evil, mark- ed it ; he was, in fact, merely in a state of pupilage during the four years that it lasted. Having an excellent dinposition, it is proba- ble that had he lived to mature years he would have shaken off the benumbing and deluding influence of the monkish party. But in the fourth year of his reign, and while he was yet barely nineteen years of age, he fell a victim to his atrocious step- mother's cruelty and ambition. Notwith- standing the hostility she had evinced to- wards iiim at the death of his father, ^oung Edward's mild temper had caused him to show her the respect and attention which she was very far indeed from deserving. She resided at Corfe castle, in Dorset- shire; and as the young prince was one dav hunting in that neighbourhood, he rode awav fro-n his company, and, wholly unattended, paid her a visit. She received him with a trt;ni-herous appearance of kind- ness, but just as he had mounted his horse to depart, a ruflian in her employment stab- bed him in the back. The wound did not prove instantiv mortal, but as he fainted from loss of blood ere ho could disengage his feet from the stirrups, his frightened horse galloped onward with him, and he was bruised to deal h. His servants having traced him, recovered his body, which they privately interred at Warcham. By this surpassing crime of his vile mo- ther, who vainly, even in that supersiitious age, endeavoured to recover the public fa- vour, and expiate her crime in public opi- nion, by ostentatious penances and by lavishing money upon monasteries, Ethel- red, son of Edgar and Elfrida, succeeded to the throne. The Danes, who had been kept in awe by the vigour of Edgar, and who, moreover, had found ample employment in conquer- ing and planting settlements on the north- ern coast of France, a resource which their numbers had exhausted, were encouraged by the minority of Ethelred to turn their attention once more towards England, where they felt secure of receiving encou- ragement and aid from the men of their own race, who, though long settled among the English, were by no means fully incor- porated with them. In the year 981 the Danes accordingly made an experimental descent upon Southampton, in seven ves- sels; and, as they took the people com- Eletely by surprise, they secured considera- le plunder, with which they escaped un- injured and almost unopposed. This con- duct they repeated in 987, with similar success, on the western coast. The success of these two experiments convinced the marauders that the vigour of an Edgar was no longer to be dreaded in Eng- land, and they therefore prepared to make a descent upon a larger scale and with more extensive views. Tnev landed in great num- bers on the coast of Essex, and defeated and slew, at Maldon, Brithric, the duke of that county, who bravely attempted to resist them with his local force ; and after their vic- tory they devastated and plundered all the neighbouring country. So soon and so easily does a people degenerate when neglected by its rulers, that Ethelred and his nobles could see no better means of ridding them- selves of these fierce pirates than that of bribing them to depart. They demanded and received, as the price of their departure, an enormous sum. They departed accord- ingly, but, as might have bees anticipated, so large a sum so easily earned tempted them very speedily to repeat their visit. By this time a fleet had been prepared at Lon- don fully capable of resisting and beating off the invaders, but it was prevented from doing the service that was expected from it by the treachery of Alfric, duke of Mercia. He had formerly been banished and de- prived of his possessions and dignity ; and though he had now for some time been fully restored, the affront rankled in his mind, and he conceived the unnatural de- aire of ensuring his own safety and impor- tance by aiding the foreign enemy to keep his country in a state of disorder and alarm. He was entrusted with one squad- ron of a fleet with which it was intended to surround and destroy the enemy in the harbour in which they had ventured to anchor; and he basely gave the enemy information in time to enable them to avoid the danger by putting out to sea again, and then completed nis infamous treachery by joining them with bis whole squadron. Tlie behaviour of the king on this occasion was equally marked by bar- barity and weakness. On hearingof Alfric's traitorous conduct, he had that nobleman's son Alfgar seized, and caused his eyes to be put out ; yet, after inflicting this horrible cruelty upon the innocent son, he so far succumbed to the power and influence of the guilty father, as actually to reinstate him in his office and possessions. f M O » b *■ n ■< M M o M a as •4 M (4 A.D. g89.~IIf THH TBAB onD II0M>TAII, ABCHBIBBOr 01 CAHTIBBURT. [tf S « / IN THIS Bi:iQN IT WAS ENACTED THAT PttlKSTS SHOULD NOT UAnBT. 78 Ci)c ^reasurB of Ilistore, Sec. A. D. 993.— The experience the Danes had acquired of tlic weakness of Ethelred and tlie defenceless condition of his kinKdom, encouraged them to mak« new and still more formidable descents. Sweyn, king of Denmark, and Olave, king of Norway, sailed up the Ilumber with an immense fleet, Inymg waste and plundering in every direction. Those of the Danes, and they were but few, who refused to join the in- vaders, were plundered equally with the Enelish. An army advanced to give battle ; ana so fierce was the contest, that the Danes yrere already beginning to give wav, when the tide of fortune was suddenly turned against the English by the treachery of Frena, Frithegist, and Godwin, three leaders, who, though of Danish descent, were entrusted witn large and important commands. Thei^ men withdrew their troops, and the English were in conse- quence defeated. The invaders now entered the Thames with a fleet of upwards of ninety ships, and laid siege to London. Alarmed for their large wealth, the citizens defended them- selves with a stoutness strongly contrasted with the pusillanimitv which had been dis- played by botli the king and the nobles, and their resistance was so obstinate that the pirates at length gave up the attempt in despair. But though they abandoned the metropolis of the kingdom, they did not therefore give up their determination to plunder. Spreading their bands over Essex, Sussex, and Hunts, they not only procured large booty there, but also a suf- ficient number of horses to enable them to extend their depredations far inland. It might have been supposed that, after the noble example set by the traders of Lon- don, the king and his nobles would be pre- vented by very shame from ever again re- sorting to the paltry and impolitic scheme of purchasing the absence of the invaders : but to tliat expedient they did resort. Mes- sengers were sent to offer to subsist the invaders if they would preserve peace while they remained in the kingdom, and to pay tribute on condition ot their taking an early departure. The Danes, wily as they were hardy, probably imagined that they had now so far exhausted the kingdom that the tribute offered to them would be more valuable than the further spoil they would be likely to obtain, and they readily ac- cepted the proposed terms. They took up their abode at Southampton, and there conducted themselves very peaceably. Olave carried his complaisance so far as to pay a visit to Ethelred, at Andover, and received the rite of confirmation. Many rich gifts were consequently bestowed upon him by the king and the prelates, and the sum of sixteen thousand pounds having been paid to him and Sweyn, they took their departure. Olave, who never returned to England, was so great a favourite with the churchmen that he was honoured with a place among the saints in the Roman calendar. A. D. 997.— The repeated proofs Ethelred had given of his willingness to purchase the absence of pirates rather than battle against them, produced, as was natural, a new in- vasion. A large fleet of the Danes this year entered the Severn. Wales was spoil- ed for miles, and thence the pirates pro- ceeded to commit similar atrocities upon the unfortunate people of Cornwall and Devonshire. Thence the marauders went first to Dorsetshire, then to Hants, then Kent, where the inhabitants opposed them at Rochester, but were routed with terrible slaughter, and the whole of their county was plundered and desolated. Many at- tempts were made by the braver and wiser among the English to concert such a united defence as would prevail against the enemy ; but the weakness of the king and the nobles paralyzed the best efforts 01 nobler spirits, and once more the old expedient was re- sorted to, and twenty-four thousand pounds were now paid as the price of the absence of the Danes, whose demands very naturally became higher with their increased expe- rience of the certainty of their being com- plied with. It was probably with some vague hope that even an indirect connec- tion with these formidable northmen would cause them to respect his dominions, that Ethelred, having lost his first wife, this year espoused Emma, sister of Kichard the second duke of Normandy. Long as the domestic Danes had now been established in England, they were still both a distinct ancTa detested race. The old English historians accuse them of effeminacy and luxuriousness ; but as they instance as evidence of the truth of these charges, that the Danes combed their hair daily and bathed once a week, we may fairly enough acquit the Danes of all guilt on this head, and conclude that, rude and bad as the race was in many respects, they assuredly were superior to the English of that day in the very important matter of personal decency. But a dislike to men's personal habits, be it well or ill founded, is a very powerful motive in the increasing and perpetuation of hatred founded upon other feelings ; and that hatred the English deeply felt for the Danes, on account ot the origin of their settlement among them, their great propensity to gallantry, and their great skill in making themselves agreeable to the English women ; above all, on account of their constant and shamefiUly faithless ha- bit of ioining their invading fellow-coun- trymen in their violence and rapine. Ethel- red, like all weak and cowardly people, was strongly inclined towards both cruelty and treachery, and the general detestation in which the Danes were held by the English encouraged him to plan the universal mas- sacre of the former. Orders Vere secretly dispatciied to all the governors and chief men of the country to make all prepara- tions for this detestable cruelty, for vmich the same day, November the 13th being St. Brithric's day, a festival amonj; the Danes, was appointed for the whole kingdom. The wicked and dastardly orders of the king were but too agreeable to the temper of the populace. On the same day, and at the BEFORE THIS TIME A PRIEST MIGHT TAKE TWO OA THREE WIVES. \ A.D. lOOJ.— THIS TBAB THXRE WAI A TBBBIBI.B FAMIHB IN BNabANO. lEnfilantJ.— 'a>»Blo=Saxon T&inqfi. 79 game hour, the unsuspecting Danes were attacked. Touth and age, without distinc- tion of sex, were alike attacked with indis- criminate fury, and they were the most for- tunate among the unhappy Danes whose butchers were socager to destroy them that they omitted first to subject them to tor- tures terrible even to read of. 80 nnsparing was the rage against them, and so blind to consequences were both high and low among the infuriated and temporarily triumphant English, that the princess Gunilda, sister to the redoubtable king of Denmark, was put to death, after seeing her husband and children slaughtered, though her personal character was excel- lent and though she had long been a Christian. As she expired, this unfortu- nate lady, whose murder was chiefly caused by the advice of Edric, earl of Wilts, ( which advice was shamefully acted upon by the king, who himself ordered her death), fore- told that her fate would speedily be avenged by the total ruin of England. In truth, it needed not the spirit of prophecy to foretel that such wholesale slaughter could scarce- ly fiiil to call down defeat and ruin upon a people who had so often been glad to pur- chase the absence of the Danes, when no such cowardly atrocity had excited them to invasion, or justified them in unsparing vio- lence. The prophecy, however, was speedily and fearfully realized. Though the per- suasions and example of Olave, and his positive determination to fulfil his part of the agreement made with Ethelred had hitherto saved England from any repetition of the annoyan'^es of Swcyn, king of Den- mark, that fierce and warlike monarch had constantly felt a sirong desire to renew his attack upon a people who were so much more ready to defend their country with gold than with steel. The cowardly cruelty of Ethelred now furnished the Dane with a most righteous pretext for invasion, and he hastened to avail himself of it. lie ap- peared off the western coast with a strong fleet, and Exeter was delivered up to Lim without resistance ; some historians say by the incapacity or neglect of earl Hugh, while others say by his treachery. This last opinion has some support in the fact that earl Hugh was himself a Norman, and, being only connected with England by the office to which he had but recently been appointed through the interest of the queen, he might, without great breach of charitjr, b^ suspected of leaning rather to the piratical race with which he was con- nected by birth, than to the English. From Exeter, as their head quarters, the Danes traversed the country in all directions, committing all the worst atrocities of a war of retaliation, and loudly proclaiming their determination to have ample revenge for the slaughter of their fellow country- men. Aware, immediately that they had perpetrated their inhuman crime upon the domestic Danes, how little mercy they could expect at the hands of the country- men of their murdered victims, the English had made more than usual preparations for resistance. A large and well furnished army was ready to march against the in- vaders, but the command of it was com- mitted to that duke of Mercia whose former treason has been mentioned, and he, pre- tending illnes*, contrived to delay the march of the troops until they were thoroughly dispirited and the Danes had done enor- mous mischief. He died shortlv after and was succeeded by Edric, who, though son- in-law to the king, proved just as treacher- ous as his predecessor. The consequence was, that tne country was ravaged to such an extent that the horrors of famine were soon added to the horrors of war, and the degraded English once more sued for peace, and obtained it at the price of thirty thou- and pounds. A. D. 1007.— Clearly perceivinpf that they might now reckon upon Danish invasion as a periodical plague, the English govern- ment and people endeavoured to employ their interval of care in preparing for their future defence. Troops were raised and disciplined, and ■ navy of nearly eight hundred ships was prepared. But a quar- rel which arose between Edric, duke of Mercia, and Wolfnotb, governor of Sussex, caused the latter to desert to the Danes with twenty vessels. He was pursued by Edric's brother Brightrie, with a fleet of eighty vessels ; but this fleet, being driven asnorc by a tempest, was attacked and burned by Wolfnotb. A hundred vessels were thus lost to the English ; dissensions spread amon^ other leading men ; and the fleet which, if concentrated and ably di- rected, might have given safety to the na- tion, was dispersed into various ports and rendered virtually useless. The Danes did not fail to take advantage of the dissensions and imbecility of the English, and for some time from this pe- riod the history of England present.i ns with nothing but one melancholy n-ovo- tony_ of unsparing cruelty on the ^^ :T> of the invaders, and unmitigated and h6po:cst suffering nn the part of the invaded. 1 «- peated attempts were made to restore some- thing like unanimity to the English coun- cils, and to form a settled and unanimous plan of resistance ; but all was still dissen- sion; and when the uttermost wretched- ness at length made the disputants agree, they agreed only in resorting to the old, the base, and the most impolitic plan of pur- chasing the absence of their persecutors. How impolitic this plan was common sense ought to have told the English, even had they not possessed the additional evidence of the fact, that at each new invasion the Danes increased their demand. From ten thousand pounds, which had purchased their first absence, they had successively raised their demands to thirtv thousand, and now, when their rapine had more than ever impove- rished the country, they demanded and, to the shame of the English people, or rather of the king and the nobles, were paid the monstrous sum of eight-and-forty-tuousand pounds 1 This immense sum was even worse ex- / i TO WAB AMD rAMINB WBBB ADSIB THE BATAOBS OF PESTII.ENCB. I 1 ] I i I I i ' I DASTARDIiT Aa ■THBLRIB WAS, ■■ MASI aSTIBAL SXOBI.LBIIT IiAWI. 80 ®^c ^rtasurp of llistorp, ice. vended than the former auma had been; for tbia time the Banea took the money, but did not depart. On the contnury, they continued their deanltory plundering, and at the aame time made formal demanda upon certain diatricta for large and apeci- fied auma. Thua, in the county of Kent they levied the aum of eight thouaand pounda ; and the archbiahop of Canterbury venturing to reaiit tbia moat iniquitoua de- mand, waa coolly murdered. The general atate of the kingdom and the butchery of a Eeraonage ao sminent alarmed the king for is peraonal aftfety ; the more especially, aa many of hia chia nobility, havuK lost all confidence in hia power to redeem nis kin|^- dom from ruin, were daily transferring their allegiance to Bweyn. Having first sent over hia queen and her two children to her brother the duke of Normandy, Etheired himself took an opiwrtunity to escape thither, and thus the Kingdom waa virtually delivered over to Sweyn and his Danes. A. D. 1014. — Sweyn, under all the circum- atancea, would have found little difSculty in causing himself to be crowned king of England ; nay, it may even be doubted if either nobles or people would have been greatly displeased at receiving a warlike sovereign instead of the fugitive Etheired, to whom they had lonf^ been accustomed to apply the acornful epithet of the Unready. But whilst Sweyn was preparing to take advantage of the magnibcent opportunity that offered itself to him, he was suddenly siezed with a mortal illness, and expired at Gainsborough, in Lincolnshire, about six weeks after the flight of Etheired firom the kingdom. This circumstance gave the weak Ethel- red yet one more chance of redeeming his kingly character. The great men of his kingdom, when they informed him of the event which, so auspiciously for him, had occurred, invited him to return. They at the same time plainly, though in a friendly and respectful tone, intimated their hope that he would profit by his experience, to avoid for the future those errors which had g reduced so much evil to both himself and is people. Etheired gladly availed himself of the in- vitation to resume his throne, but the ad- vice that had accompanied that invitation he wholly disregarded. Among the most glaring proofs which he gave of his conti- nued incapacity to rule wisely, he reinstated his treacherous son-in-law, Edric, in all his former influence. This power Edric most shamefully abused: in proof of this we need give but a single instance of his mis- conduct. Two Mercian nobles, by name Morcar and Sigefert, had mnfortunately given some offence to Edric, who forthwith endeavoured to persuade the king that they were hostile to his rule ; and the equally cruel and weak monarch not only con- nived at their murder by Edric, but gave to that crime a guati legal sanction by confis- cating the property of the victims as though they nad been convictpd of treason, and he confined Sigpebert's widow in a convent. Here she waa accidentally seen by the king's son, Edmund, who not only con- trived her escape from the convent, but immediately married her. A. D. 1014.— Ethehred waa not allowed to enjoy his recovered throne in peace. Ca- nute, the son of Sweyn, was to the full as warlike as his famous fittber, and aet up bis claim to the throne with as much grave earnestness as though his father had filled it in right of a long ancestral possession. He committed dreadfbl havoc in Kent, Dorset, Wilts, and Somerset ; and, not con- tented with slaughter in and plunder after the battle, he shockingly mutuatcd his pri- soners, and then gave them their liberty, in order that their wretched plight might strike terror into their fellow-countrymen. So much progress did Canute make, that Etheired woiud, in all probability, have been a second time driven from his throne and kingdom, but for the courage and eneigT of his son Edmund. The treacherous Edric deserted to the Danes with forty ships, after having dispersed a great part of tne English army, and even made an attempt at seising upon the person of the brave prince. Undismayed by so many difficulties, which were much increased by the general contempt and distrust felt for the king, Ed- mund, Dy great exertions, got together a large force, and prepared to give battle to the enemy. But the English had been ac- customed to see their kings in the vanguard of the battle ; and, though Edmund was universally popular, the soldiers loudly de- manded that his father should head them in Eerson. Etheired, however, who suspected is own subjects fully as much as he feared the enemv, not merely refused to do this, on the plea of illness, but so completely left his heroic ^on without supplies, tliat the prince was obliged to allow the whole northern part of the kingdom to fall into subjection to the Danes. Still determined not to submit, Edmund marched his dis- couraged and weakened army to London, to make a final stand iwainst the invaders; but on his arrival he found the metropolis in a state of the greatest alarm and conci- sion, on account of the death of the king. A. D. 1015. — Etheired the Unready had reigned thirty-five years, and his incapacity had reduced the country to a state which would have been sufficiently pitiable and difficult, even had not the fierce and war- like Danes been swarming in its northern provinces. The people were dispirited and disaffected, and the nobles were far less in- tent upon repelling the common enemy than upon pursuing their own mischievous and petty quarrels ; and Edmund had only too much reason to fear that the example of his treacherous brother-in-law would he followed by other nobles. Bightly judging that occupation was the most effectual re- medy for the discouragement of the peofde, and the best safeguard against the treach- ery of the nobles, Edmund lost no time in attacking the enemy. At Gillingham he defeated a detachment of them, and then marched against Canute in person. The ■TBBIiBBn WAi BVBIBD IN ST. PAVl's CH|;BCH, LONDOIf. A. D. lOlC— EOMDKD II. SVBMAMID IRONBIDB, WAS CBOWNkD AT KIHGITON. lEnglantf — Unglo^S^axon anil Banisf) IKinss. 81 a M u M * < a B a) M H u M e hostile armies met near Beoerton, in Glou- cestershire ; and in the early part of the battle the English prince had so much success, that it seemed probable he would have a decisive and crowning victory. But that calamity of his country, Edric, having slain Osmar, who very much resembled the king in countenance, had his bead fixed upon the point of a spear and displayed to the English. A panic immediately spread through the hitherto victorious army. It was in vain that Edmund, heedless of the arrows that flew around him, rode bare- headed among his troops to assure them of his safety. " Save himself who can," was the universal cry ; and though Edmund at length contrived to lead his troops from the field in comparativeljr good order, the golden moment lor securing triumph had passed. Edmund was subsequently defeat- ed, with great loss, at Assington, in Essex, but with exemplary activity again raised an army and prepared to make one more desperate effort to expel the enemy. But the leading men on both sides were by this time wearied with strife and carnage, and a negotiation ensued which led to a divi- sion of the kingdom. Canute taking the northern portion and Edmund the southern. It might have been supposed that the in- famous Edric would have been satisfied with having thus mainly aided in despoiling his brave but unfortunate brother-in-law of a moiety of his kingdom. But as though the very existence of a man so contrary and BO superior to himself in character were intolerable to him, this arrangement had scarcely been made a month when he suborned two of the king's chamberlains, who murdered their uisfortunate master at Oxford. A.D. 1017.— It does not clearly appear that Canute was actually privy to this crime; though his previous conduct and the fact that he was the person to be bene* fited by the death of Edmund may justify us in suspecting him. And this suspicion is still further justified by his immediately seizing upon Edmund's share of the king- dom, though that prince had left two sons, Edwin and Edward. It is true that those princes were very young, but the most that Canute ought to have assumed on that ac- count was the guardianship of the children and the protectorate of their heritage. In- deed, some writers represent that it was in the character of guardian that Canute af- fected to act ; but a sufllcient answer to that pretence is to be found in the fact that Canute reigned as sole king, and left the kingdom to his son. Sanguinary ni'l grasping as his whole former course I ■■■■■ lieen, this able, though unprincipled ))i':iice, was too anxious tor the prosperity of the kingdom of which he had possessed himself, not to take all pos- sible precaution to avert opposition. He called a council, at which lie caused wit- nesses to affirm that it had been agreed, at the treaty of Gloucester, that be should succeed Edmund in the southern portion of the kingdom ; or, as the writers to whom we have alluded affirm, that he shonld have the guardianship and protectorate. This evidence, and, perhaps, terror lest the well known fierceness of Canute should again desolate the kingdom, determined the coun- cil in his favour; and the usurper peaceably mounted the throne, while the despoiled princes were sent to Sweden. Not content with thus seising their dominion and exiling them, Canute charged the king of Sweden to put them to death ; but that king, more generous than his ally, sent them in safety to the court of Hungary, where they were educated. Edwin, the elder of the princes, married the daughter of the king of Hun- gary; and Edward, the younger, married Agatha, sister-in-law of the same monarch, and bad by her Edgar Atheling, Margaret, subsequently queen of Scotland, and Chris- tina, who took the veil. The experience which Canute had of the treachery of the English nobility of this period made him, as a matter of policy, show the most unbounded liberality to them at the commencement of his undi- vided reign. To Thurkill he gave the duke- dom of East Angtia, to Yric that nf Nor- thumberland, and to Edric that of Mercia, confiniug his own direct and personal rule to AYessex. But this seeming favour was only the crouching of the tiger ere he springs. When he found himself firmly fixed upon his throne, and from his judicious as well as firm conduct becoming every day more popular among his subjects, he found a pretext to deprive Thurkill and Yric of their dukedoms, and to send them into exile. It would seem that even while he had profited by the treason of the Eng- lish nobility, he had manliness enough to detest the traitors; for, besides expelling the dukes of East Anglia and Northumber- land, he put several other noble traitors to death, and among them that worst of all traitors, Edric, whose body he had cast into the Thames. Though Canute shewed much disposition to conciliate the favour of his subjects, he was at the commencement of his reign obliged, by the state of the kingdom, to tax them very heavily. From the tiation at large be at one demand obtained the vast sum of seventy-two thousand pounds, and from the city of London a separate further sum of eleven thousand. But though it was evident that much of this money was devoted to the reward of his own country- men, and though in the heavy sum levied upon London there clearly appeared some- thing of angry recollection of the courage the Londoners had shown in opposing him, the people were by this time so wearied with war, that they imputed his demands to necessity, and probaoly thought money better paid for the support of a Danish king than for the temporary absence of an ever-retuining Danish enemy. To say the truth, usurper though Canute was, he bad no sooner made his rule sf cure, than he made great eftbrts to render it not merely tolerable but valuable. He dis- banded and sent home a great number of * IS O m (k B O w o IS 4 WITD BDHDNO IBOIfSIDB FBLL THB OLOBT OP THB ANGLO-SAXONS. < 1 CANUTB rOV^DBD TBI 1I0IIAIT»T AT tV. BOMVRD ■ BDJIf, IN IVtrOLK. 82 iJD^e ^reaiSttrQ of l^istorp, ^c. hit Danish mercenaries; he made not the slightest difference between Danish and English subjects in the execution of the laws goarding property and life; and, still farther to engare the affections of the Eng- lish, he formally, in an assembly of the ■tatea, restored the Saxon customs. In order also to ingratiate himself with the English, as well as to propitiate the powerfu duke of Normandy, who had shown a strong disposition to didturb him in his ttrsnrped power, he married that Erince's sister, Emma, widow of Ethelred. >y dint of this conciliatory policy, he so far succeeded in gaining the affections of the English, that ne at length Tcntured to sail to Denmark, which was attacked by his late allv, the king of Sweden, against whom he felt additional anger on account of his contumacjr in refusing to put the exiled English princes to death. He was completely victorious in this expedition, chiefly oinng to the energy and valour of the afterwards famous, and more than re- gally powerful, earl Godwin, to whom, in reward fbr his conduct on this occasion, he gave his daughter in marriage. In 1028 he made another voyage, and expelled Olans, king of Norway. Powerful abroad and at peace at home, he now de- voted his attention to religion ; but he did so after the grossly superstitious fashion of the age. He did not recal the exiled prin- ces, or make restitution of any of the pro- perty which he had unjustly acquired either in Norway or in England; but he built churches and showered gifts upon church- men ; showed his sorrow for the slaughter of which he still retained the profit, by causing masses to be said for the souls of the slaughtered; and compounded for con- tinuing bis usurped rule of England by obtainmg certain privileges for Englishmen at Home, to which city he made an osten- tatiotts pilgrimage. An anecdote is told of Canute when at the very height of his glory and power, which is higUy charactenstic of the base- ness of the English nobles of that day, and which at the same time shows him to have possessed a certain dry humour as well as sound good sense. It seems that while walking on the sea-shore with some of these degenerate and unworthy nobles, they in the excess of flattery attributed omni- potence to him. Disgusted by their ful- some eulogy, he ordered a chair to be placed upon the beach, and seating himself he commanded the waves to approach no nearer to him. The astonished courtiers looked on with a feeling of contempt for the king's credulity, which was speedily to be transferred to their own baseness. The tide surged onward and onward to the shore till it began to wet his feet ;. when he calmly rose and rebuked his flatterers for attributing to him the great characteristic of the Deity, omnipotence. The Scots in the reign of Ethelred had been taxed one shilling a hide on their flef of Cumberland, for DanegtU, or money to be applied to the protection of the king- dom against the Danes. The Scots re- fused to pay it, and though Ethelred at- tempted force, he, as usual with him. failed. Malcolm, the thane of Scotland who had thus failed in his vassalage to Ethelred, on the ground that he eouTd defend himself against the Danes, now refused to do homage for Cumberland to Canute, on the ground of that king not having succeeded to the throne by inheritance. But Canute speedily brought him to his senses ; at the flrst appearance of the English army Mal- colm submitted. This was Canute's last expedition ; he dit4 about four years after, in the year 1035. CHAPTER X. Tkt Keign* nf Harold and Hardieanute. Canutc left three sons, Sweyn and Harold bv his flrst wife, Alfweu, daughter of the earl of Hampshire ; and Hardieanute by his second wife, Emma, the widow of Ethehred. On the marriage of Canute and Emma the former had formally agreed that his children by her should iuherit the throne. But as her brother, the duke of Normandy, died before Canute, the latter thought flt to depart from this agreement, and to leave the English throne to Harold, his second son by the first wife, rather than entrust it, with its abounding difficulties, to the weak hands of so young a prince as Hardieanute, his son by Emma. By his last will, therefore, Canute left Norway to Swevn, his eldest son, and England to Harolo, his younger son by the first marriage ; and to Hardi- eanute, his son by Emma, he left his native Denmark. The difference between the arranp^ment made by the king[s will and that which was agreed upon by his treaty of marriage with Einma, placed the kingdom in no small danger of a long and sanguinary civil war. Harold, it is true, had the express last will of his father in his favour, and being upon the spot at the moment of his father's death, he seised upon the royal treasures, and thus had the means of supporting his claim either by open force or corruption. But Hardieanute, though in Denmark, was the general favourite of the people, and of not a few of the nobilitv; being looked upon, on account of his mother, in the light of a native English prince. To bis father's lost will, upon which it would have been easy to throw suspicion, as though weakness of mind had been superinduced by bodily suf- fering, he could oppose the terms of the grave treaty signed by his father while in rail possession of his vigorous mind, and in full possession, too, of power to resist any article contrary to his wish. And, above all, Hardieanute had the favour and influ- ence of the potent earl Godwin. V^ith such elements of strife in existence, it was extremely fortunate that the most powerful men on both sides were wisely and really anxious to avert from the nation the sad consequences inseparable from civil strife. Conferences were held at which the jarring aumiiDA, DAOSHTIB 0» CAHOU, WAS MABBIBD TO TBB BMFBBOB HBHBT IV. A.B. 1039.— oub ov tii rakubit wintbbi btbb bkown in bhalaiid. lEnglanTf.— Unglo^Saxon antf Banisib IKfngs. 83 claims of the two princei were disriuied with unuiiud candour and calmnni, and it waa at length BKreed, that, at each had a plea 10 powerfurto be wholly done away with by hi* competitor*! coanterplea, the kingdom ahoold once more be divided. London and the country north of the Thamea fell to the lot of Harold ; the coan- trr Muth of the Thames to Hardicanute, in whose name Emma took possession, and ilxed her residence at Winchester till he should reach England to govern for himself. The two young princes, Alfred and Ed- ward, the sons of Emma by Ethelred, had hitherto remained at Normandy ; but find* ing themselves, firom the circumstances of that court, less welcome than they had been, they resolved to visit their mother, whose high state at Winchester promised them all possible protection and comfort, and they accordingly landed in England with a numerous and splendid suite. But the appearances by which they had been allured to take this step were exceedingly deceitful. Godwin, whose ambition was restless and utterly insatiable, had been skilfully tampered with by the crafty Ha> rold, who promised to marry the earl's daughter. . The idea of being father-in-law to the sole king of England put an end to all Godwin's moderate notions, and to all the favour with which he had previously looked unon the expedient of partitioning the kingaom ; and he now very readily and zealously promised his support to Harold in his design to add his brother's posses- sions to his own, and to cut off the two English princes, whose coming into Eng- land seemed to indicate a determination to claim as heirs of Ethelred. Alfred was, with many hypocritical compliments, in- vited to court, and had reacned as far as Guildford, in Surrey, on his way thither, when an assemblage of Godwin's people suddenly fell upon the retinue of the un- suspecting prince, and put upwards of six hundred of them to the sword. Alfred waa himself taken prisoner; but far happier had been his fate had he died in the battle. His inhuman enemies caused his ejres to be put out, and he was then thrust into the monastery of Ely, where he perished in ag^ny and misery. His brother and queen Emma readily judged, from this horrible affair, that they would be the next victims, and they immediately fled from the country; while Harold forthwith added the southern to the northern division of the kin^oro. Commencing his sole reign over England by an act of such hypocrisy and sanguinary cru>' . Hsrold would probably have left fe. . races of his reign if it had been a leii^, .iie- m t> H M H M IS M tf M H a K ■4 H h e> »s < a * M P » HARniCARUTB OIBO AT I.AMBRTH, AND WAS BDRIKD AT WIKCBBSTBR. il H i ii THE MONARCHY OV TDK DANBb IN BNOI.AND lABTBD ABOUT 26 TBAB8. 84 ^l^e ^reasurg of l^istorp, $cc. CHAPTER XI. The Reign of Edward the Confettor. A.D. 1042. — SwBTN, the remaining son of Canute, was in Nonray wken Hardicanute thus suddenly died ; and us there was no one whom the Danes could set up in his place, or as his representative, the Enitlish nad a most favourable opportunity to place upon the throne a prince of their own race. The real English heir was undoubtedly the elder son of Edmund Ironside ; but that prince and his brother were in Hungary, and Ed- ward, the son of Ethelrcd, was at the Eng- lish court ; and the necessity of instant ac- tion to prevent the Danes from recovering from their surprise was tooobvious to allow the English to a£fect upon this occasion a punctiliousness upon direct succession which they had not yet learned to feel. There was but one apparent obstacle of any magnitude to the peaceable succession of Edward, and that was the fijud existing between him and the powerful earl Godwin relative to the death of prince Alfred. So powerful was Godwin at this time, that his opposition would have been far too great for Edward's means to surmount. But Godwin's power lay principally in Wessex, which was almost exclusively inhabited by English, among whom Edward's claim was very popular ; and as Edward's friends in- duced him to disavow all rancour against Godwin, and even to consent to marry his daughter Editha, the powerful and crafty earl easily consented to ensure his daughter a throne. He forthwith summoned a coun- cil, at which he so well managed matters, that while the mtgoritv were English and in favour of Edward, the few Danes were fairly silenced, and the more easily because whatever warmth might be in their indivi- dual feelings towards the absent Sweyn, they had no leader of influence to unite them, or of eloquence to impress and sup- port their wishes. The joy of the English on finding the go- vernment once more m the hands of a native prince was excessive, and would have been attended with extensive ill-consequences to the Danes, had not the king very equit- ably interposed on their behalf. As it was, they suffered not a little in property, for one of the first acts of the king's reign was to revoke all the grants of his Danish prede- cessors, who had heaped large possessions upon their fellow-countrymen. In very many cases it may be assumed that the grants had been made unjustly; but the English made no distinction between cases, but heartily rejoiced to see the resumption of the grants reducing many of the hated Danes to their original poverty. To his motlier, the queen Emma, Edward behaved with an unpardonable severity; unpardon- able even admitting that he was right when he affirmed that, having been so much better treated by Canute than by Ethelred, she had always given the preference to Hardicanute, and held her children by Ethelred in comparative contempt or in- difference. He not only took from her the great riches which she had heaped up, but also committed her to close custody in a nunnery at AVinchestcr. :^orae writers have gone so far as to say that he accused her of the absurdly improbable crime of having connived at the murder of the prince Alfred, and that Emma purged herself of this guilt by the marvellous ordeal of walking arefooted over nine red-hot ploughshares ; but the monks, to whom Emma was pro- fusely liberal, needed not to have added fable to the unfortunate truth of the king's unnatural treatment of his twice-widowed mother. Apart from mere feelings of nationality, the desire of the English to see their throne filled by a man of their own race was, no doubt, greatly excited by their unwilling- ness to see lands and lucrative places be- stowed by stranger kings upon stranger courtiers. In this respect, however, the accession of Edward was by no means so advantageous to the English as they had anticipated. Edward had lived so much in Noiraandy that he had become almost a Frenchman in his tastes and habits, and it was almost exclusively among Frenchmen that he had formed his friendships and now chose his favourites and confidants. In the disposal of civil and military employ- ments the king acted with great fairness towards the English, but as the Normans who thronged his courts ware both more polished and more learned, it was among them principally that he disposed of the ecclesiastical dignities, and from them that he chiefly selected his advisers and intimate companions. The favour thus shown to the Normans gave great disgust to the English, and especially to the powerful Godwin, who was too greedy of power and patronage to look with complacency upon any rivals in the king's good graces. He v;as the more offended that the ex- clusive favour of the king did not fall upon him and his family, because, independent of the king having married the earl's daugh- ter Editha, the mere power of Godwin's own family was so princely as to give him high claims, which he was by no means in- clined to underrate. He himself was earl of Wessex, to which extensive government the counties of Kent and Sussex were add- ed; Sweyn, his eldest son, had like autho- rity over the counties of Hereford, Glouces- ter, Oxford, and Berks; while Harold, his second son, was duke of East Anglia, with Essex added to his government. Possessed of such extensive power, still secretly hating Edward on account of their open feud about the murder of prince Al- fred, and considering that to his forbear- ance alone, or principally, Edward owed his throne, Godwin, who was naturally haughty, was not inclined to bear the neg- lect of the king without showing his sense of it; and his ill-humour was the more deep and the more bitterly expressed, be- cause his daughter Editha as well as him- self suffered Irom the king's neglect. The king had married her, indeed, in compli- ance with his solemn promise, but he FnOM rUIS PERIOD THE DANES IN BNOLAND ABB SCARCELY URAIIU OP, A. 11. 1051. — TUtS TEAIt WAS VISITED WITH VAMINB AND PKSTIL8:(Cr. lEnglanU.— 'angIo=Saxon ISinga. 85 would never live with her. His determina- tion on this head was rightly attributed by Godwin to his having transferred to the daughter a part of the hatred he entertain- ed for the father; though the monks, with their usual ingenuity in finding piety where no one else would think of looking for it, attribute this conduct to his religious feel- ing ; and to this conduct it is that he chief- ly owed the being honoured by the monks with the respectable surname of The Con- fessor. A.D. 1048.— Entertaining strong feeling of both disappointment and discontent, it was nut likely that a nobleman of Godwin's great power, and great ill-temper too, would fail to find some pretext upon which to break out into open quarrel. Politic as he was ill-tempered, Godwin seized upon the favouritism of the king towards the Nor- mans as a cause of quarrel upon which he was sure to have the sympathy of the En- glish, who were to the full as much preju- diced as himself against the foreigners. While Godwin was thus anxious to quar- rel with the king whom he had done so much to put upon the throne, and only waiting for the occurrence of an occasion sufficiently plausible to hide his meaner and more entirely personal motives, it chanced that Eustace, count of Boulogne, passed through Dover on his way back to his own country after a visit paid to the English court. An attendant upon the count got into a dispute with a man at whose house he was quartered, and wound- ed him ; the neighbours interfered, and the count's attendant was slain ; a general battle took place between the count's suite and the townspeople, and the former got so much the worst of the affray, that the count himself had some difficulty in saving his life by flight. The king was not merely an- gry, but felt scandalized that foreigners who had just partaken of his hospitality should be thus roughly used by his sub- jects ; and he ordered Godwin— to whom, as we hare said, the government of^Kent belonged— to make enquiry into the affair, and to punish the guilty. But Godwin, wlio WDS delighted at an occurrence which furnislied him with a pretext at once platt<- sible and popular for quarrelling with hit sovereign ana son-in-law, promptly refused to punish the Dover men, whom he alleged to Iiavi; been extremely ill-treated by the foreigners. Edward had long been aware of the hostile feelings of Godwin, but as he was also aware of the very great and widely spread power of that noble, he had pru- dently endeavoured to avoid all occasion of open disagreement. But this blank refusal of the enn to obey his orders provoked the king so much, that he threatened Godwin with the full weight of his displeasure if he dared to persevere in his disobedience. Aware, and probably not sorry, that an open rupture was now almost utterly un- avoidable, Godwin assembled a force and marched towards Gloucester, where the king was then residing with no other guard than his ordinary retinue. Edward, on hearing of the approach and hostile bear- ing of his too potent father-in-law, applied for aid to Siward and Leofric, the pow- erful dukes of Northumberland and Mercia ; and to give them time to add to the forces with which they on the instant proceeded to aid him, he opened a negotiation with Godwin. tVily as the earl was, he on this occasion forgot the rebel maxim — that he who draws the sword against his sovereign should throw away the scabbard. He al- lowed the king to amuse him with messages and proposals, while the king's friends were raising a force sufficiently powerful to as- sure h'm success should the quarrel pro- ceed to blows. As the descendant of a long line of English kings, and himself a king remarkable for humane and just conduct, Edward had a popularity which not even his somewhat overweening uartiality to fo- reigners could abate ; and when his subjects learned that he was in danger from the an- ger and ambition of Godv/in, they hastened to his defence in such numbers that he was able to summon him to answer for his treasonable conduct. Both Godwin and his sons, who had joined in his rebelliou, professed perfect willing^eBS to proceed, to London to answer for their conduct, on condition that they should receive hostages for their personal safety and fair trial. But the king was now far too powerful to grant any such terms, and Godwin and his sons perceiving that, iu negotiating with the king while he was but slenderly attended they had lost the golden opportunity of wresting the sovereignty from nim, hastily disbanded their troops and went abroad; Godwin and three of nis sons taking refuge with Baldwin, earl of Flanders, and his other two sons taking shelter in Ireland. Having thus for the time got rid of ene- mies so powerful, the king bestowed their estates and governments upon some of his favourites; and as he no longer thought himself obliged to keep any measures with his imperious father-in-law, he thrust queen Editha, whom he had never loved, into a convent at Wherwell. But the ruin of the powerful Godwin was more apparent than real ; he had numerous friends in F^igland, nor was he without such foreign alliances ac. would still enable him to give those friends an opportunity of serving him. His ally, the earl of Flan- ders, who was the more interested in his behalf on account of Godwin's son Tosti having married the earl's daughter, gave him the use of his harbours >n which to assemble a fleet, and assisted him to hire and purchase vessels ; and Godwin, having completed his preparations, made an at- tempt to surprise Sandwich. But Edward had constantly been informed of the earl's movements, and hod a fur superior force ready to meet him. Godwin, who depended fully as much upon policy as upon force, returned to Flanders, trusting that his seeming relinquishment of his design would throw Edward off his guard. It turned out precisely as Godwin had anticipated. Edward neglected his fleet and allowed his A.D. 1049.— MANT FARMS IN DBRBTSHIIIB OBSTROVBD BT TUN WII.D-FIRB. [/ VUK CI.KnOY HAD ALWAT8 BBBN KZIVrT FBOK THB TAX OP DAMBOBLT. > H a H h O M M A M El 91 H H »< O H u H u o H O h M M » M 3 H u A O o f n M O H M at o ■Q 86 ^]^e treasure of llistorp, $cc. seamen to disperse ; and Godwin, informed of this, suddenly sailed for the Isle of Wight, where he was joined by an Irish force under Harold. Seizing the vessels in the southern ports, and summoning all his friends in those parts to aid him in ob- taining justice, he was able to enter the Thames and appear before London with an overwhelming force. Edward was undis- mayed by the power of the rebel earl : and as he was determined to defend himself to the utmost, a civil war of the worst de- scription would most probably have ensued but for the interference of the nobles. Many of these were secretly friends of God* win, and all of them were very desirous to accommodate matters ; and the result of their timely mediation was a treaty, by which it was stipulated on the one nand that the obnoxious foreigners should be sent from the country, and on the other, that Godwin should give hostages for his future good behaviour. This he did, and Edward sent the hostages over to Nor- mandy, being conscious . that he could not safely keep them at his own court. Though a civil war was undoubtedly for the present averted by this treaty between the king and Godwin, yet the ill example thus given of the necessities of the king compelling him to treat as upon equal terms with his vassal, would probably havi: produced farther and more mischievous acts of presumption on the part of Godwin, but for nis death, which suddenly occurred as he was dining with the king shortly after this hollow reconciliation had been patched up between them. Godwin was succeeded both in his go- vernments and in the very important office of stewavd of the king's household by his son Harold, who had all his father's ambition, together with a self-command and seeming humility far more dangerous, because more difficult to be guarded against, than his father's impetuous violence. Although unavoidably prejudiced against him on account of his parentage, Edward was won by his seeming humility and anxiety to please. But though Edward could not refuse him his personal esteem, his jealousy was awakened by the anxiety and success with which Harold endeavoured to make partizans ; and, in order to curb his ambition, lie played off a rival against him in the person of Algar, son of Leofric duke of Mercia, upon whom was conferred Harold's old government of East Anglio. But this notable expedient of tlie king wholly failed. Instead of the power of Algar balancing that of Harold, the dis- putes between the two rivals proceeded to actual warfare, in which, as usual, the un- offending people were the greatest suffer- ers. The death of both Algar and his father put an end to this rivalry, or pro- bably the very means which the king nad taken to preserve his authority would have wholly and fatally subverted it. A. D. 1065. — There was now but one rival from whom Harold could fear any cffectud competition ; Siward, duke of Northumber- land; and his death speedily left Harold without neer and without competitor. Si- ward haa greatly distinguished himself in the only foreign expedition of this reign, which was undertaken to restore Malcolm, king of Scotland, who had been chased from that kingdom after the murder of nis father, king Duncan, by a traitorous noble named Macbeth. In this expedition Si- ward was fully successful; but unfortu- nately, though he defeated and slew the usurper Macbeth, he in the same action lost his eldest son Osborne, who had given high promise of both will and power to upliold the glory of his family. Siward's cnaracter had much of the Spar- tan resolution. He was consoled for the death of his gallant son when he learned that his wounds were all in front; and when he felt the hand of death upon him- self he had his armour cleaned and a spear placed in his hand, that, as he said, he might meet death in a guise worthy of a noble and a warrior. Owing to the health of the king being fast declining, and his having no children, he grew anxious about the succession ; and as ne saw that Harold was sufficiently ambitious to seize upon the crown, he sent to Hungary for his elder brother's son Edward. That prince died almost imme- ^.intely after his arrival in England; asd tl'.ugn the title of his son Edgar Atheling would have been fully as good and indispu- table as his own, Edgar did not, to the anx- ious eyes of the king, seem either by years or character a competent authority to curb the soaring ambition of Harold. Willing to see any one rather than Harold secure in the succession, the king turned his attention to William, duke of Nor- mandy. This prince was the natural son of William, duke of Normandy, by Har- lotta, the daughter of a tanner of the town of Falaise ; but illegitimacy in that age was little regarded. He had shewn great vigour and capacity in putting down the opposi- tion made to his succession to the dukedom, and though he was of very tender age when his father died, his conduct, both at that difficult crisis and in his subsequent go- vernment, fully justified the high opinion of him which had induced his father to be- queath him the dukedom, to the prejudice of other branches of the ducal family. He had paid a visit to England and gained much upon the good opinion of Edward, who had actually made known to him his intention of making him his heir even be- fore he sent to Hungary for prince Ed- ward and his family. Harold, though by no means ignorant of the king's desire to exclude him from all chance of succeeding to the throne, stead- fastly pursued his plan of conciliating the powerful, and making himself noted as the friend and protector of the weak. In this respect he was eminently successful, but there was an obstacle in the way of his final triumph from which he anticipated very great difficulty. Among the hostages given y his father, earl Godwin, were a son and A.D. U)63.— TUB I.ONO DRBAOBD BABI. OODWIN WAS BUBIBD AT WINCBBBTEB. BLT. left Harold petitor. Si- l himself in F this reigu, re Malcolm, leen chaaed lurder of ni* torouB noble pedition Si- jut unfortu- nd slew the snme action ho had given id power to loftheSpar- loled for the n be learned 1 front; and th upon bim- i and a spear s be said, be 5 worthy of a e king being g no children, cceasion; and IS sufficiently rown, be sent toother's son almost imme- Sngland; aisd dgar A cheling 1 and indispu- ot, to the anx- pm either by :ent authority on of Harold. I- than Harold e king turned iuke of Nor- e natural son indy, by Har- er of the town a that age was n great vigour n the opposi- I the dukedom, nder age when , both at that ibaequent go- high opinion g father to be- the prejudice al family. He d and gained in of Edward, rn to him bis heir even be- sr prince Ed- DS ignorant of bim from all throne, stead- mciliating the if noted as the veak. In this uccessful, but vay of his final ticipated very hostages given ere a son and NCHBBTKB. o o , o I h I o » ' EDWABD rOBHBD TUB FIBBT CODB Of LAWS COMMON TO ALL BNGLAKD. lEnglanU.— 'anglflsSaioti Kings. 87 a grandson of that nobleman ; and when Harold perceived that duke 'William, to whose custody the hostages were com- mitted, had hopes of being left heir to the English crown, he naturally became anx- ious about the consequences of his in- tended rivalry to relatives so near. To get them out of the duke'a power previous to the death of the king was of the utmost impor- tance; and he applied to the king for their release, dwelUng much upon the constant obedience and dutifulness of his conduct, upon which he argued it was in some sort an injurious reflection longer to keep the hoatagea. As his conduct really had been to all appearances of unbroken faith and undevialing loyalty, the king was unable to make any solid reply to his arguments, and at length yielded the point and empowered Harold to go to Normandy and release them. He hastened to fulfil this very agreeable commission, but a violent tem- pest arose while he was at sea and drove him ashore upon the territory of Guy, count of Ponthieu, who made him prisoner in the hope of extorting a very large sum from hiui by way of ransom. Harold sent to the duk<: of Normandy for aid in this dilemma, representing that the duke's honour as well as his liberty was infringed by this impri- sonment of a nobleman bound to the court - of Normandy. Nothing could have hap- pened more agreeable to the wishes of William, who, if of a more hasty tempera- ment than Harold, was no less politic ; and he at once clearly perceived that this unexpected .acident would give him the means of practising upon his only formida' hie competitor for the English throne. He immediately dispatched a messenger to de- mand the liberty of Harold ; and the count of Ponthieu complied on the instant, not daring to irriiate so warlike and powerful a prince as duke William. Harold then proceeded to William's court at Rouen, where he was received with every demon- stration of the warmest good will. William professed ttie greatest willingness to give up the hostages, and at the same time took the opportunity — as if ignorant of Harold's own secret intentions — to beg his aid in his pretentions to the crown of England, as- suring him in return of an increase to the grandeur and power already enjoyed by his own family, and offering him a daughter of his own in marriage. Though Harold had the least possible desire to aid in his own defeat, he clearly enough saw that if be were to refuse to promise it he would be made a prisoner in Normandy for the re- mainder of his life. He agreed, therefore, to give William his support. But a mere Kromise would not serve William's turn; e required an oath ; and as oaths sworn upon reliques were in that age deemed of more than usual sanctity, he had some reliques of the most venerated martyrs pri- vately hidden beneath the altar on which Harold was sworn ; and, to awe him from breaking his oath, shewed them to him at the conclusion of the ceremony. Harold was both surprised and annoyed at the shrewd precaution of the duke, but was too politic to allow his concern to appear. Imagining that be had now fullv secured the support of Harold instead of having to fear his opposition, William allowed him to depart with many expressions of favour and friendship. But Harold had no sooner obtained his own liberty and that of his relatives, than he began to exert himself to suggest reasons for breaking the oath which actual though nominal durance had extorted from him, aud the accompaniment of which had been brought about by an actual fraud. He shut his eyes upon the fact that, having consented to take the oath, it really mattered little whether he was aware or not of the presence of the reliques ; had they not been there his oath would still be in full force, and he could only act in contravention of it by gr?re- parations, and in the mere fact of his being on the spot he had a great and manifest advantage over his Norman rival. Not only were his partisans numerous and powerful by their wealth and station ; they were also compactly organized. Neither duke William nor Edgar Atheling was for- mally proposed, but it was taken for granted that the unanimous voice of the people was represented by that of the lay and clerical , nobles who surrounded Harold ; and, with- out even waiting for the formal sanction of the states of the kingdom, he was crowned by the archbishop ot York on the very day after the decease of Edward. Nor, in fact, was the consent of the nation so mere an assumption as it sometimes has been ; for Harold was universally popular, and the Normans were as universally hated as foreigners, and feared on account of their fierce and warlike character. But popular as Harold was in England, he was not long allowed to enjoy his elevation in peace. His brother Tosti, who had remained in voluntary banishment at the court of Flan- ders ever since Harold's memorable de- cision against him, deemed that his time was now arrived to take revenge. He ex- erted his utmost influence with the earl of Flanders, and sent messengers into Nor- way to raise forces, and journeyed person- ally to Normandy to engage duke William to join him in avenging both their griev- ances. This ast step Tosti had not the slight- est occasion to take, for duke William was far too much enraged at Harold's breach of faith to require any urging. He had al- ready determined that Harold should at the least have to tight for his throne ; but as it was obviously important to stand as well as possible with the English people, he sent ambassadors summoning Harold to perform the promise he had made under the most solemn form of oath. Harold re- plied at some length and with considerable show of reason to the duke's message. As related to his oath, he said, that had been extorted from him under circumstances of durance and well-grounded bodily terror, and was consequently null ; and, moreover, he as a private person could not lawfully swear to forward the duke's pretensions. He had himself, he added, been raised to the throne by the unanimous voice of his people, and he would indeed be unworthy of their love and trust were he not prepared to defend the liberties they had entrusted to his care. Finally, he said, should the duke attempt by force of arms to disturb him and his kingdom, he would soon learn how great is the power of a united people, led by a prince ot its own choice, and one who was firmly determined that he would only cease to reign when he should cease to live. William expected such an answer as this, and even while his messengers were tra- velling between Normandy and the English court he was busily engaged in prepara- tions for enforcing his pretensions by arms. Brave, and possessed of a high reputation, he could count not only upon the zealous aid of his own warlike Normans, who would look on the invasion of such a country as England in the light of an absolute god- send, but also of the numerous martiaino- bles of the continent, who literally made a trade of war, and were ever ready to range themselves and their stalwart men at arms under the banner of a bold and famous leader, without expressing any troublesome curiosity as to the rightfulness of his cause. Among these unscrupulous sworders the wealth, fame, and a certain blunt and hearty hospitality of William had made him ex- tremely popular; and in the idea of conquer- ing such a kingdom as England there was much to tempt their cupidity as well as to inflame their valour. Fortune, too, favoured William by the sudden death of Cunan.count of Brittany. Between this nobleman andWil- Ham there was an old and a very inveterate feud, andConan no sooner learned dukeWil- liam's design upon England, than he endea- voured to embarrass and prevent him by re- viving his own claim to the duchy of Nor- mandy, which he required to be settled upon him in the event of the duke succeeding iu England. This demand would have caused the duke much inconvenience, but Conan had scarcely made it when he died ; and count Hoel, his successor, so far from seek- ing to embarrass William, sent him five thousand men under the command of his son Alain. The earl of Flanders and the count of Anjou permitted their subjects to join William's army ; and though the re- gency of France ostensibly commanded him to lay aside his enterprize, the earl of Flan- 8i;bnamb8 wbbb not in vsb till tub bbion or bdwabd. , I AT RTAMrORD BRIDOK 60,000 MBIf WKRR KNOAORD OK KACR BIDR. lEnglantJ.— "anglo^Saion "Sings. 89 den, who was at the head of th>- - i^ency and who was his father-in-lav jH care to let the French nobility kc aai no ob- struction would be offered to tb■ a H a tr, «l r, * M O K » m f a TUB BATTLR OF STAMFORD WAS ONI OF TIIR BLOODIEST ON RRCORD. [13 It ■\ ^\ a TUS CONQUEBOB LOST 6000 MIN ; HABOLD A VAB OBBATBB IfUMBKR. 90 VL1)t ^reasurp of l^istore, $cc. proposal, and said that the god of battles would soon decide between them. The eve of the momentous day of strife was passed by the Normans in prayer, and in confessing their sins to the host of monks by whom they were accompanied ; but the English, more confident or more reckless, gave themselves up to wassail and merri- ment. Earljr in the morning the duke addressed the principal leaders. He represented to thcra that they had come to conquer a fine couniry from the hands of a usurper, whose perjury could not fail to call down destruc- tion upon his head; that if they fought valiantly their success was certain, but that '.f any, from cowardice or treachery, should retreat, they would infallibly perish be- tween a furious enemy and the sea towards which he would drive them. His address finished, the duke formed his immense force into three divisions. His choice and heavy armed infantry was commanded by Cliarlcs Martel, the archers and light- armed infantry by Roger de Montgomery, and the cavalry, which flanked both those divisions, was under bis own immediate leading. Harold had chosen his ground with great judgment. His force was disposed upon the slope of a rising ground and the flanks were secured against cavalry, in which he was but weak, by deep trenches. In this position he resolved tu await the attack of the enemy, and he placed himself on foot, accompanied by his brothers Gurth and I,eofwin, at the head of his infantry. The first attack of the Normans was fierce, but the steadiness with which they were met and the great difficulty of the ground com- pelled them to retire, and the English pur- sued and threw them into a disorder which threatened to degenerate into actual rout. Duke William, who saw that all his hopes were at this moment in jeopardy, led on the flower of his cavalry, and speedily com- pelled the English to relinquish their hard earned advantage, and retire to their origi- nal position. William now ordered up ad- ditional troops to the attack, but finding the English stand firm he made a feint of re- treat. With far more bravery than judg- ment, the English abandoned their advan- tageous post to pursue the fiying and seem- ingly terrified enemy, when the Norman in- fantry suddenly halted and faced the Eng- lish, whose flanks were at the same instant furiously charged by the Norman cavalry. William was admirably obeyed by his troops, and the English fell in vast num- bers ; but the survivors by great exertion re- gained the hill, where the aid and example of Harold enabled them to defend them- selves to greater advantage. Extraordinary as it may seem, the ardour of the English enabled William to ^ut the same feint into execution a second time, and with eijual ad- vantage to himself, though the main body of Harold's army still remained firmly en- trenched upon the hill. But galled by the incessant play of William's archers, who discharged their deadly missiles over the heads of the advancing heavy infantry, the English were at length broken by the furious yet steady charges of these latter, and Harold and both his brothers being slain, the English fled and were pursued with terrible slaughter by the victorious Normans. William did not gain this im- Eortant victory without vast loss, the battle aving been continued with almost un- abated fury on both sides from morning until evening. The dead body of the ill- fated Harold was found, and, by the orders of the duke, restored to his mother ; and the Normans having solemnly returned thanks for their signal triumph, marched onward to pursue their advantage. Had the English still possessed a mifal family of the high coura^ and popularity of Harold, duke William, in spite of his first brilliant success, might for years have been harassed by the necessity of continually fighting small and indecisive battles in every province of the kingdom. But Edgar Athe- ling, the only Saxon heir to the crown, had neither the capacitv nor the reputation which would enable nim to organize and di- rect a resistance of this stem and stubborn description. But his mere lineage went for much in the circumstances of the kingdom, and the dukes Morcar and Edwin, now the most powerful and popular men left to the English, proclaimed Edgar, and called upon the people to support their Saxon sovereign against the Norman invader. In this mea- sure the dukes were zealously assisted by Stigand, archbishop of Canterbury, whose wealth and influence made him of great ser- vice to them. William, in the mean time, took posses- sion of llomney and then of Dover, thus securing himself a communication with his duchy in the event of any adverse turn of fortune. Having given his troops a week's rest at Dover, the duke availed himself of the time to publish to the people the pope's bull in favour of his enterprise, it being a document which he well knew would have a great effect upon the superstitious minds of the multitude, and thus disincline them to aid the resistance planned by their leaders, he marched towards London. A large body of Londoners attempted to arrest his course, but they were routed with ter- rible slaughter by about five hundred horse of the Norinan advance ; and this new dis- aster, together with the little confidence and enthusiasm excited by Edgar, so com- pletely dispirited the people, that even Morcar and Edwin now despaired of suc- cess, and retired to their respective govern- ments. All Kent submitted ; Southwark attempted some resistance, and was set on fire ; and the Normans seemed so wholly ir- resistible, that Stigand, archbishop of Can- terbury, Edgar Atheling, and other leading men of the kingdom, tendered William the crown and made their submission to him. With a degree of hypocrisy, which the vast preparations he had made and the great toils he had undergone for the purpose of obtaining the crown made ridiculous, the duke pretended to have scruples about ac- THB BATTIiB OF HASTINOS WAS FOVOHT ON HAROLD'b BIBTH-DAT, OCT. 14. A.D. 1067. — romta kbkctxd in kondon, norwicb, wmcaBiTiB, ootbb, &c. lEnglantt.— l^orman ICinc — asaUUam E. 91 cepting the crown without some more for- mal consent of the English people. But his own friends, ashamed of his gratuitous hypocrisy, or afraid that his affected scruples might give rise to some adverse turn of events, remonstrated so plainly with him that his feigned reluctance was laid aside, and orders were given for the necessary pre- parations for his immediate coronation. Stigaiid, archbishop of Canterbury, was, according to etiquette, the proper person to have crowned William. But the alacrity that prelate had shown in defending his country made him an object of the Con- queror's dislike, who refused to be crowned by him, on the plea that his pall had been irregularly obtained; and the melancholy office fell upon Aldred, archbishop of York. CHAPTER XIII. The Reign of William I., vtually «ty{«il " William the Conqueror." Thb principal English and Norman no- bility being assembled in Westminster ab- bey, (Dec. 2S, 1066), Aldred asked them if they were willing to have William for their king, and being answered by affirmative ac- clamations, he admonished him to uphold the church, love justice, and execute justice with mercy ; and then put the crown on his head amid the loud applauses of the spec- tators of both nations. A strong guard of Normans surrounded the abbey, and hear- ing the shouts within, they imagined that the duke was attacked ; upon which they immediately fell upon the populace and fired the houses around, and it was only by I great exertion and his personal presence I that William was enabled to put an end to I the outrage and disturbance. Though he had experienced so much good will from the principal English, Wil- liam even yet felt doubtful how far he might i rely upon the peaceable conduct of his new > subjects, especially the sturdy Londoners, 1 and he showed the jealousy he felt by causing strong fortresses to be erected to overawe the English and serve as places of refuge for his own people. A. V. 1067' — His jealousy of his new sub- jects was still further shown by his retiring from London to Barking in Essex, where he held a court for the purpose of receiving the homage of those, English nobles who had not been presented at the coronation. Edric, surnamed the Forester, the brave earl Coxo, Edwin and Morcar who had so zea- lously though ineffectually endeavoured to prevent him from enslaving their country, and a c rowd of nobles of smaller note waited upon him there, made their submission in form, and were confirmed by him in their authority and possessions ; and though the new reign had commenced in war andusur- pation, there was thus far every appearance of its being both a just and a tranquil one. Having received the submission of all his principal English subjects, William now busied himself in distributing rewards among the Norman soldiery to whom he owed nis new crown. He was enabled to behave the more liberally to them, because in addition to the large treasure of the un- fortunate Ilarold which had fallen into his hands, he was enriched by great pre- sents made to him by numerous wealthy English who were desirous of being among the earliest to worship the rising sun, that they might enlarge, or at the least preserve their estates. As the clergy had greatly assisted him he made rich presents to them also ; and he ordered an abbey to he erected near the site of the late battle, and to be called after it. An anecdote is related, in connection with this abbey, that William was inform- ed, after the foundations were laid, that the workmen could not find any spring of water for the supply of the intended edifice. " Let them work on," replied William, " let them work on, by the blessing of God, wine shall be more plentiful in that abbey than water in any other in England." William doubtless built this magnificent abbey partly for the sake of placing there his most zealous friends among the Nor- man monks, and partly as a splendid and durable monument of his great triumph ; but he affected to dedicate it chiefly to the saying of daily masses for the repose of that unfortunate prince whom he had deprived of both kingdom and life. Though William had obtained his throne strictly by conquest and usurpation, he commenced his reign in a manner the best calculated to reconcile his subjects to their change of sovereigns. The pride of con- quest did not blind him to the necessity of conciliation; and while he was in reality the most busy in placing all power and in- fluence in Normaii hanas, he lost no oppor- tunity of showing apparent favour to and confidence in the leading Saxons. Though he confiscated not only the estates of Ha- rold, but also those of many of the leading men who had sided with that unfortunate prince, he in numerous cases availed him- self of slender excuses for restoring the properties to their rightful owners. Satis- fied that the imbecility of Ed^ar Atheling secured the peaceable behaviour of that Srince, he confirmed him in the earldom of ixford with which he had been invested by the deceased king; and, by the studied kindness of his demeanour towards the Saxon nobles who approached him, he strove to add 'to their gratitude, for the solid favours he conferred upon them, a feeling of personal kindliness and affection. Nor did he omit to secure the good-will of the people at large by maintaining among his troops that strict discipline for which he had been remarkable in Normandy. Victors though they were, and both ordered and encouraged to keep the Saxon popula- tion in strict obedience to the new govern- ment, they were not allowed to add inso- lence to authority, and the slightest dis- order or invasion of property was promptly and strictly punisHpd. His conciliating policy extended to ..ne metropolis. That city had been warmly opposed to him, but his anger for the past opposition was kept ON williau'b accession ub obantbd thb lonoohbrs a cuartbb. A.B. 1067.— TU XBMMIRMBIt ATTBMFTID TO BBOOTBR THIIR L'BBRTX. H M K * a » o m m K a >a o ^ e H M A M H H M «< at M > M M n M M B ts H >■ S t M O at M El a K e u 92 ^^e ^reasurs of l^tstorp, $rc. down by a prndent consideration of the important part lo powerful a city might at a future time take either for or asaintt him i Htid he therefore confirmed its charter and priTilegfe? as early and with as much apparent good-Trill as he did those of the other cities of the kingdom. These instances of justice and modera- tion produced the greater effect on account of the warlike fame and generally stern character of the king; and while nis im- posing presence and brilliant reputation caused him to be looked upon with awe wherever he appeared, as he took care to do in those parts of which he most suspect- ed the loyalty, bis studied courtesy to the high and benignitr to the lowly obtained him Tcry general liking. But at the same time that he was thus conciliating his new subjects by justice and moderation, which latter, under all the cir- cumstances, might in some cases be called by the stronger name of mercy, he took abundant care to keep the one thing need- ful, power, in his own hands. While he confirmed the priyileges of the prosperous and populous cities, he built fortresses in many of them and carefully disarmed them all. He thus commanded all the best mili- tary posts of the kingdom, and had them constantly occupied by his veteran soldiers ; while by bestowing upon the leaders, to whose valour and conduct he owed so much, the confiscated possessions of the Saxon nobility and gentry, he created numerous minor despotisms, dependant upon his sway, and vitally interested in its pros- perity. His politic mixture of rigour and mild- ness had all the success he could have an- ticipated or even wished ; and the kingdom settled down so calmly under his authority, and so imfilicitly obeyed his orders, that he even considered it safe to pay a visit to France. On this occasion, however, he ex- hibited his usual policy; while he entrusted the government of England to 'William Fitsosborne and his own half brother, Odo, bishop of Bayeux, whom he knew that he could safely trust both as to ability aud fi- delity, he invited the principal Saxons to accompany him on his journey, thus makinji- them hostages while seeming to make them attendants upon his state and companions in his pleasure. Among the personages whom he thus deprived of the power, even supposing them to have the will, of exciting any disturbances during his absence, were the earls Edwin and Morcar, aud Stignnd, archbishop of Canterbuiy, of whose faith he was somewhat doubtful on account of their opposition to him when he first in- vaded their country. He also took with him Edgar Atheling, whose very name he thought' likclv to prove a spell to tempt the English to reoellion, and numerous perso- nages who, though of less note, had great influence from wealth or civil or ecclesias- tical station. Though 'William on arriving in his old dominion played the hospitable host to his English attendants ; and though they, anx- ious to furnish him with evp cise during his absence in keeping the Norman soldiery in order; and the Tatter would be abundantly ready to avail them- selves of any relaxation in the strictness of discipline to which they had been accus- tomed, without greatly troubling them- selves to dive into the politic motives in which that relaxation had its orignn. And this view of the case is the more reasonable, because, while policy obliged Williant to conciliate the Saxons at the commence- ment of his reign, the vastness and the number of the Norman claiins upon him must have made him much in want of more extended means to satisfy them than A. n. 1068.— CA8TI.BS BRBCTBO AT IfOTTINOHAM, YORK, XIUCOLN, &C. imlAL BX JUBT (k SAXON CUSTOM) WAS CORriMMBS BT WILI.IAM. o IS lis H a o \e of her treasures. The submissive example of Exeter was speedily followed by Cornwall; and William, having strongly garrisoned it, returned with his army to Winchester, where he then held his court, and being now joined by queen Matilda, who had not previously thought it safe to visit her new kingdom, he caused her coronation to be solemnized with much pomp. Soon after this cere- mony the queen presented her husband with their fourth son, Henry; the three elder brothers of this prince, Robert, Rich- ard, and William, were born and still re- st H M M ■ o ■ * M M M I a H M H H Si O m f m o K M H b o w H B f <» >a < a IS N U IS M S 9 M •• K O U WILLIAM ABOLISHED TUX PRACTICK OF TRIALS BT OBDBAL. URDBB TBI lAXOIfB CBUKCH lANDS WEBI VRXB VBOM HILITABY TBIfCBB. M u •a SB ■< M m o a < M 3 94 tlTl^c treasure of lltetor;), $cc. mained in Nonnandf . The lignal tnccess and ease with which the king had qnellcd the rerolt in the we«t did not prevent dis- turbances arising in other parts of the country. In tket, such disturbances were almost incTitable; for the Norman chiefs who were posted in various parts of the kingdom were far too much interested in causing confication, to imitate even the pretences made to moderation by their prince, and their exactions and insolence were such as to be wdl calculated to excite the discontent and resistance of a far more fatient and orderly people than the Saxons. D the north where, being^ remote from the king's immediate authority, the Norman nobles bad probably carried their licence to an intolerable extent, the people were enraged to so bold a temper, that Edwin and Moccar thought it not impolitic to place tiMiseWes at their head; antici- pating, it would seem, an effectual opposi- tion to the hated rule of the invader. Their cause seemed the more likely to be success- ful, because, in addition to the number and resolution of the Saxons in revolt, they had the promise of support from Malcolm, king of Scotland, Blethyn, prince of Wales, who was related to them, and Sweyn, king of Denmark, who had a personal and peculiar interest in the success of the Saxon cause. The conduct of Edwin and Morcar on William's first invasion, when they only withdrew their opposition on perceiving that they could uo longer rely upon the sealous co-operation of the people, suffi- ciently attests their sincere love of country. But we must not omit to state, that on thi^ occasion of rising in the north the no- blemen in question were to a considerable extent influenced by private animosity. How seldom, alas t is even the purest pa- triotism free from all taint of selfisn and per- sonal feeling 1 To high spirited nobles, like Edwin and Morcar, the mere indications of distrust which William could not, with all his po- licy, wholly avoid giving, would have been highly offensive in themselves. But as re- garded Edwin, the distrust manifested by the king assumed a deeper tint of offence, inasmuch as he manifested it by an ar- bitrary and capricious refusal to perform the promise he had made on ascending the throne, to give to that nobleman the hand of his daughter in marriage. This affront, implying so much distrust, and, certainly, giving tne rejected suitor and his brother l^d reason to infer the foregone determi- nation of still further and more direct E roofs of the king's ill-will, undoubtedly ad its influence in causing the brothers openly to put themselves at the head of the present revolt. However little reason William had to expect a new outbreak so soon after the ex- ample he had made in the west, he was not, in the military sense of the word at least, surprized. His troops were constantly kept in marching order, and though from their vast number they were distributed over a large space of country, their lines of com- munication were so arranged that a vast number could on the shortest notice be assembled in one compact body. The instant, therefore, that he was informed of this new revolt, he set out for the north by forced marches; caused Warwick and Not- tingham castles to be strongly garrisoned under the respective command of Henry de Beaumont and William Peveril, and reached York with such unexpected celerity, that he appeared in front of the astonished insur- gents before they had received any of the foreign aid upon which they had so greatly reckoned when tbrming their plans. Ed- win and Morcar, together with another very poweriul noble who had taken part with them, wisely gave up all thought of making agy resistance with their very in- ferior force, and were received into the king's peace and pardon. He not only spared them in person, but in thei> pos- sessions also ; still confiscations were too essential a part of his means of consoli- dating and perpetuating his power, to be p^enerally dispensed with. While the lead- ing men were thus allowed to escape im- poverishment as well as the more severe punishment of rebellion, their humbler and, comparatively, unoffending followers were mulcted with the most merciless se- verity. The whole secret of his clemency to the three powerful leaders whom we have named seems to have been his doubt whether he could just then crush them without a risk more than proportioned to the gain. The failure of this rebellion in the north, and the peace made between William and Malcolm of Scotland, which seemed to out off all hope of future aid from that monarch, impressed the whole nation with a hope- less sense of utter and unfriended sub- jection. The multitude muttered the deep curses to which they dared not give louder utterance, and prepared to toil on in their ordinary routine, and bear more or less op- pression as the caprice or the policy of their tyrants might determine. But the hopelessness of braver and more passionate spirits was of a less passive kind. Unable to free their land from the rule of the oppressor, they at least had philosophy enough to abandon it and Seek freer homes in stranger climes, whence they could re- turn should a brighter day beam upon Ens- land. (Among those who thus vohmtariljr went into exile was Edgar Atheling, who, with his sisters Margaret and and Chris- tina, sought peace in Scotland. Malcolm not only showed every kindness to the il- lustrious exiles, but married Margaret ; and partly on account of the connection he thus formed with the most illustrious of the Saxon families, though mainly, per- haps, with the politic view of strengthen- ing his kingdom, he gave ready shelter, to all Saxons, of whatever rank, who sought it in his dominions. If many of the Enf^Iish were driven into exile by despair of being able to free their country, not a few of the Normans began to grow weary of living in a laud so fre- TRB CHUBCH IiANDS WBBB HOW PUT ON THB BAMB VOOTINO AS THB BBSf THK COHOVBBOR HBLB AS CBOWN lARDI U2i MANOBa. lEnglanTJ.—'Nonnan ICine — aKiUiam 3E. ••■ I J 96 quently disturbed, and among a people to whom thev felt that they were so thoroughly hateful, tnat their lives as well as pos- sessions would infallibly be forfeited should that peojple set the upper hand of them for eveu a single day. This weariness, more- over, was by no means exclusively confined to the meaner sort. Many of the higher chieftains, and among them Humphrey de Teliol and Hugh de Gratesmil, requested their dismissal and permission to return home. The king could scarcely refuse com- Eliance with sncn a request, but he revoked is grants in the case of all who made it, telling them that the land and its defend- ers must go together. And though some of his bravest leaders left him upon these unfriendly terms, he had little occasion to regrret them, for his liberality and ample means of displaying it ensured him abun- dance of new adventurers, not merely wil- ling but eager to enlist under his banner. A.D. 1069. — The departure of so many malcontents from England had by no means the effect, as it might seem certain to have, of diminishing the chances of disturbances. The voluntary exiles carried their griefs and their rancour with them, and lost no opportunity of making friends for England and foes tor England's Norman tyrants. Nor did thev want for a ralljring point. When Harold fiell, bravely battling against the invaders, his three sons, Godwin, Edmond, and Magnus, sought shelter in Ireland. They were well received by the princes and chiefs of that wild country, and soon became very popular among them. Enraged at the cause of their exUe from England, and constantly surrounded by sucn practical lovers of strife as the Irish princes of that time, they naturally began to contemplate a descent upon England, and to calculate what aid they could rely upon beyond that which Ireland's own wild chieftains and strife-loving kerns could af- ford them. Denmark they could with tole- rable certainty depend upon ; and they hoped that both Scotland and Wales would be induced to aid them when the strife should once fairly be afoot. Encouraged by these confident expectations of aid, tlicy lauded with a considerable but disorderly force upon the coast of Devonshire. But instead of finding the English peasantry flocking around them, grateful for their coming and eager to join in their enter- prize, they, on the contrary, had scarcely set foot upon the shore when they found themselves vigorously assailed by the train- ed hirelings of the Norman, under the com- mand of Brian, son of the count of Brit- tany, who worsted them in several petty battles, and at length drove them back, with much loss and some disgprace, to their vessels. Unsuccessful as this attempt of the sons of Harold was in itself^ it served as a signal for numeraua risings, especially in the northern part of the kingdom. The North- umbrians rose, took Diirham by surprise, and slew upwards of seven hundred men, among whom was the governor, Robert de Comyn, to whose negligence the Saxons were said to have been mainly indebted for their sncceas. From Durham the inclina- tion to revolt spread to York. There the governor, Robert Fits-Richard, and many of his people were slain ; and the second in command, William Mallet, secured the castle, to which the rebels promptly laid ■lege. They were aided in this bold attempt by the Danes, who now landed from three hundred ships, and by the appearance among them of Edgar Atheling, who was accompanied bjr several Saxon exiles of rank and some influential Scots, who pro- mised the aid of large numbers of their countrymen. The castle of York was so strong and so well garrisoned, that it is probable it might easily have held out against all the rude and unscientific attacks that the revolted Northumbrians and their allies could have made made upSn it, but for an accident. William Mallet, the gal- lant defender of the castle, perceiving that ■ome houses were situated so near as to command a portion of the walls, ordered them to be fired, lest they should serve as works for the besiegers. But tire is a ser- vant as uncertain and uncontrollable as it is swift. A brisk wind carried the flames beyond the houses which were specially devoted to their destroying ministry ; every- where the flames found abundant fuel, nearly all the buildings being of wood, and the conflagration defying the inadequate means by which the people tried to stop it, destroyed nearly the wuole of the city, which even at that time was very populous. The alarm and confusion which were caused by this event enabled the rebels to carry the castle by storm ; and scarcely a man of the garrison, numbering nearly three thousand, was spared alive. Hereward, an East-An- glian nobleman, at the same time wrought much confusion and difficulty to the Nor- mans; cutting off their marching parties and retiring with their spoils to the Isle of Ely. Somerset and Dorset were in arms to a man ; and Devon and Cornwall also rose, with the exception of Exeter, which ho- nourably testified its sense of the clemency twice shown to all its population, save one unfortunate hostage, and held its gates closed for the kinp; even against its nearest neighbours. Ednc the Forester, who had many causes of quarrel with the Normans, allied himself with a numerous body of Welsh, and not only maintained himself against the Norman force under Fitzos- borne and earl Briant, but also laid siege to the castle of Shrewsbury. When to these instances of open and powerful rebellion we add innumerable petty revolts in other parts and the univer- sal hostility and restlessness of the Saxons, it will be admitted that there was enough in the state of the country to have made the boldest of monarchs anxious. And William was anxious, but undismayed. To his eagle eye a single glance revealed where force was absolutely requisite, and where bribery would still more readily succeed. To the Danes, who were headed by Us- H ts ■ O A >) D O u « o m M D O K O H N ■ M M O M m K O u H IB < O H a H m M M at m * H M M 9 M a M Sl IS e I ROBMAN, OB tBBNCH, WAS MOW TBB IiAHeUAaB OF TBB CODBT. ■*. i i IN THIS KBiaH *UI COMrLBTION OF TBI FIVDAI. SVirKM OCCURBEO. 96 ^^c treasure of l^istorQ, Set. borne, brother of the king of Denmark, and by Harold and Canute, son* of that monarch, he well knew that the freedom of the country waa a mere pretext, and that their real incentive to itrife wai desire of gain. Them he at once resolved to buy off; and he quickly succeeded in getting them to retire to Denmark, by paying them a sum of money in hand ami giving them leave to plunder the coast on their way. Deserted by so considerable an ally the na- tive leaders became alarmed, and William found no difllculty in persuading Waltheof, who had been made governor of York by the Saxons on their taking the castle by storm, to submit on promise of favour; a promise which the king strictly kept. Cospatric followed the example and was made earl of Northumberland ; and Edric the Forester also submitted and waa taken into favour. Edgar Atheling had no course open to him but to hasten back to Scotland, for, while the loss of all his allies rendered any strug- gle on his part so hopeless that it would nave been ridiculous, be feared, and with great apparent reason, that his Saxon blood royal would incite William to put him to death. The king of Scotland, to whose tardy coming the confederates in some de- gree owed their ill success, seeing that the northern confederacy was broken up, marched his troops back again. The fai- lure in the north struck terror into the rebels throughout the kingdom ; aiidWilliam saw all his Tate opponents subject to him, save Hereward, wuo still maintained his partisan warfare — not quite exclusively preying upon the Normans it is to be feared — owing his protection to the difficulty of access to his swampy retreat. CHAPTER XIV. Tke Reign qfWihhiAii I. {continued.) A.n. 1070.— Havino by force and po> licy dissipated the confederacy which bad threatened him, William now determined to show that whatever kindness and favour he might extend to individual Saxons, whether from genuine good feeling or from deep po- licy, the great body of tne people had no mercy to nope from him. And as the north had been especiidly troublesome to him, so he selected that part to be the first to feel how terrible his wrath could be. Between the rivers Humber and Tees, a vast expanse of sixty miles of country as fertile as it was beautiful, was by his stern order utterly laid waste. The cattle and such other pro- perty as could be conveyed away became the booty of the Norman soldiery; the houses were burned to the ground and the wretched inhabitants left to perish upon their desolated lands, without shelter, with- out food, and without hope or pity. Vast numbers of them made their Way into the lowlands of Scotland, but many there were who could not do so, or were so attached to the site of their once happy homes, that they remained in the woods, and perished slowly by hunger or the terrible diseases produced by exposure to the elements. It Is calculated that by this one act of mer- ciless severity not fewer than a hundred thousand Saxons miserably perished I Though the north was thus especially marked out for the exterminating rigour of the Conqueror, the rest of the country was by no means allowed to escape. The unsuc- cessful revolts had placed nearly all the great landholders of the nation at his mercy ; for they, being especially interested in throw- ing off his yoke, had nearly to a man been implicated either by personal appearance in the field or by furnishing supplies. Hitherto the king, aa a matter of policy, had affected something like moderation and mercy in putting the laws of attainder and forfeiture into effect. But now he no longer needed to pursue that wily policy ; the un- successful attempts to shake off his autho- rity had terminated in making it absolute and even unassailable. The whole nation lay bound hand and foot at his pleasure, and he proceeded so to dispose of the lands that he in fact became the one great land- lord of the nation. No one knew better than he did that the property of a nation is its power; and that power of the Saxons he now transferred to the Normans in ad- dition to their terrible power of the aword. No antiquity of family, no excellence of character, even, could save the Saxon pro- prietor from being despoiled of his posses- aions. The more powerful and popular the family, the more necessary waa its abasement and impoverishment to the completion of William's purpose ; he who had taken any share in the revolts was mulcted of his property, and auured that he owed it to the king's great lenity that his life was spared ; and he who had taken no such part, but was convicted of the crime of oeing wealthy, was equally de- spoiled, lest his wealth should at some future time lead him into rebellious prac ■ tices. Having thus effected the utter spoliation of the noble and wealthy Saxons, William's next care was to dispose of the lands of England in such wise as to give himself the most absolute power over them ; and here he had no need of any inventive genius, he had merely to apply to England the old feudal law of France and his native Normandy. Having largely added to the already large demesnes of the crown, he divided all the forfeited lands— which might almost without hyperbole be said to be all the lands of England— into baronies, which baronies he conferred upon his bravest and most trusty leaders, not in fee simple, bnt aa fiefs held upon certain payments or ser- vices, for the most part military. The in- dividual grants thus made were infinitely too vast to be actually held in use by the individual grantees, who, therefore, par- celled them out to knights and vassals, who held of them by the same suit and service by which they held from their lord para- mount, the king. And that the feudal law might universally obtain in England, and that there might be no exception or quali- fication to tlie paramount lordship of the A. D. 1070.— ST. alban's abbet dbsfoilrd of its richbs bt tbb kino. TBI LAMDt or KltOLAIfD WIBB NOW SIstrmBUTIB AMONO TUB HOBMAHI. lEnglantl.— Gorman ICine — asailltam I. 97 king over the whole land, even the few Saxon proprietors who were not directly diiil by attainder depriTed of their landt were compelled to hold them by suit and icrvice from lome Norman baron, who in hi* turn did luit and urvice for them to the king. Coniiderinit the tttpentition of the a^e, it might have been luppoied that the church would have been exempted from 'Wil- Uam'i tyrannoui arrangement. But though, as we ihall presently have occasion to show, he was anxious to exalt the power of Rome, he was not the less determined that even Rome should be second to him in power in his own dominions. He called upon the bishops and abbots for <)uit-rents in peace, and for their quota of knights and men at arms when he should be at war, in proportion to their possessions attached to sees or abbeys, as the case might be. It was in vain that the clergy bewailed the tyranny of the king, which, now that it aifectea themselves, they discovered to be quite intolerable ; and it was equally in vain that the pope, who bad so cealously aided and encouraged William in his inva- sion, remonstrated upon bis thuseonfound- ing the clergy with the laity. 'William had the power of the sword, and wailings and remonstrances were alike ineffectual to work any change upon his iron will. As by compelling the undeprived lay Saxons to bold under Norman lords he so com- pletely subjected them as to render revolt impracticable, so he took care that hence- forth all ecclesiastical dignities siiould be exclusively conferred upon Normans, who, indeed, were by their great superiority in learning far more fitted for them, as was shown by the great number of Norman compared to Saxon bishops even before the invasion. But there was one Saxon, Stigand, the archbishop of Canterbury, whose authority was too great not to be obnoxious to the suspicions and fears of William, the more especially as Stigand had both wealth and powerful connections in addition to his official dignity, and was a man of both talent and courage. These considerations, while they made William desirous of ruin- ing the primate, at the same time made him dissemble his intentions until he could securely as well as surely carry them into effect. He consequently seemed, by every civility, to endeavour to efface from the primate's recollection the affront offered to nim at the coronation ; and a superficial observer, or one unacquainted with the king's wily as well as resolute nature, would for a long time have imagined Stigand to have been one of bis prime favourites — for a Saxon. But when William had subdued the rest of the nation so completely that he bad no fear of bis attempt upon Stigand elicit- ing anv powerful or perilous opposition, the rum ot the primate was at once determined upon and wrought. And circumstances furnished him with an instrument by whose means he was able to accomplish his unjust work with at least some appearance of judicial regularity. Vopa Alexander II., whose countenance and enrMur«!> 98 ^I)c tJrcfiSury of l^istory, Sec. nirntal luflurinK* ^rotluccd n mortnl U M K M M h O M M iS o « ■B a u i< e H M u o H O H K »• O M 19 O > H U IB H a H u H M «< >4 '4 h O u •9 M ft. H M O »< H b M H n h o H IE O H «. M u M m >) IB O ta lEnglant^.— "Norman lEine.— asaiUfam 3E. 101 4 vour of the kin^, to whom he was really and gratefully attached, he would not allow the rights of the church to be in any wise in- fringed upon. On the death of Aldred, by whom it will be remembered that William had chosen to be crowned, Thomas, a Nor- man monk, was appointed to succeed him in the archbishopric of York. The new archbishop, probably presuming upon the king's favour, pretended that the archi- episcopal see of York had precedence and superiority to that of Canterbury. The fact of Aldred, his predecessor, having been called upon to crown the king, most pro- bably weighed with the prelate of York ; in which case he must have forgotten or wil- fully neglected the circumstances of that case. Lanfranc did neither one nor the other; and, heedless of what the king mieht think or wish upon the subject, he boldly commenced a procession to the papal court, which, after the delay for which Rome was already proverbial, was terminated most triumphantly for Lan- franc. It will readily be supposed that under such a prelate the people of England were not allowed to lose any portion of their exorbitant respect for the papacy. William, indeed, was not a monarch to allow even the church, potent as it was, to master him. Very earljr in his reign he ex- pressly forbade his subjects from acknow- ledging any one as pope until authorized to do so by the king ; he required all canons of the synods to be submitted for his ap- proval ; and though even he did not deem it safe to dispute the right of the church to excommunicate evil-doers, he very eflFec- tually curbed that right, as applied to his own subjects, by ruling that no papal bull- or letter should be held to be an authorita- tive or even an authentic document, until it should have received his sanction. It was rather, therefore, in imbuing the minds of the people with a solemn awe and reve- rence of the pope and the church, that Lanfranc was Dusy and successful during this reign ; and in this manner he was so busy and so successful, that subsequent monarchs of less ability and firmness than William were grievously incommoded. Gregory VII. probably pushed the power of the papacy over the temporal concerns of the kingdoms of Europe further than any previous pope. He excommunicated Nice- phoruB, the emperor of the east, and Robert Guiscard, the Norman conqueror of Naples; he took away from Poland her very rank as a kingdom ; and he pretended to the right of parcelling out the territory of Spain among those adventurers who should conquer it from the Moors. Though he was boldly }"« auly opposed by the emperor Henry ly. he was not a whit deterred in his am- bitiouB course; and even the warlike, able, and somewhat fierce character of William did not shield him from being assailed by the extravagant demands of Rome. Gre- gory virote to him to demand the payment ot Peters pence, which Rome had con- verted into a rightful tribute, though a Haxon prince had originally given the con- tribution, so called, merely as a voluntary donation ; and he at the Same time averred that William had promised to do homage to Rome for his kingdom of England. William sent tho money, but he plainly and somewhat tartly told the pope at the same time, that he had neither promised nor ever intended to do homage to Rome. The pope wisely forbore to press the sub- ject : but though, in addition to this plain refusal to comply with an unreasonable de- mand, William still further showed his in- dependence by forbidding the English to attend a council which Gregory had sum- moned, he had no means, even had he him- self been more free from superstition than he appears to have been, of preventing the progress of the clergy in subjecting the minds of the people. The greatest efforts were made to render the celibacy of the clergy general, and to give the appearance of additional sanctimoniousness to their out- ward life, in order the more deeply to im- press the people with the notion of the genuine sanctity of their character. Prosperous as ''Villiam was in his public affairs, he had much domestic trouble. He was obliged to remain for some years in Normandy, though as a residence he greatly preferred England. But his eldest son Robert, surnamed Courthose, on account of the shortness of his legs, made his father fear for the safety of Normandy. It ap- pears that when Maine submitted to William, he promised the people of that province that they should have Robert for their prince ; and when he set out to con- quer England, he, in compliance with the wish of the French king, whom it was just then his especial interest and desire to latisfv, named Robert as his successor in the duchy of Normandy. He was well aware that doing this was his sole means of reconciling France to his conquest of England ; but he had not the slightest in- tention of performing his promise. Indeed, when he was subsequently asked by his son to put him in possession of Normandy, he ridiculed the young man's credulity by re- plying, in the vulgar proverb, that he did not intend to undress till he went to bed. The disappointment enraged the naturally bad temper of Robert; some quarrels with his brothers William and Henry, whom he hated for the~ superior favour they enjoyed with their father, inflamed him still farther, and he factiously did all that he could to thwart his father's wishes and interest in Normandy; nay, he was more than sus- pected of having, by his intrigues, con- firmed the king of France and the earl of Brittany in their support of his rebellious vassal the carl of Norfolk. So thoroughly bent was Robert upon undutiful opposition to his father, that he seized upon the opportunity afforded by an extremely childish quarrel between him- self and his brothers, in which he accused his father of partially siding against him, and hastened to Rouen, where he endea- voured to surprize and seize the citadel. He was prevented from succeeding in this *•"■ ^•'78.— WII.MAM LAID THE FOUNDATION OF THB TOWER OF LONDON. [/(TS f ' ( -i 'J' 1' II IN THIS RBiaif TBIAI. BT WAOIB OV BATTLE WAS INTBODUCBD. 102 ^Ije ^reasiuQ of l^tstori), $cc. treason by the suRpicion and activity of tlie goTernor, Roger de Ivery. Still bent upon this unnaturr.1 opposition, Robert retired to the castle rt' Hugh de Neurhatel, who not onl^ gave him a hospitable reception, but assisted and encouraged him to make open war upon his sovereign and father. The fiery but generous character of Robert made him a very great favourite among the chivalrous Normans, and especially among the younger nobles of Normandy and the neighbouring provinces ; and as Robert was supposed to be privately favoured by his mother, he had no difficulty in raising forces sufficient to throw his father's he- reditary dominions into trouble and con- fusion for several years. So troublesome did Robert and his ad- herents at length become, that William, growing seriously alarmed lest he should actually have the mortification and disgrace of seeing Normandy forcibly wrested from him by his own son, sent over to England for forces. They arrived under some of the veteran chiefs who had helped to con- quer England; and the undutiful Robert was driven from the posts he had conquer- ed, and compelled to take refuge in the castle of Gerberoy, which refuge the kin); of France, who had secretly counselled and abetted his misconduct, had provided for him. He was followed thither by his father in person, but the garrison being strong and well provided, the resistance was ob- stinate in proportion. Frequent sallies were made, and on one of these occasions Robert was personally opposed to his fa- ther, whom, from the king's visor being down, he did not recognize. The fight was fierce on both sides; and Robert, having the advantage of superior agility, wounded and unhorsed his father. The king shouted to one of his officers for aid to remount ; and Robert, recognizing his parent's voice, was so struck with horror at the narrow escape he had had of slaying the author of his being, that he threw himself u^on his knees and intreated forgiveness tor his misconduct. But the king was too deeply otfended to be reconciled on the instant to his erring and penitent son, and, mounting Robert's horse, he rode to his own camp. The siege was shortly afterwards raised; and queen Matilda having succeeded in bringing^ about a reconciliation, the king not only allowed Robert to accompany him to England, but also entrusted him with an army to chastise the Scotch for some incursions tliey had made upon the north- ern parts of England. The Welsh who, as well as the Scotch, had taken advantage of the king's absence to make incursions, were now also chastised and brought into submission. A. D. 1081. — Having both his Norman and English dominions now in a state of pro- found quiet, William turned his attention to the important object of a survey and valua- tion of the lands of England, Taking for his model the survey which had been mode by order of Alfred, and which was deposited at Winchester, he had the extent, tenure, value, and kind of the land in each district carefully noted down, together with the names of the proprietors, and, in some cases, the names of the tenants, with the number, age, and sex of the cottagers and slaves. By good arrangement this im- portant work, in despite of its great ex- tent, was completed within six years, and, under the name of the Domesday book, it to this day remains to give us the most ac- curate account of England at that time, — with the exception of the northern pro- vinces, which the ravages of war and Wil- liam's own tyranny had reduced to such a wretched condition, that an account of them was considered not worth taking. The king's acts were not always of so praiseworthy a character. Attached, like all Normans, to the pleasures of the chase, he allowed that pleasure to seduce him into cruelties more characteristic of a demon than of a man. The game in the royal forests was protected by laws far more se- vere than those which protected the lives of humau beings. He who killed a man could atone to the law by the payment of a Eecuniary fine; but he who was so un- appy as to be detected in killing a deer, a boar, or even an insignificant hare, in the royal forest, had his eyes put out I A. D. 1087.— The royal forests which Wil- liam found oncoming to England were very extensive; but not sufficiently so for his more than regal passion for the chase. His usual residence was at Winchester; and desiring to have a spacious forest in the, immediate vicinity, he mercilessly caused no less an extent of country than thirty miles to be laid waste to form one. Houses, whole villages, churches, nay, even con- vents, were aestroyed for this purpose ; and a multitude of wretched people were thus without any compensation deprived of their homes and property, and cast upon the world, in many cases, to perish of want. Besides the trouble which William had been caused by the petulance of his son Robert, he towards the end of his reign had two very great trials ; the ungrateful conduct of his half-brother Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and the death of queen Matilda, to whom throughout he was fervently at- tached. The presumption of Odo had led him not only to aim at the papal throne, but also to attempt to seduce some of Wil- liam's nobles from their allegiance and ac- company him to Italy. William ordered the proud prelate to be arrested; and find- ing that his officers, deterred by their fear of the church, were afraid to seize the bi- shop, he went in person to arrest him ; and when Odo, mistakenly imagining that the king shared the popular prejudice, pleaded his sacred character, William drily replied, " I do not arrest the bishop of Baveux, but the earl of Kent"— which title William had bestowed upon him. He then sent him to Normandy, and there kept him in confine- ment. William's end, however, now ap- proached. Some incursions made upon Normandy by French knights, and a coarse joke passed upon his corpulence by the VILLIIM BBOnOHT THK JKWS FBOH BOUBN TO INHABIT BNObANO. n M 4 M H «s H H M « «S M (► E Pt ■< H ►< H m f iin;and hat the a < pleaded •< replied, B\ix, but iam had N him to a coutine- o low ap- H le upon N a coarse by the WILLIAM I. WAS BUBIBD IN THS ABBBT CHVBCH OV CABN, tfOBUANOT. lEnglantJ — ^^orman ICinc— SiaaiUiam E. 103 French king, so much provoked him, that he proceeded to lay waste the town of Mantes, with the avowed intention of car- rying his rage still further. But while he watched the burning of the town his horse startled, and the king was so severely bruised that he died a few days afterwards at the monastery of St. Gervas. During his mortal illness he made great grants to churches and monasteries, bv way of atone- ment for the hideous cruelties of which he had been guilty; but, with the usual inconsistency of superstition, he could scarcely be persuaded to accompany this ostentatious branch of penitence by the forgiveness and release of his half brother Odo. He at length, however, tiiough with a reluctance that did him no credit, con- sented to release and forgive Odo, and he at the same time gave orders for the release of Morcar and other eminent English pri- soners, lie had scarcely given these orders when he died, on the 9th of September, 1087, in the twenty-first year of his usurped reign over England. Now that we are arrived at the close of 'William the Conqueror's reign, it may be as well before we proceed farther with our narrative, to make a short digression rela- tive to the genealogical right by which the future mouarchs of England successively clainied the throne. The Norman conquest, as we have seen, introduced an entire change in the laws, language, manners, and cus- toms. England began to make a more con- siderable figure among the nations of Eu- rope than it had assumed previous to this important event ; and it received a new race of sovereigns, which either by the male or female line has continued down to the pre- sent day. These monarchs were of several "houses" or families, according to the persons who espoused the princesses of England, and from such marriages gave to the nations its kings or queens ; or accord- ing to the different Dranches into which the royal family was divided. Thus the Nob- mans began with William the Conqueror, the head of the whole race, and ended with Henry I. in whom the male line failed. Stephen (generally included in the Nor- mau line) was the only one of the house of Blois, from the marriage of Adela, the Conqueror's fourth daughter, with Stephen, earl of Blois. The Plantagenets, or House of Anjou, began with Henry II. from the marriage ot Matilda or Maud, daughter of Henry I. with Geoffrey Plan- tagenet, earl of Anjou ; and continued un- divided to Richard II. inclusive. These were afterwards divided into the houses of Lancastbb and Vobk j the former begin- ning with Henry IV. son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, fourth son of Edward III. and ending with Henry VI. The lat- ter began with Edward IV. son of Richard, duke of York, who on the father's side was grandson to Edmund de Langley, fifth son of Edward III,, and by his mother descend- ed from Lionel, third son of the said king ; and ended in Richard III. The family of the TuuoBS began with Henry VII. from the marriage of Margaret, great pand- daughtcr of John of Gaunt, with Edmund Tudor, earl of Richmond ; and ended with queen Elizabeth. The house of Stuabt began with James I., son of Henry Stuart lord Darnley, and Mary queen of Scots, whose grandmother was Margaret, daugh- ter to Henry VII. ; and ended with queen Anne. William III. was the only one of the house of Obanor, whose mother was Mary, daughter of Charles I. And the bouse of Bbvnswick, now reigning, began with George I., whose grandmo- ther was the princess Elizabeth, daughter of James I. CHAPTER XV. The Reign of William II. A. D.1087.—RicHABi>, one of the Conquer- or's sons, died before his father. To Robert, his eldest son, he left Normandy and Maine ; to Henry he left only his mother's posses- sions, but consoled him for this by pro- phesying that he would in the end be both richer aud more powerful than either of his brothers ; and to William was left the most splendid of all his father's possessions, the crown of England, which the Conqueror, in a letter written on his death-bed, enjoined Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury, to place upon his head. The young prince AVilliam, who, from the colour of his hair, was surnamed Ri{fus, was so anxious to avail himself of this letter, that he did not even wait at the monastery of St. Gervas long enough to receive his father's last breath, but hastened to England before the danger of the Conqueror was generally known, and obtained possession of the royal treasure at Wincnester, amounting to 60,000^ — a large sum at that time. He also possessed himself of the important for- tresses of Pevensey, Hastings, and Dover, which from their situation could not fail to be of great service to him in the event of his right to the crown being disputed. Such dispute he, in fact, had all possible reason to expect. The manner in which Robert's right of primogeniture was com- pletely set aside bv an informal letter written upon a deatn-bed, when even the strongest minds may reasonably be sup- posed to be unsettled, was in itself sufficient to lead to some discontent, even had that prince been of a less fiery and fierce tern- Eer than his disputes with his father and rothers had already proved him to be. Lanfranc, who had educated the new king and was much attached to him, took the best means to render opposition of no effect. He called together some of the chief nobles and prelates, and performed the ceremony of the coronation in the most implicit obedience to the deceased Cnn- Sueror's letter. This promptitude had the esired effect. The partizans of Robert, if absence from England had left him any, made not the slightest attempt to urge his hereditary right; and he seemed to give his own sanction to the will of his fiithf;r, by peaceably, and as a matter of course, as- A. B. 1087.— WItllAM II. WAS FROCLAIMBD AND CROWNBO AT WB8THINSTBB. ' t li > V 1 A.D. 1088.— THIS TEAR TBBBB WAS AN EABTHQUAKE IN LONDON. 104 STl^c ©rcasurfi of 3®(storp, $fc. Burning the government of Maine and Nor- mandy which it conferred upon him. But though no opposition was made to the accession of William Rufus at the time when, if ever, such opposition could reason- ably have been made, namely, previous to his coronation, he was not long seated upon his throne before he experienced the oppo- sition of some of the most powerful Norman nobles. Hatred of Lanfrac, and envy of his great power, actuated some of them ; and many of them, possessing property both in England and Normandy, were anxious that both countries should be united under Robert, foreseeing danger to their property in one or the other country whensover the separate sovRreigns should disagree. They held that Robert, as eldest sen, was entitled to both England and Normandy; and they were the more anxious for his success, be- cause his careless and excessively generous temper promised them that freedom from interference upon which they set so high a value, and which the haughty and hard cha- racter of William Rufus threatened to de- prive them of. Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and Robert, earl of Mortaigne, another half brother of the Conqueror, urged these ar- guments upon some of the most eminent of the Norman nobility. Eustace, count of Boulogne, Roger Bigod, Hugh de Greats- mil. William, bishop of Durham, Robert de Moubray, and other magnates, joined in the conspiracy to dethrone William ; and they severally put their castles into a state of defence. William felt the full value of promptitude. Even the domestic conspira- tors were powerful enough to warrant con- siderable fUarm and anxiety, but the king's danger would be increased tenfold by the arrival of reinforcements to them from Normandy. The king therefore rapidly got tog.ther as strong a force as he could and marched into Kent, where Rochester and Fevensey were seized and garrisoned by his uncles Odo and Robert. He starved the conspirators at both places into sub- mission, and he was strongly inclined to put the leaders to death ; but the more humane couusel of William de Warenne and Robert Fitzhammond, who had joined him, prevailed upon him to content himself with contiscating the property of the offenders and banishing them from the kingdom. His success over the foremost men of the rebel party decided the struggle in his favour. His powerful fleet had by this time stationed itself upon the coast, so that Ro- bert no longer had any opportunity to land the reinforcements his indolence had, so fatally for his cause, delayed. The earl of Shrewsbury, upon whom the conspirators had greatly depended, was skilfully won over by the king ; and the rest of the leaders became hopeless of success, and either fled from the country or made their submission. Some were pardoned, and others were very lightly punished ; the majority were attaint- ed, and their estates were bestowed upon those barons who had sided with the king while his crown was yet in danger. As soon as he bad completely broken up the confederacy which had so early threat- ered his throne, Rufus began to exhibit himself in his true nature towards his Eng- lish subjects. As long as his cause was at all doubtful, he had promised the utmost kindness and consideration ; and he espe- cially won the support and the good wishe* of his English subjects by promising a great relaxation of the odious forest laws of his predecessor. Now that he was se- cure, he not merely failed to mitignte the tyranny under which the people groaned, but he increased it. While Lanfranc lived, the zeal and ability of that prelate, added to the superstition of the age, rendered the property of the church sacred. But Lan- franc died soon after the accession of Wil- liam Rufus, who made his own will the sole law for all orders of his subjects, whether lay or clerical. On the death of a bishop or abbot he either set the see or abbey up for open sale, as he would any other kind of property, or he delayed the appointment of a new bishop or abbot, and so kept the temporalities in hand for his own use. Such conduct produced much discontent and murmuring; but the power of the king was too great, and his cruel and violent temper was too well known, to allow the general discontent to assume a more tangi- le and dangerous form. So conlident, in- deed, did the king feel of his power in Eng- land, that he even thought it not unsafe to disturb the peace of his brother Robert in Normandy, where the licentious barons were already in a most disorderly scate, owing to the imprudent indulgence and lenity of their generous and facile duke. Availing himself of this state of things, William bribed the governors of Albemarle and St. Valori, and thus obtained posses- sion of those important fortresses. He was also near obtaining possession of Rouen, but was defeated in that object by the singular fidelity of his brother Henry to Robert, under circumstances of no small provocation to very different conduct. Henry, though he had inherited only some money out of all the vast possessions of his father, had lent duke Robert three thousand marks to aid him in his attempt to wrest the crown of England fron» Wil- liam. By way of security for this money, Henry was put in possession of consider- able territory in Normandy : yet upon some real or pretended suspicion, Robert not only deprived him of this, but also threw him into prison. Though he was well aware that Robert only at last liberated him in consequence of requiring his aid on the threatened invasion of England, Henry behaved most loyally. Havinsienmt that Conan, a very powerful rtud influer- tial citizen of Rouen, had traitorouslv Vi«) gained to give up the city to king Wiii.w'.;, the prince took him to the top of a lofty tower, and with his own hand threw him over the battlements. The king at length landed a numerous array in Normandy, and the state of things became serious and threatening indeed as regarded the duke. But the intimate con- A.D. 1088.— A ORKAT SOARCITT ; NO CORN RIFB TILL NOTXHBBR. threat- exhibit lis Eng- ! was at utmost he espe- 1 wishek ailing a est laws was se- fate the JToaned, DC lived, e, added iered the Jut Lan- 1 of Wil- l the sole whether a bishop abbey up ',T kind of itment of kept the iwn use. iscontent r of the id violent lUow the >re tangi- ident, in> T in Ung- unsafe to Robert in IS barons jriy scate, knee and ile duke. . things, klbemarle d posses- iession of jbjeet by er Henry ' no small luct. Ited only ssessions ert three attempt rron> Wil- is money, consider- >on some ibert not Iso threw was well liberated ' liis aid Sngland, ingTearnt influer- USlv ViMl Wii..^-;, of a lofty lirew him lumerous of things ndeed as nate con- A. D. 1094. — A YEAR 01 OBKAT MORTALITT BOTH TO MAN AND BIAST. lEnglantJ.— :N[onnan ICinc— aSRiUfam IE. 105 nection and mutual interests of the leading men on both sides favoured him ; and a treaty was made, by which the English king, on the one hand, obtained the terri- tory of £u and some other territorial ad- vantages, while, on the other hand, he en- gaged to restore those barons who were banished from England for espousing the cause of Robert in the late revolt, and to assist his brother against the people of Maine who had revolted. It was further agreed, under the witness and guarantee of twelve of the chief barons on either side, that whoever of the two brothers should survive should inherit the possessions of the other. In all this treaty not a word was inserted in favour of prince Henry, who naturally felt iudignant at being so much ncKlected by his brother Robert, from whom he cer- tainly had merited better treatment. With- drawing from Rouen, he fortified himself at St. Michael's Mount, on the Norman coast, and sent out plundering parties, who greatly annoyed the whole neighbourhood. Robert and William besieged liim here, and during the siege an incident occurred which goes CO show that Robert's neglect of his brother was owing rather to carelessness thau to any real want of generous feeling. Henry and his garrison were so much distressed for water that they must have speedily submitted. When this was told to Robert, he not only allowed his brother to supply himself with water, but also sent him a considerable quantity of wine. Wil- liam, who could not sympathize with this chivalrous feeling, reproached Robert with being imprudent. " What ! " replied the generous duke, " should I suffer our bro- ther to die of thirst ? Where shall we iind another when he is gone 7 " But this tem- porary kindness of Robert did not prevent the unfortunate Henry from being pressed so severely that he was obliged to capitu- late, and was driven forth, with his handful of attendants, almost destitute of money and resources. A. o. 1091 . — Robert, who was now in strict alliance with the king and brother who had sn lately invaded his duchy with the most hostile intentions, was entrusted with the chief command of an English army, which was sent over the border to compel Malcolm to do homage to the crown of England. In this enterprize Robert was completely suc- cessful. A. D. 1093. — But both peace and war were easily and quickly terminated in this age. Scarcely two years had elapsed from Mal- colm's submission and withdrawal of the English troops, when he invaded England. Having plundered and wasted a great por- tion of Northumberland, he laid siege to Alnwick castle, v>'here he was surprised by a party of English under the earl de Mou- bray, and in the action which followed Mal- colm perished. A. D. 1094.— William constantly kept hia attention fixed upon Normandy. The care- less and generous taniperof his brother Ro- bert, and the licentious nature of the Nor- man barons, kept that duchv in constant uneasiness ; and William took up his tem- porary abode tfiere, to encourage his own partizans and be ready to avail himself of anything that might seem to favour his de- signs upon his brother's inheritance. While in Normandy the king raised the large sum of ten thousand pounds by a roguish turn of ingenuity. Being, from the nature of the circumstances in which he was placed, far more in want of money than in want of men, he sent orders to his minister, Ralph Flambard, to raise an army of twenty thousand men, and march it to the coast, as if for instant embarkation. It is to be supposed that not a few of the men thus suddenly levied for foreign service were far more desirous of staying at home ; and when the army reached the coast, these were gratified by the information that on payment of ten shillings to the king, each man was at liberty to return to his home. With the money thus obtained, William bribed the king of France and some of those barons who had hitherto sided with Robert. But before he could gain any decisive ad- vantage from his Machiavelian policy, he was obliged to hasten over to England to repel the Welsh, who had made an incur- sion in his absence. A. o. 1095.— While William had been so discreditably busy in promoting discord in the duchy of his brother, his own kingdom had not been free from intrigiie!>. Robert de Moubray, earl of Northumberland, the count D'Eu, Roger de Lacey, and many other powerful barons, who hadheen deeply offended by the king's linuglity and despotic temper, were this year detected in a conspi- racy which had for its object the dethrone- ment of the king in favour of Stephen, count of Aumale, and nephew of William the Conqueror. With his usual promptitude, William, on gaining intelligence of the con- spiracy, took measures to defeat it. De Moubray was surprised before he had com- pleted his preparations, and though he re- sisted galiantly he was overpowered and thrown into prison. Attainder and forfei- ture followed as a matter of course, and for the long period of thirty years the un- fortunate noble lingered in prison, where he died. The count D'Eu, who also was surprised, firmly denied his participation in tne conspiracy, and challenged Geollrey Baynard, by whom he had been accused, to mortal combat. The count was defeated, and the brutal sentence upon him was cas- tration and deprivation of sight. The his- torians speak of William de Alderi, another of the conspirators, who was hanged, as having been more severely dealt with ; but we think most people would consider that death was among the most merciful of the sentences of this cruel and semi-barbarous age. A war, or rather a series of wars, now commenced, to which all the skirmishes of Scotland, and Wales, and Normandy, were to prove as mere child's play in comparison. We allude to the first crusade, or holy war, the most prominent events of which we CAPITAL PUNISHMENTS WBUB COMMUTRD FOR FBCUNIARY FINKS. A. D. 1093.— THE TOWIB OF LOIfSOM BIfCOMrASIID WITH A WALL. 1 i^' li I .}! 11 106 ^i^e ^xtamxis of l^totor;), $rc. ha»e given in our brief "Outline of General History." Priest and layman, soldier and trader, noble and peasant, .tU were sud- denly seized with an enthusiasm little short of madness. Men of all ranks and almost of all ages took to arms. A holy war, a cru- sade of the Christians against the infidels ; a warfare at once righteous and perilous, where valour fought under the sacred symbol of the cross, so dear to the Christian and so hateful to the infidel! Nothing could have more precisely and completely suited the spirit of an age in which it was difllcult to say whether courage or super- stition were the master-passion of all orders of men. The temper of Robert, duke of Nor- mandy, -vas not such as to allow him to remain unmoved by the fierce enthusiasm of all around him. Brave even to rashness, and easily led by his energetic but ill dis- ciplined feelings to fall into the general de- lusion, which combined all the attractions of chivalrv with all the urgings of a mis taken and almost savage piety, he very early added his name to that of the Christian leaders who were to go forth to the rescue of the holy sepulchre and the chastisement of heathenism. But when, in the language of that book which laymen of his period but little read, he " sat down to count the cost," he speedily discovered that his life- long carelessness and profusion had left him destitute of journeying to the east in the style or with the force which would become his rank. It was now that the cooler and more sordid temper of William of England gave that monarch the fullest advantage over his improvident and head- strong brother, who recklessly mortgaged his duchy to William for the comparatively insignificant «um of ten thousand marks. William raised the money by means of the most unblushing and tyrannous imposts upon his subjects, and was forthwith put in possession of Nornandy and Maine; while Robert, expending his money in a noble outfit, proceeded to the east, full of dreams of temporal glory to be obtained by the self-same slaughter of pagans which would ensure his eternal salvation. Though William was thus ready, with a view to his own advantage, to expedite the departure of his brother to the Holy Land, he was himself not only too free iirom the general enthusiasm to go thither himself, but he also, and very wisely, discouraged his sub- jects from doing so He seems, indeed, though sufiicieutlv superstitious to be easily worked upon by the clergy when he deemed his life in danger, to have been careless about religion even to the ver^ of impiety. More than one unbecoming jest upon re- ligion is on record against him; but we may, perhaps, safely believe that the clergy, the sole historians of those times, with whom his arbitrary and ungovernable na- ture made him no favourite, have painted him in this respect somewhat worse than he was. It was in one of his fits of superstition that, believing himself ou the point of death, he was at length induced to fill up the archbishopric of Canterbury, which he had kept unfilled from the death of Lan- franc. In terror at his supposed approach- ing death he conferred tnis dignity upon Anselm, a pious and learned Norman ab- bot. Anselm at first refused the promo- tion, even with tears ; but when he at length accepted it, he abundantly proved that he was net inclined to allow the interests of the church to lack any defence or watch- fulness. His severity of demeanour and life, and his unsparing sternness towards every thing that either reason or supersti- tion pointed out as profane and of evil report, were remarkable. He spared not in his censures even the king himself; and as William, on recovering from the illness which had caused him to promote Anselm, very plainly showed that lie was not a jot more pious or just than before, disputes very soon grew high between the king and the archbishop whom he bad taken so much trouble to persuade into acceptance of dig- nity and power. The church was at this time much agitated by a dispute between Urban and Clement. Each maintained himself to be the true, and his opponent the anti-pope. While yet only an abbot in Normanay, Anselm had acknowledged the authority of Urban ; and he now, in his higher dignity and wider influence, still espoused his cause, and resolved to esta- blish his authority in England. As the law of the Conqueror was still in force that no pope should be acknowledged in Eng- land until his authority should have re- ceived the sanction of the king, William determined to make this disobedience the pretext upon which to endeavour to deprive the archbishop of his high ecclesiastical dignity. The king accordingly summoned a synod at Rockingham, and called upon it to depose Anselm. But the assembled suf- fragans declined to pass the required sen- tence, declaring that they knew of no au- thority by which they could do so without the command of the pope, who alone could release them from the respect and obedi- ence which they owed to their primate. While the case was in this state of incer- titude and pause, some circumstances arose which rendered it expedient for William to acknowledge the legitimacy of Urban's election to the papal throne, but the ap- garent reconciliation which this produced etween the king and Anselm was but of short duration. The main cause of griev- ance, though itself removed by the recon- ciliation of William and the pope, left be- hind an angry feeling which required only a pretext to burst forth, and that pretext the haughty state despotism of William and the no less haughtv church zeal Of An- selm speedily furnished. We mentioned among the numerous de- spotic arrangements of the Conqueror, his having required from bishoprics and abbeys the same feudal service in the field as from jay baronies of like value. William Rufus in this, as in all despotism, followed closely upon the track left by his father; and Q ■A O J »> 03 H t> O WESTMINSTBR HALL BUILT, 2*0 VEST LONO AND 74 BROAD. M H H EQ M » i H B O n M :j O » o 4 H w a a H ■IR WALTIR TYBnSL HBI.D THB OiriCB Or KOTAL SOW-BSABER. lEnglanU.— Norman ICine.— aJaiUlam M. 107 havinsr resolved upon an expedition into Wales, he called upon Anselm for his regu- lated quota of men. Anselm, in common with all the churchmen, deemed this spe- cies of servitude very grievous and unbe- coming to churchmen; but the despotic nature of William, and that feeling of feudal submission which, next to submission to the church, seems to have been the most Sowerful and irresistible feeling iu those ays, prevented him from giving an abso- lute refusal. He, therefore, took a middle course ; he sent his quota of men, indeed, but so insufficiently accoutred and provided that they were utterly useless and a dis- grace to the well-appointed force of which they were intendea to form a part. The king threatened Anselm with a prosecution for this obviously intentional and insulting evasion of the spirit of his duty, while com- plying with its mere letter; and the prelate retorted by a demand for the restoration of the revenue of which his see had been arbitrarily and unfairly deprived by the Icing, appealing to the pope at the same time for protection and a just decision. The king's violent temper was so much in- flamed by the prelate's opposition, that the friends of Anselm became alarmed for his personal safety, and application was made to the king for permission for the prelate to leave the country ; a permission which he readily gave, as the best way, at once, to rid himselfof an opponent whose virtuous and religious character made him both troublesome and dangerous, and to obtain possession, temporarily at the very least, of the whole of the rich temporalities of the see of Canterbury. Upon these he seized accordingly ; but Anselm, whom the papal court looked upon as a martyr iu the cause of the church, met with such a splendid reception at Rome as left him little to re- gret in a wordly point of view. A.D. 1097- — Though freed from the vexa- tious opposition of the indomitable 5uid up- right churchman, William was not even now to enjoy repose ; if, indeed, repose would have been a source of enjoyment to a temper so fierce and turbulent. Though his cooler judgment had enabled him to obtain Nor- mandy and Maine from his thoughtless and prodigal brother, it did not enable him to keep in subjection the turbulent and al- most independent barons of those pro- vinces. They were perpetually in a state of disorder, either from personal quarrels or as the result of the artful instigations of the king of France, who lost no opportu- nity of inciting them to revolt against the king of England. Among the most trou- blesome of these barons was Helie, lord of La Fleche, a comparatively small town and territory in the province of Anjou. He was very popular among the people of Maine ; and though William several times went from England for the express purpose of putting him down, Helie as constantly re- turned to his old courses the moment the monarch had returned home. William at length took Helie prisoner, but at the in- tercession of the king of France and the earl of Anjou he gave him his liberty. Un- tamed either by the narrow escape he had had from death, in being released from the hands of so passionate and resolute a prince as William, Helie again commenced Lis plundering and destroying course ; took possession, with the connivance of the citi- zens, of the town of Mans, and laid siege to the garrison which remained faithful to the king of England. William was engaged in his favourite pursuit of hunting in the New Forest when he received this intelligence ; and he was so transported with fury, that he galloped immediately to Dartmouth and hurried on board a vessel. The weather was so stormy and threatening that the sailors were unwilling to venture from port ; but the king, with a good-humoured reck- lessness and scorn, assured them that kings were never drowned, and compelled them to set sail. This promptitude enabled him to arrive in time to raise the siege of Mans, and he pursued Helie to Majol ; but he had scarcely commenced the siege of that place when he received so severe a wound that it rendered it necessary for him to return to England. A.D. 1100.— The crusading mania was still as strong as ever. William, duke of Poictiera and earl of Guiennc, emulous of the fame of the earlier crusaders and wholly untaught by their misfortunes, raised an im- mense force ; some historians say, as many as sixty thousand cavalry and a much larger number of infantry. To convey such a force to the Holy Land required no small sum of money; and count William offered to mort- gage his dominions to William of England, to whom alone, of all the lay sovereigns of Europe, the crusades promised to be truly profitable. The king gladly agreed to ad- vance the money, in the confident belief that it would never be in the power of the mortgager to redeem his provinces, and was in the very act of preparing the neces- sary force to escort the money and to take possession of the provinces, when an acci- dent, famous in history, caused his death. The New Forest, planted by the most ini- quitous cruelty, was very fatal to the Con- queror's family ; so much so, as to leave us little reason to wonder that, in so super- stitious an age, it was deemed that there was a special and retributive fate in the royal deaths whfch occurred there. Richard, elder brother of king William Rufus, was killed there ; as was Richard, a natural son of duke Robert of Normandy. William Rufus was now a third royal victim. lie was hunting there when an arrow shot by Walter Tyrrel, a Norman favourite] of the monarch, struck a tree, and, glancing off, pierced the breast of the king, who died on the spot. The unintentional homicide dreading the violent justice which the slayer of a king was likely to experience, no sooner saw the result of his luckless shot, than he galloped off to the sea shore and crossed over to France, whence he with all speed departed for the Holy Land. His alarm anil flight, though perfectly natural, wer to secure it, rince on the the treasure right to his his sovereiKn vhose friend;! itened to put tempted any liastening to iiade so judi- alike among ination, that . be elected vas crowned, within three and violent IS quite plain he nnw had ious bribery t, the osten- eminent and sincere and Robert were sorrowfully, irived him uf throne from ing brother, a civil war. Henry felt ad been by ft u r. H O f H O r. M «! 'r. ! >• n n M < u ■< » < It 13 « H n lEnglantJ.— "Norman Xlne. — "Denrn 3E. 109 the moRt flnscrnnt and unqunliried usurpa- tion, he would, at the outset of his reign at least, be best secured ai^iinst any attempts which in mere desperation his brother might make to dethrone liim, by the affec- tion of the great body of the people as well as of the nobles. To obtain this, the ty- rannies of his immediate predecessors af- forded an ample and easy scope. " Besides," says Hume," takinu the usual coronation oath to maintain the laws and execute justice, be passed a Chauteu which was calculated to remedy many of the grievous oppressions which had been com- plained of during the reigns of his father and brother. He there promised, that at the death of any bishop or abbot he never would seize the revenues of the see or ab- bey durinir the vacancy, but would leave the whole to be reaped by the successor; and that he would never let to farm any ecclesiastical benelice, nor dispose of it for money. After his concession to the church, whose favour was of so great importance to him, he proceeded to enumerate the civil frievances which he purposed to redress, le promised that upon the death of any earl, baron, or military tenant, his heir should be admitted to the possession of his estate on payin;; a just and lawful re- lief, without being exposed to such violent exactions as had been usual during the late reigns ; he remitted the wardship of mi- nors; and allowed guardians to be appoint- ed who shoulu be answerable for the trust ; he promised not to dispose of any heiress in marriage hut by the advice of all the ba- rons ; and if any baron intended to give his daughter, sister, niece, or other kinswoman in marriage, it should only be necessary for him to consult the king, who promised to take no money for his consent, nor ever to refuse permission, unless the person to whom it was purposed to marry her should be bis enemy. He granted his barons and military tenants the power of bequeathing by will their money or personal estates ; and if they neglected to make a will, he promised that their heirs should succeed to them. He renounced the right of imposing moneyage and of levying taxes at pleasure on the farms which the barons retained in their own hands ; and he made some general professions of moderating tines, offered a pardon for all offences, and remitted all the debts due to the crown. He required that the vassals of the barons should enjoy the same privileges which he granted to his own barons; and he promised a general contirmation and observance of the laws of king Edward. This is the substance of the chief articles coutained in that famous charter." Though, to impress the people with the notion of his great anxiety for the full pub- licity and exact performance of these gra- cious promises, Henry caused a copy of this charter to be placed in an abbey in every county, his subsequent conduct shows that he never intended it for anything but a lure, by which to win the support of the barons and people, while that support as yet appeared desirable to his cause. The grievances which he so oslentatiou^ily pro- mised to redress were continued during his whole reign; and as regards the charter it- self, so completely neglected was it, that when, in their disputes with the tyrant John, the Knglish barons were desirous to make it the standard by which to express their demands, scarcely a copy of it could be found. The popularity of the king at the com- mencement of his reign owed not a little of its warmth to his just and politic dismissal and imprisonment of Ralph Flambard, bi- shop of Durham, who, as principal minister and favourite of William Rufus, had been guilty of great oppression and cruelty, es- pecially in raising money. The Dudley and Empson of a later reign were scarcely more detested than this man was, and no- thing could be more agreeable to the people than his degradation and punishment. Uut the king, apart from his politic denire to gratify the public resentment against his brother's chief and most unscrupulous in- strument of oppression, seems to have had his own pecuniary advantage chiedy iu view. Instead of immediately appointing a successor to the bishopric, he kept it va- cant for live years, and during all that time he, in open contempt of the positive pro- mise of his charter, applied the revenues of the see to his own use. This shameful invasion of the rights of the church, however, did not prevent him from otherwise seeking its favour. Well aware of the high rank which Anselm held in the affections of both the clergy and the £eople, he strongly invited him to leave yons — where he now lived in great state — and resume his dignity in England. But the king accompanied this invitation with a demand that Anselm should renew to him the homage he had formerly paid to his brother. Anselm, however, by bis residence at Rome, had learned to look with a very different eye now upon that homage which formerly he had looked upon as so mere and innocuous a form, and he returned for an- swer, that he not only would not pay lio- mage himself, but he would not even com- municate with any of the clergy wiio should do so, or who would accept of lay invesfi- ture. However much mortitied Henry was at finding the exiled prelate thus resolute, he was too anxious for the support and countenance of Anselm— which if thrown into the scale for Robert might at some future time prove so formidable— to insist upon his own proposal. He therefore agreed that all controversy on the subjects should be referred to Rome ; and Anselm was restored to his dignity, and, undoubt- edly, all the more powerful both from the circumstances which led to his exile and those which accompanied his return. His authority was scarcely re-established when it was appealed to upon a subject of the highest interest to the king himself. Ma- tilda, daughter of Malcolm III., king of Scotland and niece of Edgar Atheling, had been educated in the nunnery of Ramsay. -. I TUB CROWN BEVENUKS WEnE PBINCIPAI.I.T COLl-ECTKD IN KIND. tf. A.O. IIIO. — ARTS AND ICIKNCBS AGAIN TAUGHT AT CAMBBlDai. i <' 110 STJ^e ^rcasurn of l^fstorp, Set. Well knowing how dear the royal Saxon hiieage of this lady made her to the English nation, Henry proposed to espouse her. It is a striking instance of theextpnt to which the public mind was enslaved by Rome, that the mere residence and education of this princess in a convent, the mere wearing of the veil without ever having taken or in- tended to take the vows, seemed to make it doubtful whether she could lawfully con- tinot matrimony ! So it, however, was ; and a solemn council of prelates and no- bles was held at Lambeth to determine the point. Tills council was held so soon after the restoration of Anselm to his dignity, that we may, without great breach of cha- rity, suspect that a desire to secure the support of Anselm upon this very subject wiis at least one of the motives, if not the chief one, by which the king was actuated in recalling him. Before this council Ma- tilda stated that she had never contemplated taking the vows, and that she had only worn the veil, as it was quite commonly worn by the English ladies, as a safeguard from the violence of the Norman soldiery. As it was well known that against such violence even an English princess really had no other secure guard, the council deter- mined that the wearing of the veil by Ma- tilda had in no wise pledged her to or con- nected her with any religious sisterhood, and that she was as free to marry as though she had never worn it. Henry and Matilda were married. The ceremony was perform- ed by Anselm, and was accompanied with great and gorgeous rejoicing. This mar- riage more than any other of his politic arrangements attached the English people to him. Married to a Saxon princess, he seemed to them to have acquired a greater ri!;;ht to the throne than any Norman prince, without that recommendation, could draw from any other circumstances. A. D. 1101.— It soon appeared, that great as Henry's care had been to fortify him- self in the general heart of the people, it had been neither unnecessary nor excessive. Robert, who had wasted so much time in Italy, returned to Normandy about a month after the death of his brother Rufus. Henry had given no orders and made no prepara- tions to oppose Robert's resumption of the duchy of Normandy. Possessed of that point d'appui, and being much endeared to the warlike Norman barons by hia achievements in the Holy Land, Robert immediately com- menced preparations for invading England, and wresting his birthright from the usurp- ing hands of his brother. Nor were the wishes for his success confined to those barons who chiefly or wholly lived in Nor- mandy. On the contrary, many of the great barons of England decidedly pre- ferred Robert to Henry; and, feeling the same dislike to holding their English and Norman possessions under two sovereigns, which had been so strongly expressed at the accession of William, they secretly encou- raged Robert, and sent him assurances that they would join him with their levies as soon as he should land in England. Among these nobles were Robert de Belesme, earl of Shrewsbury, William deWarenne, earl of Surrey, Hugh de Greatmesuil, Robert de Mallet, and others of the very highest and most powerful men in England. The en- thuiiasm in his favour extended to the navy ; and when Henry had, with great ex- pence and exertion, made a fleet ready to oppose his brother's landing, the seamen deserted with the greater number of the ships, and put themselves and their vessels at the disposal of Robert. This incident gave the king great alarm, lest the army, too, should desert him, in which case not only his crown but his life would be in the most imminent danger. Henry, notwith- standing this peril, preserved his coolness, and did not allow, as men too frequently do, the greatness of the danger to turn away his attention from the best means of meet- ing and overcoming it. WflU knowing the superstition of the people, he considered nothing lost while be could command the immense influence which Anselm had over the public mind.. Accordingly he redoubled his court to that prelate, and succeeded in making him believe in the sincerity of bis professed design and desire to rule justly and mildly. What he himself firmly be- lieved, Anselm diligently and eloquently in- culcated upon the minds of others ; and as his influence and exertions were seconded by those of Roger Bigod, Robert Fitz- hamond, the earl of Warwick, and other powerful nobles who remained faithful to Henry, the army was kept in good humour, and marched in good order, and with appa- rent zeal as well as cheerfulness, to Ports- mouth, where Robert had landed. Though the two armies were in face of each other for several days, not a blow was struck ; both sides seeming to feel reluctant to commence a civil war. Anselm and other influential men on cither side took advan- tage of this pause to bring about a treaty between the brothers ; and, after much ar- gument and some delay, it was agreed that Henry should retain the crown of England, and pay an annual pension of three thou- sand marks to Robert; that the survivor should succeed to the deceased brother's possessions; that they should mutually ab- stain from encouraging or harbouring each others enemies ; and that the adherents of both in the present quarrel should be un- disturbed in their possessions and borne harmless for all that had passed. A. B. 1102.— Though Henry agreed with seeming cheerfulness to this treaty, whfch in most points of view was so advantageous to him, he signed it with a full determination to break through at least one of its provi- sions. The power of his nobles had been too fully manifested to him in their encourage- ment of Robert, to admit of his being other- wise than anxious to break it. The earl of Shrewsbury, as one of the most powerful and also the most active of those who had given their adhesion to Robert, was first tixed upon by Henry to be made an exam- ple of tlie danger of offending kings. Spies were set upon his every word and action. A.D. 1102.— ANSBtM BXCOMMUNICATBD AIL TH8 MARBIBD CLBBOY. •nine, earl no, earl of llobcrt de ghest and The en- id to the I great ex- t ready to le seamen ber of the eir vessels s incident the army, li case not 1 be in the , notwith- s coolness, luently do, turn away M of nieet- lowing the considered nmand the m had over ; redoubled icceeded in erity of bis rule justly firmly be- >quently in- era ; and as « seconded jbert Fitz- and other faithful to od humour, with appa- B, to Ports- d. in face of a blow was il reluctant _ and other cook advan- lut a treaty |r much ar- freed that England, Ithree thou- lie survivor _ brother's lUtually ab- luring each iherents of luld be un- aud borne rreed with Faty, whfch IvantRgeous lermination |f its provi- !id been too lencourage- leingother- iThe earl of It powerful se who had was iirst |e an exam- igs. Spies find actiou, A.D. UlS.^OLONIBS or FLBMINOS VLANTID IN WALBS BY UBNBT I. lEnfilanU.— l^orman ICine.— l^enty 3E. Ill and his bold and haiii(hty character left them but httle difficulty in finding matter of offence. No fewer than tive-and-forty articles were exhibited a :ainst him. He was too well aware boili of the truth of some of the charges, and ot' the rigid seve- rity with which he would be judged, to deem it safe to risk atrial. He summoned all the friendn and adherents he could command, and threw himself upon the chances of war. But these were unfavourable to him. In the influence which Anselm possessed, and which he zealously exerted on behalf of the king, Henry had a moat potent means of defence, and he with little difficulty reduced the earl to such straits, that he was glad to leave the kingdom with his life. All his great possessions were of course confis- cated, and thev afforded the king welcome means of purchasing new friends, and se- curing the fidelity of those who were his frieuds already. A.D. 1 103. — ^The ruin of the earl of Shrews- bury produced that of his brothers, Roger, earl of Lancaster and Arnulf de Montgo- mery. But the vengeance or the policy of the king required yet more victims. Robert de Pontefract, Robert de Mallet, and William de Warenne were prosecuted, and the kinii^s power secured their condemnation ; and William, earl of Cornwall, though and recommenced his operations; opening the campaign with the siege of Tincliebrdv with a force so mighty, that it wa« quite evident he contemplated nothing sliort ot tlir en- tire subjugation of Normandy. It required all the success that Henry had as yet achieved, and all the persuasions of his own friends, to arouse Robert from his le- tlL-^rgy of natural indolence and sensual pleasure. But once roused, — he sl.owed that the warrior had slumbci'ed, indeed, in his heart, but was not dead. Aidi-d by Robert de Belesme, and by the earl of Moi-- taigne, the king's uncle, who was invc- terately opposed to Henry on .icoount of his treatment of Mortaigne's son William, earl of Cornwall, Robert speedily raised a powerful force, and marchtd ai?ainst his brother, in the hope of puttiii<; an end to their controversies in a single battle. Ani- mated at being led by the valiant prince whose feats in the plains of Palestine had struck terror into pagan hearts, and won M >] •* A.D. 1112.— THIS TEAR WAS MBMOBABLB FOB A GBBAT FLAGUK. Tim AUTHORITY OP TUB FAFAL SBB BECOMES ALMOST OMNIPOTENT. \K A '■ ! ta 112 CTIje ZlTrcasiun of ¥j{stari), ^'c. the applause of christian Europe, Robert's troops charged so boldly and so well, that the linglish were thrown into confusion. Hud the Norman success been well fol- lowed up by the wliole Norinon force, nothing could have saved the English army from defeat and destruction. But the troops of Roger de Belesmc were suddenly ami most unaccountably seized with a pa- nie, which communicated itself to the rest of the Normans. Ilcnry and his friends skilfully and promptly availed themselves of this sudden turn in the state of affairs, charged the enemy again and again, utterly routed them, killing vast numbers and ma- king ten thousand prisoners, among whom was Robert himself This great victory gained by Henry was soon after crowned by the surrender of Rouen and Falaise ; and Henry now be- came completely master of Normandy, hav- ing also got into his power Robert's son, the young prince William, who was unfor- tunately in Falaiae when that important fortress surrendered. As though there had been nothing of violence or unfairness in his conduct, Henry now convoked the states of Normandy and received their ho- mage as though he had been rightfully their duke J after which, having dismantled such fortresses as he deemed dangerous to his interests, and revoked the grants which Robert's foolish facility had induced him to make, he returned to England, taking his unfortunate brother with him as a prisoner, and committing young William to the cus- tody of Helie de St. Laen, who had married Robert's natural daughter, and who treated the captive prince with a tenderness and respect which do him the highest honour. Robert himself was committed to the cus- tody of the governor of Cardiff castle in Wales, where for twenty-eight years, the whole remainder of his life, he became a melancholy spectacle of fallen greatness, and a striking example of the utter useless- n<'ss of courage without conduct, and of the danger of generosity if unregulated by prudence. At the battle of Tinchebray, so fatal to duke Robert, his friend Edgar Atheling was taken prisoner. Though on more than one occasion this prince gave signal proof's of bravery, both his friends and his enemies seem to have held his intellect in ctmsiderable contempt. The two Williams and Henry I., princts of such different qua- lities, yet "so perfectly agreeing in despotic aii'l jealous tempers, equally held his powers of exciting the English to revolt in the ut most scorn. Though his Saxon descent could nnt but endear him to the English people, nnd though both ot home and in the Holy ' nd he had proved himself to possess very high courage, there was so general and apparently so well founded an opinii>n of his dofieieney in the higher in- tellectual (|Uttlilie», that neither did the Saxons look up to him, as otherwise they gladly would have done, as a rallying point, nor did the Normans lionour him with their suspicious fear. Even now whcu Henry, whose treatment of his own brother Bufneiently proves how inexorable he could be where he saw cause to fear injury to his interests, hud so fair an excuse for com- mitting Edgar to safe custody, he showed his entire disbelief of that prince's capa- city, by allowing him to enjoy his full li- berty in England, and even grunting him a pension. A.D. 1107. — Henry's politic character and his judgment were both eminently dis- played in managing his very delicate dispute with the pope on the subject of ecclesias- tical investitures. While showing the most profound external respect, and even aB'ec- tion, to both the pope and archbishop An- sclm, Henry proceeded to fill the vacant sees concerning which there was dispute. But Ansclin, though he had been on many important occusiiins a staunch and useful friend to the king, was far too good a churchman to brook disobedience to the papal authority, even when that disobedi- ence was veiled by smiles and couched in gentle and holiday terms. He refused to communicate, far less to consecrate, the bishops invested by the king; and those prelates saw themselves exposed to so much obloquy by their opposition to so revered a personage as Aiisehn, that they resigned their dignities into the king's hands. The complete defeat of a scheme which he had prosecuted with such dex- terous and painful art deprived the king of his usual command of temper ; and he let fall such significant threats towards all opponents of his authority, that Ansclm became alarmed for his personal safety, and demanded permission to travel to Rome to consult the pope. Well knowing the popu- larity of Ansclm, Henry was very well pleased to be thus peaceably rid of hii pre- sence. Ansclm departed, and was attended to the ship by hosts of both clergy and laity, who, by the cordial respect with which they took their leave of him, tacitly, but no less plainly, testified their sense of the justice of his quarrel with their sove- reign. As soon as Ansclm had left England the king seized upon all the temporalities of his sec; and, fearful lest the presence of Ansclm at Rome should prejudice him and his kingdom, he sent William de Ward- wast as ambassador extraordinary to I'us- cttl, the pope. In the course of the argu- ment between the pope and the king of England's envoy, tile latter warmly ex- claimed that his sovereign would rather part with his crown than with the right of investiture; to which Pascal as warmly replied, that he would rather part with liis head than allow the king to retain that right. Anselm retired to Lyons, and thence to his old monastery of Bee. The king re- stored him the revenues of his sees, and great anxiety was expressed by all ranks of men for his return to England, where his absence was affirmed to be the cause of all imaginable impiety, and of the most gross and disgusting immorality. The disputes, meantime, between Henry and the pope nOTU TnB QVEBNS OF HBNRY I. WSRK FATRONB OF MTKttATtJKB. ivn brollier le he coulil ijury to his i; for com- hc showed nce's cnpa- his full li- lting li>"' " laractcrand ncutly ilis- cate dispute of ecclesias- ng the jnost I even alVec hbishop An the vacant nas dispute een o\i many 1 and useful too good a icnce to the lat disobedi- l couehed in ;e refused to usecrate, the ; and those posed to so isition to so hn, that they i the king's of a seheme th such dex- ed the king of ■ and he let towards all that Ansclm ml safety, and ;1 to Home to ing the popu- as very well rid of his pre- was attended ;h clergy and respect with " him, tacitly, . their sense th their sove- England the nporalitics of i3 presence of idice him and m de Warel- linary to Pus- of the argu- the king of warmly cx- ,vould rather 11 the right of I A as warmly part with his ) retain that _s, and thence ^The king re- Ihis sees, and ly all ranks of lid, where his le cause of all Ic most gross IXhe disputes, Tnd the pope A.D. 1121. — BEICRT MARBIBS ADBLAI8, DAVOUTKB Or TUB DUKB OF LOUrAtNG. ^nglantJ.— "Norman ICinc — l^enro I. 113 erew warmer and warmer. The emperor Henry V. and the pope were at feud on the same subject, and the pope being made an actual prisoner was compelled by a formal treaty to grant the emperor the right of investiture. The king of England was less advantageously situated than the emperor. He could not, by getting the pope into his power, cut the gordian Knot of tlie contro- versy between them. The earl of Mellent and other ministers of Henry were already suffering under the pains of excommunica- tion; Henry himself was in daily expecta- tion of hearing the like dreadful sentence pronounced on him, and he well knew that he had numerous and powerful enemies among his nobles who would both gladly and promptly avail themselves of it to throw off their uneasy allegiance. He and the pope were mutually afraid, and a com- promise was at length entered into, by which the pope had the right of ecclesias- tical investiture, while Henry had the right of demanding homage from the prelates for their temporalities. The main difference being tlius settled, minor points presented no difflcultias, and Henry now had leisure to turn his attention to Normandy, In committing the natural son of his brother Robert to the care of Helie, Henry was probably desirous to show the world, by the umblemished character of the man to whom he entrusted the infant prince, then only six years old, that he meant fairly by him. But as the young prince grew up, and became remarkable for talent and gracefulness of person, he acquired a popularity which gave so much uneasiness to Henry, that he ordered his guardian to give up his young ward. Helie, probably doubtful of the king's intentions, yet feel- ing himself unable to shelter him should the king resort to force, immediately placed young William under the protection of "Fulke, count of Anjou. The protection of this gallant and eminent noble and his own singular graces enabled William to create great interest on his behalf, and at every court which he visited he was able to ex- cite the greatest indignation against the injustice with which his uncle had treated him. Louis le Gros, king of France, joined with Fulke, count of Anjou, and the count of Flanders, in disturbing Henry in his unjuKt possession of Normandy, and many skirmishes took place upon the frontiers. Uut before the war could produce any deci- sive results, Henry, with his customaiy artful policy, detached Fulke from the leaKue by marrying his son William to that prince's daughter. The peace consequent upon this withdrawal of Fulke did not, however, last long. Henry's nephew was again taken in hand by the gallant Baldwin of Flanders, who induced the king of France to join him in renewing the attack upon Normandy, In an action near Eu Baldwin was slain ; and the king of France, despairing, iifter the loss of so capital an ally of liberating Normandy from the power of Henry by force of arms resolved to try another method, of which, probably, he did not perceive all the remote and possible consequences. The papal court had always manifested a more than sufficient inclination to inter- fere in the temporal concerns of the nations of Christendom; and Louis now most un- wisely gave sanction and force to that am- bitious and insidious assumption, by ap- pealing to Rome on behalf of young William. A general council having been assembled by the pope at Rheims, Louis took his proteg^ there, represented the tyranny of Henry's conduct towards both the young prince and his father, and strongly and eloquently dwelt upon the impropriety of the church and the Christian powers al- lowing so trusty and gallant a champion of the cross to linger on in his melancholy imprisonment. Whatever might be the personal feelings of Calixtus II., the then pope, he showed himself strongly inclined to interfere on behalf both of William and his father. But Henry was now, as ever, alert and skilful in the defence of his own interest. The English bishops were al- lowed by him to attend this council ; but he gave them fair notice at their depar- ture, that whatever might be the demands or the decisions of the council, he was fully determined to maintain the laws and customs of England and his own preroga- tive. " Go," said he, as they took leave of him, "salute the pope in my name, and listen to his apostolical precepts; hut be mindful that ye bring back none of his new inventions into my kingdom." But while he thus outwardly manifested his determi- nation to support himself even against the hostility of the church, he took the most effectual means to prevent that hostility from being exhibited. The most liberal presents and promises were distributed ; and so effectually did he conciliate the pope, that having shortly afterwards had an interview with Henry, he pronounced him to be beyond comparison the most elo- quent and persuasive man he had ever spoken with. Upon this high eulogy of the sovereign pontiff, Hume, with dry caus- ticity, remarks, that Henry at this inter- view "had probably renewed his presents." Louis linding that he was out-manoeuvred by Henry in tlie way of intrigue, renewed his attempts upon Normandy in the way of arms. He made an attempt to surprise Noyen, but Henry's profuse liberality caused him to be well served by his spies, and he suddenly fell upon the French troops. A severe action ensued, and prince William, who was present, behaved with great distinction. Henry also was present, and, penetrating with his customary gal- lantry into the verv thickest of the fight was severely wounded by Crispin, a Nor- man officer in the French army. Henry, who possessed great personal strength, struck Crispin to the earth, and led his troops onward in a charge so tierce and heavy, that the French were utterly routed, and Louis himself only escaped with great difficulty from being made prisoner. The result of this action so discouraged Louis A.D. 1123. WOODSTOCK V\UK MADB, BBINa THB FIIIST IS KNOt/AND, [/-2 A.D. 1122. — KAIITIIQUAKKS IN OLOVCBSTEUSUIHK AND WOnCBSTEnSUIBK. ! I 114 ^]^c treasure of l^lstorn, ^c. tliat he shortly Rftcrwnrds entered into a troiity witli Henry, in which the interests of William niiil the liberty of Robert were wholly left out of question. Thus far the career of kinjf Henry had been one unbroken series of prosperity ; he was now, under circumstances the least to have been feared, doomed to sulTcr a very terrible misfortune. Judging from the facility with which he had usurped the crown of England and the duchy of Nor- innndy, that similar wrong— as he chose to call it, though wrong it would surely not have been — might easily be done to his own son, unless proper precaution were taken, he accompanied his son William to Normandy, and caused him to be recog- nized as his succesoor by the states, and to receive in that character the homage of the barons. This important step being taken, the king and the prince embarked at Bar- tlcur on their return to England. The weather was fair, and the vessel which convoyed the king and his immediate at- tendants left the coast in safety. Some- thing caused the prince to remain on shore after his father had departed ; and the captain and sailors of his ship, being greatly intoxicated, sailed, in their anxiety tu overtake the king, with so much more haste than skill, that they struck the ship upon a rock, and she immediately began to sink. William was safely got into the long boat, and had even been towed some distance from the ship wlicn the screams of his natural sister, the countess of I'crche, who in the hurry had been left behind, com- pelled his boat's crew to return and endea- vour to save her. The instant that the boat approached the ship's side, so many persons leaped in, that the boat also foun- dered, and William and all his attendants perished j a fearful loss, there being on board of the ill-fated ship no fewer than a hundred and forty English and Norman gentlemen of the best families. Fitzste- plien, the captain, to whose intemperance thii] sad calamity was mainly attributable, and a butcher of Rouen clung to the mast; but the former voluntarily loosed his hold and sank on hearing that the prince had perished. The butcher, free from cauae of remorse, resolutely kept his grasp, and was fortunate enough to be picked up by some lishermen on the following morning. When news reached Henry of the loss of the vessel, he for a few days buoyed himself up with the hope that his son had been saved; but when the full extent .of the ca- lamity was ascertained he fainted ; and so violent was his grief, that he was never afterwards known to smile. So deeply could he suffer under his own calamity, though so stern and unblenching in the infliction of ralamity upon others. Thedcuth of prince AVilliam, the only male Icgilimate issue of Henry, was, as will be perceived in the history of the next reign, not merely an individual calamity, but also a very serious national one, in so far as it gave risi o much civil strife. Hut it was probable that William would have been a very severe king, for he was known to threaten whenever he came to the throne he would work the English like mere beasts of burthen. The early Norman rulers, in fact, however policy might occasionally induce them to disguise it, detested and scorned their English subjects. Prince William, son of the wronged and imprisoned duke of Normandy, still enjoyed the friendship and protection of the French king, though circumstances had induced that monarch apparently to abandon the prince's interest, in making a treaty with Henry. The death of Henry's son, too, broke off the connection between Henry and the count of Anjou, who now again took up the cause of prince William, and gaVe him his daughter in marriage. Even this connection, however, between Fulke and William did not prevent the artful po- licy of Henry from again securing the friendship of the former. Matilda, Henry's daughter, who was married to the emperor Henry V. was left a widow ; and the king now gave her in marriage to Geoffrey Plan- tagenet, earl of Anjou, ond he at the same time caused her to receive, as his successor, the homage of the noble* and clergy of both Normandy and England. In the mean time prince William of Nor- mandy was greatly strengthened. Charles, earl of Flanders, was assassinated, and his dignity and possessions were immediately bestowed by the king of France upon prince William, llut this piece of seeming good fortune, though it undoubtedly gave greater strength to William's party and rendered his recovi'iv of Normandy more probable, led, in tli' result, to his destruction; so blind are we in all that relates to our future I The landgrave of Alsace deeming bis own claim upon Flanders superior to that of William, who claimed only from the wife of the Conqueror, and who moreover was ille- gitimate, attempted to possess himself of it by force of arms, and almost in the flrst skirmish that took place William was killed. Many disputes during all this time had taken place between Henry and the pope; chiefly upon the right to which the latter pretended of having a legate resident in England. As legates possessed in their respective provinces the full powers of the pope, and, in their anxiety tu please that great giver and source of their power, were even disposed to push the papal authority to the utmost, the king constantly showed a great and a wise anxiety to prevent this manifestly dangerous encroachment of Rome. After much manoeuvring on both sides, an arrangement was made by which the Icgative power was conferred upon the archbishop of Canterbury ; and thus while Rome kept, nominally at least, a controul over that power, Henry prevented it being committed to any use disagreeable to him, and had, moreover, a security fur the le- gate's moderation in the kingly power over the archbishop's temporalities. A perfect peace reigning in all parts of England, Henry spent part of llUl and 1 132 in Normandy with his daughter Matilda, a <^ . •«t I u A.n. 1131. — A »>n»AT PART OF LONDON DESTROYED »» FIRE. : li TUK KNIOIITS TEMrl.AnS BXCKCISSD ORKAT INFLUENCE AT TUIS FKRIOO. nown to c tlirone rr beasU •ulers, in Bsionnlly ited and ngcd and '. enjoyed le French induced ndon the jaty with son, too, n Henry ow again liam, and ^e. Even en Fulke artful po iiring the a, Henry's c emperor the king Bfrey Plan the Banic guccesaor, clergy of im of Nor- Charles, ;d, and his iimediately ipon prince ming good nve greater d rendered probable, uction ; so )ur future ! ng his own to that of the wife of er was ille- imself of it n the first waskilled. I time had the pope; the latter ■csident in _ in thoir crs of the please that lower, were . authority itly showed irevent this ihment of ig on both e by which d upon the thus while a controul ed it being blc to him, for the le- pnwei' over EiU parts of aland 1132 et Matilda, H U M r, M " I o ■< H H B H OS H Bt « H K o m H H I U a o M M a CFnglantJ — Korman ICine.— Stcpljcn. 115 of whom he was passionately fond. While he was lliere Matilda was delivered of a son, who was christened by the name of Henry. In the niiJst of the rejoicing this event rnuacd to tlic kinj?, he was summoned to England by an incursion made by the Welsh ; and he was just about to return wlien he was seized, at St. Dennis le For- ment, by a fatal illness, attributed to his having eotcn lamprey's to excess ; and he expired Dec. 1, 113.>, in the thirty-fifth year of his reign and the sixty-seventh ofbis age Though a usurper, and thouijh somewhat prone to a tyrannous exertion of his usurped authority, Henry at least deserves the praise of haviu); been an able monarch. He pre- served the peace of his dominions under circumstances of great difficulty, and pro- tected its interests against attempts under which a less firm and politic prince would have been crushed. He had no fewer than thirteen illegitimate children. Other vices he was tolerably free from in his private capacity ; but in protecting his resources fur the chase, of which, like all the Norman princes, he was passionately enamoured, he was guilty of very unjustifiable cruelty. In the general administration of justice he was very severe. Coining was punished by him with death or the most terrible mutilation ; and on one occasion fifty persons charged with that offence were subjected to this horrible mode of torture. It was in this reign that wardmotes, common-halls, a court of hustings, the liberty of himting in Middlesex and [Surrey— a great and honour- able privilege at that time — the right to elect its own sheriff and justiciary, and to hold pleas of the crown, trials by c< lubat, and lodging of the king's retinue, were granted to the city of London. CHAPTER XVII. The Reign of SfejiAen. A. n. 1135.— The will of Henry T. left the kingdom of England and the duchy of Nor- mandy to his (laughter Matilda. Uy the pre- cautions which he had taken, it was very evi- dent that he feared lest any one should imitate the irregularity by which he liim- sclf had mounted to power. Strangely enough, however, the attempt he antici- patcd, and so carefully provided against, was made by one who to Henry's own patronage and liberality owed his chief [ power to oppose Henry's daughter. A new i proof, if such were wanting, of the blind- j ncss on particular points of even the most politic and prudent men. Adela, daughter of William the Con- queror, was married to Stephen, count of Hlois. Two of her sons, Henry and Ste- phen, were invited to England by Henry I., who behaved to them with the profuse li- berality which he whs ever prone to show to those whom he took into his favour. Henry was made abbot of Glastonbury and bishop of Winchester; and Stephen was even more highly favoured by the king, who married him to Matilda, daughter and heiress of Eustace, count of Boulogne ; by which marriage he acquired both the feudal sovereignty of Boulogne as well as enormous landed property in England. Subsequently the king still farther enriched Stephen by conferring upon him the forfeited posses- sions of the earl of Mortaigne, in Normandy, and of Robert de Mallet, in England. The king fondly imagined that by thus honour- ing and aggrandizing Stephen he was rais- ing up a fast and powerful friend for his daughter whenever she should come to the throne ; and the conduct of Stephen was so wily and skilful, that to the very hour of Henry's death he contrived to confirm him in this delusion. Brave, active, generous, and affable, he was a very general favourite ; but while he exerted himself to the utmost to retain and increase his popularity, espe- cially among the Londoners, of whom he anticipated making great use in the ulti- mate scheme he hod in view, he took good care to keep those efforts from the king's knowledge. He professed himself the fast friend and ready champion of the princess Matilda; and when the barons were re- quired by the king to do homage to her, as the successor to the crown, Stephen ac- tually had a violent dispute with Robert, earl of Gloucester, who wos a natural son of the king, as to which of them should first take the o' th ! But with all this lip loyally to the king and seeming devotion to the princess, Ste- phen SLcms all along to have harboured the most ungrateful and faithless inten- tions. The moment the ling had ceased to live, he hurried over to England to seize upon the crown. His ujsigns having been made known at Dover and Canterbury, the citizens of both those places honourably refused to admit bim. Nothing daunted by tliis honcRt rebuke of his ungrateful de- sign, he hurried on to London, where he hud emissaries in his pay, who caused him to be hailed as king by a multitude of the common sort. The first step being thus made, he next busied himself in obtaining the sanction and suffrage of the clergy. So much weight was in that ago attached to the ceremony of unction in the coronation, that he con- sidered it but little likely that Matilda would ever be able to dethrone him, if he could so far secure the clergy as to have his coronation performed in due order and with the usual formalities. In this impor- tant part of his daring scheme good ser- vice was done to him by his brother Henry, bishop of Winchester, who caused the bi- shop of Salisbury to join him in persuading William, archbishop of Canterbury, to give Stephen the royal unction. The primate having, in common with all the nobility, taken the oathof allegiance to Matilda, was unwilling to comply with so startling a step; but his reluctance, whether real or assumed, gave way when Roger Jiigod, who held the important office of steward of the household, made oath that Henry on his death-bed had evinced his displeasure with Matilda, and expressed his deliberate pre- ference of Stephen as his successor. It is TnBnK WAS NO SRCUniTV FOB PKP30N OH PnOPKnTY IN THIS nnioN. A.O. 113S.— BTXPHaN VAI OBOWKVD AT WEITKIlfBTBB BKC. 26. I 116 V!>fft ^reasnrg of Ulistorg, $rc. not easy to believe that bo ahrewd a per- sonage as the archbishop really gave anv credence to this shallovr tale: but he af- fected to do so, and upon its authority crowned Stephen. The coronation was but meagprely attended by the nobles; yet as none of them made any open opposition, Stephen proceeded to exercise the royal au- thority as coolly as though he had ascended the throne by the double right of consent of the people and heirship. Having seized upon the royal treasure, which amounted to upwards of a hundred thousand pounds, Stephen was able to sur- round his usurped throne with an immense number of foreign mercenaries. While lie thus provided against open force, he also took the precaution to endeavour, by the apparent justice of his intentions, to ob- literate from the general memory, and es- pecially from the memory of the clergy, all thought of the shameful irregnilarity and ingratitude by which he had obtained the throne. He published a charter calculated to interest all ranks of men ; promising to abolish Danegelt, generally to restore the laws of king Edward, to correct all abuses of the forest laws, and — with an especial view to conciliating the clergy — to nil all benefices as they should become vacant, and to levy no rents upon them while va< cant. He at the same time applied for the sanction of the pope, who, well knowing what advantage nossession must give Ste- Ehen over the absent Matilda, and being, esides, well pleased to be called upon to interfere in the temporal affairs of England, very readily gave it in a bull, which Stephen took great care to make public througuout England. In Normandy the same success attended Stephen, who had his eldest son, Eustace, put in possession of the duchy on doing homage to the king of France; and Geof- frey, Matilda's husband, found himself re- duced to such straits, that he was fain to enter into a truce with Stephen, the latter consenting to pay, during the two years for which it was made, a pension of five thou- sand marks. Though Stephen was thus far so successful, there were several circum- stances which were calculated to cause him considerable apprehension and per> plexity. Robert, a natural son of the late king, by whom he had been created earl of Gloucester, possessed considerable abiUty and influence, and was very much attached to Matilda, in whose wrongs he could not fail to take great interest. This noble- man, who was in Normandy when Stephen usurped the throne of England, was looked upon, both by the friends and the enemies of Stephen, as the most likely person to head any open opposition to tne usurper. In truth, the earl was placed in a very de- licate and trying situation. On the one hand, he was exceedingly sealous in the cause of Matilda) on the other hand, to refuse when required to take the oath of allegiance to Stephen, was inevitably to bring utter ruin upon his fortunes, as far ai England was concerned. In this per- plexing dilemma he resolved to take a mid- dle course, and, by avoiding an open rup- ture with Stephen, secure to himself the liberty and means of acting according to the dictates of bis conscience, should cir- cumstances become more favourable to Matilda. He, therefore, consented to take the oath of allegiance to Stephen, on con- dition that the king should duly perform all that he had promised, and that he should in no wise curtail or infringe the rights or dignities of the earl. This sin- gular and very unusual reservation clearly enough proved to Stephen, that he was to look upon the earl as his good and loyal subject just so long as there seemed to be no chance of a successful revolt, and no longer ; but the earl was so powerful and popular, that he did not think it safe to re- fuse his oath of fealty, even on these un- usual terms. Though we correctly call these terms un- usual, we do so only with reference to for- mer reigns ; Stephen was obliged to con- sent to them in still more important cases than that of the earl of Gloucester. The clergy, finding the king willing to sacrifice to expediency, and well knowing how in- expedient he would find it to quarrel with their powerful body, would only give him their oath of allegiance with the reserva- tion that their allegiance should endure so long as the king should support the disci- pline of the church and defend the ecclesi- astical liberties. To bow much dispute, quibble, and assumption were not those undefined terms capable of leading, under the management of the possessors of nearly all the learning of the age ; men, too, espe- cially addicted to and skilled in that subtle warfare which renders the crafty and well schooled logochamist absolutely invulnera* hie by any other weapon than a precise de- finition of terms ? To the reservations of the earl of Glou- cester and the clergy, succeeded the still more ominous demands of the barons. In the anxiety of Stephen to procure their submission and sanction to his usurpation, the barons saw an admirable opportunity for their aggrandizing their already great Eower, at the expence of the security of oth the people and the crown. They de- manded that each baron should have the right to fortify his castle and put himself in a state of defence ; in other words, that each baron should turn his possessions into an imperium in imperio, dangerous to the authority of the crown on occasions of especial dispute, and injurious to the peace and welfare upon all occasions, as making the chances of wrong and oppressions more numerous, and making redress, already difllcult, for the future wholly hopeless. A legitimate king, confident in his right and conscientiously mindful of his high trust, would have periled both crown and life ere he would have consented to such terms; but in the case of Stephen, the high heart of the valiant soldier was quelled and spoil- bound by the conscience of the usurper; and to uphold his tottering throne in pre- S3 A.D. 1137. — TUB WBI.8U MADB AN IIIRUPTION Olf TBH VAONTIKBS. A.B. 1137- — THB CATHKDHAIi OF noCIIEr.TEB BUUNT, JUNB 3. CEnglanTJ — "Norman ICin:.— StepTjcn. 117 Bent circumstances of difficulty, he was fain to consent to terms which would both inevitably and speedily increase those dif- ficulties tenfold. The barons were not slow to avail them- selves of the consent thus extorted from the king. In every direction castles sprang newly up, or were newly and more strongly fortified. Even those barons who had at the outset no care for anv such privilege, were soon in their self-defence obliged to follow the example of their neighbours. Jealous of each other, the barons now carried their feuds to the extent of abso- lute petty wars; and the inferior gentry and peasantry could only hope to escape from being plundered and ill used by one party, at the expence of siding with the other, in quarrels for neither side of which thev had the slightest real care. The barons having thus far proceeded in establishing their quasi sovereignty and in- dependence of the crown, it is not to be wondered at that they soon proceeded still farther, and arrogated to themselves within their mimic royalties all the privileges of actual sovereignty, even including that of coining ujoney. Though Stephen, as a matter of policy, had granted the privilege of fortification, out of which he must, as a shrewd and sensible man, have anticipated that these abuses would issue, he was by no means in- clined to submit to the abuses themselves, without a trial how far it was practicable to take back by his present torce what had been extorted from his former weakness. And thus, as the nobles abused the privi- leges he had granted, he now by his mer- cenary force set himself not merely to an- nihilate those exhorted privileges, but also to make very serious encroachments upon the more ancient and legitimate rights of the subject. The perpetual contests that thus existed between the king and the bnrons, and amon^ the harons themselves, and the perpetual insult and despoiling to which the great body of the people were in consequence subjected, caused so general a discontent, that the earl of Gloucester, deeming that the favourable and long- wished for time had at length arrived for the open advocacy of the claims of Matilda, suddenly departed from England. As soon as he arrived safely abroad, he forwarded to Stephen a solemn defiance and renun- ciation of fealty, and reproached him in detail, and in the strongest language, with his breaches of the promises and conditions upon which that fealty had been sworn. A.D. 1138. — Just as Stephen was thus doubly perplexed a new enemy arose to threaten him, in the person of David, king of Scotland, who, bemg uncle to Matilda, now crossed the borders with a large army to assert and defend her title. So little was Ste- phen beloved by the turbulent barons, with not a few of whom he was even then at per- sonal feud, that had David now added a wise policy to his sincere zeal in the cause of his niece, there seems little reason to doubt that Matilda would have ousted Ste- phen r.Imo8t without difficulty or blood- shed; for he had by this time so nearly expended his once large treasure, that the foreign mercenaries, on whom he thietly de- pended for defence, actually, for the most part, subsisted by plunder. But David, unr.ble or unwilling to enter into points of po'iicy and expediency, marked his path from the border to the fertile plains of Yorkshire by such cruel bloodshed and de- struction, that all sympathy with his in- tention was forgotten in disgust and in- dignation at his conduct. Tlie northern nobles, whom he might easily have won to his support, were thus aroused and united against him. William Albemarle, Robert de Ferres, William Percy, Robevt de Bruce, Roger de Mowbray, llbert Lacy, Walter I'Epee, and numerous other nobles in the north of England, joined their large forces into one great army and encountered the Scots at Northallerton. A battle, called the battle of the Standard, from an immense crucifix which was carried on a car in front of the English army, was fought on the twenty-second of August, 1138, and ended in so total a defeat of the Scottish army, that David himself, together with his son Henry, very nearly fell into the hands of the English. This defeat of the king of Scotland greatly tended to daunt the ene- mies of Stephen, and to give a hope of sta- bility to his rule; but he had scarcely es- caped the ruin that this one enemy intended for him, when he was engaged in a bitter controversy with an enemy still more zea- lous and more powerful — the clergy. A.D. 1139. — The bishops, as they had been rated for militarv service in common with the barons, so they added all the state and privileges of lay barons to those proper to their own character and rank. And when the custom of erecting fortresses and keeping strong garrisons in pay became genertJ among the lay barons, several of the bishops followed their example. The bishops of Salisbury and Liner In had done so; the former had completed one at Sherborne and another at Devizes, and had even com- menced a third at Malmesbury; and the latter, who was his nephew, had erected an exceedingly strong and stately one at Newark. Unwisely deeming it saft>r to be- gin by attacking the fortresses of the clergy than those of the lay barons, Stephen, availing himself of some disturbances at court between the armed followers of the bishop of Salisbury and those of the earl of Brittany, threw both the bishop of Salis- bury and his nephew of Lincoln into prison, and compelled them, by threats of still worse treatment, to surrender their for- tresses into his hands. This act of power called up an opponent to Stephen, in a person from whom, of the whole of the clergy, he had the least reason to fear any opposition. The king's brother, Henry, bishop of Winclipster, to whom he owed so tnuch in accomplishing his usurpation of the crown, was at this time armed with the Icgantine commission in England ; and deeming his A.n. 113?.— THK CIIY 0» nATH NEARLY DESTROYED BY FIRE, JUNE 27. A.D. 1140.— luaTACB, btefuen's son, mabkibs trm vbbnoh Kma's bistbb. I f- * 118 Ci)e ^reasurs of Ulistore, $rc. ,! ! duty to the church paramount to the ties of blood, he asseinbled a synod at West- minster, which he opened with a formal complaint of, what he termed, the impiety of the king. The synod was well inclined to acquiesce in Henry's view of the case, and a formal summons was sent to the king to account to the synod for the conduct of which it complained. With a strange neg- lect of what would have been his true po- licy — a peremptory denial of the right of the synod to sit in judgment upon the sove- reign on a questiou which really related, and related only, to the police of his king- dom — Stephen virtually put the judgment of his case into the hands of a court that, by the very charge made against him by its head, avowed itself inimical, partial, and prejudiced, by sending Aubrey de Vere to plead his cause. De Vere set out by charg- ing the two bishops with seditious conduct and treasonable designs; but the synod re- fused to entert^n that charge until the for- tresses, of which, be it observed, the bishons had been deprived upon that charge, should be restored by the king. The clergy did not faifto make this (juarrel the occasion of exasperating the minds of the always credulous multitude against the king. So general was the discontent, that the earl of Gloucester, constantly on the watch for an opportunitv of advocating the cause of Matilda, brougnt that princess to England, with a retinue of a hundred and forty knights and their followers. She fixed her residence first at Bristol, but thence re- moved to Gloucester, where she was joined by several of the most powerful barons, who openly declared in her favour and exerted every energy to increase her already consi- derable force. A civil war speedily raged in every part of the kingdom ; both parties were guilty of the most atrocious excesses, and, as is usual or, rttther, universal in such cases, whichever parly was temporarily tri- umphant, the unhappy peasantry were mas- sacred and plundered, to the sound of watchwords which they scarcely compre- hended. A. D. 1140.— While the kingdom was thus torn and the people thus tormented, the varying successes of the equally selfish op- posing parties 4ed to frequent discussions, which led to no agreement, and frequent treaties, made ouly to he broken. An action at length took place which promised to be decisive and to restore the Kingdom to peace. The castle of Lincoln was captured and garrisoned by the parti- Eans of Matilda, under Ralph, earl of Ches- ter and William de Roumard. The citizens of Lincoln, however, remained faithful to the cause of Stephen, who immediately proceeded to lay siege to the castle. The earl of Gloucester hastened to the support of the beleigured garrison, and on the 2nd of February, 1141, an action took place, in which Stephen was defeated, and taken prisoner while fighing desperately at the head of his troops. lie was taken in tri- umph to Gloucester, and though he was at first treated with great external respect. some real or pretended suspicions of his friends having formed a plan for his rescue caused him to be loaded with irons and thrown into prison. The capture of Stephen caused a great accession of men of all ranks to the party of Matilda; ari she, under the politic guidance of the earl of Gloucester, now ex- erted herself to gain the good will of the clergy, without which, in the then state of the public mind, there could be but little prospect of permanent prosperity to her cause, just as it doubtless was. She invited Henry, bishop of Winchester and papal legate, to a conference, at which she promised every thing that either his individual ambition or his zeal for the church could lead him to llous after strument of poke of him rone in the •, and dwelt [s upon the lises he had ion to the PUBLIC STBWS WBRB BSTABLI8UKD BT LAW IN LONDON, ^njlantJ.— ^lantagcnetjs.— "SenrB E5E. 119 H M ■« a < H M Q n < H M f kON ■ '.isfactorily explained upon the supposi- tion, that to his thoroughly selfish ambi- tion that cause ever seemed the best which promised the greatest immediate advan- tages to himself or to the church, marked the mischief which Matilda's harshness did to her cause, and promptly availed himself of it to excite the Londoners to re- volt afcainst her government. An attempt was made to seize upon her person ; and so violent was the rage that was manifested by her enemies, that even her masculine and scorning spirit took alarm, and she fled to Oxford. Mot conceiving herself safe even there, ?ind being unaware of the un- derhand conduct of the crafty legate, she next flew for safety to him at Winchester. But he, deeming her cause now so far lost as to warrant him in openly declaring his real feelings towards her, joined his forces to the Londoners and other friends of Ste- phen, and besieged her in the castle of that city. Here, though stoutly supported by her friends and followers, she was unable long to remain, from lack of provisions. Accompanied by the earl of Gloucester and a handful of friends, she made her escape ; but her party was pursued, and the earl of Gloucester, iii the skirmish, was taken pri- soner. This capture led to the release of Stephen, for wliom Matilda was glad to exchange the earl, whose courage and judg- ment were the main support of her hopes and the main bond of her party ; and with the release of Stephen came a renewal of the civil war, in all its violence and in all its mischief, [a. 0.1143.] Sieges, battles, skirmishes, and their ghastly and revolting accompaniments, followed with varying suc- cess ; but the balance of fortune at length inclined so decidedly to the side of Stephen, that Matilda, broken in health by such long-continued exertion, both bodily and mental, at length departed from the king- dom and took refuge in Normandy. A. D. 1147.— The retiremeutof Matilda and the death of the earl of Gloucester, which oc- curred about the same time, seemed to give to Stephen the utmost opportunity he could desire firmly to establish himself in the possession of the kingdom. But he kin- dled animosities among his nobles by de- manding the surrender of their fortresses, which he justly deemed dangerous to both himself and his subjects ; and he offended the pope by refusing to allow the attend- ance of five bishops, who had been selected by tiie pontiff to t;tend a council at Rheims, the usual practice being for the English church to elect its own deputies. In revenge for this affront, as he deemed it, the pope laid all Stephen's party under his interdict ; a measure which he well knew could not fail to tell with fearful effect asainst the interests of a prince who wa» seated not only upon a usurped, but also a disputed throne. A. n. lloU.— Prince Henry, son of Matilda, who had already given signal proofs of talent and bravery, was now encouraged by the di- vided state of the public mind to invade England. He defeated Stephen at Malmes- bury, and they again met before Walliugford, when a negotiation was entered into, by which Henry ceded his claim during the life of Stephen on condition of being secured of the succession, Boulogne and the other patrimonial possessions of Stephen being equally secured to his son William — his eldest son Eustace being dead. This treaty having been executed in due form prince Henry returned to Normandy ; whence he was recalled by the death of Stephen on the 25th of October, U54. CHAPTER XVIII. The Reign of Hbnrt II.; preceded by Ob- vatione on the right, of the Engliik to Ter- ritory in France. Methodical reading, always desirable, is especially so in reading History ; and before we commence the narrative of the eventful and, in many respects, important reign of Henry II., we deem that we shall be doing the reader good service in direct- ing his attention to tne origin of the earlier wars between England and France ; a point upon which all our historians have rather too confidently assumed the intuitive know- ledge of their readers, whom they have thus left to read of results without acquaintance with processes, and to indulge their ima- ginations in the details of warlike enter- prises, without any data upon which to judge of the justice or injustice with which those enterprises were undertaken. Even with the invasion of William the Conqueror, England, by its new sovereign, became interested in no small or insignifi- cant portion of France. Up to that period England's connexion with foreigners arose only from the invasions of the Northmen, but with William's invasion quite a new relation sprang up between England and the continent. From this moment the connections of Normandy, and its feuds, whether with the French king or with any of his powerful vassals, entered largely into the concerns of England. With Henry II. this connection of England with the affairs of the continent was vastly increased. In right of his father that monarch possessed Touraine andAnjou; in right of his mother he possessed Maine and Normandy : and in right of his wife, Guienne, Foictou, Xaintogne, Auvergne, Pcrigord, Augour- nois, and the Limousin ; and he subse- quently became really, as he was already nominally, possessed of the sovereignty of Brittany. If the reader now cast his eyes over the map of that vast and populous territory which is called France, he will perceive that Henry thus possessed a third of it, and the third of greatest fertility and value. Left unexplained as this usually is by| our historians, the impression upon the minds of even readers not wholly deserving of the censure implied in the term super- ficial, must almost necessarily be, that the wars of which by and bye we shall have to speak between France and Englnml, origi- nated in the mere greed and ambition of kings of the latter country, who, dissatis- MOBB abbeys built in BIBPHBN'b RBION THAU IN 100 YKABB BBFORB, IM STi.i'UKN's reign TIIF. CANON LAW WAS INTIIUUIICKD IIKlli:. ( (■ H H 1'20 ®l^c ^rcasurtj of l^iston), $t:c. tied with tlicir insular possessions, desired to usurp territory in Frnncc; wliereas the direct contrary is the case ; and tliey in tlicse wars made use of their English con- quest to retain possession of, or to extend by way of reprisal, their earlier conquered or fairly inherited French territory. The kin<;s of France, in point of fact, at this early period of French history, were not kings of France in the present acceptation of thai, title. They had a iioininal rather than a real feudal superiority over the wliole country ; there were six ^reat eccle- siastical peerages, besides the six lay peer- ages of Burgundy, Normandy, Guienne, Flanders, Toulouse, and Champagne. Each of the^e pei^rages, though nominally subject to the French crown, was, in reality, an independent sovereignty. If it chanced that the warlike designs of the king coin- cided with the views and interest of his great vassals, he could lead an immeuse and splendid force into the field ; but if, as far more frequently happened, any or all of his great vassals chanced to be opposed to him, it at once became evident, that he was only nominally their master. That in be- coming masters of our insular land, the Norman race should sooner or later see their French territory merging itself into that of the French king and adding to his power was ineviioble, as we can now per- ceive : but in the time of our second Henry, the king of France feared — and the aspect of things then warranted his fear — the pre- cisely opnosite process. By_ bearing this brief explanation carefully in mind, the reader will find himself greatly assisted in understanding the feelings and views of the sovereigns of England and France, in those wars which cost each country rivers of its best blood. Previous to the death of Stephen, Henry married Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis VII. of France, She had accompanied that monarch to the Holy Land, and her conduct there partook so much of levity and immorality which marked that of too many of her sex in the same scene, that Louis felt bound in honour to divorce her, and he at the same time restored to her those rich provinces to which we have al- ready alluded as her dower. Undeterred by her reported immorality, Henry, after six weeks courtship, made her his wife, in defiance of the disparity in their years; having an eye, probably, to the advantage which her wealth could not fail to give him, should he have to make a struggle to obtain the English crown. A.D. 1155.— So secure, however, was Henry in the succession to England at Ste- phen's death; that not the slightest attempt WB'V niadti to set up any counter claim on the part of Stephen's surviving son William ; and Henr> himself, being perfectly acquainted with the state of the public mind, did not even hasten to England immediately on re- ceiving news of Stephen's death, but de- ferred doing so until be had completed the subjection of a castle that he was besieging on the frontier of Normandy. This done, he proceeded to England, and he was received witli the greatest cordiality by all ranks and conditions of men. The popularity that he already enjoyed was greatly increased by the first act of his rciini, which was the equally wise and just dismissal of the hordes of foreign mercenaries whom Ste- phen had introduced into England, and who, however serviceable to the usurper in question, had been both in peace and in war a burthen and a curse to the English people. Sensible that his popularity was such as to enable him to dispense with these fierce pra:torians, who, while mis- chievous and offensive to the subject under all circumstances, might bjr peculiar cir- cumstances be rendered mischievous and even fatal to the sovereign, he sent them all rut of the country, and with them he sent William of Ypres, their commander, who was extremely unpopular from having been the friend and adviser of Stephen, many of whose worst measures, perhaps untruly, for Stephen was not of a temper requiring to be prompted to arbitrary courses, were attributed to his councils. In the necessities caused by civil war, both Stephen and Matilda had made many a.id large grants, which— however politic or even inevitable at the time — were ex- tremely injurious to the interests of the crown; and Henry's great object was to resume these grants, not even excepting those of Matilda herself. His next measure was one as dangerous as it was necessary. The country was in a perfectly dreadful state of demoralization ; the highways and bye-waya alike were traversed by troops of daring and violent robbers, and these obtained encourage- ment and opportunity from the wars car- ried on by the nobles against each other. The troop of soldiers following the baron's pennon, or keeping watch and ward upon the battlements of his strong castle, oe- came, whenever his need for tneir services ceased, the banditti of the roads and forests. In such a state of things it would have been hopeless to have attempted to reduce the counti7 warder, without first dismant- ling those fortresses to which the disorder was mainly owing. A weak or unpopular sovereign would most probably have oeen ruined iiad he made anv attempt upon this valued and most mischievous privilege of the nobles ; and even Henry, young, firm, and pm>ular, did it at no inconsiderable risk. 'The earl of Albemarle and one or two other proud and powerful nobles pre- pared to resist the king ; but his force was so compact, and his object was so popular with the great body of the people, that the factious nobles submitted at tlic approach of their sjvereign. A.D. l'iS6. — Having by an admirable nrix- ture of prudence and firmness reduced all parts of England to complete peace and se- curity, Henry went to France to oppose in person the attempts his brother Geoffrey was making upon the valuable provinces of Maine and Anjou, of some portions of which that prince had already possessed WILLIAM OF MALMKSBUnY FLOUaiSUED IN THE IlEtGN OF STFiPHKN. 1 was received by all rniiks ipularity that tly ihcreased liich was the issal of tlie R whom Ste- ^nglund, and he usurper in peace and ia the English ipularity was lispense with >, while mis- subject under lieculiar cir- chievous and 16 sent them vith them he ' commander, ■ from having ' of Stephen, ires, perhaps t of a temper to arbitrary is councils. by civil war, id made many }wever politic me — were ex- terests of the ibject was to ten excepting as dangerous iintry was in a :moralization ; 8 alike were g and violent „ encouragc- thc wars car- t each other. g the baron's id ward upon a castle, oe- tneir services ds and forests. . would have itcd to reduce tirst dismant- the disorder or unpopular )ly have oeen npt upon this s privilege of , young, flrm, nconsiderable and one or il nobles pre- his force was Bs so popular ople, that the tlic approach Imirable ir ix- a reduced all peace and se- to oppose in ther Geoffrey I provinces of portions of dy possessed HEN. •a > u u a UB.-1RT SKNT A^l BMBAStT TO BOMB TO COMOBATULATB FOfB ADRIAN. 1EngIanTJ.--^Iantngenet«. — l^enry EE. 121 himself. The mere appearance of Ilcnry had the effect of causing the iustant sub- mission of the disaffected, and Geoffrey consented to resign his claim in consider- ation of a yearly pension of a thousand pounds. A.D. 1157.— Just as Heury had completed his prudent regulations for preventing fu- ture disturbances in his French possessions, he was called over to England by the turbu- lent conduct of the Welsh, who had ven- tured to make incursions upon bis territory. They were beaten back before his arrival ; but he was resolved to chastise them still farther, and for that purpose he followed them into their mountain fastnesses. The difficult nature of the country was so unfa- vourable to his operations, that he was more than once in ^eat dauger. On one occasion his van guard was so beset in a rocky pass, that its discipline and valour could not pre- vent it from being put to complete rout ; Henry de Esses, wno held the high office of hereditary standard bearer, actually threw down his standard and joined the flying soldiery, whose panic he increased by loudly exclaiming that the king was killed. The kin|(, who fortunately was on the spot, gal- loped from post to post, re assured his main body, and led it on so gallantly, that he saved it from the utter ruin with which it was for a time threatened by this foolish and disgraceful panic. Henry de Essex, whose behaviour had been so remarkably unknigbtlv on this oc- casion, was on its account charged with felony by Robert de Montford, and lists were appointed for the trial by battle. De Essex was vanquished, and condemned to pass the remainder of his life in a convent and to forfeit all his property. A. D. 1168.— The war with the Welsh ended in the submission of that people, and Henry's attention was again called to the continent. When his brother GcoQrcy gave up his pretensions to Anjou and Maine that prince took possession of the county of Nantes, with the consent of its inhabitants, wlio had chased away their legitimate prince. Geoffrey died soon after he had assumed his new dignity ; and Henry now claimed to succeed as heir to the command and possession which Geoffrey had himself owed only to the voluntary submission of the people. His claim was disputed by Conan, earl of Brittany, who asserted that Nantes properly belonged to his dominions, whence it had, as he alleged, only been se- parated by rebellion ; and he accordingly took possession of it. Henry secured him- self against any interference on the part of Louis of France by betrothing his son and heir Henry, then only five years old, to Louis's daughter Margaret, who was nearly four years younger. Having by this politic stroke rendered it hopeless for Conan to seek any aid from Louis, Heniy now march- ed into ISrittany; and Conan, seeing the im- possibility of successful resistance, at once agreed to give up Nantes. Soon after, Co- nan, anxious to secure the powerful support of Henry, gave his only daughter and heiress to that prince's son Geoffrey. Co- nan died in a few yoars after this betrothal, and Henry immediately took possession of Brittany in right of his son and daughter- in-law. A. u. 1159.— Henry, through his wife, had a claim upon the country of Toulouse, and he now urged that claim against Raymond, the reigning count, who solicited the pro- tection of the king of France; and the latter, both as Raymond's feudal superior, and as the prince more than all other princes in- terested in putting a check on the vast ag- grandizement of Ueury, immediately grant- ed Raymond his protection, in spite of the startling fact, that Louis himself had for- merly, while Eleanor was his wife, claimed Toulouse in her right, as Henry now did. 8o little, alas I are the plainest principles of honesty and consisteucy regarded in the strife of politics. Henry advanced upon Toulouse with a very considerable army, chiefly of merce- nai'ies. Assisted by Trincaral, count of Nismes, and Berenger, count of Barce- lona, he was at the outset very success- ful, taking Verdun and several other places of lesser note. He then laid siege to the capital of the county, and Louis threw himself into it with a reinforcement. Heury was now strongly urged by his friends to take the place by assault, as he probably might have done, and by thus making the French king prisoner, obtain whatever terms he pleased from that prince. But Henry's prudence never forsook him, even amid the excitement of war and the flush of success. Louis was his feudal lord ; to make him prisoner would be to hold out encouragement to his own great and turbu- lent vassals to break through their feudal bonds; and instead of prosecuting the siege more vigorously, in order to meke Louis prisoner, Henry immediately raised it, say- ing that he could not think of fighting against a place that was defended by his superior lord in person, and departed to de- fend Normandy against the count de Dreux, brother of Louis. The chivalrous delicacy which had led Henry to depart from before Toulouse did not immediately terminate the war be- tween him and Louis ; hut the operations were feebly conducted on both sides, and ended tirst in a cessation of arms, and then in a formal peace. A new cause of bitter feeling now sprang up between them. When prince Henry, the king's eldest son, was affianced to Mar- garet of France, it was stipulated, that part of the princess's dowry should be the im- portant fortress of Gisors, which was to be delivered into the hands of the king on the celebration of the marriage, and in tlic mean time to remain in the custody of the knights templars. Henry, as was suspected, bribed the grand master of the templars to deliver the fortress to him, furnishing him with a pretext for so doing by ordering the immediate celebration of the marrinKC, though the afiianccd prince and princess were mere children. Louis was naturally UKNnV RKMAINED IN FRAMCB FROM THB YEAR 1149 TO 1153. IM ^■1 i I THI BPLBNDOVR CV BECKBT EXCELLIO ETBN THE RAPIDITY O* UII BIBB. M u u « n u a H o m o o •3 122 ^f)e Cieasurg of 3^i»torp, $cc. much offended at this sharp practice on the part of Henry, and was un the point of recommencing war again, when pope Alex- ander III., whom the triumph of the anti- pope, Victor IV., compelled to reside in France, successfully interposed his media- tion. A.D. 1162.— Friendship hcing.at the least nominally and externally, established he- tween Louis and Henry, the latter monarch returned to England, and devoted his atten- tion to the delicate and difficult task of re- straining the authority of the clergy within reasonable limits. That he mi^ht the more safely and readily do this, he took the oppor- tunity now afforded him by the death of Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, to place that dignity in the hands of a man whom he deemed entirely devoted to him- self, but who, in the result, proved the great, est enemy to the authority of the crown, and the stoutest and haughtiest champion of the church, and taught Henry the danger of trusting to appearances, by embittering and perplexing whole years of his life. This man, in whose character and temper the king made so grievous a mistake, was the celelirated Thomas h Becket. Born of respectable parentage in London, and having a good education, he was fortu- nate enough to attract the attention and obtain the favour cf archbishop Theobald, who bestowed some offices upon him, the emoluments of which enabled him to go to Italy, where he studied the civil and canon law with so much success, that on his re- turn archbishop Theobald gave him the lu- crative and important appointment of arch- dracon of Canterbury, and subsequently entrusted him with a mission to Rome, in which he acquitted himself with his usutl ability. On the accession of Henry, the archbishop strongly recommended Bec- ki't to his notice ; and Henry, linding him remarkably rich in the lighter accomplish- ments of the courtier, as well as in the graver qiialities of the statesman, gave him the high office of chancellor, which in that age included, besides its peculiar duties, nearly all those of a modern prime minis- ter. Kings often take a deligb' in over- whelming with wealth and honours those whom they have once raised above the struggling herd. It was so even with the prudent Henry, who proceeded to confer upon his favourite chancellor the provt-^t- ship of Beverley, the deanery of Hastingii, and the constableship of the Tower ; made him tutor to prince Henry, and gave him the honours of Eye and Berkham, valuable new baronies which had escheated to the crown. Becket's style of living was pro- portioned to the vast wealth thus heaped upon him ; his sumptuousness of style and the numerous attendance paid to his levees exceeded all that had ever been seen in the case of a mere subject ; the proudest no- bles were his guests, and gladly placed their sons in his house as that in which they would best become accomplished gentle- men ; he had a great number of knights ac- tually retained m his service, and he at- tended the king in the war of Toulouse with seven hundred knights at his own charge ; on another occasion he maintained twelve hundred knights and twelve hundred of their followers during the forty days of their stipulated service ; and when sent to France on an embassy, he completely astonished that court by his magnincent attendance. With all this splendour Becket was a gay companion. Having taken only deacon's orders, he did not hesitate to join in the sports of laymen, or even to take his share of warlike adventure. He was consequently the favourite companion of the king in his leisr.re hours. It is said that Henry, riding one- day with Becket, and meeting a poor wretch whose rags shook in the wind, seized the chancellor's scarlet and ermine-lined coat, and gave it to the poor man, who, it may well be supposed, was much surprised at such a gift. Living thus in both the official and pri- vate intimacy of the king, Becket was well acquainted with all his views and designs towards the church ; and as he had always professed to agree with them, and was ma- nifestly possessed of all the talent and reso- lution which would make him valuable in the struggle, the king made him archbishop at the death of his old patron Theobald. Having thus obtained the second place in the kingdom, Thomas k Becket at once cast off all the gay habits and light humour which he had made the instruments of ob- taining and Axing the personal favour of the king. His first step on being conse- crated archbishop of Canterbury was to re- sign his chancellorship into the hands of the king, on the significant plea that his spiritual function would henceforth de- mand all his energies and attention, to the utter exclusion of all secular affairs. his household and equipages he retain all his old magnificence, but in his own person he now assumed a rigid austerity befitting an anchorite. He wore a hair cloth next his skin, which was torn and raw with the merciless discipline that he inflicted upon himself; bread was almost his only diet, and his only beverage was water, which he rendered unpalatable by an infusion of dis- agreeable herbs. He daily had thirteen beggars into his palace and washed their feet; after which ceremony they were sup- plied with refreshments, and dismissed with a pecuniary present. VThile thus ex- citing the wonder and admiration of the laity, he was no less assiduous in aiming at the favour of the clergy, to whom he was stu- diously accessible and' affable, and whom he still further gratified by his liberal gifts to hospitals and convents ; and all who were admitted to his presence were at once edified and surprised by the grave and devotional aspect and rigid life of one who had but recently been foremost among the gayest and giddiest of the courtiers. Far less penetration than was possessed by Henry might have enabled him to see in all this sudden and sanctimonious austerity, a sure indication that he would find a powerful foe in Becket whenever he should attempt M H H K H M ^ H n Is o CORPORAL PUNISHMENT WAS ItlFLICTED AS A BUB8TITUTB FOR PISTT. \\\ 8 Bias. Poulouse with own charge ; tained twelve hundred of r days of their ent to France ly astonished attendance, ket was a gay inly deacon's 9 join in the ike his share consequently le king in his Henry, riding eting a {loor s wind, seized ermine-lined man, who, it ich surprised cial and pri- ket was well and designs e had always and was ma- ent and reso- I valuahle in II archbishop Theobald, lecond place :cket at once ight humour ments of ob- al favour of being conse- ry was to re- :he hands of >lea that his iceforth de- ation, to the iairs. his retain all own person ity befitting • cloth next aw with the flicted upon 8 only diet, ;r, which he usion of dis- nd thirteen ashed their ly were sup- . dismissed lile thus ex- tion of the n aiming at I he was stu- nd whom he iral gifts to II who were once edified devotional tio had but the gayest Far less I by Henry ! in all this irity, a sure a powerful lid attempt TT. tUB KIWO EWDBAVOUnS TO CUBB THB BXORBITANT FOWEB OP THB CLBllOT. o ks M O H H h O k: M a M O H a h A H H < H !4 M M U M n a as M m K H M K H Is i o lEnglanT^.— ^lantageneta.— I^cnru 3£E. 123 to infrinRC upon the real or assumed rights of the church. But, in truth, Becket was too eager to show liis ecclesiastical zeal, even to wail until the measures of the king should afford him opportunity, and himself commenced the strife between the mitre and the crown by calling upon the earl of Clare to surrender the barony of Tunbridge to the see of Canterbury, to which it had formerly belonged, and from which Becket affirmed that the canons prevented his pre- decessors from legally separating it. The earl of Clare was a noble of great wealth and power, and allied to some of the first families, and his sister was supposed to have gained the afiections of the king; and as the barony of Tunbridge had been in his family from the conquest, it seems probable that Becket was induced to select him for this demand of restitution of church property, in order the more emphatically to show his determination to prefer the in- terests of the church to all personal consi- derations, whether of fear or favour. William D'Eynsford, one of the military tenants of the crown, was the patrou of a living in a manor held of the archbishop of Canterbury. To this living Becket pre- sented an incumbent named Laurence, thereby infringing the ri(jht of D'Eynsford, who instantly ejected Laurence I'i et armis. Becket forthwith cited D'Eynsford, and, acting at once a accuser and judge, passed sentence of exc. "nmunication upon him. | D'Eynsford applied for the intcrterencc of the king, on ttic ground that it was illegal | that such a sentence should be passed on j one who held in capite from the crown, without the royal assent first obtained. Henry accordingly, acting upon the prac- tice established from the conquest, wrote to Becket, with whom he no longer had any personal intercourse, and desired him to absolve D'Eynsford. It was only re- luctantly, and after some delay, that Becket complied at all ; and even when he did so he coupled his compliance with a message, to the effect that it was not for the king to instruct him as to whom he should excom- municate and whom absolve ! Though this conduct abundantly showed Henry the sort of opposition he had to expect from the man whom his kindness had furnished with the means of being ungrateful, there were many considerations, apart from the boldness and decision of the king's temper, which made Henry resolute in not losing any time in endeavouring to put something like a curb upon the licentious insolence to which long impunity and the gross super- stition of the great body of the people liad encouraged the clergy. The papacy was just now considerably weakened by its own schismatical division, while Henry, wealthy in territory, was fortunate in having the kingdom of England thoroughly in sub- mission, with the sole exception of the cle- rical disorders and assumptions to which he had now determined to put a stop. On the other ha^id, those disorders were so scandalous, and those assumptions in many caseswere so startlingly unjust, that Henry could scarcely fail to have the best wishes of his subjects in general for the success of his project. The practice of ordaining the sons of villains had not merely caused iiu inordinate increase in the number of the clergy, but had also caused an even more than corresponding deterioration of the clerical character in England. The incon- tinence, gluttony, and roystcring habits, attributed to the lower order of clcrify by the writers of a much later day, were light and comparatively venial offences com- pared to those which seem but too truly to be attributed to that order in the reign of Henry IL Robbery, adulterous seduction, and even rape and murder, were attributed to them; and the returns made to an in- quiry which Henry ordered, showed that, only counting from the commencement of his reign — i. e. a period of somewhat less than two years, a hundred murders had been committed by men in holy orders who had never been called to account. Henry resolved to take steps for putting a stop to this impunity of criminals whose sacred profession only made their crimi- nality the greater and more detestable. An opportunity of brining the point of the clerical impunity to issue was afforded by a horrible crime that wasjust now committed in Worcestershire, where a priest, on being discovered in carrying on an illicit inter- course with a gentleman's daughter, put her father to death. The king demanded that tlie offender should be delivered over to the civil power, but Becket confined the clerkly culprit in the bishop's prison to prevent his being apprehended by the king's officers, and maintained that the highest punishment that could be inflicted upon the priest was degradation. The king acutely caught at this, and demanded that after degradation, when he would have become a mere layman again, the culprit should be delivered to the civil power to be further dealt with as it might deem fit ; but Becket demurred even to this, on the plea that it would be unjust to try an ac- cused man a second time upon the same charge. Angered by the arrogance of Becket, and yet not wholly sorry to have such a really sound pretext for putting some order into the pretensions of the church, Henry sum- moned an assembly of the prelates of Eng- land, for the avowed purpose of putting a termination to the frequent and increasing controversies between the ecclesiastical and the civil jurisdiction. Henry himself commenced the business of the assembly by asking the bishops, plainly and categorically, whether they were willing or unwilling to submit to the ancient laws and customs of the kingdom. To this plain question the bishops, in a more Jesuitical spirit, replied, that they were willing so to submit, " saving their own order;" a mental reservation by which they clearly meant that they would so sub- mit — until resistance should be safe and easy I So shallow and palpable an artifice c'ould not impose upon so shrewd a prince m u 3 H H H A. D. 1164, — THE C0UHC1I< AT CLARENDON HELD ON TUB 25x11 Ol' JANUARY. A. n. 1164.— A GENRRAl. INBURnSCTION AND CIVII. WAIl I!« WALK!. I \ 124 ^Ije CTrcaaunj of l^iatore, Src. as Henry, whom it greatly provolced. He departed from the assembly in an evident rage, and immediately sent to rei|uire from Beckct the surrender of the castles and honours of Eye and Bcrkham. This de- mand, and the anger which it indicated, greatly alarmed the bishops; but Becket was undismayed ; and it was not without more difficulty that Phihp, tlie pope's legate and almoner, prevailed upon him to consent to the retractation of the offensive saving clause, and give an absolute and unquali- tied promise of submission to the ancient laws. But Henry was now determined to have a more precise understanding; a for- mal and definite decision of the limits of the ecclesiastical and the civil authority ; and thus in some measure to destroy the undue ascendancy which, as effectuall;^ a* insidiously, the former had for a long time past been obtaining. He therefore collated and reduced to writing those ancient cus- toms of the realm which had been the most egregiously contravened by the clergy, and having called a great council of the narons and prelate.) at Clarendon, in Berkshire, he submitted this digest to them in the form of a series of articles, which are known in history under the title of the " Constitu- tions of Clarendon ;" which are thus briefly summoned up. " It was enacted by these constitutions that all suits concerning the advowson and presentatjpn of churches should be determined in the civi! courts ; that in future the churches belonging to the king's see should not be granted in per- petuity without his consent; that clerks accused of any crime should be tried in the civil courts; that no one, particularly no clergyman of any rank should depart the king;dom without the king's licence; that excommunicated persons should not be bound to give security for their continuing in their present place of abode; that laics should not be accused in spiritual courts, except by legal and reputable promoters and witnesses ; that no chief-tenant of the crown should be excommunicated, nor his lands be put under an interdict, except with the king's consent ; that all appeals in spi- ritual causes should be carried from the archdeacon to the bishop, from the bishop to the primate, and from the primate to the king, and should proceed no farthe.' but with the king's consent; that should any law-suit arise between a layman and a ci.T- gyman concerning a tenant, and it be di s- puted whether the land be a lay or au ec- clesiastical fee, it shouldbe first determined by the verdict of twelve lawful men to what class it belonged, and if the land be found to be a lay fee, then the cause should finally be determined in the civil courts; that no inhabitant in % lay demesne should be ex- communicated for non-appearance in a spi- ritual court until the chief officer of tlie place where lie resides be consulted, that he may compel him by the civil authority to give satisfaction to the church; that the archbishops, bishops, and other spiritual dignitaries should be regarded as baruns of the realm, should possess the privileges and be subjected to the burthens belonging to that rank, and should be bound to attend the king in his great councils, ami assist at all trials, till the sentence either of death or of loss of members be given against the criminal; that the revenue of vacant sees should belong to the king, the chapter, or such of them as he chooses to summon should sit in the king's chapel till they made the new election with liis consent, and that the bishop elect should do homage to the crown ; that if any baron or tenant in eapite should refuse to submit to the spiritual courts, the king should employ his authoritjr in obliging him to make such submissions; that if any one threw off his allegiance to the king, the prelates should assist the king with their censures in re- ducing him ; that goods forfeited to the king "liould not be protected in churches or churt. yards ; that the clergy should no longer pretend to the right of enforcing payment of debts contracted by oath or promise ; but should leave these law-suits, equally with others to the determination of the civil courts ; and that the sons of vil- lains should not be ordained clerks without the cousent of their lord." | The barons present at this great council : were all on the king's side, either from ac- | tual participation of his sentiments towards the clergy or from awe of his jiower and | temper; and the prelates, perceiving that they had both the king and the lay peerage against them, were fain to consent to these articles, which accordingly were voted with- out opposition. But Henry, misdoubting that the bishops, though they now found it useless to oppose the united will of the crown and the peerage, would whenever circumstances should be favourable to them deny the authority of the constitutions, as being enacted by an authority in itself in- complete, would not be contented with the mere verbal assent of the prelates, but de- manded that each of them should set his hand and seal to the constitutions, and to their solemn promise to observe them. To this demand, though the rest of the prelates complied with it, Becket gave a bold and flat refusal. The carls of Cornwall and Leicester, the most powerful men in the lay peerage, strongly urged him, as a matter of policy as well as of obedience, to comply with the king's demand. He was so well aware of Henry's drift, and so far from being desirous of securing the permanent observance of the constitutions of Claren- don, that no intreaties could induce him to yield assent, until Richard de Hastings, English grand prior of the knights tem- Elars, knelt to him, and in tears implored im, if not for his own sake, at least for the sake of the church, not to continue an op position which must be unsuccessful, and would only excite the ruinous opposition of a monarch equally resolute and powerful. Stern and resolved as Becket had shown himself as regarded the importunity of laymen, this evident proof that upon this point, at least, he no longer had the sym- pathy of even churchmen, caused Becket TIIU WELSH MAKE GREAT EFFORTS TO SHAKE OFF TUB ENGLISH YOKE- A. D. 1169.— HCKBT BXCOMMDMICATai MOST Ot T» llfOlIsn CLIBOT. 1Englant».— ^lantagencts — ^tnxx) M. 125 to Rive way ; and he therefore, though with evident reluctance, took an oath "legally, with good faith, and without fraud or reserve, to observe the constitutions of Clarendon." But the king, though he had thus far triumphed even over the tlrm and haughty temper of the primate, was by no means so near to complete success as he deemed himself. Pope Alexander, who still re- mained in France, and to whom in his contests with the anti-pope Henry had done no unimportant services, no sooner had the constitutions presented to him for ratiflcation, than he perceived how com- they were calculated to make the pletely king of ing of England independent of his clergy, and the kingdom itself of the papacy ; and he was so far from ratifying, that he con- demned and annulled them. When Becket found his own former opposition thus sanc- tioned by the present feelings and conduct of the pope, he regretted that he had al- lowed anjr considerations to induce him to give his signature and assent, lie imme- diately increased his already great and Sainful austerities of life and severity of iscipline, and would not even exercise any of the functions of his dignity until he re- ceived the absolution of the pope for what he deemed his offence against the eccle- siastical privileges. Nor did he confine himself to mere verbal repentance or his own personal discipline, but used all his elo- quence to induce the EnKlish prelates to engage with him in a fixed and firm con- federacy to regain and maintain their com- mon rights. Henry, hoping to beat Becket at his own weapons, now applied to Alex- ander to ^ant tne legatine commission to the archbishop of York, whom he obviously only wished to arm with that inordinate and dangerous authority, in order that he might make him the instrument of Becket's ruin. But the design was too obvious to escape so keen an observer as Alexander, who granted the commission of legate, as desired, but carefully added a clause inhi- biting the legate from executing any act to the prejudice of the archbishop of Can- terbury. On finding himself thus baflled upon the very point on which alone he was solicitous, Henry so completely lost his temper, that he sent back tne document by the very messenger who brought it over ; — thus giving to Alexander the compliment of discernment, and the satisfaction of having completely baffled his plan. The anger which the king now exhibited threatening extreme measures, Becket twice endeavoured to leave the kingdom, but was detained on both occasions by contrary winds ; and Henry was thus ena- bled to cause him great expence and an- noyance, by inciting John, mareschal of the exchequer, to sue the archbishop in his own court for some lands belonging to the manor of Pageham, and thence to appeal to the king's court. When the day ar- rived for trying the cause on the appeal, the archbishop did not personally appear, but sent four Knights to apologize tor his absence on the score of illness, and to make certain technical objections to the form of John's appeal. The king treated the ab- sence of Becket as a wilful and offensive contempt, and the knights who bore his apolo}^ narrowly escaped being committed to prison for its alleged falsehood. Being resolved that neither absence nor technica- lity should save Becket from suffering, the king now summoned a great council of barons and prelates at Northampton. Be- fore this court Becket, with an air of great moderation, urged that the marescnal's cause was proceeding in the archiepiscopal court with all possible regularity, though the testimony of the sheriff would shew that cause to be iniquitous and unjust ; that he, Becket, far from shewing any con- tempt of the king's court, had most expli- citly acknowledged and submitted to his authority by sending four of his knights to appear for him ; that even if their appear- ance should not be accepted as being tanta- mount to his own, and he should be tech- nically made guilty of an offence of which he was virtually innocent, yet the penalty attached to that crime was but a small one, and as he was an inhabitant of Kent, he was entitled by a law to an abatement even of that ; and that he was now, in loyal obedience to the king's summons, present in the great council, and ready before it to justify himself against the charges of the mareschal. Whatever may be tliought of the general arrogance of the primate and of his ambition, both as man and church- man, it is impossible not to perceive that his reasonings were here very just, and that the king's whole conduct was far more in- dicative of the monarch who was intent on crushing a too powerful subject, than of one who was sincerely and righteously de- sirous of " doing justice and loving mercy ;" and it is equally impossible not to feel some sympathy with the haughty and courageous primate, who, when pressed down by a foe so powerful and so vindic- tive, was abandoned by the dignitaries of that very church fur whose sake, principally at leqst, he had so courageously combatted. In the present case, as in the case of the constitutions of Clarendon, the bishops were induced to coincide with the lay barons, who had from the first determined to side with the king, and notwithstanding the convincing logic of his defence, he was pronounced guilty of contempt of the king's court and of neglect of the fealty which lie had sworn to his sovereign ; and Henry, bishop of Winchester, the once powerful brother of the late king Stephen, was, in spite of all his remonstrances, compelled to sentence the primate to confiscation of all his goods and chattels. Even this severe sentence, upon what we cannot but consider a most iniquitous judgment, did not sufficiently satisfy the vengeance of the king, who on the very next day demanded from Becket the sum of three hundred pounds, which had been received by him from the manors of Eye and Berkham. To this demand Becket replied. AT TOUNO HBNRT'b COBOIfATION FBAST BIS FATUBR WAITED OX UIM. [M3 CUUKI.TT AND INBINCBRIIY WBRB CIIARACTKBISTICS 09 TUB AOK. 12G tHIje ^rcasuro of li^iistoru, ^c. tliiit as this suit was not mentioned in his Bumiiiniis to tlic council, he ought not to br (.'tilled upon to answer it; that, in point ut° liiot, hu had expended more than that Muui upon ICyo and UerUhani castles and the royal palaee in London; but that rather than a diiipiite about money should make any dillerence between his sovereign and hiniseW, he would at once consent to pay the sum, for wliich he immediately gave the necessary Hureties. Uven this submis- sion could not sol'ten the king's determi- iiiilimi; ho demanded live hundi'cd marks wliieh lie had lent to Uecket in the war of Toulouse— during which war he had done tho king unu'li zealous and good service ! — and a similar sum for which the king al- lijiccd that ho had become Uecket's surety to a Jew; and then, as if to leave him with- out the hliglu'st hope of escape, ho called upon him to furnish an account of his ad- ministration as cliancellor, aud to pay in tlu; balance due from him on account of all the baronies, prelacies, and abbeys which luul been under his management during his chancellorship. To this demand Uecket replied, tlia it was so suddenly and unex- pectedly made that he must require some port. To this Uecket replied, that if he und they had done wrong in swearing to support laws destructive of the ecclesiastical priveleges, the best atonement they now could make would be to submit themselves to the uu tbority of the pope, who had solemnly nul- litied the constitutions of Clarendon, and had absolved them from tlic oath taken to secure those constitutions; that, for his own part, the heavy penalty to which he had been condemned h>r an offence which would be but slight even hud he been guilty of it, which he was nut, aud the preposter- ous demands subsequently made upon him by the king, very clearly showed that it was intended utterly to ruin hiiu, and thus prepare a way for the destruction of all spiritual immunities ; that to the pope he should appeal against whatever inii|uitnu8 sentence might be passed upon him; and that, terrible as the vengeance of so power- ful a king as Henry most undoubtedly was, it had power only to slay the body, while the sword of the church could slay the soul. In thus speaking of appealing to the pope, Uecket not only opposed the express Iirovision of the constitutions of Claren- lini, by which appeals were dune away with even in ecclesiastical cases, but op- posed even common custom, such appeals never having lain in civil cases. Whatever excuse Henry's violence might furnish for appealing to Rome, in the eye of reason, to do so was an offence both by the letter and the spirit of the law ; Uecket, however, waited not for any further proof of the king's vindictiveness, but departed secretly for Noi'lliampton, and after wiimlering about for some time in disguise, and under- going much dilllculty, at length procured a ship and arrived in safety at (ilravelincs. In !•' ranee the persecnted cburchniaii was sure to liiid warm friends, if not actually from tliei'- convletion of his having the ritflit in the i|uairel between himself and the king, at leiisl because it was their inte- rest to uiihold all who were likely in any e OLASa WINDOWS IN rlllVATH UOURBS NOW VIKST INTUOUIJCKU. poll Ilim :cl tlint it . and thus tiou of nil jjope he ll(|UitOU8 liiii ; nnd so powcr- tctlly wan, ody, wl.ilc slay the to the i(! express Clan.-ii- oiie away hut oil- appeals Whatever Tiiish for reason, to .'Iter and however, if of I lie •ci'etly luiderinjj il under- 'ociired a lines. man was aetually >in)( the self and I'll' inte- y iu any ft < r, o M o u H n a M H O u H o O r, n w la m B >• H n It K a H M n <-) o u ►< M H O M M >j U u a •'^ TUB CLKUOY WEIIIC MOHK TnOUDLBIOHB TO IIENIIT THAN TUB DARUNS. lEnglantr — ^lantagcncta. — Ijcniy 3£3E. 127 denree to elieek the proud prosperity of Henry. In this both the kin(? of France and his powerful vassal the earl of Flan- ders had an interest; and in that particu- lar interest they forgot their inrtnitely greater concern in the obedience of sub- jects to their sovereign, and gave Uie self- exiled prelate a warm reception, the king of France even going so far as to pay him a personal visit at Soissoni, where he had fixed the prelate's residence. Henry sent a magniliecnt embassy to Lyons to justify his conduct to the pope ; but he, who was BO deeply interested in the success of llec- ket, gave the envoys of Henry a very cool reception, while upon Heeket, who also at- tended to justify nis conduct, he lavished his kindness and distinction. Tlie king, doubly annoyed that Itceket's person was beyond his power and that he had obtained so marked a welcome abroad, not only put all the revenues of Canterbury under seques- tration, but even proceeded to the meanly malignant length of banishing the whole of the archbishop'h family and dependants, to the number of four hundred. In order that there might be no df/iibt that his intent in this mensurc was to/embarrass Uccket, by throwing upon him /.he support of this host of helpless people, a liurthen the more ru- inous from the simi Itaucous sequestration of his revenue, he compelled them before their departure to swear that they would immediately join tlie archbishop. In this part of his vindictive design, however, Henry was defeated by the pope ; for as soon as these exiles arrived in France, Alexander absolved them from their involuntary oath, and distributed them among the convents of Flanders nnd France ; and to Uccket himself the convent of Pontigny was ^iven for a residence, his income being furnished by the revenues of that convent and a very lloeral pension allowed to him by the king of France; and here Hecket remained in great esteem and magniticencc for some years. A.n. llfio. — Though far removed from Henry's presence, Thomas & Beckct had lost neither the will nor the power to an- noy him. Both with that end and for the purpose of cnnKrming the favourable opinion of the pope towards himself, he now resigned into Alexander's hands his see of Canterbury, on the alleged ground that he had been uneanonically presented to it by the king ; apparently quite unaware or careless of the fact, that that plea made the whole of his own conduct illegal and gratuitous by his own showing. Alex- ander, well pleased at the deference thus shown to him, accepted his resignation, but immediately reinvested him and grant- ed him a bull by which he pretended to free Ueekct from the sentence passed on him at Northampton by the great council. Ano- ther glaring inconsistency; this sentence being fully authorized as to jurisdiction, tyrannical as it was, in fact, by the consti- .tutions of Clarendon, which Beckct him- self had signed and sanctioned. Hut, in truth, this whole quarrel was a sorites of inconsistencies, absurdity, and wilfulness. both on the one side und on the other. Being unable to obtain an interview with Alexander, the favourable state of whose nffairs enabled him to return to Kome, Henry now made earnest and wise prepara- tions fur preserving his kingdom and Iiira- self from the worst conse(|ucnce8 of the open quarrel with the pone which now seemed to be inevitable. lie issued the strictest orders to his justiciaries neither to forward nor to allow of any appeals from their courts either to Becket or the pope, or in anywise to appeal to or obey their authority. He at the same time made it a treasonable offence to bring any interdict into the kingdom from either of those dig- nitaries, and denouncing upon all such of- fences the punishment, in the case of clerks, of castration and deprivation of sight, and in the case of laics, of death ; while seques- tration and banishment were to be the punishment not only of all persons who should obey such interdict, but also of all their relations : and to give the more so- lemn efl'eet to these stern orders, he obliged all his subjects to swenr obedience to them. Some notion may be formed of the tremen- dous power that Henry possessed, when it is considered that orders so sweeping as these, which in some sort severed the king- dom from its dependance on the papal court, were made not by the great council of the nation, but by the king's will alone. As Beckct still possessed vast influence over the clergy, who in that age had an al- most absolute power over the minds of the great mass of the people, Henry did not deem himself sufHcicntly armed by these orders, but entered into a close engagement with the celebrated emperor F'rederic Bar- barossia, who was at open war with pope Alexander ; and still further to alarm the pope, Henry showed some inclination to acknowledge the anti-pope Pascal III. A.n. 11C6. — Nothing daunted by the pru- dent arrangements of Henry, or by the effect whicli they undoubtedly had upon the mind of Alexander, Becket now issued a censure in which he excommunicated the king's chief advisers by name and gene- rally all persons who should favour or even obey the constitutions of Clarendon. Thus placed in the dilemma of being unable to release his friends from the terrible effects of excommunication, without undoing all that he had done, and making a formal and complete acknowledgement of the pope's power to absolve and therefore to excom- municate, Henry listened to the advice of John of Oxford, his agent with the pope, and consented to admit the mediation of the legates Otho and William of Pavia. When these personages proceeded to exa- mine into the affair, tlic king required that all the constitutions of Clarendon should be fully ratified ; Beckct, on the other hand, insisted that before any such agreement were made, both himself nnd his adherents should be restored to their possessions and position. The legate William, who was greatly interested for Henry, took care to protract the negotiation as far as possible. c. u N «H H M n n o Ki % O a M M M •k O T. » H H IHBLAND WAS ANNIiXKD TO IHR ■NOMSII CIIOWN IN THIS IIKIGN. I I I i i' 1 i: t PBIBSTLT FRIDB AND INTOLERANCB WISBS AT ITS nEIOHT IN THIS BEION. 128 ^f)e ^rcBSucQ o{ 3l^istors, $cc. and to represent Henry's disposition in the most favourable liKht to the pope. But the pretensions and demands of tiie oppo- nent parties were far too much opposed at the very outset to admit of any good result, and the negotiation soon fell to the nound; Henry, however, profited by its duration and the i^artiad restoration of the pope's good opinion, to procure a dispensation for the marriage of nis third son Geoffrey to the heiress of Brittany, a favour to which he attached all the more importance be- cause it very deeply mortified both Becket and the king of France. A.D. 1167.— The count of Anvergne, a vas- sal of the Duchy of Guienne, having offended Henry, that monarch entered his vassal's do- main ; and the count appealing to the king of France as superior lord, a war ensued be- tween the two kings ; but it was conducted with no vigour on either side, and peace was soon made, on terms sufficiently unfavour- able to Henry to show that his quarrel with Rome had lost him not a little of that supe- riority which he had previously enjoyed over the king of France. Both the pope and Henry began to tire of their disputes, which they at length per- ceived to be mutually injurious, and still more dangerous as to the future than pre- sently injurious. This consideration inclinetl both parties to a reconciliation, but wus not sufficient to put an end to their jealousies and suspicions. Several attempts at coming to a good understanding were frustrated by petty doubts or petty punctilio on either side; but at length the nuncios Gratian and Viviar were commissioned by the pope to bring about an accommodation, and for that purpose tliey had a meeting with Henry in Normandy. After much tedious discus- cussions all difficulties seemed happily brought to an end. Henry offered to sign a treaty in the terms proposed by the pope, only with a salvo to his roynl dignity. But Becket, who, however much wronged at one time seems at length to liavc learned to love strife for its own sake, took fire at this limitation, and the excommunication of the king's ministers was immediately renewed. No fewer than four more treaties were broken off by a similar pettiness of temper on either side ; and it is quite clear from all accounts, that the fault lay chiefly with Becket, who certainly, whatever other qua- lities of a Christian prelate he was endowed with, was sadly deficient in meekness. A.D. 1169. — Henry, who perceived this fault of Becket, did not fail to point it out to the attention of king Louis. " There have been," said Henry, with great force and shrewdness, "many kings of England, some of greater, some of less authority than my- self; there have also been many archbishops of Canterbury, holy and good men, and en- titled to every kind of respect ; let Becket but act towards me with the same submis- sion which the greatest of his predecessors have paid tu t he least of mine, and there shall be no more controversy between us." This view of the case was so reasonable that it induced Louis for a time to withdraw his friendship and support; but bigotry and interest proved an OTermatch for reason, and the prelate Boon regained the French king^'a favour. A. D. 1170.— At length, to the great joy of all sensible men and well-wishers to Eng- land, all difficulties were done away with,and Becket returned to England. By this treaty he was not required to vield any of the ori- ginal points in dispute ; ne and his adherents were restored to their possessions, and in cases where vacancies in the see of Canter- bury had been filled up by the king, the incumbents he had appointed were now ex- Selled, and their places filled by men of iecket's own choice. On the king's side the only advantages derived from this re- conciliation were the removal of the terrible sentence of excommunication from his friends and ministers, and the termination of the dread in which he had so long lived of seeing an interdict laid upon his whole dominions. But that was an advantage the preciousness of which it is scarcely possible for our generation, so happily free from terrors which Rome could then strike into the hearts of the mightiest nations, adequately to appreciate. That Henry set no ordinary value upon the peace thus pro- cured may be judged from the fact, that this proud and powerful king;, among the many servile flatteries with which he wooed tlie good-humour of the man whose great- ness was his own creation, actually on one occasion stooped so low aa to hold the stir- rup of Becket while the haughty church- man mounted 1 In a king this excessive and Unseemly condescension passes for policy and astuteness ; in a meaner man it would scarcely escape being called by the plainer and less complimentary names of hypocrisy and servility. But the peace procured by so much sacrifice of dignity did not last long. Henrv during Becket's absence had asso- ciated his heir, prince Henry, with him in the sovereignty, and had caused the unction to be bestowed upon him by Roger, archbishop of York. This had not been done so secretly but that the exiled prelate had been informed of it, and both he and the king of France demanded that the archbishop of Canterbury, who alone could regularly bestow the unction, should renew the ceremony both upon prince Henry and his vouthful bride, Margaret of France. To this reasonable demand, which indeed was of the utmost importance to the prince and princess, the King readily and frankly acceded; but not contented with thia tynit confession, that in a case of ur- gency the king trenched upon his privilege and was now ready to make the best repa- ration in his power, Becket had scarcely landed in England ere he suspended the archbishop of York and excommunicated the bishops of London and Salisbury, by authority with which the pope had armed him. De Warcnne and Gervnse, two of tiie king's ministers, astonished and disgusted at this wanton and gratuitous breach of the peace so lately made up, indignantly V M M u M m M H a f a ■ CCLBSIABTICa CliAIMBD AN BXBMrTION PROM MAORSTBBIAI. ADTUOBITY. TIIR BLUOD AND BRAINS OV BBCKET BESPRINKLED TU8 ALTAR. a H K ts H f M A aa «a f< o IB IB < U K < m H f> % O Id H U o H (9 IE M IB O H M u M M M H H 9 lEnglantf.— ^Qlantastnets. — l^cnre EE. 1L>9 Knnce an., fortunate') archbishoi demanded whether the archbishop really desired to return to his native land only to bring lire and sword with him. Utterly unmindful of the construction which sensible and just men mif^ht put upon his litigious and vain-glorious airs and conduct, he proceeded to make a tri- umphal entry into his see ; and he was re- ceived by the multitude with a rapturous joy and applause well fitted to confirm him in his uncompromising humour. Stimu- lated by his evident popularity, he now published sentence of excommunication against Nigel de Sackville, Robert de Broc, and others, on the ground of their having cither assisted at the coronation of prince Henry, or joined in the king's persecution of the exiled clergy. Wlien the archbishop of York and the bishops of London and Salisbury arrived at Bayeux, where Henry then was, and in- formed him of Becket's new violence, the king's indignation that all his careful po- licy, and the condescension which could not but have been most painful to so proud a prince, were thus completely thrown liway, wi .; > >ienJous. He broke out into the mojf vl ., f '"vecfives upon the arro- i' ie of Becket, and un- ( himself, in reply to the ■ .:, who remarked that pcnoe was iiopKless while Becket lived, to say that it was the want of zeal on the ])art of his friends and servants that had caused him so long to be exposed to so much inbo- lenco and annoyance. Such words could not in that age fall innocuously from the lips of a monarch far less powerful and far less beloved by his courtiers than Henry was. Reginald Fitzurse, William deTracey, Hugh de Moreville, and Richard Brito, four gentlemen of the king's household, taking a mere expression of very natural peevish- neHS for an actual wish for the death of Becket, immediately agreed to cross over to England and put their mostcr's enemy to death. They were missed by Henry, who, fearing their desperate purpose, dis- patched a message charging them on their allegiance to do no personal injury to Becket. Unhappily they were not over- tiiken in time to arrest them in their ruth- less design. Becket, proud of the power he had displayed, was residing at Canterbury in all the haughty security of one who felt the peace and safety of the whole nation to be in some sort hostages for his safety ; of one, in fact, whose person the most daring of hia enemies must look upon as something sacred and inviolable. This high opinion of his value in the eyes of mankind was fatal to him. When the four resolved as- sassins reached Canterbury the archbishop was but slenderly guarded, and they saw him go without fear or suspicion to hear vespers in the church of St. Benedict, whi- ther they followed and brutally butchered him; unopuosed equally in the commission of their foul and cowardly crime and in their subsequent departure. To Henry the news of this dotcstnble and no less impolitic crime came like a' thunder- bolt. Confident that even the pope would see the impropriety of Becket's conduct, he had already contemplated the arrest and re- Sular punishment of the proud prelate, not oubting that by dexterous management he could induce the pope not merely to ap- prove, but even to aid his measures. But now his position was completely altered ; instead of proceeding as an injured and insulted king, he would have to defend himself against the odious charge of as- sassination. He could not but see that, even in the judgment of the roost disinter- ested and unprejudiced men there would be but too many circumstances of shrewd suspicion at the least ; while the pop(>, whose policy it was to seize upon every cir- cumstance that could tend to increase the subjection of so powerful a king to Rome, would not fail publicly to attribute this crime to him, whatever might be his pri- vate, judgment ; and for himself and his devoted kingdom he could now anticipate nothing but excommunication and inter- dict I So completely was the king unmanned by his fears, that he shut himself up in his own apartments for three days, allowing no light to enter them, wholly abstaining from food, and not permitting even the most fa- voured of his subjects to approach him. Alarmed lest this conduct should actually be carried to the extent of self destruction, his friends at length forced their way to him, and prevailed upon him to emerge from his solitude, and resume the cares of government, which now more than ever de- manded the fullest possible exertion of his fine talents. A.D. 1171. — It must be evident that the main difficulty of Henry's situation origi- nated in the unwillingness which the pope would feel to admit even the most cogent reasonings against the king's participation of the ^uilt of Becket's murderers. Men do not easily yield credence to arguments — and Henry could only offer arguments, not S roofs — that militate against their own ear and cherished interests. But this calamity both to king and kingdom was too terrible and too instafat to allow of anything being left unattempted which promised even the probability of success ; and Henry immediately sent the archbishop of Rouen, together with the bishops of Worcester and Evreux, and five other men of talent and station, to make, in the king's name, the most humble submission to the pope. There was some difficulty in gain- ing admission to his holiness, who was at the very time that his forbearance was thus abjectly sought by the potent and proud Henry, almost a prisoner in his own palace ; so surroundpd and pressed was he by his enemies. It was now nearly Easter, and it was expected that the name of Henry would be included in the list of those who at that season received the so- lemn and terrible curses of the church. Happily, however, Richard Barre, one of Henry's envoys, and others, contrived so far to mollify tlie anger of the pope, that NUMBERLESS MIRACLES WKnB SAID TO BR WnOi:QI!T AT BECKET's TOMB. I 1 ■: I ■ (11 i II i fi; A. D. 1172.— HBNBT INTADBS IBEIiAHD, WHICB SUBMITS TO HIM. 130 ^J)t ©nasure of l^wtorp, ^c. his fearful anathema was bestowed only in general terms upon Beckei's murderers and their instigators or abettors. Two legates were appointed to inquire into the affair; and thus, after all his fears, Henry escaped the worst consequences of a crime of which he seems really to have been innocent, but of which the circum- stances would as certainly have enabled tlie pope to seem to think him guilty— if, indeed, it had not been, just then, rather more to the papal interest to obtain a stronjt-hold upon England, by accepting the king's submission and allowing his as- sertions to pass for proof, than harshly to drive both king and nation to despair. Thus happily delivered from a peril so imminent, Henry directed his attention to Ireland. A. D. 1173. — All men's eyes had of late been anxiously turned upon the king's heir, the young prince Henry. He had given many proofs that he possessed in no ordinary degree the princely qualities of courage, liberality, and a kindly dispo- sition ; but, those who looked beneath the surface perceived that his very kindness, unless ruled by a severe and uncommon discretion, was likely to give him a fatal facility in listening to the advice of any friends who should unduly minister to his other chief characteristic — an exces- sive ambition. At the time when, during Becket's absence, he irregularly received the royal unction, '.e made a remark which was much commented upon, and which many did not fail to interpret into proof of a haughty and aspiring turn. His father waitedupon him at table, and good-humour- edly observed that never was king more royally attended; upon which the prince remarked to one of his favourites, that it surely was nothing so very remarkable that the son of a count should wait upon the son of a king. Agreeable to the promise made by the king at the period of the return of Becket, young Henry and the princess Margaret were now crowned and anointed by the archbishop of Rouen ; and in the subsequent visit whicli the prince paid to his father- in-law, it is thought that the latter per- suaded him that the fact of his being crowned during the life-time of his father, instead of being a mere ceremony to secure his future succession, gave him au instant claim upon a part, if not upon the whole, of his father's dominions ; and the prince was, unfortunately but too well inclined to give credit to the arguments by which this view of the case was supported. Eager to enjoy the power, of whicn he probably but little understood the pains, he formally demanded that his father should resign either Eng- land or Normandy to him. Tlic king vrry properly refused to comply with so extra- vagant a request ; and after upbraiding his father in undutiful terms, he hastened to Paris and put himself under the protection of the king of France. Nor was this the.on'y domestic vexation that assailed the king just as his public affairs looked so hopefiil. Queen Eleanor, who as queen of France had been remark- able for her levity, was in her second marriage no leas remarkable for her jea- lousy. Being just now labouring under a new access of that feeling, her anger with her husband led her to the most unjustifi- able length of exciting their children against him. Acting upon the hint afforded by the demand of prince Henry, she persuaded the princes Geoffrey and Richard that they ton were unkindly and unjustly used bv their father who, she affirmed, ought no longer to withhold from them possession of the portions he had formally assigned to them. Offering them aid in the undutiful course which she recommended to them, she ac- tually disguised herself in male attire, and was on the point of departing for the French court, there to curry on intrigues contrary to her duty alike as wife, mother, and subject, when the king obtained in- formation of her designs, and placed her in confinement. This, however, did not put an end to the misconduct she had mainly originated; and there were princes who were sufficiently envious of the power and prosperity of Henry, to lend their aid and countenance to this unnatural coalition of sons against their father, and of subjects against their sovereign. Judging by his own experience of the terror in which even the proudest and boldest men held the censure and interdict of Rome, Henry in this moat distressing situation did not liesi- tate to apply to the pope. But he had to learn, that to arm the papal interdict with all its terrors, it was necessary that the clergy should have some strong interest in the question. The pope issued his bulls, excommuni- cating the enemies of Henry; but as the interests of the church were in no wise concerned, the clergy cared not to exert themselves, and the ouUs fell to the ground a mere brutum fulmen. Disappointed and disgusted at finding that weapon so power- less for him which was so formidable against him, Henry now had recourse to the sword ; and, as he had prudently amassed great treasures, he was able to take into his pay large bodies of the banditti-like soldiery witli whom the continent swarmed, and who were always ready to fight zealously and bravely, too, in any cause that afforded regular pay and promised large plunder. His sons, on the other hand, were not without the means or the inclination to imitate this part of their father's conduct ; and most of the barons of Normandy, Gas- cony, and Brittany willingly took part with the young princes, who they knew must in the course of nature become their rightful sovereigns, their several territories being already irrevocably settled upon them in the usual forms. Nor, to the disgrace of the English chivalry, did the disaffection to the injured king and parent stop even here ; several powerful English barons, and among them the earls of Chester and Lei- cester, openly declared against the king. That no sane man could have been led into IS H ft b a I A.D. 1173. — QUKKN KI.KANOR IS MA»1S A STATU ralSOMEK. A.D. 1177- — THB KINa O* VBANCI VIIITS BICKKT's TOMB AS A PILOBIM. lEnglanti — ^lantagcneta — T^mtv 3E1E. 131 this opposition to the kinii; by any doubt as to the justice of his cause is morally certain; and to all the other foulness of treason, these at the least laid themselves open to the low and disgraceful charge of basely deserting- from what they knew to be the more just side, but deemed to be also the weaker one. And the weaker one, to all human judgment, it doubtless appeared to be. But few, comparatively, of his ba- rons brought their retainers to the aid of the king, whose chief disposable force was an army of about twenty thousand of those foreign mercenaries of whom we just now made mention, and some well disciplined English whom he withdrew from Ireland. On the other hand, the combination was potent and threatening indeed. In addi- tion to the numerous wealthy and warlike barons already alluded to as having given in their adhesion to the young princes, the four counts of Eu, Blois, Flanders, and Boulogne, followed their example; and William, king of Scotland, the natural enemy of England, gladly joined this most unholy alliance. Louis of France summoned the chief vassals of the crown to Paris, and solemnly bound them by onth to adhere with him to the cause ; and prince Henry on his part swore to be faithful to his allies, among whom he distributed large gifts of territory — vo be conquered from his king and pa. rent — under the seal of state which he treasonably caused to be made for that pur- pose. The counts of Boulogne and Flanders began the unnatural war by laying siege to Aumale, on the frontier of Normandy. The count d' Aumale, who seems to have been only withheld by some prudential and merely selfish motive from openly and in form allying himself with his master's ene- mies, made a mere show of defence and then surrendered the place. Being thus apparently a prisoner in the hands of those whose confederate he seems really to have been, he had a sptcious ground for commit- ting still farther treason, without exposing himself to ony very deadly peril in the event of the king being ultimately triumphnnt over the formidable and unscrupulous con- federacy against him. The king of France, in the mean time, was not idle ; with seven thousand knights and their followers and a proportionate force of infantry, he, accompanied by the young prince Henry, laid siege toVerncuil. The place was bravely defended by Hugh de Beauchamp, but the garrison at the end of a month became so short of provisions, that dc Beauchamp was obliged to consent to a surrender should he not be relieved in the course of three days. Ere the expira- tion of this time king Henry and his army appeared ou the neighbouring heights, and the French monarch then demanded a con- ference, for the purpose, as he alleged, of putting an end to the diiferences between Henry and his sons— differences, it should never be forgotten, which Louis had him- self done his utmost to fan into a flame. Henry, not for a moment suspecting Louis of any treacherous intention, agreed to this proposal; and Louis having thus beguiled nim into abstaining from forcible interfer- ence on behalf of the brave sarrison until the term agreed upon for tne truce had completely expired, called upon Beauchamp to make good his promise of surrender, on Eain of being held man sworn ; and then, aving set fire to Verneuil, set his army on the retreat from before it, and Henry fell upon the rear, which lost many both in killed and prisoners. The barons of Brittany, headed by Ralph de Fougeres and the earl of Chester, were encountered by the king's troops near Dol, and defeated with the loss of fifteen hun- dred in killed, besides an immense number of wounded and prisoners. The leaders with their diminished forces took shelter in Dol, but Henry besieged the place so vi- gorously, that they were speedily compelled to surrender. Instead of being seduced by his successes into any inveteracy of purpose against his enemies, Henry once more agreed to treat with the chief of them, Louis of France. A meeting accordingly took place between the two monarchs, the three young princes, to their infinite discredit, prominently ap- pearing in the retinue of their father's ene- my. As their outrageous demands were in fact the main cause of dispute between the two monarchs, Henry addressed himself to those demands, and made his sons offers far more liberal than became him to offer or them to accept ; but the peaceable pur- pose of this memorable meeting was wholly frustrated by the earl of Leicester, who, probably at the secret instigation of Louis, behaved with such open insolence to Henry, that the meeting was broken up without any conclusion being arrived at. 'Though Henr^ had been so successful on the continent in repressing his enemies and in upholding his authority, it was in no small danger in England ; for, prince Henry having agreed to resign Dover and the other strongholds of Kent into the hands of the earl of Flanders, there was so little of pure public spirit among the English, that a most extensive confederacy was formed to aid in this scheme, which would have deserved no milder name than that of a national suicide. But fortunately for both Henry and his kingdom, while the lay no- bles and their dependants were thus hostile or indifferent, he was in good odour with the clergy just at this period, to which, pro- bably, he mainly owed it that he was not utterlv ruined. Richard de Lacjr, whom Henry had en- trusted with the high and important office of guardian of the realm, greatly distin- f;uished himself at this period, both by his oyalty and his conduct. He repelled and obtained the submission of the king of Scotland, who had led his ravaging troops into Northumberland ; and immediately af- ter having done this good service, led his victorious troops southward to oppose a far superior force of Flemings, who had landed I I A.D. 117r>— Ie did towards providing for the internal welfare of his kingdom. What he did to- wards that end, if it appear of too stern and cruel a nature to us who live in times so much milder and more civilized, seems to be but too completely justified by what the historians tell us of the gross and evil daring of the populace of those early days. In the cities especially, where the congre- gating of numbers had given increased daring to offenders, but had not as yet led to any sound and safe arranirements of police, the insolent violence of the popu- lace attained to a height of which we can form but a very faint notion. Street brawls and street robberies, attended with violence always and not unfrequently with actual murder, were every-day occurrences. Bur- glary was not then as now confined to the Jnkness and security of the night hours, oat even the wealthiest traders, though tlicir shops were situated in the most pab- J streets, had constant reason to fear t&f iitlt and robbery even at noon-day, so bold and so strong were the gangs of thieves. A sing'e specimen of the doings of the street roubers of those times may not be unacceptable. The house of a citizen of known and large wealth was attacked by a band of robbers who actually plied { their wedges and hxes so effectually as to I make a breach in a substantial stone wall. I Just as, sword in hand, they were making | good their entrance, the citizen led on his servants to resist them, and so stoutly de- fended his premises that his neighbours had time to arm and assist him. In the course of the fight which, though short seems to have been severe, one of the robbers had his right hand cut off. This man was subsequently taken prisoner, and as the loss he had sustained rendered all denial of his identity perfectly idle, he agreed, in order to save his own life, to give full information of all who were con- cerned with him. Among the accomplices thus named was a very wealthy citizen who up to that time had been looked upon as a person of the greatest probity. Denying the charge, he was tried oy the ordeal and convicted. He then offered the lorge sum of five hundred marks in commutation of his offence ; but the king, rightly judging that the rank and wealth of the offender only made the offence the more shameful and unpardonable, sternly refused the money and ordered the citizen felon to be hanged. Unlike the other Norman princes, Henry II. was not so attached to his game as to hold the lives of his subjects in utter con- tempt on its account. He greatly mode- rated the forest laws, which under his pre- decessors had been so fruitful a source of misery to the people; and punished in- fringements upon them, not by death or mutilation, but by fine or imprisonment. Though generally of a grave and dignified habit, this king was not destitute of a cer- tain dry humour. Thus Giraldus Cam- brcnsis relates, that the prior and monks of the monastery of St. Swithin made grievous complaint to Henry of the rigour with which, as they alleged, they had been treat- ed by the bishop of Winchester in the or- de. ■ ig of their diet. " We have but ten dishes allowed us now!" they exclaimed. " Hut ten !" said the king, " I have but three I 'Tis the fitter number, rely upon it ; and I desire that you be confined to it henceforth." Henry was survived by two legitimate sons, Richard and John, and three legiti- mate daughters, Maud, Eleanor, and Joan. He also left two illegitimate sons, Richard, surnamed Longsword, and Geoffrey, who became archbishop of York. 'I'hese sons were borne to him by Rosamond, daughter of lord Clifford. Of all that romance, whether in its own guise or in that of his- tory, has said of this lady, nothing seems to be true save that she was both fair and frail. Her bower at Woodstock, and the pleasant choice offered to her, by the jea- lous queen Eleanor, between the dagger and the poisoned chalice, are mere inven- tions. IIKNIIY II. WAS BURIED IN THE NtiNNEBY UE FOUNRED AT FONTKVK AVD. j '! sasa TUH'BBION or BICHABD 18 MOIt« LIKB KNIGHT-BURANTBT THAN BOTALTT. le gangs of >f the doings e times may le of a citizen vas attacked ctually plied ctunlly as to il stone wall, ivere making n ted on his stoutly de- neighbours lim. In the bough short one of the lut off. This >risoner, and rendered all :tly idle, he own life, to ho were con- accomplices y citizen who ed upon as a ty. Denying e ordeal and ! large sum of itatiou of his judging that affender only kameful and 1 the monev o be hanged, inces, Henry i game as to n utter con- really mode- idcr his pre- l a source of )unishcd in- by death or isonment. ind dignitied ute of a cer- aldus Cam- nd monks of ade i^rievous rigour with d been treat- er in the or- ave but ten exclaimed. I have but r, rely upon ontincd to it egitimate three legiti- •, and Joan, ns, Richard, eoffrcy, who 'I'lH'se son* id, daughter It romance, that of his- thing seems >th fair and ck, and the by thejcH- the dagger mere inven- lEnfilanlJ.— ^lantagtnetis. — laicl^attj 3£. 137 CHAPTER XXI. The Reign nf Richaru I. A.o. 1189. — Thb partiality with which, even down to the present time, the character of Richard I. has been looked upon, is a striking proof how far men can go in dispens- ing with other good qualities,in favour of him who is abundantly endowed with the mere animal quality of courage. The shameful ingratitude, amounting to actual brutality, with which this prince treated his only too indulgent father ; and even the hot-headed selfishness with which he preferred warring abroad to beneficently and usefully ruling at home, and made his realm a mere depAt for the men and munitions requisite to the prosecution of his schemes or military ambition, are overlooked in consideration o.*" his reckless daring and great exploits lu the battle-field. Until men are much better taught than they have ever yet been as to the real value of courage and the pre- cise limits within which its exercise is de- serving of the homage now so indiscrimi- nately paid to it, grave and thoughtful writers will, we fear, labour but vainly to- wards causing (he reality of Richard's cha- racter to become visible through the false, but gorgeous, halo with which the error of long centuries has surrounded it. With this brief caution against too implicit a faith in the co-existence ofvirtuc and cou- rage, we proceed to the re^h of the most warlike of all of even England's king8,whose equally impetuous and enduring bravery obtained for him from the most warlike men of a warlike age the title of " Coeur de Lion," " the lion hearted." The first act of Richard's reign gave some promise of a wise and just one. Instead of taking into favour and emnloyment those who had so shamefully aided him in his un- dutiful and disloyal conduct, he treated them with marked disfavour, and contrari- wise retained in their employments those ministers who had been the faithful and zealous advisers of his father. He released his mother, queen Eleanor, from the con- finement in which she remained at the death of Henry, and committed the regency of England to her till he should arrive to govern it in person. To his brother John, too, he showed the beginning of that favour which he continued to him throughout his reign, and of which John continually and flagrantly proved his unworthiness. The day of Richard's coronation wds marked by an event which showed the intolerance of the age to be fully equal to and every way worthy of its superstition. The Jews, every- where a proscribed people, were, however, everywhere an industrious and of course a prosperous and wealthy people. Being the largest possessors of ready money, they na- turally engrossed the invidious, though of- ten important, trade of money-lending ; and when we consider the usage which the Jews too commonly received at the hands of Christians, and add to that the frequent losses they sustained, we need scarcely be surprised that they sometimes charged enormous interest, and treated their insol- vent debtors with a rigour that almost frees Shakspeare from the charge of carica- turing in his terribly graphic character of Sliylock. The necessities that ever wait upon unthrift made too many of the hijrh- born and the powerful personally acquaint- ed with the usurious propensities of the Is- raelites ; and thus added personal feelings of animosity to the hate borne by the zeal- ous Chrittiant — alas ! what a Christianity was theirs I — against the Jews. During the reign of Henry II. the animosities that were nourished against the Jews were not openly expressed; li.t Richard, who combined in his own pernon much of the evil as well as of the good 'Mat dis- tinguished his stirring and bigoted time, had an especial hatred to Jews, and he gave orders that on the day of his corona- tion they should on no account make their appearance at the scene of that ceremony. Some of them, judging that their gold, at least, would obtain them exce^.ti.^n from this rule, ventured to wait upon him with presents of great value. Havini^ nnu/oached the banqueting hall of the king, they were soon discovered by the crowd, and of course insulted. From words the rabble proceeded to blows ; the Jews becnme ter- rified, fled, and were pursued : and, either in error or in malignity, a report was spread that the king had ordered the general de- struction of the Jews. Orders so agreeable at once to the bigotry and the licentious- ness of such a populace as that of '..ondon, were believed without much ocruple and executed without any remorse. Not con- tented with murdering all the Jews who were to be found in the streets, the rabble broke into and first plundered ar.d then burned the houses of the wealthy indivi- duals of that persecuted sect, who, driven to desperation, defended themselves bravely but ineffectually. From London the fierce cry against the Jews, and the false cry that the king had authorized their destruction, spread to the other great towns, where the unhappy people were equally plundered and slaugntered as in London. At York, in ad- dition to the murders committed by the populace, there was a truly horrible tragedy took place. Upwards of five hundred of the Jews shut themselves up in the castle with their families. Finding that they could not much longer defeud themselves against the infuriated and blood-stained rabble without, the men of this unhappy and persecuted band actually killed their own wives and children and threw their corpses over the walls; and then, setting fire to the place, chose rather to perish in the tortures of the flames than in those which they knew would be adjudged to them by their enraged and bigoted enemies. As though this horrible tragedy had not sufficiently disgraced the nation, the (([entry of York, most of whom were deeply indebted to the unhappy Jews, added a chart^cteristic trait of sordid dishonesty to the general horror, by making before the altar of the cathedral a solemn burnt sacrifice of the bonds in o A M H H M K :t n « o M a THIS WAS THB AOB OF WONnEBS— OIANTS, DBAeONS, AND ENCHA5TBBg. [iV3 i ^ !>■ ^:. a ;I II' I I 1 I TIIK (.'I.KIIUY KXKIlTKn TIIKMSKI.V KS WIVU EKAL IN UAIIINO CUIJSAUKIIS. 138 trijc Gfrtaauvu of l^istorn, $rc. wliicli they were cnnfcsseil debtor*. Tlie (letuHtRliiin wit li which one in Inipired by this whoir affair almost makes one add witliout ri-^ret or pity, tliat lonK ofter the Jews were al. either ninssacrcd or escaped, the plitnderin)( ol' the rabble went on with equal zeal in the housi-s of men who were not Jews, and who indij(nantly impressed that fni-t upon the minds of the ulunderers. ThouKli the known hatred which the kinit bore to the Jews was doubtless inliuential in encouraKiiiK the rabble to excess on this occasion, it is rer'iin that he KKVe no direct orders or encouragement to them. On the contrary, as soon as actual force had re- stored cumpaiative order in the country, Richard commissioned his chief justiciary, the celebrated Olanvillc, to make the ne- cessarv enquiries and to punish as many as could be discovered of the original instiga- tors of these detestable enormities. But even partial enquiry showed that the rabble were, with all their violence and grossncss, by no inenns the most blameworthy party upon this occasion ; and so many powerful and wealthy men were found to be deeply implicated, that after the punishment of a very few persons, to vindicate the law from the reproach of utter inefticiency, the en- quiry was wholly laid aside. Scarcely had Richard Anishcd the cere- mony of his coronation ere he commenced his preparations for an expedition to I'a- lestine. The distance of that country made it impossible for him to rely upon England to furnish him from time to time witli the requisite supplies; his tirst care, therefore, was to provide himself with such an amount of money as would place biin above any danger from want of means to provision his followers. His father had left him above a hundred thousand marks — a very large sum in that age — and, to add to that im- portant treasure, the king resorted to the sale not only of the manors and revenues of the crown, but even of many offices, the nature of which rendered it especially im- Eortant that they should be held by pure ands. The otlice of sheriff, which con- cerned both the administration of justice and the crown revenue, was thus sold, aa was the scarce less important oflice of forester; and at length, as if to show that all considerations were trivial, in his judg- ment, when compared to that of forwarding his favourite scheme, Richard openly and shamefully sold the high otiice of chief jus- ticiary — that office upon which the liberties and properties of the whole nation were to a very considerable extent dependant, to Hugh dc Puzas, bishop of Durham, for a thousand marks ; this prelate being also, " for a consideration, invested for his own life with the earldom of Northumberland." Utterly reckless how he obtained money, and really seeming to have no single thought to bestow upon his country, except as a source of money, he next sold back to the king of Scotland the Scottish fortresses which his wiser father had so carefully guarded, and released William from all sign of vassalage beyond the ordinary homage for lands held by him in England; the price of all this advantage on the one side and disgraceful sacritice on the other being ten thousand marks. Besides selling, in this rccklcst way, much in which he justly and legally held only a mere life interest, he weaned all ranks of his subject* for loans or gilts; the distinction in words being, it will easily be believed, the only distinction between the two ways of parting with their money I The utmost having been done to raise money in these discreditable ways, Richard next applied himself to selling permission to remain at home to those who, after having taken the cross had, from whatever cause, become less enamoured of the task of combating the inlidels. To dwell no longer upon this most disgraceful passage in our history, Richard, in his anxietv to raise money to aid him in his merely seltish pursuit of fame, showed himself so reckless a salesman, that his ministers ventured to remonstrate with him ; and he, shamelessly exultinij; in his own want of principle and true pride, replied, that he would gladly sell his good city of London, could he but find a purchaser. While Richard was thus making such great sacriticcs, nominally for the sake of the Christian cause in Palestine, but really for the sake of his own Aerce vanity, of that peculiar qualil|^ which men have slavishly agreed to give the more sounding name of love of glory, his life and conversation were by no means of the most Pliristian pattern, and gave great offence to those crusaders whose piety was sincere and practical, though occasionally carried to the extreme of bigotry in feeling and of grimace in manifestation. Pulke of Neuilly, a zealous and elo(|ucnt preacher of the crusade, E reaching before Richard, boldly assured ini that he had three favourite most dan- gerous daughters of whom it behoved him speedily to rid himself, namely, pride, ava- rice, and voluptuousness. " You arc (|uite right," replied Richard, " and I hereby give the tirst of them to the Templars, the se- cond to the Benedictines, and the third to my prelates. Previous to departing for the east Ricliard committed the administration of the go- vernment in England to Hugh, bishop of Durham, and Longchamp, bishop of Ely ; but though he at tirst swore both his brother prince John and his natural brother Geoffrey, archbishop of York, not even to enter the kingdom during his absence, he subsequently withdrew that politic prohi- bition. Longchamp, the bishop of Ely, though of mean birth, was a man of consi- derable talent and energy ; and the better to enable him to govern with effect, Richard, who had already made him chancellor of the kingdom, also procured him to be in- vested with the autiiority of papal legate. While Richard and Philip had been en- gaged in preparing for their eastern expe- dition, the emperor Frederic had already led from Germany and the neighbouring countries of the north an army of 15U,0U0 MSSSINA, IN 8ICILT, WAS THE OKNEBAL BBNDBZVOU* OF THB CROISES. MILITART OI.OItY WAI BUT IIAI.I' (:o:i gave orders to some of bis people to pull the standard down. Richard, on the other hand, chose to treat this order as a perso- nal insult to him, and immediately sent word to Philip that he had no objection to removing the utandard himself, but that no one else should touch it, save at mortal risk. Pliilip, who was too anxious for the aid of Richard when they should arrive iu the Holy Land to be willing to drive him to extremity, accepted the proposal with seeming cordiality; but the quarrel, petty as it wuicilian usurper, deeming that his own safety would be pro- moted by whatever sowed discord between these two powerful princes, was guilty of a deception which in their mutual temper of suspicion might have led to even fatal conse- quences. He showed to Richard a letter which he stated that he had received from the hands of the duke of Burgundy. This let- ter, which purported tobe written by Philip, required Tancred to cause his troops sud- denly to fall upon the Eiigl'^b troops, and promised that the French t^. ill aid him m the destruction of the ••.(••a enemy. Richard, with hit usual fiery ai.d nnrefiect- ing temper, believed this clumsy fiction without examination, and being wholly un- able to dissemble his feelings, he at once told Philip what he vis charged withal. Philip flatly denied the charge, branded the Sicilian <'su |>cr with his falsehood, and challenged iiiin to support the atro- cious charge he had made; and aa Tan- cred was, of course, wholly unable to do so Richard professed to be completely sa- tisiied. As this attempt of Tancred and its near approach to success had warned both Philip and Richard of the danger to which their friendship, so important to both their kingdoms and to the great cause in which they were both engaged, was p>ip began to ma- nifest Itself, not only towards the nobility in general, but also towards his milder col- league in the government. Having, in ad- dition to his equality of civil authority the legal inc power, then so very tremendous as not easily to be resisted even by a powerful and wise king in his own proper person, Longchamp coul i not endure to treat the meeker bishop o.' Durham as anything more tlinn his lirst subject. At lirst he mani- fested his feeling of superiority by petty means, which were rather nnnnyinz than positively hostile or injurious; but finding himself unresisted, he grew more and more violent, and at length went to the glaringly inconsistent length of throwing his col- league in the government into confinement, anil demanding of him the surrender of the earldom of Northumberland which he hud paid for in solid cash. This took place he- fore the king had departed from Marseilles on his way to ti.e cast; and thougli imme- diately on Richard hearing of the dissen- sion between the two prelates upon whose wisdom and perfect accord he so mainly de- pended for the pence and safety of his do- minions, he sent peremptory orders for the earl-bishop's release, liongchanip had the consummate assurance to refuse to obey the king's command, assuring the astounded nobles that he knew that the king's secret wishes were directly opposed to his public orders ! This misconduct was followed up by so much insolence towards the nobility in ge- neral, and so many complaints were in con- sc<|uence made to Richard, that he appoint- ed a numerous council of nobles without whose concurrence Longchamp for the fu- ture was strictly forbidden to transact any im))ortnnt public business. Hut his vast authority as legate, added to bis daring and peremptory temper, detcred even those named as his councillors from venturing to produce their commission to him, and he continued to display the magnificence and to exercise the power of an absolute sove- reign of the realm. 'i'he great abbots of tlic wealthy monas- teries complained tlmt when he made a progress in their neighbourhood, his train in tt single day's residence devoured their revenue for vears to come; the high-born and martial barons complained of the more than kingly hauteur of this tow-born man ; the whole nation, in short, was disc>mtcnted, but the first open and etHcient opposition was made by one whose personal character- istic was certainly not too great courage — the prince John. That the bishop and legate misused bis authority, to the insulting of the nobility and the impoverishment of the nation, would not a jot have moved John ; but he could not endure that he, too, should be thrown into shade and contempt by this overbearing prelate. The lottcr, with a want of policy strangely at variance with his undoubted nbililv, imprudently allowed himselfto be guilty of personalty disobliging John, who, upon that allront, conceived an indignation which alt the disobedience shown to his l)roth''r, and all the injury inflicted upcm his brother's best and most faitliful subjects, hud been insutiicient to arouse. He summoned a council of prelates and nobles to meet him at Reading, in Uerkshire, and cited Longclinnip to a)>pcnr there to account for his conduct. Aware when it was too late of the dangerous ene- mies he bad provoked by the wanton abuse of Ills authority, the preliile, instead of iip- pciiring before theeouueil, entrenelu'd hiiii- noniN Hoon and nis mkn rniNciPAM.Y nwi'.i.T in bukhwooii fouhst. IN THX8B VABS LITTLB MBBCT VAS SHOWN ON BITBBR SIDE. 142 7S,f)t ©reasurp of l^lstorw, $cc. self in the Tower of London. But the man- ner in which he had wielded his authority had left him so few and such lukewarm friends, that he soon found that he was not safe even in that stront; fortress, and, dis- guising himself in female apparel, he con- trived to escape to France, where he was sure to And a cordial reception at the hands of Philip. He was now in form deprived of the high civil offices which by his flight he had virtually surrendered, and the arch- bishop of Rouen, who had a high reputation for both talent and prudence, was made chancellor aud justiciary in his stead. As Longchamp, however, held the legatine power, of which no civil authorities could deprive him, be still had abundant means, which he lost no opportunity of using, to aid the insidious endeavours of Philip to disturb the peace of England and injure the absent Richard. A.D. 1192. — Philip's neighbourhood to Richard's French dominions held out an opportunity, far too tempting to be resisted, fur invading them, which he was on the point of openly doing when he found him- self prevented in his treacherous schemes by the almost general refusal of his nobles to aid him in so inglorious an enterprise against the territories of a prince who was gloriously — though anything but prudently — perilling life and limb in the distant wars of the cross. Philip was discouraged, more- over, in this part of his dishonourable plan by the pope, who, especially constituting himself the guardian of the rights of all princes engaged in the crusade, threatened Philip with the terrors of an interdict, should he venture to persist in attacking the territory of his far worthier brother so- vereign and fellow crusader. But though obstacles so formidable ren- dered it impossible for him to persist in his open course of injustice, save at the hazard of utter ruin to himself, he resolved to work secretly to the same end. Thoroughly un- derstanding the dishonourable character of John, he made overtures to that base and weak prince ; offered him in marriage that princess Alice whose blotted character had caused her to be refused by the usually im- prudent and facile Richard, and gave him assurance of investiture in all the French possessions of Richard, upon condition of his taking the risk of invading them. John, whose whole conduct through lite showed him to be utterly destitute of i- feelings of faith or gratitude, was in no wise startled by the atrocity that was proposed to him, and was in the act of commencing prepara- tions for putting it into execution when queen Eleanor, more jealous of the kingly rights of her absent son than she had for- merly showed herself of those of her hus- band, interposed her own authority, and caused the council and nobles of England to interpose theirs, so effectually, that John's fears overcame even his cupidity, and he abandoned a project which none but an utterly debased mind would ever have entertained. While these things were passing in Eu- rope, the high-spirited but unwise Richard was gathering laurels in Asia, and, uncon- sciously, accumulating upon his head a huge and terrible load of future suffering; and an occurrence which just now took place in that distant scene was, with an ex- ecrable ingenuity, seized upon by Philip to calumniate in Europe the absent rival, each new exploit of whom added to the pangs of his ever-aching envy. There was in Asia a mountain prince, known to Europeans bjr the title of the "old man of the mountain," who had ob- tained so absolute a power over the exces- sively superstitious minds of his subjects, that, at a word or a sign from him, any one of them would put himself to death with the unmurmuring and even cheerful com- pliance of a man in the performance of some high and indefeasible religious duty. To die at the order of their despotic prince was, in the belief of these unlettered and credulous beings, to secure a certain and instant introduction to the ineffable delights of paradise ; and to die thus was conse- quently not shunned or dreaded as an evil, but courted as the supreraest possible good fortune. It will readily be understood that a race of men educated to commit suicide at the word of command, would be found no less docile to their despot's orders in the matter of murder. The care with which they were instructed in the art of disguis- ing their designs, and the utter contempt in which they held the mortal consequences of their being discovered, rendered it cer- tain death to give such offence to this ter- rible potentate of a petty territory as might induce him to dispatch his emissaries upon their sanguinary errand. Conrad, marquis of Montferrat, who seems to have possessed a considerable genius for quarrelling, wan unfortunate enough to give deep offence to the old man of the mountain, who im- mediately issued against him his infor- mal but most decisive sentence of death. Two of the old man's devoted subjects, known by the name of assassins — which name their practices have caused to be ap- plied to murderers— rushed upon Conrad, while surrounded by his guards, and mor- tally wounded him. About the author of this crime there was not, and there could not he, the slightest difference of opinion. The practice of the old man of the mountain was only too well known; it was equally notorious that the marqui of Montferrat had given him deep offenci' >y the contemptuous style in which he refused to make any satisfaction for the death of certain of the old man's subjects who had been put to death by the citizens of Tyre ; and to put the cause of Conrad's death beyond all seeming possibility of mis- take, the two assassins, who were seized and Eut to death with the most cruel tortures, oasted during their dying agonies that they died in the performance of their duly to their prince. But the king of France pretended wholly to disregard all the cir- cumstances which thus spnke trumpet- tongued to the truth, and loudly piotcstcd H H I H > H O H K H O or is «! n < > ON 8EVBRAI1 OCCASIONS IMMBNSE DOOTT WAS TAKBN FBOM TUK TlmKH. THK HOST SANODINART B1FRI9ALS WERK MADE BY BOTR FARTI». lEnglanti — '^9T?;..tagenet», — 9R(tf)art 3E. 143 a his belief in the foul murder of Conrad having been committed by order of Richard, the former opponent of the marquis ; and affecting to imagine that his person was in danger of attack by assassins, this accom- plished hypocrite ostentatiously surrounded himself with a body-guard. This calumny was far too gross to be believed by any one ; but it was easy to seem to believe it, and to convert it into an excuse for violat- ing both the rights and the liberties of the most valiant of all the crusaders. Tlie valour and conduct of Richard and the other Christian leaders, vast and bril- liant as they were, could not counterba- lance the dissensions which sprang up among them. An immense host of infi- dels under Saladin was vanquished, nearly forty thousand of them remaining dead upon the Held of battle; Ascalon was speedily afterwards taken ; and Richard had led the victorious Chi-istians within sight of Jerusalem, when the impolitic dis- sensions to which we have alluded com- pelled him to make a truce with Saladin, just as the perfect triumph of the cross seemed ir evitable. The duke of Burgundy, whom Philip had left in command of the French, openly and obstinately dei;iared his intention of immediately returning to Eu- rope ; the German and Italian companies followed the evil example thus set ; and Richard, compelled to treat, by this unwor- thy defection, could but exert himself to obtain from the chivalrous Saladin terms as favourable as possible to the Christians. By the terms of this treaty, which was con- cluded for the fanciful term of three years, three months, three weeks, three days, and three hours, Acre, Joppa, and other parts of Palestine were to be held by the Chris- tians, and Christian pilgrims were to pro- ceed to Jerusalem without let or molesta- tion. The concluding of this treaty was nearly the last important public act of Saladin, who shortly afterwards expired at Damascus. On his death-bed he ordered legacies to alar^e amount to be distributed among the poor of Damascus, without dis- tinction of religion, and he ordered his winding-sheet to be exposed in the public streets, a crier the while making procla- mation, "This is all that remains of the mighty Saladin, the conqueror of the East." Taking advantage of the truce, Richard now determined to return to England, to oppose his own power and authority to the intrigues of his ungrateful brother John and the unprincipled king of France. Being aware that he would be exposed to great danger should he venture tlirough France, he sailed for the Adriatic, and being shipwrecked near Aquileia, he took the disguise of a pilgrim, in the hope that it would enable him undiscovered to pass through Germany. Driven out of his di- rect road by some suspicions of the go- vernor at Ittria, he was so imprudently la- vish of his money during his short stay at Vienna, that his real rank was discovered, and he was thrown into prison by Leopold, duke of Austria, who had served under and been grievously affronted by him at the siege of Acre. The emperor Henry VI., whom Richard by his friendship with Tan- cred of Sicily had also made his enemy, not only approved of Richard's arrest, but re- quired tne charge of his person, and offered the duke of Austria a considerable sum of money as a reward for it. A.D. 1195.— The grief of Richard's friends and the triumph of his enemies were alike excited when the news of his capture reached England ; the possible conse- quences being obvious to both parties. Queen Eleanor spiritedly demanded the interference of the pope, whose duty she very justly averred it to be to wield the thunders of the church in protection of the church's bravest and most zealous cham- pion. The pope, probably influenced by some occult and crafty motive of policy, showed himself anything rather than eager to meet the urgent wishes of queen Elea- nor; but, as foes are usually far more zealous than friends, so Philip seized upon this as a favourable opportunity to exert his utmost power against the fallen but still formidable Richard, and he exerted himself to this end with an activity worthy of a nobler cause. To those of his own barons who had formerly refused to join him in attacking the territories of the ab- sent Richard, he now urged the alleged atrocity of that prince in causing the as- sassination of the marquis of Montferrat; to the emperor Henry VI. he made large oifurs cither for yielding up Richard to French custody, or for solemnly engaging for his perpetual imprisonment; and hav- ing made a matrimonial alliance with Den- mark, he applied for permission and a fleet to enforce the Danish claim to the English crown. Nor did Philip fail to apply himself to prince John, whom he well knew for the most willing and eager of all the enemies of his absent brother. John had an interview with the king of France, at which, on condition of being invested with his brother's French terri- tory, he consented to yield a great portion of Normandy to Philip ; and it is with no little appearance of probability affirmed, that he even did homage to Philip fur the English crown. Thus much is certain, Philip invaded Normandy and was well served by John, whose orders enabled him to take Neufchatel, Gisors, and several other forts, without striking a blow. The counties of Eu and Aumale were speedily overrun by Philip, and he then marched against Rouen, loudly threatening that he would put the inhabitants to tlie sword without mercy, in the event of his experi- encing any resistance. But here Philip was at length destined to receive a check. The earl of Leicester, who had shared Richard's perils and toils in Palestine, was fortu- nately at Rouen, and he took the command of the garrison, to whom his example and his renown gave new courage; and they fought so steadily and so well, that Philip, after many severe repulses, consented to a truce ; the English regency engaging to pay SB H H M O ABOUT 200,000 CHUISTIAN WAnniOBS rERISlIBD IN THIS CUIISADK. THE TAXES LAID ON THIS FBOFLB VOU THIS CRUSADE WBIIE ENOUUOUS. ' .i 144 Vl\)z ^Treasurn of l^istorg, $cc. him twenty marks, and placing four for- tresses in his hands by way of security. While Philip was exerting himself in Normandy, John was trying the effect of a most audaciotisfalsfhoudin England. Well knowing that few indeed among the barons would for his sake consent to set aside the hero of Palestine, Jolin boldly tried how far their credulity would go, and, pretending that he had received undoubted news of the death of his brother, demanded the crown as his heir. Ho possessed himself of the important castles of Windsor and Walling- ford; but the lords justiciaries were so well convinced that Richard still lived, that they and the barons by whom they were supported opposed the would-be usurper so gallantly and so effectually, that he was fain to sue for a truce, and before the term of it had expired he took refuge at the court of Philip of France. It is scarcely possible to conceive a case more hopeless than that of the royal pri- soner. His own brother plotting against himt the papal court lukewarm in his cause, if not even possessed by a still worse feeling; already in the power of an enemy, and hourly expecting to be handed over to the custody of an enemy still more em- bittered ; the proud Richard was at the same time subjected to every petty hard- ship and gallii:^ indignity which might be supposed likely to exasperate his spirit and incline him to offer the higher ransom for his release. Philip caused his amba«!sndurs to renounce all protection of Richard as his vassal; and when it was hoped that tlie cai)tive'8 spirit was greatly broken by con- tinued ill usage, he was produced bcl'orc the imperial diet at the city of Worms, and there accused by the emperor of having made alliance with Tancred the usurper of Sicily ; of having at Cyprus turned the arms of the crusaders against a Christian prince, those arms which were especially and solely di'voted to the chas'tiscnient and quelling of the intidels ; of having grievously wronged and insulted Leopold, duke of Austria, while that prince was lighting for the cross before Acre ; of having by his quarrels with the king of France injured the Christian cause in the East ; of having planned and caused the murder of Conrad, marquis of Montferrat; and, finally, of having con- cluded a truce with the intidel Saladin, and left Jerusalem in his hands. If Richard's enemies calculated upon his sufferings having tamed his spirit, they were soon un- deceived ; if those sufferings were severe, so was his spirit high. His speech, as summed up by Hume, is a model nf that best kind of eloquence, which springs from a sense of right, and is clothed in the brief and biting sentences of sheer and shrewd common- sense. " After premising that his dignity might exempt him from answering before any jurisdiction except that of heaven, he yet condescended, for the sake of his repu- tation, to justify his conduct before that great asscnihlv. He observed that he had no hand in '["ancred's elevation, and only concluded a treaty with a prince wliom ho found in possession of the throne ; that the king, or rather the tyrant, of Cyprus, had provoked his indignation by the most ungenerous and unjust proceedings, and though he had chastised this agi;rcssor, he had not for a moment retarded the progress of his chief enterprize ; that if he had at anjr time been wanting in civility to the duke of Austria, he had already been suffi- ciently punished for that sally of passion, and it better became men who were em- barked together in so holy a cause to for- give each others infirmities, than to pursue a slight offence with such unrelenting ven- geance; that it had sufficiently appeared y the event whether the king of France or he were the more zealous for the conquest of the Holy Land, and were more likely to sacrifice private passions and animosities to that great object ; that if the whole tenor of his life had not shown him incapable of a base assassination, and justified him from that imputation even in the eyes of his very enemies, it was in vain for him at present to make his apology or to plead the many irrefragable arguments which he could pro- duce in his own favour; and, finally, how- ever he might regret the necessity, he was so far from being ashamed of his truce with Saladin, that he rather gloried in that event, and thought it extremely honourable that, though abandoned by all the world, supported only by his own courage and by the small remains of his national troops, he could yet obtain such conditions from the most powerful and most warlike em- peror that the east had ever yet produced. After thus deigning to apologize for his conduct, he burst out into indignation at the cruel treatment which he had met with; that he, the champion of the cross, still wearing that honourable badge, should, after expending the blood and treasure of his subjects in the common cause of Chris- tendom, be intercepted by Christian prin- ces on his return to his own country, be thrown into a dungeon, be loaded with irons, be obliged to plead his cause os though he were a subject and a malefactor, and what he still more regretted, bo there- by prevented from making preparations for a new crusade which he had projected, after the expiration of the truce, and from re- deeming the sepulchre of Christ which had so long been profaned by the dominion of the infidels." The force of Richard's reasoning and the obviousjustice of his complaints won nearly all present to his side; the German princes themselves cried shame upon the conduct of the emperor, whom the pope even threat* enedwith excommunication. The emperor now, therefore, perceived that it would bo impossible for him to complete liis ineffably base purpose of giving up to Philip of France and the base and cruel prince John the person of Richard in exchange for sor- did gold ; and as it seemed unsafe even to continue to confine him, the emperor con- sented to his relief at a ransom of 150,0(10 marks; two-thirds to be paid previous to Richard's release, and sixty-seven hostages a h SE :i TO KtVV.CT TUB KINO's HANSOM TUK KINGDOM WAS OtMTK IMFOVKItlSIIRn. TUB USE OF TllK CnOSS-BOW WAS REVIVED IN THIS REIGN. irone ; that the jf Cyprus, had by the most oceeding's, and 8 aggressor, he ed the progress it if he had at civility to the !ady been suffl- illy of passion, who were em- i cause to for- than to pursue nrelenting ven- sntly appeared ig of France or r the conquest more likely to nd animosities ;he whole tenor a incapable of tified him from eyes of his very him at present lead tlie many li he could pro- , tinally, how- lessity, he was i of his truce gloried in that ely honourable all the world, Jurage and by itional troops, mditions from it warlike em- yet produced, ilogize for his indignation at he had met of the cross, badge, should, nd treasure of ausn of Chris- hristian prin- a country, be loaded with his cause as a malefactor, ted, bo there- i Eparations for rojectcd, after and from re- Christ whicli the dominion )ning and the ts won nearly rinan princes the conduct pven threat- The emperor ; it would be B his ineffably to Philip of prince John ange for sor- isafe even to inpcror con- m of 150,000 previous to tren huBtaKes j LisuDn. Id s n K I < a a H) lEnglantJ.— ^lantagcncts. — IRUIjaiti I. 145 H « H ■< n a •« N H 14 a o Id N h M u H M to be at the same time delivered to secure the laitUIul payment ot the remainder. Ilenryat llio s.i.ne time made over to Rich- ard certain old but ill ascertained claims of the empire upon the kiiiKdom of Aries, including Provence, Dauphiuy, Narbonne, nnd some other territory. A hundred thousand marks, equivalent to above two hundred thousand pouuds of our money, was a sum to raise which re- quired no' small exertion on the part of Richard's friends. The king's ransom was one of the cases for which the feudal law made express provision. But as it was found that the sum of twenty shillings which was levied upon each knight's fee did not make up the money with the rapi- dity which friendly and patriotic zeal re- quired, great individual exertions were made, the clergy and nobility giving large suras beyond what could have fairly been demanded of them, and the churches and religion' houses actually melting down their iiliUe to the amount of .10,000 marks. As soon as the money by these extraordi- nary exertions was got together, queen Eleanor, accompanied by the archbishop of Rouen, went to Mentz and there paid it to the emperor, to whom she at the same time delivered the hostages for the pay- ment of the remainder. There was some- thing perfectly providential in the haste made by the friends of Richard; for had there been the least delay, he would have been sacriiiccd to the treacherous policy of the emperor, who, anxious to obtain the support of the king of France against the threatening discontent of the Germau princes, was induced to determine upon perpetuating the captivity of Richard, even after the release of that prince on the pay- ment of the money and the delivery of tlie specified number of hostages. The emperor liad so fully determined upon this flagitious breach of faith, that he actually sent mes- sengers to arrest Richard, who, however, hiui jailed and was out of sight of land ere they reached Antwerp. Richard was re- ceived most rapturously by his faithful subjects, and, as if anxious to wijie away the stain of incarceration, hn revived the custom which his father had allowed to fall into neglect, of renewing the ceremony of coronation. " Take care of yourself," wrol e Philip to John, " the devil has broken loose." Tlie barons in council assembled, however, were far more terrible to the ungrateful John than his fiery yet placable brother; for they confiscated the whole of John's English property, and took possession of all the fortresses that were in the hands of his partizans. Having made some stay in England to rest himself after his many fatigues, and having found his popularity proof even agoinst the somewhat perilous test to which he put it by an arbitrary resumption of all the grants of land which, previous to going to the Eost, he had made with an improvi- dence as remarkable as his present want of honesty, Richard now turned his atten- tion to punishing the wanton and perse- vering enmity of Philip of France. A war ensued, but it was weakly conducted on both sides, and a truce was at length made between them for a year. At the com- mencement of this war John was on the side of Philip ; but, as if incapable of being faithful even in wickedness, he took an op- portunity to desert, and having secured the powerful intercession of queen Eleanor, he ventured to throw himself at the feet of Richard and entreat his pardon. " May I as easily forget his injuries as he will my forgiveness!" was the shrewd remark of Richard on forgiving his unnatural brother. The truce between England and France being at an end, the emperor of Germany solicited Richard's offensive alliance against France, and though circumstances occurred to prevent the treaty with the emperor from being ratified, the mere proposal suf- ficed to renew the war between Richard and Philip ; but on this occasion, as before, the operations were conducted most weakly andonavery insignificant scale, [a.d. 1196.] After some petty losses on each side a peace was made ; but the kings were too inimical to each other to remain long at rest, and in about two months hostilities were recommenced. On this occasion Richard was joined by the counts of Flanders, Boulogne, Cham- pagne, and Toulouse, and by some other of his fellow-vassals of the crown of France ; but the alliance was thus productive of for Icfs benefit than Richard had anticipated. The prelates of that day were more fre- ouently than became them found on the battle field. On one occasion during this war the bishop of Beauvais, a relative of the French king, was taken prisoner in battle, and Richard loaded him with irons and threw him into prison, as though he had been the vilest of malefactors. The pope, at the instance of the king of France, demanded the release of the valiant bisho]i, of whom he spoke as being " his sou." Richard, with a dry and bitter humour of which he seems to have possessed no in- considerable share, sent to the pope the bloodstained armour which the prelate hod worn in the battle, and quoted the words ot Jacob's sons, " this have we found ; know now whether it be thy son's coat or no." How long the alternation of weak war and ill kept peace would have continued it is impossible to judge, for tiie brutal cruelty which both kings exercised upon their pri- soners indicated a feeling of malignity too deep to be destroyed by the elTorts of nego- ciators ; but while such efforts were being made by the cardinal St. Mary, the pope's legate, Richard, who had escaped in so many furious conflicts both in the East and m Europe, perished from the cB'ect of a petty wound received in a petty quarrel. A.D. 1199. — Vidomar, viscount of Limoges, who was a vassal of Richard's, found some treasure and sent a considerable share as a present to him ; Richard demanded that all should be given up to him as superior lord, and, on receiving a refusal, led some troops I to the siege of the cnstlo of Chains, in IT WAS Fn05I A CIIOSS-BOW TUAT RICIIAnD JIBT HIS Dl lU, [O HICHABD 3 MUSCVLAU POWER WAS ONLY EQUALLED BY UIS VALOUR. 146 '(El)t ^reasunj of llistonj, §cc. which the viscount was staying. On the approach of Richard at the head of a nu- merous force of BrabaiKjons, the garrison ottered to surrender on terms, but Richard cruelly replied that he would iirst take the place and then hang up every man of the garrison. After making this reply, which, unhappily, was only too characteristic of his temper, Richard, attended by one of his captains, approached the walls to recon- noitre, and had an arrow lodged in his shoulder by an archer, named Bcrtrand de Gourdon. Almost at the same moment Rich- ard gave the order for the assault, and on the place being taken he literally put his threat into execution upon the garrison, with the sole exception of de Gourdon, who was only temporarily spared that he might have the cruel distinction of a slower and more painful death. Richard was so much man- gled by the awkwardness with which the barbed arrow was drawn from his wound, that mortification rapidly set in, and the monarch felt that his last hour approached. Causing de Gourdon to be brought into his presence, he demanded how he had ever injured him. " With your own hand, tirmly replied the prisoner, "you slew my father and my two brothers. You also threatened to hang me in common with my fellow- soldiers. I am now in your power, but I shall be consoled under the worst tortures that you can cause to be intlioted upon me while I can reflect that I have been able to rid the earth of such a nuisance." Richard, softened by pain and the near aspect of death, ordered that the bold archer should be set at liberty and presented with a con- siderable sum of money ; but Marcadee, the leader of the Brabangons in whose companyRichard was wounded, brutally had de Gourdon flayed alive and then hanged. Richard's wound defied the rude science of his surgeons, and after considerable suffer- ing he died on the nth of April, 1 199, in the forty-second year of his age and the tenth of his reign — a reign very brilliant as regards his warlike feats, but in all the high and really admirable qualities of a monarch very sadly deficient. His conduct was in some particular cases not merely oppressive, as regarded his ways of raising: money, but absolutely dishonest. As, for instance, he twice in his reign gave orders that all charters should be resealed, the parties in each case having, of course, to pay the fees ; and in many cases taxes were in- flicted upon particular parties without any other authority than the king's mere will. But it was chiefly in the re-enactment of all the worst parts of the forest laws, those parts which inflicted the most cruel and disgusting mutilations upon the offenders. But while this particular branch of law was shamefully severe, the police of Loudon and other gri>at towns was in an equally lux state. Robbery and violence in the streets were very common; and at one time, in 1190, a lawyer named Fitioahert, sur- nunied Longbeard, had acquired a vast and dangerous power over the worst rabble of London, numbering nearly flfty thousand, who under his orders for some time set t:.e ill consolidated authorities at defiance. When called upon by the chief justiciary to give an account of his conduct, he attended with so numerous a rabble, that the justi- ciary deemed it unsafe to do more with him at that time than merely call upon hira to give hostages for his future good behaviour. But the justiciary took measures for keep- ing a watchful eye upon Fitzosbert, and at length attempted to take him into custody, on which he, with his concubine and some attendants, took refuge in Bow church, where he defended himself very resolutely, but was at length taken and hanged. So infatuated were the populace, however, that the very gibbet upon which this man was executed was stolen, and it was pretended that pieces of it could work miracles in curing the diseased. Though so fiery in temper, and so excessively addicted to bloodshed, Richard was by no means des- titute of a certain vein of tenderness and romance. He prided hin-self pretty nearly as much upon his skill as a troubadour as upon bis feats as a warrior, and there are even some of his compositions extant. On the whole, however, we fear that the popu- larity of Richard does little credit either to his contemporaries or his posterity as far as good judgment is concerned. Brilliant qua- lities he undoubtedly had; but his cruelty and his dogged self-will threw a blemish over them all. CHAPTER XXII. The Reign of John. A.D. 1199.~When Richard went to Pa- lestine he by a formal will set aside the claim of John to be his successor, in favour of Arthur of Brittany, the son of their brother Geoffrey. But during Richard's absence John caused the prelates and no- bles to swear fealty to him in despite of that deed ; and Richard, on his return to England, so far from showing any desire to disturb that arrangement, actually in his last will constituted John his successor, in direct contradiction to his own former and formal deed. But though John was thus authoritatively named as his brother's suc- cessor, many of the barons of Normandy thought the right of youn^ Arthur wholly indefensible by even the \^ill of his uncle ; and Philip, who was glad of any opportu- nity to injure the peace of the English ter- ritories in France, cheerfully agreed to aid them in the support of the young prince, whom he sent to Paris to be educated with his own son. John acted with unusual alertnL'8s and good judgment on this occa- sion. ESi'iiding his mother Eleanor to secure the provinces of Guienne and Poictou, where she was greatly beloved, he himself proceeded to Rouen, and having made all the arrangements necessary to Keep peace in Normandy, he proceeded thence to Eng- land. Here he found little or uo difficulty in causing his claim to be preferred to that of a mere boy ; and having received the homage of all the most powerful barong, he LONDON OBTAINED MANY OP ITS FBITILEOBS IN RICHABD's REION. )UB. me time set n 1 at detiance. « 1 justiciary to a , he attended lat tliejusti- ore with him M H 1 upon him to )d behaviour. H res for keep- a sbert, and at K into custody. 3 ne and some c low church. u u < ry resolutely. hanged. So lowever, tliat H bis man was as pretended Ph miracles in K 1 so tiery in tH addicted to ^ > means des- tf aderness and 0! pretty nearly D roubadour as nd there are ^ ^ 1 extant. On H lat the popu- M edit either to N erity as far as M Brilliant qua- 09 it his cruelty s 2W a blemish < [. • went to Pa- M let aside the < sor, in favour Q son of their < ig Richard's a ' ates and no- in despite of lis return to any desire to « tually in his < successor, in > 1 former and H in was thus B rother's suc- O (f Normandy rtliur wholly •< if his uncle ; c any opportu- » English ter- a igreed to aid « oung prince, m lucated with ^ 'ith unusual >n this occa- p lor to secure nd Poictou, , he himself QK made all ) Keep peace t» < !nce to Eng- u no difficulty Pt !rred to that eceived the il barons, he ON. A.D. liOO. A SYSOD AT WESTMINSTER TO UKGIILATE OIVINB SEnVICB. •iinglantJ '^lantagencts. — 3io]^n. 147 hastened to France to prepare the neces- sary opposition to whatever exertions Phi- lip might make on behalf of young Arthur. A. D. 1200.— The actions between John and Pliilip were of but little importance; and the latter having inspired young Ar- thur's mother with the notion that he sought to benefit himself rather than her son, seized upon an opportunity to with- draw Arthur from the French court, and placed him under the protection of John. Finding their mutual want of power to ob- tain any great and permanent advantage by war, the two kinjts now made a treaty, in which the limits of their several territories were laid down with great exactitude ; nine barons of each nation swore respectively to maintain the 'reaty in good faith, even should it be necessary to make war upon their own sovereign, and still farther to en- sure its due and faithful observance John gave his niece, Blanche of Castile, with certain fiefs as her dower, to prince Louis, eldest son of the French king. Being thus relieved from all apparent danger on the side of France, John, though he had a wife living, determined to gratify bis passion for Isabella, heiress of the count of Angouleme, though she was already married to the count de la Marche, her youth alone having hitherto prevented the consummation of the union. John, reckless of the double difticulty, persuaded Isabella's father to give him his daughter, whom he espoused after having very unceremoniously divorced his lawful wife. A. n. 1201. — The count de la Marche, in the higlit'st degree provoked at the tlagrant and insolent wrong that thus was done him, found it no diflicult task to excite commotions in Poictou and Normandy ; tlis barons there, as elsewhere in John's domi- nions, being already very much offended and disgusted by the mixture of weakness and insolence in which, probably, John has never been equalled Alarmed as well as enraged by the disobedience of his French barons, John determined to punish them ; but on summoning the chivalry of England to cross the sea with him for that purpose, he was met by a demand that, before they crossed over to restore his authority in his transmarine dominions, they should have their privileges restored and placed upon a secure footing. Their demand was not at- tended to on the present occasion, but this union of the barons led, as we shall here- after see, to the most important and exten- sive consequences. On the present occa- sion John contrived to break up the coali- tion of the barons, some of whom agreed to to nccompany him on his expedition, while the rest were mulcted two marks on each knight's fee as a substitute for their per- sonal attendance. The addition of the force he carried from England to that which remained faithful to him in Normandy gave John an ascendancy which, rightly used, might have spared him many a subsequent hour of care. But it W.1S contrary to John's nature to make a right use of power ; and the moment he found himself safe from the infliction of injustice he was seized with an unj^overn- able desire to inflict it upon others- He advanced claims which he knew to be un- just ; and as disputes of the feudal kind were chiefly to be settled by the duel, he constantly kept about him skilful and des- perate bravos whose business it was to act as his 'champions in cases of appeal of duel. The C( ant de la Marche and other high- spiritc barons complained of the indignity offered to them in thus opposing to them, as htting antagonists, men whose low birth and infamous character made them unwor- thy of the notice of warriors of good l)irth and gentle breeding, appealed to Philip as their superior lord, and called upon him to protect them against the wantonness of John's tyranny. Pliilip, who saw all the advantages which miglit possibly accrue to himself, affected the part of a just lord ; and John, who could not disavow Philip's au- thority without at the same time striking at his own, promised that by granting his barons an equitable judgment in bis own court he would deprive them both of the right and the necessity of appealing to the superior court of Philip. Again and again his promises were renewed, but only to be broken; Philip, finding that his sense of honour alone was no security, deinnnded that the castles of Boufavant and Tillerics should be placed in his hands as security for justice being done to the barons. John was too weak to resist this demand ; hut he was also too iKithlcss to keep his firomisc, which was broken just as it would lave been had he given no security what- ever. A.D. 1203. — Young Arthur of Brittany, who was now springing into manhood and who had a very decided taste for warfare, had by this time seen enouuih of the cruel and tyrannous character of bis uncle to feel that he was not in safety while livmg with him ; he therefore made his escape to Phi- lip, who received him with the ulinoPt distinction, knighted him, gave him liis daughter Mary in marriage, and invested him not only with his hereditary Brittany, but also with Anjou and Maine. The French army was for a time successful in every attempt; Tilleries and Boutavnut, Mortimar and Lyons, were taken almost without difficulty ; and Gournay, cnnipletply flooded by a stratagem of Philip, was abandoned to him by the astounded garri- son. At each new loss, John, timid in ad- versity as he was despotic and unspnrin;; in prosperity, made new endeavours to obtain peace ; but the sole condition upon which Philif would now ci>nsent to even listen to his proposals, was his full resignation of all his territory on the continent to prince Ar- thur. An accident at length occurred which changed the prospects of that young prince, with fearful rapidity, from the utmost suc- cess to the most complete ruin. Well knowing how much his grandmother, queen Eleanor, had ever been opposed to his wel- fare, and hearing that she was in the for- tress of Mirabeau, iu Poictiers, and but A.D. 1202.— ASSIZB 01' BRBAD FIRST FIXBD THR''UQHOUT ENOLAMU. A. B. 1204. — CONSTASTISOrLE TAKKN BY TUB FUKNCII AND VEWRTIAN3. 148 ^I)c ITicasuru of ISistfiry, ^'c. ■lenderly attended, it occurred to him tlint if he could obtain possession of tier person he wouldobtain the means of exercising; con- siderable influence upon his uncle's mind, and he accordingly sat down to besiege the place, the fortilications of which promised uo very long resistance. John, though at some distance when he was informed of his mother's danger, hastened to her as- sistance with a speed very unusual to him, surprized young Arthur's camp, disperscil his forces, and took Arthur, together with the count de la Marche and other distin- guished leaders of the revolted barona, pri- soners. Most of the prisoners were for greater security shipped off to England; but Arthur was confined in the castle of Falaise, where he was speedily admitted to the dangerous honour of an interview with his tyrannical uncle. John reproached Ar- thur less with the injustice of his cause in general, than with the folly of his expecting to derive any permanent advantage from the French alliance, which would keep liira at variance with his own family, merely to make him a tool ; a view of the case which was none the less correct because taken by a prince of whose general character a just man finds it impossible to approve. Ar- thur, brave and sanguine, asserted that his claim was superior to that of his uncle, and that not only as regarded the French terri- tories, but as regarded England also ; and he called upon John to listen to the voice of justice and restore him to his rights. Historians differ as to the way in which John freed himself from a competitor whose early boldness promised at no distant day to give him much trouble. We have al- ways doubt-ed the exact accuracy of all these accounts, for the timidity and distrust which formed so principal a part of John's unamiable character would surely never have deserted him so far on so terribly serious an occasion, as would be implied by his proceeding being known with cir- cumstantial acCTiracy. All that seems to' us to be certain upon the very painful subject is, that after a stormy interview with his uncle young Ar- thar itiaa seen no more for some time. A report got intovery general circulation that he had been unfairly dealt with. Such, it seems, was not the case as yet. The king, it is affirmed, had applied to William de la Uray to put the young prince to death, but he nobly replied that he was a gentleman, not an assassin or a hangman. A less scrupulous person was at length found and sent to the castle of Falaise ; but he was sent away by Hubert de Burgh, the go- vernor of the fortress, with the assurance that he would himself do what was neces- sary ; — which humane deception he followed up by spreading a report of the prince's death, and even going through the form of his funeral. But when the death of the young prince was thus authoritatively as- serted, the general .HI character of John caused him to be universally pointed at as the murderer J and Hubert de Burgh, fear- ing that all Brittany would break out into revolt, confessed the innocent deception he had practised. John no sooner learned that his unfortunate nephew still lived, than he ordered his removal from the custody of the faithful and humane De Burgh, and had him taken to the castle of Kouen. Here John visited Arthur iu the dead of night, and, though the young prince is s.<\id to have knelt to him and prayed for his life, stabbed him with his own hand. That John was capable of even this ex- treme atrocity we have unfortunately too much reason to gather from the universal detestation in which he was held by his contemporaries. But though there is little reason to duubt that Arthur perished by the order, at least, if not by the very hand, of his uncle, we would again direct the at- tention of the reader to the too great parti- cularity of this account, in the first place, and to a discrepancy between the natural character of Arthur and that part of the story which represents him as kneeling in terror to his uncle. The story savours somewhat moro than it should uf a scene from Shakspenre, whoso dramatic genius it would be idle to question, but whose his toric authority we should be loth to piu our faith upon. But though it is Fcnrcely probable that so wily a pel-son as Jolin would allow the details of his tyrannous cruelty to be thus brought before the world, and though his personal timidity rendered him as unlikely to have undertaken with his own hand the murder of Arthur, as it was that this high hearted young prince would show any ter- ror, even in the death hour, the universal belief of John's contemporaries was that he, whether with his own hand or not, caused Arthur's death ; and loud and ter- rible was the outcry of the people of Brit- tany, to whom Arthur was as dear as his wily and cruel uncle was hateful. Eleanor, Arthur's sister, was in the power of John, who kept her closely confined in England; but the Bretons, resolved to do anything rather than willingly acknowledge the sway of John, chose for their sovereisrn young Alice the daughter of Constance by her second husband, Guy de Thouars, to whom they committed the' affairs of the duchy as guardian of his daughter, and they at the same time appealed to Philip as superior lord to do justice upon John for his violence to Arthur, who was feudatory to France. Philip summoned John to appear before him, and, in default of his doing so, he was declared a felon and sentenced to forfeit all seignory and fief in France to his superior lord, Philip. No one who has accurately read what has already been related of the shrewd, grasp- ing, and somewhat cunning character of Philip, can doubt that, from the first, he took up the cause of young Arthur less with a view to the benefit of that young prince, than in the hope that the chapter of accidents would enable him, sooner or later, to deprive the English crown of some portion, if not all, of its French appanages. And the appeal of his Bretons to his jus- M I h O A. D. 1204. — ly TUis YisAn Tur, inquisition was fibst bstablishbd. [Icception he learned that red, tlian he ustody of the gh, and lind ouen. Here :ad of niKht, e is said to i for liis life, d. iven this ex- •tunately too the universal held by his there is little perished by he very hand, livcct the at- o great parti- le first place, .1 the natural t part of the ,s kneeling in story savours lid of a scene latic Rcnius it ul whose hid c loth to pill probr.hle that luld allow the ;lty to be thus id though his im as unlikely own hand the hat this high show any ter- the universal jies «ii3 that liand or not, loud and ter- leople of Brit- dear as his ■ful. Eleanor, lower of John, in England; do anything dge the sway ereisrn young tance by her Liars, to whom the duchy as id they at the p as superior or his violence ry to France, ippcar bel'ore iUg so, he was to forfeit all his superior rend what has lirewd, grasp- character of the first, he , Arthur less )f that young the chapter im, sooner or irown of some ;h appanages, is to his jus- BIIBD. MA«T SCHOOLS WXRB KSTABLISHBD IN KNOLAND AT THIS rSBIOD. lEnglantf.— ^Plantagcncta. — Slo^n. ]49 J > H £ M a > o H H a H tice, the unwise advantage afforded to him by John's default of appearance, and the unanimous sentence of the French peers, now seemed to give him something like a substantial and judicial right as against John, . ,. f The exertions and sagacious policy of Henry would have evoked French opposi- tion to any such attempt ; that skilful poli- tician would have found but little diffi- culty in leading the French barons to ab- stain from endeavouring to add to the authority of their superior lord, lest in so doing they should ensure their own ruin. Neither would it have been safe to try such a plan while the Lion-hearted Richard lived to shout his tierce battle-cry in that popu- lar voice which would have been heard in hall and tower, ind which would no where have been unheeded where chivalry still abode. But John, destitute alike of cou- rage, popularity, and of true policy, was little likely to unravel or defeat a dexterous policy or long to withstand actual force, hated as he was even by his own barons. The opportunity was the more tempting to Philip, because those of his great vassals who would have been the most likely to oppose his aggrandizement were either ab- sent, or so much enraged against John, that their desire to annoy him and abridge the power he had so shamefully abused, over- came in their minds all tendency to a cooler and more sellish style of reasoning. Philip took several of the fortresses si- tuated beyond the Loire, some of which he garrisoned for himself, while others he wholly destroyed; and his early successes were followed up by the surrender to him, by the count d'Alen<;on, of all the places which he had been • utrusted to hold for John. Elated by this success, aud desirous to rest his troops, Philip disembodied them for the season. John, enraged by all that had passed in this brief campaign, took advantage of this too-confident movement of Philip, and sat down before Alenijon with a strong army. But if Philip was ca- pable of committing a military error, he was equally capable of seizing upon the readiest means of repairing it. To delay while he was re-collecting his scattered troops would be to expose the count to the whole force, and, in the case of de- feat, to the whole vengeance, too, of John. But it fortunately happened that the most eminent nobles, not only of France but also of Italy and Gi-rmany, were at this very time assembled at a splendid tournament at Moret. Hither Philip directed his course, gave a vivid description of the evil charac- ter of John, of his own disinterested desire to punish the craven felonry of that prince, and of the danger in which the count d'Alen^on was placed by his devotion to truth and chivalry, which had led him to dare the vengeance of one who was well known to be unsparing after the stricken field, as craveu while the tide of battle still rolled ; and he called upon the assembled chivalry, as they valued their noble and ancient names, to follow him to the worthy task of aiding a gallant and honourable noble against a vastardly and adjudged felon. Such an appeal, made to such hearts, could receive but one answer. Like one man, the assembled knights followed Philip to the plains of Alen^on, resolved, at whatever cost, to raise the siege. But John saved them all trouble on that score. His conscience told him that there were men in that brave host who, if he should chance to be made prisoner, would be likely to take fearful vengeance fur the untimely death of young Arthur; and he would not even await their approach, but raised the siege in such haste that he actually left all his tents and baggage of every description behind to be captured by the enemy. For some time John kept his court at Rouen, showing no other feeling than u most ludicrous confidence in his own re- sources whenever he should determine to make use of them. When information was brought to him of some new success on the part of the French, he would reply " Ah 1 let them go on ; by and by I will just retake in a single day what they have spent years in taking." Such conduct naturally disgusted the brave barons of England and the English provinces, and weakened their desire to combat for a prince who seemed so obsti- nately bent upon their disgrace and his own ruin. But though he had neglected those means of defence of which his brother would have been even too eager to avail himself, there was one resource of which John had not neglected to avail himself; he had humbly and pressingly appealed to Rome. Such appeals were always gladly received at that ambitious court, and Philip received a peremptory command to make peace with John, and abstain from trench- ing any farther upon his territory. But Philip had inspired his barons with a hatred equal to that which he himself felt for John; and, regardless of any possible injury which their own authority might suffer from the undue aggrandizement of their king, they loudly assured him that he should have their cordial support against all foes whosoever, and as loudly denied the right of the pope to the temporal authority which he thus took upon himself to exercise. Encouraged by this disposition of his ba rons, Philip, instead of complying with the orders of the pope, proceeded to lay siege to the chateau Gaillard, which was the most important fortress that was now left to de- fend the Norman frontier. A.n. 1204. — This place was admirably strong both by nature and by art. Built partly upon an islet of the Seine and partly upon an opposite crag, neither labour nor expence had been spared upon it; and nt this very time it was held by a numerous garrison commanded by Roger dc Lacy, constable of Chester, a leader of deter- mined courage as well as of great skill. Philip, thinking it more facile to take such a place, so garrisoned, by famine than by main force, threw n bridge across the Seine, where he posted a part of his force. a H la O « Q IE < n M H to ALMOST EVBRT CONVENT A OOOO SEMINARY WAS ATTACHEn. [0 3 i> III i I IM rHH I't.itnov rHAcriNPii riiviid, ani> rtoiiinii ir Ai * irmricN. mill hr liliiiiirif nt llio liciiil iif llir rriiimi)- lv )('« liliM'kiuIr liy liiml. 'I'lic oiirl III' rriiilii'iiko, liv liir llto nlili">t pi'i'imli %liiiiii .liiliii llini linit iiliiiiil liiiii.nMiii'iiililril n I'mi-i' III' I'liiir tlinnniiiiil I'mil iiiiil lliriT tliiiioiiiiil liiii'! iiiiliirt iilitniiiril riiiiio I'liimiiliu'- nlili' iiilvmilnH'iMivpr I'liilip; liiil llio wi'tillior cImiiriiiK til i-cliinl tlir ||imily mill liy iilitlii, iioooi'iliiiK to ilm ciirl''* |i'.iiii, it linil iiiiiiit |ii-iilinlily lii'iMi iiiiiiiiiiiii'iii liy ilrl'riit, wrr ho miii-li itliii'imi'iiKi'il iiy Ilm ill Huri'om ol' llip riirl, Hint III' coiilil not III' iiiiliiooil III iiinki< niiy t'ni'llior nll(*m|it In rolirvr tliin iiii|ioi'tmit fiirircnii, iIioiikIi mii|tli' ii|i|iiirliiiilly miil in- lilli'i'tiioiiln wn'i' iirt'i'l'Oil to lliiil III ilo ml liy till' unllmil I'oiiiliiot ol' lli> l>iiov, w lio I'oi- n wlitiU" yi'iir ('oiilliiui'il lo ili'l'i'iii\ liiiiiM'lf, in ■iMlc ol' Kicnt milViTiiiir I'l'iiiii wniit iil' jiiovi- moil. Ill' wn« III Iriix'lli ovcriiowi'iTil lit n liiH'lil ntlnrk, niiii lii< niiii liiswiioUi ftni'i'iKou iiiiiilr iiiinoiioi'!!. To tlio oroilil of liiili|i, III' rUowoiI liin Ki'iini' of till' fourniti' niul tiili'lily Willi w'liii'li !><' dni'v linil I'liiiliiiiii-il lo m'nr lii» ninslrr rviMi nflor lir li;iil lii'oii hIiuiuIoiii'iI Iiv Ikiii, liy KiviiiK liiio for liiri |ilm'i' of ooiitiiit'.iieiit till' wliolo oxti-iil of llin oily of l'nvi». It i«">liilli'iitt lo uiiilor«tmul tlii' iiltor in- iloloiu'O mill nioiiiim-itv wliioli coiilil iiulin'c .Kiliii to lU'itlrol till' ivlii'f of I'lintoiUi tlnil- lnrl iirrfi'i'lly illuilMloil liy llii' Buocosiics wliii'U riiilii' olitmiiril nrtor its cniitiirt'. l''nl!ii»i', i'licii, ('oiitmu't', Kwoiiv, Uiiyi'ux, mill ollioi" forirodsos suoi-rssivi-ly fi'll into Uiii lijiiiilsi l.iiiiii'nii'i', n lli'nlimii,Hiii lonilor, to whom .lohn lind ontrtiMicil ilio ilofiMU'o of tlio first iinnii'il (ilioc, «li'si>rtril with nil hi!i mm to the stmiilHrd of rhiliii, mill while tho lowi'i- divinioii of Niiniimn(y was thu^ ovi'rriui liy llii' I'Voiu'li uiiilor I'hilip, I'lipi-r Noniinsiily wns oiiloivil by the Urotoii!" uiiiU'r tiiiy ill' 'llioiinr.'i, who look Avrniu'hos, MonI St. Miobol, mul tho other MiMii); hoKls of tlint V"'''- I'ri's'seil thim liy nu noiive prince, who wns nervoil by uiou of eo'.iiluet nml oonrnue, mul utterly nbnniloneil by John, whose linsty nnil sceret driinrtiur for Kniihiml niii^ht nlniost be onllrtl M t\ig;ht, the Normans hitil no re- source but to submit to I'hilip, niueh ns they liislikotl the iiloa of subjootiou to tho French irovcrnment. A.o. I'.'ivi. — As there was stillaportion of the Norinnns who, though nliiiutloneilhythc king of UnglHuil,(tc(ormineit to defer, if not wholly III nviilil, I heir siihliilsnlon lo I'hilip, Uoiini, ArK'Hi'i, nml Vrrni'iill eiiiileilcrntrii for thin pur pone, i'hilip iniini'iliiilely ml vmi- ceil his triiiipii nxniiisl the llrii iiiiuii'd eilv, the liihnhilmiu of which siKiinli/.nii their iiikli'cd of i''riiiicc Iiv fiolliwilli piillliiK to licnlli every iiuiii ol' I lint iinii< r I o u H i Ion to Philip. roiifiMlrrntfil tiiilrly iiilvnii- I iiiiiiii'il rllv, :iu
  • .tMl ilii'lr li |iiiltlllK ti> Inn \\lli> >vi\n ii'l nil' rwriOy itimni liy II" Hi> oC ilciim'rn- lUR liuti'licry. i I i'diiiiiioiicimI , j III'!' of lliiriy 1 ; iiiiiii iiuTOur I , II) wi'll iiniU'i'- J I, mill tliiTi'- ■ lit iiliitiiildtii'd ! I lUrly to uliKW ' I )|u< Simpin l>Hom whom ho ; It nil! or cu- , to whoiD.iii tlio llrotous i\miMit. This ostniU'suindo rthe sntVtyof t of I A. O.il0t<^»TiiM nMrr.niiu or uauMANt thin xuau viaifMB irsiunv. ISnalautf. - '^lanm0tuci». -Joljiu 151 Itrlltniiy, nnil ihi-rrforo inmlo n (iropo«i(ion to John for llii'ii' .iiiiii'lloti nKMiii.iiili'riiliU> tiirni niut liiiiilril in mifi'ty iil ItiirhiMli', wliciii'i' lio iniiirlii'il to Aiikith, wliii'li / iiptiiird mill liiinird. riiilipiiow riiphlly nppi'oiirhrd, niid Jiiliii, hrroiniiii^ iilai'iiii'il, Kniri-d liiiii! liy iiinkiiiK iiropn'oilii fill' priici!, uml tlit'ii nivorlly llfil Imck lo Kiiulaiid, mifo, linli'i'd, in piTaoii, lint hiiiili'd with diKKniri' mid riiiitciiipl, which toiiiiyoiio li'«< ili'linm'd in ni'iiliniont would liiivr hfon fur iiioi'o tcrrililo tliiiii ilriiili it- Ri'll'. ThiiH nil iliu viiit HiiiiiM whirli Jolin lind oxiorli'd from liia Imroiin, iiiidrr |iro- ti'iii'i! of ri'covcrinit liia lost I'oiiliiift in Kiiiiiro, wcro cxpi-iidcd, not in ri'piiirliiK I III- loa.i, hut ill addiiiK ill.i|{rtioi! uiid di.iKuat III It. Wii liavn nirciidy rpiimrUrd Hint it wna n^liiiiinhiiiK tliiit lli'ry niid iiiiirlinl iiiimi cimhl no Ioiik I'liiliirr llic diiiiiry rxli'iisivii piiwiT which the very nature of till- Icudiil li'iiiirc ({avc in reality, and thn mill urciitcr power which it pivc in idea, lo till' Norniiin miveri'iniis. It in to be coiiki- diTi'il, luiwcver, that tliia grent power, wielded an it lind heen liy the art of koiiio of JoIiii'k preileeesNom mid tlio nmrllal energy of ol hers, was not to he eilhei- easily or early RhaUeii, even liy the personal iiiin- coiidiict i>t' a .loliii, in vvhoiii the kin;;, tho ({real feudal lord paniiiiuiint, would Htill hu fi'iaed and oheyed liy the niont ]io\v('i'ful uf liiM vas.ialH, after the ninn John had over- wlieliiied hiiiiHclf with the eoiiteiiipt and the dis|{U8t of tho iiienncKt hoi'Hclioy in his ti';iiu. Hut even tho vnut prestiKO of the feudal nioiiareliy wux at length worn out liy the perKoiinl iniiieonduct of the weak iiiouaivh; and the ehureli, ever ready to Ht'i/.e iiiioii oppoi'l unity of oxteudinK uud 'iiuaohiialiiiK' iia iiiiiiienae temporal power, waatlio tU•^t toeneroach upon tho autho- rity which John hail 80 ollen )irovod him- ai'lf uiiuiirlhy to hiild, mid unahle to wield with either credit to liimseU' or advantage to lii» people, A.ii. 1'J(I7.— The tliciipope, Iiinoeent III., liMviiiir arrived at the papal power at the uiiutuuiUy early n;;e of thirl y-seve«, had never heen uiiiiiiudfiil of the o^iportiiuities that prcH-nteil llicuiselvea to him. Takiiijr advauia^e of the plausihie pretext alforded to him liy the Rtate of the Holy Laud, he had so lar siretehed hia authority over the clergy id" Christeiuloiii, as to scud niiioiig theiu collectors with authority to levy n I'orlielh part of all ccelcfiastieai revenues for the relief of I'ulestine ; mid to make this levy the more oliviously and emphati- cally an act of authority and power of the popedom over the ecclesinstiea, the same coUeclovj were aulhoiised lo receive n like pioporliou of laymen's revenues, not ns n tax, hut as i\ voluntary coi'trihution. A poiie thus resolved and astute in riveting liis chains iijion nbodyao numerous nndso powerful as tho clergy, was not likely to be alow in rxcreiiiiiin liia power nKainat an ' eoiiteiiiptihle a |iritice na Joliiii nor was nil opjinrtiiiiity liiii^i; »aiitin(c. ilii!iert, nrchbialiop of t/'anlerhitry, dyliiK in I'JIin, the iiiiinka of (Miroitehureli, (.'an- terliiiry, bad tlio rlnlit of elect ion, auhjeet to the eoiiaent of the kili;() but n iiiiiionly of tliein, eoiiainlinK, too, nimoat withiiitt except Ion, of the Inniora, na>.eiiililed on tho verv iiiKht of lliiherl's death, nnd elected na Ilia aiiceeaaor their iiib-prior, llF)(inald, who, having been bnalily and covertly in- atnlled in the nrchieniaeopnl throne, iinino- dintely act out for Koino to iirocnro tho poiie'a (■onHrnintinn. Thn vanity of KckI- iinld, or the want of prudonee of liia fnenda, cnuaed the nthu. I'l re .u.'i the kiiig'a eara nimoat na aonn na t.. . uw nrchbialiop had eoininenced his journey. John was ao far favourably aitnnted, that bia anger nt tliia presiiinptuona and irregular proecRding of the junior iiionka of (^'anterbury wna fully abarcd by the aenior iiiunka, nnd alao by the aiillVngnna of (.'anterbury, hot h of whom had a right to iiilliieuce theeleetioii of their iiri- mate, lii the liiinda of the monks John left lli(> new rUetioii, only reconiniending tbnt they should eliM-t the bialiop of Norwich, John do (tray, lie was nreordingly elected, but as the nullVagana had not even in this new elect ion heen conaidcred, they now aent an agent to Idinio lo protest agninat it, while the king and the iiiouks of C'liriatehnrcb sent twelve of that order to support it. Here the great advantage was clearly thrown into the hands of the pope, for while cneli of the three disputing imrlies onpoaed the prctensiona of the other two, all tbren ' ngned in ncknowleilging the pope's nu- ' tlioritv to decide tho ((ueation; niid Inno- cent ill. was not the iiinn to allow tbnt advantngo to e.'' accomplishments, and justly preferred b> O'e offensive to [dressed. Not insulting the ^fiance of the r God's teeth" interdict upon I the whole of or support and Lies to his own li any Romans 8 they should that ' all who ow them from ocent was not ue and vulgar d weakness of that half mea- not suffice to he at length of interdict. occurs in our that readers nderstand the lUtme could hearts of the dom — a terror nor scarcely ed — we pause )f onr history, description of ven in Ilume, n many pages t was at that vengeance and urt of Rome; 'eigns for the he guilt of one Uions, even in welfare. The i to strike the and to operate superstitious Wion was sud- exercise of its wiled of their reliques, the saints, were the air itself >HAOE. A.n. 1210. — JonN taxid the clbboy to tub amoont or I20,00u{. lEnglantr — '^lantagenet?. — 3?ol^n. 153 were profaned and might pollute them by its coutnrt, tin; prinsts cari'fully covered them up, even from tlitir own n(iproach and i veneration. The use of the bells entirely ceased in all the churches; the bells them- selves were removed from the steeples, and laid on the ground with the other iip.cred utensils ; miis? was celebriitcd with closed doors, and none but the priests were ad- mitted to that holy institution ; the laity partook of no religious rite, except baptism to newly born infants and the communion to the dyinjr; the dead were not interred in j consecrated ground ; they were thrown into ! ditches, or buried in common fields, and their obsequies were not attended with prayers, or any hallowed ceremony. Mar- riage was celcb-atcd in the churchyards; and, that every action of life might bear the marks of this dreadful situation, the people were prohibited the use of meat ns in Lent ; and, as in times of the highest penance, were debarred from all pleasures and entertainments, and were forbidden even to salute each other, or so much as to shave their beards and give any decent at- tention to their person and apparel. Every circumstance carried symptoms of the deepest distress, and of the most imme- diate apprehension of divine indignation and vengeance." Unwarned by even the commencement of this state of thiugs in his kingdom, nnd obstinately closing his eyes against the contempt in which he was held by those lay barons upon whom he must depend for whatever support he might need against the spiritual power, John now turned his vengeance especially against those of the clergy who ventured to pay attention to the interdict, and generally against the adhe- rents of archbisnop Langton. The prelates of these classes he sent into exile, and the monks lie confined to their convent with the barest possible allowance for their tem- poral necessities; and in both cases he made himself the recipient of their reve- nues. Concubinage being a common vice of the clergy, he seized upon that point to annoy them by throwing their concubines into prison, whence he would only release them upon payment of high fines ; conduct which was the more egregiously tyrannical, because he well knew that, in most cases, those who were called the concubines of the clergy lived with all the decency and fidelity of wives, and only were not wives in consequence of the cruel, unnatural, and odious exercise of the power of Rome to compel the celibacy of the clergy. Meantime the quarrel between John and the pope continued its inveteracy on both sides, and lasted for some years ; the people, who had no part in the quarrel, being thus exposed to all the evils and vexations which we have described, excepting in the com- paratively few cases where the threats or persuasions of John were powerful enough to induce the clergy to disregard the inter- dict. With these exceptions, upon which even the laity, much as they were injured by the interdict, looked with dislike and contempt, all the clergy remaining in Eng- land were tiie enemies of John. But he, affecting the utmost contempt for public opinion, clerical as lay, loaded all classes of his people with heavy imposts to defray the expences of Scotch, AVt-Ish, and Irish expe- ditions, in which success itself produced him no glory, as it proceeiltd rather from the weakness of those to whom he was op- Sosed than from Ma own valour or cnn- iict. As if desirous to irritate his subjects to the utmost, he made the very diversions of his leisure hours either insulting or in- jurious to them. His licentiousness in- sulted their families wherever he made his appearance ; and he added to the odious character of the forest laws by prohibiting his subjects from pursuing feathered gome, and by the purely spiteful art of causing the forest fViiccs to be removed, so that the cultivated fields in the neighbourhood were trampled and fed upou by the vast herds of deer which the injured husbandmen dared not destroy, A.D. 12iiS. — A constant continuance in a course like this could not fail to excite against the king the hatred even of those among his subjects who had taken little or no interest in his original quarrel with Rome ; nnd a consciousness ot this hatred, so far from causing him to retrace his steps, only aroused him to grosser and more determined tyranny, and he demanded from all of his nobility whom he honoured with his suspicions that they should place their nearest relatives in his hands' ns bos- tages. Among those of whom this insult- ing demand was made was William de Bra- vuse, whose lady, a woman of determined spirit and plain speech, told the king's messenger, that for her part she would ne- ver consent to entrust her son in the hands of the man who had notoriously murdered his own nephew. The baron, though both wealthy and powerful, was sensible that there was no safety for him after such a reply had been returned to the king ; and he sought shelter, with his wife and child, in a remote situation in Ireland. But John, like most tyrants, was only too faithfully served by his spies ; the unfortunate baron was discovered; and although he contrived to escape to France, both his wife and their child were seized and actually starved to death in prison. Never was that line of the heathen poet which says that "the gods first madden those whom they wish to destroy" more vividly illustrated than by the constant ad- dition which, by tyrannies of this kind, John was constantly making to the general hatred of his people, at the very time when he was aware that such hatred could at any moment have been allowed by Rome to break out into open rebellion. For though the papal interdict, with all its severity upon the unoffending people, did not release them from their allegiance to the king who had called down that se- verity upon their heads, the next step was excommunication, which, as John well knew, put an end to allegiance, and would THE DISPUTE BETWEEN JOBS AND THE POPE WAS A TBIAI, OP STREKOTH. Li i; ill 154 A. n. 1211.— JOHN AiunvKi) in knoi,a«i> phom diiiimn, AiinugT 10. Vli)t tJTica^un) of IHaiovy, $ic. iii'iu niiiny it hiiiiil iiitiiinnt liiiii tliiil now wiin l)imiiil hy "(Iml diviiiily wliicli ilnlli Iu'iIkc n kiiiit." And yet thiri incxiiliciiblc iiiiiii, ummlly ko ciiwHrilly, Htill licUl mil mkiiIiikI tho ^nipr, lliiMii(li cxcimnnunicHlioii whn oci'Imii ti> I'lili with Riich priMiliiir Bi'vcrily \\\»u\ liiiii, kIiduIiI Iio iii'iivokt' tlin |iii|ic to |II'|IIUIUIUM< il mill cxi'i'li'il liimsrif, nliUo in Mn rule iiinl in lii^i (iiinllnif. to iii- riTiim' iliiil vrrv liMli> iViini wliich niiu-li of U> « prciiliiir ncvci'ilv won III K|ll'lll|i'. n> |n\licni'r of llii' (n'l"" *"•< "' li'iiRlli rxlimisli'il J or, |i(l(-p of nil llu" popi" Rlill lii'liliii iTurrvo, AH II Insl ri'soiiiTi", hi'inn vvi'll iwviii'i- Imw powi'rfiil lui cIVci'l till' oiiliiiiiiy rcMiIln of •'xcDiumiiiiiriiliiin \vrn< riilriiluloil lo Imvo n|)oii n kni)f of fur >itrii.ii RiTvciI Willi /.('111 mill liilrlily wlio wiiN llins ilisoliiinii'il ami I'lil oil' liy '.\w cliun-li f Sraivcly liinl tlio popi-N oviIits lii'i'ii olii'y- nl liy till' lii»liiipsol l.oiiiloii, l''.ly, iiiiil Wor- rrsti'r — lliosi' vi'rv pii'liiiri upiiii wliiiin .lolin liiiil rornicrly lirapnl iiiMiiii, ll^^ ronrsii' HH niiilrscrvcil, miil lis uiihiroiiiiii^- ns im- iliiti III iiolilii' -wlirn ii Hpi'riiiii'ii « it» ii«rnly»iiii( cll't'i't by (ii'ollVi'v, iirt'liilriiroii u of Nnrwii'li. I.ikoniosl of tin' Kri'ii* I'limrli- £ mrii of lliiU liny, lii' lu'lil n jii.liriiil Mliiii- ^ tiiin, mill lu> wns I'liisniji'il in ilw ilnlii-s wlini •>i 111' iToi'ivi'il till' nrws ; iipoii wliicli \u\ iiii- H iiii'ilinli'lv I'OHi' mill qiiiilril llii' t'oiirl. oh- «4 ' N » to „ n m itly lo olilaiii coiiM'oralioii frnni t'',> liliisliop of Hoiii'U ; Init lonvi' lii'iiit; iiiti'il, 111' wi'iit not lliitluT, Imt to I'on- iiy, tho vrsiiloiu'i' of llio ni'i'liliinliop nijioii, to whom ho paiil tho fiMniiil cuh- siou iliio from n HuO'niiAan to lii» pri- [o. Tho froiinoni'v of liioso ilosorlions oiii; hiitli tlio prclalos and llio lay luihi- al loiigtli piivo tho kins ^''fv M'riims ni, till' nioro osproinlly ns lir nrrivod loo prohahlo hiiils of a wiilt'lvsproad Mpnaoy ngaiiiKt liiiii, in wliii'h iio Know who amoiii; lliosr who still rrniiiMicil aroiitly fmlhl'iil lo him niiu,hf ho in- I'd. Now that inodoralo ooiirossioii d no lonuor avail h now thai his odiu'fs mid his won'. HOPS wore so ovi- ilont lo hin foi'H that I hoy would rirlily <1o- Norvo Inn oonlonipl if I hoy did not providii hin vlolonoo with mi olVoolnnI hridlo for tho fill llio, I'voii nliiiuhl tlioy oIiooko to hIiow miiiio inodoratioii in doalliiK with liini as to llio past ; now, in ii word, when lin no loiiKor liMil it in his power to nogolinio to iidvanlnKO, .loliii oioiinionood n ni'Koliiilioii with llio hilhorlo oxiloil and dospisod In. 'I'lio pout ills in that Buperstilions ngo wero wiser in their Koneration llian the lay jiriiieos with whom they lind lo ilonl, miil tliev well know how to ninko tlioso iniiieoh eneli tho iiislrumoiil of the other's Hiihjeo- tioii. Aoeoi'diiigly, on this oeonsiim, tho pope, who well understood tho niiiliit ions olnvnetei' of tho kiii|t of KraiieO; and lliu animosity that imiliially oxisteil helwocn John and I'hilip, promised the hiiter'not A.D. 121'.'.— UllKAT I'AllT Of I.O^inO^ III!S'rilOYRl> IIV I'llllt, JULY 10. ! lU. \il(l richly dr- ill iidl (iriiviiln briilli' for llin ixiKt! (o hIkiw ,'i(li liiiii n% to wlirn liii IK) UCgolilltH to II Iii-Kotuitioii cnpiniMl liliiiK- IddU plni'r !)(•- ilili iiOrrt'il ((( iriMMVC liHIIH- (■ wliiiU- ol' till' I'l'liiiii mini ill vliioli till iiiiil 4, wliii'li •liiiin tlid milHi't iif I llll'l, III' liiul mIi mill iiiiIh'- oiii'hIpIo to 111! ' liiiil lit oiii'O IN til wtftt^ lift' iili'il tliiit, iit- m ill till' wny ll{ lIlMII' to till' ml lie liiiil nil ilin', that Ik; li> HiiliKt'iu'tioii I'lri'ny 111 .011- i(> roiiliMi'iition US, now, I'lom i< with Itoini'. mil IVoin Hliccr liiu; to ('ollcct iiinl wniitonly I ill tiii'lhci' to ■h those who iill men, tin; int. John |iro- iin to I'Oiiiiiiy noit |)i'olmhly (•'III III' tho snl .lohii to I, now «o- H IVoni their eeil exeiini- venlnie to nt the eonii- II piivnle or an nil inili- Kcvei'ily, hy onhl lie ill anil of nil il ninile — so vupeiHlit imiii il.ily or nl'- iiM the )m- \v leper, iliil .iniiH!«ioii, In- iim MuiiteiH'c Htilions iip;o hull the lay II ileal, anil lose piinees ler's Hiibjer- •easiim, tlio nnihilioiiH lee^ anil the il between latter 'not 10. HI o 1 " V) , o M I » ltX(()MMt;Ni(.'ATION WAN 1;NK\0WN IN THl'. KAIll.T A(U;.1 OF TilK (.11 IHK II. lEnglnntl.-- piantngenet».— 3io!)n. ifift only rnniission of sins, but also the sove- reignty, as a viisinl of the popeiloin, of .lohii's kiiiKiloiii of Kiinlaiiil, as the rewnnl 111 his invHiliiiK; it ami snbilniiiK .f' ho- nourable man almost to madness, was, nmid all bis dpgi'adntion, less to be pitied just now than tlie duped and baflled Philip. His rage on learning that hia expensive display of force had only served tbe jiur- pose of ilrivir.g John into the protection of the pope, could scarcely be kept within I either Bffe or descent bounds. He bitterly complained f *■ be insincere oilers and pro- mi- es by wl. .1 he had been gulled into an outlay of sixty 'loiisand pounds; and, his indignation bi ji shared by bi^ barons, he went so far as to declare that imt even the pope's protection should save England from him. It indeed seems probable, that lie would at all ris!is have iiivarled England but lor the influence and intrigues of tne carl of rianders, who, being in a secret confederacy with John, loudly protested against the inii>iety of attacking a state that was now become a part of St. Peter's patrimony. Shrewdly judging that the earl would follow up bis words by eorrespind- ing deeds, Philip resolved to chastise 'lini ; but while he was engaged i.; so doing, his lleet was attacked by John's natural bro- ther, the ear! of Salisbury, so that Philip deemed it the wisest plan to lay aside his meditated attack upon England, at least for the present. John, 'IS easily elated as depressed, was BO pulled up by bis novel safety, accompa- nied though it was by so mieh ignominy, that he boasted his intent'on to invaife France. lUit lie was met on the part of his I barons with cold and contemptuous refusal I to take part in his enterprise ; and when, in the hope of sbaniin'i; thcui into joining him, be Railed witli only bis personal fol- ; lowers as far as the island of Jersey, he ha ^ the mortification of being compelled to "turn, not one of the barons having so far reiciited as to follow him. On his return he threatened to chastise them for their want of obedience ; but here he was met by the archbishop Langton, who reminded him that be was but the vassal of Rome, and threatened him with the most signal punishment if he ventured to levy war upon any of bis subjects. Rome removed the intlictions upon John and his kingdom to the full as gradually as she had laid them on; but in the end the pope himself interfered to protect him against the extortion of the clergy, and commanded them to take forty thousand marks instead of a hundred thousand, which John had offered, and instead of the infamously excessive sum beyond that which they had rated their losses at. In the end, tbe king's submissive beha- viour and his disburi.ement of large sums of money procured the interdict to be re- moved from his kingdom; and the prelates and superior clergy having received their damages, the inferior clergy were left to console themselves as they best might w ithout arv repayment at all ; Nicholas, bishop of irescati, who was now legate in England instead of Pandolf, showing him- self nun-e favourable to John than his pre- decessors had been. A.n. i:U.— Not deterred by the evident dislike of his barons, and their determina- tion never to assist him when they could make any valid excuse, John now pro- ceeded to Poictou, and bis authority being siill held in respect there, be was enabled to carry the war into Philip's territory. Uut before John had well coinmeiieed his depredations he was routed by Philip's son, young prince Louis, and lied in terror to England, to engage once more in bis con- genial task of oppressing bis subjects. For this amiable pursuit he deemed that his submissions to Rome bad furnished him with full iniinuiity ; but luoriifications of the most severe description were still in store for him. The barons, slidcki'd out of even their feudal notions of submission, became clamorous for the practical and formal establishment of the liberliea and privileges which bad been promised to Ihe'.i. by both Henry I. and Henry II. In their demands they were much backed and aided by archbishop Langton ; less, it would r>eem pretty clear, from any genuine patriotism on bis part, than from old detestatiun of John, exacerbated and festered by tbe ob- stinacy with which John had " resisted Langlon's admission to the primacy. At u {irivatc meeting of the most zealous of the lai'ons, Langton not only encouraged them by his own eloquent advice, but also pro- duced n copy of the charter of Henry I.. which he had rummaged out of some mo- nastic crypt, and urged them to make that the guide and basis of their demands, and to persevere until those demands were both fully and securely conceded to them. Per- ceivinif the effect of this eoiuluet, he re- peated it at niiolher and more numerous o •i n Id a H h O TOIIUNAMENTS AND OTHEn INSTITUTIONS OF CHIVALRY NOW I'llE VAIl.l.n. A. B. 1215. — MAGNA CUARTA SIGNED AT BUNNYUEOK, JUNE 15. lEnglanH.— ^lantagcncts — li^enro 3£EE. 167 1 01 meeting of the barons at St. Edmund's Bury in Suffolk; and the charter, sup- ported by hia own vivid eloquence, so wrought upon the barons, that ere they separated they solemnly swore to be true to each other, and never to cease to make war upon their faithless and tyrannical king until he should grant their just demands. This done they separated, aftg; fixing upon a day for their reunion to commence their open and, if need were, armed advocacy of their cause. A.D. llUa.— On the given day they punc- tually met, and demanded their rights, as promised by his own oath and as laid down in the charter of IJ-nry I. Alarmed at their union, John promised that they should be answered on the following Easter ; and the primate with the bishop of Ely and the earl of rembroke becoming surety for the performance of the king's words, the barons contentedly retired to tlieir castles. But John lifid sought delay, not for the purpose of coui*idering the nature and pro- priety of the demands, but for that of find- ing, if posLiible, some means by which at once to baulk the barons and to be avenged of them. Having experienced to his cost the power of Itoine, lie tliousht his best way to biiflle his nohlps was to conciliate the church, to whic'.i he voluntarily made many concessions and compliiiients ; one of the former being his voluntary relin- quishment of that right of investilure which the previous Norman kings had so stoutly battled for, and one of the latter, an equally vohuitary prolVcr and promise to lend iin nruiy against the infidels in the Holy Land; and, to signify his entire sin- c'M'ity upon this last point, he at once as- sumed the Cross. Both from John's ur- gency for liis protection and from the coun- ter and no less urgent instances of the barons, tho p-pe was excited to much alarm about England, for the pi'ace fud ])rospe- rity of w Inch he had, since John basely became bis vassal, conceived a sort of pa- ternal interest. Knowing full well how niueli more dilTieult it would be to deal witli the power of England under the ijold haro.is than under a despised and weak prince like John, it was obviously to the interest of innocent to uiihokl the latter as far as possible against the fonuer ; and he therefore issued a bull, in w liich he cliarac- tori;:ed the proeeedituis of tlie barons as illegal ami treasonable; forbad them, nn I'lr pain of cxcommuiiiealion, fnnn per- sisting in tlieii' denninds ; and enjoined John, under the same penalty, not to com- pK with them. The primate, being in favour of the havoii?, refused to give formal pu.blieity to thi:" bull; iiml though he was suspended for his conduct in this respect, the failure of the bull w as not the less ensured ; and thus a new proof was afforded how much the pojie's power depended upon the ex- lent and the coidialily of the I'o-operation of the rest of the ehureh. But though the pop,) and the king thus exerted themselves to defeat the barons, the latter succeeded in wresting from the king that well-known declaration of rights and definition of pre- rogative known as Magna Charta, or the Great Charter,— a document which we need not insert here, on account of its general notoriety. But no charter or agreement could hind the king; he introduced foreign ; mercenaries, besieged and took Rochester ' castle, and barbarously put all but the very i highest of the garrison to death, and then , carried fire and sword into the towns and ] villages throughout England. The barons, chiefly from some faults or omissions on their own part, were reduced to such straits, that they ventured on the unpatriotic and dangerous expedient of offering the crown i of England to prince Louis, sou of Philip of France. A. n. lilO. — The prince accordingly landed in England with a large force, in spite of the menaces and orders of the pope ; John was deserted by the fcu'eiguers upon whom he chietly depended, and w ho, though will- ing enough to slaughter his English sub- jects, were naturally unwilling to fight against their own native prince. Most of the English nobility who had heretofore sided with John, now deserted hiui ; town after town, and castle after castle, fell into the hands of his enemies ; and every thing seemed to threaten him, when a report, true or false, got currency, tliat Louis merely used the English nobles as his tools, and would execute them as traitors when- ever his success should be complete. This report had visibly turned the scale once more in favour of John. Several nobles re- turned to their alleg' .nee, and ho was ra- pidly collecting powerful forces to combat for his kingdom, w hen a heavy loss of trea- sure and baggage, which occurred as he was passing towards Lincoln, so much ag- gravated an illness under which he already laboured, that he expired at Newark, on the l/th of October, l-JKi, in the forty-ninth year of his age, and in the eighteenth of his agitated, mischievous, and inglorious reign. It was in this reign that the citizens of London first were pri\iU'ged annually and from their own body to choose their mayor and common council, and to elect and dis- charge their sheriffs at pleasure. Of the king's character no sununary is needed; both r.s man and as sovei-eign he is but too forcibly depicted in the events of which we have given u brief, but complete and im- partial account. CHAPTER XXIII. The Reiyn of lUnri/ 111. A.n. 121fi.— At the death of John his el- dest son, Henry, was only nine years old ; but happily he had in the ciirl of I'embroliC a friend and gnanlian who was both able and willing to prevent bis infancy IVoin be- ing any disadvantage to him ; and Louis of I'" ranee, who expected to derive gi' at bene- fit from the death of John, foui;.!, on the contrary, that very circumstance most in- jurious to him. TIIK ODJia'T OK MAGNA Cn.VIlTA WAS TO COUnKCT I'BUDAl, ADUSRS. [P I ! n il \i ' i I'' A.D. 1216.— HBNHY CBOWNBD IN THE CATHEDRAL OF 0L0VCE8T8B, OCT. 28. r a 1 ^•^^» u: MIL a ■ ■:^ . 1 K ' S| 1 A. D. 1221.— HBNBT LAID THK FIRST BT0.1B OF WBSTMINSTKB ABBEY. lEnglantJ ^lantagcncta.— I^cnrn 3EH. 159 the earl of Albemarle. He had served under Louis, but had quickly returned to his duty and distinguished himself in tightingagainst the French. His disorderly conduct in the north of England now became so notorious and so mischievous, that Hubert de Burgh, though greatly averse to harsh measures agninst those powerful nobles whose future favour might be of such important conse- quence to his yo-ng king, seized on the castle of Rockingham, which the earl had filled with his licentious soldiery. The earl, supported by Favvkes de Breautd and otlier warlike and turbulent barons, fortified the castle of Bilhain, put himself upon his open defence, and seized upon the castle of Fo- tlieringayj and it seemed not unlikely that the daring and injustice of this one man would again kindle the so lately extinguished flames of civil war. Fortunately, I'andolf, who was now restored to the legatine power ill England, was present to take a part on behalf of the constituted authorities. He issued a sentence of excommunication not only against Albemarle, hut also in general \erms against all who should adhere to that nobleman's cause j and an army, with means of paying it, were provided. The prompti- tude and vigour of these measures so alarm- ed Albemarle's adherents, that he was on the instant deserted by the most powerful of them, and saw nothing left but to sue for the king's pardon, which was not only granted to him as regarded his person, but he was at the same lime restored to his whole estate. It was probably the contidence of being, in the last resort, able to ensure himself a like impolitic degree of lenity, that en- couraged Fawkes de Breautd to treat the government with a most unheard of inso- lence and contempt. Having been raised from a low origin by king John, whom he followed in the discreditablo capacity of a military bully, this man carried the conduct and niRuners of his original station into the higher fortune to v I ich he had attained, and was among tiv i. ,.st turbulent and un- manageable of all 1 lie barons. To (lesii-e a freehold, and forcibly to expel the rifjhtful owner and take possession, were with him but one and the aame thing ; and for literal robberies of this summary and wholesale deaeription, no fewer than thirty-live verdicts were recorded against him at one time. Far from being abashed or alarmed by such a plurality of crime, Fawkes mafched a body of his staunchest disorderlies to the covirt of just'ce which was then sitting, seized upon his bench the judge who had ventured to decide against 80 potent an ofl'endcr, and actually impri- soned that judicia'. dignitary in Bedford castle. Having gone to this extent, Fawkeo could have but little compunction about oing still farther, and he openly and in brr. levied war upon the king. But he had now gone to the full length of his tether; he was opposed so vigorously tlmt j his followers were soon put to the rout, an. j he, being taken prisoner, was punished by conHecation and oauitihnicnt. - to A.D. 1222. — In this year a riot broke out in the metropolis. Coinmencing in some petty dispute that occurred during a wrest- ling match between a portion of tlic rabble of London and Westminster, it at length rose to a desperate and dangerous tumult, in the course of which several persons were much hurt and some houses were plundered and demolished. These houses belonging to so important a person as the abbot of Westminster, that circumstance alone would probably have caused the riot to be looked upon in a serious light at court. But it farther appeared, tliat in the course of the conflict the combatants on either or both sides had been heard to use the French war-cry " Mountjoy St. Denis !" and the recent attempt by Louis upon the English crown caused the use of this war-cry to give to an ordinary not something of the aspect of a political and treasonable at- tempt ; and Hubert, the justiciary, person- ally took cognizance of the matter. The ringleader, Constantine Fitz-Arnulf, be- haved with much self-possession and au- dacity when before the justiciary, and was forthwith led out from liis presence and han,{ed; while several of those whose guiit was confessedly less heinous had their feet amputated; an awful severity under any possible circumstances — liow much more so when contrasted with the lenity shown to so desperate an offender as Fawkes de Breautt" 1 Shortly after this affair, which was much complained of as being contrary to the Great Charter, Hubert procured a bull from the pope, pronouniii ;■ the king of full age to govern He then resigned into the youii^- king'shandstlieToworof London and Dover Cnstle, which had been entrusted to him; and having by this example acquired the greater right to demand at the hands of other nobles a ■jiniilar strengthening of the much-impaired power of the crown, he for- mally did so. Hut (.he barons of that day were like thf rake of a later dramatist ; they " could admire virtue, b^t could not imitate it." All murmured, most refused to com- ply, and many, among w iiom were the carls of Chester and Albemarle, .'ohn, constable of Chester, John de Lacy, and Wjlliain de Courtel, absolutely met in ur.ns at Wal- tham and prepared to inarch in hostile array upon London. But before they had time to commence this actual levying of civil war, they had tidinsjs that the kiiit!; was prepared to outnumber and defeat them. They, ti.eret'ore, abandoned their design, uiid appeared at court, whither they were summoned to answer for their con- ' (.t. But though, as ainatterof prudeiieo, y had laid aside the design of levying ansolute war upon their sovereign, they mudu no profession of repentance. On the con- trary, while they eagerly disavowed any personal hostility to the king liiniRelf, they equally admitted tluit tlfy were hostile to Hi'liiif, and that they were still as dcter- '.iinii'i; as ever to insist upon his rcniovnl from lii-i power and authority. They were tuo ..uincroiis and potent to be subjected :u A.D. 1225. — THK CONCUBINES OP PBIBiXS UENJEn CHHISTIA!« BUIIIAL. A. D. 1229.— TUB FOFE COLtGCTED THB TBNTUS OF TIIK WUULE KI.NUOOM. a P. M n IN 160 Vt\)z ©reasurn of I^(stort), $cc. to the punishment which their insolent se- dition merited; and probably it was their iierception of that as the real cause of their beins sud'ered to retire unscathed from court after so open a declaration of their hostility to Hubert, that encouraged them very shortly nfterwardr to hold another armed iiicetinj? at Leicester. Here again they determined that the king, then resi- dent at Northampton, was too strong and too well prepareu to tillow of their seizing uj)on his person, which, despite tlicir former disclaimer, it was all along their desire to do. But, as if watching for some relax- j ation of the vigilanre of the justiciary, or i some diminution of the royal forces, they keir toi, ether under the pretence of cele- • brraii'g Christmas. As it was evident that 1 mi^ ;liief would speedily occur to both king and people, unless these bold bad men were •'topped before they had encouraged each '•^ber too (Hr, the archbishop and the pre- In'es sternly remonstrated with them, and *'!i"atened them with immediate excomniu- ii" ution as the penalty of their longer delny- , 1 I'r their su'omission to the king and their aishandin^ of their hostile array. Most of the mstles were, upon this threat, given up 'v; ihe lfi':g, luid we may judge how neccs- p.^ )■ n stop Hubert had taken on behalf of j hi.? young sovereign, when we read that there were in England at that time no fewer than 1115 of these castles. When Hubert's just and v.ise design was fultillcd, the king restored to that faithful subject and servant the fortresses he had surrendered, and this : restoration was bitterly complained of by the factious barons, who el.ose not to per- ceive tlie immense difference between for- tresses held for the king and fortresses held against him. Parliament having granted the king a fifteenth, he was obliged to employ it in carrying on war against France, in spite of the disaffected state of so .lauy ot his most powerful subjects. l''ov Henry having de- manded tlic restitutio.x of his ancestral Normandy, Louis A'^III. was so far from making that resti'iution, that he made a sudden attack n,. jn I'oielou, besieged and took Rochelle, .iid showed an evident de- termination t de|)rive the English of tlieir very small v naming continental territory. The king ' .'nt over, as his lieutenants, his brother l ;c earl of Cornwall, and lis uncle the earl of Salisbury, who suce':i. .od in preventmg ar,y farther j)rogress oi, the part of Louis, and in keeping the vassals of Gascony and Poictou in obedience j and, after two years stay in France, d'.uing which the military operations amounted to nothing higlier than what modern generals would term a skirmish, the carl of Corn- wall returned to Etigland. A.n. 12'37. — Though Richard, earl of Cornwall, seems to have ear^l little enough for the ordinary ends of aniLition, he had a greediness of gain which answered all the purposes of ambition in arraying him against his brother and kii'g; and a petty dispute which arose out of the carl's greed and his unjust course of gratifying it, not only produced feud between the brothers, but had well nigh involved the whole natiou in a civil war, and certainly would have done so but for the weak and yielding cha- racter of Henry, whose irresolution even thus early became n:auifcst to both his friends and his enemit:^. Taking advantage of a dispute which had occurred between Richard and one of the barons, relative to the possession of a certain manor, a powerful confederacy of discontented nobles was formed aganist the king, who at length yielded the point through fear, and made concessions as im- politic as they were inglorious to him as a sovereign. So weak and pliant, in iB.ct, was the character of Henry, that it may be doubted whet her he would ever have reigned at all had the care of his mini.vity fallen itito the hands of a less able aiid uorighi man than Hubert de Buri-h. And it was no small proof of his weakness that after t.i' t!ie important and steadfast services which he hod received from l)e IJiirgh, that minister was dismissed his ofHce, deprived of his property, driven to take sanctuary, drawn thencL' and committed to close custody in the casil ■ of Devizes, for no other reason than ' lat he had been faithful to the king. Oiiier real charge rhan this there was nonj; though severul pretences were urged ar:;(iu:it him, such as the frivolous ones of his having gained the king's favour and affection by arts of enchantment, and of purloining from the royal treasure a gem wh'.li had the virtue of rendering its weaier inviilncable ! Hubert was at leni;th driven into exile; but recalled and taken into favour Willi just as little apparent reason as there had been for his persecution. He seems in his adversity to have at least learned the valuable lesson of tlie danger of counselling wisely a weak king ; for, though he was now personally as much a favourite as ever, he never aftervvards showed any desire to resume his perilous authority ; which was bestowed at his overthrow upon Peter, bishop of Winchester, a native of I'oietou, arbitrary and violent, but without any of Hubert di^ Kurgh's talent or courage, anil so little titted for the almost sovereign authority that was entrusted to him, that it was mainly owing to liis misconduct and tyranny, as j\tsticiary and a regent of the l.ingdom during an absence of king John in r.ance, that the barons Imd been stung into that niemorable combination which re- sulted in tl grcHt uharter, the foundation of constitutii.iai liberty in England. A. n. li;)!. — Like all weak persons, Henry, while he felt his own incapacity for govern- ing, was unwilling to abide by the advice of those who were worthy of his conlidencc; and feeling that his true nature was slirewd- ly understood by his own subjects, he in- vited over a great ntimber of Poietevins, in whom he riglitly supposed that he would tind more pliancy and less restraint. I'pon these foreign sycophants he conterred va- rious oftices of trust and power whieh he feared to bestow upon his English subjects. Contident in the protection of the king, in- B u H a a a f- K A. D. 1230. — UENIIY nKTIJIlNS Fnoil HIS EXPKnITtON TO FBANCK. A. D. 1239. — PRINCE EDWARD BORN, WUO WAS AFTEBWARD? V FA3UOV8 KINO. o o H a M o Pu M o » a M n > o H « O a lEnglanlr.— piantagcnets.— l^cnry lEK. 161 flated by the gtream of good fortune which go suddenly flowed in upon them, and either ignorant of the hate and jealousy of which they were the objects, these foreign favour- ites, by their insolence, added to the ran- cour of the powerful enemies by whom the mere favour and profuse liberality of the king were of themselves sufficient to sur- round them. The barons, on the other hand, flnding all indirect t: kens of their displeasure unattended to, at length refused to attend their parliamentary duties, under pretence of fearing the power of the fo- reigners ; snd when the king remonstrated and plainly commanded their attendance, they replied that they woMld attend no more until the k'ng should have dismissed the Poictevins, and that if he did not speedily dismiss those men, both they and he should be driven from the kingdom. At length, however, the barons, altering their plan, did proceed to parliament, but in so warlike a guise, that it was evident they intended to overawe the kinp;, and make their own will serve for law both to him and to th.^ kingdom. And this they doubt- less would speedily have done with the strong hand, had they been opposed by no abler antagonist than the king. But the justiciary, Peter des Roches, bo ably em- ployed their interval of irresolution, that ho detached from them not only tlie eails of Chester and Lincoln, but also the earl of Cornwall, the king's brother, and thus so much weakened the confederacy, that it was broken up and its leaders exposed to the vengeance of the king, llichard, the earl marshal, fled into Wales and thence to Ire- laud, where he was assassinated; othcrt of the barons were fortunate enough to escape, but their estates were confiscated, and, with the king's usual folly and profusion, distri- buted among he already wealth-gorged fo- reigners; ana the justiciary publicly said that the barons of England must learn to know themselvea as inferior to those of France ! To what extent of insolent tyranny he who uttered such a speech might have pro- ceeded it is not easy to guess; but his pride met with a sudden cheek, and that from a quarter whence he might reason- ably have least anticipated it. The church became alarmed for its own interests; several of the prelates, well knowing the gencriil disconlent that was spreading among the people in consequence of the insolent and tyrnnnical conduct of the jus- ticiary, attended the archbishop of Canter- bury to court, where he strongly repre- sented to Henry the impolicy as well as in- justice of thv course he had pursued him- self and allowed the justiciarv to pursue in his name ; and, attributing all the evil to the justiciary, demanded his dismissal on pain of an instant sentence of excommuni- cation against the king hunself. Timid by nature, though well enoui'-h inclined to- wards despotism while it could be practised safely, Henry was struck with alarm at the threat of excommunication, which he riglit- ly judged would be satisfactory to the op- pressed people as well as to the barons, and he consented to the dismissal of Peter des Roches. The primate succeeded him in the task of ordering state affairs; and being a man of promptitude as well as of good sense, he speedily restored content by anishing the detested foreigners and re- instating the English magnates in the ofiices from which they had, as insultingly as unjustly, been banished. A. o. 1236. — The inclinations of a weak prince, however, are usually too strong for the advice of the most prudent minister, and the complaints of the king's prefer- ence of foreigners soon became louder than ever. Having married Eleanor, daughter of the count of Provence, Henry surrounded him- self with her countrymen and with those of her maternal uncle, the bishop of Va- lence, who was of the house of Savoy. The Provencjals and Savoyards now tasted of the king's indiscriminate bounty as largely as the Poictevins had. The bishop of Va- lence became as potent a personage as Peter des Roches had been ; another mem- ber of the family of Peter was presented with the manor of Richmond and the great wardship of the earl of Warenne, and Boni- face, also of Savoy, was made archbishop of Canterbury. Nor were men alone tlius fortunate ; to the ladies of Savoy the king gave in marriage the young and wealthy nobles who were his wards. Profusion like this soon exhausted even the monarch's ample means, and an attempt was made to put the king in possession of funds for far- ther liberaliiii's, by obtaining an ahsoluticm for him from Rome from tlie oath which he had taken to support his former grants to his English subjects. In truth, it soon be- came necessary cither that the king should obtain new funds, or that he should aban- don his system of profusion; for a new claim, which had some show of reason, was now made upon him. It will be remem- bered that Ilcnvy's mother, Isabella, had been by the violence of king John taken from her lawl'iil husband, the count de la Marche ; and to him, as soon after John's death as decency would allow, she bad given her hand in second marriage. By this second marriage she had four sons, Guy, William, Geoffrey, and Aylmer, whom slie sent over to visit Henry. Their being fo- reigners would perhaps have been quite suf- ficient to procure for them a cordial recep- tion; but having the additional recommen- dation of iieing 'lis half-brothers, they were rapturously received by him, and he heaped wealth and dignities upon them, with a most entire unconcern as to his own means and as to the feelings and claims of his subjects. In church as in state, foreigners were constantly preferred to natives, and while Henry was lavishing wealth and civil honours upon the Poictevins, Savoyards, and Gascons, the overwhelming influence or' Rome filled the richest church benefices of England with nameless Italian monks, and it was at one time proved to dciiKui- stration that the Italian intruders into the A.D. 1241, — A ORBAT DBARTU TRECEDED BY AN EAKTHQIJAKB. [P3 A.D. 1251. — WALES WnOI.I.T SUBDUBD, AND 60VERMBD BT ENGMSII LAWS. 162 ^ITlje SErcaaurw of l^istoru, $cc. Q I clmrcU were in the yearly receipt of a reve- nue considerably larger than that of the king himself! Under such circumstances it wan natural that the parliament should show some un- willingness to grant supplies to a Iving who so ill knew how to use his funds, or that men of all ranks should murmur against a king so utterly destitute of patriotic feel- ing; and the more especially, as lie was thus liivish to foreigners while utterly care- less to Hatter the English with that martial eiitcrprizp which then, as lung after, was viewed l)y them as ample covering for many defects, personal and political. Whenever he demanded supplies he was obliged to listen to the complaints of the violence done to his faithful subjects, of the mean marriages forced upon those of the highest ranks, of the actual violence by which his table was supplied, his person decorated, and his religious solemnities adorned. A.M. 1253.— To all complaints of this na- ture Henry listeued with impatience, and replied with vague and general promises of amendment; at length, in 1253, having ex- hausted the patience of his long enduring subjects, he hit upon a new mode of ob- taining funds from them, by soliciting a supply to aid him in the pious design of a ci'usado against the infidels. But he had now so often been tried and found wanting, that the parliament could no' put faith in tliia specious profession. The tlertry, too, who rightly deemed their interests perilled by the infatuated conduct of the king, were as much opposed to him as the liiity ; and they sent the hrchbishop of Canter- bury, and the bishjps of Winchester, Salis- bury, and Carlisle, to veiaoiistrate with him upon his ;;i;cneval extravagance, as well as upon the irregular manner in which he disposed of church dignities. Upon this occasion Henry displayed more than his usual spirit. Availing himself of the fact that he had greatly favoured these very personages, he replied, " It is true, I have been in error on this point of iuiproper promotions; I obtruded you, my lord of Canterbury, upon your see ; 1 was obliged to employ both threats auil persuasions, my lord of Winchester, to have you elected ; and irregular, indeed, was my conduct, my lords of Salisbury and Carlisle, when from your lowly stations 1 raised you to your, jiicsent dignities." There v/as much truth in this, but there was no apology; and the prelates shrewdly replied, that theipiestion was not of errors past, but of the avoidance of future errors. Notwithstanding the snrca?m with which ;he king met the complaints of the prelates, he promised so fairly for the reformation of both ecclesiastical and civil abuses, that the parliament at length consented to grunt him a tenth of the ecclesiastical benelices, and a scutage r)f three marks upon each knight's fee, on condition of his solemnly ratiiyiug the great charter, while, with the ecieniony of " bell, book, and candle," they cursed whoever should liencefnrfh violate it. 'J'lio king joined in the ceremony, audibly and emphatically agreed in the awful curse in- voked upon any violation of his oath — and immediately afterwards returned to his old practicen as though nothing extraordinary had occurred ! A.D. 1258. — Conduct so infatuated on the part of the king almost seemed to invite rebellion, and at length tempted one ambi- tious and daring noole so far, that he de- termined to endeavour to win the throne from a king who proved himself so un- worthy of filling it with dignity or honour. Simon de Montford, a son of the great warrior of that name, having, though burn abroad, inherited large property in England, was created carl of Leicester, and in the year 1238 married the dowager countess of Pembroke, sister to the king. The earl had been sometimes greatly favoured, some- times as signally disgraced by the king, but being a man of great talent he had con- trived always to recover his footing at court, and, whether in or out of favour with the king, to be a general favourite with the people, who at his first marrying the king's sister had hated and railed against him for his foreign birth. Perceiving how inveterately the kingwas addicted to his tyrannies and follies, this artful and able nobleman determined to put himself at the head of the popular — or, more properly speaking, the baronial and church — party, trusting that Henry might so far provoke his enemies as to lose his throne, in which case Leicester trusted to his own talents and influence to enable him to succeed to it. Accordingly he took up the cry, now become as general as it was just, against the king's oppression of the people, and his preference of foreigners, — Leicester conveniently overlooking his own foreign birth ! — and sought every occasion of putting himself forward as the advocate of the native barons and the prelates. Vvhen by persevering efforts iii this way he had, as he considered, sufhciently strength- ened his own hands and inflamed the gene- ral resentments ayainst the king, he took occasion of a (juarrcl with Henry's half- brother and favourite, \\ illiam de Valence, to bring matters to a crisis. Calling a meeting of the most incensed and powerful of the bnrous, he represented to them all those violations of the charter to which we have already alluded, and demanded whe- tlwr they had so far degenerated from the high feeiings of the barons who had wrest- ed the oliarter from John, tluit they were prepared, without even a struggle, to see it a mere dead letter in the hand of Henry, whose most solemn jjroniises of reformation they had s# often experienced to be unwor- thy of belief. There was so much of truth in Leices- ter's liarangue, llmt the position which he occupied as a favoured foreigner was over- loiiked, his recoiiini'.Midalious were made the rule of the barons' conduct, and they agreed Corthwitli to take the government of public alliiirs into their own liands. They were jubt then sunniioned to meet the king for the old purpose, nuinely, to grant him A. n. lilS. — THAT -MA. MFICENT .STIUICTIUU; W TSTMINSTEIl AliUr.Y KIMSHKO. A.D. ll'Or. — niCUABD, THE KINO's BROTUEU, CROW.NED KINO OF THE ROMANS, « O u a ■"I n H «! H H n B tn K b u o O PS K s O H B H X H C O f- CS H P PS O lEnglantJ ^lantagenets.— Tjcnrn ElES. 163 O I supplies, find to his nstouislimcnt lie found them all in complete armour. Alarmed at so unusual a sight and at the solemn si- lence with which he was received, he de- manded whether he was to look upon them as liis enemies and himselt" as their pri- soner; to which Roger Bigod, as spokes- man, replied, that tliey looked upr,n him not as their prisoner, but as their sove- reign; timl tliey had met him there in the most dutiful desire to aid liim with supplies that he might, as he wished, tix his son upon the throne of Sicily ; but tliat they at the same time desired ecrtriin reforms which tlie experience of tlio past plainly sliowcd tliat he could not make in his own pci'son, and time they therefore weie under the neccfesity of requiring him to confer au- thority upon those who would strenuously use it for the national hem lit. The evident determination of the barons, and the great and instant need v hirh he had of supplies, left the king no ehoi:e; he therefore as- sured them that he would shortly suiuiiion another parliament for the election <}f per- sons to wield the authority spoken of, and also to settle and detinc that authority within precise limits. A piirliament was accordingly called, at which the barons made their appranmce with so formidable an armed ai tendance, that it was quite clear that, whatever tliey milfht propose, the king had no power to resist them. Twelve barons were selected by the king and twelve by the parliament, and to the body thus formed an unlimited reforming power was given, the k'lig himself swearing to agree to and maintain whatever they should deem tit to order. Their instant orders were most reasonable; that three times in each year the parliament should meet; that on the next meeting of parlia- ment each shire or county should send four knights to that parliament, that so the es- pecial wants and grievances of every part of the kiufrdom might be know n ; that the sheriffs, oflirers of great power and influ- ence, should thenceforth be annuiilly elect- ed by the counties, and should no longer have the power to tine barons for nut at- tending their courts or the justiciaries' cir- cuits ; that no castles should be committed to the custody, and no heirs lo the ward- ships, of foreiirners ; that no new forests or warrens should be made ; and that il.e re- venues of counties or hundreds should no longer be fanned out. Tlius far the barons proceeded most equitably. But bare equity ami the good of the people did not include all that the barons wanted. As the sliamefiil profusion of the king had heaped wealth upon fo- reigners, Ru the destruction of these fo- reig.icrs would yield an abundant harvest to the native barons. Accnrcliiigly when the king, having acquiesced in the regula- tions above-iflenlionod, looked for the pro- mised and mueh-needcd supplies, he was met by loud outcries auninst foreigners in general, and against his half-hrofhers in particular. So loud was the clamour against these latter, that even the king's presence seemed insufficient to secure their lives, and they took to flight. Being hotly pur- sued by some of the more violent of the barons, they took refuge in the palace of Winchester, to wliich see Aylmer had been promoted. Even here they were surround- ed and threatened, and the king, as the sole mode of saving them from destruction, agreed to banish them. Having thus nearly attacked the king in the persons of those who had some reasonable and natural claim upon his favour, the barons next proceeded to dismiss the justiciary, trea- surer, and other chief ministers; and hav- ing tilled these important posts with per- sons upon whom they could implicitly rely, they next proceeded to the virtual usurpa- tion of the throne, by administering an oath to all the lieges to obey and execute all the regulations of the twenty-four ba- rons, under pain of being declared public enemies ; and such was the power which, under the pretence of the purest p.'itriot- ii-m, these barons had usurped, that even I the powerful carl Warenne and prince Kd- wurd, the heir to the throne, were not exempt from the obligation to take this I oath. A. D. 12fil .— So arrogantly did the barons ' use their extensive and usurped authority, I tlmt the earl of Gloucester, from being a chief in their confederacy, separated from it to side with the king; and prince Ed- ward, encouraged by the general murmurs of the people that the barons were becom- ing more tyrannous than even a king could be, threatened the barons that he, would peril his life iu opposing them if they did not speedily bring their reforms to a close. The spirit of the prince Edward rallied so much favour to the side of the crown, that Henry thought he might safely ven- ture to endeavour to put a curb upon the exorbitant power of the twenty-four barons ; but as he knew how prejudicial to his in- terests it would be to leave it in the power of his enemies to accuse him of perjury, he in the first place applied to Rome for abso- lution from the oath he had made to sup- port the barons in their authority — an ab- solution which ho readily received, both because of the misconduct of the barons, luid because the popo was seriously offended with the English clergy for having shown a greater tendency towards independence than squared with either the papal interests or the papal maxims. Prince Edward re- fused to avail himself even of this absolu- tion until the outrageous misconduct of the barons compelled him to do so; and the scrupulous fidelity with which he thus kept to an engagement which he had been forced into, procured him a general admiration which subsequently was very importantly beneficial to him. A. D. 12G2. — .\s soon as Henry received the absolution he had solicited from Rome, he issued a proclamation, in which he bit- terly and, for the most part, truly painted the personal and selfish views with which j the twenty-four barons had both sought A.D. 12G3. — THIS YEAH TUB WAR BETWEEN TII13 KINO AND BARONS BtOAN. p, J l\ < \ ;r Iv M' f 1 1 ; '^ 1 ' '' ■' k fl ' ! I ■ :i A. S. 1262. — TBB CINOVK FOBTS DBCLABK IN FAVOUR OF THE BABONS. 164 5EI)c STreaaury of 1|(storp, $cc. and used their authority, and declared that in duty to himself and his people he should from that time forth use his royal autho- rity without its diminution or participation by any one; he changed all the chief of- ficers of state and of his own household, as also most of the sheriffs of counties and governors of castles. Having thus far se- cured himself he summoned a parliament, which met on the twenty third of April in this year, and which, with but five dissent- ing votes, confirmed his resumption of his authority. But the 8na1jim in a compact with the discon- tented Londoners, by which they mutually bound themselves never to make peace with the king but with the full and open concurrence of both these contracting par- ties ; and while some of Leicester's friends rekindled the civil war in the provinces, he and Fitz-Richard did the like in London ; 80 that the whole country once more brist- led with arms and resounded with cries of war. Finding civil war inevitable, the king and his brave son promptly made their , preparations. In addition to their military I vassals, \t'hom they summoned from all quarlcrs, they were joined by forces under Baliol, lord of Galloway, Brus, lord of An- nandale, John Comyn, and other northern leaders of power. With this array they ? !l A.D. 1259. — THE Ki;.C' AND QUEEN OF SCOTLAND VISIT ENGLAND. A.U. l^GC— TUB DISAFFKCTBD BABONS EXCOMMUNICATED BT TUB POFE. lEnglanti.— ^lantagcntts.—l^enre 3E3HH. 166 commenced their proceedings by Inying sioi(e to Northampton, in wliich was a strong garrison conimnmled by some of the principal barons. This place beinjf speedily taken by assault, the royal army marched agniiisit Leicester and NottinRliam, which opened their gates. Prince Edward now Ind a detachment against the projicrty of the earl of Dcrl)y, whose lands were laid waste as a punishment of his disloyalty. Leicester, in the meanwliilo, taking care to keep up H commuiiicatinn with London, upon the support of whicli he grently de- pended, laid iege to Rochester castle, which was the only strong hold in Kent that still held out for the king, and which was ahly defcndc I by carl Warenne, its go- vernor. The royal army, flushed with its success elsewhere, now marched in all haste to relieve this important fortress ; and Leicester heariii'^ of their approach, and fearing to be outnumbered in a disadvan- tageous positioli, hastily raised tlie siege and fell back upon London. From Lon- don, Leicester sent proposals to Henry, but of so arrogant and exorbitant a character, that he must have been aware they would not be listened to; and, on a stern answer being returned by the king, Leicester pub- licly renounced his allegiance and marched I lie whole force he could collect towards Lewes, in Sussex, where the royal .irniy lav; the bishop of Chichester giving the rebels a formal and general absolution, and assuring them that all who should fall in fighting against the king would undoubt- edly go to heaven. Leicester, though n shameful rebel, was a skilful general, and un this occasion he he so ably conducted his march, that lie almost surprised the royalists in their quar- ters; but the short time that elapsed be- tween the alarm and the arrival of the rebels sulliced to enable the active prince Edward to march the army to the field in good order; one division being led by him- self, the earl Warrenne, and William de Valence, n second by the king of the Ro- mans and his son Henry, and the third forming a reserve under the personal com- mand of the king himself. The prince led his division against the enemy's vnnguard, which was composed of the Londoners, who lied at the very first charge. Forgetting that his assistance might be required else- where, prince Edward allowed himself to be governed entirely by his headlong rage against these inveterately disloyal men, and pursued them, with great slaughter, for nearly five miles from' the field "of battle. Tliis impetuosity of the prince lost his father the day ; for Leicester, promptly availing himself of the prince's absence, charged so hotly upon the remaining two divisions of the royalists, that they were defeated with terrible loss, and both the king and his brother, the king of the liomatis, were taken prisoners; as were Rrus, Comyn, and all the most considerable leaders on thj king's side. Earl AVarenne, Hugh liigod, and VS"illiam de Valence escaped beyond sea; hut prince Edward, uiuippuUed by the consequences of his own imprudence, kept his force together, added to it as many us could be rallied of the defeated divisions, and presented so bold a front, that Lei- cester thought it more prudent to amuse him with pretended desire to treat, than to urge him to a desperate attack. The earl accordingly proposed terms; and though they were severe, and such as under other circumstances the prince would have laugh- ed to scorn, a little examination of the royal resources showed so hopeless a state of things, that Edward, despite his pride, was obliged to agree. These terms were, that prince Edward and Henry d'Allmaine, son of the king of the Romav hould surrender themselves prisoners i liange for their fathers; that six arh' tiould be named hy the king of Franti , it these six should choose two others, alho French, and that one Englishman should be named by these last ; the council thus named to have power definitively to decide upon all matters in dispute betvveen Henry and his bai-oiis. In compliance with these terms, Edward and his cousin yielded themselves, and were Bent prisoners to Dover castle; but Lei- cester, though he nominally gave the king his liberty, took care to keep him com- pletely in his power, and made use of the royal name to forward his own designs Thus the most loyal governors readily yield- ed up their im|)ortant fortresses in the king's name; and when commanded by the king to disarm and disband, no loyal soldier could longer venture to keep the field. Lei- cester made, in fact, precisely what alter- ations and regulations he pleased, taking care to make them all in the king's name ; and 80 evidently considered himself virtu- ally in possession of the throne at which he had so daringly aimed, that he even ventured to treat with insolent injustice the very barons to whose participation of his dis- loyal labour he owed so much of its success. Having confiscated the large possessions of some eighteen of the royalist barons, and received the ransoms of a host of prisoners, he applied the whole spoil to his own use, and when his confederates demanded to share with them, he coolly told them that they already had a sufficiency in being safe from the attainders und forfeitures to which they would have been exposed but for his victory. As for the reference to parties to be named by the king of France and his nomi- nees, though the carl, in order to hoodwink prince Edward, laid so much stress upon it during their negotiation, he now took not the slightest notice of it, but summoned a parliament, so selected that he well knew that his wishes would be law to them. And, accordingly, this servile senate enacted that all nets of sovereignty should require the sanction of a council of nine, which council could be wholly or in part changed at the will of the earls of Leicester and Gloucester and the bishop of Chichester, or a majnrity of these three. Now, the bishop of Chi- chester being the mere convenient tool of Leicester, the earl was in reality in full A.n. 12f)".— THH DISCONTE.NTKn BAUONS SEIZP THE ISI.E OF ElY. fl^ .0.^.. *»> \s% IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 It I^ 12.0 2.5 2.2 18 U IIIIII.6 7 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4S03 4f \ c <> I ■' in 'I A.D. 1268.— BALIOL COLLIOB IN OXFOBO POVNOBO BX SIB JOBIf BALIOL. power over the conncil — in other words, he was a despotic mouarch in every thing but name. The queen, secretly assisted by Louis of France, collected a force together, with an intention of invading England on behalf of her husband, in whose name the coast of England was lined with forces to oppose her; but the queen's expedition was first delayed and then broken up altogether by contrary winds. The papal court issued a bull against Leicester, but he threatened to put the legate to death if be appeared with It ; and even when that legate oimself be- came pope under the title of Urban IV. Leicester still ventured to brave him, so confidently did he rely upon ttie dislike to Rome that was entertained, not only by the people in general, but also by the great body of the English clergy. A. o. I36S. — Still desiring to govern with a show of legality, Leicester summoned a new parliament, which more nearly resem- bled Uie existing form of that assembly than any which had preceded it. Before this parliament the earl of Derby— in the king's uame^was accused and committed; and the earl of Gloucester was intended for the same or a worse fate bv his powerful and unscrupulous colleague, but avoided all pre- sent collision with him by retiring from parliament and the council. This obvious quarrel between the earls i^ve great en- couragement to the king's friends, and the general voice now began loudly to demand the release of the brave prince Edward who had remained a close prisoner ever since the battle of Lewes. Leicester consented on conditions to release the prince, but he took care to keep both him and the king within his reach ; and they were obliged to accompany him on his march against the earl ot Gloucester, who had retired to his estates on the borders of Wales. While Le°::ester lay at Hereford, threatening the earl of Gloucester, the latter nobleman con- tinued to communicate with prince Edward, and so to arrange matters that the young prince escaped from the " attendance," as It was called, but really the confinement, in which he had been kept, and was speedily at the head of a gallant army, which daily received accession, when the glad news of his real liberty became generally known. Simon de Montfort, Leicester's son, hasten- ed from London with an army to the assist- ance of his father. Prince Edward, having broken down the bridges of the Severn, turned away from the earl's position, and fell suddenly upon Simon de Montfort, who was carelessly encamped at Kenilworth, put his force utterly to the rout, and took the earl of Oxford and several other barons pri- soners. Leicester, ignorant of this, had in the mean time managed to get his army across the Severn in boats, and halted at Evesham, in Worcestershire, in daily ex- pectation of the arrival of that force which had already been put to the rout. Prince Edward, vigilant himself and well served by bis scouts, dexterousljr availed himself of the earl's misapprehension of the state of affairs, and having sent part of his army on its march towards the earl, hettr'ag De Montfort's banners and otherwise provided for representing bis i-outed force, he with the main body of his army took another route, so as to fall upon the earl in a dif- ferent quarter; and so completely was the deception successful, that when Leicester at length discovered the real state of the case, he exclaimed, " Now have I taught them to war to some purpose I May the Lord have mercy on our souls, for our bodies belong to prince Edward ! " But there was not much time for reflection; Edward led his troops to the attack vi- gorously and in excellent order; Leicester's troops, on the other hand, were dispirited by their bad position and suffering much from sickness ; and victory speedily declared for the prince. In the heat of the battle Leicesterwas struck down and immediately dispatched though he demanded quarter, and his whole force was routed, upwards of a hundred of the principal leaders and knights being taken prisoners. The king himself was on the point of losing his life. Tlie earl had cruelly placed him in the verv front of the battle, and a knight who had already wounded him was aoout to repeat his blow, when Henry saved himself by exclaiming, "I am Henry o^ Winchester, your king." The victory of Evesham re-established the king's authority; and to the great credit of the royal party, no blood disgraced that victory. Not a single cnpital punishment took place; the family of Leicester alone was attainted to full effect; for though many other rebellious families were form- ally attainted, their sentences were re- versed on pajrment of sums, trifling indeed when the heinousness of the offence they had committed is considered. The kingdom being thus restored to peace and released from all danger from the turbulent Leicester, prince Edward de- parted for the Holy Land, where he so greatly distinguished himself, that the in- dels at length employed an assassin to destroy him ; but though severely and even dangerously wounded, the prince fortu- nately escaped with life, and his assailant was put to death on the spot. A.n. 1272.— Lest Gloucester should imi- tate his late rival in rebellion, Edward took that powerful noble with him to the liTast; but his own absence was very injurious to the public peace in England. No one pre- sumptuous and even powerful baron, in- deed, dared to dispute the crown with his royal master, but there was a general ten- dency to disorder among both barons and people; and the rabble of the g^-at towns, and especially of London, became daily more openly violent and licentiovs. Henry was little able to contend a^aiiist such a state of things. Naturally irresolute, 'e was now worn out with years, and with infirmities even beyond those incident to a^e. Perhaps, too, the disorder of his kingdom aggravated his sufferings; he per- petually expressed his wish for the return of his son, and lamented his own helpless- THR TRIAL BT WATEB AMD FIRE OROBAL WAS ABOLISHBO III THIS BEION. w BSWABS I. WAS COCBAexODB, TIGILAIfT, >lf TBBFRISIMO, AND rOLITIC. H U ■< o K n * M H M H m m M (^ IS H H H B H H » H M n u 4 >a t» M o o « IB o M » H t< >i < K K m o a H « h H C9 D O H H IR (9 M M M m H M O M •J O H H H t» IB M « lEnglantf.— ^lantagcntts.— lEtilttartf I. 167 ness, and at length breathed his last on the 16th of Noveinber, 1272, aged sixty-four; having reigned fifty years, with little ease and with Uttie credit, being obviously, from his youth upward, rather titled for » private than for a public station. , CHAPTER XXIV. The Reign of Ekwabd I. A. D. 1S73.— Prince Edward was already as far as Sicily on his way home when he received tidings of the death of his father. He at the same time heard of the death of his own infant son John ; and when it was observed to him that the former loss seemed to aiTect him the most painfully, he replied that the loss of his son might be supplied, but that of his father was final and irreparable. Hearing that all was peaceable in Eng- land he did not hasten home, but passed nearly twelve months in France. Being at Chalons, in Burgundy, he and some of his knights engaged in a touriiament with the Bur^undian chivalry, and so fierce was the spirit of rivalry that the sport became changed into earnest ; blood was spilt on both fcides, and so much dan.age was done before the fray could be terminated, that the engagement of this day, though commenced merely in sport and good faith, was se- riously termed the little battle of Chalons. A. D. 1274. — After visiting Paris, where he did homage to Pliilip the Hardy, then king of France, for the territory which he held in that kingdom, he went to Guienne to put an end to some disorders that existed there, and at length arrived in London, where he was joyfully received by his people. He was crowned at Westminster, and immediately turned his attention to the regulating of his kingdom, with an especial view to avoiding th-^^e disputes which had caused so much evil during the life of his iiither, and to putting an end to the bold practices of malefactors by whom the country was at once much injured and disgraced. Making the great charter the standard of his own duty towards the barons, he in- --sisted upon their observing the same stan- dard of conduct towards their vassals and inferiors, a course to which they were by no means inclined. A.u. 1275. — Having summoned a parlia- ment to meet him in February, 1275, he caused several valuable laws to be passed, weeded the magistracy of those wlio lay under the imputation of either negligence or corruption, and took measures for put- ting a check alike upon the robberies com- mitted by the great, under the colour of justice and authority, and upon those which, in the loose state into which the kingdom had fallen during the close of the late reign, were so openly and daringly committed on the highways, that men of substance could only safely travel under escort or in great companies. For the lup- tiression of this latter class of crimes the :ing showed a f.erce and determined snirit, which might almost be judged to have ueen over severe if we did not take into conside- ration the desperate extent to which the evil had arrived. The ordinary judges were intimidated, the ordinary police was weak and ill-organized, and the king therefore establishea a commission which was ap- pointed to traverse the country, taking cognizance of every description of evu doing, from the pettiest to the iQost hein- ous, and inflicting condign and prompt punishment upon the offenders. The old Saxon mode of commuting other punish- ments for a pecuniary 0ne was applied by this commission to minor offences, and a large sum was thus raised, of which the king's treasury stood much in need. But the zeal of the commission — and perhaps some consideration of the state of the royal treasury, — caused the fines to he terribly severe in proportion to the offences. There was, also, too great a readiness to commit upon slight testimony ; the prisons were filled, and not with the guilty alone ; the ruffian bands, who had so long and so mis- chievously infested the kingdom, were bruk<>n up, indeed, but peaceable subjects and honest men were much harassed and wronged at the same time. The king him- self was so satisfied of the danger of en- trusting such extensive powers to subjects, that when this commission had finished its labours it was annulled, and never after- wards called into activity. Though Edward showed a real and cre- ditable desire to preserve his subjects, of all ranks, from being preyed upon by each other, truth compels us to confess that he laid no similar restraint upon himself. Having made what profit he could by put- ting down the thieves and other offenders in general, Edward now turned for a fresh supply to that thrifty but persecuted peo- ple, the Jews. The counterfeiting of coin had recently been carried on to a most in- jurious extent, and the Jews being chiefly engaged in trafficking in money, tliis mis- chievous adulteration was very positively, though rather hastily, laid to their charge. A general persecution of the unhappy peo- ple commenced, of the fierceness and ex- tent of which some judgment may be formed from the fact, that two hundred and eighty of them were hanged in London alone. While death was inflicted upon many in all parts of the kingdom, the houses and lands of still more were seized upon and sold. The king, indeed, with a delicacy which did not always characterize him in money matters, seized in the first instance only upon one half of the proceeds of these confiscations, the other being set apart as a fund for those Jews who should deem fit to be converted to Christianity; but so few of the Jews availed themselves of the temptation thus held out to them, that the fund was in reality as much in the king's possession as though no such pro- vision had been made. It had been well for Edward's character if this severity had been exercised against the Jews only for the crime with which they were charged; but urged probably still more by his waut of t\ tub orriCB or joticb op tub vbaci vibrt bitablisubd by bdward. A. D. 1279. — BDWAnn CAUSED THE STATVTB OV "MOBTMAIN" TO BB BN ACTED. 168 tfLf)z treasure of l^istorp, $cc. money than by the bigoted hatred to this race which he had I'elt from his earliest youth,Ed- ward siiortly afterwards commenced a per- secution against the whole of the Jews in England ; not as coiners or as men being concerned in any other crimes, but simply as being Jews. The constant taxes paid oy these people, and the frequent arbitrary levies of large sums upon them, made them iu reality one of the most valuable classes of Edward's subjects ; for whether their su- Serior wealth was obtained by greater in- ustry and frugality than others possess- ed, or by greater ingenuity and hcartlcss- uess in extortion, certain it is that it was very largely shared with their sovereign. But the slow process of taillages and forced loans did not suit Edward's purposes or wants ; and he suddenly issued an order for the simultaneous banishment of the whole of the obnoxious race, and for their depri- vation of the whole of their property, with the exception of so much as was requisite to carry them abroad. Upwards of tifteen thousand Jews were at once seized and plundered, under this most inexcusably ty- rannous decree ; and as the plundered vic- tims left the country, many of them were robbed at the sea-ports of the miserable pittance which the king's cupidity had spared them, and some were murdered and thrown into the sea. While taking this cruel and dishonest means of replenishing his treasury, Ed- ward had at least the negative merit of fru- gally expending what he had unfairly ac- quired. Aided by parliament with a grant of the fifteenth of all moveables, by the pope with a tentli Of the church revenues for three years, and by the merchants with nn export tux of half a mark on each sack of wool and a whole mark on every three hundred skins, he still was cramped in means; and as he was conscious that during the late long and weak reign many encroacliments had been unfairly made upon the royal de- mesnes, he issued a commission to enquire into all such encroachments, and also to devise and seek the best and most speedy ways of improving the various branches of the revenue. The commission, not always able to draw the line between doubtful ac- Suisitions and hereditary possessions of un- oubted rightfulness, puslied their enqui- ries so far that they gave great o£fence to some of the nobility. Among others they applied to the earl Warcnne, who had so bravely supported the crown against the ambition of Leicester during the lute reign, for the title deeds of his possessions ; but the indignant earl drew his sword and said, that as his ancestors had acquired it by the sword so he would keep it, and that he held it by the same right that Edward held his crown. This incident and the general discontent of the nobles determined the king to limit the commission for the future to cases of undoubted trespass and en- croachment. A. D. 12"fl. — Not even pecuniary necessi- ties and the exertion necessary to supply them could prevent Edward's active and warlike spirit from seeking employment in the field. Against Llewellyn, prince of Wales, Edward had great cause of anger. He had been a zealous partizan of Leices- ter ; and though he had been pardoned, in common with the other barons, yet there had always been something of jealousy to- wards him in the mind of Edward, which . jealousy was now fanned into a flame by Llewellyn refusing to trust himself in Eng- land to do homage to Edward, unless the king's eldest son and some English nobles were put into the hands of tnc Welsh as hostages, and unless Llewellyn's bride, a daughter of the earl of Leicester, who had been captured on her way to Wales and was now detained at Edward's court, were released. A. D. 1277. — Edward was not sorry to hear demands, his refusal to comply with which would give him the excuse he wished for, to march into Wales. He accordingly gave Llewellyn no other answer than a renewal of his order to him to come and do homage, and an offer of a personal snr<> conduct. Edward was both aided an(: urged in his invasion of Wales by David and Roderick, brothers of Llewellyn, who, having been de- spoiled of their inheritance by that prince, h.nd now sought shelter and taken service with his most formidable enemy. When the English approached Wales, Lle- wellyn and his people retired to the moun- tain fastnesses of Snowdown, judging that there he could maintain against Edward that desultory warfare which had harass- ed and tired out the Saxon and the Nor- man invaders of an earlier day. But in- stead of exposing his forces to being ha- rassed and beaten in detail, Edward guard- ed every pass which led to the inaccessible retreats of the enemy, and then coolly waited until sheer h> a a H f- I f< ■ O u « I Id M m < a a I a X o a a a « n ■i CO w "" ^H ^ A.D. 1S90.— QUEEN XLGANOB DIED AT HOUNBY, LINCOI.N, MOV. 28. spot; the English alleging, that he acci- dentally fell upon his own knife, the Nor- mans loudly aHirming that he was stabbed. The Normans complained to king Pliilip, who bade them avenge themselves without troubling him. The words, if lightly spoken, were taken in all seriousness ; the Normans (iezed upon an English t'hip, hanged some of the crew side by side with an equal number of dogs, and dismissed the rest of the ship's company, tauntingly assuring them that they had now satisfactorily avenged the Norman sailor who was killed at Bayonne. AVlien this intelligence reached the ma- riners of the Cmque ports they retaliated upon French vessels, and thus an actual war was soon raging between the tno na- tions without a formal declaration of hos- tility having been made or sanctioned by either sovereign. As the quarrel proceeded it grew more and more savage; seamen of other nations took part in it, the Irish and Dutch joining the English, the Genoese and Elemish joining the French. At length an incident in this singular war rendered it impossible for Edward and Philip any longer to remain mere spectators of it. A Norman fleet, numbering two hundred vessels, sailed southward for a cargo of wine, and to convey a considerable military force ; and this powerful fleet seized on every English ship it met with, plundered the goods, and hanged the seamen. This news more than ever enraged the English sailors, who got together a well manned fleet of sixty sail, and went in quest of the Normans, whom they met with and de- feated, taking or sinking most of the ves- sels ; and tKese being closely stowed with military, and the English giving no quar- ter, it was asserted that the Norman loss was not less than tifteen thousand men ; an enormous loss at any time, but especially in an age when battles which altered the destinies of empires were frejjuently de- cided at a far less expence of life. Philip now demanded redress from Ed- ward, who coldly replied that the English courts were open to any Frenchman wlio had complaints to make ; and then he offered to refer the whole quarrel to the pope, or to any cardinals whom himself and Philip might agree upon But the parties most concerned in the quarrel were by this time too much enraged to hold their hands on account of negotiations; and Philip finding that the violence was in no wise discountenanced by Edward, sum- moned him, as duke of tiuienne and vassal of France, to appear in his liege lord's court at Paris and answer for the offences his subjects had committed. A. 0.1294. — The king instructed John St. John to put Guienne into a state of de- fence, and at the same time endeavoured to ward off attack from it by sending liia brother the earl of Lancaster to Paris to mediate with Pliilip. The earl of Lancaster having married the queen of Navarre, mother of Jane, the queen of France, the latter offered him her aid in accommo- dating the dispute ; and the queen dowager of France joined her, in all apparent ;{ood faith. But the two princesses were acting most insidiously. They assured the earl that if Edward 'ivould give Philip siezin or possession of Guienne, to heal the wound his honour had received from his sub-vas- sals of that province, Philip would at once be satisfied and immediately restore it. To this Edward agreed, and gave up the province as soon as his citation to Paris was withdrawn ; but the moment he had done so, he was again cited, and, on his non ■ appearance, condemned to forfeit Guienne. The trick thus played by Philip was so precisely similar to that which Edward had himself planned for Scotland, that it is truly wonderful how so astute a prince could ever have fallen blindfold into such an uncovered pit. A.D. 1295.— Edward sent an army to Guienne, under the command of his ne- phew, John de Bretagne, earl of Richmond, together with John St. John, and other ofticers of known courage and ability ; and as his projects upon Scotland did not ena- ble him to spare so many regular soldiers as were needed, he on this occasion opened all the gaols of England and added the most desperate of their tenants to the force he sent over to France. While a variety of petty actions were carried on in France, Philip endeavoured to cause a diversion in his favour by enter- ing into an alliance with John Baliol, king of Scotland ; and he, smarting under the insults of Edward and longing for re- venge, eagerly entered into this alliance, and strengthened it by stipulating a marriage between his own son and the daughter of Charles de Valois. A.D. 1296. — Conscious how deep was the offence he had given to Baliol, Edward had too carefully watched him to be unaware of his alliance with France ; and having now obtained considerable supplies from his parliament, which was more popularly com- posed than heretofore, he prepared to chas- tise Scotland on the slightest occasion. In the hope, therefore, of creating one, he sent a haughty message desiring ISaliol, as his vassal, to send him forces to aid him in his wor with France. He next demanded that the castles of Berwick, Roxburgh, and Jedburgh should be placed in liis hands during the French war, as security for the Scottish fldelity; and then sum- moned Baliol to appear before the English rarliament at Newcastle. Baliol, faithful to his own purpose and to the treaty that he had made with Philip, complied with none of these demands; and Edward having thus received the ostensible offence which ho desired, advanced upon Scotland with an army of thirty thousand foot and four thousand horse. The military skill of Baliol being held in no very high esteem in Scotland, a council of twelve of the most eminent nobles was appointed to advise and assist him — in other words to act, for the time, at least, as " viceroys over him." o r. < H f a H H U H I. 1^ o> A.D. 1295. — TBE POFB iBSOLVKS BAMOL FROM HIS OATU OF FRAI.TY. w H 1 dowager rent sootl M re acting ti the earl < siezin or he wound n M i Kub-vas- e i at once H estore it. n •e up the a to Paris OQ t he had to d, on his forfeit H by Philip at which M a Scotland, ei ) astute a m ilfold into a K army to f his ne- la jphmond, m ind other N litT ; and H I not ena- u r soldiers tn )n opened a dded the M the force ons were leavoured f> by enter- h iliol, king indfr the «s t for re- a ance, and g, niarnaKC o ughter of H O p was the o a ward had K naware of & iving now A from his la arly com- > i to rhas- ri occasion. f; one, he n Jaliol, as id him in >i cmanded o H oxburgh, d in his y. security t> icn sum- ! English r. , faithful t4 caty that < ied with H rd having a ce whic » a and with u and four e N g held in 1 ft council & jbles was him — in at least, ■i A.D. 1295 — AltOLBSBV SUBDOBD BT THE XHOtlSB. Under the management of this council vigorous preparations were made to oppose Edward. An array of forty tliousand foot and about five hundred horse marched, after a vain and not very wisely planned attempt upon Carlisle, to defend the south- eastern provinces threatened with Edward's first attacks. Already, however, divisions began to appear in the Scottish councils; and the Bruces, the earls of March and Angus, and other eminent Scots, saw so much danger to their country from such a divided host attempting to defend it against so powerful a monarch, that they took the opportunity to make an early sub- mission to him. Edward had crossed the Tweed at Coldstream without experiencing any opposition of either word or deed ; but herb he received a magniloquent letter from Baliol, who having obtained from pope Celestine an absolution of both himself and his nation from the oath they had taken, now solemnly renounced the homage he had done, and solemnly defied Edward. Little regarding mere words, Edward had from the first moment of commencing his entcrprize been intent upon deeds. Berwick had been taken by assault, seven thousand of the garrison put to the swurd, and sir William Douglas, the governor, mui'.e prisoner; and now twelve thousand men, under the command of the veteran earl Warenne, were dispatched against Dun- bar, which was garrisoned by the very best of Scotland's nobility and geuty. Alarmed lest Dunbar should be taken, and their whole country thus be laid open to the English, the Scots marched an immense army to the relief of that place ; but the earl Warenne, though his numbers were so inferior, attacked them so vigorously that they ded with a loss of twenty thousand men ; and Edward with his main army coming up on the following day, the garrison perceived that further assistance was hope- less, and surrendered at discretion. The castles of Roxburgh, Edinburgh, and Stir- ling now surrendered to Edward in rapid succession ; and all the southern parts of Scotland being subdued, Edward sent de- tachments of Irish and Welsh, skilled in mountain warfare, to follow the fugitives to their recesses amidst the mountains and islets of the north. But the rapid successes which already attended the arras of Edward had com- pletely astounded the Scots, and put them into a state of depression proportioned to the confidence they had formerly felt of seeing the invader beaten back. Their heavy losses and the dissensions among their leaders rendered it impossible for them to get together any thing like an im- posing force; and Baliol himself put the crowning stroke to his country's calamity bv hastening, ere the resources of his peo- ple could be fully ascertained, to make his submission once more to that invader to whora he had but lately sent so loud and so gratuitous a defiance. He not merely apo- logized in the most humble terms for his breach of fealty to his liege lord, but made a solemn and final snrrender of his crown ; and Edward, having received the homage of the king, marched northward only to be re- ceived with like humility hv the people, not a man of whom approached him but to pay him homage or tender him service. Having thus, to all outward appearance, at least, reduced Scotland to the most perfect obe- dience, Edward marched his army south and returned to England, carrying with him the celebrated inauguration stone of the Scots, to which there was a superstition attached, that wherever this stone should be, there should be the government of Scotland. Considering the great power which such legends had at that time, Ed- ward was not to blame, perhaps, for this capture ; but the same cannot be said of his wanton order for the destruction of the national records. Baliol, though his weak character must have very effectually placed him beyond the fear or suspicion of Edward, was confined in the Tower of London for two years, at the end which time he was allowed to retire to France, where he remained during the rest of his life in that private station for which his limited talents and his timid temper best fitted him. The government of Scotland was entrusted to earl War- renne, who, both from policy and predilec- tion, took care that Englishmen were pre- ferred to all oSices of profit and influence. In Guienne Edward's arms had been less successful ; his brother the earl of Lancas- ter had at first obtained some advantages ; but, he dying, the earl of Lincoln, who succeeded to the command, was not able to make any progress. Edward's success in Wales and Scotland had, however, made him more than ever impatient of failure; and he now projected such a confederacy against the king of France as, he imagined, could not fail to wrest Guienne from him. In pursuance of this plan, he gave his daughter the princess Elizabeth to John, earl of Holland ; and at the same time sti- pulated to pay to Guy, earl of Flanders, the sum of 7o,000l. as his subsidy for joining him in the invasion of the territory of their common enemy, Philip of France. Ed- ward's plan, a very feasible one, was to assemble all his allies and march against Philip's own capital, when Philip would most probably be glad to remove the threat- ened danger from himself by giving up Guienne. As a large sum of money was requisite to carry out the king's designs he applied to parliament, who granted him, — the barons and knights a twelfth of all moveables, and the boroughs an eighth. But if the king laid an unfair proportion of his charges upon the boroughs, he pro- posed still more unfairlv to tax the clergy, from whom he demauded a fifth of their moveables. Pope Boniface VIII. on mount- ing the papal throne had issued a bull for- bidding the princes of all Christian nations to tax the clergy without the express con- sent of Rome, and equally forbidding the clergy to pay any tax unless so sanctioned ; and the English clergy gladly sheltered A. D. Ha". — INFRACTIONS OK THE ORBAT CBARTBR BIOIOLT ENQi;lRED INTO. ¥ I ;• 1 BKrKATKD aUBJUOATION LieHTKIfS MOT TBI COIIQCIBOR ■ TOKX. lllui *■■ ■ I J! I 172 ^^e ^reasuts of l^istorts.^c. thcmselveR under that bull, now that the king proposed to burthen them so shame- fully out of all proportion to his charges upon other orders of his subjects. Though Edward was much enraged at the tacit op- position of the clergy, he did not instantly Eroceed to any violence, but. caused all the arns of the clergy to be locked up and prohibited all payment of rent to them. Having given thus much intimation of his determination to persist in his demand, he appointed a new synod to coufer with him upon its reasonableness; but Robert de Winchelsey, archbishop of Canterbury, who had suggested to Boniface that bull of which the clergy were now availing them- selves, plainly told the king that the clergy owed obedience to both a temporal and a spiritual sovereign, and that the obedience due to the former would bear no compari- son as to importance with that which was due to the latter ; and that consequently it was impossible that they could pay a tax demanded by the king when they were ex- pressly forbidden to pny it by the pope. A. D. 1297. — Ileally in need of money, and at the same time equally desirous of avoid- ing an open quarrel with the pope on the one hand, and of making any concessions to obtain u relaxation of his bull on the other, Edward grimly replied that they who would not support the civil power could not fairly expect to be protected hy it. He accordingly gave orders to all his judges to consider the clergy as wholly out of his protection. He, of course, was obeyed to the letter. IF any one had a suit ai^ainst a clerk the plaintiff was bure of success, what- ever the merits of his case, for neither the defendant nor his witness could be heard; on the other hand, no matter how grossly a clerk might have been urouKcd in matters not cognizable by the ecclesiastical courts, nil redress was refused him at the very threshold of those courts whose doors were thrown open to the meanest layman in the land. Of such a state of things the people, al- ready sufficiently prone to plunder, were not slow to avail themselves ; and to be a clerk and to be plundered and insulted were pretty nearly one and the same thing. The rents both in money and kind were cut off from the convents ; and if the monks, in peril of being starved at home, rode forth in search of subsistence, robbers, embol- dened by the king's rule, if not actually prompted by his secret orders, robbed them pitilessly of money, apparel, and horses, and sent them back to their convents still poorer and in more pitiable plight than they had left thcni. The archbishop of Cant3rbury issued a general excommunica- tion against all who took part in these shameful proceedings ; but it was little at- tended to, and had no effect in checking the spoliation of the clergy, upon which the king looked with the utmost indifference, or, rather, with the double satisfaction aris- ingfrom feeling that the losses of the clergy would at length induce them to submit, even in despite of their veneration for the papal commands, and that the people were thus gradually accustoming themselves to look with less awe upon the papal power. Whether, in wishing the latter consumma- tion Edward wished wisely for his succes- sors we need not now stay to discuss ; in anticipating the former consummation he most assuredly was quite correct : for the clergy soon began to grow weary of a pas- sive struggle in which they were being tor- tured imperceptibly and incessantly, with- out either the dignity of martyrdom or the hope of its reward. The northern province of York had from the first paid the fifth demanded by the king, not in any prefer- ence of his orders to those of the pope, nor, certainly, with any peculiar and personal predilection for being taxed beyond their ability, but because their proximity to Scotland gave them a fearful personal in- terest in the ability of the king to have suf- ficient force at his command. The bishops of Salisbury and Ely, and some others, next came in and offered not indeed literally to disobey the pope by paying the fifth di- rectly to Edward, but to deposit equivalent sums in certain appointed places whence they could be taken by the king's collectors. Those who could not command ready mo- ney for this sort of commutation of the king's demand privily entered into recog- nizances for the payment at a future time, and thus either directly or indirectly, me- diately or immediately, the whole of the clergy paid the king's exorbitant demand, though reason warranted them in a resist- ance which had the formal sanction, nay the express command, of their spiritual so- vereign. In this we see a memorable in- stance of the same power applied to dif- ferent men ; the power that would have crushed the weak John, however just his cause, was now, with a grim and triumph- ant contempt, set at naught by the intrepid and politic Edward, though it opposed him in a demand which was both sliameful in its extent and illegal even iu the manner of its imposition. But with all this assistance, the supplies which Edward obtained still fell far sliort of his necessities, and the manner in which he contrived to make up the difference was characterized by the injustice which was the one great blot upon what would other- wise have been a truly glorious reign. Though the merchants had ever shown great willingness to assist him, he now ar- itrarily fixed a limit to the exportation of wool, and as arbitrarily levied a duty of forty shillings on each sack, being some- thing more tnan a third of its full value I Nor did his injustice stop here ; this, in- deed, was the least of it ; for he immediate- ly afterwtrdc seized all the wool that re- mained in the kingdom, and all the leather, and sold them for his own benefit. The sheriffs of each countv were empowered to seize for him two thousand quarters of wheat and two thousand of oats. Cattle and other requisites were seized in the same wholesale and unceremonious fashion ; and though these seizures were made under TIIR AGORCSSIONS OF WAR KISVBR BBAB SCRUFU.Ot^S EXAMINATIOK. IHB XneLISU BARONa AS8XRT AIID MAIHTAIN THEIR FOWRR. lEngUnTJ.— ^lantagencts — lEUtDaitl IE. 173 promise to pay, the sufferers naturally placed little reliance upon such promise made under such circumstances. In re- cruiting his army Edward acted quite as arbitrarily as in provisioning it ; compell- ing every proprietor of land to pay the yearly value of twenty pounds, either to serve in person or tind a proxy, even though his land were not held by military tenure. Notwithstanding the great popularity of Edward, and the terror of his power, he could not under such circumstances of pro- vocation prevv^nt the people from murmur- ing; nor were vhe murmurs contined to the poorer sort or to those who were personally sufferers from the king's arbitrary conduct, but the highest nobles also felt the outrage that was committed upon the general prin- ciple of liberty. Of this feeling Edward was made aware as soon as he had com- pleted his preparations. He divided his forces into two armies, intending to assail France on the side of Flanders with one of them, and to send the other to assail it on the side of Gascony. But when everything was ready and the troops actually assem- bled on the sea coast, Ro^er Bigod, earl of Norfolk and marshal of England, and Bo- hun, carl of Hereford and constable of England, to whont he intended to entrust the Gascon portion of his expedition, re- fused to take charge of it, on the plea that by their offices they were only bound to at- tend upon his person during his wars. Little used to be thwarted, the king was greatly enraged at this refusal, and in the high words that passed upon the occasion he exclaimed to the earl of Hereford, " By God, sir earl, you shall either go or hangj" to which Hereford coolly replied, " By God, sir king, I will neither go nor hang;" and he immediately left the expedition, taking with him above thirty other powerful ba- rons and their numerous followers. Finding himself thus considerably weak- ened in actual numbers, and still more so by Ihe moral effect this dispute had upon men's minds, Edward now ^ave up the Gascon portion of his expedition ; but the opposition was yet not at an end ; for the two earls now refused to perform their duty on the ground that their ancestors had never served in Flanders. Not know- ing how far the same spirit might have spread, Edward feared to proceed to extre- mities, aggravated and annoying as this disobedience was, but contented himself with appointing Geoffrey de Geyneville and Thomas de Berkeley to act for the recusant officers on the present occasion ; for as the offices of marshal and constable were he- reditary, he could only have deprived the offenders of them by the extreme measure of attainder. He farther followed up this conciliatory policy by taking the primate into favour again, in hope of thus securing the interest of the church ; and he assem- bled a great meeting of the nobles in Westminster Hall, to whom he addressed a speech in apology for what they might deem exceptionable in his conduct. He pointed out how strongly the honour of the crown and the nation demanded the war- like measures he proposed to take, and how impossible it was to take those measures without money ; he at the same time pro- tested, that should he ever return he would take care that every man should be reim- bursed, and that wherever there was a wrong in his kingdom that wrong should be re- dressed. At the same time that he made these promises and assured his hearers that they might rely upon liis fultilment of them, he strongly urged them to lay aside all ani- mosities among themselves, and only strive with each other who should do most to- wards preserving the peace and upholding tl e credit of the nation, to be faithful to him during his absence, and, in the event of his falling in battle, to be faithful to his son. Though there was something extremely touching in the politic pleading of the king, coming as it did from a man usually so fierce and resolute, his arbitrary conduct had injured too widely, and stung too deep- ly, to admit of words, however pathetic, winning him back the friendship of his people ; and just as he was embarking at Winchelsea, a remonstrance which Here- ford and Norfolk had framed was presented to him in their names and in those of other considerable barons. In this remonstrance, strongly though courteously worded, com- plaint was generally made of his recent system of government, and especially of his perpetual and flagrant violation of the great charter and of the charter of the forests, and his arbitrary taxation and seizures, and they demanded redress of these great and manifest grievances. The circum- stances under which this memorial was de- livered to the king furnished him with an excuse of which he was by no means sorry to avail himself, seeing that he could nei- ther deny the grievances nor find the means of redressing them ; and he briefly replied, that he could not decide upon matters of such high importance while a: r distance from his council and in all > ^.c "lustle of embarkation. But the two earls and their partizans were resolved that the king's embarkation should rather serve than injure their cause : and when the prince of Vales and the go- vernment summoned them to meet in par- liament they did so with a perfect army of attendants, horse and foot, and would not even enter the city until the guardianship of the gates was given up to them. The council hesitated to trust so much to men who had assumed so hostile an attitude; but the archbishop of Canterbury, who aided with the earls, overruled all objec- tions'and argued away all doubts ; the gates were given into the custody of the malcon- tents, and thus both the prince and ,the parliament were virtually put into their power. That power, however, they used with an honourable moderation, demanding only that the two charters should be solemnly confirmed by the king and duly observed for the time to come ; that a clause should MANY SCOTS AND WELSH JOIN EDWARS's INTADIMa ARHT. [q: \\ TUOSB BABOHa ONLY WHO SAT IN rABLIAMBfIT WBUB VOV BO CAbLBO. 174 ^f)e ^reasuri? of l^tstorp, $cc. be ndded to the gpreat charter Mcuring the people from being taxed without the con- sent of parliament ; and that they who had refused to attend the king to Flanders sliould be held liarmless on that account and received into the king's favour. Both the prince of Wales and his council agreed to these really just and moderate terms ; but when they were submitted to Edward, in Flanders, he at tlrst objected to agree to them, and even after three days' delibera- tion he was only with difficulty persuaded to do so. The various impediments which the king had met with in England caused him to reach Flanders too late in the season fur any operations of importance ; and enabled Philip to enter the Low Countries before his arrival, and make himself master, in succession, of Lisle; St. Omer's, Courtrai, and Ypres. The appearance of Edward with an English army of fifty thousand men put an cud to this march of prospe- rity ; and Philip not only was compelled to retreat on France, but had every reason to fear that he should be early invaded there. Edward, however, besides being anxious for Enjjland, exposed as it was to the hostili- ties of the Scots, was disappointed of a considerable force for the aid of which he had paid a high price to Adolph, king of the Romans; and both monarchs being thus disposed to at least temporary peace, they agreed to a a truce of two years and to submit their quarrel to the judgment of the pope. A. D. 1298.— Though both Edward and Philip expressly maintained that they re- ferred their quarrel to the pope, not as ad- mitting the pupal right to interfere in the temporal affairs of nations, but as respect- ing his personal wisdom and justice, he was too anxious to be seen by the world in the cl^^ractcr of mediator between two such powerful princes, to make any excep- tion to the terras upon which his mediation was accepted. He examined their dif- ferences, and proposed that a permanent peace should be made by them on the fol- lowing terms ; viz. that Edward, who was now a widower, should espouse Margaret, sister of Philip, and that the prince of Waleu should espouse Isabella, daughter of Philip, and that Guicnne should be restor- ed to England. Philip wished to include the Scots in his peace with Edward, but the latter was too inveterate against Scot- land to listen to that proposal, and after some discussion the peace was made ; Philip abandoning the Scots, and Edward in turn abandoning the Flemings. So care- less cf tlieir allies are even the greatest monarchs when their own interests call for the sacritiee of those allies ! It is but seldom that projects of conquest will hear scrutiny ; still more seldom that they merit praise. But certainly, looking i merely at the geographical relations of England and Scotland, it is impossible to deny that the latter seems intended by na- ture to belong to the former whenever any considerable progress should be made in civiliza\ion. That Scotland should long and fiercely struggle for independence was natural, and excites our admiration and sympathy ; but, on turning from sentiment to reason, we cannot but approve of the English determination to annex as friends and fellow-subjects a people so command- ingly situated to be mischievous and costly as enemies. It is probable that Scotland would never have made a struggle after the too prudent submission of John Baliul, had the English rule been wisely managed. But earl Warenne was obliged by failing health to retire from the bleak climate of Scot- land ; and Orinesby and Cressingham, who were then left iu possession of full autho- rity, used, cr rather abused it in such wise as to arouse to hate and indignation all high spirited Scots, of whatever rank, and of whatever moderation in their former temper towards England. Their shameful and perpetual oppressions, in fact, excited so general a feeling of hostility, that only a leader had been for some time wanting to produce an armed revolt, and such a leader at length appeared in the person of the af- terwards famous William Wallacr. William Wallace, a gentleman of mode- rate fortune, but of an ancient and honour- able family in the west of Scotland, though his efforts on behalf of his country deserve at least a part of the enthusiastic praise which his countrymen bestow upon him, would probably have died unknown, and without one patriotic struggle, but for that which often leads to patriotic eflbrts — a private quarrel. Having, like too mar.y of his fellow-countrymen, been grossly in- sulted by an English otlicer, Wallace killed him on the spot. Under so tyrannous a rule as that of the English in Scotland, such R deed left the doer of it but little mercy to hope ; and Wallace betook himoelf to the woods, resolved, as his life was al- ready forfeit to the law, to sell it as dearly as possible, and to do away with whatever obloquy might attach to his first act of violence by mixing up for the future his own cause with that of his country. Of singular bodily as well as mental powers, and having a perfect acquaintance with every morass and mountain path, the sud- denness with which Wallace, with the small band of outlaws he at first collected round him, fell upon the English oppressors, and the invariable facility and safety with which he made good his retreat, soon made him looked up to by men who longed for the deliverance of their country, and cared not if they owed it even to a hand guilty of deliberate murder. The followers of Wal- lace thus speedily became more and more numerous, and from the mere outlaw's band grew at length to the patriot's army. Every new success with which Wallace struck terror into the hearts of the English increased the admiration of his country- men ; but though the number of his adher- ents was perpetually on tlie increase, for a long time he was not joined by any men of rank and consequence suflicicnt to stamp his exertions with a national character. all who UBLD lands of the crown WItBB PBGTIOUSLY CALLKD DABO.NS. a uriiiy. Wnllnce M English E louiilry. s ndher- < se, for a Q men of H > stamp H aracter. «s. vl XDWAkD HAS THH MIBIT OV DUFBIISIIla INDIICMIIIINATB JCSTICI. lEnglantJ.— ^lantagenrts.— lEUtoart 3E. J 76 But this great difficulty was at length re- moved frnm his path. After a variety of minor successes he prepared his followers to attack Scone, which was held bv the hated English justiciary Ormesby ; and that tyranniciu person being informed by his spies of the deadly intentions of Wallace cowards him, was so alarmed, that he pre- cipitately departed into England ; and his example was closelj followed bj all the immediate accomplices and tonis of his crurlty and tyranny. The panic flight of Ormesby added greatly to the effect which the courage and con- duct of Wallace had already produced upon the minds of his fellow-countrymen ; and even the great, who hitherto had deemed it prudent to keep aloof from him, now showed him both sympathy and confidence. Sir William Douglas openly joined him, and Robert Bruce secretly encouraged him ; the smaller gentry and the people at large gave bim the full confidence and support of which the efforts he had already made proved him capable of profiting; and so general was the Scottish movement, that in a short time the English government was virtually at an end in Scotland. The more sanguine among the Scots already be- gan to hope that their countrv's indepen- dence was completely re-established, but the wiser and more experienced judged that England would nut thus easily part with a conquest so desirable and, perhaps, even es- sential to her own national safety; and their judgment was soon justitied by the appear- ance of earl Warenne at Irvine, in Annan- dale, with an army of upwards of forty thou- sand men ; a force which, if prudently used under the existing circumstances, mu!;t on the instant have undone all that Wallace had as yet done for the enfrauohisement of his country. For the mere appearance of to vast and well appointed nn army, under the command of a leader of the known valour and ability of Warenne, struck such terror into many of the Scottish nobles who had joined Wallace, that they hastened to submit to Warenne, and to save their persons and property by renewing the oath of fealty to Edward; while many who were secretly in correspondence with Wallace, and among his most zealous friends, were compelled, though sorely against their will, to join the English. Wallace, then, being thus weakened, a prudent use of the vast English force was all that was required to have ensured success; and had Warenne acted solely upon his own judgment, suc- cess most certainly would have been his. But Cressingliani, the treasurer, whose op- pressions had only been second to those of Ormesby, was so transported by personal rage, and had so much influence over Warenne, as to mislead even that veteran commander into an error as glaring as in its consequence it was mischievous. Urged by Crcssinglium, Warenne, who had advanced to CnnibusUennetli, on the banks of the Forth, resolved to assail Wal- lace, who hiid moiil skilluUy and strongly posted hiuisell' on the opposite bank. Sir Richard Lundy, a native Scotchman, but sincerely and zealously attached to tiie English cause, in vain pointed out to War- enne the disadvantages under which he was about to make the attack. The order was given, and the English began their march over the bridge which crossed the river at that point. Wallace allowed the leading dirisions to reach his side of the river, but before they could fully form in order of battle he gave the word, his troops rushed upon the English in overwhelming force, and in an incredibly short time the battle became a mere rout, the English flying in every direction, and thousands of them being put to the sword or drowned in their vain endeavours to escape from their en- raged enemies. Cressingnam, who behaved with much gallantry during the short but murderous conflict, was among the number of the English slain; and so inveterate and merciless was the hatred with which his tyranny bad inspired the Scots, that they actually flayed his corpse and had his skin tanned and converted into girtlis and belts. The great loss sustained by the English upon the fleld, and the complete panic into which the survivors were thrown, left Warenne no alternative but to retreat into England. The castles of Berwick and Roxburgh were speedily taken, and Scot- land saw herself free once more, and loudly hailed Wallace as her deliverer. The title of regent was bestowed upon him by accla- mation ; and both from being elated by his almost marvellous success, and from the absolute famine which prevailed in Scot- land, he was now induced to carry the war into England. He accordingly marched his troops across the border, and, spreading them over the northern counties, plundered and destroyed without mercy, till at length having penetrated as far as the bishoprick of Durham, he obtained enormous booty, with which he returned in triumph to Scotland. The news of this great triumph of the Scots reached Edward while in Flanders, where, fortunately, he had just completed a truce with France. He was thus at li- berty to hasten to England and endeavour to retrieve the loss of his most valued con- quest. Sensible that his past conduct had greatly offended as well as alarmed his people, of whose utmost aid and zeal he now stood in so much need, his first core was to exert every art to regain his lost popularity. To the citizens of London he paid his court by restoriug to theiu the pvivilei!;e of electing their own magistrates, of which his father had deprived them; and he gave ostentatious directions lor ex act enquiry to be made as to tlip value of corn, cattle, and other commodities, winch a short time before he had ordered to lie seized ; thus leading the more san^cuine among the sufferers to believe, and to per suade others, that he intended to pay lor the goods thus violently obiuined. To the nobles he ei|UHlly endeavoured to rcconi- ineiid liiniselt' by solemn |>i'oft'ssiIBIT BBOUaHT INTO USB. M ■J « « M »■ M a IS » ■J ,i O m \l IT. ■ ■J n m upon N r ■ving in 1 by the M !W IS «o IS 18, espe- M e aflirin ,4 Ent^lish 3 o country. H ace, the ^ V8, that. •) A.n. 1:>U3.— nCOTLAND BMTBBBD A rOUBTH TIMB, ANO COMFLKTBLT BATAOBD. ^nglantJ.— ^lantngencts.— lEtitoattJ E. 177 theraielvcs for another effort in behalf of their national independence. John Cum- min was made regent, and he did not con- tent hinmclf with keeping a force together in the north, but made frequent incursions upon the subdued southern prurinces. John de Segrnve, whom Edward had left as his representative in Scotland, at length led out his army to oppose the Scotch, and a long and sanguinary action took place at Roslin, near Edinburgh, in which the English were completely defeated, and the wliule of the southern province! freed from them by the regent. Edward, to his infinite indignation, now perceived that he hnd not to complete, merely, but actually to recommence the conquest of this brave people, and he made preparations lor aa doing with his accus- tomed vigour and activity. Assembling naval as well as military forces, he entered Scotland with a large army, which his navy, sailing along the coast, put out of all danger as regarded want of provision. The superiority which this arrangement gave to Edwnrd rendered the resistance of the Scotch as hopeless ns it was gallant. Place after place was taken, the chieftains in succession fell into utter despair, and Cummin himself and his most zealous friends at length submitted. But though Edward had marched triumphantly from one end of the country to the other, and had received the submission of the ablest and the bravest, his conquest was still in- complete, for Wallace was still at liberty and was still undaunted. A.D. 1304-5.— Edward on many occasions during his busy reign displayed great talents, but his really clear judgment was usually vanquished when it became opposed by his fierce love of arbitrary rule. He had now done enough to display his power, and his truest policy would have been to en- deavour to reconcile the existing genera- tion of Scots to their loss of real indepen- dence by flattering them with as much as possible of the appearance of it, by govern- ing them by their own laws and by 'in- dulging them in their national customs, until, habituated to rule and intluenced by the propensity of imitation, which is every- where so strong, they should gradually as- similate themselves in those respects to their conquerors. But this slow though sure process did not accord with his pas- sionate disposition ; and he not only made sweeping alterations in the Scottish laws, but still more deeply wounded the national ^-idc by ttie malignant zeal with which he udstroyed all their most precious records, r. i most valued monuments. By this injudicious cruelty he powerfully excited the hatred of the Scots, and that hatred was now pushed to its utmost excess by what even an English historian can only term the murder of the brave but unfortu- nate Wallace. Resolved never to despair of his country, and never to cease in his exertions for lier bnt when he should cease to live, Wallace sought shelter in the moun- tain fastnesses, confiding the secret of his retreat to only a few upon whom he thought that he could implicitly rely, and watched eagerly and hopefully for some opportunity of again rousing Scotland to resistance. But the anxiety of Edward to get into his power this most formidable enemy to him, because most devoted friend to his native land, led him to hold out the promise of such reward and favour to whomsoever would put Wallaee into his power, that a traitor was unhappily founa even among the mere handful of Scots to whom the power of being thus treacherous was con- fined. The man to whose name this eter- nal infamy attaches was Sir John Monteith, an intimate and confidential friend of Wal- lace. This dastardly and treacherous per- son revealed the place of the patriotic chief- tain's shelter, and he wns seized, loaded with irons, and sent to London. Distin- guished as Edward himself was for courage, the almost romantic bravery and devotion of Wallace might have been expected to have excited his admiration. It is scarcely possible to read this portion of our history without, for Edward's own sake, feeling shocked and disappointed at the unknight- ly want of generosity he disployed. Had he kept Wallace even u close prisoner, though the wrong doer would still have been exer- cising the unjust right of the strongest, Edward had been excusablo, as it was quite obvious that so long as Wallace was at li- berty the conquest of Scotland was not se- cure for a single day. Hut the courage and persevernnce which ought to have secured Edward's sympathy, only excited his im- placable haired ; and the unfortunate Scot- tinli imtriot, after the mere mockery of a trial for treason and rebellion against that power to which he had never made sub- mission, was publicly beheaded on Tower- hill. If Edward hoped by this sharoeful seve- rity to put an end to the Scottish hopes and determination, he was signally mis- taken; the dying resentment of the jirople was aroused ; even those who had been foremost in envying the supremacy of Wal- lace now joined in deploring his fate, and the general mind was put into the most favourable state fur ensuring welcome and support to the next champion of indepen- dence, who soon presented himself in the person of Robert Bruce. A.D. 1306. — Robert Bruce, grandson of the opponent of Baliol, was now, by the decease of both his grandfather and father, the inheritor of, at the least, a plausible claim to the Scottish crown, and had there- fore a personal as well as a patriotic mo- tive for opposing the tyranny of Edward. Though he was himself personally well treated; though, indeed, he was viewed less as a prisoner et large than as a favoured native noble, Bruce could not but feel dis- gust and indignation at the numerous cru- elties of Edward, crowned as they were by the damning injustice of the murder of Wallace ; and after having long pondered the subject, he determined to succeed to that hero in his task, even at the risk of A.n. 1304. — THE SCOTTISH NOBILITT AOAIIf SUBMIT TO EDWARn. THE SOCIETY OF MEIICHANT ADVENTUBBRS ESTABLISHED IN THIS BEION. 178 Vli)t ^icasurn of l^iatory, $cc. ( i succeeding also to his violent end. This determination Bruce contided to his inti- mate friend John Cummin, who approved of his design and encouraged him in it. Whether Cummin from the first listened only to betray, or whether he at first en- tered sincerely into the views of Bruce, and only betrayed them from horror at the mag- nitude of the danger, does not clearly ap- pear. But certain it is that, fi-^ni whatever motives, he did reveal the sentiments and intentions of Bruce to the king. Edward, though little prone to sparing, knew how to dissemble ; and being desir- ous of getting into his power the three bro- thers of Bruce, who wr:; itill at liberty in Sco'land, and fearing to alarm them ere he could do so, should he take any decisive measures against Robert, he for the present contented himself with putting his every act and word under the most severe surveil- lance of persons practised in that most con- temptible species of employment. This po- licy, intended to make the ruin of Robert Bruce more csrtain and complete, proved hi) safety ; for an English nobleman who was privy to Edward's design put Bruce on his guard in time. The friendly nobleman in question, bein^' aware how closely Bruce was watched, could not venture to warn him personally and in plain terms of the danger which beset him, but sent him by a sure hand a pair of spurs and a purse of money. The sagacity of Bruce rightly interpreted the meaning of this double present, and he instantly set o£f for Annandale, and arrived there safely ; having taken the precaution to have his horse shod backward, so that even had a pursuit been commenced, the pursuers would speedily have been thrown out. Hiich as Bruce ranked in the Scottish nobility, he had hitherto been looked upon as wholly los^t to Scotland ; as the mere minion of the English king ; less anxious about the land to which he owed his birth, than to that in which he lived a life of splendid slavery. It was, therefore, with no little surprise, and perhaps in some cases even with suspicion, that the Scottish nobility then assembled at Dumfries saw him suddenly appear before them, with the avowed determination of following up the mighty eGTorts of Wallace, and of liberating his trampled country or nobly perishing in the attempt. The eloquence and spirit with which Bruce declared his intentions and exhorted the assembled nobles to join him iu his efforts, roused their spirits to the highest enthusiasm, and tliey at once declared their intention to follow the noble Bruce even to the death. To this enthu- siasm and assent there was hut one excep- tion ! — Cummin, who had already betrayed the designs of Bruce to the king, now en- deavoured to introduce discord into the council, by dwellin;; with great earnestness upon the little probability that existed of their being successful against the tremen- dous power oi' England, and upon the still smaller probability of Edward showing any mercy to them, should they fall into his hands after insulting him by a new breach of their oath of fealty. The discourse of Cummin had the greater weight because he was held to be a true patriot; and Bruce clearly perceived that this man, who had so nearly betrayed him to certain imprisonment and very probable execution, had so strong a hold on the minds of the nobles, that they would most likely follow his advice, until the arrival of Edward with an overwhelming power would render exertion useless. Enraged at such an opposition being added to the treachery of which he was aware that Cummin hud already been guilty, Bruce, when the meet- ing of nobles was adjourned to another day, followed Cummin as far as the monastery of the Grey Friars, in the cloisters of which he went up to him and ran him through the body. Bruce imagined that he had killed the traitor, but on being asked by a friend and confidante, named Fitzpatrick, whether he had done so, he replied, " I be- liev* BO." " Believe 1" exclaimed Fitzpa- trick, "and is that a thing to leave' to chance? I will secure him!" So saying, the fierce knight went back to the spot where Cummin lay, and stabbed him through the heart. This brutal violence which in our more enlightened day we can- not even Vead of without horror and dis- gust, was then deemed a matter not of shame but of triumph and boasting, and the murderer Fitzpntrick actually took for his crest a hand and bloidy dagger, and the words " I will secure him I" for liis motto. The murder of Edward's spy — and mur- der it assuredly was, however base the cha- racter of the victim — left the assembled nobles, and Bruce especially, no choice as to their future course; they must cither shake off the power of Edward, or perish beneath Edward's aroused vengeance. Bruce in this emergency proved himself well adapted for the lofty and perilous mission to which he had devoted himself. He flew from one part of the country to another, everywhere raising armed partisans, and sending them against the most important towns and castles that ventured to hold out for Edward; and by this activity he not only obtained strong holds in every di- rection, but organized and concentrated a force so considerable, that he was able to declare Scotland independent, and to have himself crowned as her king in the abbey of Scone, the archbishop of St. Andrew's ofliciating. Bruce, though both policy and ambition led him to be crowned, did not suffer mere ceremonial to occupy much of the time for which he had so much more important a use, hut busily pursued the Enghsh until they were all driven from the kingdom, save those who found shelter in the comparatively few fortresses tbat still held out for Edward. A.n. I3(l7. — Edward, who seemed as en- thusiastic in his desire to conquer Scotland as the Scots were in their desire to live free from his yoke, received the tidings of this new defeat of his purpose only as a sum- A. D. 13(17- — CIIAt. I'OnOIUDBN TO 1>K USItU IN LONDON AMD ITS SUUI.'IlltS. i r, I M i w t impurtaut •ed (0 hold 03 H activity he ?. in every di- K ccntrnted a laa able to > lid to lidve H tlic abbey r. . Andrew's B policy and c(l, did not U )v much of Id much more O ursued the t» in Irom the 1. shelter in o 1 tbat Btilt CO ned as en- n ;r Scotland to live free iii;s of this as a sum- It IIS. THE PLACE or SDnrAHO's DEATH WAS BUnQU-ON-THE-SAKDS. lEnglantf piantagcncts.— lEtJtoartJ EE. 179 mons to advance to the conquests yet once more; and, while making his own arrange- ments, he sent forward a large advance force under 'Sir Aylmer de Valence, who fell suddenly upon Bruce, in Perthshire, and put him completely to the rout. Bruce himself, with a mere handful! of personal friends, took shelter in the western isles; sir Simon Fraser, sir Christopher Seton, and the earl of Athol were less fortunate ; being taken prisoners, Edward ordered their immediate execution, as rebels and traitors. Similar severity was shown in the treatment of other prisoners, and Kdward in person now commenced his inarch against Scotland, vowing; vengeance upon the whole of the nation for the trouble and disappointment to which it had exposed him. But a mightier than Edward now was at hand to render farther crueliy or injus- tice impracticable. He was already arrived as far on his journey of vengeance as Cum- berland, when he was suddenly seized with illness, and died on the 7th of July, 13u7, in the tliirty-titth year of his reign and the sixty ninth of his age. VVarlike, pofitic, and so especially atten- tive to amending and consolidating the laws of his country that the title of the English Justinian was not quite unjustly bestowed upon him, Edward yet was rather a great than a good monarch ; better cal- culated to excite the pride of liis subjects than to deserve their love. Self-will, a ne- cessary ingredient, perhaps, to a certain extent, of every great character, was in him carried to an excess, and made him pass from becoming pride to arrogance, and Irom just command to unprincipled extortion and unsparing despotism. \Vith le6s of ar- rogance he would have been in every way a better king; yet, such is the temper of all uncultivated people, the tyrannies of this splendid and warlike tyrant were patiently, almost affectionately, borne by the nation who revolted at the far less extensive and daring tyrannies of John. CHAPTER XXV. The Reign of Edward II. A. D. 1307. — The dying commands of Ed- ward I. to his son and successor were, that he should follow up the enterprise against Scotland, and never desist until that nation Ishould be completely subdued. An abun- dantly sufficient force was ready for the voung king Edward II.; and as Bruce hiid by this time rallied furoes round him, and iiitlicted a rather important defeat upon sir Aylmer de Valtnce, the English peo- ple, too tond of glory^o pay any scrupulous attention to the justice of the cause in which it was to be acquired, hoped to see Edward II. at the very commencement ol his reign imitating the vigorous conduct of his martial father; and they were not a little disgusted when Edward, after marching gome short distance over the border, gave up the cnterprize. not from any considera- tions of its injustice, hut in sheer indo- lence, and returned iuto England and dis- banded that army upon the formation of which his father had bestowed so much ex- ertion and care. Hitherto the character of this prince had been held in esteem by the English people, who, with their accustomed generosity, took the absence of any positive vice as an indication of virtue and talent, which only . trary, with a force powerful enough to enable them once more to dictate to the king, to whom, in the form of a petition, they presented their demand that he should delegate his authority to certain barons and prelates, who, until the following Mi- chaelmas, should have power to regulate both the kingdom and the king's house- hold ; that the regulations thus made should become perpetual law ; and that the barons and prelates in question should further be empowered to form associations for se- curing the observance of those regulations. In brief terms, this petition did really create an iinperium in imperio ; and the de- eradatiou of the royal authority was not a jot the less complete because the peti- tioners professed to receive the vast powers they demanded solely from the free grace of tlie king, and promised that this con- cession should not be drawn into a prece- dent, and that the powers demanded should determine at the appointed time. A.D. 1311. — Many of the regulations made under the extraordinary powers thus usur- ped by the barons deserve all praise, inns- much as they tended to provide for the se- curity of the people at large and the regu- lar administration of justice. But the main object of the barons was to rid themselves of Gaveston, who was accordingly again banished, and it was at the same time or- dained that should he ever again return he should be considered and treated as a pub- lic en' "iy. To all other alterations Edward was ut- terly indifferent; but the banishment of Gaveston filled him with rage and grief. He therefore retired to York, and, gathering forces about him, openly invited Gaveston back friv.n Flanders, while he declared that he had been tyranuously and illegally ba- nished, and re-established him in all his former pomp and power. The insolent and haughty nature of Gaveston was now so well known to the borons, that they felt they must either wholly crush him or pre- pare to be crushed by him ; Lancaster accordingly summoned around him a for- midable confederacy, at the licad of which were Guy, earl of Warwick, Bohun, earl of Hereford, ond Aymer de Valence, eorl of Pembroke. Robert de Winclielsca, arch- bishop of Canterbury, brouglit the whu'c of the clergy to the aid of this mighty con- federacy ; and so general was the disgust caused by the king's absurd and ruinous folly, that carl Warenne, so long faithful, now openly declared against him. Lancaster led the army of the confederacy to York, but the king escaped thence to Teigninouth, whence he embarked for Scor- borough castle. Here h*; left the favourite, while Tic himself returned to York, to en- deavour to raise an army suttlciently nu- merous to admit of his meeting the barons in the Aeld. In the meantime Gaveston was far loss secure than bdward had supposed. The castle of Scarborough was very strong, but it was iusufHciently garrisoned, and still more insufficiently provisioned; and, Pembroke being sent to beseigc it, Gaveston found himself compelled to capitulate. He did so on condition that he should remain in the custody of Pembroke during two months, which time should be employed in endeavours to bring about an accommoda- tion between the king and the barons; that should such endeavours fail, the castle should be restored unimpaired to Gave- ston ; and that Henry Picrcv and the earl of Pembroke should with all their lands guarantee the due performance of these articles. On the surrender of Gaveston, the earl of Pembroke treated his prisoner with all civility, and conducted him to Dedington castle, near Banbury, where, on pretext of business, he left him with only a very weak guard. Scarcely had Pembroke departed, when Guy, earl of Warwick, who had from the iirst exhibited a most furious zeal against Gaveston, attacked the castle, which was readily surrendered to him by the feeble and probably tutored garrison. Gaveston was now hurried uway to War- wick castle, where Warwick, Hereford, Arundel, and La- faster, after a very sum- mary ceremony, ordered him to be be- headed, in contempt alike of the terms granted to him by Pembroke, and of the general laws of the land. When Kdward first heard of the death of his favourite, his rage seemed unappeasable and his grief inconsolable. But he was too weak-minded to be dangerous; and even while he was threatening the utter exter- mination of the barons, they reconciled themselves to him by the politic and empty form of feigning to regret the deed that was irrevocable, and proffering to ask upon their knees pardon for the oil'ence. 'I'he quarrel between the king and the barons was, for the present at least, patched up; and the people hoped from this reunion of such powcrlul interests some signal vindi- cation of the national honour, especially as regarded Scotland, where Bruce had for some time been both bravely and success- fully exerting himself. Of the hill country he had made himself entirely master, and thence he had carried destruction upon the Cummins in the north lowlands. Seconded by his brother Edward Bruce and by the renowned Sir James Douglas, Robert was continually achieving some new conquest; and themuniticence with which he bestowed upon the nobility the spoils he took, greatly tended to secure him that confidence, for want of which alone the murdered Wallace had failed in his patriotic efforts. With the exception of a few fortresses he had subdued the whole kingdom; and Edward, by the distractions of England, had been forced to consent to a truce, which Bruce wisely employed in consolidating his power and in cniph)ying it to the reformation of the numerous abuses which war and li- cence had necessarily introduced. A.B. 131-1. — The ti'uee, ill observed from the beginning, at length came to an end, and Edward now assembled a vast army ►< >i M u o b u A. S. 1312. — FIKlia OAVUBTON BBBKADSD ON BI.ACKL0W-HILI., JUNK 19. [rt M \ I!»|: V I f 1 A OEKAT FAMINK AND SICKNBS8 IN ENQLAND FOR THRU TIARS. 18^ Vlf)z ^reastttt} of l^iatorg, $cr. with the desi;^ of at once crushing Bruce, and finally subduing that kingdom which had given so much trouble to his politic and warlike father. Besides assembling all the military force of England, he called over some of his powerful vassals of Gas-, cony, and to the mighty army thus formed he added a huge disorderly force of Irish and Welsh, eager for plunder and peculiarly well fitted for the irregular warfare of a mountain land. With this various force, amounting to at least a hundred thousand men, he marched into Scotland. Robert Bruce, with an army of only thirty thousand men, awaited the approach of his enemies at Bannockburn, near Stirling. On his right flank rose a hill, on his left stretched a morass, and in his front was a rivulet, along the bank of which he caused sharpened stakes to be set in pits which were then lightly covered with turfs. Towards evening the English appeared in sight, and their advanced guard of cavalry was fiercely charged by a similar body of Scots led by Bruce in person. The fight was short but sanguinary, and the English were put to flight upon their main body ; one of their nravest gentlemen, Henry de Bohun, being cleft to the chin by the battle-axe of Bruce. The combat proceeded no further that night, but very early on the following morning the English army was led on by Edward. The left wing of the cavalry was entrusted to the command of the earl of Gloucester, Edward's nephew, whose youth- ful ardour led to a terrible calamity. Dis- daining all caution, he led on his force at full cnarpe, and rider and horse were speedily plunging among the staked pits which Bruce had prepared for just such an emergency. The young earl himself was slain at the very outset, the greater num- ber of his men were utterly disordered and helpless, and before they could recover and form in line of battle, they were so fiercely charged by the Scottish cavalry, under Sir James Douglas, that they were fairly driven off the field. As the hopes of Edward and the anxiety of Bruce had chiefly referred to the English superiority in cavalry, this event had a proportion- ate effect upon the spirits of both armies ; and the alarm of theEnglish was now chan- ged into a perfect panic by the success of the following simple stratagem. Just as the English cavalry were in full retreat from the field, the heights on the left were thronged with what seemed to be a second Scotch army, but what really was a mere mob of peasants whom Bruce had caused to appear there with music playing and banners flying. At sight of this new ene- my—as this mere rabble was deemed— the English on the instant lost all heart, threw down their arms, and betook themselves from the field in the utmost disorder. The Scots pursued them, and the road all the way to Berwick, upwards of ninety miles, was covered with the dead and dying. Be- sides an immense booty which was taken on the field and during the pursuit, the victors were enriched with the ransoms of upwards of four hundred gentlemen of note, who were taken, in addition to a perfect host of meaner prisoners, to all of whom Bruce behaved with ,the humanity and courtesy of a true hero. Determined to follow up his success, Robert Bruce, aa soon as he could recall his troops from the pursuit and slaughter, led them over the border and plundered the north of England without opposition ; and still farther to annoy the English goverc- ment, he sent his brother Edward to Ire- land with four thousand troops. Lancaster and the other malcontent ba- rons who had declined to accompany Ed- ward upon his Scottish expedition, no sooner beheld him return beaten and de- jected, than they took advantage of his situation to renew their old demand for the establishment of their ordinances. The king was in no situation to resist such for- midable domestic enemies ; a perfectly new ministry was formed with Lancaster at its head, and great preparations were made to resist the threatened hostilities of the now once more independent Scotland. But though Lancaster showed much apparent zeal against the Scots, and was actually at the head of the army destined to oppose them, it was strongly suspected that he was secretly favourable to tfiem and actually held a secret correspondence with Bruce, judging that while the kingdom was thus threatened from vtrithout he could the more easily govern the king. In the mean time Edward, utterly inca- pable of self reliance, had selected a suc- cessor to Gaveston in the splendid but dangerous honour of his favour and confi- dence. This person was Hugh le Despenser, more commonly called Spenser, who to all the eloquent accomplishments and perso- nal graces of Gaveston, added no small por- tion of the presumption and insolence which had consigned that adventurer to an untimely grave. The elder Spenser was also very high in the king's favour, and as he possessed great moderation as well as great experience and ability, he might pro- bably have saved both his son and the king from many misfortunes, had they not been self-doomed beyond the reach of advice or warning. A. B. 1321.— Any favourite of the king would, ipto facto, have been disliked by the barons; but the insolence of young Spenser speedily made him the object of as deadly a hate as that which had ruined Gaveston. To insolence Spenser added cupidity. He had married a niece of the king, who was also a co-heiress of the young earl of Glou- cester who fell at Bannockburn, and had thus acquired considerable property on the Welsh borders, which he was so anxious to extend that he became involved in hot dis- pute with two neighbouring barons, Aubrey and Ammori, towards whom common re- port made him guilty of great dishonesty and oppression. In the same neighbourhood he got into a FABLIAMBNT LIMITS TUB FRIC8S OF MEAT AND OTBRR TBOTISIONB. A.D. 1320.— TUB OBKATSaT ■ABTHQUAKB IVBB KNOWN IN XHOLAIfD, NOV. 14. o *4 M b o w o t< n M U P Q O m H ta m a H H »| O H IE •^ M ta IE O u a «( H H M M B> O ^ H H H pa »4 u ta m a) H H o H 1 M M tt « a << t» S P* ta t« H H ta o >4 O m n CO n ■till more Berious diajiute respecting the barony of Gower. This barony came, by inheritance, into the possession of John de Mowbray, who imprudently entered upon possession without complying with the feudal duty of taking seizin and livery from the crown. Spenser being very desirous to possess this property, persuaded the king to take advantage of Ue Mowbray's merely technical laches, declare the barony es- cheated, and then bestow it upon him. Tliis was done, and the flagrant injustice of the case excited such general and lively in- dignation, that the chief nobiUty, including the earls of Lancaster and Hereford, Aud- ley, Ammori, Roger de Mortimer, Roger de Clifford, aud other barons, flew to arms and declared open war both against the favourite and the king himself. As the barons had long been nursing a sullen and deep discontent, they had already made preparations; they, accordingly, ap- peared at the head of a powerful force, and sent a message to Edward, demanding the instant dismissal of Spenser, and threaten- ing, should that be refused, to take his pu- nishment into their own hands. Both the Spensers were absent on the king's busi- ness, and Edward replied to the message of his barons, that he could not, without gross and manifest breach of his corona- tion oath, condemn the absent, against whom, moreover, there was no formal charge made. The barons probably expected some such answer; and they scarcely waited to receive it ere they marched their forces, devastated and plundered the estates of both the Spensers. and then proceeded to London and tendered to the parliament, which was then sitting, a complicated charge against both father and son. The parliament, without obtaining or demanding a single one of the many articles of tfaw charge, sentenced both the Spensers to confisca- tion of goods and to perpetual exile. This done, they went through the mock- ery of soliciting and obtaining from the king an indemnity for their proceedings, which they thus plainly confessed to have been deliberately illegal, and then dis- banded their troops and retired, in haughty confidence of security from any attempt at vengeance on the part of the weak king, each to his own estate. So weak and indolent was the nature of Edward, that it is probable that he would have left the barons to the undisturbed en- jovment of their triumph, but for an insult which had been offered to his queen. Her majesty being belated in the neighbourhood of Leeds castle, was denied a night's shelter there by the lord Badlesmere, to whom it belonged, and on her attendants remon- strating, a fray arose, in which several of them were wounded aud two or three killed. In addition to the fact that the refusal of a night's lodgiug was churlish, and in the case of a lady doubly so, the queen had ever conducted herself so as to win the re- spect of the baronage, especially in her sympathy with their hatred of both Gavc- ston and the younger Spenser ; and every one, therefore, agreed in blaming the un- civil conduct of the lord Badlesmere. Taking advantage of this temper, which promised him an easy victory, Edward assembled an army and took vengeance on Badlesmere, without any one interfering to save the of- fender. Thus far successful, the king now com- municated with his friends in all parts of the country, and instead of disbanding his force on the accomplishment of the object for which alone he had ostensibly assem- bled it, he issued a manifesto recalling the two Spensers, and declaring their sentence unjust and contrary to the laws of the land. A. u. 1322. — This open declaration he in- stantly followed up by marching his troops to the Welsh marches, where the posses- sions of his most considerable enemies were situated. As his approach was sud- den and unexpected he met with no resist- ance ; and several of the barons were seized and their castles taken possession of by the king. But Lancaster, the very life and soul of the king's opponents, was still at liberty; and, assembling an army, he threw off the mask he had so long worn, and avowed his long suspected connection with Scotland. Being joined by the earl of Here- ford, and having the promise of a rein- forcement from Scotland under the com- mand of Sir James Douglas and the earl of Murray, Lancaster marched against the king, who had so well employed his time that he was now at the head of an army of thirty tho\isand men. The hostile forces met at Burton on the Trent ; and Lancaster, who had no great military genius, and who was even suspected of being but indiffer- entljr endowed with personal couraee, fail- ing in his attempts at defending the pas- sages of the river, retreated northwarcl, in the hope of being joined and supported by the promised reinforcements from Scot- land. Though hotljr pursued by the royal forces, he retreated in safety and in perfect order as far as Boroughbridge, where he found his farther progress opposed by a division of the royal army, under Sir An- drew Harclay. Lancaster attempted to cut his way through this force, but was so stoutly opposed that his troops were thrown into the utmost disorder ; the earl of Here- ford was slain, and Lancaster himself was taken prisoner and dragged to the presence of his offended sovereign. The weak- minded are usually vindictive ; and even had Edward not been so, the temper of the times would have made it unlikely that a king so offended should show nny nieroy. But there was a petty malignity in lid- wards's treatment of Lancaster highly dis- graceful to his own character. The re- cently powerful noble was mounted upon a sorry hack, without saddle or bridle, his head was covered with a hood, and in this plight he was carried to his own castle of Pontefract and there beheaded. Badlesmere and upwards of twenty more of the leaders of this revolt were legally A. Do 1823.— OBDBR OF KNIOUTS-TEMriiABB AB0LI8UBD BT FOFB CLEMENT I. Ji' ' > i \ f ! li ii 184 A.,D. 1323.— TUB KINO HAKES AN UNBUCCESSFUI/ AITUMI'T OH SCOTI.A.tD. tried and executed; a jjfcnt number were condemned to the minor penalties of for- feiture und imprisonment ; and a still greater number were fortunate enough to make their escape beyond seas. Sir Andrew Ilor- clay, to whom the king's success was mainly owing, was raised to the earldom of Car- lisle, and received a goodly share of the nu- merous forfeited estates which the king had to distribute among his friends. Had this distribution been made with any thing like judgment, it had afforded the king a splendid opportunity of increasing the num- ber of his friends and of quickening and confirming their zeal. 13ut the king and his favourite were untaught bv the past ; and to the younger Spenser fell the lion's share of these ricn forfeitures ; a partiality which naturally disgusted the true friends of the crown. { To the enemies whom Spenser's cupidity thus made even among his own party, other and scarcely less formidable enemies were added in the persons of the relations of the attainted owners of the property he thus grasped at; and his insolence ot demean- our, which fully kept pace with his in- crease in wealth, formed a widely-spread, though as yet concealed, party that was passionately and determinedly bent upon his destruction. A fruitless attempt which Edward now made to recover his lost power in Scotland convinced even him that, in the existing temper of his people, success in that quarter would be unattainable; and after making an inglorious retreat he signed a truce for thirteen years. A.n. 1324. — If this truce was seasonable to king Robert Bruce — for king he was, though not formally acknowledged as such by England — it was no less so to Edward ; for, in addition to the discontent that ex- isted among his own subjects, he was just now engaged in a dispute of no small im- portance with the king of France, Charles the Fair found or feigned some reason to complain of the conduct of Edward's mi- nisters in Guiennc, and showed a determi- nation to avenge himself by the confiscation of all Edward's foreign territory; and an embassy sent by Edward, with his brother the carl of Kent at its head, had failed to pacify the king of France. Edward's ciueen, Isabella, had long learn- ed to hold him in utter contempt; but on the present occasion she seemed to sym- pathize with his vexation and perplexity, and offered to go personally to the court of France and endeavour to arrange all matters in dispute. In this voluntary office of mediation Isabella made some progress; but when all the main points in dispute were disposed of, Charles, quite in accordance with feudal law, demanded that Edward in person should appear at Paris and do homage for his French possessions. Had he alone been concerned, this requisition could not have caused him an hour's delay or a minute's perplexity; not so, bound up as his inter- ests were with those of Spenser. That in Solent minion well knew that he had glvon the deepest offence to the pride of Isabel- la; he well knew her to be linlh bold and malignant, and he feared that if he ven- tured to attend the king to Paris, Isahelln would exert her power there to his destruc- tion; while, on the other hand, should he remain behind he would be scarcely able to defend himself in the king's absence, while his influence over that weak prince would most probably be won away by some new favourite. Isabella, who" probably pene- trated the cause that delayed her hus- band's jo\irnoy, now proposed that, instead of Edward proceeding to France in person, he should send his son young Edward, at that time thirteen years of age, to do ho- mage for Guiennc, and resign that domi- nion to him. Koth Spenser and the king gladly embraced this expedient ; the young Erince was sent over to France ; and Isa- el la, having now obtained the custody of the heir to the crown, threw aside all dis- guise, declaring: her detestation of Spenser and her determination to have him banish- ed from the presence and influence he had so perniciously abused ; a declaration which made Isabella very popular in England, where the hatred to Spenser grew deeper find more virulent every day. A great num- ber of the adherents of the unfortunate Lancaster, who had escaped from England when their leader was defeated and put to death, were at this time in France; and as they, equally with the queen, detested Spenser, their services were naturally ten- dered to her. Foremost among them was Roger Mortimer. This young man had been a powerful and wealthy baron in the Welsh marches, but having been condemned for high treason, his life was spared on condi- tion of his remaining a prisoner fur life in the Tower of London. Aided by friends, he had been fortunate enough to escape to France, and having in the first instance been introduced to Isabella only in the character of a political partizan, his hand- some person, accomplishments, and wit speedily obtoined him a more tender and more criminal favour. Having thus fallen away from her duty to her husband, she was easily induced to include him in the enmity she had hitherto professed to con- fine to his minion. As Isabella henceforth lived in the most unconcealed intimacy with Mortimer, and as their nmtual cor- respondence with the most disaffected barons in England was made known to the king, he became alarmed, and sent a pe- remptory message reuuiring her not only to return to England, but also to bring the young prince liomo with her. To this message Isabella as peremptorily replied, that neither she nor her son would ever again set foot in England until Spenser should be definitively removed. Edward's situation was now truly terri- ble. At home secret conspiracies were formed against him; abroad a force was rapidly preparing to invade him ; the mi- nion for whom he had encountered no many enmities could do but little to aid hiui ; and A.D, 1325. — TUB QUEBN AMD HBH ADUERENTS ARE DECtARBD TBAITOnS. not only e> jrinB the p To this r replied, o o n )uld ever Spcuscr a ily terri- ies were Id brce was n the mi- [ so many liiiv ; and IS. tHI SLDMH •»»»« HAD TBM B>rUTATIOH OV B>IIfO WIS* AND BBAVB. lEnglantJ.— ^lantagcnctB.— "Jajtoart 3£3E. 185 his own wife and child, those new and pre- cious connexions upon whom he ought to have been able to rely in the worst of cir- cumstancei, were at the very head of the array that threatened his crown, if not his person. The kingf of France entered warmly luto the cause of the oueen ; and Edward's own brother, the earl of Kent, being in- duced to believe that the sole intention of Isabella was to procure the banishment of Spenser, joined the queen, as did the earls or Leicester and Norfolk. Nor was the euniitv of the clerical order wanting to the formidable array Rgainst Edward. A. D. 1326.— With all these elements pre- pared for the destruction of the unhappy Edward, it was clear that nothing wa* wanted towards the commencement of a citil war but the appearance of the cjueen at the head of an invading force. This ap- pearance Isabella was very willing to make ; but some delay was caused by the decent unwillingness of the king of France to have an espeurham in search of the invaders. But the difficulty of finding so active and desul- tory an enemy was only inferior to that of conquering him when fouud. Lightly nrnicJ, mounted on small swift horses so hardy that every common supplied them with abundant food, and easily subsisted themselves, these northern soldiers passed with incredible celerity from plncc to place, plundering, destroying, and disappearing with unparalleled rapidity, and suddenly reappearing in some direction quite diffe- rent to that in which tlicy had been seen to take their departure. On no occasion was their desultory ac- tivity more remarkable or more annoying than on the present. Edward followed them from place to place, now harassing his troops with a forced march by difficult roads to the north, and now still more dispiriting them by leading them to retrace their steps southward again ; but though he everywhere found that the Scots had been in the places where he sought them, and had left fearful marks of their tempo- rary Htoy, he everywhere found that they had made good their retreat ; and to this harassing and annoying waste of activity he was for some time exposed, in spite of his having oflercd the then very splendid reward of a hundred pounds per annum for life to any one who would give him such information as would enable him to come up with the enemy. At length he received informatiou of the exact locality of the ene- my, and was enabled to come up with them, or rather to be tantalized with the sight of them ; for they h.id taken up so strong a position on the southern bank of the river Wear, that even Edward, young as he was and burning for the combat, was obliged to confess that it would be a wanton expo- sure of his brave troops to certain destruc- tion were he to attempt to cross the river while the foe maintained so admirably chosen a position. Naturally brave, Ed- ward was doubly annoyed at this new diffi- culty on account of his previous vain re- searches ; and in the excess of his enthu- siasm he sent>it formal challenge to the Scots, to abandon their extraneous advan- tages, and meet his army, man to man and foot to foot, in the open field. The generous absurdities of chivalry rendered this chal- lenge less irregular and laughable than it would now be ; and lord Douglas, himself .^r :: mnst fiery and chivalric spirit, would fain have taken Edward at his word, but he was restrained by the graver though not less courageous enrl of Murray, who drily assured Edward that he was the very last person from whom the Scots would like to take advice as to their operations. The Scots and Edward maintained their respective positions for several days ; and when the former at length moved higher up the river, they did so by so unexpected and rapid a movement, that they were again securely posted before Edward had any chance of attacking them. The hi^h courage of the youthful monarch led him to desire to attack the enemy, no matter at what risk or disadvantage ; but as often as he proposed to do so he was overruled by Mortimer, who assumed an almost depotic authority over him. While both armies thus lay in grim and watchful, though in- active hostility, an affair took place which had well uigh changed the fortunes of England. Lord Douglas, audacious and enterprising, had not merely continued to take an accurate survey of every portion of Edward's encampment, but also to obtain the password and countersign ; and in the dead of night he suddenly led two hundred of his must resolute followers into the very heart of the English camp. His intention was either to capture or slay the king, and he advanced immediately to the royal tent. Edward's chamberlain and \.'.-^ chaplain gal- lantly devoted themselves to the safety of tlicir royal master, who, after fighting hand to hand with his assailants, succeeded in escaping. The chamberlain and chaplain were both unfortunately killed; but the stout resistance they made not only ena- bled Edward to escape, but also aroused so general an alarm, that lord Douglas, baulked in his main desiCT, was happy to be able to fight his way back to his own camp, in doing which he lost nearly the whole of his determined little band. The Scots now hastily broke up their camp and retreated in good order into their own country ; and when Edward, no longer to be restrained even by Mortimer, reached the spot which the Scots had occupied, he found no human being there save six English prisoner: whose legs the Scots had broken to j,r,;vent them from carry- ing any intelligence to' the English camp. Though the high spirit and warlike temper which Edward had displayed during this brief and bootless campaign made him very popular, the public mind was, justly, very dissatisfied with the absolute nullity of re- sult from so extensive and costly an expe- dition ; and Mortimer, to whom all the errors committed were naturally attributed, became daily more and more disliked. So puffed up and insolent was he rendered by his disgraceful connection with Isiibella, BDWABD DOBS HOMAQK FOR OUIBNNB AND FONTBIEU. mm* Si V XDWAB9 LAID CLAIM XO IBB OBOWB OV IBAHCB, Al CHABLBl'fl HBrBBW. U I 188 ^fft ^reasurs of l^totons, 8c(. that hU general want of popularity teemed to give nim neither annoyance nor alarm. Tet wai there a circumatance in his poti- tion which a wise man would have made haste to alter. Though he had usurped an even more than royal power, and settled the most important puolic affairs without deigning to consult either the young king or any of the princes of the blood royal ; though he by his mere word had gone so far as to settle upon the adulterous Isa- bella nearly the whole of the rtwal revenue ; vet in forming the council of the regency he had relied so much on his nower that he r s. Dou- glas marched to the relief of that import- ant place, and in a general action that en- sued the Scots were utterly defeated, with a loss of nearly thirty thousand men. The English loss was certainly very trifling; yet we cannot without considerable hesi- tation adopt the accounts which concur in assuring us that the total English loss amounted to thirteen soldiers, one esquire, and one knight ; a loss which can only be imagined by considering that battle to have M H f< •h O K N n >i H as M o K -4 m P e M t< M b O Kr Q K ■< ■9 ft H a M K M A m M Q t, U H H «s BALIOIi DOBS BOMAGB TO EDWARD FOB TUB KINODOK OV lOOTLAITD. w A.D. 1334,— BALIOL'i riR!IT PAIll.rAMKMT B(ID AT ■OINBUKaa, FIB. 10. lEnglantr — \9Iania9enet«.— lEtitoart MS.. 191 K o a S H f M H P O O M O u H 1 M « n H O U n M H (• »• O K M >i f M O (S ■^ n P O H f< M O n « a M IB M M M H M «: A as a R M Ik O o a M H H o H ■ l> N ot O h IB » O H K H »• a M M M >! a M a M R O been little better than a diiorderly flight on the one part and a murderoui purauit on the other. A* the result of this battle, Scotland v ^f again apparently Bubmiisive to Baliol. lie wa« acknowledged aa king by the Scottish parliament, and he and many of the Scottish nobles did homage to Edward, who then returned to England, leaving a detachment to support Baliol. As long as this detach- ment remained Baliol was most submis- sively, not to say servilely, obeyed by the Scots, even when he stung their national pride full deeply by ceding in perpetuity to £ngland,Berwick, Dunbar, Roxburgh, Edin- burgh, and the whole of the south eastern counties of Scotland. But as soon as Baliol, considering himself safe, and perhaps being seriously inconvenienced by the expence of keeping them, sent away his English mer- cenaries, the Scots again rose against him, and after a variety of struggles between him and sir Andrew Murray, who acted as regent in behalf of the absent David Bruce, Baliol was once more chased from all that he fondly imagined he had permanently conquered for himself or England. A.D. 1335. — Edward again marched to chastise and subject the Scots, who aban- doned or destroyed their homes and sought shelter in their mountain fastnesses, but only to return again the moment that he had retired. In this obstinately patriotic course the Scots were greatly encouraged by Edward's position with regard to France, lie had for years laid an unfounded claim to the sovereignty of that country; and though he had on one occasion in the most distinct terms recognised Philip's right, and done homage to him for his lands there held, the encouragement of Robert d'Artois and the concurrence of Edward's father-in- law, the count of Hainault, the duke of Brabant, the archbishop of Cologne, and several other sovereign princes, had in- duced Edward to persevere in a claim whicli was contradictory to common-sense, and plainly contradicted by his own delibe- rate act and deed, and thus laid the foun- dation of a mutual hatred which has only completely subsided within the memory of men who as yet are but young. lie pre- tended that he ought to succeed in right of his mother Isabella, though Isabella her- self was legally and formally excluded from succeeding ; he was thus guilty of the spe- cial absurdity of claiming to inherit from a woman a crowu to whicli a woman could not succeed — and he could only support that special absurdity upon a general prin- ciple—that of the natural right of women to succeed being wholly indefeasible by special regulation ; and in that case each of the three last kings had left daughters whose right upon that general principle would take precedence of his I And jet such a monstrous absurdity of assumption found friends, and caused rivers of the best blood of both nations to be shed in fierce conflict 1 To all his other abettors in this really ridiculous as well as unjust claim, was now added the well K >own Flemish demagogne Jaffics d'Areteveldl, a brewer of Ghent, who ha OF WUUL. 5 < ^ ■ I i !!.' 192 S^Ijc ^rcasunj of l^istovo, ^t. was the very vastness of the sacrifice he had made that determined him to perse- vere in a demand, of tlie injustice of which he must have been conscious from the very outset. Aware that he had unmercifully pressed upon the means of his subjects, and linding that they were daily growing more and more impatient of his demands, Edward now returned to England and of- fired his parliament a full and new con- lirmatiou of the two charters and of the privileges of borouglis, a pardon for old debts and trespasses, and a reform of cer- tain abuses in tiie common law. The first of these the king ought to have been ashamed to con^^ss to be necessary. But public spirit and the controul of parlia- men<; over the royal expenditure were as yet only in their infancy; and the whole concessions v/ere deemed so valuable, that the parliament in retirn granted the king, — from the barons and knights, the nintli sheep, fleece, and Iamb from their estates, for two years ; from the burgesses, a ninth of their whole moveables at their real value; and from the whole parliament, a duty of forty shillings on 1st, each three hundred wool fells, and 2nd, each last of leather, also for two years. It was ex- pressly stated that this grunt was not to be drawn into a precedent ; but as the king's necessities were great, it was additionally determined that twenty thousand sacks of wool should immediately be put at his dis- posal, the value to be deducted from the ninths which would of necessity come in more slowly. While the jjavliament of Engluud acted thus liberally in forwarding Edward's design upon France, they made a formal declaration that they aided him as king of England, and not as king of France ; and tliat in the event of his con- quering the latter country, the former must ev'T remain wholly distinct from and inde- pendent of it. But had Edward been suc- cessful it certainly would not have been this bare and idle protest that would have prevented so resolute and self-willed a monarch from removing the scat of go- vernment to France, and making England a mere province and treasury. A. D. 13-10.— Philip kept a watchful eye upon the English movements; and when Edward at length sailed in a licet of two hundred and forty vessels, he was encoun- tered off Sluys by a French lieet of nearly four hundred vessels, carrying forty thou- sand men. Tiie inferior force of the Eng- lish was at the very outset fully compen- sated for by the skill of their naval com- manders, who got the weather-gage of the enemy, and the advantage of tigliting with the siin to their backs; while the action taking place so near Flanders, the Flem- ings hastened out to join the English, and the result of the obstinate and sanguinary action was the total del'cat of the rrcnch, witli the loss of two hundred and thirty vessels and tliirty thousand men, including two of their admirals. Edward, whose loss had been compara- tively trilling, now marched to the frontiers of France with an army a hundred thousand strong, his recent triumph having caused a host of foreigners to join him on his land- ing. Robert d'Artois, in the hope of cor- roborating the success of Edward, laid siege to St. Omers. But though his force numbered 50,000 men, it was chiefly com- posed of a mere rabble of artificers, so little experienced in war or in love with its pe- rils, that a sally of the garrison put the whole of this doughty army to flight, to the great annoyance of its really able and brave commander. Edward's subsequent operations were by no means so successful. lie greatly dis- tressed Tournay, indeed, and he suffered no very great advantage even in the way of ma- noeuvre to be gained by the French ; but every day brought some new proof that his very allies were at heart hostile to his pur- pose, and only supported him in th6ir own greediness ot gain ; while, on the other hand, supplies arrived so slowl-y from Eng- land, that he was utterly unable to meet the clamorous dcmnnds of his creditors. A long truce, thei-efore, was very gladly agreed to by him, and he hastily and by absolute stealth returned to England. An- noyed at his want of success, and attribut- ing it chiefly to the slowness with which supplies had reached hfm, Edward no sooner arrived in England than he began to vent his anger upon his principal officers ; and he with great impolicy showed especial rage in the case of Stratford, archbishop of Canterbury, upon whom had devolved the ditflcult and not very pleasant task of real- ising the taxes granted by the parliament. It was in vaiii to urge to Edward that the ninth sheaf, lamb, and fleece, beingumisual taxes, were necessarily collected with un- usual slowness; he was enraged at his own ill surress, and was determined to vent it upon his oifieers; sir John St. I'aul, keeper of the privy seal, sir John Stoner, chief justice, the mayor of London, and the bi- shops of Chichester and Lichfield, were imprisoned ; and the orehbishop of Canter- bury only escaped the like indignity by chancing to be absent from London ou Ed- ward's arrival. A.n. 1341.— .Vrchbishop Stratford, who really seems only to have failed in his duty from the novel and dilficult nature of it, was not of a temper to quail before the un- just anger even of so powerful ami passion- ate a prince as Edward ; and on learning to what lengths the king had gone witli the other great officers of state, the archbishop issued a general sentence of exeommuuica- tion against all who should assail the clergy cither in person or property, in- fi'iuge the privileges secured to them by the ecclesiastical canons and by the great charter, or accuse a prelate of treason or any other crime to bring hiiu under the king's displeasure. Nor did the bold and somcwhot orrogant archbishop stop even here. After having thus generally aimed at the king's conduct, and after" having taken care to employ the clergy in painting that conduct in the darkest colours to tlie THE TITI.K OF DUKK IIUI'OKE THIS TIMK WAS UNKNOWN IN KNOI.ANn. 3d thousand ng CAUsvd a m his liind- lope of cor- Uvavd, laid jh his force chiefly coni- :ers, so little with its pc- ion put the to flight, to lly able and ons were by greatly dis- B suffered no e way of ma- French; but roof that his e to his pur- in thfcir own n the other l.y from Eng- ible to meet lis creditors, very gladly stily and by ngland. An- and attribut- wilh which lidward no 1 he b('s?nn to ;ipal officers ; owed especial irchbishop of devolved the task of real- parliament, rd that the cing unusual :d with un- :d at his own d to vent it raiil, keeper toner, chief and the hi- liliold, were p (if Canter- idi|i'nity by •ndun on I£d- afford, who in his duty nature of it, fore tlie un- and pnssiou- n learning to one with the nrchliishop conmiuniea- assail the ropcrty, in- to tiiein by ly the great f trensiin or I uuilcr tlie he bold and p stop even erally aimed afti'r having in painting lours to the < < X o M H a f< h O m office. The maxim of the English parliament seems at that time to have been, that the necessity of the king should be made the advantage of the subject. The close re- strictions which had been laid upon Henry III. and Edward II. were now, as far as was deemed safe, made the basis of the parliament's demands upon Edward III. for concessions to be granted by Mm in re- turn for a grant of twenty thousand sacks of wool. Edward was so pressed by his creditors, that he was obliged to comply with the terms, hard as they were; but as soon as his necessities became somewhat mitig.'ttcd he revoked all that he deemed olfenbivc, alleging that he was advised to do 80 by some of his barons, and that in originally making such concessions he had dissembled and had made them with a secret protest. A most dishonest plea in itself; and one which, it is obvious, would if al- lowed render all the most solemn public cngngemcnts mere deceptions and mock< erit'j. A.D. 13-12. — Dissensions in Brittany led to a state of allairs which revived Edward's expiring hope of conquering Trance, He accordingly sent a strong ileet and army tliither to the aidof the countess of Mount- fort, wlio was besieged by Charles of Uiois, Robert d'Artois, who commanded this force, fought a successful action with the French, and landed his troops in Brittany. He laid siege to Vanncs and took it, but shortly afterwards died of a wound received at the retaking of that place by a party of Breton nobles of tlie faction of Charles, llrprivcd of the senices of llobert, upon wlioso ability and valour Edward Imd great reliance, he now determined to proceed in person to the aid of tlie countess. The tiuca between England and France had ex- pired, and the war was openly and avowedly to be carried on between these two powers, which for some time had really been break- ing their truce in the character of parti- zans to the respective competitors for the duchy of Brittany. Having landed near Vannes with an army of twelve thousand men, Edward, anxious to make some im- {lortant impression, and greatly over-rating lis means of doing so, simultaneously com- menced three sieges; of Vannes, of llcn- nes, and of Nantes. As might have been expected, but little progress was made by a small force thus divided. Even the chief siege, of Vannes, that was conducted by Edward in person, was a failure; and Ed- ward was at length obliged to concentrate all his troops in that neighbourhood, on account of tlie approach of Philip's eldest son, the duke of Normandy, with an army of thirty thousand foot and four thousand horse. Edward strongly entrenched him- self; but he soon became so distressed for provisions, while his antagonists, both of the fortress and the army, were well and fully supplied, that he was glad to enter into a truce of three vears, and consent to Vannes remaining in the hands of the pope's legates, who negotiated the truce, and all the other strongholds of Brittany to remain in the hands of those who th, _. held them. Edward returned to England, and though he had made a truce for the long term of three years, it is quite clear from his conduct that he merely did so to extricate himself and his followers from actual capture. He made complaints of a virtual breach of the treaty by the punishment of certain Breton nobles who were partizans of England; and the parliament, adopting his views, granted him a fifteenth from the counties.and a tenth from the boroughs for two years, to which the clergy added a tenth for three years. Henry, earl of Derby, son of the earl of Lancaster and cousin of the king, was now sent with a force into Guiennc ; and having beaten off all assailants from that pro- vince, he followed the count of Lisle, the French general, to Bergerae, beat him from his entrcnchmcnta, and took the plr.ce. He afterwards subjected a great pan of I'eri- gord; and the count of Lisle, having re- collected and reinforced his troops, at- tempted to recapture Aubcroche, when the earl, at the head of 1000 horse, surprised him, completely routed liia force, and took him prisoner. a. d. 1315. — After this the carl made r most rapid series of conquests on the side of Guieiine, partly owing to the general discontent of the French at some new taxes, especially one on salt.whicli I'hilip's necessities had compelled him to lay upon his people. a. «. i;t4(5.— As soon as I'hilip's finances becatne in better order, vast preparations were made by the French to change the aspect of aft'airs. A very splendid army was led towards Ouiunne by the dukes of Normandy and Burgundy, and other of the chief nobles of France; and the carl of Derby found his force so inadequate, that ho was compelled strictly to contine his movements to the defensive. The French army, therefore, was left full opportunity to lay siege to Angoulenie, and they in- A.D. 1345. — GOLD FinST COINKD IN ENGLAND THIS YtiAIt, A. D. 134-1.— EDWARD TRRT BOLBMNLY BENKWa HAOIfA CHABTA. r* 194 ^]^e Sreasure of 1|istore, $cc. vested it bo closely, that lord Norwich, the gallant English governor, was reduced to the most painful extremities. Despairing of relief and unwilling to surrender himself and troops as prisoners, he had recourse to a not very creditable stratagem, which, moreover, was only successful in consc. quence of the rigid honour of the duke of Normandy. Desiring a conference with that noble leader, lord Norwich proposed a cessation of arms for the following day, which, as being the feast of the Virgin, he professed a dislike to desecrating. The cessation of arms being agreed to, lord Norwich marched his troops through the beleaguered city, and, as he wished to pass through the French lines, sent a messenger to remind the duke of the existing truce. "I see the governor has outwitted me," was the noble reply of the duke, who allowed the English to pass without annoyance, and contented himself with obtaining pos- session of the place. While these and minor transactions were passing in France, Edward had been en- gaged in England in preparing a splendid expedition with which he and his son the prince of Wales, now about fifteen years of age, at length set sail from Southampton. The original destination of this expedition, which amounted to nearly a thousand sail, was Guienne ; but contrary winds prevail- ing for some time, Edward listened to the advice of Geoffrey d'Harcourt, and resolved to make a descent upon Normandy, the rich fields of which would supply his army, while the very proximity to the capital would render any impression made there of proportionate importance. This determi- nation made Edward speedily disembark at La Hogue, with four thousand English men- at-arms and ten thousand archers, together with ten thousand Welsh and six thousand Irish infantry, who, if not very important in actual line of battle, were admirably adapted, in quality of foragers and scouts, to be serviceable to their own force and most mischievous to the enemy. Having destroyed the shipping in La Hogue, Cherbourg, and Bavfieur, Edward, who on landing had knighted his son Ed- ward and some of the young nobility, dis- persed all his lighter and more disorderly troops all over the country, with orders to plunder and destroy, without other restric- tion than that they should return to their camp by night. The effect of this order was to spread the utmost consternation not only all over the province, but even to Poris itself ; and os Caen seemed most likely to be the next object of Edward's enterprize, the count d'Eu, constable of France, and the count of Tancarville were dispatched with an army to its defence. As had been foreseen, Edward could not resist the temptation to attack so rich a place ; and the inhabitants, encouraged by the presence of regular troops, joined them in advancing ai^ainst the English. But the zenl of these civilians gave way at the very first shock of battle; the troops were swept away along with them, both the counts were taken prisoners, and the conquering troops entered and plundered the city with every circumstance of rage and violence. The unhappy people sought to procrastinate their doom by barricading their houses and assailing the English with missiles from the windows and house-tops ; and the soldiers, enraged at this more in- sulting than injurious opposition, set fire to two or three houses in various parts of the town. But Edward, alarmed lest the spoil should thus be lost, stopped the vio- lence of his troops, and, having made the inhabitants give up their vain resistance, allowed his soldiers to plunder the place in an orderly and deliberate way for three days, reserving to himself all jewels, plate, silk, and fine linen and woollen cloths. These, together with three hundred of the most considerable citizens of Caen, he sent over to England. Edward now marched towards Rouen, where he expected to have a similarly pro- fitable triumph ; but finding the bridge over the Seine broken down, and the king of France in person awaiting him with an army, he marched towards Paris, plunder- ing and committing the most wanton de- struction on the road. He had intended to pass the Seine at Poissy, but found the opposite bank of the river lined with the French troops, and that and all the neighbouring bridges broken down. By a skilful manoeuvre he drew the French from Poissy, returned thither, repaired the bridge with wonderful rapidity, passed over with his whole army, and having thus disen- gaged himself from danger, set out by hasty marches from Flanders. His van- guard cut to pieces the citizens of Amiens, who attempted to arrest their march ; but when the English reached the Somme they found themselves as ill situated as ever, all the bridges being either broken down or closely guarded. Guided by a peasant, Edward found a ford at Abbeville, led his army over swovd in hand, and put to flight the opposing French under Godemar de Faye ; the main body of the French, under their king, being only prevented from fol- lowing Edward across the ford by the rising of the tide. After this narrow escape, Edward, un- willing to expose himself to the enemy's superior cavalry force in the open plains of Picardy, halted upon a gentle ascent near the village of Crescy, in a position very fa- vourable for his awaiting the approach of the French. Having disposed his army in three lines, he intrenched his flanks, and there being a wood in his rear, in that he filaced his baggage. His first and second ines he committed to the young prince of Wales, with the earls of Warwick, Oxford, Arundel, and Northampton, and the lords Chandos, Holland, Willoughby, Boos, and other eminent leaders ; while the third line, under his own immediate command, he kept back as a corps de reserve, cither to supijort the former two if beaten back, or to improve any impression that they might make upon the enemy. A.D. 1344. — TUE MADEIRA ISLANDS DIBCOVBRBD DT HACUAN, AN ENGLISHMAN. A. D. 1347.— KDVABD BLKCTBD EMrBBOB OF UEBMANT, WUICU UE BBFUSBD. n o P o H H f (a O a M H H m H O A M f « a M M H SB M n 3 A m p M Ir o O o •JEnglanB — ^lantagcncts — IStitoartt 3EE2. 195 *l In addition to the care with which Ed- ward had secured Ills flanks and rear, he placed in his front some cannon, then only newly invented and never before used to any extent in actual battle. His opponent, though he also possessed cannon, bad, it should scum, left them behind in his hasty and furious march from Abbeville. I'hilip's army amounted to upwards of a hundred and twenty thousand men; but the superiority of the English archers, and the inefficiency of the bow-strings of the archers on the French side, from their not having been secured against rain, caused the very lirst charge to be injuri- ous to this vast and tumultuous host. Young Edward no sooner perceived the confusion that took place in the crowded ranks of his enemy, than he led his line Etcadily into the melee, and so furious was the combat, that the ea/1 of Warwick, alarmed lest the gallant young prince should be overpowered, sent to the king, who surveyed the battle from a neighbour- ing hill, and iutreated him to send a rein- forcement. Learning that the prince was not wounded, the king said in reply to Warwick's message, " Return to my son, and tell him that 1 reserve the honour of the day to him ; I am contideut that he will show himself worthy of the honour of knighthood which I so lately conferred upon him. He will be able to repel the enemy without my assistance." The king of France, far from inactive, did his utmost to sustain the lirst line by that which was under his own command. But the iirst disadvantage could not be re- medied, and the slaughter momentarily be- came greater. Philip had already had nnu liorse killed under him, and, being re- mounted, was again rushing into the tliick- est of the light, when John of Hainault seized the bridle and literally dragged him from the field. The battle was now changed into a complete rout, and the vanquished French were pursued and slaughtered until nightfall. When the king received his gallant son, he rushed into his arms, ex- claiming, " My brave son, persevere in your honourable course. You are my son in- deed, for valiantly have you acquitted your- self to-day. You have shown yourself wor- thy of empire." The loss to the French on this most fatal occasion amounted to 1200 knights, 1-100 gentlemen, 4000 men-at arms, and about 30,000 men of inferior rank. Among the slain, of superior rank, were the dukes of Lorraine and Bourbon, the earls of Flan- ders, Blois, and Vaudemont, and the kings of Majorca and Bohemia. The latter king, though very old and quite blind, would not be dissuaded from taking a personal ]jart in the battle, but had his bridle fastened to those of two attendants, and was thus, by his own order, or at least by his own act, led to perish in the thickest of the fight. His crest and motto were a triple ostrich plume and the words Ich dien, I serve, which were adopted by the prince of Wales, and have been borne by all his successors, in memory of this most decisive battle. Of this battle we may remark as of a for- mer one, that it seems to have been rather a chase murderously followed up; for while the French lost so awful a number of all ranks, the English lost only three knights, one esquire, and a few common soldiers. Great as Edward's victory was, he clearly perceived that for the present many cir- cumstances warned him to limit his ambi- tion to capturing some place that would at all times alt'ord him a ready entrance into France; and accordingly, after employing a few days in burying the dead and resting his army, he presented himself before Calais. John de Vienne, knight of Burgundy, commanded this important garrison ; an honour which he owed to his very high reputation and experience. He was well supplied with means of defence ; and Ed- ward at the very outset determined not to attempt assault, but to starve this import- ant garrison into submission. He accord- ingly intrenched the whole city and formed his ramp, caifting his soldiers to raise thatched huts for their protection from the severity of the weather during the win- ter. De Vienne, judging what was Ed- ward's design, sent all the superfluous hands out of the city, and, to the honour of Edward be it said, he not only let the help- less people pass through his lines, but even supplied them with money to aid them in seeking some other place of refuge. During twelve months Edward was en- gaged in the siege of Calais, and the earl of Derby was during that i>eriod carry- ing on war in Guienne, Puictiers, and the southern provinces of France. Charles of Blois at tlie same time invaded Brittany, and laid siege to the castle of llochelle de Rien, where he was attacked and taken prisoner by the countess of Montfort. While she and her rival and antagonist, the wife of Charles de Blois, were displaying their courage and talents in France, king Ed- ward's queen, Philippa, was still more im- portantly exerting herself in England. The Scots had a few years before recalled their king, David Bruce; and though they could not greatly rely upon his talent or prowess, they were encouraged by the engagement of Edward in France to make an irruption into the northern English counties, to which they were strongly ur^ed by the king of France, who in all his truces with Edward had shown great regard for the safety and welfare of Scotland. With nn army of 60,000 men David Bruce broke into Northumberland, and ravaged and devas- tated the country as far south as the city of Durham. Philippa, doubly indignant that such nn outrage should be committed during the absence of her husband, got together nn army of only about 12,000 men, which she placed under the conininnd of lord Piercy, and accompanied it and him to Nev'Ue's Cross, near Durham. Here she addressed the troops in a very spirited speech, and could scarcely be persuaded to IHMAN. — ' ..-..- UV...M uuiuu ujr ■ii'ccvii, iiuu t:uuiu Buurceiy ue persuHfiuu ic A. D. 1347.— ftUBEW'g COLLEOB, OXFORD, AMD CLABB UAH, CAMBBIDOB, FOUNDED. •i A. D. 1349. — EDWARD INSTITUTES THE OBDSn OF TUB GARTBB, AFRII. 23. Mftii*i| 6< o OQ M a a ■< <^ H I CO p ■4 196 l^i^c ^rcaaury of 1|i8tonj, ecc. retire even when tbe battle actually com- menced. The result was proportionate to the gallantry of the attempt. Tiie Scots were cciuidetely routed, with a loss of from flftce'i to twenty thousand killed, among whom were Keith, the earl marslial, and sir Tliomas Charteris, the chancellor ; and among a vast number of prisoners were David Bruce himself, tlie carls of Fife, Su- therland, Monteith, and Carriclt, the lord Douglas, and many nobles of less note. Queen Philippn, after lodging her im- portant prisoners in the Tower of London, was herself the bearer of the news to Ed- ward, who was still before Calais, where slie was received with all the applause and admiration due to her gallant and more than womanly devotion under circumstan- ces so difficult. A. D. 1347. — John de Vienne in his de- fence of Calais had well justiiied his sove- reign's choice of him. But as Philip had in vain endeavoured to relieve him, and actual famine had begun to do its dread- ful work upon the garrison. Do Vienne new offered to surrendar, on condition that the lives and liberties of his brave fel- lows should be spared. But Edward was so irritated by the very gallantry which, as De Vienne very pertinently argued, he would have expected from any one of his own knights under similar circumstances, that he at first would hear of nothing short of the whole garrison surrendering at dis- cretion ; but he was at length iicrsuadcd to alter his terms, though even then he re- quired that the keys of the i)li\ce should be delivered to him by six of tlie principal citizens, bareheaded, and with ropes upon their necks, and that, as the price of the safety of the garriBon, these six men should be at his absolute disposal for either life or death. To send six men to what seemed certain destruction could not fail to be a terrfying proposition. The whole garrison was in dismay ; but Eustace St. Pierre nobly vo- lunteered; his example was followed by five other patriots, and the six brave men appeared in the prescribed form before Ed- ward, who only spared their lives — even after this touching proof of their excel- lence—at the intreatics made to him upon her knees by his queen Philippa. On taking possession of Calais, Edward adopted a plan far more politic than any inhuman execution of brave men could have been j for, considering that every Frenchman must needs be an enemy to bini, he cleared this important key to France of all its native inhabitants, and made it a complete English colony. A. D. 13-l'J. — Even this politic measure, and a truce wliich now existed between France and England, had well nigh failed to preserve to Edward this only valuable fr\iit of all his expense of blood and trea- sure, lie entrusted the governorship of Calais to a native of Pavia, who had the reputation of bravery, but who was utterly unrestrained by any feeling of lidelity ; and this man volunteered to deliver his import- ant trust to Geoffrey de Charni, the com- mander of the nearest French troops, on payment of twenty thousand crowns. The traitor was himself betrayed by his secre- tary, who despatched tidings of the intend- ed treachery in time to enable Edward, with sir Walter Manny and the prince of Wales, to reach Calais with a thousand men. The governor was secured and taxed with his crime; and easily consented, as the price of his pardon, to lead the French into the ambush prepared for them by Ed- ward. The French appeared and were at- tacked and conquered. Edward himself fought as a mere private gentlemen, and was twice felli'd to the earth by his gallant antagonist, sir Eustace de Ribaumont, who at length surrendered to him. Those of the French officers who were captured were treated with much distinction by Edward and his heroic son ; and the king not only gave Eustace de Ribaumont his liberty without ransom, but also preccnted him with a handsome chaplct of pearls, which he desired him to wear in memory of his having proved the stoutest knight with whom the king of England had ever been personally engaged. Edward, partly in commemoration of his toils in France and partly to elevate the warlike spirit among his nobles, shortly af- terwards established the order of the Gar- ter ; an order which, being to lliis very day limited to twenty-five persons beside the sovereign, is one of the proudest and most envied rewards of eminent merit. A. D. 1349. — This year deserves especial remark from the awful pestilence which, arising in the East, swept with fierce and destroying power through England, as through all the rest of Europe, carrying off on an average a full third of the popu- lation of every country in which it made its terrible appearance. A.D. 1350. — The miseries inflicted by the pestilence upon both France and England tended to prolong the cessation of arms between them; but Charles, king of Na- varre, surnamcd, very appropriately, the Bad, caused much bloodshed and disturb- ance in France ; and Edward, at length wearied with peace, allied himself with the French malcontents, and sent an army un- der the heroic prince of Wales — who was now generally known by the title of the lilack Prince, from the colour of his armour — to make an incursion on the side of Gui- enne, while he himself broke in on the side of Calais. Each of these incursions was productive of great loss to the French, and of nume- rous prisoners and much spoil to the Eng- lish, but led to no general or decisive en- gagement ; and before any such could be brought on, Edward was called over to England to prepare for a threatened inva- sion by the Scots, who had surprised Ber- wick, and had gathered an army there ready to fail upon the north of England. But at Edward's approach they retired to the mountains, and he marched without en- countering an enemy from Berwick to A. O. 1349. — A CONTtNUAIi UAIN PROM MID8UMMKR TO CIIUISTMAS. J 1 23. the com- o troops, on o vns. The f) his secrc- tS :ie intcnd- M ! Edward, •a prince of thousand and taxed acntcd, as le French H em by Ed- d were at- H d himself O I*- >men, and lis gallant K nont, who Those of H ured were »y Edward B 5 not only is liberty M ;nted him a rls, which CO ory of his f ight with VI ever been Id o A ion of his iB cvate the M shortly nf- f the Gar- IB s very day « )eside the < and most < 1 especial H ce which, n M fierce and (land, as carrying H the popu- t made its n •< ed by the a England ao of arms ig of Na- o itelv, the BQ I disturb- A it length o "with the iiriuy «n- B ■wlio wns M u le of the IS nruiour N le of Gui- M 1 the Bide IB O roductive « of nuinc- P tlie Eng- ;isivn en- ^ could be H over to H ncd iiiva- 1 iscd Ucr- O^ ercM'eady CO . But at rH 1 to the Q bout en- < •wick to 1 it A.O. 1350.— OBSAT NATAL YICTOBT OTBB TBI SFAniARDB, AVO. 39. lEnglanU.— ^lamagenets! — ^lEBtnart 3EEE. 197 Edinburgh, plundering and bun^inK at every step. Baliol attended Edward on this occasion, and was either so disgusted with the ruin which he saw inflicted, or so utterly hopeless of ever establishing him- self upon the Scottish throne, that he made a flnal and formal resignation of his pre- tensions, in exchange for a pension of two thousand pounds. A.D. 1356.— The prince of Wales in the mean time had penetrated into the very heart of France, and committed incredible havoc. Having only an army of 12,000 men, most of w-hom were foreign mercena- ries, he was anxious to march into Nor- mandy, and form a junction with the king of Navarre and the English force that was assisting that monarch, under the com- mand ot the earl of Lancaster; but every bridge being broken down and every pass guarded, he next directed his march to- wards Guienne. John, king of France, who had succeeded Philip of Valois, though a mild and just prince, was a very brave man ; and, being enraged at the destruction wrought by the young prince, he got toge- ther an army of nearly fiO.OOO men, with which he overtook the Black Prince at Maupertuis, near Poitiers ; and the prince having done all that could be done to pre- vent himself from being compelled to light at a disadvantage, now exerted himself no less to avoid defeat even while so fighting. With so great a superiority of force, the French king, by merely surrounding the English, might without any risk have starved them into submission; but both John and his principal nobles were so ea- ger to close with and utterly destroy so daring and mischievous an enemy, that they overlooked all the cooler suggestions of prudence. Even this hot haste would Ecrhaps have proved fatal to the English ; ut, fortunately for them, though John had not patience to surround his enemy and starve him into submission, he did allow his impetuosity to be just sufficiently check- ed to afford that enemy time to make the very best of his situation, bad as it really was. The French had already drawn up in or- der of battle, and were preparing for that furious and instant onset which, next to patient hemming in of the English, would have been their most certain means of suc- cess, when king John suffered himself to be delayed to enable the cardinal of Peri- gord to endeavour to bring'*'the English to terms without farther bloodshed. The hu- mane endeavour of the cardinal was not ill received by the Black Prince, who was fully sensible of the disadvantageous position which he occupied, and who frankly con- fessed his willingness to make any terms not inconsistent with honour; and offered to purchase an unassailed retreat by, Ist, the cession of all the conquests he had made during this and the preceding cam- paign, and 2dly, pledging himself not to serve against France for seven years from that date. Happy would it have been for John had he been contented with these proffered advantages. But he imagined that the fate of the English was now abso- lutely at his disposal, and he demanded the surrender of Calais, together with prince Edward and a hundred of his knights as firisoners ; terms which Edward indignaut- y refused. By the time that the negotiation was thus terminated the day was too far spent to allow of the commencement of action, and Edward thus gained the inestimable advantage of having the whole night at his disposal to strengthen his post and alt»r the disposition of his forces. Besides great- ly adding to the extent and strength of his entrenchments, he caused the captal de Buche, with three hundred archers and the like number of men-at-arms, to make a cir- cuit Mid lie in ambush ready to seize the first favourable opportunity of falling sud- denly on the flank or rear of the enemy. The main body of his troops the prince had under his own command ; the van he en- trusted to the earl of Warwick ; the rear to the earls of Salisbury and Suffolk ; and even the chief subdivisions were headed, for the most part, by warriors of scarcely inferior fame and experience. The king of France also drew out his army in three divisions ; the first of which was commanded by his brother the duke of Orleans, the second by the dauphin and two of John's younger eons, and the third by John himself, who was accompanied by his fourth son, Philip, then only fourteen years old. The comparative weakness of the English army was compensated by its position, which only allowed of the enemy approach- ing it along a narrow lane flanked by thick hedges. A strong advanced guard of the French, led by the marshals Clermont and Andrcheu, oommenced the engagement by inarching along this lane to open a passage for the main army. This detachment was dreadfully galled and thinned by the Eng- lish archers, who from behind the hedges poured in their deadlv arrows without be- ing exposed to the risk of retaliation. But, in spite of the terrible slaughter, this gal- lant advanced guard pushed steadily for- ward, and the survivors arrived at the end of the lane and bravely charged upon a strong body of the English which awaited them under the command of the prince in person. But the contest was short as it was furious ; the head of this brave and devoted column was crushed even before its rear could fairly emerge from the lane. Of the two marshals, one was taken prisoner and the other slain on tlie spot, and the rear of the beaten column retreated in disorder upon its own army, galled at every step by the ambushed archers. At the very instant that the hurried return of their beaten friends threw the French army into confu- sion, the captal do Buche and his detach- ment made a well-timed and desperate charge upon the French flank, so close to the dauphin, that the nobles who had the char|fe of tliHt young prince became alarmed for his safety, and hurried him from the field. I A^n^^oS.— BALlOIi BRUNQUISHKS IIIS BIOUT lO SCOTIAND FOH 2000i. PBB ANNUM. [S3 A.D. 13S6. — A FUDLIC TnANKSGIVINa FOR EIGUT DAYS OnDEBED DY THE KINO. 198 Vllfz treasure of Ijisiori), $i£. :\'\ i ■' i^i a H a u H I The flight of the dauphin and his imme- diate attendants was the signal for that of tlic whole division ; the duke of Orleans ' and his division followed the example ; and ' the vigilant and gallant lord Chandos seized upon the important instant; and ; called to prince Edward to charge with all his chivalry upon the only remaining divi- sion of the French, that which was under the immediate command of John himself. Fccliug that all depended upon this one eft'ort, John fought nobly. The three ge- iiurnls who commanded the German aux- ! iliaries of his army fell within sight of him ; ' young I'hilip, whose sword was wielded j with a hero's spirit in defence of his father, I was wounded ; and the king himself was sevewl times only saved from death by the desire of his immediatp assailants to make him prisoner ; yet still he shouted the war- cry and brandished his blade as bravely as though his cause had been surely triumph- ant. Even when he was sinking with fa- tigue he demanded that the prince in per- son should receive his sword ; but at length, overwhelmed by numbers, and being in- formed that the prince was too far off to be brought to the spot, he threw down his gauntlet, and he and his gallant boy were : tiiken prisoners by sir Dennis dc Morbec, ! a knight of Arras, who had fled from his country on being charged with murder. I The gallant spirit which John had dis- I played ought to have protected him from fiitther ill; but some English soldiers res- cued him from de Morbec, in hope of get- ting rewarded as his actual captors ; and some Gascons, actuated by the same mo- tives, endeavoured to wrest him from the English: so high, indeed, ran the dispute, that some on both sides loudly threatened rcMhcr tc slay him than to part with hira living to their opponents, when, fortunate- ly, the earl of Warwick, dispatched by the pt.nee of Wales, arrived upon the spot and conducted him in safety to the royal tent. I'ri'nce Edward's courage and conduct in the tield were not more credituble to him than the striking yet perfectly unaCfected humanity with which he now treated his vanquished enemy. He received him at his tent, and conducted him as an inferior waiting upon a superior ; earnestly and truly ascribed his victory less to skill than the fortune of war, and waited behind the royal prisoner's chair during the banquet with which he was served. The example of the prince was followed by his army ; all the prisoners were released, and at such moderate ransoms as did not press upon them individually, though their great num- ber made the English soldiers tvealthy. Edward now made a truce with the French for two years, and conducted John to London, treating liim not as a captive but as a monarch; taking care to appear, alike ns to horse and attire, as a person of inferior station. Kin!!; Edward showed his approval of his son's modest and delicate conduct by close- ly imitating it ; advancing to Southwark to meet John on his lauding there, and in every sense treating him not as a captive, but as u monarch and a voluntary visitor. Edward had now two kings his prisoners in London. But the continued captivity of David Bruce had proved less injtirious to Scotland than Edward had anticipated, the powers of that country being ably and indefatigably directed by David's heir and nephew, llohert Stuart. Edward there- fore restored David to liberty at a ransom of 100,000 marks, for the payment of which the sons of his principal nobles became hostages. A.D. 1358. — Though the very virtues of John, king of France, were calculated to encourage disobedience to him in so tur- bulent and ill regulated an age, and in a country so often brutalized as France was by being made the theatre of war, yet his absence was early and visibly productive of injury and disturbance to his kingdom. If his goodness had been sometimes im- posed upon and his kindness still more fre- quently presumed upon, yet, as it was well known that he had Doth wisdom and cou- rage, his presence had kept the ill-disposed within certain bounds. 'The dauphin, upon whom the diffleiilt task now lay of ruling during the imprisonment of his father, was brave and of good capacity ; but he had one fatal defect, iu itself sufficient to incapaci- tate him for fully supplying his father's place : he was only eighteen years of age. How far that circumstance weakened his authority appeared on the very tirst occa- sion of his assembling the states. Though his father was now made captive iu defend- ing the kingdom, the young dauphin no sooner demanded the supplies which his father's captivity and the situation of the kingdom rendered so necessary, than he was met not by a generous vote of sympa- thy, confidence, and assistance, but by a harsh and eager demand f'oi- limitatijn of tl.e royal authority, for redress of cartain alleged grievances, and for the liberation of the king of Navarre, who had been so mis- chievous to France even while John was at liberty to oppose him, and whose liberation now might rationally be expected to be productive of the very worst consequences. This ungenerous conduct of the states did not lack imitators. Marcel, provost of the merchants, the first and most influential magistrate of Paris, instead of using the weight of his authority to aid the dauphin, actually constituted himself the ringleader of the rabble, and encouraged them in the most insolent and unlawful conduct. The dauphin, thus situated, found that he was less the ruler than the prisoner of these ungrateful men, who carried their brutal disrespect so far as to murder in his pre- sence the marshals dc Clermont and dn Conflans. As usual, the indulgeiic: <;i' 'M disi-onliuns increased their strei I'l, all tlicotlicr tVicnds and ministers of the dau- phin were threatened with the fate of the murdered marshiils, and heat length seized an opportunity to escape. Tiie finntic de- magogues of I'aris now openly levied war against the dauphin, and it is scarcely ne- o n is o >4 H H fa O >- a I A.I). 1359.— A BODY 01? NORMANS LAND AY WINCURLSEA AND riUNDEn IT, MAHCII 25. KINO. 1 captive, visitor. prisoners captivity H injiirious M ticipated, ab y and O heir and ■< •d there- it i ransom n of which O became 8 irtues of g iilated to ■^" a so tur- ?1 and in a *• ance was a r, yet liis reductive H kingdom. H lines im. u more tre- was well •3 and cou- ■X -disposcd o bin, upon of ruling ther, was H c bad one H incapaci- fat tor's w » rs of Bsc r: cned bis o rst occa- Though o J defend- ipbin no g bich his e u of the M tlian he ; sympa- u K )ut by a S! tatijn of M ;■ c jrtain raiiun of I 80 niis- n was at H beration d to be h tiucnces. :Htcs did It H It of the llucntiiil K ling the H laiipbin, e iglouder H n in the 6. !t. The rt be was n of tlieae K • brutnl m his pre- ami dfi 1 ?.:- o: ■'\ l-^ I'l. dU 'M he dau- ; of tbc P h seized «! iitic do- icd war ci'ly iie- Rcit 25. J r A.D. 1371.— TUB CU&BTEU-nOUSE IN LONDON PINISUKD BY SIB W. MENNT. lEnglantJ — pantagcncta.— lEUtoart ME. 199 cessnry to add that their example was speeilily followed by every large town in the kingdom. Those of the nobles who deemed it time to exert themselves in sup- port of the royal authority were taunted with their flight from the battle of Mauper- tuis, or, as it is more nenerally termed, of Poitiers ; the king of Navarre was liberated from prison by aid of the disaffected, and the whole kingdom was the prey of the most horrible disorders. The dauphin, rather by his judgment than by his military talents, reduced the country at length to something like order. Edward in the mean time bad practised so successfully, and, we inav add, so ungene- rously, upon the captive John, as to induce him to sign a treaty which was so mani- festly and unfairly injurious to France, that the dauphin refused to be bound by it. [a. d. 1359-60.] — War consequently was re- commenced by Edward; but though the English armies traversed France from end to end, and committed the moat disgraceful rava;^es, Edward's success was 'so dispro- portionate, and his advantages constantly proved so fleeting, that even the duke of Lancaster, his own near relative and zea- lous ns well as able general, remonstrated %vitli him upon his absurd obstinacy in in- sisting upon terms so extreme, that they were calculated rather to induce despera- tion than CD incline to submission. These remonstrances, backed as they were by the whole circumstances of the case, at length led Edward to incline to more reasonable terms. By way of salvo to his dignity, or pride, he professed to have made a vow during an awful tempest which threatened the destruction of his army, and in obedience to this his alleged vow he now concluded peace on the follow- ing footing; viz. that king John should be restored to liberty at a ransom of three millions of golden crowns ; that Edward should for himself and his successors re- nounce all claim to the crown of France, and to his ancestral provinces Aujou, Tou- raine, Maine and Normandy ; and should, in exchange, receive other specified dis- tricts in that direction, with Calais, Guisnes, Jlontrcuil and Ponthieu, on the other side of France, in full and independent sove- reignty J together with sundry other stipu- lations. John was accordingly restored to liberty ; and as he had been personally well treated in England, and, besides, was at all times greatly inclined to sincerity, he seems to have exerted himself to the utmost to cause the treaty to be duly fulfllled. But the people in the neighbourhood of Guienne were obstinately bent against living under the English dominion ; and some otTier dif- ficulties arose which induced John to re- turn to England in the hope of adjusting mattivs, when he sickened and died, a.d. 13(!3. A. D. 13fi-l. — Charles the dauphin, who suc- ceeded to the throne of France, devoted his first efforts to settling all disturbances in his own realm, and ridding it of the numer- tous free com2>anions, who, soldiers in time of war and robbers in time of peace, were a very principal cause of all the disorder that reigned ; and he was prudent enough to cause them to flock to that Spanish war in which tbc Black Prince most impru- dently took part. Having got rid of this dangerous set of men, and having with secret (gladness be- held the Black Prince ruining himself alike in health and fortune in the same war which drafted so many desperate ruffians from France, Charles, in the very face of his father's treaty, assumed a feudal power to which he had no just claim. Edward recommenced war; but though France once more was extensively ravaged, a truce was at length agreed upon, when the varied events of war, consisting rather of the skirmishes of freebooters than of the great strife of armies, had left Edward scarce a foot of ground in France, save Calais, Bour- deaux, and Bayonne. A.D. 1.376. — Edward the Black Prince, feeble in health, liad for some time past been visibly hastening to the grave. Ilis warlike prowess and his unsullied virtue — unsullied save by that warlike fury which all mankind are prone to rate as virtue — made his condition the source of a very deep and universal interest in England, which was greatly heightened by the un- popularity of the duke of Lancaster, who. It was feared, would take advantage of the minority of Richard, son and heir of the Black Prince, to usurp the throne. This general interest grew daily more deep and painful ; and the Black Prince, amid the sorrow of the whole nation, expired on the 8th of June, in the very prime of man- hood, aged only forty-six. The king, who was visioly affected by the loss of his son, lived only a twelvemonth longer, dying on the 21 pt of June, 1,377, in the 5l8t year of his reign, and in the 65th of his age. The sense of power is usually more in- fluential on men's judgment than the sense of right ; and though his wars both with Scotland and France chiefly originated in tyrannous self-will, the splendour of his warlike talents and the vigour of his cha- racter made him beloved and admired by his people during his life, and still make the English historian love to linger over his reign. His very injustice to foreign people kept sedition and its fearful evils afar from his own subjects ; and if he was himself but too burthensome in the way of taxation, he at least kept a firm hand over his nobles, and did much towards advanc- ing and establishing the right of the peo- ple at large to be unmolested in their pri- vate life, and to have their interests con- sidered, ond their reasonable demands at- tended to. It has, indeed, been generally admitted that he was one of the best and most illustrious kings that ever sat on the English throne, and that his faults were greatly outweighed by his heroic vir- tues and amiable qualities. On the whole, the reign of Edward IIL, as it was one of the longest, so was it also one of tlie brightest in our history. IN Edward's iikion many laws weub rnactbd against luxury. A. O. 1378. — A OBXAI rLASUB, PABTICULAELY IN IHB NOBIH OV XNOLANO. 200 ^i)e ^rcasuvp of l^istotQ, $cc. CHAPTER XXVII/ Th» Reign of Richab7> II. A.D. 1 377.— Edward III. was succeeded by Richard II., son of the Black Prince. The new king was but little more than eleven years old ; but he had three uncles, the dukes of Lancaster, York, and Glouces- ter, whose authority, aided by the habita of obedience which the firm rule of the late king had established, seemed to promise at the least an undisturbed minority. The very commencement of thin reign proved how much Edward II I. had raised the views and added to the importance of the commons in parliament, the deliberative bu- siness of which had now so much increased, that they found it necessary to choose a speaker, both to be their organ of commu- nication and to keep due order and gpravity in their debates. The choice, however, showed but little gratitude to the late king, for it fell upon Peter de la Mare, a man who had distinguished himself by opposition to the late king's ministers, ana had been imprisoned for a violent attack on Alice Pierce, [or Perrers} who, as the king's mis- tress, had become so unpopular in con- sequence of the influence she was sup- posed to have upon his measures, that he was obliged to part with her to appease the popular clamour. 'Though the choice of this person for speaker did not indicate any intention on the part of the commons towards too sub- missive a conduct, they did not imme- diately show any desire unduly to interfere in the government, but confined themselves to petitioning the lords that a council of nine, composed of trustworthy and virtuous men, should be appointed to conduct the public business and to superintend the life and education of the young king during his minority. The former part of the peti- tion was answered by the appointment of the bishops of London, Carlisle, and Salis- bury, the earls of March and Stafford, and sirs Richard de Stafford, Henry le Scrope, John Devereux, and Hugh Segrave, who were empowered to conduct the public business for one year. With respect to the latter portion of the petition, the lords declined interfering with it ; reasonably thinking that to interfere in the young Erince's private life and education, unless is royal uncles proved careless or inimi- cal, would be neither delicate nor just. Of the three uncles, the duke of Lancas- ter was certainly by far the ablest, and probably not the least ambitious ; and though there was no one to whom any authority was ostensibly or formally given to control the council, Lancaster seems to have been the actual regent who for some years not only controlled, but, by his irre- sistible thc.'.gh secret influence, even ap- pointed the council. As is usual with popular and numerous assemblies, the commons, on finding their interference complied with instead of its being resented, became anxious and some- what impatient to push it still farther. Scarcely had the major part and the most important part of their first petition been acted upon ere they presented another, in which they prayed the king_ and his coun- cil to take measures to prevent the barons from confederating together to uphold each other and their followers in violent and unlawful deeds. A civil answer was given to this petition; but though the an- swer was couched in those general terms which really bind the parties using them to no particular course, it speedily called forth another petition of a far more ambitious nature, and calculated to add at one step most prodigiously to the influence of the commons, who now prayed that during the minority of the king all the great officers should be appointed by parliament — clearly meaning, that the mere appointment by the lords should thenceforth be of no validity, unless it were confirmed by the commons. This petition did not meet with so favour- able a reception ; the lords still retained to themselves the power of appointing to the great offices of state, and the commons took part in the appointments only by tacit acquiescence. Previous to this parliament being dis- solved the commons gave another proof of their consciousness of their own growing importance, by representing the necessity as well as propriety of their being annually assembled, and by appointing two of their number to receive and disburse two fif- teenths and two tenths which had been voted to the king. A.D. 1381.— Though the war with France broke forth from time to time, iu spite of the prudent conduct of Charles, who most justly was called the Kite, the military operations were not sucli as to demand detail. But if unproductive of glory or territory, the war was not the less destruc- tive of treasure; and on the parliament meeting in 1380, it was found requisite, iu order to providing for the pressing and in- dispensable necessities of tlie government, to impose a poll-tax of three groats upon every person, male and female, who was more than fifteen years of age. There was no foreign country with which England had so close and continued an in- tercourse as with Flanders, which greatly depended on England for its supply of the wool necessary for its manufactures. The spirit of independence that had arisen among the Flemish peasants, as exempli- fied in the brutalities which they had com- mitted upon their natural and lawful rulers, and the servility with which they had sub- mitted to the utmost tyranny at the hands of a brewer, now began to communicate itself to the lower order in England. Then, as in far more modern times, there were demagogues who sought to recommend themselves to the credulous people, and to prey upon tliem by the loud inculcation of an equality among mankind, which no man, not decidedly inferior to all the rest of his race in the quality of intelligence, can fail to see is but partially true in the abstract, and wholly false by force of circumstances A.D. 1381. — A LAW MADB TO BNCOUBAOB THE VBX OF BILLB OF BXCUANOK. 8CALB OF THE CAriTATION TAX :— A BARON, DAHNKRBT, OR ALDERMAN, 21. which are at oiicc inevitable and perfectly independent of the form of Kovernment and even of the good or bad administration of the laws. Among the demagogues who just at this period raised tlicir voices to deceive and plunder the multitude, was one John IJnll, a degraded priest, but a man by no means destitute of ability. To such a man the imposition of a tax which was both excessive and cruel in the then state of labour and its wages, was a perfect god- send; and the opportunity it afforded him of giving vent to' exciting and plausible de- clamation, was not diminished by the bitter and impolitic mockery of a recommenda- tion from the council, that when this new poll-tax should be found to press too se- verely on the poor, the wealthy should re- lieve them by increasing their own con- tribution. It is not easy to imagine any circum- stances under which so excessive a demand upon a suftering population could have failed to cause discontent and sedition ; but when to the excess of the tax the excited temper of the people and the activity of their deludcrs, the demagogues, was added an insolent brutality on the part of the collectors, there could be little doubt of the occurrence of great and extended mis- chief. The tax in question was farmed out to the tax-gatherers of the various districts, who thus had a personal interest in tite performance of their invidious duty, which was certainly not likely to make them less urgent or less insolent. Every where the tax raised complaints both loud and deep, and every poor man was anxious to avail himself of any possible misrepresentation as to the age of the children for whom lie was charged. The blacksmith of a village in Essex having paid for the rest of his fa- mily, refused to do so for a daughter whom, whether truly or falsely docs not appear, he stoutly averred to be under the pre- scribed age ; and the tax-gatherer, a low b.-utal fellow, offered a violent indecency to the girl in proof of his right to the demand. The father, poor, irritated at the loss of the money he had already paid, and doubly in- dignant at the outrage thus offered to his child, raised the ponderous hammer he had just been using in his business, and dashed the ruffian's brains out on the spot. Un- der a state of less violent excitement the by- standers would probably have been shocked at the smith's fnlnl violence ; but, as it was, the murder acted like a talisman upon the hitherto suppressed rage of the people, and in a few hours a vast multitude, armed with every description of rude weapon, was gathered together, with the avowed in- tention of taking vengeance on their ty- rants and of putting an end to their ty- ranny. From Essex the flame spread to all the adjoining counties; and so sudden and 80 rapid was the gathering, that before the astounded government could even de- termine on what course to follow, upwards of a hundred thousand desperate men had assembled on Ulackheath, under the com- mand of Wat Tyler, the blacksmith, and several other ringleaders who bore the assumed names of Ilob Carter, Jack Straw, and the like. The king's mother, the widow of the heroic Ulack "Prince, in returning from a pilgrimage to Canterbury, had to pass through this desperate and dissolute multitude ; and such was their indiscrimi- nate rage, that she, to whom they owed so much respect, was taken from her vehicle, insulted with the familiar salutes of drunk- en clowns, and her attendants were treated with equal insult and still greater violence. At length, probably at the intercession of some of the least debased of the leaders, she was allowed to proceed on her journey. The king in the mean time had been con- ducted for safety to the Tower of London, and the rebels now sent to demand a con- ference with him. He sailed down the river in a barge to comply with their re- quest, but as he approached the shore the mob showed such evident inclination to brute violence, that he was compc'llcd to return to the fortress. In London the disorder was by this time at its height. The low rabble of the city, always in that age ripe for mischief, had joined the rioters from the country ; ware- houses and private houses were broken open, and not merely pillaged, but the con- tents burned or otherwise destroyed when they could not be carried away; and the Savoy palace, the property of the duke of Lancaster, which nad so long been the abode of the king of France, was in wanton mischief completely reduced to ashes. As- cribing their sufferings to the richer and better instructed classes, the mob not merely maltreated, but in very many cases even murdered, such gentlemen as were unfortunate enough to fall into their hands ; and lawyers, especially, were treated with- out mercy. The king at length left the Tower and proceeded to a ticld near Mile End, where one of the main bodies of the rioters had assembled. They surrounded him with j)e- remptory demands for a general pardon for all concerned in the insurrection, the in- stant abolition of all villeinage, and of tolls and imposts in all markets, together with a fixed money rent of land-holdings instead of personal service. The government was as yet in no condition to proceed to forcible measures; and, consequently, charters to the above were hastily drawn out and de- livered, and this body of rioters was thus sent peaceably away. But the danger was as yet only partially past. A larger body of the rebels, headed by Wat Tyler and other leading insur- rectionists, had in the mean time broken into the Tower and put to death Simon Sudbury, chancellor and archbishop of Can- terbury, ond sir Robert Hales the treasurer, with some other persons of high rank, though of less note; and were passing through Smithtield just as the king and Jiis attendants entered that place. The King, with a spirit and temper far beyond his years, for he was now only sixteen, I" K ■< a u a I < CAPITATION tax: — A KMGHT, ESQUIRE, OR GREAT MERCHANT, U. A.V. 1382. — TUB KINO MARBIBU TO A»NB OF LUXKUCUUO, JAtI 14. :i'? i.^ I ■ ■1 202 S^tje Creasuru of l^istorp, $cc. entered into conference with Wat Tyler, who lind previously left liis hand with an order to rush forward at a given Bignal, murder the whole of the royal retinue, and make the young monarch their prisoner. Flushed with his brutal and hitherto un- checked triumph, Wat Tyler made such menacing gestures as he spoke to the king, that William Walworth, the then mayor of London, was so provoked out of all sense of the danger, that he struck the ruffian to the ground, and he was speedily dispatched. A fierce yell from the rebels proclaimed their rage at the loss of their leader; but before they could rush upon the royal party, young Richard rode steadily up to them, and in that colui tone of high conft- dfince and command which has so great an iufluence over even the most violent men, exclaimed, " My good people 1 What means this disorder 7 Are ye angry that ye have lost youv leader ? I am your king I Follow me 1 I myself will be my people s leader !" Without giving them time to recover from the surprise his coolness and the ro^esty of his air and appearance had caused them, the king led the way into the neighbouring fields, where he was joined by an armed force under sir Robert KnoUes. Caution- ing sir Robert and his other friends to allow nothing short of the most vital necessity to urge them into violence, the king, after a short conference, dismissed this band as peaceably and as well satisfied as he had the former one at Mile End, and by means of giving them similar charters. While the king had thus skilfully been temporising, the nobility and gentry in all parts of the country Lad been actively assembling and arming their retainers ; in a few days Richard was able to take the field at the head of 40,000 men ; the rioters dared no longer to appear openly and in force ; and the charters, which, reasonable as they now seem, were not merely unfit for the state of the country at that time, but actually impracticable of execution, were formally revoked, not only upon that ground, but also as having been extorted while the king was under constraint of men who bad banded together to murder all the higher ranks and bring about a sanguinary and sweeping revolution. It is scarcely possible to imagine a sovereign so young giving more clear proof of courage and ability than Richard did on this sad oc- casion ; but his later years by no means ful- filled the bright promise thus given by his boyhood. A.D. 1385. — Scarcely wos pence restored after thii alarming revolt, when the atti- tude of the Scots rendered it absolutely necessary to chastise and check them. Ac- cordingly the king with a numerous army entered Scotland by Berwick. But the Scots, who had a strong auxiliary body of French cavalry, had already secured all their moveable property in the mountains, and, leaving their houses to be burned, they entered England, dispersed them- selves in hu;;e marauding parties through- out Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lan- cashire, and returned laden with booty, without having met any show of resistance. Tlie English army under Richard had in the mean time marched unopposed to Edin- burgh, burning all the towns and villages on their way. Perth, Dundee, and a vast number of other places in the Lowlands, were treated in the same manner. But when news reached the array of the successful inroad of the Scots upon (he northern counties of England, the true nature of Richard, his frivolity, and his determined preference of pleasure to action, only too clearly appeared ; for he positively refused to maUc any attempt at cutting off the re- treat of the spoil-laden enemy, and imme. diately led his army home. A.D. 1380.— The French had aided the Scots chieriy, if not solely, with a view to annoy the English. And Flanders being now at peace with France, a large fieet and army assembled in the Flemish port of Sluys for the invasion of England. The fleet actually sailed, but was scarcely out of port when it encountered a terrible rt^rui, which dispersed it and destroyed rxuiy of the largest ships. The English men-of- war attacked and took the remainder, and thus, for the present at least, this new dan- ger was averted. But though this expedition had thus completely failed, it turned the attention of the nation, as well as the king and coun- cil, towards those circumstances which made it only too certain that a similar at- tempt would be made at no great distance of time. The disturbances which had so recently agitated Hnglind from one end to the other could no' fiU to act as an invita- tion to foreign eneimes ; and, to make the matter still worse, the best of the Eng- lish soldiery, to a very great number, were at this time in Spain, supporting the duke of Lancaster in the claim he had long laid to the crown of Castile. Perhaps the alarm which called attention to these circum- stances m))inly served to avert the danger ; at all events, it speedily appeared that the peace of England was in greater peril from Englishmen than from foreigners. We have already had occasion, under the reign of Edward II. to point out the pro- pensity of weak-minded princes to the adop- tion of favourites, to whose interests they dehght in sacrificing all other consider ations, including their own dignity and even their own personal safety. Richard, who had shown so much frivolity in his Scotch expedition, now gave a new proof of his weakness of mind by adopting a suc- cessor to the Spenscrs and the Gavestons of an earlier day. Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, of noble birth, agreeable manners, and great accom- plishments, but extremely dissolute and no less vain and ambitious, made his company so agreeable to Richard, that tlie young monarch seemed scarcely able to exist but in his presence. In proof of his attach- ment to him, the king made him marquis of Dublin— the title being then first used in England — created him by patent vice- I A.D. 1381. — TUS ABDXI UF ST. CDMUNd's BUIIY BUUNT OY niOTEKS. PI -1 . ■0 » ith booty. o resistance. ard had in m id to Bdin- <3 id villages m and a vast M > H Lowlands, But when successful northern K nature of " eterrained IE , only too M :ly refused « off the re- H ind imuiC' U aided the > 1 a view to n ders beinfr e fleet and Q r. h port of and. The H H S arce'.y out iblu F'lirui, d DflljY of O ih nienof- K linder, and H 8 ntw dan- H had thus > attention t. aud coun- M ces which H similar at- H It distance m ch had so K me end to K an invita- M make the H the Eng- iber, were kl the duke M long laid the alarm H ; circum- < e danger; I that the peril from M under the £ t the nro- the adop- (4 ests they consider -t :uity and ^ Richard, O ty in his ew proof O ng a sue- t< lavestous m of noble H IB M It nccom- e and no H company O \e young > 3xist but attach- marquia ti rst used 3nt vice- A, D. 1383.— WICKLIPFE, TUB RKVOBMIB, DIM AT LI/TTKRWORTU, DBC. 30. ^nglanH — ^Inntagtntta — laitl^art CE. 203 king of Ireland for life, and evinced his pre- ference for him by various other marks of royal favour. As is uniformly the case with such fa- vouritism, the favourite's rapacity and in- solence kept full pace with the king's folly ; the marquis of Dublin became the virtual king ; all favours were obtainable through his interest, justice itself scarcely obtain- able without it ; and the marquis and his satellites became at once the plague and the detestation of the whole nobility, but more especially of the king's uncles, who saw the influence which they ought to have Cnssessed, and much that ought to have ecn refused even to them, transferred to a man of comparative obscurity. The minis- ters, though they, it is quite clear, could have little power to correct their master's peculiar follv, shared I he sovereign's dis- grace, and the whole kingdom soon rang with complaints and threatenings. The first rush of the long-brewing tem- pest showed itself in a fierce attack upon Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, the chancellor. Though he was originally only the son of a merchant, he had won a high and well-deserved celebrity by his valour and conduct during the wars of the late king, and had since shown very splendid civil ability. He was supposed to be the chief confidential friend of the king and of Ue Vere, who was now, from the marquis- ate of Dublin raised to the dukedom of Ire- land; hnd the duke of Gloucester conse- quently singled him out for persecution. Gloucester, who was both able and ambi- tious, had secured a most potent sway over both the lords and commons, and he now induced the latter to impeach the earl of Suffolk before the former: a power and mode of proceeding which the commons had possessed themselves of towards the close of the reign of Edward III. The impeachment of the most eminent of his ministers naturally alarmed the king for himself and his favourite; and he re- tired to the royal palace at Eltham, to be out of immediate danger, and to deliberate upon his future course. Rightly judging that while the king was thus comparatively removed from danger and annoyance they would have little chance of bringing him to compliance with their wishes, the par- liament sent to inform him that unless he immediately returned they would dissolve without making an attempt at preparation for the French invasion with which the na- tion was at that time threatened. And lest this threat should fail to compel the king to compliance, they called for the produc- tion of the parliamentary record of the de- position of Edward II. This hint was too intelligible to be disregarded, and the king at once consented to return, on the sole condition that, beyond the impeachment already commenced against the earl of Suf- folk, no attack should be made upon his ministers; a stipulation which, most pro- bably, he chiefly made with a view to the safety of the duke of Ireland. The charges against Suffolk were directed almost wholly against his pecuniary trans- actions. He was accused, for instance, of having exchanged a perpetual annuity, which he had fairly inherited, for lands of equal value, with the king; of having purchased a forfeited crown annuity of fifty pounds and induced the king to recognise it as be- ing valid ; and of having obtained a grant of 5ii0{. per annum to support his dignity on his being created earl of Suffolk. The first of these charges, it is clear, could only have been made by men who were sadly at a loss for some weapon with which to assail their enemy ; the second was ill-sup- ported; and the third proceeded with a very ill-grace from Gloucester, who, though as wealthy as Suffolk was poor, was him- self in receipt of just double the amount by way of pension ! When to this we add that, as to the first charge, it was positively proved that Suffolk had made no sort of purchase, honest or dishonest, from the crown during his enjoyment of office, the reader would be greatly surprised at learning that he was convicted and sentenced to lose his office— if it were possible for the reader to have noticed the events of history even thus far without learning that when powerful men hate deeply, they do not require either very important charges or very clear evidence to induce them to convict the party hated. This triumph of the anti-favourite party emboldened them to fly at a higher quarry. They kept the letter of their agreement with the king, and made no farther attack upon his ministers; but at once proceeded to strike at his own authority by appointing a council of fourteen, to which the sovereign authority was to be transferred for a year, the council in question consisting, with the single exception of the archbishop qf York, of the personal friends and partizans of the duke of Gloucester; and thus Richard II., whose boyhood had promised so vigorous and splendid a reign, was at the early age of twenty-five virtually deposed, and a mere puppet and prisoner in the hands of his enemies. No chance of present resistance offered itself, and the unfortunate and weak king signed the commission which in reality uncrowned him, increasing rather than di- minishing the pleasure and triumph of his enemies by an impotent protest which he made at the end of the session of parlia- ment, to the effect that nothing in the com- mission he had signed was to be held to impair the prerogatives of the crown. A.D. 1387. — The pampered favourite and his supporters, as they had so greatly pro- fited by the kind's weak misuse of his power, did not fail to do their utmost to stimulate his nnger and to induce hiui to make some effort to recover bis lost autho- rity, in which, in truth, they were far more interested than he was. Utterly estranged as the lords seemed, he resolved to endeavour to influence the sheriffs to return a commons' house calcu- lated for his purpose; but here he found himself completely anticipated by the fact that most of the sheriffs and magistrates were the partizans of Gloucester, and ac- r. M O n •r. H H « a tk o r. < s M a r. < OS H a r. A. D. 1387. — THE FIRST BIGE ADMIRAL OF KRGLAND APPOINTED, w A. D. 1386.— TUB CUMUUni IMrlACII TUB MINIIITBRa Or TUB CROWR. 2U4 Vlht STicaaury of 1i?istor!), 8rc. tually owed their appuintincnts to liia fa- vour. llaiHcd in tliia quarter, lie now tried what use lie could innkc of the nuthorily of the judfcei. Ilaving met, at N'ottiii|;hRin, Tru- Biliuu, chief juHticc of the Kiiik'* Ucucli, and leveral of the other most eminent judKeii, he proposed to them certain qucriui, to \vhi(^h, iu guhatance, they replied, " that the coinniiaaion was derogatory to the pre- roKntive and royalty of the kiiiKi and that thoae who urged it or advised the royal conipliancc with it were punishable with death ; that thoae who compelled him were guilty of trearou ; that all who persevered lu maintaining it were no less guilty; tliat the king had the right to dissolve parlia- ment at his pleasure ; that the parliament while sitting must give its tirst attention to the business of the king; and that without the king|s consent the parliament had no right to impeach his ministers or judges." Richard did not consider when he took this step that opinions, even the favourable opinions of judges, are only opinions, and of little weight when opposed to usurped uower, armed force, and an iron energy. Moreover, he could scarcely hope to keep his conference and the opinions of the judges a secret ; and if he could do so, of what avail could be the latter ? And would not this step sharpen the activity of his enemies by leading them to fear that it waa but the prelude and foundation of a far more decided atep 7 It actually had that effect ; for aa aoon as the king returned to London, Gloucester's party appeared with an overwhelming force at Highgate, whence they sent a deputation to demand that those who had given him false and perilous coun- sel should he delivered up to them as trai- tors alike to king and kingdom ; and they speedily followed up this message by ap- pearing armed and attended in his presence, and accusing of having given such counsel the archbishop of York, the duke of Ire- land, the earl of SuiTolk, sir Robert Tresi- lian, and sir Nicholas Urembre, as public enemies. This accusation the lords otferrd to maintain by duel, and in token of their willingness to do so they actually threw down their gauntlets. The duke of Ireland, at the first appear- ance of this new and urgent danger, retired into Cheshire to levy troops to aid the king ; but he was met by Gloucester, as he has- tened to join Richard, and utterly defeated. This defeat deprived him of nil chance of being of use to his friend and master, and he escaped to the Low Countries, where he remained in exile and comparative obscu- rity until his death, which occurred not many years afterwards. A.D. 1388. — Rendered bolder and more eager than ever by this defeat of the duke of Ireland, the lords now entered London at the head of an anny of -iOiOdU men ; and the king, being entirely iu their power, was obliged to summon a parliament which he well knew would be a mere passive in- strument in the hands of his rebellious lords. Before this packed and slavish piur- liainent an accusation wii» now made ngninst the tive personages who had already been denounced ; and this aocuRntion was sup- ported by tive of the most powerful men in England, viz. the duke of Gloucester, uncle to the king whom he was endeavouring to ruin, the earl of Derbv, son of the duke of Lancaster, the earl of Arundel, the earl of Warwick, and the earl of Nottingham, mar- sliiil of Unglnnd. As if the combined and formidable pow- er of these great nobles had been initutH- cieiit to crush the accused, the servile parliament, though judps in the ease, actually pledged themselves at the out- set of the proceedings " to live and die with the lords appellant, and to dcfi'iid them against all oppojiitiou wilh their lives and fortunes 1" Sir Nicholas Urembre wa« the only one of the five accused persmist who was present to hear the thirty-nine charges made against him and the other four persons accused. lie had the mockery, and but the mockery, of a trial ; the others being absent were not even noticed in the way of evidence ; but that did not prevent them from being found guilty of high trea- son. Sir Nicholas and also sir Robert Tre- silian. who was apprehended after the trial, were executed ; and here it might have been supposed that even these rancorous lords and their parliamentary tools would have halted in their career of chicane and vio- lence; but far other was their actual con- duct. All the other judges who had agreed to the opinions given at Nottingham were condemned to death, but afterwards ba- nished to Ireland ; and lord Keauelmmp of Holt, sir James Berncrs, sir Simon Hurley, and sir John Salisbury were condemned, and, with the exception of the last-named, executed. The execution, or to speak more truly, the murder of sir Simon Burley, made a very great and painful sensation even among the enemies ot the king; for he was highly and almost universally popular, both on account of his personal ciiaractor and from his having from the earliest infancy of the lamented IJlack I'rince been the constant and attached attendant of that hero, who as well as Edward III. had concurred in appointing him governor of the present king during his youth. Hut the gallantry which had procured him the honour of the garter, and the imperishable honour of a laudatory mention in the glowing pages of Froissart, the beggarly nature of the charges pgaiiist him and the very insufficient evidence by which even those charges were supported, and the singularity of his case from the cir- cumstances which would have excused a far more implicit devotion to the king whose infancy he had watched, were all as nothing when opposed to the fierce determination of his and his sovereign's implacable ene- mies. Nay more, the king's wife, whose virtues had obtained her IVom the people the affectionate title of the good queen Anne, actually fell upon her knees before Glou- cester, and in that humble posture for three hours besought, and vainly besought, the A.D. 1337.— THE JUDGES DECIDE TUAT TUB KINO IS ABOVE TUB I, AW. w A.D. 1393.— OUKBN A!(NB DIMI, AND II BUBISD IN WISTMINITKa ABBKT. 1£nglant».— ^lantagencts.— IRltljaiU IH. 205 life of the unfortunate Burlcy. The item eneniieiiof hii nianlcr had doomed the faith- ful kni)(ht to die, and he wai executed ac- cordingly. As if conscioii of their cnorranui vil- lany, and alreadj Dcginning to dread retri- bution, the parliament concluded thii me- morably evil leRiion by an ant, providing for n general oath to u|ihold and maintain all the acts of forfeiture and attainder which had previouily been passed during the session. A.D. 1389.— The violence with which the king had been treated, and the degrada- tion to which he had been reduced, seemed to threaten not only his never recovering his authority, but even his actual destruc- tion, liut, whether from sheer weariness of their struggle, from disagreements among themselves, or from some fear of the in- terference of the commons, now daily be- coming more powerful and more ready to use their power, the chiefs of the mal- contents were so little able or inclined to oppose Richard, that he, being now in his twenty-third year, ventured to say in open council that he had fully arrived at an age to govern for himself, and that henceforth he would govern both the kingdom and his own household ; and no o'.ic of all his lately tierce and overbeari;ig opponents ventured to gainsay him. The ease with which the king regained his authority can only be accounted for, as it seems to us, by supposing that circumstances, no account of which has come down to us, rendered the kine^s enemies afraid of opposing him. From whatever cause, however, it is cer- tain that the king suddenly regained his lost power. His tirst act was to remove Fitzallan, archbishop of Canterbury, from the office of chancellor, and to replace him by the celebrated 'William of Wykeham, bishop of 'Winchester. Proceeding in the obviously wise policy of substituting friends for foes in the high offices of state, the king dismissed the bishop of Hereford from being treasurer, and the earl of Arun- del from being admiral. The earl of War- wick and the duke of Gloucester were re- moved from the council ; and even this evi- dent sign of the king's determination to deprive his enemies of the power to injure him called forth little complaint and no opposition. To the policy of what lie did, the king in what he left undone added a still higher wisdom, which his former infnti'»»ion gave but little promise of. He did not show the slightest desire to recal the duke of Ire- land ; and while he took care to purge the high offices of state, he did not by any part of his demeanour leave any one room to doubt that he was heartily and completely reconciled to the still powerful uncles who had caused him so much misery. Nay, more, as if determined to remove all danger of the revival of past animosities, he of his own motion issued a proclamation con- iirniing the parliamentary pardon of all offences, end, still more completely to in- gratiate himself with the tax-burthened people, he voluntarily declined levying some subsidies which had been granted to him by the parliament. Partly as a consequence of these really wise and humane measures, and partly, perhaps, owing to the return from Spuin of the duke of Lancaster, Richard's govern- ment for the next eight years went on so smoothly and so prosperously, that not a sin^^le dispute occurred of cunsL-i|uence enough to be related. Lancaster, between whom and Richard there had never been any quarrel — unless we may interpret the past conduct of the duke's son as the indi- cation of one — was powerful enough to keep his brothers in clieck, and was at the same time of a more mild and peace-loving temper. And, accordingly, the duke was extremely useful to Richard, who in turn took every opportunity of favouring and gratifying his uncle, to whom at one time he even ceded Guienne, though, from the discontent and annoyance expressed by the Gascons, Richard was shortly afterwards obliged to revoke his grant. "The king still more strongly testitied his preference of Lancaster on occasion of adifi'ercnce which sprang up between that duke and hin two brothers. On the death of the Spanish {irincess, on account of whom Lancaster lad entertained such high but vain hope, and expended so much time and money, the duke married Catharine Swinford, by whom he had previously had children, an'. who was the daughter of a private Hainan, t knight of no great wealth. Lancaster's two brothers loudly exclaimed again.st this match, which they, not wholly w'*hout reason, declared to be derogatory to the honour of the royal family. But Richard stepped in to the support of his uncle, and caused the parliament to pass an act legi- timatizing tlie lady's children born before marriage, and he at the same time created the eldest of them carl of Somerset. While these domestic events were pass- ing, occasional wur had still been going on both with France and Scotland; but in each instance the actual lighting was botli feeble and infrequent. This was especially the case as to France; while the most im- portant battle on the Scottish side was that of Otterbourne, in which the young Piercy, surnamed Harry Hotspur, from his impetuous temper, was taken prisoner, and Douglas killed; but this really was less a national battle than a combat arising out of a private quarrel and individual animosity. A. D. 139G. — The insurrections of the Irish having become so frequent as to excite some fear for the snfety of that conquest, the king went thither in person ; and the courage and conduct he displayed in re- ducing the rebels to obedience did much towards redeeming his character in the judgment of his people. A still farther hope was raised of the tranquillitv and rc- spectabihty of the remainder of tiiis reign by a truce of twenty-five years which was now made between France and England. To render this truce the more solid, Rich- ard, who ere this had buried the " good A.D. 1390.— ANOTHKB TBRItlBLB FIiAOVE AND FAMINE IN ENGLAND. a M ^i i f \l y.' * '' n i K* I 1 k , \ 1 m. .:'■ A. D. 1395. — TUB CANABt ISIANDS ABE DISOOVKBBD THIS TKAB. 206 ^i^e ^reasurg of l^ietocQ, ^c. queen Anne," was affianced to Isabella, the daughter of the king of France ; then only seven years old. It seems probable that Richard, still feeling insecure of the peace- fulness of his uncles and the barons gene- rally, sought by this alliance not only to strengthen the truce between the two na- tions, but also to obtain from it additional security against any domestic attacks upon his authority. But thongh he thus far gave proofs of judgment, tliere were other parts of his couduct which were altogether as impolitic and degrading. Unstable, inconsistent, wildly extravagant, and openly dissolute, the king effectually prevented his popularity from becoming conflrmed. Having shown so much wisdom in refraining from re- calling the duke of Ireland— and perhaps even that arose less from wisdom than from satiety of his former minion — he now se- lected as his favourites, to almost an equally offensive extent, his half-brothers the earls of Kent and Huntingdon, to whom he so completely committed the patronage of the kingdom as to render himself, in that re- spect at least, little more than their mere tool. This, with his indolence, excessive extravagance, indulgence at the table, and other dissolute pleasures, not only prevent- ed his growing popularity from ever being conflrmed, but even caused a revival of the former complaints and animosities. A. D, 1397. — What rendered this impolitic conduct the more surely and entirely de- structive to Richard, was the jprofoundly artful manner in- which his chief and most implacable enemy, the duke of Gloucester, availed himself of it. Instead of endeavour- ing to vie with Richard's favourites and to invite a share of his favour, the duke almost retired from the court j apiSearing there only on the public Decisions which would have caused his absence to have been ill remarked on, and devoting all the rest of his time to cultivating the popular favour by every art of which he was master. AVhen obliged to offer his opinion in council, he took care to give the most powerful reasons he could command for his opposition to the measures of the king, As the truce and alliance which Richard had concluded with France were almost universally un- popular, Gloucester, to all orders of men who had approach to liim, affected the ut- most personal sorrow and patriotic indig- nation, that Richard had so completely and shamefully degenerated from the high anti-Gallican spirit of his renowned and warlike grandfather, who looked upon tlie French as the natural foes of England, and upon France as the treasure-house of Eng- land's high-born chivalry and lusty yeoiSien, To fall ••1 U o o N H A IE •1 H) U) M o M > O f K H * n TniC miKR OF I.A>'CASTBn S SIJCCKSS WAS qiriTK rNrnECKPENTEU. BICBABD VTAB AT VIBST COHrinBO IN LBBDS CAgTLB, KBKT. iriie to him Hpport and reland, and of the un- to wholly itill wore of therefore, to Richard, surinK him I moderate instructed, )n Ricliard, stle, wlicrc is precious i was now ' under the risoner, of le journey he subrais- ' right be- Londoners, ifcction to van aflirni vised Lan- However 3f that oge ake it iui- Lancaster ) intention [ visible, or j do so with ! liefautlio- ; cd by his I lently put- , he made 1 his own nd a pri- ll a parlia- !nt thirty- i id against I who were their own er was at nay fairly ided with he lords, he latter )nal cha- ess with nfflciency ard, and ir nature lim. He charges ly be ad- denoe of n of ty. Edward se a pre- il act of Bdcnt in ition of iiviolntp, c ; while j ^as now I d, could iclmrd's 1 of the ler, LiO" :>m the i by the I a H H n a u I u >^ C9 a r. •^ a n) H 03 ■< U t3 »• O (d M O A K a H k< O K H H O H n M R H O o H M H Q •1 •a u) es e e: H t> o H A M H u lEnglantJ — ^lantagencta.— 9a(t^artJ El. 209 The spiritcl and just conduct of the able prelate, nowever honourable to himself, and however precious as, pro tamo, rescuing^ the national character from the charge of being utterly lost to all sense of right, was of no service to the unhappy Richard. The bishop was heard by the parliament an though he had given utterance to some- thing of incredible folly and injustice : the charges were voted to be proven against Richard; and the duke of Lancaster, now wholly triumphant, immediately had the bishop of Lincoln arrested and sent pri- soner to St. Alban's abbey, there to ac- quire a more subservient understanding of the principles of constitutional law. Richard being in due form deposed, the duke of Lancaster, who had so recently made oath that he sought only the recovery of his duchy, — of which it is beyond all 3ucstion that he had been most wrongfully cprived — now came forward, crossed him- self in the forehead and breast with much seeming devotion, and said, " In the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, I, Henry of Lancaster, challenge this realm of England, and the crown, and all the members and appurtenances also, that I am descended by right line of the blood, coming from the good king Henry the Third, and through that right that God of his grace hath sent me, witli help of kin and of my friends, to recover it ; the which realm was on point of being undone by de- fault of governance and undoing of the good laws." The riglit to which the duke of Lancas- ter here pretends requires a few, and but a few, words of explanation. " There was," says Hume, "a silly story i'eceived among the lowest of the vulgar, that Edmond, earl of'Lancaster, sou of Henry the Third, was really the elder brother of Edward ; but that by reason of some deformity in his person he had been postponed in the suc- cession, and his younger brother imposed upon the nation in his stead. As the pre- sent duke of Lancaster inherited from Ed- mond, by his mother, this genealogy made him the true heir of the monarchy, and it is therefore insinuated in his speech, but the absurdity was too gross to be openly avowed either by him or the parliament." Rut if too gross for formal parliamentary use, it could scarcely be too gross for im- posing upon the changeful, ignorant, and turbulent rabble; and Heurv of Lancaster was far too accomplished a demagogue to overlook the usefulness of a falsehood on account of its grossncss. The deposition of Richard rendered it necessary that the parliament should be dissolved ; but in six days after that took place a new parliament was called by his usurping successor. This parliament gave a new proof of the absurdity of swearing the parliament and people to the perpe- tuity of laws ; all the laws of Richard's former parliament, which had not only been sworn to but also confirmed by a papal bull, being now abrogated at one fell swoop I And to make the lesson still more striking and still more disgusting, all the acts of Gloucester's parhament which had been so solemnly abrogated, were now as solemnly confirmed 1 For accusing Gloucester, War- wick, and Arundel, many peers had been Sromoted; they were now on that account egraded I The recent practice had made appeals in parliament the rightful and so- lemn way ot bringing high offenders to jus- tice ; such appeals were now abolished in favour of common law indictments. How could peaceable and steady conduct be ex- pected from a people whose laws were thus perpetually subjected to chance and change, to the rise of this or to the fall of that party ? Henry of Lancaster, by due course of vio lence and fraud, of hypocrisy and of per- jury, having usurped the crown, the dispo- sal of the person of the late king naturally became a question of tiome interest; and the earl of Northumberland, who had acted so treacherous a part, was deputed to ask the advice of the peers upon that point, and to inform them that the king had re- solved to spare Richard's life. The peers were unanimously of opinion that Richard should be confined in some secure fortress, and prevented from having any communi- cation with his friends. Poiitufract caslle was acrordingly fixed upon as the deposed king's prison, and here he speedily died at the early age of thirty-four. That he was murdered no historian denies; but while some say that he was openly attacked by assassins who were admitted to his apart- ments, and that before he was dispatched he killed one "f his atsailants and nearly overpowered the rest ; others say, that he was starved to death, and that his strong constitution indicted upon him the un- speakable misery of living for a fortnight after his inhuman gaolers had ceased to supply him with any food ; and this latter account is the more likely to be the correct one, as his body, when exposed to public view, exhibited no marks of violence upon it. Whatever his fault, it is impossible to deny that he was most unjustly treated by the usurper Henry, and very basely aban- doned by both houses of parliament ; and his fate furnishes a new proof that the sraallcKt tyrannies of a weak sovereign, in a rude and unlettered age, will provoke the most sanguinary vengeance at the hands of the very same men who will patiently and basely put up with the greatest and most insulting tyrannies at the hands of a king who has either wisdom or courage. Apart from the sedition and violence of which we have already given a detailed ac- count, the reign of the deposed and mur- dered Richard had but one circumstance worthy of especial remark ; the commence- meut in England of the reform of the church. John Wickliffe, a secular priest of Oxford, and subsequently rector of Lutter- worth, in Leicestershire, being a man of great learning and piety, and being unable by the most careful study of the scriptures to find any justification of the doctrine of the real presence, the supremacy of Rome, niCnARD II. IBFT «0 ISSVB BY BITUEn Olf MIS MARBUOBS. l-''^i ■'I :('f. TUK BODY or KICHABD WAS INTBRDBD IN LANOLBY CUUBCH, HBRTS. P ! Ilf'' :i : 210 "^ift ^reasuci) of l^istorg, ^c. or the merit of vows of celibacy, felt himself bound to make public his opinion on these points, and to maintain "(that the scriptures were tlie sole rule of faith ; that the church was dependant on the state and should be reformed by it ; that the clergy ought to possess no estates ; that the begging friars were a nuisance and ought not to be sup- ported; that the numcrouc ceremonies of the church were hurtful to true piety ; that oaths were unlawful, that dominion was founded in grace, that every thing was sub- ject to fate and destiny, and that all men were predestined to eternal salvation or re- probation." It will be perceived from this summary that Wickliffe in some particulars went be- yond the reformers of the sixteenth cen- tury ; but, drawing his opinions from the scriptures and the writings of the fathers, he, in the main, agrees with the more mo- dern reformers who also sought truth in that same true source. Pope Gregory XI. issued a bull for4hc trial of Wickliffe as to the soundness of his opinions. The duke nf Lancaster, who then, in consequence of Richard's minority, governed the kingdom, not only protected Wickliffe, but appeared in court with him, and ordered that he should be allowed to sit while being exa- mined by Courtenav, bishop of London, to whom the pope's null was directed. The populace at this time were much against Wickliffe, and would probably have pro- ceeded to comtoit actual violence upon both him and his great protector but for the interference of the bishop. But Wick- liffe's opinions being, for the most part, true, and being maintained by an extremely earnest as well as learned and pious man, soon made so much progress, that the uni- versity of Oxford neglected ti. act upon a second bull which the pope directed against the intrepid reformer ; and even the popu- lace learned to see so much soundness in his arguments, that when he was sum- moned before a synod at Lambeth, they broke into the palace and so alarmed the prelates who were opposed to him, that he was dismissed without censure. On sub- sequent occasions he was troubled for nis opinions, but though he showed none of the stern and headlong courage of Luther in a later age, he did that which paved the way for it ; being sufficiently tinctured with that enthusiasm necessary to unmask imposture, he gained the approbation of honest men ; while he so skilfully explained and tempo- rized, that he lived prosperously and died in peace at his rectory, in the year 1385 ; having set the exauiple of deep and right thinking upon the important subjects of religion, but leaving it to a later generation to withstand the tyrannous assumptions of Rome even to the stake and the axe, the torture and the maddening gloom of the dungeon. The impunity of Wickliffe and his contemporary disciples must not, how- ever, be wholly set down to the account of his and t'icir prudent temporizing and skilful explanation. These, indeed, under all the circumstances grcittiy served them. but would have utterly failed to do so but that as yet there was no law by which the secular arm could be made to punish the heterodox ; and Rome, partly from her own schisms and partly from the state of £ng- and, was just at this time in no condition to take those sweeping and stern measures which eitlier in an earlier or later age, with the greater favour of the civil ruler, she would have proved herself abundantly will- ing to take. That the power and opportu- nity, rather than the will, were wanting on the part of Rome to suppress the Lollards — as Wickliffe's disciples were called— rests not merely upon speculation. Proof of that fact is afforded by an act which about four years before the death of Wickliffe the clergy surreptitiously got enrolled, though it never had the consent of the commons, by which act all sheriffs were bound to appre- hend all preachers of heresy and their abettors. The fraud was discovered and complained of in the commons during the next session ; and the clergy were thus de- terred from making immediate use of their new and ill acquired power, though they contrived to prevent the formal repeal of the smuggled act. CHAPTER XXVIII. The Reign 0/ Hbnby IV. A.D. 1399. — HowEVBR Henry IV. might gloss over the matter to the servile com- mons or to the profoundly ignorant rabble, he could not but be perfectly aware that he had no hereditary right ; that his " right," in fact, was merely the right of a usurper who had paved the way to the throne by the grossest hypocrisy. And he must have constantly been tortured with doubts and anxieties, lest the ambition of some new usurper siiould be sanctioned as his own had been, by what artful demagogues face- tiously call the " voice of the people," or lest some combination of the barons should pluck the stolen diadem from his brow, to place it on that of the heir of the house of Mortimer, whom parliament had formerly declared the heir to the crown. Rut Henry could lessen these cares and fears by re- fleeting that he had possession, and that possession was not so easily to be wrested from him by a future usurper, as it had been by himself from the weak and un- skilled arm of Richard; while, even should the parliamentary decision in favour of the true heir be brought into play, it was not so difficult or uncommon a thing to alter the most solemn acts, even when passed amid oaths and supported by a bull I Moreover, as to the difficulty that might arise from the true heir, Henry probably placed his chief reliance here — that heir, then only seven years old, and his younger brother, were in Henry's own custody in the royal castle of Windsor. A. d! 1400. — Had Henry been previously ignorant of the turbulent ehariictcr of his barons, his very first parlinmcnt had fur- nished him with abundant information upon that score. Scarcely had the peers TUB WItIT OF SUnrcGNA WAS VIRST USED IN RICHARD S RGION. HEUBY IV. SON OF JOHN OV OAUHT, WAB SOBIIAMBD " BOLINGBBOKB." lEnglantJ — '^orxaz of ICancastcr.— I^cnru EU. 211 M H H H n M U H H it ►< H o tr. H M u H )r, B b A M assembled when disputes ran so high among them, that not only was very " un- parliamentary " language bandied about among them, even to the extent of giving each other the lie direct, and as directly charging each other with treason, but this language was supported by the throwing down, upon the floor of the house, of no fewer than forty gauntlets in token of their owners' readiness to maintain their words in mortal combat. For the present the king had influence enough among those doughty peers to prevent them from coming into actual personal collision. Vut he was not able to prevent their quarrel from still rankling in their hearts, still less was he able to overpower the strong feehng of ha- tred which some of them cherished against his own power and person. We spoke, a little while since, of the de- gradation by Henry's parliament of certain peers who had been raised by Richard's parliament, on account of the part they took at the time of the rebellion of the duke of Gloucester. The earls of Rutland, Kent, and Huntingdon, and the lord Spen- cer, who were thus degraded, respectively, from the titles of Albemarle, Surrey, Exeter, and Gloucester, the three lirst being duke- doms and the fourth an cnrldom, now en- tered into a conspiracy to seize the king at Windsor ; and his dcpnaition, if not his death, must infallibly have followed had they succeeded in the tirst part of their design. The earl of Salisbury and the lord Lumley joined in this cunspirocy, and the measures were so well taken that Henry's ruin would have been morally certain, but that Rutland, from compunction or some less creditable motive, gave the king timely notice, and he suddenly withdrew from Windsor, where he was living compara- tively unprotected, and reached London in private just as the conspirators arrived at Windsor with a party of five hundred ca- valry. Before the bafiled conspirators could recover from their surprize the king posted himself at Kingston-on-Thamex, with ca- valry and infantry, chiefly supplied by the city of London, to the number of twenty thousand. The conspirators had so en- tirely depended upon the effect of surpris- ing the King and making use of the pos- session of his person, that they now saw they had lost all in losing him, and they betook themselves to their respective coun- ties to raise their friends and depend- ants. But the king had now all the advan- tage of being already in force, and strong detachments of his friends pursued the fugitives so hotly that they had not the chance of making any combined resistance. The earls of Kent and Salisbury were seized at Cirencester, in Gloucestershire, by the inhabitants of that place, and were be- headed on the following day ; Spencer and Lumley were similarly disposed of by the men ot Bristol; and the earls of Hunting- don, sir Thomas Blount, sir Benedict Sely, and several others who were made pri. soncrs, were subsequently put to death by Henry's own order. It gives us a positive loathing for the morality of that age when we read that on the quartered bodies of these persona being brought to London, the mangled and senseless remains were insulted by the loud and disgusting jov, not only of immense numbers of the rabble of the turbulent metropolis, but also by thirty-two mitred abbots and eighteen bi- shops, who thus set an example which — can we doubt it? — was only too faithfully fol- lowed by the inferior clergy. But the most disgusting as well as the most horrible part of tliis sad story still remains to be told. In this truly degrading procession the earl of Rutland made a conspicuous flgure, not merely as being son and heir of the duke of York, as having aided in the murder of his uncle the duke of Gloucester, as hav- ing deserted from Richard to Henry, and having conspired against the latter and betrayed to him the wretched men whose remains were now being brutally paraded before the eyes of the rabble ; these distinc- tions were not enough for his evil ambition, and lest he should be overlooked in the bloody procession, he carried upon a pole the ghasily head of one of those victims whom he had first seduced and conspired with, and then betrayed— and that victim was the lord Spencer, his own brother-in- law I Surely this man had successfully aimed at the sublimity of infamy ! A. D. 14U1. — Politic in everything, and re- solute to make everything as far as possi- ble subservient to his safety and interest, Henry, who in his youth and while as yet a subject had been, as his father had, a fa- vourer of the Lollards, now laid himself out to aid in their oppression, in order to .conciliate the estabhshed clergy. And to all the other evil characteristics of this reign is to be added that of the originating, in England; of civil penal laws against the undefined and indefinable crime of heresy. Lollardism, appealing to the simple com- mon sense of the mu'titude, had by this time b'^come very widely disseminated in England; and the clergy, unable to oppose the leading arguments of the detested he- retics, and unpossessed of the power to silence those whom they could not confute, loudly demanded the aid of the civil power. Anxious to serve a vast and powerful body of men who in any great emergency would be so well able to serve him, Henry en- gaged the parliament to pass a bill, which provided, that all relapsed heretics who should refuse to abjure their errors of faith when summoned before the bishop and his commissioners, should be delivered over to the civil authorities, who should publicly commit them to the flames. An atrocious use of the king^s power; but every way worthy of the atrocious hypocrisy and vio- lence by which that power had been ac- qwired. When this act was passed with nil the due forms, the clergy speedily afforded proof that they did not intend to allow it to re- main a dead letter. William Sautrc, a clergyman of London, was condemned as a relapsed heretic by the ^convocation of A. U. 1399. — HKNBV WAS C80WNBD ON TUB 13TU OF OCTOBEH, A.D. 1400.— TBB BKFBBOB OF COMSTANTINOPLB TIglTS BROLAHD. O CC O K u M M M M (• la '4 ■ K M M 212 Vlffz ^reasuro of lltatorQ, $cc. Canterbury, and being committed to the chastisement of the civil power, the king issued his writ, and the wretched man was burned to death. Great as all the other crimes of Henrjr were, they fall into com- parative insignificance in comparison of this : that he was the firtt, tince the ex- tinction chiefs of their persecutors. A.D. 1414. — As Cobham was very highly esteemed among the Lollards, and as they were not only very numerous but also in- cluded a great number of wealthy and re- spectable persons, the king, who was in- formed of what was in contemplation, deemed it necessary not only to guard him- self against the intended surprize, but also to prepare to resist open insurrection. He accordingly removed to the palace at West- minster, and prepared himself for whatever force Cobham might be able to bring. Even now Cobham had ample opportunity tr. abandon his design, which became hope- less from the moment it became known, and to escape from the kingdom. But he seems to have been of a temper which difficulty and danger might enrage but could not intimidate, and he assembled all the forces he could raise in the tields of St. Giles. Bmng made acquainted with the appointediime as well as place of meeting, the king caused the gates of the city to be closed, to prevent the di.scontcatcd from getting an increase to their number from tliat quarter; he then went, well attended, to St. Giles, and seized those of the leaders who had already arrived, while the military, skilfully stationed, arrested all who were found hastening to the spot. It appeared that, as is usual in such cases, the greater number of the prisoners knew little or nothing of the real designs of their leaders, though of the criminal and treasonable designs of the latter there remained no shadow of doubt. Those who were proved to have had treasonable designs were exe- cuted, but by far the greater nunibsr were pardoned. He whom the clergy were the most anxious to punish, and who, indeed, was now not much less obnoxious to tlie civil than to the ecclesiastical authority, the lord Cobham himself, was fortunate enough to escape. Hut sentence was pro- nounced against him, par contumnrr, as a traitor and a relapsed and incorrigible he rctie; and being apprehended about four years afterwards, he was hanged for his participation in treason against the king, and his body was buried in pursuance of the sentence passed against him for heresy. The severity with which the leaders in this crude and ill-planned revolt were treated, and the advantage which the cir- cumstances of it gave the clergy, in being able to couple heresy and treason as of- fences coupled by necessity and naturally springing the one from the other, had a very sensible effect in checking the progress of Lollardy; but not so mueli on account of the terror attached to the punishment, as the disgrace and contempt which seemed every where to be attached to the crime. Very wisely the clergy aud the civil au- thorities appeared at this time to treat the Lollards, associated as they had confessedly been with the civil disobedience of Cob- ham, not so much as heretics as partly heretics and partly loose fellows who were desirous of causing public disturbance fur the better accomplishment of their own private ends ; a mode of treating the case the best possible for making it intolerable in the eyes of all decent people, and for depriving such people of all curiosity as to its doctrinal peculiarities. Happy had it been for mankind if ridicule had ever been the substitute for persecution ! Truth, indeed, would overcome the former as it has the latter; but what pangs would have been spared to some of the combatants — what dark and undying infamy to others ! Nor was it merely among the unreflecting multitude, and those who, simply witli reference to their worldly possessions, were unwilling to countenance those whose opi- nions and practices were likely to disturb the public peace and put wealth in peril, that the exploded plot of Cobham caused a distaste for Lollardium. The parliament met just after the dispersion of Cobham's adherents, and one of its first acts was levelled against heretics. This act pro- vided that all persons who were convicted of Lollardy should not only be capitally punished, as was provided for by the former act, but should also forfeit all their lands and goods whatever to the king; and that the chancellor, treasurer, the justices of the two benches, all sheriffs, justices of the peace, and chief magistrates of all cities and boroughs, should be sworn to use their utmost pains and diligence iu the extirpa- tion of heresy. That the Lollards were feared and de- tested, less on account of their religious heresy than as civil disturbers, appears from the contrast between the act thus provi- ding, and the subsequent CDolness with which this same p-rliament, on the king demanding a supplj, begged him, instead A. 1). 1413.— ONE HUNDKED AND TEN AMEN miOUIKS SUPrREBSED. w I' A.D. IKIo. — A COSSl'lKACY AUAI.NST TUK KINO OITKl.'Tt'.D. M. i 218 Sii^e ^veasuri.) of l^istorg, $c(. of puttinff them to tho task of inipniting a tax upon the people, tn take poHsession of tlie ecclesiastical revenues and convert them to the use ol the crown. The re- newal of this proposition, which had for- merly been made to Henry's father, threw the elcrfty into alarm. To turn the king's attention from the proposed wholesale spo- liation of the church, they endeavoured at one(? to supply his more pressing and im- mediate wants, and In conciliate his per- sonal favour, by voluntarily conferring upon him the valuable alien priories which were dependant upon chief abbeys in Normandy, and had beeii bequeathed to those abbeys while England and Normandy were still united under the crown of Knglaiul. Still further to turn the attention of the kin); from a proposal which was so jiregnant with alarm and danger to the clergy. Chichi, y, the then archbishop of Canterbury, endea- voured to engage the king in a war with France. A.D. 1415. — In this design of the archbi- shop — a design, be it parenthetically said, which was much more politic than either humane or Christian — he was considerably aided by the dying injunctions of Henry IV., who had warned his son, if he could at all plausibly engage the English people in war, never to allow them to remain at peace, which would infallibly turn their in- clinations towards domestic dissensions. The kingdom of France had now for a long time been plunged in the utmost confusion and discord, and the various parties hnd been guilty of cruelties and outrages, dis- graceful not merely to themselves but even to our commun nature. Tlie state of that kingdrm was consequently at this time such as to hold out advantages to Henry, which were well calculated to give force to the advice of Chiehely and the dying re- quest of Henry IV. But just as Henry, who did not want for either ambition or a warlike spirit, was preparing and medi- tating an attack upon the neighbouring and rival kingdom, his attention was for the moment arrested by the discovery of a dangerous and extensive conspiracy at home. As we have already said, the young carl of Marche was so sensibh* of the kindness shown to him by the pre»>^nt king at the commencement of his reign, 'hat he seemed to have no desire ever to giv! any disturb- ance to his government, liut the earl's sister was married to the earl of Cam- bridge, second son of the deceased duke of York, and he thus, i^ot unnaturally, became anxiously concerned for the rights and interests of a familjr with which he had himself become so intimately connected. Deeming it possible to recover the crown for that family, he took pains to acquire partizans, and addressed himself, among others, to lord Scrope of Masham, and to sir Thomas Grey of Heaton. Whether from treachery or from want of sufHcient caution on the part of ihe earl of Cam- bridge, the conspiracy became known to the king before it had gone beyond the mere preliminaries; but the conspirators upon being seized made such ample disrlo- Burcs of their ultimate designs, as both en- abled the king to order their trial, and fully warranted him in so doing. They were in the first instance tried by a jury of com- moners, and condemned upon the testimony of the constable of Southampton castle, who swore that the prisoners had confessed their guilt to him; but they afterwards pleaded, and were allowed their privilege as peers. Uut though Henry had hitherto shown so much inclination to moderation, he on this occasion evinced no desire to de- part from the arbitrary practices of the kings of that age. A court of eighteen ba- rons was summoned and presided over by the duke of Clarence ; before this court the single testimony that had been given before the common jury was read, and without further evidence or nearer ap- proach to even the form of a trial, these two prisoners, one of them a prince of the blood, were condemned to death without being licard in their own defence, or even being produced in court, and were executed accordingly ! The ill-digested and unsuccessful attempt of his brother-in-law put the young earl of Marche in considerable peril. As it was, nominally, on his account that war was to have been levied against the king, he was accused of having at the least consented to the conspiracy ; but the constant attach- ment he had snown to Henrv had probably gained him a strong personal interest with that monarch, who freed him from all fur- ther peril on account of this affair bygiviug him a general pardon for all offences. As soon as the excitement consequent upon this conspiracy had somewhat passed away, Henry again turned his attention to- wards France. ' The duke of ISurgundy, who had been expelled from France by a combination of the usually jarring powers of that country, had been in such correspondence with Henry, that the latter prince felt quite secure of the duke's aid whenever an Kng- lish army should appear to claim it; and therefore, without making any precise ar- rangements with the duke, and indeed without even coining to any positive agree- ment with him, Henry on the 14th of Au- gust in this year put to sea tflbd landed safely in Normandy, with about twenty -four thousand infantry, chiedy consistiug of archers, and six thousand men-at-arms, Hartlcur had for its governor D'Estoute- villc, under whose command were De Guitri, De Gaucourt, and other eminent French soldiers. Henry laid immediate siege to the place, but was so stoutly and successfully resisted, that, between the ex- cessive fatigue and the more tlian usual Inat of the weather, his men suffered dread- fully, and were alarmingly thinned by fever and other sicknesses. But, in spite of all losses and discouragements, Henry gal- lantly persevered ; and the French were so much straitened, that they were obliged to promise that if no relief were afforded them ON t {HBNRY in tain CUALLGNOBS THB SAVPniN TO SINOLB COMBAT. ' 1 TiiK riiEncii orrKB battle oy a iikhami, wiiirii t* AcrKFTr.D. ri lEnglantJ — l^ousc of I'nntasttr.— ll^tnrw V. 219 IL by the isith of September, they would cva- cimte lh(! pliice. No bikiis of rchef appear- ing by that day, the Kn^^lish « ere admitted j hut HO much was tlie army thiuned, and in Ro HU'kly a uoudition were the majority of the KurvivorH, that Ilenrv, far from having any encouragement to follow up thi» success by'Bi)me new cnterprize, was advised by all about him to turn his attention tu RettioK the skeleton of his array in safety back to KnKland. Kven this was no easy or safe matter. On his tirHt landing he had so little anticipated the havoc which fatigue and sickness had made in his army, that he had incautiously dismissed his transfiorts ; and he now lay under the necessity of marciiing by laud to Calais, ere he could place his troops out of danger, and that, too, in the face of an army of fourteen thousand nien-at-arnis and forty thousand foot, assembled in Normandy under the command of the constable D'Albret. The French force so tremendously out-number- ing that of Henry , he very prudently of- fered to sacrifice his recent conquest of Hardcur, at the price of being allowed to pass unmolested to Calais ; but the French, confident in their superiority, rejected his proposal. Henry, therefore, in order equally to avoid discouragement to his own troops and encouragement to the French, retreated by easy marches to the Somme, where he hoped to pass the ford at Ulanquetagne, as Edward had escaped from Philip de Valuis under very similar circumstances ; but he found that the French had taken the pre- caution to render the ford impassable, be- sides lining the opposite bank with a strong body of troops, and he was obliged to seek a safe passage higher up the river. Scarcely any thing could exceed the distressof Hen- ry's present situation. His troops were fast perishing with continual fatigue and the prevalent sickness ; he could procure no provisions, owing to the activity of the French ; and everywhere he found himself confronted by numerous enemies, ready to fall upon him the instant he should cross the river. But under all these circumstan- ces Henry preserved his courage and pre- sence of mind; and a ford near St. Quentin being but slenderly guarded, he surprised the enemy there, and led his army over in safety. Henry now hastened towards Calais, but on passing the little river of Teruois, at Blangi, he had the mortification to per- ceive the main body of the French drawn up and awaiting him in the extensive plains of Agincourt. To reach Calais without an action was now evidently impossible ; the French were to the English as four to one, besides being free from sickness, and abundantly supplied with provisions ; in a word, Henry was now in fully as dangerous a position as that of Edward at Cressy, or the heroic Black Prince at Poitiers. Situ- ated as they had been, he resolved to imi- tate their pl<>nof battle, and he awaited the attack of the enemy on a narrow land closely flanked by a wood on either side. With their advantage in numbers and in facility of obtaining provisions, the French oiiiflit clearly to have remained obstinately on the defensive, until the English should hy aliin- lute famine be obliged to ailvance from their ; favourable position ; a position which, to a ! very great extent, gave the advantage to the side having the smaller number of men to I manoeuvre. But their very superiority in ' numbers deprived the French of all pru- ' denee, and they pressed forward as if to ' crush the English by their mere weight. I The mounted archers and men-at-arms I rushed in crowded ranks upon the English, ' who, defended by pali^adoes, and free from j the crowding which embarrassed the ae- I tions and distracted the attention of the I enemy, plied them with a deadly and inces- ! sant shower of shafts and bolts. The heavy land, rendered still more heavy and tcna- i ciouR by recent rain, was highly disadvan- j tageous to the French cavalry, who were soon still further incommoded in their move- I ments by the innumerable dead and dying ! men and horses with which the Eiiislish ! archers strewed the narrow ground. VVlien ' the disorder of the enemy was at its height, j Henry gave orders to the English to ad- ! Vance with their pikes and battle axes; and 1 the nicn-at-arnis following them, the e! o « o t* h c u fa O A J>. 1420. — TUE TITLB OF KINO OF FBANCB FIRST USBD ON BNOIISH COIItS. lEnglanB,— l^ouac of ICantastcr — llenre U. 221 The chief provisioiis of this treaty, in which the honour and interests of the na- tion were Recounted as nothing, were as fol- lows. Henry was to marry the princess Ca- tharine; Charles was to enjoy the title and dignity of king during his life, but Henry was to be his heir, and was also to be en- trusted with the immediate administration of the affairs of the kingdom, which was to pass to his heirs in common with England, with which kingdom it was to be united under him, though each kingdom should internally retain its own customs, privi- leges, and usages; all the French princes, peers, communities, and vassals were to swear to obey Henry as regent, and in due time to adhere to his succession as king ; Henry was to unite with Charles and the duke of Burgundy in chasing the dauphin from the kingdom ; and no one of the members of this tripartite league was to make peace with him, except with the consent of the other two. A treaty more scandalous to all parties it would be difficult to imagine. Even as regarded England, Henry was king only by succes- sion to an usurper ; and his claim to France, even on that ground alone would have been scouted by the duke of Burgundy, had patriotism not been entirely banished from his breast by passion and personal interest. But interest, and interest alone, was at- tended to by the parties concerned in this very singular treaty, which was drawn, signed, and ratified with as little scruple on the side of Burgundy, as though there had been no other object in view than the mere gratification and aggrandizement of Henry. A few days after the signing of the treaty, this prince espoused the princess Catha- rine, and with her and her father proceeded to Paris. Possessed of the capital, he had but little difficulty in procuring from the parliament and the three estates a full and formal ratification of that treaty, in every i line of which their degradation was visibly I written. I The dauphin now assumed the style of j regent of the kingdom, appealed to God to I witness the justice of- his cause, and pre- j pared to defend it in arms; and Henry |)ro- ceeded to oppose him. He first laid siege to Sens, which after a very slight resist- ance surrendered to him, and Montereau ^ was subdued with no less ease. Henry now proceeded to Mclun, but here he met with a stouter resistance, the governor, Barbasnn, repelling every effort he could make for above four months; and even at the end of that time the brave governor was only induced to treat for surrender by the absolute state of famine to which the gar- rison was reduced. Henry was now obliged to visit England for the purpose of obtain- ing both men and money, and during his absence he left his unrlu the duke of Ex- eter in the post of governor of Paris. By this finii; the Englisii, liowever much they were dazzled and llnitcrcd by the talents and success of their kinjt, soem to have begun lo take sonu'tliing like a cor- rect view of the possible ultimate conse- quence to them, and to their posterity, of the proposed union of the two crowns ; and the parliament voted him a subsidy ot only a fifteenth, wiiich would have been quite inadequate to his necessities, but that the French territory he had conquered served for the maintenance of his troops. Having got together, with the subsidy thus voted to im, a new army of twenty-four thousand archers and four thousand cavalry, he em- barked at Dover and safely reached Paris, where everything had remained in perfect tranquillity under the government of his uncle. But during the absence of Henry the English had received a very severe check in Anjou. A Scotch brigade of seven thou- sand men had long been in the dauphin's service, sent thither by the regent of Scot- land. Henry had taken the young king of Scots, who had so long been in captivity, to France, and caused him to issue orders for all Scots to leave the dauphin's service. But the earl of Buchan, who commanded the Scots, replied, thai his king while in captivity could not issue orders, at all events could not expect him to obey them. This gallant and well-disciplined body of troops now encountered the English detachment under the command of the duke of Cla- rence. That prince was slain in the action by a Scottish knight named Allan Swiuton ; the enrls of Somerset, Huntingdon, and Dorset were taken prisoners ; and the Eng- lish weie completely routed; to the great joy of the dauphin, who rewarded the earl of Burhan witli the office of constable. Henry's return, however, soon damped the new-burn joy >( the dauphin, who was besieging Chartres, whither Henry march- ed, and compelled him to raise the siege without a struggle. From Chartres Henry marched to Dreux, which also surrendered without resistance, and then proceeded to lay siege to Meaux, the garrison of which had greatly annoyed the Parisians. Here the English were resisted with great skill and courage for eight months, by tho go- vernor Vaurus. At the end of that time the place was taken ; and it was probably in reality on account of the obstinate re- sistance that he had met with, but pro- fessedly for the cruelty which Vaurus had undoubtedly shown to his prisoners, Eng- lish as well as Burgundian, that Ilenry ordered him to be hanged upon the same gibbet upon which he had caustd so many brave men to be executed. The capture of Meaux led to the sur- render of other places in the neighbour- hood that until then had obstinately held out ; and the dauphin, unable to resist the united power ot the English and Bur- gundians, was driven beyond tho Loire, and compelled to abandon nearly all the northern provinces; while the son of whom Henry's queen was just now delivered was as enthusiastically hailed at Paris as at London, as the future king of both nations Singularly handsome and vigorous in per- son, and having not yet nearly icnched middle age, Ilenry might have been ex- H f H it o p m » O a X m r. o n H H « < M IS « < •I ■ U K O H n K O a A.U. 1-121. — UKNaV ANU HIS QUEIIN ARaiVB ANU ARB CKOWNF.n, FBB. 9, [17 3 A. D. 1412. — TUB FEACK OF TIIUIE3 COM'IRMKD BY rAJlMAMtST. 222 CTIic ^rensuvy of Ijistory, ^c. pccted to have very many yenrs of glory ami triumph jet before hiiii. Hut he was af- flicted with a listuln, a disease with which the rude surgery of that age knew not how to deal ; and he, the powerful and am- bitions, the envied and the successful king, found himself hurrying to the grave by the rapid progress of a disease, from which in our own time the poorest peasant would be relieved. Conscious of his approaching end, he gave a new proof of " the ruling passion strong in death." Sending for his brother the duke of Bedford, tlie earl of Warwick, and some other noblemen who stood high in his esteem, he with great calmness de- livered to them his last will as it affected Ix.th the kingdom and his family. Pro- fessing to view his approaching death with- out any other regret than that which arose from his leaving his great project incom- plete, he assured them that they could not fr.il of success by the exertion of their known prudence and valour. He appoint- ed Bedford regent of I'Vance, liis younger brother the duke of Gloucester regent of England, and to the carl of Warwick he committed the government and protection of his infant son. lie at the same time most urgently enjoined these friends, on no consideration to give freedom to the French jirinees taken at Agiucourt, until his son should be of an age to govern for himself; carefully to preserve the friendship of the duke of Burgundy ; to exert every means to secure the throtie of France to their infant king; and, failing success in thntparticulnr, never to nuike peace with France unless on condition of* the permanent annexation of Normandy to the crown of England. Apart from his ambition, and the violent injustice which necessarily resulted from it, this prince was in very many respects deserving of the high popularity which throughout his life he enjoyed in England, and which he no less enjoyed in France sub- sequent to his marriage with the princess Catharine. His civil rule was firm and productive of excellent order without being harshly severe; mid in the uniform kind- ness and contidencc which he bestowed upon the earl of IMarchc, who beyond all question had the preferable title to the crown, betokened no common magnaui- n ity. Henry, who died iu 1422, aged only thirty-four, left but one child, young Henry, then only nine months old; and the queen Catharine, rather sooner after the death of lier husband than was strictly becoming, ftave her hand in second marri- age to sir Owen Tudor, a private gcntlc- nian, who, however, rlaimel to be descend- ed from the ancient Welsh princes: to him s.K! bore two sons, the elder of whom was creat(^d earl of Iliehmond, the younger earl of Pembroke; and the earl of Uichmond subsequently liecamo king of England, as we shall liereafter have to relate. ' CHAPTER XXX. The Reign n/ Henry VI. A.D. 1422. — We had occasion to remark, under the head of Henry IV., that the usurpation of that prince gave a great and manifest impetus to the power of the par- liament. A new proof was now afforded of the extent to which that power had in- creased. Scarcely any attention was paid to the important instructions given by Heury V. on his death-bed ; and the parlia- ment proceeded to make arrangements in accordance rather with its own views than with those of the deceased monarch, with respect to both the kingdom and the young king. They altogether set aside, as to the for- mer, the title of regent, and appointed the duke of Bedford, and during any absence of his, the duke of Gloucester, to act as protector or guardian of the kingdom ; evidently placing a peculiar value on this distinction of terms, though to all practical purposes it necessarily was a mere dis- tinction without a difference. They show- ed, however, a more practical judgment in preventing, or, at the least, in antici- pating, any undue stretch of authority on the part of either of the royal personages, by appointing a council whose advice and approbation were necessary to the legalising of all important measures. They next proeeciled to show an equal disregard to the wishes of the deceased monarch, as related to the custody and go- vernment of his infant son, when they com- mitted him to the care of Henry Beaufort, bishop of AVincUestcr, a natural I'ut legiti- mate sou of John of Gaunt, duke of l.an-- caster; an arrangement which at least had this recomnu'ndation, that the prelate iu question co\ild set up no fntnily irefensiou to the crown, and had, therefore, no in- ducement to act unfairly by his infant charge. The duke of Bedford, long renowned for equal prudence and valour, immedinlely turned his atteiiti(ni to France, without making the slightest attempt to alter the determinatiim of parliament, which a less disinterested and noble spirited >nan would very probably have interpreted as a personal affront. Charles, the late dauphin, had now ns- sumcd, as he was justly entitled to assume, the title of king of France; .ind being shut out by the English from llheinis, the an- cient and especial place of coronation of the kings of France, lie caused himself to be crowned at Poit'ers. This prince, though only twenty years of age, was very popu- lar with multitudes of the French, as well for the many virtues of his private charac- ter, as for the great and precocious abilities he had show u in must difilcult phases of hia public utfairs. No one knew better than the duke of Bedford that, cxelwled though the dauphin was from his rightful succession, by the un- natural and unpatriotic act of his imbecile ! father, his own abilities would be stron IT < ■< a. ■< o A.D. 1420 LINCOLN COM.KOK, O.XFOni), FOUNDED BY BISHOP FI.B.MINO. VI. ri to remark, v., that the a great aud of the par- low afTurdcd wer ]iad in- on was paid IS given by d the parlin- igements in 1 views than anarch, with id the young s to the for- )pointed the any absence !r, to act as e kingdom ; nhie on this all prnctical a mere dis- They show- il judgment ;t, in untici- authority on personages, : advice and he legalising ow an rqunl be deceased ;ody and go- in they eoni- |ry ISeniil'oi't, 1 I'ut Icgiti- e oC Lan-- I at least Imd i prelate in \ [iretcnsiou j oro, no in- ' liis infant nowncd for nimediatuly witlinut : o niter tlio loll a less iiinn would : 0. personal d now ns- ! to nasunic, ! bcini; shut i IS, the an- { It ion of the \ ivelf to be cc, though rcry popu- cli, as well \te clmrac- us abilities ages of his duke of le dnuphin by tlicun- B imbecilo . . e strongly •* M TniS NOnTUEUN FUOVINCES OF FRANCB WEBB HELD BY TUB ENQLISU. IcnglantJ 1^o«»c of 3Eancaster.— l^enri} UE. 223 aided by a natural and inevitable revulsion of feeling on the part of those Frenchmen who had hitherto shown themselves fast friends to England. He therefore strictly obeyed the dying injunction of Henry as to a sedulous cultivation of the friendship of the duke of Burgundy, whose personal quarrel with Charles had so mainly aided the success of the English cause thus far, and whose support would henceforth be so vitally important to their maintaining their ground in France. Bedford, therefore, has- tened to fulfil his part in the treaty of Troyes, by espousing Philip's sister, the princess of Arras ; and he even offered his new brother-in-law the regency of France, which Philip, for not very obvious reasons, declined ; tlinugh, as he was far from being unambitious, he could scarcely have over- looked that the regency, during the minor- ity of young Henry and the continued suc- cess of the English, would be nearly equiva- lent to the actual sovereignty, and might, by some very slight circumstance, actually lend to it. The duke of Bedford next turned his at- ♦ oMion to securmg the friendship of the < 'y ambition and cujjidity than by love, finding so insuner- able an obstacle interposed between him and even his future success, very soon con- soled himself for his disappointment by giving his hand to a lady who had for a considerable time been known as his mis- tress. Soon after, the duke of Brabant died; and his widow, in order to recover her territory, was obliged to declare the duke of Burgundy licr heir should she die with- out issue, and to engage not to take a second husband unless with the duke'i consent. This termination of the affair prevented the immediate hostility upon the part of Burgundy, of which Bedford at first had been very justly apprehensive ; but all the circumstances of the quarrel were calcu- lated greatly to weaken the duke of Bur- gundy in his nttaehment to the English, iVom whom he could no longer expect, in tlip event of their complete success, to receive much better treatment than that which on the part of king Charles )iad aroused the duke to such fierce enmity; and ultimately this quarrel did alienate the duke from his unnatural and, on the whole, very impolitic alliance with the English. The duke of Brittany, whose alliance Bed- ford valued only second to that of Bur- gundy, WHS very elTeetually detached from the English side by the gift to his brother, the count of Richemont, of the olHec of constable of Franco, vacant by the death of Buchan ; ond this loss must have been the more mortifying to Bedford, because he could not be uiiiiwarc that it was mainly owing to the impolitic pertinacity with which he had refused to gratify the passion of the count of Richemont for military com- mand. But the loss, however caused or however much lamented, was wholly irre- trievable; for whatever there was of per- sonal and selfish in the duke's motive for changing his party, the chairzc was per- mnncnt, and he ever after remained faith- ful to king Charles. The cooled zeal of one ally and the total loss of another, and the favourable moral A. U. HSO.—TIIB BIBIIOF OF WINCUBSTEU RESIONa TIIK OHKAT SEAL. I ^ » ll A. D. 1428. — THE BARL UP BAIilSBVRY JOINS THR ARMT WITU BBINVORCBUENTS. ii ■ It 226 VL1)t treasury of l^lstory, $cc. cflTect which these thinKS and ci^ht months of comparative quiet hack produced upon the partizana of kin)r Charles, were suf- ficient to cause anxiety to the sa^acbus duke of licdt'ord when he returned to France. The French Knrrison of Montargis was besieged by the carl of Warwick and an army of three thousand men, and was so reduced as to be on the very point of sur- rendering, when the liastard of Orleans, afterwards so 'amous under his title of duke of Dunois, marched with only sixteen hun- dred men to Mon'argis, and compelled Warwick, in spite of Ms superior numbers, to raise the siege. The first aim of the duke of nedford was to bring back to his alliance the duke of Urittany. Scnail)le that that prinoc had chiefly been guided in his change of alli- ance by the count of Richemont, and would, therefore, most probably allow his own ob- vious interest to induce him to chauge sides once more, Bedford secretly concentrated several detachments of KnuHsh upon the frontiers of Brittany, and invaded that pro- vince BO suddenly, that the duke had no chance of resistance, but saw himself obli- ged to consent to give up the French alli- ance and adhere to the treaty of Troycs, to acknowledge the duke of Bedford as regent of France, and to pledge himself to do homage to the young king Henry for his duchy. Having thus freed himself from a danger- ous enemy in his rear, Bedford prepared for an enterprize, the success of which would pretty completely ensure the cniirc success of the English cause— the siege of the city of Orleans, which was so situated between the northern and southern provinces ns to open a way to the entrance of either by its possessor. As Bedford, having been so suc- cessful in expelling Charles from the nor- thern provinces, was about to attack him in the south, the possession of Orleans was evidently of the greatest importance to him. The conduct of the attack upon Orleans was entrusted to the earl of Salisbury, a distinguished soldier, who had just brought a reinforcement of six thousand men from England. The earl, quite rightly, no doubt, contined himself to the task of taking several places in the vicinity of Orleans, which, though thoy were but small, might prove of very serious incnnvenicnce to him when engaged in the contemplated siege. These preliminary measures of the earl, however conformable to the rules of war, and however indispensable under the par- ticular circumstHuccs, were at the least thus far unfortunate, that they at once dis- closed to king Charles the maiu design of the English, and gave him time and oppor- tunity to throw in such stores of provisions and reinforcements of men as might enable the garrison to make an effectual resist- ance. The lord of Gaucour, an officer of equal conduct, valour, and experience, was made governor, and many otiier veteran officers threw themselves into the place to aid him in its defence ; the troops they had to command were veterans in every sense of the word, and even the very citizens, instead of being likely to disturb their defenders by idle fears, were now so accustomed to war that they promised to be of very im- portant service. Having completed his preliminary ope- rations, the carl of Salisbury approached Orleans with an army of ten thousand men; and all Europe looked with anxiety for the result of a sie^e which was likely to be so completely decisive as to the future fate of France, and where, consequently, it behoved Charles to make his utmost and final effort. Having too small a force for the com- plete investment of a city which, apart from its great extent, had the advantage of a bridge over the Loire, the carl of Salis- bury proceeded to attack thesoulhern side, towards Sologne ; but as he was attacking the fortifications which defended the bridge, he was killed by a cannon shot while in the very not of reconnoitring the enemy. The comumnd of the English now fell upon the cnrl of Suffolk, and he, receiving at the same time a large reinforcement of both English and Burgundians, departed from Salisbury's plan of partial operations, led his main force across the river, and thus invested the city on the other side. The winter having now commenced, the severity of the weather rendered it im- practicable to throw up entrenchments com- pletely around; but by constructing re- doubts at convenient distances, Suffolk was at once able to lodge his soldiers safely, and to distress the enemy by preventing any supplies being conveyed to them ; leav- ing the task of connecting the redoubts by a series of trenches until the arrival of spring. It thus appears that Suffolk trusted rather to famine than to force ; to confining the enemy strictly within their walls, than to hazarding his cause by splendid storm- ing feats, whicB were certain to cost him many of his bravest men, and were not like- ly to be soon successful ; for though he had n train of artillery, the engineering art was as yet far too imperfect to allow of its ma- king any speedy impression upon so strong a fortress. The attempts of the friends of the besieged to throw in supplie.-, .".r.d of the English to prevent thcin, gave rise to manv splendid out partial engagements, in which both parties displayed great gal- lantry and enterprise. So enterprising, in- deed, were the French, that upon some occasions they succeeded in throwing in supplies, in defiance of all the vigilance and courage by which they were oppos- ed; but the convoys that were thus for- tunate could but in a very inconsider- able degree assist a garrison so numerous, and it was evident to all military observers tlfat Suffolk's cautious policy bade fair to be successful, and that, however slowly, the English were steadily and constantly ad- vancing nearer to the accomplishment of their important design. A.D. U29.— While Suffolk was thus ijn- A.n. 1428. — THB SIEGB OP ORLEANS COMMBNCKD OCTOOBR 12. BCBUHNTB. r UY MANY UISTOHIANS JOAN IS STYLRD AN INNKKKPKU'a DAU ■4 a I "■ w ■J> lEnglantJ.— l^ouge of 3Cancastcr.-l^ennj UlE. 227 gBKcd in starving tlie enemy within tlic walls, he was himself in no small danger of being placed in the same predicament. There were, it is true, neither entrench- ments nor redoubts behind him, but there were numerous and indefatigable parties of French ravagers, who completely denuded of provisions all the neighbouring districts from which he might otherwise have pro- cured supplies; and from his small force he could not, without great danger to his main design, detach any considerable number to keep the French ravagers in check. Just as Suffolk's men began to he seriously dis- tressed for provisions, a very great convoy of stores of every description arrived to their relief, under the command of Sir John Fas- to.rte, with an escort of two thousand Ave hundred men ; and ere it could reach Suf- folk's camp it was suddenly attacked by nearly double that number of French and Scotch, under the command of Dunois and the count of Clermont. Fastolft'e endea- voured to counterbalance his inferiority in men by drawing them up behind the wag- gons, but the enemy brought a small bat- tery of cannon to bear m»on him, which very ell'cctually dislodged and disordered the Knglish. The affair now seemed to be secure on the French side, as a steady per- severance but for a few minutes in their first proceeding would have made it. But the tierce and undisciplined impetuosity of a part of the Scotch troops caused them to break their line and rush in upon the En- glish ; a general action ensued, and ended in the retreat of the French, who lost live hundred in killed, besides a great number of wounded, and among the latter was Dunois himself. Tlie convoy that was thus saved to the Enj^lish was of immense im- portance, and owing to a part of it being herrings for the food of the soldiers during Lent, the affair commonly went by the name of the "batlle of the herrings." The relief tlius afforded to the English enabled them daily to press more closely upon the important city ; and Charles, now wholly despairing of rescuing it by force cf arms, caused the duke of Orleans, who was still a prisoner in England, to propose to Gloucester and the council, that ttiis city and all liis territory should be allowed to remain neutral during the whole remainder of the war, and, as the best security fcr neutrality, be placed in the keeping of the duke of Murgundy. That prince readily grasped at the proposal, and went to Paris to urge it upon the duke of Uedford, who, however, replied, that he had no notion of beating the bushes that others might svcure the game; and Hurgundy, deeply ofl'eiided botli at the refusal and the man- ner in which it was made, immediately de- parted and withdrew all those of his men who were concerned in the investment of Orleans. Foiled as well in negotiation as in arms, riiarles now wholly despaired of saving Orleans, when an incident occurred to save i(,and lo idvenew hopes to his cause, so marvellous, that it reads nmre like the invention of a vomanccr's fancy than the sober relation of the matter-of-fact histo- rian. Long as Orleans liad been invested, and intimately connected as its fate seemed with that of the whole nation, it is not to be wondered at that the seigc was talked of in all parts of France, and speculated upon even by minds usually but little cog- nizant of public affairs. Among the thou- sands whose minds wCre strongly agitated by the frequent and various news from Orleans was Joan d'Arc, the maid servan' of a country inn at Dumremi, near Vai^ couleurs. Though of the lowest order ot menial servants, this young woman, now twcnty-sQ^en years of age, was of blameless life and manners. Well formed and active, her simple living and her hard work pre- served her naturally healthy constitution ; and as she was accustomed to ride her master's horses to their watering place, and to do other work which in other households would fall to the share of men, she was un- usually hardv and of a somewhat masculine habit, though, as has been said, of perfectly blameless hfe and unmarked by any eccen- tricity of manner of conduct. This young woman paid so much atten- tion to what she heard respecting the siege of Orleans and the distress and peri, of her rightful sovcreii,.i, that by degrees she accustomed herself to make them the sole subjects of her thoughts ; and her sanguine and untutored mind at length became so much indamed by sympathy w ith the king, and by a passionate desir ' to aid him, that her reveries and aspirations seemed to as- sume the aspect of actual visions from above, and she imagined herself audibly called upon by some supernatural power to exert herself on her sovereign's behalf. This delusion became daily stronger, and at length, naturally courageous, and ren- dered still more so by her imagined visions, she overlooked all the vast dilhculties which m\ist have been evident to even her inex- perienced mind, and presented herself to liaudricourt, the governor of Vaucoulcurs, related to him all her fancied experiences, and besought him to listen to the voice of heaven and to aid her in' fulfilling its de- crees. After some hesitation, the governor, whether really believing all that Joan af- firmed of her visions, or only considering her a visionary of whose delusions a profit- able use miyht. be made by the king's friends, furnished her with some attendants and sent her to Chinon, where Charles and his scanty court then resided. Where so much is undeniably true in a tale of which so much must of necessity he false, it is no easy matter to separate the true from the wholly false or the greatly exaggerated. We, therefore, shall simply relate what passed and is said to have passed, contenting ourselves with this sin- gle caution to the reader— to conceive that, from very many motives, even the best men then living about the French king's court were liable to he seduced into credulity on the one hand and exaggeration on the other, and that, consequently, the wise M a u H 19 H f e K •lOAN 01' AllC WAS USUAMY STYLED " 1.A Pl/CKLLK," OR "TUB MAID." A. D. 1 li!).— UKKBK VI. CllOWNIiD AT WU.'TMIN STKn, MOV. C. ■) I 'ti. 228 ^i^c STreasuri) of Ijiatoru, ^c. plan in rcRding whut follows will be to re- ject altOKelher all that p.anuincs to be luira- culouB, and to credit only what, however extraordinary, is still perfectly natural, and csiiccially under the extraordinary statu of aniiirs at that time. When Joan was introduced to the kinff slic at once singled him out from among the courtiers by whom he was surrounded, although it was endeavoured to bnltic her on this point by the king's assumption of n plain dress, totally destitute of all marks or ornaments that could discover his rank to her. Repeating to him what she had al- ready told to Baudricourt, she assured him, in the name of heaven, that she would com- pel tlie English to raise the siege of Ur- Icaiia, and would safely conduct him to Rhcinis, that, like his ancestors, he might be crowned tliere. The king expressed some doubts as to the genuineness of her mission, and, very pertinently, demanded some unequivocal and convincing proof ol her supernal inspiration ; upon which, all the attendants save the king's contidential friends being withdrawn, she told him n secret which, from its very nature, he had every reason to believe that by natural means no one in the world could know ; and she, at the same time, described and demanded to be armed with a certain sword which was deposited in the church of St. Catharine of Fierbois, and of which, though it was certain that she never could have seen it, she described the various marks with great exactness. Though greatly staggered, the king was even yet unconvinced ; and a conclaveof doctors and theologians was assembled, to enquire into and report upon Joan's alleged mission. The report of these learned persons was decidedly in favour of the damsel's truth, and she ivas then closely interrogated by the parl'ament which was sitting at Poi- tiers, and here again it wos decided that her mission was genuine. If the king and his advisers first simu- lated doubt and scrupulosity, only to in- crease the effect upon the vulgar of their subsequent and seemingly reluctant relief, the device had all the success they could have desired. Ever prone to belief in the marvellous, the people who had lately been in the deepest despair now spoke in accents not merely of hope but of conviction, that Heaven had miraculously inspired a maiden champion, by whose instructions the king would be enabled to triumph over all his difticultics and to expel uU his enemies. But it was not merely as an adviser that Joan believed herself instructed to aid her king. In her former servile occupation she had learned to manage a horse with ease, and she was now mounted on a war-steed, armed cap & pie, and paraded before the ])eople. Her animated countenance, her youth, and, above nil, her graceful and fearless equita- tion, which seemed so marvellous and yet. might have been so ensily accounted for, confirmed all the favourable impressions which had been formed of her; and the multitude loudly averred that any enter- prize beaded by her must needs be success- ful. \Vith these fond prepossessions in her favour she set out for Blois to head the es- cort of a convoy about to be sent to the re- lief of Orleans. The escort in question consisted of an army of ten thousand men under the com- mand of St. Severe, who now had orders to consider himself second in command to Joan d'Arc ;— though probably with a se- cret reservation not to allow lier superna- tural fancies to militate against any of the precautions commanded by the laws of mortal warfare. Joan ordered every man in the army to confess himself before marching, and all women of bad life and character to be prohibited from following the army, which last order had at least the recommendation of removing a nuisance which sadly militated against good disci- pline. At the head of the troops, carrying in her right hand a consecrated banner, upon which was embroidered a representa- tion of the Supreme Being grasping the earth, Joan led the way to Orleans, and on appronching it she demanded that Orleans should be entered on the side of the Beausse; but Dunois, who well knew that the Eng- lish were strongest there, so far interfered with her prophetic power as to cause the other side of the river to be taken where the English were weaker. The garrison made a sally on the side of the Beausse, and the convoy was safely taken across the river in boats, and was accompanied by the Mfiid of Orleans, whose appearance, under such circumstances, arrayed in knightly gnrb and solemnly waving her consecrated banner, caused the soldiers and citizens to welcome her us being indeed an inspired and glorious prophetess, under whose or- ders they could not fail of success; and as another convoy shortly afterwards arrived, even Dunois was so far converted to the general belief, as to allow it, in obedience to Joan's orders, to anproauh it by the side of the Beausse. This convoy, too, entered safely, together with its escort, not even an attempt being made on the part of the be- siegers to cut it off. Yet a few days before Joan's first arrival at Orleans, when she had sent a letter to Bedford, threatening him with the Divine anger should he venture to resist the cause which she was scut to aid, the veteran duke treated the matter as the ravings of a maniac, or as a most shallow trick, the mere resorting to which was sufltcient to show the utter desperation to which Charles was driven. But the age was superstitious, and the natural success which had merely accompanied the pretensions of Joan was by the ignorant soldiers and by their (as to superstition) scarcely less ignorant officers, taken to have been caused by it, and to be, therefore, a sure proof of her supernatural mission and an infallible augury of its suc- cess. Gloom and terror were in the hearts and upon the countenances of the English soldiery, andSuffolk most unwisely allowed these feelings full leisure to exert them- selves by having his men unemployed in ' M TIIK KINS BSINO CROWNED, TUB FROTKCTORSUIF IS NOW ABOMSHED. fl JL.O. 1-129. — THK E.tOLIIH UAISR T«K BIKOK Of UUI.KA.tl, MAT IS. lEnglanti.— 1^ou»e of Hantaatcr— iDenrn UH. 229 any military attempt ; tlicir inactivity thus lerviiiK at uucc to increase tlieir despond- ency, while it increased the coulidcnce and exultation of the garrison. Whether merely ohcyinic the promptings of a naturally brave and active spirit, worked into a state of hi^h enthusiasm by the events in which she had taken so con- spicuous a part, or from the politic pronipt- in^s of Dunois and the other French com- manders, Joan now exclaimed that, the gar- rison ought no longer to be kept merely on the defensive; that the brave men who had so long been compuUorily idle and pent up within their beleagured walls should be led forth to attack the redoubts of the enemy, and that she was commissioned by Heaven to promise them certain success. An at- tnck was accordingly made upon a redoubt and was completely succeasful, the de- fenders being killed or taken prisoners to A man. This success gave new animation to the French, and the forts on the other side of the river were next attacked. On one occasion the French were repulsed, and Joan received an arrow in her neck ; but she led back the French to the charj^e, and they overcame the furt from which for a moment they had fled, and the heroine — for such she was, apart from her superna- tural pretensions — plucked the arrow from the wound with her own hands, and scarcely staid to havo the wound dressed ere she re- turned to the self-imposed duty into which sho so zealously entered. Such was the effect of Joan's deeds and pretensions, that the English lost redoubt after redoubt, besides having upwards of six thousand men either killed or wounded in these most desperate though only par- tial contests. It was in vain that the Eng- lish commanders, finding it utterly useless to endeavour to convince their men that Joan's deeds were natural, laboured to per- suade them that she was aided nut by Heaven, but by the powers of darkness; fur it was impossible to persuade the men that those powers were not, for the time at least, too strong to be combntted with any possibility of success. Fearing, therefore, that the most extensive disaster, even a total destruction of his army, miglit result from his keeping men so thoroughly and incurably disheartened, before a place de- fended by men whose natural courn;i;c was indescribably heightened by their belief that they were supernuturally assisted, the earl of SuTolk prudently, but most reluc- tantly, resolved to raise tlie siege, and he commenced his retreat from before Orleans with all the deliberate calmness which the deep-seated terror of his men would allow him to exhibit. He himself with a prin- cipal part of his army retired to Jergcnu, whither Joan followed him at the head of an army six thousand strong. For ten days the place was gallantly attacked and as gallantly defended. At the end of that time orders for the assault were given, and Joan herself dascended into the fossd and led the attack. Here she was struck to the ground by a stone, but almost immedi- ately recovered herself, and fought with her accustomed courage until the assault was conpletcly successful. Sufrr)lk was himsc'i taken prisoner by a French ullicer named Itenaud, and on this occasion a nin- gulur specimen was given of (he nice punc- tilios of chivalry. When S.ifl'olk, com- iiletely overpowered, was about to give up lis sword, lie demunded wht-thcr his suc- cessful opponent were a knight. Uenaud was obliged to confess that he had not yet attained to that distinction, though he could boast of being a gentleman. Then I kniyht you, suid Suffolk, and he bestowed upon Renaud the knightly accolade with the very sword which an instant afterwards was de- livered to him as the captor of the man to whom he owed his knighthood I While these things were passing at Jcr- geau, the remainder of the English army under Fastolffc, Talbot, and Scaler, was making a somewhat disorderly retreat be- fore a strong body of French ; and the van- guard of the latter overtook tlie rear of the former near the village of I'ntay. So ut- terly dismayed were the Englisli, ond so conlident the French, that tlie battle had no sooner commenced than it became con- verted into a mere rout, in which upwards of two thousand of the English were killed, and a vast number, including botli Scales and Talbot, taken prisoners. So great and so universal was the panic of the Kiiglish at this period, that Fastolffe, who had often been present in the most disastrous scenes of war, actually set the example of tlight to his astounded 'roops, andwas subsequently punished for it ly being degraded from the order of the garter, which had been be- stowed upon him as the appropriate reward of a long life and gallant conduct. So blight- ing a power has superstition even upon minds accustomed to treat mortal and tan- gible dangers with even an excessive indif- ference I During this period king Charles liad kept remote from the actual theatre of war, though he had actively and efficiently busied himself in furnishing supplies and sending directions to the actual commanders of his troops in the field. But now that Joan had so eorapletely redeemed her pledge as to the raising of the siege of Orleans, and now that the prestige of her supernatural mis- sion had so completely gained the ascen- dancy over the minds ot all conditions of men, he felt neither surprise nor reluctance when she urgently solicited him to set out for lUieims, and confidently repeated lier assurances that he should without delnv be crowned in that city. True it was that Kheims could only be reached by a very long march through a country in which the enemy was in great force, and in which, of course, every advantageous position was carefully occupied by theni. But the army was confident of success so loiiij as Joan marched at its bend ; and Charles could not refuse to accompany the heroine, without tacitly confessing that he hud less faith in her mission, or was himself possessed of less personal courage, than the lowest pike- K I ° I -I o » I VASTOI^^PB ABOVE-NAMnn IS THE " FAISTAPP " OP SU.V KSl-KARK. [V 1 i A.D. 1429.— CORONATION OF CUAItMll AT BIIRIM8, JUlt C. 230 tirijc treasury of l^istoio, ecc. man in his array. Either of these supposi- tions would neccsHarily be fatiil to his cause; and he accordingly i**! out for Rhciius, accompanied b - Joau and an nrmy of twelve thousand men. Instead of meeting with the opposition he had anticipated, Charles marched as peacefully along as though no eneuiy had been in the neighbourhood. Troyes and Chalons successively opened their gates to him; and bcfui'c he reached Rheims, where he might reasoimbly have expected that the English would muster their utmost force to prevent a coronation, of which they could not but judge the probable influence on the minds of the French, he was met by a peaceable and humble deputation which presented him with the keys. And in Rheims, in thec8pocinlandaiiti(|UC coronation place of his fathers, Cliarlcs was crowned, as the maid of Orleans had prophesied that he would be ; and he wos anomted with the holy oil which was said to have been brought from Heaven by a Kigeon at the coronation of Clovis; and the itcly obscure oud menial of the village inn waved over his head the consecrated banner before which his foes had so often fled ; and while the glad multitude shouted in tri- umphant joy, she to whom so much of this triumph was owing fell at his feet and bathed th(im with tears of joy. CHAPTER XXXI. The Reign o/Hknry VI. (continued). Thb coronation of Charles in tlie city of Rheims was doubly cnlciilnted to raise the spirits and to quicken the loyal attachment of I'.is subjects. For while, as the esta- blished coronation place of the kings of France, Rheims alone seemed to them to be capable of giving full sanctity and ctFcct to the solemnity, the truly surprising difficul- ties that had been surmounted by him in obtaining possession of that city, under the auspices of the Maid of Orleans, seemed to all ranks of men, in that superstitious nge, to be so many clear and undeniable evi- dences that the cause of Charles was in- deed miraculously espoused by Heaven. On turning his attention to obtaining posses- sion of the neighbouring garrisons, Charles reaped the full benefit of tlys popular judg- ment ; Laon, Soissons, Chateau-Thiery, I'rovins, and numerous other towns opening tlicir gates to him it the first summons. This feeling spread fur nnd wide ; and Charles, who so lately saw himself upon the very point of being wholly expelled from his country, had now the satisfaction of seeing the favour of the whole nation ra- pidly and warmly inclining to his cause. Bedford in this diflicult crisis showed himself calm, provident, and resolute as ever he had been during the greatest pros- perity or the English arms. I'erceiving that the French, and especially the fickle nnd turbulent population of Paris, were wavering, he judiciously mixed curbing and indulgence, at once impressing them with ft painful sense of the danger of insur- rection, and diminishing, as far as kindness could diminish, their evidently strong de- sire for one. Conscious, too, that Itur- gundy was deeply offended, and that his open enmity would just at this juncture be absolutely fatal to the English cause, Bed- ford skilfully laid himself out to win him back to good humour and to confirm him in his alliance. But there was in Bedford's situation an- other element of diftlculty, against which he found it still more difficult to contend. The conquest of France Itad lost much of its popularity in the judgment of the English. As regarded the mere multitude, this pro- bably arose simply from its having lost its novelty ; but thinking men both in and out of parliament had begun to count the cost against the profit; and not a few of them had even begun to anticipate not profit but actual injury to England from the conquest of Fronce. These feelings were so (general and so strong, that while the parliament steadily refused supplies of money to Bed- ford, a corresponding disinclination was shown by men to enlist in the reinforce- ments which he so much needed. Brave as they were, the English soldiers of that day desn-ed gold as well as glory ; and they got a notion that neither the one nor the other was to be obtained by warring against the king of France, who, even by the state- ments of the English commanders them- selves, owed far more of his recent and marvellous successes to the hellish arts of the IMaid of Orleans than to mortal skill and prowess. Just as the duke of Bedford was in the utmost want of reinforcements, it most op- portunely chanced that the bishop (now cardinal) of Winchester landed at Calais on his way to Bohemia, whither he was lead- ing an army of five thousand men to com- bat against the Hussites. This force the cardinal was induced to yield to the more pressing need of Bedford, who was thus en- abled to follow the footsteps and thwart the designs of Charles, though not to ha- zard a general action. But in spite of this aid to Bedford, and in spite of all the skill and firmness of that general, Charles made himself master of Corapeigne, Beauvais, Senlis, Sens, Laval, St. Denis, and nume- rous places in the neighbourhood of Paris. To this amount of success, however, the Fabian policy of Bedford confined the king of France, whose forces being chiefly vo- lunteers, fighting at their own expense, were now obliged to be disbandea, and Charles himself retired to Bourges. A.n. 143U. — Attributing the odvantage which Charles had evidently derived from his coronation rather to the splendour of the ceremony than to the real cause of its locality, Bedford now determined that his own young prince should be crowned king of France ; and be was accordingly brought to Paris, and crowned and anointed there with all the pomp and splendour that could be commanded. The splendid ceremony was much admired by the Parisian popu- lace, and all the crown vassals who lived A.D. 1430. — UGNUY's CHOWN and JEWELS FAWNED TO BAI8E SUPPLIES. A.D. 1430.— TUK DUKK OF TOBK AFrOIMTID BKOKNT 1» B^tOLANn. lEnglantl l^ouae of Tantnater. -l:)eniu UlE. 231 in tho tcrritury tliat was actually in the hands of the English duly appeared nnd did homage to the young king j but to an uliscrTant eye it was Tcry evident that this ceremony created none of the passionate cntliuiiasm which had marked that of Charles nt Rhcims. Hitherto we have seen the maid of Or- leans only in one long brilliant and un- broken career of ijrosperity ; but the time now approached for that sad and total re- verse which must, from the very Hrst, have been anticipnti'd by all men who had Kense enough to discredit alike the representa- tion of her miraculous support that was given by her friends, and of her diabolical cnnimercc that was given by her enemies. It would seem that she herself bc^an to have misgivings as to the nature of her inspiration; as it was quite natural that she should have as the novelties of military splendour grew stale to her eye, ami her judgment became more and more alive to the real difficulties of the military achieve- ments whieh must bo performed by her royal master, before he could become king of Trance in deed as well as by right. From such luisgivings it probably arose that, having now performed her two great nnd at first discredited promises, of raising the siege of Orleans and of causing Charles to he crowned at Rheims, she now urgently desired to be allowed to return to her ori- ginal obscurity, and to the occupations and apparel of her sex. But Duiu)is was too well aware of the influence of her supposed sanctity, upon the soldiers, not to be very anxious to keep her among them ; and he 80 strongly urged her to remain, and aid in the crowning of her jiri-phctic and great career by the total expulsion of the ene- mies of her sovereign, that she, in a most evil hour for herself, was worked upon to consent. As the best service that it was at the instant in her power to do, she threw herself into Comneignc, which the duke of Burgundy and the earls of Arundel and Suffolk were at that time hotly besieging. Ilcr appearance was hailed by the besieged with a perfect rapture of joy ; she had proved her miraculous power by such splendid and unbroken success, that every man among them now believed himself in- vincible and the victory secure ; and the news of her arrival undoubtedly imbued with very opposite feelings not a few of the brave hearts in the English camp. But the joy of the one party and the gloom of the other were ahke short-lived and unfounded. On the very day after that on which she arrived in the garrison she led forth a sally, and twice drove the Burgundians, under John of Luxembourg, from their intrench- ments. But the Burgundians were so quickly and so numerously reinforced, that Joan reluctantly ordered a retreat, and in the disorder she was separated from her party and taken prisoner, after having de- fended herself with a valour and address which would have done no discredit to the bravest knight among her Burgundian captors. This event was so unexpected, that the popular humour of the times attributed it to the treachery of the French otHcers, who, said the rumour, were so weary of hearing themselves depreciated by the nttributin|{ of every success to Joan, that they piir i EoBcly abandoned her to the enemy. Hut 1 esides that there is not a shadow of proof of this charge of treachery, which several historians have somewhat too hastily adopt- ed, the fair presumption in entirely ai^uinst it. On the one haiul, we cannot imagine that the private envy of tlie Fretich otlieers would thus outweigh alike their ardour for the cause in which tliey fought and tn ir sense of their own safety, wliich depended so mainly upon that triunipli whieh tlie in- spiring elleet of Joan's presence! among their men was more than anything else likely to ensure. On the other hand, what more likely than that a woman, in spile of the best ellbrts of her friends, should be taken prisoner in such a scene of c(nifu- sion? How many thousands of men had been, in that very war, taken prisoners in similar scenes, without any surmise of treachery ? A.D. 11,'tl. — It is always painful to have to sjieak of some one enormous and indeli- ble stain upon a eliaracter otherwise fair nnd adminiole. The historian irrc^sistibly and almost unconsciously finds his sympa- thies awakened on belialf of the great cha- racters whose deeds he describes. It is impossible to write about the wise and valorous course of the great duke of Bed- ford without a feeling of intense admira- tion ; proportionnlly painful it needs must be to have to describe him as being guilty of most sottish and brutal cruelty. Aware how much the success of Joan had tended to throw disaster nnd discredit upon his arms, Bedford imagined that to have her in his power was to secure his future suc- cess, and he paid a considerable sum- for her to John of Luxembourg. It is dilHcult in our age, when super- stition is so completely deprived of its de- lusive but terrible power, to imagine that such a man as Bedford could seriously and in good faith give any credit to the absurd stories that were related of the demoniac nature of Joan's powers. But it would be rash to deny the possibility of that belief, however absurd ; ftr few indeed were the men who in that age were free from the stupefying und degrading intiucnce of su- perstition. Apart from her alleged deal- ings with the prince of the powers of dark- ness, there was nothing in the career ol Joan which should have excluded her from the privileges of an honourable prisoner. In her interference in the deadly Dusineas of war she, it is true, departed from the or- dinary usages of her sex; but, except in wearing armour and in daring the actual dangers of the fight, she even in this re- spect only followed the example left to her by the countess of Mountfort and by Phi- linpa, queen of king ICdward of FZngland. The gallant and tender feeling towards the sex, which chivalry made so much boast of A.D. 1430.— IIEMRY CnOWNED KING OP FRANCE AT PAKIS, UEC. 17. 8UFFLIEB. II ; i r= A.I). Mill. — THB KNULI8II L'AIISK IN VllA^CK NUW lUSTKHS TO A CltlUB. 232 ^Ije ^Htcnauii) oC Ijlatoru, Set. ought to hnvo Icil Hcdford on this account toliAvo trcuteil licr with even more indul- gence than h(! nouhl have ihown to an equally cclfbrutud prisoner of tlio other icx ; and the more attvntiveljr we notice nil the rust of Ucdford'a nondurt, the more ditnciilt (hnll we tind it to believe thnt he could huvc been guilty of the bnitpness and cruelly of which we have to upcak, unless under the indueiiru of a degrading and most powerful impreHsion of supcrstitiim. It it, we repeat, very diSlcult for ui, living in an age not only free from Ruperitition but tending very Btrougly and very perilously lownr<4 him the firat riait. Philip declined doing ■o; and upon thin idle piece of mere cere- mony they both, without a iiingle interview, left a town to which they both profeiied to hHvc gone with the sole intent of meeting and becoming reconciled. 80 great is the effect of idle custom upon even the wise and the powerful I This new cause of discontent to the duke of Burgundy happened the more untoward- ly, because it greatly tended to confirm him in his inclination to a reconciliation with king Charles. That prince and his friends had made all possible apology to the duke on account of the murder ot the late duke his father ; and as a desire for the revenge of that murder had been Philip's chief k'?a- son for allying himself with England, the more that reason became diminished, the more Durgundy inclined to reflect upon the impolicy of his aiding to place foes and fo- reigners upon the throne which, failing in the elder French branches, might descend to his own posterity, A. D. 1435. — These reflections, and the constant urg|ing of the most eminent men in Europe, including his brothers-in-law, the duke of Bourbon and the count de llichemont, so far prevailed with Burgundy, that he consented to attend a congress ap- pointed to meet at Arrns, at which it was proposed that deputies from the pope and the council of Basle should mediate between king Charles and the English. The duke of Burgundy, the duke of Bourbon, the count of Richemont, the cardinal of Win- chester, the bishop!) of Norwich and St. David's, and the carls of Suffolk and Hun- tingdon, with several other eminent per- sons, met accordingly at Arras and nad conferences in the abbey of St. Vaast. On the part of France the ambas^iadors offered the cession of Guienne and Normandy, not in free sovereignty, but only as feudal flefa ; on the part of England, whose prior claim was upon the whole of France as rightful possession and free sovereignty, this offer seemed so small as to be utterly unworthy of any detailed counter offer ; and though the mediators declared the original claim of England preposterously unjust, the car- dinal of Winchester and the other English authorities departed without any detailed explanation ot their wishes, but obviously diHsatisfled and inclined tu persevere in their original design. The negotiation as between France and England being thus abruptly brought to an end, the reconcilia- tion of Charles and the duke of Burgundy alone remained to be attempted by the me- diators. As the provocation originally given to Burgundy was very great, and as the present importance of his friendship to Charles was confessedly of vast imp> tance, so were his demands numerous and weighty. Besides several other considerable territo- ries, Charles ceded all the towns of Picardy situated between the Low Countries and the Somme; all of which, as well as the proper dominions of the duke, were to be held by him during his life, without his ei- ther doing homage or swearing fealty to Charles, who, in pledge of his sincerity in the making of this treaty, solemnly released his subjects from all allegiance to him should he ever violate it. Willing to break with England with all due regard to the externals of civility, the duke of Burgundy sent a herald to England to notify and apologize for this treaty, which was directly opposed to that of Troyes, of which he had so long been the zealous and powerful defender. His mes- senger was very coldly Untuned to by the English council, aii^ pointedly insulted by having lodgings assigned to him in tlie house of a mean tradesman. The populace, too, were encouraged to insult the subjects of Philip who chanced to be visiting or resi- dent in London ; and, villi the usual brutal willingness of the mo'.' to sho'v their hatred of foreigners, they rn some cases carried their violence to the 1 ;iteiit of ^nurder. This conduct was a> impolitic as it was disgraceful, for it not only shr opened I'tii- lip's new zeal for France, but also furbish- ea him with that plea w' ich he nee'' d,not only for the world iiut also for h>d own conscience, for his sudden and complete abandonment of his alliance with the Eng- lish. Almost at the same time that Eng- land was deprived of the powerful support of Burgundy, she experienced ^■<,. n iier very heavy losses, the duke of Bei! u'a •:'.ing of disease a few days after he h id tid "gs of the treaty of Arras, and the ea I cf Arun- del dying of wounds received in a battle where he, with three thousand men, was utterly defeated by Xuintroilles at the head of only six hundred. A.i>. 143G. — As in private so in public af- fairs, mtslbrtuncs ever come in shoals. Just as England required the most Hotivc and disinterested exertions on the pai . bf those to whom Bedford's death had left the di- rection of affairs, the dissensions which had long existed between the cardinal of Winchester and the duke of Gloucester grew so violent, that in their personal quar- rels the foreign interests of the king and kingdom seemed to be for the time, at least, entirely lost sight of. A regent of France was appointed, indeed, as successor to Bedford, in 'n ;cr8ou of the duke of York, son of th :, ".I of Cambridge who was executed cur;v' in the preceding reign ; but owing to the dissensions above-men- tioned, his commission was left unsealed for seven months after his appointment, and the E-'glish in France were, of course, during > htit long and critical period virtu- al'y 'jlt without a governor. The conse- quence, as might have been anticipated, was, that when he at length was enabled to firoceed to his post, Paris was lost ; the in- labitants, who had all along, even by Bed- ford, been only with difUculty prevented from rising in favour of Charles, having seized this favourable opportunity to do so; and lord Willoughby, with fifteen hundred men, after a brave attempt flrst to preserve the city and then to maintain themselves in the Bastille, was at length reduced to such distress, that he was glad to capitulate A. D. 1436, — JOHN DUKB OF BBDFOBD DIBS, AND IS BUBIED AT HOUBN. [X3 F A. II. MHH-t).— fAMLNK AND r RHTILKNCK IIAUK IN KNOI.ANt) AND rilANCK. 234 €F;c CTicajsuru of Ifiiatory. $fc. oil prnniiiiiiiiii tu wididrinv liia troops into Noriiiiniily. Iti-Hotvt'il Dint hill rnniily to KiikIikuI iiliould not loiiK l)(> willioiil. oiitwiirii do- iiioiiNtritliniiH, tli(< (liiko of lUirKundy rnm'A nil iiiiiiiciiso but li('trron«"m'ouH and ill-din- ripliiicd iiriiiy in tlir l petty enterprises of surpriRinK eonvoyg and taking nnd re-lnkin« towns. Itut th«U};'h (lieHe enterprises hnil none of the hrilliaiiey of more regular and sustniii- ed war, they were to the utmost dcfjree niisehievous to both the eontendin;^ parties and the unfurtuiiale iiihnliitaiits. More lilood was shed in tliexe nameless nnd inihs eisive reiioonlres than would have sntlieed lor a Cressy or .m A.u:iueourt ; and the eoii- liiuial presi'uee of luimeroiis ami ruthless siiiiilers reiiileri'd the husliaudnmn lioth un- alile aud unuilliii;.!; to sow for tliat harvest whieh it was so improhalile that hg would ever he perniitted (o i'i"ap. To Kiieh a war- fare liotli the eonlendinn parlies at leii)i;tli showed themselves willinjf to put an end, and ft treaty was eommeuecd fur that pur- piise. Trance, as hcfow, olVi'red to ecile Nurmandy, (iuieniie, and Calais to l''m;land as feudal iicfs; Ku^laud.onthe other hanil, demanded the cession of all the provinces which had once been annexed to Kiiftland, ineludiiiic the linal eessioii of Calais, with- out any feudal burthen or observnnees wli!\lo . The treaty was eonsei|uently broke. 1 IV, and the war was still carried on in the same petty but destructive manner; thouu;h a truce was made as between Eng- land and the duke of Uuri^undy. l'"or a long time after tlie buttle of Ap;in. court, Kii|;land had possessed a great ad- vantage in all alVaira with France, from the captivity of the royal princes, live in num- ber, who were made prisoners at that bat- tle. Death had now very materially dimi- nished this advantage; only the duke of Orleans surviving out of the whole live. Thii prince now olVcred the large ransom of tifty-four thonsnud nobles, and his pro- posal — like all public iiuestioiis at this pe- riod — was made matter of factious dispute between the partiznns of the cardinal of Winchester nnd those of the duke of Olou- cester. The In'ter urged the rejection of the proposal of Orleans, on the ground that the iHlc king had uii hi» death-bed advised Ihntnoonuof the French princes Klunild on niiv ncconiit he released, until his soil should hi! of age to govern lliu kingdom in his own person. The eardinni, on the other hand, ex|)ntiiited on the largeness of the olfered ransom, nnd drew the attention ot the council to the reinnrkHble and nnipiei- tiomihle fact, that the sum ottered wns, in truth, very nearly eipial to two-thirds of nil the extraordinary siip))lies which the pnr- linmciit had granted for the public service during the current seven yenrs. To tliis solid argument of peuninry nintter-of-fnct he added the iilausible argument of specu- lation, that tlie liberation of Orleans, far from being advnntajteoua to tho French cause, would be of direct nnd signal injury to it, by giving to the French ninlconteiils, whom Charles nireiidy hnd much diltleulty in keeping down, nn nmbilions and prumi- iient as well as capable lender. The arguments of the cnrdinol certainly seem to deserve more weight than the wishes of n deceased king, who, however politic, could when giving his ndvico have (ornied no notion of the nunicruus changes of circumstanecs which had since taken iilace, nnd which, most probahlv, would have caused him very cunsidornbly to mo- dify his opinion. It wns, however, less to the superiority of his advice than to his superiority of inlluence, that Iho cardinal gained his point, and that the duke of Or- leans was released after n captivity of live- nnd'twenty years, the duke of llurgundy generously assisting him in the payment of his very heavy ransom. A. n. Mil. — However nequirod, the inllu- ence of the cardinal was nmpiestionably well nnd wisely exerted in the nfl'air above de- scribed; and he now, though with less per- fect success, exerted it to a still more impor- tant end. lie hnd long encouraged every at- tempt at peace-making between France and Kngland, nnd he now urged upon the coun- cil the utter impossibility of a complete con- (|Ucst of F'rancc, and the great dillieulty of even nmintaining the existing Knglisli power there while Normandy was in disor- der, the French king daily gaining some ad- vantage, and theUnglisli parliament Boincii- rably reluctant th iiioRt o( ClinrW.n'n turiiit( princenxcn for a suitnhic (|uci'n for him. To all the usual dinieulties of Biieh cases a serious one was added l)y the extremely nii.inle, weak, and passive nature of Henry. Without talent and without enernv, it was clear to every one that this prince would reiu;n well or ill, exactly as he tell undfr the inllnence of a princess of Kood or had disjiositiou. Kasify attached, he was as easily governed through his attachments; and each faction was conse- quently possessed with the douhle anxiety of nniiryini; him well, ns to itHcIf in the first place and as to tin; nation in the next. The first princess proposed was a dau);hter of the count dc ArniHttnac ; hut as kIic was proposed hy the diiko of (Jlou- ci'stiT, the predominant faction of the car- diiiiil at once rejected her, and proposed Mari^iirct of Anjoii, daughter of KeKuier, the tituliu' l;iiiK of Sicily, Naples, and Jeru- salem, whose real worldly possessions, how- ever, were in exactly inverse ratio to his tnn;;nilici:nt and Hounding titles. Mariirtret of Anjou, notwithstanding her poverty, had personal finalities, indepen- dent of mere beauty, though she excelled cvi^n in that, which made her indeed a pro- mising' (piecn for a prince who, like the weak ami almost childish Henry, required ntit a hiirthen hut a support in the person of his wife. She had great and, for that ai?e, very highly cultivated talents, and her couriip;e", RnK'acity, and love of enterprise were such as are seldom found in their highest perfection even in the other sex. Her own high qualities and the strong ad- vocacy of the cardinal caused Margaret to be selected, in spite of all opposition on the part of the duke of (iloucester; and SulTolk was entrusted with the important business ot negotiating the niarriage. In this im- portant lu'gdii ition Suffolk proved that his parly had hy no means overrated either his tact or his zeal. Notwithstanding the high nersonal qualities of Margaret, it could not lie concealed that she was the daughter of a' house far too poor to offer any dowry to such a monarch as the king of England; and yet Bull'olk, desirous to prepossess the future queen to the utmost in favour of himself mid his party, overlooking alto- gether the poverty froiii which the princess was to he raised hy her marriage, consented to the insertion of n secret article in the treaty, hy which the province of Maine was ceded to her uncle, Charles of Aitjou, prime minister and favourite of the king of France, who had previously made Charles the grant of that province — only the grant was conditional upon the wresting of the province from the Engliih who ut present possessed it. Had any member of the Oloucestcr fac- tion been guilty of this impudently politic and dexterous sncritice of his country's in- terest, he would undoubtedly have been im- peached and ruined for his pains ; but it is most probable that Suffolk had in secret the concurrence of the cardinal, for the treaty wan received in England and ratified ns though it had secured some vast terri- torial advantage; and Suffolk was not only created Hrst a mari|uis and then a duke, but also honoured with the formal thanks of parliament for the ability he had displayed. An the cardinal and his party had calcu- lated, Margaret nn soon an nne came to England fell into close and cordial connec- tion with them, and gave so much increase and solid nupport to the already overgrown, though hitherto well exerted, authority of AVim-liester himself, that he now deemed it safe to attempt what he had long de- sired, the utter ruin of the duke of (iloucester. A. II. 1117. — The malignity with which the cardinal's party haled the duke of Gloucester abundantly shows itself in the treatment which, to wound him in his ten- dercst affections, they had already bestowed upon his duchess. She was accused of the impossible, but at that time universally credited, crime of witchcraft, and of hav- iiiir, in conjunction with sir Iloger ISoling- broke and Margery Jordan, incited a tigiire of tlie king before a slow tire, with magical incantations intended to cause his natural body to consume away simultaneously with bis wnxcn eftl?ry. Upon this prcpusteroun charge the duchess and her alleged confe- derates were found guilty ; and she was condemned publicly to do penance, her less illustrious fellow-sufferers being executed. The duke of (Iloucester, though noted for his hasty temper and somewhat mis- proud sentiments, was yet very popnlor on account of his candour and general huma- nity; and this shameful treatment of his duchess, though committed upon what we may term the popular charge of witchcraft, wnn very ill taken by ..\c people, who plainly -avowed their sympathy with the sufferer and their iudiguation against her persecutors. The popular feeling for once was well founded an well as humane; but as the car- dinal's party feared that the sympathy that was ex'iircssed might soon shape itself into deeds, it was now resolved to put the un- fortunate duke beyond the power of doing or causing iiiisehicf. A purlininent was accordingly summoned to meet; and, lest the popularity of the duke in liondon should cause any obstruction to the fell de- signs of his enemies, the place of meeting was St. Edmund's llury. The duke arrived there without any suspicion of the mis- chief that was in store for him, and wan H H H *> H b o M ■ I 1 '111 A. n. 1-147— TUH CAUBINAI, OF WINCIIBBTEII, OI.Ol'CKSTKn's OPPONBJIT, l)IK8. A.S. 1448. — THK CAFE UB VEUO ISLANDS VISCOVKREI). 236 Stije treasury of l^istorp, $cc. immediately accused before the parliament of high trcBBon. Upon this charge he was committed to prison, and shortly after- wards was found there dead in his bed. It is true that his body was publicly exposed, and that no marks of violence could be de- tected ; but the same thing had occurred in the cases of Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, Richard the Second, and Edward the Second, yet does any reader of sane mind doubt that they were mur- dered ? Or can any such reader doubt that tliis unfortunate prince was mur- dered, too, his enemies fearing that liis public execution, though the servility of the parliament would have surely sanc- tioned it, might be dangerous to their own interests? The death of the duke did not prevent certain of his suite, who were ac- cused of being accomplices of his alleged treasons, from being tried, condemned, and partially executed. We say partially exe- cuted, oecause these unhappy men, who were ordered to be hanged and quartered, were actually hanged, preparatory to the more brutal part of the sentence being exe- cuted ; but just as they were cut down and the executioners preparing to perform their more revolting task, orders arrived for that part of the sentence to be remitted, and surgical means to be taken for the resusci- tation of the victims. Aud this was actually done. The unhappy prince who thus fell a vic- tim to the raging ambition of the cardinal's party was a scholar and a man of intellect, far superior to the riulc age in wiiicli he lived. Sir Thomas More gives a striking though whimsical instance of his aeutc- ness of judgment. The duke while riding out one day chanced upon a crowd wliicli had gathered round an impostor, who al- leged that he, having been blind from his birth, had just then obtained his sight by touching the tlien famous shrine of St. Alban's. The duke, whose learning en- abled him to see through and to despise the monkish impostures which found such ready acceptance with the multitude, hiuh as well us low, condescended to ask this vagrant several questions, and, by way of testing his story, desired him to name tlie colours of the cloaks of the bystanders. Not perceiving the ti'np that was laid for him, the fellow answered with all the glib accuracy of a r1 'liicr commending his wares, when the d' -e replied, " You are a very knave, man, hiid 5 on been born bli 1, though a miracle had given you siglil, ,{. could not thus early have taught you accu- rately to distinguisi, lietwccn colours," and, riding away, he gave orders that the fla- grant impostor should be set in the nearest stocks as an example. It was generally considered tliat the queen, whose nuisculiiie ufiturc had already given her great weight in the dominant party, had at leai'l tacitly consented to tl\e murderof the unfortunate Gloucester. This probable supposition had caused her consi- derable unpopularity, and a eircunistaiiee now occured by which the ill upiniuu of the people was much aggravated. It would seem that that article of Margaret's marriage settlement which ceded Maine to her uncle was kept secret during the life of the duke of Gloucester, to whose opposition to the cardinal's party it would of necessity have given additional weight. But the court of France now became so urgent for its im- mediate performance, that king Henry was induced by Margaret and the ministers to dispatch an autograph order to the governor of Mans, the capital of that province, to give up that place to Charles of Anjou. 'I'hc governor, sir Francis Surienne, strongly interested in keeping his post, and probably forming a shrewd judgment of the manner in which the king had been induced to make such an order, flatly refused to obey it, and a French army was forthwith led to the siege of the place by the celebrated Dunois. Even then Surienne ventured to hold out, but being wholly left without suc- cour from Normandy, where th« duke of Somerset had forces, he was at length obliged to capitulate, and to give up not only Mans but the whole provmce, which thus ingloriously was transferred from Eng- land to Charles of Anjou. A. D. 1448.— The ill effects of the dis- graceful secret article did not stop here. Surienne, on being suffered to depart from Mans, had two thousand Ave hundred men with him, whom he led into Normandy, na- turally expecting to be attached to the force of the duke of Somerset. But the duke, straitened in means, and therefore unwilling to have so large an addition to the multitude that already depended upon him, and being, besides, of the cardiniil's faction, and therefore angry at the disobe- dience of Surienne to the orders of the kiug, would not receive him. Thus sud- denly and entirely thrown on his ov\n re- sources, Surienne, acting on the luaxims common to the soldiery of his time, re- solved to make war upon his own account ; and as either the king of England or the king of France would be too potent and dangerous a foe, he resolved to attack the duke of Brittany. He accordingly marched his daring and destitute band into that country, ravaged it in every direction, pos- sessed himself of the town of Fougeros, and repaired, for his defence, the dilapida- ted fortresses of Poutorsonand St. Jacques de Bcavron. The duke of Brittany natu- rally appealed for redress to his liege lord, the king of France ; and Charles, glad of an opportunity to fasten a plausible quarrel upon England, paid no attention to Somer- set's disavowal alike of connection with the adventurer Sourienne and controul over his actions, but demanded compensation for the duke of Brittany, and put the grunt- ing of that compensation wholly out of the question by tixiiig it at the preposterously liiige anmunt of one million six himdrcd erowns. A.n. 1449. — Payment of this sum was, in truth, the very last thing that Charles would have desired. He liad most ably employed himself during the truce for a rc- THB DI;KB op YOKK nKOINS TO ASSBUT IIIS TITLE TO TUB CBOWN. A. U. 144'!. -fK INCOUB TAX ON UOTU CLEBOY AND LAITT. lEnglau^.— l^ouae of ICantaster.— I^cnro VIS.. 237 It would et's marriage to licr uncle of the duke lition to the 3cc8sity have the court of t for its im- ; Henry was ministers to the governor province, to IS of Anjou. me, strongly ind probably the manner induced to used to obey :hwith led to e celebrated ventured to without sue- th« duke of iS at length ^ive up not rmce, which ed from Bug- of the dig- it Stop here, depart from lundred men irmandy, na- clied to the !t. ]tut the id therefore addition to icudvd upon e cardiniil's the disohe- dcrs of the Thus Hud- lis own re- thc luaxims time, re- n account ; land or the potent and attack the ly marched into tliat ection, pos- Fongcros, ic (lilapida- St. Jacques tany uatu- licge lord, «lud of an ble quarrel to Somer- ction with ntroulovcr npensalion t the grant- out of the )08terou8ly hundred urn was, in It Charles most ably 3e for a rc- N It O m a s o H H M H « H U a o bi a H M B A H g o tr, M a M Pi o "a ncwal of war at its expiration, or sooner, should fortune favour him with an advan- tageous opening. While he had been thus employed, England had been daily grow ing weaker; faction dividing the court and go- vernment, and {poverty and suffering ren- derini; the people more and more indilforent to foreign wars and conquests, however brilliant, llndersuch circumstances Charles gladly seized upon the wrong done to the duko of Brittany by a private adventurer ns an excise for invading Normandy, which he suddenly entered on fuur different points with as many well-appointed armies, under the comniund, respectively, of Chnrles in person, the duke of Brittany, the duke of Alen(;on, and the count of Dunois. So sudden was the irruption of Charles, and so completely unprepared were the Nonrian garrisons to resist him, that the French had only to appeiir bol'ore a place to cause its surrender ; and they at once, and at the mere expcnce of marching, obtained pos- seiision of Verncuil, Noyent, Chateau Gail- lard, I'ontcuu do Mer, Gisors, Nantes, Vernon, Argiintau, Lisieux, Fecamp, Cou- tances, Belesine, and Pcurt de L'Arche, an extent of territory wh'ch had cost the Eng- lish incalculable cxpencc of both bluud and treasure. Thus suddenly and formidably beset, the duke of Somerset, governor of Normandy, found it utterly useless to endeavour to check the enemy in the field ; so far from being able to raise even one numerous army for that purpose, his force was too scanty even to aupidy sutticient garrisons; and jfct, scanty as it was, far too numerous for his still more limited means of subsist- ing it. He consequently threw himself with such force as he could immediately command into Rouen, hopingthat he might maintain himself there until assistance could be sent to him from England. But Charles allowed no time for the arrival of such aid, but presented himself with an army of fifty thousand men at the very Kates of Roiicn. The inhabitants, already disaffected to the English, now became driven to desperation by their dread of the severities of the French, and tumultuously demanded that Somerset should instantly capitulate in order to save them. Thus as- sailed within as well as from without, So- merset led his troops into the castle, but finding it untenable he was at length obliged to yield it, and to purchase permis- sion to retire to IlarHeur by surrendering Arques, Tanearvillc, lionfleur, and several other places in higher Normandy ; agreeing to pay the sum of tifty-six thousand crowns, and delivering hostages for his faithful per- formance nf the articles. Among the host- ages was the earl of Shrewsbury, the ablest English general in Franco ; and he was now condemned to detention, and to in- activity at the very moment when his ser- vices were the most needed, by the positive refusal of the governor of lionfleur to give up that pliice nt the order of Somerset, llontleur also gave a refusal, but, after a smart defence by sir Thomas Curson, was at length compelled to open its gates to the French under Dunois. Succour at length arrived from England, but only to the very insufficient number of four thousand men, who soon after they landed were completely defeated at Four- migni by the count of Clermont. Somer- set, who had retired to Caen in hope of aid, had now no choice but to surrender; Falaise was given up in exchange for the liberty of the earl of Shrewsbury; and just one year after Charles's first irruption into Normandy the very last possession of the English in that province, the important town of Cherbourg, was surrendered. In Guicnn,e the like rapid progress was made by the French under Dunois, who encountered but little difficulty even from the strongest towns, his artillery being of a very superior description. Bourdeaux and Bayonne made n brave attempt at holding out, but no assistance being sent to them from England, they also were compelled to submit ; and the whole province of Guienne was thus reunited to France after it had been held ond battled for by the Knglii-h for three hundred years. A faint effort was subsequently made, i..deed, to recover Guienne, but it was so faint that it tutterly failed, and war between England and France ceased as if by their mutual con- sent, and without any formal treaty of peace or even truce. CHAPTER XXXII. The Reign of Henry VI. (concluded.) A.D. U6U. — 31'uE affairs of England were as threatening at home as they were dis- astrous abroad. The court and the minis- terial factions gave rise to a thousand dis- orders among the people, besides habitu- ating them to the complacent anticipation of disorders still more extreme and general ; and it was now only too well known thst the king, by whom both factions might otherwise have been kept in awe, was the mere and unresisting tool of those by whom he chanced to be surrounded. To add to the general distress, the cessation of the war in France, or, to speak more plainly, the ignominious expulsion of the English from that country, had filled Eng- land with hordes of able and needy men, accustomed to war, and ready, for the mere sake of plunder, to follow any banner and support any cause. And a cause for the civil war which these needy desperadoes so ar- dently desired soon appeared in the preten- sions to the crown put forward by Richard, duke of York. Descended by his mother from the only daughter of the duke of Cla- rence, second son of Edward III , the duke claimed to stand before king Henry, who WHS descended from the duke of Lancaster, the third son of Edward III.; and his claim being thus cogent, and he being a brave and capable man, imraenselv rich and con- nected with numerous noblo familicn, in- cluding the most potent nf them all, that of I the earl of Westmoreland, whose daughter I he had married, he could nut fall to be a OHKAT 8I;M8 WERE IlAISEn ON THE EXfORT OF WOOt AND SKINS. I m' il k ' ' 1 in\ K ! 'I I i i' i A. D. 14't8.— QUMBN's COLtBOR, CAMOIIinOK, KBaAN Tllla YBAIl. 238 tUfft tTrtnauri) of Ijiatori), $fc. most foriniduhio opponent to so wcnk and inrapMlili! a kioK n» Henry; mid tlu; daily ineru»Hin); disorders, Bulfcrini;^ and dis- contents of the nation, promised ere lonK to nflord liini all tiie opportunity ho could rct|uiru uf pressing; his claim with ndvnn- laKO. TliouKh parliament and the people at Iar)(e wore unwilling to make any Naorillces for the ilefence of the foreiKU iuteresls of the nation, and could not or would not un- derstand that nuieh more exertion and ex- pense are often necessary to preserve than to make conquests, they were not a jot the less enraKed at the losses in r'rance, which, thou(;h they mainly oriKiuated in the c<-h- sion of Maine to Charles of Anjou, were consunnnated through the riKid parsinwuy which withheld supplies and reinforce- ments when they were actually indispen- sable. The cession of Maine to (Charles of Anjou, coupled with his fast friendship with the king of France and his active ex- ertions in that prince's interest, persuaded the English people that their (|ueen was their enemy at heart, and that her inlluenee in the English council was a chief cause of the English disgrace and loss. Already the pnrtizans of the duke of York busied tliem- selves in preparing to kindle n civil war; and already the nuirdcr of (Gloucester began to he avenged upon its authors, not merely in the bitterness which it gave to the ha- tred of the people, but by the loss of the covirageous authority of the murdered duke, now so inneh needed successfully to op- pose York and his seditious partisans. The clamour against the ministers and the queen daily grew louder and more incontrol- lable, anil the name that was pronounced with the extremest and most intense hate was that of >Siitrolk. However the people may, by the demagogues of their time and country, be misled to clamour against the great, it is a certain and an important truth that the feelings and affections of the people are decidedly aristocratic. It matters not that they are unconscious of the whole extent of the wisdom of rever- encing the old blood that is gloritied by long ages of high emprize and sage coun- sel ; they do reverenee it ; and though they may occasionally be goaded or deluded into a temporary forgetfuliiess of that rever- ence, tlicy are continually returning to it. In a thousand ways do the people exhibit their aristocratic tendencies, but in no- thing, perhaps, more unequivocally or morn strongly than in their part loathing, part mucking scorn, of the pnn'enu, the noms hemn, the miishroum great man of a lucky yesterday. As the favourite minister of the unpopulair Margaret, as the dexterously un- patriotic ambassador who to oblige her had robbed England of Maine, and as the man most strongly suspected of having brought about the mnrder of Gloucester, Suffolk would under any circumstances have been detested; bnt this detestation was lashed into something very like insanity by the consideration whicl> was constantly recur- ring, that this noble, so powerful that he could aid in murdering the nation's fa- vourite ruler, and rob the nation to concili- ate the favoiii- of a princess who so lately was a stranger to it, was a mere nidile of yesterday ; the great grandson, merely, of a veritable trader I This consideration it was that gave aihh^d bitterness to every charge that was truly made against him, and this it was that caused not a few things to be charged against him of which he was wholly innoeent. Sufl'olk's wealth, oontinnally increasing, as well maniiged wealth needs iiiiist be, was contrasted with the daily increasing penury of the crown, wliich caused the people to be subjected to a thousand extortions. While he was continually growing more and more da/.zliiig in his prosperity, the crown, indebted to the enormous extent of !<72,0(in/., was virtually bankrupt; and the very provisimis for the royal hoiisehdld were obtained by arbitrary purveyance — so arbi- trary, that it fell little short of open robbery with violence. Aware of the general detestation in which be was held, Suffolk, who, apart from all the mere exaggerations of the mob, was a " bold bad man," endeavoured to iorestal any formal attack by the commons' house of parliament, by rising in his |ilace in the lords and loudly complaining ol the calum- nies that were pi^mitted to bo ntterred against him, after he had lost his father and three brothers in the public service, and bad himself lived seventeen yeors wholly in service abroad, served the crown in just double that number of campaigns, been made prisoner, and paid his own heavy ransom to the enemy. It was scandalous, be contended, that any one should dare to charge him with treachery and collusion with foreign enemies, alter he had thus long and faithfully served the crown, and been rewarded by higi, honours and important oHlees. Though Suflblk's apology for his conduct was professedly a reply only to the ru- mours that were current against him among the vulgar, the bouse of commons well un- derstood his real object in making it to bo a desire to prevent them from originating a formal charge against him ; and feeling themselves now in some sort challenged and bound to do so, they sent u|) to tlin peers a ehar|(e of higli treason against Suf- folk. Of this charge, which was very long and divided into a great number of clauses, Hume thus gives a summary :—" They in- sisted that he had persuaded the Freiieh king to invade England witli an armed force, in order to depose the king Henry, and to place on the throne his own son John de Lakolc, whom he intended to marry to Margaret, the only daughter of the late duke of Somerset, and for wlioni, be imagined, he would by that means ac- quire a title to the crown ; that be had con- tributed to the release of the duke of Or- leans, in the hope that that prince would assist king rbnrlcs in expelling the Eng- lish from France and recovering full pos- session of his kingdom; that he had atter- I <* I M a K H H 1-1 •I a M W W O « M »< O ft) M « n H •"1 A. n. 1450.— TUB nuKB or sufroLic iMPBAcnsD. Mill TIIHMAN MTII.IiTON, AN KHINKNT JUIlQK, I.IVKII IN TUIR RKION. iintidii's fa> (III to ciiiirili- wlio DO liilcly llcro IKlllll! of I, merely, of n crntiun it win \ every rhnrKC him, mid tlim ihitiKK til lie lie wus wholly ly incrensiniif, iiiiiHt lie, was iiuiiiK penury | the ]ico|ile to 1 extortloiiR. ;rowin>f more nH|)(>rily, tin; KmK extent of upt; Hnd tho xiRchdld wore ■nee — go nrlii- open robbery itioniii wliirh pi\rt from idl i; mob, wHH n d to fiirRRtnl I IlllKIIlR* llOURO I I |)lacc in the | ot the cnliim- I he utterred IiIr father und ' Herviec!, nnd i ycnrR wholly Town in juRt i paigoR, been i own heavy RoaudaloUR, luld dare to ] nd eolluRion ind thus Ion); ' m, nnd been id important liiR conduct to the ru- him among 1 OUR well un- j ing it to be j originating < nnd feeling ehallenxed t up to the i ngainsl Suf- 'aR very long i ■r of clauacR, , -"They in- j the rreneli ! nn nrincd j ting Henry, I is own Ron intended to daughter of for whom, nicnnR nc- hc had con- I luke of Or- I rince would g the ICng- :ig full poR- B had atter- Ifinglantf.— l^ouac o( ICancaattr.— l^enry *F1£. a39 wards encouraged that monarch to make open war on Normandy and Ouiennc, and liad promoted hi» coniiuentR by betraying the secrets of Knglnnd, nnd obRtructing the Ruecours intended to be Rcnt to thoHo provinces; nnd that he bad, without any powers or permission, promiRcd by treaty to cede the umvince of Maine to CbarleRof Anjou, and had ceded it accordingly, which proved in the isHue the chief cause of the loRH of Normandy." These churges were easily refuted by a re- solute and RelfpoRHcsRcd man like Suffolk. As regards the ccrhIou of Maine, he justly nnougli said, that he had the concurrence of others of the council ; but he took care not to add, that though that \va» an execl- Icnl reason why he Rhould not be ahine in bearing the puniiihnient, it waR no renHou why he should CHcnpe puniRhmcnt alto- gether. With respect to liiR alleged inten- tions as to luR Ron and Margaret of Soincr- Ret, he more completely anRWcred tbnt rharge by pointing out that no title to the throne could poHftibly be derived from Margaret, who was berRelf not included in the parliamentary act of succcHRion, and by confidently appealing to many peers prcRent to bear witncHR that be had intended to marry bis son to one of the earl of War- wick's eo-bcircRRCR, and bad only been pre- vented from doing ro bv the duntb of that lady. As if they were themselves conscious tlint the pnrtiuulars of their tirst cliary^c were too vague nnd wild to be snecviRsful, the commons Rent up to the lonN n Recond accusation, in which, among many other evil doings, Suffolk wnR charged with im- properly obtaining cxecRsive grantR from the crown, with embezzling the public money, and with conferring oUiecR \ipiin improper pcrRons, and improperly using his influence to defeat the due execution of the laws. The court now became alarmed nt the evident determination of the commons to follow up the proceedings against Suffolk with rigour, and nn extraordinary expedient was hit upon for the purpose of saving him from the worst. The peerR, both Rpiritual nnd temporal, were Rummoned to the king's presence, nnd Suffolk being then produced denied the charges made against him, but sulimitled to the king'H mercy ; when the king pronounced tbnt the firRt charge was untrue, and that as to the second, Suffolk, having Ruhmltted to mercy, Rhould be ba- nished for five years. This expedient was far too trnuRparent to deceive the enemies of Suffolk, who clearly saw that it was merely intended to send him out of the way untu the danger was past, nnd then to recall him and restore him to authority, llut their hatred was too intense to allow of their being tliuR easily baffled in their purpose; and they hired the cautnin of a vcrscI and Rome of his fellows, wno surpriRcd Suffolk near Dover, as he wnR mnking for Frunee, beheaded him, and threw bis body into the sen. So great a favourite as Suffolk had been of (luecn Margaret, it was, however, not deemed expedient to take any Rteps to bring his murderers to justice, lest in tho enquiry more should he discovered than would courIrI with the posHibilily of the queen and the house of commons keep- ing up any longer even the ■imulation of civility and good feeling. Though the duke of York was in Ireland during the whole of the proceedings agaiuHt Huffolk, and therefore could not directly be connected with them, Margaret and her friends did not the less sURpeet him of evil designs against them, and were by no means blind to bis aspiring views to the crown ; iiur did they fail to connect him with an iuRur- rcction which just now broke out under the direction of one Cade. TIur man, who waR a native of Iri-land, but whose crimes bad obliged him fur a considerable time to find shelter in TraiKM-, poHResned great re- solution and no Hiiiall Rhare of a rude but showy ability, well calculated to ininoRC upon the multitude. Ueturning to Kiigland just aR the popular discontent was at itR highest, he took the name of John Morti- mer, wishing himself to be taken for a son of sir John Mortimer, who very early in the E resent rtigii had been sentenced to death y the parliament, upon an indictment of high treaRon, wholly uuRupuortcd by par- liament, and most iniquitouRly, on the part of (ilouccRler and licdford, allowed to be executed. Taking up the popular outcry against the queen and ininiMter, this Cade set himself up as a redrcRser of grievances ; and mtrtly from his own plausible talents, but chiefly from the charm of the very popu- lar name he had nsRunied, be speedily found himself at the bead of upwnrdR of twenty thousand men. Imagining that a very small force would suffice to put down what was conRidered but a vulgar riot, the court sent sir Humphrey Stafford with n mere handful of men upon tbnt errand ; but sir Humphrey was attacked by Cade near Sevenoaks, his little force cut up or scattered, and bimR(!lf slain. Emboldened by this rucccrr, Cade now marched bis disorderly hand towards London and encamped upon lilackbeath, whence he Bent n list of obvious grievunces I of which he (lemnnded the correction ; but j Holemly protested that he and his followers j would lay down their nriOR and disnerse, the moment these grievances should be remedied, and lord Say, the treasurer, and I Cromer, the sheriff of Kent, against both I of whom he had a malignant feeling, Rhould I be condignly punished for sundry miilver- j sations with which he strongly charged ! them. Confining his demands within ibesc bounds, and taking care to prevent his fid- lows from plundering London, whence he regularly withdrew them nt niglifall, he was looked upon with no animosity, nt least, by the generality of men, who knew many of the gricvanccR be spoke of rcallu to exist, llut when the council, r.teing that there was at least a passive feeling in favour of Cade, withdrew with the king to Kenil- w-orth, in Warwickshire, Cade so far lost sight of his professed moderation as to put lord Say and Crmuer to death without even THIS IIIUDITK KAni. OP WOnORSTKR FI.OUHISniU) IN THIS Hiao.N. i 1 A.O. 1453. — TBIS TTAS TUK PIRST YEAR OF A Is he was now returning from Ireland they imagined that he was about to follow up the experiment, and accord- ingly issued an order, in the name of the inibecilc Henry, to oppose his return to England. But the duke, who was far too wary to hasten his measures in the way his enemies anticipated, converted all their fears and precautions into ridicule, by coolly landing with no other attendants than liis ordinary retinue. But as the fea's of his enemies had caused them to betray their real feelings towards him, he now resolved to proceed at least one step towards his ultimate designs. Hitherto his title had been spoken of by his fiiends only in whis- pers among themselves, but he now autho- rized them openly to urge it at all times and in all places. The partizans of the reigning king: and of the aspiring duke of York, respectively, had each very plausible arguments ; and though men's minds were pretty equally divided as to their respective claims, the superiority which York had as to the fa- vour of powerful noblemen seemed to be more than counterbalanced by the posses- sion, by the royol party, not onlv of all au- thority of the laws, but also of that " tower of strength," " the king's name." On the side of the crown, besides the advantages to wliicli we have already alluded, there were ranged the earl of Northumberland and the earl of Westmoreland, and these two nobles carried with them all the power and influence of the northern counties of England j and besides these two great men, the crown could reckon upon the duke of Somerset and his brother the duke of Exeter, the duke of Buckingham, the carl of Shrewsbury, the lords Clittbrd, Scales, governor of the Tower, Audlcy, and a long fist of nobles of less note. A.D. 1451. — The party of the duke of York was scarcely less strong ; but so far had arts and literature begun to show their civilizing effects, that instead of instantly and ticreely flying to arms, tlie hostile par- tics seemed inclined to struggle rather by art than force. The duke of York was the more inclined to this plan, because he ima- gined he had power ciiou»;h in the parlia- ment to deprive the weak Uenry of the presence and support of his friends ; in which case he would have but little difli- culty in causing the succession to be al- tered by law, or even in inducing Henry to abdicate a throne which he was obviously and lamentably unflt to fill. Nor did the parliament which now met fail to confirm York's hopes ; the first step taken by the house of commons was to pe- tition the king to dismiss from about his person the duke of Somerset, the duchess of Suffolk, the bishop of Chester, lord Dud- ley, and sir John Sutton, and to forbid them on any pretence to approach within twelve miles of the court. The king agreed to banish all named, save the lords, for u whole year, unless, .is the answer written for him very significantly said, he should need their services in the suppression of rebellion. Still farther to show his sense of the tem- per of the lower house, the king — or rather his friends — refused to consent to a )>ill of attainder against the late duke of Suffolk, though it had passed through all the par- liamentary stages. A. D. 1452. — The mere demonstration thus made by the house of commons, even though it had proved but partially successful, was suflicient to encourage the duke to more open advances, and he issued a proclama- tion demanding a thorough reform of the government, and espooiully the removal of the duke of Somerset from all otlice and authority J and he then marched upon Lon- don with an army of ten thousand men. Greatly popular as he knew liimscif to be in London, where he counted upon an af- fectionate welcome and a considerable ad- dition to his force, he was astounded to find the gates fast closed against him. Scarcely knowing how to net under such unexpected and untoward circumstances, he retreated into Kent, whither he was closely pursued by the king at the head of a far superior army. In the king's suite were Salisbury, Warwick, and many more fast friends of the duke of York, who pro- bably thus attended the king in hope of serving York as mediators, or even, should an action take place, turning the fortune of the day by suddenly leading their forces to his side. A parley ensued, and Somer- set was ordered into arrest to await a par- liamentary trial, and York, whom the court did not as yet dare to assail, was ordered to confine himself to his secluded house at Wigniore in Herefordshire. Cool and circumspect as he wnsrcsolvite, the duke of York lived quietly in this re- tirement for some time, but was at length called from it by the torrent of popular in- dignation against the ministers, wliich fol- lowed a new and utterly abortive attempt to reconquer Gascony ; in which attempt, besides a vast number of men, the English M P. o Q ts a m n A. n. 14J3. — CONSTANTINOPLK WAS THIS VEAa TAKKN VKOM TtIK TURKS. A.D. U55. — A.N ACT FASSKD PaOHinlTIMO THB lUl'OllT Ol' FOUKIGX LACK. ■^Englanti Iriousc of l£ancastcr — l^ennj 'FE. 241 lost their deservedly beloved Reneral, the earl of Shrewsbury, who fell in battle at the age of more than eighty years. This event, and the queen K'^ing birth to a sun, which did away with the hope great numbers had entertained that York might wait and suc- ceed to Henry quietly and as next heir, urged the Yorkists beyond nil farther power of their chief to control theni ; and llen-y being, by an illness, now rendered too coi i- pletely imbecile even to appear to rule. • .e queen and her council were obliged to yield to the torrent of popular feeling, and they consented to send Somerset to the Tower, — he being now hated even more than Suf- folk had formerly been— and to appoint the duke of York lieutenant of the kingdom. The friends of the duke of York might, na- turally enough, desire to see him in a situa- tion so favourable to his and their ultimate views J but the duke's conduct wholly dis- appointed any expectations they might have furnied of decisive measures on his part, as he fairly and moderately exerted the proper authority of his oflice, and no more. A.n. 145r>. — Margaret and her friends, however well pleased to profit by the duke's moderation, showed no intention of imi- tating it. On the contrary, the king reco- vering sufficiently to be again put forward in public as if acting from his own free will, was made to annul the appointment of York, and to release Somerset from the Tower, and give him buck all his former power. Even the moderation of York was no longer able to avoid open extremities, as it was clear from the ha^ty annulling of his commission, that he was not safe from being, by some artful device, brought into difficulty for having ever consented to ac- cept it. But even now, though he called his forces about him and placed himself at their head, he made no claim to the crown, but limited his demands to a reformation of the government and dismissal of the ob- noxious ministry. The hostile forces met near St.Alban's, and in the battle which ensued the York- ists gained the victory, their enemies losing 5000 men, including the detested Somerset, the carl of Northumberland, the earl of Stafford, eldest son of the duke of Bucking- ham, the lord Clifford, tmd many other leading men of the partv. The prisoners, too, were numerous, and, chief of all, the king was among them. His own utter im- becility and the mild temper of the duke of York saved the unfortunate Henry froai all annoyance. The duke showed him every possible respect and tenderness; and though he availed himself of his good fortune to exert all the kinglv authority, while still leaving unclaimed the empty title of king, Henry was little inclined to quarrel with an arrangement which saved him from what he most of all detested, exertion and trouble. The moderate or timid policy of the duke of York, and the spirit and ability with which Margaret kept together her weak- ened party, prevented farther bloodshed for a tnne, even after this battle had com- menced the dread war of " the roses j" in which, besides innumerable skirmishes, twelve pitched battles were fought upon English ground, and which for thirty long years divided families, desolated the land, and caused a loss of life of which some notion may be formed from the simple fact, that among the slain were no fewer than eighty princes of the blood 1 The parlia- ment, seeing the disinclination of the duke of York to grasp the sceptre which seemed so nearly within his reach, shaped its pro- ceedings accordingly ; and while, by grunt- ing an indemnity to the Yorkists and re- restoring the duke to his office of lieutenant or protector of the kingdom, they renewed their oaths of allegiance to the unconscious and imbecile king, and limited York's ap- pointment to the time when the king's son, who was now made prince of Wales, should attain his majority. This parliament also did good service by revoking all the im- politic and extensive grants which had Deen made since the death of the late king, and which were so extensive that they had mainly caused the excessive poverty into which the crown had fallen. A. D. 1450. — Margaret was of too stern and eager a nature to neglect any of the opportunities of strengthening her party which were afforded by the singular mode- ration or indecision of Y'ork. The king having a temporary lucid interval — for his real disease was a sort of idiotcy — she took advantage of the duke's absence to parade her unfortunate and passive husband be- fore the parliament, and to make him de- clare his intention of resuming his autho- rity. Unexpected as this proposal was, York's friends were wholly unprepared with any reasonable argument against it; and, indeed, many of them, being sufferers from the recent resumption of the crown grants, were greatly disgusted with their leader on that account, 'fhe king was accordingly pronounced in possession of his proper au- thority ; and York, constant to his mode- rate or temporising polity, laid down his office without a struggle or even a com- plaint. A. D. 1 157.— The king or rather, Marga- ret, being thus again in full possession of power, the court went to pass a season at Coventry, where York and the earls of War- wick and Salisbury were invited to visit the king. They were so unsuspicious of the real motive of this invitation, that they rea- dily accepted it, and were actually on the road when they were informed ot Marga- ret's intention certainly to seize upon their persons and, not improbably, to put them to death. On n-cciving this startling in- telligence the friends separated, to prepare for nn open defence against the open vio- lence which, it seemed probable, Margaret would resort to on linding her treachery discovered ond disappointed; York retir- ing to Wigmore, Salisbury to his noble place at Middleham in Yorkshire, and War- wick to Calais, of which he had been made governor after the buttle of St. Alban's, and which was especially valuable to the York- ist cause, inasmuch as it contained the only A.D. M57. — TUB PKKNCn INFBSTBO TUB COASTS, AND TUB SCOTS TUB B0UDRII8. [F II m ^ /> A.D. 1453.— TUB FHENCU LAND AT SANDWICU, AND FLUNDEK TIIK TOWN. '..''^ '?■ til '^ i f; I 242 ^fje treasury of Instore, $cc. regular military body which England then supported. Even now York was not in- clined to proceed to extremities; and as Margaret on her part was doubtful as to the sufficiency of her military strength, and well aware of the very great extent to which the popular sympatnies were enlisted on the side of York, a pause ensued, of which Uourchicr, archbishop of York, and some other sincere lovers of their country, avail- ed themselves, to attempt a mediation by which the people might be spared the ru- inous and revolting horrors of civil war. A. D. 1458. — The humane endeavour cf these personages so far succeeded, that the leaders of both parties agreed to meet in London for a solemn and public reconcili- ation : but the very manner of their meeting, notwithstanding the avowed purpose of it, was sufficient to have convinced all accu- rate observers of the little reliance that could be placed upon the friendly feelings of either party. Both came numerously attended, and both kept their attendants near them, and in the same close watch and serried distribution as would be ob- served in hostile armies encamped upon the snnie ground at evening, preparatory for the bloodshed and the struggle of the morrow. Though this mutual jealousy and dread augured but ill for the permanence of a friendship declared under such circum- stances, the terms between the opposing parties were arranged without much diffi- culty and wholly without strife; and the hollow peace having been fully arranged, the iinftics went in solemn processiou to 8t. I'aul's, that their union might be evident to the people; Y'ork gallantly leading by the hand his truculent and implacable ene- my Margaret, and each of the couples who followed them in the procession being composed of a leading man of the opposing parties respectively. A. n. 1459. — The peace thus patched up was of exactly the frail tenure that might have been anticipated. The trivial accident of a retainer of the carl of Warwick being insulted led to a general brawl, swords were drawn, the fight became serious, and the royal party being the more numerous, War- wick only saved his own life by flying to Calais. This originally petty affair put an end to peace ; both parties took off their masks ; every where tne din of preparation was heard, and it became evident even to those who most desired peace for their country, that a civil war was now wholly inevitable. The earl of Salisbury having raised a con- siderable force, was making hasty marches to form a junction with the duke of York, when he was overtaken at Ulore heath, in Staffordshire, by a much larger party of the royalists under the lord Audlcy. Sa- lisbury's numerical inferiority was fully compensated by his superiority of judg- ment. To reach him the royalists had to descend a steep bank and cross a stream. Salisbury caused his men to retreat, as if alarmed at their enemies' numbers ; and Audley, falling into the snare, gave his vanguard the word to charge and Ted them in full pursuit. As the vanguard reached the side of the rivulet, Salisbury suddenly faced about, and having only to deal with a body inferior to bis own, put it completely to the rout, the remaining body of the roy- alists, instead of hastening over to support their comrades, betaking themselves to flight in good earnest. York's post was at Ludlow, in Shropshire, and thither Salisbury now marched his troops, whose spirits were heightened and confirmed by their victory. Soon after his arrival York received a new accession to his numbers, the earl of Warwick joining him with a body of veterans from the garrison of Calais. York was naturally delighted with this accession of disciplined men, who, under ordinary circumstances, must necessarily have been of immense import- ance; but their commander, sir Andrew Trollope, turned their presence into a ca- lamity instead of an advantage to the duke's cause. The royal army arrived in sight of the Yorkists, and a general action was to take place on the morrow, when Sir An- drew, under cover of the night, basely led his veterans over to the king. The mere loss of a large and disciplined body of men was the least mischief this treachery did to York. It spread a perfect panic of suspi- cion and dismay through the camp; the very leaders could no longer rely upon each othei-'s good faith; hope and confidence fled, and the Yorkists determined to sepa- rate and await some more favourable state of things ere putting their cause to the ha- zard of a pitched battle. The duke of York retired to Ireland, where he was universally beloved, and Warwick returned to Calais, where he was from time to time joined by large reinforcements; York's friends who remained in England continuing to recruit for him rxs zealously as though his cause had sustained no check from the recent treason. A.D. 14G0. — Having completed his own preparations, and being satisfied from the advices of his friends in England that he might rely upon a considerable rising of the people in his favour, Warwick now sailed from Calais with a large ond well- equipped army, and, after capturing some of the royal vessels at sea, landed in safety on the coast of Kent, accompanied by the earl of Marche, the eldest son of the duke of York, and the earl of Salisbury ; and on his road to London he was joined by the archbishop of Canterbury, lord Cobham, and other powerful nobles and gentlemen. The city of London cogerly opened its gates to Warwick, whose numbers daily in- creased so much, that he was able with confidence to advance to Northampton to meet the royal army. The battle com- menced furiously on both sides, but was speedily decided. The royalists who had lately been benefited by treason were now sufferers from it; the lord Grey of Ruthin, who had the command of its vanguard, leading the whole of bis troops over to the A.O. 1459. — TUB ARTS OF ENOnAVlNO AND ETCUINQ INVENTED THIS YBAH. TU8 BARBAHITT Or THB AOK WAS EQUALLED ONLY BY ITS INSlnCBBITY. a K ■< Pa O M « C3 ao O >a u M H H o M B O is M h O i>l ta H S a Yorkists. A universal pnnic spread through the royalists by this base treachery, aud the battle became a rout. The slaughter amonK the nobility was tremendous, and included the duke of Buckingham, the earl of Shrewsbury, lord Egremont, sir William Lucie, and many other gallant officers. The loss of the common soldiery on the royal side was comparatively trilling ; the carl of "Warwick and his colleagues directing the Yorkists, both in the battle and the chase, to spare the soldiery, but to give no quarter among the leaders. The unhappy Henry, who was far more fit for the quiet seclusion of some well-or- dered .country abode, was by the compul- sion of his imperious wife a spectator of this battle, and was taken prisoner; but both policy and good feeling led the Yorkist leaders to show every respect and kindness to one whose greatest misfortune was his being a king, and whose greatest fault was a disease of tiie brain ; whose patient and simple bearing, moreover, had won him the tender pity of his people. Warwick marched with his royal captive to London, where the duke of York shortly afterwards arrived from Ireland, and a par- liament was summoned iu the king's name to meet at Westminster on the 7th of Oc- tober. The real or affected scruples of York were now wholly at an end, and he had determined to bring forward for the first time an open and positive claim to the throne. But even now he would only do so through the medium of a farce which one cannot read of without feeling some- thing like contempt for him, iu spite of the remarkable ability of his general conduct. Though 'le archbishop of Canterbury knew the intentions of York fully as well as the duke himself knew them, that prelate on seeing him enter the house of lords aud advance towards the throne, asked him, in a low tone, whether he had as yet paid his respects to the king; and York answered — a» the prelate well Knew that he was to an- swer — that he knew of no one to whom he owed the respect due to that title. How two grave men could unblushingly perform this scene of needless mockery, or how they could perform it unchecked by the indignant aud contemptuous laughter of their fellow peers, it really is not easy to imagine. Having by this ridiculous scene made all the preparation that he could desire, the duke placed himself close to the throne, and addressed a long speech to the peers in advocacy of his own right to the throne, and in comment upon the treason and cruelty by which the house of Lancaster had usurp- ed and kept possession of it. So unneces- sary was the farce with which the duke had thought fit to preface this statement, so well prepared were at least the majority of the peers present to hear it, that they pro- ceeded to take the subject into considera- tion as coolly as their descendants of -the present day would resolve themselves into a committee for the consideration of a turnpike bill. The duke probably was not very well pleased with the excess of this coolness ; for the spot upon which he had placed himself and his bearing throughout the scene go to show, that he expected that the peers would by acclamation place him upon the throne against which he leaned. The lords having invited the leading members of the lower house to aid them in the investigation of the claim of the duke of York, objections were made to it, grounded on former parliamentary settle- ments of the succession, and upon the fact that the duke, who had always borne the arms of York, now claimed through the house of Clarence; but to both these ob- jections the duke's friends replied by al- leging the prevailing power and great ty- ranny of the Lancastrians; and the veers, whom this reply satisfied — as, no doubt, had been duly agreed upon long before they met in the house— proceeded to de- termine that the title of tlie duke of York was beyond doubt just and indefensible, but that in consideration of Henry having worn the crown during thirty-eight years, he should continue to do so during the re- mainder of his life, the duke acting during that time as regent. The lords further de- termined that the duke should succeed to the throne at Henry's decease ; that any attempts upon his life should be equally treason with attempts on the life of the king; and that this new settlement of the crown should be final, and utterly abrogate and annul the settlement made previously. The duke was well contented with this moderate settlement of the question ; the weak-minded and captive king had of coarse no power to oppose it ; and this transfer of the settlement was agreed to by the whole parliament with less excite- ment than a trivial party question has often caused since. Invested with the regency, and also hav- ing the king's person in his power, York was now king in all but name: but he too well understood the audacious and able spirit of queen Margaret, to deem himself permanently in possession as long as she remained in the kingdom and at liberty. Anxious to get her into his power, that lie might either imprison or banish her, he sent her, in the name of her husband, a summons to join him in London. But Margaret, who was busy raising forces in Scotland and the north of England, by pro- mising to the bravest and most turbulent men in those parts the spoiling of all the country north of the Trent, instead of com- plying with this summons, unfurled the royal standard, and showed herself at the head of twenty thousand men, and prepared to fight yet another battle against York in despite of disadvantageous fortune. Whe- ther from some unaccountable want of judgment on the part of the duke, or from the exceeding popularity of Margaret among the inhabitants of the north, causing him to be wantonly misled as to her resources, the duke with only five thousand men march- ed against Margaret's army, as though he had merely to put down an ordinary revolt I I' EVKaV AUTPUL KXPEniKNT WAS USED TO OBTAIN TUB SOTBREIGN POWER. A. D. 14C1.— TUK QUBBN BlITIUES HOBTHWAnO AVTBR TUB FATAL BATTLE. '. fit jj iK'l CO o X 9» c H M B n H n H H M M H ») H S4 O H H M n 244 CTfie treasury of l^istory, $cc. of nn undisciplined handful of men. A fatal error, from whatever cause it arose 1 The duke had already led his little army as far as Wakedeld, in Yorkshire, ere he dis- covered his error just in time to throw himself iato Sandal castle, in that neigh- bourhood; and even now he might have been safe had he not been guilty of a se- cond error, for which no one but himself could possibly he •blamed, lie was urged by the earl of Salisbury and the rest of the friends who accompanied him, to keep close within the castle until his son, the cnrl of March, could arrive from the borders of Wales, where he was levying troops, and thus, when he had somctliing like an equa- lity as to numbers, to descend into the plain and give the queep battle. This pru- dent counsel the duke with inconceivable folly rejected, upon the ridiculous plea that he should be for ever disgraced as a soldier were he to remain shut up within a for- tress because threatened by a woman. Now the duke must full well have known, that, spirited and sanguinsiry as Margaret most undoubtedly was, she was in merely the nominal command of her army ; that she was aided by commanders of whose talents it would be no disgrace to him to show his respect ; and that linnlly, her force outnumbered his in the overwhelming pro- portion of four to one. But the truth was, that the duke had more courage as a knight than judgment as a commander ; and, in spite of all that could be said by his real and judicious friends, he obstinately per- sisted in descending to the neighbouring plain and giving battle to the queen. As iniglit have been anticipated, the royalists av ;led themselves of their vast numerical superiority, and at the commencement of the action detached a considerable body to fall upon the rear of the duke's force. This manoeuvre hasteiied the event, which was not doubtful even from the commence- ment ; the duke's army was totally routed, and he himself was among the number of the slain. That Margaret should chose to resist tho duke was natural, even apart from any doubt she might have felt as to the supe- riority of his claim to that of her husband ; but her conduct after the battle showed a depraved and virulent feeling, which was at once unwomanly and of evil augurjr to the people in the event of her ever being firmly fixed in power. The bod" of her il- lustrious opponent, whose triumph would have been secure some years before had he chosen to push his power to extremity, was found among the slain; and this disgust- ingly unfemininc queen had the head struck off and affixed to the gate of York castle, a paper crown being first placed upon the ghastly head, in bitter ana brutal mojKery of the duke's unsuccessful endeavours. Margaret's brutal temper seems to have influenced her friends. The young carl of Rutland, son of the duke of York, and then only seventeen years old, being taken pri- soner and led into the presence of lord Clifford, was by that nobleman's own hand put to death. This dastardly butchery of a mere boy is accounted for by the historians on the ground of Chfford's own father hav- ing perished in the battle of St. Alban's ! As though that could have been any justi- fication of his present butchery of a voung Eriucc who at the time of that battle was arcl^ twelve years old ! Another illustri- ous victim was the earl of Salisbury, who being severely wounded was taken prisoner, carried to Pontefract, and there beheaded. This battle was a terrible loss to the Yorkists, upwards of three thousand of whom perished, besides the duke. That prince was only fifty years of age when he fell, and was reasonably looked upon by his party as being likely to be their support and ornament for many years, lie was suc- ceeded in his title and pretensions by his eldest son, Edward; besides whom he left two other sons, George and Uichard, and three daughters, Aune, Elizabeth, and Mar- garet. A.D. 1461.— ImmcJiatcly after this action the able and active, though most hatefully cruel Margaret, marched with the main body of her nriny against the earl of War- wick, who was left in command of the main body of the Yorkists at London ; while she sent a detachment under Jasper Tudor, earl of Pembroke, and half brother to her unfortunate husband, against Edward the new duke of York, who was still on the Welsh border. The carl of Pembroke and the duke of York met at Mortimer's cross, in Herefordshire, when the earl was com- pletely routed with the loss of nearly four thousand men ; the remainder of his force being scattered in all directions, and he himself having no small difliculty in making good his retreat. His father, sir Owen 'i'udor, who accompanied him to this disas- trous battle, was still less fortunate ; being taken prisoner and led into the presence of the duke of York, that prince instantly or- dered him to be beheaded. Margaret was more fortunate than Pem- broke.' She encountered Warwick at St. Albau's, whither he had marched from Lon- don to meet her. Warwick's own force was large, and he was strongly reinforced by volunteers, the Londoners being for the most part staunch Yorkists. At the com- mencement of the battle Warwick even had the advantage, but he was suddenly de- serted by Lovelace, who commanded under him, and who led the whole of his men over to the enemy. The consequence was the complete rout of the Yorkists, two thou- sand three hundred of whom perisiied on the field. Many Yorkists also were taKen prisoners, as was the unhappy king, \vho had been taken to the battle by Warwick, and who, in falling again into the power of his queen, could scarcely so properly be said to be rescued as to be taken jn-isoner. L'n- liappy prince ! Into whose hands soever he might pass, the weakness of his mind rendered him but the mere tool and pre- text of his possessors, who hurried him hither and thither, now vexing his dull in- tellect with the subtle schemes of party. B M P 4 M a H n n SE < U r. o *9 K a M H M S e u m N o A. O. 1461. — TOBK FBOCI/AIMED KINO, IN THE CAMP, MABCH 2. BDWARD IV. WAR SUITBD TO TUK TURBULENT STATE Ot TUB TIMB9. a M A H n M a ie < M •9 •< O a IS M O o A P H ft. O H K K ■< n H H lEnglantJ l|oui5c of Yoili.— lEtJtBarU 1£U. 245 and now startlinif lii« tame and timorous spirit with tlie bloody scenes and rude alarms of the tented field. Unhappy, thrice unhappy prince I Mart^aret here gave a new proof of her sanguinary temper. Lord Bonville, who liad been entrusted with the care of the king's person during the battle, was rather agreeable to the weak prince, who, on the defeat of the Yorkists, begged this noble- man to remain, and assured him of pardon and protection. But Margaret, as soon as the contusion of battle allowed her to inter- fere, ordered him to be beheaded ; and a similar doom was inflicted upon sir Thomas Kyriel, who had greatly distinguished him- self during the wsrs in France. Before Margaret could turn the victory Siie thus abused to any practical advantage, the young duke of York rapidly approached her ; and as she was sensible of her disad- vantages in being between his army and London, where he wan so popular, she has- tily retreated northward ; while Edward, whom she but narrowly avoided, and whose army was far more numerous than hers, entered London in triumph, and to the great delight of his party. Finding hid cause so numerously supported by the Lon- doners, and greatly elated by the cordial gratulations which they bestowed upon him.which he doubtless owed fully as much to his youth, the elegance of his person, and his kindly though courtly address, he determined to cast aside all the hesita- tion and L^elay which had proved so fatal to his father, to assume the throne in de- spite of Henry's existence, and to maintain his assumption by treating as traitors nnd rebels all who should venture to oppose it. As, however, he was desirous of having at lease the appearance of the national con- sent to his claims, and as the appealing to parliament would be intinitely too tedious for his impatience, and might even give time for some fatal bar to arise to his suc- cess, he assembled his army and a great multitude of the Londoners in St. John's Fields, where an artful and yet passionate harangue was pronounced, in vituperation of the other faction, and in support of the claims and in praise of the high qualities of Edward himself. Such an harangue as this, delivered before a nipeting composed exclusively of the friends and partizans of Edward, could not but elicit applause ; and when it was followed up by the question " which king they would have, Henry of Lancaster or Edward of York," who can be in doubt as to the reply with which the mul- titude made the very welkin ring. Edward duke of York having thus been hailed by " the people " as their king under the style of Edward IV. certain peers, prelates, and other intiuential personages were next as- sembled at Baynard's castle, who confirm- ed what they obstinately affected to call " the people's decision ;" and Edward IV. was duly proclaimed king on the 5th of March, thuc putting n formal cud to the reign of the unfortunate Henry, whose in- fancy was graced with two crowns, and hailed by the loyal shouts of two nations, and whose manhood had been only one long series of servitude in the hands of avowed enemies, or of friends whose yoke was quite as heavy, and perhaps even more painful. CHAPTER XXXIII. The Reign of Edward IV. TifouoH Edward was now only in his twentieth year, he had already given pruiifs of activity, courage, and a very determined purpose; to which we must add, that al- most the very first act of his reign showed that if he were more prompt and resolute than his father, he was also by far more vioii. • '.md b.-ngfuinary. A citizen of Lou- don had '.'..a sign of the crown above his shop, and j'.'cularly said that his son should be "heir to the crown." Anything more harmless than this jocular speech, or more obvious than the tradesman's real meaning, it would not be easy to imagine. But Ed- ward, jealous of his title and feeling him- self insecure upon the throne, gave a trea- sonable interpretation to a merry jt)ke, in- sisted that it had a derisive allusion to him- self, and actually had the unfortunate man condemned for treason — and executed ! This brutal murder was a fitting prelude to the scenes of slaughter with which the kingdom was soon filled; and plainly pro- claimed that Margaret had now to deal with an opponent to the full as truculent and unsparing as herself. The nation was divided into Lancastrians and Y^orkists, the former bearing the symbol of the red, the latter of the white rose; and as though the blood shed in actual fight were insuflicient to allay the tiger-like desire of the princi- pal opponents, the scaflfolds were dyed deeply with tlie blood of the prisoners taken by either party. Margaret's popularity in the northern counties had enabled her to get together an army of sixty thousand men, with which she took post in Y^orkshire, whither Ed- ward and the earl of Warwick hastened to meet her. On arriving at Pontefract, Ed- ward dispatched lord Fitzwalter with a de- tachment to secure the passage over the river Ayre,at Ferrybridge. Fitzwalter ob- tained possession of the important post iu question, but was speedily attacked there by very superior numbers of the Lancas- trians under lord Clifford, who drove the Yorkists from their position with great slaughter, Fitzwalter himself being among the slain. When the remains of the beaten detachment carried these disastrous tidings to the earl of Warwick, that nobleman, fear- ing that the misfortune would destroy the spirits of his troops, had his horse brought to him, stabbed it to the heart in presence of the whole army, and solemnly swore that he would share the fatigues and the fate of the meanest of his soldiers. He at the same time caused public proclamation to be made, giving permission to any soldier who feared the approaching struggle imme- diately to depart from the army ; and in a si- war AND RAPINE FORMED THE CHIEF NATIOKAI. OCCUPATION. ft I [rs A. I>. 1461,— KDWAHD ABUIVBS AT rONTKrHACT, MAIICU 12. 246 E])t treasury of l^iatorp, $c(. M a I milar spirit denounced tbe most levcre pun- ishment upon any who on the actual day of battle should show any symptoms of cow- ardice while before the enemy. As the post which had been so disastrously lost by Fitz- walter was of groat importance, lord taloon- berg was sent with a new detachment to recover it ; and, crossing the river at some miles above Ferrybridge, be fell suddenly upon lord Cliflford's detachment and routed it, Clifford himself being among the very considerable number of tlie killed. The opposing armies at length met at Towton. The Yorkists charged under favour of a severe snow storm which the wind drove into the faces of the enemy, whose half blinded condition was still further turned to advantage bv lord Falconberg, who caused a party of his archers, while yet at more than ordinary arrow-shot from the opposite army, to discharge a volley of the light, far flying, but nearly harmless arrows called flight arrows, and inimcdiately to shift their position. The Lancastrians, quite unsuspicious of the stratagem, and prevented by the snow from noticing their opponents' change of position, sent volley after volley of their arrows in the direction whence they had been assailed, and when they had thus bootlcssly emptied their quivers the main body of the Yorkists, led on by Edward himself, made a grand and terribly destructive charge ; the bow was laid aside on both sides for the sword and battle-axe, and the Lancastrians were rout- ed and pursued all the way to Tadcaster by their enemy. The Lancastrian loss, in the battle and the scarcely less murderous pur- suit, was calculated at six and thirty thou- sand men ; among whom were the earl of Westmoreland and his brother sir John Nevil, the earl of Northumberland, the lords Dacres and Welles, and sir Andrew Trol- lope, whose treachery had formerly been so disastrous to tbocauseof the Yorkists. The earl of Devonshire, who was among the prisoners, was carried before Edward, who sternly ordered him to be beheaded and his head to be stuck upon the gate of Y'ork castle; whence the bends of the late duke of Y'ork and the carl of Salisbury were now taken down. Margaret and her unhap- py husband were fortunate enough to es- cape to Scotland, whither they were accom- Sanied by the duke of Somerset and by the uke of Exeter, who had sided against Ed- ward, although be had married his sister. Scotland was so much torn by faction that the Scottish council afforded but little en- couragement to Margaret to even hope for assistance, until she promised to give up Berwick and to contract for a marriage of Lersonand the sister of king James. Even then the friendship of the Scots did not as- sume an aspect very threatening to Ed- ward, who tranquilly returned to London and summoned a parliament. Edward's success rendered this parlia- ment very ready to recognize his title to the throne by descent from the family of Mortimer; it expressed the utmost detes- tation of what it now called the intrusion of Henry IV., annulled all grants made by the Lancastrians, and declared Edward's father rightly seized of the crown, and himself the rightful king from the very day that he was hailed so by acclamation of the soldiery and rabble, which it complacently termed " the people." A. n. 1462. — Though Edward found liis parliament thus accommodating, he soon perceived that he had very great ditHcultics to contend against ere he could consider himself secure in his possession of the crown. Not only were there numerous disorders at home, the necessary result of civil war, but there were enemies abroad. France, especially, seemed to threaten Ed- ward with annoyance and injury. The throne of that country was now tilled by Louis XI., a wily, resolute, and unsparingdespot. For- tunately for Edward, however, the tortuous policy of Louis had placed him in circum- stances which rendered his power to injure the reigning king of England very unequal indeed to his will to do so. lie at first sent only a very small bodv to the assistance of Margaret, and even when that queen subse- quently paid him a personal visit to solicit a more decided and efllcient aid, his own i|uarrels with the independent vassals of France only allowed him to spare her two thousand men-at-arms, aconsidcruble force, no doubt, but very unequal to the task of opposing such a prince as Edward. With this force, augmented by numerous Scottish adventurers, Margaret made an ir- ruption into the northern counties of Eng- land, but she was defeated by lord Monta- gue, warder of the eastern marches between England and Scotland, iirst at Ilcdgeley Inver, and then at Ilcxhara. In the lat> tcr action Margaret's force was completely destroyed. Among the prisoners were sir Humphrey Neville, the duke of Somerset, and the lords Ilungerford and De Roos, all of whom, with many gentlemen of less note, were summarily executed as traitors. Henry, who had been, as usual, forced to the battle-field, was tor a time concealed by some of his friends in Lancashire, but at the end of about a year was given up to Edward, who held liim in too much con- tempt to injure him beyond committing him to close custody in the Tower of Lon- don. Margaret after her escape from the fatal field of Hexham went through adventures which read almost like the inventions of romance. She was passing through a forest with her son when she was attacked by robbers, who, treating with contempt her royal rank, robbed her of her valuable jewels and also personally ill treated her. The division of their rich booty caused a general quarrel, which so much engaged their attention that Margaret and her son were enabled to escape. She was again Slopped in the forest by a single robber, to whom — deriving fearlessness from the very desperation of her circumstances — she cou- rageously said, " Here, ray friend, is the son of your king ; to your honour I en- trust bis safety." The bold demeanour of EnWAim's AUJIY AT roWTON CON.SISTED OP I.I.OOO MEN, A.D. 1460.— BLICABBTH, AVTinWAIlDa MABBIkB TO UKNBIt VII., BOBI«. U » -I H H a o a H O N (- -1 n K u o o H « s o M u M h B C9 Pi < U r. o M » O lEnglantJ.— l^ouse of Yotfe — ^lEtJtoartJ 3£U. 247 the queen chanced tn chime in with the robber's humour ; he vowed himself to tier service, and protected her> through the forest to the sea coast, whence she escaped to her father's court, where for se- vernf years she lived in a state of ease and quietude strangely in contrast with the stormy life she so long had been accustom- ed to lead. Margaret powerless, Henry imprisoned, and Louis of France fully engaged with quarrels nearer at homo, Edward now thought himself sufficiently secured upon liis throne to be warranted in indulging in the gaieties and amours which were so well suited to his youth and temperament. ]tut though his gallantries were by no means ill taken by his good citizens of London, and perhaps even made him more popular than a prince of graver life would have been at that time, his susceptibility to the charms of the fair at length involved him in a serious quarreL The earl of Warwick and other powerful friends of Edward advised him to marry, and thus, by his matrimonial alliance, still farther strengthen his throne. The advice tallied well with Edward's own judgment, and the earl of Warwick was dispatched to Paris to treat for the hand of Bona of Sa- voy, sister of the queen of France; and Warwick succeeded so well that he return- ed to England with the whole affair ready for formal ratitication. IJut during War. wick's absence his fickle and amorous mas- ter had been engaged in rendering the earl's mission not merely useless, but as mischievous as anything could be that wr.4 calculated to excite the hatred and rage of such a prince as Louis XI. The lady Elizabeth, widow of sir John Grey of Groby, who was killed at the se- cond battle of St. Alban's, was by the con- fiscation of her husband's estates, for his siding with the Lancastrians, so reduced in her worldly circumstances, that she and her children were dependant on her father, in whose house, at Grafton in Northamp- tonshire, they all resided. She was still young, and her remarkable beauty was lit- tle impaired by the sorrows she had en- dured ; and the king, while hunting, chanc- ing to visit Grafton, the lady Elizabeth took the opportunity to throw herself at his feet and intreat the restoration of her husband's estates, for the sake of her un- fortunate children. At sight of her beauty, heightened by her suppliant attitude, the inflammable king fell suddenly and deeply in love with her. lie in his turn became a suitor, and as her prudence or her virtue would not allow her to listen to dishonour- able proposals, the infatuated monarch pri- vately married her. When Warwick returned from France with the consent of Louis to the marriage with Bona of Savoy, the imprudent mar- riage of the king, hitlicrto kept quite secret, was of necessity divulged; and Warwick, indignant and disgusted with the ridiculous part ho had been made to play in wooing a bride for a prince who was already married. left the court with no amicable feelings to- wards his wayward master. A.D. 14fio.— The mischief of Edward's hasty and inconsiderate alliance did not end here. Like all persons who are raised much above their original rank, the queen was exceedingly presuming, and the chief business of her life was to use her influ- ence over her still enamoured husband to hepp titles and wealth upon her family and friends, and to ruin those who were, or were suspected to be, hostile to her grasp- ing and ambitious views. Her father, a mere private gentleman, was created earl of Rivers, made treasurer in the room of the lord Mountjoy, and constable for life with succession to his son, who, marrying the daughter of lord Scales, had the title as well as the vast estates of that noble- man conferred upon him. The queen's sisters were provided with proportionally splendid marriages, and the (|uecn's son by her first marriage, young sir Thomas Gray, was contracted to the heiress of the duke of Exeter, a niece of the king, who(e hand had been promised to lord Montague, who, with the whole powerful Neville family, was consequently very deeply offended. The exorbitant and insatiable craving of the queen's family disgusted every one; but to no one did it give sucli bitter feel- ings as to the earl of Warwick, who, though from his favour with the crown he had made up his fortune to the enormous amount of eighty thousand crowns per annum, as we learn from Philip de Co- mincs, was himself of so grasping a nature that he was still greedy for more gain, and, perhaps, still more disinclined to sec others in possession of the favour and influence which he formerly had almost exclusively enjoyed. This powerful noble, having vex- ations of this kind to embitter his anger at the way in which he had been treated as regarded the marriage, was urged to wishes and projects most hostile to Edward's throne ; and as many of the nobility were much disgusted with Edward on account of his resumption of grants, Warwick had no difliculty in finding sympathy in his anger and association in his designs. Among all the high personages of the kingdom to whom Edward's imprudent marriage and uxorious folly gave offence, none felt more deeply, perhaps none more reasonably, offended than Edward's second brother, the duke of Clarence. From his near relationship to the king he had every right to expect the most liberal treatment at his hands ; but so far was he from re- ceiving it, that while the queen and her re- cently obscure relations were overwhelmed with favours of the most costly kind, his fortunes were still left precarious and scanty. Warwick, a shrewd judge of men's tempers, easily descried the wounded and indignant feelings of Clarence, and offered him the hand of his eldest daughter, who, being Warwick's co-heircKs, could bring the duke a much larger fortune than the king could bestow upon him, even had the king been better inclined than he had hitherto [! A.D. 1467. — THE DUKK OP DUnGUNDT MAnniKS EDWABD's SISTER. a^ \ ?.•■ ! •I r "i '■ rl A.D. 1467. — WARWICK WITUDBAWS FllOH COUUT, BUT CONCBAL8 HIS DESIGNS. 248 ^{;e ^reasutQ of 3|istori), $cc. appeared, to mend the slender fortunes of his brother. Having thus united the influence of the duke of Clarence to his own, and engaged him inextricably in his projects, Warwick had no difficulty in forming an extensive and very powerful confederacy against the king. A.D. 1469. — The unsettled and turbulent temper of the kingdom, and the preparatory measures of such a confederacy, so headed, could not fail to produce a state of things in which the merest accidental occurrence might lead to the most extensive and dan- gerous public disorders, especirlly as in spite of all Edward's success and the stern severity with which he had used it, there was still bursting throughout the country a strong though a concealed attachment to the ruined house of Lancaster. A griev- ance which at first sight appeared little con- nected with state quarrels, and of a nature to be easily settled by so arbitrary a mo- narch as Edward, caused the broodinsr dis- contents to burst forth into open vioi->nce. St. Leonard's hospital, in Yorkshire, like many similar establishments, had from a very early age possessed the right of re- ceiving a thrave of corn from every plough- land in the district ; and the poor com- plained, most likely with great reason, that this tax, which was instituted for their re- lief, was altogether, or nenrly so, perverted to the personal emolument of the ninnaners of the charity. From complaints, wholly treated with contempt or neglect, the pea- santry in the neighbourhood proceeded to refusal to pay the tax ; and •when their goods and persons were molested for their contumacy, they fairly took up arms, and having put to death the whole of the hos- pital officials, they marched, full fifteen thousand strong, to the gates of the city ot York. Here they were opposed by some troops under the lord Montague, and he having taken prisoner their leader, byname Robert Hulderne, instantly caused him to be executed, after the common and dis- graceful practice of those violent times. The loss of their leader did not in the least intimidate the rebels; they still kept in arms, and were now joined and headed by friends of the earl of Warwick, who saw in thi"» revolt of the peasantry a favourable opportunity for aiding their own more ex- tensive and ambitious views. Sir Henry Neville and sir John Conyers having placed themselves at the head of the reDels.drew them off from their merely local and loosely contrived plans, and marched them southward : their numbers increasing so greatly during their progress as to cause great and by no means ill- founded alarm to the government. Her- bert, who had obtained the earldom of Pembroke on the forfeiture of Jasper Tu- dor, was ordered to march against the re- bels at the head of a body of Welshmen, reinforced by tive thousand well-nppointtd archers rommandnd hy StafFord, corl of Devonshire, who had obtained that title on the forfeiture of the great Courtney fiii.iily. Scarcely had these two noblemen, however. joined their forces, when a quarrel broke out between them upon some trivial ques- tion abottt priority of right to quarters, and so utterly forgetful did the anger of Devon- shire render him of the great and impor- tant object of his command, that he sul- lenly drew off his valuable force of archers, and left the earl of Pembroke to stand the brunt of the approaching encounter with the rebels with his own unaided and infe- rior force. Undismayed by this defection of his col- league, Pembroke continued to approach the rebels; and the hostile forces met near Banbury. At the first encounter Pembroke gained the advantage, and sir Henry Ne- ville being among liis prisoners, he had that popular gentleman immediately exe- cuted. If this severity was intended to strike terror into the rebels it wholly failed of its purpose. The rebels, so far from be- ing intimidated, were incited by their rage to a carnage more desperate than, proba- bly, any other means could have inspired them 1' ith, and they attacked the Welsh so | furiou!-!}' that the latter were utterly routed j and vast numbers perished in the pursuit, : the Welsh sternly refusing quarter. Pern- i broke being unfortunately taken prisoner I by the rebels, was by them consigned to the same fate which he had inflicted upon j their leader. The king was very naturally i excited to the utmost indignation hy the fatal results of the obstinacy and insubor- dination of the earl of Devonshire, whom he caused to be executed. Even here the cold butcheries which ei- ther party dignified with the name of exe- cutions (iid not terminate. Some of the rebels, dispatched to Grafton by sir John Conyers, succeeded in capturing the queen's mother, the earl of Rivers, and his son, sir John Grey ; and, their sole crime being that they were related to the queen and that they were not philosophers enough to refuse to profit by that relationship, they too were " executed " by the rebels. Though there is no reasonable ground for doubting that the earl of Warwick and his son-in-liuv the duke of Clarence were the real directors of the revolt, they deem- ed it politic to leave its public management to Neville and Conyers, — doubtless to be tolerably sure of the result ere they would too far commit their personal safety. And accordingly all the while that so much bloodshed had been going on in England, Warwick and Clarence lived in great appa- rent unconcirrn at Calais, of which the tor- mer was governor ; and, still farther to con- ceal their ultimate intentions from the king, Warwick's brother, the lord Monta- gue, was am(>ng the bravest and the most active of the opponents of the rebels. So confident was Warwick that the suspicions of the kiuK could not light upon him, though the murder of the earl Rivers whs surely a circumstance to have pointed to the guilt of that nobleman's bitteiest rival, that h(! iind C'laivnce, when the languid rale at which the rebellion progressed seemed to promise a disastrous issue to it. H O m u (5 M ts IJ B M >^ D tx K H O u n K tH o A.D. 1468.— BDWARD IIENBWS AN ALLIANCE WITU TUK KINO 01' ARRAGON. AiN ACT FASSEU CIIESCUIBINO WHAT BVEUY CLASS OF MSN SUOUL» WEAB. a o a a r. » K Pu O H U >6 Ix D lEnglantr.—l^ousc of Yorli.— lEUtoartJ IF. 249 came over to Engl.ind, and were entrusted by Kdwnrd with very considerable com- mands, wliicb, probably from want of op- portunity, they nindo no ill use of. The rebellion having been already very consi- derably quelled, Warwick, probably anx- ious to save as many malcontents as possi- ble for a future and more favoura'de oppor- tunity, persuaded Edward to grant a gene- ral pardon, which had the effect of com- pletely dispersing the already wearied and discouraged rebels. Though Warwick and Montague gave so much outward show of loyalty, and though the king heaped favours and honours upon the family, he yet seems to have been by no means unaware of the secret feelings of both those restless noblemen ; for on one occasion when he accompanied them to a banquet given by their brother, the arch- bishop of York, he was so impressed with the feeling that they intended to take that opportunity of dispatching him by poison or otherwise, that he suddenly rushed from the banqueting room and hastily returned to his palace. A.D. 1170. — A new rebellion now broke out. A( the outset there were no signs to connect cither Clarence or the cnrl of War- wick with it ; yet as we know how invcte- rately disloyal both the duke and the earl were from the moment that Edward mar- ried, and also that as soon as they had an opportunity, and bad reason to believe that the rebellion would be successful, they pre- pared, as will be seen, to add open revolt to the foulest treachery. This rebellion commenced in Lincolnshire, and in a very short time the leader of it, sir Robert Welles, was at the head of not fewer than thirty thousand men. Sir Robert's father, the lord Welles, not only took no part in the proceedings of his son, hut showed his sense of both their danRer and their impropriety by taking shelter in a sanctuary. But this prudent conduct did not save him from the vengoa\)ce of the king. The unfortunate nobleman was by plausible arguments al- lured from sanctuary, and, in company of sir Thomas Dymoke, beheaded by the king's orders. Edward soon after gave battle to the rebels and defeated them, and sir Ro- bert Welles rnd sir Thomas Launde being taken prisoners, were immediately behead- ed. So little did the king suspect Clarence and Warwick of any concealed intluence in these disturbances, that he gave them com- missions of array to raise troops to oppose the rebels. The opportunity thus nflbrded them of forwarding their treasonable views was too tempting to be resisted, rmd they at once removed all doubts as to their real feelings by levying forces against the king, and issuing remonstrances against the pub- lic measures and the king's ministers. Tho defeat of sir Robert Welles was a sad dis- couragement to them, but they had now proceeded too far to be able to withdraw, and they marched their array into Lanca- shire. Here they fully expected the coun- tenance and aid of sir Thomas Stanley, who was tho earl of AVarwick's brothrr-in-law. but finding that neither that nobleman nor the lord Montague would join them, they dismissed their army and hastened to Ca- lais (the government of Warwick) where they conlidciitly calculated upon finding a sure and safe refuge. Here again, however, they were doomed to be disappointed. On leaving Calais the last time, Warwick had left there, as his deputy governor, a Uascon named Vaucler. This gentleman, who was no stranger to Warwick's disloyalty, readily judged by the forlorn and ill-attended style ill whicli that nobleman and the duke of Clarence now made their appearance be- fore Calais, that they had been unsuccess- fully engaged in some illegal proceeding; he therefore refuted them admittance, and would not even allow the duchess of Cla- rence to land, though she had been deliver- ed of a child while at sea, and was in a most pitiable state of ill health. As, however, lie by no means wished to break irreme- diably with men whom some chance might speedily render as pov/erful as ever, Vaucler sent wine and other stores for the use of the duchess, and secretly assured Warwick that he only seemed to side against him, in order that he might, by gaining the conti- dencc of the king, be able to give the for- tress up to the earl at the tirst favourable opportunity ; and he dilated upon those circumstances of the place which rendered it very improbable that the garrison and inhabitants would just a> that time sutler it to be held by Warwick against the estab- lished government of England. Whatever might be Warwick's real opinion of the sin- cerity of Vaucler, he feigned to be quite sa- tislied with his conduct, and having siezed some Flemish vessels which lay off the coast, he forthwith departed to ti'y his fortune at the court of France. Here he was well re- ceived, for the French king had formerly held a close cortespoiidence with the earl, and was just now exceedingly hostile to Edward on account of the friendship which existed between that monarch and the most turbulent as well as the most power- ful vas-al of France, the duke of Jhir- gundy. Though the earl of Warwick had so much reason to hate the house of Lan- caster, the king so urgently pressed him to a reconciliation, and to the attempt to re- store that house to the throne of England, that at an interview with queen Margaret the earl consented to a reconciliation, and to doing his utmost to restore Ilciuy to his throne on certain conditions. The chief of these conditions were, that the earl of Warwick and the duke of Clarence should administer in England during the whole minority of prince Edward, son and heir of Henry ; that that young prince should marry the lady Anne, Warwick's second daughter, and that, failing issue to thcni, the crown should be entailed on the duke of Clarence, to the absolute exclusion of the issue of the reigning king. By way of show ing the sincerity of this unnatural confederacy, prince Edward and the lady Anne were married >mnie(iiatcly. Edward, who well knew the innate and 8UOKS WITU I.OMO TIKIJID TOKS WEttl? rilOIIIDITED TO liV WORN. II t'-^ \ I f'f I EDWABD WAS MOTBD FOtt " BOBBOWINO" I.ABOB SUMS OF THE WEALTUY, 260 Vt'^t ^TnasutQ of T^istoxvy $cc. ineradicable hostility of Warwick's ri .-» Jeel- in;;s towards the house of Lancaster, caused a lady of great talent to avail herself of her situation about the person cf the duke of Clarence, to influence the duke's mind, es- pecially with a view to making him doubt- ful of the sincerity of Warwick, and of the probability of his long continuing faithful to this new alliance ; and so well did tlie fair envoy exert her powers, that the duke, on a solemn assurance of Edward's forgive- ness and futui-e favour, consented to take the earliest favourable opportunity to de- sert his father-in-law. But while Edward was intent upon detaching the duke of Cla- rence from Warwick, this latter nobleman was no less successful in gaining over to his side his brother the marquis ot Monta- gue, whose adhesion to Warwick was the more dangerous to Edward because Monta- gue was entirely in his conlidenco. When Warwick had completed his pre- parations, Louis supplied hira with men, money, and a fleet ; while the duke of Bur- gundy, on the other hand, closely united with Edward, and having n personal quar- rel with Warwick, cruised in the channel in the hope of interceptinj; that nobleman ere he could land in En;;l.iad. The ilvike of Burgundy, while thus actively exerting himself for Edward's safety, also sent him the most urgent and wise advice; but Ed- ward was so over confident in his own strengtii, that he professed to wisli that Warwick might make good his lauding. lii this respect his wish was soon grant- ed. A violent storm dispersed the duke of Burgundy's fleet, and Warwick was thus enp' Vd to land without opposition on the cot. i of Devon, accompanied by the duke of C -ence and the earls of Oxford and I'em' jke. The king was at this time in the north of England engaged in putting down a revolt caused bv Warwick's brother- in-law, the lord Fitzhugh ; and Warwick's popularity being thus left unopposed, he, who had landed with a force far too small for his designs, saw himself in a very few days at the head of upwards of sixty thou- sand men. The king on hearing of Warwick's land- ing hastened southward to meet him, and the two armies came in sigh' of each other at Nottingham. An aetiim was almost hourly expected, and Edward was still con- fident in his good fortune; but he was now to feel the ill eflects of the overween- ing trust he had put in the marquis of Montague. That nobleman suddenly got bis adherents under arms du;ing the dark- ness of the night hours, and made their way to the quarter occupied by the king, shouting the worsry of the hostile army. Edward, who was f.wakened by tliis sudden tumult, was informed by lord Hastings of the real cause of it, and urged tc. save him- self hy flight while there was still time for liini to do so. So well had the mnrquis of Montague timed his treacherous niciisure, that Edward liad barely time to make his escape on horseback to Lynn, in Norfolk, where he got on board ship and saih d from England, leaving Warwick so suddenly and rapidly master of the kingdom, that the fickle and hesitating Clarence had not had time for the change of sides he had con- templated, and which would now have been fatal to him. So sudden had been Edward's forced de- parture from his kingdom, that he had not time to take money, jewels, or any valua- bles with him; and when, after narrowly escaping from the Hanse towns, then at war with both England and France, he landed at Alcmaer, in Holland, he had no- thing with which to recompense the mas- ter of the ship save a robe richly lined with sable fur, which he accompanied with as- surances of a more substantial recompense should more prosperous times return. The duke of Burgundy was greatly an- noyed at the misfortune of Edword. Per- sonally and in sincerity the duke really pre- ferred the Lancastrian to the Yorkist house ; he had allied himself with the lat- ter solely from the politic umtive of being allied to the reigning house of England; and now that the Lancastrians were so tii- r. phant that even the cautious Vaucler, wlio had been confirmed by Edward in bis government of Calais, did not scruple to give that important i)lace up to Warwick, — a pretty certain proof that the Lancastri- ans were secure for some time at least — the duke was greatly perplexed by the ne- cessity he was under of invidiously giving a cold reception to a near connection who was sulfering from misfortune, or of being at the expense and discredit of supporting a penniless fugitive whose very misfortunes were in no slight degree attributable to his own want of .judgment. The flight of Edward from the kingdom was the signal for Warwick to give liberty to the unhappy Henry, whose confinement in the Tower had been chiefly the carl's own work. Henry was once more pro- claimed king with all due solemnity, and a parliament was summoned to meet him at Wistminster, whose votes were, of course, the mere echoes of the instructions of tlie now domii.aui faction of 'Varwick. Aa had formerly been agreed between War- wick and queen Margaret, it an now en- acted by the parlianicnt tlia Henry was the rightful and only king of England, but that his imbecility of mind reiidcred it re- quisite to have a regency, the )> wers of which were placed in tlic hands ot the duke of Clarence and the earl of Warwick dur- ing the minority of prince Euwa''d,nnd tlic duke of Clarence was declared heir to the throne failing the issue of that young prince. As usual, very nmcb of the time of the parliament was ocrupied in reversing tlie attainders which had been passed against Lancastrians during the prosperity of the house of York. In one respect, how- ever, this parliament and its dictator War- wick deserve considerable praise, — their power was used without that wholesal.' and unsparing resort to bloodshed by wiiieii such triumphs arc but too generally dis- graced. Many of the leading YorUis^ts, it A, I). 147(t. — nOTII Till! UIVAI, KINO* WRRB TUIS YRAB IN FRIRON, a i 2 i SI u 'i I „ i te : H g rwick. Aa (0 Avucn Wiir- = 1 aM tiow cn- ilpiiry wiiB (4 i ni^liuH , but 2 1 idereJ it re- ie ; )) ,wer8 of SI ■ lol t lie duke p: ! arwick diir- » 1 avd, luid the = 1 heir to the iJ that young < of the time u m revorsiug' u een passed e prosperity 1 ;Rpect, how- P ' ctiitov Wnr. V 1 nisc, — tliiir t whoh'snl.: ed l)v whieii < 1 1 ■ncrnlly dis- 1 Yorkists, it 1 N, __ A. U. 1-171. — EDWARD AGAIN TAKBS PUR8BSSI0N UF LONDON, AFttlt. 11. lEnglantJ — l^ouse of YotU.— lititonrtJ 3tF. ^51 is true, fled beyond sea, but still more of them were allowed to remain undisturbed in the sanctuaries in which they took re- fuge ; and among these was even Edward's queen, who was delivered of a son whom she had chrictened by the name of his ab- sent father. A. D. 1471. — Queen Margaret, who was, perhaps, somewhat less active tlian she had been in earlier life, was just preparing to return to England with prince Edward and tlie duke of Somerset, !4on to the duke of tliat title who was beheaded niter the battle of Hexham, when their Journey was rendered useless by a new turn in the af- fair of England; a turn most lanieninble to those Lancastrians who, as Philip de Comines tells us of the dukes of Somerset and Exeter, were reduced to absolute beg- sary. The turn of affairs to which we allude was mainly caused by the imprudence of the earl of Warwick, who acted towards the duke of Burgundy in such w ise as to compel that l)rince in sheer self-defence to aid the ex- iled Edward. The duke's personal predi- lections being really on the side of the Lancastrians, it rec|uired only a timely and prudent policy on the part of the earl of Warwick to have secured, at the least, the duke's neutrality. lUit the earl, laying too much stress upon the relationship between Edward and Burgundy, took it for granted that the latter must be a determined ene- my to the Lancastrians, and caused him to become so by sending a body of four tliou- sand men to Calais, whence they made very mischievous irrui)tions into the Low- Countries. Burgundy, fearing the conse- quences of being attacked at once by France and by England, determined to di- vert the attention and power of the latter by assisting his brother-in-law. Hut while determined so to aid Edward as to enable him to give Warwick's party abundant anxiety and tro,.bie, the duke was not the less careful to do so with the utmost at- tention to the preservation of friendly ap- pearances towards the English government. With this vi 'W he furnislied Edward witli eighteen vessels, large and small, together with a sum of money; but he hired the vessels in the name of some mercliants, and still farther to mislead Warwick, or to give him a plausible reason l.)r pretending to be misled, no sooner had Edward sailed than the duke publicly forba-ie his subjects from aftbrding any aul or fountenancc to that prince either by laud or water. Edward in the mean time, with a force of two thousand nten, attempted to iand upon the coast of Norfolk, but was driven oil', and he tl'.en landed at Ri;vcnspur, in Yorkshire. Perceiving that liere too, from the care which Warwick had taken ti, till the magistracy with his own partiznns, the Lancastrian narty was far the most popular aii(l powerful, Edward adopted the policy which had formerly so well served the duke of l,anca.,ter, and issued a proclama- tion in whieli he solemnly avered that he had landed witliout any intention of chal- lenging the crown or of disturbing the na- tional peace, but had come solely for the purpose of demanding the family posses- sions of the house of York, to which he was incontestably entitled. This affected mo- deration caused great numbers to join his standard who would not have done so had he openly avowed his intention of endea- vouring to recover the crown ; and he spee- dily found himself possessed of the city of York and at the head of an army sufti- ciently numerous to promise him success in all his designs ; while his chance of suc- cess was still I'artiicr inci eased by the un- accountable apathy of the marquis of M(m. tngne, who, though he had the command of all the forcer, in the north, took no steps to cheek the movements of Edward, though iie surely could nut have been unaware how important and dangerous they were. Warwick was more alert, and having as- sembled a force at Leicester he prepared to give battle to Edward, who, however, con- trived to pass him and to make his way to London. Had Edward been refused ad- mittance here, nothing could have saved his cau-ie from utter ruin ; but he had not taken so bold a step without carefully and, as it proved, correctly calculating all his chances. In the first place, the sanctua- ries of London were tilled with his friends, who he well knew would join him ; in the next place, he was extremely popular with the ladies of London, and indebted fo their husbands for sums of money which tii.^y could never hope to receive unless he should succeed in recovering the crow n ; and in the third place, Warwick's brother, the archbi- shop Oi' York, to whom the government of th(! city was entrusted, gave a new instance of I lie facile and shameless treachery which disgraced that time, by entering into a cor- respondence with Edward, and agreeing to betray and ruin his own hrothi r. Being admitted into the ci.y of London, Edward made himself master of the person of the unfortunate Henry, who thus once more passed from the throne to the dun- geon. Though many circumstances gave ad- vantage to Edward, the earl of Warwick was by no means inclined to yield without a fairly stricken flehl, and having collected all the force he could raise he stationed himself at Bariiet. Here he was doomed to the deep mortiticatiou of fully expe- riencing the ingratitude and treachery of Clarence, who suddenly broke from his quarters during the night, and made hii way over to Edward with twelve thousand of Warwick's best troops. Had Wdrwick listened to the dictates of prudence he would now have closed with the offers of a peaceful settlement which were made to him by both Edward and Clarence ; but he was thoroughly aroused and enraged, and he resolved to put all consequences upon the issue of a general action. It commenced accordingly, and botli leaders and soldiers on each side displayed extraordinary valour. A mere accident gave a decisive turn lo the long uncert'vin fortune of the day. The cognizance of the king was a sun, thai of A.D. 1471.— UBMRY II SCAHCKLY MDKRATKD WIIKN UB IS AOAIN IMPttlSONKn. / ml .•i I 1 1 i A. U. 1471>— Tlllt DATTI.H OP TKWKK8DUUY WAS ruUOIlT ON TilR 4rU 0» MAY. 252 tlTIje ^rcnsuvy of Tjistory, $it. ■i! ^ Warwick a ntar with rnyH divprKiiij; from it ; ami in the dense mist which prevailed durini; the hiittle tlic carl of Oxford was mistaken for a Yorkii«li leader, and he and his troopR were heaten from the ll(^ld with ■^ very great slun)(liter by their own friends. ^ This disaster was followed by the death of Warwick, who was slain while tii;htin|; on foot, ns was his brother Montague. The Lnneastrians were now completely routed, and Udwnrd givini; orders to deny quarter, a vast number were slain in the iinrsuit as well as in the battle. Nor was the victory wholly without cost to the conquerors, who lost upwards of fifteen hundred men of all ranks. As Warwick had determined not to make tern.s with Kdward, his best policy would have been to await the arrival of queen Margaret, who was daily expected from France, and whoso influence would have united all Lancastrians and probably have ensured victory. But Warwick, unsuspi- cious of Clarence's trciichery, felt so contt- deiit of victory, thai he was above r.ll things anxious that MnrKaret should not arrive in time to share bis anticipated elory; but thouyb be had on that account liurried on the notion, Marj^aret and her son, attended by n ainnll body of Krcneh, landed in Dor- setshire on the very day after the fatal arned Warwick's defeat and death, and the new eaptivity of her inveterately unfor- tunate husband ; and she was so inueh de- pressed by the information that Fhe took sanrt\i»ry at Keaulicu abbey. She was here visited and eneournxcd hy Tudiir, earl of Pembroke, Courtenny, carl nt' Devon- shire, and oilier men of rank and iiitluence, and iiiduecd to make a prop;iTss tliroujtb Devon, Somerset, and (iioiu'estershire. In this nci)(libourhood her cause appeared to be exei'ediii)fly popular, for every iliiy's march made a ctiiisiderahle addition to her force. She was at length overtaken at Tewkes- bury, in (iloueeslershire, by lidwanrHanny ; and in the battle which ensued she was completely defeated, with the loss of aliout three thousand nii'U, amoiiji; wlioui were the earl of Di^voiiHlure and lord Wenlciek, who were killed in the tield, and tlie diiK-eof Somerset ami about a score mure persons of distinrtinn who, having taken siinetaary in a church, were dragged out and Ik heiidcil. .Ainoiigllieprisimerswcrequeeii Margaret and her sim. I'hey were taken into the pre- sence of lid^ard, who sternly demimded of theyoungpriiieeou what ground be had ven- tured to invade lingland. The high spirited boy, regarding ratlier the fortunt! to which he was born tii.in the powerless and perilous sitiialion in which the adverse- lortiiiie of war bad placed him, boldly and imprudently reiilied that he had eonie to Kngland for the riglitl'iil purpose of claiming his just in. beritaiiec. This answer so nineli enra;ced Kdward, that he, t'drgetl'iil alike of decency and ni'-rcy, struck the youth in the face with his gauntletted diaiiil. As llioiigh tills violent act had been a preconeerted i signal, the dukes of (Jioueester and Cla- rence, with lord Hastings and Bir Thomas Ora^, dragged the young prince into an nd- joining room and there dispatched him with their daggers. The unhappy Margaret was cominitled to close contineinent in the Tower, in which sad prison Henry had cx- fiired a few days after the battle of Tewkes- >ury. As Henry's health bad lonif been inlirin, it seems ipiito likely that bis death was natural, hut as the temper of the times mode violence at the least probable, Kd- ward caused the body to be exposed to pub- lic view, and it certainly showed no signs of unfair means. The cause of the Lancostrians was now extinguished. The princes of that house were dead, the best and most devoted of its friends were either fugitive or dead, and Tudor, carl of I'cmbroke, who had been raising forces in Wales, now disbanded them in utter despair, and sought safety, with his nephew, the carl of Uichmond, in Brittany. The last effort was made hy the bastard of Faleonberg, who levied forces and advanced to Loudon ; hut be was de- serted by bis troops, taken prisoner, and executed. Udward, now wholly triumphant sum- moned a parliament, which compliantly sanctioned his deeds ; and all dangers being now at an end, he resumed the jovial and dissipated life to which be owed no small portion of that popularity which would, most probably, have been refused to a prince of a bigiier east of character a):d of more manly and dignilied bearing. Kdward, however, was soon recalled from his iiidiilgcnee in pleasure, by the necessity for attending to his foreign intufests. He was by no means unconscious of the cold and constrained reception that bad been giv('n to bini in bis adversity by the duke of Burgundy ; but considerations of inter- est now led Kdward to make a league with the duke against the king nt' France. By this league it was provided that Kdward should cross the sea with not fewer than ten thousand men for the invasion of France, in which he was to be joined by the duke of Burgundy with all the force he could command. The objects proposed hy the allies were to acquire for ICngland tlie provinces of Noriiiaudy and (iuienne, at least, and if possible the crown of France, to w liieli Kdward was formally to challenge the right ; while the duke of llurgiindy was to obtain (Hianipaguc, with some farther territory, and the freedom for his hereditary territories from all fi'udal superiority on the part of France. Their league seemed tlie more likely to be successful, heeaiise they had good reason to hope for the e jovial nnd od no pninll ■liich would, efiiHcd to u meter and of etiiUcdfrom 111! necessity tyrestH. lie of tlic cold it bnd been by tlie duko )n8 of inter- loaKUfi wilb V'rance. Uy hat I'Mward fewer than invasion of oined by the be force be proposed by l'',ni|;lnnd tbe (iuienne, at n of Franc(!, to cliallcn}!;e uritiindy was ionie fartbcr is bereditary iority on tbe seemed the lecause they he eo-openi- »nd they biul I'oiiiit of St. ire, mid held lilt places on hem w hen lire to exeilc iMilllish p.ir- he kili|^ two rents, and ii I'l.Aaiils. A. O. 147c. — Till KINO ARCOMFANIVD TUB JUDOBS Or ARBICB. a Si I » 'JEnglantr.— Ijouse of YorE.-IEtJtoartJ lEF. 253 flfteenth and three quarters of a fifteenth ; but this money was to he kept in rehgious houses, and returned' to the contributors in the event of the expedition against France not takinfi; place. From this stringent care of the money we may perceive how inunh the commons of UHi;land bad increased, both in power and in the knowledge how to make efllcient and prudent use of it. A.D. 147.'i.— 80 popular was the king's project against France, that all the power- ful nobles of England offered him their aid and attendance ; and instead of the stipu- lated ten thousand men, he was enabled to land at Calais with fifteen thousand archers and fil'tecu hundred men-at-arms. Itut to J'Mward's great annoyance, when he en- tered France be was disappointed by the count of St. Pol, who refused to open bis gates to him, and by the duke of Burgundy, who, instead of joining Edward with all his forces, bnd employed them against the duke of Lorraine and on the frontiers of (tcrmany. This circumstance, so fatal to Edward's views, arose out of the fiery tern- Ecr of Burgundy, who personally apologized, ut at the tame time confessed thnt it would ho ininossible for him to make his troops availaole to Edward for that cam- paign. Louis XI., that profound nolitician who thought nothing mean or degrading which could aid him in liis views, no sooner learned the disappointment which had be- fallen Edward, than he sent him proposals of peace j and a truce was easily concluded betwen them, Louis paying seventy-five thousand crowns dovtn, and agreeing to pay two-thirds of that sum annually for their joint lives, and to marry the dauphin, when of age, to Edward's daughter. The two monarchs met at I'cenuigin to ratify this treaty; and the precautions which wiiro taken to prevent the possibility of assn.ssi- nation on either side give us but a.l'iw notion of the honour by which either prince wns r.i \ lated himself or suoposcd the othrr to h.v 'i'nere was one clause of this treaty — otherwise so disgraceful to Louis, — which was highly creditable to the French king. By it he stipulated for the safe release of the unfortunate Margaret, for whose ran- som Louis consented to pay fifty thousand crowns. She was released accordingly, and until her death, which occurred in HH2, she lived iii complete seclusion from that world in which she had formerly played so coa- spicuous and so unfortunate a part. There wns in the charnctcr of Edward a certain cold and stubborn severity which made it no easy matter to re r his fa- vour after he had once been 01. >d. His brother Clarence, much as be had done in tbe way of trenolierv towards bis unfortu- nate fntbcr-in-law, was far enough from being really restored to Edwurd'Knonfidenec and favour. The brooding dislike of the king was the more fatal to riarercc t'rom that unfortunate prince havn.g iii\i>niu>;iitly given deep offence to the queen niid to liis brother the duke of Gloster, a priii ,■ v ho knew not much of truth or of reinoi ^'■ ihcn be had any scbeme of ambition or violence to carry. Well knowing the rash and open temper of Clarence, his formidable ene- mies determined to act upon it by attack- ing bis friends, which they rightly judged would be sure to sting him into language that would ruin him with his already sus- picious and oll'ended king and brother. It chanced that as the king was hunting nt Arrow, in 'Warwickshire, he killed a white buck which was a great favourite of the owner, a wealthy gentleman named liur- dett. Provoked by the loss of his favourite, the gentleman passionately exclaimed thnt he wished the buck's horns were stuck in the belly of whoever advised the king to kill it. In our settled and reasonuble times it really is no easy matter to uiulerstand how — even bad the speech related, as it did not, to the king himself— such a speech could by tbe utmost torturing of language be called treason. But so it was. Burdctt bad the misfortune to be on terms of faniilar friend- ship wilb the duke of Clarence ; nnd he was tried, condemned, and beheaded at Tyburn for no alleged offence beyond these few idle and intemperate words. That Clarence might hove no shadow of doubt that he was himself aimed at in the persons of his friendo, this infamous niuider was followed by tliat of another friend of the duke, a clergyman named Htueey. He was a learned man, and far more proficient than was common in that half barbarous age in astronomy and mathomatiral studies in ge- neral. The rabble got a notion that such Irariiii.^i; must needs imply sorcery ; the jio- pular rumour wns adopted by Clnrenee's enemies, and the umoriunate Stncey wos tried, tortured, and executed, some of the most eminent peers not scrupling to sanc- tion these atrocious proceedings by their prcKcnce, As the enemies of Clarence bai aiifieipatfd, the persecution of his friends aroused hr.n to an imprudent though gener- ous indignation. Instead of endeavouring ti) secure himself by n close reserve, lie loudly and boldly inveighed ngainst the in- justice of which his iriends had been the victims, and bore testimony to their iniio- rencn nnd honour. This was precisely what the enemies of the duke desired; the king was insidi.iusly urged to deem the com- "laints of Clarence insulting and injuriims 10 him, as implying his participation in the alleged injustice done to the duke's friemis. A. 1). 147H. — The unfortunate duke wns now fairly in the toils which had been set for him by his enemicL". He wns committed to the Tower, and n parliament has spe- cittUy summoned to try liim for treason, 'i'he treasons alleged against him, even bad they been proved by the most trustworthy evi- dence, were less treasons than mere petulant speecheB. Not n single overt act was even alleged, far less proved against him. Hut the king in per.son prosecuted him, nnd the slavish jiarliamciit sbamelesiily pronounced him guilty ; the commona nddiiig to tiicir vilcness by both petitionin^r !'»..• the duke'a exeeii'ion nnd nassing'a bill of attainder Bgninst iiiin The dreadfully severe temper ;ii Tni CQUMTBY WAB AT TUI8 TIMK OVBRIIUN WITH GANQI OP noOBKRS. ■V(l A.D. 1482.— EDWARD TOOK BBBWICX, AND MABCRBO TO EDINBVBSH. 254 ^^c ^rcaaurp of 1|(»iore, $cc. ., Jii w 113 " ■ I, ■B'T III ", .( ,1 !!■ o a » < M K M a H a M M l-l a ■< H H H H o IH o I I of Edward required no such vile prompting. Tiiere was little danger of his showing mercy even to a brother whom he had once fairly learned to hate I The sole favour that he would grant the unhappy duke was that of being allowed to choose the mode of his death ; and he made choice of the strange and unlieard-of one of being drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine, which whimsically tragic death was accordingly inflicted upon him in the Tower of London. A.D. 1482.— Louis XII. of France having broken liis agreement to marry the dauphin to the daughter of Edward, this king con- templated the invasion of France for the purpose of avenging the affront. But while he was busily engaged with the necessary preparations he was suddenly seized with a mortal sickness, of which he expired in the twenty-third year of his reign and the forty- second of his age. Though undoubtedly possessed of both abilities and courage, Edward was disgrace- fully sensual and hatefully cruel. His vi- gour and courage might earn him admira- tion in times of difficulty, but his love o<^ effeminate pleasures must always preclu.ie him from receiving the approbation oi !iie wise, as his unsparing cruelty must al'Vays ensure him the abhorrence of the gocd. CHAPTER XXXIV. The Reign of Edward V. A. D. 1483. — From the time of the niav- riage of Edward IV. with the lady Eliza- beth Gray the court had been divided into two fierce factions, which were none the less dangerous now because during the life of Edward the stern character of that king had compelled the concealment of their enmities from him. The queen herself, with her bro^.ier the earl of Rivers and her son the 'iiarquis of Dorset, were at the head of t'v; one faction, while the other in- cluded nearly the whole of the ancient and powerftil nobility of the kingdom, who na- tm-o'.iy were indignant at the sudden rise nr.'X exceeding ambition of the queen's fa- r.'ily. The duke of Buckingham, though i,e lad married the queen's sister, was at the head of the party opposed to her family influence, and he was ymilouslyri.d strongly supported by the lon.b /f astu sr^i, Stanley, ind Howard. When Edward IV. feVc that his end was approaching he sent for these noblemen and entreated them to su^noi L the authority of his youthful son ; but no sooner was Edward dead than the leaders of both factions en- deavoured to secure the chief interest with the heartless and ambitious duke of Glos- ter, whom Edward IV. most fatally had named regent during the minority of Ed^ ward the Fifth Though Glor.ter was entrusted with the rei^enry of the kingdom, the care of the young prince was confided to his unci* the carl of Rivera, a nobleman remarkable in tli;it rude ago for his literary taste and talents. Tlie queen, who whs very anxious to pres(!rve over her son the same great in- fluence she had exerted over bis father, ad- vised Rivers to levy troops to escort the king to London to be crowned, and to pro- tect him from any undue coercion on the part of the evxemies of his family. To this step, however, lord Hastings and his friends made the strongest and most open opposi- tion ; Hastings even going so far as to de- clare that if such a force were levied he should think it high time to depart for his government of Calais, and his friends adding that the levying such a force would be the actual recommencement of a civil war. Gloster, who had deeper motives than any of the other parties concerned, affected to think such force needless at lea^jt, and his artfnl professions of deter- mination to afforj the young king all need- ful protection «o completely deceived the queen, that cliu altered her opinion and re- quested her brother to accoiupany his ne- phew to London with only such equipage as wau befitting his high rank. When the young king was understood to be on his road, Gloster set out with a nu- merous retinue, under pretence of desiring to escort him honourably to London, and was joined «t Northampton by lord Hast- ings, who also had a numerous retinue. Rivers, fancying that his own retinue added to the numerous company already assembled at Northampton would cause a want of accommodation, sent young Ed- ward on to Stony Stratford, and went him- self to pay his respects to the regent Glos- ter at Northampton. Rivers was cordially received by the duke of Gloster, with whom and Buckingham he spent the whole even- ing. Not a word passed whence he could infer enmity or danger, yet on the following morning as he was entcrinj; Stony Stratford to join his royal ward, he was arrested by order of the duke of Gloster. Sir Richard Gray, a son of the queen by her first mar- riage, and sir Thomas Vaughan, were at the same time arrested, and all three were immediately sent under a strong escort to Ponti'fract castle. Having thus deprived the young king of his wisest and most zealous protector, Gloster waited upon him with every out- ward show of kindness and respect, but could not with all his art quiet the regrets and fears excited in the prince's mind by the sudden and ominous arrest of his kind and gcid relative. The queen was still 5\..;.c alarmed. In the arrest of her brother she saw but the first step made towards the ruin of herself and her whole family ; and she immediately retired to the sanc- tuary of Westminster, together with the young duke of York and the five princesses, trusting that Gloster would scarcely dare to violate the sanctuary which had proved her eflicicnt defence against the worst fury of the Lancastrian faction during the worst times of her husband's misfortunes. Her confidence in the shelter she had chosen was naturally increased by the considera- tion, that whereas formerly even a famil. oppiised to hers by the most deadly and inii;iitigable hostility was not tempted to ; ■»' 'i J A.D. 1482. — THOMAS FARR DORN 1 III LIVED TILL UB WAS \o2 TEARS OLD. ft THOUGH KOVABD T. ASCBHOBO THB TBBOMB, HB WAS IIBVBB CBOWMBD. 9 s o Q H ither, ad- icort the d to pro- a on the To this is friends n opposi- as to de- levied he epart for IS friends rce would of a civil r motives oncerned, tedless at of deter- all need- leived the on and re- .ny his ne- equipage [erstood to with a nu- uf desiring indon, and lord Hast- 18 retinue, n retinue ny already lid cause a young Ed- went him- igent Glos- ,8 cordially with whom vhole even- e he could e following y Stratford arrested by Vii Richard r first mar- ,n, were at three were g escort to ing king of protector, every out- espect, but the regrets j's mind by of his kind was still her brother ide towards ole family ; I) the sanc- r with the princesges, arrely dare had proved s worst fury ig the worst uncR. Her had chosen eonsidera- n a fnnii'.. deadly and tL'iaptcd to S OLD. lEnglanTJ*— Itouac of York — ^lEBtDattr U. 265 violate the sanctuary, she had now to dread only her own brother-in law, while her son, fast approaching the years which would en- able him to terminate hia uncle's protecto- rate, was the king. But in reasoning thus the queen wholly overlooked the deep and dangerous nature of her brother-in-law, whose dark mind was daring enough for the most desperate deeds, and subtle er ough to suggest excuses fit to impose even upon the shrewdest and most cautious. Oloster saw that the continuance of his nephew in sanctuary would oppose an insurmountable obstacle to his abomi- nable designs ; and he at once devoted his powers of subtlety to the task of getting the young prince from that secure shelter without allowing the true motive to appear. Making full allowance for the power of the church, he represented to the archbishops of Canterbury and York, that the queen m in some sort insulted the church by abusing, to the protection of herself and children against the dangers which existed only in her imagination, a privilege which was in- tended only for persons of mature years having reason to fear grievous injury on ac- count of either crime or debt. Now, he argued, could a mere child like the brother of their young king be in anywise obnoxious to the king, of dangers for which alone the right of sanctuary was instituted? Was not the church as well as the government concerned in putting a stop, even by force if necessary, to a course of conduct on the part of the queen which was calculated to possess mankind with the most horrible suspicions of those persons who were the most concerned in the king's happiness and safety? The prelates, ignorant of the dark designs of Gloster, and even of his real nature, which hitherto he had carefully and most dexterously disguised, could scarcely fail to agree with him as to the folly of the queen's conduct, and its utter needlessness for securing her son's safety. But, careful of the privileges of the church, they would not hear of the sanc- tuary being forcibly assailed, but readily agreed to use their personal influence with the queen to induce her voluntarily to abandon alike her retreat and her fears. The prelates had much difficulty in in- ducinir the queen to allow the young duke of York to leave her and the protection of the sanctuary. Hia continuance there she again and again affirmed to be important, not only to nis own safety, but to that of the young king, against whose life it would appear to \n' both useless and unsafe to strike while his brother and successor re- mained in safety. In reply to this, the pre- lates, sincerely though most mistakenly, assured her that she did bui deceive herself in her fears for either of the royal brothers. But perhaps their strongest argument was their frank declaration that the seclusion of the you'jg u^'nce was so offensive both to the duke of York and the council, that it was more than possible that even force might be resorted to should the queen re- fuse to yield the point. Dreading lest fur- ther opposition should but acceler..tc the evil that she wished to avert, the unhappy queen at length, with abundance of tears and with lamentations which were but too prophetic, delivered the young princc'up, bidding him, as she did so, farewell for ever. Possessed of the protectorate, which the council, on account of his near relation to the throne, had at once conferred upon him without waiting for the consent of par- liament, and now possessed of the persons of the young princes, Gloster seems to have deemed all obstacles removed to his bloody and treacherous purpose ; though to any less uncompromising and daring schemer there might have seemed to be a formida- dable one in the existence of numerous other children of Edward, and two of tlie duke of Clarence. The first step of Gloster in his infamous course was to cause sir Richard Ratcliffe, fi tool well worthy of so heartless and un- sparing an employer, to put to death the earl of Rivers and the other prisoners whom he had sent to Pontefract castle, as before named; and to this measure the tyrant had the art to obtain the sanction of the duke of Buckingham and lord Hastings ; whom subsequently he most fittingly re- paid for their participation in this mon- strous guilt. Gloster now quite literally imitated the great enemy of mankind — he made this first crime of Buckingham's, this participa- tion in one murder the cause and the justi- fictttion of farther crime. He pointed out to Buckingham that the death — however justifiably inflicted, as he affected to consi- der it — at their suggestion and command, of the queen's brother and son was an of- fence which a woman of her temper would by no means forget ; and that however im- potent she might be during the minority of her son, the years would soon pass by which would bviug his majority ; she would then have access to him and influence over him ; and would not that influence be most surely used to their destruction ? Would it not be safer for Buckingham, aye, and better for all the real and antique nobiiity of the kingdom, that the offspring of the comparatively plebeian Elizabeth Gray should be excluded from the throne ; and that the sceptre should pass into the hands of Gloster himself — Gloster, who was so indissolubly the friend of Buckingham, and so well affected to the true nobility of the kingdom ? Safety from the consequences of a crime already committed and irrevoca- cable, with great and glowing prospect of rich benefits to arise from being the per- sonal friend, the very right hand of the king, albeit a usurping king, were argu- ments precisely adapted to the comprelien- sion and favour of Buckingham, who with but small hesitation agreed to lend his aid and sanction to the measures necessary to convert the duke of Gloster into king Richard III. Having thus secured Buckingham, Olos- ter now turned his attention to lord Ilns- BVCKINOUAH AND OLOSIKK WRI«B DOTU Ol' HOY.VI, ni.OUIl. ii is^-'^lM. * i' mm iii":ra .! r J :i A. D. 1-tSJi. — GL08TBU AND TUH J.OnDS DO IIU3IAGK TO KDWAIIO, MAY 4. 256 Vi1)t ^rcasunj of IMstorp, $cc. tings, whose influence was so extensive as to be of vast importance. Through the me- dium of Catcsby, a lawyer much employed by Gloster when chicaue seemed the pre- ferable weapon to actual violence, Gloster Bounded Hastings ; but that uobl>:mnn,wenk and wicked ns he had proved himself, was far too sincerely attached to the children of his Inte sovereign and friend to consent to their injury, lie not only refused to aid in the transfer of the crown from them, but so refused as to leave but little room for doubt that he would be active in his oppo- sition. The mere suspicion was suflicient to produce his ruin, which Gloster set about instantly and almost without the trouble of dis(i;uise. A council was summoned to meet Glos- ter at the Tower; and IlnstinRS attended with as little fear or suspicion a.s any other member. Gloster, whose mood seems ever to have been the most dangerous when his bearing was the most jocund, chatted fa- miliarly witli the members of the council as they assembled. Not a frown darkened his terrible brow, not a word fell from his lips that could excite doubt or fear; who could have supposed that ho was about to commit a foul murder wlio was sufHcicnlly at ease to compliment bishop Morton upon the size and earliness of the strawberries in his. garden at Ilwlborn, and to beg that a dish of them might be sent to him f Yet it was in the midst of such li^ht talk that lie left the council-board to ascertain that all his villainous arrangements vvern exactly made. This done, ho entered the room again with a disturbed and an;;ry counte- nance, and startled all present by sternly and abruptly demanding what punishment was deserved by those who should dare to iilot against the life of the uncle of the :ing and the appointed protector of tha realm. Hastings, really attached to Glos- ter, though still more so to the royal chil- dren, warmly replied tliat whoever should do so would merit the puuishraent of trai- tors. "Traitors, aye traitors !" said the duke, "and those traitors are the sorceress my brother's widow, and his mistress Jane Sliore, and others wlio are associated with them." And then laying hare lii» arm, which all present knew to Imve been shri- velled and deformed from his enrliei?t years, he continued, " See to what a condition they have reduced me by their abominable witchcraft and incniitations !" The mention of Jane Slinrc excited the first suspicion or fear in the mind of Has- tings, who, subscfiuent to the death of the late king, had been intimate with the beau- tiful though guilty woman of that name. "If," said Hastings, doubtfully, "they have done this, my lord, they deserve the severest punishment." "If!" shouted Gloster, "and do you prate to me of your i/s and nnds ? You are the chief abettor of the sorceress Shore; you are a traitor, and by St. Paul I swear that I will not dine until your head shall be brought to me." Thus speaking, he struck the table with his hand, and in an instant the room was tilled with armed men who had already re- ceived his orders how to act ; Hastings was dragged from the room, and beheaded on n lot; of wood which chanced to be lying in the court-yard of the Tower. In two hours after this savage murder, a proclamation was made to the citizens of London, apolo- gising for the sudden execution of Hastings on the score of the equally sudden discovery of numerous offences which the proclama- tion charged upon him. Though Gloster had but little reason to fear any actual out- break in the city, the lord Hastings was very popular there ; and not a few of the citizens, even including those who were the most favourable to Gloster, seemed to agree with a merchant who, noticing the elabo- rate composition of the fairly written pro- clamation, and contrasting it with the shortness of the time which had elapsed from Hastings's murder, shrewdly remark- ed that " the proclamacion might safely be relied on, /or it mas quite plain that it had been drawn by the spirit of propheey." Though the extreme violence of Gloster was fur the present confined to Hastings, as if in retributive justice upon his crime towards the victims of I'ontefract, the other councillors were by no means allowed to escape scot free. Lord Stanley was actually wounded by the poll-axe of one of the sol- diers summoned by the treacherous pro- tector, and only, perhaps, escaped being murdered in the very presence of that ty- rant by the more dexterous than dignified expedient of falling under the table, and re- maining there till the confusion attendant upon the arrest of Hastings had subsided. Ho was then, together with the archbishop of York, the bishop of Ely, and some other councillors whom Gloster hated for their sincere attachmetif. to the family of the late king, conveyed from the council room of the Tower to its too ominous dungeons. A new and a meaner victim was now es- sential to the dark and unsparing purposes of the protector. His connection of the miinlrred Hastings with the alleged sorce- ries of the late king's mistress, Jane Shore, rendered it necessary that he should ap- pear to be fully convinced that she was guilty of the crimes which he had laid to iii'r charge. The charge of witchcraft, that upon which he laid the most stress, was so utterly unsupported by evidence, that even the ignorance of the age and the power of Gloster could not get her convicted upon it ; but as it was notorious that she, a mar- ried woman, had lived in a d atrocious. The to be baffled by n to bend to his ng found a wore an of sir James It for one ninht ider to that per- On that fatal ed Slater, Digh- ; troduced to the young princes 1 peaceful sleep. ctims'Nvere smo- iins just named, > door while the petrnted, and, on ■ he burial of the staircase leading cccssary to mcn- oin which man's 8, however plain, en thrown upon guilt ; but the and the utmost lit idle when op- he present case ; te in opposition jade by the muv- )llowing reign. XXV. Ann III. only grasped the th the two clnini- .e most reason to , .hard now turned as strong a body by the distribu- • anxious was ho , _o forget all other ; Bnt usefulness of c stood in need, ^e upon powerful iswell as devoted the past and re- chard the most firm to his inle- ckingham. De- Woodstock, duke ■ of Riclmrd II. to the royal fa- cause he had a VN, JUNE 25. A. D. 1183. — PAHLIAMKNT CONflBMS TUB TITLI O* TUB NBW KIKO. lEnglanti.— "J^ousc of Yorli — iaicI;artJ 3EI1E. 259 claim upon a moiety of the vast property of lloliun, carl of Hereford, which moiety had long bcfii held by the crown under escheat. ISuckingham, though his wealth and ho- nours were already enormous, deemed that the services he had recently rendered to Uiclinrd gave him good ground to claim tlii^ property, and also tlie office of con- stttlilc of England, which had long been hereditary in the Hereford family. In the first exultation caused by his own success, so much of which was owing to Bucking- hiiin, Richard granted aU that nobleman Hsked, But on cooler' reflection Richard seoms to have imagined, that Buckingham was already as wealthy and powerful as a subject could be consistently » ith the safety of the crown, and though he virtually made a formal grant of tin; Hereford property, he took care to oppose insuperable difitcul- tics to its actual fulfilment. Buckingham was far too shrewd to fail to perceive the real cause of the property being withheld from him ; and ho who had so unscrupu- lously exerted himself to set up the usurper, now felt fully as anxious and resolute to aid in pulling him down. The fiagrancy of Richard's usurpation was such as to pro- mise every facility to an attempt to dethrone him, if that attempt were but headed by a man of adequate power and consequence. In truth, the very success of his usurpation was scarcely more attributable to his own daring and unprincipled wickedness than to the absence of any powerful opponent. i;ven the lowest and meanest citizens of liondon had rather been coerced into a pas- sive admission of his right to the crown than into an active support of it ; and now that the duke of Buckingham was convert- ed into an enemy of the usurper, the long dormant claims of the Lancastrians were pressed upon his attention, and not unfa- vourably looked upon by him. Morton, bi- shop of Ely, whom Richard committed to the Tower on the day of lord Hastings's murder, had recently been committed to the less rigorous custody of the duke of Buckingham, and, perceiving the duke's discontent, turned his attention to a fitting rival to oppose to the tyrant, in the person of Henry, the young earl of Richmond. Through his mother the young earl was heir of the elder branch of the house of So- merset ; andtlmugh that claim to the crown would formerly have been looked upon as very slight, the failure of the legitimate branches of the house of Lancaster now gave it considerable importance in the eyes of the adherents of that house. Even Ed- ward IV. had been so jealous of the earl of Richmond's claim upon the throne,, that after vainly endeavouring to get him into his power, he had agreed to pay a consider- able yearly sum to the duke of Brittany to keep the dangerous young noble at his court, nominally as a guest, but really as a prisoner. T'le very jealous, thus shown to- wards the young carl naturally increased the attention and favour of the Laneas- tiiiins; and it now occurred to the bishop Morton, and, from his reasonings to the duke of Buckingham, that Richard might be dethroned in favour of young Henry. But as the long depression of the house of Lancaster had diminished both the zeal and the number of its adherents, Morton with profound policy suggested the wisdom of strengthening the bonds of Henry, and at the same time weakening those of Richard, by the marriage of the former to king Ed- ward's eldest daughter, the princess Eliza- beth, and thus uniting the party claims of both families against the mere personal usurpation of Richard, who was deeply de- tested by the nation for his cruelty, and would consequently meet with no hearty 8uppor< uld he be openly opposed with even. Iiility of success. Yo unry's mother, the countess of Richui i, was informed by Morton and BuckingliiiuV-of their views in favour of her son; and the honour intended for him was too great to allow of any hesitation on her ^art. Dr. Lewis, a physician who had, pro- tcssionally, the means of communicating with the queen dowager, who btill found shelter in the sanctuary of Westminster, knew that whatever might have been her fornicr prejudices against the Lancastrians, they instantly yielded to the hate and dis- gust with wliich she thought of the succens- ful usurper who had murdered her brother and three sons. She not only gave her con- sent to the proposed marriage, but also bor- rowed a sum of money which she sent to aid Henry in raising troops, and she at the f.Min time required him to swear to marry her daughter as scon as he could safely reach England. Morton and Buckingham having thus far met with success, began to exert themselves among their iufluentinl friends in the va- rious counties, to prepare them for a ge- neral and simultaneous rising in favour of the earl of Richmond w hen he should land ; and in this respect, too, their efforts met with an uneomnu)n success, the tyr.inny of Richard becoming every day more hate- ful to all orders of his trampled subjects. But guilt such as that of Richard is ever suspicious, even where there is no real cause for suspicion ; and the sudden acti- vity of various men of influence could nei- ther escape the sharpened observation of the tyrant, nor seem inexplicable to him on any other ground than that of treason against him. Well knowing that Bucking- ham was greatly addicted to political plot- ting, Richard with many friendly expres- sions invited the duke to court, where for some time he had been a stranger. AVhe- ther the king really sought a reconciliation with the duke or merely wished to obtain possession of his person does not clearly appear. The duke, however, who well knew with whom he had to deal, interpreted the king's message in the latter sense, and only replied to it by unfurling the standard of revolt in Wales at the moment when Richard was levying troops in the north. It happened most unfortunnttly for Buck- ingham, that just as he had marched his troops to tlie Severn, that river was so . * A.n. Mo3. — AN KXIF.NSIVR BIM, Ot ATTAINUKR TASSBD, NOV. U, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // 4. L A % 1.0 I.I 1^ IUl III 2.2 1.8 11.25 ■ 1.4 i 1.6 V] <^ n ^ ^1 / o 7 /A Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 %L? Ml? A. D. 1484. — BICHABD ESKPB HIS CBBI8TMAS IN IFLBNilOUB AT WBSTMISfBTBB. 260 ^f)t ^xeasutp of l^istorg, $cc. O f n •3 B N M 14 M « n M swollen in consequence of rains of almost unexampled copiousness and duration, as to be quite impassable. This unlooked-for check cast a damp upon the spirits cf Buckingham's followers, who were still far- ther dispirited by great distress from want of provisions. Desertions among them daily became more numerous, and Buck- ingham at length finding himself wholly abandoned, disguised himself in a mean habit and made nis way to the house of an old servant of his family. Even in this ob- scure retreat, however, he was discovered, and carried as a prisoner to the king, who was then posted at Salisbury. All the for- mer services rendered by the duke were for- gotten in the fact of his more recent ap- pearance in arms as the avowed enemy of the king, and he was immediatelv sent to execution. Several other though less emi- nent prisoners fell into the hands of Bich- ard, and were by him transferred to the executioner ; and one of these, a gentleman named- CoUingbdtume, is said to have suf- fered not for his direct and open opposi- tion to Richard, but for some miserable doggrel in which he made it a complaint that " The cat, the rat, and Lovel the dog, Rule all England under the hog." Stupid as this doggrel production was, its stupidity and the heinous offence of playing upon the names of Catesby and Ratcliffe, upon that of Level and upon the cognizance of the king, seem to have me- rited a somewhat less severe punishment than death I The bishop of Ely and the marquis of Dorset, to neither of whom would Richard have shown any mercy, were fortunate enough to escape from the king- dom. In the mean time the young earl of Richmond with a levy of five thousand men had sailed from St. Maloes, in igno- rance of the misfortune that had occurred to his cause in England ; and on arriving there be found that, for the present at least, all hope was at an end, and he sailed back to Brittany. A. n. 1484.— The politic Richard easily saw that the recent attempt to dethrone him had, by its ill success, and the severity with which he had punislied some of the chief actors in it, very considerably tended to strengthen his cause not in the affec- tions, indeed, but in the terrors of the peo- ple. Hitherto, being sensible of the fin- grant impudence as well as deep guilt of his usurpation, he had been well content to rest tiis right to the throne upon the tyrants' right, superior strength. But he judged that he now might safely call a par- liament without any doubt of its recog- nising his title. His anticipation proved to be ouite correct ; the parliament acted just as he vrished, echoed his words, granted him the usual tonnage and poundage for life, and passed a few popular laws. With the same purpose in view be now addressed himself to the seemingly difficult task of converting the queen dowager from a foe into a firiend. He saw that tne chief source of Richmond's popularity was his projected espousal of the pnncess Elizabeth, and he knew enough of human nature to feel sure that a woman of the queen dowager's tern- | per would be far from unlikely to prefer the union of her daughter with a king in fact, to her union with an earl who might never be a king at all. True it was that the princess Elizabeth was solemnly betrothea to his rival and foe, the earl of Richmond, and was related to Richard within the prohi- bited degrees ; but then Rome could grant a dispensation, and Rome was venal. Thus reasoning, Richard applied himself to the queen dowager, and met with all the success ; he had anticipated. Wearied with her : long seclusion from all pleasure and all ! authority, she at once consented to pve j her daughter to the wretch who had de- { prived her of three sons and a brother, and i was so completely converted to his inter- | ests that she wrote to her son, the marquis { of Dorset, and all the rest of her conneo^ I tions to withdraw tnm supporting Rich- ' mond, a piece of complaisance for which ' she paid rail dearly in tne next reign. I Flattering himself that no material dan- ' ger could assail his throne during the in- I terval necessary for procuring the dispen- | sation from Rome, Richard bow began to consider himself securely settled on the throne. But danger accrued to him even out of the very measure on which he i mainly rested for safety. The friends of the earl of Richmond now more than ever pressed him again to try his fortune in in- vading England, lest the dispensation from Rome should enable Richard to complete his project of marrying the princess Eliza- beth, which marriage would do so much to injure all the future hopes of the earl, as far as the sympathies of the people were concerned, in a union of the houses of York and Lancaster, Henry accordingly escaped from Brittany, where he deemed himself in danger from the treachery of the duke's confidential minister, and proceeded to the court of France. Here he was gnreatly aided by Charles YIIl., who had succeeded the tyrant Louis XI., and here too, he was joined by the earl of Oxford, who had escaped from the gaol into which Richard's suspicions had thrown him, and who now brought Henry most flatteriug accounts of the excellent chance he had trom the po- pular disposition in England. Richard in the mean time, unconscious or careless of the effect praduced. on the conduct of Richmond by thij expectation of the dispensation which was to allow Rich- ard to deprive him of his promised bride, triumphed in his fortune of having become a widower at only a short time before by ' the sudden death — so sudden that poison was suspected, but rather from the sudden- ness and from the general character of Richard than from anything like proofs of his vrife Anne, widow of that Edward, prince of Wales, of wh<' n Richard was the murderer. His actual and his proximate marittge must, in truth, have led him to belieVe that the murder of a lady's male re- A. n. 1484. — PBANCB BBBOLVBS TO AID TUB DUKB or niCBMONn. ITSB. ins CRUEL 4HD UBcnriiia richabd h*wt no lboitimatk lasux. projected I, and he feel sure ;er'«tem- , irefer the in fact, to lever be a I princeBt ea to his ond, and lie prohi- uld Krant lal. Thus elf to the leauccess ; with her : B and all i d to gite i ) had de- I other, and i his inter- I lemarqais I er connei^ ! ;ing Bich- for which ' eign. I terial dan- ngthe in> he dispen- r began to ed on the > him even which he friends of t than ever tune in in- lation from b complete cess Eliza- 10 much to be earl, as leople were aes of York ;ly escaped ed himself the duke's sded to the reatljr aided seeded the he was who had Richard's I who now tccounts of >m the po- nconsciouB ced. on the lectationof dlow Bich- ised bride, ng become before by hat poison he sudden- laracter of ke proof— A Edward, ird was the proximate led him to it's male re- M H f- (S M ►« H M ■< n »• o S M M A M H n m m H m s S u p 2 I m o 10, e M O IB HI o l» K H M H It O H O m » m M a IB m m or H B T lEnglantl.— Iloujse nf Yotli.— IRicfjartr 3E3I3E. 261 latives was anything rather than a bar to her favour I A. D. l-i85.— But while Richard was ex- ulting in triumph as to the past and in hope as to the future, Richmond with an army of two thousand men had sailed from the Norman port of Harlleur, and landed, without experiencing opposition, at Milford Haven, in Wales. Here, as he ex- pected, the zealous though unfortunate ex- ertions of the duke of Buckingham had greatly prepossessed the people in his fa- vour, and hia little army was increased by volunteers at every mile he marched. Among those who joined hin was sir Rice ap Thomas with a force with which he bad been entrusted by Richard; and even the other commander of the tyrant, sir Walter Herbert, made but a faint and inefficient show of defence for Richard. Thus strength- ened by actual volunteers, and encouraged by the evident lukewarmness of Richard's partizans, Richmond marched to Shrews- Dury, where he was joined by the whole strength of the great Shrewsbury family under sir Gilbert Talbot, and by another numerous reinforcement under sir Thomas Bourchier and sir Walter Ilungerford. Richard, who had taken post at Notting- ham, ab being so central as to aduit of his hastening to whichever part of the kingdom might earliest need his aid, was not nearly so much annoyed by the utmost force of his known enemies as he was perplexed about the real extent to which he could depend upon the good faith of his seeming friends. The duke of Norfolk Richard had reason to believe that he could securely rely upon ; but lord and sir William Stanley, who had vast power and influence in the north, were closely connected with Richmond's family. Tet while the usurper felt the danger of trusting to their professions of friendship and good faith, he dared not break with them. Compelled by his situation to au- thorize them to raise forces on his behalf in Cheshire and Lancashire, he endea- voured to deter them from arraying those forces against him, by detaining as a host- age lord Stanley's son, lord Strange. Though in his heart lord Stanley was de- voted to the cause of Richmond, the peril in which his son lord Strange was placed induced him to forbear from declaring him- self, and he posted his numerous levies at Athcrstone, so situated that he could at will join either party. Richard in this con- duct of lord Stanley saw a convincing proof that the hostility of that nobleman was only kept in check by the situation of his son; and judging that the destruction of the young man would be a spell of very different effect from his continued peril, the politic tyrant for once refused to shed blood when advised to do so by those of his friends who discerned the meaning of lord Stanley's delay. Trusting that lord Stan- ley's hesitation would last long enough to allow of the royal troops dealing only with the earl of Richmond, Richard approached the army of the latter nobleman at Uos- worth, in Leicestershire. The army of Richmond tvas only six thousand, that of \ Richard double the number. Both Richard and the earl fought in the main guards of their respective armies, which had scar ;ly charged each other ere lord Stanley led up his forces to the aid of Richmond. The effect of this demonstration was tremen- dous, both in encouraging the soldiers of the earl and of striking dismay into the already dispirited troops of Richard. Mur- derous and tyrannous usurper as he was, Richard was brave as a lion in the field. Perceiving that such powerful aid had de- clared for his rival, nothing but the death of that rival could give him any hope of safety for either life or throne; Richard intrepidly rushed towards the spot where Richmond was ordering his troops, and en- deavoured to engage >;tith him in personal combat, but while lighting with murderous vigour he was slain, after having dismounted sir John Chcyn£ and killed i>ir William Brandon, Richmond's standard bearer. The battle ended with the life of Richard, of whom it may with the utmost truth be said, that "nothing in his life became him like the leaving of it." Even while under his dreaded eye his soldiers had fought with no good will ; and when he felt they imme- diately took to flight. On the side of Richard, besides the tyrant himself, there fell about four thousand, including the duke of Norfolk, the lord Ferrars of Chart- ley, sir Richard Ratcliffe, sir Robert I'iercy, and sir Robert Brackenbury ; and Catesby, the chief confidant and most willing tool of Richard's crimes, being taken prisoner, was, with some miuor accomplices, beheaded at Leicester. Tlie body of Richard being found upon the field, was thrown across a miserable horse, and carried, amid the hooting and jeers of the people who so lately trembled at him, to the Grey Friar's church at Lei- cester, where it was interred. The courage and ability of this prince were unquestionable; but all his courage and ability, misdirected as they were, served only to render him a new proof, if such were needed, of the inferiority of the most brilliant gifts of intellect without honour and religion, to comparatively inferior talents with them. Low in stature, de- formed, and of a liarsh countenance, Rich- ard might yet have commanded admiration by his talents, but for his excessive and in- eradicable propension to the wicked as re- gards projects, and the bloody as regards action. CHAPTER XXXVI. The Reign of Hiinrt VII. A.D. 1485. — Tub joy of Richmond's troops at the defeat of Richard was proportioned to the hatred with which that tyrant had contrived to inspire every bosom. Long live king Henry the Seventh! was the ex- ulting cry which now every where saluted the lately exiled and distressed earl of Rich- mond ; and his victorious brow was bound with a plain gold coronal which had been BICBABD III. POUNniD AND IRCOBFOR ATKD THR SOCIBTT OV HBBALDS. A. D. I486.— TBI SBOfrif BBTTLBD UFOIf BINBT AMD HIS l»»V%, NOT. 7- 262 t!r^e tlTreasttVi) of 1|isiori), Sec. m » u M m m a M a h •Q M M fi H N H « O ■) M H Ik o H M fe: M H a «s 4 a •4 worn by Richard, and had been torn from the tyrant's forehead by sir William Stanley in peraonal combat with him when he fell. Though Henry, late earl of Richmond, and now, by poiieuion, king Henry VII., had more than one ground upon which to reet hi* claim, there was not one of those grounds which was not open to ebjection. The Lancastrian claim had ae*er been clearly established by Henry IV., and iftthe parliament had often supported the house of Lancaster, ,so the parliament had not less frequehtly— and with just as much ap- parent sincerity— paid a like compliment to the house of York. Then again, allow- ing the Lancastrian claim to be gfood ex I /ante, yet Richmond claimed only from the illegitimate branch of Somerset ; and again, allowing that claim to be ever so good, it in reality was now vested not in him but in his still living mother, the countess of Richmond. On the other hand, it was open to Henry to fix upon himself, by virtue of his mar- riage with the princess Elizabeth, the supe- rior and more popular title of the house of York ; but in this, so far as the York title was concerned, Henry could look upon himself only as a king consort, with the loss of his authority should his queen die without issue. The right of conquest he could scarcely claim, seeing that that conquest was achiev- ed by Englishmen. On the whole review of his case, therefore, Henry's obvious po- licy was to set for«'ard no one of his grounds of claim with such distinctiveness as to challenge scrutiny and provoke opposition, bmt to rely chiefly upon the strongest of all rights, that of possession, strengthened still farther by his concurrent circumstances of right, and maintained by a judicious po- licy at once firm and popular, watchful yet seemingly undoubting. In heart Henry was not the less a Lancastrian from his de» termination to link himself to the house of York, and strengthen himself by its means in the popular love. Of the Yorkish sup- Eort he was sure while connected with the ouse of York by marriage, but this far sighted and suspicious temper taught him to provide against his possible disconnec- tion from that house, and to give every " coign of 'vantage" to the Lancastrians, whose friendship was, so to speak, more germane to his iaentity. Only two days after the victory of Bos- worth field Henry gave a proof of the feel- ings we have thus attributed to him, by sending sir Robert Willoughby to convey the young earl of Warwick from Shehn Watton, in Yorkshire, where Richard had detained him in honourable and easy cap- tivity, to the close custody of the Tower of London. Yet this unfortunate son of the duke of Clarence, inasmuch as his title, however superior to that of Richard, was not hostile to the succession of either.Henry or his destined bride, might have reason- ably espeoted a more indulgent treatment. Having thus made every arrangement, present and prospective, which even his jealous policy could tiuggest, Henry gave orders for the princess Elisabeth being conveyed to London preparatory to her marriage. He himself at the same time approached the metropolis by easy joumies. Every where he waa received with the most rapturous applause ; which was the more ■incere and hearty, because while his per- sonal triumph was shared by the Lancas- trians, his approaching marriage to Elisa- beth gave a share of that triumph to the Yorkists, and seemed to put an end for ever to those contests betwen the rival houses which had cost them both so much suffering during so long a time. But even amidst all the excitement attendant upon the joy with which men of all ranks hailed their new sovereign, the cold, stern, and suspicious temper of Henry displayed itself at once offensively and unnecessarily. On his arrival at London the mayor and the civic companies met him in public proces- sion ; but as though he disdained their gra- tulations, or suspected their sincerity, he passed through tnem in a close carriage, and without showing the slightest sympa- thy with their evident joy. Though II "Dry well knew the importance which a great portion |of his people at- tached to nis union with the princess Eli- zabeth, and, with his customary politic carefulness, hastened to assure them of his unaltered determination to complete that marriage, and to contradict a report — founded upon an artful hint dropped by himself while he was yet uncertain of the issue of his contest with Richard— of his having promised to espouse the princess Anne, the heiress of Brittany, yet he de- layed his marriage for the present ; being anxious, tacitlv at the least, to affirm his own claim to the crown by having his co- ronation performed previous to his mar- riage. Even the former ceremony, how- ever, was for a time deferred by the raging of an awfUl plague, long afterwards spoken of with shuddering, under the name of the sweating sickness. The sickness in ques- tion was endemic, and so swift in its opera- tion, that the person attacked almost inva- riably died or became convalescent within four-and-twenty hours. Either by the skill of the medical men or by some sanatory alteration in the condition of the atmos- phere, this very terrible visitation at length ceased, and Henry was crowned with the utmost pomp. Twelve knights banneret were made on occasion of this ceremony ; the king's uncle, Jasper earl of Pembroke, was created duke of Bedford ; lord Stanley, the king's father-in-law, earl of Derby; and Edward Courtenay, earl of Devonshire. The ceremony was performed by cardinal Bourchier, archbishop of Canterbury, who had been so much aiding in Henry's good fortune. Even in the matter of his coronation Henry could not refrain from evidencing that constant and haunting suspicion which contrasted so strangely with his unques- tionable personal courage, by creating a body gnard of fifty-five men, under the M a tf •a (S o us A.D. 1 emony, how- ly the raging vards spoken name of the leas in ques- in its opera- almost luva- scent within T by the skill me sanatory r the atmos- ion at length ed with the is banneret 18 ceremony ; f Pembroke, lord Stanley, of Derby; Devonshire. bv cardinal terbury, who lenry's good coronation evidencing picion which his unques- creating a , under the ,30. S TUa CONDITION Or TBI LABOUaiNa roOK NOW OaiATlY IMPaOTBS. lEnslantl — l^ousc of ^uTJor.— I^entp U3EE. 263 title of yeomen of the guard. But lest the duty of this guard, that of personal watch and ward over the sovereign, should imply any of the suspicion he really felt, Henry affected to contradict any such motive by publicly and pointedly declaring this guard a permanent and not a personal or tempo> rary apppintment. Henry now summoned a parliament, and his partizans so well exerted themselves that a majority of the members were de- cided Lancastrians. Some of them, indeed, had been outlawed and attainted while the house of York was in the ascendant, and a question was raised whether persons who had been thus situated could rightfully claim to sit in parliament. The judges who were consulted upon this point had but little dificulty; it was easily to be dealt with as a simple matter of expediency. Accordingly they recommended that the elected members who were thus situated should not be allowed to take their seats until their former sentences should be re- versed by parliament, and there was of course neither difficulty nor delay experi- enced in passing a short act to that especial effect. This doubt as to the members of parlia- ment, however, led to a still more impor- tant one. Henry had been himself attaint- ed. But the judges very soon solved this difficulty by a decision, evidently founded upon a limitation of the power of a court or judicature from interfering with the suc- cession ; a power which, if such court pos- sessed it, might so often be shamefully per- verted by a Dad king to the injury of an obnoxious heir to the throne. The judges, therefore put a*-, end to this question by deciding " that the crown takes awav all defects and stops in blood ; and that nrom the time that the king assumed the royal authority, the fountain was cleared, and all attaints and corruptions of blood did cease." A decision, be it remarked, far more re- markable for its particular justice ihan for its logical correctness. Finding the parliament so dutifully in- clined to obey his will, the king in his open- ing speech insisted mpon both his heredi- tary right and upon his " victory over his enemies." The entail and the crown was drawn in equal accordance with the king's anxiety to avoid such special assertion on any one of his grounds of claim as should be calculated to nreed disputation j no men- tion was made of the princess Elisabeth, and the crown was settled absolutelv and in general terms upon the king and the heirs of his body. It forms rather a remarkable contrast to the general reserve and astuteness of the king, that he, as if not content with all the sanctions by which he had already fortified his possession of the crown, now applied to the pope for a confirming bull. This applica- tion, besides being liable to objection as an impolitic concession to the mischievous and undying anxiety of Rome to interfere in the temporal affairs uf nations, was still farther impolitic as showing; what Henry ought of all things the most cautiously to have con- cealed—his own misgivings as to his title. Innocent VIII. the then pope, was delight- ed to gratify Ileury and to interfere in his temporal concerns, and he immediately obliged him with a bull in which all Henry's titles to the crown were enume- rated and sanctioned, and in which excom- munication was denounced against all who should disturb Henry in hia possession, or his heirs in their succession. It consisted at once with justice and with tonnd policy that Henry should reverse the numerous attainders which had been passed against the Lancastrians. But he went still farther, and caused his obsequious Sarliament to pass attainders against the eceased Richard, the duke of Norfolk, the earl of Surrey, the visconnt Lovel, the lorBs Ferrard of Chartles, and upwards of twenty other gentlemen of note. There was a something of the absurd added to very much of the tyrannical in these sweeping attainders. Richard, usurper though he was, nevertheless was king de faeto, and those against whom these attainders were passed thus fought /or the king, and against the carl of Richmond, who had not then even assumed the title of king. The at- tainders were farther impolitic, because they greatly tended to weaken the confi- dence of the people in the total oblivion of the quarrels of the rotet; to which confi- dence Henry ought to have been mindftil that he owed no small portion of security and popularity. Though Henry did not deem it expedient to add to the numerous demands he had so successfully made upon this obsequious parliament, it volimtarily conferred upon nim the perpetuity of tonnage and pound- age, whicli had been just as complacently conferred upon the deceased Richard. By way of compensation for the spiteful seve- rity with which he had treated the leading friends of the deceased king, Ilenrv now proclaimed grace and pardon to all who should by a certain day take the oaths of fealty and allegiance to him. But when the earl of Surrey, among the multitude whom this proclamation drew iVom their sanctuaries, presented himself to the king, he was, instead of being received to grace, immediately committed to the Tower. Be- sides rewarding his immediate supporters by creating Chandos of Brittanv, earl of Bath; sir Giles Daubenv, lord baubeny; and sir Robert Willoughby, lord Broke ; the king bentowed upon the duke of Buck- ingham, who so fatally to himself had em- braced H Jury's cause, a sort of posthumous reward i a making restitution of the family honours and great wealth to Edward Staf- ford, th i duke's eldest son. Mor'on, who had so ably and under such perilous circumstances proved his friend- ship to Henry, was restored to the bishopric of Ely, and he and another clergyman. Fox, now made bishop of Exeter, were the mi- nisters to whom Henry gave hia chief confi- dence. Hume thinks that Henry's prefer- ence of clerics to laics, as his confidential SUITS " IN rOUMA FAUrBHIS" WiaB INTRUOUCBD IN THIS IlEION, ' \ I ■ ' ., ■ , ,. - A.D. 1486. — A THBBB IBAKS' TBVCB WITH FBAKCB COMCLUOEO, JAN. 18. t ( 264 ^l^e ^reasurs of l^tstori), Sec. adviiers, arose from his narrow and calculat- ing turn, their promotion from poorer to richer bishoprics affording him the means of stimulating and rewarding their zeal less onerously to himself than could have been the case with laymen of rank. But Hume seems here to have laid a somewhat undue weight upon Henry's general character, and so to have mistaken his motives to a particular tranvction : Henry, though per- sonally brave, was emphatically a lover of peace ; he preferred the conquest of the in- tellect to the conquest of the sword. He was himself, so to speak, intellectually of a clerical mould. The learning and the in- tellectual mastery of the day were chiefly in possession of the clergy ; and we need look no deeper than that fact to account for his preference of them, that fact suffici- entlv proving that they were best adapted to the cautious, tortuous, thoughtful, and deep polity which he from the Brst deter- mined to follow. A. D. 1486. — Henry's em[>hattc declara- tion of his unaltered intention to espouse the princess EliEabeth did not wholly quiet the apprehensions of the people upon that head. The parliament, even when showing its trustfulness of him and its zeal for his pleasure in granting him the tonnage and poundage, expressed strong wishes upon the subject; and though they concealed their real motives under a general declara- tion of their desire that they should have heirs to succeed him, his own comparative youth must have sufficed to convince so as- tute a person that the parliament had other and stronger reasons for its anxiety. This very conviction, however, was but an addi- tional reason for his hastening to comply ; and the nuptials were now celebrated with a pomp and luxury surpassing even those which had marked his coronation. The joy of the people was conspicuously greater iu the former than it had been in the latter case; and to the brooding and anxiously suspicious mind of Henry this new and plam indication of the warmth of affection with which the house of York was still looked upon by a great portion of his sub- jects, was to the highest degree painful and offensive. Publicly his jjolicy prevented this from appearing, but in his domestic life it caused him to treat the queen with a harshness and coldness which her amiable temper and the extreme submissivencss of her bearing towards her husband by no means appear to have deserved. Soon after his marriage Henry deter- mined to make a progress through the northern counties, in the view of awing some and conciliating the rest of the parti- zans of the late king and his house, who were more numerous in that part of the kingdom than elsewhere. He had already reached Nottingham when he received in- formation that sir Humphrey Stafford, his brother, and the viscount Lovel had left the sanctuary at Colchester, in which they had found shelter since the battle of Bos- worth field. Unheeding, or at any rate not fearing the consequences of this movement, he continued his progress to York, where he learned that viscount Lovel, with a forse three or four thousand strong, was march- ing to York, while another army, under sir Humphrey Stafford and his brother, was hastening to besiege Worcester. The up- rising of such enemies at the very moment when he was in the centre of precisely that part of England which was tlie most disaffected to him might have paralysed an ordinary mind; but the resources of Henry's intellect and courage rose in ac- cordance with the demands on them. The mere retinue with which he travelled form- ed no mean nucleus of an army, and he ac- tively and successfully engaged himself in adding to their numbers. The force thus raised was of necessity but ill found in either arms or the munitions of war; and Henry therefore charged the duke of Bed- ford, to whem he entrusted the chief com- mand, to avoid any instant general engage- ment, and to devote his chief exertions to weakening Lovel by seducing his adherents by promi«es of pardon. This policy was even more successful than Henry could have anticipated. Conscious of the great effect which the king's offers wire likely to produce upon rude minds, already by no meant zealous in the cause which they had embraced, Lovel was so terrided with the thought of being abandoned, and perhaps even made prisoner by his motley levy, that he fairly ran away from his troops, and after some difficulty escaped to Flanders, where he was sheltered by the duchess of Burgundy. Abandoned by their leader, Lovel's troops gladly submitted to the king in accordance with his offers of mercy ; and the utter failure of this branch of the re- volt BO terrified the revolted who were be- fore Worcester, that they hastily raised the sic'^e of that place and dispersed. The Staffords, thus deserted by th^r troops and unable to find instant means of escaping beyond sea, took shelter in the church of Colnham, near Abingdon. It turned out, however, that this church was one which did not possess right of sanctuary, and the unfortunate Staffords were dragged forth. The elder was executed as a traitor and re- bel at Tyburn ; the younger was pai'doned on the ground of his having been misled by his elder brother, who was presumed to have a guatt paternal influence over his mind. To the joy which the dissipation of this threatening revolt diffusea among the friends of Henry was now added that ex- cited by the delivery of the queen of a son and heir, on whom was conferred the name of Arthur, both in compliment to the in- fant's principality of Wales, and in allusion to the pretended descent of the Tudor* from the far-famed prince Arthur. The success of the king iu puttinj; an end to the late revolt had arisen chiefly from the incapacity of Lovel for the task he had ventured to undertake ; and there was still a strong under-current of ill-feeling towards the King, to which he was daily, though, perhaps, unconsciously, adding A. D. 1486. — nBNRi's MAnaiitoR witb blizabuth bolbmnibbd, jam. 18. .18. fork, where with a force was march- ly, under »ir irother, wai ;r. The up- ery moment of precisely aa the most (0 paralysed resources of ! rose in ac- 1 them. The ftvelled form- ly, and he ac- d himself in le force thu» ill found in of war ; and iuke of Bed- te chief com- neral engage- ; exertions to his adherents is policy was Henry could > of the great i wftre likely to | already by no fhich they had rifted with the I, and perhaps I motley levy, his troops, and d to Flanders, the duchess of their leader, :ed to the king of mercy ; and mch of the re- l who were he- stily raised the isperaed. The i^r troops and ns of escaping the church of It turned out, vas one which ituary, and the dragged forth, traitor and re- was pardoned g been misled was presumed lueuce over his A. D. 1-136.— A TBDCI XNTiaBD INTO WITH ICOTIiAND rOB TBBBB 1BABS. id lipation of this ^d among the added that ex- queen of a son ferred the name nent to the in- and in allusion of the Tudors Lrthur. I in putting an d arisen chieily for the task he and there was t of ill-feeling he was daily, iously, adding , JAN. 19. lEnglantr.— llottse o< ^utfot T^tnxv ITSIE. 265 strength. To the texation caused by Henry's evident Lancastrian feeling, as manifested by his severities to men of the opposite party, and especially by his stem and harsh treatment of the queen, much more vexa- tion was caused by the sufferings of many principal Yorkists from4he resumption by the crown of all grants made by princes of the house of York. This resumption was made by Henry upon what appears really to have been the just plea that it was abso- lutely necessary for the remedy of the great and mischievous impoverishment of the crown. This plea has all the more appear- ance of sincerity from the fact that oy the very same law all the grants made during the later years of Henry VI. were resumed ; a resumption which injured not Yorkists, hut Lancastrians. But losing men ore rarely reasonable men ; and as the balance and injury was heaviest on the side of the Yorkists, they saw in this a new proof of the Lancastrian prejudice of Henry, which had caused him to imprison in " Julius' bloody tower," in the very place where his unfortunate cousin had been butchered, the young earl of Warwick. Faction is de- prived of none of its virulence or activity by an admixture of pecuniary interests ; and those who were injured by the resumption of grants were not ill disposed, as events soon proved, to countenance, at the least, aught that promised to injure the gaoler of the earl of Warwick and the harsh spouse of the princess of the house of York, who, merely because she was such, was still un- crowned, though the mother of a prince of Wales, and wholly irreproachable whether as qneen, wife, or mother. The great and growing unpopularity of Henry's government comDined with other circumstances to suggest to a priest of Ox- ford one of the most remarkable and auda- cious impostures recorded in our history. The priest in question, Richard Simon, well knowing how strong the Yorkist feel- ing among the people was rendered by the king's unpopular manners and mea- sures, formed a plan for disturbing Henry by bringing forward, as a pretender to the crown, a very handaome and graceful youth named Lambert Simnel. This youth, though he was only the son of a baker, added great shrewdness and address to his external advantages; and Simon doubted not, by careful instruction, of being able to form this youth to personate Richard, duke of York, the younger of the murdered princes, whose escape from the Tower and from tlie fate of his elder brother had become a matter of rather extensive belief. But while Simon was carefully giving young Simnel the necessary instructions and information to enable him to support the part of the duke of York, a new rumour prevailed that the earl of Warwick had escaped from the Tower. " On this hint spake the priest ;" the name of the curl of Warwick would be as good to conjure with as that of Richard, duke of York ; and Simnel was now in- structed in all such particulars of the life I and family of young Warwick as would be necessary to enable him to bear the ques- tioning of the friends of that family. So excellently was the young impostor "cram- med " for his task, so well informed did he afterwards appear to be upon certain points of the private history of the royal family, that could by no means have come within the observation of an obscure priest like his instructor, that shrewd suspicions were entertained that certain of the royal family of York must themselves have aided in pre- paring the youth for his mission of impos- ture. The queen dowager was among the Sersonages thus suspected. She ana her aughter were both very unkindly treated by Henrv, and the dowager was precisely of that Dusv and aspiring turn of mind which woula render neglect and forced in- action sufficiently offensive to prompt the utmost anger and injury; and she might safely promote the views of the impostor in the first place, in the full confidence of being able to crush him whensoever he shoiud have sufficiently served the views of herself and of her party. Aware that, after all the pains he had taken to prepare the apt mind of his pro- mising young pupil, manv chances of dis- covery would exist in England which would be avoided by commencing their nefarious proceedings at a distance, Simon determined to lay the opening scene of his fraudulent drama in Ireland. In that island War- wick's father, the late duke of Clarence, was remembered with the utmost aOfection on account of liis personal character, as well as of his many public acts of justice and wis'lom while he had been governor. The same public officers now held tlieir situations there who had done so under Clarence, and under so many favourable circumstances Simon, probably, could not better have chosen the scene of the first act of his elaborate and very impudent im- posture. Ilcnry, on getting the alarming intelli- gence from Dublin, consulted with his mi- nisters, and among the first measures taken was that of seizing upon all tlie pro- perty of the queen dowager, and closely confining her in the nunnery of Bermond- sey. This rigorous treatment of the queen dowager, occurring, too, at this particular time, seems to leave no doubt that she had been discovered to have materially aided the imposture of Simon and Simnel. The alleged reason of the king for tlius severely dealing with one with whom he was so closely connected, was her having shown so much favour to the deceased tyrant Richard, as to place herself and her daughters in his power when she was safe within her sanctuary, and to consent to his marriage with the princess Elizabeth. But it was quite clear to every man of dis- cernment, that the king's subsequent mar- riage to the princess was a complete con- donation of all that had previously passed between him and the dowager which could materially offend him; nor was he of a temper so long to have suffered his avarice and his vengeance to remain in abeyance. A. D. 1487.— A TBKATY OF COMHBBCB CONCLUHBD WITH TnB tOW COURTniBS. [2 A u A. D. 1487.— TBI COU«T OF STAR-CnAMDKR rinST ■STABLIIBSD. 266 ^i)e ^reasnrc of l^istott), 8ct. had that really heen the ground of his of- fence. That he disliked, not to say hated, his mother-in-law, bad long been certain ; and it seems no less so, from his present eroceedingwitb respect to her, that ne now ad discovered reason to fear her, as being importantly aiding and abetting in an im- posture, which had been eminently success- ful in Ireland, and which he was by no means sure would not be equally so in Eng- land. Having securely guarded against any future mischief from the queen dow- ager, by thus consigning her to a poverty and seclusion which terminated onlv with her life, the king now gave his English sub- jects the very best possible proof of the im- pudence and falsehood of Simnel's assump- tion of the title and character of the earl of Warwick, by producing that unfortunate young nobleman himself at St. Paul's, and causing many persons of rank who had in- timately known him to have free conversa- tion with him ; and thus not only demon- strate that the pretensions of Simuel were false, but also tliat they were even founded upon a false report, the earl's escape from the Tower, which Simon ami his abettors had too hastily believed on the strength of popular rumour, never having actually taken place. In London and in England generally this judicious measure was comuletely decisive of the popular belief; and all who were ac- quainted with the king's tortuous mind, easily understood that he himself had caused the rumour of the young earl's escape, for the purpose of saving lumself from being importuned to release hmi, and also to prevent any plots being formed for that purpose. Henry's bold temper would probably have prompted him to go over to Ireland, carrying with him the real Warwick. But, in the first place, he knew that the consum- mate assurance of Simon and his friends had led them, even after their imposture had become a mere mockery in England, to protest that the real Warwick was the youth in their company, and that the War- wick whom Henry had so ostentatiously produced was the only impostor. And, in the next place, Henry from day to day had information which made it quite certain that too many powerful people in England were his enemies, and inclined to aid the impostor, to render it safe for him to be absent from the kingdom for even a brief space of time. He therefore resolved to await the farther proceedings of the im- postor, and contented himself with levying troops, which he placed under the command of the duke of Bedford and the earl of Oxford, and throwing into confinement the marquis of Dorset, not on account of any actual overt act, but lest he should be in- clined to treason by the hard measure which had been dealt out to his mother, the queen dowager. Having pretty nearly worn out their wel- come in Ireland, and having, besides nu- merous Irish adventurers, been supplied by the dowager duchess of Burgundy with •bout two thousand veteran Oennant headed by a veteran commander, Martin Schwartt, Simon and Simnel made a land- ing at Foudrejr, in Lancashire, not doubt- ing that the Yorkists, whom they knew to be so numerous in the northern counties, would join them in great numbers. In this respect thev were grievously disap- Sointed. The well known courage and con- uct of the king, the general impression even among the Yorkists of England that Simnel was a mere impostor, and the ex- cellent military arrangements and large military force of the king, caused the inha- bitants of the northern counties either to look on passively, or to manifest their loy- alty by joining or supplying the royal armV, John, earl of Lincun, son of John de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, and of Elizabeth, eldest sister of Edward IV., had for some time past been residing with the king's bitter enemy, the dowager duchess of Bur- gundy ; and he now appeared at the head of the mingled crew of impostors, rebels, and their foreign and hireling mercenaries. This nobleman perceiving that nothing was to be hoped from anv general rising oT the people in favour of the pseudo earl of War- wick, resolved to put the fate of the cause upon the issue of a general action. The king was equally ready to give battle, and the nostile torces at length met at Stoke, in Nottinghamshire. The rebels, conscious that they fought with halters around their necks, fought with proportionate despera- tion. The action was long and sanguinary ; and though it at length terminated in fa- vour of the king, his loss was far more ex- tensive than coiud have been expected, con- sidering }-is advantage of numbers and the ability of his oflicers. The loss on the side of the rebels, also, was very great. The earl of Lincoln, Broughton, and the Ger- man, Schwartz, were among four thousand slain on that side; and as the viscount Lovel, the runaway of the former and less sanguinary revolt who also took a part in this, was missing and never afterwards heard of, it was supposed that he, too, was among the slain. Both the impostor Sim- nel and his tutor Simon fell into the hands of the king. The priest owed hii life to his clerical character, but was sentenced to pass the whole remainder of it in confine- ment ; and Henry, both mercifully and wisely, signified his contempt of the boy Simnel, by making him a scullion in the royal kitchen. In this capacity, better suited to his origin than the part the priest had so uselessly taught him to play, Simnel conducted himself so humbly and satisfac- torily, that he was afterwards advanced to the rank of falconer, a rank at that time very far higher than could ordinarily be at- tained by one so humbly born. Havingfreed himself from a danger which had at one time been not a little alarming, Henry now turned his attention towards making it, as he loved to make every thing, a source of profit. Few perished on the scattbld for this revolt, but vast numbers were heavily lined for their having taken » o n n o h e M Q «s H K as M H >J m o a •< * H M M n < m u i ■< H n P> O M O O u H H n MANY STATUTES WERE PASSED AOAINST UNOAGING RETAINUBS. u A.D. 1488.— IM THIS TIAB THB CAFK O* OOOB HOfl WAI DiaCOTHaSD. }ennani Martin ) a land- it doubt- knew to :oantieS| leri. In [y ditap- and con- ipreMion and that ithe ex- ,nd large the inha- either to their ley- )yalarniT. ohn de la ilicabeth, I for tome he king's 18 of Bur- , the head >rs, rebels, trcenaries. >thinK was ing of the irl of War- the cause tion. The battle, and kt Stoke, in conscious round their te despera- angainary; ated in fa- ir more ex- )ected,con- ers and the on the side [reat. The d the Ger- ir thousand le viscount er and leas k a part in afterwards le, too, was postor Sim- > the hands i« life to his ntenced to in confine- cifully and of the boy llion in the •ity, better ■t the priest ilay, Simnel nd aatisfac- ndvanced to _tt that time aarily be at- Jinger which le alarming, on towards every thing, bed on the at numbers iving taken 11 o n H B H lEnglantf.— l|ousc of ^utjor.— l|enrt) VM.. 267 part in it. And lest the mulcture of actual combatants should not sufficiently enrich the royal treasury, Henry cauaed all to be fined who were proved to have given cir- culation to a rumour, which had aomehow got into circulation before the battle of Stoke, that the rebela were viclorioua, and that Uenry himself, after aeeing hia frienda cut to piecea, had only secured liis safety by flight. To our modern notiona, the mere crediting and reporting of such a statement seems to be somewhat severely nuniahed by heavy pecuniary fine ; but Henry, perhaps, thought that in moat of the caaes " the wiah waa father to the tliougbt," and that many who had given circulation to the report wo'Jd not have been violently grieved had it .urned out to be " prophetic, though not true." Warned by much that had reached hia ears during the abaurd but miachievoua career of Simnel, Uenry now determined to remove at leaat one cauae of dissati^tuction, by having the queen crowned. Thia was accordingly done-, and to render the cere - mory the more acceptable to the people in general, but eapecially to the Vorkiats, Henry graced it by giving liberty to the young marquis of Dorset, aon of the queen dowager. CHAPTER XXXVII. The Reign qf Hbnby VII, fcontinuedj. A. D. 1483. — Hbkrt'b steadfast style of administering the affairs of hia kingdom, and the courage, conduct, and facility with which he haa delivered himself from the dangeroua plota and revolts by which he had been threatened, acquired hint much conai- deration, out of hia own dominiona aa well aa in them. Of thia fact he was well aware, and internal peace now aeeming to be per- manently aecured to him, he prepared to exert hia influence abroad. The geographical eircumatances of Scot- land rendered it inevitable, that ao long aa that kin(;dom remained politically independ- ent of England, the former muat alwaya remain either an open and troublesome enemy, or an nnaafe, because insincere, I friend to the latter. The character of I James III. who now filled the Scottiah I throne, was precisely of that easy and indo- I lent cast which, while it encouraged atnr- I bulent nobility to waste the country and i vex the people, would have encouraged a I king of England addicted to war and con- i quest merely for their own sake, to prose- cute war with Scotland in the aaaured truat I of making a final and complete conaueat. I But Henry, though he could look with un- blenched cheek upon the moat sanguinary j battle-fteld, waa profoundly aenaible of the bleasinga of peace. He therefore now aent ambaasadora to Scotland to propose a per- manent and honourable peace between the \ two countries. James on his part would j have well liked to conclude sucn a peace, , but hia noiniity had other views, and all : that came of this embassy was a somewhat : sullen agreement for a seven years' truce ; but it must have been evident to a far less keen observer than Henry, that even that truce would be very likely to be broken, should the breach be invited by any pecu- liarly unfavourable circumstances in the situation of England. With this truce, however, sullen and insincere as the Scot- tish temper very evidently was, Henry de- termined to content himself; and from Scotland he now turned his attention ti> France. Louis XI. was some time dead, and his son and heir was too young for rule, espe- cially in a kingdom more than any other in Europe obnoxious to disturbance from the turbulence and ambition of powerful vassals. But Louis, a profound }udge of human dispositions and talents, had well provided for the juvenile incapacity of hia aon, by committing the care of the king- dom, during his minority, to his daughter Anne, lady of Beaujvu, a princess of mas- culine talents and courage. This lady be- came involved in many and serious disputes with Brittany, which disputes were greatly fomented by the duke of Orleans, and so far involved France with other provinces, that at this time the lady of Beaujeu felt that the issue of the struggle in which she was engaged, greatly, almost entirely, de- pended upon the part which might be taken by the powerful, prosperous, and sagacious king of England. The subjection of Brit- tany by France seemed quite certain did England not interfere ; and AnueofBcaujeu sent ambassadors to England, ostensibly with the chief purpose of congratulating Henry on his success over Simnel and the partisans of that misguided youth. The real purpose of this embassy was, in fact, to engage Henry to look on without inter- fering, while his benefactor, the duke of Brittany, should be plundered of his terri- tory. Henry, who well understood that, and who really wished to serve the duke of Brit- tany, but who mortally hated the expense of war, ondeavc.ired by polity and media- tion to put Li inA to the strife. As will be seen in : ': History of France, both mediation and .v -,rtare were tried in vain until the year 14<) . when the young duchess of Rennes being besieged in Rennes by the French, was compelled to surrender, and restored the duchy to peace by giving her hand to the French monarch. This termination of an affair in which he had lost the benefit of much thought and money, by not being more liberal ooth of money and vigour, vexed Henry exceeding- ly ; but, with a most philosophic greed, he resolved to turn even his failure to profit. The loas of independence to Brittany really affected Uenry very deeply, and the more so as he had been in some sort cut-general- led by Charles VIII. of France. But it was Henry's care to appear more deeply hurt than he really was, and he loudly and pas- aionately declared hia intention of going to war. He well knew that the acquisition of Brittany to France was to the last degree offensive to the people of England, and a war with Franco proportionally popular; o M A.D, 1489.-- MAFB AND CHARTB VIBBT BR0I20BT INTO BMOLAND BT COlDMBUa. 1 1 A.D. 1490.— IIVIBAL •■N>riCIAI< ACTS WRBB FAStBD OVBINft TMII •BIGN. 268 ^^e ^ceasurn of l^istor^, ^c. and he took his meaiurea accordingly, lie issued a commiMion for the raisinff of a benevolence, which apeciei of tax had, how- ever, been formally and poaitWelv abolished by a law of the tyrant Richard, though now 80 coolly laid on by a king who wdbld have deemed it strange had he been called a tyrant. Of the extent of the extortion— for it waa no better — practised upon this occa- sion, some notion may be formed from the fact, that London alone contributed up- wards of 10,U00{. Morton, the chancellor, and now archbishop of Canterbury, was disgrHcefully pleasant upon the occasion, directing the commissioners to take no excuse ; if men lived handsomely and at ex- pence it was only fair to conclude that they must be wealthy, and if they lived after s mean and miserly fashion, it'was equally sure that their means must be hoarded I The dilemma is not always a figure of logic even for a chancellor ; the archbishop's dilemma had one horn very faulty, for it is quite certain that badness of trade and oppressiveness of taxation might make many a man live meanly, from sheer neces- sity, nho, nevertheless, would far rather have furnished his table with viands than his strong box with gold. Having raised all that he could by way of benevolence, that is to say, by a violence expressly for- bidden by a law made even during the reign of a bad king, Henry now proceeded to summon his parliament together, fur the purpose of seeing how mucli more money could be extracted in a more regular way. Still keeping in view the warlike character of his people, and their recent and deep vexation with France, Henry now appealed to the national feelings in a speech to par- liament, which is so curious a specimen of the art of being eloquently insincere, that we transcribe Hume's summary of the speech. He told them that " France, elated with her late successes, had even proceeded to a contempt to England, and had refused to pay the tribute which Louia XI. had stipulated to Edward IV; that it became so warlike a nation as the English to be roused by this indignitv, and not to limit their pretensions merely to repelling the present injury. That, for his part, he was determined to lay claim to the crown itself of France, and to maintain by force of arms so just a title transmitted to him by his gallant ancestors. That Cressy, I'oitiers, and Agincourt were sufflcient to instruct them in their superiority over the enemy, nor did he despair of adding new names to the glorious catalogue. That a king of France had been prisoner in London, and a king of England had been crowned in Paris ; events which should animate them to an emulation of like glory with that which had been enjoyed by their fore* fathers. That the domestic dissensions of England had been the sole cause of her losing these foreign dominions, and that her present internal union would be the effectual means of recovering tliem ; that where such lasting honour waa in view, and such an important acquisition, it be> came not brave men men to repine at the advance of a little treasure ; and that, for his part, he was determined to make the war maintain itself, and hoped by the inva- sion of ao opulent a kingdom aa France, to increase rather than to diminish the richea of the nation." How profoundly Henry teema to have known human nature I How skilfully does he appeal to the vanity, the fierceneaa, tlie high courage, and the cupidity so inherent in man's heart ! " Warlike nation," "just title," " gallant ancestors," " Cressy, I'oi- tiers.and Agincourt," " lasting honour," and " important acquisition," how admirably are they all pressed into the service, in the precise places where best calculated to act at once upon the good and the evil feelings of those whom he addresses I And then, with what a sublime contempt of all filthy lucre does he not dehort " brave men" from caring about " the advance of a little trea- sure I" If all men were gifted with the iar sight of La Rochefoncault into the human heart, perhapa auch a speech as this of Henry would defeat itself by the very excess and exquisiteness of its art. But all men are not so gifted, and never waa man better aware of that fact than Henry waa. He knew the instruments he had to work with, and he worked accordingly. Though there were many circumstances in the state of Europe which ought to have made the iparliament chary of advancing hard cash for a war with France ; though that country was now strengthened by the very feudai fiefs which had so fatally weakened it when the gallant ancestors of Henry had deeply dyed with French blood those fatal fields, to which Henry so proudly and so effectu- ally alluded ; though even on the very edge of England, to wit, in Scotland, a new and warlike monarch, James IV. had succeeded to the indolent James III. and was so much attached to the interest of France, that he was nearly sure to evince his attachment by making war on England whenever Henry should lead the flower of England's forcea to the ahorea of France, the parlia- ment hailed Ilenry'a boaatful promises with delight. Two fifteenths were readily voted to him, and an act was paased to enable the nobility to sell their eatatea ; by which Henry accomplished the double purpose of having wealthy volunteers to defray many unavoidable expences, and of greatly dimi- nishing that baronial power whicli even yet trod closely upon the kibes of English royalty. A. D. 1492.— Aa Henry had anticipated, many powerful nobles, inflamed with a de- sire of making in France rich territorial ac- quisitions, such as their Norman ancestors had made in England, availed themselves of his politic act, and sold or pawned their broad lands to raise troops for the invasion of the Gallic Dorado. So well, in short, were Henry's well-feigned desires seconded, that on the 6th of October in this year, he was enabled to land at Calais, with a splen- didly equipped army of twenty-five thousand SBBUB OP GIFT, IF FBAUnULBNT TO CBBDIT0R8, RBKDBBBD TOln. H M K O M O >4 ►< IB ■4 lOR. se at the I that, for make the the inva- 'rnnce, to the richei ■ to have Ifully doea enesi, tlie D inherent in," "ju»t resijr, Poi- nour," and admirably ice, in the ated to act ril feelings And then, )f all filthy men" from little trea- e iar sight [man heart, I of Henry excess and ill men are nan better r was. He ,d to work f. Though in the state e made the hard cash hat country very feudal led it when had deeply fatal fluids, so effectu- le very edge , a new and d succeeded as so much ice, that he attachment whenever : England's , the parlia- omises with eadily voted d to enable ; by which purpose of iefray many reatly dimi- which even of English anticipated, 1 with a de- irritorial ac- m ancestors themselves ^wned their the invasion 11, in short, es seconded, his year, he vithasplen- ve thousand A. D. 1491.— TBB oaiSK LANOUAOB rl«8T INTBODDCID INTO KNOtAIfD. m o n .4 O H M m t> O H •a < O M N H H O u o u m "o m »• o H K < m o > m K M ■ n K B M l« O •I O r. M a I a •i lEnglantl.— I^ouae of CuTJot.— I^cnxp UEE 269 infantry and sixteen hundred cavalry, the whole commanded, under the king himself, by the earl of Oxford and the duke of Bed- ford, and officered by some of the very ttrst men in England. Many a bright dream of avarice and of nobler ambition was dreamed among that mighty host; but like other splendid dreams, those dreams were as fal- lacious and short-lived as they were bril- liant. The truth is, that, nobly as the king had denounced wrath to France and pro- mised wealth to England, he had from the very first not the slightest intention of firing a gun or drawing a sword. His ob- ject was, simply, to obtain money ; the only sincere part of his speech was that in which he professed his nope of making the war maintain itself; and he so managed the affair, with both friend and foe, that he really did make the war not only pay its own expences, but contribute a very hand- some surplus to the royal treasury. It was whispered among shrewd men, that October was a singular season at which to invade France, if a real war of conquest was intended. Henry heard or guessed this rumour, and he hastened to contradict it, by professing his conviction that to conquer the whole of France would not cost him a whole summer, and that as he had Calais for winter quarters, the season of his arrival was a matter of perfect in- difference. Tet at the very time that Henry made this boast, which would have been marvel- lously silly and vain-glorious had it not been entirely insincere, and made only for an especial and temporary purpose, a secret correspondence for a peace had for some time been carried on by Henry and the king of France. The landing of Henry in France, with a numerous and well-appointed army, had, as he had foreseen, greatly strength- ened the desire for peace on the part of the king of France, and commissioners were now very speedily appointed to settle the terms. Any other man but Henry would have been much puzzled for even plausible rea- sons by which to account to his subjects for BO early and suddenly- agreeing to treat for peace, after making such magnificent promises of a war of actual conquest ; pro- mises, too, which had caused so many of his subjects very largely to invest their for- tunes in his service. But to Henry this was no difficult matter. He had repre- sented himself as sure of large aid from the Low Countries ; he now caused Maximi- lian, king of the Romans, to send to inform him that such aid could not then be fur- nished. Spain, too, was at war with France, and Spain suddenly received the counties of Rousillon and Cordagne, and concluded peace with France 1 These alterations in the state of affairs would naturally suggest some alteration in the proceedings and hopes of Henry I He gave full time for the circulation of the news through his camp, and then he caused the marquis of Dorset, and numerous other nobles in his confidence, to petition him to do precisely what he bad from the first intended to do — to make a treaty with France ! Strangely enough, too, thev were made to allege in their petition, that very lateness of the season which the king had so recently af- firmed to be utterly without importance, and the difficulties attendant upon the siege of Boulogne, which he had only just com- menced, and which no one with a particle of common-sense could ever have supposed to be an undertaking without its diffi- cultiei I Henry, with well-feigned reluct- ance, smffered himself to be persuaded ; and France bought peace by the payment of seven hunued and forty-five thousand crowns down, and a pension of twenty-five thousand crowns yearly. Well indeed might the mnney-loving Henr^ consider, now, that between the contributions of his subjects and those of France, the war had indif- ferently well maintained itself. Scarcely had Henry concluded this sin- gularly cool and as aingularly successful endeavour to convert a glaring political blunder into a means of raising a large sum of money, than he was once more called upon to defend his throne against a daring and impudent pretender. The duchess of Burgundv, whose hatred of Henry was by no means decreased by the ease and perfect success with which he had baffled the designs of Simnel, once more en- deavoured to disturb Henry's throne. She caused it to be given out, that Richard, the young duke of York, escaped from the Tower when his young brother and sovereign was murdered by Richard, duke of Glostcr, who afterwards usurped the throne. Improbable as it was that the younger of the two bro- thers should have escaped from the mon- strous and unsparing murderer of the elder, the tale was eagerly and credulously list- ened to by the people, who seem to have received no warning from the former im- pudent imposture of Simnel. Perceiving that the fund of public credulity was far from being exhausted, the duchess eagerly looked around her for some youth qualified to sustain the part of that young duke, of whose approaching re-appearance emissa- ries were now instructed to hold out ex- pectations. The youth she desired soon presented himself in the person of Perkin Warbeck, the son of a christianized Jew. Young Perkin was born during the reign of the amorous monarch Edward IV. who was a frequent visitor to the house of the weal- thy Jew. This circumstance, and the sin- gular likeness of young Perkin tu the king, had occasioned not a little scandalous re- mark as to the actual parentage of the boy. The youth, who had removed with his father to Tournay, the native country of the latter, was subsequently thrown upon his own resources, and caused by the change of fortune to visit a variety of places ; and travel had thus added its benefits to those of nature and the advantages of a good education. The youth was naturally very quick witted and uf graceful manners, and the singular likeness he bore to Ed- ward IV. was thus rendered the more re- n A. D. 1492.— TBK DINBVOLVNCa PAID DT LONOON WAS 9,682{. 17>. 4d. [2JZ if M' -US A.O. M93.— TUB MOOBI ARB DBITIN OUT OF OBBNAOA TBI! TBAB. 270 ^l^c ^rcasuri) of l^istorn, $cc. morkable, especialljr when, having been in- troduced to the ducheis of Burgundy, and by her initructed in the part it wni desired that he ihould play, he deaignedly made the utmoit diiplay of thote quaUties which hitherto he had enjoyed almost unconici- ouily. The rapidity and coinpletcnciii with which he mattered all that it was deemed ne- cessary to teach him deUghted the duchess, who, however, in order to give time for the reports of her emissaries to spread among tlie populace in England, sent the pseudo duke of York to Portugal under the care of ladv Brampton. From Portueal he was re- called en the breaking out of what Henry had called the "war" with France; and, as hit predecessor in imposture had formerly been, he was tent to make the first public essay of his powers of impudence in Ire- land. His success there was sufficient to cnuie a great intereit and curiosity not onl^ in England but also in France, to which country he was invited by Charles VIII., who received him with all the ho- nours due to distressed royalty, assigning him splendid apartments, and giving him a personal euard of honour, of which the lord Congresal was made the captain. The personal resemblance of young War- beck tu Edward IV., his graceful exterior and really remarkable accomplishments, added to the air of entire sincerity which Charles— with the politic design of embar- rassing Henry — affected in his treatment of the impostor as the genuine duke of York, rendered the imposition so far succes- ful, tliat upwards of a hundred gentlemen, some of them, (as sir George Nevil and sir John Taylor) of considerable eminence, ac- tually travelled from England to Paris to offer their swords and purses to the duke of York. In the midst of a tide of good success, which must have astonished iiimself more than any one, Warbeck met with an unex- pected check in consequence of the peace that was so suddenly concluded between France and England. Henry, indeed, on this occasion tried to induct the king of France to give Warbeck up to him; but Charles, with a degree of spirit which did him great honour, repUed, tnat no matter what was the real character of the young man, he ought to go free from France, to which Charles had himself invited him. Warbeck accordingly, to the great vexation of his friends, was dismissed from the court and kingdom of Charles; and he now made his first public appearance before the duchess of^ Burgundy, whose instructions he had hitherto so well obeyed. With a gravity which did infinite credit to her talents as an actress, the duchess, affecting to have been but too well instructed by Simnel's affair ever to give credit again to mere plausible stories, received Warbeck with a coolness which would speedily have terminated his suit had he been other than an impostor, and not quite as well aware as the duchess herself was of its motive. Well knowing that her ultimate counte- nance of hit pretensions would be valuable precisely in proportion to her seeming un- willingness, at the outset, to grant it, the duchess publicly and with much seeming severity questioned Warbeck upon his pre- tensions to the title of York. At question after question was answered with a correct- nest far beyond the power of any mere im- postor — of any impostor unless assisted, at Warbeck was, by the duchesi or tome other member of the royal family— the duchett, by admirably regulated grada- tiont, patsed from tcornful doubt and in- dignation to wonder, and from wonder to conviction and a rapture of delight, as, all her doubts removca, she embraced him at the ii;arisly preserved son of Edward, the true scion of the Plantagenents, the only rightful he'r to the throne of England, her own loug lost and miraculously restored nephew I The scene, in short, was excel- lently performed, and was as pathetic to those who were not in the secret, at it at- turedly mutt have been wearisome to tbote who were. The duchess of Burgundy, having thus with difficulty and reluctance satisfied her- self of the truth of her »oi-disant ne- phew't pretensions, assigned him a guard of iionour, and not only intimated her desire that he should be treated with the utmott respect by all her court, but herself set the example, never mentioning him but with the honourable and endearing title of the white rose of England. A. b'. 1493. The English of high rank were not behind the Flemish populace in Siving credence to Warbcck's pretensions. Icn easily believe that which they have learned to desire; and the firm rule of Henry, and the great and obvious pains he took to depress the nobility, and to elevate, at their expense, the middle and trading classes, disposed very many men of poWer and consequence to assist Warbeck in the struggle he meditated for the English throne. Even sir William Stanley, who had done so much to secure Henry's elevation, now began to look with complacency upon his possible dethronement by the pseudo duke of York ; and si{ Robert Clifford ac- tually went to Flanders to join the pretender, and wrote thence that he could personally vouch that the youth in question was really that Richard, duke of York, who had so long been supposed to have been murdered by his uncle, the late king. The high rank and respectable character of Clifford made this assurance of his extensively and mis- chievously influential ; causing many, who would have disdained to assail Henry's throne for the sake of an impostor, to join in the wide-spreading conspiracy in favour of the supposed duke of York. In these circuinstancet the king*! bett safeguard was his own politic and vigilant temper. Well served by his numerous spies, both in England and on the continent, he was thoroughly informed of every impor- tant step that was taken by his enemies. Being morally certain that the duke of York had been murdered by the late king, he took the necessary steps for making that fact A.D. 1492.— A TBCCB BNTBREO INTO WITH SCOTLAND, MOV. 3. A. D. 1491.— tin sow*no roTMinoi DBruTi-aovaanuii or ibcland. r. lEnglantl — ^^ouse of SCuUor — l^enrc VM. 271 appear front the itatement of those who were itill livinR who had pcrional cogni- xance of it. Thcie pcraoni were two in number; lir James Tyrrel, who had super- intended the murder and seen tlie dead bodies of the murdered youths, and Digh- ton, who had been one of the actual mur- derers ; botli of whom stated the murder to have been committed on both tlie princes ; and their separate statements agreed with the utmost accuracT in every particular. The next point that Henry was anxious to clear up, was the identity of the pre- tended duke of York. That he was an im- postor was beyond all doubt ; but it was very important that Henry should be able to say, not only who he was not, but who he was and whence he had sprung, to aim, by a daring imposture, at the Knglish throne. With this view ho sent spies into Flanders, and instructed some of them to i,7etcnd the utmost zeal agninst him, and to join the opposite party. By this plan he became aware of the number and rank of SVarbcck'a adherents ; and upon these new spies were set, until Henry, by slow de- grees, and through the instrumentality of men against whom he feigned the niost ungovernable indignation, possessed him- self of every passage in the history of young Warbeck from his very childhood. Tlic tidings thus obtained Henry took great pains to circulate throughout England ; and the clearness with which every step in the impostor's career was traced greatly tended to diminish the popularity of his cause, and to weaken the zeal of his partizans, — upon whom Henry determined to take ample vengeunce at his own leisure and convenience. A.D. 1494. — Having taken all prudent measures for disabusing the minds of his own subjects as to the real history of the pretended duke of York, Henry .nade a formal complaint to the arrliduke Phi- lip of the encouragement and shelter wiiich so notorious an impostor as War- beck had met with in Flanders; and as Philip, at the instigation of the duchess dowager of Burgundy, coldly replied that he had no authority over the demesne of that princess, Henry banished all Flemings from England, ana recalled all his own subjects from the Low Countries ; feeling satisfied that the injury thus done to the trade of so commercial a people as the Flemings, would soon urge them into such revolt as would abundantly revenge him upon their sovereign. In the mean time Henry suddenly and simultaneously seized upon those of his own subjects who had been the most zealous in conspiring against him, and some were speedily tried and executed. Others, among whom was William Worsely, the dean of St. Paul's, escaped with a short imprisonment. But a more important victim was yet to be sacriliced. Stanley, the lord chamberlain, was accused by Clif- ford, who was directed to come to EngLiud, kneel to the king for pardon, and accuse Stanley. The immense wealth of the latter, who had forty thousand marks in ready money and valuables, and a yearly revenue of three thousand pounds, by no means tended to diminish the king's desire to con- vict him. But Heury feigned the utmost astonishment aud increduUtv, expatiated upon the very great improbability that Stanley, connected with Hennr and hold- ing the important office of eliambcrlain, should be guilty of treason, and even so- lemnly exhorted Clifford to beware that he did not wrongfully accuse an innocent man. Clifford, in spiteof all this pretended anxiety on the part of the king, persisted ir. his statements of Stanley's guilt, and the accused was confronted with nim. Either from a high sense of honour which deemed every suffering and danger preferable to the baseness of falsehood, or from a weak no- tion that his great services to the king in former days would prove his safeguard now, Stanley did not affect to deny his guilt. A. D. 1495. Even now, though Henry could not have a doubt of Stanley's guilt, and was fully resolved not to spare him, six weeks were suffered to elapse before the prisoner was brought to trial ; a delay by which it probably was intendtd to give the public a notion, that the king was unwill- ing to proceed to extremities against a man who had formerly been so serviceable to him. At length he was tried, and the part of his conduct which gave the most offence, was his having said to Clifford, that if he were quite sure that the young man who claimed to be the duke of York really was so, he never would bear arms against him. This speech, as showing a preference to the house of York, was far more unpardonable, in the judgment of Henry, than the of- fence of siding with a mere nameless pre- tender, and probably was more conclusive against Stanley than the actual assistance wnich he gave to "Warbeck in the way of money aud advice. As he did not even at- tempt to show himself innocent, a verdict was of course returned against him ; and the king, who previous to the trial had pre- tended so much reluetence to believe aught against him, did not allow much time to elapse between sentence and execution, being chiefly iufluenced,it would seem.by the large forfeiture which accrued to the crown. The execution of Stanley, high in rank, holding an important office, and having until so late a date enjoyed so large a share of the king's favour and confidence, natu- rally struck terror iuto the confederates of Warbeck, as Henry intended that it should. And not only did this expectation warn them that mercy was out of the question, should any be convicted, but tlie mere ap- pearance of Clifford as the king's informer was well calculated to strike terror into the guilty, who must now be aware that they had no longer any secrets from the cold- blooded and resolved king, against whom they had plotted so much mischief. Each of the conspirators now learned to look with dread and suspicion upon his neigh- bour. Many were thus deterred into with- drawing from the support of the pretender A.I>. 1493.— JOAN BOUOHTON BUBIfT FOH HBRX8T— THB PIBRT PBMALB MABTTB. w A.D. 1405. — ma TTIDOW O* BICHARD, OUKK OW YORK, OIKD, HAT 81. , - ' i, 272 ^'^c ^rcasuYu of l^istort?* ^c* while they still had an opportunity to do ■o; and though rumouri and libels still continued to dismay the king, a very gene- ral and wholesome opinion was formed of the great extent of the king's secret infor- mation, and of his resolute determination to crush the guilty. Even while punishing conspirators, the king seemed far more bent upou increasing his wealth, hy whatever arts and schemes of extortion, tbau upon conciliating the affections of his people, and thus arraying them in defence of his throne against the arts and efforts of open pretenders or se- cret conspirators. His extortions were per- petual, shameless, and merciless ; the very turns whiuh ought to have been the safe- guard of the people, were made the means of extorting money from the wealthy. Sir William Capel, a London alderman, had in- formation laid against him which involved him in penalties to the enormous amount of two tho]asand >^even hundred and forty- three pounids, and he actually had to pay near two thousand by way of composition. The lawyers were encouraged to lay infor- mations against wealthy men, and the guilt or innocence of the parties seems to have been far less considered than their willing- ness and ability to enrich the king, by com- pounding with him for their offences, real or imaginarv. Aided by his financial agents, Empson and Dudley, to whose unscrupulous misconduct we shall by and by have to re- cur, Henry in this way fleeced the great and the wealthy of enormous sums, and thus forwarded his double design of de- pressing the somewhat dangerous power of the great, and of increasing his own vast treasure. Though the king oppressed the wealthy beyond measure, the main body of the peo- ple had but little cause to complain of him, for it might most truly be said of him that he would allow no oppressor in his kingdom except himself. In spite, therefore, of nu- merous acts of particular oppression, the king's authority was daily more and more respected by the people at large ; and War- beck, fearing that a longer delay would but increase the difficulties of his design, at length determined to moke a descent upon England. Having collected an army of somewhat less than a thousand men, con- sisting chieflv of men equally bankrupt in character and in means, Warbcck took ad- vantage of the absence of the king, who was making a state progress through the north of England, and made his appear- ance off the coast of Kent. But the care with which the king had exposed the real character and connections ot Warbeck, and the sad fate of sir William Stanley, caused the Kentish gentry to be on the alert, not to join the impostor, but to oppose him. Wishing, however, to make him prisoner, they told the messenger whom he sent ashore that they were actually in arms for him, and invited him to land and place himrelf at their head. Warbcck was too suspicious to fall into the snare ; and the Kentish men finding that they could not induce him to trust himself ashore, fell upon those of his retainers who had landed, and took a hundred and fifty prisoners, be- sides putting a considerable number to death. This action drove Warbeck from the coast ; and the king, who was thorough- ly determined to put dowu the revolt with a strong and unsparinp; hand, ordered the hundred and fifty prisoners to be put to death, without an exception I A singular and very important law was just now enacted bv which it was provided that no man should be attainted for aiding the king de facto, whether by arms or otherwise. Henry probably initiated this law for the purpose of (pving increased con- fidence and seal to his own particans, by making it impossible that even his fall could involve them in ruin. As the first and most important end of all laws is to secure the peace of the community, and as the defenders of the de facto king are usu- allv such by their attachment to public order, the law was a very proper one in spirit ; but it was one which in the case of any violent revolution was but little likely to be respected in practice, especially as nothing could be easier than for the domi- nant party to cause it to be repealed. Of the invasion of Italy by France, and the league formed to check the French king's ambitious schemes, we need only barely make mention here; for though Henry was a member of that league, he was a mere honorary member of it, neither the expences nor the trouble of warfare on so distant a scene suiting with his peace- loving and rigidily economical temper. CHAPTER XXXVIII. The Reign of HsicnT VII. (eoneludedj. A. D. 1495.— Warbbck, on perceiving the treatment that was bestowed by the Kent- ish people upon those of hrs adherents who had been so unfortunate as to land, sin- cerely congratulated himself upon the sus- picion which had arisen in his mind at the regular and disciplined apoearance of the men who had pretended to he newly levied, and with an especial view to his service. He had, however, %one too far to recede, and was, besides, without the fiinds necessary to support his numerous followers in idle- ness. Ireland had ever been ready to war against the king of England on any or on no pretext, and to Irelani he aceordingly steered his course. But, as we have more particularly mcntioiied under the history of that country, Foyning's law and other good measures had so far strengthened the royal authority, that even in the usually turbulent Ireland the itdventurer could obtain no sup- port. Certain hospitalities, indeed, he ex- perienced at the hands of some of the chief- tains, but their coarse fare and rade habits were but little to his taste, and he left them to try his fortune in Scotland. The king of France, in revenge for the junction of Henry with the other opponents of the ambitious schemes of France, and the king of the Ro- mans, in revenge for Henry's prohibition of M H O •< M e M !• m Ph M O •• H riTB FBR80NS BXBCCIBD VOR PVBIiISHINO I.IBBLR ASAINST THB KINO. u A. D. 1496. — JESUS COLLBOI, CAMBBIOaB, FOUNDBD ST OB. JOHN ALCOCB. lore, fell d landed, ners, be- iniber to !ck from horouRh- )lt viita a lered tbe e pat to I law was I provided ' or aiding j arms or ; ated tbis | lased con- | tizans, by I 1 bis fall I I tbe first , laws is to i ty, and as i g arc usu- j to public I er one in i he case of ttle likely >ecially as tbe domi- kled. ranee, and le French need only or thouvh league, ne it, neither warfare on bis pcace- mper. leludedj. eiving tbe tbe Kent- ircBts who land, sin- )n the BUB- ind at the nee of the wly levied, ervice. He ecedc, and necessary ■rs in idle- ady to war any or on | iccordingly have more J history of other good d tbe royal J turbulent lin no sup- led, he ex- f the chief- 'ude habits c left them 'he king of n of Henry ambitious , of tbe Ro- hibition of a >) o m M M « M Dt t< O H a a s l< m •i tt M O t< IE m < H H M o o (• o H » IE O IB H M »< as K o ■D A «S b o »< ts O H (• < < U IB J lEnglnntr.— ?|ous( of ^utior.— 1|enri9 VM.. 27.3 all commence with the Low Countries, se- cretly furnished Warbeck with strong re- commendations to the then king of Scot- land, James IV. That chivalric pnnce seems at first to have suspected the truth of War- beck's story ; for while he received him other- wise kindly, he somewhat pointedly told him that be whoever or whatever he might he should never repent having trusted to a king of Scotland, a remark which he would scarcely have made had he felt any confi- dence that he was really the duke of Tork. But the king's suspicions did not long bold out against the fascinating manners and numerous accomplishments of the young adventurer. So completely did James be- come the dupe, and so far was that kind- hearted monarch interested in the welfare of the young impostor who practised upon his credulity, that he actually gave him in marriage the lady Catherine Gordon, daugh- ter of the earl of Huntley, and not very dis- tantly related to the king himself. A. D. 1496.— That James of Scotland really did give credence to the elaborate false- hoods which were told to him by young Warbeck seems certain, or he woula scarce- ly have given him, in marriage, a young and beautiful lady of a noble family and even related to the crown. But policy had, pro- bably, still more to do in prcaucing James's kindness to tbe adventurer, than any con- siderations of a merely humane and per- sonal nature. Injury to England, at any rate and under any circumstances, seems to have been tbe invariable maxim of the Scot- tish kings and of the Scottish people ; and James, deeming it probable th.-it the peo- ple of the northern counties of England would rise in favour of Warbeck, led him thither at the head of a strong and well ap- pointed army. As soon as they had crossed the border, Warbeck issued a proclamation in which he formally stated himself to be that duke of York who had so long; been supposed dead, claimed to be the rightful sovereign of England, and called upon all his good and loyal subjects to rise and aid him in expelling the usurper who laid heavy burthens upon them, and whose oppressions of men of all ranks, and especially his stu- died degradation of the nooility, had, said the proclamation, justly caused biir? to he odious to all men. But besides that the men of tbe north of England were but little likely to look upon a Scottish army as a recommendation of the new comer, there were two circumstances which prevented this proclamation from being much attend- ed to ; every day taught men to look with increased dread upon the calm unsparing and unfaltering temper of the king; and Warbcck's Scottish friends, by their taste for plunder, made it somewhat more than difficult for the English borderers to look upon them in any other light than that of fuundcring foemen. Warbeck was conscious low greatly tbis practice of the Scotch tend- ed to injure his cause among the English, and he remonstrated with James upon the subject. But James, who now clearly saw the little chance there was of any rising in favour of Warbeck, plainly told him that all his sympathy was thrown away upon ene- mies, and all his anxiety for the preserva- tion of the country equally wasted, inas- much as it seemed but too certain that that country would never own bis sway. In fact, but for iheir plundering, the Scots would literally have crossed tbe border to no earthly purpose, scarcely an Englishman being by their coming induced to join the standard of Warbeck. Henry was so con- fident that the marauding propensities of the Scots would make Warbeck's cause un- popular in the northern counties rather than the contrary, that be was by no means sorry for the Scottish irruption. Neverthe- less, true to his constant maxim of making a profit of every thing, be affected to be very indignant at this violation of his ter- ritory, and he summoned a parliament to listen to his complaints on tuis head, and to aid him in obtaining redress for so great and affronting an injury. The pathetic style in which Henry so v, <^ll knew how to couch his complaints, so far privailed with the parliament as to induce them to vote him a subsidy of a h'lndred and i xrenty thousand pounds, and they were then dismissed. A. n. 1497.— Tha people, always shrewd judges of character, had by this timelearncd to understand that of Henry. Comparing the frequency and the largeness of the grants made to him by tbe parliament with his own regal economy and personal stingi- ness, they easily calculated that ho had by him a treasure of sufficient extent to enable him to spare bis subjects this new imposi- tion. It followed that, though the parlia- ment had so willingly granted the subsidy in the mass, the people were by ne means so willing to pay it to tbe tax colleetors in detail. This was more especially the case in Cornwall. Far removed from any in- roads of the Scots, the people of that part could not or would not understand why they should be taxed to repel an enemy whom they had never seen. The popular discon- tent in Cornwall was still farther increased by two demagogues, Joseph and Flammock. The latter especially, who was a lawyer, was much trusted by the populace, whom he assured that the tax that was laid upon them on this occasion was wholly illegal, inasmuch as the nobility of the northern counties held their lands on the express condition of defending them against all in- roads of the Scots ; and that it behoved the people promptly and firmly, but peaceably, to petition against the system under which their burthens bade fair to become quite intolerable. It is scarcely worth while to enquire how far the demagogues were sin- cere in their exhortations to peaceable a|;i- tation ; the event showed how much easier it is to set a multitude in motion than to control it afterwards. The country people having their own opinions of the illegality and injustice of the tax confirmed by men of wboce talents and information they had a very high opinion, gathered together in great numbers, most of them being armed with the implements of their rural labour. I A.n. 1496.— TUB KIHODOM OF NAFLBS CONQVBBBD BT TUB FBBMCH. A.D. 1498.— mCHHOND FALACX BUBNT DOWN AND XIBUIIiT. t\ s 274 VL^t ^Trcagure of l^istore, $cc. This numerous and tumultuous gathering chose Flammock and Joseph for their lead- ers, and passing from Cornwall through Devonshire, they reached Taunton, in Som- ersetshire, where they killed one of the col- lectors of the subsidy, whose activity and, perhaps, scTerity had given them much of- fence. From Taunton they marched to Wells in the same county, where they got a distinguished leader in the person of the lord Audley, a nobleman of ancient family, but very prone to popularity hunt- ing. Headed by this silly nobleman, the' rebels marched towards London, breathing vengeance against the principal ministers of tne king, though upon the whole tolera- bly innocent of actual wrong or violence during the latter part of their marcli. Though the Kentish-men had so lately shown by the course they had adopted to- wards Warbeck how little they were in- clined to involve themselves in a quarrel with the king, Flammock had persuaded the rebels that they were sure to De joined by the Kentish people, because these latter had ever maintained their liberty even against the Norman invaders. The non »e- quitur was either nonperceived by the mul- titude or not considered of much import- ance, for into Kent they marched in pursu- ance of Flammock's advice, and took up their position on a hill ?.t Eltham, a very few miles from Londow. ?o far was the advice of Flammock from b'-li.gwell found- ed, that there probably was not at that moment a single spot in Che whole kingdom where the rebels were less likely to meet with support than they were in Kent. Every where throughout the kingdom there was considerable discontent arising out of the extortionate measures of the king, but every where there was also a great respect for the king's power, to which was added in Kent considerable kindly feeling spring- ing out of the favour and consideration with which he had acknowledged the ser- vice done to him when Warbeck appeared oif the coast. Of this feeling the earl of Kent, lord Abergavenny, and lord Cobhara so well availed themselves, that, though the rebels made every peaceful endeavour to recruit their ranks, none of the Kentish-men would join thera. On this, as indeed on all other emergen- cies, Henry showed himself equal to the occasion. He detached the earl of Surrey to hold in check or beat back the Scots ; and having posted himself in St. George's fields at the head of one body of troops, he dispatched the earls of Oxford, Suffolk, and Essex, at the head of another, to take the rebels in the rear ; while a third under lord Daubeny charged them in the front. The more completely to iake the rebels by sur- prise, Henry had carefully spread a report that he should not attack thera for several days i nor did he give the word to Daubcny's division to advance until so late an hour in the day that the rebels could have no idea of being attacked. Thes had a small ad- vance at Deptford bridH, which Daubeny easily put to Might, ana pursued them so closely that he charged upon their main body at the same time that they rejoined it. Daubeny charged the rebels gallantly, but allowed his contempt of their want of dis- cipline to cause him to undervalue their number, in which respect they were far from despicable, bein^ above sixteen thou- sand. The rash gallantry of Daubeny actu- ally caused him to be for a few moments taken prisoner, but he was speedily rescued by his troops, whose discipline soon pre- vailed over the raw numbers of the rebels, and the latter were put to flight with the loss of two thousand killed, and many thou sands prisoners; the first division of the king's troops having aided Daubeny so that the rebels were completely surrounded, and but a comparatively small number of them succeeded in cutting their way through. Among the numerous prisoners, were tlic lord Audlejr, Flammock, and Joseph, all of whom the king sent to immediate execution, Joseph actually exulting in his fate, which, he said, would ensure him a place in the history of his country. To the other pri- soners the king gave their liberty ; partly, perhaps, because ne deemed them to have been mere dupes in the hands of their lea- ders, and partly because, however much they had exclaimed against the oppressions of his ministers, they had in novnse through- out the whole revolt called in question his title, or showed any disposition to mix up with their own causes of complaint the pre- tensions of the pseudo duke of York. Lord Surrey and the king of Scotland, mean- while, had made some few and inefficient demonstrations which led to no important result, and Henry took an early opportunity to get, Hialas the Spanish ambassador, to Iiropose himself— as if without the know- edge of Henry— to mediate between the two kings. When Hialas was agreed to as a mediator the first and most important de- made of Henry was that Warbeck sliould be delivered up to him, a demand to which, to his eternal honour, James IV. replied that he could not pretend to decide upou the ^oung man's pretensions; but that having received him and promised him his protection, no imaginable consideration should ever induce him to betray him. Sub- sequently, a truce of a few months having been agreed to between England and Scot- land, James privately begged Warbeck to seek some safe asylum, as it was very evi- dent that while he remained in Scotland Henry would never allow that country to have any permanent peace. "The measures of Henry, meantime, as regarded the Flem- ings had produced exactly the result which he expected from them ; the Flemish mer- chants and artificers had sufl'ered so much from his system of non intercourse, that they had in a manner forced their archduke to make a treaty by which all English rebels were excluded from the Low Countries, and the demesnes of the dowager duchess of Burgundy were especially and pointedly in- cluded in this treaty. Warbeck, therefore, on being requested to quit Scotland, found himself by this treaty completely shut out A.D. 1500.— IN LONDON ALONB THBRB WBBK 30,000 VICTIMS TO TUB FLAOUB. < H M B a \t- their main f rejoined it. nllantl;, but want of dii- rvalne their ey were far ixteen thou- aubeny aclu- BW moments edily rescued le soon pre- >f the rebels, iht with the 1 many thou vision of the ibeny so thnt rounded, and nber of them f through, aers, were t'.ic Joseph, all of ate execution, is fate, which, L place in the the other pri- bcrty; partly, them to have Is of their lea- iver much they jppressions of iwise through- n question nis ion to mix up plaint the pre- of York. Lord otland, mean- land inefficient ^ no important rly opportunity mbassador, to out the know- ! between the M agreed to as ; important de- 'arbeck should uand to which, IV. replied decide upon ms; but that imised him his consideration tray him. Sub- nonths having "and and Scot- Warbeck to was very evi- in Scotland jat country to The measures rded the Flem- le result which Flemish mer- Bfered so much ercoursn, that their archduke English rebels Countries, and 5er duchess of 1 pointedly in- leck, therefore, cotland, found letely shut out rLAOVR. A.D. 1506.— iHiLunsa wims mow tiEST coimo in ■kolahd. e« M M n S M > O lEnglanB ^llottse of tJuT^or— l|«nrs TcfBi. 276 of the Low Countries too, and he was fain once more to take refuge among the bogs and mountains of Ireland. Even here, such were the known vigi- lance, art, and power of Henry, the unfor- tunate impostor did not feel himself secure. His fear on that head, and his disUkeof the rude ways and scanty fare of his entertain- ers, induced him to follow the advice, of three needy and desperate adherents, Ast- ley, Heme, and Skelton; and he landed in Cornwall, where he endeavoured to Srofit by the still prevalent disposition to iscontent and riot in that neignbourhood of hardy, turbulent, and ignorant men . On his landing, at Bodmin, Warbeck was joined by upwards of three thousand men ; and BO much was he encouraged by even r.his equivocal appearance of popularity, that he now, for the first time, assumed the title of king of England by the name of Richard IV. He next marched bis coura- geous but utterly undisciplined men to Exeter, where the inhabitants wisely, as well as loyally, shut their gates against him, dispatched messengers to the king, and made all preparation for sustaining ■uch a seige as Warbeck, destitute of artil- lery and even of ammunition, might be ex- pected to carry on against them. Henry rejoiced to hear that the pretender v(ho had so long eluded and amazed him, had, at length, resolved to take the field. The lords Daubeny and Broke, with . the earl of Devonshire, the duke of Bucking- ham, and many other considerable nobles, hastily raised troops and marched against the rebels ; the king, at the same time, ac- tively preparing to follow with a numerous army. Warbeck had shown himseii unfit for rule, by the mere elation of spirit into which he was betrayed by the adhesion of three thousand ill-armed and undisciplined men; he now showed himself still further unfit b^ utter want of that desperate cour- age which, if it often betrays its possessor into situations of peril, no less frequently enables him, as if Dy miracle, to extricate himself with advantage even where his ruin appears inevitable. The zeal of the king's friends was so far from destroying the hopes of Wnrbeck's supporters, that, in a very few days their number increased from three to about seven thousand. But the encourage- ment afforded by this enthusiasm of his friends could not counterbalance in the mind of this unworthy pretender to empire the terror excited by the number and rapid approach of his foes. He hastily raised the siege of Exeter and retired to Taunton ; and thence, while numbers were joining him from the surrounding neighbourhood, he made a stealthy and solitary flight to the sanctuary of Beaulieu, in Hampsliire. De- serted by their leader the Cornish men submitted to the king, who used his tri- umph nobly. A few leading and particu- larly obnoxious offenders were executed, but the majority were dismissed uninjured. In the case of Warbeck's wife, Cathe- rine Gordon, Henry behaved admirably. That lady being among his prisoners, he not only received and pardoned her, as being far more worthy of pity than of blame, but even gave her a highly reputable post at court. A.D. 1498.— The long annoyance caused by Warbeck induced Henry's advisers to urge him to seize that impostor even in de- fiance of the church. But Henry, who ever loved the tortuous and the subtle bet- ter than the openly violent, caused his emissaries to persuade Warbeck voluntarily to leave his shelter and throw himself upon the king's mercy. This he accordintcly did, and after having been led in a mockerv of regal state to London, he was compelled to make a formal and detailed confession of the whole of his strange and hypocritical life, and was then committed to close custody. A. D. 1499. — He might now have lived se- curely, if irksomfcl?^ but he had so long been accustomed to intrigue and the acti- vity of imposture, that he speedily took an opportunity to elude the vigilance of his keepers and escape to sanctuary. Here the prior of the monastery mediated for him, and the king consented once more to spare his life ; but set him in the stocks, at West- mfxster and at Cbeapside ; compelled him, in inat disgraceful situation, to read aloud his confession, and then committed him to close custody in the Tower of London. Even now, this restless person could not submit lO his fate. He contrived to seduce some of the servants of the governor, and to associate with himself in the project of escape the unfortunate young earl of War- wick, whose long imprisonment had so weakened his mind, that no artifice was too gross to impose upon him. It would almost seem that this hopeless scheme must, in- directly, have been suggested to the adven- turers by the king himself, that he might have a sufficiently plausible reason for put- ting Warbeck to aeath. Nor is it any an- swer to thi.1 opinion to say, that two of the conniving servants of the governor were put to death for their share in the project ; for Henry was not of a character to allow his scheme to fail for want of even such a sacriftoe as that. Both Warbeck and War- wick were executed ; the latter on the ground of his intention, which he did not deny, to disturb the king's government. The fate of the unfortunate Warwick ex- cited universal indignation against Henry, who certainly sinned no less against po- licy than against humanity in this gratuitous violence upon so inoffensive a character. A.D. 1601. — Henry had always been anxi- ous for a friendly and close connection with Ferdinand of Arragon, whose profound and successful polity, in many respects, resem- bled his own. He now, accordingly, ex- erted himself, and witu success, to unite Ferdinand's daughter, the princess Cathe- rine, to his own eldest son, Arthur, priuce of Wales, the former being eighteen, the latter sixteen years of age. A.D. 1603. — Scarcely, nowever, had the king and people ceased their rejoicings at this marriage when it was fatally dissolved THB ISLAND OV MADAaABCAK DISCOVEnBO BY TUB FOBTUeUESB. u ^SSR" ' . ' iU-JK nM \\ A. D. I6O7.— SNaLAND AOAIN TIIUVBO BT THK •WBATINO SICKNISI. I /! h M M O »> H « M >4 H H '4 I a A 276 *^l^e ^rcasurp of 3[|tJStors, Sec. bjr the death of the young prince. The sor- did monarch was much affected by the loss of his son, for it seemvd to place him under the necessity of returuing the large sura of two hundred thousand ducats which had been received as the dowry of the princess. Rather than part with so large a sum, Henry exerted himself to bring about a marriage between the princess and his second son, Henry, who was only twelve years of age, and whom he now created prince of Wales. The young prince was as averse to this match ns so young a prinoe could be ; but his father was reso- lute in the cause of his beloved ducats, and that marriage was celebrated which was afterwards the prime cause of so much crime and suffering; the prime cause, pro- bably, why Henry VIII. is not by far the most admired of all the mouarchs of Eng- land. The latter years of the king were chiefly spent in the indulgence of that detestable vice, avarice, whicii seems not only to in- crease by enjoyment, but also to grow more and more craving iu exact proportion to the approach of that hour in which the wealth of the world is vain. His excellent but far from well treated queen having died in child-bed in 1503, Henry, from that time, seems to have been haunted with a notion that no treasure could be too immense to guard him against the rivalship of his son, the prince of Wales. Conscious that, the late queen's title was better than his own, Henn' probably thought that if the prince were to aim at the crown in right of his mother he would not be without support, and that, in such case, the successful side would be that side which had the best sup- ply of money. Upon no other principle can we account for the shameless and unceas- ing rapacity with which, by means of be- nevolences extorted from parliament, and oppressive fines wrung from individuals through the arts of the infamous Dudley and Empson, the now enormously wealthy monarch continued to add to his stores, which, in ready money alone, are said to have approached the large sum of two mil- lions. Even when he was rapidly sinking under a consumption, he still upheld and employed his mercileis satellites in their vile attacks upon the property of innocent men. The heaping up of gold, however, could not stay the ravages of his fearful disease, and he expired at his palace at Richmond at the comparatively early ago of tifty-two years, and after a prosperouK reign of twenty -three years and eight months, on the twenty- second of April, 1509. Cold, cautious, resolute, and stern, Henry was an arbitrary and unjust monarch ; yet for the mass of the people his reign was a good one. To the wealthy his avarice was a scourj(e; to the haughty and to the high- born his firm and vigilant rule must have been terrible. But he allowed no one to plunder but for him ; no one to tyrannise but in obedience to his orders. The barba- rous tyranny of the feudal nobles was for ever stricken down ; the middle classes were raised to an importance and influence pre- viously unheard of in England ; and, apart Arom his arbitrary and really impolitic, be- cause needless, extortions of money, the general strain of his laws tended to the making of a despotic monarch, but also of a regulated nobility and of an enterprising prosperous people, whose enterprise and whose prosperity, having no check except the despotic power of the monarch, could not fail sooner or later to curb that one des- potism which had so far been useful that it had freed them from the many-headed des- potism of the nobility. CHAPTER XXXIX. The Reign of Heniiy VIII. A. D. 1509.— It is a sad but a certain truth that the mass of mankind have but a loose and deceptive morality; they look rather to the manner than to the extent of crime when forming their judgments. The splendid ty- rannies of an Edward were rather admired than deplored; even the gifted ferocity of the usurping third Richard was thought to be in some sort redeemed by the very excess of subtlety in the plan, and of mere animal daring in the execution, by that na- tion which now scarcely endeavoured to conceal its joy at the decease of the cold, avaricious Henry. Tet, bad as much of Henry's conduct was, and very contemptible as well as hateful as excessive avarice un- questionably is, Richard, nay even Edward, would not for an instant bear comparison with Henry if the public judgment were not warped. It was not so much the vices of Henry VII. that the people hated him for, as for his cold and wearisome firmness of rule; could he sometimes have been with impunity sinned against, he might have sinned ten times as much as he did, without being nearly so much hated as he was. The cautious policy of Henry VII., the severity of his punishments, and his incu- rable cupidity, gave no small advantage to the commencement of the icign of his suc- cessor, who ascended the throne with pro- bably as many prepossessions in the hearts and minds of his people as any monarch iii our history. Young, handsome, gay, skilled in all manly exercises, and far better educated, scholasti- cally speaking, than was usual even among princes at that time, Henrv VIII. had the still farther and inestimable advantu|;e of having never been in any degree associated in men's minds with the cruelties or the extortions of his father, whose jealousy had always kept the young prince unconnected with the management of public affairs. With all these advantages, and uniting iu his own person the claims of both York and Lancaster, Henry VIII. may most truly be said to have commenced his reign with the universal love and admiration ofhis people. His grandmothtir, the dowager countess of Richmond and Derby, was still alive, and Henry had the good sense and the good fortune to be guided by her shrewdness and HBHUT TII. WAS MAONIFICRRTI.Y BUBIBD IN WBSTUIN8TBB ADBBT. \\ III. e classci were influence pre- td; and, apart impolitic, be- if money, the tended to tUo :li, but also of n enterprising mterprise and check except lonixrch, could b that one des- I useful that it ny-headed dea- IX. t vni. . a certain truth lave but a loose y look rather to it of crime when 'he splendid ty- rather admired fted ferocity of i was thought icd by the very an, and of mere ion, by that na- endeavoured to ase of the cold, ad as much of iry contemptible sive avarice un- ity even Edward, )ear comparison Igment were not ioh the vices of ! hated hiui for, >rae firmness of have been with he might have he did, without - as he was. Henry VII., the ), and his iucu- lU advantage to ,eigu of his sue- hrone with pro- na in the hearts any monarch ut illed in all manly catcd, scholasti- ual even among v VIII. had the e advantage of egree associated cruelties or the use jealousy had ce unconnected public affairs. , and uniting in if both York and ly most truly be iS reign with the on ofhit people, ager countess of still alive, and , and the good shrewdness and ADBXT. A.D. 1509.— BINUY TIK. AKD BIS QUXBN CBOWMXD AT WltTMIIISTBB, JDRB 34. Icnglanti — l^ouse of ©uBor.— llenrg F1EE3E. 277 experience in the important matter of forming his first ministry. The ability of the ministers of the late king was beyond all cavil, and it was Henry's obvious policy to retain as much of the talent which had aided his father, with as little as possible of either the wickedness or the unpopula- rity. The numberless and severe suffer- ings which had been inflicted upon men of wealth during the last reign, caused a pro- portionately loud and gcncrul cry to be now raised against the ini'ormers, and princi- pally the notpd Dudley and Empson, who Lad so successfully and unscrupulously served the late king; and though the jus- tice of Henry VIII. did not induce him to part with any portion of the treasure which his father had so iuiquitously obtained, so neither did it prompt him to defend his father's tools. Both ."Dudley and Empson were seized and committed to the Tower, amid the joy and execrations of tlie people ; although, as we shall, in a very few words, be able to show, the very criminality of which these men were accused, was not mure flagrant or hateful than that which was now committed against them. When they were summoned before the coun- cil, and called upon to show why tliey should not be punished for their conduct during the late reign, Empson, who was a fluent speaker and a really able lawyer, made a defence of his own and his col- league's conduct, which, had the king been just and the people reasonable, would have led to such alterations in the laws as would for ever after have rendered it impossible for unprincipled informers to ruin the wealthy subject, while pandering to the greediness of a grasping and unjust kine. lie very truly argued that he and his col- league liad acted in obedience to the king, and in accordance with laws which, how- ever ancient, were unrepealed, and, there- fore, as authoritative as ever ; that it was not at all to be marvelled at if those who were punished by law should rail at those who put the law in force ; that all well-re- gulated states alwBNsmade the impartial and strict enforcement of the laws their chief boast, and that that state would, in- evitably, full into utter ruin, where a con- trary practice should be allowed to obtain. This defence, which clcnrly threw the blame ui>on the state of the laws and upon the evil inclinations of the late king, did not prevent Dudley and Erapson from being sent to the Tower. -They were soon after- wards convicted by a jury, and this convic- tion was followed up by an act of attainder, which was passed by parliament, and Emp- son and Dudley were executed amid the savage rejoicings of the people, whose de- meanour on this occasion showed them to be truly unworthy of the libertv they so highly valued. We do not palliate the moral feelings of Empson and Dudley, but, legally speaking, they were iiiiii-rffred; they were put to death for doing that which the law directly authorised, and indirectly com- manded them to do. In conipliauce with the advice of his council, and of the countess of Richmond and Derby, Henry completed his marriage with the princess Catherine, the widow of his brother Arthur; though it seems cer- tain, not only that Henry had himself no preference for that princess, who was plain in person and his senior oy six years, but ho less certain that his father on his death- bed conjured him to take the earliest pos- sible opportunity to break the engagement. Though Henry VIII. had received a good education, and might deserve the praise of learning and ability, even without reference to his high rank, he was far too impetuous, and too much the creature of impulse, to deserve the title of a great politician. At bis coming to the throne, the state of Europe was such that laiuez alter would have been the best maxim for all sove- reigns ; and England, blest with domestic peace, and little concerned in the affairs of the continent, ought especially to have kept aloof from interference. Italy was the theatre of strife between the powers of Spain and France: Henry's best policy clearly would have been to let these great powers waste their time and strength against each other ; yet, at the very com- mencement of his reign, he allowed pope Julius II. to seduce him into the grossly impolitic step of allying himself with that pontiff, the emperor Maximilian, and Henry's father-in-law, Ferdinand, to crush and trample upon the commonwealth of Venice. A.D. 1610. — Having succeeded in engag- ing Henry in this league, to which neither his own honour nor the interests of his people obliged the young monarch, Julius was encouraged to engage him in the more ambitious project of freeing Italy from fo- reigners. The pontiff, accordingly, sent a flattering message to Henry, with a per- fumed and anointed rose, and he held out to Henry's ambassador at Rome, Bain- bridge, archbishop of York, a cardinal's hat as the reward of his exertions in his inte- rest. This done, he persuaded Ferdinand and the Swiss cantons to join him, and de- clared war against the dukeof Ferrara, the ally and friend of the French. A.D. 1611.— The emperor Maximilian still held to his alliance with Louis, and they, with some malcontent cardinals, now en- deavoured to check the ambition of Julius, by calling a general council for the pur- pose of reforming the church. With the exception of some French bishops, the cardinals had scarcely any supporters, ond they were so ill received at risa, where they first met, that they were obliged to adjourn to Milan. Even here, though un- der the dominion and protection of France, they were so much insulted, that they again adjourned to Lyons ; and it was evident that they had but little chance of success against the pope, who, besides bcinp extremely po- pular, did not fail to exercise his power of excommunicating the clerical attendants of the council, and absolving from their alle- giance the subjects of the monarchs who protected them. A.D. 1510. — ROTAL DAtlS AND rAOBAItTS ■NOROSSBD PUBLIC ATTBNTION. [3B u A.D. 1613.— A BOTAL NATT'OmOB WAI ROW FIBST KaTABLIIBBB. !> I 278 ^lie ^lEreasuty of l^istore, ^c- A.D. 1513.— Henry, who at thii period of Iiis life wai far too impetuoiu to be other- wise than aincere, was realty anxious to protect the sovereign pontiff from insult and oppression, and he was strengthened in this incUnation by the interested coun- sel of his father-in-law, and by his own hope of being honoured with tiic title of Most Chriatian King, which heretofore had belonged to the king of France. He con- sequently allied himself with Spain, Venice, and the pope, against the kiny: of France, and not merely sent an embassy to dehort Louis from warring against the pope, but rlso demanded the restoration to England of Anjou, Maine, Guienne, and Normandy. This den\and was considered tantamount to a declaration of war, and was supported hy parliament, which granted Henry a very liberal supply. Ferdinand, who had his own ends to serve, affected to be extremely anxious to serve Henry, and sent a fleet to convey the English troops, to the number of ten thou- sand, to Fontarabia. The marquis of Dor- set, accompanied by the lords Broke and Howard, and many other young noblemen ambitious of warlike fame, commanded this force, which was extremely well appointed, though it chiefly consisted of infantry. But Dorset very soon found that Henry's inte- rests were not consulted by Ferdinand aud his generals ; and, after much idle disputa- tion, the English troops broke out into mu- tiny, and the expedition returned without achieving any thing. Henry wus much an- noyed by this CKreifious failure, and Dorset had great dilHculty in convincing him of the exclusively selflsn nature of Ferdinand's designs. Uy sea the English were not much mure prosperous than oy land. A fleet of forty- nve sail was encountered off Brett by thirty- nine sail of the French ; the French admi- ral's t)hip caught Are, and Primau^et, the commander, resolutely grappled with the English admiral, and both vessels blew up together, the enraged crews combatting to the last. The French, notwithstanding the loss of their admiral, made good their es- cape with all the rest of their ships. But though Henry acquired no glory or advantage oy these operations a^amst France, he did Louis serious mischief by compelling him to retain in France troops whose pseseuce was absolutely necessary to his interests in Italy. But for this circum- stance Louis would probably have prospered there. His young and heroic nephew, Oastou de Foix, even with the slender forces that could be spared to him, during a few months of a career which a great modem poet most truly calls "brief, brave, and glonous," obtained signal advantages ; but he fell in the very moment of victoiy over the army of the pope aud Ferdinand, at Ravenna. His genius had, in a great degree, compensated for the numerical in- feriority of the French; but directly after his death Genoa and Milan revolted, and Louis was speedily deprived of every foot of his newly acquired Italian conquests. except some isolated and comparatively un- important fortresses. A. ft, 1613.— Pope Julius II. had scarcely time to exult over his successes against the arms of Louis when that pontiff died, and was succeeded by John de Medicis, who, under the title of Leo X. is famed in history no less for his patronage of the arts and sciences, than tor his profound political talents. Leo X. had no sooner ascended the papal throne than he dexterously withdrew the emperor Maximilian from the French interests ; and by cheap but flattering com- pliments to Henry and his leading cour- tiers, greatly increased the popularity Of the papal cause in England, vmere the par- liament imposed a poll-tax to assist the king in his designs against France. 'While Henry was eagerly making his preparations, he did not neglect his dangerous enemy, James of Scotland. That prince was much attached to the French cause, and sent a squadron of vessels to aid it ; and, though to Henry's envoy he now professed the most peaceable inclinations, the earl of Surrey was ordered to watch the borders with a strong force, lest England should be assailed in that direction during the lung's absence in France. While Henry was busied in preparing a large land force for the invasion of France, his fleet, under sir Edward Howard, cruised in the channel, and at length drew up in order of battle off Brest and challenged the French force which lay there; but the French commander being in daily expecta- tion of a reinforcement ofgnlleys under the command of I'rejeant de Bidoux, would not allow any taunts to draw him from his se- curity. The galleys at length arrived at Conquet, near Brest, and Bidoux placed himself beneath a battery. There he was attacked by sir Edward, who, with a Span- ish cavalier and seventeen English, boldly boarded Bidoux's own vessel, but was killed and thrust into the sea. The loss of their admiral so discouraged the English that they raised their blockade of Brest harbour, and the French fleet soon after made a de- scent upon the coast of Sussex, but was beaten off. Eight thousand men under the command of the earl of Shrewsbury, and six thou- sand under that of lord Herbert of Cher- bury, having embarkeil ' . //ance, the king now prepared to follow with the main army. He had already made the queen repcent during his absence; and that she might be in the less danger of being (Us- tunied by any revolt, he now caused Ed- mund de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, who had been attained during the last reign, to be beheaded in the Tower of London. On arriving at Calais Henry found that the aid afforded him fell very far short of what h') had been promised. Maximilian, who was to liave brouijht a reinforcement of eight thousand nteii m return for a hun- dred and twenty thousand crowns which Henry had advanced him, was unable to fulttl uis engagement. He however, made the best amends in his power by joining TUB lAAORST SHIP IN TUB MATY WAS OF 1,000 TONS BVHDlSN. r \l atively un- td ■carccly ftgainRt the r died, and licit, who, I in iiiitory e arts and d political cended the f withdrew ihe French tering com- iding cour- ipularity of ere the par- attiBt the ice. While reparation!, ou« enemy* e waa inucn and lent a »nd, though Bed the most rl of Surrey ders with a dbeaasailed ig's abience preparing a a of France, rard, cruised . drew up in L challenged ere ; but the aily expecta- ys under the IX, would not from his se- ii arrived at doux placed 'here he was with a Span- glish, boldly ut was killed loss of their Bnglish that rest harbour, r made a de- lex, but was ;he command lud six thou- jcrt ofChcr- .'i'ance, the rith the main e the queen and that she of being dis f caused Ed- blk, who had t reign, to be idon. y found that f far short of Maximilian, reinforcement irn for a hun- 'rowns which as unable to owever, made er by joining A.D. 1S13.— nKMKT bkut ambasmsobs to thb council of latibar. lEnglantJ.— louse of tlutjor — ^cntB VIM. 279 with such scanty force as he could com- mand ; and he enlisled himself under Henry as his officer, with a salary of one hundred crowns per day. The earl of Shrewsbury and the lord Her- bert immediately on their arrival in France had laid siege to Terouane, a town on the borders of Ficardy, which was gallantly de- fended by two thousand mcu under the com- mand of Crequi and Teligni. The strength of the place and the gallantry of the garrison bade defiance tu the besiegers; but adreadl'ul want of both provision and ammunition was soon felt in the place. Fontrailles was de- tached by Louis from the army at Amiens to carry some relief to this place. He took eight hundred horsemen, each of whom earned behind him a sack of gunpowder and two quarters of bacon, and, though thus encum- bered, this gallant cavalry cut their way through the English, acposited their bur- thens in the fosse of the town, and returned to their quarters with scarcely any loss. The same gallant Fontrailles was shortly afterwards again about to throw some relief into Terouane; and as it was judged that the English would now be on the alert, a strong body of French cavalry was ordered up to protect hira. Henry sent out a body ot his cavalry to hold them in check, and, strange to relate, though the French were picked troops, consisting chiefly of gentle- men who had fought gallantly and often, they were seized with a sudden panic at the approach of the English, and fled in spite of the attempts to rally them which were made by such men as the chevalier Bayard, the duke of Longueville, and other distin- guished officers who were among the num- er taken prisoners. This battle, from the panic flight of the French, is known as the Battle qf Spurt. Had Henry immediately after this pushed his advantages, he might easily have marched to Paris, where both friends and foes fully expected to see him ; but he allowed Maximilian to persuade him into the besieging of Tournay, which, after much delay, was taken. Henry then re- turned to England, having gained some re- putation as a chivalrous soldier, but cer- tainly with no increase of his reputatiou as a politician or a general. Uuriug Henry's absence the Scots acted precisely as had been anticipated. James, with an army of fifty thousand men, had crossed the border and taken several castles, ravaging and plundering the country in every direction around them. Having taken the lady Forde prisoner in her castle, James was so much charmed with her society that he lost much precious time, and his dis- orderly troops took advantage of his negli- gence and retreated to their homes, in great numbers, with the plunder they had ob- tained from the Southrons. The earl of Surrey, after much difficulty, came up with the Scots, who by these desertions were re- duced to somewhat nearer his own force of twenty-six thousand men. James in per- son commanded the centre division of the Scots, the earl of Huntley and Lord Hume the right, the earls of Lennox and Argyle the left, while the earl of Bothwell had the charge of the reserve. The English centre was commanded by lord Howard in the first line, and by the gallant earl of Surrey him- self in the second ; the wings by sir Ed- mund Howard, sir Marmaduke Constable, lord Dacre, and sir Edward Stanley. The right wing of the Scots commended the ac- tion, and fairly drove thi: Enghsh left wing off the field: but the Scottish left, in the mean time, broke from all discipline, and attacked so impetuously, but in such disor- der, that sir Edward Howard and the lord Dacre, who profited by their confusion and received them coolly, cut them to pieces ere they could be rescued by James's own division and the reserve under Uothwell. Though the Scots sustained this great loss, the presence of the sovereign so much ani- mated their courage, that they kept up the engagement until night put an end to it. Even then it waa uncertain which side had, in reality, sustained the greater loss. Hut, on the following day, it was discovered that the English, as well as the Scots, had lost about five thousand men ; the former had suffered almost exclusively in the ranks, while the latter had lost many of their bravest nobles. The king of Scotland was himself among the missing from this fatal " Flodden Field." A body, indeed, was found among the slain, which, from the royal attire, was supposed to be the king's, and it was even royally interred, Henry ge- nerously pretending that jBines,wliile dying, expressed his contrition for- that miscun- duct towards the pope which had placed him under the terrible sentence of excom- munication. But though Henry was evi- dently convinced that he was thus doing honour to the body of his brother-in-law, the Scots were equally convinced that he was not, and that James did not fall in the battle. By some it was asserted that the monarch, escaping from the field, was put to death by order of lord Hume; while others uo less firmly believed that he es- caped to the Holy Land, whence they long subsequently continued to expect him to return. The event of the battle of Flodden hav- ing released Henry from all fear of his nor- thern border, at least for that time, he made no difficulty about granting peace to his sister Margaret, who was now made regent of Scotland during the minority of her son. A.D. 1514. — Henry rewarded the chief in- struments in obtaining him this splendid victory, by conferring on the earl of Surrey the title of duke of Norfolk, which had been forfeited by that nobleman's father, who sided with Richard III. at Bosworth Field; upon lord Howard the title of the earl of Surrey ; on lord Herbert that of earl of Worcester; upon sir Edward Stanley that of lord Monteagle ; and upou Charles Brandon, earl of Lisle, that of duke of Suffolk. At the same time the bishopric of Lin- coln was bestowed upon the king's chief favourite and prime minister, Thomas Wol- A.D. 1613.— BBABBN-NOSB con. OZFOBD, VOUNDBO BT THK BIBH0F OF MNOOLW. ,\l A. D. 1514.— TUB FOFB BEMT nEHBT A COMSKCRATKO UAT AMD BVOBO. 280 ®]^e STrcaauri) of l^istors, $cc. ■ey, whose part in this reign was so im- portant as to demand that we should pre- sently speak of him at some length. The war with Scotland being fortunately terminated, Ilenry again turned his whole attention to France. There, however, he found little cause of gratulation. His father-in-law, Ferdinand of Arragon, liav- ing obtained possession of the petty fron- tier kingdom of Navarre, had eagerly made peace with France, and induced the em- peror Maximilian to do the same ; and the pope, in whose cause Ilenry had sacriftced so much, had also accepted of the submis- sion of Louis. The truth was now more than ever appa- rent, that, however great Henry's other qualities he was by no means skilled iu tne wiles of politics; and his present expe- rience of that truth was the more embit- tered, because he found that Maximilian had been induced to abandon him by an offer of the daughter of France to the son of that prince ; though that son Charles had already been affianced to Henry's own younser sister, the princess Mary, who was now fast appro.-tchiug the age for the com- pletion of tlic contract. Thus doublv duped and injured, Henry would, most likely, have re-invaded France, no matter at what sacrifice, but that the duke of Longueville, who had remained a prisoner ever since the memorable "battle of spurs," suggested a match between the deserted princess Mary and Louis of France himself. It is true that that monarch was upwards of fifty years of age, and the prin- cess not quite sixteen ,- but so many advan- tages were offered to Henry, that the mar- riage was concluded at Abbeville, whither Louis proceeded to meet his young bride. Their happiness and the rejoicings of the French people were of but short duration, the king surviving the marriage only about three months. The young queen dowager of France had, before her marriage, shown some partiality for the duke of Suffolk, the most accom- plished cavalier of the age, and an especial favourite of Henry ; and he now easily per- suaded her to shorten the period of her widowhood. Henry was, or feigned to be, angry at their precipitate union; but his anger, if real, was only of short duration, and the accomplished duke and his lovely bride were soon invited to return to the English court. CHAPTER XL. The Reign o/Herbt VIII. (continued). As Henry VIII. was, in many respects, the most extraordinary of our monarchs, his favourite and minister, the cardinal Wolsey, was at the very head of the extraordinary men, even in that age of strange men and strange deeds. He was the son of a butcher in the town of Ipswich, and displaying, while young, great quickness and intelli- gence, he had a learned education, with a view to his entering the church. Having, at the conclusion of his own education. been employed in teaching the children of the marquis of Dorset, he gave so much satisfaction, that that nobleman recom- mended him to Henry VIII. as his chaplain. As the private and public servant of that monarch, Wolsey gave equal satisfaction ; and when Henry VIII., a gay, young, and extravagant monarch, showed a very evi- dent preference of the earl of Surrey to the somewhat severe and economic Fox, bishop of Winchester, this prelate introduced Wol- sey to the king, hoping that, while his ac- complishments and pliability would enable him to eclipse the earl of Surrey, he would, from his own love of pleasure, if not from motives of gratitude, oe subordinate in all matters of politics to the prelate to whom he owed his introduction. The difference between the actual conduct of Wolsey, and the expectations of the prelate, furnishes a striking illustration of the aptitude of other- wise iible wen to fall into error when they substitute their own wishes for the princi- ples inherent to human nature. Wolsey fully warranted Fox's expectations in mak- ing himself even more agreeable to the gay humour of the king than the earl of Surrey. But Wolsey took advantage of his position to persuade the king that both the earl and the prelate, tried counsellors of the late king, felt themselves appointed by him rather than by their present royal master, to whom they considered themselves less servants than authoritative guardians and tutors. He so well, at the same time, showed his own capacity equally for pleasure and for business, and his own readiness to re- lieve the king from the weight of all irk- some details, and yet to be his very and docile creature, that Henry soon found it impossible to do without him, in either his gaieties or in his more serious pursuits ; and Wolsey equally supplanted alike the courtier and the graver man of business, who, in endeavouring to make him his tool, enabled him to become his superior. Con- fident in his own talents, and in the favour of Henry, this son of a very humble trades- man carried himself with an all but regal pomp and haughtiness; and left men in some difticulty to pronounce whether he were more grasping in obtaining wealth, or more magnificent in expending it. Super- cilious to those who affected equality with him, he was liberal to the utmost towards those beneath him ; and, with a singular in- consistency, though he could be ungrateful, as we have seen in the case of the unsuspect- ing bishop of Winchester, no man was more prone to an exceeding generosity towards those who were not his patrons but his tools. A. J). 1515. — A favourite and minister of this temper could not fail to make many enemies; but Wolsey relaxed neither in haughtiness nor in ambition. Well know- ing the temper of Henry, the politic minis- ter ever affected to be the mere tool of his master, though the exact contrary really was the case ; and by thus making all hie acts seem to emanate from Henry's will, he piqued his vanity and wilfulness into supporting them and him against all sha- »BOM THIS FBRIOD BLAYBBT IN BIfOLAND BBCAUB OBADUAI.I.T EXTINCT. \t ^1 / A.D. 1516.— SBEA* vbost: casts pass otbb tub thaubi on tub ice. Iiildren of BO muck I a recom- ' ickaplaiD. | nt of that I isfaction ; ^ 3\mg, and , very evi- rrey to the 'ox, bishop luced Wol- ile his ac- nld enable , he would, f not from [nate in all ,e to whom : difference ^olsey, and furnishes a ie of other- i when they , the princi- ] B. Wolscy I mt in mak- ! to the gay •1 of Surrey. ' lis position ' the earl and of the late ed by him lyal master, nselves less ardians and imc, showed ileasure and lincss to ro- of all irk- is very and j on found it n either his pursuits ; alike the business, lim his tool, irior. Con- the favour iible trades- ill but regal left men in whether he g wealth, or it. Super- [luality with ost towards singular in- ungrateful, unsuspect- ^n was more sity towards tut his tools, minister of make many neither in Well know- olitic minis- . tool of his jtrary really king all Ait [enry's will, fulness into inst all sha- IISCT. .8 •ffinglanTJ.— 1|ou«c of ^uUor.— l^entQ U3EH. 281 dow of opposition or complaint. Made bishop of Lincoln, and then archbishop of York, Wolsey held t'li commendam the bishopric of Winchester, the abbey of 8t. Alban's, and had the revenues at very easy leases of the bishoprics of Bath, Worcester, and Hereford. Hia infln- ''» over the king made the pope anxious to acquire a hold upon him ; Wolsey, accordin|;ly, was made a cardinal, and thenceforth his whole ener- gies and ambition were devoted to the en- deavour to win the papal throne itself. Contrary to the custom of priests, the pre- cious metal's ornamented not only his own attire, but even the saddles and furniture of his horses) his cardinal's hat was car- ried before him by a man of rank, and laid 'npon the altar when he entered chapel; one priest, of noble stature and handsome countenance, carried before him a massive silver cross, and another the cross of York. Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, also held the office of chancellor, and was but ill fitted to contend with so resolute a per- son as Wolsey, who speedily worried him into a resif;nation of the chancellorship, which dignity he himself grasped. His emoluments were vast, so was his expendi- ture magnificent; and, if he grasped at many offices, it is but fair to add that he fulfilled his various duties with rare energy. Judgment, and justice. Wolsey might now be said to be Henry's only minister ; Fox, bishop of Winchester, the duke of Norfolk, and tne duke of Suffolk being, like the archbishop of Canterbury, unable to make head against his arbitrary temper, and driven from the court by a desire to avoid a useless and irritating conflict. Fox, bishop of Winchester, who seems to have been greatly attached to Henry, warned him against Wolsey's ambition, and besought h)m to beware lest the servant should be- come the master. But Henry had no fear of the kind ; he was far too despotic and passionate a person to fear that any minis- ter could govern him. The success which Francis of France met with in Italy tended to excite the jea- lousy and fears of England, as every new acquisition made by France encroached upon the balance of power, upon which the safety of English interests so greatly de- pended. Francis, moreover, had given of- fence, not only to Henry, but also to Wol- sey, who took care not to allow his master's anger to subside for want of a prompter. But though Henry spent a large sum of money in stirring up enmities against France, he did so to little practical effect, and was easily induced to peace. A.D. 1516.— Ferdinand the Catholic, the father-in-law of Henry, died in the midst of a profound peace in Europe, and was suc- ceeded by his grandson Charles. This event caused Francis to see the necessity of be- stirring himself to ensure the friendship of England, as a support against the extensive power of Spain. As the best means of doing so, he caused his ambassador to make his peace with Wolsey, and affected to ask that naughty minister's advice on the most con- fidential and important subjects. One of the advantages obtained by Francis from this servile uittery of the powerful minis- ter, was the restoration of the important town of Toumay, a frontier fortress of France and tlie Netherlands ; Francis agreeing to pay six hundred thousand crowns, at twelve equal annual instalments, to reimburse Henry for his expenditure on the citadel of Toumay. At the same time that Francis i^ve eight men of rank oa hos- tages for the payment of the above large sum to Henry, he agreed to pay twelve thousand livres per annum to Wolsey as an equivalent for the bishopric of Tournay, to which he had a claim. Fleased with thii success, Francis now became bolder in his flatteries, terming Wolsey gotemer, tutor, and even /atAer, and so winning upon the mind of Wolsey by fulsome affectations of humility and admiration, that Polydore Virgil, who was Wolsey's contemporary, speaks of it as being quite certain that Wolf ey was willing to have sold him Calais, and was only prevented from doing so by the general sense he found to be entertained of its value to England, and by his forming closer connections with Spain, which some- what cooled his attachment to France. The pope's legate, Campeggio, being re- called on his failure to procure a tithe de- manded by the pope from the English clergy, on the old and worn-out pretext of war with the infidels, Henry procured the legatine power to be conferred on Wolsey. With this new dignity, Wolsey increased the loftiness of his pretensions, and the magnificence of his habits ; like the pope, he had bishops and mitred abbots to serve him when he said mass, and he farther had nobles of the best families to hand him the water and towel. So haughty had he now become, that he even complained of Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, as being guilty of undue fami-> liarity in signing himself " Four loving brother;" which caused even the meek spi- rited Warham to make the bitter remark, " this man is drunk with too much prospe- rity.'' But Wolsey did not treat his legatine appointment as being a mere matter of dig- nity and pomp, but forthwith opened what he called the legatine court; a court as op- pressive and as expensive in its authority as the Inquisition itself. It was to enquire into all matters of morality and conscience, and, as it was supplementary to the law of the land, its authority was, in reality, only timited by the conscience of the judge. The first judge appointed to this anomalous and dangerous court was John Allen, a man whose life was but ill spoken of, and who was even said to have been convicted by Wolsey himself of perjury. In the hands of such a man as this, the extensive powers of the legatine court were but too likely to be made mere instruments of extortion; and it was publicly reported that Allen was in the habit of convicting or acquitting as he was unbribed or bribed. Wolscy was thought to receive no small portion of the sums thus obtained by Allen from the A.D. 1616.— FOX, BF. OF WINCHBITIB, ■OVlfOS COBFUS CHBIBTI COlt. OXFOBD. [2 B 3 A.O. 1618.— TUI COLLBOI 0» rUTIICIANB IN LONPON IHITITUTaD. ; %i u m m » M o u I 282 ?!r^e ^rtasuro of l^istorp, $cc. wirkcdncM or the feara of the luitora of hi* court. Much cUniourwae railed sKainit Woltejr, too, by the almoet papal extent of power he clninied for himielf in all iiinttcri coucernine wilU and bcneAcet, the latter of whicli ho conferred upon hii creaturi-i without the tliKhtett regard to the inonk'i right of election, or the lay eculrjr and no- bility'i right of patronat^c. The iniquity of Allen at length cauted him to be prosecuted and convicted ; and Uie king, on that ucca- »ion, espreued to much indignation, that VToliey wae ever after more cautious and guarded in the uie of hit authority. a.D. 1519. — Immericd in plcnsures, Henry contrived to expend all the huge trcainrcs which accrued to him on the death of hii father; and he waa now poor, just when a circumitanee occurred to render hit poi- aeeaion of treasure more than usually im- portant, Maximilian, the emperor, who had long hc:en declining, died: and Henry, and the icings of France and Spain were candi- dates for that chief niace among the princes of Christendom, Money was profusely la- vished upon the electors by both Charles and Francis ; but Henry's minister, I'ace, having scarcely anv command or cash, found his effbrts every where useless, and Charles gained the day, A.D. 16:20. — In reality ^Icnry was formi- dable to either France r ' the emperor, and he could, at a moment's warning, throw his weight into the one or the other scale. Aware of this fact, Francis was anxious for an opportunity of personally practising upon the generosity and want of cool Judgment, wiiich he quite correctly imputed to Henry. He, therefore, proposed that they should meet in a Acid within the English pale, near Calais ; the proposal was warmly seconded by Wolscy, who was as eager as a court beauty of the other sex lor every occasion of personal splendour and costliness. Kach of the nionurchs was young, gay, tiisteful, and mnguiliccnt : and so well did their courtiers enter into their feeling of gorgeous rivalry, that some nobles of both nations expended on the ceremony and show of a few brief days, sums which involved their families in straitened circum- stances for the rest of their lives. The emperor Charles no sooner heard of the proposed interview between the kings, than he, being on his way from Spain to the Netherlands, paid Henry the compli- ment of landing at Dover, whither Henry at once proceeded to meet him. Charles not only laid himself out in every possible way to please and Hatter Henry, but he also paid assiduous court to Wolsey, and bound that aspiring personage to his interests by promising to aid him in reaching the papa- cy ; a promise which Charles felt the less difficulty about making, because the reign- ing\pope Leo X. was junior to Wolsey by some years, and very likely to outlive him. Henry was perfectly well aware of the pains Charles took to conciliate Wolsey, but, strange to say, felt rather flattered than hurt, as though the compliment were ulti- mately paid to his own person and will. When the emperor had taken his depar- ture Henry iiroceeJed to France, where the meeting looV place between him and Fran- cis. Wolsey, who had the regulation of the ceremonial, so well indulged his own and his master's love of maKnillcencc, that the place of meeting was by the common consent of the dcliglited spectators hailed by the gorgeous title of Th* field i\f tkt cloth qf i/ol(l. Gold and jewels abounded; and both the monnrchaaiid their numerous courts were apparelled in the most gorgeous and picturesque style. The duke of Ruck- Ingham, who, though very wealthy, was not very fond of parting with his money, found the cxpences to which he was put on this occasion so intolerable, that he expressed himself so angrily inwards Wolsey as led to his executio'i some time after, though nominally at least for a different offence. The meclinRS between the monarchs were for some time regulated with the most jea- lous and wearisome attention to strict eti- quette. At length Francis, attended by only two of his gentlemen and a page, rode into Henry's quarters. Henry was delighted at this proof of his brother monarch's con- fldence, and threw upon his neck a pearl collar worth ftve or six thousand pounds, which Francis repaid by the present of an armlet worth twice as much. 8o profuse and gorgeous were these young kings. While Henry remained at Calais he re- ceived another visit from the emperor Charles. That artful monarch had now completed the good impression he had al- ready made upon both Henry and cardinal Wolscy ; by offering to leave pU dispute between himself ana France to the arbitra- tion of Henry, as well as b^ assuring Wol- sey of the papacy at soiae future day, and puttini; him into instant possession of the revenues of the bishoprics of Badajos and Plaeencia. The result was, that the empe- ror made demands of the most extravagant nature, well knowing that France would not comply with them; and when the nego- tiations were thus broken off', a treaty was made between the emperor and Henry, by which the daughter of the latter, the prin- cess Mary, was betrothed to the former, and England was bound to invade France with an army of forty thousand men. This treaty alone, by the very exorbitancy of its injunousness to England, would sufficiently show at once the power of Wolsey over his kng and the extent to which he was ready to exert that power. The duke of juckingham, who had im- prudently given off°euce to the all-powerful cardinal, was a man of turbulent temper, and very imprudent in expressing himself, by which means he afforded abundant evi- dence for his own ruin. It was proved that he bad provided arms' with the intent to disturb the government, and that he had even threatened the life of the king, to whom he thought himself, as being de- scended in the female line from the young- est son of Edward the Third, to be the right- ful successor, should the king die without issue. Far less real guilt than this, aided by A.D. 1518. — RBW SPAIN DISCOTBRVn BY FBnttANDKB COBTKZ. A. B. 1621.— aUIAT DBtkTII IN BNalANP i WIMAT 30«. riK QVABTBB. lEnglanT) l^ousc of ^utior.— I^cnrv VVMU. 263 the nnmlty nf tuch • mnn ni Woliejr, wuuld linvi! lufflccd to ruin liurkingliAm, who wai condemned, and, to the groat diicontcnt of the ppople, executed. A. n. 1(31.— We have already mentioned tlint Hrnry in hit youth had hcen Jenluiiily DPcludcd from all ilinrc in public buiiiicsii. He derived from I hi* circumntnnce the ad- vantaKe of far moroicholastic IcarninK than commonly fell to the lot of princfx, and cir- cumitancct now occurcd to net hii literary attainments and propcnaion in n striking light. Leo X. having published a gRncral in- dulgence, circumstances of a merely per- sonal interest caused Arcembnidi, a Uc- nocse, then a bishop but originally a mer- chant, who farmed the collection of the money in Saxony and the countries on the Baltic, to cause the preaching for the indul- ftcnces to be given to the Dominicans, nstend of to the Augnstines nho hud usually enjoyed thnt privilege. Martin Luther, an Augustine mar, reeling him- self and his whole order affronted by this change, preached against it, and inveighed against certain vices of life of which, pro- hnhly, the Dominicans really were guilty, though not more so than the Augustines. His spirited and coarse censures provoked the censured order to re|ily, and as tliey dwelt much upon the papal authority, as an all- sutHcient answer to Lui her, he was induced to question that authority ; and as ho ex- tended his reading he found cause for more and more extended complaint ; so that he who at first had merely complained of a wrong done to a partiL-ular order of cliurch- men, speedily declared himself against much of the doctrine and discipline of the cliurcli itself, as being corrupt and of merely liu- man invention for evil human purposes. From Germanv the new doctrines of Luther quiekly spread to tlie rest of Kurope, and found many proselytes in England. Henry, however, was the last man in his dominions who was likely to assent to Luther's argu- ments ; as a scholar, and as an extremely despotic monarch, he was alike shocked by them. He not only exerted himself to pre- vent the Lutheran heresies, as he termed and no doubt thought them, from taking root in England, but also wrote a book in Latin against them. This book, which wuuld have been by no means discreditable to an older and more professional polemic, Hcnrv sent to the pope, who, charmed with the ability displayed by so illustrious an advocate of the papal cause, conferred upon bim the proud title of Defender nf the Faith, which has ever since been borne by our monarchs. Luther, who was not of a tem- per to quail before rank, replied to Henry with great force and with but little decency, and Henry was thus made personally as well as scholastlcally an opponent of the new doctrines. But those doctrines involved so many consequences favourable to human liberty and flattering to human pride, that neither si-holnstical nor kingly power could prevent their spread, which was much faci- litated by the recent invention of printing. The progress of the new opinions was still farther favoured by the death of Uie vigor- ous and gifted Leo X., and by the succes- sion to the papal throne of Adrian, who was so far from being inclined to go too far in the support of the establishment, that he candidly admitted the necessity for much reformation. A.n. 1622.— The emperor fearing lest Wol- •ey's disappointment of the pnpal thnmc should injure the imperial interests in Eng- land, ai^ain came hither, iirofessedly only on a visit of compliment, but really to for- ward bis political interests. He paid assi- duous court, not only to Henry, but also to Wolsey, to whom he pointed out that the age and infirmities of Adrian rendered another vacancy likely soon to occur in the papal throne ; and Wolsey saw it to be his interest to dissemble the indignant vexation his disappointment had really caused him. The emperor in consequenco succeeded in his wishes of retaining Henry's alliance, and of causing him to declare war against France. Lord Surrey entered France with an army which, with reinforcements from the Lowv Countries, numbered eighteen thousand men. But the operations by no means correKoonded in importance to the force assembled ; and after losing a great number of men by sickness, Surrey went into winter quarters in the month of^ Octo- ber without having made himself master of a single place in trance. When France was at war with England, there was but little probability of Scotland remaining quiet. Albany, who had arrived from France, especially with a view to vex- ing the northern frontier of England, sum- moned all the Scottish force that could be raised, marched into Aunandale, and pre- pared to cross into England at Solwav Frith. But the storm was averted from England by the discontents of the Scottish nobles, who complained that the intereHia of Scotland should be exposed to all the danger of a contest with so superior a power as Eng- land, merely for the advantage of a foreign Sower. So strongly, indeed, did the Gor- ons and other powerful clansmen express their discontents on this head, that Albany made a truce with the English warden, the lord Daere, and returned to France, taking the precaution of sending thither before him the earl of Angus, husband of the queen dowager. A. D. 1523. — With only an infant king, and with their regent absent from the kingdom, the Scots laboured under the additional disadvantage of being divided into almost as manv factions as they numbered potent and uodIc families. Taking advantage of this melancholy state of things in Scotland, Henry sent to that country a powerful force under the earl of Surrey, wlio marched with- out opposition into the Merse and Teviot- dale, burned the town of Jedburgh, and ravaged the whole country round. Henry endeavoured to improve his present supe- riority over the Scots, by bringing about a marriage between his only daughter, the young princess Mary, and the infant king of Scotland; a measure which would at A. D. 1621.— IN THia XBAB MUSKETS WBBB INTKNTBD. w A. D. 1634.'— LVTIIK'I book AOAIHIT bomb II ROW MUCU BIIIBMIMATED. 284 ^t)c ^reasun? of l^istorQ, Sec. once have put an end to all contrarietjr of intereiti aa to the two counthet, byunitinK them, aa nature eridently intended them to be, into one etate. But the friendi of France opposed this meaaure ao warmly, that the queen dowager, who had every poaaible motive for wiahing to comply with it, both aa favouring her brother, and promiaing an otherwiae unattainable proaperity to the future reign of her aon, waa unable to bring it about. The partiaana of England and France were nearly eoual in power, if not in number; and while the* atill debated the queation, it waa decidea againat Eng- land by the arrival of Albany. Ue raiaed troopa and made aome ahow of battle, but there waa little actual fighting. Diaguated with the faetiona into whieb the people were divided, Albany at length retired again to France ; and Henry having enough to do in hia war with that country, waa well content to give up hia notion of a Scotch alliance, and to rely upon the Scota being bnay with their own feuda, aa hia beat ae- cnrity againat their henceforth attempting any aerioua diveraion in favour of France. In truth, Henry, wealthy aa he had been at the commencement of hia reign, had been ao profuae in hia purauit of pleaaure, that he nad now no meana of prosecuting war with any conaiderable vigour even againat France alone. Though, in many respecta, poaaeaaed of actually deapotic power, Henry had to luflTer the uaual in- convenience of poverty. At one time he iaaued privy aeala demanding loans of cer- tain auma from wealthy men ; at another he demanded a loan of live ahillings in the pound from the clergy, and of two shillings in the pound from the laity. Though no- minally loan*, these sums were really to be considered aa gtffa; impositions at once so large, ao arbitrary, and so liable to be re- peated at any period, necesaarily eauaini; much diacontent. Soon after this last ex- pedient for raising money without the con- sent of parliament, he aummoned a convo- cation and a parliament. From the former, Wolsey, relying upon hia high power and influence aa cardinal and archbishop, de- manded ten shillings in the pound on the eccleaiastical revenue, to be levied in five years. The clergy murmured, but, as Wol- sey had anticipated, a few sharp words from him BUenced all objections, and what he demanded waa granted. Having thus far succeeded, Wolsey now, attended by several lords spiritual and temporal, addressed the houae of commona; dilating upon the wanta of the king, and upon the disadvan- tageous position in which those wants placed him with respect to both France and Scotland, and demanded ^ grant of two hundred thousand pounds per annum for four years. After much hesitation and n^urmuring, the commons granted only one half the required sum ; and here occurred a striking proof of the spirit of independence, which, though it was very long in growing to its present height, had already been pro- duced in the hoiLse of commons by its pos- seaaion of the power of the purse. Wolsey, on learning how little the commons had voted towarda what he had demanded, re- quired to be allowed to " reason" with the house, but waa gravely, and with real dig- nity, informed, that the house of commons could reason only among its own members. But Henry sent for Edward Montague, an influential member, and coarsely threatened him, that if the commona did not vote bet- ter on the following day, Montague ahould loae hia head. Thia threat cauaed the com- mona to advance aomewhat on their former offera, though they atill fell far abort of the aom originuly asked. It may be presumed that Henry waa partly goaded to his violent and brutal threat to Montague by very urgent neces- sity; among the items of the amount granted, waa a levy of three shillings in the pound on all who possessed fifty pounds per annum, and though this waa to be le- vied in fouryeara, Heniy levied the whole of it in the very year in which it waa granted. While Wolaey — for to him the people at- tributed every act of the king— waa thua powerful in England, either very great treachery on the part of the emperor, or a most invincible misfortune, rendered him constantly unfortunate aa to the great ob- ject of his ambition, the papal throne. It now again became vacant by the death of Adrian, hut this new awakening of his hope was merely the prelude to a new and bitter disappointment. He was again passed over, and one of the De Medicis ascended the papal throne under the title of Clement Vll. Wolsey was well aware that this elec- tion took place with the concurrence of the imperial party, and he, therefore, deter- mined to turn Henry from the alliance of the emperor to that of France. When we consider how much preferable the French alliance was, as regarded the interests and happiness of millions of human beings, it is it once a subject of indignation and of self- distrust to reflect, that the really profound and far-seeing cardinal was determined to it, only by the same paltry personal feeling that might animate a couple of small squires in the hunting field, or their wives at an assize ball. But he never really eompre- hend* the teaehingt qf history, who is not ^joell informed upon the personal feelings, and very capable of making allowance for the personal errors, of the great actors in the drama of nations. Disappointed in the great object of his ambition, Wolsey affected the utmost ap- proval of the election which had so much mortified him, and he applied to Clement for a continuation of that legatine power which had now been entrusted to him by two popes, and Clement granted it to him for life,'a gre*t and moat unusual compli- ment. A. D. 1S25.— Though Henry's war vrith France was productive of much expeuce of both blood and treasure, the English share in it was so little brilliant, that there ia no necessity for our entering here into details, which must, of necessity, be given iu an- other place. We need only remark that UBNBT KNOAOBD TO PAT THB DVKB OF BOUBBON 100,000 CBOWNS A MONTH. ' ! w i nnona had nndcd, re- ' with the real dig- commoni membera. itague, an hreatened t tote bet- ue ihould 1 the Gom- leir former sort of the ileiirjr wa» ind brntal ;ent necei- le amount ingi in the fty pounds IS to be le- tie whole of as granted. I people at- — waa thua very great iperor. or a idered him le great ob* throne. It be death of ; of hii hope w and bitter paued over, Bcended the of Clement at this elec- rence of the fore, deter- alliauce of When we the French (iterests and beings, it is ■ and of self • lly profound termined to lonal feeling mall squires wives at an illp compre- , who it not tal feelings, Uowance for actors in the >bject of his utmost ap- ad so much to Clement atine power d to him by d it to him ual compli- _„ war with h expeuce of nglish share X there is no into details, [Wen ill an- remark that MONTH. A.B. 15'ifi.— lUMrTON-COVat rALAOl •ITBH TO *■■ lIRtt ■« WOLSBT. lEngUntJ l^ouse of ©uTior — ^l^enrp VSM.. 285 the defeat and captivity of Franeis at th great battle of Pavin, in the urovious year, would have been improved b» Wnlney, to the probable utter ci> luest of Fninve, but fur the deep offence in iiad received from the emperor, which caused lilni to represent to Henry the importance to hiin of France as a countcrbnlancinK power to the em- peror. He curcfuUy and successfully ap- Eealed to the powerful passions of Henry, y pointing out proofs of coldness and of increased assumption in the style of the emperor's letters subsc<|uent to the battle of Pavia; and Henry was still more deter- mined bv this merely pentonal argument than he nad been by even the cogent poli- tical one. The result was, that Henry made a treaty with the mother of Francs, who had been left by him as regent, in which he undertook to procure the liberty of Francis on reasonable terms; while she acknow- ledged Henry creditor of France to the amount of nearly two millions of crowns, which she undertook to pay at the rate of tifty thousand in every six months. WoU sey, besides gratifying his spleen against the emperor in bringing about this treaty with France, procured the more solid grati- iication of a hundred thousand pounds paid to him under the name of arrears of a pen- sion granted to him on the giving uti of Tournav, as mentioned in its proper place in this history. As it was very probable that this treaty with France would lead to a war with the emperor, Henry issued a commission for levying a tax of four shillings in the pound upon the clergy, and threc-and-fourpcnce upon the laity. As this heavy demand caused great murmuring, he took care to have it made known that he desired this money only in the way of benevolence. But people, by this time, understood that loan, benevo- lence, and tax were only different names for the one solid matter of ready money, and the murmuring did not cease. In some parts of the country, the people, indeed, broke out into open revolt; but as they had no wealthy or influential lender, the king's of- ficers and friends put them down, and Henry pardoned the ringleaders on the po- litic pretence that poverty, and not wiuul disloyalty, had led them xstray. A.D. 1527.— Though Henry had now so many years lived with his queen in all ap- parent cordiality and contentment, several circumstances had occured to give him doubts as to the legality of their marriage. When the emperor Charles had proposed to espouse Henry's daughter, the young princess Mary, the states of Castile ob- jected to her as being illegitimate ; and the same objection was subsequently made by France, when it was proposed to ally her to the prince of that country. It is, we think, usual too readily to take it for granted that Henry was, from the first, prompted to seek the dissolution of this marrics'e, merely bj a libertine and sensual disposition. It is quite true that the queen was conttderably older than he, and that her beantjrwas boi remarkable; and it may be quite true that those circum- ! stances were amoni/ his motives. But it should not be forgotten that he had studied deeply, and that his favourite author, Tlioinas Aquinas, spoke in utter rcproba- tiuii iif the marrying by a man of his brother's widow, as denounced in the hook of Leviticus. I'he energetic reprobation of an author of whom he was accustomed to think so reverently was, of course, not weakened hy the rejection of his daughter bv both 8|,Hin and France, on the ground of the incestuous marringe of her parents, nnd Henry at length became so desirous to have sonic authoritative settlement c: hit doubts, that he caused the question to be mooted before the prelates of England, who, with the single exception of Fisher, bishop of ilochester, subscribed to the opi- nion that the marriage was ab inceplo ille- gal and null. While Henry's conscientious scruple was thus strongly cuntirmed, hit desire to get his marriage formally and ef- fectually annulled, was greatly increased by his falling in love witli Anne Uoleyn, a young lady of great beauty and accouipllsh- meuts. Her parents were connected with some of the best families in the nation, her father hod several times been honourably employed abroad by the king, and the young ludy herself, to her very great misfortune, was, at this time, one of the maids of ho- nour to the queen. That we are correct in believing Henry to be less the mere and willing slave ot passion than he has gene- rally been represented, seems to be clear from the single fact, that there is no in- stance of his showing that utter contempt for the virtue of the court females so com- mon in the case of monarchs. He no sooner saw Anne Boleyn than be desired her, not as a mistress, but as a wife, and that desire made him more than ever anxious to dis- solve hit marriage with Catherine. Ho now, therefore, applied to the pone for a divorce, upon the ground, not merely of the incestuous nature of the marriage — as that might have seemed to question or to limit the dispensing power of Rome— but on the ground that the bull which had authorised it had been obtained under false pretences, which were clearly proven ; a ground which had always been held by Rome to be suffi- cient to authorize the nullifying of a bull, Clement, the pope, was, at this time, a pri- soner in the hands of the emperor, and his_ chief hope of obtaining his release on such' terms as would render it desirable or ho- nourable rested on the exertions of Henry, Francis, and the states with which they were in alliance. The pope, therefore, was desirous to conciliate Henry's favour ; but he was timid, vacillating, an Italian, and an adept in that dissimulation which is so characteristic of men who add constitu- tional timidity to intellectual power. Anx- ious to conciliate Henry hy granting the divorce, he was fearful lest he should en- rage the emperor— queen Catherine's ne- phew — by doing so ; the consequence was, a long series of expedients, delays, pro- mises, and disappointments, tedious to y I M n a f H i> M •• O a •< a m I i I A.D. 1529. — THB VXHM " PHOTBSTAMTs" WAS WOW PIBST WSBD. w A.O. 1630.— THB BSCRITAHT OV ITATS'S OfFICB INSTITUTBD TUIB XBAH. 'Jj- i! I i.ij N M a o M »i M O b o V f •a < 286 ®t)e ©rcagurp of l^dstotu, $cc. read of in even the most elaborate histO' rics, and which, to relate here, would be an injurious waste of space and time. The cardinal Campeggio was at length joined with Wolsey in a commission to try the affair in EngUnd. The two legates opened their court in Loudon ; both the queen and Henry were summoned to ap- pear, and a most painful scene took place. VVlien their majesties were called by name in the court, Catherine left her seat and threw herself at the feet of the king, re- called to his memory how she had entered his dominions, leaving all friends and stp- por*: to depend upon him alone ; how for twenty years she had been a faithful, lov- ing, and obedient wife. She impressed upon him the fact that the marriage between her and his elder brother had, in truth, been but such a mere formal betrothal, us in in- numerable other cases had beeu held no bar to subsequent marriage; that both their fathers, esteemed the wisest princes in Christendom, had consented to their marriage, which they would not have done unless well advised of its oropriety; and she concluded by saying, that being well assured that Ehe had no reason to expect justice from a court at the disposal of her enemies, so never more would she appear before it. After the departure of the queen the trial proceeded. It was prolonged fcom week to week, and from month to month, by the arts of Campeggio, acting by the instruc- tions of Clement, who employed the time in making his arrangements with the em- peroi for nis own benetit, and that of the De Mcdicis in general. Having succeeded in doing this, he, to Henry's great asto- nishment, evoked the cause to Itonie on the queen's appeal, just as every one ex- pected the legates to pronounce for the divorce. Henry was greatly enraged at Wolsey on account of this result. He had so long been accusiomed to see the cardi- nal successful in whatever he attempted, that he attributed his present failure rather to treachery than to want of judgment. The great seal was shortly taken from him and given to sir TJionias Moi'c, and he was ordered to g^ve up to the king his stately and gorgeously furnished palace called York House, which was converted into a royol residence, under the name of 'White- hall. The wealth seized in this one resi- dence of the cardinal was immense ; his plate was of regal splendour, and included what indeed not every king could boast, one perfect cupboard (if massive gold. His furniture and other effects were numerous and costly in proportion, as may be judged from the single item of one thousand pieces of fine Holland cloth I The possessor of all this wealth, however, was a ruined man now; in the privacy of his comparatively mean country nouse at Eshev, in Surrey, he was unvisitcd and unnoticed by those cour- tiers who had so eagerly crowded around him while he was yet distiuKuished by the king's favour. But if the inarntitude of hii fi'iends left him undisturbed in his soli- tude, the Bctivitv of his foes did not leave him undisturbed even there. The king had not as yet deprived him of his sees, and had, moreover, sent him a ring and a kind message. His enemies, therefore, fearful lest he should even yet recover his lost fa- vour, and so acquire the power to repay their ill services, took every method to pre- judice him in the eyes of the king, who at length abandoned him to the power of par- liament. The lords passed fortji-four arti- cles against him, of which it is not too much to say that there was not one which might not have been explained away, had any thing like \eaal form or proof been called for or considered. Amidst the gene- ral and shameful abandonments of Wolsey by those who had so lately fawned upon him, it is delightful to have to record, that when these articles were sent down to the house of commons, the oppressed and abandoned cardinal was warmly and ably defended by Thomas Cromwell, whom his patronage had raised from a very low ori- gin. All defence, however, was vain ; the parliament pronounced " That he was out of the king's protection; that his lands and goods were forfeited ; and that his per- son might be committed to custody." From Esher, Wolsey removed to Rich- mond, but his enemies had him ordered to Yorkshire, where he lived in great modesty at Cawood. But the king's differences with Rome were now every day growing greater, and he easily listened to those who assured him that in utterly shaking off all connec- tion with the holy see, he would encounter powerful opposition from the cardinal. An order was issued for his arrest on a charge of high treason, and it is very probable that his death on the scaffold would have been added to the stains upon Hcnrv's memory, but that the harassed frame ot the cardinal sunk under the alarm and fatigue of his ar- rest and forced journey. He was conveyed by sir William Kingston, constable of the Tower, as far as Leicester abbey. Here his illness became so extreme that he could be got no farther, and here he yielded up his breath soon after he had spoken to sir William Kingston, this niemorable and touching caution against an undue worldly ambition ; — " I pray you have me heartily recom- mended unto his royal mnjesty, and be- seech him, on my behalf, to coll to his re- membrance all matters that liave passed between us from the beginning, especially with regard to his business with the queen, and then he will know in his conscience vrhether I have offended him. He is a prince of a most royal carriage, and hath ii princely heart; and rather than he will miss or. want any part of his will, he will endanger the one half of his kingdom. I do assure you that I have often kneeled before him, sometimes three hours to- gether, to persuade him from his will and appetite, but could not prevail. Had I but itrved Gon as diligently as I have svrved the kiny, Hb icould tint hare given me over in my grey haivi. But this is the just reward o h H m b' K < O M M K H r. IB o n O O vs A. ». 1532.— BOMB MONASIBRIBS BUPmSBBKIl, AND BIX BISUOFRICB BHECTBD. ' »i w A. D. 1533.— CUBRANTS, VHI MU8K BOII, &C. rlRRT FIANTBD IN XNeLAND. "1 not leave ! king had sees, and id n kind e, fearful is lost fa- to repay od to pre- IK, who at i-er of par- -four arti- B not too one which away, had iroof been t the gene- of Wolsey vncd upon ecord, tiiat own to the essed and y and ably whom liis ;ry low ori- 9 vain ; the be was out his lands lat his per- ody." d to Rich- I ordered to 'ot modesty rcnccs with ing greater, vho assured all connec- i encounter irdinal. An on a charge obable that have been i's memory, ihe cardinal ueof his ar- M conveyed able of the hey. Here lat he could yielded up spoken to lorable and due worldly H m n' K «l O < M K (!) r. M O n iM O t< o * » a r. M M < V a tily recom- , and be- .. to his re- lave passed 5, especially I the queen, conscience He is a and hath ii »an he will will, he will lingdom. I ;en kneeled hours to- his will and Had 1 bnt > H >4 O n H K 'f. » o H ■«i 9. O lEnglantJ.— "llouisc of ^utJor — ^Icnre 1711ES. 287 that I must receive for my indulgent pains and study, not regarding my duty to God, but only to my prince. Therefore, let rae advise you, if you be one of the privy coun- cil, as by your wisdom you are ilt, take care what you put into the king's head, for you can never put it out again." Touching and pregnant testimony of a dying man, of no ordinary wisdom, to the hoUowness with which all the unrighteous ends of am- bition appear clad, when the votary of this world receives the tinal and irrevocable summons tu the brighter and purer world beyond I CHAPTER XH. The /tei'trn <:< Henry VIH. {continued.) Natiibaliy too fond of authority to feel without impatience the heavy yoke of Rome, the opposition he had so signally exp''rionced in the matter of his divorce I iiud enraged Henry so much, that he gave I every encouragement to the parliament to abridge the exorbitant privileges of the clergy; in doing which, he equally pleased himself in mortifying Rome, and in paving the way for that entire independence of the papal power, of which every day made him more desirous. The parliament was equally ready to depross the clergy, and se- veral bills were passed which tended to make the laity more independent of them. The parliament, about this time, passed another bill to Acquit the king of nil claims on account of those exactions which he had speciously called loans. While Henry was agitated between the wish to break with Rome, and the oppos- ing unwillingness to give so plain a contra- diction to alfthat he had advanced in the book which had procured him the flatter- ing title of Defender of the Faith, he was informed that Dr. Cranmer, a fellow of Jesus' college, Cambridge, and a man of good repute, both as to life and learning, had suggested that all the universities of Europe should be consulted as to the lega- lity of Henry's marriage ; if the decision were in favour of it, the king's qualms of conscience must needs disappear before such a host of learning and judgment ; if the opinion v°cre against it, equally must the hesitation of Rome as to granting the divorce be shamed away. On hearing this opinion Henry, in his bluff way, exclaimed that Cranmer had taken the right sow by the ear, sent for him to court, and was so well pleased with him as to employ him to write in favour of the divorce, and to super- intend the course he had himself suggested. A. D. 1632. — The measures taken oy par- liament, with the evident good-will of the king, were so obviously tending towards a total separation from Rome, that sir Thomas More, the chancellor, resigned the great seal ; that able man being devotedly at- tached to the papal authority, and clearly seeing that he could no longer retain ofBce but at the risk of being called upon to act against the pope. At Rome the measures of Henry were not witnessed without anxiety ; and while (he emperor's agents did all in their power to determine the pope against Henry, the more cautious members of the conclave ad- vised that a favour often granted to meaner princes, should not be denied to him who had heretofore been so good a son of the church, and who, if driven to desperation, might wholly ahenate from the papacy the most precious of all the states over which it held sway. Rut the time for conciliating Henry was now gone by. He had an interview with the kmg of France, in which they renewed their personal friendship, and agreed upon measures of mutual defence, and Henry privately married Anne Doleyn, whom he had previously created countess of Pem- broke. A. 0. 1533.— The new wife of Henry prov- ing pregnant, Cranmer, now archbishop of Canterbury, was directed to hold a court at Dunstable to decide on the invalidity of the marriage ortatherine, who lived at Ainpt- hill in that neighbourhood. If this court were any thing but a mere mockery, rea- sonable men avgued, its decision should surely have preceded and not followed the second marriage. Rut the king's will was absolute, and the opinions of the universi- ties and the judgment of the convocations having been formally read, and both opi- nions and judgment being against Cathe- rine's marriage, it was now solemnly an- nulled. Soon after the new queeu was de- livered of a daughter, the afterwards wise and powerful queen Elizabeth. Notwithstanding all the formalities that had been brought to bear against her rights, queen Catherine, who was as resolute as she was otherwise amiable, refused to be styled aught but qucOn of England, and to the day of her death, compelled her ser- vants, and all who had the privilege of ap- proaching her, to address and treat her as their queen. The enemies of Henry at Rome urged the pope anew to pronounce sentence of excommunication against him. But Cle- ment's niece was now married to the second son of the king of France, who spoke to the pope in Henry's favour. Clement, there- tore, for the present, confined his severity to issuing a sentence nullifying Cranmer's sentence, and the marriage of Henry to Anne Boleyn, and threatening to excom- municate him should he not restore his af- fairs to their former footing by a certain day. A. B. 1535.— As Henry had still some strong leanings to the church, and as it was obviously much to the interest of Rome not wholly to lose its influence over so wealthy a nation i^i England, there even yet seemed to be some chance of nn ami- cable termination of this quarrel. By the good offices of the kin^ of France, the pope was induced to promise to pronounce in favour of the divorce, on the receipt of a certoin promise of the king to submit his cause to Rome. The king agreed to make this promise and actually dispatched a A. n. 1532. — LOTD AI'ni.KT SUCCKHUS sill TIIDVAS MORK AH Cll,\ NCKM.OII. \\ MANY LAUOABLB ATTBHFTB WEBB MASK TO IMFBOVK MBOICAL KNOWI.BDOB. .'i : t ,^ 2»8 ^l^c ^wasttts of I^iiitory, $rc. courier with it. Some delays of the road prevented the arrival of the important document at Borne until two days after the proper time. In the interim it was re- ported at Rome, probably by some of the imperial agents, that the pope and car- dinals had been ridiculed in a farce that had been performed before Henry and his court. Enraged at this intelligence, the pope and cardinals viewed it as sure proof that Henry's promise was not intended to be kept, and a sentence was immediately pronounced in favour of Catherine's mar- riage, while Henry was threatened with excommunication in the event of that sentence not being submitted to. It is customary to speak of the final breach of Henry with Rome as having been solely caused by this dispute with Rome about' the divorce ; all fact, however, is against that view of the case. The opinions of Luther had spread far and wide, and had sunk deep into men's hearts'; and the bitterest things said against Rome by the reformers were gentle when com- pared to the testimony borne against Rome by her own venality and her general cor- ruption. In this very case how could the validity of Catherine's marriage be af- fected uy the real or only alleged perform- ance of a ribald farce before the English court above a score of year \ after it ? The very readiness with which tie nation joined the king in seceding from Rome, shows very clearly that under any possible circum- stances that secession must have shortly taken place. 'We merely glance at this fact, because it will be put beyond all doubt when we come to speak of the ac- cession of queen Elizabeth ; for notwith- standing all that Mary had done, by the zealous support she gave to the cliurch of Rome and by her furious persecution of the Reformers, to render the subserviency of England to Rome both permanent and per- fect, the people of this country were re- joiced at the opportunity it afforded them of throwing off the papal authority. The houses of convocation— with only four opposing votes and one doubtful voter — declared that "the bishop of Rome had by the law of God no more jurisdiction in England than auy other foreign binhop; and the authority which ho and liis prede- cessors liave here exercised was only by usurpation and by the sufferance of the English princes." Tlie convocation also ordered that the act now passed by the parliament ngninst all appeals to Rome, and the appeal of the king from the pope to a general council should be affixed to all church doors throughout the kingdom. That nothing might be left undone to con- vince Rome of Henry's resolve upon an entire separation from the church of which he had been so extolled a defender, the parliament passed an act confirming the mvalidity of Henry's niarringc with Cathe- rine anl the validity of that with Anne Boleyn. All persons were required to take the cath to support the succession thus fixed, and the only persons of consequence who refused were sir Thomas Moore and bishop Fisher, who were both indicted and committed to the Tower. The parliament having thus completely, and we may add servilely, complied with all the wishes of the king, was for a short time prorogued. The parliament had already given to Henry tne reality, and it now proceeded to give him the title of lufireme head of the church ; and that Rome might have no doubt that the very exorbitancy with which she liad pressed her pretensions to autho- rity in England had wholly transferred that authority to the crown, the parliament ac- companied this new and significant title with a grant of all the annates and tithes of benefices which had hitherto been paid to Rome. A forcible and practical illustration of the sort of supremacy which Henry in- tended that himself and his successors should exercise, and one which showed Rome that not merely in superstitious ob- servances but also in solid matters of pecu- niary tribute, it wos Henry's determination that his people should be free from papal domination. Both in Ireland and Scotland the king's af- fairs were just nt this moment, when he was carrying matters with so high a hand with Rome, such as to cause him some anxiety, but his main care was wisely bestowed upon his own kingdom. The mere secession of that kingdom from an authority so time- honoured and hitherto so dreaded and so arbitrary as Rome was, even to so powerful and resolute a monarch has Henry, an expe- riment of some nicety and danger. Might not they who had been taught to rebel against the church of Rome be induced to rebel against the crown itself? The con- duct of the anabaptists of Germany added an affirmative of experience to the affirma- tive which reason could not fail to suggest to this question. Rut besides that there were many circumstances which rendered it unlikely that the frantic republican prin- ciples which a few reforming zealots had preached in Germany, would take an hold upon the hardy and practical intellect of Englishmen long and deeply attached to monarchy, there was little fear of the pub- lic mind, while Henry reigned, having too much speculative liberty of any sort. He lind shaken off the pope, indeed, but he had, as far as the nation was concerned, only done so to substitute himself; and though the right of private judgment was one of the most important principles of the Reformation, it very soon became evident that the private judgment of the English subject would be an extremely dangerous thing except when it very accurately tallied with that of his prince. Opposed to the discipline of Rome, as a king, he was no less opposed to the leading doctrines of Lu- ther, ns a theologian. His conduct and language perpetually betrayed the struggle between these antagonistic feelings, and among the ministers and frequenters of I lie court, as a natural consequence, "motley was the only wear." Thus the queen, Crom- well, now secretary of state, aud Cranmer, SCIENOK AS TIT I.AT DOBMAKT, BUT TUB BBLLK8 LBTTBIiS ADV&MCBD. ■Ji w A.D. 153A.— BBAIB CANNON riBBT CART IN THII COVNTBT. Moore and indicted and ! parliament ve may add le wishea of ! prorogued, ly given to proceeded to head of the ;ht have no f with which ns to autho- nsf erred that irl lament ac- liticant title and tithes of been paid to il illustration ;h Henry in- .3 successors hich showed erstitious ob- tters of pecu- letermination from papal 1 the lung's af- , when he was 1 a hand with some anxiety, estowed upon 2 secession of >rity so time- caded and so :o so powerful enry, an expe- .nger. Might ght to rebel 10 induced to if? The con- :rraauy added .) the afflrma- ^ail to suggest es that there |iich rendered lublican prin- zealots had take an hold il intellect of attached to \r of the pub- 1, having too iny sort. He ,eed, but he is concerned, himself; and dgment was iiciplea of the !ame evident the Knglish ily dangerous irately tallied Iposcd to the lie wfts no jtrincsof Lu- [conduct and the struggle 'eclings, and lentcrsof the cc, "motley lucen, Croni- ud Cranmcr, |»CED. M O O » >> M •< (• K H S M >i M beloDijinK B very little ause amoug ally led him : ia a coorso it. some farther t nature for I lately been if Bochestcr, t More, had 1, committed B the oath of rbitrary king parliament, lo-gh a good M very credtt- the believer* long the aup- tbeth Barton, aged prelate, in the king's J for a vvhole , severity that m necessaries, rdinal. This unate prelate, ider the act of Miost instantly Ud, though, as metiraes cruel tions to taking seem to have rere perfectly himself that Iromwell, now le could show led refusal, it It down to the )wn version of 'If and Crom- [e extract the le above argu- no obstinacy, fence. Let me , the king that h vt'ill give my [warrant would lies enacted by lill trust to hia It thinketh me, pauses without declared is no J\at you do not Itlie outh, it is Innt conviupcd le it; but you Is your duty to Y therefore, to bh is uncertain BQWABD, BABI. Ot SUKKKT— A DiniRaUIIHID OkllAMBIll OV LITBKATDBB. lEnglanH.— 1^ott»« of VLntiot — Titttivs VMJi. 291 MoRB.— " I do not blame men for taking, the oath, because I know not their reasons and motives ; but I should blame myself because I know that I should act against my conscieuce. And truly such reasoning would ease us of all perplexity. Whenever doctors disagree we nave onlv to obtain the king's commandment for either aide of the question and we moat be right." Abbot of Wb^tm instbb.— " Bat you ought to think your own conscience erro- neous when you have the whole council of the nation against you. MoBB.— "And so I should, had I not for me a still greater council, the whole coun- cil of Christendom." More's talents and character made him too potent an opponent of the king's arbi- trarv will to allow of his being spared. To conaemn him was not difficult ; the king willed his condemnation, and he was con- demned accordingly. If in his day of power More, unfortunately, showed that he knew how to inflict evil, so now in his fall he showed the far nobler power of bearing it. In his happier days he had been noted for a certain jocular phraseology, and this did not desert him even in the last dreadful scene of all. Being somewhat infirm, he craved the assistance of a bystander as he mounted the scaffold ; saying, " Friend, help me up, when I come down again you may e'en let me shift for myself." When the ceremonies were at an end the executioner in the customary terms begged his forgive- ness ; " I forgive you," he replied, " but you will surely get no credit by the job of be- heading me, my neck is so short." Even as he laid his head upon the block he said, putting aside the long beard he wore, " Do not hurt my beard, that at least has com- mitted no treason." These words uttered, the executioner proceeded with his revolt- ing task, and sir Thomas More, learned though a bigot, and a good man though at times a persecutor, perished in the fifty- third year of his age. A.D. 1536.— WhOe the court of Rome waa exerting itself to the utmost to show its deep sense of the indignation it felt at the execution of two such men as Fisher and More, an event took place in England which, in christian charity, we are bound to believe gave a severe shock even t6 the hard heart of Henrv. Though the divorced Catherine had resolutely persisted in being treated as a queen by all who approached her, she had borne her deeu wrongs with so dignified a patience that she was the more deeply sympathised with, flut the stern effort with which she bore her wrongs was too much for her already broken constitu- tion. Perceiving that her days on earth were numbered, she besought Henry that she might once more look upon her child, the princess Mary ; to the disgrace of our common nature, even this request was sternly denied. She then wrote him a let- ter, so affecting, that even he slied tears over it, in which she, gentle and submis- sive to the last in all save the one great point of her wrongs, called liiin her " most dear lord, king, and husband," besought bia affection for their child, and recommended her servants to hia goodness. Her letter so moved him that he sent her a kind mes- sage, but ere the bearer of it could anriTe she was released from her suffering and wronged life. Henry caused hia aervanta to go into deep mourning on the dav of her funeral, whicn was celebrated witn great pomp at Peterborough catlsiedral. Whatever pity we may feel for the sub- sequent sufferings of queea Anne Boleyn, it is impossible to vrithhold our disgust from her conduct on this occasion. Though the very menials of her husband wore at least the outward show of sorrow for the da- parted Catherine, Anne Boleyn on that dav dressed herself more showUy than usual, and expressed a perfectljr savage exultation that now she might consider herself a queen indeed, as her rival waa dead. Her exultation wai as short lived aa it was unwomanly. In the very midat of her joy she saw Henrv paving very unequivocal court to one of her ladies, by name Jane Seymour, and she was so much enraged and astonished that, being far advanced in pregnancy, she was prematurely delivered of a still-born prince. Henir, notoriously anxious for legitimate male issue, waa brutal enough to reproach her with thia occurrence, when she spiritedly replied, that he had only himself to blame, the mia- chief being entirely caused by hia conduct with her maid. This answer completed the king's anger, and that feeling, with his new paasion for Jane Seymour, caused ruin to Anne Boleyu even ere she had ceased to exult over the departed. Catherine. Her levity of manner had already enabled her foes to poison the ready ear of the king, and his open anger necessarily caused those foes to be still more busy and precise in their whisperings. Being present at a tilt- ing match, she, whether oy accident or de- sign, let fall her handkerchief exactly at the feet of sir Henry Norris and her nro- ther lord Bochford, who at that moment were the combatants. At any other time it is likely that Henry would have let so trivial an accident pass unnoticed. But his jea- lousy was already aroused, his love, such as it was, had already burnt cut, and, above all, he had already cast his eyes on Jane Seymour, and was glad of any excuse, good or bad, upon which to rid himself of Anne. Sir Hvnry Norris, who was a reputed favour- ite of the queen, not only raised the hand- kerchief from the ground, but used it to wipe his face, being lieated with the sport. The king's dark looks lowered upon all pre- sent, and he instantly withdrew in one of those moods in which few cared to meet him and none dared to oppose his will. On the next morning lord Rochford and sir Henry Norris were arrested and thrown into the Tower, and Anne herself, while on her way from Greenwich to London, was met by Cruinwell and the duke of Norfolk, and by them infurincd that she was accused of , infidelity to the king ; and she, too, was LILY WAS TUB VIBST SCHOOI.HASTBB WHO TAUOUT OBBBK IN liONOOM. 1 1 u I ■ J A. D. 1536. — WALKS VNXTSD AMD IICCORrORATIfiO WITU ENGLAND. i' ,\it 292 ^\)t treasury of Ilfstore, $cc. taken to the Tower, aa, charged with being her accomplices, were Brereton, Weston, and Smeaton, three gentlemen of the court. Well knowing the danger she was in when once charged with such an offence against such a husband, she instantly be- came hysterical ; now declaring her inno- cence with the bitterest tears, and anon relying upon the impossibility of any one proving her guilty. " If any man accuse me," said she to the lieutenant of the Tower, " I can but say nay, and they can bring no witnesses." Anne now had to experience some of that heartless indifference which she had so needlessly and disgracefully exhibited in the ca i her ezccu* ur. ik it molt MB judged , many cir- »t of place hoUy inno- ilf to err in ■gument in in the cha- m it must it least he le. On the lilty as she ow aside all npossibility n so, with. nerouB ene- itherine and . faith must I her during :ion. ailed to pass jh the crown as he might le Seymour; )f the crown igned by his 'om this last ing to leave •, wished in f leaving the , young Fits- jreat sorrow, nuch grieved he was pre- that grief by which broke The apathy atnessed the three monas- ection of the ad naturally •ward to that ire and abun- ixtended was found mem- . the surren- ^to his hands, lief causes of old tutor and )chestcr, that a very pithy, his proposal, "allibly throw ito the king's affair of the his minister l[reat lengths astericfi, and he residents, :omed to re- ites of these _ i^entry by leen founded , offended by jasures of the ed Cromwell, !ral holidays, superstitious ry gainful to iioww. o M » M > « < K K M u u a o K M M Ki O H U < n H I A.D. 1538.— MAMT or *BB MOHAITHIlt ■DBBBR9BMO TBBIB CHABTBHS. lEnglanU l|ott»e of ©uBor.— 1|«nri) FIIH. 293 the clergy, at length caused an open mani- festation of discontent in Lincolnsbire. Twenty thousand men, headed by prior Mackrcl, of Barlings, rose in arms to de- mand t he putting down of " persons meanly born and raised to dignity," evidently um- ing at Cromwell, and the redreta of divert grievances under which they stated the church to be labouring. Henry sent the duke of Suffolk against this tumultuous multitude, and by a judicious mixture of force and fair words the leaders were taken, and forthwith executed, and the multitnde, of course, dispersed. But in the counties farther north than Lincolnshire the discontents were equally great, and were the more dangerona because more distance from the chief seat of the king's power rendered the revolted bolder. Under a gentleman named Aske, aided by some of tne better sort of those who had been fortunate enough to escape the break- ing up of the Lincolnshire confederacy, upwards of forty thousand men assembleid from the counties of Tork, Durham, and Lancaster, for what thev called tht pi{- Srimage qf grace. For their banner they ad an embroidery of a crucifix, a chalice, and the five wounds of the Saviour, and each man who ranged himself under this banner was requirea to swear that he had " entered into the pilgrimage of grace from no other motive than nis love to God, care of the king's person and issue, desire of purifying the nobility, of driving base per- sons from about the king, of restoring the church, and of suppressing heresy," But the absence of all other motive may, in the case of not a few of these revolters be vciy reasonably doubted, when with the oath taken by each recruit who joined the disorderly ranks we take into comparison the style of circular by which recruits were invited, which ran thus :— " We command you and every of you to be at (here the particular place was named) on Saturday next by eleven of the clock, in your best array, a« you will anttoeir hifore the high judge at the great day of doom, and in the pain of pulling down your houses and the losing of your goods, and your bodies to be at the captain's will." Confident in their numbers, the con- cealed, but real leaders of the enterprise caused Aske to send de? agates to the Icing to lay their demands before him. ne king's written answer bears several marks of the annoyance he felt that a body of low pea- sants should venture to trench upon sub- jects upon which he flattered himself that he was not unequal to the most learned clerks. He told them that he greatly mar- velled how such ignorant churla ehould speak of theological tubjectt to him who something had been noted to be learned, or oppose the suppression of monasteries, as if It were not better to relieve the head of the church in his ncces&ity, than to support the sloth and wickedness of monks.'* As it was verj requisite, however, to break up as peaceably as possible, an assemblage whieh its mere numbers would render it somewhat difBeult aa well asdaugerout to disperie by main force, Henn at the same time promised that he would remedy such of their grievances aa might seem to need remedy. This promise being nnfolfllled, the same conntiea in the following year (1637) again assembled their armed masses. 'The dale of Norfolk, aa commander in chief of the king*! force*, potted himself to advantageontly that when the iaiurgentt endetvoured to aorpriie Hull and, anbie- qnently, Oailitle, he waa able to beat them easily. Nearly all the leading men were ttdcen priionen and tent to London, where they were nhortly «fterwardt executed at traitort. With the common tort, of whom vatt number* were taken priaonert, there was less ceremony used ; they were hanged up " by tcoret," taya Lingard, in all the the princi p al townt of the chief teene of revolt, when by thit wholetale ahedding of human blood the king had at length ap- peated hit wrath ana that appetite for cruelty which every year grew more and more fierce, the proclamation of a general pardon rettored peace to the nation. The chief plea for the late insurrection had been the snppretiion of the letser monasteries. That Henry had from the very first, according to the shrewd pro- phecy of Fisher, bishop of Bochetter, in- tended to g^ from the letter up to the greater, there it no doubt; and the part which the monaateriei had taken in en- couraging the pilgrimage of grace, only made him the more determined in that course. The ever obsequious parliament showed the same willingnett to pass an act for the tuppretsion of the remaining and greater monasteries that had so often been shown in far less creditable aflUrt ; and of twenty-eight mitred abbots,— exclusive of the priors of St. John of Jerusalem and Coventry— who had seats in the house of lords, not one dared to teise hit voice against a measure which must have been to distasteful to them all. Commissioners were appointed to visit the monasteries. That there were great disorders in many of them, that the bur- then they inflicted upon the capital and the industry of the country far outweighed the good done to the poor of the ( ountry — a class, be it remembered, which the mo- nastic doles had a most evil tendency to increase — and that they ought to have been suppressed, no reasonable man in the present state of political science will ven- ture to deny. It may be, nay it is but too certain, that the innocent and the guilty in some cases were confounded ; that num- bers of people were thrown out oi em- ployment and that with a vast amount of good some evil was done; that Henry even in doing good could not refrain from a tyrannous strain of conduct; and that much of the property thus wrested from superstition was lavished upon needy or upon profii^ute courtiers, instead of be- ing, as it ought to have been, made a per- manent national property in aid of the religious and civil expences of the nation. M M H •B m m >i ■< » m A B 9 IS M •> O H H « M *• O M ki e H O m < M H H A.D. 1539,— DOVER riKB AMD BBVBBAI, rOBTS ROUND THB COAST BUILT. [2 C 3 \1 A. O. l.)33.— I'AaLIAHIIITART ABBOTS HO LONOBR lA* IN TBB HOVSB. h I 1' , Ml ^ 294 ^iie treasure of l^istoro, $cc. But after admitting all this, it is quite cer- tain that, however prompted or however enacted, this suppression of the monas- teries hj Henry VIII. was the most im- portant measure since the Norman con- quest, and was the measure which gave the first impulse to England in that march of resolute industry which has long since left her without a rival upon the earth, whether in wealth or in power. While, however, we for the sake of argu- ment a^it that Henry was arbitrary in his conduct towards the monasteries, and that his commissioners were infinitely less anxions for truth than for finding out or inventing causes of confiscation, we are not the less bound to assert that, even for the single sin of imposture, the monasteries required the ihll weight of the iron hand of Henry. Of the gross frauds which were committed for the purpose of attracting the attention and the money of the credu- lous to psfticnlar monasteries, our space will only allow of our mentioning two, which, indeed, will sufficiently speak for the rest. At the monastery of Hales, in Glouces- tershire, the relie apon which the monks relied for profit— every monastery having r*lie», some of which must have had the power of ubiquity, it being a fact that many monasteries at home and abroad hare pre- tended to possess the same especial toe or finger of this, that, or the other saint ! — was said to be some of the blood of our Saviour which had been preserved at the time of the crucifixion. In proportion to the enthusiasm which such a pretence was calculated to awaken among people who were as warmly and sincerely pious as they were ignorant, was the abominable guilt of this imposture. But the mere and naked lie, bad as it was, formed only a part of the awful guilt of these monks. They pre- tended that this blood, though held before the eyes of a man in mortal sin, would be utterly invisible to liim, and would con- tinue to be so until he should have per- formed good works sufficient for his abso- lution. Such a tale was abundantly suffi- cient to enrich the monastery, but when the "visitors" were sent thither by the king, the whole secret of the impudent fraud at once became apparent. The phial in which the blood was exhibited to the credulous was transparent on one side, but completely opaque on the other. Into this phial the senior monks, who alone were in the secret, every week put some fresh blood of a duck. When the pilgrim desired to be shown the blood of the Saviour the opaque side of the phial was turned towards him ; he was thus convinced that he was in mortal sin, and induced to "perform good works," t. «. to be fooled out of his money, until the monks, finding that he could or would give no more at that time turned the trantparent side of the phial to hira, and seat him on his way rejoicing and eager to send other dupes to the monks of Hales. At Boxley, near Maidstoue, in Kent, there was kept a crucifix called the rood qf grace, the lips, eyes, and head of which were seen to move when the pilgrim ap- proached it with such gifts as were satis- factory ; at the desire of Hilsey, bishop of Bochester, this miraculous crucifix was taken to London and publicly pulled to pieces at Paul's cross, when it was made clear that the >mage was filled with wheels and springs by which the so-called miraeu- hui motions were regulated by the offici- ating priests, literally as the temper of their nttomere required. How serious a tax the pretended miracu- lous images and genuine relics levied upon the people of the whole kingdom, we may judge from the fact, that of upwards of six hundred monafteries and two thousand chantries and chapels which Henry at various times demolished, comparatively few were wholly free from this worst of im- postures, while the sums received by some of them individually may be called enor- mous. For instance, the pilgrims to the tomb of St. Thomas b. Becket paid upwards of nine hundred pounds in one year — or something very like three thousand pounds of our present monev ! The knowledge of such a disg^raceful fact as this would of itself have justified Henry in adopting mo- derately strong measures to put an end to the " Pilgrimage to Canterbury." But moderation was not Henry's characteristic, and Becket was a saiut especially hateful to him as having fought the battie of the triple crown of Rome against the king of England. Not content, therefore, with taking the proper measures of mere policy that were required to put an end to a sort of plunder so disgraceful, Henry ordered the saint who had reposed for centuries in the tomb to be formally cited to appear in court to answer to an information laid against him by the king's attorney ! " It had been suggested," says Dr. Lingard, " that as long as the name of St. Thomas of Canterburv should remain in the calen- dar men would be stimulated by his exam- ple to brave the ecclesiastical authority of their sovereign. The king|s attorney was therefore instructed to exhibit an informa- tion against hira, and Tliomas ii Becket, sometime archbishop of Canterbury, was formally cited to appear in court and an- swer to the charge. The interval of tliirty days allowed by the canon law was sufiered to elapse, and still the saint neglected to quit the tomb in which he had reposed for two centuries and a half, and judgment would have been given against him by de- fault, had not the king of his special grace assigned him counsel. The court sat at Westminster, the attorney-general and the advocate of the accused were heard, and sentence was finally pronounced that Thomas,' sometime archbishop of Canter- bury, had been guiltv of rebellion, contu- macy, and treason, that his bones should be publicly burned to admonish the living of their duty by the punishment of the dead, and that theofierings which had been made at his shrine, the personal property VOBTY TBHrORAT. AHD ONLY TWBNTT SFIItlTUAIi FBEBS ATTBNDBD. 1 A.U. 1536.— THK rOPK CITES UK.-anibcrt,was unfortunate enough to contradict a sermon of Dr. Taylor, afterward bishop of Lincoln, in which sermon the doctor had deluded the prevalent catholic doctrine of th.e "real presence." Lambert had alreody been im- Erisoned for his unsound opinions, but aving learned nothing by the peril he had so narrowly escaped, he now drew up for- mal objections, under ten heads. These objections he made known to Dr. Barnes, who was a Lutheran and who consequently was as obnoxious to the existing law as Ienry to proceed to any thing like violent steps against her. Fortunately, however, for the comfort of both parties, if he viewed hei- with disgust, she viewed him with the most entire indif- ference; aiid she readily consented to be divorced on Henry giving her three thou- sand pounds per annum, the royal palace of Richmond for a residence, and such prece- dence at court as she would have enjoyed had she been his sister instead of being nis divorced wife. Six days after the passing of the bill of attainder against Cromwell, that minister was executed, no one seeming to feel sor- row for him ; the poor hating him for the share he had^ taken in the suppression of the monasteries, and the rich detesting him for having risen from a mere peasant liirth to rank so high and power so great. As if to show that he reidly cared less for either protestantism or popery than he did for his own will and pleasure, the king or- dered just now the execution' of Powel, Abel, and Featherstone, catholics who ven- tured to deny the king's supremacy, and of Barnes, Garret, and Jerome, for the oppo- site offence of being more protestant than it pleased the king that they should be I A.D. 1639.— THB CLBBOr IN COHTOCATION OBANT TUB KINO A SUB8IDT. Holbein, ^much earned actually ite, that nknown, I phraae, se, how- ing. The mning of vast pcr- B lady, ao that be d cbotcn M, but a have fain id to her, iding the ir brother, loopower- y sight of narry her. le the full 1 the head ^ obedient in the very [ation, the nt had ao able conn- led of hi^h and a bill th bouMt. lomhe had M couiage which he, 1 shown to judgment low turned vorce from Ld scarcely coarse fea- moreover, iras such as proceed to {ainst her. comfort of th disgust, Qtire indif- ited to be :hree thou- tl palace of lucb prece- de enjoyed )f being nis tl)C bill of ^t minister to feel sor- lim for the pression of icstioghim isant Dirth eat. led less for .ban he did he king or- of Powel, js who ven- lacy, and of ■ the oppo- istant than ihould be I IIDT. A.D. 1S43.— laON CANROIfS AMD MOaTAKS VIBST CAST III BNOLARD. lEnglanti l^otiae of ©uttor — Iktnx^ VMl^. 297 And to render this impartiality in despotism the more awfully impressive, the protestant and catholic offenders were drawn to the stake in Smitbficld on the same hurdle I A. D. 1541.— Though the king had now been married four times, and, certainly, with no such happiness as would have made marriage seem so very desirable, the di- vorce from Anne of Cleves was scarcely ac- complished ere his council memorialised him to take another wife, and he complied by espousing the niece of the duke of Nor- folk. This lady, by name, Catherine How- ard, was said to have won the heart of the king " by her notable appearance of honour, cleanliness, and maidenly behaviour," and so well was the king at first satisfied with this his fifth wife, that he not only beliaved to her with remarkable tenderness and re- spect, but evcu caused the bishop of Lon- don to compose a form of thanksgiving for the felicity his majesty enjoved. But the new queen, being a catholic, had many ene- mies among the reformers ; and intelligence was soon brought to Cranmer of such con- duct on the part of Catherine before mar- riage as he dared not conceal from the king, though it was by no means a safe thing to speak upon so delicate a matter. In fact, so much did Cranmer dread the violent temper of the king, that he com- mitted the painful intelligence to writing. Henry was at first perfectly incredulous as to the guilt of a woman whose manners and appearance had so greatly imposed upon him. He ordered iier arrest, and wnile in durance, she was visited by a de- putation from Uenry and exhorted to speak the truth, in the assurance that her bus- band would rejoice at her innocence, and that the laws were both just and strong enough to protect her. As she hesitated to answer, a bill of attainder was passed against her, and then she confessed that her past life had been debauched, to an ex- tent which cannot with decency be parti- cularised. It must suffice to say, that the revolting and gross shamelessness of her conduct before marriage, as deposed by others, and in general terms confessed by herself, render it scarcely possible for any one acquainted with human nature, and the laws of evidence, to place the slightest reliance upon her assertions of the inno- cence of her post-nuptial conduct ; though, as she belonged to the catholic party, the historians of that party have taken some pains to justify her. Tne most abandoned of her sex might blush for the shameless guilt of which she had, by her own confes- sion, been guilty ; and the historian of any party must have a strange notion of the tenets of his party, 'and of the true nature of his own vocation, who seeks for party sake to prop up a charater so loathsome. A. D. 1542. — Having put the shameless wanton to death, by the tyrannous mode of attainder, together with her paramours and her confidante, that unprincipled lady Bochfort, who had taken so principal a part in the death of Anne Boleyn, Henry caused a law to be passed, that any woman who should marry him, or any of his successors, should, if incontinent before marriage, re- veal that disgrace on pain of death ; on the passing of which law the people jocosely remarked that the king's best plan would be to take a widow for his next wife. Henry now employed some time in miti- gating the severe six articles so far as re- garded the marriage of priests ; but he made, at the same time, considerable in- roads upon the property of both the regu- lar and secular clergy. Still bent on up- holding and exerting his supremacy, he also encouraged appeals from the spiritual to the civil courts, of which Hume as pi- thily as justly says that it was " a happy innovation ; though at first invented for ar- bitrary purposes." He now also issued a small volume entitled " The Institution of a Christian Man," in which, in his usual arbitrary style, and vnthout the least appa- rent consciousness of the inconsistent veer- ing he had displayed on theological sub- jects, he prescribed to his people how they should think and believe upon the delicate matters of justification, free-will, good works, and grace, with as much coolness as though his ordinances had concerned mere- ly the fashion of a jerkin, or the length of a cross-bow bolt. Having made some very inefficient alterations in the mass-book, Henry presently sent forth another little volume, called tne " Erudition of a Chris- tian Man." In this he flatly contradicted the " Institution of a Christian Man," and that, too, upon matters of bj no means se- condary importance ; but he just as peremp- torily and self-cumplacently called upon his subjects to follow him now as he had when just before he pointed a directly opposite path I The successful rivalsbip of his nephew, James of Scotland, in the affections of Marie, dowager duchess of Longueville, gave deep offence to Henry, which was still farther irritated into hatred by James's ad- hesion to the ancient faith, and his close correspondence with the pope, the emperor Charles, and Francis, of which Ilenry was gerfectly well informed by the assiduity of is ambassador, sir Ralph Sadler. These personal feelings, fully as much as any political considerations, caused Henry to commence a war which almost at the out- set caused, James to die of over-excited anx- iety; but of this war we shall hereafter have to speak. The king in his sixth marriage made good the jesting prophecy of the people by taking to wile Catherine Parr, widow of Nevil, lord Latimer. She was a friend to the re- formed, but a woman of too much prudence to peril herself injudiciously. He treated her with great respect, and in 1544, when he led a large and expensive expedition, with considerably more ecldt than advant- age, he left her regent during his absence from England. Subsequently, however, the queen, in spite of her prudence, was more tnan once in imminent danger. Anne Askew, a lady whom she had openly and greatly favoured, imprudently provoked the IE O o H M <1 It H u H M N a f I A. n. 1544. — PISTOLS WERB first used Bit TUB CAVALBX THIS TEAB. 298 A. D. 1646.— TUB " AOLD KirOBMBB," MABTIIf LUTHBB, SIBO FBB. 18. C^c ^rtasuri; of 1|btorc, $cc. B •> K O K O m u M m In A 3 kinK bjr oppoaition upon the capital point of the real preaenee, and chancellor wri- attealejTi who had to interrofptte the un- happy lady, being a bigoted catholic, it waa Rieatly feared tnat hia extreme aeverity might induce her to confeaa how far Cathe> rine and the chief court ladiea were impli* cated in her obnoxioua opiniona. Toung. lovely, and delicate, the poor girl waa laid upon the rack and queationpd, but torture itaelf failed to extort an auswer to the queationa by which the chancellor endea- voured to come at the queen. So enraged waa that moat brutal officer, that he ordered the lieutenant of the Tower to atretcb the rack atill farther, and on hia refuaing to do ao, " laid kit oten kand to the rack and drtv) it 10 violently that he alntoet tore her body aeunder." Thia diabolical cmelty aerved no other purpoae than to make hia own name infamoua while the annala of England ahall remain. The heroic ptl bore her horrible torture witli unflinclung fortitude, and waa carried to the atake in a chair, her body being ao maimed and dialocated that ahe could not walk. She auffered at the aame time with John Laacellea, of the king^a kouaehold, John Adama, a tailor, and Ni- cholaa Blenun, a prieat. Subaequently tne queen waa again much endangered. Though ahe had never pre- tended to interfere with hia conduct, ahe would occasionally ar^ue with him in pri- vate. He had by this time become fear- fully bloated, and an ulcer in his leg cauaed him ao much agony that " he'wna as furious as a chained tiger.*' His natural vehemence and intolerance of oppoaition were conse- quently much increaeed under such cir- cumstances ; and Catherine's arguments at length so offended him, that he complained of iier conduct to Gardiner and Wriottes- ley. They, bigoted friends to the catholic partjr, were proportionally inimical to Ca- therine as a friend of the reformed; and they encouraged his ill temper, and so dex- terously arg;ued upon the peculiar neces- sity of putting down heresy in the high E laces, that he actually gave orders for her eing sent to the Tower on the following day. She was fortunate enough to get in- formation of what was in store for her, and her cool temper and shrewd woman's wit aufficed to save her from her enemies. She well knew that as lust had been the crime of Henry'a manhood, so vanity— that vanity which cannot endure even the pettiest op- position — was the great spring of all his actions now that his eye was growing dim and his natural force abated. She paid him her usual visit that day, and when he tried to draw her into their common course of argument, she said that arguments in divi- nity were not proper for women; that women should follow the principles of their husbands, as she made a point of following his; and that though, in the belief that it something alleviated his physical sufferings, ahe sometimes pretended to oppose him, ahe never did ao until she had exhausted all her poor means of otherwise amusing "7 waa easily taken. " Is it ao, aweetheart ?" he exclaimed, " then we are perfect friends again," and he embraced her affectionately. On the following day the chancellor and his far more reapectable myrmidona the purauivants went to apprehend the queen, when the aanguinary man was sent away with a voUev of dovniright abuae, auoh as Henry could beatow as well as the meanest of his subjects when once his temper was fairly aroused. A. D. 1647.— In almost all Henry's perse- cutions of persons of any eminence, care- ftil observation will generally serve to dis- cover something of that personal ill-feeling which in a man of lower rank would be called personal spite. Thus the duke of Norfolk and his son, the earl of Surrey, were now arreated and charged with varioua overt acta wiiich caused them — as the charges ran — to be nupeeted of high trea- son. Their real, their only real crime waa their re'iBtionahip to Catherine Howard, liis fifth queen. The very fHvolous nature of the charges proves that this waa the caae, but the deapicably aervile parliament, aa usual, attended only to the king's wishes, and both Norfolk and his son were con- demned. The proceedings in the case of the latter, from his being a commoner, were more speedy than that of hia father, and the gallant young Surrey waa executed. Orders were also given for the execution of Nor- folk on the morning of the 29th of January, 1547 ; but on the night of the 28th the furious king himself died, in the thirty- seventh year of his arbitrary reign and in the fiftjr-sixth of his age ; and the council of the infant prince Edward VI. wisely re- spited the duke's sentence, from which he was released at the accession of queen Mary. That the character of Henry waa per *e bad, few can doubt who have read his reign attentively; but neither will any just man deny, that he, so gay and generous, so frank and 80 great a lover of literature iu youth, owed not a little of his subsequent wicked- ness to the horribly servile adulation of the neat, and to the dastardly submission of the parliament. What could be expected from a man, naturally vain, to whom the able Cromwell could say, that "he was unable, and he believed all men were un- able, to describe the unutterable qualities of the royal mind, the sublime virtues of the rojral heart ;" to whom Rich could say, that "in wisdom he was equal to Solomon, in strength and courage to Sampson, in beauty and address to Absalom ;" and what could be expected from a man, naturdly violent' and contemptuous. of human life, who found both houses of parUament vile enough to slay whomsoever he pleased to denounce 7 An arbitrary reign was that of Henry, but it wrought as much for the per- manent, religious, and moral good of the nation, as the storms and tempests, be- neath which we cower while they last, work for the physical atmosphere. BBHBT HAD BECOUB 80 UNWISLDT THAT UK COULD NOT BB MOVBD. TIIR KINOLT OrrlO WAI KXKC.'l'TKD DT A mOTtCTOK AND COURCII.. lEnglanU.— TSouse of CTutJor.— lEUtnart VVi. 299 1 CHAPTER XLII. Tht Reign if Edwaku VI. A.D. 1847- Henry's will fixed the ma- j.iritjr of hi» »on and iucce«»or, Edward VI., at the a|;e of eJKhteen. The young prince at the time of hi* father's death was but a few months more than nine, and the go- vernment was durigg his minority vested in sixteen executors, viz. Cranmer, arch- bishop of Canterbury ; lord Wriottesley, chancellor; lord St. .lohn, great master; lord Russell, privy seal ; the uarl of Hert- ford, chamberlain ; viscount Lisle, admiral; Tonstall, bishop of Durham ; sir Anthony Hrowne, master of the horse ; sir William Paget, secretary of state ; sir Edward North, chancellor of the court of augmentations ; sir Edward Montagur, chief justice of the common pleas; judge Kromley, sir Anthony Denny, and sir William Herbert, chief gen- tlemen of the privy chamber ; sir Edward Wotton, treasurer of Calais ; and Dr. Wot- ton, dean of Canterbury. Not only did Henry VIII. name these councillors, some of whom were, in station at least, far below so important a trust, but he laid down a course of conduct for them with a degree of minuteness, which shows that to the very close of his career his un- bounded vanity maintained its old ascend- ancy over bis naturally shrewd judgment, and that he expected that bis political and religious supremacy would be respected even when the earth-worms and the damps of the chamel should be busy with his in- animate body. The very first meeting of the councillors showed the fallacy of the late king^s anticipations. He evidently in- tended that the co-ordinate distribution of the state authority should render it im- practicable for the ambition of any one great subject to trouble or endanger the succession of the young Edward; and this very precaution was done away with by the first net of the councillors, who agreed that it was necessary that some one minister should have prominent and separate autho- rity, under the title of protector, to sign all orders and proclamations, and to communi- cate with foreign powers. In a word, they determined to place one of their number iu precisely that tempting propinquity to the throne, to guard against which had been a main object of Heury'scare and study. The earl of Hertford, maternal uncle to the king, seemed best entitled to this high offioe, and he wr.o cccordingly chosen, in spite o( ihc opposition of chancellor Wriot- tt'slry, who from his talents and experience liail anticipated that he himself, in reality though not formally, would occupy this very position. Having made this most important and plainly unauthorised alteration in Henry's arraiigonient, the council now gave orders tor the interment of the deceased monarch. The body lay in state in the chapel of Whitehall, which was huug with fine black cloth. Kighty large black tapers were kept constantly burning; twelve lords sat round within a rail as mourners ; and every day masses and dirges were performed. At the \ commencement of each service Norroy, king at arms, cried in a loud voire, "Uf your charity pray for the soul of the high and mighty prince our late sovereign lord Henry the Eighth." Un the 1-tth of February the body was removed to Sion house, and thence to Windsor on the following day, and on the Ifith it was interred near that of lady Jane Seymour in a vault near the centre of the chuir. U ardiner, bishop of Winchester, performed the service and preached a ser- mon. As he scattered earth upon thecotUn and pronounced, in Latin, the solemn words, " Ashes to ashes and dust to dust," certain of the principal attendants broke their wands of office into three parts, above their heads, and threw the pieces upon the cotHn. The solemn psnlm dt pro/undii was then recited, and garter king at arms, attended by the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of Durham, proclaimed the style and titles of Edward VI. The coronation next followed, but was much abridged of the usual ceremony and splendour, chiefly on account of the deli- cate state of the king's health. The exe- cutors of the late king, thnugli Micy had so importantly departed from thi .-xpress di- rections of the will upon sonu- ]iuints, were very exact in following It upi' ithcrs. Thus, Henry had charged them ' > make certain creations or promotions in t le peerage ; and Herllbrd was now made d kc of Somerset, marshal aud lord treaxurer ; his opponent the chancellor Wriottesley, earl ot South- ampton ; the carl of Essex, marquis of Northampton ; viscount Lisle, earl of War- wick; sir Thomas Seymour, lord Seymour of Siulley and admiral of England; aud sirs Richard Rich, William Willougliby, and Edmund ShetUeld, barons. Somerset and some of the other peers were, at the same time, to enable them to support their dig- nity, gratified with deaneries, prebends, and other spiritual benefices; amost pernicious precedent, and one which has caused and enabled so much church property and in- fluence to be placed in the hands of laymen, many of whom arc avowedly and flagrantly dissenters from the doctrine of the church, and foes to her establishment. Wriottesley, earl of Southampton, was greatly disappointed that he, instead of Somerset, had not been chosen protector ; and this feeling tended greatly to exaspe- rate the political opposition which had ever subsisted between them. Wriottesley, with a want of judgment strangely in contrast with his usual conduct, gave to Somerset an opportunity to distress and mortify him, of which that proud noble was not slow to avail himself. Desiring to give the utmost possible amount of time to public business, and as far as possible to share and check the authority of the protector, Southamp- ton, merely upon his own authority put the g^eat seal into commission, empowering four lawyers to execute the office of chan- cellor for him ; and two of the four lawyers thus named were canonists, which gave some appearance to his condi'ct of a desire TIIB EABL OF IIBRTVOBD WAS MADE FROTKCTOU 0» HIE KINO's PKUBON. A.n. 1547. — FUUTT KNIOUTS OF TUB BATU MAD! AT TIIR COllONATION, FRII. 20. I i\ H: i u !m Hi\ * ♦ ■, 300 ^f)t ^Etcasuro of l^istory, $fc. to show disrespect to the common law. Somerxct niiii his party cngcrly cnught nt this indiscretion of their noble and resohitc opponent, and easily obtained from the judges nn opinion to the effect that South- ampton's course was utterly illegal and uiijuBtiliablo, and that he had forfeited his ofliec and even laid himself open to still farther punishment. Southampton was ac- cordingly summoned before the council; and, though he defended himself acutely, he was condemned to lose the great seal, to pay a pecuniary Hnc, and to be confined to his' own house during pleasure. Having thus opportunely removed his most powerful and persevering opponent, Somerset immediately set about enlarging )iis own power and altering its foundation. Professing to feel a delicacy in exercising the extensive powers of protector while holding that office only under the authority of the executors of the late king s will, he obtained from the young king Edward a patent which gave him the protectorate with full regal powers, and which, though it re-appointed all the councillors and exe- cutors named in Henry's will, with the sole exception of Southampton, exempted the protector from his former obligations to consult them or to be bound by their opinion. Aided by Cranmcr, the protector, in spite of the strong and able opposition of Gardiner, made cimsidcrablc advances in religious reformation ; yet made them with a most prudent and praiseworthy tender- ness to the existing prejudices of the mass of that generation. Thus, he appointed visitors, lay and clerical, to repress, as far as might he obvious, impostures and fla- grant immoralities on the part of the catholic clergy ; but he at the same time instructed those visitors to deal respect- fully with such ceremonials as were yet unabolished, and with such images and shrines as were unabuscd to the purpose of idolatry. While thus prudent, in tender- ness to the inveterate and ineradicable pre- judices of the ignorant, he with a very sound policy took measures for weakening the mischievous effects of the preaching of the monks. Many of these men were placed in vacant churches, that so the ex- clic(iucr might be relieved, pro tanto, of the payment of the annuities settled upon them at the suppression of religious houses. As it was found that they took advantage of their position to instil into the minds of the ignorant the worst of the old super- stitions and a fierce hatred of the reform- ation, Somerset now compelled them to avoid that conduct, by enjoining upon them the reading of certain homilies having pre- cisely the opposite tendency and by strictly forbidding them to preach, unless by spe- cial indulgence, anywhere save in their own porisli churches. The monks being thus strictly confined to their own parish churches, nnd limited in their liberty of' pveiiching even there, while the protestant clfrnyman could always ensure a special licence for peripatetic preaching, was a system too obviously favourable to the re- forinatioi' to pass iiiicensurcd by the prin- cipal catholic champions. Bonner at the outset gave the protector's measures open and strong opposition, but subsequently agreed to them. Gardiner, a less violent but far firmer and more consistent man, because, probably, a far more sincere man, was staunch in iiis opposition. lie was of opinion that the reformation could not be carried any farther but with real and great danger. " It is," said he, " a dangerous thing to use too much freedom in researches of this kind. If you cut the old canal, the water is apt to ran farther than you have a mind to; if you indulge the humour of novelty, you cannot put a stop to people's demands, nor govern their indiscretions at pleasure. For my part, my sole concern is to manage the third and last act of my life with decency, and to make a handsome exit off the stage. Provided this point is secured I am not solicitous about the rest. I am already by nature condemned to death : no man can give me a pardon {torn this sentence, nor so much as procure me a re- prieve. To speak my mind, and to act as my conscience directs, arc two branches of liberty which I can never part with. Sin- cerity in speech and integrity in action are enduring qualities; they will stick by a man when every thing else takes its leave, and I must not resign them upon any con- sideration. The best of it is, if I do not throw these away myself, no man can force them from me ; out if I give them up,- then am I ruined by myself, and deserve to lose all my preferments." Besides the obvious danger of going too far and making the people miscliievously familiar with change, Gardiner charged his opponents with an unnecessary nnd presumptuous assumption of metaphysical exactitude upon the doc- trines of grace and justification by faith, points not vitally necessary to any man, and utterly beyond the real comprehension of the multitude. The ability and the firmness with which he pressed these and other grounds of opposition so highly en- raged the protector, that Gardiner was committed to the Fleet, and there treated with a severity which, his age and his ta- lents being considered, reflected no little discredit upon the protestant party. T'o.i- Btal, bishop of Durham, who sided with Gardiner, was expelled the council, but al- lowed to live without farther molestation. The active measures of Somerset for pro- moting the reformation in England gave force and liveliness to the antagonist par- ties in Scotland also. The cardinal Bea- ton, or Bcthune, was resolute to put down the preaching, even, of the reformers ; while these latter, on the other hand, were daily becoming more and more inflamed with a zeal to wnich martyrdom itself had no ter- rors. Among the most zealous and active of the reformed preachers was a well-born gentleman named Wishart, a man of great learning, high moral character, and a rich store of that passionate and forcible, though rude, eloquence which is so power- A.D. IS-t/. — MANY roriBlI IMA0E9 rODLICIiY DIlnNT IN LONDON. Kn. 20. to the re- f the prin- ncr at the gurcs open hdcqueiitly »8S violent stent n\an, ncere man, lie was of uld not be I and great dangerous researches 1 eanal, the you have a humour of to people's icretions ut i concern is t of my life handsonie lis point is lut the rest, cd to death : 1 from this re me a re- d to act as branches of with, 8in- ^ action are stick by a cs its leave, on any con- , if I do not an can force em up,- then erve to lose the obvious making the rith change, nts with an assumption ion the doc- :)n by faith, .0 any man, nprehcnsion ty and the •d these and ) highly cn- irdiner was lere treated and his ta- ed no little larty. To.i- sided with ncil, but al- lolestation. irset for pro- ngland gave agonist par- trdinal Uea- to put down 'mers ; while J, were daily amed with a had no tcr- ,s and active a well-born nan of great r, and a rich nd forcible, is so power- A. D. 1547.— A OKNBBAI. VISITATIOS Of TUB CUURCHRS TOOK FLACK. M M ■9 M » < It » M C. M > a a r, M U > M r. o < f O o m * lEnglantJ.— Ijouac of tJutJor — ^lEtitoaictr UE. soi ful over the minds of enthusiastic but un- educated men. The principal scene of his {)rciicliingwns Dundee, where hiselotiuence la'd so visible and stirring an effect upon the multitude, that the magistrates, as a simple mutter of civil police, felt bound to forbid him to preach within their jurisdiction. Unable to avoid retiring, Wishart, how- ever, in doing so, solemnly invoked and prophesied a heavy and speedy calamity upon the town in which his preaching had thus been stopped. Singularly enough, he had not long been banished from Dun- dee when the plague burst out with great violence. Poit hoc, ergo propter hoe is ever the popular maxim ; men loudly declared that the plague was evidently the conse- quence of Wishart's banishment, and that the hand of the destroying angel would never be stayed until the preacher should be recalled. Wishart was recalled ac- cordingly ; and taking advantage of the popular feelings of dismay, he so boldly and passionately advocated innovations, that cardinal Beaton caused him to be arrested and condemned to the stake as a heretic. Arran, the governor, showing some fear and unwillingness to proceed to the ex- tremity of burning, the cardinal carried the sentence into execution on his own autho- rity, and even stationed himself at a window from which he could behold the dismal spectacle. This indecent and cruel triumph was noted by the sufferer, who solemnly warned Beaton that ere many days he should be luid upon that very spot where then he triumphed. Agitated as the mul- titude were by the exhortations of their numerous preachers of the reformed doc- trine, such a prophecy was not likely to fall unheeded from such a man under such cir- cumstances. His followers in great num- bers associated to revenge his death. Six- teen of the most courageous of them went well armed to the cardinal's palace at an early hour in the rooming, and having thrust all his servants and tradesmen out, proceeded to the cardinal's apartment. For a short time the faRtcnings detied their power, but a cry arising to bring fire to their aid, the unfortunate old man opened the door to them, intreating to spiire his life and reminding them of his priesthood. The foremost of his assailants, James Mel- ville, called to the others to execute with becoming gravity and deliberation a work which was only to be looked upon as the judgment of God. " Ucpent thee," said this sanguinary but conscientious enthusiast, " repent thee, thou wicked cardinal, of all thy sins and iniquities, especially of the murder of Wis- hart, that instrument of God for the con- versilon of these lands. It is his death which now cries vengeance upon thee ; wo are sent by God to indict the deserved punishment. For here, before the Almighty, 1 protest that it ia neither hatred of tliy person, nor love of thy riches, nor fcnr of thy power, which moves niu to seek thy death, but only because thou hast been and still remainest an obstinate enemy to Christ Jesus and his holy gospel." With these words Melville stabbed the cardinal, who fell dead at his feet. This murder took place the year before the death of Ilcnry VIII. to whom the assassins, who fortified themselves and friends to the num- ber of a hundred and forty, in the castle, dispatched a messenger for aid. Henry, always jealous of Scotland and glad to cripple its turbulent nobility, promised his support, and Somerset now, in obedience to the dying injunctions of the king, pre- pared to march an army into Scotland for the purpose of compelhng a union of the two countr-ies, by marrying the minor queen of Scotland to the minor king of England. With a fleet of sixty sail and a force of eighteen thousand men, he set out with the avowed purpose of not listening to any ne- gotiation, unless based upon the condition of the marriage of the young queen of Scotland to Edward of England ; a measure which he argued and justified at great length in a pamphlet published by him before opening the campaign. Except as a means of justifying his own conduct in commencing the war, it would seem that so well informed a statesman as Somerset could surely have expected little effect from this manifesto. The queen dowager of Scotland was wholly influenced by France, which could not but be to the utmost degree opposed to the union of Scotland and England; and she was also far too much attached to the catholic re- ligion to look with any complacent feeling upon a transfer of Scotland into the hands of the known and persevering enemy of that religion. From Berwick to Edinburgh Somerset experienced but little resistance. Arran, however, had taken up his position on the banks of the Eske at about four miles from Edinburgh, with an army double in number to that of the English. In a cavalry affair of outposts the Scots were worsted and lord Ilume severely wounded, but Somerset and the carl of Warwick having reconnoitred the Scottish camp, found that it was too well posted to be assailed with any reasonable cliance of success. Somerset now tried negotiation, offering to evacuate the country and even to make comnensation for such mischief as had already been done, on condition that the Scots should engage to keep their young queen at home and uncontracted in marriage until she should reach an age to choose' for herself. This offer, so much in contrast with the determination with which the protector had set out, caused the Scots to suppose that, intimidated by their num- bers or moved by some secret and dis- tressing information, he was anxious to get away upon any terms, and the very mode- ration of the terms offered by him was the cause of their being rejected. Whoever will carefully and in detail study the great campaigns and battles, whether of ancient or of modern times, will find that at once the rarest and the most precious gift of a general in-chief is to know hoiu to re/ruin A. n. 15-17.— nisiiors oahbinkb and noNNKn committhd to tiik towkb. [2B A.D. 1647-— THE OHAHTRIBS, VRBE CHAriLS, &C. QIVKN TO TBI OBOWN. h'i mi r •, 302 ^I)e ^reasur^ of I|i»tore, ^c. I : /W>m aeh'on. The Fabian policy is suitable onl^ to the very loftiest and most admirable military genius ; not because of the phy- sical difficulty of remaining tranquil, but simply because to do so in spite alike of the entreaties of friends and the taunts of foes, requires that self -conquest which is to be achieved only by a Fabius or a Welling- ton. On the present occasion the Scots leaders had to contend not only against their own utter mistake as to Somerset's circumstances and motives, but also against the frantic eagerness of their men, who were wound up to the most intense rage by the preaching of certun priests in their camp, who assured them that the detestable heresy of the English made victory to their arms altogether out of the question. Finding his moderate and peaceable pro- posal rejected, Somerset saw that it was necessary to draw the enemy from their sheltered and strong position, to a more open one in which he could advantageously avail himself of his superiority in cavalry. He accordingly moved towards the sea; and as his ships at the same moment stood in shore, as if to receive him, the Scots fell into the iinare and moved -from their strong position to intercept him. They entered the plain in three bodies, the van- guard commanded by Ang^s, the main body commanded by Arran, and some light horse and Irish archers on the left flank under Argyle. As the Scots advanced into the plain, they were severely galled by the artillery of tne English ships, and among the killed was the eldest son of lord GrnI >m. The Irish auxiliaries were thrown into the ut- most disorder, and the whole main body be^an to fall back upon the rear-guard, which was under the command of Huntley. Lord Grey, who had the command of the English cavalry, had orders not to attack the Scottish van till it should be closely en- gaged with the English van, when he was to take it in flank. Tempted by the disor- der of the enemy, he neglected this order, and led the English cavalry on at full gal- lop. A heavy slough and broad ditch threw them into confusion, and ttiey were easily repulsed by the long spears of tlie Scotch ; lord Grey himself was severely wounded, the protector's son, lord Edward Seymour, had his horse killed under him, and the cavalry was only rallied by the utmost ex- ertion and presence of mind on the part of sir Ralph Sadler, sir Ralph Vane, and the protector in person. The English archers and the English ships galled the van of the Scots so severely that it at length gave way, and the English van being, at that critical moment, led on in good order, the Scots and their Irish auxiliaries took to flight. How short and unequal the flight was, and how persevering and murderous the pur- suit, may be judged from the fact, that the English loss was short of two hundred, and that of the Scots above ten thousand t Full rtl'tcRn hundred were also made prisoners at this disastrous battle of I'inkey, Somerset now took several castles, re- ceived the submission of the counties on the border, destroyed the shipping on the coast, and was in a situation to have im- posed the most onerous terms on the Scots, could he have followed up his advantages ; but information reached him of intrigues going on in England, which obliged him to return, after having appointed Berwick for the place of conference of the commission- ers, whom the Scots, in order to gain time and procure aid from France, aJffected to wish to send to treat for peace. On Somerset's return to England he as- sumed more state than ever, being elated with his success in Scotland. He caused his nephew to'dispense with the statute of precedency passed in the late reign, and to grant to him, the protector, a patent allow- ing him to sit on the throne, upon a stool or bench at the right hand of the king, and to enjoy all honours and privileges usually enjoyed by any uncle of a king of England. While thus intent upon his own aggran- dizement, Somerset was, nevertheless, at- tentive also to the ameliorating of the law. The statute of the six articles was repealed, as were all laws again stLollardy and heresy —though the latter was still an undefined crime at common law— all laws extending the crime of treason beyond the twenty- fifth of Edward III., and all the laws of Henry VIII. extending the crime of fe- lony; and no accusation founded upon words spoken was to be made after the ex- piration of a month from the alleged speak- ing. A. D. 1548. — The extensive repeals of which we have made mention are well described by Hume as having been the cause of " some dawn of both civil and religious li- berty" to the people. For them great praise was due to Somerset, who, however, was now guilty of a singular inconsistency ; one which shows how difHcult it is for un- qualified respect to the rights of the multi- tude to co-exist with such extensive power as that of the protector. What Hume, with terse arid significant emphasis, calls " that law, the destruction of all laws, by which the king's proclamation was made of equal force with a statute," was repeal- ed ; and yet the protector continued to use and uphold the proclamation whensoever the occasion seemed to him to demand it ; as, for instance, forbidding the harmless and time-hallowed superstitions or Hbsur- dities of carrying about candles on Candle- mas day, ashes on Ash Wednesday, and palm branches on Palm Sunday. Aided by the French, the Scots made many attempts to recover the towns and castles which had been taken from them l)y Somerset, and with very general success. The English were at length reduced tc. so much distfess, and so closely kept within Haddington by the number and vigilance of their enemies, that Somerset sent over a reinforcement of eighteen thousand Eng- lish troops and three thousand German auxiliaries. This large force was com- manded by the earl of Shrewsbury, who relieved Iliiddington, indeed, but coiild not BIOIITKEN FHBB SCHOOLS WKBH FOUNnitO OUT OP TUB CIIANTBT LANDS. OWINO TO A PLAOUK IN LONDONi TBB CODBT BBM0VE8 TO UATFIKLD. tWIf. counties on ping on the to have im- lU the Scots, advantages ; of intrigues liged him to Berwick for ioinmission- :o gain time affected to {land he as- being elated He caused lie statute of 'eign, and to >atent allow- upon a stool he king, and eges nsually of England, own aggran- irtheless, at- g of the law. was repealed, ly and neresy in undefined ITS extending the twenty- L the laws of crime of fe- unded upon after the ex- Ueged speak- eals of which ell described he cause of I religious li- them great ho, however, consistency ; it is for un- of the multi- eusive power 7hat Hume, iphasis, calls ■ all laws, by in was made ' was repeal- inued to use whensoever L) demand it ; he harmless ins or absur- 18 on Candle- Inesday, and Scots made e towns and 1 from them leral succrss. •educed ti, so kept within ind vigilance It sent over a ouRand Eng- »n O H a K O O >s t> '4 u « n M »5 IH o ►» lis H la t K M H u It ti H n o M h i» 15 n (• H IB III > H H t> O f » H H a o (a n H M H « M IS H H M (9 1-4 % a It m n < £ H KS M a f 00 A '4 lEnglantl.— I^ouae of ^utJor.— lEtltoarti F3:. 303 get up with the enemy's troops until they were so advantageously posted near Edin- burgh, that he thought it imprudent to attack them, and marched back into Eng- land. We must now refer to those intrigues of the English court to which the Scots owed not a little of their comparative security. Between the protector and his brother, the lord Seymour, a man of great talent and still greater arrogance and ambition, there was a feeling of rivalry, which was greatly increased and embittered by the feminine rivalry and spite of their wives. The queen dowager, the widow of Henry VIII., mar- ried lord Sevmour at a scarcely decent in- terval after lisr royal husband's death ; the queen dowager, though married to a younger brother of the duke, took precedence of the duchess of Somerset, and the latter used nil her great power and influence over her husband to irritate him against his brother. When Somerset led the English army into Scotland, lord Seymour took the opportu- nit; to endeavour to strengthen his own cabal, by distributing his liberalities among the king's councillors and servants, and by improper induljiieuce to the young king himself. Secretary Paget, who well knew the bitter aud restless rivalry of the two brothers, warned lord Sevmour to bpware, that, by encouraging canals, he d.d not bring down ruin upon that lofty state to whicii both himself and the protector had risen, and which had made them not a few powerful foes, who would but little hesitate to side with either for a time for the sake of crushing both in the end. Lord Seymour treated the remonstrances of Paget with neglect ; arc. the secretary percoiving the evil and the danger daily to grow more im- minent, sent the protector such informa- tion as caused him to give up all probable advantage, and hastened to protect his au- thority and interests at home. The suose- quent departure of the young queen of Scotland for France, where she arrived in safety and was betrothed to the dauphin, made Somerset's Scottish projects compa- ratively hopeless and of little consequence, and he suosequently gave his undivided attention to the maintenance of bis autho- rity in England. Not contented with the degree of wealth and authority he possessed, as admiral of England and husband of the queen dow- ager, lord Seymour, whose artful complai- sance seems to have imposed upon his ne- phew, caused the young monarch to write a letter to parliament to request that lord Seymour might be made the governor of the king's person, which office his lordship argued ought to be kept distinct from that of protector of the realm. Before he could bring the affair before parliament, and while he was busily engaged in endeavouring to strengthen his party, lord Seymour was warned by his brother to desist. The coun- cil, too, threatened that it would use the letter he had obtained from the affection or the weakness of the young king, not as a justification of his factious opposition to the protector's legal authority, but as a proof of a criminal tampering with n minor and a mere child, with intent to disturb the legal and seated government of the realm. It was further pointed out to him, that the council now knew quite enough to justify it ia sending him to the Tower ; and the ad- miral, however unwillingly, abandoned his designs at least for the time. Somerset easily forgave his brother, but the ambition and aching envy of that tur- bulent and restless man was speedily call- ed into evil activity again, by a circumstance which to an ordinary man would have seem- ed a sufficient reason for lowering its tone. His wife, the queen dowager, died in giving birth tn a child, and lord Seymour then paid his addresses to the lady Elizabeth, as yet only sixteen years of age. As Mary was the elder daughter, and as Henry had very dis- tinctly excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the throne in the event of their marry- ing without the consent of bis executors, which consent lord Seymour could have no chance of getting, it was clear that Seymour coulii cnly hope to derive benefit from such an alliance by resorting to absolute usurpa- tion and violence. That such was his in- tention is further rendered probable by the fact, that besides redoubling his efforts to obtain influence over all who had access to the king or power in the state, he had so distributed his favours even among persons of comparatively low rank, that he calcu- lated on being able, if it were necessary, to muster an army of ten thousand men. For this number, it seems, he had actually pro- vided arras ; he had farther strengthened Uimself by protecting pirates, whom as ad- miral of England, it was his especial duty to suppress ; and he had corrupted sir John Spurington, the master of the mint at Bris- tol, who was to supply him with money. Well informed as to his brother's crimi- nal projects, the protector, both by intrca- ties and by favours conferred, endeavoured to induce him to abandon his mad ambi- tion. But the natural wrong-headedncss of lord Seymour, and the ill advice of Dudley, earl of Warwick, a man of great talent and courage, but ofjust such principles as might be expected from the sou of that Dudley, the extortioner, who was the colleague of Empson in the reign of Henry Vll., ren- dered the humane efforts of the protector vain. Hating both the brothers, Warwick dreaded the lord Seymour the more for his aspiring temper and superior talents ; and seeing him only too well inclined to sedi- tious practices, the treacherous Warwicit urged him on in his guilty and foolish ca- reer, and at the same time secretly advised the protector to take stern meaiin of putting a stop to the practices of a brother upon whom kindness and good counsel were completely thrown away. By Warwick's advice the protector first deprived his bro- ther of the office of admiral, and then com- mitted him, with some of his alleged ac- complices, to the Tower. Three privy coun- cillors, who were sent to examine the pri- soners, reported that there was important « n •a t> o H m H •a p. o H h H »1 A M < n M a a m M b) < » H I O M I 5 I « A. n. I5-t8.— TUB FIBST ACT I'ASSBD AGAINST COM DIWATIONS OF WOBKHKN. % i -:'\ %- ^ . i I,'"' ; 1'!' ;■{ ki ^1 Is A.V. 1519. — I.UnU-I.mUTKNANTS OK fOUNTIKS MOW I'lUST AITOISTKO. 304 ^^c ^rcasurp of Hjistovy, Sa. evidence against them; nnd even now the Erotcctor offered liberty and pardon to his rother, on condition of his retiring to his country houses, and contining himself strictly to private life. Undaunted by all the appearances against him, lord Seymour replied only by threats and sarcasms ; and, urged by his personal and political friends, real and pretended, the nrotector consented not only that his brottier should be pro- ceeded against, but also that he should be refused a free and open trial which he indignantly demanded, and be proceeded against before that ready instrument of so- vereign vengeance, the parliament. A. o. 1549. — On the meetinii: of parliament a bill of attainder was originated in the upper house. By wav of evidence, several peers rose and stated what they knew or professed to know of the criminal designs and practices of the admiral ; and upon tliis evidence given, be it observed, byjudgei in the case, that house of peers in which the deluded man had supposed himself to have so many fast friends, passed the bill with scarcely a dissenting voice, and, as Hume observes " without anyone having either the courage or the equity to move that he might be heard in his de- fence; that the testimony against him should be delivered in a legal manner, and that he should be confronted with the wit- nesses." Contrary to what might have been anticipated, a better spirit was exhibited in the lower house, where it was moved that the proceeding by bill of attainder was bad, and that every man should be present and formally tried previous to condemnation. A message, nominally from the king, but really from the council, however, terminat- ed this shoT/ of spirit and equity, and the bill was passed by a majority of four liun- dred to some nine or ten. Shortly after- wards the admiral was beheaded on Tower- hill the warrant of his execution being signed by his brother Somerset I or rather the condemnation. After the trial of lord Seymour the most important business of this session was ecclesiastical; one act al- lowing priests to marry, but saying in the preamble that " it were better for priests and the ministers of the church to live chastely and without marriage, and it were much to be wished that they would of themselves abstain;" another prohibiting the use of flesh meat in Lent ; and a third permitting and providing for a union of cures in the city of York. Many of these cures, it was Ftated in the preamble, were too much impoverished singly to support an incumbent ; an impoverishment which no doubt arose from the transfer of the ecclesiastical revenues into the hands of lay- men and absentees. There was now a very general outward conformity, at least, with the doctrine and liturgy of the rcfornia* tion. liut both Uoiiner and Gardiner were imprisoned for maintaining the catholic doctrine of the renl presence, the princess Mary was threatened by the council for persisting to hear mass, and obtained nn indulgence through the influence of the emperor. A still fartlicr and worse proof was given that the duty of toleration wns as yet but very imperfectly understood by the reformers, by the prosecution of a wo- man named Joan Uocher, or Joan of Kent, for heresy. The council condemned the poor creature to the flames. For some time the young king would not sign the war- rant for her execution. Craniner — alas! that a Cranincr should have less of chris- tian charity than his infant king ! — argued him into compliance ; but a compliance accompanied by tears and by the remark that upon Cranmcr's head would the deed lie for good or evil. The execution of this" woman was followed by that of a Dutch arian, named Von Paris, who suffered his horrible death with apparent delight — so ill adapted is persecution to make converts ! CHAPTER XLIII. The Reign of I^dward VI. (continued). To deny that a great reformation was much ncede'd in the church at the time when it was commenced by Henry VIII. would be utterly and obstinately to close one's eyes to the most unquestionable evi- dence. Nevertheless it is no less certain that the wealth which was justly taken from the monks was quite as unjustly be- stowed upon laymen. It was not because corrupt men had insinuated or forced them- selves into the church, that therefore the church should he plundered; it was nut because the monks had diverted a part of the large revenues of the church from the proper purpose, that therefore the king should wrongfully bestow a still larger part. The laymen upon whom Henry be- stowed the spoils of the greater and lesser houses had in few cases, if any, a single claim upon those spoils save fa\ouritism, not always too honourable to themselves or to the king ; yet to them was given, without the charge of the poor, that property uj)on which the poor had been bountifully fed. The baron or the knight, the mere courtier or the still worse cliaracter upon whom this property was bestowed, might live a hundred or even a thousand miles from the land producing his revenue— from that land upon which its former possessors, its resi- dent landlords the monks, employed the toiling man, and fed the inflrm, the heln- less, and the sufl'ering. Nor was it merely by the hind who laboured, or by the needy man who was fed in charity, that the monks were now missed; the monks were not only resident landlords, they were also liberal and indulgent landhirds. They for a great portion ot their low rents took pro- duce ; the lay landlords dcihandcd higher rents and would be paid in money; the monks lived among their tenants and were their best customers ; the lay landlord drew his money rents trom Lincoln or De- von, to spend them in the court revels at London or in the war* of France or Scot- land. Many other differences mi)j;ht be pointed out which were very injurious to the middle and lower class of men; but A. D. 1549. — A llILTi FABSED ALLOWINO CLEllOYMEN TO MAUllY. > 1 H •«l M u » a H M « •9 H M M H l>< «l H ■«» H s o M ^€ A. I). 1549.— BEHBVIT or CLCaOX DBNMD TO U0B8B-ITBALBBB AND BUBOLABB. lEnglanK.— 1|ou8c of tHutJor.— lEtJtoartt FE. 305 enough lias been said to shew that how- ever necessary the change, it was not made with due precautions against the impo- verishment and suffering of great booiea of men, and great consequent danger of state disturbances. Even the iron hand of Henry VIII. would not have been able to prevent both suffering and murmuring; and when under the milder rule of the protector Somerset the people were still farther distressed by the rage for grazing, which caused the peasantry to be driven in herds not only from the estates upon which they had laboured, but even from their cot- tages and from the commons upon which they had fed their cows or sheep, the cry of distress became loud, general, and appall- ing. The protector issued a commission to cnauire into the state of the rural people, and to find out and remedy all evils con- nected viith enclosures. But the poor in various parts of the country rose in arms before the commission had time even to make enquiries; Wiltshire, Oxford, Glou- cester, Hants, Susses, and Kent rose simul- taneously, but were speedily put down, chiefly by sir William Herbert and lord Gray of Wilton. But the most formidable rioters made their appearance in Norfolk and Devonshire. In Norfolk above .wenty thousand assem- bled, and from their original demand for doing away with the enclosures, they pass- ed to demanding the restoration of the old religion, the placing of new councillors about the king, and the utter abolition of all gentry I A bold and ruffianly fellow, one Ket, a tanner, took the command of this assemblage,. and exercised his autho- rity over such of the gentry as were un- lucky enough to be within his reach, in the arbitrary and insolent style that might be anticipated, holding his court beneath a great oak on Mousehold hill, which over- looks the city of Norwich. Against this demagogue and his deluded followers the marquis of Northampton was at first sent, liut he was completely repulsed, a[.d lord Sheffield, one of his officers, was killed. The earl of Warwick was then sent against Ket with an army of six thousand, which had been levied to go to Scotland. War- wick, with his usual courage and conduct, beat the rebels; killed two thousand of them, hanged up Ket at the castle of Nor- wich, and nine of the other ringleaders on the boughs of the oak tree on Mousehold hill. In Devonshire as in Norfolk, though the complaints made by the people originated in the injustice of the enclosures and in very real and widely spread misery, dema- gogues, among whom were some priests of ' Sampford Courtenay, artfully caused them to make a return to the old reliKion a chief article of their demand ; and tlie in- surrection liere was the more formidable, because many of the gentry, un account of the religious demands, joined the rebels. Amon^ the gentlemen who did so was HumpiirK/ Arundel, governor of St. -Mi- chael s mount, chiefly by whose means it was that the rebels, though ten thousand in number, were brought into something of the regular order of disciplined troops. Lord Russell, who had been sent against them with but a weak force, finding them so numerous and determined, and in such good order, endeavoured to get them to disperse by affecting to negotiate with them. He forwarded their extravagant demands to the council, who returned for answer that they should be pardoned on their im- mediate submission. This answer so much enraged the rebels that they endeavoured to storm Exeter, but were repulsed by the citizens. They then sat down before Exe- ter and endeavoured to mine it. By this time lord Russell was reinforced by some German horse under sir William Herbert and lord Gray, and some Italian infantry under Bal- lista Spinola, and he now marched from his quarters at Honiton to the relief of Exe- ter. The rebels suffered dreadfully both in the battle and subsequent to the retreat. Humphrey Arundel and other leading men were seized, carried to London, and there executed; many of the rabble were exe- cuted on the spot by martial law, and the vicar of St. Thomas was hanged on the top of his own steeple in the garb of a popish priest. The stern and successful severity with which the more formidable rebellions of Norfolk and Devonshire had been put down, caused weaker parties in Yorkshire and else- where to take the alarm and disperse; and the protector both wisely and humanely fostered this spirit of returning obedience by proclaiming a general indemnity. But besides the terrible loss of life which these insurrections cost on the spot, thev caused frcat losses to us both in Scotland and in ranee. In the former country the want of the force of six thousan^L men, which Warwick led to put down the Norfolk men, enabled the French and Scotch to capture the fortress of Broughty and put the garri- son to the sword, and so to waste the country for miles round Haddington, that it was found necessary to dismantle and abandon that important fortress and carry the stores to Berwick. The king of France was at the same time tempted b^ the deplorable domestic dis- turbances m England to make an effort to recover Boulogne, which we bad taken during the reign of Henry VIII. He took several fortresses in the neighbourhood, but while preparing to attacK Boulogne itself, a pestilential distemper broke out in his camp. The autumnal rains falling with great violence, Henry of France lost all instant hope of taking Boulogne, and re- turned to Paris, leaving Gaspar de Coliguy, ■0 well known as the admiral Coligny, to command the troops and to form the siege as early as possible in the following spring. Coligny even went beyond these orders by making some dashing attempts during tho winter; but they were all unsuccessful. The protector having in vain attempted to pro- cure the alliance of the emperor, he turned his thoughts to making peace with both A.u. 1649.— BiSHor bonneb confinbo in thb maushalsba fbibon. [2I> mm -jr w VBOU VARIOUS CAUSES TUB FOFUIiATIOIf WAS OBEATLY SIMINISUED. p.: » K >4 M H H > H n M 14 M »< o H M 9 f* 8 U 5 a < A M H U H >4 a N M « n a A •4 306 ^l^c S^rcasuri) of I^iston), $cc. France and Scotland. The young queen of Scotland, for whose hand he had cliiefljr f^one to war, could not now be married to Edward of England, however much even the Scots might desire it ; and as regards the French quarrel, Honry VIII. having agreed to give up Boulogne iu 1554, i: was little worth while to keep up an expensive warfare for retaining the place for so few years as had to elapse to that date. But Somerset, though a man of unques- tionable ability, seems to have been singu- larly ignorant or unobservant as to the real light in whith he was regarded bv the council, and still more so of the real cha- racter and views of Warwick. He gave his reasons, as we have given them above ; and sound reasons they were, and as humane as sound -, but he did not sufficiently take into calculation the pleasure which his enemies derived from the embarrassment caused to him, and the discontent likely to arise in the public mind, on account of the state of our affairs, at once inglorious and expensive, in France and Scotland. Besides having the personal enmity of Warwick, Southampton, whom the pro- tector had restored to his place in the council, and other councillors, Somerset was detested by great part of the nobility and gentry, who accused him, perhaps not altogether unjustly, of purchasing popu- larity at the expense of their safety, by allowing such an excessive and unfair pre- ference of the poor as encouraged them in riot and robbery. As an instance of this, it was objected, that he had erected a court of requests in his own house for the pro- fessed relief of the poor, and even inter- fered with the judges on their behalf. The principles of constitutional liberty such as wc now enjov were at that time so little understood, that it was not the mere inter- ference with the judges, which we should now very justly consider so indecent and detestable, that caused any disgust ; but Somerset had interfered against the very persons, the nobles and gentry, upon whom' alone he could rely for support, and he was now to endure the consequences of so im- Solitic a course. His execution of his own rother, however guilty that brother ; his enormous acquisitions of church property ; and above all, the magniAcence of the palace he was building in the Strand, for which a parish church and the houses of three Dishops were pulled down, and the ma- terials of which he chiefly got by pulling down a chapel, with cloister and charnel- house, in St, Paul's church-yard, after his labourers had been by force of arms driven from an attempt to pull down St. Mar- garet's, Westminster, for that purpose 1— These things, and the overweening pride which was generally nttiibuted to him, were skilfully taken advantage of by his enemies, and he was every where described as the main cause of all the recent public calamities at home and abroad. Warwick with Southampton, Arundel, and five of the councillors, headed by lord St. John, presi- dent of the council, formed themselves into a sort of independent council. Taking upon themselves the style and authority of the whole council, they wrote letters to all the chief nobility and gentry, asking for their support and aid in remedying the public evils, which they affected to charge entirely upon Somerset's maladministration. Hav- ing determined on their own scheme of re- medial measures, they sent for the mayor and aldermen of London and the lieutenant of the Tower, and informing them of the plans which they proposed to adopt, strictly enjoined them to aid and obey them, in despite of aught that Somerset might think fit to order to the contrary. Somerset was now so unpopular, that obedience was readily promised to this command, in the face at once of the king's patent and of the fact that these very councillors, who now complained of the protector's acts as illegal, had aided and encouraged him in whatever had been illegally done — his original de- parture from the will of the late king I No farther argument can be requisite to show, that personal and selfish feeling, and not loyalty to the young king or tenderness to his suffering people, actuated these factious councillors. But faction has an eogle eye wherewith to gaze unblinkingly upon the proudest and most brilliant light or truth ; and the self-appointed junto was on the following day joined by the lord chancellor Rich, by the marquis of Northampton, the earl of Shrewsbury, sir Thomas Cheney, sir John Gage, air Ralph Sadler, and the chief justice Montague. And when the protector, seeing the imminent peril in which he was placed, sent secretary Fetre to treat with the councillors at Ely-house that craven personage, instead of perform- ing his duty, took his seat and sided with the junto. Consulting with Cranmer and Paget, who were the only men of mark and power that still abided by his fortunes, the protector removed the young king to Windsor castle, and gathered his friends and retainers in arms around him. But the adhesion to the junto of the lieutenant of the Tower, and the unanimity with which the common- council of London joined the mayor in promising support to the new measures, caused the spcalcer of the house of commons and the two or three other councUlors who had hitherto remained neuter to join the ascendant party of Warwick ; and Somerset so completely lost all hope and confidence, that he now began to apply to his foes for pardon. This manifestation of his despair, which would h&ve been inexcusable had it not, unhappily, been unavoidable, was de- cisive. Warwick and his friends addressed the king, and with many protestations of their exceeding loyalty and tlie mischievous- uess of the protector's measures, solicited that they mi«;lit be admitted to his majesty's presence and confidence, and that Somerset be dismissed from his high office. The fallen statesman was accordingly, with several of his friends, including Cecil, the afterwards reno\\'ued and admirable lord Burleigh, sent to the Tower. But though the junto H >4 H H A (N O H a < u M « H M f a P A IS M >9 M M D M A a M Q M a M M U n o !j M U tK M M »i ■< ^ o K n >a o o > o H H ^ O M a M H K MANY VILLAOBS WEBB BUIMED BY OFFUBSSIVK BNCBOACHMBIf Tb. \ U\ ■ \i •4 M >4 H f m o H < u M M & H ■0 A n H !3 M D M A IE a M M H M '4 H M A n m a n m M n H fa U n o o R •9 ^e councillors to send him a la. ^re and ini it reinforce- ment. But the cc'oncillors tained the highest honour ; and his mother, that old countess of Salisbury who was so brutally beheaded by order of Henry VIII., had been a most kind and beloved gover- ness to Mary in her girlhood. But the car- dinal was somewhat too far advanced in life to please Mary, and it was, more- over, hinted to her by her friends, that he was now too long habituated to a quiet and studious life to be able to reconcile himself to the glitter and bustle of the court. But thouKh she rejected Pole as a husband, she resolved to have the benefit of his abilities as a minister, and she ac- cordingly sent assurances to Pope Julius III. of her anxious desire to reconcile her kingdom to the holy see, and requested that cardinal Pole might be appointed le- gate to arrange tiiat important business. Charles V., the emperor, who but a few Tears before was master of all Germany, had recently met with severe reverses both in Germany and France, in which latter country he was so obstinately resisted by the duke of Guise, that he was at length obliged to retire with the remnant of his dispirited army into the Low Countries. Far sceingand ambitious, Charles no sooner heard of the accession of Mary to the throne of England, than he formed the de- sign of making the gain of that kingdom compensate for the losses he had sustained in Germany. His son Philip was a widower, and though he was only twenty-seven years of age, and eleven years Mary's junior, the emperor determined to demand her hand for his son, and sent over an agent for that purpose. If Mary had lookecf with favour upon Courtney's person, and had felt a passing attachment excited by the mental endowments of cardinal Pole, Philip had the double recommendation of being a zeal- ous catholic, and of her mother's family. Thus actuated by bigotry and by family feejing, and being, moreover, by no means disinclined to matrimony, Mary gladly en- tertained the proposal, and was seconded by the advice not only of Norfolk, Arundel, and Paget, but also of Gardiner, whose years, wisdom, and the prosecutions he iiad endured for Catholicism had given him tlie greatest possible authority in her opinion. Gardiner, <^t the same time, strongly and wisely dissuaded the queen from further proceeding in her cnterprize of making in- novations in religion. He well observed that an alliance with Spain was already more than suinciently unpopular; that the parliament, amidst all its complaisance and evident desire to make all reasonable concessions to the personal wishes and feelings of the sovereign, nevertheless had lately shown strong unwillingness to make any farther concession to Home. He ar- gued, too, tliftt whereas any precipitate measures in religion just at this time would greatly, perhaps even fatally, increase the o 91 O 91 13 m ft M n H n H e H B o H < H f a ■r, < £ o o it u n u o H H O o H M s CIIIMNIKS TO A llOUSK WEIIR AT THIS TIMB SCARCELY KNOWN. [2K A.I>. 1654.— A TBBAn OF IIABKIAOB BBTWIBN MABY ABO rfllLIP 0» SPAIN. ei ' '.'1 w ' \ ■\ 314 ^l^e ^rcBBure of 1|istore» ^c popular prejudice agunst the Spanish al- liance, that alliance when once brought about would,contrariwise, enable the queen, unresisted, to work her own will in the other and far more important measure. To the emperor Gardiner transmitted the same reaaoumgs, with the additional hint that it was necessary that, ostensibly or tempora- rily at least, the terms and conditions of the maniage should be such as to secure the favour of the English populace, by ap- pearing to be even more than fairly favour- able to English interests. The emperor, who had a very high opinion of Pole^s sa- gacity and judgment, not only assented to all that he advised, but even euforced his advice as to religious moderation, at lenst for that time, in his own private letters to Mary. He even went still farther; for being informed that Pole, the sincerity and fer- vour of whose religious zeal not unfre- quently triumphed over his great natural humanity, had sent Mary advice to proceed with rigour against open heresy, the em- peror detained Pole at the town of Dilling- hen, on the Danube, as he was on his way to England, lest his presence should pre- vent Mary from following his more pacific and politic counsels. The parliament having openly expressed a dislike of Mary's proposed marriage with a son of Spain, was dismissed, and Mary's ministers had orders to press the match on to a conclusion. The convocation, which had been summoned at the same time as the parliament, was not contented with a general profession and exhibition of its attachment to the new order of things that Mary had so rapidly introduced, but the catholic part of it holdly < oluntcured to put the capital erticle between them and the catholics, transubatantiation, into dis- pute. The protestants argued, but could rak-ely be heard, through the vlamour raised by their adversaries, who finally, being the majority, complacently voted that they had clearly and decidedly triumphed. This triumph — at least of voices and numbers, if not of fair argument — so elated the Ro- manists, that they soon after renewed the dispute at Oxford, and as if to show how secure they held themselves to he of the victory, they caused Crnnmer, Latimer, and Ridley to be conveyed thither under a guard to take their parts in the debate, which ended, as may he anticipated, in the com- plete verbal triumph of the catholics. A. D. 1654. — The complaisance of the par- liament, and the formni debates on religion that had been initiated by llomunint mem- bers of convocation, were merely prelusive to still farther and more sweeping altera- tions in religion, which were made in defi- ance of all that the enipcruraiid the astute Gardiner could urRo to the contrary. It is true — and the fact runfirnis what we have more than once said as to the wide differ- ence between the apparent and the real number of protestants existing during the two previous reigns — the mere connivance ofKovpriiment had in most parts of Enitland sulllced to encourage the people to set aside the reformation in the most important par- ticulars. But after the dismissal of parlia- ment, the new regulations of Mary, or rather ner new enactments of old abuses, were every where, openly, and by formal au- bority, carried into execution. Mass was re-established, three-fourths of the clergy- men, being attached to reformed principles, were turned out of their livings, and re- placed- by zealous or seemingly zealous Romanists, and marriage was once again declared to be incompatible with the hold- ing of any sacred office. The oath' of su- premacy was enjoined by the unrepealed law of Henry VIII., but it was an instruc- tion to a commission which the queen now authorized to see to the more perfect and •peedy re-establishment of mass and the other ancient rites, that clergymen should strictly be prohibited from tuing the oath of sup|remacy on entering benefices. While Mary was thus busied in preparing the way for laying her kingdom once more at the feet of the liaugbty pontiffs of Rome, the discontents ;:hus caused were still far- ther increased by the fears, some well found- ed and some vague, but no loss powerful on that account, excited in the public mind on account of the Spanish match. On the part of the court, in compliance with the sagacious advice of Gardiner, great care was taken to insert nothing in the marriage articles, which were published, that comd at all fairly be deemed unfavourable to England. Thus it was stipulated, that though the title of king should be accorded to Philip, the administration should beetitirely in the queen ; that no office whatever in the king- dom should be tenable by a foreigner; that English laws, customs and privileges should remain unaltered; that the queen should not be taken abroad by Philip without her own consent, nor any of her children without that of the nobility ; that a jointure of sixty thousand pounds nliould be securely settled upon the queen ; that the male issue, if any, or the marriage should inherit not only England, hut also liurgundy and the Low Countries in any case, and that in the case of the death of Don Cai'loPi<».r.on of Philip, such male issue of Philip E'.iii Mary should also inherit Spain, Sicilv, Milan, and all other the dominions of PhiHp. Every day's experience serves to show that it is quite possible to carry policy too far, and to cause the sincerity ot concession to be suspected from its very excess. If we may suppose that men so sagacious as the emperor ond Gardiner were rendered by their anxiety temporarily forgetful of this truth, the public murmuring very speedily reminded them of it. The people, with that intuitive sagacity which seems the special provision for the safety of the unlettered multitude, analogous to the in- stinct of the lower animals, exclaimed tliat the emperor, in his greedy and tyrannous anxiety to obtain possession of so rich yet hated a country as heretical England, would doubtless accede to any terms. As a papist and a Spaniard he would promise anything *< FUILIP WAS SON OF TUB BMPBBOR, AND BBIH TO TUB BFANIBH CBUWN. A.D. 1554.— MA8S rUBLIOLT BBIYOBBD III ALL CBUK0BB8 AMD CBAFBLS. O Q T. O < O H a H >a o u M H (• Pu O M H e< 4 B M A *. M A A lEnglantJ.— I^ouae o! ^uHor — S^zx^. 315 now, with the full determioation of re- voking every thing the moment he ahonld have concluded the desired match; and the more favourable, argued the people, the terma now pnbliahed were to England, thn greater the probability that the emperor and hii son would revoke them at the very first opportunity, if, indeed, they were not already provided with secret articles autho- tizing them to do so. To the fraud and ambition of the emperor the popular report said that Philip added sullenness, hau^ti- ness, cruelty, and a domineering disposition peculiarly his own. That the death of the emperor would put Philip in possession of his father's dominions was clear ; the people assumed it to be equally so that England would from that moment become a mere province of Spain ; that Englishmen equally with the other subjects of Spain would then be subjected to all the tender mercies of the inquisition, and that the Spanish alli- ance and the utter ruin of England and en- slaving of all Englishmen were but different terms and formula in which to enunciate the same thing. To a people already discontented, as the protestants of England were, with the re- cent and sudden changes made in religious affairs, such arguments as these could not be addressed with any art or industry with- out being productive of great effect. Every day increased the general dislike of the people to the Spanish match. The more prudent among even those who in principle were the most deeply and sincerely opposed to the contemplated marriage, did not, in- deed, see that the mere anticipation of evil to come, and an anticipation, too, which was quite opposed to the avowed purposes of the emperor and Philip, could warrant an open resistance. But the reasonable and the just are seldom the majority where either the feelings or the interests of man- kind are very much aroused and appealed to; and a few men of some note were soon found to place themselves at the head of the discontented, with the avowed intention of appealing to arms rather than allowing themselves to become the bond-slaves of the Spaniard. Had France at this critical juncture taken advantage of Mary's diffi- culties and want of popularity, it is very probable that her reign would have ended here, and that her memory would have been saved from the indelible stains of much and loathsome cruelty. But the king of France, though at war with Philip, would lend no aid to an English insurrection. Perhaps he felt that Mary, aided as she was certain to be by Spain, would surely put down any attempts at insurrection, in which case she, of course, would aid the emperor against France; and to this motive we may not unreasonably be supposed to have added that feeling for the rights of sovereignty over subjects, which even the hostility of sovereigns can rarely banish from their hearts. From whatever motives, however, the king of France did refuse to aid the English in their proposed resistance to their sovereign's alliance with Philip of Spain. But this did not damp the enthu- siasm of the leading opponents of the Spanish alliance. Sir Thomas Wyatt offered to raise and head the malcontents of Kent, and Sir Peter Carew those of Devonshire ; and they persuaded the duke of Suffolk to raise the midland counties, by assuring him that their chief object wai to re-invest the lady Jane with the crown. A time was fixed for the simultaneous action of these leaders ; and had the compact been punctually kept, it is more than probable that the enterprise would have been fully auccessftd. But sir Peter Carew, in his exceeding eagerness, rose before the appointed time, and being, in consequence, unsupported by Wyatt and the duke of Suffolk, was beaten ct the first onset by the earl of Bedford, and with diffi- culty made his escape to France. Suffolk, on hearing of Carew's failure and flight, left town, accompanied by his brothers, lord Thomas and sir Leonara Gray, and pro- ceeded to the counties of Warwick and Leicester, where his chief influence lay. But he was hotly pursued by a party of horse under the earl of Huntingdon, and being overtaken before he could raise suffi- cient force for resistance, was obliged to disperse his few followers and conceal him- self. Accident or treachery soon discovered his hiding place, and he was sent under an escort to London. Wyatt, in the mean- time, raised the standard of revolt at Maid- stone, in Kent, where he issued a passionate proclamation, inviting the people to aid him ID removing evil councillora from about the queen, and to prevent the utter ruin of the nation which must needs follow the com- pletion of the Spanish match. Great unm- bers of persons joined him, and among them some catholics, as he had dexterously omit* ted from his proclamation all mention of religion. The duke of Norfolk, at the head of the queen's guards and some other troops, reinforced by five hundred Londoners under the command of Brett, marched against the revolted and came up with them at Roches- ter. Here sir George Harper, who had been with Wyatt, pretended to desert to the duke, but quickly returned to Wyatt, carry- ing with him Brett and his Londoners, upon whom sir George's eloquence so wrought, that they professed their preference of death to aiding in the enslavement of their coun- try. Norfolk, fearing that this desertion might mislead the rest of his force, now retreated, and Wyatt marched to South- wark, whence he sent to demand that the Tower should be placed in his hands, that the queen should free the nation from all terror of Spanish tyranny by marrying an Englishman, and that four councillors should forthwith be placed in his hands as hostages for the performance of these con- ditions. While Wyatt was wasting his time in sending this demand and awaiting ii reply, Norfolk had secured London bridge, and had taken effectual steps to overawe the Londoners and prevent them from joining Wyatt. Perceiving his error when too late, Wyatt now marched to Kingston, where he A.D. 1854.— CBAKMBB, RIULBT, AWD LATIMBB BXCOMMUNICATBD. w u TIIK WATCIIirUL JKALOUBY OP MARY SNOBIfDKHBIl IlliU W0B8T CRIMES. I I 316 ^fie Creasure of l^istoro, $cc. crosRcd the river, and made his way unre- sisted into Westminster. Here, however, his followers rapidly deserted him, and he was encountered and seized in the Strand, near Temple-bar, by sir Maurice Berkeley. Vast numbers of the deluded countrymen were at the same time seized, and as the queen's rage was proportioned to the fear and peril to which she had been subjected, the executions that followed were horribly numerous. It is said, that not less than four hundred of the captured wretches were put to death in cold blood ; four hundred more were condemned, but being led before the queen with halters on their necks, they knelt to her and implored her grace, which was granted. Wyatt, the prime mover of this revolt, was executed, as a matter of course. On the scaffold he took care to exonerate, in the most unequivocal terms, from all participation or even knowledge of his proceedings the lady Elizabeth and the earl of Devon, whom Mary's jealous hatred had endeavoured to connect with this ill- starred and ill-managed revolt. Thev were both seized and strictly examined by the council, but Wyatt's manly and precise de- cliration defeated whatever iutent there might have been to employ false witnesses to convict them with his rash proceedings. But thc:igh Mary was thus prevented from proceeding to the last extremity against them, she sent Elizabeth under strict sur- veillance to Woodstock, and the earl of Devon to Fotheringay castle. To Eliza- beth, indeed, immediate release was offered, on condition of her accepting the hand of the duke of Savoy, and thus relieving her sister from her presence in the kingdom ; but Elizabeth knew how to " bide her time," and she quietly, but positively, re- fused the proffered alliance. All this time lord Guildford Dudley and the lady Jane had remained imprisoned, but unmolested and unnoticed. The time which had elapsed without any proccedini^s being taken against them, beyond their mere confinement, led everv one to sup- pose that their youth, and the obvious re- straint under which they had acted, had determined Mary not to punish them be- yond imprisonment, and that' she would terminate even that when she safely could do so. But the imprudent, nay, the situa- tion of his daughter and her husband being considered, the wicked connection of the duke of Suffolk with Wyatt's revolt, aroused in Mary that suspicion which was no less fatal to its objects than her bigotry. Jane now anew appeared tc her in the character of a competitor for the throne. That she was not wilfully so, that she was so closely confined that she could not by any possi- bility correspond with the disaffected, were arguments to which Mary attached no im- portance. To her it was enough that this innocent creature, even now a mere girl and wishing for nothing so much as the quiet and studious moral life in which her earlier girlhood had been passed, might possibly be made the pretext for future re- volt, 'the lord Guildford Dudley and lady Jane were, consequently, warned that the day was fixed for their execution. Subse- quently the queen bestowed the cruel mercy of a reprieve for three days, on the plea that she did not wish, while inflicting Dodily death on Jane, to peril her eternal salvation. The unhappy lady was, there- fore, during the short remnant of her life importuned and annoyed by catholic priests, who were sent by the ^ueen to endeavour to convert her to their taith. But she skil- fully and coolly used all the arguments then in use to defend the reformed faith, and even wrote a Greek letter to her sister, ad- juring her to persevere in the true faith, whatever perils might environ her. It was at first intended to behead both the prisoners at the same time and on the same scaffold. On reflection, motives of policy caused the c|ueen to alter this de- termination ; and it was ordered that the lord Guildford should first be executed on Tower-hill, and the lady Jane shortly after- wards within the precincts of the Tower, where she was confined. On the morning appointed for this double murder, lord Guildford sent to his young and unfortunate wife, and requested an interview to take an earthly farewell ; but Jane, with a more masculine and self-pos- sessed prudence, declined it, on the ground that their approaching fate required the full attention of each, and that their brief and bloody separation on earth would be followed by an eternal union. From her prison window the lady Jane saw her youth- ful husband led out to execution, and shortly afterwards saw his headless body brought back in a common cart. Even this sad spectacle, instead of shaking her firmness, did but the more confirm and strengthen a constancy which was founded not upon mere constitution, but upon long, serious, and healthy study. Her own dread hour had at length ar- rived, and sir John Sage, the constable of tlie Tower, on summoning ber to the scaffold, begged her to bestow some gift upon him n'liich he might keep as a per- petual memorial of her. She gave him her tables in which, on seeing the dead body of her husband, she had written a sentence in Greek, Latin, and English, to the effect that though human justice was against her husband's body, the divine mercy would be favourable to his soul ; that, for herself, if her fault deserved punishment, her youth, at least, and her imprudence, were worthy of excuse, and that she trusted for favour to God and to posterity. On the scaffold she blamed herself not for ever having wished for the crown, but for not having firmly refused to act upon the wishes of others in reaching at it. She confessed herself worthy of death, and, being disrobed bjr her female attendants, calmly and unshrinkingly submitted her- self to her fatal doom. The duke of Suffolk and lord Thomas Gray were shortly aflvrwards executed for their shore in Wyatt's revolt. Sir Nicholas Throgmorton was tried in Guildhall for the I A.D. 15S4.— THB QUFRN MAKBN AN ADDRESS TO TUB CITISBNS AT GUILDHALL. w id that the in. Subse- the cruel ;aya, on the le inflicting her eternal was, tliere- t of her life lOlic priegta, ) endeavour lUt she skil- iments then I faith, and r sister, ad- true faith, ler. lehead both and on the motives of er this de- ed that the executed on liortljr after- the Tower, ' this double > his young iquested an rewell; but nd self-pos- the ground equircd the their brief X would be From her V her youth- lution, and adiess body cart. Kven shaking her onfirm and -as founded t upon long, length ar- onstable of ler to the V some gift p as a per- ive him her dead body a sentence o the effect against her cy would be ir herself, if ler youth, at 5 worthy of 'or favour to rself not for wn, but for It upon the at It. She leath, and, attendants, nitted hcr- ird Thomas ixecuted for iir Nicholas Ihall for the # TBB rOBCB Of BAD BXAMriiBa IS rBBOBABT WITH TBB WOBST 0* CBIMBS. lEnglantf.— 1|ou» of ^tilfor.— iDdar^. 317 uune offeace, bat there being little or no evidence against him, his eloquent and acute defence led the jury to acquit him. y/ith an arbitrary and insolent stretch of Srerogative that now seems almost incre- ible, Mary, enraged at the acquittal, not only recommitted sir Nicholas to the Tower, where she kept him for a considerable time, but she even had the jury sent to prison, and fined from one to two thousand pounds each! The end she had in view in this abominably tyrannous conduct, however, was fully achieved. Thenceforth jurors were little prone to acquit the unhappy gen- tlemen who, no matter how loosely, were charged with participation in the affair of Wyatt. Many were condemned merely in consequence of the terrors of their jurors, and among them was sir John Tbrogmor- ton, brother to sir Nicholas. Arrests took place every day, the Tower and other places of confinement were filled with nobles and gentlemen, whose offence was that they chanced to be popular ; the affection of the people being a deadly offence to the queen, who felt that she was loathed by them, and who felt so little secure against a new out- break, that she seut out commissioners to disarm them, and lay up the seized arms in her strong holds. In the midst of this gloomy state of things, the parliament was called upon to invest the queen with the power Which had formerly been granted to her father, of dis- posing of the crown at her decease. Gar- diner took care to dwell upon the prece- dent afforded by the power given to Henry VIII., and he had little fear of success be- cause, independent of the general terror caused by tne queen's merciless and san- guinary proceedings, the good-will of nu- merous members of parliament had been Surchased by the distribution of fourhun- red thousand crowns, which the emperor had sent over for that purpose. But neither terror nor purchased com- Jilaisance could blind the house to the acts, that the ^ueen detested Elizabeth, and that the legitimacy of the queen must imply the bastardy of Elizabeth. The manner, too, in which Gardiner in the course of his speech avoided mentioning Elizabeth, excepting merely as " the lady Elizabeth," and without styling her the queen's sister, confirmed the suspicion that, on' d invested with the power which she now claimed, the queen would declare Eli- sabeth illegitimate, and by making a will, bequeathing the throne to Fhilip, hand over the nation to all that Spanish tyranny of which such terrible anticipations had been and still were entertained. As if to strengthen all other grounds of suspicion of Mary's intention, the hirelings and parasites of Philip were just now, as zealously as imprudently, busy in dwelling upon PhiUp's descent from the house of Lancaster, and representing him — taking Elizabeth's bastardy as a matter of course —as the next heir to Mary by right of de- scent. Great then as from fear or favour, was the desire of the whole parliament to gra- tify the queen, the determination not to throw the nation bound and blindfolded into the hands of the Spaniard was still freater. They not only refused to pass the ill to give Mary the power to will away the throne, but when another bill was intro- duced to make it treasonable to imagine or attempt the death of the queen's husband while she lived, they coollv laid it aside; and that Fhilip might not ne led to com- plete the marriage by any lingering hope of possessing any authoritv in the nation which was unhappy enough to have Mary for its queen, the house passed a law enact- ing, '"Tliat her majesty, as their only queen, should solely and as a sole queen enjoy the crown and sovereignty of her realms, with all the pre-eminences, dignities, and rights thereto belonging, in as large and ample a manner after ner marriage as before, with- out an^ title or claim accruing to the prince of Spain, either as tenant by courtesy of the realm or by any other means." Having thus, as far as was in their power, limited and discouraged the dangerous am- bition of the cruel and bigoted Philip, the parliament passed the ratification of the articles of marriage, which, indeed, were drawn so favourably to England, that no reasonable objection could have been made to them. As nothing more could be extorted or bribed from parliament with respect to the Sueen's marriage, its attention was now irected to matters connected with religion. The bishopric of Durham, which had been divided in the reign of Edward, and which by an arbitrary edict of the queen had al- ready been re-conferred upon Tonstal, was now re-erected by act of parliament. Some bills were also introduced for revising the laws against Lollardy, erroneous preaching, and heresy in general, and for the suppres- sion of books containing heterodox opi- nions. But here again, to its credit, the parliament was both discriminating and firm ; the bills were thrown out ; and the queen perceiving that neither Philip's f;o\d nor the terrors of her more sanguinary con- duct could make this parliament, at least, sufficiently pliant and slavish for her pur- poses, she suddenly and sullenly dis- solved it. ^ CHAPTEll XLV. The Reign of Maby (continued). Mabt's age, and some consciousness, per- haps of the addition made by her fearful temper to the natural homeliness uf her fea- tures, had tended to make the acquisition of a young and illustrious husband all the more eagerly desired, for its very imuroba- bility; and though she had seen oulv the portrait of her future husband, she haa con- trived to become so enamoured of him, that when the preliminaries of the marriage were all arranged, and the arrival of the prince was hourly expected, every delay and every obstacle irritated her almost to phrcnzy. Though as a matter of ambition Fhilip was §1 PBATU AWB CONrlSOATIOH OF I-RUPlinTV WBBK THB OBDBB Of TUB BAV. v^ TUB qUEBN OBOFFBD THB IITLB OV " BUrBBHB BEAD Of THE CHVBCn.' f^ ; ^1 318 ^ift treasure of 1|istors, $c(. m very desirous of the match, as a simple mat- ter of love he was, at the verv least, indif- ferent ; and even the proverbial hauteur aiM Bolemnitjr of the Spanish character could not sufficiently account for the cold neglect which caused him to forbear from even fa- vouring his future wife and queen with a letter, to account for delays which, in spite of her doating fondness, Mary could not but believe that the prince might easily have put an end to had his impatience been at all e^ual to her own. From blaming Philip, the impatient fondness so rare as well as so unbecoming at her advanced period of life, caused her to turn her resentment against her subjects, to whose opposition she chose to impute that indifference on the part of the prince, which really arose from dislike of her repulsive and prematurely aged per- son. A circumstance now occurred which greatly increased the queen's anger against her subjects, and whicu probably, in so sul- len and resentful a nature as hers, did much to fan into a flame that fierce bigotry which subsequently lit the fires of persecution in everv county in England, and left scarcely a village without its martyr and its mourn- ing. A squadron had been fitted out, and the command was given to lord Effingham, to convoy the prince to England ; but so unpopular was the service, and such strong symptoms appeared of a determined spirit of mutiny among the sailors, that lord Ef- fingham frankly informed the queen that he did not think the prince would be safe in their hands, and the squadron was at once disbanded. But this measure, though indispensably necessary under the circum- stances, brought no peace to the mind of the (jueen, for she now dreaded not merely the inevitable dangers of the sea, but also that her husband should be intercepted by the French fleet. The slightest rumour so heightened her self-torturmg, that she was frequently thrown into convulsions ; and not merely was her bodily health affected in the most injurious degree, but even her mind began to be affected to a very perceptible ex- tent. Hypochondriac and pitiably nervous, she became painfully conscious of her want of beauty ; though, with the usual self-flat- tery, she ascribed the repulsive aspect pre- sented to her by her unflattering mirror wholly to her recent sufferings. From being frantically impatient for the arrival of Phi- lip, the unhappy queen now became des- ponding, and dreaded lest on his arrival he should find her displeasing. At length the ooject or so many hopns and fears arrived ; the marriage was pub- licly and with great pomp performed at Winchester; and when Philip had made a public entry into London, and dazzled the eyes of the gazers with the immense riches he had brought over, Mary hurried him away to the comparative seclusion of Wind- sor. This seclusion admirably suited the Erince, whose behaviour, from the day of is arrival, was as well calculated as though it had been purposely intended, to confirm all the unfavourable opinions that had been formed of him. In his manner he was dis- tant, not with shyness but with overweening disdain ; and the bravest and wisest of the oldest nobility of England had the mortifi- cation to see him pass them without mani- festing by glance, word, or gesture, that he was conscious of their respect, salutations, or even their presence. The unavoidably wearisome etiquette of court was now so much increased by Spanish formalities, that both Philip and Mary may almost be said to have been inaccessible. This circum- stance, however disgusting to subjects, was in the highest degree pleasmg to the queen ; having at length possessed herself of her husband, she was unwilling that any one should share his company with her for a moment. More like a love-sick girl than a hard-featured and hard-hearted woman of forty, she could not bear the prince to be out of her sight ; his shortest absence annoyed her, and if he showed the com- monest courtesy to any of the court ladies, her jealousy was instantly shown to him, and her resentment to the fair who had been so unfortuate as to be honoured with his bare civility. The womanly observation of Mary soon convinced her that the only way to Philip's heart was to gratify his ambition ; and sne was abundantly ready to purchase his love, or the semblance of it, even at the price of the total sacrifice of tlie liberties and inte- rests of the whole English people. By means of Gardiner she used both fear and hope, both power and gold, to get members returned in her entire interests to a new parliament which she now summoned ; and the returns were such as to promise that, in the existing temper of the nation, which had not yet forgotten the sanguinary pu- nishment of the revolt under Wyatt, she might safely make her next great onward movement towards the entire restoration of Catholicism and the establishment of her own absolute power. Cardinal Pole, who was now in Flanders, invested with the office of legate, only awaited the removal of the attainder passed against him in the reign of Henry VIII. Tue parliament readily passed an act for that purpose, and the legate immediately came to England, when, after waiting on Philip and Mary, he presented himself to parliament, and formally invited the Eng- lish nation to reconcile itself to the holy see from which, said the legate, it-had been 80 long and so unhappily separated. The well-trained parliament readily ac- knowledged and professed to deplore the defection of England, and presented an ad- dress to Philip and Marv, intreating them, as being uninfected by the general guilt, to intercede with the holy father for their for- giveness, and at t he same time declared their intention to repeal all laws that were preju- dicial to the church of Home. The legate readily gave absolution to the parliament and people of England, and received them into the communion of Rome ; and pope Julius III. with grave and bitter moclcery observed, when the formal thanks of the nation were conveyed to him, that the Eng- e u rniLIF WA8 IN TUB 29th, MABT in tub 3STn YBAB or HEB AGE. \\ A.D. 1554.— FHILir AND UABT HAKB TUKIH BnTBY INTO LONDON, AUG. 12. o u H n M H e H M b u o M »i k? ■< S m u S H M IE O O m 9 K H IK •< P •|5 •I a H O l» o f a a p o M n H M M H a H < s M M a O a "} u lEnglantl.— I^ouse of ^utJor.— JWarg. 319 lish had a strange notion of things thus to thank him for doing what he ought, in fact, to thank them for letting him do. It must not be supposed that though the nobility and gentry in parliament assembled thus readily and crouchingly laid England once again at the feet of the Roman pontiff, that they were prepared fully to undo all that Henry had done. Indifferent as to the mode of faith prescribed to the multitude, they had not an objection to make this sud- den and sweeping re-transfer of the spiritual authority over England. But before they would consent to that transfer of spirituu authority, they obtained from Rome, as well as from the queen, the most positive assur- ances that the church property, snatched from the church and divided among laymen by Henry, should not be interfered with, hut should remain undisturbed in the hands of its lay possessors. The parliament, also, in the very act by which it restored the pope's spiritual authority, enacted that all mar- riages contracted during the English sepa- ration from Rome should remain valid, and also inserted a clause which secured all holders of church lands in their possession ; and the convocation presented a petition to the pope to the same effect, to which peti- tion the legate gave an afSrmative answer. Bigoted and arbitrary as Mary confessedly was, it appeared that she could not fully restore, even temporarily, the power of Rome. The sentence had irrevocably gone forth against that grasping and greedy despot- ism ; and though the accidental occurrence of a fiercely and coldly cruel bigot, in the person of Mary, being seated upon the throne gave back for a time to Rome the spiritual jurisdiction, and the power to dic- tate and tvrannize in spiritual affairs, all the power and zeal of that bigot could not re- possess the church of the lands which had become lay property. In the first instance, indeed, Rome hoped, by forgiving the past fruits of the lands, to be able to resume the lands for the future ; but when Pole arrived in England he received information, amply confirmed by his own observations, which induced him without further struggle to agree to the formal and complete settle- ment of the lands, of which we have above given an account. Perhaps no greater misfortune could have occurred to England than this very cession in form, by the pope, of the right of the laity to the lands of which they had possessed themselves at the expense of the church. Had Rome attemptea to resume the solid property, as well as the spiritual rights, of the church, considerations of in- terest in the former would have caused the nobility and gentry to hesitate about sur- rendering the latter; but having secured their own property, the great were easily induced to hand over the bulk of the people to a spiritual tyranny which they flattered themselves that they would not suffer from. The vile old laws against heresy, which the former parliament had honestly and indig- nantly rejected, were now re-enacted ; sta- tutes were passed for punishing " seditious words or rumours," and it was made trea- son to imagine or to attempt the life of Philip during that of the queen, which, also, the former parliament had refused. But, amidst all this disgusting syco- phancy, even this complaisant parliament had stul some English sense of reserve, and resisted every attempt of the queen to get her husband declared presumptive heir to the crown, entrusted with the administra- tion, or even honoured with a coronation. The same anti-Spanish feeling which caused the firmness of parliament on those points, also caused it to refuse all subsidy in sup- port of the emperor, in the war which he was still carrying on against France. These very plain indications of the feelings of the nation towards himself personally caused Philip, not indeed to lay aside his morose and impolitic hauteur, for that was part and parcel of his nature, and as inseparable from (lis existence as the mere act of breathing, but to endeavour to diminish his unpopu- larity bjr procuring the release of several distinguished prisoners, confined cither for actual offence against the court, or for the quati offence of being agreeable to the peo- ple. The most illustrious of these prisoners was the lady Elizabeth ; and nothing that Philip could have done could have been more pleasing to the nation than his re- leasing that princess, and protecting her from the petty but no less annoying spite- fulness ot her sister. About the same time, Philip's politic in- tervention also gave liberty to the lord Henry Dudley, sir George Harper, sir Nicho- las Throgmorton, sir Edmund Warner, sir William St. Loe, and sir Nicholas Arnold, together with Harrington and Tremaine. The earl of Devonshire also was released from Fotheringay castle, and allowed to go abroad, but he only reached Padua when he was poisoned, and the popular rumour and belief ascribed the murder to the Im- perialists. BaflSed in her endeavours to get her hus- band declared her heir presumptive, the queen became more than ever anxious for the honours of maternity, of the approach of which she at length imagined that she felt the symptoms. She was publicly de- clared to be pregnant, and Bonner, bishop of London, ordered public prayers to be nut up, that the young prince — ior the catho- lics chose to consider not merely the preg- nancy of the queen, but even the sex of the child a matter perfectly settled ! — might be beautiful, strong, and witty. The people in general, however, manifested a provoking incrcduUty even as to the pregnancy of tlie queen, whose age and ha|j;gard aspect cer- tainly promised no very numerous offspring ; and the people's incredulity was shortly af- terwards justified, it proving that the queen had been mistaken by the incipient symp- toms of dropsy. To the last possible mo- ment, however, Philip and his friends con- cealed the truth, and Philip was thus en- abled to get himself appointed protector during the minority, should the child sur- A.D. 16S4.— TUB CITIKENa OF LONDON BlIRW TBBIB DBVOTEDNESS TO rillMP. \v A.D. 1666.— A OOUBT orsiiSD worn «■■ tKlAii or HIRITIOI, JAN. 38. 'i 320 ^i&e tlTieostttQ o< llistors, 8cc. vive and the queen die. Finding that this was the utmont conoeiuon that could at present be wrunK from the parliament, and truiting that it might by good management be made productive of more at wme future time, the queen now dluolved the parlia- ment. A.D. 166S.— The disaolution of parlia< ment was marked by an occurrence which of itielf would be suffloient to indicate the despotic character of the times. Home memb<;re of the common*' home, unwilling to agreo to the alavith complaisance com- monly shtwn by the m^iority, and vet, aa a minority, qnite unable to stem the tide, came to the resolution to secede from their at- tendance. No sooner was the parliament diiaolved than these members were in- dicted in the king's bench. Six of them, terrified at the mere thought nf a contest with the powerful and vindiotiTe queen, made the requisite submissions and ob- tained pardon t and the remainder exer- cised their right of traverse, thereby so long postponing the trial that the queen's death Jiut an end to the affair altogether. Gar- liner's success in bringing about the Spa- nish match to which the nation had been so averse, and the tact and seal for the Sueen's service which he had shown in his exterous management of the house of commons, made him now more than ever a weighty authority, not only with the ouecn but with the catholic party in general. It is singular enough, as Hume well remarks, tliat though this very learned prelate was far less zenlous upon iioints of theology than cardinal I'olc, yet, while the mild tem- per of the latter allayed and chastened his tendency towards bigotry, the sterner and hardier character of the turmcr caused him to look upon the free Judgment of the com- monalty as a presumption which it be- hoved the rulers of the laud to put down, even by the severest and most unsparing resort to persecution. For some time it was doubtful whether the milder course, recommended as politic by Pole, or the sterner course, advocated as essentially ne- cessary bv Gardiner, would prevail. But Gardiner had the great advantage of advo- cating the system which was the most in accordance with the.crueiaud bigoted tem- per of both Philip and Mary; and Pole uad the mortiScatiou not only of being vanquished by his opponent, but also of seeing full and terrible licence and A-eedom Siven to the hitherto partially restrained enions of persecution. Having determined the queen and court to a course of severity, Gardiner had no difficulty in persuading them that it was politic to select the first victims from among the eminent for learning or authority, or both ; and Sogers, prebendary of St. Paul's, a man still more remarkable for virtue and learning than for his eminence in the church and in the reformed partv. had the melan- choly honour of being singled out as the first victim. As instances of conversion were even more sought at^er by Gardiner than punishment, there was probably yet another reason why Sogers was selected for the first prosecution. He had a wife and ten children, bnd was remarkable for his affection both as a father and as a husband { and there was every probability that ten- derness for them might lead him to avoid, by apostacy, a danger which otherwiso he might have been expected to brave. But if Gardiner really reasoned thus, ho was greatly mistaken. Bog:ers not only refused to recant an iota of his opinions at what was called his trial, but even after the fatal sentence of burning was passed upon him he still preserved such an equable frame of mind, that when the fatal hour arrived his gaolers actually had to awaken him from a sweet sound sleep to proceed to the stake. Such courage might, one would suppose, have disarmed even the wrath of bigotry ; but Gardiner, when the condemned gen- tleman asked permission to have a parting interview with his wife, brutally and scoS- ingly replied, that Rogers, being a priest, could not possibly have a wife I This un- fortunate and learned divine was burned at Smithfleld, and the flames that consumed him may be said to have kindled a vast and moving pile that swallowed up sufferers of both sexes, and of nearly all ages, in every county in England. Hooper, bishop of Gloucester, was tried at the same time with Rogers, and was also condemned to the stake, but, with a refine- ment upon cruelty, he was not executed at Smithfleld, though tried in London, but sent for that purpose into his own diocese, that his agonies and death in the midst of the very scene of his labours of piety and usefulness, might the more effectually strike terror into the hearts of his flock. Hooper, however, turned what his enemies intended for an aggravation of his fate into a conso- lation, and an opportunity of giving to those whom he had long and faithfully taught, a parting oroof of tue sincerity of^his teach- ings, and of the efficacy of genuine religion to uphold its sincere believers, even under the most terrible agonies that ruthless and mistaken man, in his pride of fiercuuess, can inflict upon his (cUow worm. And terrible, even beyond the usual terrors of these abominable scenes, were the tortures of the martyred Hooper. The faggots pro- vided for his execution were too green to kindle rapidly, and, & high nind blowing at the time, the flames played around his lower limbs without being able to fosten upon the vital parts. One of his hands dropped off, ana with the other he con- tinued to beat his breast, praying to heaven and exhorting the pitying spectators, until his swoln tongue could no longer perform its office: and it was three quarters of an hour before his tortures were at an end. Of the courajge and sincerity of Hooper there is striking evidence in the fact that the queen's pardon was placed before him on a stool after he was tied to the stake, but he ordered it to be removed, preferring the direst torture with sincerity to safety with apottaoy. Sanders, burned at Coventry, also had ■ m Q ^ A M H M M *i a »< H ■4 H at M ► M « M M M » H u U n AT TBI "HBMIItlOB' COURT" OAROINIR AND THIRnRN OVBIR BXaHOFI OltlOIATBD. as. ■elected for i a wife and :able for lii« a husband ; tjr that ten' lim to avoid, >therwisv! he rave. Bntif ui, he was only refuted louB at what ftcr the fatal id upon him ible frame of r arrived his 1 him Arom a to the stake, uld suppose, 1 of bieotry ; lemned gen- sve a partinir lly and scofT iing a priest, 3 1 This Un- as burned at at consumed ed a vast and p sufferers of iges, in every r, was tried at utd was idso with a refine- t executed at London, but own diocese, the midst of of piety and ctually strike >ck. Ilooper, tiiea intended into a conso- iving to those illy taught, a of his teach- uine religion , even under ruthless and )f fierceness, worm. And al terrors of the tortures faggots pro- lOo greeu to d blojving at around his )le to fasten f his hands her he cun- ng to heaven itators, until iger perform arters of an I at an end. of Hooper lie fact that 1 before him o the stake, i, preferring ty to safety y, also had rrioiATKs. A.O. l&SS.— TUa qUKKtf neSTORKD THI CUVBCB tANOS Ilf UKB rossKSRiotr. o M t> •< u •a K ks O u H H m m t) o M H a A IS < A M n m M ki b t< H ti m M H > M « M M M a u M t> a u M m H o U N Ih »< H M m H O r. H V. M M O ^, O u \r. ■A H «0 Q •«1 H O H t « SB O n M H h <» >l .-I ^nglantr.— l^ouac of CuTJor.— i^aro. 321 the queen's pardon oflercd to him, and ho also rtgected it, embracing the stake and exclaiming, " We have the cross of Christ I Welcome everlasting life." Taylor, the clergyman of Iladlcy, in Hertfordshire, was burned at that iilac(% in the presence of his parishioners. Wiicn tied to the stake he began to prav in English, which so enraged his guards, tliat, bidding him speak Latin, they struck him su violently on the head with their halberts, that ho died on the instant, and was spared the lingering ago- nies prepared for him. Philpot, archdeacon of Winchester, had verv greatly distinguished himself by his zeal tor protestantism. On one occasion, being engaged in a controversy with an Arian, the zeal of the archdeacon so far got the ascendancy over his good manners, that he actually spat in the Arian's face. Sub- sequently, and when he might have been expected to have repented on reflection of what he had done m the heat of passion, he published a formal justification of his conduct, in which he said that he felt bound to give that strong proof of the detestation of his opponent's blasphemy. So impetuous a man was not likely to escape notice in the persecution that now raged, and he was brought to trial for heresy and burned to death in Bmithficld. If Gardiner was the person to whom the persecution chiefly owed its commence- ment, it was Bonner, bishop of London, who carried it on with the coarsest and most unrelenting barbaritv. Apart from all mere bigotry, this singularly brutal man appeared to derive positive sensual grati- fication from the act of inflicting torture. He occasionally when he had prisoners under examination who did not answer to his satisfaction, would have them stripped and flog them with his own hand. Nor was even this his worst brutality. An unfor- tunate weaver, on one occasion, refused to recant, when Bonner endeavoured to per- suade him, and, as is veraciously recorded, this disgrace of his sacred profession first tore the unfortunate man's beard out by the root, and then held his hand in the flame of a lamp until the sinews burst, by way of giving him, us he said, some notion of whet burning really was Like I When we say tliat this horrible system of persecution and crue^y endured for three years, and that in that time two hundred and twenty-seven persons are known to have suffered— while probably many more were similarly butchered of whom we have no account— while that, besides men of all ranks from bishops to day-labourers, fifty- five women and four children thus perished, it must be obvious that a detailed account of this terrible season of cruelty would bo disgusting, even were it not quite impracti- cable. We shall, therefore, add but a few more cases, and then leave a subject which cannot be treated of even at this distance of time without feelings of disgust and horror. Ferrnr, bishop of St. David's, in Wales, being condemned to death as a heretic, ap- pealed to cardinal I'olc ; but his appeal was wholly unattended to, and the unl'urtuuale bishop was burned in his own diocese. There yet remained two still more illus- trious victims to he immolated. Bidley, formerly bishop of London, and Latimer, formerly bishop of Worcester, hnd long been celebrated for both the zeal and the elfi- cicncy of their support of the cause of the reformation. In the prcachin[;of both there was a certain nervous homeliness, which mado their eloquence c^-iiecially effective upon the minds and I s of the lower orders, and on that very ucount these two prelates were more foriiiidahic to the Ro- manists than they would have been had they affected a more learned and chantcned style. That two such capital enemies of Romanism— one of whom, moreover, had even for some time been possessed of Bonner's own see — should escape, could not be expected. They v/cre tried and con- demned, and both burned at the same stake at Oxford. Both died with courage and a calm constancy not to be surpassed, liven when they were already tied to the stake, and the revolting tragedy commenced, Lati- mer cheerfully called out, " Be of good courage, brother Ridley, we shall this day kindle such a torch in England, as, I trust i' '--od, shall never be extinguished." Lati- mer, who was very aged, suffered but little, being very early killed by^he explosion of some gunpowder which the executioner had mercifully provided for that purpose ; but Ridley ~vas seen to be alive some time after he was surrounded hy flames. As neither age nor youth, neither learn- ing nor courage, could make any impres- sion upon the flinty heart of Bonner, so neither could even the most heroic proof of filial piety. A young lad, named Hunter, who was only in his nineteenth year, suf- fered himself, with the imprudence com- mon to youth, to be drawn into a religious argument with a priest, in the course of which argument he had the farther impru- dence to deny the real presence. Subse- quently he began to apprehend the danger of what he had done, and absconded lest any treachery on the part of the priest should involve him in punishment. The priest, as the young man had feared, did give information, and Bonner, learning that the youth had absconded, caused his father to be seized, and not only treated him Aith great immediate severity, but threatened him with still worse future treatment. The youth no sooner heard of the danger and trouble to which he had unintentionally exposed his father, than he delivered him- self up. To a generous man this conduct would have been decisive as to the pro- priety of overlooking the lad's speculative error or boldness; hut Bonner knew no remorse, and the youth was mercilessly committed to the flames. A still more disgraceful and barbarous incident occurred in Guernsey. A wretched woman in that island was condemned to the stake, and was, when led to )>uni8h- ment, far advanced in pregnancy. The in- A. D. l.'iSS.— It« TUI8 IKAB COACHBS WKBB FIRST USED Ilf BNOI.AND. w A.O. 1656.— CHABIiBS V. BBSiaxa Uljl OkOWir IN VATOUB or ■!■ SON VBILir. -h II; 322 VLf)t ijrreosttrg of ^totor^, $cc. effable pangt inflicted upoo her produced labour, and one of the Kuards snatched the new-born infant from the flames. A brutal and thoroughly ignorant magistrate who was present ordered the helpless little wretcn to be thrown back again, " being determined that nothing should surnve which sprung from so heretical and obsti- nate a parent." Betting aside the abhor* rent and almost incredible offence against humanity committed by this detestable magistrate, he was, even in the rigid in- terpretation of law, a murderer, and ought to have been executed as one ; for, whatever the offence of the wretched mother, the child clearly was not contemplated in the sentence passed upon her. But, alas 1 the spirit of bigotry tramples alike upon the laws of nature and of man ; and it is pro- bable that this detestable murderer, so far from receiving merited punishment for his brutality, might have been even applauded for his "zeal." As though the national dread and detes- tation of the Spanish alliance had not al- ready been but too abundantly justified by the event, spies were sent out in every di- rection, and a commission was appointed for inquiring into and punishing all spiri- tual and even some civil crimes ; and two very brief extracts from the commission and instructions will show that in object, powers, and process, the commissioners were, only under another name, inquisi- tors, and their spies and informers officials of the inquisition. The commission said, that " Since many false rumours were Sublished among the subjects, and many eretical opinions were also spread among them, the commissioners were to inquire into those either by presentments, by wit- nesses, or any other political way they could dpvisn, and to search after all heresies, the I Tingers in, the sellers, the readers of all '.leretieal books ; to examine and punish all misbehaviours or negligences in any church or chapel ; to try all priests that did not preach the sacrament of the altar; all per- sons that did not hear mass, or go to their parish church to service ; that would not go in processions or did not take holy read or holy water ; and if they found any that did obstinately persist in such here- sies, they were to put them into the hands of their ordinaries, to be punished accord- ing to the spiritual laws ; giving the com- missioners full power to proceed as their discretion and eonscieneet should direct them, and to use all such means as they would invent for the searching of the pre- mises, empowering them, also, to call be- fore them such witnesses as they pleased, and to /bree them to make oath of »ueh thing* at might diteover what they »o«ght after!' This new commission was, in fact, an English inquisition ; and the fol- lowing extract from Hume abundantly shows the determination that that inqui- sition should not want for oJIUAaU and famHiart. " To brine the method of proceeding in England still nearer to the practice of the inquisition, letters were written to lord North and others, enjoining them " to put to the torture " such obstinate persons as would not confess, and there to order them at their discretion. " Secret spies, also, and informers were employed, according to the practice of that iniquitous tribunal. Instructions were given to the justices of the peace that they should 'call teeretly before them one or two honest persons within their limits, or more, at their discretion, and command them, by oath or otherwise, that they shall teeretlg learn and search out such i>ersons as shall evil behave themselves in the church, or idly, or shall despise, openly by words, the king's or queen's proceedings, or go about to make any commotion, or tell any seditious tales or news. And also that the same persons, so to be appointed, shall declare to the same justices of the peace the ill behaviour of lewd disorderly Eersons, whether it shall be for using un- iwful games or any such other light beha- viour of such suspected persons ; and that the same information shall be given m- eretli/ to the justices, and the same justices shall call such accused persons before them and examine them, without declaring by whom they were accused." This precious commission also had power to execute by martial law not only the put- ters forth of all heretical, treasonable, and seditious books and writings, but also all " whosoever had any of these books and did not presently bum them, without reading them or showing them to any other per- son." Did not the whole tenor of this portion of our history forbid all touch of humour, one would be strongly tempted to inquire how a man was possibly to know the character of books coming to him by gift or inheritance, for instance, without either reading them himself or showing them to some one else 1 But as bigotry cannot feel, so neither will it condescend to reason. While Philip and Mary were thus exhi- biting an evil industry and leal to merit the reconcilement of the kingdom to Rome, Paul IV. who now filled the papal throne, took advantage of Mary's bigotry to assume the right of conferring upon Marv the king- dom of Ireland, which she already possess- ed de facto et de jure as part and parcel of the English sovereignty, and to insist upon the restoration to Rome of certain lands and money 1 Several of the council, pro- bably fearing that by degrees Rome would demand back all the church property, pointed out the great danger of impover- ishing the kingdom, and but that death had deprived Mary of the shrewd Judgment of Gardiner, such concessions would pro- bably not have been made to the grasping spirit of Rome. But Mary replied to all objections bv saying that she preferred the salvation of her own soul to ten such king- doms as England ; and Heath, archbishop of Canterbury, who had succeeded Gardi- ner in the possession of the great seal, en- couraged her in that feeling. A bill was A.D. 15S5. — IN THIS YEAR TDB RDSSIAN COMrANT WAS IKCORFORATKO. ;k !i \ \V A. 9. IIM.— I*. JOHN*! COUKQB, OZIOKS, rOVHDBD BV BIB THONAI WBITB. H M M h « iE O o r. o u M M B h O H fl M k« H H M M H o m O H X H u M O n •0 A M IB O H M M M M hi ■< H u M O M H «• H H H M H n N a M o u H M O 4 us M o M •eeordingly presented to parliament for restoring to the chnreh the tenths, first fruits, and all impropriations which re- mained in the hands of the queen , At first sight it might seem tiiat parliament had little cause or right to interfere in a matter which, as far as the terms of the bill went, concerned only the oueen herself. But the lay possessors of cnurch lands naturally enough considered that subjects would scarcely be spared after the sovereign had been mulcted. Moreover, while some, pro- bably a great number, of the members were chiefly moved by this consideration, all be- gan to be both terrified and disgusted by the brutal executions which had disgraced the whole nnuon. A steady opposition consequently arose ; and when the govern- ment applied for a subsidy for two years and for two fifteenths, the latter were re- fused, and the opposition, with equal bit- terness and justice, gave as the reason of this refusal, that while the crown was wil- fully divesting itself of revenue in behalf of Rome, it was quite useless to bestow wealth upon it. The dissatisfaction of the parlia- ment was still farther evidenced by the rejec- tion of two bills, enacting penalties agamst such exiles as should faU to return within a certain time, and for incapacitating for the office of justice of the peace such ma- gistrates as were remiss in the prosecution of heretics. This fresh and pointed proof of the displeasure of the parliament deter- mined the queen to dissolve it. But the dissolution of the parliament did not dimi- nish thepecuniary embarrassment of the queen. Her husband had now been sever. 1 months with his father in Flanders; and the very little of his correspondence with which he favoured her chiefly consisted of demands for money. Stem and unfeeling as she was to every one else, the infatuated queen was passionately attached to the husband who certainly took no pains to conceal his dislike of her ; and as the par- liament, previous to its dissolution, bad granted her but a scanty supply, she was led, by her anxiety to meet her huiiband's demands, to extort money from her sub- jects in a manner the most unjustifiable. From each of one thousand persons, of whose personal attachment she affected to be quite certain, she demanded a loan of 601. ; and even this large sum being inade- quate to her wants, she demanded a farther general loan from all persons possessing twenty pounds a-year and upwards ; a mea- sure which greatly distressed the smaller gentry. Many of them were obliged by her inroads upon their purses to discharge some of their servants, and as these men sud- denly thrown upon the world became trou- blesome, the queen issued a proclamation to compel their former employers to take them back again I Upon seven thousand yeomen who had not as yet contributed, she levied sixty thousand marks, and from the merchants she obtained the sum of six and tliirty thousand pounds. She also ex- torted money by the most tyrannous inter- ference with trade, as regarded both the foreign and native merchants ; yet after all this shameless extortion she was so poor, that she offered, and in vain, so tad was her credit, fourteen per cent, for a loan of 80,000{. Mot even that high rate of inte- rest could induce the merchants of Ant- werp, to whom she offered it, to lend her the money, until by menaces she had in- duced her good city of London to be secu- rity for her I Who would imagine that we ■re writing of the self-same nation that so shortly afterwards warred even to the death with Charles I. for the comparatively tri- fling matter of the ship money 7 Tne poverty which alone had induced Philip to correspond with her was now ter- minated the emperor Charles the Fifth, that prince's father, resigning to li'm all his wealtn and dominion, and retiring to a monastery in Spain. A singular anecdote is told of the abdicated monarch. He spent much of his time in the constructing of watches, and finding it impossible to make them go exactly alike, he remarked that he had indeed been foolish to expect that he could compel that uniformity in minds which he could not achieve even in mere machines I The reflection thus pro- duced is said even to have given him some leaning towards those theological opinions of which he and his son had been the most brutal and ruthless persecutors. A. D. 1666. — Cranmer, though during the whole of this reign he had been left unno- ticed in confinement, was not forgotten by the vindictive queen. She was djuly more and more exacerbated in her naturally wretched temper by the grief cause.i by the contemptuous neglect of her husband. Her private hoars were spent in tears and complaints ; and that misery which usually softens even the most rugged nature had in her case only the effect of making her still more ruthless and unsparing. Cranmer, though he haa during part of Henry's reign warded off that monarch's rage from Mary, was very much hated by uer for the part he had taken in bringing about the divorce of her mother, and she was not only resolved to punish him, but also to make his death as agonizing as pos- sible. For the part he had taken in the op- position to her ascending the throne she could easily have had him beheaded, but nothing short of the flames seemed to her to be a sufficiently dreadful punishment for him. She caused the pope to cite him to Rome, there to take his trial fo* heresy. Being a close prisoner in the Tower, the unfortunate prelate perforce neglected the citation, and he was condemned par contu- mace, and sentenced to the stake. Tin; next step was to degrade him from his sacred office ; and Bonner, who, with Thirle- by, bishop of Ely, was entrusted with this task, performed it with all the insolent and triumphant brutality consonant with his nature. Firmly believing that Cranmer's eternal as well as earthly punishment was assured, the queen was not yet contented ; she would fain deprive him in his last hours even of numan sympathy, and the credit A.D. 1SS7. — THE FIRST COMMERCIAL TREATY CONCLDDBD WITU RUSSIA. w BOTH ABROAD AND AT UOMB THIS WAS " THB AOB OV PKBSICUTION. r. \ H H M O >t K IB a u n H >j P (5 «! n O tn es M H o 324 ST^c STwasuri} of l^istotp, $cc. attached to consistency and fidelity to the cause he had embraced. Persons were employed to persuade liiin that the door of mercy was st'il open ..o him, and that he, wlio was so well qualified to be of wide and permanent service to mankind, was in duty Dound to save himself by a seeming com- pliance with the opinions of the queen. The fear of death, and the strong urgings of higher motives, induced Cranmer to comply, and he agreed to subscribe to the docti'ir.cs of the real presence and the papal supremacy. Shallow writers have blamed Cranmer for this compliance; none will do so who consider " how fearfully and how wonderfully we are made" — in mind as well as in body ; how many and urgent were the motives to this weakness, how much his mind was shaken by long peril and im- prisonment, and, above all, who remember and reflect how nobly he subsequently shook off all earthly motives " like dew drops from the lion's mane," and with what calm and holy serenity he endured the last dread tortures. Having induced Cranmer privately to sign his recantation, the queen now demanded that he should complete the wretched price of his safety by publicly making his recan- tation at St. Paul's before the whole people. Even this would not have saved Cranmer. But, either from his own judgment, or from the warning of some secret friend, Cranmer perceived that it was intended to send him to execution the moment that he should thus have completed and published his de- gradation. All his former high and cou- rageous spirit was now again aroused within him; and he not only refused to comply with this new demand, but openly and Doldly said that the only passage in his life of which he deeply and painfully re- pented was, that recantation which, in a moment of natural weakness, he already had been induced to make. He now, he said, most sincerely repented and disavowed that recantation, and inasmuch as his hand had offended in signing it, so should his hand tirst suffer the doom which only that single weakness and insincerity had made him deserving. The rage of the court and its sycophants at hearing a public avowal so different from that which they expected, scarcely left them as much decency of pa- tience as would allow them to hear him to the end of his discourse ; and the instant that he eased to speak he was led away to the stake. True to his promise, Cranmer when the faggots were lighted held out his hand into the rising ilames until it was consumed, repeatedly exclaiming as he did so, " This unworthy hand!" " This hand has offended t" The fierce flames, as they reached his body, were not able to subdue the sublime sere- nity to which he had wrought his christian courage and endurance, and as long as his counto'iance WHS visible to the appalled by- standers, it wore the choracter not of ogony but of a holy sacrifice, not of despair but of an assured and eternal hope. It is said by some prottstant writers of the time. that when the sad scene was at an end, his heart was found entire and uninjured ; but probably this assertion took its rise in the singular constancy and calmness with which the martyr died. Cardinal Pole, on the death of Cranmer, was made archbishop of Canterbury. But though this ecclesiastic was a man of great humanity as well as of great ability, and though he was sincerely anxious to serve the great interests of re- ligion, not bv ensnaring and destroying the unhappy ana ip;norant laity, but by elevat- ing the clergry in the moral and intellectual scale, to render them more efllcient in their awfully important service, there were cir- cumstances which made his power far in- ferior to his will. He was personally dis- liked at Rome where, his tolerance, his learning, and his addiction to studious re- tirement, had caused him to be suspected of, at least, a leaning to the new doctrines. A. D. 1567. — In the midst of Mary's fierce persecutions of her protestant subjects, she was self-tortured oeyond all that she had it in her power to inflict on others, and might have asked, in the words of the dying inca to his complaining soldier, " Think you that /, then, am on a bed of roses ?" War raged between France and Spain, and next to her desire firmly to re-establish Ca- tholicism in England, was her desire to lavish the blood and treasure of her people on the side of Spain. Some opposition being made, Philip visited London, and the queen's zeal in his cause was increased, instead of being, as in the case of a nobler spirit it would have been, utterly destroyed, by his sullen declaration, that if England did not join him against France, he would see England no more. Even this, however much it affected the queen, did not bear down the opposition to a war which, as the clearer-headed members discerned, would be intolerably expensive in any case, and, if successful, would tend to make England a mere dependency of Spain. Under the circumstances a true English patriot, in- deed, must have wished to see Spain hum- bled, not exalted ; crippled in its finances, not enriched. It unfortunately happened, however, that an attempt was made to seize Scarborough, and Stafford and his fellows in this attempt confessed that they were incited to it by Henry of France. This de- claration called up all the dominant na- tional antipathy to France ; the prudence of the opposition was at once laid asleep ; war was declared, and every preparation that the wretched financial state of England would permit, was made for carrying it on with vigour. By dint of a renewal of the must shameless and excessive extortion, the queen contrived to raise and equip an army of ten thousand men, who were sent to Flanders under the earl of Pembroke. To prevent disturbances at home, Mary, in obedience probably to the advice of her cold and cruel husband, caused many of the first men in England, from whom she had any reason to fear any opposition, to be seized and imprisoned in places where even their neiu'est friends could not find them. O n M H g A. D. 165/. — A VEHY SliVKHG FEnSRCUTION rOLLOWED TUB DEATU OF CBANMUK. A.O. 16S8.— CALAII SUkHSNSKkKD TO TBI fklHCR. JAN. 7. lEnglantr.— I|ou0e of ^titror.— lEIi^abtil). 325 The details of the military affairs be- tweiu France and Spain with her English auxiliaries belong to the bistorjr of France. In this place it may suffice to say, that the talents of Guise rendered all our attempts useless ; and that, so far from benefiting Philip, we lost Calais that key to France, of which England was so diary and so Eroud. Even the cold and unpatriotic cart of Mary was touched by this capital misfortune ; and she was often heard to say, in the agonies of her uxorious grief, that, after her death " Calnis" would be found visibly graveu upon her broken heart. But regrets were vain, and wisdom came too late. France improved her success by stirring up the Scotch ; and, with such a danger threatening her very iirontier, Eng- land was obliged sulleuly and silentlv to withdraw from an onerous warfare, which she had most unwisely entered upon. Philip continued the war for some time after England had virtually withdrawn from it ; and he was negotiating a peace and in- sisting upon the restoration of Calais as one or its conditions, when Mary, long la- bouring under a dropsy, was seized with mortal illness and died, in the year 1588, after a most wretched and mischievous reign of five years and four months. This miserable woman has been allowed the vir- tue of sincerity as the sole good, the one oasis in the dark dcsart of her character. But even this virtue must, on careful exami- nation, be denied to her by the impartial historian. As a whole, indeed, her course is nofmarked by insincerity. But why 7 Her ferocity and despotism were too completely unresistei! by her tame and aghast people to leave any room for the exercise of falsehood, after the very first days of her disgraceful reign. But in those first days, while it was yet uncertain whether she could resist the power and ability of the ambitious and un- principled Northumberland, she proved that she could use guile where force was wanting. Her promises to the protestants were in many cases voluntary, and in all profuse and positive ; yet she no sooner grasped the sceptre firmly in her hand, than she scattered her promises to the winds, and commenced that course of bigotry and cruelty which has for ever affixed to her memory the loathed name, which even yet no Englishman can pronounce without horror and disgust, of thb Blooox Qubir Mabx. CHAPTEE XLVI. The Reign of Elicabbtr. A.o. 1S58.— So completely had the arbi- trary and cruel reip^ of Mary disgusted her subjects, almost without distinction of rank or religious opinions, that the accession of Elizabeth was hailed as a blessing unalloy- ed and almost too great to have beeu hoped for. The parliament had been called to- gether a few davs before the death of Mary, and when Heatu, as chancellor, announced that event, he was hardly allowed to con- clude ere both houses burst into the joyful cry of" God save queen Elizabeth I Long and happilv may she reign !" Deep and deadly indeed must have been the otfences of the deceased (^iieen to have rendered her death an actual subject of joy, instead of grief, to a nation proverbially so loyal and affectionate as England 1 Elizabeth when she received the news of her sister's death was at Hatfield, where she bad for some time resided in studious and studied retirement; for, even to the last, Mary had shown that her malignity against her younger sister had suffered no abatement, and requireo only the slightest occasion to burst out in even fatal violence. When she had devoted a few days to the ap- pearance of mourning, she proceeded to London and took up her anode in the Tower. The remembrance of the very dif- ferent circumstances under which she had fonnerlv visited that blood-stained fortress, when she was a prisoner, and her life in danger from the malignity of her then all- powerful sister, affected her so much, that she fell upon her knees and returned thanks anew to the Almighty for her safe deliver- ance from dangler, which, she truly said, was scarcelv inferior to that of Daniel in the den of lions. Her immediately subse- quent conduct showed that her heart was properly affected by the emotions which called forth this act of piety. 8he had bees much injured and much insulted during the life of her sister ; for such was the hateful and petty cast of Mary's mind, that there were few readier ways to win her favour than by insult or injury to the then friend- less daughter of Anne Boleyn. But Eliza- beth now seemed determined only to re- member the past in her thankfulness for her complete and almost miraculous deli- verance from danger. She allowed neither word nor glance to express resentment, even to those who had most injured her. Sir H. Bedingfield, who had for a consider- able time been her host, and who had both harshly and disrespectfully caused her to feel that, though nominally his guest and ward, she was in reality his jealously watch- ed prisoner, might very reasonably have ex- pected a cold if not a stem reception ; but even this man she received with affability when he first presented himself, and never afterwards inflicted anv severer punishment upon him than a (food humoured sarcasm. The sole case in which she manifested a feel- ing of dislike was that of the brutal and blood-stained Bonner, from whom, while she addressed all the other bishops with ^most affectionate cordiality, she turned away with an expressive and well warranted appear- ance of horror and disgust. As soon as the necessary attention to her private affairs would allow her, the new queen sent off messengers to foreign courts to announce her sister's death and her own accession. The envoy to Philip, who at this time was in Flanders, was the lord Cobham, who was ordered to return the warmest thanks of his royal mistress for the protec- tion he had afforded her when she so much needed it, and to express her sincere and blizabbtb's cobonation was conductbd with thb utmost maonivicbncb. [2 P ' ■* « . ►y ^1^ lf\ 12 i l'\ ^r'n\ 13 11 ■^^ A. O. 1568.— Sift IIICHOI.AI BACOIt MADS lOBD-SRIFSR, DKC. 27< 326 ^^e tlTreasnrp of l^istori), Src. earnest desire that their friendship miRht continue unbroken. The friendly earnest- ness of Elizabeth's message strengthened Philip in a determination he had made even during the illness of Mary, of whose early death he could not but have been expect- ant, and he immediately instructed his am- bassador to the court of London to offer the hand of Philip to Elizabeth. Blinded by his eager desire to obtain that dominion over England which his marriage with Mary had failed to secure, Philip forgot that there were manv objections to this measure ; ob- jections which he, indeed, would easily have overlooked, but which the sagacious Eliza- beth could not fail to notice. As a catho- lic, Philip was necessarily disliked by the protestants who had so lately tasted of catholic persecution in its worst form ; as a Spaniard, he was cordiallv detested by Englishmen of either creed. But apart from and beyond these weighty objections, which of themselves would nave been fatal to his pretensions, he stood in precisely the same relationship to Elizabeth that her fa- ther had stood iu to Catherine of Arragon, and in marrying Philip, Elizabeth would virtually, and in a manner which the world would surely not overlook, pronounce her mother's marriage illegal and her own birth illegitimate. This last consideration alone would have decided Elizabeth against Philip ; but while in her heart she was fully and irrevocably determined never to marry him, she even thu^ early brought into use that duplicity for which she was afterwards as remarkable as for her higher and nobler qualities, and sent him so equivocal and undecided an answer, that, so far from de- sparing of success, Philip actually sent to Rome to solicit the dispensation that would be necessary. With her characteristic prudence, Eliza- beth, through her ambassador at Rome, announced her accession to the pope. That exalted personage was grieved at the early death of Mary, not only as it deprived Rome of the benefit of her bigotry, but as it made way for a princess who was already looked up to with pride and confidence by the protestants ; and he suffered his double vexation to manifest itself with a very in- discreet energy. He treated Elizabeth's assumption ot the crown without his per- mission as being doubly wrong; wrong, as treating with disrespect the noly see, to which ne still deemed England subject, and wrong, as the holy see had pronounced her birth illvg^timate. This sort of con- duct was by no means calculated to suc- ceed with Elizabeth ; she immediately re- called her ambassador from Rome, and only pursued her course with the more re- solved and open vigour. She recalled home all who had been exiled, and set at liberty all who had been imprisoned for their religi- ous opinions during the reign of her sister ; she caused the greater part of the service to be performed in English, and she forbade the elevation of the host in her own chapel, which she set up as the standard for all other places of worship. But, always cool and cautious, Elizabeth, while she did thus much and thus judiciously to favour the re- formers, did not neglect to discourage those who not only would have fain outstripped her in advancing reform, but even have in- flicted upon the Romanists some of the persecutions of which they themselves had complained. On occasion of a petition being presented to her, it was said, in that partlv quaint and partly argumentative style which in that age was so greatly affected, that having graciously released so many other prisoners, it was to be hoped that she would receive a petition for the release of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Being as yet undetermined as to the extent to which it would be desirable to permit or encourage the reading of the scriptures, she readily replied, that previous to doing so she must consult those prisoners, and learn whether they desired their liberty. To preaching she was never a great fViend'; one or two preachers, she was wont to say, were enough for a whole county. And. at this early period of her reign, she deemed that the indiscreet zeal of many of the most noted of the protestant preachers was calculated to promote that very pcrsccu- tiou of the Romanists which she was especi- ally anxious to avoid ; and she, consequent- ly, forbade all preaching save by special li- cence, and took care to grant licences only to men of discretion nnd moderation, from whose preaching no evil was to be appre- hended. The parliament was very early employed in passing laws for the suppression of the recently erected monasteries, and restor- ing the alienated tenths and first fruits to the crown. Sundry other laws were passed chiefly relating to religion ; but those laws will be sufficiently understood by those who have attentively accompanied us thus far, when we say, that they, substantially, abo- lished all that Mary had done, and restored all that she had abolished of the laws of Edward. The then bishops, owing every thing to her sister and to Catholicism, were so great- ly offended by these clear indications of her intended course, that they refused to officiate at her coronation, and it was not without some difficulty that the bishop of Carlisle was at length prevailed upon to perform the ceremony. The most prudent and effectual steps having thus been taken to secure the pro- testant interests without in any degree awakening or encouraging whatever there mi^t be of protestant bigotry, and to de- spoil the Romanists of what they had vio- lently acquired without driving them to desperation, the queen caused a solemn disputation to be held before Bacon, whom she had made lord keeper, between the pro- testant and the romanist divines. The latter were vanquished in argument, but were too obstinate to confess it ; and some of them were so refractory that it was deemed ne- cessary to imprison them. Having been thus far triumphant, the protestants pro- ceeded to their ultimate and most impor- A. D. 1658. — TUB REVISAIi OF THB LITUBGT BNTRUSTBn TO DK. FAHKBn. A D. 15fiO.— TUB DBANBRX Ot VBITMIHIITBK BBBCTID BT TUB aUBB.-«. ^nglanU — l^ousc of ^uDor.— lEU^abet^. 327 > m B M l» n o at Q H S f H » H •J M H '4 >4 A o H ^ H O K o H n a 19 a •< H B O tiint step ; and a bill wa» passed by which the mass was abiiUshed, and the liturgy of king Edward re-established ; and penalties were enacted against all who should either absent themselves from worship or depart from the order here laid down. Before the conclusion of the session, the parliament gave a still farther proof of its attachment to the queen, and of its desire to aid her in her designs, by voting her a subsidy of four shillings in the pound on land, and two- and-eightpence on Koods. with two fif- teenths. Well knowing all the dangers of a disputed succession, the parliament at the some time petitioned her to choose a husband. But the queen, though she ac- knowledged that the pe'ition was couched in terms so general and so respectful that she could not take anv offence at it, pro- tested that, always undesirous of changing her condition, she was now more than ever so ; she was anxious only to be the wife of England and the mother of the English, ana had no higher ambition than to have for her epilttph, " Here lies Elizabeth, who lived and died a maiden queen." A.n. 1559.— The parliament just proro- gued had, as we have shown, got through a vast deal of important business in the ses- sion ; but though tliat was the first session of a new reign, and of a reign, too, immedi- ately following one in which such horrors of tyrannous cruelty had been enacted, it is to be remarked, to the praise of the mo- deration of both queen and parliament, that not a single bill of attainder was passed, though some attaints bv former parliaments were mercifully or justly removed. VThile the queen had been thus wisely busy at home, she had been no less active abroad. Sensible that her kingdom re- quired a long season of repose to enable it to regain its power, she ordered her ambas- sadors, lord Effingham and the bishop of Ely, to conclude peace with France on any terms ; and peace was accordingly con- cluded. But as the marriage of Henry and Anne Boleyn had been concluded in open opposition to Rome, France chose to deem Elizabeth wrongfully seated upon the throne ; and the duke of Guise and his bro- thers, seeing that Mary, queen of Scots, the wife of the dauphin, would — supposing Eli zabeth out of the question — be tne ri^tful heir, persuaded the king of France to order his son and his daughter-in-law to assume both the title and the arms of England. The death of Henrv of France at a triraa- ment not being followed by any abandon- ment on the part of Mary and h:r hus- band, then Francis II. of F'at'.e, of this ' most unwarrantable and insulting assump- I tion, Elizabeth was stung into the com- ; mencement of t^^iit deadly hatred which ' subsequently proved so fatal to the fairer I but less prudent Mary of Scotland. I A.D. 1561. — The situation of Scotland and the circumstances which occurred there at this period will be found in all necessary detail under the proper head. It will suf- fice to say, here, that the theological and civil disputes that raged fiercely among the turbulent and warlike nobility of Scotland and their respective followers, plunged that country into a state of confusion, which encouraged Elisabeth in her hope of ex- torting from Manr, now a widow, a clear and satisfactory abandonment of her as- sumption; an abandonment which, indeed, had been made for her by a treaty at Edin- burgh, which treaty Eliuibeth now, through Throgmorton, her ambassador, demanded that Mary should ratify. But wiifulnest and a certain petty womanly pique deter- mined Mary to refuse this, althouKh imme- diately on the death of her husband she had laid aside both the title and the arma of uueen of England. Mary's residence in Fran(°, meanwhile, had '-ecome very disagreeable to her from the ill iffices of the queen mcuer, and she reso'.v>:tl to tumply with the invitation of the r< ates of Scotland to return to that kingdom. She accoriiinglv ordered her I ambassador, D'Oisel, to apply to Elizabeth for a safe corit^uct th •laga England ; but I Elizabeth, through Throgmorton, refu^f^d I compliance with t'-t ret^uest (ceut >.;> condition of Mary's ratifica^ ;:i of the I treaty of Edinburgh. Mary r";i nitrated I in severe though chastened i. xiti, and im- mediately determined upon proceeding to Scotland by sea, f*^' which purpose she en^ barked at Calaii .-.' iabeth at the sav time sent out ci'iucera ostensibly to pu:su> pirates, but, as . show, seem, with the in- tention of seizing upon the person of Mary, who, however, passed through the English squadron in a fog, and arrived safelv at Leith. But though safe, Mary waa far from happy. She had lo'-ed France with even more than a native's love, and only ceased to gaze upon its receding shores when they were hidden h\ the darkness of night. The manners of the French were agreeable to her ; she had become, as it were, " native and to the manner bom," in that land of gaiety and frivolity ; and all that she heard of the Btem harsh bigotry of the predomi- nant party in Scotland, led her to anticipate nothing but the most wearisome and me- lancholy feelings. Her youth, her beauty, her many accomplishmeuts, and, above ail, • hp novelty of seeing their sovereign once .liOf'^ among them, caused the Scots to give ;,. ; a most joyous and affectionate recep- tion. Her first measures were well calcu- lated to confirm the favourable opinion which her people appeared to entertain. She gave, at least ostensibly, all her confi- dence and nearlv all her attention to the leaders of the rerormed party, who, indeed, had now complets power over the great mass of the Scottish people. Secretary Liddington and her brother, lord. James, whom she created earl of Murrav, ably se- conded her endeavours to introduce some- thing like order into that land so long and so grievously torn by faction and strife, and as the measures taken were at once firm and conciliatory, every thing seemed to promise success. But there was, amidst all this seeming promise of better times, one fatal element B M m •4 >a u M a m K m M •4 H s M H f O m S *■ •4 M M O * •i O f K M a as M M > o (t H 3) K e M M M a m K O u e m * o B M J A. S. 1660. — ALL ANABAPTISTS COHMANDBD TO LBAVB THE KIHODOM. ■tH A. D. 1661. — THB sriax or at. faul's chdbcb dbbtboteo bt fibb. t i'lm \M\ m M o K M » M o « s B o K 6 O H O H H »• M o « H a Tl > 'i'i ; 328 ^f)z treasure of 1|iatorp, ^c. which rendered her success nearly impos- sible. Bigotry in England was personified mildness and moderation, compared to the intense and envenomed bieotry which at that time existed in Scotland. Mary on her very first entrance into Scotland had issued an order that every one should submit to the reformed religion. But she herself was still a papist ; and scarcely was the first joy of her arrival subsided when the reform- ed preachers began to denounce her on that account. The celebration of catholic rites in her own chapel would have been sternly refused her by the zealous preach- ers and their zealous follnwers, had not the multitude been iudue 4 to side by her in that matter, from fear f her returning to France in disgust. Bui even that consi- deration did not prevent the preachers and some of their followers from proceed- ing to the most outrageous lengths ; and this single consideration suflSced to throw the whole Scottish people into confusion and uneasiness. Wisely chary of expence, and profoundly Solitic, Elizabeth saw that the bigotry of lary's subjects would find that princess other employment than that of making any attempt to disturb the peace of Eng- land. She therefore turned her attention to improving the arts, commerce, navy, and artillery of England ; and with so much judgment, and with such great as well as rapid success, that she well merited the title that was bestowed upon her, of " the restorer of naval glory and queen of the northern seas." Her spirit and prudence had naturallv enough encouraged foreign princes to believe, that though she had in some sort pledged herself to a maiden life, it was not impossible to dissuade her from Sersevering in that resolution. The arch- ukc Charles, second son of the emperor ; Casimir, son of the elector palatine ; Eric, kiug of Sweden ; Adolph, duke of Holstein ; and the earl of Arran, presumptive heir to the crown of Scotland, were among the suitors for bar hand. Nor were there wanting aspirants to that high and envied honour even among her own subjects. The earl of Arundel, though old enough to be her father, and sir William Pickering were among those who flattered themselves with hope ; as was lord Robert Dudley, a son of the ambitious duke of Northumber- land beheaded in the reign of Mary ; and as the fine person and showy accomplish- ments of this last caused the queen to treat him with more favour and confidence than his actual talents seemed to warrant from so acute a judge of men's merits as Elizabeth, it was for some time very gene- rally imagined that he was a favoured lover. But the queen answered all ad- dresses with a refusal, and yet not such a refusal as to utterly destroy that feeling of attachment which was so useful to her as a queen, and — can we doubt it? — so agree- able as well as flattering to her as a woman 7 But though Elizabeth appeared to be de- cidedly disinclined to marriage, nothing appeared to offend her more than the mar- riage of any who had pretensions to suc- ceed her. A remarkable instance of this occurred in the case of the lady Catherine Gray, youngest sister of the hapless lady Jane. This lady married, in second nup- tials, the earl of Hertford, son of the pro- tector Somerset, and, the lady proving pregnant, Elizabeth confined both husband andwife in the Tower, where they remained for nine years. At the end of that time the countess died, and then the queen at length gave the persecuted earl his liberty. A. D. lliCt-2. — Besides all considerations of his personal and ineradicable bigotrjr, Phi- lip of Spain had yet another motive for fulfilling the vow which, on escaping from a violent tempest, he had made, to do all that in him lay for the extirpation of heresy. Of that " heresy " Elizabeth, by the com- mon consent not only of her own subjects but of the protestants of° all Europe, was looked upon as the child and champion ; and her rejection of Philip's hand, and her consequent baffling of all his hopes of ob- taining sway over England, had excited his gloomy and vindictive nature to a fierce and personal hatred. In every negotiation, under every circumstance, he made this hatred to the queen appear in his virulent and obstinate opposition to the interests Qf England. Not content with the most vio- lent persecution of the protestants wher- ever his own authority could be stretched to reach them, he lent his aid to the queen mother of France. That aid so fearfully turned the scale against the French Hugue- nots, that their chivalrous leader, the prince of Cond^, was fain to apply for aid to the Srotestant queen of England. Though, uring the whole of her long and glorious reign, Elizabeth was wisely chary of in- volving herself in great expences, the cause of protestantism would probably of itself have beon too dear to her to allow of her hesitating. But the prince of Cond€ ap- pealed to her interest as well as to her re- ligious sympathies. The Huguenots pos- sessed nearly the whole of Normandy ; and Condi proffered to give Elizabeth posses- sion of Havre-de-Grace, on condition that she should put a garrison of three thousand men into that place, send three thousand men to garrison Dieppe and Rouen, and supply money to the amount of a hundred thousand crowns. The offer was tempt- ing. True it was that the French were by treaty bound to restore Calais, but there were many reasons for doubting whether that agreement would be fulfilled. Pos- sessed of Havre, ind thus commanding the mouth of the Seine, England would be the more likely to be able to command the restitution of Calais ; the offer of Condi was accordingly accepted. Havre and Dieppe were immediately garrisoned, but the latter place was speedily found to be untenable, and evacuated accordingly. To Rouen the catholics were laying siege, and it was with great difficulty that Poynings threw in a small reinforcement of English to aid the Huguenot garrison. Thus aided the Huguenots fought bravely and well, but A. D. 1562.— TUB riBST TOtAOB MADB TO THB COAST OF GUINEA FOB SLAVS!. ,|.|l T FIBS. tensions to sue* instance of this e lady Catherine he hapless lady in second nup- son of the pro- le lady proving id both husband re they remained id of that time n the queen at earl his liberty, onsiderations of )le bigotry, Phi. ther motive for I escaping from made, to do all pation of heresy, th, by the com- er own subjects all Europe, was and champion ; s hand, and her ' lis hopes of ob' had excited his ure to a fierce ery negotiation, he made this ' in his virulent the interests pf h the moat vio- )te8tants wher- d be stretched id to the queen id so fearfully French Hugue- ider, the prince ' for aid to the ind. Though, g and glorious f charv of in- nces, the cause bably of itself allow of her ofCond^ ap- 1 as to her re> uguenots pos. ormandy ; and abeth posses- ondition that hree thousand ree thousand 1 Rouen, and of a hundred f was tempt- ench were by lis, but there ting whether iltilled. Pos- imanding the would be the ommand the for of Cond« Havre and prisoned, but found to be rdingly. To ig siege, and at Poynlngs It of English Thus aided and well, but SLATBI. A. D. 1663. — WARWICK BDBREMDBRS HATBB OB OBACM TO THB VBBIICB. 3 lEnglantJ.— I^ouise of tTutror — TeXifaJbtt^. 329 were at length overpowered and put to the sword. About the same time three thou- sand more English arrived to the support of Havre, under the command of the earl of Warwick, eldest brother of the lord Ro- bert Dudley. With this aid and a second sum of a hundred thousand crowns, the Huguenots, though severely beaten near Dreux, where Cond6 and Montmorency were taken prisoners by the catholics, stiU kept Well together, and even took some considiirable towns in Normandy. A.D. 1S63.— How sincerely desirous Eliza- beth was of effectually aiding the Hugue- nots will appear from the fact that, while she had thus assisted them with a nume- rous body of admirable troops and with two hundred thousand crowns, as well as proffered her bond for another hundred thousand if merchants could be found to lend the amount, she was iiow so poor that she was obliged to sumraou a parliament and demand assistance. This demand led to a renewal of the parliament's request that she would marry. She ' '■d been dan- gerously ill of the smallpox, and her peril had re-awakened all the national terrors of the evils inseparable from a disputed suc- cession. The parliament, consequently, now added to its petition, that she would marry, the alternative, that she would at least cause her successor to be clearly and finally — save in the event of her marrying and having issue — named by an act of par- liament. Nothing could have been less agreeable to the queen than this petition. 8he well knew the claim of Mary of Scotland, and shrewdly judged thai the being named as her successor would not diminish the in- clination of that queen to give her disturb- ance. On the other hand, to deny that claim and to decide in favour of the house of Suffolk, would be to incite Mary to in- stant enmity, and at the same time to create in another quarter the impatience, rarely unmixed with enmity, of the de- clared succuasor. In this dilemma she acted with her usual caution ond policy ; gave the parliament to understand that she had by no means irrevocably made up her mind against marriage, and assured them, in general terms, that she could not die with any satisfaction until she had settled the succession on solid and satis- factory foundations. The parliament, sincerely attached to the queen, and, besides, well aware that her temper would but ill bear aught that bore tiie appearance of importunity or of dictation, was obliged to be contented, or seemingly so, with this reply; and pro- ceeded to busy itself in passing need- lessly severe law» against the catholics, and ridiculounly severe laws against those imaginary and impossible offenders, witches and wizards. A subsidy and two fifteenths, and n subsidy of six shillings in the pound, the last to be paid in three years, were then voted to the queen, and parliament was again prorogued. After long and mutually cruel butcheries the French Huguenots ond catholics came to an agreement. An amnesty and partial toleration of the Huguenots was published by the court, and Cond£ was reinstated in his appointments. To the great discredit of this gallant leader, his own and bit party's interests were never attended to by him, almost to the entire forgetfulness of his agreements made with Elizabeth when she so nobly and liberally assisted him. He stipulated, indeed, that she should be repaid her expences, but in return she was to give up Havre, aud trust, as before, for the restitution of Calais to that treaty which the French had so evidently resolvea u^on breaking. Enraged at Condi's breach ot faith, and believing the possession of Havre to be her best if not her sole security fur the restitution of Calais, Elizabeth re- jected these terms with disdain, and sent orders to the earl of Warwick to take every precaution to defend Havre from the attacks of the now united French. Warwick, in obedience to these orders, expelled all French from that place, and prepared to defend himself against a large French army, encouraged by the presence of the queen mother, the king, the consta- ble of France, and Cond6 himself. But the courage, vigour, and ability of War- wick, which promised to baffle all attempts upon Havre, or at the least to make it a right dear purchase to the enemy, were counterbalanced by the breaking out among his men of a most fatal and pestilential sickness. Seeing them die daily of this terrible disease, which was much aggra- vated by the great scarcity of provisions, Warwick urgently demanded a reinforce- ment and supplies from England. But these being withheld, and the French having succeeded in making two practical breaches, the earl had no alternative but to capitulate, and he was obliged to surrender the place upon the sole condition of being allowed life and safe conduct for his troops. He had hardly surrendered when a reinforce- ment of three thousand men arrived Irum England under lord Clinton, but, besides that they were too late, they also were suf- fering under the plague which at that pe- riod rased in England. As a consequence of the loss of Havre, Elizabeth was glad to consent to restore the hostages given by France for the restitution of Calais, on re- ceiving two hundred and twenty thousand crowns,— but it was stipulated that nothing in this transaction should be held to preju- dice the claim of either nation. 'x 'i m u M t> O •< m m a "a n H N M >) M O H f «S D O a '4 < h M M I ft n * M H e> M h' H M « M > H •0 M < M m o H h O M f< a u M e f ts M H M M M U r, M »• o < a H B 4 S B •• M a H H n o M < m a B •• M ■ M M M » a B 4 « B M ■a H u M B ■ U M a » e >4 M B e I M M H U H H H •4 i4 4 lEnglantl.— l^ouse of ©uUor.— 1£U?abetf). 331 And, in truth, perceiving that it was not to be hoped that Mary would remain single, Elitabeth was not ill pleaned that Mary's choice should fall upon Darnley. He could add nothing in the way of power or alliance to the Scottish queen, whose marriage with him would at once release Elizabeth from the half-defined jealousy she felt as to Lei- cester's real sentiments, and would, at the same time, do away with all dread of the queen of Scots forming any one of the nu- merous foreign alliances which were open to her, and anv one of which would be dan- gerous to England. Lenox had been long in exile. Elizabeth now secretl'- advised Mary to recall him, reverse his attainder, and restore his for- feited possessions ; but no sooner was this done tnan she openly blamed the proceed- ings, with the view at once of embarrassing Mary and of keeping up her own interest with the opposite faction in Scotland. Her duplicity did not stop here. When the ne- gotiations for the marriage were far ad- vanced, Darnley asked Elizabeth's permis- sion to go into Scotland ; and that permis- sion was, to all appearance, cheerfully granted. But when she learned that his handsome person was admired by Mary and that the marriage was fully determined on, she sent to order Darnley on no account to go on with the marriage, but, on his alle- giance, to return to England forthwith. Compliance with such caprice and tyranny was out of the question; and Elizabeth threw the countess of Lenox and her second son into prison, and seized all Lenox's Eng- lish property without the shadow of a plea beyond the conduct of young Darnley, to which she had deliberately given her sanc- tion ! The insulting vacillation of Eliza- beth's conduct in a matter of such delicate interest to Mary, can only be reconciled with herusual shrewdness by supposing that independent of any small feminine spitel'ul- ness of which, we fear, that even the utmost partiality can hardly acqnit her, she delibe- rately, and as a matter of deep, though merciless, policv, sought thus to obtain a plea upon which to repudiate Mary as her successor in England, and a ready means of stirring up discontents among Mary's own subjects, and thus preventing theiu from being troublesome to England. A. D. 1665.— Mary's relationship to the house of Guise, whose detestation of the reformed religion was so widely known and so terribly attested, was very unfortunate for her ; inasmuch as it converted her warm attachment to hnr own religion into some- thing like bigotry and intolerance. She not only refused to ratify the acts establish- ing the reformed religion, and endeavoured to restore civil power and jurisdiction to the catholic bishops, but was even impru- dent enough to write letters to the council of Trent, in which she professed her hope not merely of one day succeeding to the crown of England, but also of so using her power and influence as to bring about the reconciliation of the whole of her domi- nions to the holy see. Considering her knowledge of Elizabeth's temper and feel- ings towards her, and considering, too, how much advantage Elizabeth would obviously obtain from every circumstance which could cause the Scotch zealots to sympa- thize with Elizabeth against their own queen, nothing could well have been more imprudent than this missive. Under any circumstances, probably, Mary, a zealous catholic, would have had but an uneasy reign among the fiercely bigoted Scottish Srotestants; but there is little reason to oubt that this vefy communication to the council of Trent was a main first cause of all her subsequent misfortunes. The protestants of Scotland were at that time no whit behind the catholics of any part of the world, either in self-rightenusncss.or in bitter and bigoted detestation of all who chanced to differ from them. Alarmed as well as indignant at the queen's ostenta- tious attachment to her own creed, the pro- testants not only murmured at her exercise of its rites, even in her own private resi- dence and chapel, but abused her faith in the grossest terras while importuning her to abjure it. Tlie queen answered these rude advisers with a temper which, had she always displayed it, might liave spared her many a sorrowful day ; assured them that besides that her apostacy would de- prive Scotland of her most powerful friends on the ccmtinent, she was sincerely at- tached to her own faith and convinced of its truth. With the self complacency pe- culiar to narrow-minded bigotry, the re- monstrants assured her that they alone had truth on their side, and bade herprefer that truth to all earthly support ana alliances. The rude zeal of the reformed was still far- ther increased by the belief, carefully en- couraged by the agents of Elizabeth, that the Lenox family were also papists. It was in vain that Darnley, now king Henry, en- deavoured to show that he was no papist by frequently making his appearance at the established church ; this conduct was attri- buted to a Jesuitical and profound wiliness, and the preachers often publicly insulted him; Knox, especially, not scrupling to tell him from the pulpit that boys and women were only put to rule over nations for the punishment of their sins. While the violence of the clergy and the arts of Elizabeth's emissaries were thus irritating the common people of Scotland against their queen, the discontents of her nobility began to threaten her with a yet nearer and more ruinous opposition. The duke of Chaterault and the carls of Murray and Argylc, with other malcontent nobles, actually raised forces, and soon appeared in arms against the king and nueen, insti- gated to tins treasonable conduct merely by their paltry fears of being losers of in- fiuence and power by the rise of the Le- nox family consequent upon Dnrnlcy's iiiar- ringe to the queen. The rolbrnied preach- ers openly, and English emissaries secretly, aided the malcontent lords in endeavouring to seduce or urge the whole Scots popula- tion from its allegiance. Hut the people THB rUaiTANS FOLLOWID TRI TBI«BTS OF CALVIN, THB SWISS BKrOHMnR. w \ ■ ■V i V \') ' ( .. iij TBBiklBll AN0 THB HIODIiAB DRAMA WXBB HOW VIRBT rATBOHIIBO. 332 ®l^e s:rca»ttrB of ^^iatorp, ^c. were, for once, in no humour to follow the leditious or the fanatical ; and after but very trifling show of success, the rebels, being pursued by the kine nnd queen at the head of an army of eighteen thousand, were fain to seek safety in England. We dwell more upon the afbiri of Scot- land just at this period than we generally do, because thus much of Scottish history is necessary here to the understanding of that portion of English history with which Mary, queen of Scots, is so lamentably, and so disgracefully to England, connected. The event of the Scottish revolt having thus completely disappointed all the hopes of Elizabeth, she now strenuously dis- avowed all concern in it; and having in- duced Murray and Chaterault's agent, the abbot of Kilwinning, to make a similar de- claration before the Spanish and French ambassadors, she, with a bitter practical satire, added to the force of their declara- tion, by instantly ordering them from her presence as detestable and unworthy trai- tors I A. u. 1566.— Hard is the fate of princes I Rarely can they have sincere friends ; still more rarely can they have favourites who do not, by their own ingratitude or the envy of others, call up a storm of misfor- tune for both sovereign and favourite. Hitherto the conduct of Mary had been morally irreproachable; for the coarse a- buse of Knox is itself evidence of the strongest kind, that, save her papacy and her sex — of which he seems to have felt an about equal detestation — even he had not wherewithal to reproach her. Having for her second husband a handsome and youth- ful man of her own choice, it might have been hoped that at least her domestic feli- city was secured. But Darnley was a vain weuk-rainded man ; alike tickle and violent ; ambitious of distinction, yet weary of the slightest necessary care ; easily offended at the most trivial opposition, and as easily governed by the most obvious and fulsome flattery. Utterly incapable of aiding the queen in the government, he was no jot the less anxious to have the crown-matrimo- nial added to the courtesy-title of king which Mary had already bestowed upon him. In this temper he was inclined to detest all who seemed able and willing to afford the queen counsel ; and among these was an Italian musician, by name David Rizzio. Ue had attended an embassy sent to Scotland by the duke of Savoy, and was retained at the Scotch court, in the flrst in- stance, merely on account of his musical talents. But he was both aspiring and clever, and he soon testified so much shrewd- ness and inclination to be useful, that he was made French secretary to the queen. Brought thus intimcftely into contact with the queen, he so rapidly improved on his advantages, that in a snort time he was universally looked upon not only as the queen's chief confidant and counsellor, but also as the chief and most powerful dispenser of her favours. As is usually the case with favourites, the ability which had enabled Rizzio to conquer court favour did not teach him to use it with moderation ; and he had scarcely secured the favour of the queen, ere he had incurred the deadly hate of nearly every one at court. The re- formed hated him as a papist and the re- puted spy and pensionaiy of the pope ; the needy hated him for his wealth, the high- born for his upstart insolence ; the aspir- ing detested his ambition, and many men — ^probably not too pure in their own mo- rals — could find no other supposition on which to account for Mary's protection of him, save a criminal connection between them. It is true that Rizzio was ugly and by no means very young even when he first came to court, and some years had now passed since that event ; and, moreover, Rizzio, whose ability had done much to clear away the obstacles to the marriage of Mary and Darnley, had at one time, at least, been as much in the favour of the king as of the queen. But Darnley, soured by the queen's coldness, which he was wil- ling to attribute to any cause rather than to his own misconduct, easily fell into the snare set by the enemies alike of himself, his queen, and Rizzio, and became furiously jealous of an ugly and almost deformed se- cretary. Yet Darnley was one of the hand- somest men of the age and a vain man too ! Afnong the extravagant reports to which the excessive favour already enjoyed by Rizzio bad given rise, was one, that it was the intention of Mary to make him chan- cellor in the room of the earl of Morton I It was true that Rizzio knew nothing of the language or of the laws of Scotland ; but the report was credited even by the as- tute Morton himself, who forthwith exerted himself to persuade Darnley that nothing but the death of Rizzio could ever restore peace and safety to either king or kingdom. The earl of Lenox, the king's father, George Douglas, natural brother to the countess of Lenox, and the lords Liudesay and Ruthven, readily joined in the conspi- racy against the unfortunate foreigner, and, to guard themselves against the known fickleness of the king, they got him to sign a paper authorizing and making himself responsible for the assassination of Rizzio, as beinp; " an undertaking tending to the glory ot God and the advancement of re- ligion 1" The banished lords who were ever hovering on the borders in hope of some event productive of disturbance, were invited by the king to return, and every preparation being made, a night was at length appointed for the murder of Rizzio. Mary, now in the sixth month of her pregnancy, was at supper in her private apartments, attended by Rizzio, the coun- tess of Argyle,'her natural sister, and others of her personal attendants, when the king suddenly entered the room and placed him- self behind the queen's chair. Immediately afterwards lord Ruthven, cased in armour and ghastly from long illness nnd anxiety, George Douglas, and othei's, rushed in and seized upon the unfortunate Rizzio as he sprang up to the queen and clung to her TUB Q|;BXN was VOHO op BHOWT FIIOBB AKS NOIBY BNTBRTAINMItMTI. ^ >MIHO. ourt farour did h moderation; 1 the favour of red the deadly court. The re- st and the re- the pope ; the alth, the high- ice ; the aspir- knd many men their own mo- lupposition on > protection of ection between s wa» ugly and n when he first rears had now »nd, moreover, done much to he marriage of one time, at favour of the larnley, soured ch he was wil- se rather than ly fell into the ke of himself, icame furiously It deformed sc- >e of the hand- vain man too ! ports to which ly enjoyed by le, that it was ike him chan- rl of Morton ! ew nothing of B of Scotland; even by the ai- thwith exerted 7 that nothing d ever restore Igor kingdom, king's father, rother to the ords Liudesay in the congpi- foreigner, and, it the known ot him to sign aking himself iion of Rizzio, ending to the cement of re- ds who Were rs in hope of urbance, were rn, and every night was at ier of Rizzio. iionth of her 1 her private iio, the Conn- er, and others hen the king d placed him- Immediately ed in armour nnd anxiety, ■ushcd in and Rizzio as he clung to her A.D. 1567. — tHB BOTAL BXCHANOK VOUNOBD BT SIB THOMAS OBBSRAU. lEnglantf— l^ouse of IRixtiox — 1EIi?a6et^. 333 K garments, shrieking the while for pro- tection. The queen, with tears, intreaties, and even threats, endeavoured to save her secretary, but the resolved conspirators forced him into the antichamber, where he died beneath no fewer than iifty-six wounds ! The condition of the queen being con- sidered, the presence of her husband while she was thus horribly outraged by being made witness of the atrocious murder of her servant, must necessarily have turned her former coldness towards Darnley into actual loathing. On learning that Rizzio was indeed dead, she immediately dried her tears, saying " I will weep no more ; hence- forth I will only think of revenge." Assuming; Mary to be guilty of the par- Jj ticipation in the murder of her husband with which she was afterwards so disas- trously charged, though even this outrage upon her both as queen and woman would be no excuse for her misconduct as queen, woman, aud wife, yet it ought not wholly to be left out of sight while we judge of the character of Mary. In a court sucli as the court of Scotland clearly was at that time, nothing short of the purity of angels could have escaped the general pollution of cru- elty, deceit, and seusuality. All resentments felt by Mary were now, it should seem, merged into detestation of the cruelly and insolently savaKC conduct of her husband. She showed him every mark of contempt in public, and avoided him in private an though in mingled hate and terror. At I ngtli, however, she was confined at Edinburgh castle of a son ; and asDainleyhad apartments there, they were at least apparently resonciled and living together. A messenger was instantly sent to Eliza- beth, who received the news while at a ball at Greenwich. She was much cast down at first, and even complained lo some of I her attendants that she was but a barren I stock, while Mary was the glad mother of I a fnir boy. But she soon recovered her I wonted self-possession, and on the folio w- i ing day she publicly congratulated Melvil, I Mary's envoy, and sent the earl of Bedford j and George Gary, son of her kinsman the earl of Hunsdon, to attend the christening of the young prince, and to carry some rich presents to his mother. But whatever cordiality Elizabeth might affect upon this occasion, the birth of a son to the queen of Scots, as it increased the real of her partizans in England, so it made even the best friends of Elizabeth de- sirous that she should take some effectual steps for the settlement of the succession. It was proposed by some leading mem- bers of parliament that the question of the succession and that of the supply should go together. Sir Ralph Sadler, in order to elude this bringing of the question to a point, attirmed that he had heard the queen say that for the good of her people she had come to the resolution to marry. Others of the court affirmed the same, and then the house began to consider about joining the question of the queen's marriage to that of the settlement in general, when a mes- sage was brought from the queen ordering the house to proceed no farther in the mat- ter. She pledged her queenly word as to her sincere intention to marry ; and she said that to name any successor previously would be to increase her already great per- sonal dangers. This message by no means satistted the house, and Peter Wentworth, a popular member, bluntly said that such a prohibition was a breach of the privileges of the house ; while some of the members on the same side added, that unless the ?iuccn would pay some regard to their uture security by fixing a successor, she would show herself rather as the step- mother than as the natural parent of her people. The debates still continuing in this strain, the queen sent for the speaker, and her remonstrances with him having failed to produce the desired effeet upon the house, she shortly afterwards dissolved the parliament, sharply rcflcctiiiK, at the same time, upon the pertinacity with which they had pressed her to marry or fix the succession. A. D. 1567. — The debates in parliament had more than ever awakened tne zeal of the partizans of the queen of Scots. The catholics of England were to a man ready to rise on her behalf, should Elizabeth's death or any national calamity afford an inviting opportunity ; and, moreover, the court of Elizabeth was itself full of Mary's partizans. But while Elizabeth and her sagacious friend and councillor Cecil— to whom it is not too much to say that Eliza- beth owed more than half the glory she acquired, and owed still more freedom from the obloquy her temper would but for him have caused her to incur — were using every expedient to avoid the necessity of declar- ing so dangerous a successor as the queen of Scots, that ill fated princess was in the very act of plunging herself into a tissue of horrors and infamies, which were to render her the prisoner and the victim of the prin- cess whom she had dared to rival and hoped to succeed. After the death of Rizzio, Mary's perilous and perplexed situation had made some confidant and assistant indispensably ne- cessary to her, especially situated as she was with her frivolous and sullen husband. The person who at this time stood highest in her confidence was the earl of Boihwell, a man of debauched character and great daring, but whose fortune was much in- volved, and who was more noted for his opposition to Murray and the rigid reform- ers, than for any great civil or military ta- lents. This nobleman, it is believed, sug- gested to her the expedient of being di- vorced from Darnley, but from some AM- cullies which arose to its execution that project was laid aside, The intimate friendship of Mary with Bothwell, and her aversion to her husband, made observant persons much astonished when it was announced that a sudden re- turn of the queen's affection to her husband TllH HBST atOHB Of THB MBW BXCHA^ 8 LAID BT PRIHCB ALBBBT, FEB. 1842, \l f i :' 1.; !■ ;' \ ' t i '. \ t i ii 1' ■ I' I' A.D. 1667.— raiifCE jahki cbownbd xine or «cotLAMD, at ■tiblimo, avs. 10. 334 ^ilt treasure of lltetom, ^c. had taken place ; that ihe had even jour- neyed to Glasgow to attend his sick bed ; that she tended him with the utmost kind- ness ; and that, as soon as he could safely travel, she had brought him with her to Holyrood-house, in Edinburgh. On their arrival there it was found, or pretended, that the low situation of the palace, and the noise of the persons continually going and coming, denied the king the repose necessary to his iniirm state. A solitary house, called the Kirk o' Field, at some dis- tance from the palace, but near enough to admit of Mary's frequent attendance, was accordingly taken, and here she continued her attentions to him, and even alept for eeveral nights in a room immediately below hie. On the ninth of February she excused herself to him for not sleeping at the palace, as one of her attendants was going to be married, and she had promised to (prace the ceremony with her presence. About two o'clock in the morning an awful ex- plosion was heard, and it was soon after- wards discovered that the Kirk o' Field wa. blown up, and the body of the unfortunate lleury Darnley was found in a field at some distance, but with no marks of violence upon it. It is a singular fact that, amidst all the disputation that has taken place as to the guilt or innocence of Mary in this most melancholy affair, no one of the disputants lias noticed Mary's selection of a room im- mediately below that of the king for stveral nights before the murder, nia the gun- powder deliberately, in small quantities and at intervals, deposited and arranged in that apartment t That Darnley had been most foully mur- dered no sane man could doubt, and the previous intimacy of Mary and Bothwell caused the public suspicion at once to be turned upon them ; and the cbnduct-of Mary was exactly calculated to confirm, instead of refuting, the horrible suspicion which attached to her. A proclamation was in- deed made, offering a reward for the disco- very of the kind's murder ; but the people observed that tar more anxiety was dis- played to discover those who attnbuted that tKrrible deed to Bothwell and the queen. With a perfectly infatuated folly, the queen nei(lected even the external decencies which would have been expected from her, even had she been less closely connected in the Sublic eye with the supposed murderer, othwell. For the earl of Lenox, father of the murdered king, wrote a letter to the queen, in which, avoiding all accusation of the queen, he implored her justice upon those whom he plainly charged with the murder, namely, Both" '11, sir James Bal- four and his brother Gilbert Balfour, Da- vid Chalmers, and four other persons of the queen's household ; but Mary, though she cited Lcnux to appear at court and support his charge, and so far seemed to entertain it, left the important fortress of Edinburgh in the bauds of Bothwell as governor, and of his creature Balfour as his deputy. A day for the trial of the charge made by Lenox was appointed ; and that nobleman, with a very small attendance, had already reached Stirling on his wav to Edinburgh, when his information of tne extraordinary countenance shown to Bothwell, and the vast power entrusted to him, inspired Le- nox with fears as to even his personal safety should he appear in Edinburgh ; he therefore sent Cunningham, one of his suite, to protest against so hurried an investiga- tion of this important affair, and to intreat Mary, for her own sake as well as for the sake of justice, to take tim$. and to make arrangements for a full and impartial trial, which obviously could not be had while Bothwell was not only at liberty, but in possession of exorbitant and overwhelming power. Not the slightest attention was paid to the manifestly just demand of Le- nox ; a jury was sworn, and as no prosecutor or witness was present, that jury could only acquit the accused — the verdict being accompanied by a protest, in which they stated the situation in which the very nature of the proceedings had placed them. But even had witnesses been present, their evidence could have availed little towards furthering the ends of justice, for, by a very evident wilfulness, those who drew the indictment had charged the crime a« having been committed on the tenth day of the month, while the evidence must have proved it to have been the ninth, and this significant circumstance increased the odium of both Mary and Bothwell. Two days after this shameful trial a parliament was held, and Bothwell, whose acquittal was such as must have convinced every im- partial man of his guiltiness, was actually chosen to carry the royal sceptre t Such indecent but unequivocal evidence of the lengths to which Mary was prepared to go in securing impunity to Bothwell, awed even those who most detested the proceedings ; and a bond of associatioa was signed, by which all the subscribers, con- sisting of all the chief nobility present at this parliament, referred to the acquittidof Bothwell as a legal and' complete one, en- gaged to defend him against all future im- putation of the murder of the late king, and recommended Mary to marry Bothwell 1 Degraded, indeed, by long and shameless faction must the nation nave been, when the chief of its nobles could insult public justice and public decency bv the publica- tion of such a document as this' I Having thus paved the way towards hia ultimate designs, Bothwell assembled a troop of eight liundred cavalry on pretence of pursuing some armed robbers who in- fested the borders, and waylaid Mary on her return from Stirling, where she had been paying a visit to her infant son. Mary was seized near Edinburgh ; but sir James Melvil, her attached and faithful servant who was with her at the time, not only confessed that he saw no surprize or un- willingness on her part, but adds, that some of Bothwell's officers openly laughed at the notion of seizure of Mary's person. A. A. 1667. — A BBBBLLION OF o'NBAL IN IBBLANO AOAIN BUrrBBaSBD. : BBTWiaif BNOLAHD AND BUSalA. lEnglantJ.— l^ouae of ^utror — lEU^abeti). 337 ct shown to Mary, her close imprisonment and unkind treat- ment, reflect no credit upon either Elizu- beili or her ministers ; but it must be re- membered that Mary, besides those verbal insults whicli wound women more painfully than the sword itself, greatly provoked the harsh feeling of Elizabeth by her perpetual readiness to lend her name and influence to plots involvinic the life as well as the crown of Elizabeth. It seems quite certain that, at the outset of the business, the main desire of both Elizabeth and her ministers was to place Mary in such a position that she would be unable practically to revoke her settlement of the crown upon her infant son, whose regency, being protestant, would have a common interest with England, instead of a temptation to aid France or 8|>ain to her annoyanrc. One scheme for this purpose was to Rive her in marriage to an English nobleman, and Elizabeth proposed the alli- ance to the duke of Norfolk, who bluntly replied, "That woman, madam, shall never be my wife who has been your competitor, and whose husband cannot sleep in secu- rity upon his pillow." Unfortunately for the duke, his practice was by no means governed by tlie sound sense of his theory, and he very soon afterwards consented to offer himself to Mary, in a letter, which was also signed by Arundel, Pembroke, and Leicester. Mary pleaded that "woeful ex- fierience had taught her to prefer a single ife," but she hinted pretty plainly that Elizabeth's consent might remove such re- luctance as she felt. Norfolk, through the bishop of Ross, kept up the correspondence with Mary. Elizabeth was from the very first sware of it, and she at length signifl- cantly quoted Norfolk's own words to nim, warning him to "beware on what pillow he should rest his head." Shortly after- wards the duke, for continuing the corres- pondence, was committed to the Tower. Leicester was pardoned for the share he had had in the original correspondence ; but there seemed so much danger that both Norfolk and the queen of Scots would be severely dealt with, that all the great catholic families of the north joined in a formidable insurrection. Mary, on the breaking out of this affair, was removed to Coventry ; but the contest was short ; the earl of Northumberland, who headed the revolt, was defeated and taken prisoner, and thrown into Lochlevin castle. His countess, with the earl of Westmoreland and some other fugitives, were safe among the Scotch borderers, who were able to protect them equally against the regent Murray and the emissaries uf Elizabeth. Upon the English of the northern counties who had been beguiled into this hopeless revolt, the vengeance of Elizabeth was ter- rible and extensive. The poor were handed over to the rigours of martial law, and it is afBrmed that iVom Newcastle to Netherby, in a district sixty miles long and forty miles wide, then was not a town or even a village which was not the scene ofexerution ! Tlic wealthier offenders wore reserved for the or- dinary course of condemnation by law.ithe- iug anticipated that their forfeitures would reimburse the queen the large sums which it had cost her to put down the revolt. A. D. 15/0. — The.vigour of the regent Mur- ray had kept the greater part of Scotland perfectly quiet, even while the norta of England was in arms' for Mary: and as among the numerous projects suggested to Elizabeth for safely ridding herself of Mary was that of delivering her up to ^Avrray, it is most probable that the Scottish queen would have been restored to her country and — though partially and under strong restric- tions—to her authority, but for the death of the regent. While amusing Mary with a va- riety of proposals which came to nothing, varied by sudden objections which had beeu contrived from the very first, Elizabeth's ministers were sedulously strengthening the hands and estabhshing the interests of their mistress in Scotland ; they, however, seem really to have intended the eventual restoration of Mary under the most favora- ble circumstances to England, when the enmity and suspicion of the English cabi- net against her, as a zealous papist, were made stronger than ever by the publication of a bull by Pius V., in which he insult- ingly spoke of Elizabeth's as a merely " pre- tended" right to the crown, and absolved all her subjects from their allegiance. Of this bull, insolent in itself and cruel towards Mary, several copies were published both in Scotland and iu England ; and a catholic gentleman, named Felton, whose zeal bade defiance alike to prudence and decency, was capitally punished for affixing a copy of this document to the gates of the bishop of Loudon. It must be clear that no sovereign could overlook such an invitation to rebellion and assassination. It would in anv state of society be likely to urge some gloomy and half insane fanatic to the crime of murder; though as to any national effect, even while the catholics were still so numerous, the papal bull had now become a mere bruUm fulmen. Liugnrd, even, the ablest calliolic historian, says, upon this very transaction, " If the pontiff promised himself any par- ticular benelit from this measure, the result must have disappointed his expectations. The time was gone by when the thunders of the Vatican '-3uld shake the thrones of princes. By foreign powers the bull was suffered to sleep in silence ; among the English catholics it served only to breed doubts, dissensions, and dismay. Many contended that it had been issued by in- competent authority ; others, that it could not bind the natives until it should be carried into actual execution by some fo- reign power : all agreed that it was, in their regard, an imprudent and cruel ex- pedient, which rendered them liable to the suspicion of disloyalty, and afforded their enemies a pretence to brand them with the name of traitors. To Elizabeth, however, though she affected to ridicule the sentence, it proved a source of considerable uneasiness and alarm. A, D. 1570. — ELIZAUFTU DINED WITH SIB T. ORBSUAU IN THE RXCHANOE. [2 6 UIR TBAB. H «J ;•: i ■ t ^ A. D. 1672.— BDKLIIOH BUCCBIDS TO TBB OmCB OF LOBD TKBASUBSa. 338 ^^e i^Treasari) of l^istors, ^(> The parliament, at once alarmed and in- dignant at the bull of Piu« V. very naturally laid some heavy restriction! upon the ca- tbolicx, who were feared to be ready at any moment to rise in favour of the queen of Scots and for the deposition of Ehcabeth, should Philip of Spain or his Kciieral Alva, Koveruor of the Netherlands, land a sufii- ciently numerous army of foreign papists in England. And these fears of the par- liament and the ministry had but too solid foundation. The duke of Norfolk from his confinement was constantly intriguing with Mary ; and that unhappy princess, wearied and g^oaded to desperation oy her continued imprisonment, and the constant failure of all attempts at gaining her liberty, even when she the most franKly and completely agreed to all that was demanded of her, sent Rudolplii, an Italian, who had her confldence, to solicit the co-operation of the pope, Philip of Spain, and Alva. Some letters from Norfolk to the latter person- age were intercepted by the English minis- try, and Norfolk was tried for treasonable leaguing with the queen's enemies, to the danger of her crown and dignity. Norfolk Srotested that his aim was solely to restore iary to her own crown of Scotland, and that detriment to the authority of Elizabeth he had never contemplated and would never have abetted. A. D. 1573. — His defence availed him no- thing; he was found g^iiltv by his peers and condemned to death. Even then the queen hesitated to carry the sentence into e£fect against the premier duke of England, who was, also, her own relative. Twice she was induced by the ministers to sign the warrant, and twice she revoked it. This state of hesitation lasted for four months. - At the end of (hat time the parliament pre- sented an address strongly calling upon her to make an example of the duke, to which she at length consented, and Norfolk was beheaded; dying with great courage and constancy, and still protesting that he had no ill design towards his own queen in iiis desire to aid the unhappy queen of Scots. We are inclined to believe that the duke was sincere on this head ; but certainly his judgment did not equal his sincerity; for how could he expect to overturn the vast Sower of EUzabeth, so far as to re-establish Iary on the throne, but by such civil and international fighting as must have perilled Elizabeth's throne, wiJ, most probably, would have led to the sacrifice of her life. Burleigh, devoted to the glory of his royal mistress and to the welfare of her people, aud plainly perceiving that the ca- tholics, both at home and abroad, would either find or feign a motive to mischief in the detention of the queen of Scots, reso- lutely advised tbdt that unhappy queen should be violently dealt with, us being at tlie bottom of all schemes and attempts against the peace of England. But Eli- sabeth was not even yet — would that she had never been ! — so far irritated or alarmed as to consent to aught more than the de- tention of Mary ; and to all the suggestions of Burleigh she contented herself with re- plying, with a touch of that poetic feeling which even intrigues of state never wholly banished from her mind, that " she could not put to death the bird that, to escape the lure of the hawk, had flown to her feet for protection." Burleigh was aided in hi* endeavours against Mary by the parliament ; but Eli- zabeth, though both ner anxiety and her anger daily grew stronger, personally inter- fered to prevent a bill of attainder against Mary, and even another bill which merely went to exclude her from the succession. Towards the friends of Mary, Elizabeth was less merciful. The earl of Northum- berland was delivered by Morton — who had succeeded Lenox in the Scotch regency — into the hands of the English ministers ; aud that chivalrous and unfortunate noble- man was beheaded at York. The state of France at this time was such from the fierce enmity of the catholics to the Uugueiiotf or protcstants, as to give serious uneasiness to Elizabeth. The aeep enmity of Charles IX. of France towards the leaders of his protestant subjects was disguised, indeed, oy the most artful ca- resses bestowed upon Coligni, the king of Navarre, and other leading Huguenots : l)ut circumstances occurred to show that the king of France not only detested those per- sonages and their French followers, but that nc would gladly seize any good oppor- tunity to aid Philip of Spain in the destruc- tion, if possible, ot the protestant power of England. The perfidious Charles, in order to plunge the Huguenots into the more profoundly fatal security, offered to give his sister Mar- garet in marriage to the prince of Navarre; and Coligni, with other leaders of the Hu- guenot party, ai'rived in Faris,to celebrate a marriage which promised so much towards the reconciliation of the two parties. But so far was peace from being the real meini- ing of the court of France, that the qiu'en of Navarre was poisoned. This suspici- ously sudden death, however, of so eminent a person did not arouse the doomed Coligni and the other protestants to a sense of their real situation. The marriage was con- cluded; and but a few days after, on the eve of St. Bartholomew, the designs of Charles IX., or, more strictly speaking of his execrable mother, burst forth. The venerable Coligni, was murdered almost by the king's side ; men, women, and children alike were butchered by the king's troops, so that in Paris alone about five hundred persons of rank and above ten thousand of the lower order are known to have perished in this most sanguinary and cowardly afiair. Ordeifs were at the same time sent to Rouen, Lyons, and other great towns of France, where the same detestable butcheries were committed on a propurtionably large scale. The king of Navarre and the prince of Cond^ narrowly escaped. The duke of Guise advised their destruction, but the king had contracted so much personal affection for them as he could feci for any one but the A. S. 1673. — MANY FRINCH PBOTXSTAMTS TAKE BBVtrOK IN ENGLAND. ■ASUBXB. 1 herieir with re- lat poetic feeling tate never wholly that "she could d that, to escape flown to her feet hi« endeavours iament; but Eli- anxiety and her personally inter- attainder against lill which merely the succession. Mary, Elisabeth larl of Northum- tforton— who had Scotch regency — nglish ministers; nfortunate noble- k. his time was such ' the catholics to itants, as to give abeth. The deep f France towards tant subjects was c most artful ca- ligni, the kins of { Huguenots :l)ut o show that the etested those per- ch followers, but s any good oppor- tin in the destruc- 'otestant power of in order to plunee more profoundly ive his sister Mnr- irince of Navarre; eaders of the Uu- 'arig,to celebrate a so much towards two parties. But ng the real mean- e, that the queen 1. This suspici- ver, of so eminent le doomed Coligni ts to a sense of marriage was con- ays after, on the , the designs of 'ictly speaking of urst forth. The irdered almost by nen, and children the king's troops, lOut live hundred I ten thousand of I to have perished id cowardly affair, ue sent to Rouen, towns of France, J butcheries wore nably large scale, nd the prince of Che duke of Guise but the king bad >nal affection for any one but the — — ^_____ NOLAND. A.D. 1576.--TIIB HABI. Or ■SBBX ArtOIMTBIl ■A»L-M*aSUAl. OF IBBLAND. H M O h Ik H M M U H < H H a H ti M "I Ol h o n o o a «s ■< ICnglantf.— l^ouse of ^utfor.— 1Elt?a6ttl). 339 shc-wolf his mother, and he caused their lives to be spared on condition of their seeming conversion to pupery. The friglitfal uiassacre ol St. Uartholo- mcw could not but be greatlv alariuing as well as disgusting to Elizabeth. She could not but perceive, from a butchery so fright- ful and extensive, that there was among the catholic priuces of the continent a deter- mination to exterminate protestantism ; nor could she but feel that she, as the champion of that faith, was henceforth more conspicuously than ever marked out for destruction, could it be accomphshed cither by warfare or in the more dastardly way of private assassination. Charles IX. was himself conscious of the offence this atrocious massacre of his pro- testant subjects must necessarily k> " to Elizabeth, and he sent a Btrong apologj .» her through Fenclun, his ambassador. To us it has ever appeared tliat this apology did, in reality, only make the offence the blacker ; Charles- now calumniated the un- fortunate persons whom he had murdei-ed. He pretended that he had discovered, just as it was about to be carried into execution, a Huguenot conspiracy to oeize his person, and that it was as a necessary matter of self-defence that his catholic soldiery had acted. The single fact that orders for wholesale massacre were acted upon at distant provincial cities, as well as at Paris, would at once and for ever give the lie to this statement. Even Charles's own am- bassador confessed that he was ashamed alike of his country and of the apology which he was, by his offlce, compelled to make for so outrageous a crime. Uisoiiice, however, left him no choice, and he went to court. Here he found every one, male and female, attired in the deepest mourning, and bearing in their features the marks of profound grief and alarm. Nu one spoke to him, even, until he arrived at the throne, where the queen, who respected his per- sonal character, heard his apology with all the calmness that si e could muster. Eli- zabeth very plainly, in her reply, showed that she utterly disbelieved Charles's ca- lumny upon his protestant subjects, but she concluded that she should defer making up her mind upon the real feelings of Cnarles until she should see how he would act in future, and that in the mean time, as requested by his own ambassador, she would rather pity than blame him. The massacres in France, joined to thr Spanish massacres and persecutions in the Low Countries, and the favour into which Charles IX. now visibly took the Guises, made it evident to Elizabeth that nothing but opportunity was wanting to induce the French and Spaniards to unite for her de- struction, and she took all possible precau- tions. She fortilied Portsmouth, paid all requisite attention to her militia and fleet, and, while she renewed her open alliances with the German princes, she lent all the aid that she secretly could to the people of the Low Countries to assist them against their Spanish tyrants. A.D. 1579. — Bevond what we have just now said of the foreign poliey of Elizabeth we need not here say anything ; the events that took place, whether in Spain, the Ne- therlands, or France, falling properly under those heads. The attention of Eliieabeth, as to foreigners, was addressed chiefly to piding the protestants with secresy and with as rigid economy and stringent condi- tions as were consistent with eO^ctual aid ; and to keeping up such a constant demon- stration of vigour and a prepared position, as might intimidate catholic princes from any such direct hostilit}[ to her as would be likely to provoke her into openly encou- raging and assisting their malcontent sub- jects. This policy enabled Elizabeth to enjoy a I -profound peace during years which saw nearly all the rest of Europe plunged in war and misery. A. D. 1580.— The affairs of Scotland just at this time gave Elizabeth some uneasiness. During several years the regent Morton had kept that kingdom in the strictest amity. But the regent had of late wholly lost the favour of the turbulent nobles, and be found liiiuself under the necessity of giving in his resignation ; and the govern- ment was formally assumed by king James himself, though he was now only eleven vears of age. The count D'Aubigny, of the houHe of Lenox, was employed by the duke of Guise to decacn James from the inter- ests of Elizabeth, and to cause him to espouse those of his mother. Elizabeth endeavoured to support and reinstate Mor- ton, but D'Aubigny had now obtained so much influence with the king, that he was able to have Morton imprisoned and sub- sequently beheaded, as an accomplice in the murder of the late king. With Spain, too, Elizabeth's relations were at this period uneasjr and threatening. In revenge for the aid which he knew Eliza- beth to have given to his revolted subjects of the Netherlands, Philip of Spain sent a body of troops to aid her revolted subjects of Ireland; and her complaints of this in- terference were answered by a reference to the piracies committed by the celebrated admiral Drake, who was the first English- man who sailed round the world, and who obtained enormous booty from the Spa- niards in the New World. A.D. 1581. — The Jesuits, and the scholars generally of the continental seminaries which the king of Spain had established to compensate to the catholics for the loss of the universities of England, were so ob- viously and so intrusively hostile to the queen and the protestant faith, that some stringent laws against them and the ca- tholics generally were now passed. And let any who feel inclined to condemn the severity of those laws first reflect upon the continual alarm in which both the queen and her protestant subjects had been Kent, by the pernicious exertions of men who never seemed at a loss for a subtle casuistry to induce or to justify a brutal cruelty or an impudent sedition. A.D. 1577-— BI-I2ABETU ASSISTS TBB SUTCU AOAIHST THB KINO Or SrAIII. t'J A.S. 1684.— aiR WALTKH BALBIOU DISCOVKni k-l'. -i.Mr'. TinOIHSA. IH ! ( 340 ^i)c iirrcasuri) of l^istori; >c. Campion. • Jesuit who hud been sent over to explain to the catholics of England that they were not bound, in obedience to the bull of Pius V. to rebel until the pope should gite them a second and explicit order to that elTect— 1. 1. not until the state of England should by accident, or by Je- suitical practices, be placed in convenient confusion I— being detected in tniasonable practices directly opposed to his professed errand, was flrst racked and then executed. Elizabeth had formerW been addressed with offer* of marriage oy Alenfon, now duke of Anjou, brother to the late tyrant Charles IX. of France, and he now renewed his addresses through his agent Siraier, a man of great talent and most insinuating manners. The agent so well played his part in the negotiation that he excited the jealousy of the powerful and unprincipled Leicester, who offered him every possible opposition and insult. The queen, whom Simier informed of Leicester's marriage to the widow of the earl of Essex, formally took Simier under her especial protection, and ordered Leicester to confine himself at Greenwich. Simier so well advocated the cause of Anjou, that Elisabeth went so far as to in- vite that prince to England; and after making stipulations for the aid of France, should the interests of Anjou in the Nether- lands involve her in a quarrel with Philip of Spain, Elizabeth, in presence of her whole court and the foreign ambassadors, placed a ring on Anjou's finger, and dis- tinctly said that she did so in token of her intention to become his wife. As she was now nine-and-forty years of age, and might be supposed to have outlived all the youth- ful fickleness imputed to her sex, and as she gave orders to the bishops to regulate the forms of the marriage, every one sup- posed that it was certain. Despatches were sent to notify the approaching event abroad, and in many parts of England it was anti- cipatively celebrated by public holiday and rejoicing. But the marriage of Elizabeth to Anjou was looked upon with great dislike by the leading men of the English court. The duke, as a catholic and a member of a most persecuting family, could not but be viewed with fear and suspicion by sound statesmen like Walsingham and Hatton ; while Lei- cester, conscious that with the queen's marriage his own vast power and influence would end, heartily wished her not to marry at all. These courtiers employed her favour- ite ladies to stimulate her pride by hinting the probability of her husband, instead of herself, becoming the first personage in her dominions ; and to appeal to her fears by suggesting the dangers to which she would be exposed should she have children ; the latter, surely, a danger not very probable at her time of life. However, the courtiers* artifices were fully succesful. Even while the state messengers were on tlieir way to foreign courts with the news of the queen's approaching marriage, she sent for Anjou, and told him, with tears and protestations of regret, that her people were so m\ich prejudiced against her union with him, that though her own happiness must needs be sacrificed she bad resolved to consult the happiness of her people, and therefore could not marry him. The duke on leaving her Eresence threw away the costly ring she ad given him, and declared tli^t English- women were as capricious as th' waves that surround their island. He to- n after de- parted, and being driven fron- Uelgium to France, died there ; deeply und sincerely regreted by Elizabeth. s. D. 168-1. — Several attempts having been made to raise new troubles in England in favour of the queen of Scots, the ministers of Elizabeth made every exertion to detect the conspirators. Henry Piercy, earl of Northumoerland, brother to that earl who was some time before beheaded for his connection with Mary's cause ; Howard, earl of Arundel, son of the duke of Norfolk, that princess's late suitor; lord Paget and Charles Arundel ; and Francis Tlirogmor- ton, a private gentleman, were implicated. Most of them escaped, but Throgmorton was executed. Mendoza, the Spanish am- bassador, who had been the prime mover of this plot, was sent home in disgrace. Some farther proofs of a widely spread and dangerous conspiracy having been dis- covered in some papers seized ujpon Creigh- ton, a Scotch Jesuit, the EnKlisn ministers, who found Mary connected with all these attempts, removed her from the custody of the earl of Shrewsbury, who seemed not to have been sufficiently watchful of her conduct, and committed her to that of sir Amias Paulet and sir Drue Drury, men of character and humanity, but too much de- voted to Elizabeth to allow any unreason- able freedom to their prisoner. Farther laws were at tlie same time passed against Jesuits and popish priests, and a council was named by act of parlia- ment with power to govern the kingdom, settle the succession, and avenge the queen's death, should that occur by vio- lence. A subsidy and two fifteenths were likewise granted to the queen. During this session of parliament a new conspiracy was discovered, which greatly increased the general animosity to the catholics, and proportionally increased the attachment of the parliament to the queen, and their anxiety to shield her from the dangers by which she seemed to be perpe- tually surrounded. A catholic gentleman named Parry, who had made himself so conspicuous in the house of commons by bis intemperate opposition to a bill for re- straining the seditious practices of Romish priests, that he was committed to the cus- tody of the seijea'nt-at-arms and only libe- rated by the clemency of the queen, was now, in but little less than six weeks, charged with high treason. This man had been employed as a secret agent by lord Bur- leigh, but not deeming himself sufficiently well treated he went to Italy, where he seems to have deeply intrigued with both the papal party at Rome and the ministers A. D. 1584. — XUHANCII. COLLBGB, CAMBRIOGR, rOUNDED BY SIB W. MILOMAT. inaiNkA. le were lo much on with him, thiit ;s must needs be id to consult the id therefore could le ou leaving her : costly ring she red tli'\t English' as th' waves that [e sovn after de- from Uelgium to Ijr and BiDcereljr mpts having been es in England in )ts, the ministers ixertion to detect ■ Piercy, earl of to that earl who leheaded for his cause; Howard, ! duke of Norfolk, ", lord Paget and ancis Throgmor- were implicated, ut Throgmorton the Spanish am- the prime mover ime in disgrace, ridely spread and iving been dis. zed upon Creigh- nglish ministers, id with all these m the custody of A'ho seemed not watchful of her ler to that of sir e Drury, men of lut too much de- w any unreason- ner. tlie same time popish priests, >y act of parlia- n the kingdom, ni avenge the t occur by vio- fifteenths were len. rliament a new which greatly mosity to the ly increased the nt to the queen, d her from the led to be perpe- lolic gentleman tade himself so of commons by to a bill for re- tices of Romish tted to the cus- B and only libe- ihe queen, was nan six weeks. This man had ent by lord Bur- self sufficiently taly, where he sued with both d the ministers MII.DMAT. A. D. 1686.— COACIB* ViaST IDTaoDOCBO AND VSKD IH IIISLAIID THIS XBAa. lEnglantl l^ousc of ^nDor — ^lEU^abttJ^. 341 of his own sovereign at home. Having pro- cured from the Hoioish authorities a warm sanction of his professed design of killing queen Elisabeth with his own hand, this sanction he hastened to communicate to Eli- sabeth, and being refused a pension he re- turned to his old vocation of a spy, and waa employed to watch the poniicious Jesuit Persons, in conjunction with Nevil. Though actually in the service of the government, both Nevil and Parry were men of despe- rate fortune, and their discontent at length grew so desperate that they agreed to shoot the queen when she should be out riding. The earl of Westmoreland, under sentence of exile, chanced to die just at this period, and Nevil, who, though a salaried »py, waa ilso in exile in Normandy, thought it very likely that he, as next heir to the deceased earl, would recover the family estate and title by revealing the plot to which he was a party. Nevil's revelations to the govern- ment were contirmcd by Parry's own con- fession, and the latter, a double traitor,— alike traitor to his native land and to hia foreign spiritual sovereign,— was very de- servedly executed. A Heet of twenty sail under admiral sir Francis Drake, with a land force of two thousand three hundred volunteers under Christopher Carlisle, did. the Spaniards immense mischief this year, taking St. Jago, near Cape Verd, where they got good store of provision, but little money; St. Domingo, where they made the inhabitants save their houses by the payment of a large sum of money; and Carthagena, which they similarly held to ransom. On the coast of Florida they burned the towns of St. Anthony and St. Helen's ; and thence they went to the coast of Virginia, where they found the miserable remuaut of the colony so long before planted there by sir Walter Raleigh. The poor colonists were at this time reduced to utter misery and despair by long continued ill success, and glaaly abandoned their settlements and re- turned home on board Drake's fleet. The enormous wealth tlrnt was broueht home by that gallant commander, ana the ac- counts given by his men of both the richea and the weakness of the Spaniards, made the notion o( piracv upon the Spanish main extremely popular, and caused much evil energy to be employed in that direc- tion, which -.Yould otherwise have been of serious annoyance to the government at home. Meanwhile the earl of Leicester, who had been sent to Holland in command of the English auxiliary forces to aid the states against Spain, proved himself to be unfit for any extensive military power. Hia retinue was princely in splendour, and hi* courtly maniierB and intriguing spirit caused him to be named captain-general of the United Provinces, and to have the guards and honours of a sovereign prince. But here hiis achievements, which gave deep offence to Elizabeth, began to diminish in brilliancy. Though nobly aided by his ne- phew, air Philip Sidney, one of the most gallant and accomplished gentlemen who have ever done honour to Enelaud, he waa decidedly inferior to the task of opposing so accomplished a general a* the prince of Parma. He succeeded in the Urst instance in repulsing the Spaniards and throwing succour* into Grave ; but the cowardice or treachery of Van Uemert — who was after- ward* put to death pursuant to the ten- tence of a court martial — betrayed the Elace to the Spaniard*. Venlo wa* taken y the prince of Parma, a* waa Nuys, and the prince then sat down before Rhimberg, To araw the prince from before this last named place, which was garrisoned by twelve hundred men and well provided with stores, and upon which, consequently, Lei- cester should have allowed the prince to have wasted his strength and the* have brought him to action, Leicester laid siege to Zutphen. The prince thought thi* place far too important to be allowed to fall into the hands of the Englibh, and he hastened to its aid, sending an advanced guard under tlie marquis of Cuesto to throw re- lief into the fortress. A body of English cavalry fell in with thi* advance, and a gal- lant action commenced, in which the Spa- niards were completely routed, with the loss of the marquis of Gonzago, an Italian noble of great militarv reputation and ability. In this action, however, the Eng- lish were so unfortunate as to lose the noble sir Philip Sidney, whose accomplish- ments, humauity, and love of literature made him the idol of the great writers of the age. The humauity which had marked his whole life was conspicuous even in the last sad scene of his death. Dreadfully wounded, and tortured with a raging thirst, he was about to have a bottle of water ap- plied to bis parched lips, when he caught the eyes of a poor private soldier who lay near him in the like fevered state, and wo* looking at the bottle with the eager envy which only the wounded soldier and the desart wanderer can know. " Give him the water," said the dying hero, " hia ne- cessity is still greater than mine." While Leicester was barely keeping ground against Spain in the Netherlands, and Drake was astounding and ruining the Spaniards in various parts of the New World, Elizabeth was cautiously securing herself on the side of Scotland. Having obtained James's alliance by a dexterous admixture of espionage and more open conduct, Elizabeth felt that she had but little to fear from foreign invasions ; it be- ing stipulated in their league "that if Eli- zabeth were invaded, James should aid her with a body of two thousand horse and five thousand foot ; that Elizabeth, in the like -case, should send to his assistance three thousand hone and aix thousand foot; that the charge of these armies should be defrayed by the prince who demanded as- sistance; that if the invasion should be made upon England, within sixty miles of the frontiers of Scotland, this latter king- dom should march its whole force to the assistance of the former: and that the A.D. 1585.— LICKNCS OBANTBO «0 LORDOR HBHCHANTS tO TBADB TO BABBABY. [2 6 3 i cessary, the foreign papists, and still more the English seminary at Rheims, had be- come wrought up to so violent a fury, that nothing short of the assassination of Eli- zabeth was now deemed worthy their con- templation. John Ballard, a priest of the seminarjr at Rheims, having been engaged in noticing and stirring up the fanatical zeal of the catholics of England and Scotland, pro- posed, on his return to Rheims, the attempt to dethrone Flizabeth and to re-establish papacy in England, an enternrize u aich he pretended to think practicable, and that, too, without any extraordinary difficulty. At I early the same time a desperate and gluoray fanatic, John Savage, who had served for several years under the prince of Parma in the Low Countries, and who was celebrated for a most indomitable resolu- tion, offered to assassinate Elizabeth with his own hands. As that deed would greatly facilitate the proposed revolution in Eng- land, the priests of Rheims, who had long preached up the virtuous and lawful cha- racter of the assassination of heretical sovereigns, was encouraged in his design, which lie vowed to pursue, and the more fanatical catholics of England were in- structed to lend him all possible aid. Sa- vage was speedily followed to England by Ballard, who took the name of captain For- tescue, and busied himself night and day in preparing means to avail himself of the awe and confusion in which the nation could not fail to be plunged by the success of the attempt which he doubted not that Savage would speedily make. Anthony Babington, a Derbyshire gen- tleman, had long been known to the initi- ated abroad as a bigoted catholic and as a romantic lover of the imprisoned queen of Scots. To this gentleman, who had the firoperty and station requisite to render lim useful to the conspirators, Ballard ad- dressed himself. To restore the catholic religion and place Mary on the throne of England, Babington considered an enter- prize that fully warranted the murder of Elizabeth ; but he objected to entrusting the execution of so important a preliminary to the proposed revolution to one hand. The sliglitest nervousness or error of that one man, Uabingtnn truly remorked, would probably involve the lives or fortunes of all the chief catholics in England. He pro- posed, therefore, that tlve others shiuld be joined to Savage in tho charge of the assas- sination. So desperate was the villany of Savage, that he was so angry at this pro- posed division of a cruel and cowardly trea- son, that it was only with some difficulty that his priestly colleague induced him to share what the wretch impiously termed the "glory" of the deed, with Barnwell, Charuock, Tilney, and Tichbome ; all of them gentlemen of station, character, and wealth; and Babington, also a man of wealth, character and station, which he owed to the former service of his father aa cofferer to the very queen whom it was now proposed to slay I Such is that terrible/ons eriminia, fanaticism i It was determined that at the very same hour at which Savage and his coUeagu/'s should assaiisinate Elizabeth, the queen i>f Scots should be out riding, when Babing- ton, with Edward, brother of lord 'Win Jsor, and several other gentleman, at the head of a hundred horse, should attack her guards and escort her to London, where she would be proclaimed amid the accla- mations of the conspirators and, doubtless, all catholics who should see her. That this hellish plot would have suc- ceeded there can be little doubt, but for the watchful eye of Walsingham, which had from the first been upon Ballard ; and while that person was busily plotting a revolution which, commencing with the assassination of the queen, would almost infallibly have ended with a general masven made about any of them being present in her last momenta. This really harsh re- fusal roused her to a degree of anger she had not previously shown, and she indig- nantly said tr the earls, "I know that your mistress, being a maiden queen, would vouchsafe, in regard of womanhood, that I should have some of luy own people about me at my death. I know that her majesty hath not given you any such strict com- mand but that you might grant me are- quest of far greater courtesy, even though I were a woman of inferior rank to that whicli I bear. I am cousin to your queen, and desrpiided from the blood roval of Henry VIII., and a married queen of' France, and an anomted queen of Scotlan'!.' This remonatranef l>:iJ due effect, and she was allowed to select four of her male and two of her female servants to attend her to the scaffold ; her steward, physician, apothecary and surgeon, with her maids Curie and Kennedy. Thus attended, she was led into an ad- joining hall, in which was a crowd of spec- tators, and the scaffold, covered with black cloth. The warrant having been read, the dean of Peterborough stepped forward and addressed her in exhortation to repentance of her sins, acknowledgment of the justice of her sentence, and reliance for mercy and salvation only upon the mediation and merits of Christ. During the dean's ad- dress Mary several times endeavoured to interrupt him, and at the conclusion she said, "Trouble not yourself any more about the matter, for I was born in this religion, I have lived in this religion, and I will die in this religion." She now ascended the scaffold, saying to Paulet, who lent her his arm, " I thank you, sir ; it is the last trouble I shall give you, and the most acceptable service that you have ever rendered me." The queen of Scots now, in a firm voice, told the persons as- sembled that " She would have them recol- lect that she was a sovereign princess, not subject to the parliament of England, but brought there to suffer by violence and in- justice. She thanked God for having given her this opportunity to make public pro- fession of her faith, and to declare, as she often before had declared, that she had never imagined, nor compassed, nor con- sented to the death of the English queen, nor even sought the least harm to her per- son. After her death many things, which were then buried in darkness, would come to light. But she pardoned, from her heart, all her enemies, nor should her tongue utter that which might chance to prejudice them." At a sign from the earls the weeping maid servants now advanced to disrobe their mistress. The executioners, in their sordid fear lest they should thus lose their perquisites, the rich att re of the queen, hastily interfered. Mary blushed and drew back, observing that she l\ad not been ac- customed to undress before such an audi- ence, or to be served by such valets. But as no interference was made by the earls she submitted j her n^ck was bared ; her maid Kennedv "-/Hined a handkerchief, edged with gold, over her eyes ; and an executioner, taking hold ot each of her arms, led her to the block, upon which she lai.' lier aead, saying audibly, an ' in firm tonr-i, " Into thy hands, O God, T .:oinmend iny spirit." The executioner now advanced, but wm so completely unnerved thnt his first blow missed the neck, deeply wounding the skull ; a second was likewise ineffectual ; at the third the head vvas severed from the body. The unhappy lady evidently died in intense agony, for when he exhibited the head to the spectators, the muscles of the face were so distorted that the features could scarcely be recognised. When the executioner, ou exhibiting the head, cried "God pave queen Elizabeth," the dean of Peterboroujfh replied, "And so perish all her enemies;'' to which the earl W. KI.KKTWOOD, AN KMINSNT I.AWYBU AND ANTIQUARIAN, DIED IN 1593. I iir 1577' ith her maida ed into an ad- crowd of spec- red with black been read, the '.A forward and to repentance : of the justice ice for mercy mediation and :he dean's ad- ndeavoured to ;onclu8ion she ny more about t this religion, and I will die fold, saying to " I thank you, II give you, and that you have ueen of Scots le persons as- ve thein recol- 1 princess, not England, but olencti and in- r having given le public pro- ieclare, as she that she had !sed, nor con- i^ngiish queen, rra to her per- tliings, which i, would come •oni her heart, her tongue e to prejudice the weeping d to disrobe iners, in their bus lose their )f the queen, bed and drew not been ac- luch an audi- . valets. But by the earls s bared ; her ercliief, edged a executioner, lis, led her to li.' her iiead, i'->," Into thy spirit." >ced, but ,vas " is first blow ingthe skull; :tual; at the om the body, led in intense 1 the head to the face were ;ould scarcely xhibiting the Elizabeth," ied, "And so liich the earl « 1593. TOOMAS TUSSBB, A FBACTICJIL FARMER AMD BUBAL FOBT, OIBD IN 15S0. lEnglantr.— 1|ouse of SCutJor.— 1£U?a6et^. 345 of Kent added, " So perish all the enemies of the gospel." The body was on the following day em- balmed and buried in Peterborough cathe- dral, whence, in the next reign, it was re- moved to Westminster abbey. CHAPTER XLVII. The Reign of Elizabeth feontinueilj. A. V. 158'.— The tragical scene we have just described must have convinced even the most devoted of Elizabeth's subjects that their "virgin queen" was not over abundantly blessed with the "godlike qua- lity of mercy," whatever opinion they might entertain of Mary's participation in the crime for which she suffered. But there are many circumstances connected with the history of this period which maybe pleaded in extenuation of conduct that in less criti- cal times could only be viewed with unal- loyed abhorrence and disgust. The massa- cre of St. Bartholomew was still fresh in the recollection of every one, and the bigot- ed zeal which the queen of Scots ever dis- played in favour of the catholics, whose as- cendancy in England she araently desired, ..^ave n mournful presage of what was to be expected by the protestant population should their opponents succeed in their desiierate machinations. Neither must we disregard the assertion, so often made and never disproved, that when Elizabetli sign- ed the warrant of execution, she not only did so with much apparent reluctance, but placed it in the hands of Davison, her pri- vate secretary, expressly charging him not to use it without further orders. Vr'liat- ever, indeed, may have been her secret wishes, or her real intentions, her subse- quent behaviour had the semblance of un- feigned sorrow. Could it be proved to have been otherwise, no one would deny that her conduct throughout was characterized by unparalleled hypocrisy — a profound dis- finulation written in characters of blood. Elizabeth, in fact, did what she could to throw off the odium that this sanguinary transaction had cast vipnn her. She wrote to the king of Scotland in terms of the deepest regret, declaring that the warrant she had been induced to eign was to have lain dormant, and, in proof of her sincerity, she imprisoned Davison, and fined him in the sum of 10. JflO^ which reduced him to a stale not far removed from actual beggary. One of tb ; most memorable events in English histrry was now near at hand j one which called for all the energy and patri- otic devol'on that a brave and independent people were capable of making ; and con- sequently, every minor consideration van- ished at its approach. This was the pro- jected invasion of our island by Philip of Spain. This monarch, disappointed in his hopes of marrying Elizabeth, returned the queen her collar of the giirter, and from that time the most irreconcilable jealousy appears to have existed between tliein. In all the ports throughout his extensive do- minions the note of preparation was heard. and the most powerful navy that ever had been collected was now at his disposal. An army of 5U,000 men were also assem- bled, under experienced generals, and the command of the whole was given to the celebrated duke of Parma. The catholics on the continent were in an ecstasy of de- light; the pope bestowed his benediction on an expedition that seemed destined once more to restore the supremacy of the holy see, and it was unanimously hailed by all who wished it success as the invincible ar- mada. To repel this mighty array, no means within the reach of Elizabeth and her able ministers were forgotten, nor could any thing exceed the enthusiastic couraged this spirit, but declared her trea- sury was too poor to sustain the expenses of a war. An association was soon formed by the people, and an army of 21,(K)0 men, under the command of Norris and Drake, sailed from Plymouth to avenge the insult offered to England by Philip of Spain. The young earl of Essex, without consulting the pleasure of his sovereign, made a pri- vate journey to Plymouth, and joined the expedition. No sooner was the queen made acquainted with his absence, than she dis- patched the lord Huntingdon to bring the .'ugitive to her feet; but he had already sailed. It was the queen's order that the arma- ment should first proceed to Portugal, and endeavour to join the army of Don Antonio, who contended with Philip for the pos- session of the throne of Portugal; but Drake would not be restrained by instruction, and he proceeded to Corunna, where he lost a number of men, without obtaining the slightest advantage. In Portugal they were scarcely more successful; but at their re- turn iheir losses were concealed, their ad- vantages maguilied, and the public were HBtistied that the pride of Spain had been humbled. Elizabeth might probably have expected that the death of the queen of Scots would put an end to conspiracies against her life ; but plots were still as rife as ever : nor can we feel surprise that it should be so, consi- dering that Elizabeth, as well a:', Philip of Spain, employed a 'great number of spies, who, being men of ruined fortunes and bad principles, betrayed the secretj of either party as their own interests led them; and sometim<'« were the fabri!;atovi5 of alarming reports to enhance the value of their ser- vices. England ».nd France were liow iii al!'- ance, and the French king fi>Ued for En'f- lish aid in an t.ttack upon ijpain, hut Uie queen had begun to repent of the sums she had already advanced to Henry, and de- manded Calais as a security for her futuro assistonce; for the preparations on '' o pen- insula alarmed her majesty, lest Philip should make a second attempt to invadf; England. At length the English council adopted a measure proposed by the lord admiral, Howard of Effingham, to send out an expedition that shoiud anticipate the design of the enemy, and destroy his ports and shippiBg : Essex had the command of the land forces, an^ Howard that of the navy. When Cadiz, the ci. opinion as to vhe litness of that step, which ended in the possession of the city and fleet, from which the troops returned with glory for their bravery, and with honour for their huroanit'-, as no blood had been wan- tonly spilt, hl I' any cli'-honouraijle act com- mitted. Though EsKiY had been the lead- ing conqueror at Cauiivi, the victory was re- English troops entered ■' ot war was divided in ported as chiefly attributable to sir Walter Haleigh, and to have been in itself a cheap and easy conquest. A. D. 1591. — The maritime war with Spain, notwithstanding the cautious temper of the queen, was strenuously waged at this time, and produced some striking indications of the rising spirit of the English navy. A squadron, under lord Thomas Howard, which had been waiting six months at the Azores to intercept the homeward-bound ships lirom Spanisn America, was there sur- prised by the enemy's fleet, which had been sent out for their convoy. The Enghsh admiral, who had a much smaller force, put to sea in all haste, and got clear ofl; with the exception of one ship, the Revenge, the captain of which had the temerity to confront the whole Spanish fleet of flfty-six sail rather than strike his colours. It was however a piece of bravery as needless as it was desperate ; for after his crew had dis- played prodigies of valour, and beaten off fifteen boarding parties, his ammunition bein^ gone and the whole of his men killed or disabled, the gallant commander was compelled to strike his flag, and soon after died of his wounds on board the Spanish admiral's ship. A. D. 1593. — In those days, when an Eng- lish sovereign required money, and then only, the services of a parliament were call- ed for; and Elizabeth was now under the necessity of summoning one. But she could ill brook any opposition to her will; and fearing that the present state of herfinances might embolden some of the members to treat her mandates with less deference than formerly, she wax induced to assume a more haughty and menacing style than was habi- tual to her. In answer to the three cus- tomary requests made by the speaker, for liberty of speech, freedom from arrests, and access to her person, she replied by her lord kef per, that such liberty of speech as the coiumons were justly called to — liberty, namely, of aye and no, she was willing to grant, but b*. no means a liberty for every one to speaK what he listed. And if any idle heads should be found careless enough for their own safety to attempt innovations in the state, or reforms in the church, she laid her injunctions on the speaker to re- fuse the bills offered for such purposes till they should have been examined by those who were better qualified to judge of these matters.' But language, however imperious cr scornful, was insutlicient to restram some attempts on the part of the commons to exeroise their known rights and fulfil their duty to the country. Peter Wentworth, u member whose courageous and independ- ent spirit had already drawn upon him re- peated manifestations of the royal displea- sure, presented to the lord keeper a peti- tion, praying that the upper house would join with the lower in a supplication to the queen for fixing the succession. Elizabeth, enraged at the oare mention of a subject so offensive to her, instantly committed Went- worth, sir Thomas Bromley, who seconded him, and two other members, to the Fleet A.D. 15S0. — SAW.ll.'iTH FIBST WOVEN IN ENGLAND FOU THK USE OF THE NAVY. ,'.• r if ■■ i i Aiil i!«' (i ii ilii' A.D. 1693.— WUALBBOIIB FIBSt BttOUOUT TO ENGLAND FROM CAFB BRSTON. 348 tlL^t treasure of l^iatorw, $cc. prison ; and such was the general dread of offended majesty, that the house was afraid to petition her for their release. A. B. 1S96. — Essex, whose vanity was on a par with his impetuosity, had now at..-.e fur idle gos- .sip and conjecture: the friends of Essex urged him to lose no time in returning to his attendance at court and soliciting her majesty's forgivenc-ss. This, however, he could not be prevailed on to do: but, like like many other quarrels among individuals of a humbler grade, it was at I'.'iigth patch- ed up, and the reconciliation appeared to the superficial observer as perfect, as it was, in all probabilitv, hollow and iiiKinoerc. Essex had long thirsted fur military dis- tlncti M, and tioit often vehemently argued with huvleigh tli;,!. tlinniiht tlu' A.D. 1S90. — UOWARD ANn RSSHX TAKB AND FI.UNOIiR VUK CITV 01' CAniZ. ■ s A.D. 1597.'-I!' CADIZ, troubled waters were at rest: his vanity favoured the notion, and self-gratulation followed as a matter of course ; but he soon found that the tempest was only hushed for the moment, for at night he found him- self a prisoner in his own house by the peremptory orders of Elizabeth. Heart- sick and confounded, a severe illness was the quick result of this proceedinf; ; and for a brief interval the queen not only shewed S( me signs of pity, but administered to his Comfort. A warrant was, however, soon afterwards made out for his committal to the Tower, and though it was not carried into effect, yet his chance of liberty seemed too remote for prudence to calculate on. But the fiery temper of Essex had no alloy of prudence in it: he s;ave way to his na- tural violence, spoke of tlie queen in peevish and disrespectful terms, and, among other things, said, " she was grown an old woman, and was become as crooked in her mind as in her body." A. D. 16U0.— Shortly after his disgrace, Essex wrote to James of Scotland, inform- ing him that the faction who ruled the court were in league to deprive him of his right to the throne of England, in favour of the infanta of Spain ; and he offered his services to extort from Elizabeth an ac- knowledgment of his claims. It appears, indeed, from concurrent testimony, that the conduct of Essex had now become highly traitorous, and that he was secretly collect- ing together a party to aid him in some enterprize dangerous to the ruling power. But his plans were frustrated by the acti- vity of ministers, who had received infor- mation that the grand object of the conspi- rators was I) seize the queen's person and take possession of the Tower. A council was called, and Essex was commanded to attend ; but he refused, asseml.'led his friends, and fortiticd Essex-house, in which he had previously secreted hired soldiers. Four of the privy council being sent thither to enquire into the reason of his conduct, he imprisoned them, and sallied out into the city; but he failed in his attempt to excite the pcoulo in his favour, and on re- turning to his house, he and his friend the earl of Southampton were with some diffi- culty made prisoners, and after having been tirst taken to Lambeth palace, were com- mitted to the Tower. A. D. 1601. — The rash and anpiring Essex now only begged that he might have a fair trial, still calculating ou the influence of the queen to protect him in the hour of his ut- most need. Proceedings were commenced against hint iiistanter; his errors during his administration in Ireland were repre- sented in the most odious colours ; the un- dutif'ul expressions he had used in some of his letters were greatly exaggerated; and his recent treasonable attempt was dwelt on as calling for the exercise of the utmost seventy of the law. His condemnation fol- lowed; judgment was pronounced against him, and against his friend, the earl of Southampton. TMs nobleman was, how- ever, spared ; but Essex was conducted to the fatal block, where lu met his death with great fortitude, beint; at the time only in the thirty-fourth year of his age. His most active accomplices were Cuff, his secretary, Merrick, his steward, sir Chris- topher Blount, his father-in-law, and sir Robert Davers, who were executed come few days after. The parliamentary proceedings of this year were more elaborate than before, par- ticularly as regarded the financial state of the country. It was stated that the whole of the last subsidies amounted to no more than I60,000{., while the expence of the Irish war alone was 300,000/. On this occa- sion it was observed by sir Walter Raleigh, that the estates of the nobility and gentry, which were charged at thirty or forty pounds in the queen's books, were not charged at a hundredth part of their real value. He also moved, that as scarcely any justices of the peace were rated above eight or ten pounds a-year, they might be ad- vanced to twenty pounds at least, which was the qualification required by the sta- tute for a justice of peace : but the com- mons declined to alter the rate of taxation and leave themselves liable to be taxed at the rack-rent. Monopolies upon various branches of trade were next brought under consideration ; and as they were generally oppressive and unjust, (some obtained by purchase and others given to favourites) many animated discussions followed, which ended in a motion, that the monopolies should be revoked, and the patentees pu- nished for their extortions. Of course there were members present who were venal enough to defend this iniquitous mode of enriching certain individuals at the expense of the public. A long list of the monopo- lizing patents being, however, read— among which was one on salt, an article that had been thus raised from fourteenpeiice to fourteen shillings a bushel — a member in- dignantly demanded whether there was not a patent also for making bread ; at which quebtion some courtiers expressing their resentment, he replied that if bread 'verc not already among the patented luxuries, it would soon become one unless a stop was put to such enormities. That the argu- ments of the speakers were not lost upon the qutcn seems certain ; for although she took no notice of the debates, she sent a mes- sage to the house, acquainting them that several petitions had been presented to her against monopolies, and declared " she was sensibly touched with the people's griev- ances, expressing the utmost indignati>)n against those who had abused her grants, and appealed to God how careful she had ever been to defend them against oppres- sion, and promised they should be revoked." Secretary Cecil added, "her mujesty was not opprised of the ill tendency of these grants when she made them, and hoped there would never be any more;" to which gracious derlarHtion the majority of the house responded, " \mcn." In this uicuforablc session was passed the celebriUed act, to which allusion ia so O a s f M f o n H M K 5 H Ik k< m s H * H a r. H a A •i o o m a X A. 3. ICOI. — ST. HELENA TAKEN rOSSESSION OV BY TUB ENOLISH. [2H ■^? ^1- r - 1*^ i, 1 ■' ' ' \ 1 1 M ■ \ 1 i|';i| ■ • ;,Pr tBi Bzviiisa or thb tPAiiiaB war in fovk tiabs was 1,300,000{. 350 ^l^c ^rcasutB of ^Ustorn, ^c. often made in the prenent day, for the re- lief and employment of the poor. Since the breaking up of the religious establish- ments, the country had been overrun with idle mendicants and thieves. It was a nn- tural consequence that those who sought in vain for work, and as vainly implored charitable aid, should be induced by the cravings of hunger to lay violent hands upon the property of others. As the dis- tresses of the lower orders increased, so did crime; ti|l at length the wide-spreading evil forced itself on the attention of parlia- ment, and provision was made for the bet- tering of tneir condition, by levying a tax upon the middle and upper classes for the support of the aged and infirm poor, and for affording temporary relief to the desti- tute, according to their several necessities, under the direction of parochial officers. We must now briefly revert to what was going on in Ireland. Thoui^h the power of the Spaniards was considered as at too low an ebb to give the English government liny great uneasiness for the safety of its possessions, it was thought sufficiently for- midable to be the means of annoyance ns regarded the assistance it might afford Ty- rone, who was still at the head of the in- surgents in Ireland. And the occurrence we are about to mention shews that a rea- sonable apprehension on that head might well be entertained. On the 23rd of Sep- te.nber the Spaniards landed 4000 men near Kinsalc, and having taken possession of the town, were speedily followed by 2000 more. They effected a junction with Tyrone ; but Mountjoy, who was now lord- deputy, surprised their array in the night, and entirely defeated them. This led to the surrender of Kinsale and all other places in their possession ; and it was not long before Tyrone,.a8 a captive, graced the triumphal return of Mountjoy to Dublin. A. n. 1602. — The most remarkable among the domestic occurrences of this year was a violent quarrel between the Jesuits and the secular priests of England. The latter accused the former, and not without reason, of having been the occasion, by their assas- sinations, plots, and conspiracies against the queen and government, of all the severe enactments under which the English catho- lics had groaned since the fulmiuatiou of the papal bull against her majesty. In the height of this dispute, intelligence was con- veyed to the privy council of some fresh plots on the part of the Jesuits and their adherents; on which a proclamation was immediately issued, banishing this order from the kingdom on pain of death ; and the same penalty was declared against all secular priests who should refuse to take the oath of allegiance. That queen Elizabeth deeply regretted the precipitancy with which slie signed the warrant for the execution of her favourite Essex there is every reason to believe. She soon became a victim to hypochondria, as mav be seen from a letter written by her godson, sir John Harrington ; and as it ex- hibits a curious example of her behaviour. and may be regarded as p. specimen of the epistolary style of the age, we are induced to quote some of the sentences: — " She is much i)::,!'i,..? : she was in the 70th year of her age and the 45th of her reign. Elizabeth was tall and portly, but never handsome, though from the fulsome com- pliments which she tolerated in those who had access to her person, she appears to have entertained no mean opinion of her beauty. Her extravagant love of finery was well known, and the presents of jewellery, &c. she received from such of her loving subjects as hoped to gain the royal favour were both numerous and costly. Like her father, she was irritable and passionate, often venting her rage in blows and oaths. Her literary aci^uirements were very con- siderable'; and m those accomplishments which are in our own day termed " fashion- able," namely, music, singing, and dancing, she also greatly excelled. The charges which have been made against the " virgin queen" for indulging in amatory intrigues are not sufficiently sustained to render it the duty of an historian to repeat them ; and when it is considered that though she possessed a THK QURRN's PIIIVT PUUSB AND HOUSEHOLD COST 42,000?. A YKAR. A. D. 1603.— TBIBTT THOUSAND PIBSOKI OIBO OV «■■ VLASVI IN LONDON. i a z M <§ n K 5 u lEnglantJ.— "I^ottac of atuart.— Samta E. 351 host of sturdy iiriendi, yet that she had many bitter enemies, we need not be sur- prised that in the most vulnerable point her character as a female has often oeen unjustly assailed. CHAPTEE XLVIII. The Reign qf Jambs I. A.D. 1603. — The advanced age to which the late queen lived, and the constant at- tention which her remaining unmarried had caused men to pay to the subject of the succession, had made the succession of James become a thing as fully settled in public opinion as though it had been set- tled by her will or an act of parliament. IM the arinuments for and against him had been canvassed and dismissed, and he as- cended the throne of England with as little opposition as though he had been Eliza- beth's eldest son. As the king journeyed from Edinburgh to London all ranks of men hailed him with the thronging and applause which had been wont to seem so grateful to his predeccs. sor. But if James liked flattery, ne detest- ed noise and bustle ; and a proclamation was issued forbidding so much congrega- ting of the lieges, on the ground that it tended to make provisions scarce and ex- orbitantly dear. It was only shyness, how- ever, and not any insensibility to the hearty kindness of his new subjects, that dictated the king's proclamation. So pleased, in- deed, was he with the zealous kindness shown to him by the English, that he had not been two months before them when he iiad honoured with the order of knighthood nearly two hundred and forty persons I Peerages were bestowed pretty nearly in the same proportion ; and a good humoured pasquinade was posted at St. Paul's, pro- mising to supply weak memories with the now very necessary art of remembering the titles of the new nobility. It was not merely the king's facility in granting titles that was blamed, though that was in remarkable, and, as regarded his judgment at least, in by no means fa- vourable contrast to the practice of his pre- decessor ; but the English, already jealous of their new fellow-subjects, the Scots, were of opinion that he was more than fairly libe- ral to the latter. But if James made 'he duke of Lenox, the earl of Mar, lord Hume, lord Kinross, sir George Hume, and secre- tary Elphinstone members of the English privy council, and gave titles and wealth to sir George Hume, Hay, and Ramsay, he at least had the honour and good sense to leave nearly the whole of the ministerial honours and political power in the hands of the able Euglish who had so well served his predecessor. Secretary Cecil, especially, who had kept up a secret correspondence with James towards the close of the late reign, had now the chief power, and was created, in succession, lord Efiingdon, vis- count Cranborne, and earl of Salisbury. It is not a little surprising that while James was so well received by the nation at large, and had the instant support of the mi- nisters and friends of the late queen, he had scarcely finished renewing treaties of peace and friendship with all the great foreign powers, when a conspiracy was discovered for placing his coasin, Arabella Stuart, upon the throne. Such a conspiracy was so ab- surd, and its success so completely a physical impossibility, that it is difflcutt not to sus- pect that it oriffinated in the king's own excessive and unnecessary jealousy of the title of Arabella Stuart, who, equally with himself, was descended from Henry VII., but who in no other respect could have the faintest chance of competing with him. But, however it originated, such a conspi- racy existed ; and the lords Grey and Cob- ham, and sir Walter Raleigh, lord Cob- ham's brother Mr. Broke, sir Griffin Mark- ham, sir Edward Parham, and Mr. Copley, together with two catholic priests named Watson and Clarke, were apprehended for being concerned in it. The catholic priests were executed, Cobham, Grey and Markham were pardoned while their heads were upon the block, and Raleigh was also reprievea, but not pardoned ; a fact which was fatal to him many years after, as will be perceived. Even at present it was mis- chievous to him, for, though spared from death, he was confined in the Tower, where he wrote his noble work the History of the World. A. D. 1604.— A conference was now called at Hampton court to decide npon certain differences between the church and the puritans, and generally to arrange that no injurious religious disputes might arise. As James had a great turn for theological dis- putation he was here quite in his element ; out instead of showing the puritans all the favour they expected from him in conse- quence of his Scotch education, that very circumstance induced the king to side against them, at least as far as he pru- dently could; as he had had abundant proof of the aptness of puritanical doctrine to produce seditious politics. He was impor- tuned, for instance, bv the puritans to re- peal an act passed in tne reign of Elizabeth to suppress certain puritanical societies called pkropheeyingt, at which there was usually more zeal than sense, and more elo- quence than religion. The reply of James was at once so coarsely practical, and so indicative of his general way of thinking upon such points, that we transcribe it literally. " If what you aim at is Scottish presbytery, as I think it is, I tell you that It agrees as well with monarchy as the devil with God. There Jack, and Tom, and Will, and Dick, shall meet and censure me and my council. Therefore I reiterate my former speech ; the king a'avitera. Stay, I pray you, for seven years before you de- mand, and then if I oe grown pursy and fat, I may perchance hearken to you, for that sort of government would keep me in breath and give me work enough I" Passing over the business of parliament at the commencement of this reign, as concerning matters of interest rather to the I m A.D. 1603.— THB KINO AND QUEBN CROWNED AT WBSTMINSTBB, JULY 25. V ' w !'! i > A.D. 1604.— JAMBI WAS THIS ISAK VIBST •TILKO Kllfa OF QMBAT BKITAIN. 352 ^^e ^rcosuri) of llistore, 8cc. atatesman and scholar than to the general reader, we have now to advert to one of the most striking and remarkable events in our history— the gunpowder plot. A. D. 1604.— The affection that the catho- lics had ever shown his mother, and their interpretation of some obliging expressions that he had either artfully or in mere care- lessness made use of, had led them to hope that he would greatly relax, if not wholly repeal the severe laws passed against them during the reign of his predecessor. But James had clearly and unequivocally shown that he had no intention of doing ought that could diminish the authority and se- curity of the crown ; and the more enthusi- astic catholics were in consequence very greatly excited against him. Catesby, a gentleman of good birth and excellent character, first looked upon the subject as one demanding the absolute pu- nishment of the king, and lie communi- cated his feelines to his friend Piercy, a descendant of the time-honoured house of Northumberland. Piercy proposed simply to assassinate the king, but in the course of their discussion of the plan Catesby sug- gested a wider and more effectual plan, by which they would rid Catholicism not mere- ly of the king, but of the whole protestant strength of the kingdom. He pointed out that the mere death of the king, and even of his children, would be of little avail while the protestant nobles and gentry could raise another king to the throne who, in addition to all the existing causes of the protestant severity, would be urged to new rigoi'ir by the very circumstance to which he I wnuld owe his power to indulge it. To make i the deed effectual, Catesby continued, it I wur.'id be necessary to take the opportunity I of the first day of the parliament, when I king lords, and commons would be all as- I lirinbled, and, by means of a mine below the house, blow the whole of their enemies up at once with gunpowder. I Nothing but a tierce and mistaaen fana- ticism could allow one man to suggest so dreadful a scheme, or another man to ap- prove of it ; but Piercy at once entered mto Catesby's plan, and they took means fnr preparing for its execution. Thomas Winter was sent over to Flanders in search of Guido Yaux, an officer in the Spanish service, and well known alike as a bigoted catholic and a cool and d.mng soldier. Ca- tesby and Piercy in the mean time, aided by Desmond and Garnet, josuists, and the lat- ter the superior of the order in England, were busily engaged in communicating their awful design to other catliolics ; and every newly ejlisted confederate had the oath of secrecy and faithfulness administered to him, in conjunction with the communion, a rite peculiarly awful as understood by the catholics. The destruction of protestants all the confederates seem to have considered to be a quite unexoeptionable act ; and some of the more thoughtful and humane among them suggested the certainty that, besides several catholic peers who would attend, there might be many other catholics pre- sent, either as mere spectators or as official attendan'L^. Even this suggestion, which one might nvripose effectual as to forbid- ding the eiiLcution of Catesby's wholesale scheme, was silenced by the truly Jesuitical remark of the two Jesuits, that the sacrifice of a few innocent among the guilty many, was lawful and highly meritorious, because it was required by the interests of religion '. Alas 1 in abusing that sacred name how many crimes have not mistaken men com- mitted I A. D. 1605. — Towards the end of summer Piercy hired a house adjoining to that in which parliament used to assemble; and having instruments, arms, and provisions with them, they laboured hard in ii for many hours each day, and had already mined three feet through the solid wall when they were stopped and alarmed by plainlv hearing on the other side a noise for which tliey could give no account. On enquiry it seemed that the noise arose from the sale of the stock of a coal dealer who had occupied a vault, next to their own, and immediately below the house of lords. The opportunity was seiz- ed; Piercy hired the vault, and six-and- thirty barrels of gunpowder were clandes* tinely conveyed thither and concealed be- neath the loads of wood, for the reception of which alone Piercy had seemed to ueed the place. Having thus surmounted all the greAt and apparent obstacles to the success of their design, the conspirators distributed among themselves the several parts they were to act on the eventful day. Guido Vaux was to fire the fatal train ; Piercy was to sieze or slay the infant duke of York; and the princess Elizabeth, also a mere in- fant who would be a powerless instrument in the hands of the catholics, was to be seized and proclaimed queen by Grant, Rookwood, and sir Everard Digby, three of the leading conspirators, who were to have a large armed party in readiness on pre- tence of a hunting match. The dreadful scheme had now been on foot for above a year and a half, and was known to more than twenty persons, but neither fear of punishment, the hope of re- ward, or any of the motives which ordina- rily make conspirators untrue to each other, had caused any one of the desperate band to falter. A personal feeling of gratitude now did what no other feeling, perhaps, could have done, and caused one of the con- spirators to take a step which saved the nation from horrors of which even at this distance of time one cannot contemplate the mere possibility but with a shudt^.er. Some one of the conspirators lying under obligiitions to lord Monteagle, a catholic and a son of lord Morley, sent him the fol- lowing letter, which evidently was intended to act upon his personal prudence and secure his safety, without enabling him in any wise to oppose the ruthless butchery that was designed : — "My lord, " Out of the love I bear to some of your A. D. 1604.— -A HBW TRANSLATION OF THB BIDLB (TUB PBBSBNT) ORDEaBU. ti. A. D. 1604. — AMOHO OTHSB rKOCLAMATIOIf I, ORB WAI ASAINST MDNT.'Ai. lEnglantr.— l^ouBc of Stuart — panics K. 353 friendi I have a care of your pretenration, therefore I would advise you as you tender your life to deviae some excuie to shift off your attendance upon this parliament. For God and man have concurred to punish the wickedness of the time. Think not lightly of this advertisement, but retire yourself into your country, where you may expect the event in safety. For though there be no appearance of any stir, yet, I say, they will receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet they shall not see who hurts them. This counsel is not to be contemned, be- cause it may do you good, and can do you no harm, for the danger is past as soon as you burn this letter. And I hope God will give you the grace to make good use of it unto whose holy protection I commit y Cecil, now earl of Salisbury, wac principal and most active of the kingV nisters, and to that nobleman Monteuj^.j fortunately determined to carry the letter, though he was himself strongly inclined to think it nothing but some silly attempt to frighten him from his attendance in parlia- ment. Salisbury professed to have the same opinion of the letter, but laid it before the king some days before the meeting of par- liament. James, who, amidst many absur- dities, was in the main a shrewd man, saw the key to the enigma in the very style of the letter itself ; and lord Suffolk, the lord chamberlain, was charged to examine the vaults beneath the houses of parliament on the day before that appointed for opening the session. He did so in open day, and, as if as a simple matter of form, went through the cellars and came out without affecting to see any thing amiss. But he had been struck by the singularity of Piercy, a private gentleman who lived but little in town, having amassed such an inor- dinate store of fue'i ; and he read the con- spirator in the desperate countenance of Guido Vaux, who was lurking about the place in the garb and character of a ser- vant to Piercy. Acting on these suspicious, the ministers caused a second search to be made at midnight by a well-armed party under sir Thomas Knivet, a justice of peace. At the very door of the vault they seized Vaux, who had made all his preparations and even had his tinaer-box and matches ready to tire the train ; the faggots of wood were turned over, and the powder found. Vaux was sent under an escort to the Tower, but was so far from seeming appal- led by his danger, that he sneeringly told his captors that if he had known a little earlier that they intended to pay him a se- cond visit, he would have tired the train and sweetened his own death by killing them with him. He behaved in the same daring style when examined by the council on the following day ; but two or three days resi- dence in the Tower and a threat of putting hiin on the rack subdued him, and he made a full discovery of his confederates. Ca- tesby, Piercy, and their other friends who were to act in London, heard not only of a letter being sent to lord Monteagle, but also of the first search made in the vaults ; yet were they so infatuated and so resolute to persevere to the last, that it was only when Vaux was actually arrested (hat thev left London and hurried down to War- wickshire, where Digby and bis friends were already in arms to seize the pnncesi Elixabeth. But the sheriff raised the county in time to convey the young princess to Co- ventry; and the baffled conspirators, never more than eighty in number, had now only to think of defending themselves until they could make their escape from the country. But the activity of the sheriff and other gen- try surrounded them by such numbers that escape in any way was out of the question, and having confessed themselves to each other, they prepared to die with a desperate gallantry worthy of a nobler cause. They .bai^ht with stern determination, but some of their powder took fire and disabled them ; Catesby and Piercy were killed by a sinjtle shot ; Digby, Rookwood, and Winter, with Garnet the jeauit, were taken prisoners, and soon after perished by the hands of the executioner. It is a terrible proof of the power of superstition to close men's eyes to evil, that though Garnet's crime was of the most ruftianly description, though he had used his priestly influence to delude his confederates and tools when their bet- ter nature prompted them to shrink from such wholesale and unsparing atrocity, the catholics imagined miracles to be wrought with this miserable miscreant's blood, and in Spain he was even treated as a martyr I Throughout this whole affair, indeed, the evil nature of superstition was to bliime for all the guilt and all the suffering. The conspirators in this case were not low ruf- fians of desperate fortune ; they were for the most part men of both property and character; and Catesby was a man who possessed an especially and enviably hi|;h character, Digby also was a man of excel- lent reputation, so much so, that his being a known and rigid papist had not prevented him from being lii|^lily esteemed and ho- noured by queen Elizabeth. Wlien the punishment of the wretches who had mainly been concerned in this plot left the court leisure for reflection, some minor but severe punishments were inflicted upon those who were thought by connivance or negligence to have been in any degree aiding the chief offenders. Thus the earl of Northumberland was fined the then enormous sum of thirty thousand pounds, and imprisoned for seven years af- terwards, because he had not exacted the usual oaths from Piercy on admitting him to the office of gentleman pensioner. The catholic lords Sltourton and Mordaunt, too, were fined, the former four and the latter ten thousand pounds by that ever arbitrary court, the star-chamber, for no other offence than their absence from parliament on this occasion. This absence was taken as a proof of their knowledge of the plot, though surely, if these two noblemen had known of it, they would have warned many other catholics ; while a hundred more innocent reasons might cause their own absence. A.D. 1605.— A SFLKNOID EHBA88T TO MADRID, B8COBTBO BT 600 XNIOHTB, &C. [2 H 3 •^. &. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ''^ « // 7. 1.0 I.I 1.25 ■ 30 "^ " 1^ 1110 2.5 iiiiii 1.4 11= IIIIII Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 }^% % s w \ s 4> w A.D. 1609.— CBBLaBA COLLSOI POft OIIABLID BOIDIBBI VOOMBBO BT ^AUMM. I \ I 354 ^l^e ^nasurs of 1|fstorQ, $rc. Of the condaet of James, in regard to the dttt^ he owed to justice in pnnishing the Koilty, and confining punishment strictly to those of whose ^ut there is the most unequivocal proof, it is not easy to speak too warmly. The pngudice shown against catholics in the case of the lords Stourton and Mordaunt, and the infinite brutalities inflicted upon, the wretched con- spirator, were the crimes of the age ; but the severe and dignified attention to a just and large charity of judgment as a general principle, which is displayed in the king|s speech to this parliament, is a merit all his own. He observed, says Hume, " that thouj^h religion had engaged the conspirators in so criminal an attempt, yet ought we not to involve all the Soman catholics in the same guilt, or suppose them equally disposed to commit such enormous barbarities. Many holy men, and our ancestors among the rest, had been seduced to concur with that church in her scholastic doctrines, who yet had never admitted her seditious princi- ples, concerning the pope's power of de- throning kings or sanctifving assassination. The wrath of heaven is denounced against crimes, but innocent error may obtain its favour ; and nothing can be more hateful than the uncharitabieness of the puritans who condemn alike to eternal torments even the most inoffensive partisans of po- Eery. For his own part, that conspiracy, owever atrocious, should never alter, in ..he least, his plan of government ; while with one hand he would punish guilt, with the other he would still support and protect in- nocence." A. D. 1606. — The protestants, and espe- cially the puritans, were inclined to plunge to a very great extent into that injustice of which the king's speech so ably warned them. But the king, even at some hazard to himself and at some actual loss of popu- larity, persisted in looking at men's secular conduct as a thing quite apart from their ghostly opinions. He bestowed employ- ment and favour, other things being equu, alike on catholic and protestant ; and the only hardship caused to the great body of the papists by the horrible gunpowder plot was the enactment of a bill obliging every one without exception to take oath of alle- giance. Nu great hardship upon any good subject or honest and humane man, since it only abjured the power of the pope to dethrone the king I Almost as soon as James arrived in Eng- land he showed himself in one respect, at the least, very far more advanced in true statesmanship than most of his subjects. They for a long time displayed a small and spiteful jealousy of the Scots ; he almost, as soon as he mounted the English throne, endeavoured to merge England and Scot* land, two separate nations, always sullen and sometimes sanguinary and despoiling enemicii, into a Great Britain that mtxlit indeed bid defiance to the world, and that should be united in laws and liberties, in prosperity and in interests, as it already was by the hand of nature. There was no- thing, however, in the earlier part of his reign, bv which so much heart-burning was canseid netween the king and his parlia- ment, as by the wisdom of the former and the ignorance and narrow prejudice of the latter on this very point. All th* exercise of the king*! earnestness and influence, aided by the eloquence of, perhaps, all thing! considered, the greatest man Ens- land has ever had, sir Francis Bacon, could not succeed over the petty nationalities of the Scotch and English parliaments any farther for the present, than to procure an ungracious and reluctant appeal of the di- rectly hostile laws existing in the two king- doms respectively. May, so hostile, at the onset, was the English parliament to a measure the grand necessity and value of which no one could now dispute without being suspected of the sheerest idiotcy, that the bishop of Bristol, for writing a book in favour of the measure which lay ignorance thus condemned, was so fiercely clamonred against, that he was obliged to save himself from still harder measures by making a humble submission to these ig- norant and bigoted legislators. A. n. 1 607.— The practical tolerance of the king as opposed to his arbitrary maxims of government, and the parliament's lust of persecution as contrasted with its perpetual struggles to obtain more power and liberty foritself, were strongly illustrated this year. A bill was originated in the lower house for a more strict observance of the laws against popish recusants, and for an abatement to- wards such protestant clergymen as should scruple at the still existing church ceremo- nials. This measure was doubly distasteful to the king ; as a highly liberal protestant he disliked the attempt to recur to the old severities against the catholics ; and as a high prerogative monarch he was still more hostile to the insidious endeavour of the puritans, by weakening the church of Eng- land, to acquire the power to themselves of bearding and coercing the civil government. In this same year, however, the very par- liament which, on the remonstrance of the king, obediently stopped the progress of that doubly disagreeable measurp, gave a striking proof of its growing sense of self importance by commencing a regular jour- nal of its proceedings. A. n. 1610.— James was so careful to pre- serve peace abroad that much of his reign might be passed over without remark, but for the frequent bickerings which occurred between him and his parliament on the subject of money. Even in the usually ar- bitrary reign of Elisabeth the parliament had already learned the power of the purse. The puritan .party was now gradually ac- quiring that nt pnce tyrannical and republi- can feeling which was to be so fatal to the monarchy and so disgraceful to the nation, and although James was allowed a theore- tical despotism, a mere tyranny of maxims and sentences, some merely silly, and others — could he have acted upon them — to the last degree dangerous, the true tyranny was A.D. 1609.— THB CHAKTBB OF TUB BAST INniA COMPAHX BBNBWBO. A. B. 1611.— TBI CMA«TBB-aonaB VOUBSBB BI TBOMAI aunOR. lEnglanU.— I^nsc ot Stnart.— 3lam» 3£. 355 that of the parliament whieh exerted their power with the mercUeea and fltful malig- nity of a dwarf which has anddenljr become poBiMied of a giant'a strength. The earl of Saliabury, who was now the treaanrer, laid before both houaet, this aeuion, the very peculiar aitnation in whieh the king waa placed. Qneen Elisabeth, thouRh ahe had received large supplies during the latter part of her reign, had made very consider- able alienations of the crown lands; the crown waa now burthened with debt to the amount of 800,000 ponnda, and the king waa obliged, instead of a aingle court aa in the late reign, to keep three courts, his own, that of the qneen, and that of the prince of Walea. But though these really atrong and most reasonable argumenta were also urged by the king himself in his speech to parUa- ment, they granted him only one hundred thousand pounds— his debts alone being thrice that sum! It cannot, after thia statement of the situation of the king and the temper in which parliament used the power we hare spoken of, be astonishing that henceforth there was one perpetual ■itruggle between th-m, he striving for the means of supporting the national dignitv, and indulging a generosity of temper which, imprudent in any king, was doubly so in one who had to deal with so close-fisted a parliament ; and they striving at once to abridge the king's prerogative, and to escape frovn supplying even his most reasonable demands. An incident occurred this year which, taken in contrast with the extreme horror of foreign disputes which James usually displayra, affords a rather amusing illustra- tion of the extent to which even so petty a " ruling passion" as pedantry may domineer over all others. Vorstius, a divinity professor of a German university, waa appointed to the chair of a Dutch university. He was a disciple of Ar- minius, and moreover had the presumption to be opposed in argument to king James, who did not think it beneath his royal dig- nity, or too manifest and dangerous a de- parture from bis pacific foreign policy, se- riouslv to demand of the states that they shduld deprive and banish the obnoxious professor. The procedure waa at cnce so absurd and so severe, that the Dutch at first refused to remove Voratius; but the king returned to the charge with such an earnest fierceness, that the states deemed it politic to yield, and the poor professor, who was luckless enough to differ flrom king James, was deprived of both his home and employment. In the course of this dis- pute, James, who had so creditably argued for charity in the case of the attempt of hia puritans to oppress their catholic fellow- subjects, made use of this revolting obser- vation : — " He would leave it to the statea themselves a* to tkt bMming of For«( 9 R I o M H H 356 %%t ^Kcaxurs oM^lstors, $c(. lavonrite. Noting the comely ainect and graceful bearing of young Cam, loid Hay took an opportunity to place Urn in the king's sifht at a tilting mateh, and it cbanced tliat on that very occasion Jamea'a attention was the more strongly drawn to him by an accident occurring by which young Carrels leg waa broken. The sight of-tbu so affected the king, that in the course of the day be went to the young patient's chamber, consoled him with manv kiud worda, and became so pleased with his spirit and general beharionr, that he instantly adopted him as an especial and favoured personal attendant. AttentiTe to the lessons of the kingly pedagogue, and skilful in discovering and managing his weaknesses, young Carre also posiCMedthe art so many favourites have perished for lack of; he was a courtier not only to the king but to all who approached the king. Bj thus prudently aiding the predilection or the king, Carre rapidly rose. He was knighted, then created earl of Boahester and K.6., anl introduced into the privy council. Wealth and power accompanied this rapid rise in rank, and in a short time this new favourite, without any definite office in the ministry, actually had more real influence in the management of affairs than the wise Salisbury himself. Much of his success Carre owed to the wise counsels of sir Thomas Overbury, whose friendship he claimed, and who be- came at once his adviser and his client, and counselled none the less earnestly and well because he felt that his own chief hope of rising at court rested upon the success of Carre. Thus guided, the naturally saga- cious and flexible ^outh soon ripened into the powerful, admired, and singularly pros- perous man. Unfortunately he became passionately attached to the young coun- tess of Essex, who as unfortunately re- turned his passion. This ladv when only thirteen years of age, as lady Frances How- ard, daughter of the earl of Suffolk, was, by the king's request, married to the young earl of Essex, then only fourteen. In con- sideration of their extreme youth the cere- monv was no sooner completed than the youthful bridegroom departed to the conti- nent, and did not return from bis travels until four years after. In the mean time the young countess of Essex and viscount Rochester had met, loved, and sinned ; uid when the young earl, with the impatient ardour of eighteen, flew to his fair coun- tess, he was thunder-struck at being re- ceived not with mere coolness, but with something approaching to actual loathing and horror. The countess's passion for and guilty connection with Rochester were not even suspected, and every imaginable meana were resorted to for the purpose of over- coming what was deemed to be a mere ex- cess of maidenly coyness. All means, how- ever, were alike vain, nothing could induce her to live with her husband, and she and Rochester now determined to make way for their marriage by a divorce of the lady firom the earl of Essex. Boehe^ter eoasulted sir Thomas Over- bury ; but that prudent eourtier, thpugii he had been privy to and had even encouraged their criming connection, was too sin- cerely anxiously for the character and hap- piness of his friend not to dissuade bun from the ignominy of procuring this di- vorce, and the fblly of eommittiajg his own peace and honour to the keeping of a woman of whose harlotry he had personal know- ledge. Connected as Bochester and the coonteas were, the latter was not long igno- rant of this adviee g^'CB by Overbury, and, with the rage of an insulted woman and the artful bundishmenta of a beauty, she easily persuaded the enamoured Bochester that be too waa iqjured by that verr con- duet in which Overbury Imd nndouotedly most proved the sincerity and the wisdom of his friendship. Havmg brought Ro- ehestw to this point, the countess fbund little difficulty in determining him to the ruin of titat friend to whom he owed so much, and by artfully gettins Overbury a mission firom the kiog ana then pri- vately counselling Overbury to reject it, he managed ao to dupe and enrage Jamta that the unfortunate Overbury was com- mitted to the Tower, where, however, it does not appear that James meant him long to remain. But the instant he entered there, sir Thomas was fully in the power of his arch enemies. The lieutenant of the Tower, a mere creature and dependant of Rochester, confined Overbury with such strictness, that for six months the unfortu- nate man did not see even one of his nearest relatives. Having got rid of the grave and trouble- some opposition of Overbury, the guilty lovers now pushed forward matters : and the earl of Essex, completely cured of his love for the lady by what appeared to him the unaccountable capriciousness of her con- duct, very gladly consented to a ridiculously indecent plea, which induced the proper authorities to pronounce a divorce between the earl and countess of Essex. The latter was immediately married to her paramour Rochester, upon whom, that the lady might not lose a step in rank by her new mar- riage, the king now conferred the titl< of earl of Somerset. Though the imprisonment of Overbury had thus completely served her purpose as to her divorce and re-marriage, it had by no means satiated the revenge of the countess. The forcible and bitter contempt with which Overbury had spoken of her was still far- ther envenomed by her own consciousness of its justice, and she now exerted all the power of her beauty and her blandish- ments, until she persuaded the uxorious Somerset that their secret was too much in danger while Overbury still lived, and that their safety demanded his dkath. Poison was resorted to; both Somerset and his countess's uncle, the earl of Northampton, joining in the cowardly orime with some ac- complices of lower rank. Slight doses, only, were given to the doomed victim in the first plaee, but these failing of the desired A.S. 1614.— LOOABITHMS INyBRTBB BT LOBD MArilB, OF aOOVLARD \^ A.B. 1618.— TAH SISMAII'S LAIB B1S0OTBBX9 BT *BB BOTCH. lEnglantf— l^ousc of Stuart.— 3lames 3£. 367 effect, the fonl eoBtpinton nve him a dose so TioleBt that he died. Bad with inch evideat markt of the foul treatmeat that he had met with, that an instant ditcoTerv wai only avoided by burying the body with an indecent haste. Even in this world of imperfect know* ledge and often mistaken judgment, the plotting and cold-blooded murderer neter escapes punishment. The scaffold or the gallows, the galleys or the gaol, indeed, ha may, though that but rarely happens, con- trive to elude. But the tortures of a guilty conscience, a constant remorse mingled with a constant dread, a constant and haunting remembrance of the wrong done to the Mad, and a constant horror of the dread retribution which at any instant the merest and most unforeseen accident may bring upon his own guilty head — these pu- nishments the murderer never did and never can escape. From the moment that the unfortunate Overbury was destroyed, the whole feeling and aspect of the once S.y and brilliant Somerset were changed, e became sad, silent, inattentive to the humours of the king, indifferent to the fatal charms of the countess, morose to all, shy of strangers, weary of himself. He bad a doomed aspect; the wild eye and hasty yet uncertain gait of one who sees himself surrounded oy the avengers of blood and is every instant expecting to feel their grasp. As what was at first attributed to tem- porary illness of body or vexation of mind became a settled and seemingly incurable habit, the king, almost boyish in his love of mirth in his hours of recreation, rradually grew wearied of the presence of his favourite. All the skill and polity of Somerset, all the artful moderation with which be had worn his truly extraor- dinary fortunes had not prevented him from making many enemies ; and these no sooner perceived, with the quick eyes of courtiers, that the old favourite was falling, than they helped to precipitate his fall by the introduction of a young and gay can- didate for the vacant place in the royal favour. Just at this critical moment in the for- tunes of Somerset, George Villiers, the cadet of a good English family, returned from his travels. He was barely twenty- one years of age, handsome, well educated, gay, possessed of an audacious spirit, and with precisely that love and aptitude for personal adornment which became his youth. This attractive person was vlaced full in the king's view during the perform- ance of a comedy. James, as hi d been anticipated, no soonei- saw him then he be- came anxious for his personal attendance. After some very ludicrous coquf tting be- tween his desire for a new favourite and his unwillingness to cast off the old one, James had the young ' man introduced at court, and very soon appointed him his cup-bearer. Though the ever-speaking conscience of Somerset had long made him unfit for his former gaiety, he was by no means pre- pared to see himself supplanted in the royal favour I but before he could make any effort to ruin or otherwise dispose of young Villiers, a discovery was made which very effectually ruined himself. Among the many persons whom Somer- set and bis guilty countess had found it necessary to employ in the execution of their atrocious design, was an apothecary's apprentice who had been employed in mixing up the poisons. This man, now liviuK at Flushing, made no scruple of openly stating that Overbury had died of poison, and that he bad himself been em- ployed in preparing it. The reirart reached the ears of the English envoy in the Low Countries, and was by him transmitted to the secretary of state, Winwood, who at once communicated it to the king. How- ever weary of his favourite, James was struck with horror and surprize on receiv- ing this report, but with a rigid impar- tiality whicn does honour to his memory, he at once sent for sir Edward Coke, the chief Justice, and commanded him to ex- amine into the matter as carefully and as unsparingly as if the accused persons were the lowest and the least cared for in the land. The stem nature of Coke scarcely needed this injunction; the enquiry was steadily and searchingly carried on, and it resulted in the complete proof of the guilt of the earl and countess of Somerset, sir Jervis Elvin, lieutenant of the Tower, Franklin, Weston, and Mrs. Turner. Of the temper of Coke this very trial affords a remarkable and not very creditable in- stance. Addressing Mrs. Turner, he told her that she was " guilty of the seven deadly sins; being a harlo*:, a bawd, a sorceress, a witch, a papist, a felon, and a murderer 1" The honourable impartiality with which the king had ordered an enquiry into the murder of sir Thomas Overbury was not equally observed afterwards. All the accused were very properly condemned to death ; but the sentence was executed only on the ac- complices ; by far the worst criminals, the earl and countess were pardoned 1 A very brief imprisonment and the forfeiture of their estates were allowed to expiate their enormous crimes, and they were then as- signed a pention sufficient fur their support, and allowed to retire to the country. But the pardon Of man could not secure them the peace of heart which their crime had justly forfeited. They lived in the same house, but they lived only in an alternation of sullenness and chiding, and thus tliey dragged on many wretched years, a mutual torment in their old age as they had been a mutual snare in their youth, until they at length sank unregretted and unhonoured into the grave. A. n. 1616. — The fall of Somerset neces- sarily facilitated and hastened the rise of young George Villiers, who in a wonder- fully short time obtained promotions — which, that the regularity of narrative may be preserved, we yisert here — as viscount Villiers, earl, marquis, and finally duke, of It; -15 A.D. 1616.— BArrin's bat siscotbhbo bt w. bafhn, an bnolishman. A.O. I6I7— BALBIttK lAILS TO AMBBIOA. XH laABOH OV A COLD MIHI. 358 ^f)t tlTreBSurs of 1|fstotp, 9cc. Buekingbun, knight of the garter, master of the horse, ehiefjostice in eyre, warden of the cinque ports, master of the King's Bench office, steward of Westminster, con- stable of Windsor, and lord high admiral of England. His mother was made coun- tess of Buckingham, his brother viscount Purbeck, and a whole host of his previ- 01UI7 obscure aod needy favourites ob- tained honours, places, patents, or wealth. The profusion of the king— to which jus- tice demands that we add the parsimony of the parliament— made him throughout his whole reign an embarrassed man ; and he now incurred gnreat, though undeserved, odium by the course he took to supply his pressing and immediate wants. When Eli- zabeth aided the infant states of Holland against the gigantic power of Spain, she had the important towns of Flushing, the Brille, and Rammekins placed in her hands as pledges for the repayment of the money to England. Various payments had been made which had reduced the debt to 600,0001., which sum the Dutch were under agreement to pay to James at the rate of 40,000{. per annum. This annual sum would doubtless have been of vast service to the king — but 26,0001. per annum were spent in maintaining his garrisons in the cautionari^ or mortgaged towns. Only 14,0001. remained clear to England, and even that would cease in the event of new warfare between Holland and Spain. Considering these things, and being pressed on all sides for money to satisfy just de- mands and the incessant cravings of his favourite and t\}e court, the 'king gladly agreed to surrender the cautionary towns on the instant payment by tlie Dutch of 250,000(. ; and, under all the circumstances of the case, James appears to have acted with sound policy in making the bargain. A. D. I6I7. — In the course of this year James paid a visit to Scotland with the view to a favourite scheme which he had long pondered, — probably even before he as- cended the English throne, and while he still was ijersonally annoyed by the rude and intrusive presumption of the puritans. His scheme was " to enlarge the episcopal authority ; to establish a few ceremonies in public worship, and to settle and fix the superiority of the civil to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction." But though the king's personal influence was now very high, as well from the peace he had preserved throughout his dominions and the pride the Scotch, themselves a pe- dantic people, felt in hearing I he king whom they had gi' en to England cited as " the. British Solomon," as from the great, not to say unjust, preference which the king took every opportunity to show to Scottish suitors for promotion, even his influence, after much opposition on the part of the clergy, could only procure him a sullen adoption of but a small portion of his plan. " Episcopacy" was so much the deteittatiou of the Scotch, that it is surprising that so shrewd a king as James>shouid have made a point of endeavouring to force it upon them. But as if he had not done sufHcient | in the way of affironting the religious pre- { judicea of the Scotch, James no sooner re- i turned home than he equally affronted those of that large partv of his English subjects, the puritans. That dark, sullen, joyless, and jov-hating set of men bad, by j degrees, brongnt the original decorous Sun- I day of England to be a day of the ihost ' silent and intense gloom. This was noticed ■ by the king in his return from Scotland, and he immediately issued a proclamation | by which all kinds of lawful games and ex- ercises were allowed after divine service. However imprudent this proclamation on the part of the king, we are inclined to be- lieve that in spirit his extreme was wiser than that of the puritans. But whatever may be the good or the bad policy of the practice, it is certain that the kinp chose a wrong time for recommending it. Even bis authority was as nothing against super- stitious fanaticism. But while he failed to check or persuade the puritans, did he not irritate them 7 Might not the sharpening of many a sword that was bared agaiiiit Charles I. be traced to the vexation caused in puritan bosoms by this very proclama- tion of his father ? CHAPTER XLIX. Tlu Reign nf Jambs I. (eoHtinutdJ. A.D. 1618.— Sib Walter Raleigh, the fa- vourite of Elizabeth, the opponent and ene- my of Essex, to whom he had shown an implacable and savage spirit which makes us doubt whether the world had not been greatly mistaken in deeming him a good as well as great man, had now been for thir- teen years lingering in his prison. Though advanced in yrars and broaen in fortune, even imprisonment could not break his un- questionably daring and resolved spirit. Soldier, seaman, courtier, and man of in- trigue during so much of his life, it was when, amidst the yells of the public bruta- lity, which his own brutality, however, had provoked and exemplared, he was led to the Tower of London, that he, instead of resigning himself to despair, commenced his elaborate and really learned History of the World I Thirteen years of confinement could not quell that enduring and daring spirit : and as the report of his friends in- formed him that public opinion was very favourably and greatly changed on his be- half, he now began to scheme for Obtaining his enlargement. He caused it to be noised abroad that, during one of his voyages, he had discovered a gold mine in Guiana, so rich, that it woiQdrairord enormous wealth not only to any gallant adventurers who, under proper guidance, should seek it. but also to the entire nation at large. These reports, as Raleigh from the first intended, reached the ears of the king ; but James doubted the existence of the mine, and the more so because it was clear that a man in the sad situation of Ealeigh might be ex- nected to say almost anything to obtain freedom. But the report was so far ser- a K M >4 >i m h « O X ■< I t>. ts ^^ A ■i A.n. I6I7.— TBK "book of srOBTS" WAS THIS TBAB FtTBLISHBD. A.B. 16l8d— vn VAftiiUH ironoK in biisi.and or turn rowiB or btbam. N >) M 5 B a IS d M ► H >4 u k H M a H K al M M O t! M M n eq H H a M I! lEnglanV.— 1|0ttise of StuBrt.~3lamts 3£. 359 Tieeable to Baleish, that it reminded the king of the long dreary yeara the once gal- lant wldier and gay courtier of Elisabeth had paMcd in the gloom of a dungeon, and he liberated him from the Tower, but re- futed to release him from the original ten- tence of death which, he said, he considered a necessary check upon a man of Raleigh'a character, which assuredly had more oi ta- lent and audacity than of either probity or mercy. Though James was by no means inclined to give credit to the insignificant tale of Raleigh, he gave fiill leave to all pi-ivate adventurers who might choose to join him ; and Raleigh's intrepid assertions, backed by his great repute for both talent and courage, soon placed him at the head of twelve ships, well armed and manned, and provided with every thing necessary for pir»cy and plunder, but with nothing cal- culated fur digging the pretended treasure. On the river Oronoko, in Guiana, the Spaniards had built a towu called St. Thomas, which, at this time, was exceed- ingly wealthy. Raleigh had taken posses- sion of the whole district above twenty vears before in the name of queen Eliza- beth ; but, as he had immediately left the coast, his claim on behalf of England was totally unknown to the Spaniards. It was to this wealthy Spanish settlement that Raleigh now steered, and on arriving there he staid at the mouth of the Oronoko with five of his largest ships, sending the remainder of the expedition up to St. Thomas's, under the command of his son and his fellow-adventurer, captain Kemyss. The Spaniards seeing the English adven- turers approach St. Thomas in such hos- tile guise, fired at them, but were spee- dily repulsed and driven into the town. As young Raleigh headed his men in the at- tack on the town, he exclaimed, Thi» it the true mine, and they are hut fools who look for any other I He had scarcely spoken the words when he received a shot and immediately fell dead; Kemyss, however, still continued the attack and took the town, which they burned to ashes in their rage at finding no considerable booty in it. Raleigh had all along said not that he had himself ever seen the wonderfully rich mine of which he gave so glowing an ac- count, but that it had been found by Kemyss on one of their former expeditions together, and that Kemyss had brought him a lump of ore which proved the value as well as the existence or the mine. Yet now that Kemyss, by his own account, was within two hours march of the mine, he made the most absurd excuses to his men for leading them no farther, and immedi- ately returned to Raleigh, at the mouth of the Oronoko, with the melancholy news of the death of the younger Raleigh, and the utter failure of all their hopes aa far as St. Thomas's was concerned. The scene be- tween Raleigh and Kemyss was probably a very violent one ; at all events it had such an effect upon Kemyss that he immediately retired to his own cabin and put an end to his existence. The other adventurers now perceived that they had entered into both a danger- ous and unprofitable speculation, and they inferred from all that had passed, that Raleigh from the outset had relied upon piracy and jilundering towns — a kind of speculation for which their ill success at St. Thomas's gave them no inclination, whatever their moral feelings upon the sub- ject might have been. On a full consider- ation of all the circumstances, the adven- turers determined to return to England and take Raleigh with them, leaving it to him to justify himself to the king in the best manner he could. On the passage he re- Eeatedly endeavoured to escape, but was rought safely to England and delivered up to the king. The court of Spain in the mean time loudly and justly complained of the destruction of St. Thomas's ; and, after a long examination before the privy coun- cil, Raleigh was pronounced guilty of wil- ful deceit from the first as to the mine, and of having from the first intended to make booty bv piracy and land plunder. The lawyers held, however, as a universal rule, that a man who already lay under attaint of treason could in no form be tried anew for another crime ; the king, therefore, signed a warrant for Raleigh's execution for that participation in the setting up of the lady Isabella Stuart, for which he nad already suffered imprisonment during the dreary period of thirteen years I He died with courage, with gaiety almost, but quite without bravado or indecency. While there was yet a faint hope of his escape he feign- ed a variety of illnesses, even including madness, to protract his doom ; but when all hope was at length at an end, he threw off all disguise, and prepared to die with that courage on the scaffold which he had so often dared death with on the field. Taking up the axe with which he was about to he beheaded, he felt the edge of it and said, " 'Tis a sharp, but it is also a sure remedy for all ills." He then calmly laid his head upon the block, and was dead at the first stroke of the axe. Few men had been more unpopular a few years earlier than sir Walter Raleigh ; but the courage he displayed, the long imprisonment he had suffered, and his execution on a sen- tence pronounced so long before, merely to give satisfaction to Spain, rendered this execution one of the most unpopular acts ever performed by the king. It will be remembered that we spoke of the marriage of the princess EUcaoetb to the elector palatine as an event which in the end proved mischievous both to Eng- land and to the king. A. D. 1619. — The states of Bohemia being in arms to maintain their revolt from the hated authority of the catholic house of Austria, the mighty preparations made by Ferdinand II. and the extensive alliances he had succeeded in forming to the same end made the states very anxious to obtain a counterbalancing aid to their cause. ^ IN ITALY TBI rOWBH Ot 8TBAM WAS XHOWIT AND BAD BBKN DBSCBIBBD. A.D. 1619.— DB. HAMTIT S1IC0TIBBB *HB OIBOULATIOR OV THB BIOOB. r 360 tS>fit ^ctBSttrp of lltistorp, 9cc. Frederick, elector palatine, being Mn-in-law to the king of England and nephew to prince Maurice, who at this time was poi- •eiMd of .atmoit unlimited power o*er the United Provinces, the autei of Bohemia contidered that were he elected to their crown— which they deemed electiTe— their safety would M ensured by his potent con- neotions. They, therefore, offered to make Frederick their sovereiKU ; and he, looking only at the honour, accepted the offer without eonsultiuK either his uncle or father-in-law, probably because he well knew that they would dissuade him from an honour so costly and onerous as this was certain to prove. Having accepted the sovereignty of Bohemia, Frederick im- mediately marched all the troops he could command to the defence of his new sub- jects. On the news of this event arriving in England the people of all ranks were strongly excited. As we have elsewhere said, the people of England are essentially aftetionate towards their sovereigns ; and Frederick, merely as the son-in-law of the king, would have had their warmest wishes. But they were still further interested on his behalf, because he was a protestant prince opposing the ambition and the per- secution of the detested Spaniard and Aus- trian, and there was a general crv for an English army to be sent forthwith to Bo- hemia. Almost the only m^^n in the king- dom who was dear-siglited and unmoved amid all this passionate feeling was James. He was far too deeply impressed with the opinion that it was dangerous for a king's prerogative and for his subjects' passive pbedience, to look with a favourable eye upon revolted states conferring a crown even upon his own son-in-law. He .vould not acknowledge Frederick as king of Bo- hemia, and forbade his being prayed for in our churches under that title. A. D. 1630. — However wise the reasonings of James, it would, in tlie end, have been profitable to him to have sent an English army, even upon a vast scale, to the assist- ance of Frederick in the first instance. Ferdinand, with the diike of Bavaria and the count of Bucquoy, and Spinola with thirty thousand veteran troops from the Low Countries, not only defeated Frede- rick at the great battle of Prague, and sent him and his family fugitives into Holland, but also took possession of the palatinate. This latter disaster might surely have been prevented, had James at the very outset so far departed from his pacific polity as to send a considerable army to occupv the palatinate, in doing which he would by no means have stepped beyond the most strictly lefcitimate support of the legitimate right of his son-in-law. liow that Frede'ick was expelled even firom his palatinate, James still depended upon his tact in negotiation to spare him the necessity for an actual recourse to arms ; but he at the same time, with the turn for dissimulation which was natural to him, determined to use the warlike enthusiasm of his subjects as a means of obtaining money, of which, as usual, he was painfully in want. Urging for the necessity of in- stant recourse to that forcible interference, which, in truth, he intended never to make, he tried to gain a benevolence, but even the present concern for the palatine would not blind the people to the arbitrary na- ture of that way of levying heavy taxes upon them, and James was reluctantly ob- liged to call a parliament. A. D. 1621.— The unwise inclination of the people to plunge into war on behalf of the palatine was so far serviceable to James, that it caused this parliament to meet him with more than usually dutiful and liberal dispositions. Some few members, indeed, were inclined to make complaint and re- dress of certain grosa grievances their first aubject of attentfon. But the general feel- ing was against them, and it was with some- thing like acclamation that the parliament proceeded at once to vote the king two subsidies. This done, they proceeded to inquire into somloungerof our day would t? Siberia, or the salt mines of Poland. We do not deem it necessary to dwell at all minutely upon this parliamentary oppo- sition to the king, because it is less impor- tant in itself than in its consequences, which we shall have to develope in the suc- ceeding reign. The teid tf the civil war MM MOW being towed. The commons were daily gaining power and the conscionsnest of power ; but without the large and gene- rous as well as wise spirit vruich knows how to rtform gradually. Even the king himself, with all his high opinion of prerogative and his only too great readiness to exert it, perceived that the day was past for governing with the high hand alone. A curious instance of this occurs in his buying off, firom the nthering opposition, of sir John Baville. While otners were sent to prison, or, which was but little better, to Ireland, sir John, whose opposition had been eager and spi- rited, made his talent so much feared, that the king made him comptroller of the household, a privy councillor, and a baron. Oh, if his successor could but have been induced to ponder this fact, and to take it in coQjunction with the nature of mankind, how much misery had been spared to him- self and his people, and how many a name that has come down to us in conjunction 1 with the most exalted patriotism, forsooth I would be forgotten in the lordly titles be- stowed upon parliamentary usefulness I A. B. 1633. — Whatever intention James might have professed of going to war on behalf of his son-in-law, his real intention was to secure the friendship of Spain, and thus secure the accomplishment of his own and the nation's Irishes by marrying his son, prince Charles, to the Spaniard's sister. Upon this marriage, besides his looking upon it as a masterstroke of polity, he was passionately bent upon as a matter of per- sonal feeling; as he deemed no one below a princess of Spain or France a fitting match for his son. The war between the emperor and the palatine was still rigorously kept np, the latter prince, in spite of all his misfortunes making the most heroic exertions. The details of this war will be found in their proper place. Here it snfflees to say, that though James greatly aided his gallant son- in-law irith money, he did him almost equal iiuury by his negotiations, which every one saw through, and of course treated with disrespect proportioned to their knowledge that they originated in the most intense political prudence, carried to the very verge of actual cowardice. This excessive caution of the king, and his equally excessive ad- diction to perpetual negotiation perpetually ending in nothing, was made the subject of much merriment on the continent. At Brussels a farce was acted, in the course of which a messenger was made to announce the sad news that the palatinate was at length on the eve of being wrested from the house of Austria. Notning, the mes- senger said, could resist the aid which Frederick was now about to receive; the king of Denmark having agreed to send him a hundred thousand pickled herrings, the Dutch a hundred thousand butter- boxes, and the king of England— a hundred thousand disnatehes I But thottgn James was in reality some- what ridiculously profuse in his efforts to "losttutiate" the duke of Bavaria into re- st- ni'it the palatinate, he really was resting hib y-x^',!! hope upon the Spanish match. Dif > y, afterwards earl of Bristol, was sent to Madrid to endeavour to hasten the negotiation which, with moro or less ear- nestness, had now been carrying on for five years. The princess being a catholic, a dis- pensation from the pope was necessary for the marriage: and as various motives of policy made Spain anxious to avoid a total and instant breach with James, this cir- cumstance was dexterously turned to ad- vantage. Spain undertook to procure the dispensation, and thus possessed the power of retarding the marriage indefinitely or of concluding it at any moment, should cir- cumstances render that course advisable. Suspecting at least a part of the deception that was practised upon him, James, while he sent Digby publicly to Spain, secretly sent Sage to Bome to watch and report the state of affairs and feeling there. Learning ftom that agent that the chief difficulty, as A. n. 1621.— LIOBNSBI »IBBT SaARTBB FOB PUBMC-BOUBBB THIS TBAR. [2 J -■^ - -j^^Vi-r A.V. 1633.— rODH THOUtAMB IMPBItORBP CATHOblO miCDSAMTI BBtlAIBD. 362 ^l^c ^nasurp of l^istorD, 6cc. S3 A far M Rome wai concerned, wm the differ- ence of religion, he immediately discharged all popish recusants who were in custody. By this measure be hoped to propitiate Rome; to hia own subjects he stated his reason for resorting to it to be — his desire to urge it as an argument in support of the applications he was coDtinually making to foreign princes for a more indulgent treat- ment of their protestant subjects. Digby, now earl of Bristol, was incessant in his exertions, and seems to have been minutely inlbrnied of the real intentions and feelings of Spain ; and the result of hia anxious and well-directed inquiries was his informing James that there was no doubt that the princess would shortly bestow her hand upon his son, and that her portion would be the then enormous sum of eight hundred thousand pounds sterling. Pleased as James was with the news as regarded the anticipated marriage, he was enraptured when ne considered it in conjunction with the restoration of the palatinate, which undoubtedly would instantly follow. No- thing now remained but to procure the dispensation from Bome ; ana that, sup- posing, as seems to have been the case, that Spain was sincere, was not likely to be long delayed when earnestly solicited by Spain— when all James's hopes were shipwrecked and his finely drawn webs of polity scat- tered to the winds by Buckingham. Did a prince ever fail to rue the folly of making an upstart too great for even his master's control I A. D. 1633. — It would have been compara- tively a small mischief had the king made Buckingham merely an opulent duke, had he not also made him, practically, his chief minister. Accomplished, showy, and plau- sible, he was, however, totally destitute of the solid talents necessary to the statesman, and v;as of so vindictive as well as impetu- ous a nature, that he would willingly have plunged the nation into the most destruc- tive war for the sake of avenging a personal iiqury or ruining a personal enemv. Im- portunate and tyrannical even with the king himself, he was absolute, arrogant, and in- sulting to all others ; and he had even in- sulted the prince of Wales. But as the king grew old, and evidently was fast sink- ing, Buckingham became anxious to repair bis past error, and to connect himself in such wise with Charles, while still only prince of Wales, as to continue to be the chief minion of court when the prince should have expanded into the king. Perceiving that the prince of Wales was greatly annoyed by the long and seemiuff)^ interminable delays that had taken plaae in bringing about the Spanish match, Buckingham resolved to make that circum- stance serviceable to his views. Accord- ingly, though the prince had recently shown a decided coolness towards the overgrown favourite, Buckingham approached his royal highness, and in his most insinuating man- ner — and no one could be more insinuating or supple than Buckingham when he had an object in view — professed a great desire 1 to be servioeable. He descanted long and well upon the unhappy lot of princes in general in the important article of marriage, in which both husband and wife were usu- ally the victims of mere state policy, and strangers even to each other's persons until they met at the altar. From these unde- niable premises he passed to the conclusion, so well calculated to inflame a young and enthusiastic man, that for the sake both of making the acquaintance of his future wife, and of hastening the settlement of the affair by interesting her feelinp^s in behalf alike' of his gallantry and of his personal accnm plishments, Charles would act wisely b going incognito to the Spanish court, i step so unusual and so trusting could not fail to flatter the Spanish pride of Philip and bis court, while, as seeming to proceed from his passionate eagerness to see her, the infanta herself must inevitably be de- lighted. Charles, afterwards so grave and so me- lancholy — alas I good prince, how much he had to make him so t — was then voung, in- ^nuous, and romantic. He fell at onoe into Buckingham's views, and, taking ad- vantage of an hour of unusual good humour, they so earnestly importuned the king that he gave his consent to the scheme. Sub- sequently he changed his mind; cool re- flection enabled him to sec some good reasons against the proposed expedition, and his natural timidity and suspicion no doubt suggested still more than had any such solid foundation. But he was again importuned by the prince with earnestness, and by the duke with that tyrannons inso- lence which he well knew when to vse and when to abstain from ; and again tha king consented. Endymion Porter, (gentleman of the prince's chamber, and sir Francis Cotting- ton were to be the only attendants of the prince and duke, except their mere grooms and valets. To sir Francis Cottington the king communicated the scheme, in the duke's presence, and asked his opinion of it. The scene that followed is so graphi- cally characteristic of the terms upon which the duke lived with his benefactor and sove- reign, that we transcribe it in full from the pages of Hume. " James told Cottington that he had al- ways been an honest man, and, therefore, he was now about to trust him with an affair of the highest importance, which he was not, upon his life, to disclose to any man whatever. 'Cottington,' added he, 'here is baby Charles, dog Steenie, (these ridiculous appellations he usually gave to the prince and Buckingham), who have a freat mind to go past into Spain and fetch ome the infanta. TUey will have but two more in -their company, and they have chosen you for one. What think you of the journey V Sir Francis, who was a prudent man, and had resided some years in Spain as the king's a^nt, was struck with all the obvious objections to such an enterprise, and scrupled not to declare them. The king threw himself upon his bed and cried ^ "I at A.D. 1634.— THX DUTCH TAKK THS SPICK ISLANDS, AND MASSACBB TBI BHaLISH, (/ w .il,^iti.,edition, >d suspicion no than had any it he was again itli earnestness, tvramons inso- rhen to we and again tb« king :Ieman of the 'rancis Cotting- tendants of the ir mere grooms Cottington the cheme, in the I his opinion of id is so graphi- rmsupon which factor and sove- in full from the that he had al- and, therefore, It him with an ance, which he disclose to any on,' added he, Bteenie, (these usually gave to n), who have a Spain and fetch II have but two ind they have hink you of the I was a prudent ! years in Spain ick with all the an enterprise, re them. The s bed and cried J HB ■NGLIBH. A.B. 163 1.— TUB inVBBBt* or MOHBT BBBOCaO TBOM 10 «0 8 rBB OBN*. lEnglanTJ — llonsc of StttBrt._3am(» 3E. 363 ' I told you all this before,' and fell into a new passion and new lamentations, com- {ilaining that he was undone and should ose baby Charles. " The prince showed by his countenance that he was extrenieW dissatisfied with Cottin^ton's discourse, but Buckingham broke into an open passion against him. The king, he told him, had asked him only of the journey, and of the manner of tra- velling, particulars of which he mixht be a competent judge, having gone the road so often by post ; but that he, without being called to it, bad the presainpton to give his advice upon matters of state and against the prince, which he should repent aa long as he lived." " A thousand other reproaches he added which put the poor king into a new agony on behalf of a servant who, he foresaw, would suffer for answering him honestly. Upon which he said, with some emotion, 'Nay, by God, Steenie, you are much to blame for using him so. He answered me directly to the question which I asked him, and very honestly and wisely ; and yet you know he said no more than I told you be- fore he was called in.' However, after all this passion on both sides, James renewed his consent, and proper directions were given for the journey. Nor was he at any loss to discover that the whole intrigue was originally contrived bv Buckingham, as well as pursued violently by his spirit and impetuosity " 'The prince and Buckingliam, with their attendants, passed through France ; and so well were they disguished that they even ventured to look in at a court ball at Paris, where the prince saw the princess Hen- rietta, his afterwards unfortunate and he- roically attached queen. In eleven days they arrived at Madrid, where they threw off their disguises and were received with the utmost cordiality. The highest honours were paid to Charles. The king paid him a visit of welcome, cor- dially thanked him for a step which, un- usual as it was among princes, only the intre forcibly proved the contldence he had in iSpanish honour, gave him a gold passport key they that he might visit at all hours, and ordered the council to obey him even as the king himself. An incident which in England would be trivial, but which in Spain, so haughty and so pertinacious of etiquette, was of the utmost importance, will at once show the temper in which the Spaniards responded to tlie youthful and gallant confidence of Charles. Olivarez, a grandee of Spain— a haughtier race farthan any king, out of Spain — though he had the right to remain covered in the pre- sence of his own sovereign, invariably took off his hat in presence of the prince of Wales 1 Thus far, in point of fact, whatever ob- vious objections there might be to Buck- ingham's scheme, it bad neen really suc- cessful; the pride and the fine spirit of honour of the Spaniard had been touched precisely as he anticipated. But if he had done good by accident, he was speedily to undo it by his selfish wilfulness. Instead of taking any advantage of the generous confidence of the prinee, the paniard gave way upon some points whioh otherwise they most probabljr would have insisted upon. The pope, mdead, took some advantage of the prince's position, by adding some more stringent religious con- ditions to the dispensation; but, on the whole, the visit of the prinee had done good, and the dispensation was actually granted and prepared for delivery when Iregory XV. died. Urban Till., who sue- ceeded him, anxious once more to see a catholic king in England, and judging from Charles's romantic expedition that love and impatience would probably work his conversion, found some pretexts for delay- ing the delivery of the dispensation, and the natural impatience of Charles was graded into downright anger by the artful insi- nuations of Buckingham, who affected to feel certain that Spain had been insincere from the very first. Charles at length grew so dissatisfied that he asked permission to return home, and asked it in such evident ill-humour, that Philip at once granted it without even the affectation of a desire for any prolongation of the visit. But the princes parted with all external flriendship, and Philip had a monument erected on the spot at which they bade each other adieu. That the craft of Urban would speedily have given way before the united influences of James and Philip there can be no doubt, and as little can there be of the loyal since- rity of the Spaniard. Why then should Buckingham, it maybe asked, overset when so near its completion the project be had so greatly exerted himself to advance? We have seen that his object in suggesting the journey to the prince was one of purely sel- fish policy. He then was selfish with re- spect to future benefit to himself. His sowing discord between Charles and the Spaniard was equally a selfish procedure. His dissolute and airy manners disgusted that grave court; and his propensity to de- bauchery disgusted that sober people. He insulted the pride of their proud nobility in the person of Olivarez, the almost omnipo- tent prime minister of Spain ; and when by all these means he had worn out his wel- come in Spain, and perceived that even re- spect to the prince could not induce the Spaniards to endure himself, he resolved to break off the amity between the prince and Philip, and succeeded as we have seen. When Buckingham was taking leave of Spain he had the wanton insolence to say to the proud Olivarez, " With regard to you, sir, in particular, you must not consider me as your friend, bnt must ever expect from me all possible enmity and opposition." To this insolent speech, the grandee, with calm greatness, merely replied that he very willingly accepted of the offer of enmity so obligingly made. On their return to England both Charlea and Buckingham used all their influence with the king to get him to break off all IiONSOM NOW BBOAN TO HfOBBABB BAPIDLT IN SUB AND WBAITH. I i ' r 1 i ! i i ! I 'i \ * i >.l JOBM ITOWB, tBI ANTI4VAST, BIlfOmiARt ARB TOrOBIArBIB I OIBO, IMS. 364 Qt^c ^fcuttrp of 1|i*tor9, $cc. Atrther aagotUtiBf tha BpaBith mateh; ChariM baiuK aetaatad by a nal thongh er> raaaoua belief of the iBtiaeerity of the Spa- BiaHt aad BneklBiham. by a eoateioaHCM that he could expect BolhiBB but ruin ehould the iBfaata, after beiBBituBKby aomuch laault ahowa to henelf aad ner eoaotry, beeeaie queea of Baglaud. la waat of BMiaey, aad lookiaR n|)oa the Bpaaith Biateu aa a sure aieaas by which to gel the palaiiaate laatored without goiag to war, Janea waa aot easily perauaded to give up all thought of a match he had had ao muen at heart aad had brought ao wear to a ooa- eluaioa. But the iuflueace of Kuckiagham was onaipoleat la parliameat, acd nw in< aoleace irreaiatible by the kiag ; the Bpaaish match waa dropped, eamitT to the houie of Austria waa heaeeforth to ae the principle of Bnglish polity, and a war was to be re- aorted to for the restoratioa of the palati- Bate. It waa la vaia that the Bpaaish ambaaaador eadeavonred to opea James's eyes. The deluded mooarch was utterly ia tne haada of the haughty duke, aad more- over, firom growiag paysical debility, was dally growing less At to endure aceaes of violent disputation. The earl of Bristol, who throughout this strange aad protracted affair had acted the part of both aa hoaest and an able minis- ter, would moat probably have made such represeatatioaa in parliament as would have overcome even Buckingham ; but he had acarcely landed la Englaad ere, by the favou- rite'a iailueaee, he was arreateid and carried to the Tower. The king was satisfied in hia heart that the minister was an honest and aa iiOnred maa : but though he speedily released him from the Tower, Buckiujtham only sulfcred him thus far to undo his invol- untary iaiuatice on conditioa that Bristol ahould retire to the country and abatain ftom all attendaace oa parliaaient I From Spain the prince turned to France ia search of a bride. He had been much atruck by the loveliness of the princess Henrietta, and he now demanded her hand ; negotiatioaa were accordingly immediately catered iato on the same terms previously mated to Spaia, though the princess could oriag no dowry like that of the infanta. James, ia the mean time, found himself, while fast sinking into the ^ave, plunged into that warlike course which during nis whole life be had so sedulously, and at so many aacriftces of dignity aad evea of pretty certaia advantage, avoided. The palatinate, lying in the very midst of Oermaay, possessed by the emperor and the duke of Bavaria, and only to be ap- proached by aa English army through other powerful enemies, was obviously to be re- taken by force ooly at great risks and sa- crificea. But the counsels of Buckingham urged James onward. Count de Mansfeldt and his array were subsidised, and an Eng- lish armv of two hundred horse and twelve thousand foot was raised by impressment. A free passage was promised by France, but when the army arrived at Calais it was discovered that no formal orders had been received for its admission, and after vainly waiting for such orders until they actually began to want provision, the commanders of the expedition steered for Zealand. Here, again, no proper arrangements had heen made for the disembarkation, a sort of plague broke out among the men from short allowances and long confinement iu the close vessels, nearly one half of the troops died, and Mansfeldt verv rightly deemed the remainder too smati a force for so mighty an attempt as that of the reconquest of the palatinate. A. o. 1036. — Long infirm, the king had been so much harassed of late by the uiero aecessity of loolting war in the face, tliat this awful loss of life and the utter failure of the hopes he had been persuaded to rest upon the expedition, threw him into a tertian ague. From the first attack he felt that hia days were numbered ; for when told, ia the old English ads^e, that " An ague m spring Is health to a king," he replied, with something oi his old quaiut- uess— " Hoot mon I Ye forget it means a tounp king." He was right. Every successive fit left him still weaker, till he sank into the arms of death, on the 37th of March, 1035, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, the fifty-eighth of his tti^n over Scotland, and the twenty- third of his reign over England. Few kings have been less personally dig- nified, or less personally or royallv vicious than James. As a husband, a lather, a friend, master, and patron, he was unex- ceptionable save upon the one point of ex- cessive facility and good nature. As a pri- vate man he would have been prised the more on account of this amiable though weak trait of character. But as a king it weakened him both at home and abroad, and would assuredly have conducted him to the scaffold, had puritans been as far advanced in their fanatic and mischievous temper, and in their political and misused power, as they were on the reign of his more admirable but less fortunate son. CHAPTER L. Tkt Reign qf CHABLBa I. A. D. 1035.— Thb singular aubmissiveuess with which James had been obeyed, even when hia priacipica and practice were the most exoroitantly arbitrary, was well cal- culated to mislead his son and successor Charles I. into a very fatal mistake as to the real temper and inclination of his people. Authority had not as yet ceased to be obey- ed, but it had for some time ceased to )■•• - -'- spected. Even aa early as the reign of beth, a sturdy and bitter spirit of purit. no had begun to possess considerable inflnenr:, both ia parliament and among the people at large, and that spirit had vastly increased during the long reign of James I., whose familiar manners and undignified eliaracter were so ill calculated to support his claim to an almost eastern submission on the part of subjects towards their anointed sovereign. WILLIAM CAM9BII, THB HISTOBIAN ; AVTHOR OF TUB " BBITAIf NIA :" DIBO 1623. \\ ■Of.DTIIM. lEnglanV.— Ilonsc of Stnsrt — C^arlts S. 366 But tha real temper of the people wu, u it Mem* to u«, totally mUunaentooa both bjr Charlei I. and bii conneilton. Charle* had imbibed very much of hli father'! extravagant notion of the extent of the royal prerogative; and while the bit- ter puritaiit were ready to carry out their fanatical feelinit* to the extent of cruihing alike the throne and the church, (he king commenced hia reiKU by the exaction of a htntvoltnet, an arbitrarr mode of railing money which had been oenounced long be- fore. The pecuniary lituation of the icing waa, in fact, auoh aa ought to have excited the ■ympathyand liberality of his x'.bjecta, and even the unconititutioual and arbitrary conduct of the king in iaiuing privy seal* for a benevolence muit not blind ui to the caut* of that conduct. lu the reign of Jamea, aa we have teen, the cause of the prince palatine wai unreaaonably popular, and England had entered into a treaty to keep up the war on behalf of that prince. Bound Dy that treaty, Cliarlei appealed to hia parliament, whiuh gavo him only two ■ubsidies, though well aware that aum would be quite uncqiinl to the military de- moustratioiii which both the cause of hia brother-in-law and the credit of the Eng- liah nation required at hia handi. An inetHcient expedition to Cadiz plainly showed that, even with the aid of the forced benevolence, the kinf( was very insufficiently supplied with innney, and a new parliament was called. Wuriied by tlic experience he now had, the king exerted himself to exclude the more obstinate and able of the opposition members from the new parlia- ment. Something like what in later times baa been called the manuyement of parlia- ment bad already been tried in the reign of James. But the chief step now taken was arbitrarily to name the popular members of the late parliament sheriffs of counties, by which means they were pe of commons had voted against the duke's conduct ; and while some persons were remarking that no doubt the villain must be near at hand, and would be recognized by the loss of his hat, Felton deliberately stepped forward and M A M M m m m A A M m u M I A. D. 1628.— TUK KINO rORBADB tUR COMMONS TO MBDOLB WITH HBI.IOION. I ; A>B. 1639. — THB aoon AvriT to inn vbbiich kiho wo* vkotbction. lEnglanV.— l^ouAc of Stuart.— ®l[)aTlcs 3£. 367 M m m a ■ s p «• M V i< avowed his crime. When queitioned he po- ■itively denied that any one had instigated him to th« murder of the dake. His con- scien«ek he said, was his only adviser, nor could any man's advice cause him to act •gainst his conscience ; he looked upon the duke as a public enemy, and therefore had he slain him. He maintained the same con- stancy and self .complacency to the last, pro. testing even upon the scaffold that his con- science acquitted him of all b>me. A me- lancholy instance of the extent to which men can shut their eyes to their own wick- edness in their detestation of the real, or imputed, wickedness of others ! A. D. 1439. — Charles received the tidings of the assassination of his favourite and minister with a composure which led some persons to imagine that the duke's death was not wholly disagreeable to the too in- dulgent master over whom he had so long and so unreasonably exerted his influence. But this opinion graatly wronged Charles; he, as a man, wanted not sensibility, but he possessed to a remarkable extent the va- luable poweir of controlling and concealing his feeUngs. The first consequence of the cessation of the ^miciotts counsel and influence of Buckingham was the king's wise resolution to diminish his need of the aid of his un- friendly subjects, bjr conclud'ng peace with the foreign foes against whom ne had war- red under so many disadvantages and with so little glory. Having thus freed himself from the heavy and constant drain of fo- reign warfare, the king selected Sir Thomas Wentworth, afterwards earl of Strafford, and Laud, afterwards archbishop of Can- terbury, to aid him in the task of regulating the internal affairs of his kingdom ; a task which the king's own love of prerogative and the obstinate ill humour and disaffec- tion of the leading puritans rendered al- most impracticable. Unfortunately, Laud, who had great in- fluence over the king, was by no means in- clined to moderate the king's propension to arbitrarjr rule. Tonnage and poundage were still levied on the king's sole autho- rity ; papists were still compounded with, as aregular means of aiding the king's revenue; and the custom.house officers were still en- couraged and protected in the most arbi- trary measures for the discovery and seiz- ure of goods alleged to be liable to charge with the obnoxious and illegal duties. These errors of the king's government were seised upon by popular declaimers and the violence of libellers provoked tlie king and Laud to a most arbitrary extension of the al- ways too extensive powers of the high com- mission court of star-chamber, the senteaces of which upon all who were accused of oppos- ing the government were truly iniquitous, and in precisely the sHine degree impolitic. This court, though really authorized by no law, inflicted both personal and pecuniary severities which to us who are accustomed to the regular and equitable administration of law cannot but be revolting. For ijst. ance, a barrister of Lincoln's inn, named Prynne, a man of considerable talent though of a factious and obstinate temper, was brought before this arbitrary court, charged with having attacked and abused the cere- monies of the church of England. Bur- ton, a divine, and Bastwick, a physician, were at the same time charged with a simi- lar offence ; and these three gentlemen of liberal professions, for libels which now, if punished at all, would surely not cost their authors more than two months impri- sonment, were condemned to be placed in the pillory, to have their ears cut off, and to pay, each, a ttne of five thousand pounds to the king. The impolicy of this and similar severe sentences was the greater, because there were but too many indications already of extensive and determined disaffection to the crown. Refused the really requisite pecuniary assistance by his parliament, the king continued to levy $kip money, and against this tax an especial and determined opposition was raised ; though it ought to be observed that it had often been levied in former reigns, not because of so reason- able a motive as the factious refusal of par- liament to provide for the necessities of the staie, but in sheer despotic preference on the part of sovereigns to act on their own will rather than on that of parliament. The puritans and the popular leaders in general, however, made no allowance for the king's really urgent and distressing situation. Among the most determined opponents of the ship money was Mr. John Hamp- den, a gentleman of some landed pro- perty in the county of Buckingham. The moral character of this gentleman was, even by those whom his political conduct the most offended or injured, admitted to be excellent ; but his very excellence as a private man served only to make him the more mischievous as a public leader. If instead of lending himself to the support of that bitter and gloomy party whose piety not seldom approached to an impious fa- miliarity, and whose love of liberty degene- rated into a licentiousness quite incom- Satible with good government, John Hamp- eu had thrown the weight of his own high character into the scale against the in- sanity of genius as displayed by Vane, and the insanity of hate to all above them and contempt of all below them which was manifested by nineteen-twentietha of the puritan or republican party, how sternly, how justly, and how efficiently might he not have rebuked that sordid parliament which so fiercely and capriciously com- plained of the king's extortion, while actu- ally compelling him to it by a long and ob- stinate parsimony as injurious to the people as it was insulting to the sovereign I But he took the opposite course. Being rated at twenty shillings for his Buckingham- shire estate, he refused payment, and caused the question between himself and the crown to be carried into the exchequer court. For twelve days the ablest lawyers in England argued this case before the BI.IOION. A.D. 1639.— A PACIFICATION CONCLUOBD WITH THB SCOTS, JUNB 17 A.D. 1640— THK KINO BKBOLTKO TO CALL A PABLIAMBRT. ■ f- 368 ^l^e ^rcasurs ot l^istor^, $cc. whole of the Judges, all of whom, with the exception of four, decided in favour of the kinra claim. Without entering into the intricacies of legal argumentation, we must briefly re- mark, that all the writers who have treat- ed of this celebrated case appear to us to have bestowed very undeserved praise upon Hampden, and quite to have mis- understood or misrepresented the case as between the king and the people at large. Was it the king's duty to support the peace of the kingdom and the dignity of the crown 7 By so much as he might have fallen short of doing so, by so much would he have fallen short of the fulfilment of his coronation oath. But parliament, the power of which was comparatively recent and in itself to a very considerable extent a usurpation, denied him the neces- sary supplies. An odious and insolent ty- ranny, aurely, to iimpose responsibility, yet deny the means or snstainiog it! The king, then, was thus driven, insolently and most tyrannously driven, to the necessity of choosing between a crime and an irregu- larity; between peijury, violation of his coronation oath, and a direct levy of that money which he oould not obtain through the indirect and constitutional means of parliament. It is quite idle to dwell upon the irre- gularity of the king's mode of levying money witlout. charging, primarily, that irregularity tu ib: true cause, the shame- ful niggardliness of parliament. Then the question between Charles and the sturdv patriot Hampden becomes nar- rowed to this point ; were the twenty shil- lings levied upon Hampden's property an unreasonable charge for the oefence and security of that property? No one, we should imagine, will pretend to maintain that, and therefore the refusal of Hampden to pay the tax, — unaccompanied as that refusal was by a protest against the vile conduct of parliament, — smhcked far more of the craftiness and factious spirit of his party, than of the sturdy and single-minded honesty which the generality of writers so markedly affect to attribute to the man. We have dwelt the longer upon the pe- cuniary disputes between Charles and his narrow-minded parliament, because the real origin of all the subsequent disorders was the wanton refusal of the parliament to provide for the legitimate expences of the state. Later in order of time the dis- putes became complicated, and in the course of events the parliament became better justified in opposition, and the king both less justified and less moderate ; but even in looking at those sad passages in our history which tell us of royal insin- cerity and of Englishmen leagued under opnosiuK banners, and upon their English soil spilling Unglish blood, never let the reader forget that the first positive injus- tice, the first provocation, the first guilt, belonged to parliament^ which practised ty- rannv and injustice while exclaiming aloud for liberty. CHAPTER LI. The Reign qf Charlbs I. (eontinued.J A. B. 1640.— Thouoh there was amost bit- ter spirit existing against the church of Eng- land, though the press teemed with puritan libels as vulgar and silly as they were mali- cious, Churies, a sincere friend to the church, most unhappily saw not the storm-cloud that hoverea over him. Instead of con- centrating his energies, his friends, and his pecuniary resources, to elude or smite down the gloomy and bitter puritans of England, and to awaken again the cheerful and loyal spirit of his English yeomanry, he most unwisely determined to introduce episco- pacy into Scotland. An order was given for reading the liturgy in the principal church of Edinburgh, which so provoked the congregation, that the very women joined in an attack on the officiating mi- nister, and the place of public worship waa profaned by furious and disgusting impre- cations. Long inured to actual warfare with England, and always jealous of a na- tion so much wealthier and more powerful than themselves, the Scotch gladly seized upon the attempt to introduce episcopacy among them as a pretext for having re- course to arms, and the whole of that dis- affected and warlike population was in- stantly in a state of insurrection. Even now, could the king have been induced to perceive the real inveteracy and determi- nation of the Scottish hatred of episco- pacy, he might have escaped from this por- tion of his embarrassments with but little worse evil than some diminution of his cherished notion of the absolute supremacy of anointed sovereigns. A negotiation was resorted to, and a treaty of peace quickly succeeded a mere suspension of arms ; each party agreeing to a disbandonment of their torces. Unhappily, neither -party was quite earnest in desiring peace ; the king could not give up his long-cherished ideas of their absolute monarchy, and the rigid Scottish Presbyterians were not a jot more inclined to yield up any portion of their entire free- dom and self-government in matters of re- ligion. The negotiations and treaties were in consequence marked by mutual insincer- ity ; mutual charges of bad faith were made, and both Charles and his Scottish people speedily resumed their hostile attitude. The dispute in which the king had thus needlessly and unwisely involved himself seriously increased his difficulties. Al- though he still continued to levy ship money and other arbitrary taxes, he was dreadfully distressed for money ; and the disaffected of England saw, with scarcely disstmbled pleasure, that their cause was virtually being secured by the disaffected of Scotland. It was while the people were in this ominous temper that Charles, hav- ing exhausted all other mtans, even to forced loans from his nobility, was obliged to call a parliament and make one more appeal for pecuniary aid. But this parlia- ment was even less than the former one in- clined to aid the king. He had been re- U H M K< ■> O K M a K M « H m »> a M pa M A o l» IS ¥4 t< o N »< ki ■< * H. M H m (• H H A.D. 1039.— TBB nUTCH nnSTROT THB SrANISH VLBBT IN VHB r>>WNS. A.D. 1640. — TBB aCOta CKOBIBB TU BOKBIB and IiBTIBD OOKTBIBUTIOIIS. lEnglanti— 1|ott0c of Stuart.— general, Herbert, to accuse before the house of peers, lord Kim- bolton, together with the prominent com- moners HoUis, Hampden, Pym, Strode, and sir Arthur Haslerig, of high treason in having endeavoured to subvert the laws and government of the kingdom, to deprive the ing of his regal power, and to substitute for It an arbitrarv and tyrannical authority, injurious to the king and oppressive to his liege subjects. Thus far we are by no means unprepared to approve of the king's proceedings ; for surely the conduct of the accused persons had been marked by all the tendency attributed to it in the terms of the aotinsation ! But, unfortunatelv, Charies, instead of allovring the proceed- ings to go forward with the grave and deli- berate earnestness of a great judicial mat- ter, vraa so wilful or so ill adrised as to take a personal step which, had it been success- ful, would have exposed him to the impu- tation of a most unconstitutional tyranny, and which, in being unsuceessful, exposed him to that ridicule and contempt which, injurious to any man under any circum- stances, could be nothing less than fatal to a king who was in dispute with a majority of his people, and who had already seen no small portion of them in actual battle array against his authority. On the very day after the attorney-gene- ral had commenced justifiable proceedings against the factious leaders whose names are given above, the king entered the house of commons, without previous notice and without attendance. On his majesty's first appearance, the members to a man respect- fully stood up to receive him, and Lenthal the speaker vacated his chair. His ma- jesty seated himself, and, after looking sternly round for some moments, said, that understanding that the house had refused or neglected to give up five of its members v.'hom he had ordered to be accused of high treason, he had personally come there to seize them, a proceeding to which he was sorry to be compelled. Ferceiring that the accused were not present, he cafled upon the speaker to deliver them up : when that ofiicer, with great presence of mind and jus- tice, replied tliat he was the mere organ and servant of that house, and that he had neither eyes to see, nor ears to bear, nor lips to utter, save what that house com- manded. Finding that he could in no other respect gain by a procedure in which he was so great a loser in dignity, his majesty, after sitting silent for some moments longer, departed from the house. He now pro- ceeded to the common-council of the city, and made his complaint of the conduct of the house of commons. On his road he was saluted by cries of " pririlege," not un- mixed with still more insultiuK cries from many of the lower sort, and his complaint to the common council was listened to in a contemptuous and ominous silence. Irri- tated and alarmed at this new proof of the unpopularity of his proceedings, he de- parted from the court, and as he did so was saluted by some low puritan with the sedi- tious watchword of the Jews of old — " To your tents, O Israel I" It is utterly inconceivable how a sove- reign possessed of Charles's good sense, and aware, as from many recent occurrences he needs must have been, of the resolved and factious nature of the men to whom he was opposed, could have compromised him- self by 80 rash and in everyway unadvisable a iproceeding as that which we have de- scribed. In truth, he had scorely returned to the comparative solitude of Windsor be- fore he himself saw how prfjudicial this affair was likely to be to his interests, and he hastened to address a letter to parlia- A. D. 1641.— AN ACT FOB ABOLiaHlNO TUB STAB OBAMBBB PAIIBS. \\ A. D. 1641. — TBB KINa's DADSBTBR MARKIBD TO THB FBIHCB OV OB&IfOB. H m f A K n H M »< M M M « IB O M M H lEnglantf.— llottse of Stnart.— 0^i[)BrU9 3E. 371 ment, in which he said that hi* own life and crown were not more precions to him than the privilegea of parliament. Thii virtual apology for his direct and personal interference with those privileges was ren- dered necessary by his previous precipi- tancy, but this ill-fated monarch now ran into another extreme. Having offended parliament, his apology to parliament was necessary, nay, in the truest sense of the word, it was dignified ; for a persistence in error is but a false dignity, wnether in mo- narch or in private man. But here his con- cesp.ion should have stopped. His offence was one against good manners, but the of- fence with which Pym and the members were ctiarged was one of substance, not of form. Their offence was not in the slight- est degree diminished or atoned for by the king's folly ; )ret, as though there had been some close logical connection between them, he now informed the house that he should not farther prosecute his proceedings against its accused members t Could in- consequence or want of dignity g^o farther, or be more fatally shown ? If, while apo- logising to the house for his unquestionable o&nce against its privileges, he still had calmly and with dignity, out sternly and inexorably, carried on his proceedings against the accused members, it is quite within the pale of probability that he would have saved himself from an untimely end, and his country from the stigma of a most barbarous murder. The opposite conduct, though in no wise efficient in softening the stern hearts of his enemies, taught them the fatally important truth that their king knew how to yield, and that if unwisely rash in a moment of irritation, he could be no less unwisely abject in a moment of cal- culation or timidity. It was a fatal lesson ; and from this moment, in spite of any seeming and temporary advantages, Charles of England was virtually a dethroned mo- narch and a doomed man. There was a deep art, beyond what was at first apparent, in the insolent insinuation of the poi>'ilar declaimers that the king had himself fomented the recent horrors in Ireland. The awful massacre among the proteg^ants of that country had naturally raised a new horror and dread of papacy in the minds of the protestants of England. The artful popular leaders took advantage of this very natural feeling, and worked upon it as might promise best to aid their own ambitious and blood-thirsty views. The ignorant and the timid were taught to believe that the massacre of protestants, though the deed of bigoted papists, was far enough from being disagreeable to the king and his friends, who would not impro- hably cause similar proceedings in England unless due power and means of prevention were timcously placed in the hands of par- liament, which was constantly represented as an integer that necessarily loved and watched over the people, instead of what it really was, an aggregate composed of va- rious dispositions and rates of liilent, having but one common bond of union, a hatred of all authority save that of the aggregate in question, and having a deference for no opi- nion save that of each individual member of that aggregate. Treated as Charles had been almost from the first day of his reign, it must be clear to the most superficial ob- server, that nothing but his fortresses and his troops remained to him of the sub- stance of monarchy. The parliament now determined to deprive him of these. They had seen that he could yield, they calcu- lated upon a passionate resistance to their first exorbitancy and insolence of demand ; but they doubted not that the vacillation of the king's mind would beg^n long ere the resolute obstinacy of their own would ter- minate. The result but too well proved the accuracy of their reasoning. Tnc people were skilfully worked up into an ecstacy of horror of the designs and power of the papists, and thus urged to petition that tlie Tower, the fortresses of Hull and Ports- mouth, and the fleet, should be committed to the hands of officers in the confidence of parliament. Demands so indicative of sus- picion, so insultingly saying that the king would place such important trusts in hands unfit to use them, were, as the opposition had anticipated, warmly resented at first, and then, unwisely complied with. Emboldened by this new concession, the popular party affected new and increased fears of the designs of the Irish papists, and demanded that a new militia should be raised and trained, the commanders as well as the merelysubaltern officers of which should be nominated by parliament. Charles now, when too late, perceived that even to concede safely requires judgment ; and being urged to gave up the command of the array for a limited space of time, he promptly re- plied, " No I not even for a single hour !" Happy for himself and his kingdom had it been if he had earlier known how to say " No," and to abide by it not only with firmness but also with temper. A. o. 1642. — In making this demand par- liament had completely thrown off the mask ; and as the very extremity to which the king was driven supplied him in this one case with the firmness which in general and by his natural temper, he so sadly wanted, it at once became evident that the disputes between the king and his loyal subjects on the one side, and the puritans and their only too numerous and enthu- siastic dupes on the other, could only be decided by that saddest of all means, a civil war. On either side appeals to the people were printed and circulated in vast numbers, and, as usual in such cases, each side exaggerated the faults of the other, and was profoundly silent as to its own faults, whether as to past conduct or pre- sent views. The king's friends, being for the most part of the more opulent ranks, assumed the tide of the cavaliers, while the puritan, or rebel phrty, from their affected nabit of wearing their hair closely cut, were called rouncTheads, and in a short time the majority of the nation ranked under the one or the other appellation, and every I BOTH THB KINO AND PARLIAMENT BMFLOTBO MANT HIRBD SFIBS. \ l I \i : '!} 'i f lA i : i M*M«H^MkB A.D. 1643.— cox.. OATIIIDIIK TOOK OmANVHAM WOM, VMS KIR*, If ASCI 23. 372 ^l^e ^rcasuns of 3l|i«tort?> ^c« thing portended that the civil strife would be long, fierce, and aanguinary. In addition to the train-bandi aMembled nnder the command of sir John Digbr, the king had barely three hundred infantry and eight hundred cavalry, and he waa by no means well provided with arms. But, in spite of all tne exertions of the puritans, there was still an extensive feeUng of loy- alty amonv the higher and middle orders : and as the king with his little army marched slowly to Derby, and thence to Shrewsbury, large additions were made to his force, and some of the more opulent loyalists af- forded him liberal and most welcome aid in money, arms, and ammunition. On the side of the parliament similar preparations were made for the impending struggle. When the important fortress of Hull was surrended into their hands, they made it their dep6t for arms and ammuni- tion, and it was held for them by a governor of their own appointment, sir John Ho- tham. On the plea of defending England from the alleged designs of the Irish pa- pists, great numbers of troops had been raised : and these were now openly enlisted and officered for the parliament, and placed under the command of the earl of Essex, who, however, was supposed to be anxious rather to abridge the power of the existing monarch than actuallv to annihilate the monarchy, which, doubtless, had from the very first been the design of the leaders of the popular party. So great was the enthu- siasm of the roundheads, that they in one day enlisted above four thousand men in London alone. Tired of the occupation of watching each others' manoeuvres, the hostile troops at length met at Edge-hill, on the borders of the counties of Warwick and Stafford. A furious engagement took place, which lasted several hours ; upwards of five thousand men fell upon the field, and the contending armies separated, wearied with slaying yet not satiated with slaughter, and each claim- ing the victory. The whole kingdom was now disturbed by the incessant marching and counter- marching of the two armies. Neither of them was disciplined, and the disorders caused by their march were consequently great and destructive. The queen, whose spirit was as high as her affection for her husband was great, most opportunely landed from Holland with a large quantity of am- munition and a considerable reinforcement of men, and she immediately left England again to raise farther supplies. In the ma- noeuvring aud skirmishes which were con- stantly going on, the king, from the supe- rior ranic and spirit of his followers, had for some time a very marked advantage ; but the parliamentarians, so far from being discouraged, actually seemed to increase in their pretensions in proportion to the loss and disgrace they experienced in the field. That the king was at this time sincere in his expressed desire to put a stop to the outpouring of his subjects' blood appears dear from tlie fact, that on obtaining any advantage he invariably sent pacific propo- sals to the parliament. This was espe- cially the case when he *ay in all security in the loval city of Oxford, whence he con- ductea a long negotiation, in which the in- solence of the leaders of the other party was so great and conspicuous, that even the most moderate writers have blamed the king, as having carried bis desire for pacific measures to an extreme, injurious alike to his dignity and to the very cause be was anxious to serve. But if he bore somewhat too meekly with the insolence of his opponents in the cabi- net, the king in his first campaign of the disastrous civil war was abundantly success- ful in the field, in spite of the savage seve- rity of his opponents, who treated as trai- tors the governors of those strong places which from time to time were opened to their sovereign. Cornwall was thoroughly subjected to the king ; at Stratton-hill, in Devonshire, a fine army of the parliamentarians was routed ; and at Boundway-down, near Devises, in Wiltshire, another great victory was gained over them by the royal troops, who were again successful in the still more important battle of Chalgrave-field, in Buckingham- shire. The important city of Bristol was taken by the royalists, and Gloucester was closely invested. Thus far all looked in favour of the royal cause during the first campaign, and at its close great hopes of still farther success were founded upon the fine army that was raised for the king in the north of England by the loyal and high-hearted marquis of Newcastle. Nor was- it the loss only of battles and strong- holds that the parliamentarians had now to deplore. John Hampden, who had made so sturdy, although, in our opinion, so ill-founded an opposition to the ship-money, while acting with the perverse men whose conduct made that undoubted extortion inevitable, took the field with the parliamentarians at the head of a well appointed troop which chiefly consisted of his own tenants and neigh- bours. On several occasions he displayed great courage, and it being proposed to beat up the quarters of the king's gallant rela- tive, prince Rupert, Hampden was foremost in the attack. When the parliamentary troops were subsequently mustered Mr. Hampden was missed, and it was then re- marked that he had been seen, contrary to his usual custom, to leave the field before the fight was ended, and it was noticed, too, that he was leaning forward on his saddle- bow as if exhausted and in pain. The fears thus excited were soon realized; he had been severely wounded. The king would have sent his own surgeon to endeavour to save this indexibly honest though mistaken foe ; but the ill-nited gentleman was hurt beyond human remedy, and died soon after the action. This loss on the parliatnentary side was even more than balanced by the death of the royalist oflicer, Lucius Gary, lord Falk- land, one of the finest and purest charao- A. O. 1643.— MALMISBURT SURHIIIDKBBD TO THB PARLIANBNT, MABCH 19. " I H H h It K ~rfl__^ A. D. 1643. — BB&mna suakBiiBBmBO to tbb babl or Bttax, afbil 26. lEnglantf.— 1|ousc of Stuart.—Cl^arlcs 3E. 373 ten that grace our nBtional hUtory. As a ■tatesman he had oppoied the erron of the kioK with all the boldneu and inilexibklity of Hampden, but with a grace and modera* tion of which Hampden's item and Mvere nature wai incapable. But though lord Falkland ardeutly desired liberty for the subject, he was not prepared to oppress the soTcreign; and. the moment that the evil designs of the popular leaders were fully developed, the gallant and accomplished nobleman took his stand beside his royal master. Learned, witty, elegant, and ac- complished, he was indignant and disgusted at the evident desire of the popular leaders to deluge their country in blood, rather than stop short of the full accomplishment of their ambitious and evil designs. From the commencement of I he civil war he be- came possessed by a deep and settled me- lancholy, the more remarkable from con- trast with his native vivacity. He neglected his person, his countenance became anxious and haggard, and he would remain in silent thought for hours, and then cry, as if un- consciously, " Peace, peace ! let our un- happy country have peace I" On the morn- ing of the battle of Newbury he told his friends that his soul was aweary of the world, and that he felt confident that ere nightfall he should leave them. His sad prediction was accomplished ; he was mor-. tally wounded by a musket ball in the belly, and it was not until the following morning that his mourning friends rescued his body from amidst a heap of the meaner slain. This first campaign being ended, the king made vigorous preparations for a second. As it was evident that the very name of a parliament had a great influence upon the minds of the many, and as all negotiation with the old parliament sitting at West- minster led only to new insult, the king wisely determined to call another parlia- ment at Oxford, where he had his quarters. The peers being for the most part firmly loyal, the king's upper house was well tilled, but his lower house had not more than a hundred and forty members, being scarcely half the number that was mustered by the rebellious house of commons. But the king's members were mostly men of wealth and influence, and thus they had it in their power to do the king the chief ser- vice that he really required, that of voting him supplies. Having done this they were dismissed with thanks, and never again called together. But any supplies which the king could procure from wliat mav almost be called in- dividual loyalty were but small in compa- rison to those which the I'aotious parlia- mentarians could commaiid by the terror which they could strike into nearly every district of the country. As if to show at once their power in this way, and the ex- tent to which they were prepared to abuse it, they issued nii arbitrary command that all the inhabitants of London and the sur- rounding neighbourhood should subtract one meal in every week from their accus- tomed diet, and pay the full price of the provision thus saved as a contribution to the support of what these impudent and ambitious men effected to call the public cause. The seditious Scots at the same time sent a large supply of men to the par- liamentarians, who also had fourteen thou- sand men, under the carl of Manchester, ten thousand under the earl of Esses, and eight thousand and upward* under sir William Waller. And though this force was numerically so much superior to the king's, and, by consequence, so much more onerous, the parliamentary troops were, in fact, far better supplied with both provision and ammunition than the royalists; the majoritv of men being so deluded or so terrified by the parliamentarians that an ordinanet of parliament was at all times sufficient to procure provisions for the re- bel force, when the king could scarcely get provisions for money. A. D. 1644.— Though, in the ordinary style used in speaking of military affairs we have been obliged to speak of the termination of the first campaign, at the period when the contending parties went into winter quarters, hostilities, in fact, nei'cr wholly ceased from the moment when they first- commenced. Even when the great armies were formally lying idle, a constant and most destructive partizan wajrfare was carried on. The village green became a battle field, the village church a fort ; now this, now that party plundered the peasantry, who in their hearts learned to curse the fierceness of both, and to pray that one or other might be so effectually heaten as might put a stop at once and for ever to scenes which had all the Khastly horrors of war without any of its glory, and all its present riot and spolia- tion without even the chance of its subse- quent gain. Whether cavalier or round- head were triumphant the peaceable denizen was equally sufferer; and when the war- cry and the blasphemy rang through the village street, and re-echoed through the trees that waved above the graves of long generations of the former occupants of the village, what mattered it whether cavalier cheered or roundhead prostituted the words of the book of life — were they not Englitk accents that issued from the passion-curled lips of both parties ? That the system of terrorism which the parliamentarians acted upon had very much to do with prolonging this unnatural con- test seems indisputable. Counties, and lesser districts, even, as soon as they were for a brief time freed from the presence of the parliamentary forces, almost invariably and unanimously declared for the king. Nay, in the very towns that were garrison- ed by the parliamentarians, including even their stronghold and chief reliance, Lon- don, there was at length a loud and gene- ral echo of the earnest cry of the good lord Falkland, " Peace, peace I let our coun- try have peace !" From many places the parliament received formal petitjaus to this effect ; and in London, which at the outset had been* so furiously seditious, the very women assembled to the number of up- A.D. 1643.— THB SIBOB OF SLOUCBBTBB BAIIBn BT RSBBX, SBFT. 6. [3£ !. I A.J>. 1844.— ■BNttllTTA, TOUNeBI* BADSBTSK OV CBABLII, BOSH A* BZBniB, JDHB 16. >4 M '4 M M s 374 S^c treasure of llistorp, 9cc. wards of four thonaand, and auTronnded the hottte of commonB, exclaiming, " Peace t give na peace ; or thoae traitora who denv na peace, that we may tear them to piecea." So furiouB were the women on this occa- aiou, that, in the yiolence uaed by the gnarda, aome of theae wivea and mothera who wiahed their huabanda and aona no long^ to be the prey of a handful of am- bitioaa men were actually killed upon the spot I But they who had ao joyously aided in aowing the whirlwind were not yet to ceaae to reap the storm. War, to the utter de- struction of the altar and the throne, waa the deaign of the aelf-elected and reaolved rulera, and it waa in Tain that their lately enthuaiaaiic dupea now cried aloud and in bitter misery for the blessings of peace. Before we proceed to speak of the second campaign of^this sad whr, we must intro- duce to the attention of the reader a mfn who henceforth fixed the chief attention of both parties, and whose character, even in the present day, is nearly as much disputed as his singular energy and still more sin- gular and rapid aucceaa were marvelled at in hia own ti£ae. Oliver Cromwell was the son of a Hunt- ingdonshire gentleman who, as a second son of a respectable but not wealthy family, waa himaelf poaaeaaed of but a small for- tune, which he is said to have improved by engaiging in the trade of a brewer. At coUege, and even later in life, Oliver Crom- well waa remarkable rather for diaaipation than for ability, and the very small re- aourcea that he inherited were pretty nearly exhauated b^ hia excesses, long before he had any inclination or opportunity to take part in public affairs. Ou reaching mature manhood, however,' he suddenly changed his course of life, and affected the entnu- aiastio apeech and rigid conduct of the pu- ritana, whose daily increasing power and consequetace his shrewd glance was not alow to discover. Juat aa the disputes between the king and the popular partv ^w warm, OiiTer Cromwell represented in parliament hia native town of Huntingdon, and a sketch left of him by a keen observer who saw his earliest exertiona in that capacity, repre- aents a man firom whom we ahould out little expect the energy, talent, and success of the future " Pbotbctob " Cromwell. Homely in countenance, almost to actual nglinesR, hesitating in apeech, ungainly in gesture, and ill clad in a sad coloured suit " which looked as it had been made by some ill countrjr tailor," the future states- man and warrior addressed the house amidst the scarcely suppressed whispers of both friends and foes, who little dreamed that in that uncouth, ill nurtured, and slovenly looking person they saw the vast and terrible genius who was to slay hia aovereign, knead all the fierce factiona of EngliahmM into one trampled and sub- missive mus, and, while wielding a most usurped and lawless authority over the Engbsh nation at home, so direct her ener- gies abroad aa to make her name atand iulljr aa high among the astounded and gazing nations as ever it had been carried or maintained by the most fortunate and valiant of the lawful aovereigna of Eng- land. Aa a mere aenator Cromwell would |>ro- bably never have aucceeded in making him- telf a great name ; he required to coinnaud rather than to adviae, to act rather than to argue. Gifted with an iron frame, the b(My and the mind, with him, aided each other, and he who stammered out con- fuaed no-meaninga to the half wearied and half wondering aenate, thought clearly and brightly as the lightning flash, and shouted hia vigoroua conceptiona with the dread vehemence of thunder, amid the fury and the clang of the battle, and aa he guided his war-ateed through carnage towarda carnage more terrible atill. It ia to thia day a moot point whether Cromwell waa wholly deluded or wholly a deluder; or whether he waa partly the one and partly the other. To ua it aeema that there waa nothing natural in his character, as developed by nistory, save his mental and bodily energy, his profound sagacity, his decision and ua master-passion— ambi- tion. He saw, no doubt, poor men become rich, and mean men powerful, as riches and power are estimated in the petty affairs of obscure country towns, and he auw that they achieved their peraonal aggrandize- ment by a aupple compliance with the cant and grimace of the day. He had anffered both in reputation and fortune by hia free if not profligate life, and it is probable that he at the outset adopted the outward ap- pearance of another way of thinking, with no deeper or more extensive design than that of saving himself from the inevitable ill consequences of poverty. Once arrived in parliament, whether conducted thither by mere accident or by skilful intriguing, a single glance must have shown even a far less sagacious person than he was, that the puritana would, sooner or later, be in- comparably the most powerful party in the state. Joining with them from interest, aping their manners from necessity, he would from mere habit continue to ape them long after hi could afford to be more open in his conduct. But the frequent profanity of hia remarka, and the occa- aional coaraeness and jollity of hia " horse- play" among his soldler-sainis, appear to us to smack very much of unconscious and uncontrollable breakings forth of the old Adam vf the natural man ; fever fits of the natural heart and temper that were too strong for the artificial training of resolved hypocrisv. Sunh, upon repeated and most impartial Examination, appears to us to have been the real character of Cromwell. Though forty-four yearf old before he drew a sword, Cromwell at the verv outset of the rebellion showed himself what has been emphatically called a born soldier. Stalwart though clumsy in frame, a bold and a good rider, and — as most men of any respectability at that time were— a perfect A. n. 1644. — THB CITV OP TOBK TAXBN BV TBB TABLIAMBNT, WLT 5. il |A m Mi* tizan captain, who was ever ready with sword in hand and foot in stirrup when the enemy's night quarters were to be beaten up, a convoy seised, or any other real though comparativelv obscure service was to be rendered to the good eauie. Such was the estimate Cromwell's commanders formed of him ; such the estimate he wish- ed them to form, of the man who was one day to dictate to the proudest and to laugh to scorn the wiliest among them t The too famous and disastrous battle of Long Marston Moor, as it was the first great military calamity of the king, so it was the first great occasion upon which Crom- well had the opportunity (which he so well knew how to seize) of openly and signally displaying himself. A junction had been formed between the Scotch army and the English parliamentary forces, and this com- bined host invested York. This city, both from its own wealth and from its situation as the capital of the northern counties, was too important to the royal cause to be lost without a struggle ; and prince Bui^ert and the marquis of Newcastle joined their forces in order to raise the siege of the ancient city. The opposing forces, in number about fifty-thousand, met on Long Marston Moor, and a long and obstinate contest ensued. The right wing of the royalist troops, com- manded by prince Rupert, was broken and driven off the field by the highly trained cavalry under the command or Cromwell, who after having dispersed the royalists' right wing, promptly galloped back to the field, and very materially aided in putting to flight the main body of t're royalists under the marquis. The resuli of this hard day's fighting was the capture by the par- liamentarians of the whole of Rupert's ad- mirable train of artillery, and a loss of men, reputation, and self confidence, from which it may safely be averred that the royalists never recovered. The successes of the {larliamentarians made them all the haughtier in their pre- tensions and all the more unsparing in their resolves. Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, had for a long time been confined in the Tower; his devotion to his master being the only crime with which he could be justly charged, except the kindred crime of still warmer devotion, if possible, to the rights and the supremacy of the church of England. This eminent man was therefore brought to trial by his bitter enemies the puritans, condemned, and executed. As if to set a peculiar and characteristically puri- tanical mark upon this dastardly act of vnlgar and ignorant vengeance, the now dominant power ordered the abolition — by what they called law — of the church of England liturgy on the very day of the execution of the learned and energetic S relate whose devotion to his duty was in- omitable. By this act of abohtion the English church was reduced, as regarded power in the state, to the same level as the newest, meanest, and most insane of nu- merous petty sects into which conceit, or if^orance, or sheer knavery had by this time split the puritans; and the Scotch rebel army appropriately enou|h joined the London rebel citizens in giving public thanka fbr an alteration of which not one of them could have pointed out a sub- stantial advantage, while its instant and perspective disadvantage might have been perceived by a tolerably educated child. But faction loves a change — even though it certainly be not for the better, and pro- bably may prove to be for the worse I A.D 1645. — ^Though the royalists, as re- lated above, were seriously iixjured and de- Sressed by the result of the battle of Long laraton Moor, neither the king nor his friends despaired of ultimate success. While the parliamentarians exerted them- selves to crush the royalists whenever the next general action should ensue, the king and his friends made equally strenuous ef- forts to redeem their fortune and character on the like contingency. A variety of counter-marching and mere partisan skir- mishing took place during the earlier months of the year 1646, and at length, on June the 14th of that year, the main strength of the two parties met near Nase- by, a village in Northamptonshire. The right wing of the royal army waa com- manded by the gallant and impetuous Ru- pert, the left wing by sir Marmaduke Langdale, and the main body by the lord Astley, while a choice force was com- mandied, as a reserve, by the king in person. The left wing of the parliamentarians was commanded by Ireton, who had married Cromwell's daughter, the right wing by Cromwell himself, whose gallant and skil- ful charges at Long Marston Moor were not forgotten, and tne main body by gene- rals Fairfax and Skippon. The parliamen- tary left wing was so hotly charged by the impetuous and dashing Rupert, t nat it was fairly broken and driven through the street of Naseby, But this success was rendered of comparatively little advantage, for Rupert lost so much time in attempting to seize Ire- ton's artillery, that Cromwell, meanwhile, broke the royal horse under sir Marmaduko TBI PBBSBTTBaiAIfS AND IlfDBPXNOBIf TS WKBB NOW TBB BIVAL BBCTS. A.B. 1646.' *•»-■ FABIiIAMBIIT BAILT AtSVMII A MOB! BIHOCBATIC rOBII. 376 ^^t J!Lxta»nxv of 1|istdrp, (re. M m *< H N H K M a k a M U m B M X M h H H h Lanitdale, beyond all the effort! of that offi- cer for ita re-formation. llVhile the cavalry on either side waa thas occupied, the in> fantry waa hotly encaged, and to much to the advautaM of the royal tide that the battalion! of the parliament were actually falling back in disorder. The whole fate of the day now mainly depended upon which side should first see its cavalry return. If Rupert, instCBd of employiuK himself in seising or spiking artillery, nad at this time returnea and made one of his fearfully impetuous charges upon the flank of the faltering roundheads, whom the best efforts of Fairrax and Bkippon could scarcely keep from falling into utter rout, the fortune of that day, and most probably the issue of the whole struggle, would have been in the favour of the king. But the marvellous good fortune of Cromwell attended him ; he returned to the field with his iron troop- ers elated with their success over sir Mar- maduke Langdale's division, and charged the flank of tne main body of the royalists so fiercely as to throw them into hopeless and irremediable confusion. Rupert now returned with his cavalry and joined the king's reserve ; but the fate of the day was seawd ; not even the gallantry of that able commander could lead the reserve to the support of the beaten and fugitive host of the royalists ; and the king was obliged to fly from the field, leaving his artillery and valuable baggage, as well as five thousand prisoners, in tne hands of the victorious parliamentarians. Nor did the advantages to the victor end even there. The defeat of the king and the magnitude of the losses he had sustained greatly aided the parliamentarians in re- ducing the chief of the fortified places in the kingdom. Bristol, Bridgewater, Ches- ter, Sherborne, and Bath fell into their hands; Exeter was closely invested bv Fair- fax, and held out gallantly, but at length was obliged to surrender at discretion, all the western counties being so completely cleared of the king's troops that there was not the slightest chance of its being re- lieved. In all the aspects of his fortune Charles had found the city of Oxford loyal and de- voted. As well became that city of science and learning, it had constantly showed itself "glad in his prosperity and sad in his sorrow," and thither he retreated in bis pre- sent misfortune, well knowing that there he would be loyally received, and hoping that even yet he' might by negotiation re- trieve some of the sad loss he had experi- enced in the field. But the unfortunate king was closely pursued by Fairfax, at the head of a victorious army eager for yet farther triumph over the defeated sove- reign ; and as the parliamentarians loudly expressed their intention of laying siege to Oxford, and were abundantly supplied with every thing requisite for that purpose, Charles had several, and very cogent, rea- sons for not abiding there. That the loyal inhabitants of Oxford would defend him to the utmost, Charles had no room to doubt; but neither could there be any doubt that the well known loyalty of the city would, on that verjr score, be most signally punished by the parliamentarians. Moreover, Charles had a most justifiable and well- grounded horror of falling into the hands of the English puritans, from whom, especially now that they were full and freshly flushed with victory, he might fear every insult, even to the extent of personal violenre. Reasoning thus, and believing that the Scotch army was less personally and in- veterately hostile to him, Charles took what proved to be the fatal resolution of deliver- ing himself into the hands of the Seots. To their eternal disgrace, they received him as a distressed king onlv to treat him as a malefactor and a prisoner. They worried and insulted him, with sanctimo- nious remonstrances and reflections, by every possible neglect of the respectful ceremonials due to a sovereign ; they re- minded him of and embittered his mis- fortunes ; and, to complete the infamy of their conduct, they added gross venality to faithlessness and disloyalty, and literalljr sold him to the rebellious English parlia- ment for the sum of two hundred thousand pounds ! With this atrocious act of the Scots, who returned to their country laden with ill- earned wealth, but laden also with the exe- cration of all good men and with the con- tempt even of those bold bad men to whom they had basely sold the unfortunate prince, the civil war may be said to have ended. Wholly and helplessly in the power of his foes, Charles had no course left to so ho- nourable 8 mind as his, but to absolve his still faithful followers and subjects from the duty of farther striving in his behalf, and to trust for the safety of even his life to the mercy of men " Whose mercy was a nickname for the rage Of tameless tigers hungering for blood." But if the rebellious parliamentarians were triumphant over their king, they had yet to deal with a more formidable enemy. The parliament had been made unanimous in Itself and with the army by the obvious and f)ressing necessity for mutual defence, as ong as the king was in the field and at the head of an imposing force. But now that the fortune of war and the base venality of the Scotch had made Charles a powerless and almost hopeless captive, the spoilers began to quarrel about the disposition of the spoil ; and they who had' united to re- volt from their lawful monarch were ready with equal eagerness and animosity to cabal against each other. There is a sure retributive curse attendant upon all need- less and groundless dissent ; its destitution of a real and an abiding bond of union. The civiUans of the parliamentary party were, for the most part, presbyterians, who were eager enough to throw off all fdlcgi- ance to the king and all submission and respect to the church of England, but who were not the less inclined to set up and exact respect both from lay and clerical authori- A.O. IS46. — OXFOBO aUBBBIIOXBBD, OBTAIRINO HONOUBABLB TBBMS, JUMB 20. \l ic ronti. Mj doubt that he city would, nalty punished reiivcr, Charle* well-rounded handi of the om, especially freshly Hushed r every insult, lonal violence, vinfc that the onally and in> tries took what tion of delivcr- of the Seots. they received J to treat him isoner. They irith sanctimo- reflections, by the respectful sign; they re- ered his mis- the infamy of » ■Q H « H e o a e X u f A.D. 1647.— THB " LaTBLLBBS," A IIBW FABTV, ArfBAB III tBB ABMY. lEnglanH.— llottse of Jbtuart.— CfMitUis 3E. 877 rities of their own liking. The fanaticism of the armv took quite another tarn ; they were mostly independents, who thou|[;ht, with Dogberry, that " reading and writing come by nature," and were ready to die upon the truth of the most ignorant trooper among them being qualitieato preach with soul saving effect to his equally ignorant fellow. The independents, armed and well skilled in arms, would under any conceiv- able circumstance have been aometbing more than a match for the mere dreamers and declaimera of parliament ; but they had a still further and decisive advantan in the active and energetic, though wily and secret, prompting and direction of Cromwell, who artfully professed himself the most staunch indepenaent of them all, and showed him- self aa willing to lead them at their devo- tiona in their quarters, as he had shown himself willing and able, too, to lead them to the charge and the victory upon the well fought field. He was, in appearance, in- deed, only second in command under Fair- fas, but, in reality, he was supreme over his nominal commander, and had the fate of both king and kingdom completelv in his own hands. He artfully and careniUy fomented the jealousy with which the mili- tary looked upon the parliament, and the discontent with which they looked upon their own comparative powerlessness and obscurity after all the dangers and toils by which they had, as thev affected to be- lieve, permanently securea the peace and comfort of the country. Without appearing to make any exertion or to use any influence, the artful intriguer urged the soldiery so far, that they openly lost all confidence in the parliament for which they had but too well fought, and set about the consideration and redress of their own grievances as a separate and ill- used body of the community. Still, at the instigation of Cromwell, a rude but efficient miliary parliament waa formed, the princi- pal officers acting as a house of peers, and two men or officers from each regiment acting as a house of commons, under the title of the"agitatorsof thearmy." Of these Cromwell took care to be one, and thus, while to all appearance he was only acting as he was authorised and commanded by his duty to the whole army, he in fact en- joyed all the opportunity that he repaired to suggest and forward measures indispen- sable to the gratification of bis own am- bition. While Cromwell was thus wickedly but ablv scheming, the king, forlorn and seem- ingly forgotten, lay in Uolmby castle; strictly watched, though as yet, owing to the dissensions that existed between the army and the parliament, not subjected to any farther indignities. From this state of comparative tranquillity the unhappy Charles was aroused by a coup de tnaiti highly characteristic alike of the boldness and the shrewdiiesa of Cromwell. He de- monstrated to his confidants of the army that the possession of the king's person must needs give a vast preponderance to any of the existing parties. The royalists, it was obvious, woiud at the order of the king rally round him, even in conjunction with the parliament, which by forming such a junction could at any moment command the pardon of the king ; when the army, besides other difficulties, would be placed in the disadvantageous position of fighthig against all branches of the government, including even that one to whose will and authority it owed its own existence. As usual, his arguments were successful ; and comet Jo^ce, who at the breaking out of the rebellion had been only a taUor, waa dispatched with five hundred cavalry to seise the king's person at Holmby castle. Though Btrictlv watched, the king was but slenderly guarded, for the parliament had no suspicion of the probability of any such attempt on the part of the army. Cornet Joyce, therefore, found no difficulty in ob- taining access to the king, to whom he made Icnown the purport of his mission. Surprised at this sudden determination to remove him to the head quarters of the army, the king, with some anxiety, asked Joyce to produce his commission for so extraordinary a proceeding ; and Joyce, with the petulance of a man suddenly and un- expectedly elevated, pointed to his troops, drawn up before the window. " A goodly commission," replied Charles, " and writ- ten in fair characters ;" and he accompanied Joyce to Triplo-heath near Cambridge, the head-quarters of the army. Fairfax and other discerning and moderate men had by this time begun to see the danger the coun- try was in from the utter abasement of the kingly power, and to wish for such an accommodation as might secure the people without destroying the king. But Crom- well's bold seizure of his majesty had enabled him to throw off the mask ; the violent and fanatical spirit of the soldiery was wholly subjected to his use, and on nis arrival at Triplo-heath, on the day after the king was taken thither by Joyce, Cromwell was by acclamation elected to the supreme com- mand of the army. Though, at the outset, the parliament was wholly opposed to the exorbitant pre- tensions of the army, the success of Crom- vvell's machinations rendered that opposi- tion less unanimous and compact every day, and at length there was a considerable majority of parliament, including the two speakers, in favour of the army. To en- courage this portion of the parliament, the head-quarters of the army were fixed at Hounslow-heath; and as the debates in the house daily grew more violent and threatening, sixty-two members, with the two speakers, fled to the camp at Houns- Inw, and formally threw themselves, offici- ally and personally, upon the protection of the army. This accession to his moral force was so welcome to Cromwell, that he caused the members to be received with a perfect tumult of applause ; and he ordered that the troops, twenty thousand in number, should move upon London to restore these fugitives to the place which A. D. 1647.— aBHBBAI. VAIBFAX WAS MAOB SOTBaHOR OV VSB TOWBB, AUS. 6. [2 Jt 3 M ii ii II ,.... ^>^ A.S. 1647.— A KICOROILIATION BrrBCTlD BBTWaiM TIB r«BLIAMBHT ABB ABMT. I, ' r. 378 fS'fft ^rtastttQ of l^istors, $cc. they btd volnntarily ceded and the daliet thejr had timoroutljr fled from. While the one portion of the houie had fled to the protection of the loldien, the other portion had made lome demonitra- tiona of brinKing the atrugKle against the S retention* of the army to an ittue in the eld. New apeaken were choien in the place of the fugititct. order* were given to enlist new troops, ana the train -bands were ordered to the defence of the lines that en- eloaed the eity. But when Cromwell with twenty thousand trained and ankparing troop* arriTed, the impossibility of any hastily organised defence being available against him became painfully eTident. The gates were thrown open, Cromwell restored the speaker* and tne members of parlia- ment, several of the opposite members were arbitrarily etpelled the house, the mayor of London, with three aldermen and the sherifl's, was committed to the Tower, other prisons were crowded with citisens and militia ofllcers, and the city lines were le- velled; the more effectually to prevent any future resistance to the sovereixn will and pleasure of the army, or, rather, of it* masterapirit, Cromwell. CHAPTER LII. The Reign ((/Chablb* I. (eoneluded). turn king on being seized by the army wa* *ent as a prisoner to his palace at Hamp- ton-court. Here, though closely watched, he was allowed the access of his friends and all facilities for negotiating with par- liament. But, in truth, the negotiating par- ties had stood upon terms which almost necessarily causea distrust on the one hand and insincerity on the other. Completely divested of power as Charles now was, it seems probable enough that he would pro- mise more than he had any intention of performing, while the leading men on the other side could not but feel that their very lives would depend upon his sincerity from the instant that he should be restored to liberty aud the exercise of his authority. Here would have been quite sufficient dif- flculty in the way of successful negotia- tion; but, beside that, Cromwell'a plans were perpetually traversing the efforts of the kmg when his majesty was sincere, while Cromwell's active espionage never allowed any flagrant insinceritv to escape detection. The king at length perceived the inutility of negotiation, and made bis escape to the Isle of Wight. Here he hoped to remain undisturbed until he could either escape to the continent or receive such succours thence as might enable him, at the least, to negotiate with the parlia- ment upon more equal terms, if not actu- ally to try his fortune anew in the field. But colonel Hammond, the governor of the Isle of Wight, though he in some respects treated the unfortunate king with huma- nity, made him prisoner, and after being for some time confined in Carisbrook cas- tle, the unfortunate Charles was sent in custody to his royal castle of Windsor, where he wa* wholly in th« power of the army. Cromwell and those who acted with him saw very plainly that the mere anxiety of the parliament to depress the prctorian bands which themselves had called into evil and gigantic power, waa very likely to lead to an accommodation with the king, whose own sense of his imminent danger could not fail to render him, also, aaxiou* for an earlv aettlement of all disputes. The artful leader* of the army faction, there- fore, now encouraged their dupe* and tool* of the lower *ort to throw off the ma*k ; and rabid yell* for the pnnUkment of the king arose on all sides. Peace and security had hitherto been the cry; it wa* now chansed to a cry fbr vengeance. From Windior the unhappy king was conveyed to Hurst-castle, on the coast of Hampshire, and opposite to the Isle of Wight, chiefly, it should seem, to render communication between him and the parliamentary leader* more dilatory and difficult. But the parlia- ment, growing more and more anxious for an accommodation in precise proportion a* it was rendered more and more impracti- cable, again opened a negotiation with the ill-treated monarch, and, despite the cla- mour* and threat* of the fanatical soldiery, seemed upon the very point of bringing it to a concluaion, when a new coup de main on the part of Cromwell eztinguiihed all hope in the bosoms of the loyal and the just. Perceiving that the obstinacy of the parliament and the unhappy vacillation of the king could no longer be relied upon, Cromwell sent two regiments of his sol- diery, under the command of colonel Pride, to blockade the house of commons. Forty- one members who were favourable to ac- commodation were actually imprisoned in a lower room of the house, a hundred and sixty were insolently ordered to go to their homes and attend to their private affairs, and only about sixty members were allowed to enter the house, the whole of those be- ing furious and bigoted independents, the pledged and deadly enemies of the king, and the mere and servile tools of Cromwell and the army. This parliamentary clear- ance was facetiously called " Pride's purge," and the members who had the disgraceful distinction of being deemed fit for Crom- well's dirty work ever after passed under the title of " the rump." With a really ludiccous impudence this contemptible assembly assumed to itself the whole power aud character of the parlia- ment, voted that all that bad been done to- wards an accommodation with the kin^ was illegal, and that his seizure and imprison- ment by " the general " — so Cromwell was now termed, par excellenee — were just and praiseworthy. All moderation was thrown to the winds, and as the actual private murder of the king was thought likely to disgust the better men even among the fanatical soldiery, a committee of " the rump" parliament was formed to digest a charge of high treason. It would seem that the subtlest casuist would be puzzled M M < M m < M ■ k e K B e u K O e> s »• B e a ts e <» * ! < I •• ■B H M 4 t> «! O M h u M (t M a \% A. A. 1648.— THB ABMT DESISTBO HOK MBDOLINO IN STATB AFFAIB*. tRfe rAatiimiiT'i ABMt iiiife Tiia TBBAitfia tM solbimith'i ball. .J I Ik ■ H m s m M Q B >4 •■ M « I* A M 4 4 K R e H s ij P »f 4 B M 4 It e K a m B B A B B B B a lEnglanV— 1|ou»c of Stuart — brands, crushed this venomous parliament while yet he had the power to do so I Aa there was now no lonaer, thanks to " Pride's purge," a chance of farther nego- tiation, it was determined that the hapless king should be brought from Hurst-castle to Windsor. Colonel Harrison, a half in- sane and wholly brutal fanatic, the son of a butcher, was entrusted with this com- mission; chiedy, perhaps, because it was well understood that he would rather slay the royal captive with his own hand than allow him to be rescued. After a brief stay at Windsor, the king was once again removed to London, and his altered appearance was such as would have excited commiseration in the breasts of any but the callous and inexorable ereatures in whose hands he was. His features were haggard, his beard long and neglected, bis hair blanched to a ghastly whiteness by sufferings that seemed to have fully doubled his age ; and the boding melancholy that had characterited his features, even in his happier days, was now deepened down to an utter yet resigned sadness that was painful to all humane beholders. Sir Philip Warwick, an old and broken man, but faithful and loyal to the last, was the king's chief attendant ; and he and the few subordinates who were allowed to ap- proach the royal person were now brutally ordered to serve the king without any of the accustomed fbrms; and all external symbols of state and majesty were, at the same time, withdrawn with a petty yet malignant carefulness. Even these cruelties and insults could not convince the king that his enemies would be guilty of the enormous absurdity of bringing their sovereign to a formal trial. Calm, just, and clear-sighted himself, he could not comprehend how even his fanatical and boonsh enemies could, in the face of day, so manifestly bid defiance not only to all law and all precedent, but also to the plainest maxims of common sense. But tnough almost to the very day of hia trial the king refused to believe that his enemies would dare to try him, he did believe that *hey intended to assassinate him, and in every meal of which he partook he imagined that he saw the instrument of his death. A. D. 16-18.— In the mean time, the king'a enemies were actively making preparations for the most extraordinary trial ever wit- nessed in this land. These preparations n/eTf. so extensive that they occupied a vast number of persons from the sixth to the twentieth of January. As if the more fully to convince the king of their earnestnessin the matter, Cromwell and the rump when they had named a high court of justice, consist- ing of a hundred and thirty-three persons, ordered the duke of Hamilton, whom they had doomed to death for hia unshaken lovalty to his sovereign, to be admitted to take leave of the king at Windsor. The interview was a harrowing one. The duke had ever been ready to pour out his blood like water for his sovereign ; even now he felt not for himself, but, moved to tears by the sad alteration in the person of Charles, threw himself at the royal victim's feet, ex- claiming, " My dear master t" " Alas I" said the weeping king, as he raised up his faithful and devoted servant, " Alas ! I have, indeed, been a dear master to you 1" Terrible, at that moment, must have been the king's. self reproaches for the opportu- nities he had neglected of putting down the wretches who now had his faithtul servant and himself in their power I Of the persons namtd to sit in the liiKh court of justice, as this shamefully unjust and iniquitous coterie was impudently termed, only about seventy, or scarcely more than one half, could be got together at any one time during the trial. Law citi- sens, fanatical members of the rump, and servile officers of the army, composed the majority of those who did attend, and it was before this wretched assembly that the legitimate sovereign of the land, now re- moved from Windsor to St. James's, was placed to undergo the insulting mockery of a trial. The court, "the high court of justice" thus oddly constituted, met in Westmin- ater-hall. The talents and firianess of Charles were even now too much respected by Cromwell and the shrewder members of the rump to allow of their opposing this miserable court to him without the ablest procurable aid ; Bradebaw, a lawyer of con- aiderable ability, was therefore appointed president, and Coke, solicitor for the people of England, with Steel, Aske, and Dorislaus for his assistants. When led by a mace-bearer to a seat within the bar, the king seated himself with his hat on, and looked sternly around him at the traitors who affected to be his com- petent judges. Coke then read the charge against him, and the king^s melancholy countenance was momentarily lighted up with a manly and just scorn as he heard himself ^avely accused of having been " the cause ot all the bloodshed which had fol- lowed since the commencement of the warl" When Coke had finished making his A. aOLVMIf VAST HBLD AT WBSTIIIN8TBB— AIT IMnOUa TABCX I I \ W i : > m: I m I III?; m f rART or TUB FLMT SIIXmTID TO rBIIfCli CBARLia, BUT BltaBMBD AaAIR. 380 QTl^e tlTrcBsurs of l|istori9, $cc. formal cliarge, the president Bradthaw ad- dreia<:d the kin^, and called upon him to answer to the accnsation which he had heard made against him. Though the countenance of Charles fully expressed the natural and lofty indignation that he felt at being called upon to plead as a mere felon before a court composed not merely of simple commoners, but, to a very great extent, of the most ignorant and least lionourable men in their ranks of life, he admirably preserved his temper, and ad- dressed himself to his task with earnest and grave argument. He said that, con- scious as he was of innocence, he should rejoice at an opportunity of justifying his conduct in everv particular before a com- petent tribunal, but as he was not inclined to become the betrayer instead of the defender of the constitutipn, he must at this, the very iirst stage of the proceedings, wholly and positively repudiate the aiitho- rlty of the court before which he had been as illegally brought, as the court itself was illegally constituted. Where was there even the jihadow of the upper house ? Without it there could be no just tribunal, parlia- mentary or appointed by parliament. He was interrupted, too, for the purposes of this illegal trial just as he was on the point of concluding a treaty with both houses of parliament, a moment at which he surely had a right to expect any thing rather than the violent and uixjust treatment that he had experienced. He, it could not be de- nied, was the king and fountain of law, and could not be tried by laws to which he had not given his authority; and it would ill become' him, who was entrusted with the liberties of the people, to betray them by even a fprmal and tacit recognition of a tribunal Which could nut possibly possess any other than a merely usurped power. Bradshaw, the president, affected much surprise and indignation at the king's re- puaiation of the mock court of justice which, lie said, received its power and au- thority from the source of all right, the people. When the king attemptea to re- peat his clear and cogent objection, Brad- shaw ruduly interrupted and despotically overruled him. But, if silenced by clamour, the king was not to be turned aside from his course by the mere repetition of a bold fallacy. Again and again he was brought before this mock tribunal, and again and again he baffled all attempts at making him, by pleading to it, give it some shadow of lawful authority. The conduct of the rabble without was fully worthv of the con- duct of their self-constituted governors within the court. As the king proceeded to the court, he was assailed with brutal y^lls for what the wicked or deluded men called " justice." But neither the mob nor their instigators could induce him to plead, and the iiiic^uitous court at length called some complaisaut witnesses to swear that the king had appeared in arms against forces commiKsiouc'd by parliament; and upon this fallacy of evidence, sentence of death was pronounced aguiiist him. We call the evidence a mere fallacy, because it amounted to nothing unless backed by the gross and monstrous assumption that the parliament could lawfully commission any forces without the order and permission of the king himself, and the no less glaring assumption that the king could act ille- gally in putting down rebelliou* gathering! of bom subjects. After receiving his sentence Charles was more violently abused by the rabble outside than he had even formerly been. "Exe- cution" was loudly demanded, and one filthy and unmanly ruffian actually spat in his face ; a beastly indignity which the king bore with a sedate and august pity, merely Maculating, "Poor creatures, they would serve their generals in the same manner for a sixpence I '* To the honour of the nation be it said, these vile insults of the baser rabble were strongly contrasted by the respectful com- passion of the better informed. Many of them, including some of tlie military, openly expressed their regret for the sufferings of the king and their disgust at the conduct of his persecutors. One soldier loudly prayed a blessing on the roval head, and the honest praver being overheard by a fa- natical officer, ne struck the soldier to the ground. The king, more indignant at this outrage on the loyal soldier than he had been at all the unmanly insults that had been heaped upon himself, turned to the officer and sharply told bim that the punish- ment very much exceeded the offence. On returning to Whitehall, where he had been lodged during the mock trial, Charles wrote to the so-called house of commons, and requested that he might be allowed to see those of his children wbc were in Eng- land, and to have the assistance of Dr. Juxon, the deprived bishop of London, in preparing for the fate which he now clearly saw awaited him. Even his fanatical Kce- mies dared not refuse these requests, but at the same time that they were granted he was informed that his execution would take place in three days. The queen, the prince of Wales, and the duke of York were happily abroad ; but the princess Elizabeth and the duke of Glouces- ter, a child not much more than three yearn old, were brought into the presence of their unhappy parent. The interview was most affecting, for, young as the children were, they but too well comprehended the sad calamity that was about to befall them. The king, amongst the many exhortations which he endeavoured to adapt to the un- derstanding of his infant son, said, "My child, they will cut off my head, and when they have done that they will want to make you king. But now mark well what I say, you must never consent to be king while your brothers Charles and James are alive. They will cut off their heads if tjiey can take them, and they will afterwards cut off your head, and therefore I charge you do not be made a king Ky them," The noble little fellow having listened attentively to all that his father sa\|l to him, burst into a A.n. 1648.— TUB WBLSH WEBB •IltNALLT DBrBATBO BY CROMWBLl, MAT 8. TBI Xllfo'a DBATH-WARBANT WAS IIONBD BT 69 Or UIS JUDOBS. lEnglantl llouse of Stuart — Cldarlcis £. 381 r wsion of tears and exclaimed, " I won't be a king ; I will be torn in pieces first." Short as the interval was between the conclusion of the mock trial of the king and his murder, great efforts were made to save him, and among other efforts was that of the prince of wales sending a blank paper, signed and sealed by himself, accom- panied by a letter, in which he offered per- mission to the parliament to insert what- ever terms it pleased for the redemption of his father's life. But there was an under current at work of which both the king and his attached friends were fatally ignorant. The real eauie ef the murder of Charltt I. mat the excetiive pertonal terror rff Oliver Cromwell. This we state as an indisputably legitimate deduction from an anecdote re- lated by Cromwell himself; and the anec- dote is so curious and so characteristic of Cromwell that we subjoin it. In truth, how broad a light does not this anecdote throw on this most shameful portion of English history 1 , While the king was still at Windsor and allowed to correspond both with the parlia- ment and his distant friends, it is but too clear that he allowed the vile character and proceedings of his opponents to warp his naturally high character from that direct and inflexible honestv which is proverbially and truly said to be the best policy. Vacil- lation and a desire to make use of subter- fuge were apparent even in his direct deal- ings with the parliament, and would have tended to have prolonged the negotiations even had the parliament been earnest in its wish for an accommodation at a far earlier period than it really was. But it was in his private correspondence especially with the queen that Charles displayed the real in- sincerity of much of his public profession. Seeing the great power of Cromwell, and to a considerable extent divining that daring and subtle man's real character, Charles had not only wisely but even successfully laid himself out to win Cromwell to his aid. There was, as yet, but little probability that even if Charles himself were put out of the way, a high hearted nation would set aside the whole family of its legitimate king, merely to give a more than regal despotism into the coarse hands of the son of a provin- cial brewer ! At this period the aching ombition of the future protector would, in the absence of all probability of illegiti- mately acquired sovereignty, have been satisfied with the trust, honours, wealth, and power which the gratitude of his sove- reign could have bestowed on him. Crom- well, consequently, was actually pondering the propriety of setting ud the king and becoming "viceroy over" nim, when the startling truth was revealed to him, that the king was merely duping him, and in- tended to sacrifice him as a traitor when he should have done with him as a tool. £1'- fcctually served by his spies, Cromwell, who had already some grounds for suspect- ing Charles's real designs towards him, re- ceived information that on a certain night a man would leave the Blue Boar in Holborn for Dover, on his way to the continent, and that in the flap of his saddle a most im- portant packet would be found, containing a voluminous letter from the king to the queen. On the night in question, Crom- well and Ireton, in the disguise of troopers, lounged into the Blue Boar tap, and there passed away the time in drinking beer and watching some citizens playing at shovel- board, until they saw tne man arrive of whom they had received an exact descrip- tion. Following the man into the stable they ripped open the saddle and found the packet, and, to his dismay and nge, Crom- well read, in the hand-writing, of Chrtrles, the monarch's exultation at having tickled his vanity, and his expressed determina- tion to raise him for a time, only to crush him when the opportunity should occur. From that moment terror made Cromwell inexorable ; he saw no security for his own safety except in the utter destruction of the king. Hence the indecent and deter- mined trial and sentence; and hence, too, the absolute contempt that was shown for all efforts at preventing the sentence from being executed. Whatever want of resolution Charles may have -Vown in other passages of his life, the time he was allowed to live be- tween sentence and execution exhibited him in the not uufrcquently combined cha- rdrters of the christian and the hero. No invectives against the iniquity of which he was the victim escaped his lips, and he slept the deep calm sleep of innocence, tliough on cacn night his enemies, with a refinement upon cruelty more worthy of fiends than of men, assailed his ears with the noise of the men erecting the scaffold for his execution. When the fatal morning at length dawned, the king at an early hour called one of his attendants, whom he desired to attire him with more than usual care, as he remarked that he would fain appear with all proper preparation for so great and so joyful a solemnity. The scaffold was erected in front of Whitehall, and it was from the central windows of his own most splendid banqueting room that the king stepped on to the scaffold on which he was to be mur- dered. When his majesty appeared he was attend- ed by the faithful and attached Dr. Juxon ; and was received by two masked executi- oners standing beside the block and the axe. The scaffold, entirely covered with fine black cloth, was densely surrounded by soldiers under the command of colonel Tomliiison, while in the distance was avast multitude of people. The neor nnd violent death that awaited him seemed to pro- duce no effect on the king's nerves. He gazed gravely but calmly around him, and said, to all whom the concourse of military would admit of his speaking, that the late war was ever deplored by him, and was commenced by the parliament. He had not taken up arms until compelled by the war- like nnd illegal conduct of the parliament, tnC had done so only to defend his people M a H «. O a M e l I THB INDICTMBNT CUAnOBD CIIARLBS WITU BRINO A TRAITOR AND MURDKRBR. CHASLKa I. WAS VOSD O* BBOAL STATB, BUT KB WAS STILIi FBVOAIi. n Si' ) 382 ^|e J^rcaautB of l|t»torp, .$cc. from opprenioo, and to preierre intact the authority which had been transmitted to him hy his ancestors. But though he posi- tively denied that there was any legal au- thority in the court by which he had been tried, or any truth in the charge upon which he had been condemned and sen- tenced, he added that he felt that his fate was a just punishment for his weakly and criminMly consenting to the equally unjust execution of the earl of Strafford. He em- phatically pronounced his forgiveness of all his enemies, named his son as his suc- cessor, and expressed his hope that the people would how return to their duty under that prince: and he concluded his brief and manly address by calling upon all pre- seut to bear witness that he died a sincere protestant of the church of England. No one heard this address without being deeply moved by it, and even colonel Tom- linson, who had the unenviable task of superintending the murder of his prince, confessed that that address had made him a convert to the royal cause. The royal martyr now began to disrobe, and, as lie did so, Dr.Juxon said to him, " Sire ! there is but one stage more which though a turbulent and troublesome one, is still but a short one ; it will soon carry you a great way ; it will carry tou from earth to heaven, and there you shall find, to your great joy, the prize to which you are hastening, a crown of glory." " I go," replied th> kijg, "where no dis- turbance can take place, from a corruptible to an incorruptible crown." "You exchange," rejoined the bishop, " a temporal for an eternal crown, — a good exchange." Charles having now completed his pre- parations, delivered his decorations of St. George toDr. Juxon, and emphatically pro- nounced the single word " Remember I " He then calmly laid his head upon the block, and it was severed from his body at one blow; the second executioner im- mediately held it up by the hair, and said " Behold the head of a traitor I" Thus on the 30th of January, 1649, perished Charles I. in the forty-ninth year of his age, and the twenty-fourth of his reign. He was not executed but murdered; he was guilty of no crime but weakness or vacillation of judgment ; his greatest tiiis- fortune was his want of the stern energy of a Henry VIII. or an Elizabeth ; such an energy exerted at the beginning of his reign would have enabled him to crush the trai- torous, and would have warranted and en- abled him subsequently to increase and systematize the liberties of his country, without danger of subjecting it to the rude purification of a civil war. The blood of the royal martyr had scarcely ceased to flow, before the lately furious multitude began to repent of the violence which their own vile shouts had assisted. But repentance was now too late ; more than the power of their murdered monarch had now fallen into sterner hands. With tl'iat suspicion which " ever haunts the guilty mind," Cromwell and hit friends attached much mysterious importance to the "Rbmbmbbb" so emphatically pro- nounced by Charles on delivering his George to Dr. Juxon, and that learned and excellent man was authoritatively com- manded to give an account of the king's meaning, or liis own understanding of the word. To the inexpressible mortification of those mean minds, the doctor informed them that the king onl;r impressed upon him a former and particular request to deliver the George to the prince of Wales, and at the same time to urge the command of his father to forgive his murderers I CHAPTEE LIII. ThB COMUOIfWBALTH. ■Whatbvkb mi|;ht have been Cromwell's original views, his military successes, the vast influence he had obtained over the army, and, perhaps, still more than either of these, the base and evident readiness of the parliamept to truckle to his military power and meet him even more than half way in his most unjust and exorbitant wishes, opened up a prospect too unbound- ed and too tempting for his ambition to re- sist. But policy, as well as the circum- stances of the time, made it incumbent upon Cromwell, in the first instance, to exalt still higher his character for military skill and daring. Ireland had a disciplined host in arms for the royal cause under the duke of Ormond, and large multitudes of the na- tive Irish were at the same time in open revolt under the restless and daring O'Neal. Cromwell procured the, command of the army appointed to put down both these parties, and fully succeeded. How merci- lessly he used his victory we have related under the proper head. A. n. 16S0.— On the return of Cromwell to England his pocket parliament formally returned him the thanks which, except for his needless and odious cruelty, he had well merited. A new opportunity at the same momeiit presented itselt for the aggrandize- ment of ttiis bold and fortusrate adventurer. The Scots, who had basely kold Charles I. into the hands of his enemies, were now endeavouring to make money by venal loy- alty, as they had formerly made ic by venal treason. They had invited Charles II. into Scotland, where that gay young prince speedily found that they looked upon him rather as a prisoner than as their king. The grossness of their manners, and the rude accommodations with which they fur- nished him, he could probably have passed over without much difficulty, for young as Charles II. vfas„ he had already seen more of grossness and noverty than commonly comes within the Knowledge of the great. But Charles was ft'ank as he was gay ; and the austere manners and long and unsea- sonable discourses which they inflicted upon him did not annoy him more than their evi- dent determination to make him at the least affect to agree with them. As, however, the NEW MONET WAS MOW COINBD, AND A NEW OBBAT SIAL MADB. ind hit friends mportance to hatically pro- telivering his It learned and tatively com- of the king's ikhdin^ of the mortification ctor informed (pressed upon ar request to ince of Wales, the command urderers I [I. en Cromwell's successes, the ined over the re than either It readiness of his military nore than half nd exorbitant : too unbound- imbition to re- s the circum- cumbent upon ince, to exalt ■ military skill isciplined host mder the duke ides of the na- ! time in open darine O'Neal, imand of the vn both these How merci> s have related 1 of Cromwell ment formally ich, except for ity, he had well V at the same be aggrandize- ite adventurer, sold Charles I. ie^, were now J by venal loy- ude ic by venal 1 Charles II. t gay young they looked oner than as ihers, and the 'hich they fnr- ly have passed ', for young as ady seen more an commonly ! of the great, was gay ; and mg and uneea- ' inflicted upon than their evi- lim at the least ), however, the kDB. A.D. 184g.--THK VBinOI OV WALKS TAKSI THI nth* Ot CBABLIS II. lEnglanti.— ^l^e CommoniDtaltl^. 383 Scots were bis only present hope, Charles did his ntmost to avoid qnarrelling with them ; jand however they might annoy him while among them, whatever might be their ultimate views respecting him, certain it is that they raised a very considerable army, and showed ever^r determination to rein- state him in his kmgdom. Even merely as being presbyterians the Scotch were detested by Cromwell and his independents ; but now that they had also embraced the cause of " the man Charles Stuart," as these boorish English independ- ents affected to call their lawful sovereign, it was determined that a signal chastise- ment should be inflicted upon them. The command of an army for that purpose was offered to Fairfax, but he declined it on the honourable ground that he was unwilling to act against presbyterians. Cromwell had no such scruple, and he immediately set out for Scotland with an army of sixteen thousand men, which received accessions to its numbers in every great town through which it marched. But not even the mi- litary fame of Cromwell, nor his but too well known cruelty to all who dared to re- sist him and were unfortunate enough to be vanquished, the Scots boldly met his inva- sion. But boldness alone was of small avail against such a leader as Cromwell, hacked by such tried and enthusiastic soldiers as his; the two armies had scarcely joined battle when the Scots were put to flight, their loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners being very great, while the total loss of Cromwell did not exceed forty men. As Cromwell after this battle pursued his course northward, with the determina- tion not only to chastise, but completely and permanently to subdue the Scots, the young king, as soon as he could rally the Scottish army, took a resolution which showed him to have an intuitive know- ledge of military tactics. Making a detour to get completelv clear of any outlying par- ties of Cromwell's troops, he commenced a forced march into England, the northern counties of which lay completely open and defenceless. The boldness of this course alarmed a portion of the Scottish army, and numerons desertions took place from the very commencement of the march southward ; but as Charles still had a nu- merous and imposing force, there was every reason to believe that long ere he should reach Loudon, the great object of his expe- dition, the gentry and middle orders would flock to him in such numbers as would ren- der altogether out of the question any re- sistance on the part of the parliament, es- pecially in the absence of Cromwell and the flower of the English troops. But the bold manoeuvre of the young prince was doomed to have none of the success which it so eminently deserved. Before his pro- gress was sufilcient to counterbalance in the minds of his subjects the terror in which they held Cromwell, that active commander had' received news of the young king's ma- nceuvre, and had instantly retrograded in pursuit of him, leaving Monk his second in command, to complete and maintain the subjection of the Scotch. There has always appeared to us to be a striking resemblance, which we do not remember to have seen noticed by any other writer, between the Cromwellian and the Buonapartean systems. To compare the bat- tles of Cromwell to the battles of Buona- parte would be literally to make mountains of molehills ; yet the principles of '\iese two commanders seem to us to have been the same, and to be summed up in two general maxims, march rapidly, and, attack in matiea. The phrases are simple enough in themselves, yet no one who has studied a single battle-map with even the slight- est assistance from mathematical science, can fail to jierceive the immense, we had almost said the unbounded, powers of their application. On the present occa- sion the celerity of Cromwell was the de- struction of the young king's hopes. With an army increased by the terror of his name to nearly forty thousand men, Crom- well marched southward so rapidly, that he absolutely shut up the forces of Charles in the city of Worcester ere they had time to break from their quarters and form in order of battle in some more favourable situation. The irresistible cavalry of Crom- well burst suddenly anu simultaneously in at every gate of the town ; every street, al- most every house became the instant scene of carnage; the Pitchcroft was literally strewed with the dead, while the Severn was tinged with the blood of the wounded ; and Charles, after having bravely fought as a common soldier, and skilfully, though un- successfully, exerted himself as a com- mander, seemed to have no wish but to throw himself upon the swords of his ene- mies. It was with difiiculty that his friends turned htm from his desperate purpose, and even when they had done so it appeared to be at least proolematical whether ne would be able to escape. Accident, or the devo- tion of a peasant, caused a wain of hay to be overturned opposite to one of the gates of the city in such wise that Crom- well's mounted troops could not pass, and, favoured by this circumstance, Charles mounted a horse that was held for him by a devoted friend, and sought safety in flight. The triumph of Cromwell was completed with this battle of Worcester, but his venge- ful desire was not yet laid to rest ; and under his active and untiring superintendance prodigious exertions were made to capture the young king, whose difficulties, in 'fact, only commenced as he escaped from the confusion and the carnage of Worcester. Almost destitute of money and resources of every hind, and having reason to fear an enemy, either on principle or from lucre, in every man whom he met, Charles was obliged to trust for safety to disguise, which was the more difficult on account of his remarkable and striking features. Three poor ment named Fenderell, disguised him as a woodcutter, fed him, concealed him by night, and subsequently aided him to reach I i THB KIMO'S STATOaS WBBB OBMOLISBBD WBBBBVBB RBBCTBD. A* ^ A.D. 1469.— AN ACT PAIBSD VOR THK Bktu OF THM CBOWM LANDS. I. I' 384 ^]^e ^reasuri) of lltstore, $cc. wealthier though not more faithfully de- voted friends. While with these poor men, Charles in the day time accompanied thera to their place of labour in Boscobel wood. . On one occasion on hearing a party of sol- diers approach, the royal fugitive climbed into a large and spreading oak, where, shel- tered by its friendly foliage, he saw the sol- diers pass and repass, and quite distinctly heard them expressing their rude wishes to obtain the reward that was offered for his capture. Thanks to the incorruptible fide- lity of the Penderells and numerous other persons who were necessarily made ac- quainted with the truth, Charles, though he endured great occasional hardship and pri- vation, and was necessarily exposed to great constant anxiety, eluded every effort of his almost innumerable pursuers, urged on though they were to the utmost activity by the malignant liberality with which Crom- well promised to reward the traitor who should arrest his fugitive king. Under a variety of disguises, and protected by a va- riety of persons, the young king went from place to place for six weeks wanting only one day, and his adventures and hair-breadth escapes during that time read far more like romance than the history of what actually was endured and survived by a human being persecuted by evil or misguided men. At the end of this time he was fortunate enough to get on board a vessel which landed him safely on the coast of Normandy ; an issue to so long and varied a series of adventures which is more remarkable when it ia con- sidered that forty men and women, of vari- ous stations, circumstances, and disposi- tions, were, during that terrible season of his flight, necessarily made acquainted with the secret, the betrayal of which would have made any one of them opulent for life, and infamous for ever, Cromwell, in the mean time, after having achievci what he called the " crowning mercy" of the victory of Worcester, made a sort of triumphal return to London, where he was met, with the pomp due only to a sovereign, by the speaker and principal members of the house of commons, and the mayor and other magistrates of London in their state habits and paraphernalia. General Monk had been left in Scotland with a suflicient force to keep that tur- bulent people in awe ; and both their pres- byterianism and the imminent peril in which Charles's bold march of the Scottish army had placed Cromwell himself and that " commonwealth" of which he was now fully determined to be the despot, had so enraged Cromwell against that country, that lie seized upon his flrst hour of leisure to complete its degradation, as well as submission. His complaisant parliament only required a hint from him to pass an act which might have been fitly enough entitled " an act for the better punishment and prevention of Scottish loyalty." Dy this act royalty was declared to be abo- lished in Scotland, us it had previously been in England, and Scotland itself was declared to be then annexed to England as a conquest and a province of " the com- monwealth." Cromwell's hatred of the Scotch, however, proceeded no farther than insult; fortunately for the Scots, Monk, who was left as their resident general or military governor, was a prudent and im- partial man, free from all the worst fanati- cisms and wickednesses of the time ; and his rigid impartiality at once disposed the people to peace, and intimidated the Eng- lish judges who were entrusted with the distribution of justice in that country, fVom being guilty of any injustice or tyranny to whicn they might otherwise have been in- clined, England, Scotland, and Ireland — where Ireton and Ludlow had completed the very little that Cromwell had left un- done—were thus effectually subjected to a parliament of sixty men, many of whom were the weakest, as many more of them were the wickedest, the most ignorant, and the most fanatical men that could have been found in England even in that age. So says history, if we look at it with a merely superficial glance. l)ut, in truth, the hats which covered the heads of those sixty men had fully as much concern as the men themselves in the wonderfully rapid and complete subjugation of three countries, two of which had never been otherwise than turbulent and sanguinary, and the third of which had just murdered its legal sovereign and driven his legal successor into exile. No ; it was not by the fools and the fanatics, carefully weeded out of the most foolish and fanatical of parlia- ments, that all this great though evil work was done. Unseen, save by the few, but felt and seen throughout the whole Eng- lish dominion, Cromwell dictated every measure aud inspired every speech of that parliament which to the eyes of the vulgar seemed so omnipotent. His sagacity and his energy did much, and his known vin- dictiveness and indomitable firmness did the rest ; those who opi>osed failed before his powers, and their failure intimidated others into voluntary submission. The channel islands and the Scottish isles were easily subdued on account of their proxi- mity ; the American colonies, though some of them at the outset declared for the royal cause, numbered so many enthusiastic re- ligious dissenters among their populations, that they, too, speedily submitted to and followed the example and orders of the newly and guiltily founded " Common- wealth " of England. While all this was being achieved, the real government of England was in the hands of Cromwell, though, in form, there was a council of thirty-eight, to whom all addresses and petitions were presented, and who had, nominally, the mana^^ing of the army and navy, and the riglit and re- sponsibility of making war and peace. The real moving urinciple of this potent council was the mina uf Cromwell. And, while we denounce the flagrant hypocrisy of his pre- tensions to a superior sanctity, and his traitorous contempt of all his duties as a subject, impartial truth demands that we A.n. 16S0. — CRABLIS II. BOLBMNLT FBOCLAIMBO KINO AT XDINBUBOIt, JULT 15. «.l). 1C31.— LIMBHICK TAKBN BT THE KBFUBLICAIfS AVTRR 15 MOUTHS* SIKOB. ^nglantf.— ^I^e ^ommontucalt^. 385 admit that never was ill-obtained power better wielded. Next after the petty and cruel persecution of individuals, nominally on public grounds, but really in revenge of private injuries, a political speculator would infalliblv and very naturally predict that a poor and, comparatively speaking, meanly born private man, like Cromwell, being suddenly invested with so vast a power over a great and wealthy nation, would make his ill-acquired authority an infamous and especial scourge in the financial de- partment. But, to the honour of Cromwell oe it said, there is no single period in our history during which the public finances have beeu so well managea, and adminis- tered with so entire a freedom from greed, dishonesty, and waste, as during this strange man's strange administration. It is quite true that the crown revenues and the lands of the bishops were most vio- lently and shamefully seized upon by this government, but they were not, as might have been anticipated, squandered upon the gratification of private individuals. These, with a farther levy upon the national resources that amounted to only a hun- dred and twenty thousand pounds i>er month, supplied the whole demands of a government which not only maintained Seace in its own commonwealth anil depen- encies,but also taught foreigners that, un- der whatever form of government, England still knew how to make herself feared, if not respected. Holland, by its protection of the royal party of England, had given deep offence to Cromwell, who, literally " as the hart Eanteth for cool waters," panted for the lood of Charles II. " Whom we have in- jured we never forgive," says a philosophic satirist ; and Cromwell's hatred of Charles II. was a good exemplification of the said truth. Hating Holland for her generous shelter of the royalists, Cromwell eagerly seized upon two events, which might just as well have happened in an^ other country under heaven, as a pretext tor making war upon that country. The circumstances to which we allude were these. At the time of the mock trial that preceded the shameful murder of the late king, doctor Dorislaus, the reader will remember, was one of the "assistants" of Coke, the "solicitor for the people of England." Under the government of the " commonwealth" this mere hireling was sent as its envoy to Holland. A royalist whose own fierce passions made him forget that it is written " vengeance is mine, I will repay, saith the Lord," and who would see no difference between the rufiian who actually wields the instrument, and the more artful but no less abominable ruf- fian who instigates or hires the actual assassin, put Dorislaus to death. No sane man of sound Christian principles can jus- tify this act; but how was Holland con- cerned in it 7 The same man with the same opportunity would doubtless have com- mitted the same act in the puritan state of' New England ; and to make a whole nation answerable in their blood and their treasure for the murderous act of an individual who had taken shelter among them was an ab- surdity as well as an atrocity. The other case which served Cromwell as a pretext for declaring war against Holland was, that Mr. St. John, who was subsequently sent on an embassy to Holland, received some petty insult from the friends of the prince of Orange ! But, alas 1 it is not only usurped governments that furnish us with these practical commentaries on the fable of the wolf and the lamb ! The great naval commander of this time was admiral Blake. Though he did not enter the sea service until very late in life, he was a perfect master of naval tactics, and his daring and firmness of character could not be surpassed. When the war was declared against Holland he proceeded to sea to oppose the power of the Dutch admiral. Van Tromp. "The actions between them were numerous and in many cases tolerably equal, but the eencral result of the war was so ruinous t» the trading interests of the Dutch, that ihey anxiouslv desired the return of peaco;. But though it was chiefly the personal feeling and personal energy of Cromwell that had commenced this war, his hitherto patient and obsequious tools, the parliamertt, now exerted them- selves to prolong the war at sea, bopiug thus to weaken that power of the army, wielded by Cromwell, which of late they had felt to a scarcely tolerable degree. But effectual resistance on the part of the parliament was now wholly out of the question ; they had too well done the work of the usurper, who was, probably, not ill pleased that their present petty and fu- tile attempt at opposing him gave him a pretext for crushing even the last sem- blance of their free will out of existence. But though he had fully determined upon a new and decisive mode of overruling them, Cromwell initiated it with his usual art and tortuous procedure. He well knew that the commons hated the array, would fain have disbanded it, if possible, and would on no account do auglit that could increase either its power or its well being ; on the other hand, he was equally aware that the sol- diers had many real grievances to complain of, and also entertained not a few prejudices against the commons. To embroil them in au open quarrel, and then, seemingly as the mere and sympathizing redresser of tlie wronged soldiery, to use them to crush the parliament was the course he determiucd upon. A. D. 165.1.— Cromwell, with that rugged but efflcient eloquence which he so well knew how to use, urged the officers of the army no longer to suffer themselves and their men to labour under grievances unre- dressed and arrears unpaid, at the mere will and pleasure of the selfish civilians for whom they had fought nnd conquered, but remon- strate in terms which those selfish persons could not misunderstand, and which would wring justice from their fears. Few things could have beeu suggested which would A. O. 1653. — JUDOBS FROM BNOLAND ADHINISTSn JUSTICE IN SCOTLAND. [21 li ' *HB ttOTBBMMlRT OV OBOIIWBLIi WAS A SABaFAOIS BBSVOIISM. 386 9|e lEttasiVixis of l^istors, 9tc. H H A N »• ■ M a W » e hBTe be«B autre entirely agreeable to the wiahea of the officers. They drew njf a pe- tition—if we ought not rather to call it a re- monstrance — in which, alter demanding re- dress of grievances and payment of arrears, they taunted the parliament with having formerly made fine professions of their de- termination so to remodel that assembly as to extend i^nd ensure libierty to all ranks of men, and with having for years conti- nued to sit without making a. single ad- vance towards the performance of these voluntary pledges. The house acted on this occasion with a spirit which would have been admirable and nonourable in a genuine house of commons, but which savoured somewhat of the ludicrous when shown by men who, consciously and deliberately had year after year been the mere and servile tools of Cromwell and his prctorians. It was voted not only that this petition should not be complied with, bnt also that any per- son who should in fbture present any such petition should be deemed guilty' of high treason, and a committee was appointed immediately to prepare an act in confor- mity to this resolution. The officers pre- sented a warm remonstrance upon this treatment of their petition ; the house still more warmly replied; and it was soon very evident that both parties were animated by the utmost animosity to each other. Crom- well now saw that hik hour fi>r action had arrived. He was sitting in council with some of his officers when, doubtless in obe- dience to his own secret orders, intelligence was brought to him of the violent temper and designs of the house. With well acted astonishment and incontrollable rage he started firom his seat, and exclaimed that the miscondttct of these men at lenj^th compelled him to do a thing which made the hair to stand on end upon his head. Hastily assembling three hundred soldiers he immediately proceeded to the hoane of commons, which he entered, covered, and followed by as many of the troops as could enter. Before any remonstrance could be offered, Cromwell, stamping upon the ground, as in an ecstacy of sudden passion, exclaimed, " For shame I Oet ye gone and give place to honester men I you are no longer a parliament, I tell ye you aie no longer a parliament." Sir Harry Vane, a bold and honest man, though a half insane enthusiast, now rose and denounced Crom- well's conduct as indecent and tyrannical. " Ha I exclaimed Cromwell, " sir Harry I Oh I sir Harry Vane I the Lord deliver me from sir Harr^ Vane I " Then, turning first to one prominent member of this lately servile parliament and then to another, he dealt out in succession the titles of glutton, drunkard, adulterer, and whoremonger. Having given this, probably, very just de- scription of the men by whose means he had so loUK and sn compLtely misgoverned the suffering nauon, he literally turned " the rump''^out of the house, locked the doors, and carried away the key in his pocket, A servile parliament being the most con' venient of tools for the purposes of despo- tism, Cromwell when he haid thus sunma- rily got rid of "the rump," very soon pro- ceeded to call a new parliament, which, if I>ossible, surpassed even that in the quali- ties of brutal ignorance and ferociotts lana- ticism. A practice had now become general of taking scriptural words, and in many cases, whole scriptural sentences or cant- ing imitations of them, for Christian names; and a fanatical leather-seller, who was the leading man in this fanatical par- liament, named Fraise-GodBarebone, gave his name to it. The utter ignorance dis- played by the whole of the members .of Barebone's parliament even of the forma of their own house, the wretched drivelling of their speeches, and their obvious in- capacity to understand the meaning of what they were secretly tod imperiously in- structed to do, excited so much ridicule even from ^he very multitude, that the less insane among the members themselves be- eamed ashamed of their pitiable appear- ance. A small number of these, with the concurrence of Rouse, their speaker, waited upon Cromwell at Whitehall, and wisely tendered their resignation, which he wil- lingly received. But many of this precious parliament were far from being convinced of their incapacity or willing to resign their anthority. They determined not to be bound by the decision of the seceders, and pro- ceeded to elect One of their number, named Moyer, as their speaker. Cromwell had but one way of dealing with this sort of contumacy, and he sent a party of guards ; under the command of colonel White, to dear the parliament house. On this occa- sion a striking instance occurred of the mingled cant and profanity which then so disgustingly abounded in common conversa- tion. ColonelWhite on entering the house and seeing Moyer in the chair, addressed him and asked what he and the other mem- bers were doing there. " Seeking the Lord," replied Moyer, in the cant of his tribe. " Then," replied the colonel, with a pro- fand levity still more disgusting than the other's cant," you liad better go seek him elsewhere, for to mv certain knowledge he has not been here these many years." Having now sufflciently ascertained the complete devotion of the military to his person, and sufileientlv accustomed the people at large to his arbitrary and sudden caprices, Cromwell, whose clear and mas- culine sense must have loathed the imbeci- lity and fanaticism of the late parliament, boldly proceeded to dispense with parlia- ments altogether, and to establish a pure and open military government, of which he was himself at once the head, heart, and hand. The formation of the new govern- ment was ^'I'hly characteristic of Crom- well's r'-ruiii'i ^o'jcy. Thrcngh his usual agents nu . educed the offlc BHSLAJIB, vas. 16. lEngbmtf.-^^i^c ^otectoratt* 387 the appointment was proclaimed in London and other chief towns with the for- mality and publicity usual on proclaiming the accession of a king. The miUtary officers having thua made Cromwell king in all but the mere name, he gratefully proceeded to make them hia ministers, choosing his council from among the general officers, and allowing each coun- cillor the then very liberal aalary of one thousand pounds per annum. Now that be was ostensibly, as for a long time before he had been virtually, at the head of affairs, the policy of Cromwell required that the army should be well taken care of. While there was yet any possibility of the people clamouring for a parliament and of a parliament makmg any show of reaiat- ance to his inordinate pretensions, the dis- content of the army was a weapon of price to him. Now, the case was completely altered, and instead of allowing the pay of the army to fall into arrear, he bad everr officer and man constantly paid one month in advance. Liberal in all that related to real public service, as the providing of arms, furnishing the magasines, and keeping the fleet iu serviceable repair, he yet was the determined foe of all useless expence. But though the iron hand of Cromwell kept the people tranquil at home and main- tained the nigh character of the nation abroad, he. had not long obtained the pro- tectorate ere he began to suffer the penalty of hii^oriminal ambition. To the royalisti^ as. the murderer of their former king and aa the chief obstacle to the restoration of their present pnie, he was of cotirse, hate- ful ; and the sincere republicans, including not only Fairfax and many other men of public importance and character, but also a multitude of perspns in all ranks of pri- vate life, and aoihe of his own nearest and dearest connections, saw in him only a worse than legitimate king. The consequence was, that numerous plots, of more or less im- portance and extent, were fonned af^inst him. But he was himself active, vigilant, and penetrating ; and as he was profuae in his rewards to those who afforded him valit- able information, no one was ever more ex- actly served by spies. He seemed to know men's very thoughts, so rapid an4 minute was the information which he in fact o^cd to this, in his circumstances, wise libera- lity. No sooner was a plot formed than, he knew who were concerned in it; no sooner had the conspirators determined to proceed to action than they learned to their cost, that their own lives were at the disposal of him whose life thev had aimed at. With regard to the war in which the na- tion was engaged, it may be remarked, tlu(t all the efforts of the Dntcli failed to aaye them from suffering severely under the vi- gorous and determined attacks of Blake. Defeated again and again, and finding their trade paralyzed in every direction, tney at length became so dispirited that they sued for peace, and treated as a sovereign the man whom, hitherto, they had very justly treated as a usurper. In order to obtain peace, they agreed to restore considerable territory whicn, during the reign of Charles I., they had torn from the Baat India Com- pany ; to ceaae to advocate or advance the cauae of the unfortunate Charlea II. ; and to pay homage on every aea to the flag of the commonweath. While we give all due credit to Crom- well aa the ruler under whom the Dutch were thua humbled, and ipake due allow- ance for the value of hia pronapt and liberal anpplies to the admiral and ^et, we must n.ot, either, omit to remember that the real humbler of the Duch waa the gallant ad- miral Blake. Thia fine Engliah aeaman waa avowedly and notoriously a republican in principle, and, being so, he could not but be opposed to the usurpation by Crom- well of a more than kingly power. But at sea and with an enemy's fleet in sight the gallant Blake remembered only his coun- try, and cared nothing abput who ruled it. On such occasions, he would say to his sea- men, " No matter into whose hands the government may fall; our duty is atiU to ght for our country." With France in negotiation, as with Hol- land in open war, England under Cromwell was aucceaafiil. The sagacious cardinal Masarine, who was then in power in France, clearly saw that the protector was more easily to be managed by flat^r;^ and defer- ence than by any attempts at violence, and there were few crowned heads that were treated by France, under Masarine, with half the respect which it larished opon "protector" Cromwell of England. This prudent conduct of the French minister nrobably saved much blood and treasure to both nations, for although Cromwell's dis- cerning mind and steadfast temper would not allow of his sacrificingany of the sub- stantial advantages of England to the soothings and flattejries ot the French mi- nister, tney, unquestionably, disposed him to docility and complaisance upon many not vitally important points, upon which, h4d they been at all haugbtilv pressed, he would have resisted even to the extremity of going to war. Spain, which in the reign of Elisabeth and tbven later had been so powerful as to threaten to unite, all Europe in submis- sion, liadnpw become considerably reduced. But Qrpmnrell, wisely, as we think, still considered it too powerful, i^nd as far more likely than France to espouse the cause of Charles II., and thus bf iDJuripus to the com^nonwealth— and the protector. Ac- cordingly, being, solicited by Masarine to join in depiessi^JSpain, lie readily furnish- ed six thousand men fur the invasion of the Netherlands, and a signal victory w^s with this aid obtained over the Spaniards at Dunes. Iq return for this important serrice the Frenibh put Dunkirk, lately taken from the Spaniards, into his hands. But the victorv of Dunes Was the least of the evils that the Spaninrds experienced from the enmity of Cromwell. Blake, whose conduct in the Dutch war had not only en- deared him to England, but had also spread A. n. 1M7.— »»■*»! OF AJiLlAlfCB BBTWBIN BlfaLABD, VBANOB, AMD BfAIN. A.S. 1658.— CMOMWSI.L DItSOLTia ■» yoUBtB ANO LAST rABLIAMIN*. I s? n ? 388 ^^e treasury of l^istore, 8cc. hia penonal renown throuKhout the world, waa most liberally and ably snpported by the protector. Having aailed up the Medi- terranean, where the English flag had never floateii above a fleet since the time of the crusaders, he completely swept that sea of all that dared to dispute it with him, and then proceeded to Leghorn, where his mere appearance and reputation caused the duke of Tnscanv to make reparations for divers injuries which had been inflicted upon the English traders there. A.D. 1665.— The trading vessels of Eng> land, as, indeed, of all European countries, had long suffered from the Tunisians and Algerines, and Blake sow proceeded to call those barbariana to account. The dey of Algiers was soon brought to reason ; but the dey of Tunis, directing the attention of Blake to the strong castles of Goletta and Porto Farino, bade him look at them and then do hia worst. The Enxlish ad- miral instantly took him at his word, sailed into the harbour, burned the whole of the shipping that lay in it, and sailed triumph- antlT away in auest of the Spaniards. Ar- rived at Cadis he took two galleons, or trea- sure ships, of the enormous value of two millions of pieces of eight ; and then sailed for the Canaries, where he burned and sunk an entire Spanish fleet of sixteen sail. Af- ter this latter action he sailed for England to retit, and sank so rapidly beneath an ill- ness which had long afflicted him, that he perished just as he reached home. While Blake had been thus {gallantly and successfully exerting himself in one quar- ter, another fleet under admirals Venablea and Penn, carrying about four thousand land forces, left the British shores. The object of this expedition was to capture the island of Hispaniola, but the Spaniards were so well prepared and superior, that this object utterly failed. Resolved not to return home without having achieved some- thing, the admirals now directed their course to Jamaica, where they so complete- ly surprised the Spaniards, that that rich island was taken possession of by our troops without the necessity of striking a blow. So little was the value of the island from which ro much wealth has since been drawn, at that time understood, that its capture was not deemed a compensation for the failure as to Hispaniola, and both the ad- mirals were sent to the Tower for that failure. A. D. 1658. — But the splendid successes of Cromwell were now drawing to a close. His life, glorious as to the unthinking and uninformed it must have appeared, had from the moment of his accepting the pro- tectorate been one long series of secret and most harassing vexations. As we have al- ready pointed out, both extremes, the re- publicans and the royalists, detested him, and were perpetually plotting against his authority and life. His own wife was thought to detest the guilty state in which they lived ; and it is certain that both his eldest daughter, Mrs. Fleetwood, and his fa- vourite child, Mrs. Claypole, took every opportunity of maintaitiingi the res|>ective principles of their husbands, even in the presence of their father. Mrs. Fleetwood, In- deed, went beyond her husband In ceal for republicanism ; while Mrs. Claypole, whom the protector loved with a tenderness little to have been expected from so stern a man, was so ardent in the cause of monarchy, that even on her death-bed she upbraided her sorrowing father with the death of one sovereign and the usurpation which kept the livinp; sovereign in exile and in misery. The soldiery too with whom he had so often fouf well now, too, for the first time found him- self fearfully straightened for money. His successes against the Spaniards had been splendid, indeed, but such splendours were usually expensive in the end. With an ex- hausted treasury aud debts of no inconsi- derable amount, he begun to fear the con- sequence of what seemed inevitable, his falling in arrears with the soldiery to whom he owed all his past success and upon whose good will alone rested his slender hope of future security. Just as he was tortured well nigh to insanity by these threatening circumstances of his situa- tion. Colonel Titus, a zealous republican, who had bravely, however erroneously, fought against the late king, and who waa now thoroughly disgusted and indignant to see the plebeian king-killer practising more tyranny than the murdered monarch had ever been guilty of, sent forth his opinions in a most bitterly eloquent pamphlet, bear- ing the ominous title of "Killimo, no Murder." Setting out with a brief refer- ence to what had been done in the case of (what he, as a republican, called) kingly tyranny, the colonel vehemently insisted that it was not merely a right but a posi- tive duty to slay the plebeian usurper. "Shall we," said the eloquent declaimer, " shall toe, who struck down the lion, cower before the wolf?" s t I M •t M ■ XSPIONA6R UNDRR TBS FBOTBCTOBSHIP WAS AT ITS 6BBATB8T HBIOBT. iJ w OBOMWIlIi WA« BOBKB IH HBIfBT ntnf» ORArBb, WaiVIIIBBTBB ABBBT. s. »• ■4 a K « s M •< M a) Ik O H O ■ ta H M M ■< e H Q M « g M M M n U H M H It M M H » H M M n a « M ts H a n lEnglmitf — Sl^c ^rotcctoratt. 389 Cromwell Kid this eloqnent and immtiral' reMoqing— immonl. we mlj, for crime can nevtrixuuti more crime and never waa again seen to amile. The nerroaincM of his body and the horror of his mind were now re> doul>Ied. He doubted not that this fear- less and plausible pamphlet would fUl into the hands of some enthusiast who wouM be nerred to frensjr by it. He wore armour beneath his clothes, and constantly car- ried pistols with him, never travelled twice by the same road, and rarely slept miire than a second night in the same chamber. Though he was always strongly guarded, such was the vrretchedness of his sitnation that even this did not ensure his safe^r; for where more probably than among the fanatical soldiery could an assassin be found. Alone he fell into melancholy ; in company he was uncheered ; and if strang- ers, of however high character, approached somewhat close to his person, it was in a tone less indicative of anger than of actual and agonizing terror that he bade them stand oif. The strong constitution of Cromwell at length gave way beneath this aceumulation of horrors. He daily became thinner and more feeble, and ere long was seised with ter- tian ague, which carried him off in a week, in the ninth year of his unprincipled usur- pation, and in the fifty-ninth of his age, on the third of September, 1()59. A. o. 1669.— Though Cromwell was deli- rous from the effects of his mortal illness, he had a sufflcieui lucid interval to allow of his putting the crov^ning stroke to his unparalleled treason. This slayer of his lawful sovereign, this mere private citizen, who bad only made his first step from extreme obscurity under pretence of a burning and inextinguishable hatred of monarchy, now, when on the very verge of death, had the cool audacity aiid impudence to name his son Richard as his successor, — forsooth I — as though his usurped power were hel4.by hereditaiy right, or as though bis son and the grandson of a small trader were better quaufied than any other living man for the ofBce, on the aupposition ' of its being elective t In the annals of the world we know of no instance of impu- dence beyond this. But though named by his father to the protectorate, Richard Cromwell had none of his father's energy and but little of his evil ambition. Accustomed to the stem rule and sagacious activity of the deceased usurper, the army very speedily showed its unwillingness to transfer its allegiance to Richard, and a committee of the leadipg officers was assembled at Fleetwood's resi- dence, and called, after it, the cabal of Wallingford. The first step of this asso- ciation was to present to tne young pro- tector a remonstrance requiring that the command of the army should be entrusted to some person who possessed the confi- dence of the officers. Aa Richard was thus plainly informed that he had not that con- fidence, he had no choice but to defend his title by force, or to make a virtue of neces- sity and give h. .« reaignatioa of an au- thoritv to the import«nee of whicb he waa aignally unequal. He ehose the latter course ; and having aigned a formal al>di- cation of an office which he ought never to have Hied, he lived for some yeare in France and anbseqaentiT settled at Cheshnnt, in Hertfordshire, wnere aa a private gentle, man he lived to a very advanced age, in the ei^ynent of competence and a degree of happineaa wUeb waa nevek for an instant the companion of hia fhther'a guilty great- ness. The cabal of Vallingford, having tints readily and quietly disposed of pro- tector Bicliafd, now aaw tlw neeeaaity of establishing something like a formal go- vemment ; and the rump parliament, which Oliver Cromwell had so unceremoniously turned ont of doers, waa invited to rein- atate itself in authority. But upon these thoroughly incapable men the experience of past days was wholly thrown away. Forgetting that the source of their power waa the brute force of the army, their very first measures were aimed at lessening the power of the cabal. The latter body per- ceiving that the parliament proceeded from less to greater proofa of extreme hostility, determined to send it back to the fitting obscurity of private life. Lambert with a large body of troops accordingly went to 'Westminster. Having completely aur- ronnded the partiament house with his men, the general patiently awaited the arrival of the speaker, Lenthal, and when that personage made hia appearance the general ordered the horses of the state carriage to be turned round, and Lenthal was conducted home, The like civility Was extended to the various members as they successsively made their appearance, and the army proceeded to keep a solemn fast by way &t celebnting the annihilation of this disgraceful parliament. But the triumph of the army was short. If Fleetwood, Lambert, and the other lead- ing officers anticipated the possibility of placing one of themselves in the state of evil pre-eminence occupied by the late pro- tector, they had egregiously erred in over- looking the power and possible inclination of general Monk. This able and politic officer, it will be recollected, had been en- trusted by Cromwell with the task of keep- ing Scotland in subservience to the' com- monwealth of England. He had an army of upwards of eight thousand veteran troops, and the wisdom and moderation with which he had governed Scotland gave him great mpral influence and a' proportionate coni- mand of pecuniary resources; and when the dismissal of the rump parliament by the army threw the ihhabitants of London into alarm.lest an absolute military tyranny should succeed, the eyes of all were tumea upon Monk, and every one was anxious to know whether he would throw his vast power into this or into that aeale. But " honest George Monk," as his sol- diers with affectionate familiarity were wont to term him, was as cool and silent as he was dexterous aiid resolute. As soon as BICHABP CBOKWBLI, Pl«n IW 1713, AND WAS BUBIBD AT HtTBBlBt, SAMTa. [2 i 3 •Vi'X A.o. 1660. — turn ciTT or 1.OHD011 aud thb whumv bbclabsd fob cbablb*. " % 390 ^^e ^rcadury o{ l^istorfi, Ice he wu made aware of the proceeding that had taken place in London he put hit vete- ran army in motion. A* he marched touth- ward upon London he was met by mei- tender after metienger, each party beinx anxioua to ascertain for which he intended to declare; but he atrictW, and with an admirable firmneia, replied to all, that he wa« on hit way to enquire into the state of affairs and to aid in remedying whatever mif^ht be wrong. Still maintaining this politic reserve, he reached St. Alban's, and there fixed bis head qarters. Tiie rump parliament in the mean time had re-assembled without opposition from the 'Wallingford cabal, the :jembers of which probably feared to act while in igno- rance of the intentions of Monk, who now sent a formal request to the parliament for the instant removal to country quarters of all troops stationed in London. This done, the parliament dissolved, after taking me»- sures for the immediate election of new members. Sagacious public men now began to judge that Monk, weary of the existing state of things, had resolved to restore the exiled king, but Monk still preserved the most profound silence until the assembling of a new parliament should enable him rapidly and effectually to accomplish his de- signs. The only person who seems to have been in the confidence of this able man was a Devonshire gentleman named Morrice, who was of as taciturn and prudent a disposition as the general himself. All persons who sought the general's conflderice were re- ferred to Morrice, and among the number was sir John Granville, who was the ser- vant and personal friend of the exiled king, who now sent him over to England to en- deavour to influence Monk. Sir John when referred to Morrice more than once replied that he held a commission from the king, and that he could open his business to no one but general Monk in person. This per- tinacity and caution were precisely what Monk required ; and though even now he would not commit himselt by any written document, he personally gave Granville such information as induced the king to hasten from Breda, the governor of which would fain have made him a prisoner under the pretence of paying him honour, and settled himself in Holland, where he anx- iously awaited farther tidings from Monk. The parliament at length assembled, and it became very generally understood that the restoration of the monarchy was the real intention of Monk ; but so great and obvious were the perils of the time, that for a few days the parliament occupied it- self in merely routine business, no one daring to utter a word upon that very sub- ject which every man had the most deeply at heart. Monk during all this time had lost no opportunity of observing the senti- ments or the new parliament, and he at last broke through his politic and well- sustained reserve, and directed Annesley, the president of the council, to inform the house that sir John Granville was at its door with a letter from his majesty. The effect of these few words was electtical ; the whole of the members rose from their seats and hailed the news with a burst of enthusiastic cheering. Sir John Gran- ville was now called in, the king's letter was read, aud the proposals it made for the restoration of Charles were agreed to with a new burst of cheering. The gracious letter, offering an indemnity far more ex- tensive than could have been hoped for after all the evil that had been done, was at once entered on the journals, and ordered to be published, that the people at large might participate in the joy of the house. Nothing now remained to obstruct the re- turn of Charles, who, after a short and prosperous passage, arrived in liondon on the twenty-ninth of Mav, being the day on which he completed his thirtieth year. Every where he was received with the ac- clamations of assembled multitudes; and so numerous were the congratulatory ad- dresses that were presented to him, that he pleasantly remt'i'cd, that it must surely have been his cwn fault that he had not returned sooner,, k'j it was plain there was not one of bit subjects who had not been long wishing frr him t Alas I though good-humouredly, these words but too truly, paint the terribly and disgracefully inconstant nature of the multitude, who are ever as ready to praise and flatter without measure, as to blame and injure without just cause. CHAPTER LIV. The Reign qf Chablsb II. A. D. 1660. — Hahssomb, accomplished, young, and of a singularly cheerful and affable temper, Charles II. ascended his throne with all the apparent elements of a just and universtl popularity, especially as the ignorance of some and the tvranny of others had by this time taught the people of England to understand the full value of a wise, regular, and jnst government. But Charles had some faults which were none the less miscbievuus because they were the mere excesses of amiable qualities. His good-nature was attended by a levity and carelessness which caused him to leave the most faithful services and the most serious sacrifices unrewarded, and his gaiety de- generated into an indolence and self-in- dulgence more fitted to the effeminate self- worship of a Sybarite than to the public and responsible situation of the king of a free and active people. One of the first cares of the parliament was to pass an act of indemnity for all that had passed, but a special exception was made of those who had directly and per- sonally taken part in the murder of the late king. Three of the most prominent of these, Cromwell, Bradshaw, and Ireton, were dead. But as it was thought that some signal and public obloquy ought to be thrown upon crime so enormous as theirs, their bodies were disinterred, sus- WHBir rABLIAlIlCIlT DISSOLVlfs, BICHABD CBOHWBI.L WITHDBBW FROM COURT. \s AKI.KI. ! was at ill iicttj. The I electHcal; e from their I a burst of John Gran- (ioK's letter made for the reed to with he grackru* far more ex- I hoped for n done, was and ordered pie at large : the house, iruct the re- i short and London on ^ the day on irtictb year. vith the ae- titudes; and ttulalory ad- him, that he must surely : he had not in there was ad not been as 1 though Is but too lisgracefully ttde, who are itter without ure witlMut II. icomplisbed, heerful and scended his lements of a {specially as e tvranny of t the people full Talue of iment. But 1 were none ley were the alities. His s levity and to leave the nost serious gaiety de- and self-in- minate self- > the public le king of a ! parliament y for all that ception was :ly and per- irder of the irominent of and Ireton, hought that uy ought to lormous as terred, sus- » COURT. 4. D. 1669.— COSMO »■ MMIOISt VKIMOH OV •CSCANT, VISITS Inb^^aD. lEnglantf.— Ilottsc of SStuart — CPJ^arlcs SIE. 3J pended tnm the gallows, and subsequently buried at its foot. Others of the regicides were proceeded against, and more or less severely punished ; but Charles showed no more earnestness in vengeance than in gratitude, and there never, probably, has been so little of punishment inflicted for crime so extensive and so frightftil. Charles, in fact, had but one passion, the love of pleasure; and so long as he could command the means of gratifying that, he, at the commencement of his reign especially, seemed to care but little how his ministers arranged the public aflkira. It was, in some degree, happy for the natiou that Charles was thus careless ; for so excessive was the gladness of the nation's loyalty Just at this period, that had Charles been of a sterner and more ambitious character he would have had little or no difficulty in rendering himself an absolute monarch. So evident was the inclination of the commons to go to ex> tremes in order to gratify the king, that one of the ministers, Southampton, seri- ously contemplated requiring the enormous amount of two millions as the king's annual revenue, a revenue which would have made him wholly independent alike of his people and the law. Fortunately the wise and virtuous lord Clarendon, attached as he was to the roval master whose exile and priva- tions he had faithfully shared, opposed this outrageous wish of Southampton, and the revenue of the king was flxea more mode- rately, but with a liberality which rendered it impossible for him to feel necessity ex- cept as the consequence of the extremestim- prudence of profusion. But Charles was one of those persons whom it is almost impossible to preserve free from pecuniary necessity j and ne soon became so deeply involved in difficulties, while his love of expensive pleasures re- mained unabated, that he at once tamed his thoughts to marriage as a means of pro- curing pecuniary aid. Catherine, the in- fanta of^ Portugal, was at that time, pro- bably, the homeliest princess in Europe. But she was wealthy, tier portion amount- ing to three hundred thousand pounds in money, together with Bombay in the East Indies, and the fortress of Tangier in Africa ; and such a portion had too many attractions for the needy and pleasure- loving Charles to allow him to lay much stress upon the ipfanta's want of personal attractions. The dukes of Ormond, South- ampton, and the able and clear-headed chancellor Clarendon endeavoured to dis- suade the king from this match, chiefly on the ground of the infanta being but little likely to have children ; but Charles was resolute, and the infanta became queen of England, an honour which it is to be feared that she dearly purchased, for the nume- rous mistresses of the king were permitted, if not actually encouraged, to insult her by their familiar presence, and vie with her in luxury obtained at her cost. As a means of procuring large sums from his parliament, Charles declared war against the Dutch. The hostilities «• very flereely carried on by both parlies, after the sacriflce of blood and treasun , . an immense amount, the Dutch, by a treaty signed at Breda, procured peace by ceding to England the American colony of New York. Though this colony was justly con- sidered as an important acquisition, the whole terms of the peace were not con- sidered sufflcientlv honourable to England, and the public mind became much exaspe- rated against Clarendon, who was said to have commenced war unnecessarily, and to have concluded peace disgracefully. What- ever might be the private opinion of Charles, who, probablv, had far more than Claren- don to do witn the commencement of the war, he showed no desire to shield his minister, whose steadfast and high-princi- pled character had long been so distasteful at court that he had been subjected to the insults of the courtiers and the slights ot the king. Under such circumstances the fate of Strafford seemed by no means un- likely to become that of Clarendon, Mr. Seymour bringing seventeen articles of im- peachment against him. But Clarendon perceiving the peril in which he was placed, and rightly judging that it was in vain to oppose the popular clamour when that was aiaed by tne ungrateful coldness of the court, went into voluntary exile in France, where he devoted himself to literature. Freed from the presence of Clarendon, whose rebuke he feared, and whose virtue he admired but could not imitate, Charles now gave the chief direction of public af- fairs into the hands of certain partakers of his pleasures. Sir Thomas Clifford, lord Ashley, afterwards earl of Shaftesbury, the duke of Buckingham, lord Arlington, and the duke of Lauderdale, were the persons to whom Charles now entrusted his affairs, and from their initials this ministry was known by the title of the cabal. A. n. 1670. — The members of the cabal were undoubtedly men of ability ; learning, wit, and accomplishment being absolute re- quisites to the obtaining of Charles's fa- vour. But thcir's was the ability of cour- tiers rather than of ministers ; they were better fitted to season the pleasures of the prince, than to provide for the security of the throne or the welfare of the peo- ple. The public discontent was, conse- quently, very great ; it was but too deeply and widely felt that such a ministry was little likely to put any effectual check upon the profligate pleasures which made the English court at once the gayest and the most vicious court in all Europe. Nor was it merely from the character of the ministry and the dissipated course of the king that the people felt discontented. The duke of York, the presumptive heir to the throne, though a brave and a high- minded man, was universally believed to be a very bigoted papist ; and enough of the Suritan spirit still remained to make men read the possible accession of a papist king. . The alarm and uneasiness that were felt A.n. 1669. — A raOCLAMATION POR SVFFRXSSINa BRDITIODS CQNVBIITICIBS. ! \'' rlj I -'■ il JuB. 1C70<— ^aa OBX.IBBATBD BBOBBB VOIfl, DVKB OV ALBBMABLB, BIBP. 392 9^t ^Tcasnn; of 1|totoYe, (cc. on thii point at length reuhed to raeh • height tnat, in Auautt of thie year, at the Icing wa* walking in St. Jamea'e park, die- fiorting himself with lome of the oeautifol it tie Mas of which he waa quite tronble- ■omelr fond, a chemiit, named Kirby, ap- proached his muettj, and warned him that a plot wa# on foot against him. "Keep, sire," said this person, " within your com- pany; four enemies design to take your life, and you may be shot eren in this very walk." News so etartling. and at the same time so consonant with the vague fears and vul- ?far rumonrs of the d»r. natnrallT led to arther enquiries ; and Kirby stated that he had kit information from a doctor Tonge, a clergyman, who had assured him that two men, named Grove and Pickering, were engaged to shoot the king, and that the queen's physician, sir George Wakeling, had agreed, if they failed, to put an end to Ills minesty by poison. The matter waa now referred to Danbv, the lord treasurer, who sent for doctor TonKe. That person not only showed all readiness to attend, but also produced a bundle of papers re- lative to the supposed plot. Questioned as to the manner in which he became pos- sessed of these papers, he at Ant stated that they were thrust under his door, and subsequently that he knew the writer of them, who required his name to be con- cealed lest he should incur the deadly anger of the Jesuits. The reader will do well to remark the gn^ss inconsistency of these two accounts; it is chiefly by tlie careful no- ting of such inconsistencies that the wise see through the carefully-woven falsehoods which are so commonly believed by the credulous or the careless. Had the papers really been thrust beneath this man's door, as he at first pretended, how should he know the author ? If the author was known to him, to what purpose the stealthy way of forwarding the papers? Charles him- self was far too acute a reasoner to overlook this gross inconsistency, and he flatly gave it as nis opinion that the whole affair was a clumsy fiction. But Tonge was a tool in the hands of miscreants who would not so readily be disconcerted, and he was now sent again to the lord treasurer Danby, to inform him that a packet of treasonable letters was on its way to the Jesuit Bed- ingfield, the duke of York's confessor. By some chance Tonge gave this informa- tion some hours after the duke of York had himself been put in possession of these let- ters, which he had shown to the king at a vvdgar and ridiculous forgery of which he could not discover the drift. Hitherto all attempts at producing any effect by means of these alleKed treaspn- able designs had failed, and the chief ma- nufacturer of them, Titus Oates, now came forward with a well-feigned unwillingness. This man had from his youth upward been an abandoned character. He had been indicted for gross peijury, and had sub- se<)uently been dismissed from the chap- laincy of"^ a man-of-war for a yet more dis- graoeAil crime, and he then professed to be a convert to papacy, and actually waa for aome time midntained in the English seminarv at St. Omer*!. Reduced to actual destitution, he aeems to have fastened npon Kirby and Tonge, as weak and credulous men, whose very weakneaa and credulity I would make them intrepid in the aaaertion ' of auch falaehooda aa tie might ehooae to [ inatil into their minda. Of hia own mo- tivea we may fbrm a ahrewd gness fW>m the I fact that he was supported by the actual ; charity of Kirbv, at a moment when he af- fected to have tne clue to mysteries closely touching the king's life and involving the lives of numerous persons of consequence. Though vulgar, illiterate, and ruffianly, ' this man Oates was cunning and daring. I finding that his pretended information waa of no avail in procuring himself court favour, he now resolved to sec what effect it would have upon the already alarmed and anxious minds of the people. He ac- cordingly went before sir Edmondbury Godfrey, a gentleman in great celebrity for his activity as a magistrate, and desired to make a deposition to the effect that the pope, judging the heresy of the king and people a sufficient ground, had assumed the sovereignty of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and had condemned the king to death as a heretic ; the death to be in- flicted by Grove and Pickering, who were to shoot him with silver biulets. The Jesuits and the pope having thus disposed of the king, whom, according to this veri- dical deposition, they styled the black bas- tard, the crown was to be offered to the duke of York on the condition that he should wholly . extirpate the protestant re- ligion ; but if the duke refused to comply with that condition, then James, too, was to go to pot. The mere vulgarity of this deposition might have led the people to imply its falsehood ; for whatever might (le the other faults of the Jesuits, they were Lot, as edu- cated men, at all likely to use the style sf speech which so coarse and illiterate a wretch as Oates attributed to them. But popular terror not uncommonly produces, temporarily at least, a papular madness; and the at once atrocious and clumsy false- hoods of this man, whose very destitution was the consequence of revolting crimes, were accepted by the people as irrefragable evidence, and he was himself hailed and caressed aa the friend and protector of protestantism and protestants I Before the council he repeatedly and most grossly contradicted himself, but the effect his statements had upon the pubUc mind was such, that it waa deemed necesaary to order the , apprehension of the principal persons named as being cognisant of this plot, among whom were several Jesuits, and Coleman, secretary to the duke of York. A singular circumstance now occurred which g^ives but too much reason to fear that peijury was by no means the worst of the crimes to which Oates resorted to pro- cure the success of his vile scheme. Sir s m ■4 * o A K O >4 ■a O M A, a. 1670.— THIS YBAB DIED BBNBT nifKIHB, AOBO 1/0 TBAB8. > '^.». . ^ < A.D. 1673.— Taa Kl!l» iOifBWDS t«B FBSAL tAWi ASAINI* PUIBNTBKI. lEnglanTJ.— I^otwe of Stuart. -(!i:!)arl« EJE. 393 Edmondbarr Godfrer. the maMtrate who llrit (piTe Oate* importance by allowing him to reduce hit lying itatemente into a rormal and rearulardepoiition, wai luddenly misecd from hit houie, and, after a lapse of teveral dayi, found barbarously murdered in a ditch at PrimroM-hill, near Loudon. No sooner was this known than the people rushed to the conclusion that sir Edmond* bury had been murdered by the Jesuits, in rcTcnge for the willingness he had shown to receife the information of Oates. But looking at the desperate character of the latter, does it not seem far more probable that he caused the murder of the credulous magistrate, trusting that it would have the very effect which it did produce upon the credulous people 7 Be that as it may, the discovery of the deceased gentleman's body frightfully increased the public agitation ; the corpse was carried in procession by seTcnty clergymen, and no one who valued his personal safety ventured to hint that the murder might probably not have been the work of the detested Jesuits. From the mere vulgar, the alarm and agitation soon spread to the better in- formed classes, and at length it was moved in parliament that a solemn fast should be appointed, that the house should have all f tapers that were calculated to throw a ight upon the horrid plot, that all known papists should be ordered to quit London, and ?)'. unknown or suspicious persons for- bidden to present themselves at court, and that the train bands of London and West- minster should be kept in instant readiness for action ! The miscreant whose false- hoods had raised all this alarm and anxiety was thanked by parliament and recom- mended to the favour of the king, who conferred upon him a pension of twelve hundred pounds per annum, and a resi- dence in vVhitehau. Such reward bestowed upon such a character and for such " pub- lic services" naturally produced a rival for public favour, and a fellow named William Bedloe now made his appearance in the character of informer. Ue was of even lower origin and more infamous note than Oates, having been repeatedly convicted of theft. Being at Bristol and in a state of destitution, Ee at his own request was ar- rested and sent to London. When ex- amined before the council he stated that he had seen the body of the murdered sir Edmondbury Godfrey at the then residence of the queen, Somerset-house, and that a servant of the lord Bellasis had offered him t>ur thousand pounds to carry it off and conceal it I Jmprobable as the tale was it was greedily received, and the ruffiaus, Oates and Bedloe, finding that credit was given to whatever they chose to assert, now ventured a step farther, and accused the queen of being an accomplice in all the evil doings and designs of tlie Jesuits. The house of commons, to its great disgrace, addressed the king in. support of this scan- dalous attack upon his already but too unhappy queen ; out the lords, with better judgment and more manly feeling, rejected the accusbtion with the utter contempt which it merited. The conjunction of two such intrepid per- jurers as Oates and Bedloe was ominous indeed to the unfortunate persons whom they accused; and it is but little to the credit of the public men of that day that they did not interfere to prevent any pri- soner being tried upon their evidence as to the fabled plot, until the public miud should have been allowed a reasonable lime in which to recover from its heat and exacer- bation. No such delay was even proposed, and while cunning was still triumphant and credulity still agape, Edward Coleman, the duke of York's secretary, was put upon his trial. Here, as before the council, Oates and Bedloe, though inconsistent with each other, and each with himself, yet agreed iu their main statements, that Coleman had not only agreed to the assassination of the king but bad even, as his reward for so doing, received a commission, signed by the superior of the Jesuits, appointing him papal secretary of state of these kin);doms. Coleman, who behaved with equal modesty and firmness, utterly denied all the guilt that was laid to his charge. But he could not prove a negative, and his mere denial availed nothing against the positive swear- ing of the informers. He was condemned to death ; and then several members of both houses of parliament oftVved to interpose to procure him the kinif'* pardon on condi- tion that he would ni "ke a full confession. But the unfortunate gentleman was inno- cent, and was far tu' liigU-minded to save his life by falsely accusing himself and others. He still firmly denied his guilt, and, to the eternal disgrace of Charles, was ex- ecuted. The blood of Coleman satiated neither the informers nor the public. Pickering, Grove, and Ireland were next put upon their trial, condemned, and executed. That they were innocent we have no doubt ; but they were Jesuits, and that was sufficient to blunt all sympathy with their fate. Hill, Green, and Berry were now charged with being the actual murderers of sir Emondbury Godfrey. In this case the in- formation, which was laid by Bedloe, was wholly irreconcileable with the evidence which was given by a fellow named Prance, and there was good evidence that was at variance with them both. But the prisoners were found guilty and executed, all three in their dying moments professing their in- nocence. As Berry was a protestant this made some impression upon the minds of the more reasonable, but the public mind was not even prepared to be disabused. Whitbread, provincial of the Jesuits, and Gavan, Fenwick, Turner, and Harcourt, brethren of the same order, were next tried. In addition to Oates and Bedloe, a wretch named Dugdale appeared against these pri- soners, and, in addition to and in support of the incredible and monstrous hes of Oates and Bedloe, he deliberately swore that there were two hundred thousand pa- pists at that very moment ready to take i I THn COMMONS FRBTAIL ON THI KllfO TO MBTB^CT BIS DBCLABATIOIt* A.D. 1674.— IiOBD CLAMIfDOIf AND TBI POXT MILTON SIBO THIS TBAB. i^.m ■?'!»1 SI r I.I ? f Hf ■ ' M M O H M a> o In «S O u o f< A M M M b o H M H M H M M 6 * A IB M !• M H X I. n le R ■i 394 ^t)e ^nasurt? ot 1|istori9, $cc. arms. And yet the alleged leaders and in- stigators of this huge army of armed and mui^ant papists were daily being brought to trial, condemened, and butchered, under the guard of a score or twd constables t But reasoning could not possibly be of any avail in that veritable reign of terror, for even direct and sworn evidence in favour of accused persons was treated with contempt. For instance, on this very trial m punishment altogether, that the lords very properly rejected the im- peachment. An angry feeling sprang up between the two houses ; and the king, to Srevent the dispute from proceeding to any angerous length, went down aud dissolved parliament, with the fixed determination of never calling another. Charles now, in fact, ruled with all the power and with not a little of the tyranny of an absolute monarch. He encouraged spies and informers, and imprisoned those who ventured to complain of his measures in a manner not only contrary to his former temper but almost indicative, as was well remarked at the time, of reconciling the people to the prospect of his brother's ac- cession by making nis own rule too grievous to be endured. To those who held high church principles, and professed his doc- trine of passive obedience and non-resist- ance, all the royal favour was shown ; while the Presbyterians and other sturdy opposers of his arbitrary measures were in numerous to THB IQUIITKIAN STATUB 0» ORABLIS IBBOTID AT CHARIN0-CBOS8. A. D. 1682. — PRINCB RUPBBT DIED, ADD WAS BDRIBS IN WKSTMINSTCR ABBXy. K':4»:- 396 ^I;c ^reaaurD of l^istori), $cc. cases deprived of their places and employ- ments, and in some cases imprisoned into the bargain. The city of London, so pow- erful and so factious during the reign of Charles I., was now made to feel the king's resentment, being, for its leadership of tlie popular party, deprived of its charter, which was not restored until an abject submission had been made, and a most vexatious right conceded to the crown of interfering in the election of the city magistrates. Fitzharris, who had been so warmly sided with by the exclusionists, and who had been the chief cause of Charles's angry and final dissolution of parliament, was now by the king's order brought to trial before a jury, and, being pronounced guilty, executed I An abomi- nable stretch of power; for however worth- less and debauched a fellow he might be, his crime, venal as it was, amounted to but libellous writing, for even the publieaiion was scarcely so much his own act as it was the act of the officers who arrested him. The popular party now found the poi- soned chalice commended to their own lips. Hitherto, while it seemed not improbable that the parliament and the " patriots " would obtain power over the king, the great and deji;raded host of spies and informers had aimed nt the ruin of "pai>istB" and "Jesuits." But now that the kin^ had as boldly as arbitrarily dispensed with even the shadow of parliamentary aid, and ruled as independently and almost as arbitrarily as an eastern prince, the spies and inform- ers turned upon those who had formerly encouraged if not actually employed them, and "presbyterian" was now pretty nearly as dangerous a title as "papist" had been; "protestant preacher" scarcely more safe than "Jesuit '' had been heretofore. Charles and his ministry encouri' 'd the informers, and the system of perjury lost none of its infamy and vileoess ; it merely aimed at a different class of victims. A* joiner of London, bv name Stephen College, had made himself especially con- spicuous during the heats and alarms of the anti-popery crisis. Loud of tongue, and somewhat weak of brain, this man, with more zeal than knowledge, had taken upon himself to advocate protestantism, which needed none of his aid, and to oppose po- pery, which such opposition as his could not possibly affect. lie had attended the city members to Oxford armed with pistols and sword, had been in the habit of railing against the king, the duke of York and papacy, and, rather, in derision than in distinction, had acquired the title of the Srotestant joiner. "Thts weak man, whose ights were fitting matter for the minister- ing nf the physician, rather than for the interference of the law, was selected by the ministry as a fit subject of whom to make an example. He was indicted and found guilty ol sedition, and, to the. dis- grace of both king and ministers, executed. A, D. 1683.— The increasing power and severity of Charles and his ministry struck a panic tliroughout the nation. The man- ner in which the city of London had been deprived of its charter, and the humiliating terms upon which that once powerful cor- poration had got its charter restored, soon caused the other corporations to surrender their charters voluntarily; and not only were considerable sums extorted for their restoration, but the king took care to re- serve in his own hands the power of ap- pointing to all offices of trust and profit. That patronage which was thus discredit- ably obtained was so enormous, that the power of the crown became overwhelm- ingly vast, and, with but a few exceptions, men agreed that resistance, even if justifi- able, would now be useless and helpless. But there was a party of malcontents, weak as to number, out vigorous, influen- tial, and bold; and absolute as Charles was, and unassailable as to most people his power must have seemed, his life, even, was, at this time, in a most imminent peril. The soul of the malcontents was the earl of Shaftesbury. That highly gifted but turbulent and plot-loving person had en- gaged with the duke of Monmouth, the earl of Macclesfield, lord William Russell, and several other noblemen, to rise nomi- nally in favour of freedom, but really to dethrone Charles; exclude, if not slay, James ; and place the crown upon the head of the duke of Monmouth, the king's na- tural son. The earl of Macclesfield, lord Brandon and others, were to effect a rising in Cheshire and Lancashire; sir Francis Drake, sir Francis Rowles, and sir William Courtney were induced by lord William Russell to head the insurrection in Devon, and generally in the west ; and Shaftesbury aided by Ferguson, a preacher of the inde- pendents, undertook to effect a general ris- ing in the city of London, where the discon- tent and disloyalty, owing to the affair of the charter, were at the greatest height. Shaftesbury urged on the plot with all his energy, and it is most probable that tlie kingdom would have been plunged into all the confusion and horror of a civil war if the extreme eagerness of Shaftesbury had not been counteracted by the extreme cau- tion of lord William Russell, who, when every thing was nearly ready for an out- break, urged the duke of Monmouth to postpone the enterprize until a more fa- vourable opportunity. The usually enter- prising ancl turbulent Shaftesbury now be- came so prostrated by a sense of the dan- ger in which he was placed by this post- ponement, that he abandoned his house and endeavoured to induce the Londoners to rise without waiting for the tardy co-opera- tion of the provinces ; but all his endeavours were unavailing, and in his despair he lied to Holland, where he soon afterwards died broken-hearted and in poverty. The conspirators, being thus freed from the turbulent Shaftesbury, formed a com- mittee of six; Hampden, grandson to the Hampden who made so mucl' opposition to the ship money, Algernon tf.dnev, How- ard, Essex, and lord William Russell ; Mon- mouth being their grand leader and centre of correspondence, his chief adviser, how- M iE O » M K e a a o u H R (• n 13 S' A.D, 1683.— A rKNHT-rOST FIRST BSTABLISBBD IN LONDON. R ABBKV. e humiliating powerful cor- , restored, soon I to surrender and not only )rted for their ok care to re- power of ap- ist and proflt. ihus discredit- lous, that the ae overwhelm- "ew exceptions, even if justifi- Eind helpless, j if malcontents, porous, influen- ce as Charles to most people i, his life, even, imminent peril, nts was the earl -hly gifted but person had cn- Moumouth, the Villiam Russell, n, to rise nomi- a, but really to le, if not slay, n upon the head 1, the king's na- lacclesfield, lord to effect a rising ire; sir Francis , and sir William jy lord William 'ectlon in Devon, and Shaftesbury cher of the inde- Bct a general ris- vhere the discon- to the affair of greatest height, plot with all his •obable that the plunged into all of a civil war if Shaftesbury had the extreme cau- iBcll, who, when lady for an out- f Monmouth to intil a more fa- le usually entcr- ftesbury now be- sensc of the dan- ced by this post- ledhis house and le Londoners to e tardy co-opera- lU his endeavours is despair he fled 1 afterwards died erty. thus freed from , formed a com- grandsuu to the mucl- opposition on E.dney, How- m Russell ; Mon- cader and centre ief adviser, how- >oi«. A.D. 1 S3.— TBB INFAMOUS JUOQI JEFFREYS MADB LOnO CUIKF JUBTICB. lEnglanti.— "I^ouac of Stuart — ©^arUa lEE. 397 ever, being the duke of Argyle. There were numerous subordinates in this conspiracy ; and it is affirmed, by the friends of the me- mory of lord William Russell, that he and the leaders did not encourage and were not even perfectly cognizant of the more atrocious part of the plan of those conspirators who had agreed to assassinate the king on his way to Newmnrket. We confess that it ap- pears to us to be making a large demand in- deed upon our credulity to suppose any thing of the kind, but we have not space to go into the arguments which might be adduced in favour of the supposition that, however willing the chief conspirators miglit be to leave the horrible crime of assassination to subordinates, they were at least quite willing that such crime should be perpetrated to the profit of their main design. The plan of the conspirators against the life of the king was to secrete themselves on a farm belonging to one of them, the Rychouse, situated on the road to New- market, overturn a cart there to obstruct the royal carriage, and then deliberately Arc upon the king. After much consultation it was deterramcd to carry this dastardly plot into execution on the king's return from Newmarket. About a week before the time at which his majesty wps to do so, tlie house in which he resided at Newmarket took tire, and he was obliged to remove to London. This circumstance would merely have postponed the "fate" of )000 TO 16,000. as at im- duke now t BrunBels, James was Monmouth i)d relying James was ipt to oust it this dis- tbe part of ine ; but it due allow- nd intense James, and Monmouth, ) be the le- g commonly tely married ir. as well as onsequences greed to aid rgyte should outh was to gland, where d his part of nd, where he id of an army men. He is- | he usual mix- lut before his any consider- B attacked by I troops. Ar- r, and was se- ops soon gave the duke was hile standing fater, and car- tie authorities spite of mean by the inflic- indignity, for igh turbulent caused them, execution he le rabble ; and to his neck a t of his former wever, nothing rgyle, who con- :«Sly telling his id it well that allege against with the same m time, with dred followers, etshire: and we s of his poyu- ough he landed , he assembled en in four days. )n he mcreased and could have nly that he was ays to refuse all their own arms id Frome he was young men, the 16,000. A.D. ]68d.— THB KOICT Of KANTM BITOKBD BT LOUIS ZIT. OV VBAMCB. lEnglanti.— I^ouse of S6tuart.— Haines £S. 899 sons, chiefly, of the better sort of farmers; and such was the enthusiasm that waa now excited on his behalf, that James be- gun, and with good reason, to tremble for is throne. But Monmouth was essenti- ally unequal to the vast enterprise that he bad undertaken. Though he had much of bis father's personal courage, he bad still more of his father's levity and love of show and gaiety. At every town in which he arrived he spent precious time inthe idle ceremony of being proclaimed king, and thus frittered away the enthusiasm and hopes of his own followers, while giving time to James to concentrate force enough to crush him at a blow. Nor did the error of Monmouth end here. Lord Gray was the especial favourite of the duke, and was therefore deemed the fittest man to be en- trusted with the command of the insurgent cavalry ; (hough it was well known that he was deficient in judgment, and strongly suspected that he was not overburthened . with either courage or zeal. Fletcher of' Saltoun, a brave and direct, though pas- sionate and free-spoken man, strongly re- monstrated with the duke upon this glar- ingly impolitic appointment, and finding his remonstrances productive of no effect, retired from the expedition in disgust. Even the loss of this zealous though stern friend did rot move the duke, who con- tinued his confidence to Gray, — to repent when repentance could be of no avail. While Monmouth had been wasting very precious time in these idle mockeries of royal pomp, James and his friends had been far otherwise and more usefully employed. Six British regiments were recalled from Holland, and three thousand regulars with a vast number of militia were sent, under Feversham and Churchill, to attack the rebels. The royal force took up its posi- tion at Sedgemoor, near Bridgwater. They were, or seemed to be, so carelessly posted, that Monmouth determined to give them the attack. The first onset of the rebels was so enthusiastic that the royal infantry p;ave way. Monmouth was rather strong in cavalry, and a single good charge of that force would now have decided the day [in his favour. But Gray fully confirmea all the suspicionii of his cowardice, and, while all were loudly calling upon him to charge, he actually turned his horse's head and fled from the field, followed by the greater number of his men. Whatever were the previous errors of the royal commanders, they now amplv atoned for them by the prompt and able manner in which they availed themselves of Monmouth's want of feneralship and Gray's want of manhood, 'he rebels were charged in fiank again and again, and being utterly unaided by their cavalry, were thrown into complete and irretrievable disorder, after a desperate fight of above three hoiira. It is oue to the rebel troops to add, that the courage which they displaved was worthjrof a better cause and beUer leaders. Rank after rank fell and died on the very spot on which they had fought ; but commanded as they were, valour was thrown away and devotion merely another term for destruction. But the real horrors of this insurrection only began when the battle was ended. Hundreds were slain in the pursuit: quar- ter, by the stern order of James, being in- variably refused. A special commission waa also issued for the trial of all who were taken prisoners, and judge JeflV^sys and colonel Kirk, the latter a soldier of fortune who had served much among the Moor* and become thoroughly brutuised, carried that commission into effect in a manner which has rendered their names eternally detestable. The terror which these brutally severe men inspired so quickened the zeal of the authorities, and afforded so much en- couragement to informers, whether ac- tuated by hate or hire, that the priaons all over England, but especially in tbe western counties, were speedily filled with unfortu- nate people of both sexes and of all ages. In some towns the prisoners were so nu- merous, that even the brutal ferorUy of Jeffreys was wearied of trying in detail. Intimation was therefore given to great numbers of prisoners, that their only chance of mercy rested upon their pleading guilty; but all the unfortunate wretches who were thus beguiled into that plea were instantly and en masse sentenced to death by Jeffreys, who took care, too, that the sentence should speedily be executed. The fate of one venerable lady excited great remark and commiseration even in that terrible time of gener^ dismay and widely spread suffering. The lady in ques- tion, Mrs. Gaunt, a person of some for- tune, known loyalty, and excellent cha- racter, was induced by sheer humanity to give shelter to one of the fugitives from Sedgemoor. It being understood that the sheltered would be pardoned on condition of giving evidence against those who had dared to shelter them, this base and un- grateful man informed against his bene- factress, who was inhumanly sentenced to death by Jeffreys, and actually executed. Kirk, too, was guilty of the most enormous and filthy cruelties, and it seemed doubtful whether Jeffreys and his stern master in- tended only to intimidate the people of England into submission, or actually and fully to exterminate them. Monmuuth, whose rash enterprise and unjustified ambition had caused so much confusion and bloodshed, rode from the fatal field of Sedgemoor at so rapid a pace, that at about twenty miles distance his horse fell dead beneath him. The duke had now of all his numerous followers but one left with him, a German nobleman. Monmouth being in a desolate part of the country, and at so considerable a distance from the scene of battle and bloodshed, entertained some hope that he might escape by means of disguise, and meeting with a poor shep- herd, he gave the man some gold to ex- change clothes with him. He and his Ger- man friend now filled their pockets with field peas, and, provided only with this BBVBBAL raOTBitlHT CHABITI ■CHOOLB OFBWBD IN ANn ABOUT LONnON. l! A.D. 1687.— AVTKB BRPEATED PIIOIIOOAIIONS, FADLIAMENT WAS I1IS80LVEO. fNl • inU' ¥>. '.r m n H i 400 ^]^e ^rcasuro of 3[|i»tor!?, 8cc. wretched food, proceeded, towards night- fall, to conceal tbemgelves aniont; the tall fern which grew rankly and abundantly on the surrounding moors. But the pursuers and avengers of blood were not so far dis- tant as the misguided duke supposed. A Earty of horse, having followed closely in is track, came up with the prauant with whom he had exchanged clothes, and from this man's information the duke was speedily discovered and dragged from bis hiding-place. His miserable plight and the horrors of the fate that he but too cor- rectly anticipated, had now so completely unmanned him, that he burst into an agony of tears, and in the most humble manner implored his captors to allow him to escape. But the reward offered for his apprehen- sion was too tempting, and the dread of the king's anger too great, to be overcome by the unhappy captive's solicitations, and he was hurried to prison. Even now his clinging to life prevailed over the manifest dictates of common-sense, and from his prison he sent letter after letter to the king, filled with the most abject entreaties to be allowed to live. The natural character of James and the stern severity with which he had punished the rebellion of the meaner offenders, might have warned Monmouth that these degrading submissions would avail him nothing. But, in fact, his own absurdly offensive manner during his brief period of anticipative triumph would have steeled the heart of a far more placable sovereign than James. Monmouth's pro- clamations had not stopped at calling upon the . people of England to rebel against their undoubtedly rightful sovereign ; they had in a manner, which would have been revolting if the very excess of its virulence had not rendered it absurd, vilified the per- sonal character of James ; and while tlius offending him as a man, had at the same time offered him the still more unpardon- able offence of attacking his religion. James had none of the magnanimity which in these circumstances of personal affront would have found an argument for pardon- ing the treason, in order to avoid even the appearance of punishing the personality ; and from the moment that Monmouth was captured, bis fate was irrevocably sealed. Bad as Monmouth's conduct had been, it is not without contempt that we read that James, though determined not to spare him, allowed him to hope for mercy, and even granted him an interview. Admitted to the. presence of the king, Monmouth was weak enough to renew in person the abject sub- missions and solicitations by which he had already degraded himself in writing. As he knelt and implored his life, James sternly handed him a paper. It contained an ad- mission of his illegitimacy, and of the utter falsehood of the report that Lucy Waters had ever been married to Charles II. Mon- mouth signed the paper, and James then coldly told him that his repeated treasons rendered pardon altogether out of the ques- tion. Tho duke now at length perceived that hope was at an end, rose from his sup- plicant posture, and left the apartment ■•'• '• an assumed firmness in his step and an a .- sumed scorn in his countenance. When led to the scaffold Monmouth be- haved with a degree of fortitude that could scarcely have been anticipated from his previous abjectness. Having learned that the executioner was the same who had be- headed lord William Russell, and who had put that nobleman to much agony, the duke gave the man some money, and good-hu- mouredly warned him to be more expert in his business on the present occasion. The warning had an effect exactly opposite to what Monmouth intended. 'The man was so confused, that at the first blow he only wounded that sufferer's neck; and Mon. mouth, bleeding and ghastly with pain and terror, raised his head from the block. His look of agony still farther unnerved the man, who made two more ineffectual strokes, then threw down the axe in despair and disgust. The reproaches and threats of the sheriff, however, caused him to re- sume his revolting task, which at two strokes more he completed, and James, duke of Monmouth was a lifeless corpse. Monmouth was popular, and therefore his fate was deemed hard. But his treason was wholly unjustifiable, his pretended claim to the crown as absurdly groundless as the claim of the son of a known harlot could be; and pity is far less due to his memory than to that of the unfortunate people whom he deluded into treason by his rashness, and delivered to the gallows by his incapacity and obstinacy. tSaying nothing of the vast numbers who fell in actual fight or in the subsequent pursuit, for their fate was at the least, compara- tively, enviable, upwards of twenty were hanged by the military ; and Jcfferies hang- ed eighty at Dorchester, and two hun- dred and fifty at Taunton, Wells, and Exe- ter. At other places still farther victims were made ; and whipping, imprisonment, or ruinous fines were inflicted upon hun- dreds in every part of the kingdom. And all this misery, let us not forget, arose out of the rebellion and the fraudulent as well as absurd pretensions of the duke of Mon- mouth. As though the civil dissensions of the kingdom had not been sulHciently injurious, the most furious animosities existed ou the score of religion. The more James dis- played his bigotry and his zeal for the re- establishment, or, at the least, the great encouragement and preference of popery, the more zealously was he opposed by the popular preachers, who lost no opportunity of impressing upon the people a deep sense of the evils which they might anticipate from a return to the papal system. The terrors and the blandishments which the king by turns employed eausecl many per- sons of lax conscience to affect to be con- verted to papacy. Dr. Sharpe, a protestaut clergyman of London, distinguished him- self oy the just severity with which ho de- nounced these time-servers. His majesty A.D. 1687. — THE QUAKEB8 DOFF TUBIll MATS IN ORFBBENCB TO THB KINO. tLTKO. om his fiup- •tment"" "• I and an a <• B. nmouth be- ! that could i from his earned that vho had he- ld who had ny, the duke I id good-hu- re expert in asion. The opposite to lie man was (low he only 1 and Mon- itli pain and the block, er unnerved s ineffectual te in despair and threats 1 him to re- lich at two and James, ■less corpse, iherefore his his treason s pretended y groundless Down harlot 1 due to his unfortunate b treason by \ the gallows cy. Saying who fell in Lent pursuit. It, compara- wenty were fferies hang- two hun- Is, and Exe- ther victims prisonnient, upon hun- gdom. And pt, arose out ilent as well uke of Mon- sions of the tly injurious, listed on the James dis- for the re- t, the great of popery, losed by the opportunity a deep sense It anticipate ^rstera. The s which the 1 many per- t to be con- a protestant iiished him- 'hich he dc- His majesty KINO. A.D. 1688.— BBITISB SUBJBCUa FOBBIDDBN TO BIITBB IHTO rOBBIOH SBRVICB. lEnglantf.— llouse of Stuart — Barnes M. 401 was so much annoved and enraged at the doctor's sermons, that he issued an order to the bishop of London to ouspend Sharpe from his clerical Ainctions until farther notice. The bishop very properly refused to comply with this arbitrary and unconsti- tutional order. The king then determined to include the bishop in his punishment, and issued an ecclesiastical commission,' giving to the seven persons to whom it wa* directed an unlimited power in matters cle- rical. Before the commissioners thus au- thorized both the bishop and Dr. Sharpe were summoned, and sentenced to be sus- pended during the king's pleasure. Though a bigot, James was undoubtedly a sincere one. He readily believed that aU argument would end in favour of popery, and that all sincere and teachable spiiiti would become papists if full latitude were given to teaching. In this belief he now determined on a universal indulgence of conscience, and a formal declaration informed the people that all sectaries should have full indulgence, and that nonconformity was no longer a crime. He again, too, sent a message to Rome offering to reconcile his people to the papal power. But the earl of Castlemain, who was now employed, met with no more success than Caryll had met with at an earlier period of the king's reign. The pope understood governing better than James, and better understood the actual temper of the English people. He knew that much might, with the aid of time, be done in the way of undertiining the sup- ports of the protestant church ; while the rash and arbitrary measures of James were calculated only to awaken the people to watchfulness and inspire them with a spi- rit of reststanee. Not even Rome could discourage James from proseoutiup his rash measures. He encouraged the jesuits to erect colleges in various parts of the country; the catholic worship was celebrated not only openly but ostentatiously; and four catholic bishops, after having publicly been consecrated in the kings' chapel, were sent to exercise their functions of vicars apostolical throughout the kingdom. But the king was not unopposed. He recommended father Francis, a Benedic- tine monk, to the university of Cambridge, for the degree of master of arts. The university replied by a petition, in which they preyed the king to excuse them upon the ground of the fatner's religion. An en- deavour was then made to terrify the uni- versity bv summoning the vice-chancellor before the high commission court; bjit both that functionary and his university were firm, and father Francis was refubed his degrees. The sister university of Oxford displayed the like conscientious and determined spi- rit. The presidency of Magdalen college becoming vacant, the king recommended for that lucrative and honourable situation a Dr. Fanner, who was a new and merely timeserving convert to papacy, and who, in other respects, was by no means the sort of character who would do honour to so high a preferment. The fellows respect- fully but firmly refused to obey the kwg't mandate for the election of thlk man, and James showed his sense of the refusal by ejecting all but two of them from their fel- lowships. A. D. 1688. — An increasing disaffection to the king was the inevitable consequence of his perseverance in this arbitrary course, instances of which we might extend over very man? of even our capacious pages. But heedless alike of the murmurs of his own subjects and of the probable effect of those murmurs upon the minds of foreign princes, James issued a second declaration of liberty of conscience. Aa if to add in- sult to this evident blow at the established church, James ordered that this second de- claration should be read by all clergymen at the conclusion of divine service. The dignitaries of the church of England now considered that farther endurance would argue rather lukewarmness for the church or gross personal timidity, than mere and due respect to the sovereign, and they de- termined fl^'mly, though temperately, to re- sist at this point. Accordingly Bancroft, archbishop of Can- terbury, Lloyd, bishop of St. Asaph, Kenn, bishop of Bath and Wells, Turner, bishop of Ely, Lake, bishop of Chichester, White, bishop of Peterborough, and Trelawney, bishop of Bristol, drew up a respectful me- morial to the king, in which they stated that their conscientious respect to the pro- testant religion as by law established would not allow them and their clergy to yield obedience to his mandate. The king treated this petition as something approaching to a treasonable denial of his rights. The arch- bishops and bishops were summoned before him at the council, and he sternly asked them if they ventured to avow their peti- tion. The question remained for some time unanswered ; but at length the prelates replied in the affirmative, and were imme- diatelv, on their declining to give bail, com- mitted to the Tower on the charge of having uttered a seditious libel. On the twentv-ninth of Juns in this year the trial of the bishops took place ; and as it was evident that in defending the church the prelates were also, and at a most im- portant crisis, boldly standing forward as the champions of the whole nation, the pro- ceedings were watched with a most intense interest by men of every rank, and, save a few bigoted or interested papists, by men of every shade of religious opinion. The law- yers on either side exerted themselves greatly and ably; and two of the judges, Fowel and Holloway, plainly declared their opinion to be in favour of the bishops. The jury, however, even now had grave doubts, and remained in deliberation during the entire night. On the following morn- ing Westminster-hall was literally crowded with spectators anxious to know the result, and when the jury appeared and returned a verdict of " Not gudty," a mighty cheer UWLICKNSBD BOOKS AMP rAMFHLBTS StrPrmHSID BV FKOCLAMATION. [2 JIf 3 A. D. 16H8.— SMTBIf A. DBSTKOTBD BY AN BARTHQUAKB, JULT 10. I : O h m s if i 402 SEf)c treasure of I^tetore, 8cc. arose within the hall, was taken up by the crowds outside, and passed from street to street, from town to country, and from vil- lage to village. James was at the time dining with lord Faversham in the camp at Hounslow, ten miles from London. The cheers of the people reached even to this distance, and were re-echoed by the soldiers with a heartiness and loudness that ac- tually alarmed James, who eagerly enquired what that noise could mean. " It is nothing, sire," replied one of the Attendants, " but the soldiers shouting at the acquittal of the bishops." " And do you call that nothing t" replied James : " but it shall be all the worse for them all." Th<; shouts of the soldiers at the failure of James's arbitrary attempt against the bishops was, indeed, an ominous sii^n of the times. His eSbrts for Rome had been repudiated and discouraged by Rome ; and now even his very soldiery, upon M'hom alone he could rel^ for strength, testified their sympathy with the popular cause. But the infatuated monarch did not even yet know the full extent of his peril. Many of the leading men of the kingdom were in close though cautious correspondence with a foreign potentate, and the most extensive and formidable preparations were being made to hurl James from a throne which he had so signally proved himself unworthy to fill. Mary, eldest daughter of James, was mar- ried to William, prince of Orange, who was at once the subtle and profound politician and the accomplished and tried soldier. To this able and protestant prince the mal- contents of England, who now, through James's incurable infatuation, included all that was best and most honourable as well as most influential of the nation, turned their eyes for deliverance. He had long been aware of the discontents that existed in England, but kept up an appearance of Eerfect amity with the king, and even in is correspondence with theleading men of the opposition warily avoided committing himself too far, and affected to dissuade tnem from proceeding to extremities against their sovereign. But the ferment occa- sioned by the affair of the bishops encou- raged him to throw off the mask ; he had long been making preparations for such a crisis, and he now resolved to act. He had his preparations so complete, indeed, that in a short time after the acquittal of the bishops, he dropped down the canals and rivers from Nimeugen with a well stored fleet of five hundred vessels and an army of upwards of fourteen thousand men. As all William's preparations had been made on Eretext of an intended invasion of France, e actually landed in England, at Torbay, without having excited the slightest alarm in the mind of James. William now marched his army to Exe- ter and issued proclamations, in which he invited the people to aid him in delivering them from the tyranny under which they groaned ; but such a deep and general terror had been struck into that neighbourhood by the awful scenes that had followed the affair of Monmouth, that even the numer- ous and well appointed force of William en- couraged but few volunteers to join hira. Ten days elapsed, and William, contrasting the apathy of the people with the enthusi- astic invitations he had received from many of the leading men of the country, began to despair, and even to consult with his of- ficers on the propriety of reiinbarking, and leaving so faithless a gentry and so apa- thetic a populace to endure the miseries which they dared not rise against. But at this critical moment he was J -'^ed by some men of great influence and i. - '''s arri- val and his force became generally known, and multitudes of all ranks now declared in his favour. The movement once commenced, the re- volution was virtually accomplished. Even the most favoured and confidential servants of James now abandoned him; and what- ever might have been the faults of the un- fortunate king, it is impossible not to feel deep disgust at the unnatural and ungrate- ful conduct of some of those who now coldly abandoned him in the moment of of his deepest perplexity and need. Lord Churchill, for instance, rfterwards duke of Marlborough, and undoubtedly one of the greatest generals England has ever posses- sed, acted upon this occasion with a most scandalous ingratitude. Originally only a page in the royal household, he had by the king's favour been raised to high command and lucrative honours. But now when his talents and his sword were most needed by the king, he not only deserted him, but also influenced several other leading characters to desert with him, including the duke of Grafton, an illegitimate son of Charles II. But the most shameful desertion, and that which the most deeply pained and dis- gusted the unfortunate king, was that of the princess Anne, who had ever been his most favoured and, seemingly, his most attached daughter. But this illustrious lady, and her husband the prince of Den- mark, now joined the rest in deserting the king, who in his too tardy sense of his help- less situation passionately exclaimed, " God help met Even my own children desert mc now." Unable to rely upon his troops, seeing only enraged enemies among all ranks of his subjects, and so deserted by his court that he had scarcely thp necessary personal attendance, be sent the queen, who had recently been confined of a son, over to Ca- lais ; and then, with only one attendant, sir Edward Hales, a new convert to popery, whose fidelity to his unhappv master can- not be too highly applauaed, he secretly left London, intending to follow the queen to France. He was recognised and stop- ped by the mob, but being confined at Rochester he was so carelessly guarded that he was able— probably from secret orders given by William, whom his deten- tion would have embarrassed — to escape with his natural son the duke of Berwick, B M O BY ADVICB OF JBFFBBTS, THE OLD CBABTBR OF LONDON WAS HESTOBED. ^•*U- 10. lei^hboarhood 1 followed tlie en the numer- of William en- 9 to join him. u, contrastinjir h the enthusi- vcd from many ountry, began lit with his of- inbarkiog, and y and so a^a- ! the miseries ainst. But at -'led by some L, '"'s arri- leraliy known, now declared lent-ed, the re- plished. Even ential servants m; and what- ilts of the un- ble not to feci il and ungrate- lose who now he moment of 1 need. Lord wards duke of dly one of the IS ever posses- m with a most iginally only a he had by the tiigh command now when his lost needed by 1 him, but also Ing characters ig the duke of of Charles II. lescrtion, and )aincd and dis- i:, \>as that of . ever been his gly, his most his illustrious jrince of Den- deserting the ISC of his help- claimed, " God hildren desert troops, seeing g alt ranks of d by his court ;s8ary personal leen, who had on, over to Ca- ! attendant, sir rert to popery, iv master can- id, he secretly How the queen ised and stop- g con^ned at lessly guarded y from secret lom his deten- led — to escape ke of Berwick, A.D. 1689. — THB BABIAS COBFUI ACT BVSrBNDBD FOB TUB FIRST TIME. a OS o 4 lEnglantr.— House of Stuart.— asailUam Ml. 403 and they arrived safely in France. He was well received by the French court, and en- couraged to .pernevere in the intention he possessed of at least making an endeavour to reconquer his kingdom. But that kingdom had finally rejected him, and was even at that moment engaged in discussing the means of erecting a se- cure and free government upon the ruins of his most unwise, gratuitous, and absurd despotism. CHAPTER LVI. The Reign tf WitLiAM III. A.D. 1689.— The most influential mem- bers of both houses of parliament, the privy council, with the archbishop of Can- terbury, the lord mayor and other leading men, now debated upon the course that ought to be taken. Kin^ James was alive; he had not formally resigned his throne; no actual hostilities had taken place be- tween him and his people, uor had he by arms or by law been formally deposed. But he had fled from his kingdom at the mere appearance of an invader, and on the the mere, however well-founded, assump- tion of the hostility of his people and their concert with the invading power. A clearer case of constructive abdication it would not be easy to conceive, and both houses of parliament at once proceeded to vote that the king had abdicated. But another and more difficult point now remained for consideration. Taking the king^s abdication to be undisputed — who was to succeed him? Could he, because weary of the throne or unable to maintain himself upon it, ent off the entail of the throne f His queen was recently delivered of a son ; that son, by the well known En- glish law of succession, had right of inheri- tance prior to the princesses ; ought he not, then, to be made king, and a regency ap- pointed ? But, if 80, would not the pater- nity of James enable him to continue his despotism through his son when the latter should attain his majority ? The point was a most important one, and as difficult of solution as it was important ; but we have ever been of opinion that the leading states- men of that day decided upon it very much in the spirit of the son of Philip, who cut the Gordian knot which he found himself unable to untie. The revolution was, un- doubtedly, a necessary one, for James's ty- ranny was great and insensate ; and it was a glorious one, inasmuch as it was accom- plished without bloodshed. But these con- siderations, important as they are, must not prevent us from denouncing the in- justice with which the leading men of En- gland, finding themselves in great and grievous difficulty how to reconcile their own liberties and the rights of the infant son of the abdicated king, pronounced that son lupposititiout ! The most ridiculous tales were told and credited; it was even averred that the queen had never been pregnant at >>11, but that the child who was now pronounced supposititious had been conveyed to the apartments of the queen from those of its real mother in a warming pan ! But when men have determined upon injustice any pretext will serve their turn. The young prince, then, was pronounced illegitimate, and the throne being vacant it was then proposed to raise the princess of Orange, James's eldest daughter, to the throne as her hereditary right. But to this course there was an insuperable and unex- pected obstacle. The high and stern ambi- tion of the prince of Orange forbade him, in his own coarse but expressive phrase, " to accept of a kingdom which he was to hold only by his wife's apron strings." He would either have the crown conferred upon himself, or he would return to his own country and leave the English to settle their own difflcult'es as they best might; and accordingly tl own was settled upon AVilliam and Mar> ud their heirs, the ad- ministration of amiirs being vested in Wil- liam alone. Though the declaration of toleration is- sued by James had given such deep and p;eneral offence, it had done so only as it indicated the desire of James to deprive both the church of England and the dis- senter of security from the inroads of pa- pacy. Presuming from this fact that tolera- tion would not in itself be disagreeable to the nation, William commenced his reign by an attempt to repeal the laws that coin- mauded uniformity of worship. But the English, ns has well been remarked, were "more ready to examine the commands of their superiors than to obey them; and William, although looked upon as the de- liverer of the nation, could only so far suc- ceed in this design, as to procure toleration for such dissenters as should hold no pri- vate conventicles and should take the oaths of allegiance. The attention of William, however, was very speedily called from the regulation of his new kingdom to the measures necessary for its preservation. James, as we have said, was received in France with great fricndshi]); and Ireland, mainly catholic, still remained true to him. Having assem- bled all the force he could, therefore, James determined to make Ireland his pohLt d'ap- put, and, embarking at Brest, he landed at the port of Kinsale on the 22nd of May, 1089. Here every thing tended to flatter his hopes. His progress to Dublin was a sort of triumph. Tyrconncl, the lord lieute- nant, received him with loyal warmth and respect; the old army was not merely faith- ful but zealous, and was very easily in- creased by new levies to the imposing force of forty thousand men. Some few towns in Ireland, being chiefly inhabited by protestants, had declared for king William, and among these was Derry, or Londonderry, and to this town James at once proceeded to lay siege. The mili- tary authorities would probably have been glad to have delivered the place up to their lawful sovereign; but n clcrgvmnn, jMr. George Walker, placed himself at the lir.-.d of the protestant inlmbitaiits of the town, A. P. 1689.— WILLIAM AMD MABY CROWNBD AT WESTMIN8TE II, APKIL 11. Ak,., rt A.O. 1690.— MARLBOBOVSH, AT TBI BIAD Of 10,000 MBIf, ■■HT TO OBIIIIAIIT. S 404 VL^t ^rcaisun} of l^istots, $?c.- >?••.»■ and worked up their mindi to luch a pitch of cnthusiaani, that they resolved to hold out tlie place, until it should be relieved bjr William, or porish in the attempt. The enthusiasm spread to the very lowest and weakest of tne population ; and though famine and fever made fearful ravages, and such loathsome objects as cats and rats be- came coveted for food, the besieged still held out. This devotion was at length re- warded, A store-ship, heavily laden with firovision, broke the boom which had been aid across the river, and the famished in- habitants of Derry received at once an abundant supply of provisions and a most welcome addition to their garrison of hale nud fresh men. James during this obsti- nate siege had lost nine thousand of his troops, and as the aid now thrown into the tom Aughrim, defence; but rapidly that, lust have re- taken by as- ded a parley. 1 nor cruel, to the terms ed to snrren- the catholics : freedom of ijoyed under rish persons ve with their part of the id Scotland, railed them- on, and were penae of the A.D. 1694.— THB "tbikhkial act" bkccivbd tub boyal assbnt. M M x Ik o IE o n M a a « B h B H a < < t a h o > H § o n < M othedistinc- itant interest y was almost nental wars ; necessary to iglish nation lug's warhke by no means head of his isarv courage L all doubt a We shall a of his war- of the allied lous struggle ambition of tention fixed exclusively lese was the ue gained by ts, over the ed 6f sixty- erate fleet of ! half could ! French fleet riven to their PFICBS. lEnglantJ.— T^ouac of Stuart — aKiUtam ifltlE. 405 own coftHt ; and at La Hoguc and other filaccs, no loss than twonty-one of their aricpst mcn-ol'-nar were destrnved, within two or three day* after the battle. Among the rest, the French admiral's ship, the Riting Suh, was «et on fire, within sight of the army that was to have made a descent upon EngKind. Not a single ship was lost on the part of the EnicUsh. At this time William was in Holland ; but as soon as the fleet arrived at Spithead, the queen sent 3O,U0o;. to be distributed among the sail- ors, and gold medals for the oftioers, in acknowledgment for this splcudid and timely victory. With the celebrated treaty of Limerick f)crisheJ the last hope of James to regain lis English dominion by the aid of Ireland. The king of France allowed him a oonsi- dernble pension, and liis daughter and Eng- lish friends occasionally aided him to a con- siderable amount. He passed his time in study, in charity, and in religious duties ; and even the poor monks of La Trappe, to whom he paid frequent visits, confessed themselves edified by the mildness of his manners and the humility of his senti- ments. We especially dwell upon this be- haviour of James, not only because it shows in a strong point of view how bad a king a good man may he; in other words, how much of a peculiar ability must be added to the greatest and best virtuoR of a private man to prevent a king from failing, to his own and his people's vast injury, in the ful- filment of the tremendous duties of the throne, but also because it goes to refute a cruel calumny which but too many histo- rians have joined in perpetuating upou the memory of James. Excited as men's minds were by the re- volution, what could bemorc probable than that bigoted and ignorant admirers of the expelled James should resort to any means, however wicked, to assail William upon what they, as being still loyal to the absent king, must have viewed as a guiltily usurped throne? The dastardly crime of assassi- nation was resorted to against William; and the vile crime of the foiled assassins has, without the shadow of a proof, been attributed to the suggestion of James. But, whether as man or monarch, every action of his life is opposed to the probability of this vile imputation. Tyrannous, arbi- trary, and bigoted he was; but he was stern, direct, and sturdy. Even in his earlier days he would have resorted to open force, not to dastardly treachery. And after the treaty of Limerick had deprived him of all reasonable hope of recovering his kingdom, his mind evidently became impressed with a deep sense of the worthlessness of worldly prosperity and greatness. lie became more a monk in spirit than many were who wore the monkish cowl; and so far, we think, was he from being willing to remove his successful rival by the hand of the assassin, that it may be doubtful whether he did not deem the usurped greatness of that rival far more in the light of a curse than in that of a blessing. James survived the extinction of his kinxly hopes rather more than seven years. Ids ascetic way of life, acting upon a frame much enfeebled by previous struggles and chagrins, threw him into a painful and tedious disease, and he died on the six- teenth of September, 17UU: his last mo- ments being spent in enjoining his son to E refer religion to all worldly advantages, owever alluring. At his own especial re- quest, made just before his derent and manly death, James was interred, without any attempt at funereal pomp, in the church of the English Benedictines at Paris. A.D. Ifiy?. — In our desire to trace the royal exile James to the very close of his eventful and unfortunate career, we have somewhat outstepped the chronological march of our history. Though an able politician, and though, at the commencement of his reign, suflici- ently well inclined to use and preserve so much prerogative as could belong to the elected monarch of a people who had re- cently beheaded one sovereign and driven another into exile, William very soon grew weary of disputing with his cabinet. In truth, merely domestic politics were not William's forte. He had the mind and the expansive gaze of an emperor rather than the minute views of a king, and was calcu- lated rather to rule nations than to watch over the comparatively small affairs of a single state. He saw how much the vast power of France required, for the welfare of Europe, to be kept in check ; and he gladly, therefore, allowed his ministers to infringe upon his prerogative as to Eng- land, on condition of their affording him the means of regulating the distur'oed ba- lance of power in Europe. The history of his reign may be summed up in two words — war and funding. Aided by the real and original genius of Burnett, bishop of Sarum, William contrived that means of anticipat- ing the taxes, of mortgaging the means of the nation, which in creating the national debt has doubtless led to much evil, but which has also been the means of carrying England triumphantly through struggles under which it otherwise must have sunk, and to a pitch of wealth and greatness to which otherwise it could never have as- pired, even in wish. The treaty of Ilys- wyck at length put an end to the sangui- nary and expensive war with France. It has been observed that the only benefit se- cured to England by that treaty was the formal recognition of William's sovereignty by the French king. But it should not be forgotten that England, in common with all the rest of Europe, was served and saved by the check given to the gigantic power and the overweening ambition of France. With war the king's life may almost be said to have terminated. From boyhood he had been of a feeble constitution, and long inquietude of mind and exposure of body had now completely exhausted him. Being thrown from his horse he fractured his collar-bone. It was set, but he insisted upon being carried to his favourite rcsi- t A. D. 1698.— WHITBHALL FALACB BUBNT, except tub BANQUETina-BODSE. A.D. 17U3.— UUBIN ANNB CKOWKID AT WBITMINITIB, AfBIL S.1. i i V hi ; I ( 406 tS,1)t ?2rrea«urQ of ISiiston;, $cc. dcncc, KouiiiiKton palnce. The motion of tlie rarriAKC disunited thp fractured bone, and the pain and irritation cnuHcd fever and diarrhoea, which, in spite of all that Hid- loc and other skilful lurKeons could deviie, terminated the king's lite, in the thirteenth year of his rei^n and the tifty-Mcond of his aKc. Even in bis last moments the " rul- ine passion" was strong within him, and only two days before his death he held a lonx and anxious conference on the state of Europe with the carl of Albemarle, who had brought some important intelligence from Holland. Cold and reserved in his manners, Wil- liam was far from being an amiable man. But he was moderate in bis private ex- pences, and so devoted to war and states- manship that he had neither time nor in- clination for private vices. As a sovereign he obtained nis power by an utter disre- gard to the feelings and interests of bis father-in-law, suc^. as we cannot easily re- frain from taking to be the evidence of a bad heart. But he used his ^ower well, defending the honour nnd the interests of his subjects abroad, and doing as much for toleration and liberty at home as they de- served—for he did all that their own pre- judices and jealousies would allow him. CHAPTER LVII. TAe Reign o/Annb. A. n. 1702. — William III. having surviv- ed his wife, by whom he left no issue, Anne, second daughter of James II., mar- ried to prince George of Denmark, ascend- ed the uirone amidst a general satisfaction which one might reasonably have exjpectcd to be greatly checked by the remembrance of her extraordinary and unnatural treat- ment of her father in the darkest hour of bis distress. Anne, at the time of her accession was in the thirty-eighth year of her age, pleas- ing in her person and manner, domestic in tier habits, and, with the dark exception to which we have alluded, of amiable and excellent character. One of the iirst acts of the queen was to send a message to the house of commons announcing her intention of declaring war against France; and this intention was warmly applauded by the house I And yet th.'? reign of this queen has been very truly cali intelligible to all except military readers, without the aid of maps so expensive that few readers can command them. But in the present case such details, besides being beyond the limits of our pages, are really unnecessary. Blenheim, Ramilies, Oude- narde, and Malplaquet, were victoriea aa useless as they were costly and decisive : they gratified the splendid ambition ana the sordid avarice or Marlborough, but to England they were utterly nnprodactive of solid beneiit. It is a singular fact, and one not very cre- ditable to the nation, that while enormous treasure was wasted in sanguinary and useless victories, and the most unbounded applause was bestowed upon the victors, one of the most important and splendid conquests ever made for England was re- %varaed not merely by neglect, but by abso- lute and cruel insult. We allude to the capture o( Gibraltar by sir George Rooke. Sir Cloudesley Shovel and air George Rooke had been sent out to watch a fleet which the French were known to be equip- ping at Brest, and sir George was farther ordered to convoy some transport ships to Barcelona, where the prince of Hesse made an unsuccessful attack. The troops hav- ing failed on this point, were reimnarked, and the English commanderi, anxious to turn the expedition to some advantage, de- termined upon attacking Gibraltar, then in the possession of fhe Spaniards, who, deeming it impregnable by its own strength, kept it but inconsiderably garrisoned. In truth, the situation of Gibraltar is ■uch that it might well lead the Spaniards into an overweening opinion of its strength ; the town standing upon a tongue of land which is defended on every side but that nearest to the Spanish territory by an in- accessible rock. Upon that side the prince of Hesse landed eighteen hundred men, and proceeded to summon the garrison. The governor paid no attention to this summons, and on the following day the fleet commenced a warm cannonading, by which the defenders of the south mole head were driven from their post. Cap- tains Hicks and Jumper now led a nu- merous party, sword in hand, into the for- tifications, but they had scarcely landed ■ M «S M W A M M < (9 H A M a tt o M « H u K M M •1 I o Q ■i AN INCOHB or 100,0001. fbh annum bbttlbd on rniNOB obokoi. -ti. m Z.1. Rfftr even to e, tho French lut any appa- moriiflcation c to be hoitile ireiaed by lav- 't, the Dutch, ht to repent n in declaring iwer they had ed." owed thia de- even attempt here the hiR- I but hia own portion of hia dera than hia !gei, marohea, muat be un- litary readera, espentive that ihem. But in , beiides being gea, are really miliea, Oude- ■e victoriea aa and deciaive: ambition ana arough, but to nproauctive of le not very ere- hile enormoua knguinary and DBt unbounded in the Tictora, ; and splendid iglandwas re- t, but by abio- allude to the Beorge Rooke. air George watch a fleet rn to be equip- ge waa farther laport abipa to Di Hesae made troops hav- reimoarked, ra, anxious to advantage, de- ibraltar, then [)aniards, who, own strength, rrisoned. Gibraltar ia the Spaniards if its strength ; ongue of land side but that tory by an in- ide the prince Hundred men, the garrison. ntioD to this wing day the inonading, by south mole post. Cap- ow led a nu- I, into the for- larcely landed iROB. A.D. 17(M.— TUB arLKNOlO TICTUKT Or BkBNUKIM, aAlIIKO AUOUST 13. lEnglantJ.— l|ouHe of fttuart.—'Snnc. 407 when the SpaiiiHrils iprung a mine, by whlrh two lieutenauti and a hundred men were killed and wounded. The remainder, gallantly headed bv the captains nanied above, maintaiued their po»t in spite of the horrible explosion which had su tearfully thinned their numbem, and the rest of tho seamen being now landed by captain Whiiaker, the Mole and the town were taken by itorm. Whin it is considered that Gibraltar has been of immense im- portance to Enirland ever since, both in protecting our Mediterranean trade and serving as an outHttinK and slicltcring port for our navies destined to annoy an enemy, it seems incredible, but is, unfortunately, only too true, that parliament and the mi- nistry, so lavish of rewards and praise to the costly and useless services performed elsewhere, refused sir George Kooke even the formal honour of a vote of thanks, and he was shortly afterwards displaced from his command. Philip IV., grandson of Louis XIV. of France, having been nominated king of Spain by the will of the late king, v,m placed upon the throne ; and as he was ap- parently agreeable to the majority of his subjects, and, besides, was supported by the power of France, all opposition to him would to ordinary minds have appeared hopeless. But Charles, son of the emperor of Germany, had formerly been nominated to the Spanish succession, and France her- self had been a party to that nomination. Charles, therefore, encouraged by the pro- mised support of the warlike inhabitants of the province of Catalonia, determined to assert his right. In this determination he was strengthened bjr England and Portu- gal, who supplied him with two hundred transports, thirty ships of war and a force of nearly ten thousand men. Considerable as this force was, it yet was small when compared to the mighty resources of the Spanish king (fe /acts; but in the judgment of military men, as well as in the popular opinion, the comparative smallness of Charles's force was amply compensated by the genius and romantic braverr of the commander of it, the earl of Feteroorough, who gave Charles the aid of his vast fortune as well as his personal exertions. The earl of Peterborough was one of the most extraordinary men of that age. Though very much deformed in person, he excelled in all military exercises. At fifteen he fouprht as a volunteer against the Moors in Africa, and in every action he was dis- tinguished fur daring and conduct. The fteat experience he had acquired and the influence of his character upon the sol- diery were much and justly relied on to forward the cause of Charles. Hia very first action justified that reliance, as he took the strong city of Barcelona with its well provided garrison of Ave thousand men. Had the earl of Peterborough now been left to the promptings of ms own high and chivalrous spirit, there is but little room to doubt that he would have achieved still more brilliant successes. But some petty intrigues, by which both Charles and the English goveriiiiient very weakly allowed themselves to be duped, led to the recall of the earl, whose coninmiid was transrvrrcd to lord (iaiway. Tliut no- bleman soon after came lua Kcneral acliiiii with the JSpnnish troops, i-Diiiinanded by the duke of llerwick, wlio hnil taken up a position on the plains near the town of Almanza. For a time (;harlcs's troops, consisting cliietly of Dtiti-li and English infantry, seemed greatly to have the nd- vantage. Hut in the very heat and crisis of the action, the Portuguese horse who protected either flank of (Miarles's line were seized with a sudden and disgraceful panic, and fled in spite of all the efforts that were made to rally tliem. The duke of Berwick immediately closed in upon the exposed flanks, and Uulway, losing men at every step, had barely time to throw his army into a square and retire to a neigh- bouring eminence. Here they were com- paratively free from the attacks of the enemy, but they were destitute of pro- visions and iKnorant of the country ; and as it was evidently the design as it was in the power of the enemy to starve them into submission, the officers reluctantly agreed to capitulate. A fine army of ten thou- sand men thus became prisoners of war; and Philip was more firmly than ever seated upon his throne, not a voice now being raised against him excepting in the still malcontent province of Catalimia. Turn we now to the more important do- mestic events of this reign. ThouKli the accession of James 1. to the English throne had to a certain extent united England and Scotland, there was still an independent Scotch parliament. In practice this was often inconvenient and always dangerous ; the votes of the Scotch parliament often ran counter to those of the EngUsh par- liament, and it required no remarkable amount of political wisdom to foresee, that, under certain circumstances, such, for in- stance, as actually occurred in the reigns of George I. and George II., this difference might be fatal by strengthening the hands of a pretender and plunging tlic country into a civil war. Theoretically, the separate parliament of Scotland was ridiculously indefensible. Scotland and England being already united under one crown, how ab- surd it was that the parliament at West- minster, held perfectly competent to enact laws for Cumberland and Northumberland, became legislatorially incapable a few feet over the border ! But so much more pow- erfiil are custom and prejudice than reason, that the first proposal to do away with this at once absurd and dangerous distinction was received as though it had been a pro- fiosal to abridge some dear and indefeasible iberty of the Scottish people. For once, reason prevailed over idle or interested clamour, and both parliaments simulta- neously passed an act appointing and au- thorizing commissioners, named by the queen, to draw up articles for the parlia- mentary union of the two kingdoms— that A. D. I7O6.— TBI OBCISiyB TICTOBT OF BAHILIB8, GAINED MAY 12. t uj»f*iii>'ii'H(lfti 'ii'iisii inii>_a .„w 1:1 A. D. I7O8.— TUB VICTOBY O* THII ALLIIS AT 0UD«NAR0*| JUI.T U. lU' I f, 408 ^f)e t!Erensuvt> of l^ifttort), $cc. term hrinn in iloclf mi nbtiunliiy I'roiii the verv duy of tlii' tUtnth ufqiieon lilixHbelli. Tilt) commiHiiioiicri, iiuickeiiod in tlirir nrocccdinKi by the queen's expressed desire ror diHpntoh, speedily presented furtheeoii- sidurHtion of tlin two pnrlliiniunts a series of iirtieles by wliich full provision was mndo for retaininK in force nil the existiuK lows of Sco'lniid, except where niterntion would manifestly hnnctit that cuuuti7; the courts of session and other courts of 8cultisli ju- dicature were alxo preserved, and, in fact, the main alteration was the abolition of the anomalous separate parliament of Scotland, and K'iviuK that country a representation in the parliament of Cireat Itrilain, of sixteen pcersand forty live comnumcrs. There was, until in {Scotland and on the part of the torics ill Ungland, considerable opposition made to these really wise and necessary ar- ticles, but common sense and the inlluenrc of the crown at length prevailed, and the articles were passed into law by a great inigority in both parliaments. Hitherto the white ministry, supported hy the powerful intluence of the duchess of MarlboroUKli, had triumphed over all the ellorls of the torics; but the duclicss had been Ruilty of two cauital mistakes, hy which she now found iier inHucnee very greatly diminished. In the tirst place, lor- gettiuR that she owed her vast intiuenec over the queen far more to her pemonal couiplnisancu and aKreeablcncss ihnn to her really considerable political talents, she became so proud of her power, that she relaxed in those personal attentions and complaisances by which she had obtained it, and disgusted the tiueen hy an offensive and dictatorial tone. AV hile she thus perilled her intlnciice, she at the same time unwit- tingly raised up a rival to herself in the person of a Mrs. Mnsham, a poor relation of her own, whom she placed in a conti- dential situation about the queen's person, relying upon her gratitude, and expecting to tind her not a dangerous rival, hut a pliant and zealous tool. Hut Mrs. Masham speedily perceived that the queen was not only personally disgusted by the hauteur of the duchess, but also much inclined to the tory opinions; she consequently took up the party of Mr. Ilarlcy, afterwards lord Oxford, who was personally in the ((uecn's favour, and who was extensively and con- stantly intriguing for the ruin of the whigs. In conjunction with Mr. St. John, after- wards lord Bulingbroke, and sir Siinon Ilar- cnurt, a lawyer of great abilities, and aided by the personal influence of Mrs. Masham, Ilarlcy doubted not that he should triumph over the whigs ; and an event, trilling enough in itself, 80, he «oon bo- le with B very I to nrenoh on it. rHul's, he r nh)t" R« nn r thnt Hny de- ioii-re«ii»tttnci! uoun «inl "hi- lt the cJiintinK very hkely lu n)(lHti it, which lied hy its ure- i rueiy nttni-Kcd [■he lord iimyor ' rrnrd, no very ))resumed, of iRD or litcrnry . edition of thti m. And here, uld imve ended Iho injudicious Dtdben'B sou, i-nt niudo corn- ed nil the niont mnnifestly un- s the oanic pns- dilVcrent cflcet t their context. lben'« officious- ] unttt for their e voted the pa«- nnd scandalouB rderedtoHttend I.ere ho avowed nly Boid thnt he ing that the queen publiKlicd a proclamation against them. Tlie magis- trates now exerted themselves with some vigour; several ruffians were apprehend- ed, and two convicted of high treason and sentenced to death ; which sentence, how- ever, was commuted. While the populace was rioting without, the lords were trying Sachcverel. He was very ably defended, and he personally de- livered an address, of which I he composition was so immeasurably superior to that of his serinonH, that it was generally supposed to have been written for him hy Dr. Atter- biiry, afterwards bishop of lUichester; a man of great genius, but of a turn of mind which fitted him rather for the wranglinir of the bar, than for the mild teaching and other important duties of the Christian ministry. A majority of seventeen votes condemned Sucheverel, but a protest was signed by thirty-four peers. Partly in de- ference to this protest, and partly from fear that severity wtnild cause dangerous re- newals of the riotous conduct of hachevc- rel's rabble friends, the sentence was ex- tremely light, merely prohibiting the doctor from preaching for three vcars, nnd order- ing his alleged libels to be burned by the common hangman, in presence of the lord mayor nnd the two sherifTs. The warmth which th(! people in general had shown on behalf of thu doctor showed so extensive n prevalence of tory princi- ples, that the queen's secret advisers of that party thought thnt they might now ualely rcromnicnd a dissolution of parlia- meut. The q\ieeu complied, and a vast majority of turies was rettirned to the new pariiament. Thus convinced of the cor- rectness with which Ilarlcy had long as- sured her, that she might safely indulge her inclination to degrade the wliig party, (he q\icon proceeded accordingly. 8he he<>'au liy making the duke of Shrewsbury liu'il clianiberlain, instead of the duke of Kent. SodU nfterwards the earl of 8un- dei'laiul, Ron-in-lnw to the duke of Marl- lioniiijch, was deprived of his office of secre- tary of state, which was conferred upon the earl of l)nrtnu)uth; the lord steward- sliip was taken from the duke of Devon- Bhirc and given to the duke of Uucking- Imni, and Mr. Henry St. John was made seeietary in lieu of Mr. Doyle. Still more sweeping alteration!! followed, until at last mi sdite ottlco was tilled hy a whig, with tlie !!ini4;li! exception of the duke ol Marl- boniugh. The parliament soon afterwards passed a resolution warmly approving the course pursued by the i|uecn, and exhorting her to discountenance and resist all such men sures as those by which her royal crown and dignity had recently been threatened. From all this it was clear thnt the power of Marlborough, lo long supported by the court intrigues of his duchess, was now completely destrojred by her imprudent hauteur, ilis avarice was well known, and it was very extensively believed that the war with France would long since have been brought to a conclusion if the pacific inclinations of the French king hnd not been constantly and systemnticnlly thwarted by the duke for the furtherance of his own ambitious schemes. And 'though the tory ministry continued the war, nnd the almost entirely tory parliament recommended thnt it should be prosecuted with all possible vigour, the mortitication and degradation of the lately idolized duke were aimed at by every possible means. Thus the tbnnks of the house of commons were refused to him for his services in Flanders, while they were wnrnily given to those of the earl of I'eterhorougb in Spain, nnd the lord keeper in delivering them took occasion to con- trast the generous nature of the earl with th^'! greed and avarice of the duke. As the cxpences of the war increased, so the people grew more and more weary of theirwor mania. The ministry consequently now determined to take resolute steps for putting an end to it ; and as it was obvious thnt the duke would use all the influence of his command to traverse their peaceable policy, they cnme to the resolution of pro- ceeding ngninst him in some one of the many cases in which he was known to have received bribes. Clear evidence wns brought forward of his having received six thousand pounds per annum from a Jew for securing him the contract to supply the army with bread ; and upon this charge the duke was dismissed from all his public employments. The poet Frior was now sent on an em- bassy to France, and he soon returned with Mena^cr, a French statesman, invested with full powers to arrange the prelimi- naries of peace ; the earl of SttnlTord was sent back to Holland, whence he had only lotely been recalled, to communicate to the Dutch the prcliminaricRandthe queen's approval of them, and to endeavour to in- duce the Dutch, also, to approve them. Holland at first objected to the inspection of the preliminaries, but after much exer- tion all parties were induced to consent to a conference at Utrecht. It was soon, how- ever, perceived that all the deputies, save those of England and France, were nvcrso to peace, and it wni then determined by the queen's government to set on jfoot a private negotiation with France with a view to a separate treaty. A. D. 1712.— Early in August, 1712, vis- count Uolinghroke, formerly Mr. St. John, was sent to Versailles, accompanied by Prior and the Abb« Gaultier, to make ar- rangements for the separate treaty. He was well received by the French court, and very soon adjusted the terms of the treaty. A. p. 1713.— TaiUTY OF UTBHCHT HONED BBTWBBN FRANCB, KNOLAnD, &C. [2 iV I*^ \m M c4 A.9. I7I8.— rSAOB VHOCLAIMBD, AMID OBBAX IIIJ0ICIN08, MAT 6. hL 410 ^]^e treasure o< 1|iMory, $cc. The interests of all the oowers of Europe were well and impartially cared for; but the noblest article of the treaty was that by which England insisted upon the libera- tion of the numerous French protestants who were confined in prisons and galleys for their religious opinions. A. D. 1713.— But while the ministry was thus ably and triumphantly conducting the foreign affairs of the nation, serious dissen- sions were growing up between Harley and Bolingbroke. These able statesmen had for a long time been most cordial in their agree- ment on all points of policy. But the daily increasing illness of the queen, and the probability, not to say certainty, that she would not long survive, brought forward a question upon which they widely differed. Bolingbroke, who had always been suspected of being a strong jacobite, was for brmging in the pretender as the queen's successor ; while Harley, now lord Oxford, was as strongly pledged to the Hanoverian suc- cession. The whigs watched with delight and ex- ultation the growth of the ill-disguised en- mity between these two great supports of the tory party. The queen in vain endea- voured to compose their differences, and it is to be feared that the sufferings of the last months of her life were much increased by her anxieties on this account. She daily grew weaker, and was not only despaired of y her physicians, but was herselt consci- ous that her illness would have a fatal ter- mination. A. D. 1714.— The queen at length sunk into a state of extreme lethargy, but by powerful medicines was so far recovered that she was able to walk about her cham- ber. On the thirtieth of July she rose as early as eight o'clock. For some time she walked about, leaning upon the arm of one of her ladies, when she was seised with a fit of apoplexy, from which no medicines could relieve her, and she expired on the following morning, in the forty-ninth year of her age and the thirteenth of her reign. Though Anne possessed no very brilliant talents, her reign was in the main prosper- ous and wise, and was wholly free from all approach to tyranny or cruelty. Literature and the arts flourished oxceedinKly under her; Pope, Swift, Addison, Bolingbroke, and a perfect galaxy of lesser stars, very justly obtain for this reign the proud title of the Augustan age of England. CHAPTER IVIII. Tht Reig» of Gbobob I. A. n. 171'i-— A.NMB having left no issue, by the act of succession the I'lnglish crown devolved upon George, son of the first elec- tor of Brunswick, and the princess Sophia, grand-daughter of James I. The new king was now in his fifty-fourth year, and be bore the character of being a man of solid ability, though utterly desti- tute of all shining talents, and of even the appearance of any attachment to literature or the arts. Direct, tenacious of his pur- pose, and accustomed all his life to applica- tion to business, great hopes were enter- tained that his accession would, at the least, secure order and rei^larity in the conduct of public affairs. His own declaration was, " My maxim is to do justice, to fear no man, and never to abandon my friends." As it was feared that the intriguing ge- nius of Bolingbroke might have made some arrangements for an attempt ou the throne on the part of the pretender, the friends of George I. had procured from him, as soon as it was tolerably certain that Anne could not survive, an instrument by which the most zealous and influential friends to his succession were added to certain great offi- cers, as lords justices, or a commission of regency to govern the kingdom until the king should arrive. As soon as the queen expired, the regency caused George I. to be proclaimed m all the usual places, the important garrison of Portsmouth was reinforced, and measures were taken at all the other ports and garri- sons, to defeat any attempts at invasion. The vigour and vigilance thus displayed prevented any outbreak or disturbance, if any such had ever been actually contem- plated; and the regency felt confident enough to deprive Bolingbroke of bis office of secretary of state, with every circum- stance of insult. His office was given to the celebrated poet and essayist Addison, of whom a curious anecdote is related, very characteristic of the immense difference between the qualities of a scholar and those of a man of business. Mr. secretary Addison, renowned as a classical and facile writer, was very naturally called upon to write the despatch that was to announce the death of queen Anne to her successor ; and so much was he embarrassed by his anxiety to find fitting terms, that his fel- low-councillors grew impatient, and called upon the clerk to draw out the despatch, which he did in a few di7 business-like lines, and ever after boasted himself a rea- dier writer than the facile and elegant writer of the delightful papers in the Upec- tutor I On landing at Greenwich, George I. whs received by the assembled members of the regency, attended by the life-guards under the duke of Northumberland. He imme- diately retired to his chamber, where he gave audience to those who had been zeal- ous for his succession. From this moment the kin^ showed a determined partiality to the whigs, which gave great and Kencrol disgust; a feeling that was still farther in- creased by the headlong haste with which the whig ministers and favourites confer- red all offices of trust and emolument upon their own partizans, in utter contempt uf the merits and claims of those whom they ousted. The greediness of the whigs, and the per- tinacious partiahty shown to that party by the king, threw a great part of the nation into a very dangerous state of discontent, and there arose a general cry, ncooiiipauied by much tendency to actual rioting, of M H a M » m H H K a is s K m H ' 5' A.D. 1714.— riAOB Of BAD8TA0T 8IONID BBTWBBN VRANCB AND OBBHAIfV. \ ■ A.D. 1714.— aaOBG8 I. CROWMBD AT WB8THIHBTBR, OCT, 20. Iiigi, and tlie pcr- to that party by lit of the imtion te of diBconicnt^, cry, nccoiiijpamed ctual rioting, ofj lEnglantJ.— I^ouse of idrunatolcii.— ffi«orge E. 411 " Sachevercl for e»er, and down with the Whigs !" . ^ Undeterred by the increasing number and loudneos of the malcontents, the whig party, confident in their parliameutary strength and in the partiality of the king, commenced the business of the session hj giving indications of their intention to pro- ceed to the utmost extremes against the late ministers. In the house of lords they affected to believe that the reputation of England was much lowered on the conti- nent by the conduct of the late ministers, and professed hopes that the wisdom of tlie king would repair that evil ; and in the lower house they stated their determina- tion to punish the alleged abettors of the pretender ; a sure way of pleasing the king, and an artful mode of confounding together the supporters of tiie pretender, with the loyal subjects of George I. who yet were honest enough to oppose so much of his system of government as appeared to be injurious or dangerous to the country and to himself. Following up the course thus indicated, the ministers appointed a parliamentary committee of twenty persons, to examine papers and tind charges against the late ministry ; and sliortly afterwards Mr.Wal- pole, as chairman of this committee, stated that a report was ready for the house, and moved for the committal of Mr. Matthew Prior and Mr. Thomas Harley ; and those members, being present in their places, were immediately taken into custody by the sergeant at arms. Mr. Walpole then again rose to impeach lord Bolinxbroke of high treason. Before the house could re- cover from its astonishment, lord Con- iugsbv I'ose and said, " The worthy chairman of the commit- tee has impeached the hand, I now im- peach the head; he has impeached the scholar, I impeach the master ; I impeach Robert, earl of Oxford and Mortimer, of high treason and other crimes and misde- meanours." Lord Oxford was now completely aban- doned by nearly all those who had seemed to be 80 much attached to him ; a too com- mon fate of fallen greatness. Even among the whigs, however, there were some who disapproved of the extreme violence of the present proceedings. Sir Joseph Jekyl, for instance, pointing out an overstrained article that was charged against Oxford, handsomely said that it was his way to mete out equal justice to all men, and that as a lawyer he felt bound to say that the article in question did not amount to treason. But the heads of the faction would not patiently listen to such moderate and honourable language; and Mr. Walpole, in a tone and with a manner very improper to be used by one gentleman towards another, replied, that many mem- bers quite as honest as sir Joseph, and better lawyers than he, were perfectly satis- tied that the charge did amount to treason. The humane and honest opposition of sir Joseph Jekyll being thus sneered down, lord Coningsby and the other managing whies Eroceeded to impeach lord Oxford at the ar of the house of lords, and to demand that he should immediately be committed to custody. Upon this latter point a de- bate arose in the house of lords, which was terminated by the earl himself, who said that he had all along acted upon the imme- diate orders of the late queen, and that, having never offended against anv known law, he was wholly unconcerned about the life of an insignificant old man. He was consequently committed to the Tower, though the celebrated Dr. Mead positively certined that his committal would endanger his life. The duke of Ormond and lord Bolingbroke, against whom the proceedings were no less vindictively carried on, fled to the continent, upon which the earl marshal of England was ordered to erase their names and arms from the peerage list, and all their possessions in England were de- clared forfeit to the crown. A.D. 1715.— The pretender, who had nu- merous friends in England and Scotland, looked with great complacency upon these violent proceedings, judging that the dis- content they caused could not fail to for- ward his designs upon the crown ; and while the king vi m intent upon alienating the affections of a large portion of his people in order to support a greedy faction, an actual rebeUion broke out. Two vessels, with arms, ammunition, and officers, were sent from France to the coast of Scotland, and the pretender promised that he would speedily follow with a greater force. The earl of Mar was consequently induced to assemble his friends and vassals to the num- ber of three hundred, and to proclaim the pretender. As the cause was popular, and no opportuuity was lost of magnifying the force with which that prince was to arrive in Scotland, Mar soon found himself at the head of an army of ten thousand men. But while he was completing his preparations to march southward, the duke of Argyle at the head of only about six thousand men attacked him near Dumblain, and though at the close of the engagement both parties left the field, yet the loss in- flicted upon Mar was so great as virtually to amount to defeat, and the injury thus done to the cause of the pretender was in- creased by the conduct of Simon, lord Lovat. That restless and thoroughly unprincipled man held the castle of Inverness for the pretender, to whose forces it would at all times have served as a most important point d'appui; but lord Lovat, changing with the changed fortune of his party, now basely surrendered the castle to the king. The English ambassador in France; the accomplished and energetic lord Stair, had so well performed his duty to the king, that he was able to send home the most timely and exact information of the designs of the pretender; and just as the rebellion was about to break out in England, several of the leading malcontents were seized by the ministry and committed to close custody. For one of these, sir William Wyndham, LOYAL ASSOCIATIONS WBBB BnTBRBD INTO TO DBFBNO TUB MONABCUY. AV A.D. 1716.— TBI AUBOBA BOBBALIS PIB8T IfOTICBD IN BtlGLAND, MAnCII ft. lii fi" I 1 412 ^f)t treasury of 1^i»tor», $cc. hit fatLer-in-law, the duke of Somerset, offered to become security ; but even tliat wealthy and powerful nobleman was re- fused. The rebellion was thus confined, in the west of England, to a few feeble and unconnected outbreaks: and at Oxford, wherk it was known tliat many young men of family were among the malcontents, all attempt was prevented by the spirited con- duct of mtgor-general Pepper, who occupied the city with his troops, aud positively pro- mised to put to death any student, no matter what his rank or connections, who should dare to appear beyond the limits of his own college. In the north of England the spirits of the malcontents were kept up, in spite of all the ill success that had hitherto attended their cause, by their reliance upon aid from the pretender in person. The carl of Der- wentwater and Mr. Foster raised a consi- derable force, and, being joined by some vo- lunteers from the Scottish border, made an attempt to seize Newcastle, but the gates were shut against them, and having no bat- tering train they were fain to retire to Hexham, whence, by way of Kendal and Lancaster, they proceeded to Preston. Here they were surrounded by nearly eight thousand men, under -generals Carpenter and Wills. Some fighting ensued, but the cause of the rebels was now so evidently hopeless, that Mr. Foster sent colonel Ox- burgh, of the royal army, who had been taken prisoner, with proposals for a capi- tulation. General Wills, however, declined to hear of them, except as armed rebels, to whom he could show no other favour than to leave them to the disposal of govern- ment, instead of giving them over to in- stant slaughter by his troops. The uu- happy men were consequently obliged to surrender at discretion; some of their of- ficers who had deserted from the royal army were immediately shot, the other of- ficers and gentleman were sent to Loudon, and the common men thrown into the various prisons of Lancashire and Che- shire. Had the pretender promptly joined the earl of Mar, and, joined by him, marched to effect a junction with the earl of Derwent- water, the event would jprobably have been very different ; but having delayed his ap- pearance in Scotland until his friends were thus overpowered in detail, common-sense should have dictated to him the folly of his carrying his attempt any farther for the present. But, alaa t common-sense was precisely that quality which the Stuarts were least gifted with I At the very mo- ment when the prisons of England were filled with his ill-fated and sacrificed adhe- rents, he hurried throup;h France in dis- guise, embarked at Dunkirk, and landed in Scotland with a train of six gentlemen 1 With this adequate force for the conquest of a great and powerful kingdom, he pro- ceeded through Aberdeen to Feteresao, where he was joined by the carl of Mar and somewhat less than two-score other nobles and gentry. He now proceeded to Dun- dec, caused a frothy and us^elcss declara- tion of his rights and inteiiiions to be cir- culated, and then went to Scone with the intention of adding the folly of being crowned there to the folly of being pro- claimed in all other places of note through which he had passed. Even the vulgar and the ignorant were by this time con- vinced of the utter hopelessness of his cause; and as he found that "few cried God bless him," and still fewer joined his standard, he quite coolly told his friends — who had sacrificed every thing for him — that he had not the nccesbary means for a campaign, and then embarked, with his personal attendants, at Montrose — leaving his dupes to their fate. Such baseness, such boyish levity, joined to such cold self- ishness, ought to have made even those who most firmly believed in the abstract rights of the pretender, rejoice that he was unable to obtain power iu England ; since so heartless a man must needs have made a cruel monarch. The government had acted with vigour and ability in suppressing the rebellion; it now acted with stern unsparing severity in punishing those who had been concern- ed in it. The mere herd of rebels, to the number of more than a thousand, were transported to tho colonies. Two-ond- twenty officers were executed at Preston, and five at Tyburn, with all the disgusting accompaniments of drawing and quarter- ing. The earls of Derwentwater, Nithis- dalc, and Caruwarth, and the lords Ken- muir, Nairne, and Widdrington were sen- tenced to death, ns were Mr. Foster, Mr. Mackintosh, and about twenty other lead- ing men. Nithisdale, Foster, and Mackintosh were fortunate enough to escape from prison and reach the continent; Derwentwater aud Kcnmuir were executed upon Tower- hill, and met their fate with a decent in- trepidity, which made the spectators for- get their crime. During all this time the earl of Oxford had remained in the Tower, unnoticed and almost forgotten. When the numerous ex- ecutions had literally diagusted men with the sad spectacle of bloodshed he petition- ed to be allowed to take his trial ; rightly judging that, as compared to actual rebel- lion, the worst that was charged against him would seem comparatively venial, even to his enemies. He was accordingly ar- raigned before the peers in Westminster- hall, and some technical dispute arising between the lords and commons as to the mode of his trial, the lords voted that he should be set at liberty. A.D. 1721.— Passing over, as of no im- portance, the sailing from Spain of a fleet under the duke of Ormond, for the purpose of making a new attempt on England; the Ereteuder's hopes from that expedition cing disappointed by a storm whicli ut- terly disabled the fleet off cape Finisterre ; we come to a domestic event which origin- ated in this year and reduced thousands of peopleJrom affluence to beggary. !l A.D, 1720.— FBACB CONCLVDBD BBTWBBN BNOLAND, PHANCB, AND SPAIN. ICII fi. :ss dcclara- as to be cir- ne with tlio y of being ' being pro- ote through the vulgar 8 time con- nesB of his "few cried !r joined his lus friends — g for him — means for a >d, with his osc — leaving :h baseness, It'll cold self- even those the abstract I that he was gland; since Is have made with vifjour 16 rebellion; iring severity een concern- rebels, to the >usand, were . Two-and- l at Preston, le disgusting and quarter- ■ater, Nithis- e lords Ken- bn were sen- Foster, Mr. other leud- kintosh were from prison (erwentwater upon Tower- a decent in- lectators for- irl of Oxford nnoticed and lunierous cx- ed men with he petition- trial; rightly actual rebel- rged against ' venial, even iordingiy ar- Ycstminster- pute arising >ns as to the 9ted that he of no im- ain of a fleet the purpose England; the _. expedition m which ut- Finistcrre; .hich origin- thousands of iry. M H h o •Q JE H H f ki M »■ H H O a f m ■ n O M O A. D. 1722. — DBATB OF THE DDKK OV MABLBOBOUGH, JDNB 16. , a IS i '• SPAIN. lEnglantf.— I^ottse of ISrundtoicii.— ^corpe £. 413 The South Sea company, to which g;ovem- ment was greatly indebted, was in the habit of contenting itself with five per cent, interest, on account of the largeness of its claim, inHtead of six per cent., which the government paid to all the other pub- lic companies to which it was indebted. A scrivener, named Blount, of more ability than principle, availed himself of this state of things to commence a deep and destruc- tive part of the scheme. It was quite ob- viously to the advantage of the nation to pay five rather than six per cent, upon all Its debts, as well as upon the one consider- able debt that was due to the South Sea company; and, on the other hand, it was well worth the while of that wealthy com- pany to add as much as possible to the al- ready large amount upon which five per ceut. interest was punctually paid by the government. Blount put the case so plau- Ribly on the part of the company, and so skilfully threw in the additional inducement to the government of a reduction of the interest from five to four per cent, at the end of six years, that the scheme seemed to be an actual reduction of one sixth of the whole national burthen immediately, and a reduction of a third at the end of six years. Every encouragement and sanction were consequently given to the plan by which the South Sea company was to buy up the claims of all Bther creditors of the government. Hitherto only the fair side of the scheme had been displayed; now came ttie important question, where was the South Sea company, wealthy as it might be, to find the vast sum of money necessary for rendering it the sole government credi- tor? Blount was ready with his reply. By a second part of his scheme he pro- posed to enrich the nation enormously by opening up a new, vast, and safe trade to the South Seas ; and flaming prospectuses invited the public to exchange government stock for equal nominal amounts iu the South Sea stocks— said to be vastly more valuable. The cunning of Blount and his fellow-directors was so well aided by the cupidity of the public, that when the books were opened for this notable transfer there was a positive struggle for the precedence ; a consequent run took place for South Sea shares, which in a tew days were sold at more than double their original value, and ere the end of the delusion, which was kept up for several months, the shares met with a ready sale at ten times their originul cost! When we reflect that a thousand pounds thus produced ten thousand to the speculator, and a hundred thousand a mil- lion, we may judge how much excitement and eagerness prevailed. Enormous for- tunes, of course, were made in the transfer and re-transfer of shares, and to those who sold out while the delusion was still at its height the scheme was a very El Dorado. But the great majority of the supposed for- tunate possessors of South Sea stock were far too well pleased with their prospects to part with them, as they imagined it diffi- cult to put a DUfBcient value upon their probabilities of vast and ever-increasing interest I Among this number was the poet Gay, who, though a scholar and a wit, was, nevertheless, in the actual business ol life, as simple as a child. He was strongly advised by his friends to sell some stock which had been presented to him, and thus, while the stock was at its highest value, secure himself a competence for life. But no, like thousands more, he persisted in holding this precious stock; and all who did so found their scrip mere waste paper when the company was called upon to pay the very first vast and very genuine demand ont of profits which were represented as being equally vast, but which had the sli.i^ht defect of being wholly imaginary. Thou- sands upon thousands of families were by this artful and most vile scheme reduced to utter ruin, and nothing that has occurred in our own time — replete as it is with bub- bles and smndling directors — is calculated to give us any adequate idea of the suffer- ing, the rage, and the dismay that were felt in all parts of the kingdom. The govern- ment did all that it consistently could to remedy the disastrous effects produced by individual knavery acting upon general cu- pidity and credulity. The chief managers of the scheme were deprived of the immense property they had unfairly acquired by it, and redresses as far as possible afforded to the sufferers; but in the almost infinite va- riety of transfers which had taken place, it inevitably followed that millions of property passed from the hands of those who specu- lated foolishly into the hands of those who were more sagacious and more wary, though not positively involved in the guilt of the deception ; and for many years thousands had to toil for bread who but for this scheme would have been affluent, while thousunda more enjoyed wealth not a jot more ho- nestly or usefully earned than the gains of the veriest gambler. So extensive were the suffering and con- fusion created by this event, that the friends of the pretender deemed the crisis a fit one at which to bring forward his pre- tensions again. But, as was usual with that party, there was so much dissension among the leading malcontents, and their affairs were so clumsily conducted on the part of some of them, that the ministry got intelligence of the designs which were on foot, and suddenly ordered the apprehen- sion of the duke of Norfolk, the earl of Orrery, the lords North and Grey, Atter- bury, bishop of Rochester, Mr. Layer, and several other persons of less note. In the investigation that followed, sufficient legal evidence could be found only against the bishop of Rochester and Mr. Layer, though there could be no moral doubt of the guilt of the others. All, therefore, were dis- charged out of custody except the bishop, who was banished the kingdom, and Mr. Layer, who was hanged at Tyburn. Scarcely less sensation was caused by an accusation which was brought against the earl of Macclesfield, of having sold certain places in chancery. The house of commons A.D. 1733.— OBATH OF RIB CBRIBTDFHBR WRBN, IN U18 OlST TBAB. [2iV3 A.D, 1726.— DBATU O* SOPHIA OOBOTUKA, QUBBlf OF KilOtiAND, NOT. 2. ifi hi 414 ®l^e ©waaurB of l^iatoro, 8cc. impeached liim at the bar of the house of lords, and a most iuterustiug and well con- tested trinl ensued, which lasted for twenty days. The earl was convicted, and sen- tenced to be imprisoned until he should pay a fine of thirty thousand pounds. He paid the money in less than two months ; and his friends deemed him very hardly done by, inasmuch as it was proved on the trial that he had only sold such places as had been sold by former chancellors. To us, however, this seems but a very slender excuse for the offence ; as a judge in equity he ought to have put a stop to so dangerous a practice and not have profited by it, espe- cially as the honourable precedent of chan- ct'Ior Bacon was in existence to remind him that in chancery as elsewhere, "two blacks do not make a white." As to the fiiic, large as the sum seems, it was not at all too heavy; no small portion of it having been the produce of the offence for which it was imposed. A. D. 1737. — From the verr commence- ment of his reign George I. had shown at least as much anxiety for Hanover as for England, and having now been above two years prevented by various catises from visiting the electorate, he appointed a re- gency and set out for Hanover in a state of ticnlth that gave no reason to fear any ill result. The voyage to Holland and the subsequent journey to within a lew leagues of Oanaburg, were performed by the king in his usual health and spirits, but as ho approached Osuaburg he suddenly called fur the postilion to stop. It was found that one uf his hands was paralysed, his Inuifue began to swell, and no efforts of the surgeon who travelled with him could afford him any relief; and on the following murn- ing he expired, ia the thirtieth year of his reign and in the sixty-eighth of his age. CHAPTER. LIX. The Reign nf Gkorog II. A. D. 17>7- — GGonoB the Second, like his deceased father, wns a (icrman by birth, language, and sentiments. In their per- sonal qualities, also, thry bore a striking re- semblance : both were honest, just, plain- dealing men ; both were alike parsimonious and obstinate; and as both were beset by Eolitical factions whose rancour knew no ounds, so each of those monarchs had to contend with the caprice or venality of rival statesmen, as by turns they directed the councils of the nation. The king was in the forty-fourth year of his age on coming to the throne ; and he took the first opportunity of declaring to his parliament thai he was detcrinincd to adhere to the policy of his predecessor. Owing to the previous continental wars in which England bad taken a part, the king- dom was involved in a labyrinth of treaties and conventions. Much discontent was also felt and expressed on niauy points of domestic policy. Dangerous encroachments had been made in the constitution by the repeal of the triennial act ; by frequent suspensions of the habeas corpus act ; by keeping up a standing army ; and by the notorious venal practices employed in es- tablishing a system of parliamentary cor- ruption. At first some change in the min- istry appeared in contemplation ; but after a little time it was settled that sir Robert Walpole should continue at the head of the administration ; with lord Townshend as director of the foreign affairs and Mr. Pel- ham, brother of the duke of Newcastle, as secretary-at-war. There was, however, a great and concentrated mass of opposition gradually forming against Walpole, which required all his vigilance and ability to overcome. Peace was established at home and abroad; and the new parliament, which assembled in January, 172S, afforded no topic of interest ; but in the succeeding year the commons complained of the occa- sional publication of their proceedings, and it was unanimously resolved, "That it is an indignity to, and a breach of the privi- lege of the house, for any person to presume to give, in written or printed newspapers, any account or minutes of the debates or other proceedings of the house or of any committee thereof; and that, upon the dis- covery of the author, &c., this house will proceed against the offenders with the ut- most severity." An address to his majesty was also presented b^ the commons, com- plaining of serious depredations having been committed by the Spaniards on Bri- tish ships, in manifest violation of the trea- ties subsisting between the two crowns ; and requesting that active measures might be taken to procure reasonable satisfaction for the losses sustained, and secure his majesty's subjects the free exercise of com- merce and navigation to and from the Bri- tish plantations in America. This was foi- lowed by a defensive treaty between Great Britain, France, Spain, and Holland : the question between this country and Spain as to naval captures being left to future ad- judication by commissioners. A. D. 1/30.— Some changes now took place in the ministry. Lord Harrington was made secretary of state, in the room of lord Townshend, who appears to have interfered more with the affairs of the nation than »vas agreeable to sir Robert Walpole, to whom he was related by marriage. The latter, it is said, upon being asked the cause of his difference with bis brother-in-law, drily re- plied, "A!< long as the firm of the house was Townshend and Walpole, all did very well; but when it became Walpole and Townshend, things went wrong and a sepa- r.ition ensued." About the same time the duke of Dorset was appointed lord lieu- tenant of Ireland in the room of lord Car- teret ; the duke of Devonshire, privy seal, and lord Trevor, president of the council. With the blessings of peace England was now enjoying a high degree of prosperity ; her trade with foreign nations was con- stantly increasing; and from her American colonics the imports of sugar, rum, &c. were most abundant. The whale fishery also on A. D. 1727.— rHEIilMINAIllRS UP FEACK SIONRD OBTWKKN BNOI.AND AND FBANCB. A. B. 1732.— TUB KIWO LBFT LOWDOW, Oti A VISIT TO BAHOVBB, JITNB 3. lEnglantl.— l^ousc of 13runstoitfe.— ffiwrge 3E3E. 416 the coast of New England, New York, &c. was highly productive. The most flattering accounts were received from our traii»at» lantic friends; and the tide of cmipation from our shores, but more particularly from Ireland, was fast tlowing; in that direction. A. D. 1732.— The parliamentary session was opened by the king in person, who, in ■u elaborate speech, complimented the country on its political aspects, and dwelt with evident satisfaction on the late conti- nental alliances he had entered into. This was naturally followed by congratulatory addresses from both houses ; and the mi- nister saw himself surrounded by a phalanx of supporters, too numerous for the opposi- tion to disturb his equanimity. But amid the general prosperity, there were some public dehnquencies which seemed to re- quire the strong arm of justice to unmask I and punish. The most glaring of these, perhaps, Was an enormous fraud committed by certain parties who had the management of the funds belonging to the " charitable corporation." This society bad been formed under tlie plausible pretext of lending mo- ney at legal interest to the poor and to others, upon security of goods, iu order to screen them from the rapacity of pawn- brokers. Their capital was at Arst limited to SOjOOOf., but by licenses from the crown they increased it to 60U,000t. George Robin- son, M.l*. for Marlow, the cashier, and John Thompson, the warehouse keeper, had sv. deuly disappeared, and it was now dis- covered that for a capital of 500,0002. ef- fects to the amount of 30,000{. only could be found,' the remainder having been em- bezzled. A petition to the house of com- mons having been referred to a committee, it clearly appeared that a most iniquitous scheme of fraud had been systematically carried on by the cashier and warehouse- man, in concert with some of the directors, for embezzeling the capital and cheating the proprietors ; on which it was resolved, that sir Robert Sutton, with nine others, who had been proved guilty of many fraudu- lent practices in the management of the charitable corporation, should make satis- faction to the poor sufferers out of their estates, and be prevented from leaving the kingdom. In the following year the excise icheme was first introduced into the bouse of com- mons ; and although it was simply a plan for converting the duties on wine and to- bacco, which had been hitherto duties of customs, into duties of excise, the ferment which this proposition excited was almost unprecedented. The sheriffs of London, accompanied by many of the most eminent merchants, in two hundred carriages, came down to the house to present their petition against the bill ; other petitions were also presented; and the minister finding that his majority was small and the opposition to the measure so universal, determined on withdrawing it. The most riotous rejoic- ings followed ; and if a correct judgment might be formed from outward appear- ances, the inhabitants of London and West- minster must have thought they had ob- tained a deliverance from some great im- pending danger. Very little occurred during the aucceed- ing vear worthy of remark. The princess roval was married to the prince of Orange ; a bill passed for the naturalization of liis royal highness ; and tl<^ " happv pair" left St. James's for Rotterdam on the 22nd of April. Parliament was now dissolved by proclamation. The king had previously pro- rogued it, after thanking the members for the many signal proofs they bad given hiin for seven years, of their duty and attach- ment to his per>">n and government; and concluded with rnyer that providence would direct his i oople in the choice of their representatives. A. D. 1735. — When the new parliament met in Januarv, it was seen that the elec- tions had made no perceptible change in the composition of the house ; the leaders of parties were the same ; and nearly the same motions, amendments, debates, and arguments were reproduced. Indeed, if we except some an^ry disputes which occurred between the ministers and the prince of Wales, relative to the income allowed out of the civil list to the latter, scarcely any event worthy of remark took place for a long time. The affair to which we allude thus originated. Motions having been made in each house of parliament to ad- dress his majesty to settle I00,000{. per an- num on the prince, it was opposed by the ministers as an encroachment on the pre- rogative, an officious intermeddling with the king's family affairs, and as an effort to sot his majesty and the prince at variance, but the truth was, there had long been a serious misunderstanding between these royal personages, arising chiefly from the prince being at the head of the opposition party ; and now that there seemed no chance of his obtaining the income he re- quired, it was highly resented by him, and caused an entire alienation between the too courts of St. James's and Leicester- house. Nor can it be wondered at that the prince should feel himself grossly slighted, when out of a civil list of 800,0fl0i. a revenue of 50,0002. per annum onlv was allowed him ; although his father when prince had 100,0001. out of a civil list of 700,0002. The breach grew wider every day ; and at length so rancorous had these family squabbles oe- come, that in the last illness of the queen, who expired in November, 1737, the prince was not even permitted to see her. The growing prosperity of England during a long peace was duly appreciated by sir Robert Walpole, and he neglerted nothing that seemea likely to ensure its continu- ance ; but the arbitrary conduct pursued by the Spaniards on the American coasts, and the interested clamours of some Eng- lish merchants engoged in a contraband trade with the Spanish colonies, led to a war between the two countries, wliich lasted from the year 1739 to 1748. In order to prevent the ships of any other nation from trading with tiicir American AND FBANCB. A. D. 1734. — A BILL TO FBBVENT BTOCK-JOBDIHO FASSBD BOTH HOUSBS. ■ \ A.D. 1739.— CHAKTBB OlAIfT^O VOK BRBCTIIia TBB rOVI(I>I.inO HOaPITAL. ii Ji ^ ' IM . : (1 416 ^^e ^rtasurp of l^istors, ^c. coloniei, the Spaniards employed veiselt called guarda-Costas to watch and inter- cept them; but instead of confining them- seWes to this their legitimate object, the captains of the Spanish guard-ships fre- quently interfered with British merchants, who were on their way to other American colonies, and, under pretence of searching for contraband goods, boarded their ships, and sometimes treated the crews with tne greatest barbarity. The accounts of these indignities created a desire among all classes of his majesty's subjects for inflicting; on the Spaniards signal and speedy retribn- tion ; but the pacific policy of the minister was inimical to the adoption of vigorous measures. Captain Jfukms, the master of a Scottish merchant-ship, who was ex- amined at the bar of the house of commons, declared that he was boarded hj a guarda- costa, who, after ransacking his ship and ill-treating his crew, tore off one of his ears, and throwing it in his face, told him. " to take it to his king." Upon being asked what he thought when he found himself ill the hands of such barbarians, Jenkins replied, "I recommended my soul to God and my cause to my country." These words, and the display of his ear, which, wrapped up in cotton, he always carried about him, filled the house with indigna- tion ; but it was not till more than a twelve- month afterwards that an order in council was issued for making reprisals on the Spaniards. A. D. 1740. — The war with Spain had now commenced, and the most strenuous exer- tions were made to put the navy in the best possible condition. Admiral Vernon, vrith a small force, captured the important city of Porto Bello, on the American isthmus. But it appeared at the close of the year, that the Spaniards had taken upwards of 400 English vessels, many of them richly laden. At this period the violence of party poli- tics was displayed in all its rancour. Many changes took place in the cabinet ; and Wal- pole, descrying the coming storm, presented two of his sons with valuable sinecures. Soon after, Mr. Sandys gave notice that he should make a motion in the house of com- mons for the dismissal of sir Robert Ifal- pole from the king's councils for ever. On the appointed day the house was crowded at an early hour, and the public were in a state of breathless expectation to learn the result. The accusations against the minis- ter were by no means confined to any par- ticular misconduct, but were vague and in- definite. The very length of Mr. Walpole's power, said Mr. Sandys, was in itself dan- gerous; to accuse him of any specific crime was unnecessary, the dissatisfaction of the people being a sufficient cause for his re- moval I The discussion was long and ani- mated, and the debate closed by a powerful speech from VValpole, which made a deep impression on the house ; and the motion was negatived by the large minority of 2'JO against 106. In the lords, a similar motion met with the like result. A.D. 1741. — The success which had at- tended Vernon's attack on Porto Bello in- duced the government to send out large armaments against the Spanish colonies. In eoqjunction with lord Cfathcart.who had the command of a numerous army, Vernon undertook to assail Spanish America on the side of the Atlantic, while commodore An- son sailed round Cape Horn to ravage the coaats of Chili ana Pern. Part of these arrangements were frustrated owing to the death of lord Cathcart; his succeBsor, general Wentworth, being an officer of lit- tle experience andveryjealousof the admi- ral's popularity. As might be expected where such was the case, the expedition lamentably failed of its object ; incapacity and dissension characterized their opera- tions ; nothing of the slightest importance was effected ; and they returned home after more than fifteen thousand of the troops and seamen had fallen victims to the dis- eases of a tropical climate. Nor was the result of the expedition under Anson cal- culated to retrieve these disasters ; for al- though he plundered the town of Faita, in Peru, and captured several prizes, among which was the Spanish galleon, laden with treasure, that sailed annually from Aca- pulco to Manilla, he encountered such se- vere storms, particularly in rounding Cape Horn, that uis sauadi'on was finiuly re- duced to only one snip. It is time that we turn to the affairs of continental Europe, so far, at least, as they involved England. In October, 1740, the emperor Charles VI., the last heir-male of the house of Austria Hapsburg, died. Al- most all the powers of Europe had, by the "pragmatic sanction," guaranteed the nos- sessions of Austria to the archducness Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary ; yet no power except England was influenced by Its engagements. Scarcely had the Hun- garian queen succeeded her father, when she found herself surrounded by a host of enemies. But the most powerful and the most wily of them was Frederick III. king of Prussia, who, having at his command a rich treasury and a well-appointed army, entered Silesia, and soon conquered it. Knowing, however, that she had not only to contend with France, who had resolved to elevate Charles Albert, elector of Ba- varia, to the empire; but also numbered among her foes the kings of Spain, Poland, and Sardinia, he offered to support her against all competitors, on the condition of being permitted to retain his acquisition. This she heroically and indignantly re- fused; and although the French troops even menaced her cajpital, Maria Theresa convened the states of Hungary, and made a powerful appeal to the nobles, which they responded!^ to by a solemn declaration that they were all ready to die in defence of her rights. Another large army was quickly raised ; the English parliament voted her a subsidy ; and so great was the attachment of the English people to her cause, that the pacific Walpole could no longer control the desire that A. n. 1740 — SKBIODB RIOTS OWIRa TO THB BXrORTATION, &C. OF GBAIN. A. D. 174s.— THE IDB* OF A NOBTB-WSIf rASIAOB FIBtT KNTSBTAIIf BD. n 4 lEnglantr.— 1|ou»c of ISrunfttDicl.— CGcoree M. 417 was niBDifested for becomiug parties in the war. A. D. 1742.— In the new parliament.wkich was opened by the king m person, it was evident that the opponents of Walpole had {(reatly strengthened theR\se)/es; and be- ing shortly after able to obtain a trifling majority of votes on the Westminster elec- tion petition, sir Robert expressed his in- tention of retiring from ofiice. Ue conse- quently resigned all his employments, and was created earl of Orford, with a pension of 4000<. a vear, his majesty testifying for his faithful servant the most affectionate regard. England, accustomed to consider the equilibrium of the continental states as the guarantee of her own grandeur, would naturally '!-»^ouse the cause of Maria The- resa; while it was quite as natural that the king of England, as electorof Hanover, would be ready to enforce its propriety. But there was another motive at this time still more powerful, namely, the war which had recently broken out between England and Spain ; for it could not be expected that, in a continental war in which the latter country was one of the belligerents, England would omit any opportunity that offered of weakening that power. Yet as long as Walpole was the directing minister, the king restricted himself to negotiations aud subsidies. But when Walpole was superseded by lord Carteret, the cause of Maria Theresa was sustained by the arms of England, and by larger subsidies ; while the king of Naples was forced by an Eng- lish fleet to the declaration of neutrality. England had at length become a principal in the war ; or, as Smollet observes, " from being an umpire had now become a i arty in all continental quarrels, and instead of trimming the balance of Europe, lavished away her blood and treasure in supporting the interest and allies of a puny electorate in the north of Germany." A. D. 1743.— George II. was now at the head of the Anglo-electoral army, which on its march to Hanau met and engaged the French under the command of marshal the duke of Noailles and some of the princes of the blood. Thejr began tlie battle with their accustomed impetuosity, but were received by the English infantry with the characteristic coolness and steady intrepidity for which they are so eminently distinguished. In this battle the king showed much passive courage, and his son, the duke of Cumberland, was wounded ; but it proved a decisive victory, 6000 of the enemy having fallen, while the loss on the side of the British did not amount to more than one third of that number. About this time a treaty was concluded between this country and Russia for fifteen years, in which it was stipulated that the empress should furnish his Britannic ma- jesty, as soon as required, with a body of 12,000 troops, to be employed according to the exigency of affairs; and that Great Britain should furnish Russia with twelve men of war, on the first notice, in case either of them were attacked by an enemy and demanded such succour. A. 0.1744. — To remove the Hanoverian dynasty from the throne of these realms, seemed to be the darling object of the courts of France and Spain, who were se- cretly planning to restore the Stuart race in the person of the son of the late pre- tender. Declarations of war between France and England accordingly took place ; and in May the king of France arrived at Lisle, to open the campaign in Flanders, with an army of 120,000 men, commanded by the celebrated marshal Saxe. The allied armies consisting of English, Hanoverians, Aus- trians, and Dutch, amounting in the whole to about 7S,000, advanced with the appar- ent intention of attacking the enemy ; but, after performing numerous inconsistent and inexplicable movements, without risk- ing either a siege or a battle, the summer passed away, and they retired into winter quarters. Meantime some indecisive en- gagements had taken place between the English and combined fleets in the Medi- terranean. Towards the close of the year lord Car- teret, now earl of Granville, resigned office, and a coalition of parties was formcd,which, from including tories, whigs, and patriots, obtained the name of the " broad-bottom " administration. Mr. Felham was chancel- lor of the exchequer and first lord of the treasury ; lord Hardwickc, chancellor ; the duke of Dorset, president of the council; the duke of Newcastle and lord Harring- ton, secretaries of state; and the duke of Bedford, first lord of the admiralty. Mr. Pitt, afterwards earl of Clintham, gave them his support, having b(;cii pi'm-.iscd a place as soon as the king's aversion cuuld be overcome, A. D. 1745.— Robert Walpole, earl of Or- ford, after a life of political activity, during which he had occupied the most prominent station for twenty years, died March 18, aged 71. His general policy was princi- pally characterized by zeal in favour of the protcstant succession ; by the desire of pre- serving peace abroad, and avoiding subjects of contention at home. Under his auspi- ces the naval superiority of England was maintained ; commerce encouraged ; justice impartially administered; and the rights of the people preserved inviolate. In Italy the united armies of France and Spain, owing to their vast superiority in numbers, were enabled to vanquish the Austrians; and the Anglo electoral troops in the Netherlands also met with serious reverses. The French army under mar- shal Saxe was strongly posted at Fontenoy; to which place the duke of Cumberland advanced on the 30th of April, and by nine o'clock in the morning the troops were en- gaged. The valour of the British infantry was never more signally displayed; for a time they bore down every thing before them ; but the Dutch failing in their nt- tenipt on the village of Fontenoy, and the allies coming within the destructive lire of the seraicircre of batteries erected by Saxe, A.D. 1744.— AtBXAWDBB TOPB, TUB CRLEBBATED POBT, DIKD MAY 30. N fc V/' I A.D. 1746.— BT TOLVNTART CONTBIBVTION8 60,000 MR N WBkl XHROLLMD. 418 ^l^e ^reasunn of l^istor^, ^c. were outflRnked nnd compelled to retreRt. The loss on eBch side Rmounted to Rbout 10,000 men ; but though the victory wrb not Rbaolutely decisive, it eoRbled the French marshal to 'ake some of the most consider- ab.d towns of the Netherlands, and the allies retired for safety behind the crdrI Rt Antwerp. Thirty years had elapsed since the che- valier de St. George had stirred up that re> hellion which had ended so fRtRlly for his own hopes, Rnd so disastrously for his ad- herents. Since that time he had lived in Italy, hRd married a grand-daughter of John Sobieski, king of Poland, and had one son, Charles Edward, who was afterwards known in England as the " young preten- der." While George II. and his ministers were fully ocrupied in endeavonring to bring the war in Germany to a successful issue, Charles Edward received every en- couragement from Louis of France to take advantage of that opportunity, and try his strength in Britain. And now that the national discontent was gaining ground in consequence of the loss at Fontenoy, and other events not much less disastrous, he determined to attempt the restoration of his family ; and accompanied only by r email party of his most devoted friends, he landed in the Hebrides. Here he was soon joined by the Highland chieftains, end speedily found himself at the head of seve- ral thousand hRrdy mountaineers, who were highly pleased with his affable manners, and with genuine enthusiasm expressed themselves ready to die in his service. Their first movement was towards Edinburgh, which city surrendered without resistance, but the castle still held out. The young pretender now took possession of Holyrood palace, where he proclaimed his father king of Great Britain, and himself regent, with all the idle pageantries of state. Mean- while a proclamation was issued, offering r reward of 30,000?. for his apprehension. Sir John Cope, the commander of the king's troops in Scotland, having collected some re-inforcements in the north, pro- ceeded from Aberdeen to Dunbar by sea, and hearing that the insurgents were re- solved to hazard a battle, he encamped at Preston Pans. Here he was unexpectedly attacked, and with such vigorous onslaught, by the fierce and undisciplined Highland- ers, that a sudden panic seized the . royal troops, and in their flight they abandoned all their baggage, cannon, and camp equi- page, to their enemies. Elated with suc- cess, the rebels entered England, and pro- ceeded as far as Derby, without encounter- ing any opposition. Here, however, they learned that the duke of Cumberland had arrived fromthecontinent, and was making preparations to oppose them with an over- whelming force; and it was therefore finally determined, that as they could neither raise recruits in England, nor force their way into Wales, they should hasten their return to Scotland. The pretender had good reason to believe that important succours would be sent to him from France, or it ii not likely he would have crossed the border. But the vigilance of admiral Vernon prevented the French fleet from venturing out ; Rnd thus all hope of foreign assistance was cut off. The forces of the pretender were greatly augmented on his return to Scotland ; but finding that Edinburgh was in possession of the king's troops, he bent his course to- wards Stirling, wiiich town he captured, and besieged the castle. Matters had now aasumed a very serious Rspect, and pub- lic credit was most seriously affected ; but there was no lack of energy in the govern- ment, nor any want of patriotism among the nobility, merchants or traders of Eng- land : all ranks, in fact, united with ready zeal in meeting the exigency of the occa- sion. MRny new regiments were raised by wealthy and patriotic individuals ; and it was found that by the voluntary exer- tions of the people 60,000 troops could be added to the king's forces, A. n. 1746.— In January general Htwley had suffered a complete defeat in eiidea- vonring to raise the siege of Stirling. But a day of terrible retribution was at hand. . On the 16th of April the royal army, under the command of the duke of Cumberland, encountered the troops of the pretender on CuUoden-moor. The Highlanders be- gan the attack in their wild, furious way, rushing on the royal troops with their broad swords and Lochabar axes ; but the English being now prepared for this mode of attack, received them with fixed bayo- nets, keeping up a steady and well-aus- tnincd fire of musketry, while the destruc- tion of their ranks was completed by dis- charges of artillery. In thirty minutes the battle was converted into a route ; and orders having been issued to give no quar- ter, vast numbers were slain in the pursuit. The loss of the rebels was estimated at about 4000, while the number of killed in the royal army is said to have scarcely exceeded fifty men I Intoxicated, as it were, with their unexaihpled victory, the conquerors seemed only bent on merciless vengeance, and the whole country around became a scene of cruelty and desolation. As to the unfortunate prince Charles Ed- ward, he escaped with difficulty from the battle, and after wandering alono in the mountains for several months, in various disguises, he found means to make iiis es- cape to FrRuce. " One great cause of the pretender's pre- servation, was the belief that he had been slain ; which arose from the following cir- cumstance. Among his friends, who fol- lowed as much as possible in his track, n party was surprised in a but on the side of the Benalder mountain, by the soldiers who were in search of him. Having seized them, one named Mackenzie effected his escape, upon which his companions told the soldiers that it was the prince; the soldiers thereupon fled in pursuit and over- took the youth, who, when he found their error, resolved to sacrifice his life, in the hope it might save his master's. He bravely A.D. 1746. — DR. JONATHAN SWIFT, OBAN OV ST. rATRICX's, SIBD OCT. 21. A.D. 1747-— TBS rKBTBNDBB's SICOMO ION MADB CAKDINAI. DUKI OF TOKK. lEnglantJ.— I^ouae of 13tttn»toltfe.— ffieorgc IE. 419 contended with them, refuged quarter, and died with his »word in his hand ; exclaim- iuK as he feU, "You have kUled your prince." And this declaration was be- lieved by many. "We cannot, however, says the biographer of the events of tul- loden, " without pride, mention the asto- nishing fact, that though the sum of thirty thousand pounds sterling was longpubhcly offered for his apprehension, and though he passed through very many hands, and both the reward and his person were per- fectly well known to an intelligent and very inquisitive people, yet no man or wo- man was to be found capable of defp-ading themselves by earning no vast a reward by betraying a fugitive, whom misfortune had thrown upon their generosity." At length, on the 19th of September, the young pre- tenaer embarked with twenty-five gentle- men and one hundred and seven common men, in a French vessel, sent for that pur- pose to the coast ; and after a passage of ten days he arrived at Roseau, near Mor- laix, and immediately proceeded to f aris, where he was kindly received by Louis XV. But his hopes were for ever fled. The cou- rage and fortitude he displayed in Scotland seem to have forsaken him with a reverse of fortune, and during the remainder of his days no trace of noble ambition n<.arked his actions. The duke of Cumberland had now be- come the idol of the nation ; and for his bravery at Culloden the parliament voted 25,0001. per annum in addition to his for- mer income. Several acts were passed for protecting the government of Scotland, and securing its loyalty; nnd many exe- cutions of the rebels took place in different par^s of the kingdom. Bills of indictment for iiigh treason were found against the earls of Kilmarnock and Cromartie, and lord Balmerino, who were tried in West- minster-hall. All three pleaded guilty; Kilmarnock and Balmerino were executed on Tower-hill, but Cromartie's life was spared. Foremost among those who had engaged to venture their lives and fortunes in restoring the Stuart family to the throne of England was lord Lovat, a man whose character was branded with many vices, and whose great age (for he was in his 90th year) had not deterred him from tak- ing an active part in fomenting and encou- raging the late rebellion. Being found guilty by his peers, he was remanded to the Tower, where in a few months after- wards he was beheaded. At this last scene of his life he behaved with great propriety : his behaviour was dignified and composed; he surveyed the assembled multitude with a cheerful countenance, and taking up the axe to examine it, he repeated from Horace, " Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori 1" then laying his head on the block, it was severed from his body at a single stroke. A. D. 1747.— We must now briefly allude to the state of affairs on the continent. Early in the spring the duke of Cumber- land led his troops thither, to join our Aus- trian and Dutch allies. The French had a decided advantage iu point of numbers, and marshal Saxe, their commander, com- menced the campaign with the invasion of Dutch Brabant. But, with the exception of the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom, by the French, the war was languidly carried on. This celebrated siege, however, lasted from the 16th of July to the 16th of September, and presented a continued scene of horror and destruction ; but though the town w«s burnt, the garrison had suftered little, while heaps of slain were formed of the besiegers. The governor, calculating from these circumstance on the impregnability of the fortrew, was lulled into false se- curity ; whilst the French troops threw themselves into the fcsse, mounted the breaches, and entered the garrison; and thus became masters of the navigation of the Scheldt. In Italy, the allies, though forced to raise the siege of Genoa, were generally successful. At sea the English well maintained their superiority. In an engagement with the French off Cape Finisterre, the English were victorious ; and several richly laden shipts, both outward and homeward bound, fell into their hands. Admiral Hawke, also, defeated the French fleet, off Belleisle, and took six sail of the line. In November a new parliament assem- bled, and the ministers derived much popu- larity on account of the suppression of the late rebellion, as well as for the naval suc- cesses. All parties, however, were tired of the war, and preparations were made for opening a congress at Aix-la-Chapelle pre- liminary to a general peace; but as the issue of it was uncertain, the usual grants and subsidies were readily voted without inquiry. Though so long since began, it was not till October in the following year that this treaty of peace was concluded. The chief parties to it were Britain, Hol- land, and Austria on one side, and France and Spain ou the other. By it all the great treaties from that of Westphalia in 1648, to that of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed. France surrendered her con- quests iu Flanders, and the English in the East and West India. But the right of British subjects to navigate the American seas without being subject to search by the Spaniards was suffered to pass unnoticed, although that was the original hone of con- tention and the basis of the attacks made on Walpole's ministry. The only advantage indeed, that England gained, was the re- cognition of the Hanoverian succession, and the general abandonment of the pre- tender, whose cause was from henceforth regarded as hopeless. A. B. 1749. — The war being at an end, the disbanding of the army naturally followed ; and, as must ever in some degree be the case at such a time, the idle and unem- ployed committed many depredations on the public. To remedy this, a colony was established in Nova Scotia, where lord Hali- fax went out as governor, and laid the A. p. 1749.— ENGLAND, AND OTHBB FARTS 0» EU90FX, INPB8TBD WITH LOCUSTS. A. D. 1760.— HKOUCTIOM OF THK 4 FRK CCltT. STOCK TO 3| FlU CKNT. i i . ( ' ! / If; I , 420 ®l^e crrcaaurij of l^iatoitt, $cc. t'nundation of a town, which, in compliment to its projector the earl of Ilahfax, was named after him. It was soon found that the soil of Nova Scotia was incapable of re- paying the labourer for his toil, and many who had been transported there obtained leave to go to more southern latitudes. Tlicy who remained excited the jealousy of the native Indians, who still resided on the borders of this barren spot ; and the French, who were the first European settlers there, encoura((ed this jealous feeling. Meantime the animosity between the English and French grew stronger, till at length the latter claimed the whole territory between the Mississippi and New Mexico on the east, and to the Apalachian moufltains, on the west. From the fact of their having been the first to discover that river, they took from the English, who had settled beyond those mountains, their possessions, and erected forti to protect all the adjacent country. A. D. 1751. — The first event of any Im- portance this year was the death of Frede- rick, prince of Wales, which happened ou the loth of March, in the 45th year of his age. His death was caused by au abscess iiV his side, that formed from the blow of a cricket ball which he received while playing at that game on the lawn of Cliefden- house, Bucks, a collection of matter having been produced that burst in his throat and suffo- cated him. The prince hud long been on bad terms with his father, whose measures be uniformly opposed ; and though the Bntiministeriul party, ond a considerable portion of the people spoke highly of his Denevolence and muuiticence, and loudly applauded his conduct at the time, it is clear that much of his patriotism originated in a vain desire for popularity. He left five sons and three daughters ; his eldest son, George, being only eleven years old : a regency was consequently appointed ; but the king surviving till the prince attained his majority, there was never any occasion for it to act. The most memorable act passed in the course of this session was that for regu- lating the commencement of the year, and correcting the calendar according to the Gregorian computation. The New Style, as it was termed, was introduced by pope Gregory XIII. in the 16th century, and had long been adopted by ronet states on the continent. By this act, therefore, it was provided that the year should begin on the 1st day of January, instead of, as hereto- fore, on the 25th day of March, and that eleven intermediate nominal days between the 2nd and I4th of September, 1752, should be omitted ; the Julian computation, sup- posing a solar revolution to be effected in the precise period of Sfio days and six hours, having made no provision for the deficiency of eleven minutes, which, however, in the lapse of eighteen centuries amounted to a difference of eleven days. Bills were also passed for the better prevention of rob- beries, for the regulation of places of amuse- ment, and for punishing the keepers of disorderly houses ; the necessity of thin arising trom the spjrit of extravagance which prevailed throughout the kingdom, as dissipation and amusement occupied every class of society. Among the domestic events of this year no one created more sensation than the death of Henry St. John, viscount Boling- broke ; a nobleman who had for half a cen- tury occupied a high station in the country, whether we regard him in the character of a statesman, an orator, an author, or a polished courtier. He possessed great en- ergy and decision of character, but he was deficient in that high principle and single- ness of purpose that inspires confidence and leads to uni^uestioned excellence. The new parliament was opened on the lOth of May, 1753; and the first business of the house was to take into consideration the state of Ireland, which, in proportion as it advanced in civilization, showed a dis- fiosition to shake off its dependence on Eng- and. The kingdom was in a state of tran- quility at the session which terminated the labours of the last parliament ; but previ- ous to the new election, the death of Mi. Pelham caused several changes in the go^ vernmentolltces; the late minister was suc- ceeded in the treasury by his brother, the duke of Newcastle ; and unanimity now prevailed in the cabinet, A. D. 1755. — We have before alluded to the animosity which existed between the English and French relative to their North American possessions. Hostilities were now commenced by the colonial authorities, without the formality of a declaration of war; the Virginian port of Log's Town was surprised by a French detachment, and all its inhabitants but too inhumanly murder- ed ; the North American Indians were sti mutated to attack the British colonists, and large supplies of aruis and ammunition were imported from France. The British minis- ters immediately prepared for hostilities; all the French forts within the limits of Nova Scotia were reduced by colonel Monck- ton ; but an expedition against the French forts on the Ohio, commanded by general Braddock, met with a severe defeat; the general falling into an ambuscade of French and Indians, was slain, and the regular soldiers fled with disgraceful precipitation. The provincial militia, however, led by colo- nel Washington, displayed good courage, nobly maintaining their ground, and cover- ing the retreat of the main army. The loss of the English on this occasion was very severe : upwards of 700 men, with several officers, were slain ; the artillery, stores, and provisions became the property of the victors, as well as the general's cabinet, containing his private instructions &c. of which the enemy availed himself to great advantage. Two other expeditions, destined for the attack of Crown I'oiht and fort Nia- gara, also failed. But the reprisals nt sea more than compensated for these misfor- tunes, as upwards of three hundred mer- chant ships and eight thousand seamen were captured that year by British cruisers. A.D. 1763. — AN ACT VOa THB FBKTBNTION OF CLANDESTINB HABRIAOKS. a i l\ \ •'■ issity of tlii» 5 extrnvRganco -f- the kingdom. « [lent occupied a o ti of this year u tion than the J ■count Boiing- y I for half a cen- ; in the country, » he character of ; n author, or a , esucd great en- j i :ter, but he was i ip\e and single- j lires confidence ixcellence. j I opened on the le first business to consideration h, in proportion (n, showed a dis- | endcnceon Eng- i n a state of trim- ; h terminated tlie nent ; but previ- lie death ot Mi ' langcs in the go*. minister was sue- , his brother, the I unaniroity now before alluded to Bted between the ive to their North Hostilities were | - louial authorities, g • a declaration of >> }f Log's Town was tachtnent, and all ihumanly murder- Indians were sti tish colonists, and I ammunition were j The British minis- j ed for hostilities; thin the limits of | by colonel Monck- i igainst the French i landed by general j severe defeat; the i ibuscade of French , and the regular | lel'ul precipitation. )wever, led by colo- ycd good courase, ground, and covcv- Snarmy. The loss occasion was very men, with several le artillery, stor". the property of tlic , general's cabinet, instructions &c. of ;d himself to great cpeditions, destined I'oiht and fort Nm- the reprisals lit sea d for these mislor- hree hundred uier- thousand seamen by British cruiseri'. MABnlAOKS. «. O. I7&7.— FATAL niOT AT MARCUSSTBB, OCCASIONRD DT TUB rStCB OF CORN. lEnglantJ.— loouae of ISrunatoltfc.— (George lEH. 421 A. u. 1766.— Notwithstanding hostilities had been carried on neiirly a t>vclveiiionth, war was not formally declared till May IH: the chief subject of complaint being the encroHchmcnts of the French on the Oliio and Nova Scotia. This was followed by threats of invasion upon Enicland or Ire- land ; in consequence of which a body of Hessian and Hanoverian troops was intro- duced to defend the interior of the king- dom ; a measure which gave rise to consi- derable discontent, as most people thought that the ordinary force of either country was sutticicut to repel invasion. But whilst the government was providing for its inter- nal security, the enemy was making serious attempts to wr,' ia Howli's own places were taken, consp' n-^ies were formed against him, and the ha" . > '.y chieftain felt that the sovereignty -i kvngal must be de- cided by a battle. C itrary to the nninion of all his o.'>, and fifty pieces of cannon. 80 great were tae errors committed by the enemy, and ao skilfully did the British com- mander ur» his means, that a complete victory was Aon, at the astonishingly small loss of seventy men in killed and wounded. 'This event laid the foundation of the Bri- tish dominion iii India; and in one cam- paign we became possessed of a territory which, in its wealth and extent, exceeded any kingdom in Europe. A.D. 1758.— Whilst victory followed vic- tory in the eastern world, a change in the English ministry led to similar successes in tlie west. It was at this period that the celebrated William Pitt (afterwards earl of Chatham) was brought into office, with Mr. Legge ; but both of them being opposed to the expensive support of continental con- nexions, they would have been dismissed by the king, but for the popularity their principles had acquired. In North America the British arms had been tarnished by de- lays and disasters that might have been avoided ; and it was therefore resolved on to recall the earl of Loudon, and entrust the military operations to generals Aber- crombie, Amherst, and Forbes, the first- named being the commander-in-chief. Am- herst laid siege to Louisbourg, and aided by the talents of brigadier Wolfe, who was fast rising into eminence, forced that im- portant garrison to surrender. This was followed by the entire reduction of Cape 200,000f. ADVAltCBD TO THE KHIft AS BLKCTOa OF BANOTBB. [2 O Jj A.O. 1769.— HANDBL, THB C».«BBATBD MUSICIAN, SIBD, APBIL 13. 422 ^i)e ^teasuri) of l^istor^, $cc. Breton, and the inferior stations which the French occupied in the Gulf of St. Law- rence. Brigadier-general Forbes was sent against Fort du Quesne, which the French at his approach abandoned. But the expe- dition against Ticonderago, which Aber- crombie himself undertook, failed of suc- cess ; the number and valour of his troops being unequal to the capture of a place so strongly fortified. An expedition was now planned against Quebec ; and as the inhabitants of Canada had good reason to believe that their laws and religion would be respected, they were prepared to submit to a change of masters. Thus when general Wolfe proceeded up the St. Lawrence, he encountered no very seri- ous opposition from the Canadians, who seemed to regard the approactiing struggle with indifference. While Wolfe advanced towards Quebec, general Amherst con- quered Ticonderago and Crown foint, and sir W. Johnson gained the important for- tress of Niagara. Amherst expected to be able to form a junction with Wolfe, but in this he was disappointed ; and though the inadequacy of his force made him almost despair of success, the ardent young general resolved to persevere in this hazardous enterprize. Having effected a landing in the night, under the heights of Abraham, he led nis men up this apparently inacces- sible steep, thereby securing a position which commanded the town. The marquis de Montcalm was utterly astonished when he heard that so daring and desperate an effort had been achieved by the Knglish troops. A battle was now inevitable, and both generals prepared for the contest with equal courage. It was brief but tierce ; the scale of victory was just beginning to turn in favour of the British, when a ball pierced the breast of Wolfe, and he fell mortally wounded. The unhappy tidings flew from rank to rank ; every man seemed deter- mined to avenge the loss of his general ; and with such impetuosity did they charge the enemy, that the words " They run ! " resounded in the cars of Wolfe as, expiring, he leaned on a soldier's breast. "Who run ? " he eagerly inquired ; and on being told it was the French, he calmly replied, " 1 die happy." The marquis de Montcalm fell in the same field, and met his fate with similar intrepidity. In skill and valour he was no way inferior to his more youthful rival. When told, after the battle, that his wounds were mortal, he exclaimed, "So much the better : I shall not live to Witness the surrender of Quebec." In a few days after this battle, the city opened its gates to the British, and the complete subjuga- tion of the Cauadas speedily followed. A.D. 1760.— In the East Indies the suc- cess of the English was scarcely less de- cisive than in America. By land and by sea several victories had been gained in that quarter ; and at length colonel Coote and the French general Lally fought a deter- mined battle at Wandewash (Jan. 21), in which theFrench were signally defeated,and their influence in the Carnatic destroyed. The war on the continent, in v.'hich the English had taken a very active part, had now raged for four years, without gaining any other advantage than the gratihcation of defending the possessions of their sove- reign in Germany. England, indeed, was now in a state of unparalleled glory. At sea, the conduct of her admirals had des- troyed the naval power of the French ; in the Indies her empire was extended, and the English rendered masters of the com- merce of the vast peninsula of Hindostan; while in Canada a most important con- quest had been achieved. These important acquisitions made the English very impa- tient of the German war; and they asserted that the French islands in the West Indies, more valuable to a commercial people than half the stales of Germany, might have been gained with less expense and risk than had been spent in defending one paltry electorate. In the midst of these disputes, George II. died suddenly, on the 2ath of October, in the 77th year of his age, and the 34th of his reign. The immediate cause of his decease was a rupture of the righ^ ventricle of the heart. If we impartialU regard the character of this king, we shall find both in his private and public conduct room for just panegyric. That during his whole reign he evinced a remarkable affec- tion for liis Hanoverian subjects is cer- tainly true ; yet his exposing that country to the attacks of the enemy, rather than neglect the rights of England in North America, clears him of the imputation of partiality. In his temper he was hasty and violent, yet his general conduct was so little influenced by this, that it was gene- rally mild and humane. He was inifiurtial in the administration of justice, sincere and open in his intentions, and temperate and regular in his iiinnne" of living. Under his reign the agriculture, commerce, and industry of Great Britain daily increased; andjiis subjects, even when at war with the most powerful nations of Europe, enjoyed peace at home, and acquired glory abroad. Great progress had been made during this reign in disseminating a taste for general literature and the arts; and though it was not the fashion for the magnates of the land to be very liberal of their patron- age to^uch as devoted their minds to tlic advancement of science, still much was done towards pioneering the way for a future age, when a solution of many of the phenomena of nature might seem to de- mand more serious attention. Among the ?;reat historians were IIun>e, Gibbon, and lobertson. In philology and criticism were Warburton, Bentley, and Boyle, Matlienm- tics and astronomy could boast of Ilalley, Bradley, and Maclaurin. Theology was distinguished by the eminent names of I'ot- ter, Hoadley, Sherlock, Uoddridge, Watts, Chandler, and many others. Painting had its Reynolds, Ilamaay, and Hogarth ; music, its ilandel, Boyce, Greene, and Arnc ; niul among the votaries of the muses werr Pope, Akunsidc, Thompson, Younn;, Gray, Glover, and others scarcely less distinguished. A.D. 1760. — TUB BUDTITORB LIOBTHOUBB BBBCTBD by MB. BMBATON. BIL i2. •nt, in which the r active part, had without gaining I the gratitication ons ot their sove- land, indeed, was alleled glory. At admirals had des- of the French ; in as extended, and isters of the com- sula of Hiudostan; gt important con- . These important English very impa- ; and they asserted in the West Indies, nercial people than many, mi|?ht have expense and risk efending one paltry it of these disputes, ily, on the 2&th of ear of his age, and he immediate cause jpture of the right If we impartiallt this king, we shall and public conduct :. That during his a remarkable affec- ian subjects is ccr- posing that country enemy, rather than England in North f the imputation of inper he was hasty leral conduct was so 8, that it was gene- He was impartial of justice, sinceic tions, and temperate lue- of living. Under ure, commerce, and tain daily increased ; vhen at war with the g ot Europe, finjoyed quired glory abroad. been made during linating a taste for the arts; and though for the magnates of >eral of their piitron- 1 their minds to tlio ice, still much was ring the way for a ution of many of tlie might seem to de- tention. Among the Hume, Gibbon, and gy and criticism were ind Boyle. Mathcnia- uld boast of Ilalley, urin. Theology whs minent names of I'lit- k, Doddridge, Watts, ithers. Painting Imd and Hogarth ; niiisic, reene, and Arnc ; and the muscft wore Pojio, Youni?, Gray, Glover, !8B distinguished. (• >i o a a 2 a o h a < f o n H c se » H a f S ' o ' H : o 1 H al V & SI 1 vS * \ as < Id 'f-^ f- U u B ■ M A. O. 1763.— LORD HALIVAZ IDFVABSISS TBB IBISH LBVaUBBI. IB. RMBATON. lEnglantJ.— I^ouse of IBrunatoicfe.— dJeorsc 3EHE. 423 CHAPTER LX. The Reign of Gkobsb III. A. D. 1760.— Georob II. was succeeded by his grandson, George III., eldest son of Frederic, prince of Wales, whose death bai been mentioned as occurring in 1761. On his accession to the throne he was twenty- two years of age; affable, good-tempered, upright, and religious. His education had been under the direction of lord Bute, and lie had a great advantage over his prede- cessors, in being acquainted with the lan- guage, habits, and institutions of his coun- trymen : his tint entrance into public life consequently made a favourable impression ou his subjects; and addresses, contain- ing professions of the most loyal attach- ment, poured in from all parts of the king- dom. On his majesty's accession, the nominal head of the administration was the duke of Newcastle ; but Mr. Pitt, principal secre- tary of state, was the presiding genius of the cabinet. 1'he chief remaining members were lord Northin '~n, afterwards lord chancellor ; lord Carteret, president of the council ; the duke of Devonshire, lord chamberlain; Mr. Legge, chancellor of the exchequer; lord Anson, first lord of the ad- miralty; and lord Holdernesse, secretary of state. On the 18th of November the king met his parliament, and in a popular speech, which he commenced with, " Born and educated in this country, I glor^ in the name of Briton,"— the flourishing state of- the kingdom, the brilliant successes of the war, and the extinction of inttrnal divisions were acknowledged ; while the support of the " protestant interest," and a " safe and honouratile peace," were declared to be the objcots of the war. An act was then passed for granting to his majesty an annual in- come of SOO.OOitJ. A. i>. 1761.— One of the first important acts of the new monarch was a declaration of his intention to marry the princess Charlotte, daughter of the duke ofMeck- lenburgh-Strelitz: the necessarv prepara- tions were accordingly made ; she arrived in London on the 8th of September, the nuptials took place that evening in the royal chapel, and on the 22nd their majes- ties were crowned in Westminster-abbey, Soon after the king's accession, negotia- tions for peace were oorainenced by the courts of France and Great Britain, but there was little honesty of intention on either side ; Mr. Pitt being firmly resolved to humble the house of Bourbon, while the duke of Choiseul, on the imi't of France, was relying on the promises of Spanish aid, to enable him to carry on hostilities with increased vigour. The war languished in Gerinanv; but at sea the honour of the British flag was still nobly sustained. Peace appeared to be desirable for all parties, and negotiations were resumed ; but neither power was willing to make concessions; and Mr. Pitt having discovered that an in- timate connexion netween the courts of Versailles and Madrid had been formed. he proposed iu council to anticipate the hostile intentions of the latter, by seizing the plate fleet, laden with the treasures of Spanish A>r.<^rica. To this the king and the rest of the ministers were adverse ; the consequence of which was, that Mr. Pitt and bis brother-in-law, lord Temple, sent in their seals of office. His majesty, anxi- ous to introduce his favourite, the earl of Bute, into the cabinet, accepted the pre- mier's resignation; and in return for his great services, a pension of 30001. per an- num was settled upon him, which was to continue to his wife, (on whom the title of baroness Chatham was conferred] and their eldest son, for their lives. A. n. 1762.— A very few months after the !ate changes in the cabinet had occurred, it became fully evident that the "family compact" of the houses of Bourbon had been completed. On this occasion the new ministry showed no want of alacrity in maintaining their country's honour ; and on the 4th of January war was declared against Spain. The first blow was struck by admiral Bxidney, who captured Marti- nico; which was followed by the surrender of the depeudent isles, Grenada, St. Lucie, and St. Vincent. 'The next expedition undertaken by the English was equUly suc- cessful ; a fleet under admiral Pococke, as- sisted by an army under the earl of Albe- marle, was sent against Havannah, the capital of the island of Cuba, which sur- rendered after a vigorous resistance of two months. The riches acquired by the Eng- lish on this occasion amounted to twelve ships of the line, besides money and mer- chandize to the amount of four millions sterling. While these successes attended the Bri- tish arms in the West Indies, an armament from Madras, under general Draper and general Cornish, reduced the island of Ma- nilla, and its fall involved the fate of the whole range of the Philippine islands. The capture of the Hermione, a large Spanish register ship, took place soon after, and the cargo, whicn was estimated at a million Stirling, passed in triumph to the bank at the same hour in which the birth of the firince of Wales was announced to the pub- ic (April 12, 1762). An attempt made bv Spain to subdue Portugal having proved unsuccessful, and both France and Spain being heartily tired of a -var which threatened ruin to the co- lonies of both, they became desirous of peace ; this being agreeable to the British ministry, of whom the earl of Bute was then at the head, preliminaries were speedily set on foot. Indeed, so anxious was his lord- ship to avoid a continuance of hostilities, that he not only stopped the career of co- lonial conquest, but consented to sacrifice several acquisitions that Britain had al- ready made. The definitive treaty was con- cluded at Paris ou the 11th of February, 176>1. Florida was received in exchange for Havannah ; Cape Breton, Tobago, Domi- nica, St. "Vincent, Grenada, and Senegal were retained ; the conquest of Canada re- A.D. 1763.— THB VOYAOBS OF BYBON, CARTBRBT, AND WAILIS UNDBRTAKBN. A. D. 1764. — WILLIAM nOOARTB, TBI CILKCBATBD CABICATUBI8T, DIBO. I . :r U ff|. K M n K e4 M > « a M a u 14 » M 424 ^tie treasury of l^tstors, $cc. inained intact, and the British nation had also gained large possessions and a decided superiority in India. A. D. 1/63.— In Germanv the marquis of' Granby signalized himself at the head of the allied array ; and, in union with the king of Prussia, would in all probability have succeeded in expelling tiie French troops, had not a Keneral treaty of peace put an end to the contest. Britain by the colonial war obtained complete maritime supremacy ; she commanded the entire commerce of North America and Hindos- tan, and had a decided superiority in the West Indian trade. But during the " se- ven years' war" a question arose which led to very important discussions : France, un- able to maintain a commercial intercourse with her colonies, opened the trade to neu- tral powers ; Enf^land declared this traffic illegal, and relying on her naval superi- ority, seized neutral vessels and neutral property bound to hostile ports. Tlie re- turn of peace put an end to the dispute for a season, but the subject has since been the fruitful source of angry discussion in every subsequent war. Tlie earl of Bute, under whose auspice* the late peace had been made, had always been beheld with jealousy by the popular party, who accused him of having formed that " influence behind the throne greater than the throne itself,"— though it really seems to have been a mere delusion, fos- tered and encouraged for factious purposes — now suddenly resigned his office of first lord of the treasury, and was succeeded by Mr. George Grenville. The public attention was now almost wholly uent on the result of the trial of John Wilkes, member for Aylcsburv, a man of good talents and classical taste, but who bore a very profligate character. Disap- pointed in his expectations from the minis- try, he assumed the part of a violent patriot, and inveighed vehemently agaiust the mea- sures pursued by government. The press teemed with political pamphlets, to which the ministerial party seemed indifferent, until the appearance of No. 49 of the North Briton, in which very strong and scurrilous abuse was published agamst the king's speech delivered at the close of parliament. A general warrant was thereupon issued for apprehending the author, printer, and publisher of it ; and Mr. Wilkes being taken into custody, he was sent to the Tower, and all his papers were seized. He was afterwards tried in the court of com- mon plens, ami icquittcd, lord chief-justice Pratt declariiiL, against the legality of general warrants ; that is, warrants not specifying tlie names of the accused. But Wiikes, after his release, having re- published the offimsive paper, an informa- tion was filed against him at his majesty's suit, for a gross libel, and the North Briton WHS burned by the hands of the common hangman: nor did the matter end here; the legality of gcnriul warrants gave rise to several stormv debates in the house of common* ; and at length Mr. Wilkes was expelled for having printed in his own house an infamous poem, called "An Essay on Woman," with notes, to which the name of bishop Warburton was affixed. As he did not appear to the indictment prefcred against him, he was declared an outlaw. He then retired to France; and we may here as well observe, though in doing so we overstep our chronological boundary, that in 1768 he returned to England, and by submitting to the fine and imprisonment pronounced against him, procured a rever- sion of the sentence of outlawry. He then off'ered himself to represent the county of Middlesex, and was unanimously chosen, in opposition to the ministerial candidates. He afterwards commenced a prosecution against the carl of Hahfax, and recovered iUOOt. damages for his imprisonment in the Tower upon an illegal warrant. A. D. 1765.— This year is rendered impor- tant in the annals of England by the pass- ing of an American stamp-act, which gave rise to those disputes which alienated the colonies from the mother country, and ended in a total separation. As the late war had been entered into by Great Bri- tain, in order to protect her American set- tlements from the encroachments of the French, it was thought reasonable that they should contribute towards the ex- peuces which had been incurred. A bill was accordingly brought into parliament, and received the royal assent, for imposing a stamp and other duties on fifty-three articles of their commerce. However, eventually, the resistance made by the Americans to these imposts, and the gene- ral discontent which prevailed in England, occasioned the repeal of the act. A change in the ministry, by the introduction of the marquis of Rockingham, was the immedi- ate consequence ; but his rule was of very limited duration, and the duke of Grafton was appointed first lord of the treasury. The privy fcnl was bestowed on Mr. Pitt, who was now created earl of Chatham; lord Camden succeeded lord Northington as lord chancellor, and Mr. Townshcnd was made chancellor of the exchequer. The affairs of the East India Company now claimed the attention of the house. Mr. Vansittart had acted as governor-gene- ral from the time of colonel Clive's return to England in 1760. But the viceroy of Bengal had opposed the company, and a war ensued which ended by the English making an entire conquest of the kingdom of Bengal. The preceding year the com- pany sent over lord Clive, who found that their agents had acquired the custom of exacting large sums as presents from the native princes : by which means they had accumulated great riches, and the name of an Englishman had become odious. Lord Clive resolved to restrain the rapacity of these persons, and he concluded a treaty for the conipanv, by which th(7 would en- joy a rcveiiuo ot' 1,700,000/. The wealth of this powerful body ren- dered it too formidable in the eyes of go- vernment, and a question arose whctiicr A. D. 1766.— nil. lOUN.O, AUTHOR OF THB " NIOUT THOUGHTS," niKH. A.D. 1773.— A IDrBBMB OOORT OV /UOICATUBB sriTABLiaHID AT CALCUTTA. lEnglanti T^onit of 33run»toicli.— fficoree EIE. 425 •4 the East India Company had any nght to territorial jurisdiction. On examining into their charter, it appeared that they were prohibited from making conquests ; and it being proved that they had subdued some of the native princes, and annexed their dominions to the company's settlenients.it was agreed that this commercial associa- tion should be brought in some degree under the control of parliament. The metropolis was for a long time agi- tated with the affair of Wilkes ; of which a set of restless demagogues took advantage to disturb the public mind, already over- excited by the opposition to the measures of government as regarded the North American colonics. But no national event wjrthy of historical record occurred for some considerable time. One or two matters of doriestic interest which happened during ihii, period must, however, be noticed. The lirst relates to an address from the corpor.ition of Loudon to the king, which was presented on the 23rd of May, 177U. in which they lamented the royal displeasure they had incurred in consequence of their former remonstrance ; but they still adhered to it, and again prayed for a dissolution of parliament. To which his majesty replied that " he should have been wantmg to the public, as well as to himself, had he made such an use of the prerogative as was inconsistent with the in- terest, and dangerous to the constitution of the kingdom." Upon this, the lord mayor Bcckford, a high-spirited and fearless demo- crat, begged leave to answer the king. Such a request was as indecorous as it was un- usual; but in the confusion of the moment, leave was given j and, with great fluency of language, he delivered an extempore address to his majesty, concluding in the following words :— *' I'ermit me, sire, to ob- serve, that whoever has already dared, or shall hereafter endeavour, by false insinua- tions and suggestions, to alienate your ma- jesty's affections from your loyal subjects in general, aud fiom the city of London in particular, and to withdraw your confidence from, and regard for, your people, is an enemy to your majesty's person and family, a violator of the public peace, and the be- trayer of our happy constitution as it was established at the glorious and necessary j revolution." No reply was given, but the king reddened with anger and astonish- ment. AVhcn his civic lordship again ap- peared at St. James's, the lord-chamber- Iain informed him that his majesty desired that nothing of the kind might happen in future. An GX'Offlcio prosecution against Wood- fnll, t he printer and publisher of the " Public Advertiser," in which the "Letters of Ju- nius " originally appeared, having placed him at the bar, lord Mansfield informed the jury that they had nothing to do with the intention of the writer, their province was limited to the fact of publishing; the truth ar faliehood ot the alleged libel was wholly immaterial. The jury, however, after being out nine hours, found a verdict of guilty of printing and publithing only, which in effect amounted to an acquittal. These celebrated " Letters " were equally distinguished by the force and elegance of their style, as by the virulence of their at- tacks on individuals ; and though conjec- ture has ever since been busy to discover the author, and strong circumstantial evi- dence has been brought forward at differ- ent times to identify different persons with the authorship, no one has yet succeeded in the attempt. Before this time (1771) the parliamen- tary debates had only been given in monthly magazines and other periodicals published at considerable intervals. The practice of daily reporting now commenced; but as it was an innovation on the former practice, and in direct violation of the standing or- ders of the house, several printers were apprehended and taken before lord-mayor Crosby and aldermen Oliver and Wilkes, who discharged them, and held the mes- senger of the commons to bail for false imprisonment. The house of commons, enraged at this daring contempt of their authority, committed their two members, Crosby and Oliver, to the Tower; but eventually the matter was suffered to drop ; the aldermen vyere liberated; and from that time the publication of the pa'ia- mentary proceedings has been connived at! On the death of Mr. Townshend, who did not long survive his appointment to the office of chancellor of the exchequer, he was succeeded by lord North. — Lord Chatham having now lost his influence over the ministry, and being dissatisfied with their proceedings, resigned bis place as lord keeper of the privy seal, and re:ired from the cares of government. In the late arrangements made between government and the East India Company, permiasiun was given to the latter to ex- port teas free of duty. Lord North hoped that the low price of the article would in- duce the Americans to pay the small duty charged on importation by the English legislature, for the mere purpose of main- taming its right of taxation. Custom. houses had been established in their sea- Sorts, for the purpose of collecting these uties ; which being considered by the Ainerici.n8 as an infringement of their li- berty, they resolved to discontinue the use of British commodities. Accordingly, when three vessels, laden with tea, arrived at Boston, they were boarded during the night by a party of the townsmen, and the cargoes thrown into the sea. 'This out- rage, followed by other acta of defiance, and a repetition of similar conduct on the part of the inhabitants of South Carolina, gave great offence, while it occasioned con- siderable alarm in England ; and acts were passed for closing the port of Boston, and for altering the constitution of the colony of Massachusetts. When the order to close the port of Bos- ton, reached America, a copy of the act, surrounded with a black border, was circu- lated through all the provinces, and they A. D. 1773.— PHILIP nOBHKR, BARl Of CUBITBBVIBLO, BIBD APniL 24. [2 3 A. D. 1773.— THE MANUFACTURE OF PLATE OLABR BEGAN IN lARCAIUIRB. 'i II K if ,'f 426 SFIbe ©reasuru of lliatorg, Sec. resolved to spend the 1st of June, the day appointed to put the act into execution, in fasting and prayer. Wliilst each pro- vince was framing resolutions, the other bills reached Massachusetts. These raised their irritated feelings to the highest pitch, and they formed an association, in which they bound themselves by a solemn league and covenant, to break off all commercial intercourse with Great Britain, until the Uoston port bill and other acts should be repealed, and the colony restored to its ancient rights. In this situation of affairs the British parliament assembled, when a conciliatory plan for accommodating the troubles of America was proposed in the house of lords by the earl of Chatham, and rejected. The petition and remon- strance of The CoNGiiEss were also re- jected, and an application made by their agents to be heard at the bar of the house of commons was refused. " Upon the great question of taxing the American colonies," observes Mr. Wade, in his " British History," p. 466, " there was a general coincidence of opinion, both in the nation and legislature. The populace expressed no sympathy with the claim of the Bostonians to be exempt from the fiscal jurisdiction of parliament; neither does it appear there were many addresses in their favour from the county freehold- ers, nor the great commercial and munici- pal bodies of the kingdom. Among the chief political leaders there were shades of difference, which may be ascribed to their position, as they happened to be members or not of the government, but there hardly seems to have been a sub- stantive disagreement. — Tlie right of tax- ation was as indisputable as the right of resistance. Unrepresented Boston or Bal- timore had no greater claim to exemption from parliamentary government than un- represented Birmingham or Manchester. They participated in the advantages of the general government of the mother country, and were equally bound to contribute to its general expenditure. But it does not follow that they were always to remaiiTin a state of minority and dependence. If they had the power and were competent to the task of self-government, they had an unquestionable right to its benefits, and to make the experiment." Another recent authority, of equal value, has this remark : "It is useless to conceal that the American war was popular at its commencement. The vague notion of dominion over an entire continent flattered English pride, and the taxes which the ministers demanded, pro- mised some alleviation to the public bur- dens. The colonial revolt was regarded by many as a rebellion, not against the British government, but the British peo- ple, and the contest was generally loolced upon in England as an effort to establish, not the royal authority, but the supremacy of the nation." A. D. 1775.— An open rupture between the parent state and its colonies was evidently approaching with rapid strides. Deter- mined to support their cause with the ut- most vigour, the Americana at once pro- ceeded to train their militia, erect powder mills in Philadelphia and Virginia, and pre- pare arms in every province. They also as- sumed the appellation of " the United Colo- nies of America," established an extensive paper currency, and were very active in raising a rep;ular army. On the other hand, the authority of the British government was promptly supported by general Gage, who had lately been appointed governor of Massachusett's bay. This officer having re- ceived intelligence that some military stores belonging to the provincials were deposited at a place called Concord, he sent thither a detachment of soldiers to destroy them; but on their return to Boston, these troops were pursued by a body of provincials, who would have succeeded in cutting them off, had not the general sent out a large force to cover their retreat. The loss of the Eng- lish on this occasion amounted to 373 men ; of the Americans only 50 were killed and 38 wounded. War had therefore now actu- ally commenced ; and the provincials, eliitcil with their success, pursued their hostile in- tentions with increased vigour. Having a short time after surprised the fortresses of Ticonderago and Crown Point, and by that means possessed themselves of upwards of 100 pieces of cannon, besides a large quan- tity of military stores of every description, they assembled an army of 20,000 men, which they entrusted to Mr. George Wash- ington, and resolved to lay siege to Boston. In the meantime the English cabinet having received intelligence of these resolute pro- ceedings, sent a reinforcement to their army, with the generals Howe, Burgoync, and Clinton. The Americans, not nil inti- midated by these measures, persisted in blockading Boston ; and in the night of the IGth of June they took possession of and fortified an eminence called Bunker's-hill, from which they could open a formidable cannonade on the town. To this point gen- eral Gage sent two thousand men, in order to dislodge them ; in which attempt they nt last succeeded, but not without a loss so heavy, that the English general resolved to confine himself for the future to defensive operations. Hitherto, notwithstanding their uninter- rupted success, the American colonists had disclaimed all idea of assuming indepen- dence; but that, on the contrary, as was averred in a petition from the congress, presented to the king by Mr. Penn, a de- scendant of the founder of Pennsylvania, they were extremely desirous of effecting a compromise. He at the same time assured the government, that if the present appli- cation was rejected, they would enter into alliance with foreign powers ; and that such alliances, if once formed, would be with great difficulty dissolved. The petition was however rejected; an act was passed, pro- hibiting all trade with the colonies, and another, by which all American vessels were declared enemies' ships. The Americans finding that their cn- A. D. 1773. — TUB OBDER OF JR8VITS 8UFFRB8SBO DV A FAPAL BUM.. ICAIUIRB. A.D. 1777. — THB MARQUIS SB LA FATKTTB lAII.* *0H AMBBICA. lEnglantJ.— I^ouac of IStunstoicft.— ^rcorge EKE. 427 dcavours to conciliate the ministry were in- cITcctual, ga»e orders to their generals to endeavour to subjugate such of tl>e colonies as remained faithful to Great Britain. Two parties were sent into Qanada, under gen- eral Montgomery and colonel Arnold, who after having surmounted innumerable difli- cultics, laid seige to Quebec; but in this attempt they were overpowered: Mont- gomery was killed, Arnold was wounded, and their men were compelled to make a precipitate retreat. AVhile the Americans were thus unsuccessful in Canada, the Bri- tish governors in Virginia and North and South Carolina had used their best endea- vours to keep those provinces in alliance, but without effect ; they therefore found themselves obliged to return to England. General Gage was recalled, and the com- mand of the troops at Boston devolved on general Howe, who was soon after obliged to evacuate the place, and repair to Halifax, in Nova Scotia. The royal forces had uo sooner relinquished the town thau general Washington took possession of it, and, with the assistance of some foreign engineers, fortified it in such a manner as to render it almost impregnable. It now wanted little to effect a total alienation of the colonies from Great Britain ; and the fact of having subsidized a large body of German merce- naries for the purpose of assisting in the subjugation of the revolted provinces, served as a fair excuse for the congress to publish the declaration tff independence of the thir- teen United Statee, which took place on the 4thof Julv, 1776. This bold measure was determined on at % time w licn the congress had no very flat- tering prospect before their eyes, and little to encourage them save the indomitable spirit of resistance that every where mani- fested itself to British supremacy. Its army was a raw militia, and it was unprovided to any extent with ships or money ; while the English forces, greatly augmented, were preparing to besiege New York. General Howe had been joined by his brother, lord Howe, and on the 26th of August the cam- paign opened by the English taking posses- sion of Long Island, preparatory to an at- tack on New York, which was captured on the 2l8t of September ; Washington evacua- ting that city with the utmost precipitation. The city was soon after set on fire by some incendiaries, who had concealed themselves, and nearly a third part of it was destroyed. After an undeviating course of victory, gen- eral Howe led his troops into winter quar- ters ; but in the disposition of them he de- parted from his usual prudence, and al- lowed them to be too much scattered ; which occasioned the Hessian troops, who, from their depredations and cruelties, bad roused the resentful feelings of the inhabi- tants of New Jersey, to oe surprised in their cantonments, where nearly 1000 were taken prisoners, and many slain. A.D. 1777.— Gratified with the intelligence they received of Howe's successes, the Eng- lish ministry determined to follow them up by sending an army under general Bur- goyne, from Canada through the northern states, to co-operate with Howe in the south. For a time every thing seemed to promise a favourable issue to this project : sir W. Howe defeated Washington at the battle of Brandywine, and took Philadel- phia; while Burgoyne, having reduced Ti- conderago, was pursuing his march south- ward. But innumerable diHiculties lay in his way ; and when he reached Saratoga, he was surrounded by the American forces under generals Gates and Arnold, and he and his whole army, amounting to 6762 men, were compelled to surrender prisoners of war. Thus ended a campaign which at the outset seemed so promicing; but dis- astrous as it had turned out, neither the confidence nf ministers nor of the British people appeared to be at all abated. A. D. 1778. — Whilst England was engaged in this unfortunate contest with her colo- nies, a cessation seemed to have taken place in the contentions and animosities of other nations, and their whole attention was ap- parently engrossed by speculating on the novel scene before them. The great dis- turbers of mankind appear to have laid aside their rapacity and ambition, whilst they contemplated the new events which were transpiring, and predicted the conclu- sion of so strange a warfare. The enemies of England, who had long beheld, with ap- prehension, the increase of her commerce, and many of England's old allies who en- vied her the possession of such valuable colonies, were astonished at the revolution which threatened her, and looked forward with pleasure to the time when her power and glory should be wrested from her grasp. The Americans were received, protected, and openly caressed by France and Spain, who, beginning to feci the influence of that commerce from which they had been so long excluded, treated the colonies with re- spect, and rejected the feeble remonstrances of England's ambassadors. Happy had it been for France, and happy for the world, if, content with reaping the benefits of American commerce, they had remained spectators of the contest, and simply pro- fited b^ the dissensions of their neighbours. For it IS beyond all doubt, that the seed of republicanism which was sown in America, sprung up and was nurtured in France, nor could Its rank growth be checked till every acre of that fair land had been steeped in blood. Crippled and pent up in situations from which they could not stir without danger, the royal troops exhibited a most forlorn appearance, while every day was adding to the strength and resources of the insur- gents. 'They had established for them- selves an efilcient government ; they had agents at the principal European courts ; they raised and maintained armies; and they had, in fact, been recognised as an in- dependent nation by two of the principal powers of Europe. The treaty between France and America wos completed; and the discussions which arose on the noti- fication of this circumstance to the Bii- •i A.n. 1777.— WILLIAM BOYBB, A LIABNBD rRINTBB, BIBD NOV. 18. A. B. 17/8.— «■■ SAHDWIOH I8LARBS »I800T1«BD BT OAFTAIN COOK. 428 ®]^e ^rcaaure of H^tatorp, $cc. tish parliament, were stormy and violent. ThouKh botli parties were unanimous in tlieir opinion that a war with France was unavoidable, yet the opposition, who had from the beginning reprobated the Ameri- can war, insisted that the acknowledgement of the independence of the colonies was the only effectual method of terminating the contest. The ministerial party, on the other hand, represented the disRrace of bending beneath the power of France, and the dis- honour of leaving the American loyalists ex- posed to the rancour of their countrymen. An invasion of England being at this time threatened by the French, an address was moved tor recalling the fleets and armies from America, and stationing them in a place where they might more effectually contribute to the defence of the kingdom. This measure was vigorously opposed by the administration, and by some members of the opposition. Lord Chatham, whose infirmities had lately prevented him from attending in his place in parliament, evinced his decided disapprobation of it : he had entered the house in a rich suit nf black velvet, a full wig, and wrapped in flannel to the knees; and was supported to his seat by his son and son-in-law, Mr. William Pitt and viscount Mahon. It is said that he looked weak and emaciated ; nnd, resting his hands on his crutches, he at first spoke with ditflculty, but as he grew warm his voice rose, and became, as usual, oratorical and affecting. "My lords, said he," I re- joice that the grave has not closed upon me, that I am still alive to lift up my voice against the dismemberment of this ancient and most noble monarchy." He was re- Slied to w..,h great respect by the duke of Richmond, when on attempting to rise again he fell back before uttering a word, in a convulsive fit, from which he never re- covered, and died a few days after, in the 70th year of his age, May 11, 1778. His merits were transcendant, and his death was lamented as a national loss. Apart from the aberrations originating in an ar- dent love of power, his course was splendid aud magnanimous; and it was truly said of huu by lord Chesterfield, that his private life was stained by no vices, nor sullied by ! any meanness. Contemporary praise and posthumous honours were showered down upon the man of whom the nation 'was , justly proud. His remains were intet-red, with great solemnity, in Westminster ab- : bey ; and the city of London erected a flat- 1 tering tribute to his memory in Guildltall. I A French squadron was sent from Toulon ' to the assistance of America, under the ' command of count d'Estaing, who reduced I the island of Grenada, while a body of his forces made themselves masters of St. Vin- cent. In other parts of the West Indian seas tho British arms were ably supported by the bravery and vigilance of the admirals Hyde Parker and Rowley. On the 27th of July an indecisive action was fought off Brest, between the French fleet, under M. d'Orvilliers, and a Briti!ih squadron, under admiral Keppel. Sir Hugh Palliser, the second in command, accused the admiral of not having done his duty; he was ac. cordingly tried by a court-martial, and ho- nourably acquitted; in fbct, it appeared that he had been — DATID OABRICR, THB BirSLISH B08CIUR, DIED JAN. 30. IN COOK. snsed the admiral duty; he was gc> t -martial, and ho- ttict, it appeared kdly supported by lable to make any ge he obtained, orave and experi- rices had been re- ship of Greenwich to succeed Keppel channel fleet. In ish court was pre- to take up arms in I to accede to the nst Great Britain, be nation was now y alarming, it was se volunteer com- le militia; and in inimity of the peo- It on the national i by the alliance of n to extend their linking that a blow likely than opera'* tance to alarm thei ey made attempts ey and Jersey, but Btely frustrated. Britain had thrown Uural contest that ruly scions of her ■ations were now A junction was ef- inch and Spanish appearance in the }f sixty sail of the his formidable ar- 7 a force much in irdy, who leisurely enticing them to their immense su- sr to decline an en- br some time con- insult the British It without accom- ler than the cap- f-war, whicli by ac- he combined fleets. 's attention to the It this period, we peace which fol- seven years' war " d by the efforts of itain possession of •t interference of I brought into the together with tlie », and the unwil- ond the ambitious need the emperor e intentions, usiness of impor- iie parliament tiiis nd, which brought n of amelioration Ationof the house, rts for the import :tnres, the change nen for the sister ject for legislative JAN. 20. A.D. 1779.— OIID, AGKO 83, JOHN, OUXB OP RUTLAND, MARQUIS O* ORANBT. lEnglantl.— l^ousc of 33run8toltfe — fficorge BEIE. 429 discussion was the wasteful and extrava- gant expenditure in the different official departments of the state; and the elo- quence and financial knowledge of Mr. Burke were amply displayed in a plan for general reform, which was seconded by petitions from various parts of the king- dom, praying fqr a change of men as well as measures. But at this crisis the atten- tion of all parties was attracted by a sud- den alarm. Sir George Saville had in the preceding sessiot proposed a bill to repeal the act of Willi m III., which imposed certain penalti"' and disabilities on the Roman catholics, and which passed both houses without opposition. The loyal con- duct of this body of his majesty's subjects, and their readiness to risk their lives and fortunes in defence of their king and coun- try, were generally acknowledged; but in consequence of the population of Scotland expressing a dread of granting toleration to papists, the bill did not extend to that kingdom. This encouraged a set of fana- tics in England to form themselves into an association, whose professed object was to protect the protestant reliKion, by revising the intolerant statutes which before ex- isted against the Roman catholics. The great ratgority of the members of this " protestant association " were at the time correctly described as " outrageously zeal- ous and grossly ignorant" — persons who, had they been unassisted by any one of rank or influence, would have sunk into oblivion from their own insignificance ; but lord George Gordon, a young nobleman of a wild and fervid imagination, or, more cor- rectly, perhaps, one who on religious to- pics was a monomaniac, finding tliis " as- sociation'' would be likely to afford him an excellent opportunity of standing forth as the champion of the protestant faith, and thcreb? gaining a good share of mob noto- riety, joined the club, and thus raised it into' temporary importance. He became their chairman, and, free from even the apprehension of any fatal results, he pro- posed in a meeting of the society at Coach- maker's-hall, on the 29th of May, that they should assemble in St. George's Fields at 10 o'clock on the 2nd of June, when they should accompany him with a petition to the house of commons, praying a repeal of the late act of toleration granted to the Roman catholics. On the following Friday, the day ap- pointed for this display of "moral force," the members of the bouse were much sur- prised— although there was every reason, after this public notice, to expect nothing less — to perceive the approach of fifty thousand persons distinguished by blue cockades in their hats, with the inscrip- tion, " No Popery." Lord George pre- sented the'petition to the house, and moved that it be taken into immediate considera- tion; but his motion was rejected by l'J2 votes to 6. During the discussion his lord- ship frequently addressed the mob outside, and told them the people of Scotland had no redress till they pulled down the catho- lic chapels. Acting upon this suggestion, the populace proceeded to demolish and burn the chapels of the foreign ambassa- dors. On the following Monday the num- ber of the mob was greatly increased by the idle and the profligate, who are cvci- ready for riot and plunder. Their violence was now no longer confined to the catho- lics, but was exerted wherever they could do most mischief. They proceeded to New- gate, and demanded the immediate release of such of their associates us had been confined there. On receiving a refusal they began to throw firebrands and com- bustibles into the keeper's dwelling-house. The whole building was soon enveloped in flaipcs, and in the interval of confusion and dismay, all the prisoners, amounting to up- wards of three hundred, made their escape and joined the rioters. The New Prison, Clerkenwell, the King's Bench, the Fleet prison, and New Bridewell, were also set on fire; and many private houses shared the same fate: in short, on that night Lon- don was beheld blazing in no less than thirty-six different places at once. At length they attempted the Bank, but the soldiers there inflicted a severe chastise- ment on them. The military came in from the country, and, in obedience to an order of the king in couucil, directions were given to the officers Ut fire upon the riot- ers without waiting die sanction of the civil power. Not only had the most fear- ful apprehensions been excited, and great injury done, but the character of the nation in the eyes of foreign powers could not fail to suffer almost indelible disgrace from such brutal and tumultuous scenes. It was not until a week had elapsed that tranquillity was restored ; when it was found that 458 persons had been killed or wounded, exclusive of those who perished from intoxication. Under a warrant of the secretaries of state, lord George Gordon was committed to the Tower on a charge of high treason ; but when brought to trial the charge could not be sustained, and this most mischievous person was acquitted. However, though he escaped punishment for these uroceedinp^s, he was afterwards imprisoned for a libel on the queen of France, and ended his days in Newgate. Out of the rioters who were tried and found guilty, twenty-five of the most violent were hanged. We gladly turn from these scenes of civil tumult to a more agreeable part of an his- torian's duty. The commencement of the year was attended with some considerable naval advantages to Great Britain. The fleet under the command of -air Hyde Par- ker engaged a French squadron in the West Indies, and captured nine merchantmen. The success which attended admiral Rod- ney was more important. On the 16th of January he attacked, off Cape St. Vincent, a Spanish fleet, consisting of eleven ships of the line, captured ftiur of them, drove two more on snore, and burned another : thence proceeding to America, he thrice encountered the Frsnch fleet, under the A. p. 1 779.— BIRD, PR. ABMSTBONO, AND THR RRV. O. LANOHOBNR ; FOBTI. A. II. I781. — rillRT ■RTAni.llUMaNT or aUNDAT •CHOOLS IN aNOLAND. 430 ^i^e ^rtasurs of l^ifttore, $cc. U%: U' count de Guichen, ikud ihoiigli he obtained no dtfciaive lucocss, Iir pruvviiled Wailiiiiff- ton from receiviuK naval aid in his ntcdt- tated attack on New York. A verv ncvvro loas waa (iHin after austaincd hy tfin Kiig- linh: on tlie 8th uf AugUKt the Spanisli Hect fell in with the trude-tlect bound for the EaRt and Weat Indiea, the whole of which, conRiRting of Hfty-four merchant- men, were captured; their convoy, the lla- millies of 74 Kuna, and two frigateR, alone escaping. Tno oprrationR of the war, taken alto- gether, iiotwithRtanding the powerful alli- ance aKuinBt (irent Uritain, had hitherto been supported with vigour and mngna* nimity. Yet while we were fruRtriitiuK every attempt of our open and declared enemies, a confederacy was formed through- out Europe, which, as it acted indirectly, could not well be resisted. This confede- racy, termed the " armed neutrality," was planned by the empress of Ru8»iii, who is- sued a innnifcslo, Hsserling the right of neutral vessels to trade freely to and from all ports belonging to belligerent powers, except such as were actually in a state of blockade ; and that oil effects belonging to the subjeuts of the belligerent powcis should be looked upon ns free on board such ships, excepting only such goodn as were contraband : in otlier words, that " free vessels were to make free merclum- dise." Russia, Denmark, and Sweden were the flrst to bind themselves to the condi- tions of this league ; Holland quickly fol- lowed the example; the courts of Vitinnn, Ucrliu, Naples, and lastly, Portugal, the oldest ally of England, joined the nssoci- atiou. From the comnirncenu-nt of the American war the Dutrh had shown great partiality to the revolters ; and as proof was at length obtained of their hnviug concluded u treaty with the rongresM, the English government was determined on taking vengeance for their pertidy, and war was instantly declared against them. A. D. 17til. — At the coiumcncemcnt of this year the war in America was renewed with various success. The progress of the British forces under lord CornwalliH, in Virginia and the Caroliiias, had raised great expectHtiuns of triumph in England, and had proportionably depressed tlie Ameri- cans; but the British general had to con- tend against the united forces of France and her transatlantic ally ; and though he obtained some fresh laurels, his successes were rendered inefTectual by his subsequent reverses. At length, after making a most vigorous resistance against overwhelming numbers, while defending Y'ork Town, where he had fortified himaelf, he was compelled to capitulate ; when the whole of his nrniy became prisoners of war to Washington, and the British vessels in the harbour surrendered to the French admiral de Urasse. As no rational expectation of subjugating America now remained, the militapy operations in that quarter of the f;lobe were regarded as of comparatively ittle consequence. Immediately after the declaration of war against Holland, admiral Rodney, in con- junction with general Vaughan, attacked the important settlement of Eustatia.whirh surrendered to them without resistnncc. The immense property found tlieri! stir- passed the most sanf^uinc expectations of the captors ; but it untortunately happened, that as the riches acquired on this occa- sion were on their transit to England, the ships conveying it were intercepted by the French, and twenty-one of them were taken. On the 6th of the following Au- gust admiral Hyde Parker fell in witli a Dutch s(|uadron olf the Doggers' Bank, and tt most desperate engagement took ploce: the contest was tiercely maintained for two hours, when the Dutch bore away for the Texel with their convov, and the English were too much disabled to pursue them. A. D. 17S2.— Though the enemiesof Great Britain had at this time gained decided ad- vantages by land, and in numerical force possessed a manifest superiority by sen, yet ■Itch was the courage, perseverance, and power with which she contended against them single-handed, that notwitb* standing the recent disasters in America, and the enormous expenditure necessary to curry on so tierce and extensive a war- fare, the splendour of the nation sulfered no diminution ; and exploits of individual heroism and brilliant victories continued to gladden the hearts of all who cherished a love of their country's glory. At the same time popular clamour and discontent To»e to a high pitch on account of the de- pressed state of trade which the armed neutralitv had caused; while invectives agi.inat tlic government for the mal-admi- nistration of aifnirs, at regarded the Ame- rican war, were loud and deep. The whig opposition, making an adroit use of these disasters against lord North and his tory friends, induced them to resign ; and about the end of March they were succeeded by the marquis of Rockingham, as first lord of the treasury, the earl uf Shelburne and Mr. Fox, principal secretaries of state, and lordThurlow, lord chancellor; besides lord Camden, the dukes of Richmond and Gratton, Mr. Burke, admiral Keppcl, gene- ral Conway, &c. to fill the other most im- portant posts. The present ministry,huw- ever, had not continued in ottice above three months before a material change was occasioned by the death of the mar- quis of Rockingham. The earl of Sliel- burne being appointed to succeed thnt nobleman, his colleagues took offence; and lord Cavendish, Mr. Fox, Mr. Burke, and several others resigned. Mr. Townaliend was then made secretary of state; and Mr. Pitt, second son of lord Chatham, suc- ceeded lord Cavendish in the oHice of chan- cellor of the exclicquer. Negotiations for pence were now com- menced by the new ministry, but without at all relaxing in their efforts to support the war. The islands; of Minorca, St. Ne- vis, and St. Christopher's were taken by a I r. I i i s a A.D. 1781.— OB LA HOTTB, A FBBNCH SFT, TAKBN, AND UANOBD. maLAND. A. B. 1783.— *■■ iNauiaiTioN tbii YiAm abolkmbu in TUICAHT. M a lEnglanK l^ouse of ISrunstDtcii — CBlcorge ]IIE1£. 43 i the enemy ; »iid • deieent on Jamaica waa meditated with a flret of thirty-four tliipi ; they were, howeyor, fortunately met by admiral Rodney off Dominica, and a moHt detperate enKi>K*!niKnt ensued, of nearly twelve hours continuance, which termi- nated in the total defttat of the KriMicli; their admiral, count deUraMC,beinK taken priioner, with the Ville de I'aris, beiiden ilx other ihips of the line and two friKntci. In thii action the bold nautical nmiioeuvrc of breaking the lino and attacking thi- ment for the payment of his debts. A. D, 1788. — An event occurred about thiit time in Holland which threatened the tran- quillity of Europe. Ever since the acknow- ledgment of the independence of the United Provinces, two powerful parties had been continually struggling for the superiority : one was the house of Orange, which had been raised to power by their great services to the state, both against the tyrnuny of Spain and the efforts of France ; the other was the aristocratical party, whicli con- sisted of the most wealthy individuals in the country. This party was secretly fa- voured by France, and was denoniiiinted A. D. 1784.— THB JUSTLY CBLEBRATBD SB. 8AMUBL JOHNSON DIED, DBC. 13. iditure b» 900,000/. It sed that this turn ihould ! million, and placed in iisiioners appointed for ipplied to the discharge )t. After Bomeoppoii. Iment suggested by Mr. igust, as the king was carriage, a woman ap. : pretence of offering a pted to stab him with mcealed. His mi^esty ly drawing back, when thrust at him, but was cting her purpose by a Is who seized her at the examined before the pcared that she was a fargaret Nicholson. >eriod excited equal in- of Mr. Hastings, the , who had returned to , as it was asserted, of tained by unfair means, cted by Mr. Burke, who articles of impeach- 'n the part of the prose- 1 appeared vindictively "The administration of I a medley of meanness licity and depredation, ppression, ot the most rasted with the hollow ity and good faith. Mr. ence, declared, "That ion to see all his mea- ;heir designed objects; onduct was invariubly ustice, and good faith'; ! his charge in a state and security ; with nil bundance unimpaired, The trial lasted seven the acquittal of Mr. all intentional error; lis health were ruined osecution. prince of Wales cn- e public attention at lensive habits and niu- ad brought his affairs led state; and the sub- ne parliamentary dis- of 10.000/. was made me of 50,000/., and vas granted by parlia- t of his debts, nt occurred about thia h threatened the tran- ver since the acknow- lendence of the United rful parties had been ? for the superiority : •f Orange, which had by their great services ininst the tyranny of of France j the other il party, which con- ealthy individuals in arty was secretly fa- ad was denoniiiinted DIED, DEC. 13. A.i>. ir^C— racDKnicK tub obkat, ki!«o of ratssiA, diko ssrT. 17- lEnglantf.— l^ousc of IBrunstoicli — CScoige EBE. 433 the " party of the states," or " the republi- can party." The prince of OnuiKe being at IciiKlli coiiipelleii to leave the Hiinue, he applied to England and I'russia lor protec- tion, who lent their aid, and the stadtholder was reinstated. It was during this session that the atten- tion of parliament was first engaged in at- tempting the abolition of the slave trade. This inhuman traftic, so abhorrent in its nature to all principles of humanity, seeins to have been carried out by Great Britain and other nations foralengtiiof time with- out having attracted the notice of the pub- lic. It was Hrst pointed out by the quakers in the independent provincesof South Ame- rica, who in many instances had emanci- pated their slaves. A number of pamphlets were published on the subject; several emi- nent divines of the esti,.L'''»bed .. >irch re- commended it in their discou-*" .,nd writ- ings ; the two universities, and & ter them, the whole nation, presented petitions pray- ing for the interference of parliament to forward the humane design of African emancipation. Mr. Wilberforce bronght the subject before parliament ; but as many circumstances arose to retard the conside- ration of it, a resolution was carried to de- fer it till a future opportunity. Towards the close of the year the nation was thrown into great dismay by the fact that the king was suffering under a severe mental maladv; so much so, that uu the 4th of November it was necessary to con- sult the most eminent physicians, and to assemble the principal olticers of state. His majesty's disorder not abating, but the contrary appearing from the examination of the physicians before the privy-council, the house twice adjourned; but bearing on their re assembling the second time that there was a great prospect of his majesty's recovery, though the time was uncertain, both houses turned their thoughts to the establishment of a regent during his ma- jesty's incapacity. The right of the prince of Wales to this ofHce was asserted by Mr. Fox, and denied by Mr. Fitt, who affirmed, that for any man to assert such a right in the prince of Wales was little lcss«thaa treason to the constitution. After violent altercations, a modified regency was carried in favour of the prince ; the queen to have the custody of the royal person, and the appointment to places in the household. For the present, however, these arrange- ments were not needed, for the health of the king was rapidly improving ; and on the 10th of March his majesty sent a message to parliament, to acquaint them of his re- covery, and of his abiUty to attend to the public business of the kingdom. The effect of this pleasing intelligence was instanta- neous; every town and village in the king- dom testified their loyalty and attachment to the sovereign ; and sorrow was succeeded by rapturous exultation. A. D. 1789. — According to a promise given by the king, that the British constitution should be extended to Canada, that pro- vince now applied for a form of legislature. For the better accommodation of its in- habitants, Mr. I'itt proposed to divide the province into Upper and Lower Canada; and to provide separate laws which niiglit suit the French Canadian noblesse on the one bund, and the British and American colonists on the other. In the course of the discussion, Mr. F'ox observed that it would be wrong to abolish hereditary dis- tinctions where they had been long esta- blished, and equally wrong to create those distinctions in a country which was not suited for their establishment. This drew from Mr. Burke the observation that " it became a duty of parliament to watch the conduct of individuals, and societies, which were evidently disposed to encourage inno- vations." Mr. Fox thinking these senti- ments contained a censure on him, defended his opinions by a full explanation of his sentiments on the French revolution. Mr. Burke bad previously written an excellent work, intended to operate as an antidote to the growing evils ol republicanism and in- fidelity. In parliament, he denounced the insidious cry of liberty and equality, ami a breach was thus made in the lunt;-cemenied friendship of these two distinguished states- men, which ever after remained unclosed. A. D. 1790.— At this period France had begun to exhibit scenes of anarchy and con- fusion, which, for monstrous wickedness and wide-spread misery, never before had their parallel in the world's history. A con- densed narrative of those revolutionary hor- rors will be found under the proper head. We shall here simply observe, eii ))aissant, that the progress of free-thinking, miscalled philosophy, which liad been much encou- raged in that country during the last cen- tury, had diffused a spirit of innovation and licentiousness that was highly unfavourable to the existence of an absolute monarchy. Moreover, the participation of France in the American struggle for independence, had instilled into the minds of Gnllo American cliainpions of liberty a perfect detestation of regal authority; and on their return from that vaunted land of freedom, they imparted to their countrymen the spirit of liberty which had been kindled in the western hemisphere. But, perhaps, the more im- mediate cause of this wild ebullition of popular fury, arose from the embarrassed state of the finances, which induced Louis XVI. to assemble the states-gene nl in or- der to consider the measures by which .this serious e\il might be rcdrcrscd. The pernicious principle-s and revolting practices we have briefiy alluded to, so contrary to all ideas of good government. were circulated with great zeal and activity throughout the neighbouring nations. So resolute were they in disseminating their opinions, that there was scarcely a place in Europe in which their agents were not established. In Great Britain and Ireland these democratic missionaries were received with every mark of approbation, not only by individuals, but by various political socie- ties, who made it their study to propogate their principles, and recommend their ex- o r. (9 Q ' S I A.D. 1788.— A VBnt SETBBE WINTBIl— TUB THAMES FROZBN OVEB. [2P A.D. 1790. — DR. W. CUI.I.BN, CKLBBKATki ■''••J'CA-, WHIfBH, 'i>lBII. i H '■ I 434 ^i)e ^rcBSury of It .1 Vi ^f. ample ; and in the traoRactioni of tlieie lo- cietiea, the means by which the French re- volution had been conducted were greatly applauded, and dencribed as worthy of the imitation of mankind. On the opening of parliament in Febru- ary, hia migesty, in nil speech from the throne, remarked that he had received con- tinual asiurancei of the pacilic dispoaitioni of the continental powers, and congratu- lated the nation on the advantOKes which muit arise from such an uninterrupted tranquillity. The supplies for the army and navy Slaving been stated to the house, some animadversions took place with regard to the military establishment, which it was said miglit have been safely reduced. In the course of the debate, Mr. Fox took oc- casion to remark, that the French soldiers during the late commotions had, by refus- ing to obey the dictates of the court, set a glorious example to the military of Europe, and had shown that men by becoming sol- diers did not cease to be citizens— a remark, certainly, most objectionable at the time, if not positively seditious, and as such it was treated by Mr. Burke and other members. During the present session, a message from the king informed the house of some hostile proceedings on the part of Spain, who bad seicad three British ships that were endeavouring to establish a foreign trade between China and Nootka Sound, on the west coast of North America ; the Spaniards insisting on their exclusive right to that part of the coast. Orders were immediately issued for augmenting the British navy; but the expected rupture between the two countries was averted by timely concessions on the part of Spain. A new parliament having met on the 20th of November, the king, after making some remarks on the state of Europe, observed that the peace of India had been disturbed by a war with Tippoo Sultan, son of the late Hyder Ally. The business of the ses- sion was then entered into, and various de- bates occurred with respect to the conven- tion with Spain, and the expensive amount that had been prepared anticipatory of •> war with that power. A. D. 1791. — The whole kingdom was now divided into two parties, arising from the opposite views in which the French revolu- tion was considered; one condemning the promoters of Gallic independence as the •ubverters of all order; while the other considered the new constitution of France as the basis of a system of politics, from which peace, happiness, and concord would arise to bless the world I On the 14th of July, the anniversary of the demolition of the Bastile, the "friends of liberty" agreed to celebrate that event by festive meetings in the principal towns in the kingdom. These meetings were rather unfavourably regarded b^ the opponents of the revolu- tion, as indicative of principles inimical to the British constitutioi,; but no public ex- pression of Uisappri/.utiun hud yet upiieur- ed. In the metropolis and must ot the other towns these meetings had passed over without auy disturbance; but in the popu- lous town of Birmiiigliam, where a dissen- sion had long subsisted between the IiIkIi churchmen and the dissenters, its cuiise- qucnces were very alarming. A seditious hand-bill, which repreei 'ited the late trans- actions in France as w< . ihy to be imitated by the English, havi jg been circulated about the town by nn.ic unknown person, created a great senxiviion. The friends of the intended meeting thought it necessary to disclaim the sentiments contained in the handbills; but us their views were misre- presented, the hotel in which tlie meeting was held was soon surrounded by a tumul- tuous mob, who expressed their disappro- bation by shouts of " Church and King I " In the evening the mob demolished an Unitarian meeting-house belonging to the celebrated Dr. Priestley, and afterwards at- tacked his dwelling-house and destroyed his valuable library. For three davs the rioters continued their depredations, out tranquil- lity was restored on the arrival of the mih- tary, and some of the ringleaders were ex- ecuted. A. s. 1792. — Parliament assembled Jan. 81, and were agreeably surprised by a de- claration of the minister, that the finances of the nation would allow him to take off taxes to the amount of 200,0001., and to ap- propriate 4U0,UU0{. towards the reduction of the national debt. He then descanted on the flourishing state and happy prospects of the nation, declaring nt the same time how in- timately connected its prosperity was with the preservation of peace abroad and tran- quillity at home. The duke of York having at the close of the previous year married the princess Fre- derica Charlotta, eldest daughter of the king of Prussia, the commons passed a bill to settle 2S,0UUI. per annum on the duke, and 8,000{. on the duchess should she sur- vive him. — The house also, during this ses- sion, went into a committee on the African slav»trade, and gave it as their opinion that it should be abolished. In the course of debate, Mr. Pitt and many others spoke in favour of its immediate abolition. Alter many divisions the ter. 1790.— TBOMAB WABTON, FOBT-LAURBATB AND ANNOTATOII, DIED. ft^i » r • : :i R 1 A. 0. iraO.-JOIIN HOWARD, THB C«l«BB*T«D FHILANTHHOHiT, DIBD JAW. 30. lEnglantJ.— "ISouae of ISrunatolck — (George WHS.. 435 •4 CIIAPTEU LXI. I'Ht Reign o/G«oHO» III. (co*tinuti). A n. 1790. — "WuBN your neiglibour"* house ii on fire, it i* well to look after y«ur own," Kays h trite but wi»e old saw. The rnpidity with which the new political prin- ciplei of the French republicans were dif- fused throughout Great Brituin, and the numeroun inttanimatory libels which were issued from the press, awakened well- grounded apprehensions of the government, and induced the legislature to iidopt mea- sures for the suppression of the growing evil. The moral as well as the political re- •ults of French republicanism were last developing ; and every reckless demagogue was busily at work, disseminating the poi- son of infidelity and sedition. To put a stop, if possible, to this state of things, a royal proclamation was issued for the suppres- sion of seditious correspondence abroad, and publications at home "tending to bring into contempt the wise and whofesome pro- visions made at the time of the glorious re- volution." The London Corresponding So- ciety, and various other societies in this country, had recently sent congratulatory addresses to the National Assembly of France I But the heart of Kngland was still sound, although some of the limbi were leprous. In the meantime affairs on the continent became every day more interesting. An al- liance was entered into between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, the ostensible object of which was to re-establish public secu- rity in France, with the ancient order of things, and to protect the persons and pro- perty of all loyal subjects. On the 26th of July the duke of Brunswick, commander- in-chief of the allied armies, issued at Cob- lent ji his celebrated manifesto to t he French people, promising protection to all who should submit to their king, and threaten- ing the city of Paris with fire and sword if injury or insult were offered to him or any of his family. The republicans, indignant at this foreign interference, now resolved on the king's dethronement. Having by their mischievous publications turned the tide of disgust against their sovereign, and persuaded the populace that the royalists had invited the allies to invade them, the suspension of royal authority was soon after decreed, the king and his family were closely confined in the Temple, all persons who were attached to monarchical government were cast into prison or massacred ; and, to crown the whole, the inoffensive monarch was led forth to execution, and while pray- ing to the Almighty to pardon his enemies, ignouiiniously perished by the guillotine. While these detestable scenes of murder were displayed in France, the vigilance of the English government was excited by the propagation of revolutionary princi- ples, and it was compelled to employ such measures as the dangerous circumstances of the country demanded. The sanguinary conduct of the French revolutionists, their extravagant projects, and unholy senti- ments, naturally alarmed *11 penonsof rank and property ; and associations, not merely of the high and wealthy, but of all elaasM who had anything to lose, were formed for t he protection of lioerty and property against the effort* of anarchists and levellera. But still there were many desperate character* ready to kindle the flame of civil war on the first favourable opportunity. Another pro> clamation was therefore issued, in which it was stated, that evil-disposed percon* were acting in concert with other* in foreign countries, lu order to subvert the laws and constitution ; and that a spirit of tumolt and sedition having manifested itself oa several occasions, hi* m^ie*ty had reaolved to embody part of the national militia. Thia was, in fact, a measure abaolutelr nece«- sary on another account, it being clear that the French republic had resolved to pro- voke England to a war, by the moat un- justifiable breach of the law* of nation* t this was, their avowed design to open th« river Scheldt, in direct oppoaition to th« treaties of which England wa* a guarantee, and to the manifest disadvantage of tho commerce of the United Provincea, who were the allies of England. So portentous was the political aspect at this time, that it was thought nece**ary to summon the parliament sooner than usual. In the speech from the throne, hi* m^jeetf declared that he had hitherto observed a strict neutrality in regard to the war on the continent, and had refrained from in- terfering with the internal affair* of France; but that it was impossible for him to *ee, without the mo*t serious uneasine**, the strong and increasing indication* which appeared there, of an intention to excite disturbance* in other countries, to di*re- gard the right* of neutral powers, and to pursue view* of unjust conquest and ag- grandizement. He had therefore taken steps for making some augmentation of his naval and military force; and he re- commended the subject to the serious at- tention of parliament. After very long and animated debates on the address of thank* for the king's speech, (during which many of the opposition, who were by this time thoroughly disgusted with the French revo- lutionjsts, deserted their party,) the motion was carried by a large majority. The next subject which engaged the at- tention of parliament was the alien bill, which authorized government to dismisa from the kingdom such foreigner* a* they should think tit. During the month of December, an order of government wasalao issued, for preventing the exportation of corn to France; and several ship* laden with grain were compelled to unload their cargoes. A.D. 1793.— That a war between Great Britain and France was apeedily approach- ing, was believed by all parties; yet war was neither foreseen nor premeditated by the king's ministers: it was the unavoid- able result of circumstances. In a decree of the French convention on the 19th of November, 1793, they Lad declared their A.D. 1790.— DB. VHANKLIN, FHILOSOVBER and BTATiaifAM, B»0 ATRIL 17. i M li I B'.-f fc !■ t n &', *';'>' li > I J t '; I A.D. 1793. — LORD NORTIT, BAUL OV GIIII.DFORD, DIKD AUG. 6, AGBD 59. 436 ^Ije Z[[rcaaunj of l^iaioru, Src. intention of extending their frnternity and assistance to the dinaffected and revolting subjects of all monarchical governments. The disavowal of this asseriion wns de- manded by the British ministry ; but as this was not complied with, M. Chauvtlin, ambassador from the late king of France— though not acknowledged in that light by the republic — received orders to quit the kingdom, in virtue of the alien act. In conse- quence of this measure, the French conven- tion, on the 1st of February, declared war. No sooner was Great Britain involved in this eventful war, than a treaty of com- merce was concluded with Russia, a large body of troops was taken into the service of government, and an engagement was en- tered into by the king of Sardinia, who agreed, for an annual subsidy of 200,OOU/., to join the Austrians in Italy with a very considerable military force. Alliances were likewise formed with Austria, Prussia, Spain, Holland, Portugal, and Russia, all of whom agreed to shut their ports against the vessels of France. Denmark, Sweden, and Switzerland, however, refused to join the confederacy. The king of the Sicilies agnreed to furnish 6000 troops and four ships of the line; the empire ali-^ furnished its contingents to the Austrian and Prussian armies ; and British troops were sent to the protection of Holland, under the command of the duke of York. The French army, commanded by general Dumouriez, invaded Holland, and having taken Breda, Gertruydenburg, and some other places, bdvanced to Williamstndt, which was defended by a detachment I'roin the brigade of the Knglish guards, just ar- rived in Holland. Here the French met with a repulse, and were coinpellcd to raise the siege with great loss. Dumouriez then quitted Holland to defend Louvain ; but being afterwards defeated in several en- gagements with the allied armies, particu- larly at Neer-winden, his soldiers were so discouraged, that they deserted in great numbers. At length, weary of the dis- organized state of the French government, and finding himself suspected by the two great factions which divided the republic, Dumouriez entered into negotiations with the all'ed generals, and agreed to return to Paris, dissolve the national convention, and free his country from the gro.'is tyranny which was there exercised under the spe- cious name of equality. But the conven- tionalists withheld his supplies, and sent commi:isioners to thwart his designs and summon him to their bar. He instantly arrested the officers that brought the sum- mons, and sent them to the Austrian head- quarters. But the army did not share the anti-revolutionary feelings of the general, and he was himself obliged to seek safety in the Austrian camp, accompanied by young Egalite, (as he was then styled) son of the execrable duke of Orleans, and now Louis Philippe, king of the French t The duke of York, who wns nt the head of the allied armies, had laid siege to and taken Valenciennes ; and he was now anxi- ous to extend their conquests along the frontier: he accordingly marched towards Dunkirk, and commenced the siege on the 27th of August. He expected a naval ar- mament from Great Britain to act in con- junction with the land forces; but, from some unaccountable cause, the heavy artil- lery was so long delayed, that the enemy had time to provide for the defence of the town. The French troops, commanded by Houchard, poured upon them in such num- bers, that the duke was compelled to make a precipitate retreat, to avoid losing the whole of Ills men. He then came to Eng- land, and having held a conference with the ministers, returned to the continent. At Valenciennes it was decided in a council of war, that the emperor of Germany should take the Held, and be invested vith the supieme command. The principal persons of the tc vn and harbour of Toulon entered into an agree- ment with the British admiral, lord Hood, by which they delivered up the town and shipping to his protection, on condition of its being restored to France when the Bourbon restoration should be effected. The town, however, was not for any long time defensible against the superior force of the enemy which had come to its rescue ; it was therefore evacuated, fourteen thou- sand of the inhabitants taking refuge ou board the British ships. Sir Sidney Smith set lire to the arsenals, which, together with an immense quantity of naval stores, and lil'teen ships of the line, were con- sumed- On this occasion the artillery was conmianded by Napoleon Buoniipane, whose sliill and courage was cnuspieuous; and from that day his promotion rapidly took place. The eiforts made by the French at this time were truly astonishing. Having pro- digiously increased their forces, they were resolved to conquer, whatever might be the cost of human life. Every day was a day of battle; aud as they were continually re- inforced, the veteran armies of the allies were obliged to give way. On the 22nd of December they wore driven with immense slaughter from Hugcnau; this was followed up by successive defeats till the 17th, when the French army arrived at Weissemburg in triumph. During this last month the loss of men on both sides was immense, being estimated at between "0,000 and 80,000 men. The French concluded the cam- paign in triumph, and the allied powers were seriously alarmed at the difficulties wliich were necessary to be surmounted, in order to regain the ground that had been lost. In the East and West Indies the English were succebslul. Tobago, St. Domingo, Pohdicherry, and the French settlements on the coast of Malabar and Coromandel, all surrendered to thom. A. n. 17U4. — From the great and im- portant events .'hich were transacting on the continent, we turn to the internal af- fairs of Great Britain. The French repub- lic having menaced England with an in- vasion, it was proposed by ministers that A.n. 179«— JOHN s.mkatcn, the eminent civir. unoinkuh, dird oct. 28. A.S. 1793.— THM BARK OT MSIiAND BIOAN TO IIBVB 61. NOTII. '5£nglan"a.— Tlougc of ISrunatoiA.— ffieorge E3EE. 437 e French at this 8 associations of volunteers, both of cavalry and infantry, might be formed in every county, for the purpose of defending the country from the hostile attempts of its enemies, and for supporting the govern- ment Against the efforts of the disaffected. On the 12th of May a message from the king announced to |)arliament the exist- ence of seditious societies in London, and that the papers of certain persons belong- ing to them had been seized, and were sub- mitted to the consideration of the house. Several members of the Society for Consti- tutional Information, and of the London Corresponding Society, were apprehended on a charge of high treason, and committed to the Tower. Among them were Thomas Hardy, a shoemaker in Piccadilly, and Da- niel Adams, secretaries to the before named gccieties; the celebrated John HomTooke; the rev. Jeremiah Joyce, private secretary to carl Stanhope ; John Augustus Bonney, an attorney; and Messrs. Thelwall, Richter, Lovatt, and Stone. They were brought to trial in the following October, and had the good fortune to be acquitted. Every appearance on the grand theatre of war indicated a continuance of success to the French in the ensuing campaign. The diligence and activity of their govern- ment, the vigour and bravery of their troops, the abilities and firmness ot their commanders, the unwearied exertions of all men employed in the public service, asto- iiislied the whole world. Filled with an en- thusiastic devotion to the cause in which they had embarked, their minds were intent only on the military glory and aggrandize- ment of the republic. While the whole strenitth which could be collected by the allies amounted to less than four hundred thousand men, the armies of France were estimated at upwards of a million. Though the superiority by land was at present evidently in favour of the French, yeton theocean " Old England" maintained Its predominance. During the course of the summer the island of Corsica was sub- dued; and the whole of the West India islands, except part of Guadaloupe, surren- dered to the troops under the command of sir Charles Grey and sir John Jervis. The channel fleet, under its veteran commander, lord Howe, sailed from port, i j order to in- tercept the Brest fleet, which had venturea out to sea to protect a large convoy that was expected from America. The hostile fleets descried each other nn the 28th of May, and as an engagement became inevit- able, the enemy formed in regular order of battle. On the morning of the 1st of June a close action commenced ; the enemy's fleet consisting of twenty-six sail of the line, and the British of twenty-five. Though the battle did not last lung, it was very severe, and proved decisive; seven of the French ships being compelled to strike their co- lours, one of which, LaVengeur, went down with all her crew almost immediately on being taken possession of. In the cap- tured ships alono, the killed and wounded amounted to 1270. The total loss of the British wM 906. When intelligence of this memorable victory arrived in England, it produced the greatest exultation, and the metropolis was Uluminated three successive nights. This naval loss of the French, though it considerably diminished the ardour of their seamen, was greatly overbalMiced by the feneral success of their military operations, 'he principal theatre of the contest was the Netherlands, where generals Jourdan and Pichegru had not less than 300,000 good troops, headed by many expert and valiant officers, and abundantly supplied with all the requisites of war. To oppose this formidable force, the allies assembled an army of 146,000, commanded by the em- peror in person, assisted by generals Clair- fait, Kaunitz, prince Coburg, the duke of York, &c. Numerous were the battles, and enormous the loss of* life on each side dur- ing this campaign: in one of these bloody conflicts alone, the battle of Charleroi, the loss of the Austrians was estimated at 15,000 men. The armies of France were, in fact, become irresistible, and the allies retreated in all directions; Nieuport, Os- tend, and Bruges; Tournay, Mons, Oude- narde, and Brussels; Landrecies, Valen- ciennes, Cond£, and Quesnoi — all fell into their hands. During this victorious career of the French in the Netherlands, their ar- mies on the Rhine were equally successful ; and though both Austrians and Prussians well maintained their reputation for skill and bravery, yet the overwhelming masses of the French, and the fierce enthusiasm with which these republicans fought, were more than a match for the veteran bands by whom they were opposed. But the military operations of the French were not confined to the Netherlands and the frontiers of Germany ; they had other armies both in Spain ard Italy. The king- dom of Spain, which was formerly so pow- erful as to disturb, by its ambition, the peace of Europe, was at this time so much reduced by auperstitinn, luxury, and indo- lence, that it was with difficulty the court of Madrid maintained its rank among the countries of Europe. It was therefore no wonder that the impetuosity and untiring energy which proved so destructive to the warlike Germans, should overwhelm tlie inert armies of Spain, or that (heir strong- holds should prove unavailing against such resolute foes. In Italy, too, the French were not less fortunate. Though they had to combat the Austrian and Sardinian ar- mies, a series of victories made tlieni mas- ters of Piedmont, and the campaign ended there, as elsewhere, greatly in favour of revolutionized France. Having in some measure overstepped our historical boundary line, by uiving even this very hasty and imperfect view of transactions with which Great Britain was only indirectly concerned, though at the time of their occurrence they were of the deepest interest to the nation— we shall now return to the operations of the com- mon enemy in the Netherlands, which, not- k A.n. 1794— sLAVBnif ABousHEn iw TUB yBBWcn WB8T iwniA ISLANDS. [2 p. 3 A.D. 1794. — EAHL FITZWIIiLIAM AFFOINTED TICEROT OF IRELAND, DEC. 10. I ? 438 C^c STreaaurg of ll^istorn, $fc. withstanding the approach of winter, were conducted with great perseverance. The duke of York •■ as postt'd between Bois-le- Duc and Hf:- :'•?., but being attacked with great impC' uobity by the superior numbers of Ficlicgi'u, he was overpowered, and ob- liged to retreat across the Maese, with the loss of about 1,5U0 men. On the 3Uth of September Crevecoeur was taken by the enemy, and Bois-le-Duc surrendered imme- diately after. They then followed the duke across the Maese, when his royal highness found it necessary to cross tlie Rhine, and take post at Arnlieim. Nimeguen fell into tlie hands of the French on the 7th of November; and as the winter set in with uncommon severity, ttic whole of the rivers and lakes of Holland were bound up by the frost. At the bcginaing of January, 1793, the river Waal was frozen over; the i5ri- tish troops were at the time in a must de- plorable state of ill health ; and the ene- my, seizing the favourable opportunity, crossed the river with an army of 70,000 men, and having repulsed the force which was opposed to tlieiu, on the 16th of Janu- ary took possession of Amsterdam. The fortresses of Williamstadt, lireda^ Bergen- op-Zoom, admitted the French; the sliat- tered remnant of the Hrltisli army was obliged to retreat, u.i cr the most severe privHtions, and in n season unusually in- clement ; and the prince of Orange escaped in a little boat, and landed in England, where lie and liis fupiily became the objects of royal liberality. The United Provinces were now revolutionized alter the model of France ; the rights of man were proclaimed, representatives of tlie people chosen, and the country received the name of the Bata- viaii republic. If there were any in Holland who "eriously expected that this new order of things was likely to prove beneticial to the country, they soon had experience to the contrary ; for, on the one hand, the English seized their colonies and destroyed their coiiinieree, while on the other, the French despised their new confederates, and treated them with all the hauteur of insolent conquerors. ' A. D. 1795. — At the coiicluEion of the past year the aspect of affaiis on the continent was most gloomy and unpro'nising. The French republic had suddenly btconiemore extensive by its conquests than France had been since the days of Charlemagne; they hat.' acquired an increased population, csti- ma'ed at thirteen millions which, added to twenty-four millions contained in France, constituted an empire of 37.000,000 people, As this immense population inhabited the centre of Europe, they were copahle by their position to defy the enmity of all their neigh- boura, and to exercise an inHuence almost amounting to on universal sovereignty. The consternation of Groat Britain and the allied powers was greatly increased by the ronduct of the king of Prussia, who withdrew from the coalition, and concluded a treaty of peace with the French conven- tion. This act, in addition to the dismem- berment of Poland, was commented on in the British parliament in terms of severe and merited censure. He had received large subsidies from England, and was pledged, as a member of the coalition, to do his ut- most towards the overthrow of regicidal France and the restoration of the Bour- bons ; and his defection at such a time was as unprincipled, as the effect of it was likely to be disastrous. But the English and Aug- trians, encouraged by the distracted state of France, more especially by the royalist war in Ln Vendee, continued their efforts; not- withstanding Spain followed the example of Prussia, and the duke of Tuscany, also, deserted the allies. Though unfortunate in her alliances, and unsuccessful in the attempts made by her military force on the continent. Great Bri- tain had still the satisfaction of beholding her fleets riding triumphantly on the ocean. On the 23rd of June, admiral lord Bridport attacked the French fleet off I/Orient, and captured three ships cf the line. Some other minor actions also served to show thot Britain had not lost the po« er to main- tain her naval superiority. As Holland was MOW become subject to France, letters of reprisal were issued out against the Dutch ships, and directions were given for attack- ing their colonics, with the intention, how- ever, of restoring them when the stadth- holder's government should be re-establish- ed. The Caiie of Good Hope was obliged to submit to the British arms, together with Trincomalee, and all the other United set- tlements except Batavin. Tlie other events of the year may be thus summed up. — The marriage of the prince of Wales with the princess Caroline of Brunswick ; a match dictated by considera- tions of what are termed prudence, rather than of affection : the prince's debts at the time amounted to 020,0(10/., and parliament agreed to grant him 125,000/. per annum in addition to his income arising from the duchy of Cornwall, a portion being reserved for the gradual liquidation of his debts.— The death of Louis XVII., son of the un- fortunate Louis XVI. and lawful sovereign of France, in prison. — The ao(|uittol of War- ren Hastings, after a trial which had lasted seven years — The comniencenient of the societies of United Irishmen against, and of Orange clubs in favour of, the i^overn- nient. — .V dearth of corn in England, with cons." uent high prices, great distress, and riots vhich <;reatcd much alarm. In seasons of scarcity and consequent high prices, the multiMde are cosily ex- cited to 'jls of iiisub irdination. At this period tlieir attention had been roused to political subjects by some meeting"- held in tlie open fieidf, r.l tlieinsti;nceof the cor- responding societies, where tlio usuol in- vectives against government hod formed the staple of their discourse, and the people had been more than usually excited. A rc- Sort was circulotcd that vast bodies of the Isafl'ected would make their appearance when the king proceeded to open parlia- ment ; and so it proved, for the amazing number of 200,000 persons assembled in A.n. 1795. — EAni, CAMDEN SUrERSEDXS EAItl, FITZWII.LIAM, MARCH 1. \^ y the royaUst war their efforts ; not- iwed the example of Tuscany, also, her alliances, and inpts made by her itinvnt, Great Bri- ;tioii of beholdin<; antlyon the ocean, niral lord Uridport t off L'Orient, and the line. Some o served to show the power toniain- ,'. As Holland was France, letters of against the Dutch e given for attack- he intention, liow- wluii the starlth- uldberc-estublish- ope was obliged to n\s, together witli other United set- e year may be thus •inge of the prince ncess Caroline of tated by considera- i prudence, rather inee's debts at the Dl., and parliament (inu/. per annum in arising from the tion being reserved ion of his debts.— II., son of the un- id lawful sovereign e acquittal of Wiir- il which bad lasted ncncement of the iinien against, and )ur of, the rtov('rn- 11 in England, with great distress, and h alarm. y and consequent ide are easily ex- dination. At this iftd been roused to mc niteting" lield insti;neeof the cor- lere tiie usual in- tent had formed tbe le, and the people ally excited. A re- vast bodies of the their appearance ed to open parlia- i, for the amazing ions assembled in MARCH 1. A.D. 1795. — A GBKAT OIABTH 0» CORN, WITH BNOBMOUS PRICES, DBFORB HARVEST. I O lEnglantJ.— l^oiiae of 19run»toicli.— (Seorgc ME. 439 a the park on that occasion, Oct. 29. An im- mense throng surrounded his Majesty's car- riage, claniourously vociferating, "Bread! Peace! No Pitt I" some voices also shout- ing out, "No King!" while stones were thrown at the coach from all directions, and on passing through Palace-vard, one of the windows was broken by a bullet from an air-gun. On entering the house, the King, much agitated, said to the lord chan- cellor, " my lord, I have been shot at." On his return these scandalous outrages were repeated ; and a proclamation was issued offtring a thousand pounds reward for the apprehension of the persons concerned in these seditious proceedings. A.u. l/'jn.— The late nn>istifiable insults to the sovereign were the subject of deep regret to all who wished well to the insti- tutions of the country and the maintenance of true freedom; while even those who were inimical to the gfvernment were greatly displeased, inasmuch as they felt assured that ministers would apply for addi- tional legislative powers. And so it proved ; for the business of parliament was no sooner resumed than two new penal statutes weie brought forward. The tirst was entitled " an act for the prciervaliun of his majesty's person and government against treasonable and seditious practices and attempts." lly tbe other bill it was enacted, that no mi ct- ing of any description of persons exceeding the number of tifty, except sueli as might be called by sberilfs or other magistrates, should he holden for political purposes, un- less public notice should have been given by seven housekeepers ; that if such a body should assemble without notice, and twelve or more individuals should remain together, (even quietly) for an hour after a legal order for their departure, they should be punished as felons without benefit of clergy; and that the same rigour might be exercised, if any person after due notice of the meeting should use seditious language, or propose the irregular alteration of any thing by law established. The discussions which took place on these bills in both houses were very animated, and they passed with great majorities. The unremitting struggle which during this campaign took place on the continent, hctui'en the allied armies and tliose of France, was far too im])ortant as regaii'ed the interests of Great Britain for us to )>ass it lii;htly over, however little it may at tirst sig'.t appear to belong strictly 'o Uritish history. The French armies oti the frontiers of Germany were commanded by their ge- ne.'als JJoreau and Jourdan ; the army of Italy was conducted by Napoleon Buona- parte. This extraordinary man, whose name will hereafter i;o frequently occur, bad, like Pieliegru, Jourdan, Morcau, &e. attained rapid promotions in the republican armies. In 17tU he was a captain of artil- lery; and it was only at the siege of Toulon, in 1/93, that his soldierly abilities began to be developed. He had now an army of 5(i,0(M( veterans under his connnand, op- posed to whom were 80,000 Austrians and Piedmonteae, commanded hy general Beau- lieu, an ofHcer of great ability, who opened the campaign on ine 9th of April. Having, after several engagements, suffered a defeat at Millesiir.o, he selected 7000 of his best troops, and attacked and took the village of Dego, where the French were indulging themselves in security. Massena, having rallied his troops, made several fruitless at- tempts during the day to retake it; but Buonaparte arriving in the evening with some reinforcements, renewed the attack, drove the allies from Dego, and made 14,000 prisoners. Count Co'li, the general of the Sardinian forces, hav ng; been defeated by Buonaparte at Mont.ovi, requested a sus- pension of arms, which was followed by the king of Sardinia's withdrawal from the con- federacy, the surrendt r of his most impor- tant fortresses, and tbe ccssion,of the duchy of Savoy, &c. to the J'"rench. This ignomi- nious peace was folowed by similar con- duct on the partof t'le dukeof Parma, who, like the king of Sardinia, appeared to have no alternative bu* that of utter extinc- tion. The Austrian general Beaulieti being now no hmger cble to maintain his situation on the Po, retreated across the Adda at Lodi, Piz7.ighettonp, and Cremona, leaving a de- tachment at J.odi to stop the progress of the enemy. These forces were attacked, on the lOih of ^lay, by the advanced guard of the republican r.rniy, who compelled them to retreat with so much precipitation, as to leave no time for breaking down the bridge of Lodi. A battery was planted on tlie French s-ide, and a treniendous cannon- ading kept up; hut so well was the bridge imitected by the Austrian artillery, that it was the opinion of the general otiiccrs that it could not be forced ; but as Buonaparte was convinced that the reputation of tbe Freneh army would suffer much if the Aus- trians were allowed to maintain their posi- tion, h' w.iis determined to encounter every risk it order to effect his obiect. Putting himse f, therefore, at the head of a select body of his troops, he passed the bridge in the midst of a most destructive tire of the Austrian artillery, and then fell with such irresistible fury on his opponents, that he gained a complete victory. Marshal Beau- lieu, with the shattered remnants of his army, made a hasty retreat towards Man- tun, pursued by a large body of the French. Pftvia, Milan, and Verona, were now soon in their hands; and on the 4th of .lune they invested INIantua, the only pl.iee (it im- portance which the emperor lield in Italy. Not long after, Buonaparte made himself master of Ferrara, Bologna, and Urbino; and next menaC' d the city of Home. .\s the pope was incapable of resisting this unprovokvil invasion of his territories, lie was reduced to the neeesjity of soliciting an armistice, which was gronted on very humiliating terms. lie agreed to give up the cities of Bologna and Ferrara, with the citadel of Ancona, and to deliver up a great number of paintings and statues, anil to enrich the ronqucror with some hundreds H H «l a u i i i A.n. 1795.— AN ARUNDANT HARVEST, AND GREAT ni'DUCTION OP IMIICKS, m I S' »f' n \ ■ -- - - ~ A.D. 1796. — TBB X8LB OF BLBA BURRBITDBaBD TO COKMODOBB nBLflON. 440 ^Ti^e ^Treasure of l^tatorg, $cc. of the most curioua manugcripts from the Vatican library. The court of Vienna now recalled Beaa- lieu, and gave the command to marshal Wurmser; but the tide of success ran more strong against him if possible, than it had done against his predecessor. As Buona- parte was at this time employed in form- ing a republic of the states of Reggio, Mo- dena, Bologna, and Ferrara, the Austrians had leisure to make new military arrange- ments. They reinforced marshal Wurmser, and formed a new army, the command of which was given to general Alvinzi. At the beginning of November^ several partial en- gagements took place between Alvinzi and Buonaparte, till the ISth, when a most des- perate engagement at the village of Areola ended in the defeat and retreat of the Aus- trians, who lost about 13,000 men. Mantua, however, was still obstinately defended, but the garrison ceased to entertain hopes of ultimate success. While the French army under Buona- parte was overrunning Italy, the armies on the Rhine, under Jourdan and Moreau, were unable to make any impression on the Austrians. The armistice which had been concluded at the termination of the last campaign, expired on the 3)st of May, when both armies took the iield ; and the archduke Charles, who commanded the Austrians, gained several advantages over both Jourdan and Moreau, till, at the end of the year, the hostile armies having been harassed by the incessant fatigues they had undergone, discontinued their military operations during the winter. The successes of Buonaparte in Italy, and the general aversion with which the people beheld the war, induced the British ministry to make overtures for pence with the French republic. Lprd Mnlmesbury was accordingly dispatched to Paris on this important mission, and proposed as the basis, the mutual restitution of conquests; but there was no disposition for peace on the part of the French directory, and the attempt at paciiication ended by a sudden order for his lordship to quit Paris in forty- ci^ht hours. While these negotiations were on the tapi^, an armament was prepared at Brest for the invasion of Ireland, which had long been meditated by the French rulers. The fleet, consisting of twenly-flve ships of the line and fifteen frigates, was entrusted toadmiral Bouvet; the land forces, amounting to 25,000 men, were commanded by general Uoclie. They set sail on the 18th of December, but a violent tempest arose, amd the frigate on board of which the ge- neral was conveyed being separated from the fleet, they returned to harbour, after losing one ship of the line and two frigates. A few incidental notices wiji serve to wind up the domestic events of the years- Sir Sidney Smith was taken prisoner on tho Frencti coast, and sent, under a strong es. cort, to Paris. — The princess of Wales gave birth to a daugliter — the princess Char- lotte; immediately after which, at the in- stance of the prince on the ground of "iu- congeniality," a separation took place be- tween the royal parents. — A government loan of 18,000,0002. was subscribed in fif- teen hours, between the 1st and 6th instant. One million was subscribed by the bank of England in their corporate capacity, and 400,0002. by the directors individually. A. D. 1797. — The garrison of Mantua, which had hold out with astonishing bra- very, surrendered on the 3nd of February, but obtained very honourable terms. After this, Buonaparte received very considerable reinforcements, and having cut to pieces the army under Alvinzi, ne resolved on penetrating into the centie of the Austrian dominions. When the court of Vienna re- ceivedint'ormationofthis design, they raised a new army, the command of which was given to the archduke Charles. The French defeated the Austrians in almost every en- gagement; and Buonaparte, after making 30,000 prisoners, effected a passage across the Alps, and drove the emperor to the neces- sity of requesting an armistice. In April a preliminary treaty was entered into, by which it was stipulated that France should retain the Austrian Netherlauds, and tha^ a new republic should h. iormed fron^ the states of Milan, Mantua, ??'>''ena, Fer- rara, and Bologna, which should receive the name of the Cisalpine Republic. He then returned to Italy, leaving minor de- tails of the treaty to be adjusted afterwards, and which was accordingly done at Campo Formio, in the following October. England was now the only power at war with France; and great as had been the ex- ertions of the people, still greater were of course required of them. The large sums of money which had been sent abroad, as subsidies to foreign princes, had dimi- nished the quantity of gold and silver in Great Britain : this cause, added to the dread of an invasion, occasioned a run upon the country banks, and a demand for specie soon communicated itself to the metro- polis. An order was issued to prohibit the directors of the bank from payments in cash. On the meeting of parliament, a committee was appointed to enquire into the state of the currency; and though the affairs of the bank were deemed to be in a prosperous state, an act was passed for con- firming the restriction, and notes for one and two pounds were circulated. The con- sternation occasioned by these measures was at first very general, but the alarm gradually subsided, and public confidence returned. .One of the first nets of Spain after de- claring war against England, was the equip- ment of a large number of ships, to act iti concert with the French. The Spanish fleet, of twenty-seven sail of the line, was descried on the 14th of Januarjr by admiral sir John Jervis, who was cruising off Cape St. Vincent, with a fleet of fifteen sail. He immediately formed his line in order of battle, and having forced his way through the enemy's fleet, and separated one third of it from the main body, he attacked with vigour, and in a short time captured four A.n. 1797. — TniNIDAD SirnnBNDEHED TO SIR RALPH ABRKCROMBT. I NBLBON. n took place bc- — A (tovernnient ubscribed in iif- : and 5th instant, d by the bank of te capacity, and ndividually. [son of Mantua, astonishing bra- !nd of February, ble terms. After very considerable IK cut to pieces be resolved on e of the Austrian urt of Vienna re- .esign, they raised (id of which was rles. The French almost every en- ■te, after making a passage across aerortothenecos- stice. In April a entered into, by i(it France should erlauds, and thn^ b. iormed front^ ;ua, ??"''ena, Fer- h should receive le Republic. He eaving minor de- usted after^vards, y done at Campo Jctober. nly power at war had been the ex- 1 greater were of The large sums ten sent abroad, [rinces, had dimi- old and silver in le, added to the iioned a run upon emand for specie f to the metro - d to prohibit the om payments in }f parliament, a to enquire into and though the eemed to be in a u passed for con- nd notes for one dated. The con- these measures but the alarm lublic confidence f Spain after de- d, was the equip- f ships, to act in . The Spanish of the line, was nuary by admiral cruising off Cape fifteen sail. He line in order of his way through arated one third he attacked with ne captured four lOMBT. A.B. 1797.— BDMU.1D BUBKK, A DISTINOUISUKB STATESMAN, DIBB JULY 8. lEnglantJ l^ouse of ISruniStoitli.— C&eorse EI3E. 441 o IB I a : P first-rate Spanish men-of-war, and block- aded the remainder in Cadiz. The Spaniards had 600 killed and wounded; the British, 300, For this brilliant exploit sir John was raised to the peerage by the title of carl of St. Vincent ; and commodore Nelson, who was now commencing his brilliant career, was knighted. Iltjoicings for the late glorious victory were scarcely over, when a serious mutiny broke out in the channel fleet. The prin- cipal cause of this untoward event was the inadequacy of the sailors' pay, which, not- withstanding the advance that had taken place in the price of provisions, had re- c»!ivcd no augmentation for a very consi dcrable period. This discontent was first made known to lord Howe, who in Feb- ruary and March received anonymous let- ters, ill which were enclosed petitions from different ships' companies, requesting an increase of pay, a more equal distribution of prize money, &c. The novelty of this cir- cumstance induced his lordship to make some inquiries; but as there was no ap- pearance of disaffection in the fleet, he con- cluded that the letters must have been forgeries, and took no further notice of it. On the loth of April, when orders were given for preparing to sail, the crews of the ships lying at Spithead ran up the shrouds, gave three cheers, and refused to comply. They then chose two delegates from each ship, who drew up petitions to the admi- ralty and the house of commons, and each seaman was bound by an oath to be faithful to the cause. At length lord Bridport went on board, and to'd tlifin he was the bearer of redress for all their grievances, and the king's pardon ; and on the Stii of May an net was tiassed for augmenting; the pay of sailors and mariners. The facility with which these claims had been ((runted insti- gated the seamen at tl.'i Nore to rise in mutiny and make furtlier demands. A council of delegate'! was elected, at the head ot' whom was a bold and in^iolent man named Richard Parker, whn undertook to com- mand the fleet, and i.revailed oa bin com- panions to reject repeu'od offers of pardon. In this inE'nnce, however, {rovernvuent wns determined to employ force, if necessary, to reduce the mutineers to obedicnco, and to yield nothing more than had been gi'anted to the seamen at Portsiro"t... Prepara- tions for hostilities were commenced on both sides, when dissensions amo::g the disaffected themselves began to appear, and, alter some bloodshed, all the sliips submitted, giving up Parker and his fellovf- delegates ; some of whom, with their leader, expiated their offences by an ignominious death, but the great body of the revolters were conciliated by an act of amnesty. Notwitt"' Miding the late dangerous mu- tiny, the •> was very prevalent in the country, tlim if a hostile fleet were to make its appearance, the men would show them- selves as eager as ever to fight for the honour of Old England. In a few months afterwardi> an opportunity occurred of test- ing their ut'xoti'in to the service. The Ba- tavian republic having fitted out a fleet of fifteen ships, under the command of their admiral De Winter, with an intention of joining the French, admiral Duncan, who commanded the British fleet, watched them so narrowly, that they found it impractica- ble to venture out of the Texd without risking an engagement. The British ad- miral being obliged by tempestuous weather to leave his station, the Dutch availed them- selves of the opportunity, and put to sea; but were descried by the English fleet,whieh immediately set sail in pursuit of them. On the nth of October the English came up with, and attacked them off Camper- down ; and after a gallant fight of four hours, eight ships of the line, including those of the admiral and vice-admiral, be- sides four frigates, struck their colours. The loss of the English in this memorable action amounted to 700 men; the loss of the Dutch was estimated at twice that number. The gallant admiral Duncan was raised to the peerage, and received the title of viscount Camperdown, with an heredi- taiy pension. About three months previous to this action admiral Nelson, acting on fallacious intelli- gence,iiiadc an unsuccessful attack on Santa Cruz, in the island of Teneriffe; on which occasion the assailants sustained great loss, and Nelson himself had his arm shot off. A. B. 17i)8. — As the French republic had at this time subdued all its enemies except England, the conquest of this country was the principal object of their hopes and ex- pectations. The vast extent of territory which the French now possessed, together with the influence they had obtoined over the councils of Holland, rendered tliem much more formidable than they had been at any foimcr period. The circumstunocs of the British nation were, however, such as would discourage every idea of an inva- sion. Its navy was more powerful than it had ever been ; the victories which had lately been gained over the Dutch and Span- ish fleets, hrj confirmed the general opi- nion of the loyalty as well a-! bravery of its seamen ; and all parties burying, for a time, all past disputes in oblivion, unanimously resolved to support the government. On the meeting of parliament, in January, n message from the king intimated that an invasion of the kingdom wns in contem- plation by the French. This communica- tion gave rise to very active measures, which plainly manifested the spirit of una- nimity which reigned in Great Britain. Be- sides a large addition made to the militia, every county was directed to raise bodies of cavalry from the yeomanry; and almost every town and considerable village had its corps of volunteers, trained and armed. The island was never before in such a for. midable state of internal defence, and a warlike spirit was diffused throughout the entire population. A voluntary subscription for the support of the war also took place, by which a million and half ol money was raised towards defraying the extraordinary demands on the public purse. A. B. 171*7 -•BODERT BURNS, THE CELKBRATEH BCOTTnU POET, BIBB. ttl ^.*^' A.D. 1/93. — INNOCUOUS DUBL BETWBBN Mil. PITT AND MR. TIBBNUIT. 442 ^f)e ^reaaarp of llistorn, $cc. While this universal harmony seemed to direct the councils of Great Britain, the Irish were greatly divided in their senti- ments, and at length commenced an open rebellion. lu the year 1791 a society had been instituted by the catholics and pro- testant dissenters, for the purpose of ob- taining a reform in parliament, and an en- tire deliverance of the Roman catholics from all the restrictions under which they laboured on account of religion. This in- stitution was projected by a person named Wolfe Tone ; and the members, who were termed the United Iriihmen, were so nume- rous, that their divisions and subdivisions were, in a short time, extended over the whole kingdom. Though a reform of par- liament was the ostensible object of this society, yet it soon proved that their secret but zealous endeavours were directed to the bringing about a revolution, and by effect- ing a disjunction of Ireland from 'Jreat Britain, to establish a republinau form of government similar to that of France. So rapidly did the numbers of these republican enthusiasts increase, and so confident were they of the ultimate success of their under- takings, that in 1797 they nominated an executive directory, consisting of lord Ed- ward Fitzgerald, Arthur O'Connor, Oliver Bond, Dr. Mac Kiven, and counsellor Em- met. Their conspiracy was planned with such consumuiat"! art, and conducted with such profor.ud secresy, thnt it would, doubt- less, have been carried into effect, but for its timely discovery in March, by a person employedby the gcvernment.when the prin- cipal ringl-jaders were apprehended, and Fitzijerald was mortally wounded while re- s-sting the offlters of justice. A second co'ispiracy shortly afterwards whs in like manner detected, but not until a general in- surrection had been determined upon, in which the castle of Dublin, the camp near it, and the artillery barracks, were to be sur- prised in one night, and other places were to be seized at the sam*; moment. But the flame of rebellion was not easily extin- guished. In May, a body of rebels, armed with swords and pikes, made attempts on the towns of Naas and Wexford; but they experienced a signal dtfoat from lord Gos- ford, at the head of the Armagh militia, and four hundred of them were left dead on the field. They afterwards marched, IS.UUO strong, against Wexford, and upon defeat- ing tlic garrison, which sallied forth to meet t'lei.i, obtained possession of the town. I«ubseqiiently they became masters of En- nigcurlliy ; but beii. c driven hack, with great slauglitcV, from N>..> Tl(»-:s, they wreaked ti\eir venpeance upon llieir captives at Wex- Jord in the most barbarous manner. On the 12th of June, general Nugent attacked the rebels, 50U0 in number, commanded by Muiiro, near Ballynahinch, and routed them with jrreat slaughter. Hut their greatest discouititiirc was that which they sustain- ed in tlieir encampment on Vince;ar-hill, where general Lake attacked and complete- ly routed them. Various other minor en- gagements ensued about this time, in all which the rebels were defeated with con- siderable loss. In the present divided and dangerous state of Ireland, it was judged prudent by the legislature to appoint to the lieutenancy of that country, a military man of acknow- ledged prudence and bravery. The person chosen for the station was lord Cornwallis, who arrived at Dublin on the 20th of June. His first act was to publish a proclamation, offering his majesty's pardon to all such in- surgents as would desert their leaders, and surrender themselves and their arms. This proclamation, and the resolute conduct of government, had a great effect on the re- bels, and the i',isurreciion was in a short time suppressed. On the 23rd of August, about SOU Frenchmen, under the command of general Humbert, who had come to the assistance of the rebellious Irish, landed at Killala, and made themselves masters of thfit town, But instead of being joined by a considerable body of rebels, as they ex- pected, they were met by general Lake, to •.vhc'.Ti they surrendered as prisoners of war. An end was thus temporarily put to the Irish lebellion,— -a rebellion which, thougl' never completely organized, was fraught with excesses on each side at which hu- manity shudders. It was computed at the time that not less than 30,000 personu, in one way or other, were its victims. The preparations which had been making for the invasion of England were apparently continued, but at the same time an arma- ment was fitting out at Toulon, the desti- nation of which was kept a profound se- cret. It consisted of thirteen ships of the line, with other vessels, amounting in all to forty-five sail, besides 200 transports, on board of which were 20,000 choice troops, with horses, artillery, and an immense quantity of provisions and military stores. All Europe beheld with astonishment and apprehension these mighty preparations, and seemed to wait in awful expectation for the storm of war that was about to burst on some devoted land. This arma- ment, which was under the command of general Buonaparte, set sail May the 20th, and having taken possession of the island of Malta on the 1st of June, proceeded to- wards Egypt, where it arrived at the be- ginning of July; its ultimate destination being said to be the East Indies, via the Red Sea. Sir Horatio Nelson, who was sent in pursuit of the French fleet, being wholly ignorant of its destination, sailed for Naples, where he obtained information of the surrender of Malta, and accordingly directed his course towards that island. On his arrival he had the mortification to find that Buonaparte was gone, and con- jecturing that he had sailed to Alexandria, he immtdiately prepared to follow. He was, however, again disappointed, for on reaching Alexandria he learned that the enemy had not been there. After this, the British squadron proceeded to Rhodes, and thence to Sicily, where they had the eat is- faction of hearing tha'; the enemv had been seen off Candia aboi'.t a montli before, and a I K I a a I A.D. 1798.-- SIR SIDNEY SMITH KSCAFBD FROM A tRBl.Ctf PRISON. fisilfe" TIBBNKir. A.D. 1799. — MAnSa aOHBSNOBBKD TO TBI VBBNCH, JAN. 24. defeated with con- lEnglanU.— I^ouae of 13mnstoicl.— CUcorge EIE. 443 had gone to Alcxaudrin. Thitherward they pressed all sail, and on the 1st of August descried the French fleet lying in Aboukir bay. Buonaparte liad landed his army on the oth of July, and having made himself master of Alexandria, he drew up his trans- ports within the inner liarbourof that city, and proceeded with his army along the banks of the Nile. The French fleet, com- manded by admiral Urucys, was drawn up near the shore, in a compact line of battle, flanked by four frigates, and protected in the front by a battery planted on a small island. Nelson decided on an immediate attack that evening, and re^ardlesa of the position of the French, led his fleet be- tween them and the shore, so as to place his enemies between two fires. The victory was complete. Nine ships of the line were taken, one was burnt by her captain, and the admiral's ship, L'Orient, was blown up in the action, with her commander and the greater part of the crew. The loss of the English was 900 sailors killed; that ot the French fur greater. The glorious conduct of the brave men who achieved this signal triumph Vas the theme of every tongue, and the intrepid Nelson was rewarded with a peerage and a pension. The victory of the Nile producrd a power- ful effect throughout Europe. The foruii- dable preparations which had menaced Asia and Africa with immediate ruin were overthrown, and seemed to leave behind them an everlasting monument of the ex- treme foUyand uncertainty ot'human under- takings. The deep despondency which had darkened the horizon of Europe was sud- denly dispelled, the dread of Gallic venge- ance seemed to vauisli in a moment, and the minds of men were awakened into action by the ardent desire of restoring tranq* illity to Europe. A second coalition was immediately formed against France, under the auspices of Gr. at Britain, and was entered into by Austria, Russia, the Ottoman Porte, and Naples.— Towards the close of the year the island of Minorca sur- rendered, with scarcely a show of resist- ance, to general Stuart and commodore Duckworth. We must now take a glance of the state of British affairs in India. Tippoo Saib having entered into a secret correspond- ence with the French republi?, the gover- nor^eneral demanded an explanation of his intentions; and as this demand was not complied with, general Harris invaded his territories. After some slight engage- ments, the British army advanced to Se- ringapataiii, the capital of Tippoo, and on the 4tli of May, after a gallant and despe- rate resistfciice, they succeeded in taking it, the sultan being killed while defending the fortress. A.n. 17n!).--In consequence of the new cnnfi'dtracy which had been formed against the French republic, the cauiijaign of this year became particularly interesting. A French army which had advanced into Suabia, under general Jourdan, was op- posed by the Austrians under the archduke Charles, and being disc itited, was com- pelled to retreat into iiwitzerland. The Austrians pursued them as far as Zurich, where they were Cijabled to make a stand until they received reinforcements. In the mean time, an army of Austrians and Rus- sians, under general Suwarrow, having ob- liged the French to relinquish their con- quests in Italy, they determined to hasten to the assistance of the archduke ; but being anticipated by the French general Massena, the Austrians were obliged to retreat in great haste, and the Russians were surrounded so completely, that only 60UU, with their general, escaped. In fact, so severe were the several contests, that in the space of fifteen days 30,000 men on both sides fell victims to the unsparing sword. While these events were transacting in Italy and Switzerland, an attempt was made by Great Britain to drive the French from Holland, and to reinstate the prince of Urange in his authority as stadtholder. A landing was accordingly effected at the mouth of the Texel, under sir Ralph Aber- cromby ; and immediately afterwards the British fleet, commanded by admiral Mit- chell, entered the Zuider Zee, and captured eight ships of the line, besides some smaller vessels of war and four Indiamen. On the 1.1th of September the duke of York as- sumed the chief command of the army, which amounted to 3.5,000 men, including 17,010 Russians. This army was at first successful, and drove the French from their positions ; but their reinforcements arriv- ing, and the British commanders finding no support from the Dutch, a suspension of arms was agreed upon, and the duke resolved to relinquish the enterprise. Hol- land was consequently evacuated ; and, as the price of being allowed to re-embark without molestation, 8000 seamen, Dutch or French, prisoners in England, were to be liberated. After the battle of the Nile, Buonaparte led his army into Palestine, with the avowed intention of taking possession of Jerusa- lem, rebuilding the temple, and restoring the Jews. El-Arisch and Gaza surrendered to him, Jaffa was carried by storin, and he rapidly advanced as far as the city of Acre, which he invested with an army of 10,000 select troops; but here he met with an op- Eouent who not only arrested his progress, ut who ultimately put his veteran legions to shame. The pacha had the assistance of that gallant Englishman, sir Sidui.'y Smith, whose former dashing exploits on the coasts of France had rendered his name far more familiar than agreeable to Gallic ears. On the 20th of March Buonaparte opened his trenches ; but a flotilla convey- ing part of his besieging train had been captured by sir Sidney Smith, who was on board the Tigre of 84 guns, then lying off Acre, and the enemy's guns were eniplovcil ill us defence. However, the French mt.de a breach, and attempted to carrv the place by assault, but were again and again re- pulsed, with great loss. An alternation of A.l). 1799— A LEGISLATIVK IJNION WITU IBKI.ANO HKCOMMHNnliD. i ! i t 1 ? ^ . 1 : |: 1 ( t I i* Jl- •, ■ f Ik A.D. 1799.— DIKD, AOKD 67> TUK CKLEBBATBO OBNKRAL WASBINOTON. 444 m^t ©veasuri) of 'lllatoip, $cc. attacks and sorties followed for the space of sixty days, durinff which Buonaparte u$elesslf sacrlticcd an immense number of his bravest soldiers, and at last was com- pelled to raise the siege. Having received intelligence of the arrival of a Turkish army m Egypt, Napoleoa returned from Palestine across the deserts of Arabia, and on ihe 2Sth of July obtained a great vic- tory over the Turks nc.-vr the Pyramids. But he was now about to enter on a new theatre of action. Party dissensions in France, her danger of external foes, and the opportunity which was thereby afforded to the ambition of this extraordinary leader, seems to have suddenly determined him to quit Egypt. He accordingly left the army to general Richer, and sailed with all imaginable secrecy fromAboukir: his good fortune enabling him, and the few Iriends he took with him, to reach Frejus on the 7th of October, unobserved and un- molested. Finding that the people gene- rally approved of the step he had taken, and that while the corruption and mis- management of the directory had rendered them very unpopular, he was regarded as the good genius of France, he, in the true Cromwellian fashion, with the assistance of a strong party, dissolved the assembly of representatives, and usurped the govern- ment with tlie title of chief consul, whicii was at tirst conferred on him for ten years, but was afterwards contirmcd for life. In order to render his usurpation popu- lar, Buonaparte began to make professions of a pacitic character, and entered into a correspondence for a negotiation with the principal powers at war with the republic. In his communications with the allied sovereigns he deported from the forms sanctioned by the custom of nations, and personally addressed his letters to the monarrhs. The substance of the note ad- dressed to his Britannic nrnjesty was con- veyed in two questions, "Whether the war which had for eight years ravaged the four quarters of the globe, was to be eternal ;" and " Whether there were no means by which France and England might come to a good understanding ? " In answer to this letter, an official note was returned by Mr. Grenville, who dwelt much on the bad faitli of revolutionary rulers, and the insta- bility of France since the subversion of tlie ancient monarchy. The overture which was transmitted to the court of Vienna was of a similar nature, and experienced similar treatment; but the empcrorof Bus- sin, being disgusted with the conduct of Austria iu the late campaign, withdrew from the confederacy. A. D. 18U0. — The often discussed question of a legislative union between Great Bri- tain and Ireland engaged the attention of politicians at this time, and gave rise to much angry feeling. Some serious diffi- culties had arison from the existence of independent legislatures in England and Ireland, nnd there was reason to fear that while separate interests were made para- mount to the general good, old grievances might again lead to disaffection, and the result be a dismemberment of the empire. To prevent such an evil the ministers of the day considered it their boundun duty; ; aud though the measure at tirst met with great opposition, it was eventually carried by considerable majorities, and took place on the 1st of January, 1801. By this or- j rangement the Irish were to have a simre of all the commerce of Great Britain, ex- I cept such parts of it as belong to char- ' tered companies. The commons of Ire- ' land to be represented in the imperial par- liament by a liuudred members; the spiri- : tual and temporal peerage of that country, . by four bishops and twenty-eight lay-lords, holding their seats for life. Such peers of Ireland as are not elected into the house of lords, to be competent to sit in the house of commons as representatives of British towns and counties, on condition of their giving up all the privileges of tlic peerage during their continuance in the lower house. The former laws and courts of justice iu Ireland to be retained, with its court of chancery, and the sovereign to be still represented by a lord-lieutenai|t. During the past winter and the ti.rly part of spring the greatest distress was felt by the poorer classes on account of the scarcity and extraordinary high price of bread ; in order to mitigate which, an act was passed prohibiting the sale of that great necessary of life until it had been baked twenty-four hours, from a well- founded notion that the consumption of stale bread would be much less than new. On the 15th of May, as the king was ic- viewing a battalion of the guards in Hyde Park, a ball was fired in one of the vollies by a soldier, which wounded a gentleman who was standing not many yards from his majesty ; but whether it was from accident or design could not be discovered. And uii the evening of the same day a much more alarming circumstance occurred at Drury- lane theatre. At the moment his majesty entered the royal box, a man stood up iu the pit and discharged a pistol at the king;; the ball providentially missed him, and the offender was immediately seized ; when it appeared that his name was James Hat- field, formerly a private soldier, and tliat he was occasionally afflicted with mentil derangement, from a wound he had re- ceivid in the head. He was accordingly " provided for " as a lunatic. The conster- nation occasioned by these occufrcuce!; was succeeded by many signal prool's of affectionate loyalty, especially on the -lih of June, his majebty's birth-day. The campaign of 1800 was opened with great resolution on both sides. Independ- ently of the other troops of France, nu ad- ditional army of 60,000 men was asscmhluil at Dijon, and it was publicly annoiuiced in the French papers, that it was intended us a reinforcement to the armies on the Rhine and iu Italy, as circumstances mi[;ht re- quire. No one suspected that any import- ant plan of military operations was e.in- cealed by the affected pubhcity of this ar- A.D. 1799.— DIKl), AGBD 80, KIKN-LONO, KMFBllOR OF CUINA. iSHINOTON. isaffection, and ttie iient of the empire, i vil the minigters of ; their boundun duty; i re at tirst met with i is eventuRlly cnrricd i ties, and took place | r, ISOl. By this ar- i , rere to have a share | of Great Dritaiii, ex- ' i as belong to char- | ' ie conimuns of Ire- . | I in the imperial pur- ! members; the spiri- ; rage of that country, I leiity-eisht lay-lords, ' r life. Such peers of cctcd into the house ictent to sit in the ts representatives of unties, on condition the privileges of tlie ' continuance in the rmer laws and courts to he retained, with , and the sovereign to y a lord-lieutenaqi. vinter and the «i.rly jreatest distress was ises on account of the •dinary high price of litigate which, an act ing the sale of that ife until it had been hours, from a wcU- c the consumption of much less than new. ,y, as the king was le- >f the guards in Hyde ; d in one of the voliies wounded a gentleman 3t many yards from his er it was from accident be discovered. And un same day a much more ; ice occurred at Drury- i le moment his majesty ! )x, a man stood up iii | ed a pistol at the king: ^ lly missed him, and tin: [lately seized ; when it | [laine was James Hat- | ivate soldier, and that i f afflicted with mentil | a wound he had re- > lie was accordingly [ , lunatic. The conster- : by these occurrences | many signal proofs of , especially on the 4th I'a birth-day. ' 1800 was opened with both sides. Indcpcnd- roops of France, an ad- 000 men was assembled i publicly announced in that it was intended as the armies on the llhine rcumstanees mi};ht re- pected that any iniport- ry operations was din- ted publicity of tliis ar- OF CUIMA. A. D. 1801.— FIRST UBETINA OF TUB IMFKniAL PAnLIAMKNT, JUNK 22. ISnglantJ.— "l^ousc of IStunatnicli.— ©corge 3E1HE. 445 rangement, go no precaution was taken to obviate the consequences which might arise from its movements. The Austrians in Italy, under general Melas, attacked Maa- scna in the territory of the Genoese; and being successful in several obstinate con- flicts, the surrender of Genoa with its gar- rison followed. Just at this time Buona- parte suddenly joined the army of reserve at Dijon, crossed the Alps over Mount St. Bernard, which before had been deemed impracticable, and descended into the Mi- lanese without opposition. Having received gome powerful reinforcements from the army in Switzerland, he placed himself in the rear of the Austrian army, and resolved on hazarding a battle. Their tirst encounter was the battle of Montobello, in which the French had the advantage; and it served as a prelude to the decisive battle of Ma- rengo. The Austrians numbered 60,000 ; the French, 50,000 ; the former commenc- ing the tight with unusual spirit and suc- cess. For a long time the defeat of the French seemed inevitable. But general Dcsaix having arrived with a reinforcement towards evening, a terrible carnage ensued, and the Austrians were totally routed. The loss on each side was terrific; the French stating theirs at 12,000, and (he Austrians at l.i,(l00. On the following day a cessation of hostilities was proposed by the allies, which was granted on condition of their abandoning ricdiucnt. Immediately after, Buonaparte re-established the Cisalpine re- pulilic. On the 3rd of December the Austrian army, under the archduke John, was si«r nnlly defeated at Ilohenlinden, by general IMoreau; their loss being 10,000 men and eighty pieces of cannon ; the elfectof which was, that the emperor was driven to the necessity of soliciting an armistice. This was followed by a treaty of peace, which was signed at Luneville on the Otli of Fe- bruary, 1801. A.». 1801.— On the 1st of January a royal proclamotion announced the royal style and title as " George the Third, by the grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Bri- toin and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith ;" the absurd titular assumption of king of France being now laid aside. On the 3rd his Majesty's council took the oaths as privy councillors for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland : and the king presented the lord chancellor with a new gre.it seal made for the union, lly the treaty of Luneville, Great Britain again became the only opponent of the French republic, and was placed in a situa- tion that required more than common en- ergy and prudence. Influenced by the ca- pricious emperor Paul of Russia, the prin- cipal northern powers resolved on reviving the armed neutrality, and claimed a right of trading to the ports of France, without submitting to their vessels being searched. At this critical juncture the British minis- try, on the mil of February, resigned their oftices. Various conjectures as to their motives for this sudden act were afloat, laut the ostensible cause was a misunderstand- ing that had taken place relative to catho- lic emancipation. It was, in fact, under- stood, that Mr. Pitt had pledged himself, in case the union was not frustrated by the Irish legislature, to obtain emancipation to the catholics, by a repeal of the disabilities legally pending over that body ; but the king's objections to the measure were too deeply rooted, and too conscientiously formed, (it being, as he believed, contrary to the obligation of his coronation oath,) for the minister to remove them ; added to which, there was the well-known dislike entertained by the protestantsof Ireland to encounter n catholic magistracy, and the fears of the clergy of the established church. Owing to the indisposition of his majesty, a ne-v ministry was not formed till the mid- dle of March, when Mr. Addington was chosen tirst lord of the treasury and chan- cellor of the exchequer ; lord Eldon, lord high chancellor ; the earl of St. Vincent, first lord of the admiralty; the lords Hawkesbury and Pclhnm, secretaries of state; and the hon. col. Yorke, secretary at war. There is little doubt that the new ministers were brought forward to do what their predecessors were unable or unwilling to accomplish, namely, the putting an end to the war, and evading the agitation of the catholic question. Mr. Addington, it is true, had given general satislaetion as speaker of the house of commons, and he had acquired the king's personal favours by his decorous manner and respectable cha- racter; but neither he nor his colleagues had any political reputation to entitle them to be trusted with the pilotage of the vessel of the state, especially when it was neces- sary to steer her amid the rocks and break- ers of a tempestuous &ea. In order to counteract the designs of the northern con- federates, an armament was fltted out in the British ports, consisting of 17 sail of the line, with fri^Htes, bomb-vessels, &c. and entrusted to the command of admiral sir Hyde Parker and vice admiral lord Nel- son. The fleet embarked at Yarmouth on the 12th of March, and, having passed the Sound with very trifling opposition, ap- peared before Copenhagen on the 30th. Batteries of cannon and mortars were placed on every part of the shore where they might be used in annoying the English fleet; the mouth of the harbour being pro- tected by a chain, and by a fort constructed on piles. Au attock on this formidable crescent wos entrusted, at his own request, to Nelson, with twelve ships of the line and all the smaller craft. It began nt ten o'clock in the morning, and was kept up on both sides with p;reat courage und prodi- gious slaughter for four hourr ; by which time 1/ sail of the enemy had been burnt, sunk, or taken ; while three of the largest of the English ships, owing to the intricacies of the navigation, had grounded within reach of the enemy's land batteries. At this juncture Nelson proposed a trnre, to which the prince of Denmark promptly ac- ceded. The loss of the English in killed Si •^ I < i ,i A.P. 1801.— FIB8T 8T0JIB OF THE KRW SIOCK-KXCHANGR lAID, MAY 18. [2 A. D. 1803.— THB SUKX OF XBNT APrOIMTSD OOVBRKOR OV GIBRALTAR. 446 %lft ^reasurD of 1|tstotp, $cc. and wounded was 942 ; that of the Danei 1800. The Buddf n death of Paul, emperor of Russia, who, it has been authentically aaid, was strangled in his palace, caused a change in foreign affairs. His eldest son, Alexander, ascended the throne, and, re- nouncing the politics of his father, entered into a treaty of amity with England : the northern confederacy was consequently dis- solved. At the time the expedition to Copenha- Sen was on the eve of departure, a consi- erable British force had been sent to Egypt, in order to effect the expulsion of the French from that country. This was under the command of sir Ralph Aber- cromby, who on the 8th of March effected a disembarkation, with great spirit, in the face of the enemy, at Aboukir, the * >rt of which surrendered on the 19th. G^iieral Kleber, who commanded the French troops in Egypt after the departure of Buonaparte, had been assassinated, and Meiiou was now the general-in-chief. On the 13th a severe action took place, in which the Englisli had the advantage; but it was on the 21st that the celebrated battle of Alexandria was fought. The force on each side was about 12,000; and before daylight the French commenced the attack. A long, desperate, and often dubious engai^emcnt succeeded ; but at length the assailants were completely defeated, and the famous corps of " luvin- cibles" almost annihi'ated. The loss of the French in killed, wounded, and prison- ers, was upwards of 3500 ; that of the British 1400 ; among whom was the gallant sir Ralph Abercromby, who nobly terminated a long career of military glory. He was wounded in the thigh, about the middle of the day ; but that he might not damp the ardour of his troops, -le concealed his anguish un- til the battle was won. The command of the British troops de- volved on general Hutchinson, an able offi- cer, and the intimate friend of sir Ralph, who having made himself master of the ports of I]U>setta, Cairo, and Alexandria, completed the conquest of Egypt about the middle of September; when the French capitulated, upon condition of being con- veyed, with their arms, artillery, &c. to their own country. A large detachment of troops from the Indian army arrived, by the way of the Red Sea, under sir David Baird, just cfter the conclusion of the treaty. The news of this important event reached England oa the same day as the prelimina- ries of a peace with France were signed by M. Otto, on the part of the French repub- lic, and lord Hawkesbury, on the part of his Britannic majesty. This negotiation had been carried on for some months with so much secvesy, that those persons alone who were engag:ed in it were acquainted with its progress. The definitive treaty was concluded at Amiens on the 37th of March, 18U^^ ; by which Great Britain consented to restore all her conquests, except the island of Trinidad, and the Dutch possessions in Ceylon. The Cape of Good Hope was to remain a free port to all the contracting powers. Malta, with its dependencies, was to be evacuated by the British, and restored to the order of St. John of Jerusalem ; while the island was to be placed under the i>rof .'Ction and 'sovereignty of the king of Naples. Egypt was to be restored to the Suliime Forte, whose territories and pos- sessions were to be preserved entire, as they existed previously to the war. The territories of the queen of Portugal were to remain entire; and the French agreed to evacuate Rome and Naples. The republic of the Seven Islands was recd^^iiized by France ; and the fishery of Newfoundland was established on its former footing. The restoration of peace was universally received with transports of joy, and m as in itself a measure so necessary and desir- able, that the terms on which it had been concluded were passed o/er in silence by the inhabitants of both countries. When the subject was alluded to in the house of commons, Mr. Sheridan observed, " It is a peace uf which every man is glad, but of which no man is proud." Notwithstanding the brilliant exploits of their armies, and the superiority which they maintained ovflr their enemies, the French nation felt ih their victories all (he distresses attending defeat, and sighed for the conclusion of hostilities. In Great Britain, too, the enor- mous weight of taxes, and high price of provisions, the total defeat of our conti- nental allies, bnd the improbability of weakening the power of France, equally disposed the minds of the people to peace. Both nations seemed eager to unite in re- ciprocal habits of intimacy and friendship, and the interchange of visitors from the opposite sides of the Channel was a novel and cheering sight. But though this ap- parent tendency of the two nations to for- get their mutual animosities seemed to prognosticate a long continuance of the blessings of peace, the happy prospect was soon interrupted by symptoms of jealousy which appeared between the respective go- vernments. Having in various ways gained the popu- lar voice in his favour, Buonaparte was ap- pointed consul for life, with the power of naming a successor. On this occasion, he instituted a republican order of nobility, — the legion of honour, — to be conferred on military men as a rewai'd for skill and bra- very, and on citizens who distinguished themselves by their talents or their strict administration of justice. Before we enter upon a new chapter, we are bound to notice a treasonable conspi- > racy by certain obscure individuals, which, ; at the time, caused considerable alarm, i Colonel Despard, an Irish gentleman of ' respectable family and connections, who j had formerly given distinguished proofs of , valour and good conduct, but had suhse- { qucntly been conlincd in Cold-bath-tields \ prison for seditious practices, was appro- ] hended at the Oakley Arms, Oakley-street, ' Lambeth, with thirty-six of his cuntcdc- { rates, principally consisting of the labour- ing classes, and among them three soldiers o K f < a h A K a ! B a s o a o a) r. s .1 M a a s A.D. 1803. — IIB8T BTONK OF TUB LOHUOH UOCKS IiAID, JVNS 26. BBALTAB. lependencicRiWas tiih, and restored a of Jerusalem ; placed under the :y of the kin^ of i restored to the Titories and pos- scrved entire, as o the war. The Portugal were to French agreed to ;s. The republic IB recognized by of Newfoundland mer footing. ;e was universally of joy, and « as cessary and deeir- ivhich it had been let in silence by countries. When to in the house of jbscrved, " It is a in is glad, but of Notwithstanding their armies, and 7 maintained over eh nation felt ih stresses attending the conclusion of tain, too, the enor- and high price of feat of our conti- improbability of f France, equally le people to peace, ger to unite in re- icy and frteudship, visitors from the lanncl was a novel It though thi« ap. two nations to for- isities seemed to ontinuance of the appy prospect was iptoms of jealousy the respective go- s gained the popu- tuonaparte was np- with the power of n this occasion, he »rder of nobility,— to be conferred on i for skill and bra- A'ho distinguished | a ;nt8 or their stiict § a new chapter, we treasonable eonspi- individuals, which, )nsiderable alarm, rish gentleman of connections, who_ nguishcd proofs of ct, but had subse- in Cold-bath-ticlds ictices, was appre- rms, Oakley-street, lix of his conlc'de- ting of the labouv- them three soldiers lUNB 26. A.D. 1808.— TU« «L1C»0»AT« 0» HAKOTBB BDnHKNDIRID TO THIS »n«?ICn. ISnglantJ.— T)ouse of 13run»tDicli.— CUcorgt JH':!!. 447 a a u of the guards. It appeared that on his liberation from prison, Despard induced a number of fellows, as mean and ignorant as thev weie violent, to believe that they were capable of subverting the present go- vernment, and establishing a democracy. In order to effect this measure, it was pro- posed to assnBsinate the king and royal laniilv, to aeae the Bank and Tower, and to iiiiprison the'inpmbers of parliament. Vast as these plans were, yet it appeared that the time, mode, and place for their execution, were arranged j though only fifty or sixty persons were concerned in it. In- formation having been conveyed to minis- ters of this bold conspiracy, its progress was narrowly watclied, and at the moment when the desit^ns of the traitors were ripe fm execution, they were suddenly dragged from their rendezvous, and fully 'iiitted on a charge of treaaon. After vhich Listed eighteen hours the cold ^ found giviltv; and on the 21st of Feb, >ry, 1803, this misguided man, with six, fellow-con- spirators, was executed on the top of the new gaol in Southwark. Despard declined spiritual assistance, and met his fate with- out contrition, sorrow, or concern • ♦•"» others suffered death with decency. the CHAPTER LXII. T/ie Reign o/Geouge III. (continued.) A. n. ISil."!.— Tub treaty of Amiens proved delusive, and both combatants, jealous and watchful, stood ready to renew the conflict. The unbounded ambition of the French consul, and his implacable hatred to Great Britain, induced him to take every opportu- nity of insulting our ambassadors, in order to occasion a renewal of hostilities. Peace had iiBidly been concluded, when the whole fortresses of Piedmons were dismantled, and that country was annexed to France. The same measures were pursued with re- gard to Parma and Placentia; and a nu- merous army was sent against Switzerland, and that government was placed in the hands of the dependents of Buonaparte. Notwithstanding these and several other acts of tyranny, which were highly injuri- ous to Great Britain, and shameful viola- tions of the treaty of peace, his Britannic majesty earnestly endeavoured to avoid a recurrence to arms, and seemed willing to suffer the most unwarrantable aggressions, rather than again involve Europe in the horrors of war. This was construed by the Corsican usurper into a dread of his ill-got- ten power. Some official papers were after- wards presented to the British ministry, in which be required that the French emi- grants who had found shelter in England should be banished ; that the liberty of the press in Britain should be abridged, be- cause some of the newspapers had drawn his character with a truthful pen ; and it appeared, indeed, that nothing short of a species of dictation in the domestic affaira of Great Britain was likely to satisfy him. Such insolent pretensions could not be brooked ; all ranks of men seemed to rouse from their lethargy, and the general wish was to uphold the country's honour by a renewed appeal to arms. The extensive warlike preparations going forward about this time in the ports of France and Holland, excited the jealousy of the British ministry ; though it was pre- tended that they were designed to reduce their revolted colonies to obedience. An explanation of the views of the French go- vernment was requested by lord Whitwortli, the English ambassador ; but he was openly insulted by the lirst consul, who had the indecency to intimate, in a tone of gasco- nade, that Great Britain was unable to con- tend single-handed with France. On the 12th of May lord Whitworth presented the ultimatum of the British government, which being rejected, war was announced on the 16th, by a message from his majesty to par- liament. Almost immediately upon this, Buonaparte issued a decree for the deten- tion of all the English in France ; in con- sequence of which infringement of inter- national law, about 12,U00 English subjects, of all ages, were committed to custody as prisoners of war. This event was followed by the invasion of Hanover, by a republican army under general Mortier, thus openly violating the neutrality of the German empire, and break- ing the peace which had been separately concluded with his majesty, as elector of Hanover. His royal highness the duke of Cambridge, who was at that lime in Hano- ver, and had the command of a small body of troops, was resolved to oppose the pro- gress of the invaders; but being urged by the regency to retire from the command, he returned to England. In a short time the French made themselves masters of the electorate, and committed the most flagrant acts of cruelty on the unfortunate inhabi- tants. The Elbe and the Weser being now under the control of the French, these rivers were closed against English com- merce, and Buonaparte also insisted that the portsof Denmark should be shut against the vessels of Great Britain. In retaliation the British government gave orders for blockading the French ports. And now it appeared that nil minor schemes of aggrandizement were to give place to the invasion and subjugation of Great Britain ; for which purpose an im- mense number of transports were ordered to be built with the greatest expedition ; and a flotilla was assembled at Boulogne, sufficient to carry any army which France might wish to employ. This flotilla was fre- quently attacked by the English, and when- ever any of their number ventured beyond the range of the batteries erected for their protection, they were generally captured by cruisers stationed off the coast to watch their motions. These mighty preparations, and the menacing attitude "which was not allowed to relax on the opposite side of the channel, gave a new and vigorous impetus to British patriotism, and proportionalily strengthened the hands of the government. Exclusive of the regular and supplementary S A. 1). 1803.— ENGLISH raODVCB AND HERCHANUIZK PROUIOITBD IN FBANCB. ? IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // A 4is -«> i2 I/. 1.0 I.I 1.25 [f iii IIIIIM ■^ 1^ mil 2.2 1.4 2.0 1.6 '^ <^ om. W v: WJ'f y /s^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WCST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-<'?03 4. \° MP.. fending the country against invasion, a new insurrection broke out in Ireland, which had for its object to form an independent Irish republic. It originated with Mr. Robert Emmet, brother to him who had been so deeply implicated in the rebellious transactions of 1798, and who had been ex- patriated. This rash attempt to disturb the public tranquillity was made un the 2.3rd of July, when Emmet, with a crowd of desperadoes armed with pikes and tire- arms, marched through the principal streets of Dublin, and meeting the carriage of lord Kilwarden, chief-justice of Ireland, who was accompanied by his nephew and daughter, the runians dragged them from tlie carriajco, and butchered the venerable judge and Mr. Wolfe on the spot, but the young lady was allowed to escape. Being attacked in their turn by a small party of soldiers, some of the rioters were Killed, and others seised. Emmet and several of the most active ring- leaders, afterwards suffered the extreme penalty of the law for their diabolical of- fence. — In the session of November, acts were passed to continue the suspension of the habeas corpus, and enforce martial law in Ireland. In the West Indies the English captured St. Lucie, Demerara, and other islands. A British fleet also assisted the insurgent blacks of St. Domingo to wrest that island from the French ; but it was not effected without a mo8t sanguinary contest. It was then erected into an independent state, under its ancient Indian name of Hayti. In the East Indies much greater triumphs were achieved; among these was the famous battle of Assaye, (Sept. 23), where major- general Arthur Wellesley, with a compara- tively few troops, completely defeated the combined Mahratta forces commanded by Scindiah Holkar and the rajah of Berar. A. D. 1804. — It was the opinion of men of all parties, that in the present crisis a stronger ministry than that which hnd been formed under the leadership of Mr. Ad- dingtou, was absolutely necessary to direct the councils of Great Britain ; and the friends of Mr. Pitt became most anxious that he should return to the administra- tion on the renewal of war. The minister accordingly sought (he aid of that great statesman as an auxiliary; but, adhering to his well-known mnxim "to accept of no subaltern situation," Mr. Pitt plainly aig- nified that the premiership must be his. " Aut Ccesar, aut nullus." Though many were disappointed to find that a powerful coalition, in which Mr. Fox and his most eminent colleagues were expected to be in- cluded, was not formed, yet the manifest necessity of a vigorous prosecution of the war excited a spirit of unanimity in the nation, and induced the parliament to se- cond every motion of the ministry. Great as was the power to which Buona- parte had by artful gralations advanced himself, it was not sufficient to satiate his ambition , and he resolved to secure to himself the title of emperor. In order to sound the inclinations of the people, a book had been published some time before, point- ing out the propriety and expediency of creating him emperor of the Gauls; after which, an overture, equally insolent and absurd, was made to Louis XVIII. offering him indemnities and a splendid establish- ment, if he would renounce his pretensions to the crown of France. This proposal being treated with the contempt it merited, Buonaparte resolved on taking away the life of the duke D'Enghein, eldest son of the duke of Bourbon, on a surreptitious charge of having engaged in a conspiracy against the first consul, and of serving in the armies of the emigrants against France. But the fact was, that this young prince, whose courage and talents were equalled only by his generosity afid huma- nity, had excited the enmity and apprehen- sions of the Corsican. He had fixed his residence at Ettenheim, in the neutral ter- ritory of the elector of Baden, where his chief occupation was study, and his princi- pal recreation the culture of a small gar- den. From this rural retreat he was drag- ged on the 16th of March, by a body of French cavalry, under the command of ge- neral Canlincourt, and carried the same day to the citadel of Strasburgh, where he remained tin the 18th. On the 20th the duke arrived at Paris under a guard of gen- darmerie, and, after waiting some hours at the barrier, was driven to Vincennes. A military commission appointed to try him met the same evening in the castle, and the foul atrocity was completed by his being sentenced to immediate execution ; which having taken place, his body was placed in a coffin partly filled with lime, and buried in the castle garden. Buonaparte having now nothing to ap- prehend either from his declared or con- cealed enemies, prevailed on the people to confer on himself and his heirs the impe- rial dignity. The ceremony of his corona- tion accordingly took place, with remark- able solemnity, on the lUth of November; and in the following February he addressed the king of Great Britain a letter, soliciting the establishment of peace. Th(!&torg( 3ESS. 449 he made an esraninn to Italy, conTerted the Cisalpine republic into a kingdom, and assumed the title of king of Italy. He then united the Lignrian republic to France, and erected the republic of Lucca into a princi- pality, in favour of his tiiter Eliia, who had bad married the sfvnator Bacchiachi. After thrse unprecedented acta of afrgrcMion, he returned to France, and being once more resolved to eifect the subjugation of the. British isles, he repaired to Boulogne and reviewed hia troops there, which were osten- tatiously named "the army of England," and amounted to considerably more than a hundred thousand men. Spain having been eoTdpelled, in conse- quence of its dependence on France, to become a party in the war with Great Britain, Buonaparte determined, by anitinx the naval stren|(th of both nations, to strike a biow in several parts of the world at the same time. The greatest activity accord- ingly prevailed in the French ports, where the fleets had hitherto remained inactive ; and several squadrons having eluded the vigilance of the British cruisers, put to sea. A squadron of five ships arrived in the 'West Indies, nnd surprised the town of Rousesu in Dominica; but being gallantly opponed by general Provost, tlie goveriior of the island, (hey levied a contribution of five thousand pounds, and precipitately re- embarked thcNr troops. Tliey next proceed- ed to 8t. Christopher's, where, having made great pecuniary exactions, they seized all the ships in the Basseterre road. These prizes were sent to Ouadaloupe ; and the French squadron, fearful of encountering the British deet, returned to Europe. In the mean time a formidable fleet of ten sail of the line, with 10,000 men on board, set sail from Toulon, under the com- mand of admiral Vilieneuve ; who, having proceeded to Cadiz, was there reinforced by the Spanish admiral, Grr.vina, and six large ships, and immediately embarked for !.e West Indies, When lord Nelson re- ceived information that the French and Spaniards had put to sea, he supposed that they were destined for an attempt on Alex- andria, and accordingly sat sail in that direction. He traversed the Mediterranean with the utmost celerity, having a squadron of teu ships with him ; but finding that he was mistaken in his conjectures, he con- cluded that the enemy had sailed for the West Indies. He immediately directed hia course towards that quarter, and by driving the combined squadrona from island to island, he prevented them from making an attack on any of the British possessions ; nay, so universal was the dread of Nelson's name, that they had no sooner arrived, than they consulted their safety in a precipitate and disgraceful flight, and hastily returned to Europe. When the brave Nelson was as- sured of the course of his adversaries, he dispatched a messenger to England, and immediately set sail in hopes of overtaking the fugitives. He arrived at Gibraltar on the 30th of July, and having refitted his ships, he resumed his position off Cape Si. Vincent, sixty-three daya after hia depattnra from it for the WeU Indies. On the arrival in l,ondon of the informa- tion of the enemy'a retreat, a sqnadron, consisting of fifteen sail of the Ime, waa dispatched under air Robert Calder, in the hope of intercepting them. On the 33nd of July sir Robert deseried the object of hia mission, off Ferrol ; and, notwithstand- ing their great superiority, he did not hesi- tate a moment in bringing them to action. After an obstinate enfjagement, the unequal conflict terminated in the defeat of the enemy, who, having lost two large abipa, proceeded in haste to Ferrol. Being rein- forced by the admirals Grandallana and Gourdon, they weighed anchor, and retired to the harbour of Cadis ; where they were blockaded by sir Robert Calder. Some dissatisfaction having been expressed in the public papers, relative to the conduct of the British admiral in the engagement off Ferrol, he, in order to meet the charges with manly boldness, and to obviate the effects of malicious reports, applied for a court-martial to enquire into the subject ; when, to his great astonishment, and to the regret of the whole navy, he waa found guilty of an error of judgment, and. sen- tenced to be reprimanded— a reproach which he, who had passed fortv-six years with honour in the service, felt deeply. Subsequently to his arrival at Cape St. Vincent, admiral Nelson traversed the bay of Biscay in search of the enemy ; but being oppressed with fatigues and disappoint- ment, lie resolved on returning to England. He arrived at Portsmouth on the 18th of August, and having reached London on the 20th, experienced a most cordial and affectionate reception from his grate- ful countrymen. He would not, however, allow himself to remain in inactivity, and being offered the command of an arma- ment that was then preparing, he without hesitation embraced the opportunity of serving his country. Having hoisted his flag on board the Victory, on tn following day he put to sea, and on his arrival at Cadiz he received from admiral Colling- wood the command of the British fleet, which now consisted of twenty-seven sail of the line. On the 19th of October Nel- son learned that the combined French and Spanish fleets, consisting of thirty-three sail of the line, had put to sea from Cadiz, under admirals Vilieneuve and Graviua; and on the 21st he discovered them off Cape Trafalgar. He immediately ordered the fleet to bear up, in two columns, as directed by his previous plan of attack; and issued this admonitory signal — which has since become a national proverb — " England expects every man to do his duty." The windward column of the Eng- lish ships was led by lord Nelson, in the Victory ; the leeward by rear-admiral Col- lingwood, in the Royal Sovereign. About noon tlie awful contest commenced, by the leading ships of the columns piercing the enemy's line ; tho others breaking through in all parts, and engaging their adversaries A.D. 1806.— riBRT STOIia OW TBB BAST INDIA DOCKS LAID, MABCB 4. [2Q3 B roaoBHT. lit: •1 j; ^ 1 1 \ ^*'^ ! U-,>» ■f P- /! J j.;iitti f Hi ^^ .: If ^ y I i P i * m A.D. 1806.— lUOItArAKTS OBOWNID KINO OV ITALY, AT MIIiAlf, MAX SO. 450 ?!I|)cCreastttQ of llistorV) ^c. at the muccle of tlieir i^uns. The enemy fouKlit with intrepid Hpirit; hut the lu* ftcrior ikill which ouposf'd thoiii wa» rrsitt- OKS. The I'ury of tlic hattlu wa« tuHtnined for three hnum, when nmny ihlps of the combinpd fleet hRviiig slriick, their lino Riwo wnys nineteen oail of the line, with Villcneuve and two otiicr flay oflicerR, were taken ; the other ships, with adiuiral Ora- vliin, escHned. This splendid victory, so pre-eminent in the annals of Britain, was purchased with *he life of her ({realest naval commander. In the middle of the contest lord Nelson received in his left breast a musket-ball, aimed at him from the ship with which he was envaged ; and in about on hour after- wards he expired, displaying in his death llic heroic Urmness which had distinguish- ed every action of his life. The loss of this gnlliint man damped the enthusiastic joy which the news of so important a victory would have excited ; and it is difficult to sny whether the general grief that was felt fur the hero's death, or the exultatiovt fur so signal a triumph, preponderated. Many there were, most assuredly, who would have relinquished the victory to have saved the victim. His remains were deposited in St. Paul's cathedral, and were accompanied by a procession more extensive and magnitt- cent than England had, on any similar occasion, beheld. Of that part of the Cadit fleet which had escaped, four ships were afterwards captured by sir Ilichard Striichan, off Fer- rol, and were conducted to a Uritish port.— Thus the enemy's marine was virtually annihilated, and the navy of England held, undisputed, the mnslery of thu seas. It w'as far otherwise, however, with her continental projects and nlliances. An alli- ance offensive and defensive had long been ineffectually negotiating with Russin, Aus- tria, and Sweden ; hut It was not till the French emperor hud arbitrarily annexed Genoa and Parma to his dominions, that a treaty was concluded. The obieets of this formidable coalition were the liberation of Holland, Sardiuia, Switzerland, and Hano- ver, from French tyranny ; the restoration of tranquillity to the Italian states, and the re-establishment of safety and peace in oil Europe. It was stipulated, that the three continental powers should furnish 50(1,000 men, exclusive of the British troops. The military force at the disposal of France was 6S0,UU0, besides a considerable number of auxiliaries. By one article of the con- federacy it was agreed, that thu continental powers should not withdraw their forces, nor Great Britain her subsidies, till a general pacitlcation took place with the common consent of the contracting parties. The dissatisfaction evinced against the French emperor in all the territories which he had seised, seemed only to raise his un- principled ambition. To ensure the subju- gation of Germany, he, under the perfidious plea of moderation, endeavoured to sepa- rate Austria from the other imperial states. He issued a manifesto, reprobating the foil* and injustice of the coufederate powers; and, dcclarmg that if hostihties were com- menced against any of his allies^ particu- larly against Bavaria, he would instantly march his whole army to revenge the af- fVont. He said that the war was created and maintained bv the gold and hatred of Great Britain, and boasted that he would flght till he had secured the independence of the Ot-rmanic body, and would not make peace without a sufficient security for its continuance. Tlie Austrians, disregarding these threats, entered Bavaria with fiS.OOU men, and wci-e vigorously supported by the hereditary states. These forces, with those furnished by Russia and the Tyrol, seemed to promise success; but through the preci- pitancy of the Austrians, the tardiness of the Russians, and the vigorous measures of Buonaparte, the great objects of the coali- tion failed, and the most disastrous reverses were experienced. The French reached the banks of the Rhine in September, and effected a passage over the river ; engaged the Austrians before the Russians could join them, and defeated them with great loss at Wertingen and Guns- burgh. In the mean time general Berna- dotte, by the onler of Buonaparte, entered the neutral territories of Franconia, and was there joined by the Bavarian army of 20,000 cavalry and infantry, the Batavian division, and by the army of Holland, under Mnrmont. The losses sustained by the Aus- trians had hitherto been very inconsider- able; but on the 13th of October, Mcningen, with its large garrison, surrendered to mar- shal 8oult On the 19th, the Austrians mokinjt a sortie fVom the city of Ulm, and attacking Dupont's division, were defeated, and 15,000 of their men taken. A few days afterwards the Austrian general Mack, who had shut himself up in Ulm, with 3(i,()U0 men, surrendered to the French, under very suspicious circumstances, and his whole army were made prisoners of war. The flrst Russian division, under generals Kutusoff and Merveldt, having at length effected a junction with the Austrians, the French army, 110,000 strong, hastily ad- vanced to attack them. The allied troops were unwilling to engage a force so much more numerous than their own, and awaited the arrival of the second Russian orniy. That arrival was, however, delayed for a very considerable time, by the menacing and impolitic opposition of the Prussian ar- maments. Had the kingof Prussia, by join- ing the confederates, avenged the insult ofhred to his Francouian territories, the French would soon have been compelled to return home; but the ill-fated policy he now adopted was the cause of all the dis- asters wliich Europe afterwards suffered. The tirst Russian army, unable to maintain its position against the superior power of the enemy, were under the necessity of fall- ing back upon Moravia, and in their rout had no alternative but that of crossing the Danube, above Vienna. The imminent dan- ger with which his capital was now threat- ened, induced the emperor of Austria to A. D. 1805.— -THB CIRCUS, MOW TUB 8VRRBT TURATRB, BVRNT, AUG. 13. MAT 88. ioufedenitepowerst stilitic* were com- hii allie«« particu- lO would initaiitljr ;o revenge the af- e war wa> created Kold and liatred uf ited Hint ho would I the independence nd would not make int »ccurity for its iriani, diircgarding tavaria with 66,U<)0 iy lupporied by the le forces, with tho»e I the Tyrol, wienied . through the preci- i«, the tardinei* of Korous mentures of )hlcct* of the coali- diMBtroui revcriea e bank! of the Rhine cted a patiBr;c over I^UBtriani before the n, and defeated them rtingcn and Guni> time general Berna< liuonaparte, entered of Franconia, and 10 Bavarian army of antry, the Bntavian ly of Holland, under ustained by the Aus- len very inconsider- October, Mcningc-n, surrendered to niar- Uth, the Austrian* he city of Ulm, nnd ision, were defeated, taken. A few days I general Mack, who n Ulm, with 30,000 • French, under very :eB, and his whole crs of war. sion, under generals t, having at length I the Austrians, the strong, hastily ad- The allied troops tge a force so much cir own, and awaited and llussian army, ever, delayed for a , by the nietmciiig 1 of the Prussian nr- j of Prussia, by join - avenged the insult ian territories, the e been compelled to ill-fated policy he lause of all the dis- ifterwards suffered, unable to maintain « superior power of he necessity of fall- I, and in their rout hat of crossing the The imminent dnn- tal was now threat- leror of Austria to ■ o n o H H e< H o A M 452 C^e ^rcBBurQ of l^tstors, $ tile powers. From this conduct, which for a certain time ensured the peace and en- tirety of Prussia, many advantages were ex- pected to result ; yet, at the same time, the military system of the nation declined, and its reputation had greatly decreased. After the battle of Austerlitz, so fatal to the liber- ties of Europe, the king of Prussia became entirely subservient to the arbitrary will of Buonaparte ; and, being instigated by that powerful tyrant, he took possession of the electorate of Hanover, by which means he involved himself in a temporary war with Great Britain. A pex.ce, however, was in a short time concluded ; and as his Prussian majesty was unable any longer to submit to the indignities imposed upon him, he en- tered into a confederacy with Great Britain, Russia, and Sweden. An instantaneous change took place in the conduct of the Prussian cabinet, the precipitancy of whose present measures could only be equalled by their former tardiness. The armies of the contending parties took the field early in Oc- tober, and after two engagements, in which the success was doubtful, a general battle took place at Jena on the 14tli of that month. The French were posted along the Saale, their centre being at Jena. The Prussians, under prince Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, were ranged between Jena, Auerstadt, and Weimar. The armies were drawn up within musket-shot of each other; and at nine in the morning about 250,UOU men, with 700 cannon, were employed in mutual destruction. Courage and discipline on each side were nearly equal, but the Prench evinced superior military science. When the day was far gone, Augereau ar- rived with seasonable reinforcements, which being supported by a brilliant charppe of Murat's cuirassiers, victory declared in fa- vour of the French. Napoleon, from the height where he stood, saw the Prussians fly m all directions. More than 20,000 were killed or wounded, and 30,000 taken prison- ers, with 300 pieces of cannon. Prince Ferdi- nand died of nis wounds. A panic seized the garrison ; ail the principal towns of Prussia, west of the Oder, surrendered soon after the battle ; and the remains of their army were driven as far as the Vistula. Blucher was compelled to capitulate at Lubec. Buo- naparte now entered Berlin ; and while there, received a deputation from the French senate, complimenting him on his wonder- ful successes, but recoutmending peace. On the approach of the French to the Vistula, the Russian armies advanced with great rapidity to check their course : a for- midable body of Swedes was assembled in Poraerania ; and the king of Prussia having assembled his scattered troops, and rein- forced them with new levies, prepared to face the enemy. General Bcnigsen, who commanded the Russian forces, and was iu daily expectation of a reinforcement, was attacked at Pultusk, on the 26th of Decem- ber ; the engagement was very severe, but he succeeded m driving the enemy from the field of battle. This concluded the campaign. A. n. I8O7. — It has been well remarked by the author of the Chronological History of England, that at this period a prominent feature in the domestic state of the country, was a growing distrust oPthe political fac- tions which had heretofore divided the na- tional suffrages. "Both parties, the Outs and the Ins, as they now began to be fami- liarly culled, had so uniformly embarnssed government when it was not in their own hands, and yet so uniformly taken the op- portunitv of deserting the cause they had profesced to maintain, that the people at large lost all confidence in public men. The effect of this change of public sentiment was strikingly evinced in the general elec- tion of the current year. The representa- tion of the city of Westminster had always been con«idered the appropriate function of one or the other faction; but the inde- pendent electors united and determined to lid themselves of the domination of both. Sir F. Burdctt and lord Cochrane became popular by disclaiming all attachment to all parties, and declaring their wishes to overturn abuses and nothing but abuses r to look only to the measures of men, not to their persons and connexions. Their election fur Westminster was a complete triumph over the aristocratic dictation aiid all factions whatever. It was the rise of a third party in the stale, whose struggles continued for thirty years after, and have not yet terminated." At the beginning of the year the bill for the emancipation of the Roman catholics passed both houses of parliament, and was presented to the king to receive the roval assent. His majesty, conscientiously be- lieving that he could not sign it without violating his coronation oath, and being desirous of testifying his attachment to the established religion, not only refused to sign the bill, but desired that his ministers would for ever abandon the measure. This they refused ; and on the dismissal of lord Erskine and several of his colleagues, lord Eldon was chosen lord chancellor ; the duke of Portland, first lord of the treasury ; and the right hon. Spencer Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer. After the surrender of the Cape of Good Hope to the British arms, an expedition was undertaken against the Spanish settle- ments in South America. They proceeded up the Rio de Plata, and having surmount- ed innumerable difficulties, landed their troops near Buenos Ayrcs, and on the 28th of June, 1806, took possession of that town by capitulation. A general insurrection having been excited soon afterwards, the British troops were compelled to abandon it ; and it was found expedient to send to the Cape for reinforcements. Buenos Ayres M /"f i't A. D. I8O7.— SIR F. BUBDBTT AMD LOBD COCURANB BLECTBO FOB WRSTMIHSTBn. DBR AT BRA. A. D. 1807.— LOBS RILION'a MONUMIHT BKBOTIB Olf POkTIDOWN HILL. 1 ; •4 M a m" M O H K M fl M u I 454 ^i^e treasury of l^tstoty, $cc. was again attacked on the 7th of Jaly 1 807, by rear admiral Murray and general White- lock. The loldien being ordered to enter the town with unloaded musketa, were re- ceived by a most destructive fire from the houses, and after having lost 2,60U brave men, were forced to retire. A convention was then entered into with the Spanish commander, by which it was stipulated that a mutual restitution of prisoners should take place, and that the British troops should evacuate the country. For his un- soldierlike conduct in this fatal expedition, general Whitelock was tried by a court- martial on bis return to England, and ren- dered incapable of serving his majesty in future. We now return to the military operations on the continent. The battle of Pultusk had left the contending parties in circum- stances nearly equal. Buouaparte had re- tired into winter quarters, where he intend- ed to have remained till the return of spring ; but as the Russians were conscious of the advantages resulting to them from the rigorous climate, they were resolved to allow uim no repose. The Russian general Markow accordingly attacked the French under Bernadotte, at Morungen, in East Prussia, when a very severe action ensued, wliich terminated in favour of the allies. Another very sanguinary encounter took place on the 8th ofFebruary, near the town of Eylau, when the fortunes of France and Russia seemed to be equally balanced, and each party claimed the victory. Immedi- ately after this engagement Buonaparte dis- patched a messenger to the Russian com- mander-in-chief, with overtures of a pacific nature ; but general Benigsen rejected his offers with disdain, and replied that " he I'.ad been sent by his master not to nego- tiate, but to fight." Notwithstanding this repulse, similar overtures were made by Buonaparte to the king of Prussia, and met with no better success. The weak state of the French army at this time seemed to promise the allies a speedy and fortunate termination of the contest ; but the sur- render of Dantsic totally chan^d the face of affairs, and by supplying the French with arms and ammunition, enabled them to maintain a superiority. On the 14th of June a general engagement ensued at Fried- land, and the concentrated forces of the allies were repulsed with prodigious slaugh- ter. On the 23rd of the same month an armistice was concluded ; and on the 8th of July a treaty of peace was signed at Tilsit, between the emperors of France and Rus- sia, to which his Prussian majesty acceded on the following day. The first interview between Buonaparte and the emperor Alexander took place on the 25th of June, on a raft constructed for that purpose on the river Niemeu, where two tents had been prepared for tLeir re- ception. The two emperors landed from their boats at the same time, and embraced each other. A magnificent dinner was after- wards given by Napoleon's guard to those of Alexander and the king of Prussia; when they exchanged uniforms, and were to be seen in motleydresses, partly French, partly Russian, and partly Prussian. The articles by which peace was granted to Russia were, under all circumstances, remarkably favour- able. Alexander agreed to acknowledge the kings of Bucmaparte's creation, and the con- federation of the Rhine. Napoleon under- took to mediate a peace between the Porte and Russia; Alexander having andertaken to be the mediator between France and England, or, in the event of his mediation being refused, to shut his ports against British commerce. The terms imposed on the king of Prussia were marked by charac- teristic severity. The city of Dantzic was declared independent; and all the Polish urovinces, with Westphalia, were ceded by Prussia to the conqueror, by which means the king of Prussia was stripped of nearly half of his territories, and one third of his revenues. All his ports were likewise to be closed against England till a general peace. The unexampled influence which Napo- leon had now acquired over the nations of Europe, to say nothing of that spirit of domination which he every where exercis- ed, rendered it extremely improbable that Denmark would long preserve her neutra- lity ; nay, the Euglisn ministers had good reasons to believe that a ready acquiescence to the dictates of the French emperor would be found in the court of Copen- hagen. As it waa therefore feared that the Danish fleet would fall into the hands of the enemy, it was thought expedient to dispatch a formidable armament to the Baltic, and to negotiate with the Danish government. The basis of the negotiation was a proposal to protect the neutrality of Denmark, on condition that its fleet shoula be deposited in the British ports till the termination of the war with France. As this proposal was rejected, the as the general conduct of the Danes betrayed their partiality for the French the arma- ment, which consisted of twenty-seven sail of the line and 20,000 land forces, under the command of admiral Gambler and lord Cathcart, made preparations for investing the city. A tremendous cannonading then commenced. The cathedral, many •public edifices and private houses were destroyed, with the sacrifice of 2000 lives. From the 2nd of September till the evening of the 6th, the conflagration was kept up in dif- ferent places, when a considei'able part of the city being consumed, and the remain- der threatened with speedy destruction, the general commanding the garrison sent out a flag of truce, desiring an armistice, to afford time to treat for a capitulation. This being arranged, a mutual restitution of prisoners took place, and the Danish fleet, consisting of 18 sail of the line and 15 frigates, together with all the naval stores, surrendered to his Britannic majes- ty's forces. The Danish government, how- ever, refused to ratify the capitulation, and issued a declaration of war against Eng- land. This unexpected enterprise against A.S. 1807.— nn. HABKBAH, ARCHBISHOP OP TOBK, DIBD MOV.'S, AOBB 89. DOWN HILIi. A.D. M08.— OBBitviAir Til. xiRa or utnttmti, bisd mahob II. lEnglantJ.— 1|ott»e of ISrunstoidi.— ffleorge M. 455 I rf a neutral power served at an oiteniible cause for Sutsia to commence hoitilitie* against Great Britain ; and a manifesto was published on the 31st of October, ordering the detention of all British ahipi and pro- perty. Tlie two jprand objects to which the at- tention of Buonaparte was principally di- rected, were the annihilation of the trade of Great Britain, and the extension of his dominions. In order to attain the former of these objects, he in November, 1806, is- sued at Berlin a decree, by which the Bri- tish islands were declared to be in a state of blockade, and all neutral vessels that traded to them without his consent were subject to capture and conBscation. This new mode of warfare excited, at first, the apprehensions of the British merchants ; but the cabinet were resolved to retaliate, and accordingly issued the celebrated or- dert in council, by which France and all the powers tinder her influence were de- clared to be in a state of blockade, and all neutral vessels that should trade between the hostile powers, without touching at some port of Great Britain, were liable to be seiced. These unprecedented measures were extremely detrimental to all neutral powers, especially to the Americans, who were the general carriers of colonial pro- duce. They, bv way of retaliation, laid an embargo in all the ports of the United States, and notwithstanding the extinction of their commerce, long peraisted in the measure. In the conduct pursued by Buonaparte with respect to Portugal, he resolved to act in such a manner as should either involve that nation in a war with England, or would furnish him with a pretence for in- vading it. He accordingly required the court of Lisbon, 1st, to shut their ports against Great Britain ; 2dly, to detain all Englishmen residing in Portugal ; and 3dly, to confiscate all English property. In case these deiaands were refused, he declared that war would be denounced against them, and without waiting for an answer, he gave oi lera for detaining all merchant ships that were in the ports of France. As the prin'se regent could not comply with these 'mperious demands, without violating the treaties that existed between the two nations, he endeavoured to avoid the danger which threatened him, by agreeing to the first condition. The ports of Portugal were accordingly shut up, but this concession served only to inflame the resentment of Buonaparte, who immedi- ately declared "that the house of Braganza had ceased to reiicn ;" and sent an im- mense army into Portugal, under general Junot. In this critical situation the prince regent removed his troops to the seaports, and when Junot entered his dominions he retired, with his family, to the Brazils. The subversion of the government of Spain and the expulsion of the reigning family was the next step on the ladder of Napoleon's ambition ; and this he thought might be accoidaplished by uniting treachery with force. In order to accomplish this perfidious act, it was his first cnre to foment discord in the royal family, which, by a complication of dissimulation, intrigue, and audacious villany, he was too successful in efliecting. By enconraging the ambition of the heir apparent, he cxcitMl the resentment of the reigning monarch, Charles IV., ren- dered them mutual objects of mistrust, jealousy, and hatred, and plunged the na- tion into anarchy and confusion. In this perplexed state of affairs, he invented an excuse for introducing his armies into Spain, and compelled Charles to resign the crown to his son, who was invested with the sovereignty, with the title of Ferdinand VII. The new made king, with his father and the whole royal family, were shortly afterwards prevailed on to take a journey to Bayonne, in France, where an interview took place with the French emperor. On the 6tn of May the two kings were compelled by Buonaparte to sign a formal abdication, and the infants Don Antonio and Don Car- los renounced all claim to the succession. This measure was followed by an imperial decree, declaring the throne of Spain to be vacant, and conferring it on Joseph Buona- Sarte, who had abdicated the throne of [aples in favour of Joachim Murat. As the French forces, amounting to about 100,000 men, occupied all the strongest and most commanding positions of Spain, and as another army of 20,000 men, under Junot, had arrived in Portugal, it was imagined that the new sovereign would take posses- sion of the kingdom without opposition. But the wanton ambition and foul perfidy by which these events had been produced, inspired the Spaniards with becoming in- dignation and resentment. No sooner had the news of the treatment of the royal family reached Spain, than a general insur- rection broke out ; juntas were formed in the difl'erent provinces ; patriotic armies were levied ; and the assistance of England was implored. The supreme junta of Se- ville assumed the sovereign authority, in the name of Ferdiratii' the VII., whom the^ proclaimed kit ;-, nnd declared war against France. P^\;':- with Spain was proclaimed in London o.^ the 6th of July ; the Spanish prisoners wero set free, clothed, and sent home ; and every thing that the Spaniards could desire, or the English afford, was liberally granted. The sudden- ness of the insurrection, the unanimitv which prevailed, and the vigour with whicn it was conducted, amazed the surround- ing nations, and called forth their exer- tions. The efforts of the loyal Spaniards were crowned with astonishing success; the usurper Joseph was driven from the capital, after having remained in it about a week ; and the French, after losing about 50,000 men, were obliged to abandon the greatest part of the kingdom, and to retire to the north of the Ebro. A.n. 1808.— Animated and encouraged by the successful resistance of the Spaniards, the Portuguese also displayed a spirit of patriotic loyalty, and a general insurrec- A.D. 1808.— THH rArAI> TBRBITOBIBB AMNBXBn TO TBI KINOnOM 0» ITALY. J I 'I t. I' I ■•■■ -I; (I. ' i Si } il 1 i A.D. 1808.— COVSNT-AAEDIN TaiATBB BUkHT, ■■?!. 20: HIIIBTBBN I.1TBI LOIT. 456 Wibe ^rrasurp of l^istors, ^c. tion took place in the northern parti of that kingdom. In the provinces from which the enemy had been expelled, the authority of the prince regent was rc-establithed, and provisional juntas, like those of Spain, were formed. The supreme junta of Oporto having taken effectual measures for raising an army, dispatched ambassadors to Eng- land to solicit support and assistance. In consequence of this, an army under sir Arthur Wellesley, consisting of 10,000 men, set sail from Cork on the 12th of July, and landed in Oporto, where, after a severe en- counter, lie compelled the French general La Borde to abandon a very strong position on the heights of Roleia. In the following night La Borde effected a junction with general Loison, and they retreated with their united forces towards Lisbon. The British army having been reinforced by a body of troops under general Anstruthcr, proceeded towards the capital, in pursuit of the enemy. On the 21st of August, the French army under Junot, who had been created duke of Abrantes by Buonaparte, met the British troops at the village of Vimiera, when a very severe action ensued, and terminated in the total defeat of the French, whose loss in killed alone amount- ed to 3,500 men. Sir Hugh Dalrymple, who had been called from Gibraltar to take the command of the British forces, joined the army at Cintra on the day after this splendid victory, and concluded a treaty, which at the time was thought in England to be most disadvantageous, and it became the subject of a military inquiry ; but sir Arthur Welfesley giving his testimony gene- rally in its favour, it may safely be inferred to have been wisely concluded ; and such was the renult of the investigation. It stipulated that the French should evacuate Portugal, with their arms, but leaving their magazines, and be transported to France in British ships, without any restriction in regard to future service ; having leave to dispose of their private property ( viz. their plunder acquired by contributions), in Por- tugal. The Russian fleet in the Tagus, consisting of nine ships of the line and a frigate, was to be surrendered to the British government, but to be restored after the peace, and the Russian officers and men'to be conveyed home in English transports. The convention of Cintra being carried into effect, the Uritish forces advanced to Lisbon, and having remained in that city about two months, proceeded in different divisions towards Salamanca, in Spain. In the mean time, an army of 13,000 men, under sir David Baird, having landed at Corunna, was marching through the nor- thern part of Portugal towards the same point. Buonaparte having, with an im- mense army, entered Spain, in order to conduct the operations of the war, the patriot troops under Belvidere, Blake, and Castanos, were successively defeated, and Napoleon entered Madrid in triumph. Sir John Moore, the commander-in-chief of the British army, being unable to keep the field in the presence of an enemy so much superior in numbers, while his own troops were suffering dreadfully from hunger and fatigue, retreated, in the midst of winter, through a desolate and mountainous coun- try, made almost impassable by snow and rain ; yet he effected nis retreat with great rapidity and judgment, and arrived at Co- runna Jan. 1 1,1809. Soult took up a position above the town in readiness to make an at- tack as soon as the troops shoald begin to embark. On the 16th, the operation hav- ing begun, the enemy descended in four columns, when sir John Moore, in bringing up the guards, where the fire was most de- structive, received a mortal wound from a cannon ball. General Baird being also disabled, the command devolved on sir John Hope, under whom the troops bravely continued the fight till nightfall, when the French retreated with the loss of 2000 men, and offered nr further molestation. The loss of the English in this battle was stated at between seven and eight hundred men ; but their total loss in this arduous expedition was little less than 6000, with their brave and noble commander, whose soldierly skill and general high qualities fully entitled him to the respect and admi- ration in which he was universally held. A.n. 1809.— The most vigorous exertions were now made by the French for the com- plete subjugation of Spain. Having defeated and dispersed several bodies of the Spunish troops, the enemy sat down before Sara- gOBsa, and made themselves masters of it, after a desperate and sanguinary assault. The French army then entered Portugal, under marshal Soult, duke of Dalmatia, and took Oporto. On the arrival of ano- ther British armament, consisting of above 30,000 men, under generals Wcllesley and Beresford, Soult was obliged to retire from Portugal with considerable loss. Sir Ar- thur Wellesley advanced with rapidity into Spain, and having united his troops with a Spanish army of 38,000 men, under gene- ral Cuesta, they marched on Madrid. On the 26th of July general Cuesta's advanced guard was attacked by a detachment of the enemy, and as a general engagement was daily expected, sir Arthur Wellesley took a strong position at Talavera. On the fol- lowing day a very obstinate engagement commenced, which was continued with various success till the evening of the 28th, when the enemy retreated, leaving behind them seventeen pieces of cannon. The battle was most severe, the English losing in killed, wounded, and missing, 6000 men ; while the loss on the part of the French was estimated at 10,000. For the great skill and bravery displayed in this action sir Arthur Wellesley was created a peer, with the title of viscount Wellincton. Thr French army was commanded by Victor and Sebastiuni ; but soon afterwards, the junction of Soult, Ney, and Moitier, in the rear of the English, compelled them to fall back on Badujoz, and Cuesta remained in Spain to check the enemy's progress. Austria, stimulated by what was passing in Spain, had once more attempted to as* A.O. 1808.— TBI ART OF LITHOORAFHT INTRODUCBD VBOK OBBMANT. '\\ BM LITIS I.OIT. rliile hi* own troopi lljr from hunger and le midst of winter, mountainous coun- ssable by snow and M retreat with great :, and arrived at Co- ilt took up a position iness to make an at- tops shoald begin to , the operation liav. r descended in four 1 Moore, in bringing he tire was most de- lortal wound from a il Baird being also nd devolved on sir m the troops bravely till nightfall, when with the loss of 2000 further molestation, sh in this battle was n and eight hundred loss in this arduous less than 6000, with commander, whose neral high qualities he respect and admi- s universally held. It vigorous exertions French for the com- >ain. Having defeated bodies of the Spanish t down before Sara- aselves masters of it, 1 sanguinary assault, en entered Portugal, |, duke of Dalmatia, the arrival of ano- p, consisting of above nerals Wcllesley and obliged to retire from erable loss. Sir Ar- :ed with rapidity into ted his troops with a 00 men, under gene- tied on Madrid. On al Cuesta's advanced a detachment of tlic ral engagement was hur Wellesley took a ilavera. On the fol- )8tinate engagement ras continued with i evening of the 28th, ated, leaving behind ;8 of cannon. The e, the English losing d missing, 6000 men ; part of the French ,000. For the great layed in this action was created a peer, int Wellington. Tlir mraanded hy Victor toon afterwards, tlie , and Mortier, in the impelled them to I'all Cuesta remained in ■my's progress. by what was passing ire attempted to an- H k Ik o M U r. « M t) l< ' ll Hi; I SBBMANT. A. D. 1809.— ItATIOHAIi JUaiLIB, OCT. 3S ; bOtm jmjlm of •bubob's bbion. lEnglantr.— l^ouse of ISrunatoitfi.— George 1E1E3E. 457 sert her independence; and Buonaparte had left the peninsula soon after the battle of Corunnn, in order to conduct in person the war which was -thus renewed in Ger- many. Hostilities liad been declared on the 6thof April, when the archduke Charles issued a spirited address to the army pre- paratory tu liiit opening the campaign. The whole Austrian army consisted of nine corps, in each of which were from 30,U0U to 40,000 men. Buonaparte, in addition to the French corps, now congregated under his standard Bavarians, Saxons and Poles ; and such was bis celerity of movement, auu the impetuosity of his troops, that in the short space of one month he crip- pled the forces of Austria, and took pos- session of Vienna on the 13th of May. On tlie 2l8t and 22iid of the same month, the archduke Charles, who had taken his po- sition on the left bank of the Danube, en- gaged Buounparte between the villages of Asperne and Essling, and completely de- feated him, coinpellin!; him to retire toLo- ban, an island on the Danube. The Aus- trians were, however, so much weakened by this battle, as to be unable to follow up their success ; and both armies remained inactive till the 4th of July, when Buonu- fiurte having been greatly reinforced, re- inquished his situation, amidst a violent torrent of rain, and drew up his forces in order of battle on the extremity of the Austrian left wing. The allies were greatly disconcerted by this unexpected move- ment, and being obliged to abandon the strong position which they held, an en- gagement commenced near Wagram, under every disadv.intage, when the French were victorious, and the Austrians retreated to- wards Bohemia. A suspension of hostili- ties was soon afterwards agreed on, which was followed by a treaty of peace, con- cluded at Schonbrun, Oct 15 ; by which the emperor of Austria was compelled to cede several of his most valuable provinces, to dis- continue liis intercourse with the court of London, and to close his ports against Bri- tish vessels. In the course of the summer was fitted out with groat secrecy one of the most for- midable armaments > vcr sent from the shores of li^ngland. It consisted of an ar- my of 40,000 men, and a fleet of .39 sail of the line, 3G frigates, and numerous gun- boats, &c. The command of the first was given to the earl of Chatham, of the last to sir R. Strachan. The chief objects of the enterprize were to get possession of Flush- ing and the island of Walcheren, with the French ships of war in the Scheldt; to de- stroy their arsenals and dock-yards, and to effect the reduction of the city of Antwerp. The preparations which had been made for this expedition, the numerous soldiers and sailors cni^aged in it, and the immense sums of money which had been expended on it, raised the expectations of the nation to the highest pitch; but it was planned without judgment, and conducted without skill, and therefore necessarily terminated in loss and disgrace. On the arrival of the armament in the Scheldt, the contest be- tween Austria and France bad been de- cided ; the military state of the country was widely different from what had been represented ; and Antwerp, instead of being defenceless, was completely fortified. The attack on the islanii of Walcheren luc- ceeded, and Flushing surrendered after an obstinate resistance of twelve days ; but as the country assumed a posture of defence that was totally unexpected, all idea of proceeding up the Scheldt was abandoned, and the troops remained at Walcheren, where an epidemic fever raged. Of the fine army that left Portsmouth a few months before, one half perished on the pestilen- tial shores of Walcheren ; and of the re- mainder, who returned in December, many were afflicted with incurable chronic dis- eases The other events of the year may be briefly told. The French settlement at Cayenne surrendered to an English and Portuguese force, and the island of Martinique was soon afterwards capttired by British arms. A French fleet, consisting of ten sail of the line, which lay in the Basque roads, under the protection of the forts of the island of Aix, was attacked by a squadron of eun- boats, fire-ships, and frigates, under lord Cochrane, who captured four ships, disabled several others, and drove the rest on shore. A gallant action was likewise performed by lord CoUingwood, who on the 1st of Octo- ber destroyed, in the bay of Rosas, three sail of the line, two frigates, and twenty transports. To these successes may be added, the reduction of some small islands in the West Indies, and the capture of a Russian flotilla and convoy iu'the Baltic, by sir James Saumarcz. _ In the early part of the year, public atten- tion was engrossed with a parliamentary inquiry into the conduct of his royal high- ness the duke of York, commander-in-chief; against whom colonel Wardle, an officer of militia, had brought forward a series of charges, to the ef^ct that Mrs. Mary Ann Clarke, a once favoured courtesan of the duke, had carried on a traffic in military commissions, with his knowledge and con- currence. During the progress of this investigation the house was in general fully attended, many of its members appearing highly edified by the equivocal replies and sprightly sallies of the fair frail one. But the duke, though culpable of great indiscre- tion, was acquitted of personal corruption by a vote of the house. lie, however, thought proper to resign his employment. Variuus circumstances which afterwards transpired tended to throw considerable suspicion on the motives and characters of the parties who instituted the inquiry. A. D. 1810. — The parliamentary session commenced with an inquiry into the late calamitous expedition to Walcheren; and after a long debate in the house of com- mons, the conduct of ministers, instead of being censured as was expected, was de- clared to be worthy of commendation. In the course of the discussion, Mr. Yorke, A.D. 1809.— BWD OF TUB " O. P." BIOTS A» COTBNT-OABDBII THBATRE, »K0. 16. [2 R A.B. 1810.— I.ODI 458 ^l^c ^reasut^ of l^istot^, $(c. member for Cambridge, daily enforced the lUnding order of the boute for the eiciu- ■ion of ttranKen— a meaiare which, though •anctioned by a parliamRntary reiculation, was *ery unpopular, and became the lubject of very aevere aniroadvertiont in the Lon- don debating aocietiea. John Gale Jonee, the director of one of tbeie locietiea ealled the " British Forum," having iituad a pla- card, notifying that the following ouettion had been ditcuiied there :— " Which waa a greater outrage on the public feeling, Mr. Yorke'a enforcement of the itanding ordrr to exclude itrangera from the hou«e of commons, or Mr. Windbam'i attack on the press r" and that it had been unanimously carried against the former.— Mr. Yorke complainra of it as a breach of privilege, and Jones was committed to Newgate. On the 13th of March, sir Francis Burdett, who had been absent when Mr. Jones was eommitted, brought forward a motion for his liberation, on the ground that his im- prisonment by the house of commons waa an infringement of the lew of the land, and a subversion of the iprinciples of the con- stitution This motion being negatived, sir Francis published a letter to his con- stituents, the electors of Westminster, in which he stated bis reasons for objecting to the imprisonment of Mr. Jones, and adverted in very pointed terms to the illegality of the measure. This letter was brought forward in the boose by Mr. Lethbridge, who moved that it was a scandalous publication, and that sir Francis Burdett, having acknow- ledged himself the author of it, was guilty of a flagrant breach of privilege. After an adjournment of a week, these resolutions were carried ; and amotion that sir Francis Burdett should be committed to the Tower, was likewise carried by a majority of thirtv- seven members. A warrant was accordingly signed by the speaker of the house of com- mons, forthe apprehension and commitment of the right honourable baronet, and was delivered to the seijeant - at - arms, to be carried into effect. Sir Francis urged tlie illegality of the speaker's warrant, and resisted the execution of it till the 9th of April, when the serjeant-at-arms, aceom- Sanied by messengers, police officers, and etachments of the miutary, forced open the baronet's house, arrested him, and con- veyed him, by a circuitous route, to the Tower. The greatest indignation prevailed among the populace when they heard of the apprehension of their favourite ; and, having assembled on Tower hill, they at- tacked the military with stones and other missiles. For a considerable time the soldiers patiently submitted to the insults of the multitude; but finding that their audacity increased, they tired, and three of the rioters were killed. At the prorogation of parliament, on the 21st of June, sir iSrancis was liberated from the Tower, and great preparations were made by his par- tizans for conducting him home, but he prudently declined the honour, and returned to his house by water, to avoid the risk of popular tumult. As for Mr. Gale Jones, who claimed a right to a trial, he refused to leave Newgate, nnd was at last got out by stratagem, loudly complaining of the double grievance of being illeKally impris- oned ana as illegally discharged. On the Slat of May an extraordinary at- tempt at aasassination was made on the duke of Cumberland. At about halfpast two o'clock in the morning his royal high- nessa waa roused fh>m his sirep by several blows about the head, which were proved to have been given with a sabre; and, jump- ing up to give an alarm, he was followed by the assassin, who cut him across the thigh*. He then called his valet-inwaiting, who •fastened to his master's assistance, and alt.rmcd *he house. Having closely inspect- ed liie roon., to see if any one were con- cealed therein, they went to the porter's room to awakin Selfis, a Piedmontese valet ; when, on forcing open the door, they found him stretched on the bed, with his throat cut. Subsequent circumstances made it evi- dent, that tikis wretch, after liaviiig failed m his attempt to assassinate the duke, had re- tired on the first alarm, and pat an eud to his existence. Next day a coroner's inquest was held on the body of Sellis, and after be- stowing a patient attention to the evidence, the jury returned a verdict of/elo-d»-§ii. The assassin was believed to have been actuated by private resentment for some supj, ised injury, but nothing definite was elicited either at that time or subse(^uently. On the retreat of lord Wellington at Tala- vera, the French armies advanced with as- tonishing rapidity ; and having defeated and dispersed a Spanish army of fiO.OOO men, at the battle of Ocana, Nov. 19, they carried their victorious arms into almost every pro vince of Spain. The^ were, however, much annoyed, and sometimes repulsed by the patriots, who, wandering from place to place, seised every opportunity of reveng- ing themselves on their rapacious invaders. The French army in Portuxal was greatly superior in numbers to the English, and was commanded by marshal Massena, prince of Esling, who employed every nrtitice to induce lord Wellington to quit the strong position which he held on the niountiiins. With this view he uudi-rtook, successively, the sieges of Cuidad Ilodrigo and Almeida, both ot which places, after a most spirited resistance, were compelled to siiiTeudor. All these stratagems of Massena could not induce the British general to liaznrd a l)at- tle under disadvantageous cit'cunistances ; and the cautious conduct of iiis lordship on this occasion, was as lauduhle as Lis cou- rage and resolution had formerly been. Massena at length began to suspect that his opponent was actuated by fciir; anil therefore determined to attack him in his entrenchments, on the summit of the moun- tain of Bnzaco. An engagement accord- ingly took place on the 27tli of September, when the combined armies of England and Portugal completely defeated the ricnoh, who lost on the occasion upwards of 2()0li men. _A few days after this en.ij;Hp;cim?nt, tbe British general, by an unexpectf.l niovc- A.D. 1810.— LOCIBN BUOIfArABTB «ND VAMILY ABBIVB Ilf BMOLAND. » ' \\ r aobLAMB. A. B. 1810.— IT. r AUI>'* OAtBBBmAIi BOHBB 0» AM. ITS ftAII, BIOi 34. lEnglanTi.— l^QtUtt of IdrunttDttii.-ilScorgc lElES. 459 ment, retired towards Lisbon, and occupied nn impreniAble position on Torres Vedru; whitlier he was followed by marshal Mas- sens, who encamped directly ia his front. While these events were taking place in Spain and Portugal, the successtul termi- nation of some distant naval expeditions served to confirm tl>e gallantry of that branch of the service. The Dutch settle- ment of Ainboyne, with its dependent iiilandii, surrendered to a British force Feb. 17. On the 8th of Aurust, a party of ISO British seamen, under the command of cap- tain Cole, attacked Banda. the principal of the Dutch spice islands, and obliged the garriann, consisting of 1000 men, to surren- der. The important islands of Bourbon and the Mauritius were likewise reduced, at the close of the year, by a British armament, under the command of admiral Bertie and major-general Abercrombie. Several eveuts took place at this time on the continent of Europe, not less remark- able f..r their novelty than for their im- portance. Buonaparte, having divorced the empress Josephine, espoused on the 11th ol March the archduchess M.'vria Louisa, daughter of the emperor of Austria. On the 1st of July, Louis Buonaparte, kiiig of Holland, after having made a fruitless at- tempt to improve the condition of his un- fortunate suojccts, abdicated the throne in favour of his eldest son. That exhausted country was immediately seized by Napo- leon, and annexed to the French empire. Charles XIII. of Sweden, being advanced in age and having no children, chose for Ills successor Charles Augustus, prince of Augustinberg ; but as this prmce died sud- denly, it became necessary to nominate liis successor. The t^ndidates for this high ufttce tvere the prince of Holstein, the king of Denaiark, and the French marshal Ber- nadntte, prince of Ponte Corvo. The latter being favoured by Napoleon and by the king of Sweden, he was unanimously clio- cen crown prince, and his installatiou took place on the 1st of November, iu the pre- sence of tho assembled diet. A few days afterwards war was declared against Great Britain ; all intercourse was prohibited, and the importation of colonial produce inter- dicted. CHAPTER LXIII. TAe ReigtKif QiOR9K III. [the Riobnct]. A. D. 1811.— One of the first legislative acts of this year was the appointment of the prince of Wales, under certain restric- tions, as regent, in consequence of a return of that mental malady with which the king had formerly been temporarily afflicte£ The restrictions were to continue till after February 1, 1813. It was expected that a change of ministers would immediately take place, but the prince declined making any change in the administration, or to accept any grant for an establishment in virtue of his new functions. The progress of events in the peninsula again claims out attention. Hassena, who at the close of the preceding year, had posted himself at Santarem, met with such diSculties in procuring the necessary sup- ply of provisions, that he was induced to abandon his position on the 6th of March, leaving behind him a considerable quantity of heavy artillery and ammunition. He continued his retreat through Portugal, closely pursued by lord Wellington and general Beresford. Numerous skirmishea took place between the outposts of the hostile armies; but on the 16th of May a more important action ensued at the river Albucra, between marshal Soult and Kcneral Beresford. The contest continued with great impetuosity for several hours, till at length victory declared in favour of the Anglo- Portuguese troops, and the enemy waa compelled to retreat The loss of the French was estimated at 9,000, among whom were five generals ; the loss of the allies amounted to about half that number. After this victory general Beresford invest- ed the important citjr of Badajos, but was obliged to raise the siege, in consequence of the junction of the French armies under Soult and Marmont. The war was at the same time conducted with great spirit in different parts of Spain. In Catalonia the operations of the enemy were crowned with success ; but in Anda- lusia the French were compelled to retire before the determined bravery of the allied forces. This army had landed at Alge- siras, under general Graham, with the In- tention of attacking the French troops en- gaged in the siege of Cadiz. On the 6th of March they took a strong position on the heiehts of Barossa, where they were attacked on the 3&th by a superior force of the enemy. After a remarkably severe engagement, the French retired in disor- der, with the loss of 3,000 men ; but the numerical inferiority of the allies precluded the hope of pursuing them with success, '''be subsequent events of the war in the peninsula, during this year, were neither numerous nor important, The French army, who had threatened to " plant their eagles on the walls of Lisbon, and to drive the English into the si'a," were not only unable to carry their threat into executioi^ but were frequently defeated by troops which they were taught to despise. While the military prowess of England was thus nobly displayed in combating the oppressors of mankind, the superiority of her navy was sufficiently manifested by the success which atteuded all its ope- rations. A combined Ffeuch and Italian .squadron, consisting of five frigates and six smaller armed vessels, was encountered off the island of Lissa, in the gulf of Ve- nice, by an English squadron composed of four frigates only : the contest was fierce and for a time doubtful, but at length Bri- tish valour prevailed, and three of the ene- my's frigates were taken. On the 21st of July, a French flotilla, consisting of twenty- six vessels, was attacked off the coast of Calabria, by an English frigate and a sloop, and the whole of them were cap- r nNoiiAND. A.B. 1811.— aia niaa vabkbb, abmibal or thb vlbxt, bixo, aobo 96. :!^i *. f. I 1 A.n. 1812. — JOHN HOBIC TUOKB, OF POLITICAI. NOTOUIKTr, DIED MARCH 19. 460 Vli)t treasure of l^isioro, $cc. tured without the loss of a mnn. These nnd other gallant encounters, though on a small scale, redounded much to our naval credit. From the year 1807, when the celebrated " orders in council" were issued, a secret discontent, indicative of hostilities, had evinced itself in the United Statss of Ame- rica. This misunderstanding was greatly increased in the present year, by an unfor- tunate encounter between the American frigate President, commanded by commo- dore Rodgers, and the British sloop of war Little Belt, captain Bingham. The parti- culars of this occurrence were explicitly and interestingly related by the captain of the Little Belt, who attributes the blame entirely to the American. At any rate, whether tlic encounter was through a mis- take, or iiegigned for the purpose of incen- sing the English government, the result was, that the American States prepared for war, and notwithstanding remonstrances and concessions were made by the British ministry, war was soon afterwards declared. During the inonths of November and December tlic internal tranquillity of the country was disturbed by frequent riots in the manufacturini; districts of Nottingham- shire, Derbyshire, and Leicestershire. The principal cause of discontent whs the intro- duction of a new description of frame for stotking-weaving. The rioters assumed the name of Luddites, "and they became so dan- gerous, that the legislature deemed it ne- cessary to use severe measures for their suppression. A. D. 1812. — The restrictions which had been imposed upon the prince of Wales by the regency bill, were now writhdravvn, it being the unanimous opinion of the medical autliorities that there was not the slightest prospect of his majesty's return to n state of perfect sanity. The prince therefore as- sumed the full powers belonging to the sovereignty of Britain ; and, contrary to general expectation, very little change was made in the cabinet. On the 13th of Fe- bruary, the regent, in a letter to the duke of York, declared that he " had no predi- lections to indulge, nor resentments to gra- tify ;" intimating, however, a desire tliat his goven,ment might be strengthened by the co-operating of those with whom his early habits had been formed, and autho- rising the duke to communicate his senti- ments to lords Grey and Grenvillc. To this overture these noblemen replied, by unre- servedly expressing the impossibility of their uniting with the present government, owing to their differences of opinion being too many and too important to admit uf such union. The measures proposed for repealing the i)cnal laws against the papists were agitated in both houses of parliament this session, but were negatived by a gpreat majority. The disturbances among the manufac- turing classes, which began Inst year in Nottinghamshire, had extended into Lnn- cnshire, Cheshire, and the west riding of Yorkshire. The property of individuals as well as the machinery was destroyed by ■nightly marauders; a system of military training was adopted, and secret oaths ad- ministered ; in short, the number and dar- ing spirit of the rioters, and the steadiness with which their plans were conducted, rendered them so formidable as to require the express interposition of the legislature. A large military force was accordingly sta- tioned in the disturbed counties, and were, on several occasions, found necessary for the maintenance of public peace. By a rigid enforcement of the law, and by the adoption of remedial measures for the dis- tresses of the labouring poor, tranquillity was at length restored. While the public mind was agitated by these occurrences, an event occurred which was at once truly lamentable and import- ant. On the nth of May, as Mr. Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer, was entering the lobby of the house of commons, about five o'clock, a person named Bellingham {iresented a pistol to his breast, and shot lira through the heart. The act was so sudden and asloimding, that (in the words of a gentleman, well known in the literary world, who happened to be close to Mr. Perceval at the time) " no one of the many individuals present precisely knew what had really happened ; and it was the fall of the martyr of assassination only, that developed the nature of the atrocious deed. On re- ceiving the wound, the unfortunate gentle- man tell almost back towards his left, against the angle formed by tUe door and the wall, exclaiming very faintly, 'O God !' the last words he ever uttered ; for imme- diately, as if moved by an innate impulse to seek for safety in the house, he made an effort to rush forward, but merely staggered a few paces, nnd dropped down on the spot." Bellingham was taken without re- sistance, a few minutes aftenA'nrds. It ap- peared that he was a Liverpool ship-broker, who having sustained some commercial losses in Russia, for which he thought the government was bound to procure redress, and his mciuurials on the subject being dis- regarded, he had worked up his gloomy mind to the monstrous conviction tliat he was justilied in taking away the life of the prime minister. The gentleman whose words we- have before quoted, thus graphi- cally describes the appearance of the assas- sin : " Bellingham, with his breast ex- posed, nnd now extremely perturbed, was m a state of great excitation when general Gascoyne appeared, and recognised him ns a man whom he knew, from having seen him at Liverpool. No words, indeed, can picture his frightful agitation : large drops of agonizing sweat ran down his pnllid face; and from the bottom of his chest to his gorge, rose and fell a spasmodic action, as if a body as large as the hand were chok- ing hiui with every breath. Never on earth, I believe, was seen a more terrible example of over-wrought suffering ; yet, in limguaifc he was perfectly cool and collected." On his trial nt the Old Bailey sessions, the plea of insanity was suggested by his counsel, A. D. 1812.— FARTUQUAKB AT CARACCAS ; 8000 PERSONS FBRIBUBD, MARCH 20. D MARCH 19. A.D 1812.— TAB lABIi OT HOIBA APrOIIlniD ■OTBBIIOS-aBNinAL OV INDIA. o M < •A M o a CO r* lEnglanlf.— 'lousic of larunatolclt.— ^icorge IlEE. 461 but overruled. In his defence he expatiated on the ill-treatment he had experienced, and attempted to justify his conduct. At his execution, his demeanour was remark- ably lirra and composed, and he persisted in refusing to express anv contrition for his crime. The untimely death of Mr. Perce- val drevr forth a strong expression of sym- fiathy; and his widow and family were iberally provided for b^ parliament. In the change of administration which took place in consequence of this melancholy circum- stance, lord Sidraouth was appointed secre- tary of state ; the earl of Harrowby, lord president of the council ; and Mr. Vansit- tart, chancellor of the exchequer. At the commencement of the campaign in the Spanish peninsula, fortune seemed at first to favour the enemy, whn, on the dtli of January, made themselves masters of the city of Valencia, which general Blake, after a feeble resistance, surren- dered, with 16,000 men. The strong town of Peniscola, which, on account of its com- manding situation, was of great importance to its possessors, was soon after surren- dered to the French by the treachery of the governor. Serious as these misfortunes were to the allies, they were in a short time counterbalanced by the success which attended the exertions of the British com- mander. After a fortnight's F.cge, lord Wellington carried Cuidad Kodrigo by as- sault, on the 19th of January; end on the 16th of April the strong city of Badajos surrendered to him, after a long and most obstinate resistance. After the capture of this city the allied armies proceeded, with- out opposition, to Salamanca, where they were received by the inhabitants with be- nedictions and acclamations. As the hos- tile armies were now so situated as to ren- der a battle almost inevitable, lord Wel- lington made his necessary dispositions; and as a favourable opportunity occurred on the 32d of July for attacking the ene- my, be immediately took advantage of it. An action accordingly ensued, in vvhicli the French, after a determined and obstinate resistance, were obliged to give way to the saperior bravery of the assailants, and to retreat in the utmost confusion. The dark- ness of the night was very favourable to the fugitives, yet upwards of 7,U00 prison- ers were taken, with eagles, colours, can- non, and ammunition. After taking possession of the Spanish capital, lord Wellington advanced to Bur- gos; but being detained a long time in besieging it, the enemy had an opportunity of concentrating their force, and of re-oc- cupying Madrid. This was one of the last military transactions which took place on the peninsula during the year. For his eminent services, which though generally appreciated were not over-rated, the Cortes bestowed on the British commander the title of duke of Cuidad Rodrigo, and con- stituted him genernlissimo of the Spanish armies. The prince regent of Great Britain, also, who had previously conferred on him the title of earl, now raised him to tho dignity of a marquis of the United King- dom. The foregoing outline of the military transactions in Spain will put the reader in possession of the principal features of the war in that quarter. We must now direct his attention to the events which were transacting in the north of Europe. The fondly-cherished scheme of Buonaparte for ruining the finances of Great Britain, by cuttingoff her commercial intercourse with the countries of Europe, was, through in- trigue or intimidation, adopted by all the neutral powers. The consequent stagnation of trade on the continent, though it wa* submitted to by their respective sovereigns, was very distressing to their subjects, especi- ally the Russians, who had been accustomed to consider England as their natural ally. At length, the emperor of Russia resolved to submit no longer to the arbitrary restric- tions which the will of Napoleon had dicta- ted f o him ; and a war between those great powers was the immediate and inevitable result. In this contest the most consider- able states in Europe were involved. The allies of France were th« German states, Italy, Prussia, Austria, and Poland; to whom were opposed the combined powers of Great Britain, Russia, Sweden, and Spain. Napoleon placed himself at the head of an immense army, and now commenced the ever-memorable struggle. After passing through Dresden, and visiting in rapid suc- cession Dantzic and Konigsberg, he reach- ed the Niemen, the frontier river of Russia, on the 23rd of June. On the line of march were half a million of soldiers, in the high- est state of equipment and discipline; to whom he issued a proclamation in his usual confident and laconic style : " Russia," said he, " is driven onwards by fatality ; let her destinies be fulfilled, and an end put to the fatal influence which for the last fifty years she has had on the affairs of Europe. Let us cross the Niemen, and carry the war into her territories." On the other side vast preparations had also been made; and theaimy, consisting of about 300,000 men, was under the immediate direction of the emperor Alexander, and his sagacious mi- nister, Barclay de Tolly. The plan of the Russians was to draw the invaders from their resources; to make a stand only in favourable situations ; and to weary the enemy by endles^^ marches over the dreary plains, till the inclemency of a Russian winter should lend its aid to stop their am- bitious career. Various partial engagements took place as the French advanced, the circumstances of which were so differently related in the bulletins of tlie opposite par- ties, that nothing is certain hut the general result. Considering the immense masses of men that were in motidn, the French proceeded with great rapidity, notwith- 1 standing the checks they occasionally ex- I perienced, till the 7th of September, when j the Russians determined to make a vigor- ous effort against their farther advance. I The two armies met between the villages of CI CO MAllCH 2G. A.P. 18ia.— WB MHWPtCITT SOOIBTT, lOIfSOK, WAS THIS TBAB BSTABMSHBD. [2 jR 3 i I A.O. 1812. — CHAIN CABLBS VIB8T IIITBODVCBD INTO TBB NAVT. 462 SEI^c ^reagure of Ilistore, $cc. Moskwn and Borodino, when a most san- guinary battle took place. On this occasion each of the hostile armies numbered 125,000 men; and when "night's sable curtain" closed the horrid scene, the bodies of 40,000, either dead or mortally wouiided, were stretched on the field of battle 1 Both par- ties claimed the victory, though the ad- vantage was evidently on the side of the French, as they proceeded without farther opposition to Moscow, where they expected to rest from their toils in peace and good winter quarters. About mid-day on the I4th the turrets of Moscow, glittering in the sun, were descried. The troops entered; but the citv was deserted, and all was still. The capital of ancient Russia was not des- tined to be the abiding-place of its present occupants. A d^nse smoke began to issue from numerous buildings at the same in- stant. By order of the governor, count Ros- topchin, bands uf incendiaries had been employed to do the work of destruction. Public edifices and private houses suddenly burst into flames ; and every moment ex- plosions of gunpowder mingled with the sound of the cradling timbers ; while fran- tic men and women were seen running to and fro, with flambeaux in their hands, spreading the work of destruction. Paralyzed, as it were, by the awful scene, and by the extreme danger which he could no longer fail to apprehend. Napoleon lingered five weeks among the reeking ruins of Mos- cow. Around him the RusssnnA were daily increasing in strength, especinliy i> cavalry ; and it was not till Murat had been defeat- ed, and the first snow had fallen, that he determined on his retreat. At length, after making several ineffectual attempts at ne- gotiation, he quitted the city of the czars ou the 19th of October, taking with him all the plunder that could be saved from the fire ; having at the time 100,000 effective men, 50,000 horses, 550 field-pieces, and 2,000 artillery waggons, exclusive of a mot- ley host of followers, amounting to 40,000. He had no choice left. To subdue the whole Russian army, and by that means to secure to himself an honourable peace, appeared to be beyond the ver^e ot possibility; to return with all possible expedition was therefore the only course he could pursue ; and he accordingly directed the march of his army towards Smoleneko, where he arrived with his imperial guard ou the.Oth of November. Alternate frost, sleet, and snow made the weather insupportable. Overcome by cold, hunger, and fatigue, the soldiers and their horses perished by thou- sands ; while he, whose mad ambition had led them to their pitiable fate, was travel- ling in his carriage, and wrapped up in furs. At length, after taking leave ot his marshals at Smorgony, Dec. 6, Napoleon privately withdrew from the army, and reached Paris on the 19th. The Russians ne\er relaxed in the pursuit till they reach- ed the Vistula, and not a day passed in which some of the fugitives did not fall into their hands. By Christmas-day they estimated their captures at 41 generals. 1298 officers, 16r,510 privates, and 1131 pieces of cannon : the grand array was, in fact, annihilated. During the absence of Buonaparte in this disastrous expedition, an attempt was made to subvert his power at home, which, had it not been speedily suppressed, would probably have occasioned another revolu- tion. The conductors cf the conspiracy were the ex-generals Mallet, Lahorie, and Guidal, who having framed a fictitious sena- tua conaultum, went to the barrack of the first division of the national guards, and read a proclamation, stating that the em- peror had been killed, and commanding the troops to follow them. The soldiers. Tittle suspecting any forgery, obeyed, and suffered themselves to be led to different posts, where they relieved the guards. The con- spirators then arrested the ministers of police, and having assassinated general Hullin, wlio had marched into the city with some troops, they attempted to seize the chief of the etat-mqjor of Paris ; but being arrested, they were committed to prison, and tried before a military commission ; when the three generals and eleven others received sentence of death ; which being put into execution, tranquillity was re- stored to Paris. A.D. 18ia. — The attempts which liad been made by ministers to arrange the differen- ces between Great Britian and the United States were unsuccessful, the influence of Mr. Madison, the president, being exerted in the rejection of all pacificatory propo- sals. The conquest of Canada was resolved on, and troops were dispatched into that country; but the vigilance of the British commanders baffled all their schemes, and obllu;cd tliem to desist from the enterprize. The Americans, however, were successful at sea, and captured several British frigates and other vessels. After the retreat of Buonaparte from Russia, the emperor Alexander pursued the remaining French forces as far as Posen, a city in Poland. He was here joined by the kingof Prussia, who, cousidcrinp; the present an advantageous opportunity tor restoring the equilibrium of Europe, renounced his alliance with France, and concluded a treaty with Great Britain and her allies. In the mean time Buonaparte was using all his efforts to revive the spirit, and call forth the resources of his empire ; and having appointed the empress regent during his absence, he joined his army, now consisting of 350,000 new troops. On the 7th of May the hostile armies engaged at Lutzen, in Upper Saxony, where the French were commanded by Buonaparte, and the allies by general Winzingerode. The conflict was long and bloody, and both parties claimed the victory. On the \9th, 20th, 21st, and 22nd of the same month, severe actions took place, and not less than 40,000 were killed or wounded. On the 1st of June, at the suggestion of the emperor of Austria, Napoleon made proposals to the emperor Alexander for a suspension of hostilities: in consequence of which an armistice was o >i I to 00 r-i B !\ A.l). 1813.— POURTEEN "LUDDITES" KXRCDTED AT lORK, JAN. 10. 1 ' A. D. 1813. — MR. PITT'S MOHUMaUT IN OOIIiOHALL OrSHBD, NABCH 37. lEnglantr l^ouse of Idrunstoicii — CDlcorge 3E3ES. 463 concluded, which was to terminate on the 20th of July. It now became necessary for Buonaparte to withdraw about 20,000 of his best troops from Spain, to reinforce this grand army in the north of Euroi)e. This diminution of the enemy's force in the peninsula could not fail to gratify the Anglo- Spanish army ; yet a concurrence of unavoidable circum- stances prevented the marquis of Welling- ton from opening the campaign till about the middle of May. Having obliged the enemy to evacuate Salamanca, he pursued them with as much haste as possible, and haviug passed the Ebro, he came up with them at Vittoria, a town in the province of Biscay, where, on the 21st of June, a battle was fought between the allied troops under lord 'Wellington, and the French, com- manded by Joseph Buonaparte and marshal Jourdan. Admirable bravery and persever- ance were displayed by the allies, who com- pletely vanquished the enemy, and took 150 cannon and 415 waggons of ammunition. On the side of the allies there were 700 killed and 4000 wounded ; and it was well known that the loss of the French was much greater. Being hotly pursued, the enemy retreated across the Bidassoa into France. The baton of marshal Jourdan bein^ taken, was sent to the prince regent, who, in return, created the marquis of Wel- lington field-marshal of the allied armies of Great Britain, Spain, and Portugal. The Spanish government acknowledged their obligations to the British hero, by con- ferring on him the dignity of prince of Vittoria. While the cause of rational freedom was so nobly sustained by lord Wellington in this part of Spain, sir John Murray had landed his troops at Tarragano, in order lO invest that place. After he Imd made himself master of fort St. Philippe, on be- ing informed of the approach of marshal Suchet, he, without waiting for information of the enemy's strength, disembarked his troops, leaving behind him his artillery. For this precipitation sir John was se- verely censured by some political writers ; and being tried at Winchester, in Febru- ary, 1815, he was found guilty of " having unnecessarily abandoned a quantity of ar- tillery and stores, which he might have embarked in safety; and was adjudged to be admonished in such p. manner as his ruyal highness the commander in chief may thinlc proper." His royal highness approved and confirmed the sentence of the court, but as the conduct of sir John Murray was attributed merely to an error of judgment, the case did not appear to him to call for any further observation. After the battle of Vittoria the French army retreated with great precipitation into France, pursued by the light troops of the allies ; and the marquis of Welling- ton caused the forts of Pampelunn and St. Sebastian to be immediatelv invested. When Buonaparte received intelligence of these successes of the British army, he dispatched marshal Soult with some forces to check their progress. On the 13th of July the French marshal joined the army, and on the 24tli he made a vigorous at- tack on the right wing of the allies, at Roncesvalles, commanded by general Byng. From that day till the 2nd of August the hostile armies were continually engaged ; the passes of the mountains were bravely disputed by the enemy, but the British were irresistible, and the French again re- treated beyond the Pyrenees. The for- tresses of St. Sebastian and Pampeluna surrendered to the British arms after- wards; and on the 7th of October lord Wellington entered the French territory at the head of his army. While in the south of Europe these transactions were taking place, a great crisis was at hand in the north. During the armistice, which had extended to the llthof August, several attempts were made by the allies to obtain such a peace as would effect and confirm the safety and tranquillity of the continental states. These endeavours were, however, rendered abor- tive by the insolent pretensions of the French ruler, which induced the emperor of Austria to relinquish his cause, and to join in the alliance against him. Hostili- ties were resumed on tlte 17th of August, when Buonaparte immediately prepared to attack fhe city of Prague ; but being in- formed that his Silesian army was exposed to imminent danger from the threatening posture of the allies, he was obliged to change his plan of operations. He accord- ingly quitted Bohemia, and made an at- tack on the allied army under the Prussian general Blucher, who was compelled to make a retrograde movement. The further progress of the French in this quarter was arrested by the advance of the grand army of the allies towards Dresden, which made the immediate return of Napoleon neces- sary. He accordingly advanced by forced marches to the protection of that city ; and having thrown into it an army of 130,000 men, he awaited the attack of his enemies. The grand assault was made on the 2fith of August, but as there was no prospect of taking Dresden by escalade, the allies abandoned the attempt, and took a very extended position on the heights surround- ing the city, where they were attacked by the French on the following day, and ob- liged to retire with considerable loss. It was in this engagement that general Mo- reau, who had left liis retreat in America to assist in restoring liberty to Europe, was mortally wounded, while conversing with the emperor Alexander. A cannon- ball, which passed through his horse, car- ried oflf one of his legs and »hattered»the other. He had both legs amputated, hut survived his disaster only a few days, dy- ing from exhaustion. In the following month several well-con- tested battles took place, in which victory was uniformly in favour of those who con- tended against tyranny and usurpation. But as Leipsic was the point to which the efforts of the confederates were principally A.D. I813.-Tna "cbabta db fobesta" of 14 hbnrt ii. discovered. wmm mm 11 !l i \ L 11 ' i ; A.D. 181S<— VBB AMBBIOAHS DBFBATBD ON TBS BIASAB* FBONTIBB, SBO. SO. 464 ^f)e ^reasurt) of l|istorp, $cc. directed, Buonaparte left Dresden, and concentrated his furcei at Rochliti. At thin period an important accession was made to the allied cause, by a treaty with Bavaria, who agreed to furnish an army of 55,000 men. The hostile armies were now both in the vicinitv of Leipsic : the French estimated at about 200,000 men ; the allies at 250,000. On the night of the 15th rockets were seen ascending, announcing the approach of Blucher and the crown prince of Sweden. At day -break, on the 16th, the French were assailed along their southern front with the greatest fury, but failing to make an impression. Napo- leon assumed the offensive. Throughout the day, bv turns each party had the ad- vantage; but at nightfall the French found it necessary to contract their posi- tion, by drawing nearer the walls of Leip- sic. The following day was principally B|)ent in making preparations for a renewal of the contest; and on the 18th another general engagement took place. The loss of the victors, during a battle which raged from dawn of day till night, was severe; but that of the vanquished was infinitely more so. Above 40,000 of the enemy were either killed, wounded, or taken prisoners ; seventeen battalions of Saxons, with their artillery, joined the ranks of the allies, who took also sixty-five pieces of cannon. The immediate fruits of this splendid vic- tory were, the capture of Leipsic and of the Saxon king, of 30,000 prisoners, and of all the baggage and ammunition of the flying foe. The allies did not fail to follow up the advantages which had been gained; and their close pursuit of the French army, ren- dered its retreat to the Rliinc in some re- spects as calamitous as their recent flight from Russia. The troops under Blucher and Schwartzenburg, who had greatly dis- tinguished themselves during the late en- counters, entered the French territories on New-year's day, 1814. All the minor states of Germany now joined the grand alliance; the confederation of the Rhine was dis- solved ; and the continental svstera esta- blished by Buonaparte was broken up. The spirit which had attended the march of the allied armies, communicated itself to the United Provinces, and occasioned a complete revolution in that part of Europe. The arbitrary annexation of that country was very detrimental to their commercial interests; and, at length, on the approach of the, allies to the Dutch frontier, the people of Amsterdam rose in a body, and with the rallying cry of "Orange Boven," universally displayed the orange colours, and proclaimed the sovereignty of that il- lustrious house. The example of Amster- dam was followed by the other-towns ; the bonds of French tyranny were immediately broken, the independence of Holland was asserted, and a deputation was sent to London, to announce the revolution, and to invite the prince of Orange to place him- self at the head of his countrymen. The Dutch patriot* were assisted with all the succours that England could conTenientlf furnish; and the prince of Orange went and assumed the reins of goTeroment, not under the ancient title of stadtholder, but as king of the Netherlanda. Denmark, the only remaining ally of Buonaparte, was compelled, by the crown prince of Sweden, to accept such terms as the allied sove- teigns pleased to prescribe. On the 1st of December the allied sove- reigns issued from Frankfort a declaration explanatory of their views. " Victory," they said, " had conducted them to the banks of the Rhine, and the first use which they made of it was to offer peace. They desired that France might be great and powerful ; because, in a state of greatness and strength, she constituted one of the foundations of the social edifice of Europe. They offered to confirm to the French em- pire an extent of territory which France, under her kings, never knew. Desiring peace themselves, they wished such bu equilibrium of power to be established, that Europe might be preserved from the cala- mities which for the last twenty years had overwhelmed her." This declaration wbs based on moderation and justice ; and In their conduct to France, the allies acted up to their professions. A. D. I814.-After his hasty retreat to Paris, the fugiti< e emperor assembled the senate, and neglected no means that were likely to rouse the spirit of the French to resist their invaders. Very little effect was, however, Produced by his appeals to the people, and e was under the necessity of appointing twenty-five commissioners, each invested with absolute power, to accelerate the levy of new forces. Having confided the re- gency to the empress, he left Paris on the 25th of January, and placed himself at the head of such troops as he could muster, llts dominions were at this time threatened on one side by the British troops, under lord Wellington, and on the other by the allied forces commanded by their respective sovereigns and generals. The army under the marquis of Welling- ton attacked Soult's on the 27th of Fe- bruary, and, after an obstinate battle, drove the enemy from a strong position near Orthes ; and on the 12th of March, a divi- sion under marshal Beresford advanced to the important city of Bourdeaux, and en- tered it amid the acclamations of the inha- bitants. After the entry of the northern allies into France, several sanguinary contests took place ; when Buonaparte finding that it was ImpracticaMe to prevail by force, attempted to relieve his affairs by negotia- tions. I'lenipotentiaries appointed by the belligerent powers accordingly assembled at Chatillon ; and the allies, whose mode- ration had on every occasion been parti- cularly conspicuous, offered to sign preli- minaries of peace, which would nave se- cured to Buonaparte very important advan- tages. But these offers were rejected by Napoleon, who required that his family should be placed on foreign thrones, and A. D. 1813.— A BODV OF FRIBNUI.Y 0O88A0XB BNTBRBD AMSTBBDAM, HOT. S3. INTIVM, Die. to. A.D. 1814.— SRBAT FBOir IM JANUABT, THB TBAUBS VBOEEN OVBB, &C. 1EngIant» l^ousc of 13runstuitli.— OcorQe BIIE. 465 insisted on terms totally incompatible with the liberties of Europe. The conferences were consequently discontinued; and the allied sovereigns, indignant at the conduct of one who displayed such an unconquer- able aversion to a just and equal peace, resolved on vigorously prosecuting the war. In all the engagements which ensued, the superiority of the allies was sufficiently manifested. Napoleon now adopted the singular resolution of getting to the rear.of his enemies, and by tliis ill-judged move- ment left open the road to Paris. As soon as the Prussian and Austrian commanders could form a junction, they advanced, at the head of 2U0,000 combat- ants, towards the capital of France; and having gained a complete victory over the army commanded by Marmont and Mor- tier, under Joseph Buonaparte, they en- tered the city by capitulation on the 31st of March. The enthusiasm and exultation exhibited on this occasion, surpassed the most sanguine expectations of the con- querors. The whole city seemed to rise en matte, and to hail the allies as the libe- rators of Europe and the avengers of ty- ranny. The white cocknde was generally worn, the air resounded with snouts of Vive le Rot, Louit Xflll I Vivent let Bour- bon*! and the conquerors were welcomed with the acclamations of Vive I'empereur Alexandre/ Vive le roi de Prutael Vitent not liberateuri I The French senate now assembled and appointed a provisional government, at the head of which was the Celebrated Talley- rand, prince of Benevento. At a subse- quent meeting they declared that Napoleon Buonaparte and his family had forfeited all claim to the throne, and that the army and nation were consequently absolved from the oaths of allegiance to him. The senate then directed their attention to the choice of a sovereign ; and after a long consulta- tion, in which there was considerable differ- ence of opinion, they determined to recall the Bourbons. Marshal Marmont, after obtaining a promise that the life of the emperor should be spared, and that his troops might pass into Normandy, joined the allies at the head of 12,U0U men. Buonaparte, who had retired to Fontain- bleau, finding that he had been deposed by the senate, and that the allies were fully deteirained not to treat with him as the ruler of France, now offered to abdicate in favour of his infant son ; but this was peremptorily rejected, and he solemnly ab- dicated his usurped crown on the fith of April; on which day a new constitution was given to France, and Louis XVIII. was recalled to the throne of his ancestors. As soon as the emperor Alexander was in- formed of this event, he proposed, in the name of the allied sovereigns, that Napo- leon Buonaparte should choose a place of retreat for himself and family. By a mistaken sense of generosity, the small island of Elba, situated in the Mediter- ranean, between Corsica and the Tuscan coast, was given to him, in full sovereignty, with an annual revenue of two millions of i.aiics, to be paid by the French govern- ment ; and what was a still more extrava- gant stretch of misplaced liberality, a fur- ther allowance of two millions five hundred thousand francs was to be allowed to the diff'erent branches of his family ; who, as well as Napoleon were to be suff'ercd to retain their usurped titles I The principa- lity of Parma was also settled on Maria Louisa, his wife, in which she was to be succeeded by her son. Louis, who had for several years resided at Ilartwell in Buckinghamshire, having ac- cepted the basis of the constitution, made a public entry into London, and was accom- panied to Dover by the prince regent, from whence his majesty embarked for Calais, being convoyed to that port by the duke of Clarence. He entered Paris on the 3rd of May, where he was favourably received by the inhabitants, but the soldiery were far from appearing satisfied with the change which had been so suddenly wrought. On the same day, Buonaparte, after a variety of adventures, in which he had several narrow escapes from the violence of an in- furiated populace, arrived at his abode in Elba. Owing to some unacft)untable delay in the transmission of the treaty concluded at Paris, or (as was thought at the time) to the envious malignity of marshal Soult, who hoped to defeat his opponent and retrieve his lost honour, a sanguinary battle was fought near Toulouse, on the 10th of April, between his army and that of the marquis of Wellington. But this useless and deplo- rable effusion of blood only added fresh trophies to those already gained by the British commander. The last action of the peninsular war was fought at Bayonne, in which general sir John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner, and general Andrew Hay was killed. Among the minor transactions of this period, >ve must not omit, that at the close of the preceding year Hanover was recover- ed by the crown prince of Sweden ; who also reduced Holstein and Westphalia. — The kine of Denmark joined the grand alliance ;Wnd Dantzic surrendered after a long siege. The British, however, were repulsed, with considerable loss, in the at- tempt to take the strong fortress of Bcrgeu- op-Zoom. A treaty of pence and amity was, on the 30th of May, concluded at Paris, between his Britannic majesty and his most Chris- tian majesty, by which it was stipulated that the kingdom of France should retain its limits entire, as it existed previously to the revolution; that Malta should be ceded to Great Britain ; and that, with the exception of Tobago, St Liicie, and the Mauritius, all other possessions held by the French in January, 1792, should be restored. These and a few minor conditions being arranged at the time, it was agreed that all otiier subjects should be settled at a congress, to be held at Vienna by the high contracting parties, at some future period. The return ID AH, ROV. 33. A, D. 1814.— BVOIf APABTB BMBARKBD AT PBBJVS TOB BLBA, AFBIb 28. A. D. 1814.— MBBTINO OV TUB OONORKS* OF ViaRIfA, IfOVSMBBM 1. K a m K at M M Q '4 466 ^^e ^ITrcasuts of ^istorj}, $cc. of peace was celebrated by illurainationa, feastings, and every joyful demonstration that so happy an event could inspire. The first aci of the heroic and fortunate victors, now that the treaty had been rati- fied by the respective governments, was to pay a congratulatory visit to the prince re- gent of England. Accordingly, the emperor of Russia, accompanied by his sister the duchess of Oldenburg ; the king of Prussia, with his two sons; tonether with prince Metternich, generals Blucher, Barclay de Tolly, Bulow, hetman of the Cossacks, &c., landed at Dover on the 6th of June, and arrived in London the next day. The metropolis was 'illuminated, and became a general scene of gaiety during the three weeks' stay of the royal visitors. _ The illustrious strangers lost no opportunity of seeing whatever was most worthy of their notice ; and they were not merely enter- tained by royal banqueting, but received the attention due to their rank and valuable services in the general cause of Europe, by splendid and costly entertainments from the corporation and public companies of London. The bank, the dock-yards, the arsenal at Woolwich, Greenwich and Chel- sea-hospitals, the mint, St. Paul's on the day of the charity-children's anniversary, and Westminster-abbey, were by turns vis- ited, and throngs of well-dressed people every where accompanied them ; while the frank and urbane conduct of the noble guests — the emperor Alexander and the gallant old Blucher more especially were the admiration of the multitude. Nor were their visits confined to the places above mentioned. They witnessed Ascot-heath races; were present at a grand review in Hyde park; and took a journey to Oxford, where they were splendidly entertained by the masters and students of the university, and received certain honorary distinctions. After having inspected nearly all the public offices of the metropolis, their majesties and suites made preparations for their return to the continent. They left London on the 22nd of June, arrived at Portsmouth in the evening, and the next day were entertained with the novel and truly grand spectacle of a naval review. The fleet forniM a line of seven or eight mites in extent, ami received the royal visitors with a royal salute, after which they slipped their cables, and were immediately under sail with a brisk gale. The Royal Sovereign yacht, on board of which were the illustrious visitors, led the van, and was followed hy the barges of the admiralty and private vessels of all descrip- tions, to the number of two hundred. The eifect was beautiful. The royal party quitted the men of war at about seven o'clock, and lauded amidst a discharge of all the artil- lery round the works of Portsmouth and Portsea. On the arrival of the prince regent at the government-house, he was met by the marquis of Wellington, who had been waiting his approach. As soon as the populace were informed of the arrival of the British hero, the air echoed with their shouts, and having taken the horses from his carriage, thev drew him in triumph to the prince's abode. Tne regent and his angast visitors left Portsmouth on the 35th of June ; and after reviewing about 700<) troops on Portsdowu- hill, they proceeded to the seat of the '.uke of Richmond, at Goodwood, to breakfast ; arrived at Dover on the following day ; and on the 37th the emperor of Russia and the kingof Prussia, with their respective saitei, took a farewell of the prince regent, and embarked for the continent. It is difficult to describe the eager curiosity and the un- bounded demonstrations of joy with which they were received wherever they appeared ; nor is it less so to do justice to that affabi- lity and condescension with which they uniformly endeavoured to gratify all who approached them. The homage of affec- tionate respect which the emperor Alexan- der, in particular, received in England, was not the flattery of sycophants; it was a testimony of the attachment of a free peo- ple, who honoured him as a man rather than as a monarch; and his discerning mind doubtless felt the tribute as one of the most grateful rewards to which his eminent services entitled him. It is necessary that we now revert to the war that was still being carried on, though with no great vigour on either side, between Great Britain and the United States of America. Many indecisive conflicts took place between the rival flotillas on the lakes ; and as the Americans had frequently succeeded in capturing such British vessels as were inferior to those with which they had come in contact, the honour of the British flag seemed for awhile to droop ; but it rose again triumphant under captain Broke, of the Shannon, who in the short space of fifteen minutes captured the Ches- apeake, off the port of Boston, and in sight of the people who lined its shores to wit- ness the action. During the months of June, July, and August, the squadron un- der rear-admiral Cockburn, was constantly engaged in harassing the enemy in every assailable position, till the arrival of sir Alexander Coehrane, the commander-in- chief of the British troops in that quarter. Being joined by rear-admiral Malcolm, with some reinforcements from Bermuda, an attack upon the American flotilla in the Patuxent was formed, and the fleet sailed up the river. The American vessels be- ingp destroyed before the fleet arrived, the British commanders resolved to make an attempt on Washington, the seat of the American government. In pursuance of this design, they advanced to the village of Bladensburg, about five miles from the capital, and having defeated a superior American force, they proceeded, without further opposition, to Washington. On the approach of the British armament the enemy set fire to the navy-yard and arsen- als, which, with the stores and a fort, were totally consumed. The senate-house, the house of representation, the treasury, the war office, the president's palace, and all the public buildings, were burned the same AD. 1814.— DKATU OP JOANNA SOUTKCOTT, A HBLISIOUS IMFOSTBH, DBC. 27. A. D. 1816, R rBINCM O* uaANSB MABII KINO UP THB NRTHKRIiANDS. N him in triumph to I Augast visitiirs left th of June ; and after troops on Portsdown- ( the Beat of the "uke dwood, to breakfast j le (ollowinK day ; and ror of Russia and the ■heir respective suites, B prince regent, and tinent. It is difficult curiosity and tlie nn- ons of joy with which lerever they appeared ; justice to that affabi- ion with which they ed to gratify all who rhe homage of affec- ■\ the emperor Alexan- ieived in England, was svcophants; it was a achment of a tree peo- him as a man rather ; and his discerning the tribute as one of rewards to which his itled him. It we now retert to the sing carried on, though on either side, between the United States of decisive conflicts took rival flotillas on the nericans had frequently ing such British vessels those with which they let, the honour of the I for awhile to droop; umphant under captain non, who in the short lies captured the Ches- of Boston, and in sight lined its shores to wii- }uring the months of gust, the squadron un- ckburn, was constantly ng the enemy in every till the arrival of sir le, the commander-in- , troops in that quarter, rear-admiral Malcolm, ;ement8 from Bermuda, American flotilla in the led, and the fleet sailed B American vessels he- re the fleet arrived, the rs resolved to make an ngton, the seat of the lent. In pursuance of Ivanced to the village of It five miles from the ig defeated a superior hey proceeded, witliout , to Washington. On e British armament the le navy-yard and arsen- e stoires and a fort, were The senate-house, the nation, the treasury, the ■sident's palace, and all ;s, were burned the same lUrOSTRB, DBC. 27- lEnglantJ.— I^ouse of larunatoicii.— (Keorgt EJEE. 467 night ; 206 pieces of cannon and a Urge quan- tity of ammunition in the city and arsenal destroyed. The object of this expedition being thus fully accomplished, the British troops re-embarked. After this event the hostile operations in America were neither important nor interesting; the vigorous measures lately pursued by the British legislature convinced the president, Mr. Madison, that his country could derive no advantages from prolonging the contest, and induced him to accelerate the conclu- sion of peace. The treaty was consequently signed at Ghent, Dec. 24. A. D. 181S. — We now resume our brief narrative of the events which were occur- ring on the other side of the English chan- nel. Louis XVIII. devoted his attention to the re-establishment of order in the government, and endeavoured bv ever^ kind and conciliatory act, to soothe the animosi-. ties that still rankled in the bosoms of the royalists, republicans, and Buonapartists. The new constitution, which was modelled upon that of England, was readily accepted by the senate and legislative body. The conscription was abolished; the unsold property of the emigrants was restored to them; the shops, which, during the re- public and the reign of Buonaparte, had always remained open on Sunaays, were now ordered to be closed ; and the liberty of the press was restricted within proper hmits. A congress of the allied powers was now held at Vienna, for the purpose of making such political and territorial regulations, as should effectually restore the equilib- rium of power, and afford a more certain prospect of permanent tranquility. But a state of tranquility was not so near as their sanguine wishes contemplated. An event happened ere their deliberations were brought to a conclusion, which made it necessary for them to lay by their pen, and once more take up the sword. The restless and intriguing spirit of Napoleon was not to be conttned to the isle of Elba ; and the allied armies were no sooner withdrawn from France, than he' meditated a descent on its coast. He accordingly took advan- tage of the first opportunity that offered of quitting the island, attended bv the officers and troops who had followed him thither, with many Corsicans and Elbeae, and land- ed at Cannes, in Provence, on the Ist of March. The news of his landing was instantly conveyed to Paris, and large bodies of troops were sent to arrest his progress, and make him prisoner. But Louis was sur- rounded by traitors; the army regretted the loss of their chief who had so often led them to victory ; they forgot his base desertion of their comrades in the moment of peril ; and doubted not that his return would efface their late disgrace, and restore them to that proud pre-eminence from which they had fallen. At his approach, the armies that had been sent to oppose him openly declared in his favour ; ana he pursued his journey to Paris, augmenting his numbers at every step, till all resistance on the part of the king was deemed useless. On reach- ing the capital, he was received by the inconstant multitude with acclamations as loud as those which so recentiv had greeted the arrival of Louis. Such is tiie instability of what is termed popular favour I The unfortunate king retired flrst to Lisle, and then to Ghent. When the allied sovereigns were inform- ed that Napoleon had broken hiF> engage- ments, and saw that his had faith was fully equal to his ambition, tliey published a declaration, to the effect that Buona- Earte having violated the convention, he ad forfeited every claim to public favour, and would henceforth be considered only as an outlaw. In answer to this, he pub- lished a counter-declaration, asserting that he was recalled to the throne by the unani- mous voice of the nation, and that he was resolved to devote the remainder of his life in cultivating the arts of peace. In the mean time, preparations for war were made by all the allied powers. The English, whose army, under the command of the duke of Wellington, was at this time in the Netherlands, resolved not to leave the mtin they had once conquered, in quiet possession of the throne of France, and every engine was put in motion to re- assemble the troops. Buonaparte, likewise, actively prepared for the contest that was to decide his fate. He collected together all the disposable forces of France, and led them towards the Netherlands, hoping to arrive before fresh troops could come to the aid of the English and Prussians, and thus defeat tl^em and get possession of Brussels. The army under the immediate direction of the French emperor, including the corps ofGouchy, amounted to upwards of 1 50,U0U men, with 35U pieces of cannon. In an order of the day, issued the I4lh of June, he said, " the moment has arrived for every Frenchman who has a heart, to conquer or perish." The allied troops in Flanders were yet quiet in their cantonments. The Prus- Eo-Saxon army formed the left, the Anglo- Belgian army the right. The former was 1I5,0U0 strong, commanded by the veteran Bluclier; the latter about .S0,OU0, com- manded by the duke of Wellington, whose head-quarters were at Brussels; those of Blucher were at Namur, about sixteen leagues distant. On the ISth of June the memorable campaign of 1815 was began, hy Napoleon driving in the advanced posts of the Prus- sians on the river Sambre ; whilst marshal Ney crossed the river at Marchienncs, re- pulsed the Prussians, and drove back a Bel- fjian brigade to Quatrc-Bras. In the evening, 111 eleven o'clock, the duke of Wellington, (who, together with the duke of Brunswick, and the principal officers then in Brussels, were participating in the feativitiesora ball, given bytheduohcssof Richmcmd,) received a dispatch from marshal Blucher, informing him that Buonaparte was on his march to Brussels, at the head of ISO,(iOO men. The A. D. 1815. — FIUST BTONB OF SOUTH WAHK BRIDOB lAin, MAY 23. J TBR BNOLISn HAD 160 FIBCBS OF CANNON AT WATEDLOO. I I i V ;v 468 'H^fft ^JTrcasuru of l^iatorw, $ct. dance was suspended, and orders issued tor assembling the troops. On the 16tU wns fought the battle of Ligny, in wliich Bluoher was defeated, and forced to retreat to Wavre, haviujic narrowly escaped being taken prisoner. On the same day the duke of Wellington had directed his whole army to advance on QuatreBrus, with the inten- tion of succouring Bluchcr, but was himself attacked by a large body of cavalry and infantry, before his own cavalry had join- ed. In the mean time the English, under sir Thomas Picton, the Belgians, under the duke of Brunswick, had to sustain the impetuous attacks of the French, com- manded by marshal Ney ; who was eventu- ally repulsed, though with considerable loss. In this action fell the gallant duke of Brunswick, who was universally and de- servedly lamented.— The whole of the 17th was employed in preparations for the event- ful battle that ensued. The retreat of Blucher's army to Wavre rendered it necessary for Wellington to make a corresponding retrograde move- ment, in order to keep up a communica- tion with the Prussians, and to occupy a position in front of the village of Water- loo. Confronting the position of the allies was a chain of heights, separated by a ravine, half a mile 'in breadth. Here Na- poleon arrayed his forces ; and having rode throu<;h the lines and given his last or- ders, he placed himself on the heights of Rossome, whence he had a complete view of the two armies. About a quarter before eleven o'clock the battle began by a Aerce attack on the British division posted at Hougoraont: it was taken and retaken several times, the English guards bravely defending and eventually remaining in possession of it. At the same time the French kept an inces- sant cannonade against the whole line, and made repeated charges with heavy masses of cuirassiers, supported by close columns of infantry ; which, except in one instance, when the farm of La Haye Sainte was forced, were uniformly repulsed. Charges and countercharges of cavalry and infantry followed with astonishing pertinacity. The brave sir Thomas Picton was shot, at the head of his division : a grand charge of British cavalry then ensued, which for a moment swept every thing before it ; but, assailed in its turn by masses of cuirassiers and Polish lancers, it was forced back, and in the desperate encounter sir William Ponsonby and other gallant officers were slain. Soon after this, it is said, thoduke felt himself so hard pressed, that he was heard to say, "Would to God night or Bluchcr would come." As the shades of evening opproached, it appeared almost doubtful whether the troops could much longer sustain the unequal conflict ; but at this critical moment thePrussian can- non was heard on the left. Buonaparte immediately dispatched a force to hold them in check ; while he brought forward the imperial guards, sustained by the best regiments of horse and foot, amid shouts of Vive Pempereur, a d flourishes of mar- tial music. At this moment the duke of Wellington brought forward his whole line of infantry supported by the cavalry and artillery, and promptly ordered his men to " charge I " This was so unexpected by the enemy, and so admirably performed by the British troops, that the French lied us though the whole army were panic-stricken. Napoleon, perceiving the recoil of his co- lumns on all sides, exclaimed, "it is all over," and retreated with all possible speed. The French left the field in the utmost confusion and dismay, abandoning above one hundred and tifty pieces of cannon. They were pursued by the victors till lung after dark, when the British, exhausted by fatigue, halted; the Prussians therefore continued the pursuit, and nothing could be more complete than the discomliturc of the routed army : not more than 40,000 men, partly without arms, and carrying with them only twenty-seven pieces out of their numerous artillery, made their re- treat through Charleroi. The loss of the aUies was great ; that of the British and Hanoverians alone amounted to 13,000. Two generals and four colonels were among the killed ; nine generals and five colonels were wounded : among them was lord Ux- bridge, who had fought gallantly, and was wounded by almost tlie last shot that was fired by the enemy. Such is the gcnerni, though necessarily meagre, outline of tlie uvcr-memorable battle of Waterloo : evinc- ing one of the noblest proofs upon record of British valour, and of the talents of n great national commander. Buonaparte returned to Paris, in the gloominess of despair, and admitted that his army was no more. The partisans oj Louis looked forward to the restoration of the Bourbons; another party desired a republic ; while the Buonapartists showed their anxiety to receive Napoleon's abdi- cation, and to make Maria Louisa empress- regent during her sun's minority. Mean- while the representatives of the nation declared their sittings permanent; and some of the members having boldly as- serted, that the unconditional abdication of Buonaparte could alone serve the state, the declaration was received with applause, and the fallen emperor was persuaded uiice more to descend from his usurped throne. A commission was appointed to repair to the allied armies with proposals of i fieace, but the victors had for.med u -rcso- | ution not to treat but under, the walls of 1 Paris. The duke of Wellington then nd- dressed a proclamation to the French peo- ple, stating that he had entered the coun- try not as an enemy, except to the usurper, with whom there could be neither \wv.ce nor truce ; but to enable them to throw off the yoke by which they were oppressed. Wellington and Blucher C!)ntinued their march to Paris with littlp opposition, and on the 30th it was invested. The heights about the city were strongly fortified, and it was defended by 50,000 troop;* of the line, besides national guards and voliin- C ;! " il a ! THE FBENCn HAD 296 PIECES OF CANIIOM AT WATEBI'OO. A p. 1815.— flRK AT TBK MINT, OCT. 31; DAMAOI XSTIXATKD AT 80,000f. flourishes of inar- oment the tlukc of ward his whole line by the cavalry and ordered his men to I 10 unexpected by irably performed by t the French Hed as were panic-stricken, he recoil of his co- xclaimed, " it is all ;h all possible speed. Held in the utmost , abandoning above y pieces of cannon, the victors till lung ritish, exhausted by Prussians therci'orc , and nothing could a the discomtiture of t more than 40,00(t arms, and carrying ^-sevcn pieces out of lery, made their re •oi. The loss of the of the British and amounted to 13,000. { colonels were among ■als and live colonels g them was lord Ux- it gallantly, and was le last shot that was Sucli is the general, eafjre, outline of the , s of Waterloo : evinc- '■ It proofs upon record 1 of the talents of n ', [tider. I ed to Paris, in the I and admitted that { _. The partisons of i to the restoration of j lier party desired a uonapartists showed ive Napoleon's nbdi- Jaria Louisa empress- ii's minority. Mcan- tives of the nation y;3 permanent; and I's having boldly ns- )nditiounl abdication done serve the state, ccivcd with applause, r was persuaded ouce liis usurped throne, appointed to repair with proposals of j _ had formed a rcso- | lit under, the walls of i Wellington then ail- j n to the French peo- | ad entered tbe coun- j except to the usui'inir, nld be neither peace lable them to tluow they were oppressed. ;lier Ciintinucd their ittlp opposition, and vested. Tlie hcishts troni^ly fortified, and jO.OOO troops of the il guards and voliin- EBl.OO. lEnglantl — l^ouac of ISrunsfuicii.— €Vcorge EEH. 469 teers. On the 3rd of July, marshal Da- voast, the French commander, concluded a convention with tbe generals in-chief of the allied armies, who stipulated that Paris should "be evacuated in three days by the French troops ; all the fortified posts and barriers given up; and no individual Srosecuted for his political opinion or con- uct. The provisional government now retired; and on the 6th Louis made his Eublic entry into Paris, where he was hailed y his tickle subjects wiih cri^s ut five In roi .' The military, however, though beaten into submission, were still stubborn; and it required some time and address to make tliem acknowledge the sovereignty of the Bourbons. Buonaparte in the meantime had reached the port of Rochefort in safety, from whence he anxiously hoped to escape to America; but finding it impossible to elude the Bri- tish cruisers, he went on board the Belle- rophon, one of tbe vessels blockading the coast, and surrendered himself to captain Maitland. Prior to this, he had sought to stipulate for a free passage, or to surrender on condition of being allowed to reside in England, in honourable exile ; but neither proposal could be listened to : the allied powers, aware of his restless and intrigu- ing disposition, had determined upon the island of St. Helena as his future resi- dence, and that there he should be kept under the strictest guard. The Bellero- plion proceeded to lorbay : Napoleon was transferred to the Northumberland, com- manded by admiral sir O. Cockburn, and, attended by some of his most attached friends and domestics, he in due course reached his ultimate destination ; but not without violently protesting against the injustice of bis banishment, alter having thrown himself upon the hospitality of the British nation. Murat, the brother-in-law of Napoleon, having joined the allies when he found the career of his friend and patron growing to a close, rejoined him again on his return from Elba ; but having been driven f^om the throne of Naples, he joined a band of desperadoes, and landed in Calabria; where, being spRcdily overcome and taken, he was instantly shot. Marshal Ney (who had promised Louis to bring Napoleon, "like a wild beast in a ca^e, to Paris") and colonel Labedoyerc, suffered for their treachery ; but Lavalette, who was sen- tenced to the same fate, escaped from pri- son, disguised in his wife's clothes; and by the assistance of sir Robert Wilson, Mr. Hutchinson, and Mr. Bruce, got out of the country undiscovered. A congress was held at Vienna, and seve- ral treaties between the allied powers and France were finally adjusted, (Nov. 20), The additions made to the French terri- tory by the treaty of 1814 were now res- cinded ; seventeen of the frontier fortified towns and cities of France were to be gar- risoned by the allies for five years ; 150,000 troops, as an army of occupation, under the duke of Wellington, were to be main- tained for the same apace of time ; and a sum of 900,000,000 francs was to be paid as an indemnity to the allies. It was further agreed, that all the works of art which had been plundered by the French from other countries, should be restored. Thus the master-pieces of art deposited in the gallery of the Louvre, (the Venus de Medicis, the Apollo_ Belvidere, &c. &c.) were reclaimed by their respective owners — an act of stern justice, but one which excited the utmost indignation among the Parisians. In order to-«ecure the peace of Germany, an act of confederation was concluded be- tween its respective rulers ; every member of which was free to form what alliances he pleased, provided they were such as could not prove injurious to thd general safety ; and in case of one prince being at- tacked, all the rest were bound to arm in his defence. Thus ended this long and sanguinary warfare; the events of which were so rapid and appalling, and their consequences so mighty and unlooked for, that future ages will be tempted to doubt the evidence of facts, and to believe that the history of the nineteenth century is interwoven with and embellished by the splendour ot fiction. A. D. 1816.— It has been justly observed, that " it was only after the storm had sub- sided that England became sensible of the wounds received in her late tremendous struggle. While hostilities lasted, she felt neither weakness nor disorder. Though a principal in the war, she had been exempt from Its worst calamities. Battles were fought, countries were overrun and deso- lated, but her own border remained unas- sailable. Like a spectator viewing se- curely the tempest at a distance, she was only sensible of its fury by the wreck of neighbouring nations, wafted at intervals to her shores. The cessation of hostilities, in 1815, was like the cessation of motion in a ;;igantic machine, which has been urged to its maximum velocity. One of the first results of peace was an enormous diminu- tion in the war expenditure of the govern- ment. During the last five years of the war, the public expenditure averaged 108,720,000^ During the first five years of peace it averaged 64,660,000{. Peace thus caused an immediate reduction of nearly fifty millions in the amount of money ex- S ended by_ government in the support of omestic industry. Transitions, whether from peace to war or war to peace, invari- ably produce derangements, if not aggre- gate loss, in the economical relations of the community. In the first, there is the abandonment of various projects of im- provement, as roads, canals, bridges, and buildii<,:s; and of undertakings in com- merce, agriculture, and manufactures, that depend on a low rate of interest, and mode- rate price of labour: in the last, are the derangements just alluded to, of soldiers and seamen discharged, foreign colonics relinquished, manufactures, suited to a state of war, suspended, workmen and capi- tal put out of employment, and the public A.O. ISld.— BUONAPABTB ARSITED AMD lANOKD AT ST. HBIIKA, OCT. 15. [2 Si ,11 A. 0.1816. — B. B. IHSaiDAIt, OB4TOB, WIT, AND BBAMATflT, OIXD JOLT 7- ' 1 470 ^fft ^xtB»ntTS of l^istorp, $ce. loaded with enormous debts, and the main- tenance of reduced placemen, and naval and military supernumeraries. In times Of Industrial prosperity the masses take little interest in public affairs; their dif- ferences are with their employers. En- couraged by the demand for labour, they seek by combination to extort higher wages. The struggle continues till high prices and overstocknl markets produce a mercantile revulsion: then workmen are discharged. Wages lowered, and masters recover their ascendancy. It is in this state of depres- sion that workmen begin to listen to repre- sentations of public grievances. Republi- can writings increase in circulation; ab- stract theories of government are pro- pounded; and the equal right of all to ■hare in political franchises is boldly as- serted and readily believed. While the popular excitement lasts the property-clas- ses' keep aloof, having no wish to counte- nance opinions incompatible with their present immunities; and the aristocratic politicians of all parties either combine against the common enemy, or suspend the agitation of their mutual differences. This was the state of the country in 1S16 : in the metropolis and in the northern conn- ties there were vast assemblages of people in the open air, but they were unattenoed by the nch aud influential. Working men called the meetings, drew up resolutions, and made speeches, setting forth the evils of non-representation, of liberticide wars, of the pressure of taxes levied on the in- dnstrious, to be squandered in extravagant salaries, sinecures, and unmerited pensions — forall which the remedy prescribed was a BADICAL RBFOBM of the Kouse of com- mons, on the basis of universal suffrage, annual parliameuts, and vote by ballot." Though we can ill afford room for more tha'n a brief recital of actual occurrences, it seemed absolutely necessary at this period of our history to take some notice of the position which, after a warfare of such long continuance and of so expensive a character. Great Britain assumed, in her domestic as well as in her foreign rela- tions. The preceding observations, there- fore, which we have taken the liberty to ex- tract from Mr. Wade's Chronological His- tory, will furnish the reader with a synop- tical review of this period, in language at once clear and condensed, and will tend to elucidate much that may afterwards be summarily mentioned or incidentally al- luded to. At the commencement of the session ministers were defeated in attempting to continue the property tax for one year longer; and, cnagrined at this result, they abandoned the war duty on malt, thereby relinquishing a tax that would have pro- duced 2,000,0001. The Bank restriction bill was extended for two years longer: and another ineffectual attempt was made in favour of the Roman catholic claims. The house was now informed, by a mes- sage from the prince regent, that a matri- monial alliance was about to take place between his daughter and prince Leopold of Baxe Cobourg : upon which parliament voted an annual provision of 60,0U0I. for supporting a suitable establishment ; and in the event of the decease of the princess, 50,000/. per annum was secured to his royal highness for life. The nuptials were solem- nized with becoming splendour, on the 2nd of May, at Carlton house. In the July fol- lowing the princess Marv gave her hand to her cousin the duke of Gloucester. The event that next demands notice was one which placed the glory of the British arms, and the humanity of the British nation, in a conspicuous light. The Alge- rines and their nei||;hbours, the Tunibinns, had long been in the habit of committing the vilest atrocities on the subjects of every Christian power that happened to fall into their hands. Repeated renioustrances had been made, without procuring any redress; and it was now determined on, that this horde of pirates should either accede to certain proposals, or suffer for so long and so barbarously defying the laws of civilized nations. Accordingly, in the spring, lord Exraouth was sent with a fleet to the states of Barbary, to conclude a treaty of peace between them and the kings of Naples agd Sardinia; to abolish Christian slavery : and to obtain from them a promise to respect the tlag of the Ionian islands, which had lately become an independent country. The beys of Tunis and Tripoli acceded to all these demands ; but the bey of Algiers de- murred, as far as regarded the abolition of slavery. Shortly after, uutwithstaiidingtliis treaty, a considerable number of unaimed Christians, who had landed at Bona, having been massacred by the Mahometans, lord Exmouth returned, and commenced a fu- rious bombardment of the city of Algiers, which lasted six hours; the contest was severe; eight hundred of the assailants fell in the action, and the British ships suffered considerably ; but the gallant admiral had the satisl'actiun of demolishing the Algerine batteries, and destroying their shipping, arsenal, and magazine: while the dey was forced to agree to the abolition of Christiau slavery, and to the release of all Christian slaves within his dominions. The distresses of both the labouring and manufacturing classes, from the causes be- fore advocated, and the high price of provi- sions, at length produced serious disturb- ances in various parts of England. The malcontents in the eastern counties broke out into open violence, and were not sup- pressed without the assistance of the mili- tary. In London similar attempts were made. Mr. Hunt, a popular demagogue, had on the 15th of November convened a public meeting in Spa-fields, to draw up a petition to the vegent. On the 2nd of December another meeting was called to receive the answer to their petition. While this meeting was awaiting the arrival of Mr. Hunt, a band of desperadoes appeared on the ground with a tri-coloured ilag and other banners, headed by a young man named Watson, who, after using violent A. D. 1806.— BBLVOIB CASTLB ALMOST DBSTBOIBD BT VIBB, OCTODBB 26. I li A.o. 1817-— rori rivi iiidbd a bull abaiiiu biblb iooibtibi. aCTODBR 26. lEnglanti — ^l^ouse of IScunfttoicii.— Clicorgc ISM. 471 language from a waggon, proceeded toward* tlie city, accorapanied by a va»t crowd of or the aasenihled populace. On arriving at Snow-hill they plundered the shop of Mr. Beckwith, a gunsmith ; and a perion of the name of Piatt, who remonstrated against the outrageous proceeding, was shot at and severely wounded by young Watson. They then hurried on towards the Royal-ex- change, where they were met by a large body of the police, headed by the lord- mayor Wood, who ordered the gates to be shut, and seized several who nad arms. The mob plundered some more gun-smiths' shops in the Minories; but the military coming to the aid of the civil power, seve- ral ot the rioters were apprehended, and the remainder dispersed. One, named Cash- man, suffered capital punishment, but the ringleader (Watson) contrived to effect bis escape to America, although a large reward was offered for his apprehension. A. D. I8I7.— Public meetings, convened, attended, and conducted almost exclusively by tiie working classes, marked the close of the previous year and ushered in the pre- sent. Men who appeared in the garb of poverty addressed large assembUes of the people on political subjects, which were probably ill understood by them ; but the want of trade had unfortunately given them ample opportunities of reading the cheap and dangerous publications which over- flowed the land ; while their own privations made fluent speakers of some, and willing listeners of the xreat migority. In conse- quence of these appearances of disaffection, bills were passed for suspending the habeas corpus act, and for preventing seditious meetings; spies were encouraged, the po- pular discontent aggravated, and the igno- rant souietimes seduced into the commis- sion of crimes, the nature of which they scarcely understood, though the penalty was banishment or death. In the regent's speech at the opening of fiarliament, allusion was made to the popu- ar discontents, which be ascribed to the efforts of designing persons to mislead the people. On his return through St. James's- park an immense mob had assembled, who saluted liimwith groans nnd hisses ; and us he passed the back of Carlton-house, the glass of the royal carriage was perforated either by a stone or the ball from an air- ^un. To meet the public exigencies, his royal high- ness soon after surrendered 50,0001. per annum of his income. This example was followed by the marquis Camden, who pa- triotically gave up the fees of the teller- ship of the exchequer, valued at 13,000/. per annum, reserving only the salary of 2,700{. Alas 1 the noble marquis had no iniiators ; but though his generous exam- gle was not followed, the deed shall not e wholly obliterated from his country's annals. A melancholy event now occurred which diffused a gloom over the whole nation. The princess Charlotte, daughter of the re- gent and consort of prince Leopold, ex- pired ou the 5th of November, after having given birth to • dead child. The untimely fate of this amiable and well-beloved prin> cess caused a regret as intensely felt •• 1% was universally expressed. Her nnoetenta- tious and frank demeanour, her domeitic vir* tues, and her benevolent disposition, had in- spired the people with a hi|^h idea of her worth ; and they fondly anticipated that wi- der her auspices the glory ana prosperity of England would again become resplendeat. There is little else of a domestic nature to record this year, if we except the three days' trials of William Hone, the parodist, who was arraigned upon a criminal infor> mation, as a profane libeller of parts of the liturgy. He was tried by lord Ellenboroagh and Mr. Justice Abbott; and having con- ducted his defence with unusual ingenuity and perseverance, he not only came off victor, but actually pocketed the stun of 3000'. the amount of a public subscription, raised to remunerate him for having under- gone the perils of a government prosecu- tion, or as a reward for the laudable inten- tion of bringing into contempt both church and state I A. D. 1818. — The parliamentary cession was opened by commission. The habeas corpus act was restored, and a bill of indemnity passed to screen ministers and others from the legal penalties they might have incurred through the abuse of their power during the time of its suspension. At the same time meetings were held in nearly every populous town throughout the country, for the purpose of petitioning for parliamentary reform. When the sessions closed on the 10th of June, the parliament was dissolved, and writs issued for new elections. All the ministerial candidate* in the city of London were thrown out ; and sir Samuel Bomillyand sir Francis Burdett were returned for Westminster ; but in the country the elections passed off quietly, and little change was produced in the par- liamentary majority of^ ministers. Queen Charlottc,who had been some time indisposed, expired at Kew, in the 75th ^ear of her age, and the 58th of her marriage with the king. She possessed no exterior graces, neither was sue noted for liberality of sentiment ; but it is no small thing to say, that owing to her exemplary conduct, the court of England was pre-eminent for its strict decorum. ^ The year 1818 was fertile in royal mar- riages ; the princess Elizabeth was married to the prince of Hesse Homberg: the duke of Clarence to the princess of Meinengen ; the duke of Kent to the princess dowager Leinengen, sister to prince Leopold ; and the duke of Cambridge to the princess of Hesse Cassel. The British army returned from France, which they had lately occupied, according to the stipulations of the treaty at the res- toration of Louis XVIII. Towards the close of the year, the expedition which had been sent out to explore the arctic regions, also returned to England, but without accom- plishing their object ; the progress of the vessels naviug been so impedea by the ice. i I A. D. 1818. — TBI-CBNTBMAaT Or TBI rBOTBBTAIlT BBFOBMAIIOM, JAM. 1. A. B. 1819.— OKBAOrUb BAItTliDUAIIB AT roONAMI 3000 LITBI LOIT. ( ; \ '■ il \> ' 472 ^^( treasure oC l^istori;, $cc. a r at 00 A A. D. I8I9.— The country wa« itill preg- nant with ditaffrction ; and the doctrine of annual parliament* and univerial tuflTrnKe wai advocated by the deinagogruci of the day, aa tlie only rcnydy fur all the evils arliinK from what they termed the venality of government, and a corrupt utato of the repreientation. At length, the nutiteroui meetinga of the populace, in the open air, assumed a very serious aspect ; one of which, from it* bcinx attended with fatal consequences, and having given rise to much subsequent discussion, it is neces- sary to describe. This was the " Manches- ter reform meeting." It was originnlly con- vened fur the choice of n parliamentary re- presentative, and had been fixed to take place on the 9th of August; but, in couae- quence of a spirited notice put forth by the magistrates, declaring that the intended meeting was illegal, it was postponed, nnd hope* wern entertained thut it would ulti- mately have been abandoned. However, new placards were issued fur the 16th, and " parlianientarv reform" was substituted for the original object. A piece of ground called St. Peter's ticid was the spot chosen for this memorable exhibition ; and hither large bodies of men, arrayed in regular or- der, continued to march during the whole of the morning, the neighbouring towns and villages pouring out their multitudes for the purpose of centering in this focus of radical discontent. Each party had its banner, with some motto thereon inscribed, characteristic of the grand object they had in view, mottoes which have since become familiar even to ears polite— such as " No Corn Laws," " Annual Parliaments," " Vote by Ballot," " Liberty or Death," &c. Nay, such was the enthusiasm uf the hour, that among them were seen two clubs oi " female reformers," their white flags floating in the breeze. At the time Mr. Hunt took the chair, not less than SO.UOO persons — men, women, and children — had assembled; nnd while he was addressing the crowd, a body of the Manchester yeo- manrycavalry came in sight, and directly galloped up to the hustings, seizing the orntor, together with his companions and their banners, A dreadful scene of terror and confusion ensued, numbers being tram- Sled under the horses' feet, or cut down, ix persons were killed, and about a hun- dred were said to be wounded ; but the ac- counts which were published of this unfor- tunate transaction dilfcred so materially, that we are unable to state the exact num- ber with any degree of certainty. Coroners' inquests were held on the dead bodies ; but the verdicts of the juries led to no judicial proceeding: true bills, lu>wever, were found against Hunt, Moorhouse, Johnson, and seven others, for a conspiracy to overturn the government, but at the same time they were admitted to bail. Public nieetinsswere now held in all the Srincipal towns in the kingdom, and ad- resses were presented to the regent and t he parliament, condemnatory of the civil and military authorities at Manchester; which were met b^ counter-addresses, calling for the repression of sedition, Ac. At the opening of parliament, in November, the subject underwent a thorough discussion : and amendmcnis to the address were iniived in both houses, characterising the Man- chester pruccediiigs as illegal and uncon- stitutional: they were, however, nt-gativcd by overwhelming minorities. At the same i time strong nicMfures were resorted to for preventing the occurrence of similar disor- ders, by passing certain preventive and pro- hibitory acts of parliament, ufterwuids fa- miliarly known as the " six acts." These, though decidedly coercive, seemed called for by the stute of the country, nnd received the ready sanction of the legislature. On the 2;ird of January, I82U, died ot Sidmoulh, in his 6.1rd year, prince lidward, duke of Kent ; leaving n widow, und one child, the princess Victoria, then only eight months old. The duke had never mixed much in the turmoil uf politics, his life having been chiefly nncnt in ^lie army, where he obtained a high character for bra- very, but was regarded as a too strict disci- plinarian. Scarcely had the news of the duke's de- cease reached the more distant parts of Great Biitain, before the death-knell uf his veiieMlilc father, George III. was heard. The bodily health uf his majesty had of lute been fast declining, and on the 'JUtli of Ja- nuary he expired. Some lucid intervals, though they were few and evanescent, had oecn^ioually been noticed during the time he laboured under his diitres.sing malady ; but he hiul long been totally blind, and lat- terly dcal'ncss was added to his other afflic- tions. The king was in the 82iid year of his age, niid the COth uf his reign ; leaving six sons and four daughters living at the same time of his decease. His remains were interred in the royal vault at Windsor ; but he had long been, as it were, dead to the world. It was a truly olTccting sight to witness the " august old mun," as ho strolled through his suite of rooms at the i castle, deprived of sight, and wearing a lung patriarchal beard ; yet frequently stopping at some of the pianos which were there pur- posely placed, and playing a few notes from his favourite Ilnndvl. lie Kcnerally wore a blue robe de-chumbre, fastened with a belt, in the morning; and a silk plaid dress in the afternoon. He seemed cheerful, and would sometimes talk aloud, as if address- ing an old friend, or some member of his family ; but his discourse bore reference only to past events ; for he had no know- ledge ot recent circumstances, cither fo reign or domestic. In speaking of the cha- racter of George the Third, nu one will deny that he appeared invariably to act up to the dictates of bis conscience : as a monarch, he studied the welfare of his subjects; as a father, he neglected not the liunour and happiness of his children. lie left a name unsullied by any particular vice; and his memory will be honoured by posterity for the goodness of his heart, for his piety, clemency, and fortitude. | El a M I A.S. 1319. — MR. COBBBTT ARniTBD IN LONDON VIIOM AMBUICA, ABC. 3. l,i:. VA «.!>• 1890.— OMATH or TUB ItVCIIBSt 0I> fOBB, ACBP 53l AOBOtT 6. lEnglantr.— 1l|ott«c of ISttmsboitfc — (Sxcorgc SU. 473 CHAPTER LXt\. Tht Reign nfQtnimt IV. A. P. 1820.— Orobo* Til R fniTRTn, eldeit (on of the late venerable monarch, who bad exerciied (overeign power ai regont during hU royal father's inciiral incapably, was immediately pruclaimi-d ki>>i{; and tneni>\*' reign commenced without ihv <'xpectation of oftlcial changes. At the very moment of his ncceaiiion, and for some time hffore, a moat atrocious conspiracy eiisted, having for its object the assassination of the whole of his majestv's ministers. The aanguinarjr intentions of the conspirators, though their plans were crude and their means deapie- able, render a detail of their plans neeea- sary. Several wretched individuals, headed by Arthur Thlstlewood— a man who had for- merly been a lieutenant in the army, but who had subsequently sulTered line and imprisonment for challenging lord Bid- mouth to flght a duel, and was now re- duced to indigence — hired a stable in Ca- to-street, Edgeware-road, for the express purpose of assembling there and consult- ing on the best plan of putting the de- sijtn into execution. The time chosen for the commission of the bluodjr deed was on the occasion of a cabinet-dinner at lord Ilarrowby's, in Grosvcnorsquare; when they intended to proceed, in a body to his lordship's lionac armed, nnd, having gained admission by stratagem, to murder all the company present. Acting on previous in- formation from one of the conspirators, who had associated with them for the purpose of their betrayal, Mr. Birnie, a Uow-strcet magistrate, with twelve of the patrol, went to Cato street, and there, in a hay-loft, they found the conspirators assembled. The entrance was by a ladder, which some of the police officers ascended, and on the door being opened, twenty-live or thirty men ap- peared armed. A desperate struggle en- sued in the dark, the lights having been extinguished, and Smithers, one of the po- lice, was run through the body by Thistle- wood: meantime, a company of the foot guards, commanded by captain Fitzcla- reiicc, arrived at the place of rendezvous, which they surrounded, and succeeded in capturing nine of the desperadoes. Thistle- wood and the rest escaped ; but he was af- terwards taken in an obscure lodging at Finsbury, while in bed. They were all found guilty; and Ave of them, namelv, Thlstlewood, Ings, Brunt, Tidd, and David- sun, were hanged and then decapitated at the Old Bailey; the other live had their sentences commuted for transportation. —About the same time the trial of Henry Hunt and others took place at Tork, for their conduct at Manchester on the 16th of August; when Hunt was sentenced to be imprisuued in llchester gaol for two years and six months, and Uealy, Johnson, and Bumf'ord to one year's imprisonment in Lincoln gaol. The country had been in a very unsettled state in conseq^ence of the foregoing pro- ceedings 1 but ihty were either lost siRht of, or treated as matiars of littla importanca^ when comparedwith tlM esiraardinaryscrDB Hint speedily followed i we mean tbt trial of qii i-n Caroliue. Uer miO**t|' had been sU yeai'S absent from Englaod, and lor Iha laal twenty-three years aha had been separattd from her husband. 8h« had btan eh«rgt4 with connubial lnlldelit7,aBd a rigid invca- tigattiin into herconduot had taken plarai but though an undigniHed letity had been proved against her, the charge of criminB- fity was mil established; yet was she visited with a kind of vindictive perseeution that rendered her life a burden. The prince had declared ha would not maet her in pub> lie or in private ; and among the magnatea of rank and fashion his BnatneinB operattd with iKlisraanic power; she waa cons*, qaently pnt out of the pale of society, of whieh she bad been described to be " th« grace, life, and ornament." Thus neglected and insulted, she sought for reereation and repose in foreign travel ; and during har absence rumour was busy at liome in at- tributing to her illicit amoura of the moat degrading kind. It was, indeed, enrrentljr reported that the princess of WbIm wbs living in adultery with an Italian named Bergami, whom, from the menial station of a courier, she had created her chamberlBln, and familiarly admitted to her table. To elicit evidence and investigate the troth of these reportK, a commission had been ap- pointed, under the direction of sir John Leach, who proceeded fur that purpose to the continent ; and the result of his inqui- ries was, that the English ministers abroad were not to give the princess, in their olH- cial character, any public recognition, or pay her the respect due to her exalted station. On the death uf George III. the llrat step taken to degrade her was the omission of her name in tlie liturgy ; but she was now queen of England ; and notwithstand- ing an annuity of S0,000<. per annum waa offered on condition of her permanently re- siding abroad, and not assuming, in the event of the demise of the crown, the title of queen, she indignantly rejected the pro- posal, challenged the fullest inquiry into Iter conduet, and returned to England on the 6th of June, with a full determination to face her enemies. She was accompanied by alderman Wood and lady Hamilton, and her entry into London was greeted with the joyful acclamationa of assembled mul- titudca. The charges against the queen being re- solutely persisted in by her accusers, and her guilt as pertinaciously denied by her defenders, all attempts at reconciliation failed; and K secret committee of the house of Lords proceeded to examine the inculpa- tory documents contained in the " green bag." On the Stb of July lord Liverpool presented a bill of pains and penaltiea against the queen, on the ground of her adulterous intercourse with Bergami, and providing that her majesty be degraded from her rank and title, and her marriage with the king dissolved. The queen pro- &. D. 1820.— DKATU or SIB JOSEPH BAIfKB, r.B.S., AOBD 76 I JUNB 7' [3 S3 I: r 1. H: A.U. 1830. — Bin U. DATT, BIKCTID F.II.a., IN MKU OP SIR J. BANKS, UKCKABKD. 5! *,. Ml -I i i jf it^i ' •.! a 474 ^l^e ^leasui'u of l^tstorn, $cc. tmted npiiiHt tlieae proceudingt ut every step, niiu ',VH!i o>:(:ii4ioiiitlly present during the cxHiiiiiintion oi witiieHsrs. MvKiiwhile tlir uxcitciiient tliroiiKlxiut the country wns of the mom intense dvHeriptuiii. Guilty or not K"ilty> the pulilic syinpnniiT'.cd with her ns n wouinn who lind been nuhject to a sys- tenintie persfcution fur a (|iiiirl«r of ii een- tury, cnrried on by n innn who was n™ re- lentless ns he wns licentious ; and thnt however Ki'eat her delinqtieneics niiKht prove to be, her persecutor wns tliu Inst man in his doniinujus wlio couhl jiinlil'y himself in pursuing the object of his hate with cruel vuidictivencss. During all this time, addresses and processions in honour of the qucun kept the metropolis in such a ferment, thnt its mechanics and nrti^nus apneared ns if engaged in a nnlionnl sntur- naliii. Sir Hubert CiiRbrd, the attorney- general, assisted by the solicitor-Kcnernl, conducted the prosecution ; Mr. liruugliHin, Mr. Dennian, and Dr. Lushingtou, the de- fence. The judicial pnrt of the proceedings having ai length been broiig!it to a close, the lords met on the 'Inil of November, to discuss the second rending of the bill of degradation. Sonic declared their convic- tion of the queen's guilt ; others as conll- dcntly asserted hcrinnoeenee ; while sevenil denied both the juHtice and expediency of the bill, and ■vould not consent lu brand with everlasting infamy n meiiiher of the house of lirunswick. Upon a diwsion for a second rending there was a miijovity of I'S. Some were in favour of dej^radalion, but not divorce. Upon the third rending of the bill, on the lUth, the iniiiisteriut ma- jority was I'lHluecd to 9; when l,oi-d Liver- pool iminedinlely announced t)>c intention of government to nbnndon the furllier pro- seojti'Ui of this exlinordiuiiiy pioecediiig. The tilthy and disgiiHting detnils, ns they fell from the lips of \\e)l-pnid Ituliniis, couriers, vnlctii, nnd ehnmbennniils, while undi-r exHiniuatioii, were given, often in- deed with prurient comments, ;n the ncws- pnpers ; nnd thus a mass of impurity was circulated ihroughout the country, iiun'e contnminnling, becHu^:' '.aore minutely dis- cussed and dwelt upon, than nuy thing thnt wna ever ptibliely recorded in the chronicles of royal slianielessness. On the •-."ird the pnrlinnicnt was suddenly pro- roi;ued ; and on the '2\)l\\ the iiiiccn, atten- ded by n cavalende.of )ieiillemeu ou horse- back, went in slate to ^t. Paul's to return thanks for her happy delivcrnnce. A. n. ISJl.— On opening the parliament- ary session, his majotity nienlioned the queen by name, and recomnicndeil tu the house of commons a provision lor her mnin- tenaMce. At tirst •'Up declined to accept any {lecuniary allowance iiiiiil tlio name was inserted in the liuirgy ; but hIic siib- sequenily ullcred her determiiialion, and an annuity of 5t(,0(Ul/. was settled uiioii her. During this Hesi^ion the subject of par- liamentary reform excited much interest ; the borough of (Irampound wns disfran- chised for its corrupt ioii ; ."»nd the iieces- lity of economy and retrenchmcut in all ' the departmcntH of government was repeat- cilly brought forward nnd urged by Mr. Hume, who!te perMcvering expo-iitioii of the large suiiih that were uselei-sly swallowed up ill Haliiries and sinecures, mnde n great impression on the |iuhlic; nnd tliuiigh none of his moliniis wi're carried, the attention of minislern was thereby directed to the gradual diiuinulioii of the enormous ex- pellee incurred in tlii>rove. The I'Jlii of July wns the day appointed for the august eeremuiiy, preparations for which had long been making; and nothing more mngiiiruent can be imagined than the appearance of W<'Btmiiister-abbey and Wesliuinster-liall. The covered platform, over which the procession moved from tho hall tu the abbey was I5U0 feet in length ; and oil each side of (he platform an amphi- theatre of seals was erected, to necommo- date lOU.UilU Hpectators. Kviry spot in the vicinity i'rmn which a view of the gorgeous pngcaiit could be oblniiied wns covered with se:its and galleries, for which the most extravagant prices were readily kIvcu. As early as two o'clock in the morning tho streets were liiled with the carriages of liersoiiH K"i'ig to witness the ceremony; and before live a considerable number of the comimny bail arrived and taken their places in the linll. It had been currently reported that llie queen would be present ns a spectator of the scene; and so it proved, for about live o'clock her majesty arrived in liur stnte-enrriage; but no prc- ))ai'ali()n had been ninde for her reception, ami, not having an niliiiission-ticket, she had to bear the humiliating indignity of u Mem refusal, and was obliged lo retire ! The king arrived at ten, and the procession immediately moved from the hall towards the abbey, his majesty walking under a canopy of cloih of gold, supported by the barons of the cinque-ports, among whom wns Mr. Kroughnni, i he queen's legal adviser and leading counsel 1 The ancient solem- nity of the coronation in Weatniiiister-ab- bey occupied about live hours ; and when the king re-entered the hall, with the crown on his Head, he was received with enthusi- astic cheers. Soon after rtve o'clock the royal bamiuet was served ; nnd the king, having dined with niul drank the henltli of "his peers and his p;' lod people," quitted the festive scene. The ) r>pulaee were after- wards gratitied with u biilloon ascent, boat- races on the Serpentine, a , rnnd display of fire-works in Hyde park, and lii-e admission to the various tlniities. The expenses of the coronation amounted to 2:i8,tiUU{. ~r» a r. tJ o it a r, I < I I' A.U. 1S3U. — DIKD, AOKD 82, IIRNfAMlIt WK8T, FRKSIDKIlIT OF TIIR ROYAL AC/DKMY. j l ■ a, UKCKAIKD. r A.I). 1821.— TUB HBW TUVATBB-BOTAI., UATMAKKBT, OrSMBD JVl.1 4. lEnglanti.— l^ouse of "ffltunahjitli.— (ffitorge IIV. 475 ! . It Imfi been seen that the queen made an incffeclual attempt to witness the coro- nation of her royHl huabanil. The proud npii'it of the house of Brunswick, which had borue up against n loud of regal opiircssion and the cuntuinely of sycliophantic cour- tiers, was now doomed to yield before a slilflit l)0(lily attack. Eleven days after her ninjestv had been repulsed from tlic doors of Westminster-hall, mIic visited Drury-lanc (lieatre, from which place she retired early on account of sudden 'ndisposilion ; and in one week more this heroic female was a corpne. As long as she was an object of persecution, she was the idol of popular applause; those even who did not account her blameless, felt for her as the victim of a cruel and heartless system of oppression. Uut the excitement in her favour soon began to subside ; and it was believed that the comparatively litlle interest which the public seemed to take in her favour on the day of the coronation, sunk direp into her heart. Hhu died August the 7th, aged 52; leaving the world, as she herself declared, without regret. Her body lay in state uc Brandenburg-house, her villa near Ham- mersmith ; and, on the lUth, it was con- veyed through London, on its way to Harwich, the port of embarkation for its final j-CbtinK place at Brunswick. But, an though indignities and tumults were to follow her to the grave, a fracas took pineu between the populace and the military who formed the escort. Countless multitudes had assembled to join in the procession ; ami when it wusdiscovcied that a circuitous route had been prescribed for the funeral tram, in order to avoid passing through the streets of the metropolis, the indigna- tion of the people knew no bounds, and in an affray with tlie guards two lives were lost. By obiilrncting and barricading the streets, however, the people at length suc- cecdcil in forcing the procession through the city, and the royal corpse was hurried with indecent haste to the place of embarkation. On the 24ih of August the remains of the queen rt^nched Brunswick, and were dcpo- Hiled in the family vault of her ancestors.' At the time of the queen's deolli, his majesty was making a visit to Ireland, i whither he had gone with the laudable hut ' faliacinus hope that his presence would ; allay the factious spirit of his Irish sub- I jects. On returning from Ireland, his ma- I jcsiy expressed his iiitemion of visiting j Hanover. Having appointed lords-justices 1 to administer the government during his absence, he embarked at llnmsgntc and ! landed at Calais, Septeml)cr the IMth; en- i tercd his German douunitms October the 5th; and on the llth made his public entrance into the capital, drawn by eight niilli-while horses. Public rejtitution nf 1812. ^iimiliir conduct was pursued by the people of Portugal, whose declared olijects were the establishment of !\ constitutional monarchy. And in Naples the popular mind took the same direction, and effictcd the same object. A. D. 1.S22.— The year lHi!2, though not marked by any great event, foreign or domestic, was one of much interest as re- garded llie number of important questions discussed in parliament. Among ihe lead- ing subjects of debate were agricultural distress in England, arising from a super- abundant supply and cunsei|ueiit low prices, and the scarcity and distress in Ireland, which, from llie prevalence of agrarian out- rage and other causes, amounted to posi- tive fan:iue. Some chaoKcs during January took place in the cabinet; ministers having Rirciigthened themselves by nn union with the Grenville party; and lord Siilinouth re- tired from his ntllcc of home secretary, to make room for Mr. Petl. On the Tith of February the king opened parliament, and took the occasion to ex press his regret that his visit to Ireland had failed to produce tranquillity. He also admitted that agriculture had to contend with unexpected ditliculties, but congra- tulated the house on the prosperity which attended the manufactures and commerce of the country. The state of Ireland did indeed demand the most serious attention of the legisla- ture. On one hand, coercive measures were necessary to repress the wild disorder that reigned throughout the island; for owing to the daring nocturnal bands of White- boys, ^c„ neither life nor property was safe. On the other hand, so universal was the failure of the potato crop, that the price OVAL AC/DK.MY. A.D. 1822. — TIIR FIRST IKON STBAM-BOAT EXUIBITED ON THE TIIAMK8. - r - . -...■..- 1^*, A.B. 1822.— ORBAT SBUrTIOlf or MOUNT ▼BBUTICS, OCTOBBB 20. i ^Ivi?- t! \M r 111! I I f s la O M C« B H M a B M H M ■< .4 < as * o K < o Q H u M H H 476 E!)e ©rcasuro M l^istorp, $cc. was quadrupled, and the peasantry of the south were in a state of actual starvation. To meet the former evil, it was found necessary to suspend the habeas corpus act, and to renew the insurrection act. To alleviate the latter, a committee was formed in London, and correspondmg committees in different parts of tlie country; British sympathy was no sooner appealed to than it was answered with zealous alacritjr ; and such was the benevolence of individuals, that large funds were speedily at their dis- posal; BO that before the close of the year the subscript iot>s raised in Great Britain for the relief of the distressed Irish amounted to 3dU,000{. ; parliament made a grant of SOO.UOOi. more ; and in Ireland the local sub- scriptions amounted to loO.dUOt. ; makmg altogether a grand total of mO.OOCl. From the beginning of the year to the end of the session in August, the houses of parliament were almost incessantly occu- pied on questions of the highest import- ance : agricultural distress, for which vari- ous remedial measures were proposed; lord John Russell's plan for a parliamentary re- form ; Mr. Vansittart's scheme for relieving the immediate pressure of what was called the "deadweight;" the currency question, which referred to the increased value of money caused by Mr. Peel's act of 1819, for the resumption of cash-payments; the im- provement of the navigation laws, &c. Parliament was prorogued on the 6th of August; and on the 10th tlie king em- barKed at Greenwich for Scot. 'ind. On the 13th he landed at Leith, and on the 19th held a levee in the ancient palace of Holy- rood, where he appeared in the Highland costume. Having enjoyed the festivities which his loyal subjects of Edinburgh pro- vided for the occasion, he re-embarked on the 27th, and in three days was again with his lieges in London. During his majesty's absence the unwel- come intelligence was brought to him of the death of the marquis of Londonderry, secretary of state for the foreign depart- ment. This nobleman, who for some years had been the leading member of govern- ment, was in his 54th year; and in a tem- porary fit of insanity committed suicide, by cutting the carotid artery. In consequence of his tory principles and the share lie took in effecting the union with Ireland, he was the most unpopular member of the admi- nistration ; hut he was highly respected in private life, and enjoyed the personal esteem of his sovereign. Little else of domestic interest occurred this year; but a few words relative to foreign affaii's are perhaps rei(ui3ite. The congress at Verona terminated in Decem- ber: the allied sovereigns were disposed to re-establish the despotism of Ferdinand in Spain, in opposition to the cortes; but to tliis policy En^fland (ihjccted, denying the rii^lit of foreign powers to interfere in the affairs of the Peninsula. The " sanitary cordon," established on the frontiers of France for ths avowed purpose of prevent- ing the fever which ruged at Barcelona from spreading to that country, changed its name to an " army of observation," while the design of the French government to check the progress of revolutionary princi- ples in Spain were developed, and, indeed, soon afterwards openly expressed. A. D. 1828.— On the death of lord Lon- donderry, Mr Canning, who was about to set out to India as governor-general, relin- quished that employment, and accepted the vacant secretaryship, as one more congenial to his taste, and for the duties of which he was supposed to be perfectly efflcieut. The new year presented more cheering prospects than any which had for a long time preceded it; the foreign demand for goods ot English manufacture kept the cot- ton, silk, and woollen factories at work, and greatly benefitted others, particularly the nard - ware and cutlery busiuesses. Those engaged in the shipping interest, also, participated in the general improve- ment. But it was not so with regard to the agriculturists; and during the month of January no less than sixteen county meetings were called to take into consi- deration the causes of their distresses. The usual topics — parliamentary reform, remission of taxes, a commutation of tithe, a depreciation of the currency, &c. — were generally suggested ; and in some instan- ces, where Mr. Cobbett and his support- ers had sufficient influence, resolutions of a more ultra-radical kind were carried. These were pretty much of the same staple commodity as are still hawked about on similar occasions; namely, an appropria- tion of part of the church property ; the extinction of tithes ; the sale of the crown lands; the abolition of sinecures and pen- sions; a reduction of the standing army; the repeal of a variety of taxes ; and an equitable adjustment uf contracts. Some popular changes now took place in the ministry. Mr. Vansittart, chancellor of the exchequer, resigned in favour of Mr. Robinson, and accepted the chancellorship of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the upper house and the title of lord Bex- ley ; and Mr. Iluskisson was made presi- dent of the board of trade, in the room of Mr. Arhuthnot. Parliament was prorogued by commission on the 19th of July ; a great mass of business having occupied the at- tention of the members; and much alter- cation having taken place between Mr. Canning and his political opponents, who plainly convinced him that he was not " reposing on a bed of roses." But he had the satisfaction at the close of the session, of dwelling on the flourishing condition of all branches of commerce and manulac- tures, and a considerable abatement of the difficulties felt by the agriculturists at iis coniinencement. In April, the French army of observation crossed the Pyrenees: and the duke of AngouI£me, its commander, published an address to the Spaniards, declaratory of the objects of this interposition in their affairs ; defining it to be, the suppression of the revolutionary faction which held 1 t> A.D. 1823.— DR. UUITON, AN EMINENT MATHEMATICIAN, DIBD JANUARY 37' A. D. 1824.— TUB ANOERSTEin OALLEB* OF PICTURES «Oln POB S7.000{. my of observation and tlie duke of ler, publislied an Is, declaratory of position in tlieir :, tlie supprcsisinn tion which held ANUAHT 37. u o lEnglnntf.— liouse of ISruuatoitli — ffieoige EU. 477 the king captive, that excited troubles in France, and produced nn insurrection in Naples and Piedmont. They then marched onward, and, without nieetini? any resist- ance of conseauence, occupied tlie prin- cipal towns ano fortresses. In October the city of Cadiz surrendered; and French in- terference terminated with the liberHtion of Ferdinand from the cortes, who in all their movements had carried the unwilling kiug with them. The French then retraced their steps, leaving, however, -10,000 in pos- session of the fortresses, to maintain the authority of the Spanish king in case of a reaction. A.D. 1824.— Favourable as the political aspect of Great Britain appeared at the com- mencement of 1823, there was now an evi- dent improvement in almost every branch of commercial industry, while the cultivators o''the soil found their condition materially assisted by natural causes, -without the aid of legislatorial interference. It was there- fore a pleasing task for Mr. Robinson, when he brought forward his budget, to describe in glowing terms the general prosperity of the country, and declare his intention of eflfecting an annual saving of .375,()00J. by reducing the interest of the four per cent, stock to three and a half. In short, it was evilentthat there were too many symptoms of a return to a heiven to speculations of all kinds last year by the abundance of unemployed capital and the reduction of interest in funded property. The mania for joint-stock companies was now become almost uni- versal. During the space of little more than a twelvemonth, 276 companies had been projected, of which the pretended capital was 174,ll4,050i. Though many of these were of an absurd cliaracter, and nearly all held out prospects tliat no sane man could expect to see realized, yet the shares of several rose to enormous pre- miums, especially the mining adventures in South America. But a fearful re-action was at hand. Several country banks stopped payment in December, and among them the threat Yorkshire bank of Wentworth and com- pany. A panic in the money market fol- lowed ; and in a few days several London bankers were unable to meet the calls upon them. On the 12th of December the bank- ing-house of sir Peter Pole and Co. stopped payment. This caused great dismay in the city, it' being understood that forty-seven country banlcs- were connected with it. During the three following days live other London banking firms were compelled to close J and in a very short space of time, in addition to the London houses, sixty- seven country banks failed or suspended their payments. The abstraction of capital in mining and other speculations, was now felt more severely than had been expected, even by those who had endeavoured to op- pose their progress. It was impossible to calculate when or where the evil would stop ; but that thousands of families must in the end be ruined was inevitable. The principal merchants of the city of London, at the head of whom was Mr. Baring, feel- ins; that something was necessary to be done to support credit and restore confi- dence, assembled at the mansion-house, and published a resolution to the effect that " the unprecedented embarrassments were to be mainly attributed to an unfound- ed panic; that they had the fullest reli- ance on the banking establishments of the capital and country, and therefore deter- mined to support them, and public credit, to the utmost of their power." In two days after this declaration, the Bank of England began to re-issue one and two pound notes for the convenience of the country circulation. For one week, 150,000 sovereigns per day were coined at the Mint ; and post-chaises were hourly dispatched into the country to support the credit, and prevent the failure, of the provincial Arms which still maintained, their ground. A.D. 1826.— The effects of the panic were long and most severely felt ; but it must be admitted that the Bank of England made strenuous efforts to mitigate pecuniary dis- tress, and the course pursued by govern- ment was steady and judicious. The main ingredient in producing the mischief had been the great facility of creating rictitious money; the ministers, therefore, prohibited the circulation of one pound notes; while incorporated companies were allowed to carry on the business of banking. Beyond this they could scarcely go: it was next to impossible that they could afford an effec- tive guarantee against future panics, over- tradinK, or the insolvency of bankers. On the 2nd of February parliament wa« opened by commission. The royal speech adverted to the existing pecuniary distress, and showed that it was totally unconnected with political causes. It also alluded to measures in contemplation for the im- provement of Ireland. After sitting till the end of May, the parliament was dis- solved, and active preparations were made for a general election. Certain leading questions, which had been frequently discussed in parliament of late years, had now got such possession of the public mind, that, at most of the elec- tions, tests were offered and pledges requir- ed from the several candidates. The most important of these were catholic emanci- pation, the corn laws, and the slave trade: and out of the members returned for Eiig- land and Wales, 183 had never b'fore sat in parliament. It was observed that now, for the first time, the catholic priests of Ireland openly began not only to take an active part in elections, but to inculcate the doctrine, that opposition to an anti-catfio- lic candidate was a christian duty. The English radicals were also extremely noisy and active in their endeavours to return Cobbett, Hunt, and others of that clique; but for the present they were unsuccessful. The new parliament met on the 14th of November, and the session was opened by the king in person. No business of any f^reat importance was brought before the louse; but an expose of the numerous joint-stock companies, that had been esta- blished was made by alderman Waithman. He observed that 600 had been formed, most of them for dishonest purposes ; the directors forcing up or depressing the mar- ket as they pleased, and pocketing the dif- ference between the selling and buying prices. As certain members of the house, whom he named, were known to be direc- tors of some of these bubble companies, he moved for a committee of inquiry with refer- ence to the part taken by members of par- liament in the joint-stock mania of IH24-S-6. The inquiry, on the suggestion of Mr. Can- ning, was restricted to the Arigna mining company, of which Mr. Brogden had been a director. A few foreign occurrences claim our no- tice. The death of Alexander, emperor of Russia, a powerful ally of England, and a noble and benevolent prince, who sincerely desired the good of his people. It was his wish that his brother Nicholas should sue- ! ceed him; and, in compliance with that wish, the grand duke Constanline, who was j next heir to the throne, publicly renounced ' his right to the succession in favour of his younger brother. — Also, the death of John i VI., Idn!< of PoVtugal and titular emperor | of Brazil ; whither he had retired, with his | court, on the invasion of Portugal by Buona- i A.D. 1826.— TUB FIBST TIHB A BTEAM^TBSIEL MADE A VOYAGB TO INDIA. A.D. 1827«— FI>«T BTOKS or TBI LONDON CNITIRSITX LAID, ArRII, 30. lEnglanTj.— 3[^ott»e of ISrunstoitfc.-^lrcorge Tff. 479 W « parte. — Mioiolonghi, the last asylum of the GrcRks, taken by Btorra, by the combined Egyptian and Turkish forces, who, rendered furious by the bravery of the besieged, put all the males to the sword, and carried the women and children into slavery. — The de- struction of the Janissaries by Sultan Muh- moud, followed by an entire re-mudelling of the Turkish army, and tlic introduction of European military discipline. — Remark- able coincidence in the deaths of two ex- presidents of the United States of America : Mr. Adams and Mr. Jefferson not only ex- piring on the same day, but that day (July 4) bein;; the fiftieth a.iniversary of the de- claration of American independence. A. D. 1827.— We closed our last brief an- nual record with a notice of the deaths of two distinguished men on transatlantic ground: we are compelled to commence the present year with an account of the de- cease of an illustrious individual at home. His royal highness Augustus Frederick, duke of York, presumptive heir to the throne, and commander-in-chief of the army, (at the head of which he had been thirty-two years, and under whose admi- nistraiion it had won imperishable laurels, died on tlie 5th of January, in the 64th year of his age. In person he was noble and soldierlike; in disposition, frank, amia- ble, and sincere; in the discharge of his official duties, impartial and exact ; and in attention to the comforts of the soldier, he was equalled by few, surpassed by none. The first topic of domestic interest was the change of ministry, which took place in consequence of lord Liverpool, the pre- mier, being suddenly disabled by a stroke of apoplexy, which, though he survived the attack nearly two years, terminated his public life. His lordship was free from in- trigue a.id partisanship, and his otficial ex- perience eniibled bim to take the lead in conducting the ordinary affairs of the go- vernment; but his oratory was common- place, and he was incapable of vigorously iinndling the great qurstioiis which during his premiership a;th of May the catholic claims were again brought forward, when sir Francis'Uurdett moved for a committee of the whole house on this subject, with a view to n coneilic.lory adjustment. Alter a three nights' debate, this was carried by a majority of six. A conference 'vitli the lords was then requested, and held; after which there was a two nights' debate in the 'ords, when the duke of Wellington opposed the resolu- tion, cliieily on the ground that the church governinpiit of Ireland was unconnected witli the civil government of the empire. But it was remarked, that although the re- solution was lost by a majority of fifty- four, the moderate tone of his grace au- gured favourably for it on a further trial. In Ireland during the Canning and Godc- rich ministries all was comparatively still; but this year the excitement of the people, led. on by the popular demagogues, was greatly increased by the formation of a Wellin;{ton and Peel administration, 'riie Catholic Association was again in full activity; Mr. O'Connell was returned for Clare, in defiance of almost all the landed gentry of the county ; the priests seconded the efforts of the itinerant politicians; and, in the inflated rhetoric ot Mr. Shiel, " every altar became a tribune at which the wronjrs of Ireland were proclaimed." Meanwhile, ministers looked supinely on, till the smouldering embers burst into a flame, which nothing within their power could extinguish. How could it, indeed, be otherwise, when the marquis of Angle- sea, the king's representative, wrote a letter to Dr. Curtis, the titular catholic primate of Ireland, to the effect that the settle- ment of the catholic qiiestioii was unavoid able, and recommending the catholics to " agitate," but refrain from violence, and trust to the legislature. What more could the great agitator himself require than such an ally t It is true that the marquis was forthwith recalled from the govern- ment of Ireland for writing the said letter — but he was not impeached. The repairs and improvements of Wind- sor castle, which had been for a long time in hand, under the direction of Mr. Jeffrey Wyatville, { subsequently knighted ) were this year completed; and the king took possession of his apartments, Dec. 9. A pariiamcntary grant of -taO.OUOl. had been devoted to this truly national edifice, and great ability was shewn in retaining the principal features of the original building, while studying the conveniencies of modern civilization. At the latter end of the year, owing to the discovery of a systematic plan of mur- der having been pursued by some wretches at Edinburgh, an indescribable feeling of horror and disgust pervaded the whole country. The most fearful tales were circulated as to the extcnsivcness of the crime, which, it was added, certain mem- bers of the medical profession connived at, rather than lack suojects for the dissect- ing room. It appeared on the trial of William Burke and Helen M'Dougal, who lodged in a house kept by a man named Hare, that Uurke and Hare had been in the habit of decoying persons into the house, where they first made them intox- icated, and then' suffocated theui. The bodies were then sold to Dr. Knox for ana- tomical purposes, and, no marks of violence appeiring upon t' • bodies, no questions were asked nc siis;;i-.oii created lespcct- ing the horria i.'.v;Jc in which ihey had been procur«l. The number of their vic- tims it was difficult to ascertain, though Burke confessed to upwards of a dozen. A.D. 1S23. — TUB rnENCll EVACVATB 8FAIN, AFTBU FIVK TGAns OCCUPANCY. it ■», X OF i: on board the Royal George, a 98-gun ship, com- manded' by captain Digby ; and, by regular gradations, he became rear-admiral of the lue in 1790. From that time he saw no more active service afloat, although he wished to share in his country's naval glo- ries; and nothing was heard of him in his professional capacity, tilliMr. Canning, in 1827, revived the office of lordhigh-admi- ral, which for more than a century had been in commission. He, however, resign- ed it in the following year, the duke ef Wellington, as prime minister, disapproving of the expense to which the lord-high- ad- miral put the nation, by an over-zealous professional liberality. On the -23rd of Juljr parliament was pro- rogued by the king in iierson, the royal speech being congratulatory as to the gene- ral tranquillity of Europe, the repeal of taxes, and certain reforms introduced into the judicial establishment of the country. It was, notwithstanding, a period preg- nant with events of surpassing interest, but as they chivfly belong to the history of France, the bare mention of them is all that is here necessary. An expedition, on a large scale was fitted out by the Fre' ch, with the ostensible view of chastising the Algerines for their piratical insults; but it ended in their capturing the city, and in taking measures to secure Algeria as a French colony. Then came the revolution- ary struggle on the appointment of the Polignac ministry, whicii ended in the ex- pulsion of Charles X. from the throne of France, and the elevation of Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, as "king of the French," who swore tidelity to the constitutiunal charter. This great change in the French mo- narchy was effected with less bloodshed, and ia far less time, than could have been anticipated by its most sanguine promo> ters; for from the date of the despo- tic ordinances issued by the ministers of Charles X. to the moment that the duke of Orleans accepted the oltice of lieutenant* general of the kingdom, preparatory to his being elected king, only four days elapsed, during two of which tlicre were some sharply contested battles between the citi> zens and the royal troops under Marinont. Of the citizens 3U0 were killed on tlic spot; andof 2,500 wounded,, lEnglanU.— l^ouse of IdrunstDitii — QitilUam 3iF. 483 mentnrics and violent denunciations of the whig press. Another less honourable mode liiul also becu resorted to for the purpose 1)1 intlnming the public mind— the posting of placards in tlic streets of London, se- verely commenting on the royal speech, the aiitircform dcclnralion of the duke, and the new nietri>|)olitnn police. Till! great civic feslivol of lord-mayor's diiy was nigh, at which the \Liug and his ministers intended to be present ; hut ow- ini? to several letters having been received by the duke of Wellington, stating that a not was to he apprehenileil if he made his ttpiii'Hraiice in the city, — one of which was troin Mr. .lohn Key, the lord-mnyor elect, suggesiiiig that he sliouUl come "strongly uiiJ sufficiently giianled,"— his grace ad- vised that the king's visit should be post- poned. Consicleiiihle discussion took place i.i both lioiiscK on the abandonment of his miijcsty's visit to the civic baiuiuet; earl (irey and other peers arguing that it had exciieil needless alarm, and produced an extraordinary depression of the funds. Hut tin: duke had been forewarned that a riot, and perhaps bloodshed would have ensued; and no belter argument is needed to show the soundness of his policy than his own words, as they are recorded in the me- moirs of the late sir W. Knighton. " If tiring had begun," said the duke to sir Wil- liam, " who could tell where it would end 1 I know what street-tiring is; one guilty person would fall, and tun innocent be de- stroyed. Would this have been wise or humane, for a little bravado, or that the country might not have been alarmed fur a day or two '/" But, admitting the correctness and hu- mane motives of the duke's conduct in this instance, the popular feeling was hourly increasing against his administra- tion. The inequalities and abuses which had crept into the representative system were too palpable to escape public ani- madversion ; the dilapidating effects of time and neglect were apparent in many depart- ments of the state ; and there was no rea- sonable ground for refusing to examine into, and, where necessary, to apply cor- rectives to those parts of the body politic which required regeneration. By degrees the small ministerial ma- jority dwindled away, and in less than a fortnight from the assembling of parlia- ment the tories found themselves in a mi- nority of 29, on a motion fur the settle- ment of the civil list. This was a signal for the Wellington ministry to resign, and their seals of office were respectfully ten- dered to the king on the following day, Nov. 10. The celebrated " reform ministry " im- mediately succeeded ; at the head of which was lord Grey, as first lord of the trea- sury. The other members of the cabinet were the marquis of Lansdowne, lord pre- sident; lord Brougham, lord chancellor; viscount Althurp, chancellor of the exche- quer; viscount Melbourne, home secre- tary; viscount Palmerston, foreign secre- tary ; viscount Goderich, col-'-'al secretary; lord Durham, lord privy s. 'urd Auck- land, president of the bnaru . trade; sir James Grahaiu, lirtt lord of the udmirnlty ; lord Holland, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster; hon. Charles Grant, president of the India board; and the carl of Car- lisle, without any official appointment. Among the ministers who had no seals in the cabinet, were lord John Russell, pay- master general ; the duke of Itiebmond, postmaster-general; the duke of Devon- shire, lord chamberlain; marquis Welles- ley, lord steward ; sirT. Denman, attorney- general ; and sir W. Hume, suiicitor-gene- ral. The marquis of Anglesea was invested with the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, and lord Plunkeit was its lord-chancellor. During the autumn of this year a no- vel and most destruciive species of out- rage prevailed in the agricultural districts of the south of I'.ngland, arising from the distressed condition of the labouring po- pulation. Night after night incendiary tires kept the country in a constant state of alarm, and farming stock of every de- scription was consumed. There was no open rioting, no inul).^ ; nor did it ap- ficiir that it was connected with any po- itical oiiji'ct. In the counties of Kent, Hants, Wilts, Uuck!<, and Sussex, these disorders arose to a fearful height ; threat- ening letters often preceding the con- flagrations, which soon after night-full would simultaneously burst out, and spread over the country havoc and dismay. Large rewards were offered for the discovery of the ofTenders, the military force was in- creased, and special commissions were ap- pointed to try the incendiaries. Alto- gether upwards of 8UU otfcnders were tried, the greater part of whom were acquitted; and among those convicted, four were exe- cuted, and the remainder sentenced to different terms of transportation and im- prisonment. In referring to foreign affairs, we have to notice,— ]. The trial of the French minis- ters Polignac, I'eyronnet, Chantelauze, and Ranville, on a charge of high treason for the part they took in enforcing the "ordi- nances" of Chatles X. which led to the memorable revolution of July. — 2. The Po- lish insurrection. This arose from the grand duke Ctmstantine of Russia having severely punished some of the young mili- tary students at Warsaw for toasting the memory of Kosciusko. The inliubitunts, assisted by the Polish regiments, after a sanguinary contest in the streets, compel- led the Russians to retire to the other side of the Vistula. However, dreading the re- sentment of their tyrannical muster.s, they afterwards endeavoured to effect an amica- ble settlement; but the emperor Nicholas refused to listen to their representations, and threatened them with condign punish- ment. Meanwhile, the Poles prepared to meet the approaching conflict, and general Joseph Clopicki was invested with the of- fice of " dictator."— 3. The death of Simon Bolivar, the magnanimous "liberator" of Si A. D. 1830.— MB. BBOUQHAM RAISED TO THE PBBIIAOE, AS "LORD BROUOUAM AMD VAUX.' A.D. 1831.— DON PBDBO, BMPSROR Or BRAZIL, ABDICATBS, APRIL T. 'Hi * 1^ 484 Wi)% ^nasur;) of l^istory, $(e. s i Columbia, wlio expired, a voluntary exile, at San Pedro, Dec. 17, in the 4Sth year of his cge. A. u. 1831.— On the 3rd of February par- liament re-assemblcd, and it was announced that a plan of reform would speedily be in- troduced by lord John Russell. In the mean time lord Althorp brouglit forward the budget; by which it appeared that the taxes on tobacco, newspapers, and ndver- tiscments were to be reduced; and those on coals, candles, printed cottons, and some otiier articles, abolished. The subject of parliamentary reform con. tinned to absorb all other political conside- rations, and was looked forward to with in- tense interest. In announcing his sch-'me, lord John Russell proposed the total dis- franchisement of 60 boroughs, in which the population did not amount to 20U0; and the partial disfranchisement of 47, where the population was only 4000. By this means the number of members would be reduced 163; but which would be supplied by increasing: the number of county mem- bers, and by giving representatives to cer- tain large towns heretofore unrepresented. He then went into a variety of other de- tails, not necessary to be here enumerated ; when the bill, after a spirited discussion of seven days, was read a first time. The se- cond reading was carried on the 22nd of March, by a majority of one; the numbers being 3U2 to 3111. And on (general Gas- coyne's motion for the commitment of the bill, there was a majority against ministers of 8. Three days afterwards, on a question of adjournment, by which the voting of supplies was postponed, this majority had increased to 22; whereupon the ministers tendered their resignations to the king. These he declined to accept, but adopted the advice of earl Grey, who recommended a dissolution of parliament, which took place on the 22d of April. And now arose the cry of "the bill, the whole hill, and nothing but the bill." Out of the 82 county members for England, nearly all were pledged to the bill; as were all the four members for the city of Lon- don. On the 14th of June the new parlia- ment met, and was opened by the king in person. On the 24th lord John Russell made his second attempt. The debate lasted three nights, and on a division there was a majority of 136 in favour of the bill. It then underwent a long, patient, and severe scrutiny in committee; every clause was carefully discussed as it arose; many of its crudities wero corrected, and many imperfections remedied. These occupied the house almost uninterruptedly till the 19th of September, when, after another eloquent debate of three nights, the bill, as amended, was carried by a majority of loa in the commons, and taken up to the lords by upwards of 100 menthers. Early in October, earl Grey, in an ela- borate speech, again brought before the consideration of the lords the important measure of parliamentary reform, to bring about which, he said, had been the great object of his political life ; but if it could be proved to have the revolutionary feu- deuey some imputed to it, he would be ilie last man to defend it : and he concluded by declaring that by this measure minis- ters were prepared to stand or full. Lord ■WharncliOe moved as an amendment, " that it be read this day six months;" which having been seconded and put from the woolsack, one of the most memorable dis- cussions in parliamentary history followed. For one entire week the debat? was con- tinued; during which time all that histori- cal, coDBtitutional, and schoUst.c illustra- tion could furnish ; all that skill, force, and variety of argument could supply ; all that conscious rectitude of intention, pure patriotism, and noble independence were capable of commanding, were brought to bear upon this (treat quer^tion; and wlicu the house divided, a majority of 41 appeared against the bill. On the 20tlj of October parliament was prorogued, and was not again called to- gether till the 6th of December. The year, however, did not close till the great measure was again be o e the legislature. On the 12th the third reform bill was in- troduced into the cbuiciv ns by lord John Russell, who pointed cut various altera- : tions that had been mr.de in it ; the effect of which was to lessen the number of the ' boroughs to be disfranchised, and to main- j tain the full complement of C58 members. [ These concessions were regarded as im- j provements by the opposition, and on the ; second reading the majority in its favour \ was tv,o to one ; the numbers being 324 \ for, and 162 against it. The Jiousc then adjourned till after Christmas. j Tk'^t we may not interrupt the thread of | our i :i.rative by taking the other events of i the yiiar in their chronological order, we : pass on to April 14, 1832; when, after a four nights' debate in the house of lords, this popular bill was crried by a majority of nine. After this, parliament adjourned to May 7, for the Easter liolidays. On that day lord Lyndhurst moved that the dis- ' franchising clause should be postponed, and the enfranchising clause first consider- ' ed; which was carried against ministers, \ by a majority of J51 to 116. As this was considered the first of a series of obstruc- tions, dexterously contrived to delay and mutilate the reform bill, the ministers an- nounced their intention to resign, unless his majesty would consent to a new ci-ca' tion of peers. To that expedient the king declined to resort, and the ministers scut in their resignations accordingly. A W('ek of terrific agitation followed; all the liate and rancour of party feeling were centred in one object ; and while men of moderate views and principles trembled for the safety ofthe monarchy, crafty and designingdema- gogues stirred up the passions of the peo- ple in the hope of profiting by a popular convulsion. His majesty was desirous of having ministers who would carry an "ex- tensive measure of reform;" and on sciul- ' ing for lord Lyndhurst, whom he desired ?1 A. D. 1831.— PAGANINl's FIRST CONCEUT AT THE OFGRA-IIOUSIS, JUNE 3. irBiL 7« c; hut if it could cvolutinniii'jr icii- , he would be ilie jnd hf concluded 8 mnisurc minis- ind or fill). Lord imcndmcnt," that months;" whk'h nd put from tlie St meraornble dig- y liistory foUowod. ! debate was con- ie all that liistori- cholast.c illustra- that skill, force, could supply ; all of intention, pure iilependcnce were , were brought to edition; oud whcu irity of 41 appeared ev parliament was ; again called to- December. The lose till the great ■e the let;i»lature. eforra bill was in- Kns by lord John ut various altera- | le in it ; the effect l he number of the ! lised, and to main- ! t of 658 members. ! ! regarded as ini- | silion, and on the ; Brity in its favour ] limbers being .SS-l i The Jiou3C then itmas. I rupt the thread of j he other events of ; )logieal order, we ; iH; when, after a he house of lords, ried by a miijority lianient adjuuvned holidays. On that ved that the dis- lid be postponed, luse first consider- ■ against ministers, 116. Ar this was series of obstruc- ived to drlay and , the ministers an- to resign, unless nt fo a new crea- expedient the king he ministers sent ordingly. A week iwed; all the hate ?ling were centred men of moderate ihled for the salety id designingdcma- ssions of the peo- ting by a popular y was desirous of >uld carry an " ex- rii;" and on seiul- whora he desired IE, JUNE 3. A. D. 1831.— ■XTIMOTIOII or «HB OLD BBKKUITAaX PBIkAUB 'UAMCB. lEnglantl.— llouse o( IStunstoicii.— SSatUiam lEU. 485 to communieate with the duke of Welling- ton and air Robert Peel, he expressed him- self distinctly to that effect. Tlie duke, in loyal obedience to the commands of his sovereign, was disposed to lend himself to the royal emergency, notwithstanding his former anti rct'orm declaration. Not so, however, sir Robert: he saw no hope of modifying the reform bill to his satisfac- tion; and he declined, though tempted with the premiership, to co-operate iu the de- sign. The idea of a new aaniinistration was therefore abandoned; and the duke of Wel- lington recommended the king to recall his former servants. This was done ; and as it was evident that the wishes of the king were more in accordance with the deter- mination of the people as a body, than with the aristocracy, the peers, in obedi- ence tu the royal wish, absented them- selves from the house, and the reform bill was silently carried through its remaining stages; the majority on its third reading being 106 to 22. We shall now briefly refer to a few oc- currences, foreign and domestic, which we have hitherto necessarily omitted. — The Russians sustained a severe defeat at Wawz, after a battle of two days, their loss being 14,UU0 men ; their opponents, the Poles, suffered comparatively little. But on the .30th, a Polish corps, under Dwer- nicki, being hard pressed by the Russians, retreated into Austrian Gallicia, and, sur- rendering to the Austrian authorities, were treated as prisoners and sent into Hun- gary. In short, after bravely encountering their foes, and struggling against superior numbers, Warsaw capitulated, and the idea of Polish independence was farther re- moved than ever. — In June, prince Leopold was elected king of Relgiiim by the con- gress at Brussels; his territory to consist of (he kingdom of the Netherlands, as set- tled in 1815. Un the 7th of September the coronation of their majesties took place ; but, as com- pared with the gorgeous display and ex- pensive banqueting when George IV. was i.Towned, it must be considered a frugal and unostentatious ceremony. There was, however, o royal procession from St. James's palace to Westminster abbey ; and in the evening splendid illuminations, free ad- missions to tlie theatres, and a variety of other entertainments gratitied the sight- seeing populace. I On the 2 1 St of October, the London Ga- zette contained precautions to be adopt- ed by his majesty's subjects against the spread of the Asiatic cholera, that dread- ; ful pestilence having lately extended from Moscow to Hamburgh. It was ordered I that a board of health should be esta- ; hiished in every town, to correspond with the board in London, and to consist of magistrates, clergy, and members of the medical profession; while the most effec- tual modes of insuring cleanliness, free ventilation, &c. svere pointed out. These precautionary measures were doubtless of great use, and worthy of the paternal at- tention of a humane government ; but ow- ing, ai was supposed, to the quarantine laws having been evaded by some persona { who came over from Hamburgh and landed at Sunderland, the much-dreaded infection visited many parts of Great Britain, and in the following year produced indescribable alarm among all ranks of people. One other event, but of to disgraceful a character that we would fain omit it alto- gether, remains to be mentioned among the domestic occurrences of the year. On the 29th of October the city of Bris- tol became the scene of dreadful riots, w hich were continued during the two fol- lowing days, and were not overcome till that large commercial town appeared to be on the verge of total destruction. Sir Charles Wetherell, a strenuous and un- compromising opponent of the reform bill, was recorder of Bristol ; and maledictions on his head were freely uttered by the base and vulgar, (not of that city only, but of the metropolis and elsewhere) for the vi- gorous stand he made against the bill dur- ing its progress through the house of com- mons. On the recorder's making his public entrance the brutal storm commenced, and did not cease till the third day ; by which time, besides immense destruction to pri- vate property, tb^mansion-house, custom- house, excise-offlce, and bishop's palace were plundered and set on lire ; the pri- sons were burst open, and their inmates set at liberty ; and during one entire day (Sunday) the mob were the unresisted masters of the city. On Monday morning, when the fury of the rioters had partly spent itself in beastly orgies, and many had become the victims of excessive drink- ing in the rifled cellars and warehouses, the civil magistrates appeared to awake from their stupor; and, with the assist- ance of the military, this " ebullition of popular feeling," as it was delicately termed by some who had unconsciously fanned the flame, was arrested. The loss of property was estimated at half a million. The num- ber of rioters kill«d, wounded, or injured, was about 110; but, of these, far more suf- fered from the vile excess of intemperance, and from being unable to escape from the flames which they had themselves kindled, than from the sabres of the soldiery or the truncheons of constabulary protectors. One hundred and eighty were taken into custody, and tried by a special commission ; when four were executed and twenty-two transported. Their trials took place on the 2nd of January, 1832. Not many doys afierwards, lieutenant-colonel Brereton, who had the command of the troops, com- mitted suicide pending an inquiry into his conduct by a court-martial. He was charg- ed with not having displayed the firm- ness and decision necessary for quelling a tumult of such magnitude. That more energy and decision ought to have been shown at the commencement by the civil power is evident: how far the colonel was in error is very questionable. Tlie whole transaction abundantly proves to what ex- A. D. 1831.— INSUURECTION AMOMQ TUB NEOBOltB IN JAMAICA, QUBLLBD. [2 rs A. D. 1831.— DIKD, AOKD 70, LORD CHiar-JUITlCI TRNDKUDIIN, NOfSNBIH 4. (■ ,"» i'« i'fl n H': K "» A* i o « at a M a K K O M M a a A m K M M f •1 a 14 R H 4 486 ^^e ^reasuri) of l^iatorp, ^c. ■ I Cfisps the unbridled fury of the populace will lend, when tlieir pnsiions have been inHnnied, duriiific a peritid of Herce political excitement ; and ought to (oi-ve ar a per- petual warnin)( to all those unquiet spirits who love to "ride on the whirlwind," but know not how to " direct the storm." A. D. 1832.— Ilnvinjt in our previous notice stated the result of the loni;- continued contest respecting; pnrliamentnry reform, we have now only to describe the changes effected in the representative system when the bills came into operation. As soon as the royal assent was given to the English reform bill (June the 7ib). congratulatory addresses and other peaceful demonstra- tions of public jov were very generally in- dulged in ; but it' we may judge by tin; triumphant chuckle of the victors and the lofty scorn of the vanquished, the angry invectives of the late political disputants were neither forgotten nor forgiven. Yet though the war of words had not wholly passed away, it was now as a mere feather m the balance — the refonn bill had be- come the law of the land. The decayed boroughs were disfranchised, and in tlieir stead the right of parliamentary reprexen. tntion was given to large and populous towns; while an entire new constituency of ten pound householders was crcnt>id in cities and boroughs. The county consti- tuency was also greatly extended. Ilerc- tolbre it had been restricted to forty-shil- ling freeholders ; now copyholders of \iJl. per annum; leuteholders of 10/. if for not less than sixty years, or of 50{. if not leas than twenty years ; and tenants -at -will, if occupying at a yearly rent of not less than 501. The county representation was likewise modelled uuew: To Yorkshire six members were given, two for each ridinir. Devon, Kent, Lancashire, and twenty-three other lari?c counties were divided, and two knights given to each division; ecven Eng- lish counties were to return three instead of two members each; and tliree Welsh counties, two instead of one. The reform bill for Scotland received the royal assent July I/th; that of Ireland, Auifust 7th. Eighteen members linil lieen deducted from the entire representation of Enjjhind, but an addition of eight to Scotland, tive to Ireland, and five to Wales, made the total for Great Ilritnin and Ireland fioS, as before. The Scotch and Irish reform bills possessed the grand features of the English bill, by extending the franchise; but some peculiarities adnpted to the state of pro- perty, &c. in both countries, were neces- sary to bo observed. During the months of February, March, and April, the cholera became very preva- lent, not only in the country towns and villages of the North of England, where it first appeared, but also in the metropolis; and all the horrors of the great plague of London, depicted with such fearful power by Defoe, were present to the imagination. Every possible attention was paid to the subject by government: parochial and dis- trict boards were forthwith organized; tem- '! '* porary hospitals got ready for the reception of the sick; and every measure that huma- nity and prudence could suggest was re- sorted to, to cheek the progress of the malady wliere it apjienred, and to prevent contagion where it had not. The virulence of the disease abated during the ihiee suc- ceeding months, but at the end of the sum- mer it appeared again as malignant as ever. In the whole year, the deaths from cholera, within the limits of the bills of mortality, amounted to :i,275 deaths which took place in the French capital in 1S32, the eiiormous number of 19,ii*iU was occasioned by cho- lero. This frightful epidemic next ap- r eared in the Canadas and United Slates, t thus made the tour of the globe; be- ginning, as it was supposed, in Hindos- tan ; then devastating Moscow and the northern parts of Europe; visiting Great Kritain and France ; and lastly, crossiaq; the Atlantic. In this year's obituary are the names of several men of eminence. From among them we select — sir James Mackintosh, an eloquent writer and statesman. — Jeremy licntham, celebrated as a jurist and law reformer; a man who had his own specifics for every disease of the body politic, hut who never had the happiness to see one of them effect a cure.— Sir Walter Scott, the " wizard of the north," as some of his eulogists have called him ; an excellent ro- mance writer, and a poet of acknoulcdgcd merit, who for a long period enjoyed a popularity unknown to any of his coiitem- porariea lie possessed an extraordinary union of genius and industry; and liiid he been satisticd with his literary gains, in- stead of striving to amass wealth by jon- ing in the speculations of his printers aielves in legiilatlng for our extensive empire in the East, where the interests of a population of lou millions are to be con- Bulled ; yet, vitally important as the sub- ject is to the commercial prosperity and political influence of Urcut Britain, it never seems to have met with the consideration to which it is manifestly entitled, either in the British senate, or among llie British community. It now, however, engaged the attention of purllameut somcwhut more than on former occasions. Three new sta- tutes were passed: the hrst applied to the renewal of the charter of the East India Company, and the future government of India; the second regulated the trade to China and India; and the third referred to the collection and inanageiuent of the du- ties on tea. The charter of the company was renewed for the terra of twenty years, from April 30, 1834, under certain restric- tions. And several subordinate provisions were made, of a judicial, municipal, com- mercial, and ecclesiuatical character; one being for the mitigation and gradual aboli- 1 tion of slavery in the East. I With regard to renewing the charter of I the Bank of England, there were three I questions on winch the legislature were di- I yided upon some material points; the ma- jority, however, insistingon the expediency of continuing the exclusive privileges of the Bank, so that it should remain the principal and governing monetary associa- tion of the empire. One important conces- sion obtained from the Bank was a reduc- tion, to the amount of 12(i,uuu?.,in a charge of about 280,00U?. which the directors an- nually made for the management of the public debt, &c. It also obtained one im- portant privilege : the paper of the Hank of Englnnd being made a Ic^al tender for all sums above 5/., except hy liie Bank itself or itn branches. There was another enact- ment, of general interest, but of very ques- tionable policy, namely, that hy which bills of exchange drawn at a certain limited date were exempt linm the usury laws ; an enactment the ruinous and demoraliziuB effects of which, in times of commercial distress, are incalculable. The charter, though renewed till August, IMSS, had this rchcrvation — it might be put an end to, nhould parliament chootc, in 1H45, by a year's previous notice being given. Besides the settlement of the foregoing great legislative measures, various taxes were repealed or reduced; many ottlcial si- tuations were abolished or reformed ; seve- ral judicial procciises amended ; and a great variety of private bilU passed. A. n. 1834. — The desire to move onward in legislating for and removing every thing that seemed to ob^itruct the progress of " liberal" principles, was the natural con- sequence of the reform bill; and at the very commencement of the year the " pres- sure from without" whs felt by ministers to be a most inconvenient appendage to their popularity. They had effected one iniiility object ; and to enter upon more, miiih (.-iiu- tionand patient deliberation were reqi.,Mie. They knew that popular clamour had been kept up hmg enough, and they ace Tdingly endeavoured to separate tlieinsr m'S from the noisy and irregular auxiiiarl'- who hud joined their ranks in the hour « need, but who were now bi^coiiic troublenome hang- ers-on. This state of things could not long remain; and on Mr. \Vurd bringing for- ward a motion in the house of commons for appropriating the surplus revenues of the Irish churcli to the purposes of go- vernment, it appeared that there existed a dlfferenee of opinion in the cabinet as to the mode in which the mutioii should be met. The majority was in its favour ; but the appropriation of church properly to other than ecclesiastical uses was incom- patible with the notions of Mr. Stanley, sir James Graham, the earl of Uipoii, and the duke of Richmond; and they aceoid- ingly resigned their places in the ministry. This happened on the 'J/tli of May. The 28th being the anniversary of the king's birtli-duy, the Irish prelates presented an address to his majesty, in which they strongly deprecated ecclesiastical innova- tions. The king promptly replied, and, in an unstudied speech of cuiisideralilclengtii, warmly expressed hi^ attachment to the church. lie said that he had always been friendly to toleration in its utmost lati- tude, but opposed to licentiousness, and that he was fully sensible how much both the prolestant church and bis own family were indebted to the revolution of 1688; emphatically and somewhat naively add- ing, " The words which you hear from me are spoken from my mouth, but they pro- ceed from my heart." The rupture with the ministers above- :f! iMV, Dnc. 24. A. p. 1833.— PBATH OF FRRDINAND VII. K1«0 OF SPAIN, gCMKMBKR 29. A.D. 1834.— DUKH or WBIiIiINSTOIf XLXCTRD OHANCILLOH OW OXFOMO, AOft. 39. ^B3 ^{)« ^reasuiQ of 1|iistori», $cc. _ named was speedily foUo'ved by another, and which ended in the resignation of earl Grey, the premier. In the communications which had from time to time been made by ministers to Mr. O'Connell on Irish affairs, it had been conlidentially stated to him that when the Irish coercion bill was re- newed, the clauses prohibitory of meetings would not be pressed: nevertheless, the obnoxious clauses appeared in the bill; and Mr. O'Connell declared that he con- sidered it dissolved the obligation of se- crecy, under which the communication had been made. Lord Althorp fiudinr himself unable to carry the coercion bill through the commons, with the clauses against public meetings, sent in his resig- nation ; and as earl Grey considered him- self unable, without the assistance of lord Althorp as ministerial leader in the house of commons, to carry on the government, he also resigned. Parliamentary reform, the great object of his public exertions, had been accomplished; and as he was now upwards of seventy, and in an infirm state of health, he seemed glad to seize the first opportunity of closing his official la- bours. An arrangement was, however, soon ef- fected to form another reform ministry, lord Althorp consenting to resume the chancellorship of the exchequer, under the premiership of viscount Melbourne. The new cabinet then stood thus :— viscount Melbourne, first lord of the treasury ; lord Brougham, lord chancellor; viscount Al- thorp, chancellor of the exchequer ; mar- quis of Lansdowne, president of the council ; earl of Mulgrave, privy seal; viscount Dun- ciiinon, home secretary; viscount Palmer- ston, foreign secretary; Spring Rice, colo- nial secretary ; lord Auckland, first lord of the admiralty; Charles Grant, president of the India board ; marquis of Conyngham, postmaster-general ; lord Holland, chan- cellor of the duchy of Lancaster ; lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces; and E. J. Littleton, secretary for Ireland. The king in person prorogued parliament on the 15th of August. Notwithstanding the time lost in ministerial disagreements and changes, a great mass of business had been dispatched. The two principal mea- sures were the "central criminal court act," and the " poor law amendment act." The former extends the jurisdiction of the Old Bailey court over a population of about 1,700,000; not only in Middlesex, but in parts of Surrey, Kent, and Essex; leaving to the Middlesex sessions, at Clerkenwell, the trial of offences punishable with not more than seven years' transportation. The Old Bailey sessions to be held at least twelve times a year. But hy far the most important of these measures was the poor-law amendment act ; a measure, we regret to add, which ap[)ears to have brought with it much more misery than it has relieved. In saying this, we by no means would infer that a continu- ance of the former poor-law system, with its incompetent officers, private jobbing. expensive litigation, and all the numerous errors and inconsistencies thnt had been engrafted on the original act of Elizabeth, would have been desirable : far from it. But the present " amended " system, which was chiefl/ intended to reduce the burden- some amount of the poor-rates, might have been easily carried out without those ob- noxious clauses which enforce the separa- tion of married men from their wives, and mothers from their pauper children ; with- holding out -door relief, &c. Moreover, however desirable the centralization of poor-law power may be, and however able the commissioners who form the board at Somerset-house, local interests must often be left to local management ; or a mode of generalizing will become so habitual to those who superintend the administration of the poor-laws, as to frustrate all endea- vours to obtain individual justice. Several popular measures were carried during the session ; namely, the repeal of the house-tax ; the abolition of the duty on almanacks; the abolition of sinecure olflces in the house of commons ; facilities at the post-office for the transmission of foreign newspapers ; grants for building schoolp in England and Scotland, &c. I This year was remarkable for the sys- tematic organization of "trades' unions" in London and other large towns of Eng- land, and for repeated " strikes'" among tailors, s'uoemakers, carpenters, bricklayers, weavers, spinners, and other " operatives." But the different crafts all returned to their employments, without any very seri- ous injury to trade or to themselves. At Paris, Lyons, and Brussels similar combi- nations oi' workmen took place, and were attended with serious consequences, par- ticularly at Lyons, where no less than 5,000 persons (of whom 1,700 were troops) were killed before the insurrection, which had been caused by the trades' unionists inter- ference with the trials of some of their members, was quelled. An event now took place which caused much temporary consternation, and was regarded as a great national calamity, not merely on account of the loss sustnined, but also from the historirnl and personal oBsociations connected with it. On the evening of the Ifith of October a fire broke out in one of the offices at the lower end of the house of lords, which continued to rage throughout the night, and was not completely extinguished for several days. Great anxiety was felt for the safety of that ancient edifice, Westminster-hall ; and even the venerable and magnificent Gothic pile opposite, Westminster-abbey, was at one period thought to he in great danger ; but nothing that skill or intrepidity could achieve was neglected in arresting the pro- gress of the fiamos ; and though the two houses of parliament were destroyed, nei- ther the hnW nor the ahboy sustained nm- tcrial damage ; and the libraries and stntc papers in tlie lords and commons were preserved. The fire, as it appeared on strict inquiry, was caused by negligence. B ^ I », I A. n. 18S4.— DIED, AOED 7fi( OBHIRAL TUB HARQDIS DR LAFAVBTTK. XrOBD, ADO. 39i k.D. 1835. — LORD UULORAVB APFOIIfTBD LOBD LIKUTINANT OF IRBLAND. lEnglantJ — l|ousc of 33runstoicli.— 2SaiU(am IF. 489 in burning the exchequer-tallies in a build- iny; adjoining the house of lords. Tempo- rary chambers for the accommodHtion of tlie legislature were afterwards erected on the site of the old buildings. Just one month after the destruction of the houses of parliament the Melbourne ministry was summarily and unexpectedly dismissed. On the 14th of November lord Melbourne waited on his majesty at Brigh- ton to taicc his commands on the appoint- ment of a chancellor of the exchequer, in the room uf lord Althorp, remc ed, by the deatli of his father, earl Spencer, to the house of peers. The king, it is said, ob- jected to the proposed re-construction of the cabinet, and made his lordship the bearer of a letter to the duke of Welling- ton, who waited upon his majesty on the I6th, and advised him to place sir Robert Peel at the head of the government. Sir llobert was at the time in Italy, whither a courier was dispatched, and the baronet arrived in London Dec. 9, saw the king, and accepted the situation of premier ; the duke of Wellington having in the interim provisionally tilled the chief offices of the government. Thus again, though for a brief space, the tory party, or conserva- tives, as they were now called, were in the ascendant. A. D. 1833. — The Melbourne cabinet had been for some time looked upon as the mere dregs of the Grey ministry; and the losses it had sustained by the withdrawal of the earl of Durham, the Stanley section, and the noble premier himself, had not been supplied by men of suitable talents. The public therefore had no great reason for re. gret, however much they may have been surprised, when the king so suddenly dis- pensed with their services. Yet when the same men were entrusted with the reins of government who had been the strenuous opposcrs of reform, an instantaneous out- cry burst forth, and the advent of toryism wa.. regarded by the populace with feelings of distrust and dread. Sir Robert Feel, however, explicitly declared, that he con- sidered the reform bill as a final and irre- vocable settlement; and he appealed to several important measures that had for- merly emanated from himself, as proofs that he was not opposed to the redress of real grievances, and the removal of all re- cognised abuses. Upon these grounds sir Rooert solicited the confidence of the coun- try ; and he brought forward his leading measures with great dispatch and ability. The ministerial plans for affording relief to dissenters relative to the marriage cere- mony, and also the settlement of tithes, met with general favour nnd concurrence. But when, on the 3Uthof March, lord John Russell brought forward his resolution — " that the house should resolve itself into a committee of the whole house, to consi- der of the temporalities of the church of Ireland," the motion was met by sir E. KnatchbuU with a direct negative, and after a long and stormy debate, ministers found themselves in a minority of 33. The Irish church bill was then discussed in commit- tee; and after three nights' debat. on tlie question of appropriating the surplu ^ funds of the church to the " general educa.ion of ail classes of Christians," which was op- posed by the ministers and their friends, there was still a majority against them of 27. Finding that neither concessions nor professions of liberality were of any avail, the duke of Wellington in the upper house, and sir Robert Peel in the lower, announced their resignations; the latter at the same time declaring, that though thwarted by the commons, he parted with them on friendly terms. These frequent changes in the ministry sadly impede us in the progress of this suc- cinct history; but in like manner as they engrossed universal attention at the time and were considered all-important, so must they now be related, as affording the readiest clue to the principal transactions which took place in the arena of politics. Once more, then, wc see lord Melbourne as the premier; with lord John Russell, home secretary ; lord Pnlmerston, foreign secretary ; ri^ht hon. Spring Rice, chancel- lor of the exhequcr; the marquis of Lans- downe, president of the council ; and the other official appointments tilled nearly as they were when the "liberals" were lately iu power, except that the great seal was for the present put in commission. The first great question that engaged the attention of the commons, and one which had been looked forward to by the commu- nity with much impatience, was that of " muuicipal reform." For more than two centuries the abuses existing in corporate bodies, particularly the misapplication of municipal funds, had been a matter of con- stant complaint. It was naturally expected that a reform in the representative system in boroughs having been effected, a reform in the election of their own local authori- ties would follow. A commission to inquire into the state of municipal corporations, their modes of administering justice, their revenues and funds, and the privileges of freemen, &c., had already been instituted, and the result of the inquiry induced the commissioners to report to his majesty, that "the perversion of municipal institutions to political ends has occasioned the sacrifice of local interest to party purposes, which have been frequently pursued through the corruption and demoralization of electoral bodies." Then, after pointing out the va. riuus inefficient and corrupt modes in which municipal interests were attended to, and the great and general dissatisfaction which prevailed on the subject, the commissioners declared it to be their duty " to represent to his majesty that the existing municipal corporations of England and Wales nei- ther possess nor deserve the confidence or respect of his majesty's subjects, and that a thorough rct'orm must be effected before they can become useful and efficient instru- ments of local government." Upon this report, which was supported by a volumi- nous mass of details, lord John Russell FAYBTTK. A.D. 1835. — DIKD, AQKn 77, BABL HKI.SOW, DROTBBn OF IH8 NAVAL HBRO. li I J V > i .». A.D. 1835. — TRB S4BL OV DUAHAM BBNT A* AMBA8SAOOR TO KU8SIA. 4U0 ^f)e ^reasuty of 1|ij$tort?, $cc. brought in his hill, which, having been se- verely scrutinized in the lords, passed into a law. The erand feature of this bill is, timt it vests tne local government of a town in tlie rated and permanently resident in- habitants. In the council is vested the en- tire deliberative functions of the corpora- tion. They 'appoint the town-clerk and treasurer, and trom them the mavor and aldermen are chosen. They have the con- trol of the police, watching, and lighting. If there be a surplus in the burgess fund, they may apply it to local improvements or any object beneticial to the inhabitants; or if insulhcient, they may order a rate to be levied. All tlie existing rights of freedom, or citizenship, or burgess-ship, in the old corporations, are preserved to the present possessors j but all exclusive privileges of trading, or of exercising any calling or han- dicraft, in corporate towns, are abolished. Many other measures of practical utility were discussed and passed this session. Among them were several acts framed by sir James Graham for improving the naval code and thereby increasing the naval power of Great Britain ; first, by an act for aineud- ing and consolidating the laws relative to niercliant-seamen ; and secondly by an act, the object of which is to encourage the vo- luntarv enlistment of seamen into the royal navy, by limiting the period of service to five' years. Lord Brougham also brought forward a very useful bill for removing some of the more obvious and glaring defects in the old patent law ; not the least of which was that the patent often expired just about the time the difficulties attending its first introduction had been surmounted, and, consequently, before the patentee had be- nefited by his invention. By the new law a power is vested in the crown of extend- ing, on the recommendation of tlu privy council, the terra of a patent from fourteen to twenty-one years. Let ui for a moment pause in our domes- tic narrative, to mention a diabolical contri- vance ia France, which might have involved Europe in another scene of blood and tu- mult but for its providential failure. On the 2Sth of July, during^ the festivities of the annual commemoration of the revolu- tion of 1830, as Louis Philippe, attended by his sons and a splendid suite, was riding along the line of the national guard, on tho boulevard of the Temple, an explosion like a discharge of musquetry took place from the window of an adjoining house, which killed marshal Mortier and another general officer, besides killing or wounding nearly forty other persons. But the king, who was the object of thi« indiscriminate slaugh- ter, with his three sons, escaped unhurt. The assassin, who was a Corstcan named Fieschi, was seized by the police, in the act of descending from the window by a rope, and wounded by the bursting of some of the barrels of his " infernal machine." The deadly instrument consisted of a frame upon which were arranged 2S barrels, each loaded with bullets, &c., and the touch- holes communicating by means of a train of gunpowder. On his trial he made no at- tempt to deny his guilt, but nothing could be elicited to prove that any formidable conspiracy existed, or that he was influ- enced by any political party to undertake the horrid act. The atrocious attempt, however, served for a convenient pretext to introduce a series of severe laws for the prevention and punishment of state crimes and revolutionary attempts. We shall close one sketch of this year's occurrences by briefiy noticing the deaths of two persons, who, in their career for po- pular applause, attained a more than ordi- nary share of notoriety. The one was Henry Hunt, late M.P. for Preston, who had long figured as a leader among the ra- dicals, and whose zeal for " the people" at the too memorable meeting at Manchester had been rewarded by a long imprisonment in Ilchester gaol. He was originally a re- spectable and wealthy Wiltshiire farmer; but having renounced the charms of conn- try life for the euphonious greetings of " unwashed artisans," he for many years continued to hold undivided empire over their affections. In personal appearance Mr. Hunt was a fine specimen of the Eng- lish yeoman J he was naturally shrewd, uniting caution with boldness, but, above all, greedy of political popularity. Daring the Tatter part of his life his name, which used to grace the walls in juxta-position with " universal suffrage," was allied with " matchless blacking ;" end it was while he was on a journey of business through the south-western counties that he met with his death, owing to a violent fit of paralysis with which he was seized as he was alight- ing from his pheeton at Alresford, Hants.— His more distinguished cotemporary and coadjutor, though sometimes powerful rival, was William Cobbett, M.P. for Oldham; a man remarkable for persevering industry, and of unquestionable talents, who, from following his father's plough, and after- wards serving with credit as a British sol- dier in America, passed the greater part of his life in the unceasing strife of politics, and was able, bjr the force of his extraordi- nary and versatile powers as a writer, to keep a strong hold on public opinion for nearly half a century. He died in June, not three months after his quondam friend, Mr. Henry Hunt. [A memoir of Mr. Cob- bett is given, at considerable length, in tbe "Biographical Treasury," affording a rare example of the effects of application.] A.D. 1336. — The year opened auspiciously, both with regard to its commercial pros- pects and its political aspect. The whole manufacturing districts were in a state of activity; money was abundant wherever tolerable security was offered; and though an immense absorption of capital was tak- ing place in extensive public undertakings, such as railways, some of which were al- ready highly successful, there was very lit- tle of that wild spirit of adventure which ten years before had nearly brought the country to the brink of ruin. Mercantile confidence rested upon a better hasis than A.D. 1836. — CRMBKNIAL ANKITEBSAKT OP THB rnOTBSTANT RBPOBHATION, OCT. 4. O BUB8IA. A. D. 1836. — TBI laUTISH LXeiON III SrAIM BKSIBOB IT. BIBASTIA.V. BHATION, OCT. 4. lEnglantJ.— llouac of ISrunaiultli — MaiUiam EU. 491 it bad done for a long time paat; the ports bore ample evident.: of the prosperity of Britisb commerce ; and thougii there were slill just complaints of agricultural dis- tress, they were partial rather thau general. When the king opened parliament in February these facts furnished congratu- latory topics for the royal speech, and sug- gestions were also thrown out relative to certain improvements, contemplated by the legislature, and in the administration of justice, especially in the court of chancery; an equitable scttlenieiit of tithes in Ireland; municipal reform in that country, &c. The first question of importance that occupied the attention of the house was brought t'orward by the chancellor of the exchequer, who announced the intention of government to reduce most materially the stamp duty on newspapers. It was pro- posed, he said, to reduce it from its present amount of 4d. with the discount, to Id. without discount, which would be a reduc- tion of nearly 2id. on all newspapers sold for 7cl. or less. To this remission parlia- ment assented, by which the circulation of unstamped newspapers — an illicit trade that had long been followed by certain London newsvenders — was abandoned as protitlcss. Notwithstanding several useful measures of legislation had been carried during the session, considerable disappointment was felt at its close inconsequence of the loss or abandonment of certam bills which had been brought forward by ministers with some parade and apparent confidence of success: as, for example, the Irish tithe and municipal bills ; the bill for governing charitable trusts in England by popular election; bills for amending the English municipal act, for improving the court of chancery, for remo- ing the civil disabilities of the Jews, &c. But if the value depended on the amount of legislation, there was no cause of complaint ; the number of gene- ral acts passed in 1836 being 117 i and of railway bills alone, 33. By the act for the " commutation of tithes in England and Wales," provision was made for the final extinction within two years of the vexatious right of exacting tithes in kind, and for commuting them into a corn rent charge, payable in money. By the " established church act" for effecting a new distribution of episcopal dioceses and incomes, the in- come of the archbishop of Canterbury was to be reduced to 1S,000{. ; the archbishop of York to 10,000. ; the bishop of Loudon to 10,0001.; the bishop of Durham, 8,000{. ; Winchester, 9,000. ; Ely, 6,600i. ; St. Asaph and Bangur, 5,2002. ; Worcester, 6,0001. ; and the other bishops to have incomes varying from 4^1. to S.OOOt. The bishoprics of Bristol and Gloucester to be united ; also 8t. Asaph with Bangor, and Sodor and Man with that of Chester; and two new bishoprics to be erected, one at Manches- ter, the other at Ripon. Several other eco- nomical regulations in the church were at the same time effected by this bill. Two acts were al!t, at Kensington palace, {)reparation8 were immediately made for loldiug a privy council there at eleven o'clock. A temporary throne was erected for the occasion ; and, on the queen being seated, the lord-chancellor administered to her mnjesty the usual oath, that she would govern the kingdom according to its laws and customs, &c. The cabinet mipis- tcrs and other privy councillors then pre- sent took the outlis of allegiance and su- premacy; and the ministers having first resigned their seals of office, her majesty was graciously pleased to return them, and they severally kissed hands on their rc-ap- poiutment. By the death of William IV. the crowns of the united kingdom and of Hanover were dissevered through the operation of the salic law excluding females from the Hanoverian kingdom, which consequently descended to the next heir, the duke of Cumberland ; and Adelaide, as queen- downger. was entitled to 100,000/. per an- I rum, "settled upon her for life in 1831, with I Miirlborough-house aud Bushy-house for resiiloices. On the 20th of October the new parlia- ment assembled, when her mnjesty opened in person the business of the session. In her progress to and from the house, the queen was received by the populace with thestrongestdenionstrations of enthusiasm and loyalty. The ttpeech, which her ma- jesty delivered in a clear and audible voice, referred to the great advantages of peace, and the amicable relations subsisting be- tween Great Britain and foreign courts; her anxious wish to improve the condition of the poor; and her desire that no un- necessary expenditure should take place in any department of the government; concluding with the following sentence: — " The early age at which I am called to the sovereignty of this kingdom, renders it a more imperative duty that, under Di- vine Providence, I should place my reli- ance upon your cordial co-operation, and upon the love and affection of all my peo- ple." In the house of lords, the address' in answer to her majesty's gracious speech was moved by her uncle the duke of Sus- sex, who " trusted he might be allowed to express his conviction that when the chro- niclers at a future period should have to record the annals of her reign, wiiich bad so auspiciously commenced, and whicli, with the blessing of God, he trusted would be continued for many years, they would not be written in letters of blood, but would commemorate a glorious period of prosperity, the triumphs of peace, the spreading of general knowledge, the ad- vancement of the arts and manufactures, the diffusion of commerce, the content of all classes of society, and the general wel- fare of the country." On the ensuing lord mayor's day, Nov. 9, the queen, according to established cus- tom, which has been usually followed by the sovereigns of England on their acces- sion, paid a visit to the citizens of London, and dined with the corporation ot Guild- hall, which was fitted up in the most splen- did manner for her reception. Her ma- jesty was preceded by the royal dukes and duchesses, with their attendants and body guards; then followed the principal ofH- ccrs of her majesty's household in six car- riages; next came the queen herself in her state carriage, with the duchess of Suther- land and the earl of Albemarle ; then the foreign ambassadors, cabinet ministers, and the chief of the nobility; the whole Erocesslon, which comprised nearly two undred carriages, extending from St. James's palace to Temple- bar. When the royal cortege reached St. Paul's, the senior scholar of the blue-coat school, standing on a platform erected for the occasion, delivered a complimentary address, which the queen graciously acknowli^Ked, and which was followed by the national an- them, sung by 600 of the blue-coat boys, whose juvenile voices were swelled into one loud and joyful chorus by the as- sembled multitude. Nothing occurred to interrupt the festive loyalty of the scene : patriotic toasts, cong^^atulatory speeches, A. D. 1S37.— upwAuns OF 8,000 looms vnbuflotbd in sfitalfiblds. .TMBNT. er the new parlia- ler majesty opened f the session. In am the house, tlie the populace with tions of enthusiasm eh, which her ma- • and audible voice, i vantages of peace, ons subsisting be- nd foreign courts; irove the condition desire that no un- should take place ' the government; lowing sentence: — tich I am called to I kingdom, renders luty that, under Di- )uld place my reli- l co-operation, and ction of all my peo- ' lords, the address' ly's gracious speech le the duke of Sus- night be allowed to that when the chro- riod should have to jer reign, which had lenced, and which, od, he trusted would y years, they would tiers of blood, but a glorious period of nphs of peace, the knowledge, the ad- i and manufactures, erce, the content of md the general wel- mayor's day, Nov. 9, to established cus- usually followed by i;land on their acces- : citizens of London, )rporation at Guild- in the most splen- eception. Her ma- the royal dukes and tttendants and body the principal ofti- ousehold in six car- queen herself in her ! duchess of Suther- Ibemnrle; then the cabinet ministers, nobility; the whole [fl prised nearly two xtending from St. >le'bar. When the t. Paul's, the senior at school, standing 1 for the oecasion, tary address, which ack'nowli^lied, and y the national an- the blue-coat boys, were swelled into ciiorus by the as- Jothing occurred to oyalty of the scene t Htulatory speeches, ITALFIBIinS. TUB BOTAL EXCUANOB, BUILT AFTBB TBB FIBB Of LONDOB, COST S8,962L lEnglantf.— I^ouse of ISrunsinicli — ^Fittoria. 493 3 I - I o IB L and courtly compliments, passed for their full value, and gave additional zest to the "mantling bowl;" his lordship was ho- noured with a baronetcy, the two sheriffs were knighted; and the youthful queen drank to "the lord mayor, and prosperity to the city of London" with such conde- scending affability, that her faithful sub- jects xave utterance to their delighted feel- ings in psans of joyful acclamations. No great progress was made during the first session of Victoria's parliament in settling the various important subjects un- der discussion. At its close, however, the civil list bill was passed: it provided a total sum of 385,000<., which was thus class- ed:—!, privy purse, CO.OOOf.; 2. salaries of household and retired allowances, 131,260<.; 3. expenses of household, 172,500i.; 4. royal bounty, &c., 13,200J.; 6. pensions, 1,200/.; uaappropriated monies, 8,040{.— On the 23rd her majesty went in person to give it her royal assent ; and then adjourned the par- liament to the I6th of January. A. D. 1838. — For some time past there had been symptoms of discontent in Lower Canada, fomented by the old French party, which at length broke out into the appear- ance of a civil war. To check an evil so pregniint with mischief, it was deemed ad- visable that no ordinary person should be sent out to that important colony. Ac- cordingly, it was notified in the London Gazette, Jan. 16, that the earl of Durham, G.C.B. was appointed governor-general of " all her majesty's provinces within and adjacent to the continent of North Ame- rica, and her majesty's high commissioner for the adjustment' of certain important affairs affecting the provinces of Lower and Upper Canada." His lordship did not ar- rive in Canada till nearly the end of May. Actual contests had taken place between considerable parties of the insurgents and the troops under lieutenant-col. \Vctherall, who had succeeded in driving them from all the villages on the line of the river Jliche- lieu. At length, on the 13th of December, sir John Colborne himself marched from Montreal to attack the chief post of the rebels at the Grand Bmli. On the follow- ing day an engagement took place in the church yard of St. Eustache, when the loyalist army proved once more victorious, 80 of the enr^my having been killed, and 120 taken prisoners. Dr. J. O. Chenier, theie leader, was slain; and the town was more than half burnt down. On the ISth, on sir J. Colborne's approach to the town of St. Benoit, a great portion of the inha- bitants came out bearing a white flag and begging for mercy ; but in consequence of the great disloyalty of the place, and the fact of the principal leaders having been permitted to escape, some of their nouses were fired as an example. Dr. Wolfred Nelson, one of the rebel leaders, having been nine days concealed in the woods, was brought in prisoner to Montreal. In the Upper Province, a body of rebels, which occupied a position about three miles from Toronto, threateuing that city, were suc- cessfully attacked and dispersed on the 7th of December by sir Francis Bond Head, at the head of the armed citizens, with such reinforcements as had spontaneously join- ed them from the country. The rebels had, however, established a' camp on Navy island, on the Niagara river; and many citizens of the United States were impli- cated in the insurrectionary movements there and elsewhere on the frontier. On the 3rd of March a sharp engage- ment took place between her majesty's troops and the insurgents, in which the latter were totally defeated at Point Pele island, near the western boundary of the British possessions. This island had been occupied by about 5G0 men, well armed and equipped; when col. Maitland, in order to dispossess them, marched from Amherst- burgh with a few companies of the 32nd and 83rd regiments, two six-pounders, and some volunteer cavalry. The action that followed assumed the character of-bush-i fighting— the island, which is about seven miles long, being covered with thicket, and the pirates outnumbering the troops in the proportion of nearly two to one. Ulti- mately, however, they were driven to flight ; leaving among the dead, colonel Bradley, the commander-in-chief; miyor Howdlcy; and ciiptaius Van Rcnsellaer and M'Kcon ; besides a great many wounded and other prisoners. In this instance nearly all the killed and wounded were citizens of the United States ; and the arms that were found were all new, and marked as the property of the United States. The insur- gents being thus foiled in their daring attempts, it is not necessary, for the pre- sent, for us to allude further to Cana- dian affairs, than to observe that some of the most active ringleaders were execut- ed, and others transported to the island of Bermuda. In narrating the national domestic occur- rences of this year, we have to commence with one which, like the late conflngralion of the houses of parliament, filled the in- habitants of the metropolis with great and well-founded alaim. Soon after ten o'clock on the evening of the 10th of January a fire broke out in the Royal Exchange. The firemen with the engines were promptly on the spot, but owing to an intense frost, great delay was occasioned before their services became effective. Every effort was made to arrest the progress of the flames that practised skill ana intrepidity could suggest ; but the work of destruction went rapidly on, from room to room and from one story to another, till, with the excep- tion of the outer walls, that fine building, with its various offices and its royal statues, was utterly demolished. It was remarked by those present, that at twelve o'clock, when the dames had just reached the north- west angle of the building, the chimes struck up, as usual, the old tune "There's nae luck about the house," and continued for about five minutes. The effect was ex- traordinary ; for although the fire was vio- lently raging, and discordant sounds arose TUB AUCHITBCT OF TUB OLD BOTAL BXCHANSB WAS SIR 0. WRBIf. [ov 41 l./\'rl ' ■ I li A.B. 1838.— AM ACT rASaBD rOB BKBVILDIIta TBE MOTAL BXCBAMOB. 494 ^^e treasure of l^istor^, ^c. ,ir^ in every quarter, the tune was distinctly heard. For months nothing was tallced of but the approaching coronation of Queen Vic- toria. It was expected to be a splendid spectacle, and so indeed it proved ; out the walking procession of all the estates of the realm, and the banquet in Westminster- hall, with all the feudal services altendant thereon, (which distinguished the gorsreous ceremony of George IV. from that c. Wil- liam), were to be wholly dispensed with; it having been discovered that "the cost spoiled the relish ;" but in order to make it more stately than the last, tlie exterior cavalcade was to be increased in splendour and numbers. Tlie 28th of June was the day appointed for the celebration of this august ceremony, and as the procession was to pass tliro'ugh the principal streets, there was scarcely a house or a vacant spot along the whole line from Hyde Park cor- ner, through Piccadilly, St. James's-street, Pall Mall, Cockspur-street, Charing-cross, Whitehall, and Parliament-street, to the Abbey, that was unoccupied with galleries or scaffolding. At sunrise a royal salute from twelve pieces of artillery stationed in St. James's park announced the auspicious day ; alter which the 20th regiment of foot and the Sth dragoons took up their station in front of the palace; detachments of the blues and the life-guards, with their respective bands, came at nine; and their appearance was quickly followed by that of twelve of her majesty's carriages, together with the state coach. Then came the carriages of the royal dukes and duchesses ; while the va- rious foreign ambassadors formed into line in the Birdcage-walk. At ten o'clock the procession moved in the following order : — The trumpeters and a squadron of the household brigade. The foreign resident ministers and foreign ambassadors, in 32 carriages, many of them most superbly de- corated. A detachment of the household brigade, preceded by a mounted band ; fol- lowed by seven carriages, containing the royal dukes and duchesses, with their at- tendants. Another mounted band, followed by the queen's forty-eight watermen. Her majesty's twelve state carriages came next ; in which were the maids of honour, the lords and grooms in waiting, and other officers of the royal household : closed by a squadron of the horse-guards and a mount- ed band. The military staff and aides-de- camp, together with a cavalcade of general officers, on horseback, — followed oy the royal huntsmen, foresters, grooms with led horses richly caparisoned, the knight mar- shal and his men, and a hundred yeomen of the guard, — heralded the statb coach, drawn by eight cream-coloured horses, and conveying Her Majesty, attended by the mistress of the robes, the duchess of Sutherland, and the master of the horse, the carl of Albemarle ; the whole of this magnilicent procession being closed by a squadron of the household brigade. Ou arriving at the west entrance of the abbey, her majesty was received by the great officers of state, the noblemen bear- ing the regalia, and the bishops carrying the patina, the chalice and the bible; when her majesty repaired to her robing chamber; and the ladies and officers of the royal household, and others, to whom duties were not assigned in the solemnity, immediately passed to the places prepared for them respectively within the choir. Nothing can be imaicined more imposing than the grand religious ceremonies which followed ; but we feel that we have already trespassed so far beyond our limits in des- cribing, even thus brivlly, the leading fea- tures of the procesaion, that we must leave it to the reader's own imagination to con- ceive and properly appreciate the superb and solemn spectac'e within the sacred pile, where — in the presence of her subjects most dignitied in station and venerable in character, and surrounded by all that could be desired of chivalry or adorned by beauty — the young and patriotic maiden queen knelt, and, resting her hand on the Holy Gospels, took the coronation oath ; or when the archbishop placed the crowu upon her majesty's head, and the people, with loud and repeated shouts, cried " God save the Queen ! " There were 245 peers present, who after severally doing homage, kissed her ma- jesty's hand. When the duke of Wellington performed his homage he was very gene- rally cheered, as was also earl Grey. When the aged lord IloUe came in his turn, an incident occurred that called forth loud plaudits, as evincing a most kind and ami- able condescension on the part of the queen. His lordship, from his feeble and infirm state, fell in ascending the steps; whereupon her majesty rose from her seat, extended her hand to him to kiss, and ex- pressed a hope that his lordship was not hurt. This act of royal and gracious kind- ness was instantly felt and appreciated by all the spectators, who loudly and zealously applauded it. When the peers had done their homage, the members of the house of commons, determined not to be outdone in the manifestation of loyalty, immediately gave nine loud and hearty cheers, accom- panied with reiterated cries of " God save queen Victoria I" The assembled multi- tudes in the galleries, &c. joined in the simultaneous burst of loyalty, till the vaulted roof and arches of the sacred edifice rang with one universal acclaim. During the performance of the homage the choir sung an anthem composed for the occasion, and the treasurer ot her ma- jesty's household threw about the corona- tion medals. After the whole of the ceremonies had been performed, and the officers had ar- ranged the procession for the return, her majesty, wearing the crown, and bearing the royal sceptre and the orb, accompanied by the princes and princesses of the blood- royal, returned to the royal palace with the same state, and by the same route, as in proceeding to the abbey. A> D, 1838.— TH« QUBBir OV FOBTUOAL ACCBPTS TBE NBW CONSTITUTION. was received by the , the noblemen bear- the bishops carrying ■lice and the bihie; ipaired to her robin)^ lies and officers of the id others, to whom ued in the solemnity, the places prepared ily within the choir, icined more imposing ous ceremonies which 1 that we have already end our limits in des- rielBv, the leading; £ea- in, that we must leave \ imaxioation to cnn- ippreciaie the superb I'e within the sacred resence of her subjects tion hnd venerable in inded by all that could ' or adorned by beauty triotic maiden queen ler hand on the Holy coronation oath ; or ip placed the crown head, and the people, ed shouts, cried " Uod ers present, who after lage, kissed her nia- t he duke of Wellington ge he was very gene- also earl Grey. When came in his turn, an tiat called forth loud a most kind and ami- on the part of the I, from his feeble and ascending the steps; ity rose from her seat, him to kiss, and ex- his lordship was not yal and gracious kind- It and appreciated by o loudly and zealously the peers had dnne imbers of the house of d not to be outdone f loyalty, immediately hearty cheers, accom- id cries of " God save 'he assembled multi- es, &c. joined in ilie of loyalty, till the rches of the sacred le universal acclaim, ance of the honiaf;c nthem composed lor treasurer ot her ma- ew about the corona- f the ceremonies had . the officers had ar- n for the return, her ! crown, and bearinjf the orb, accompanied incesses of I he blood- he royal palace with by the same route, as abbey. CONSTITUTION. A. D. 1839.— CHAKTBR8 OF IHCOBPOBATION TO BIRMINOHAM AMD HARCBaSTBB. lEnglanK.— I^otise of ISrunstolcli.—FCctoria. 496 Her majesty entertained a party of one hundred to dinner; the dnke of Wellington gave a grand ball, to which 2000 persons were invited; the several ministers gave official state dinners: and that the popu> lace of London and its vicinity might parti- cipate in the general rejoicings, a fair was permitted to be holden in Hyde-park for four days ; where an area comprising about one-third of the park, well arranged, was occupied by theatres, taverns, exhibitions of all kinds, and stalls for the sale of fancy articles, toys, and sweetmeats. The thea- tres were also thrown open for g^ratuitous admission, a balloon ascent took place, fireworks were discharged, and the illu- minations were of the most magnificent description. The coronation festivities gave a great impetus to trade in the metropolis; there being, in addition to the numerous visitors from all parts of the united kingdom, a very considerable number of distinguished foreigners, independent of the gentlemen attached to the different embassies. Pio one, however, attracted so much notice or received such marked attention us marshal Soult, ambassador extraordinary from the French court; cheers as hearty as those which greeted " the conquering duke " be- ing invariably given wherever he appeared. While on this subject we will not omit to mention a singular incident which soon afterwards occurred. On the Oth of July a grand review took place in Hyde-park, in presence of her majesty, at which it was thought there were not less than ISO.OOO persons present. Just as marshal Soult arrived on the ground his stirrup broke ; and on his attendant being dispatched to the saddlers to the ordnance, Messrs. Laurie and Cc. of Oxford-street, they sent the vete- ran general the identical stirrups used by Napbleon Buonaparte I Whether the com- pliment received a suitable acknowledg- ment from the French marshal, or whether the reflections it suggested were of an agreeable kind, we have no means of ascer- taining: but it certainly was one of those circumstances which may be truly called " remarkable." On the 13th the corporation of London gave a grand dinner in Guildhall to all the ambassadors extraordinary and other illustrious foreign visitors: on which occasion, the duke of Wellington and mar- shal Soult were toasted together, and they both acknowledged the compliment with the greatest cordiality. A new coinage in gold, silver, and copper was now issued. The gold consisted of five- pound nieces, double sovereigns, sovereigns, and half-sovereigns; the silver and copper comprised all flie usual current coin of those metals ; but in none of them was there either the orlKinaUty or taste dis- played that was expected. A. A. 1839. — Canada again demands our notice. Lord Durham had been sent out with extraordinary powers to meet the exi- gency of affairs in that colony. It was now admitted that he had exceeded the scope of those powers, by deciding on the guilt of accused men, without trial, and by ba- nifibing and imprisoning them; but the ministers thought it their duty to acquiesce in pbssing a bill, which, while it recited the illegality of the ordinance issued by his lordship, should indemnify those who bad advised or acted under it, on the score of their presumed good intentions. The or- dinance set forth that " Woolfred Nelson, R. S. M. Bonchette, and others, now in Montreal goal, having acknowledged their treasons and submitted themselves to the will and pleasure of her majesty, shall be transported to the island of Bei-muda, not to return on pain of death; and the same penalty is to be incurred by Papineau, and others who have absconded, if found at large in the province. Government had intended merely to substitute a tempo- rary legislative power during the suspen- sion ofl and in substitution for, the ordi- nary legislature; and as the ordinary legis- lature would not have had power to pass such au ordinance, it was argued that neither could this power belong to the sub- stituted authority. The passing of the indemnity act made a great sensation as soon as it was known in Canada ; and lord Durham, acutely feeling that his implied condemnation 'was con- tained ill it, declared his intention to re- sign and return immediately to England ; inasmuch as he was now deprived of the ability to do the good which he had hoped to accomplish. Meanwhile, the Canadas again became the scene of rebellious war and piratical invasion. The rebels occupied Beauhar- nois and Acadie, near the confluence of the Richelieu and the St. Lawrence, establish- ing their head- quarters at Napierville; and their forces mustered, at one time, to the number of 8,000 men, generally well armed. Several actions took place; and sir John Colbome, who had proclaimed martial law, concentrated his troops at Napierville and Chateauquay, and executed a severe ven- geance -apon the rebels whom he found there, burning the houses of the disaffected through >he whole district of Acadie. But it was a pt^rt of the plan of the traitors and their republican confederates to distract the attention of the British commander and to dividvi the military force, by invau- ing Upper Canada; and at the moment sir John Colborne was putting the last hand to the suppression of the rebellion in Beauharnois and Acadie, 800 republican pirates embarked in two schooners at Og- denburgh, fully armed, and provided with six or eight pieces of artillery, to attack the town of Prescott, on the opposite side of the river. By the aid of two United Statec steamers, they effected a landing a mile or two bjlow the town, where they established themselves in a windmill and some stone buildings, and repelled the first attempt made to dislodge them, killing and wounding forty-five of their assailants, among whom were five officers; hut on colonel Dundas arriving with a reinforce- ment of regular troops, with three pieces A.D. 1839.-QOKEN AnHAIDB VISITS MALTA tOB. TUB BBNBVIT OF HBR U II ■ALTH. A. D. 1839.— ST. Paul's catubdbal, Calcutta, bboan builoimo oct. 9. &■ U i a o » H a I a a •J 496 ^l^e ^Ficasuro of l^iatotw, 8cc. of artillery, Xhej surrendered at discretion. Some otiier skirmishes subsequently took Slace, chiefly between American dcspera- oes wbo invaded the British territory and the queen's troops; but th« former were severely punished for their temerity. The conduct of sir John Colborne elicited the praise of all parties at home ; and he was appointed governor-general of Canada,with all the powers which had been vested in the earl of Durham. The adjustment of a boundary line, be- tween Maine and New Brunswick, had been a subject of dispute from the time the in- dependence of the States was acknowledged in 1783. Though the tract in dispute was of no value to either claimant generally as likely to become prolitable under culti- vation, yet some part of it was found ne- cessary to Great Britain as a means of com- munication between New Brunswick and the Cunndas, and thus through all the Bri- tish colonies. Great Britain had, more- over, since 1783. remained in u,ti facto pos- session of the desert, as far as a desert can be said to be occupied. At length, how- ever, the state of Maine invaded this de- bateable land, and several conflicts took place ; which for a time seemed likely to involve Great Britain and America in a general war. The colonists showed great alacrity and determination in defending their right to the disputed ^rritory ; and it was eventually agreed that both parties were to continue in possession of the parts occupied by them respectively at the com- mencement of the dispute, until the federal government and Great Britain should come to a definitive arrangement. The proceedings of parliament had lately been watched with more than ordinary in- terest, the state of parties being too nicely balanced to insure ministerial majorities on questions aCfecting certain commercial interests. On the 9th of April leave was given to bring in a bill, on the motion of Mr. Labouchcre, to suspend the executive constitution and to make provisions for the temporary government of Jamaica. It appeared that, in consequence of a dispute between the governor of that island and the house of assembly, no public business could be proceeded with ; and it was pro- posed by this bill to vest the government in the governor and a council only— to be continued for five years. When, in the fol- lowing month, the order of the day for going into committee on the Jamaica bill, was moved, it was opposed by sir R. Peel, in a long and elaborate speech ; in which he exposed the arbitrary provisions of the bill, the enormous power it would confer on the governor and commissioners, and the impossibility of imposing an effectual check on the abuse of power exercised at a distance of three thousand miles. In sup- port of the view he had taken, sir Robert alluded to the mode of treating refractory colonies, formerly suggested by Mr. Can- ning; who had declared that " nothing short of absolute and demonstrable neces- sity should induce him to moot the awful (question of the transcendental power of par- liament over every dependency of the Brit- ish crown ; for that trancendental power was an arcanum of empire which ought to be kept back within the penetralia of the constitution." After an adjourned debute. May the 6th, the house divided, when there appeared for going into committee 294, against it 389, the majority for ministers being only five. The next day lord John Russell and lord Melbourne stated, that in consequence of this vote, the ministry had come to the resolution to resign, it being evident that with such a want of confidence on the part of so large a proportion of members in the house of commons, and the well-known opposition in the house of Itirds, it would be impossible for them to administer the affairs of her majesty's government in a manner which could be useful and beneficial to the country. For one entire week political quidnuncs were kept in a state of feverish excitement or breathless suspense. Tales of tory ar- rogance and outraged royalty, dashed with an occasional allusion to whig trickery, travelled with railroad speed along the various channels of public informatiop ; but nothing othcially transpired till the 13th, when sir R. Feel made a statement At the negotiations relative to the formation of a ministry to which, he said, he had re- cently been a party. Her majesty first applied to the auke of Wellington, and in consequence of what had then occurred, air Robert had an interview, and, by desire, employed himself in making a general ar- rangement for suitably filling tlie various ministerial appointments. He then stated that a difficulty or misconception arose, which led to his relinquishing his attempt to form an administration. Sir Robert men- tioned to the queen his wish to be enabled, with her majesty's sanction, so to con- stitute her household, that her ministers might have the advantage of a public de- monstration of her full support and con. fidence; and that at the same time, as far as possible, consistently with that demon- stration, each individual appointment in t he household should be entirely acceptable to her mtyesty's personal feelings. Sir Robert was anxious to apply a similar principle to the ehitf appointments which were filled by the {'it^t'et of her majesty's household; upon which her majesty was pleased to remark, that she must reserve the whole of thone appointments, and that it was her pleasure that the whole should continue as they then were, without any change. The duke of Wellington, in the interview to which the queen subsequently admitted him, under- stood also that this was her determination. But her majesty's old advisers, lords Mel- bourne and Russell, construed the matter differently ; and laid the onus upon the right honourable baronet, who, according to their version, wanted nothing less than to have a controlling power over the whole establish- ment. However that might have been, her majesty, it appeared, immediately sent for lord Melbourne, and observing to him that o f< B M •i a M I SI n r. K I" I H s A. O. 1840.— THE VtflFORM FBNNT POBTAOB COMMENCBD ON JAN. 10. \,-L- A.D. 1839.— WAB KXtlCWKD BBTWSBI* TBB TURK* AMD TUB BSTFTIAHS. lEngTantJ T^Mt of 19r«n«toicli.— 'Fittoria. 497 she could not comply with luch a itipula- tion, dispatcbed the following note to- the tory leacier; — " Buckingham-palace, May 10, 1839.— The queen having considered the propoial made to her yesterday by sir Robert Peel to remove the ladies of her bedchamber, cannot consent to adopt a course which she conceives to be contrary to usage, and which is repugnant to her feelings." Upon the receipt of this note, sir Robert Peel immediately wrote to the queen, stat- ing his impression with respect to the cir. cumstances which had led to the termina' tioH of his attempt to form an administra- tion. " My resignation," said the honour- able baronet, as he detailed the circum- stances in parliament, " was solely because I understood that her majesty had resolved to retain the tehole of the household, as far as the ladies were concerned, and because I felt it impossible for me to conduct the government without the fullest and most unequivocal proof of the royal confidence." The duke of Wellington, in his place in the house of lords, said, he quite agreed with his friend, sir R. Peel, that a ministei- of the crown was entitled to a control over all the appointments of a queen's house- hold, and that that control became doubly necessary where the offices in every depart- ment of the household had been long in the hands of an opposite party. For him- self, he would rather suffer any inconve- nience than interfere with the comforts of the sovereign ; but the step recommended was absolutely demanded by the exigency of the occasion. Many opinions on this impenetrable mis- take were formed and expressed beyond the precincts of parliament which it would be neither wise nor decorous to state; and there were not a few who, when they saw the Melbourne ministry once more safely ensconced, fancied that the whole transac- tion mi^ht be looked upon as an excellent specimen of whig diplomacy. In the short interval that had elapsed, a great clamour had been raised, and much virtuous indig- nation displayed, by those who thought themselves exclusively entitled to the ap- pellation of " the queen's friends." Indeed, to a simple observer, it appeared as though a young and innocent queeu, who had so lately been the object of a nation's homage, had suddenly fallen from her high estate, and become the object of its pity. How- ever, be that as it might, lord Melbourne and his old coadjutors were once more seated at the helm of state. One of the first acts of the reinstated ministry was to form a legislative union of the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, I and to continue for two years the powers I vested in the governor and special council : of Lower Canada by the act previously passed to that effect. Another measure was also carried, after much opposition, namely, to grant the sum of 30,000/. for the purposes of public education. And a third, still more interesting to the great body of the public, was an immense reduction in the charge for postage, by the substitu- tion of one uniform rate by weight, instead of increased charges according to the num- ber of pieces of paper contained under one cover. Thus, whatever be the distance, the postage chnrge for a letter weighing only half an ounce is one penny ; 2U. if an ounce ; 4d. if two ounces, and so on. The fierce and cruel contest that had raged for the last three years in the Span- ish peninsula, between the Carlists and Chriatinos, was now virtually terminated by the active and soldier-like conduct of Espartero, the queen's general and chief. The British legion had some time since withdrawn, the queen's partv daily gained ground, and Don Carlos had found it ne- cessary to seek refuge in France. In narrating t'le affairs of Britain, it will be observed that we are ne^ 'sarily led, from tiiMe to time, to advert ne events which take place in British Cvionies and possessions, wherever litiiate and however distant. For a considerable time past the government of India had been adopting very active measures, in consequence of the shah of Persia, who was raised to the throne mainly by British assistance, being supposed to be acting under Russian influ- fluence, to the prejudice of this country. Stimulated by Russia, as it appeared, the Persian undertook an expedition to Herat; an important place, to which a small prin- cipality is attached, in the territory of \S- ghanistan. Lord Auckland, the governor- general of India, thereupon determined to send an army of 30,000 men towards Can- dahav, Cabnul,and Herat ; and this force was to be joined by about 45,000 mtn, furnished by Runjeet Sin;;h,the sovereign of the Puu- jaub. In the mean time it appeared that the Persians had suffered great loss at He- rat. It was soon afterwards rumoured that the chiefs of Afl'ghanistan were prepared to meet a much stronger force than the Aniclo- Indian government, though reinforced by Runjeet Singh, could bring into tlie field, and that they would listen to no terms of acoomiuodation. The next accounts, how- ever, informed us that the British hud en- tered Candahar, that the difficulties expe- rienced with respect to provisions had va- tiished, and that the troops were received with open arms. Shah Soojah was crowned with ncclaination ; and the army proceeded forthwith to Caboul. On the 2l8t of September the fort of Joudpore, in Rajpootann, surrendered to the British; and that of Kumaul, in the Deccan, on the 6th of October. The camp of the rajah was attacked by general Will- shire, which ended in the total rout of the enemy. A very great quantity of military stores were found in Kurnuul, and treasure amounting to nearly 1,000,0001. sterling. In the camp an immense quantity of jewels was captured, besides 150,000/. in specie. The shah of Persia consented to acknow- ledge Shah Soojah as king of Affghanistau ; but Dost Mahomed, the deposed prince, was still at large, and no doubt existed that a widely ramified conspiracy existed among A.D. 1839. — THE FBRU-BOLITIAIf ARHT DEFBATBD BT TBB CHILIANS. '. A. A. 1H39. — luu naw docks and ship canal at CABOivr orsifBD, oct. 9. ill 498 H^e treasure of l^istort), $cc. the native chiefs to rise against the British on the Hrat favourable opportunity. The country had been much disturbed during the year by large and tumultuous asseiiiblages of the people, of a revolution- ary cliaracter, under the name o( charlitta; and many excesses were committed by them in the large manufacturing towns of Manchester, Bolton, Birmingham, Stock- port, &c. that required the strong arm of the law to curb. This was alluded to in her majesty's speech, at the close of the session of parliament, as the iirst attempts at insubordination, which happily had been checked by the fearless administration of the law. But present appearances were not to be trusted. Tlie insurrectionary movaments and outra7es in the manufacturing districts of the north had fur a time, it is true, been ()uelled; and ministers boasted that chart- U.n had received its death-blow, or was now but an idle word. But though the flames of sedition were not seen to blaze as before, the embers were still burning, and a mass of indammable materials was spread abroad, ready to become ignited in a moment. That the friends of order n\ii;ht be lulled into se- curity, there had been none of those public meetings lately, nor any thing to lead the superlicial observ<>r to believe but that with the breaking up if the "convention," the charter cause wasufad. Secret organization was, however, all the time going on, and a general rising was in contemplation. It was arranged that their active operations should commence in the reniote and un- guarded districts of South Wales, where the emissaries of " the charter" had obtained considerable influence; and while the coun- try was in a state of alarm and confusion nt what was going on in that quarter, other branches of the wide-spread conspiracy were to assemble and make a display of fihysical force sufficient to overawe the ocal authorities and astound the govern- ment. Thus prepured, on the Snd of No- vember the men began their march from the " hills" in the neighbourhood of Mertbyr, &c., armed with muskets, pikes, swords, crowltars, pickaxes, and u hatcver other im- plements they could niusler,and proceeded in the direction of liiewport in Monmouth- shire, marching through the villages and compelling many to join them, till the whole number amounted to nearly 20,000 men. It was their intention to enter N-""port in the dead of night, and thus obta; possession of it unresisted; but the raiu had con- tinued to descend in torrents, which greatly impeded their progress, and thus happily tliat part of the design was frustrated. At about four o'clock in the morning of the 4th, the main body of this lawless mob halted at Tredegar park, the seat of sir Charles Morgan. The mt'^lstrates of Newport hav- ing received private information of tlie in- tentions of the rioters, were at this time assembled at the Westgate Arms, where a smull party of the 46th foot was stationed; one company of that regiment being all the military force at that time in the town. The several gatherings of the rioters were under tha guidance of certain leaders, the general-in chief of whom was John frost, a man respectably situated in life as a trades- man, and who for his zealous advocacy of the " liberal " measures of the day (for he was a noted patriot of the new school) had found favour in the eyes of lord John Russell, who flattered and rewarded him with a magisterial appointment. His son, .a mere boy of sixteen, was also the leader of a party. One Joucs, a watchmaker at Pontypool, was another of the redoubtable chartist generals, and Zephaniah Williams was a fourth. Such was the stale of ter- rorism inspired by the chartist bands, that many of the peaceable inhabitants of Tredegar, Blackwood, &c., fled from their homes on Sunday, and passed the night in the woods, lest the chartists should kill them. At length they reached Newport, and proceeded at once to the rendezvous of the magistrates at the Westgate Arms, which they assailed and endeavoured to take possession of; but by the excellent arrangement of Mr. T. Fhillips, the mayor, and the strady resolution ot the soldiers, who were planted in an upper room of tlie inn, from which they could take good aim, the rioters were successfully resisted, seve- ral were killed or wounded, others were made prisoners, and the multitude, with their cowardly instigators, fled from the scene of danger with all imaginable speed. The conduct of the mayor and his brother magistrates on this trying occasion was above all praise ; and it was a source of Ken- eral regret throughout the country that, in the performance of his perilous dnty, the worthy mayor was severely wounded ! y two musket balls. Fortunately, neither nound proved dangerous, and he subse- quently received the honour of knighthood for his zeal, skill, and bravery. The whole of the military stationed at the Westgate Arms amounted to only one officer (lieuten- ant Gray), two non-commissioned officers, and twenty- eight privates ! At a public meeting of the inhabitants of Newport, convened for the purpose of con- veying the thanks of the inhabitants to captain Stack's company of the 45th regi- ment of foot, for " their gallant and steady conduct in resisting and routing on the morning of the 4th of Novemljer a large insurrectionary host of armed men, who entered the town with the evident intention of sacking and destroying it, murdering many of its inhabitants, and c6minencing a revolution in the government of thu country," many excellent observations fell from the lips of the speakers ; among whom was Mr. Protheroe, who, commenting on the late outrage, referred to the conduct of the seditious leaders previous to Wat Ty- ler's rebellion, and quoted from Hume the foUoA'ing apposite passage: "They affected low popularity, went about the country and inculcated on their audiences the principles of the ttrst origin of mankind from one common stock, their equal rights to all the goods of nature, the tyranny of artiticial A. D. 1839. — TUB FBBNCH CORDON OP HONOUR CONFBRRKD ON ESPARTBRO. A. S. 1839.— CHABTIIT BIOTI IK JULT, AT RBWCAtTLB, BIKMINaHAM, BOLTOlf, &C. lEnglanU.— l^ouae of ISrunAinicii.— Utctocia. 499 distinctions, and the abuses which had arisen from the degradation of the more conniderable part oi the species, and tlie afficraudizement of a few insolent ralers." This, said he, was the language used bjr the insurgents in Richard the Second's reign, and how similar is it to that held out by the seditious demagogues of the present day! On the 10th of December a special com- mission was held at Monmouth tor the trial of the chartist rebels at Newport, 'before lord-chief-justice Tindal, and the judges Park and Williams ; the chief justice open- ing the proceedings with a luminous and eloquent charge to the grand jury. Accord- ingly, on the 12th, true bills were returned ■gainst John Frost, Charles Waters, James Aust, William Jones, John Lovell, Zepha- niah Williams, Jenkin Morgan, Solomon Britton, Edmund Edmonds, Richard Ben- fleld, John Rees, David Jones, and George Terner (otherwise Coles) for high treason. In order to comply with the forms custo- mary ill trials for high treason, the court was then adjourned to Dec. 31, when John Frost was put to the bar. The tirst day was occupied in challenging the jury ; the next day the attorney-general addressed the court and jury on the part of the crown, and the prisoner's counsel objected to the calling of the witnesses, in consequence of the list cf them not having been given to the prisoner. Frost, agreeablv to the terms of tlie statute: on the third day the evi- dence was entered into; and on the eighth day, after the most patient attention of the court and jury, a verdict of guilty was re- corded against Frost, with a strong recom- mendation to mercy. The trials of Zrpha- niah Williams, and William Jones, nach occupied four days, with a like verdict and recommendation. Walters, Morgan, Rees, Benficld, and Lovell pleaded guilty, and received sentence of death, the court inti- mating that they would be transported for life. Four were discharged ; two forfeited their bail; and nine, having pleaded guilty to charges of conspiracy and riot, were sen- tenced to terms of imprisonment not ex- ceeding one year. Frost and the other ringleaders on whom sentence of death had been passed, were finally transported for life. The spirit of chartism, however, though repressed, was not wholly subdued. Sun- day, the 12th of Januarjr, had been fixed on for further outbreaks in various parts of the country; but by the precautionary mea- sures of the government and the police, their concerted desij^ns were frustrated. Information was afterwards received that the chartists intended to fire and pillage the town of Sheflield on Sunday morning at two o'clock. They began to assemble, but the troops and constables being on the alert, they succeeded in taking seven or eight of the ringleaders, but not before several persons were severely wounded, three of whom were policemen. An im- mense quantity of fire-arms of all descrip- tions, oall-cartridgCB, iron-bullets, hand- grenades, fire-balls, daggers, pikes, and swords were found, togctiier with a great quantity of crowfeet for disabling horses. The ringleaders were committed to York castle, and at the ensuing spring assises, were tried, found guilty, and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment of one, (wo, and three year*. At the same time four of the Bradford chartists were sentenced to three years' imprisonment, and three from Barnsley to the term of two years. At (he same assizes, Feargus O'Connor was con- victed of having published, in the Northern Star newspaper, of which he was the editor and proprietor, certain seditious libels : and the noted demagogue orators, Vincent and Edwards, who were at the time undergoing a former sentence in prison, were convicted at Monmouth of a conspiracy to effect great changes in the government by illeeal means, &c., and were severally sentenced to a far- ther imprisonment of 12 and U mouths. In various other places, also— London among the rest — chartist conspirators were tried and punished for their misueeds. A.D. 1840. — For the space of two yean and a half the British sceptre hnd been swayed by a "virgin queen:" it was there- fore by no means surprising that her ma- jesty should at lengtli consider that the cares of regal state might be rendered more supportable if shared by a consort. That such indeed, had been the subject of her royal musings was soon made evident ; for, on the I6th of January she met her parlia- ment, and commenced her most gracious speech with the following plain and un- affected sentence : — "My loras,and gentle- men, — Since you were latl assembled I have declared my intention of allying my- self in marriage with the Prince Albert of Saxe Coburg and Gotha. I humbly implore that the divine blessing may prosper this union, and render it conducive to the in- terests uf my people, as well as to my own domestic happiness." There could be no reasonable ground for cavilling at hep majesty's choice. The rank, age, character, and connexions of the prince, were all in his favour ; and the ne- cessary arrangements were made without loss of time. A naturalization bill for his royal highness was immediately passed; and lord John Russell moved a resolution authorizing her majesty to grant SU.OUUf. a-year to the prince for his life. This was generally thought to be more than suffi- cient ; and Mr. Hume moved as an amend, ment, that the grant be 21,000/. ; however, on a division there was a majority of 267 against the amendment. Upon this, co- lonel Sibtliorp moved a second amendment, substituting 30,0001., which was supported by Mr. Goulbum, sir J. Graham, and sir R. Peel, who considered 30,000/. a just and li- beral allowance for the joint lives of the queen and the prince, and for the prince's possible survivorship, should there be no issue; if an heir should be born, then the 30,000/. might properly be advanced to 60,000/. ; and, should there be a numerous issue, it would be reasonable to make a ESPARTRRO. A. D. 1840.— FIRST GRAND rROCESSION Or THB I.OIfDO.I TRMPBRANCR SOCIETIES, JUMB 8. A.D. 1840.— CLBBs's ATMoirBBBic lAiLW&T rim«« rvBiici.T BxiiaiTBD. jona 18. 500 Vti)t treasury of Btstorn, ict. •till further increaae, such as would beHt the father of a large funiily of royal chil- dren. Those events would justify the aug- mentations, by giving a Kuarantee for the prince's permanent residence in, and at- tachment to, this country. He showed the inapplicability of the precedents in the cases of queens-consort, and animadverted upon the instance of prince Leopold's 60,000/.; as the whole country had cried out that that allowance was excessive; and on the house again dividing, the numbers were, for the amendment 362, for the mo- tion 153 ; majority against ministers lO-t. On the 6th of the ensuing month (Fe- bruary), the bridegroom elect, conducted by viscount Torrington, and accompanied by the duke his father, and his elder brother, arrived at Dover; and on the 10th, " the marriage of the queen's most excel- lent majesty with field-marshal his royal highness Francis Albert Autrustus Charles Emanuel, duke of Saxe, princ, of Saxe Co- bourg and Ootha, K.6. waa solemuized at the chapel royal, St. Jamea's." The pro- cessions of the royal bride and bridegroom were conducted on a style of splendour suitable to the occasion. The duke of Sus- sex gave away his royal niece : and at that part of the service where the archbishop of Canterbury read the words, " I pronounce that they f>e man and wife together," the park and Tower guns tired. In the after- noon her majesty and the prince proceeded to Windsor Castle, a banquet was given nt St. James's jialaoe to the members of the household, which was honoured by the pre- sence of the duchess uf Kent, and the reign- ing duke and hereditary prince of Saxe Coburg; and the day was universally kept as a holiday throughout the country; grand dinners were given by the cabinet minis- ters ; and in the evening the splendid illu- minations of the metropolis gave additional eclat to the hymeneal rejoicings. For many months part there had been an interruption to those relations of amity and commerce which for a long period had been maintained between this country and China. It originated in the determination on the part of the Chinese government to put an end to the importation of opium into the •' celestial empire," and to the op- position made to that decree by the British merchants engaged in that traffic. Early in the preceding; year a large quantity of opium, belon^-ing to British merchants, was given up, on the requisition of Mr. Elliott, the quee> 's representative at Can- ton, to be destr'jjed by the Chinese autho- rities. The quantity seized was upwards of twenty tliousand chests, which was sup- posed to be worth two millious ; and Mr. Elliot pledged the faith of the government he represented that the merchants should receive compensation. The English (;overnment was naturally desirous to keep on good terms with a country from which so many commercial advantages had been derived; but the Chi- nese authorities daily grew more arrogant and unreasonable, and several outrage* against the English were committed. At length, in an anray between some seamen of the Volage and the Chinese, one of the latter was killed; and on captain Elliot having refused to deliver up the homicide to commissioner Lin, the most severe and arbitrarv measures were immediately taken to expel all the British inhabitants from Macao. This hostile conduct was quickly followed by an outrage of a still more se- rious character. The Black Joke, having on board one passenger, a Mr. Moss, and six Lascars, was obliged to anchor in tha Lantaod passage, to wait for the tide. Here she was surrounded by three manda- rin boats, by whose crews she was boarded ; five of the Lascars butchered, — and Mr. Moss ihockingly mutilated. These pro- ceedings gave rise to further measures of hostility. On the 4th Sept. captain Elliot came from Hong Kong to Macao in his cut- ter, in company with tne schooner Pearl, to obtain provisions for the fleet. The man- darins, however, on board the war-junks opposed their embarkation, when captain Elliot intimated that if in half an hour the provisions were not allowed to pass, he would open a fire upon them. "The hd^f hour passed, and the gun was fired. Thrie war junks then endeavoured to put to sea, but were compelled by a well-directed fire of the cutter and the Pearl to seek shelter under the walls of Coloon fort. About six o'clock the Vola^e frigate hove in sight, and the boat ot captain Douglas, with twenty-four British seamen, attempted to board the junk, but without success. The boat's crew then opened a fire of musketry, by which a mandarin and four Chiuese sol- diers were killed, and seven wounded. The result, however, was, that the provisions were not obtained, and that the Chinese junks escaped; while, instead of any ap- proach to a better understanding between the two countries, it was regarded rather as the commencement of a war; which, indeed, the next news from China confirmed. On the appearance of another British ship, the Thomas Coutts, at Whampoa, commissioner Lin renewed his demand for the surrender of the murderer of the Chi- nese, and issued an edict commanding all the British ships to enter the port of Can- ton and sign the opium bond, or to depart from the coast immediately. In case of non-compliance with either of these con- ditions, within three days, the commis- sioner declared he would destroy the entire British fieet. On the publication of this edict capatin Elliot demanded an explana- tion from the Chinese admiral Kawn, who at first pretended to enter into a ne;(otin- tion, but immediately afterwards ordered out tuenty-nine war junks, evidently in- tending to surround the British ships. The attempt, however, ended in five of the junks being sunk, and another blown up, each with trom 150 to 200 men 6n board ; and on the rest making off, captain Elliot or- dered the firing to cease. A decree was now issued by the emperor prohibiting the importation of all British A. D, 1840.«»I,OI«DON AND BLACKWALL BAILWAT OFBNBD TO THB rUBUC, JULY 8. IITID, JONM 18. A. a. 1840.— OMEAT WBtTRRN BAILWAX OmnBO BBTWB>:< BBIITOL AND OATH, *Da. 31. lEnglanti.— l^ou«e of 13runsto(cli.— "ETUtorla. sol DBUC, JULY 0. (roods, and the trade with China was con- sequently at an end; but the American ships arrived and departed as usual In the meantime preparations on a larKe scale were iiinkinK >n Iiidin to collect and send off n larKe torce to China, so as to brinR this must important quarrel to an issue. Several men of war and corvettes, from England and various foreixn stations, were also got ready, and the command given to admiral Elliot, to give the expedition all the asRistancc and co-operation possible. The object of these preparations, as was stated by lord John llussell in the house of commons, Wat, in the flrst place, to ob- tain reparation for the insults and injuries offered to her majestjr's subjects by the Chinese government; in the second place, to obtain for the merchants trading with China an iclcmnitication for the loss of their property incurred by threats of vio- lence offered Yij persons under the direc- tion of the Chinese government ; and, in the last place, to obtain a certain security that persons and property, in future trad- ing with China, shall be protected from insult or injury, and that tiieir trade and commerce be maintained on a proper foot- ing. We shall hereafter have occasion to show the progress of the armament des- tined for China, and its results. Thf ac- count we have here given was decTied necessary in order to show the origin of the dispute. Return we now to matters of domestic interest. On the 1st of June his royal highness prince Albert presided at the lirst anniver- sary meeting of the " society for the ex- tinction of the slave trade," held at Exeter- hall. The prince, in his opening address, "deeply regretted that the oenevolent and persevering exertions of England to abolish that atrocious traffic in human beings, at once the desolation of Africa and the black- est stain upon civilized Europe, had not hitherto led to any satisfactory conclusion ; but he trusted that this great country would not relax in its efforts until it had finally and for ever put an end to a state of things so repugnant to the spirit of Chris- tianity, and to the best feelings of our nature." Many excellent speeches follow- ed, and a liberiu subscription was entered into. A great sensation was caused in the pub- lic mind by an attempt to assassinate the {{ueen. On the lOtU of June, as her ma- jesty was starting for an evening drive, up Constitution-hill, in a low open carriage, accompanied by prince Albert, a young man deliberately nred two pistols at her, but happily without effect. His name proved to be Edward Oxford, the son of a widow who formerly kept a coffee-shop in South- wark. lie was about eighteen years of age, and had been lately employed as a pot-boy in Oxford street, but was out of place. He was instantly seized, and sent to Newgate on a charge of h-gh treason ; but it appear- ing on his trial, (which lasted two days) that there were grounds for attributing the act to insanity, and as there was no positive proof that the pistols were Umdrd, the jury returned a verdict of "guilty, hut that at the time he committed the act he was insane." The conxcqucnce was, that he became an inmate of liethlem fur liCe, as was the case with Ilatlicid, who forty years before tired off a pistol at George III. in Drury-laue theatre. The murder of lord William llussell by Courvoisier, his Swiss valcl, had just iM-fore excited considerable interest. The crime was comiiiitled at his lordship's residence in Norfolk Btieet, Park-lane, early in the night, and the murderer had emuloved the remainder of the night in earefully Jenlroy- ini( all marks which could cast sunpirion upon himself, and in llirowing the house into a state of confusion, in order that it might bear the appearance of having been broken into by burglars. Nor would it have been an easy matter to have convicted him on circumstantial evidence, hnd not a missing parcel of plate been discovered on the very day the trial commenced, whicii it appeared he had left some days before the murder with Madame I'iolane, the keeper of an hotel in Leicester-square. It is some time since we have had occa- sion to notice any thing relative to French affairs ; but an event transpired in Augiist- whicli we cannot well omit. On the fith of that month Louis Napoleon, (son of the late king of Holland, and heir male of the Buonaparte family,) made an abcurd at- tempt to effect a hostile descent upon the coast of France. He embarked from London in the Edinburgh Castle steamer, which he had hired from the Commercial Steam Navigation Company, as for a voyage cf pleasure, accompanied by about lil'ty men, including general Montholon, colonels Vol- sin, Laborde, Montauban, and Parquin, and several other officers of inferior rank. They landed at a small port about two leagues from Boulogne, to which town they imme- diately marched, and arrived at the bur- racks about five o'clock, just as the soldiers of the 42nd regiment of the line were ris- ing from their beds. At the first moment the soldiers were a little staggered, as they understood a revolution had taken place in Paris, and they were summoned to join the imperial eagle. One of their officers, how- ever, having hurried to the barracks, soon relieved the men from their perplexity, and they acknowledged his authority. Louis Na- poleon drew a pistol, and attempted to shoot the inopportune intruder; but the shot took effect upon a soldier, who died the same day. Finding themselves thus foiled, the Buonapartists took the Calais road to tlie colonne de Napoleon, upon the top of wliicn they placed their fiag. The town authori- ties and national guard then went in pur- suit of the prince, who, being intercepted on the side of the column, made for the beach, with the view to embark and re- gain the packet in which he had arrived. lie took possession of the life-boat ; hut scarcely had his followers got into it when the national guard also arrived on the beacb and discharged a volley on the boat. A. D. 1840. — THB PBINCS88 AIJOUSTA, AUNT TO TUB QUEEtf, DIBD, 8KPT. 22. U' 'i tJsi I'/f r 1^ A.D. 1840.— SBITK OP TBB YENBHABLI MARQUII OV CAHDBN, AOKit 82, OCT. 8. 502 VLf)z ^reasuiQ of I^istory, $cc. which immediately upiet, and the whole company were seen struggling in the sea. In the meantime the steam packet was al- ready taken possession of by the lieutenant of the port. The prince was then made pri- soner, and about three hours after his at- tempt on Boulogne, he and his followers were safely Indeed in the castle. From Boulogne he was removed to the castle of ilam, and placed in the rooms once occu- pied by prince I'olignac. On being tried and found guilty, Louis Napoleon was sen- tenced to perpetual imprisonment in a for- tress ; count Montholon, twenty years' de- tention; Parquin and Lombard, the same period ; others were sentenced to shorter pe- riods; Aldenizc was transported for life; and some were acquitted. _ The insane attempt to excite a revolu- tionary movement m France, above de- 'scribed, probably owed its origin to the very "liberal" permission granted by Louis Pliillippe, and the no less liberal acqui- escence of the English ministers, to allow the ashes of the emperor Napoleon to be removed from St. Helena, in order that they might tind their Inst resting-place in France. This had undoubtedly raised the hopes of many a r.enlous Buonapartist, wlio thought that the fervour of the populace was likely to display itself in a violent emeufe, which the troops would he more ready to favour than to quell. A grant of a million of francs had been made to de- fray the expenses of the expedition to St. Helena, (which was to be under the com- mand of prince de Joinville), the funeral ceremony, and the erection of a tomb in the church of the Invalides; so that, in the language of the French minister of the in- terior, " his tomb, like his glory, should belong to his country I " The prince arrived at Cherbourg, with his "precious charge," on the 3Uth of November ; and on the loth of December Napoleon's remains were ho- noured by a splendid funeral procession, the king and royal family faein^ present at the ceremony, with 6U,00U national guards in attendance, and an assemblage of AOO,0OO persons. It was observed at the time of Buo- naparte's exhumation, that his features were so little changed that his face was recog- nized by those who had known him when alive; and the uniform, the orders, and the hat which had been buried with him, were very little changed. It was little contem- plated when the body was deposited in " Napoleon's Valley," at St. Helena, that it would ever be removed ; nay, it seems that especial care was taken to prevent such an occurrence : for we r^ad, that after having taken away the iiun railing which sur- rounded the tomb, " they tlien removed three ranges of masonry, and came to a vault eleven feet deep, nearly tilled with clay ; a bed of Roman cement then pre- sented itself, and underneath was ano- ther bed, ten feet deep, bound together with bands of iron. A covering of ma- sonry was then discovered tive leet deep, forming the covering of the sarcopha- gus." We conclude this year's occurrences with the accouchement of her majesty queen Victoria, who on the 2lBt of November gave birth at Buckingham palace to a priQ- cess, her first-born cnild ; and on the lUth of February the infant princess royal was christened Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa. A. o. 1841. — During the past year the at- tention of the great European powers had been drawn to the condition or Syria and Turkey ; and an alliance was entered into between England, Russia, Austria, and Prussia to put an end to the dispute which existed between the sultan and Mehemet Ali, the warlike pacha of Egypt. For this purpose it was deenjed expedient to dis- patoh a fleet to the Mediterranean ; and on the 14th of August commodore Napier summoned the Egyptian authorities to evacuate Syria. lu reply to this summons Mehemet All declarea that on the first appearance of hostility in the powers of Europe, the pacha Ibrahim would be com- manded to march on Constantinople. Soon afterwards hostilities commenced, and the town of Beyrout was bombarded on the 11th of September, and completely des- troyed by the allies in two hours. The wi^r in Syria was now carried on with great activity. The troops of Ibrahim su^tainea a signal defeat early in October, with the loss 01 seven thousand in killed, wounded, and prisoners ; in addition to which, com- modore Napier, with a comparatively tri- fling number of marines andTurkish troops, succeeded in expelling the Egyptiaus from nearly the whole of Lebanon, captured about 5,000 prisoners, with artillery and stores, and effected the disorganization of an army of 20,000 men. In short, nmre brilliant results with such limited means have rarely, if ever, been known, particu- larly when it is considered under what novel circumstances they were accomplish- ed. But the great exploit remains to be related. St. Jean d'Acre was taken by the allies on the 'dri of November. Colonel Smith, who commanded the forces in Syria, directed Omar Bey, with 2,000 Turks, to advance on Tyre, and occupy the passes to the north- ward of Acre; ,n the mean time admiral Stopford sailed from Beyrout roads, having on board 3,000 Turks, and detachments of English artillery and sappers. The forces and fleet arrived off Acre at the same hour. At two o'clock p. ui. a tremendous cannon- ade took place, which was maintained without intermission for some hours; the steamers lying outside throwing, with as- tonishing rapidity, their shells over the ships into the fortiflcation. During the bombardment the arsepal and magazine blew up, annihilating upwards of 1,200 of the enemy, forming two entire regiments, who were drawn up uu the ramparts. A sensation was felt on board the ships simi- lar to that of an earthquake. Every living creature within the area of 00,000 square yards ceased to exist. At two o'clock on the following morning a boat arrived from Acre, to announce that the remainder of 1\ A.D. 1840.— AN ATTEMPT MADB TO FIRB SHKBRNRaS DOGK-YAHD, OCT. 2. lid 83, OCT. 8. A.D. 1841.— THBBI CUURCBRS AS OVlfDBK DBBTMOTBD BT FIHK, JAI«. lEnglantr l^ouse of 13runi5toicft.— 1^11101(3. 603 the garrison were leaving the place; and as soon as the sun rose, the British, Aus- trian, and Turkish flags were seen wnviux on the citadel. Tl>e town was found to be one mass of ruins,— the batteries and houses riddled all over — the killed and wounded lyinic about in all directions. The slain were estimated at 2,50U men, and the prisoners amounted to upwards of 3,0U0. The turkish troops were landed to garrison Acre, where a vast quantity of military stores were found ; besides an excellent park of artillcrjr of 20U guns, and a large sum in specie. As the foregoing successes led to the termination of the war in Syria, and its evacuation by Ibrahim Pacha, it is unne- cessary to enter into operations of a minor character. Mehemet Ali eventually sub- mitted to all the conditions offered by the sultan, and which were sanctioned by the representatives of Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia :— I. The he- reditary possession of EKypt is confirmed to Mehemet Ali, and his descendants in a direct line. — 2. Mehemet Ali will be allow- ed to nominate his own oSicers up to the rank of a colonel. The viceroy can only confer the title of pacha with the consent of the sultan. — 3. The annual contribution is fixed at 80,OUU purses, or 4U,UUU,()0U of piastres, or 400,000/. — 4. The viceroy will not be allowed to build a ship of war with- out the permission of the sultan. — 6. Tlie laws and regulations of the empire are to be observed in Egypt, with such chanj^es as the peculiarity of the Egyptian people may render necessary, but which changes must •iceive the sanction of the Porte. At the commencement of the year news was brought from China that the differ- ences which had existed were in a fair train of settlement, and that the war might be considered as at an end. Hostilities had, however, recommenced, in consequence of Keshen, the imperial '::ommissioner, having delayed to bring to a conclusion the nego- tiations entered into with captain Elliot. Preparations were accordingly mnde for at- tacking the outports of the Bogue forts, on the Bocca Tigris. Having obtained pos- session, the steamers were sent to destroy the war junks in Anson's bay ; but the shal- lowness of the water admitted only of the approach of the Nemesis, towing ten or twelve boats. The junks endeavoured to escape, but a rocket blew up a powder ma- gazine of one of them, and eighteen more which were set on tire hy the English boats' crews also successively blew up. At length a flag of truce was dispatched by the Chi- nese commander, and hostilities ceased. On the 20th of January captain Elliot an- nounced to her majesty's subjects in China that the following arrnngements had been made: — 1. The cession of the island and harbour of Hong Kong to the British crown. 2. An indemnity to the British government of 6,000,000 dollars, 1,000,000 dollars payable at once, and the remainder in equal annual instalments, ending in 1846. 3. Direct official intercourse between the two countries upon an equal footing. 4. The trade of the port of Canton to be opened within ten days after the Chinese new year. Thus far all appeared as it should he; but great doubts of the sincerity of Keshen, the Chinese commissioner, were felt both here and at Canton. Accordingly the Nemesis steamer was sent up the river to reconnoitre, and nn nearing the Bogue forts (30 in num- ber) it wos discovered that preparations for defence had been made ; batteries and field- works had been thrown up along the shore, and upon the islands in the middle of the river; a barrier was in course of being constructed across the channel, and there were large bodies of troops assembled from the interior. Keshen finding his du- plicity discovered, communicated that fur- ther negotiations would be declined. The emperor, it appeared, had issued edicts re- pudiating the treaty, and denouncing the English barbarians, " who were like dogs and sheep in their dispositions." That in sleeping or eating he found no quiet, and he therefore ordered SOOO of his best troops to defend Canton, and to recover the places on the coast ; for it was absolutely neces- sary (said the emperor) "that the rebel- lious foreigners must give up their heads, which, witli the prisoners, were to he sent to Pekin in cages, to undergo the last pe- nalty of the law." He also olTercd 50,(l(i0 dollars for the apprehension of Elliot, Mo- rison, or Bermer alive, or 30,000 dollars for either of their heads. In additiiin, 6,000 dollars for an officer's head, 500 for an Eng- lishman alive, 300 for a head, and 100 lor a Sepoy alive. The emperor also delivered Keshen in irons over to the hoard of pu- nishment at Pekin, and divested tlic adnii- rol Kwan Teenpei of his button. Before the hostile edicts had appeared, captain Elliot, confiding in the good faith of Ke- shen, had sent orders to general Barrel to restore the island of Chusan (which we had taken many months before) to the Chinese, and to return with the Bengal volunteers to Calcutta. This order had been promptly obeyed; Chusan having been ev'icuated Feb. 29. Capt. Elliot set sail on Feb. 20, up the Canton river. On the 24th he destroyed a masked field-work, disabling eighty can- non there mounted. On the i:5th und I'Ctli he took three adjoining Bogue forts, witli- out losing a man, killing about 250 Chinese, and taking 1,300 prisoners. The subsequent operations of the squadron presented one unbroken succession of brilliant acliievc- ments; until, on the 28th of March, Can- ton, the second city in the Cliincse empire, containing a million of souls, was placed at the mercy of the British troops Every' Eossible means of defence had been used y the Chinese commanders; but nothing could withstand the intrepidity (if the Bri- tish. In consequence of the Chinese firing on a flag of truce, the forts and defences of Canton were speedily taken, the Hotilla i burnt or sunk, and the union jock hoisted I on the walls of the British factory. But WTMYARD, TBI »AT 0» THB MABQUI8 0» LOnDOIf DBRnv, BURNT, FBB 19. I 1 A*I>. 1841.— ASTI.BY's TUKATIIB BUnNT DOWN; THR TOTAL LOSS, 30,000^ 504 TEi)t S^icaaurn of HjiatorB, $cc. * Cnpt. Elliot nocmcd dooniod to be made the Sport ofCiiincsc duplicity. He no sooner issued n rircularto tlic English uiid roriiKn nierelinnfs,— nnnouncing that n suspension of hostilities had been agreed on between the Cbiiiose eoinmissioner Yang and him- self, and tliat the trade was open at Can- ton, and would be duly respected, — than the emperor issued another proclamation, ordering all commnnicntion with "the de- testable brood of English " to be cut off. Several other imperial iirocln'mations in b_ more furious style followed; the last of which thus concludes—" If the whole num- ber of them (the EngliKh) bo not effectu- ally destroyed, how shall I, the emperor, be able to answer to the gods of the hea- ven and the earth, and cherish the hopes of our people." Capt. Elliot, however, whose great oliject hitherto appears to have been to secure the annual export of ten, had succeeded in liaviq{( 1I,0U((,UUU lbs. shipped before the fulmiuaiing edicts of the empe- ror took effect. In Uetober, dispatches of great import- ance were received from general sir Hugh Gougli, commanding the land forces, and cniitain sir H. F. Senhouse, the senior na- val otitcer of the fleet, detailing a series of brilliant operations against Canton, whi- ther they had proceeded by the direction of Capt. Elliot. On the 2(ith of May the con- test began by the Chinese tiring on the British ships and letting loose some Are- ships among them, which, however, did no damage. Next morning the fort of Sham- ing was silenced, and a fleet of about forty iuuks burnt. On the 34th, a favourable lauding-placc having been discovered, the right column of the SOth regiment, under major Fratt, was convoyed by the Atnlnnta to aet on the south of the city; while the Nemesis towed the left column up to Tsin- ghae. After some sharp Hi{hting, the Can- ton governor vielded, and the troops and ships (vcrc withdrawn, on condition of the three commissioners and all the troops under theiu leaving Canton and its vicinity, and n,Ol)O,O0O of dollars to be paid within a week, the flrst million before evening that day: if the whole was not paid before the end of the week, the ransom was to be raised to 7,(H)t),000; if not before the end of four- teen days, to 8,000,000; and if not before twenty "days, to 9,000,000 dollars. After three days, the conditions having been ful- fllled, the troops left for Hong Kong, having liad i:i men killed and 97 wounded. Sir II. F. Senhouse died on board the Blenheim from a fever brought on by excessive fa- tigue. Notwithstanding this defeat, the Cliini'se wore still determined to resist, and Yeh Shan hnd reported to the emperor, his uncle, that when he had induced the bar- barians to withdraw, he would repair all the forts again. The enipe>'or, on his part, declared that, as n last resort, he woula put himself at the headof liis army, and march to India and England, and tear up the Eng- lish root nnd branch I Sir Henry rottingcr, the new plenipo- tentiary, anil rear-admiral Parker, the new naval commander-in-chief, arrived at Macao on the 9th of August. A notiflcation of sir Henry's presence and powers was sent to Canton immediately on his arrival, ac- companied by a letter forwarded to the em- peror at Pekin, the answer to which was required to be sent to a northern station. The fleet, consisting of nine ships of war, four armed steamers, and twenty-two trans- ports, sailed for the island nnd fortifled city of Amoy on the 21st of August. This island is situated in a fine gulf in the province of Eokein, the great tea dis- trict of China, opposite the island of For- mosa, and about 350 miles north-east of the gulf of Canton, 600 miles south of Chu- sun, and 1,300 miles fironi Pekin. It was fortilted by very strong defences, of granite rocks faced with mud, and mounted with no less than SOU pieces of cannon. On the 26th, after a brief parley with a mnn- dnrin, the city was bombarded for two hours. Sir Hugh Oougli, with the 18th regiment then' landed, and seized, one end of the long battery ; whilst the -jeth regi. inent, with the sailors and marines, car- ried the strong batteries on the island of Koolangsce, just in front of Amoy. The Chinese made an animated defence for four hours, and then fled from all their for- tiHcations, and also from the city, carrj^ug with them their treasures. The Chinese junks and war-boats were all captured ; and the cannon, with immense munit> >ns of war, of course fell into the hands of the English. Not a single man of the British was killed, and only nine were wounded. The next day sir Hugh Gough entered the city at the head of his troops without op- position. The next dispatches A-om China stated that Chusan had been recaptured on the 1st of October. A more resolute stand than usual was m.idc by the Chinese ; but the troops, supported bv the tire of the ships, asci'uded a hill, and escaladed Ting- hae, the capital city, from whence the Bri- tish colours were s^ucm seen flying in every direction. On the 7th the troops attacked the city of Cinhae, on the nminland oppo- site Chusan, which is inclosed by a wall thirty-seven feet thick, and twenty two feet high, with an embrasured <)arapet of four feet high. The ships shcilcd the citadel and entiladed the batteries; the seamen and marines then landed, and admiral sir W. Parker, with the true spirit of a British sailor, was among the (irst to scale the walls. Here was found a great arsoniil, a cannon foundry and ^un-carriage mnnul'ac- tory, and a great variety of warlike stores. Several other engagements took phiee, in all of which the British continued to have a most decided advantage, although it wns admitted that the Chinese and Tartar sul- d'crs shewed more resolution nnd a lioticr acquaintance with the art of war than on former occasions. However, as a large re- inforcement of troops, with a battering train which had been sent from Calcultu, was shortly expected, sir Henry Pottiiixer put off the execution of some inteiideil SI 5! l\ S! *•! a ; H I A.D. 1841.— TIIR CtUKUN VISITS TBK DVKB OF BVDFOBD, AT WOBURN, AUQ. 2. »,»W«S*s. I, 30,0001. 5 r? M M S' H K e , arrived nt Macao A notiAcation of powers wa« sent n his arrival, ac> warded to the em- L'cr to which was northern station, line ships of war, twenty-two trans- 1 and fortiAed city LUSUSt. in a flne gau in the Krcat tea dis- the island of For- liles north-east of liles south of Chu- ini Pekin. It was lefences, of irraniie, tnd mounted with o if cannon. On the , rley with a man- o iimbarded for two J gh, with the 18th I o >nd seized one end iiilst the -ieth rcgi- and marines, car- 8 on the island of int of Amoy. Tlie mated defence for A from oU their (or- n the city, carry^uR ires. Tlie Chinese were all captured; immense munit'->n8 tto the honds of the man of the British line were wounded. Gough entered the troops without op- from China stated rcciiptured on the [ore resolute stand ly the Chinese; but by the tire of' tlic ind csoaladcd Tinij;- fva whence the llri- [seen flying in every the troops attacked ;he mainland oppo- inclosed by a wall j»nd twenty two I'cct [red narapct of lour shelled the citadel .eries ; the seumcn |ed, and admiral i>ir le spirit (if a Kritish Arst to seule the a great arsoniil, ii ii-carriage m.inul'ac- f of warlike stores, [nents took plaeo, in li continued to have go, although it wns icne and Tartiir aol- blution and a better art of war than on ever, as a lar^e rc- with a battirintf jcnt from Caleutta, [ir Henry Pottinxcr of some intundfil 3DURN, AUG. 2. r. M H I 3 9 a r. ' 8 y. k.B. 1841.— Tun TOWN-IIAI.L AT URRBT DRSTBOVID OY nn*, OCt. 31. lEnfilantJ.— I^ouuc of 33tun8to(cii.--17(ctor(a. 605 operations on a more extended scale until their arrival. Home affairs again require our attention. The finances of the country had latterly assumed a most discouraging aspect ; and on the cliancellur of the exchequer bring- ing forward his annual budget, he proposed to make up the deAciency of the present year, which he stated to be 2,421,000/., be- sides the aggregate dcAc^icncy of S,000,000{., mainly by a modiAention of the duties on sugar and timber, and an alteration of the duties on com. The opposition, generally, censured the proceedings of ministers ; and sir Ilobert I'eel commented severely on the enormous deAciency of 7,50O,UO0<. incurred during the past Ave years, with a revenue too which had been throughout improving. It appeared that the Melbourne adminis- tration was on the wane ; and its perma- nency was put to the test when lord John Russell, in moving that the house should go into a committee of ways and means in order to consider the sugar duties, entered into a defence of the present policy of go- vernment. Lord Sandon then moved the amendment of which he had given notice, " that considering the efforts and sacriAces which parliament and the country have made fur the abolition of the slave trade and slavery, with the earnest hope that their exertions and example might lead to the mitigation and final extinction of those evils in other countries, this house is not prepared (especially with the present pro- spects of the supply of sugar from Uritish gossessions) to adopt the measure proposed y her majesty's government for the reduc- tion of the duties on foreign sugars." The debate which hereupon ensued was ad- journed from day to day, and lasted for the unprecedented extent of eight nights. When the house divided, on the 18th of May, there appeared for lord Sandon's amendment, 317 ; against it, 281 ; mtgority against mi- nisters, 36. On the 27th of May sir R. Feel took an opportunity of minutely reviewing the va- rious measures that had been submitted to parliament by ministers, and afterwards abandoned, and the prejudicial effects on the Anances of the country which had ac- crued from the passing of others. Sir Robert added, that in every former case where the house had indicated that its conAdence was withdrawn from the minis- try, the ministers had retired. The whole of their conduct betrayed weakness and a servile truckling for popular favour; and the prcro .atives of the crown were not safe in their hands. lie then moved the follow- ing resolution " That her majesty's minis- ters do not sufllcicutly possess the conA- dence of the house of commons to enable them to curry through the house measures which they deem of essential importance to the public welfare, and that tneir conti- nuance in office, under such circumstances, is at variance with the spirit of the consti- tution." This motion was carried in a full house, (the number of members present being G23,) by a majority of one. On the 22nd of Juno her majesty prorogued parlia- ment, " with a view to its immediate disso- lution ;" and it was accordingly diitolved by proclamation on the following day. On the ineL'ting of the new parliament ( August the 24111 ) the strength of the conservative party was striking. The min- isters had no measures to propose beyond those on which they had before sustained a di-feat ; and when an amendment to the address was put to the vote, declaratory of a want of conAdence in her majesty's pre- sent advisers, it elicited a spirited debate of four nights' continuance, terminating in a majority of 01 against ministers. This result produced, ns a matter of course, an immediate change in the ministry. The new cabinet was thus constituted:— Sir R. Peel, first lord of the treasury; duke of Wellington, ( without office) ; lord Lynd- hurst, lord chancellor; lord WarDciiffe, firesident of the council ; duke of Bucking- lam, privy seal : right hon. II, Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer ; sir James Graham, home secretary ; earl of Aberdeen, foreign secretary ; lord Stanley, colonial secretary ; earl of Haddington, first lord of the admiralty; lord Ellenborougb, presi- dent (if the board of control ; earl of Ripon, president of the board of trade ; sir Henry Hardinge, secretary at wa. ; sir Edward Knatchbull, treasurer of the navy and pay- master of the forces. Earl de Grey was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland; and sir Edward Sugden, Irish lord ehaueelloT. Some ordinary business being disposed of, sir R. Peel proposed to defer till after Christmas the measures he thought neces- sary to equalize the expenditure and the revenue, and the plans of ministers for meeting the commercial difficulties of the country : and the first session closed on the 7th of October. On the 30th of October the inhabitants of London were alarmed by a destructive Are in the Tower, which broke out about half-past ten o'clock at night, and con- tinued to rage with the utmost fury for several hours. It was Arst discovered in the round or bowycr tower, and quickly spread to the grand armoury, where the flames gained a fearful ascendancy, and preaented an appearance at once grand and awfi.l. Notwithstanding the exertions of the Arcmen and the military, the con- Aagration continued to spread, and appre- hensions were entertained that the Jewel tower, with its crowns, sceptres, and other emblems of royalty deposited there, woul(l fall a prey to the devouring element. Hap- pily, by prompt exertion, they were all taken to the governor's residence ; and the gunpowder aud other warlike stores in the ordnance office, from which the greatest danger was to be apprehended, were also removed. In addition to the armoury and bowyer tower, three other large buildings were entirely consumed. The grand ar- moury was 346 feet long, and GO feet broad. In the tower floor were kept about forty- three pieces of cannon, made by founders of different periods, besides various other A.D. 1841.— FBABOUS o'cONNOR RKCBIVBD A VRKR FARUON, AUO. 30. ~w A. S. 1841. — TBI FOrULATION O? SMeLAND AND WALKS, 15,901,981. 606 aifit treasure of D^iistor)), ^c. r ». m e u u a" < M H M A 4 intereiting objects, and a larfce number of chests containing anus in readiness for use. A {;rand staircase led to the upper floor, which was all one room, and called the small ttrmoury, in which were above 160,000 stand of small arras, new flinted, and ready for immediate service. As that part of the building where the fire originated was heated b^ flues from stoves, it was the general opinion that the accident was tliereby occasioned. The loss sustained, including the expense of rebuilding, was estimated at about 25n,0U0{. The closing paragraph in the occurrences of last year recorded the birth of the prin- cess royal. We have now to state, that on the 9th of November the queen gave birth to a prince at Buckingham-palace ; nearly a twelvemonth having elapsed since her majestv's former accouchement I The happy event naving taken place on lord mayor's day, it was most loyally celebrated by the citizens so opportunely assembled. On the 25th of the following January the infant prince of Wales received the name of Albert Edward, the king of Prussia being one of the sponsors. A. D. 1842. — The year commenced with most disastrous intelligence from India. In consequence of reductions having been made in the tribute paid to the eastern Gbilsie tribes, for keeping open the passes between Caboul and Jellalabad, in Affghan- istan. the people rose and took possession of those passes. Gen. sir R. Sale's brignde was therefore directed to re-open the com- :Tiunication. The brigade fought its way to Gundamuck, greatly harassed by the enemy from the liigh ground, and, after eighteen days' incessant fighting, reached that place, much exhausted ; they then moved upon Jellalabad. Meantime an in- surrection broke out at Caboul. Sir A. Bumes, his brother lieut. C. Iturnes, lieut. Broadfoot, and lieut. Slurt were massacred. The whole citv then rose in arms, and universal plunder ensued — M'hilst another large party attacked the British canton- ments, about two miles fi'om the town. These outrages, unfortunately, were but the Erelude to others far more frightful. Akh- ar Khan, the son of Dost Mahommcd, on pretence of making arrangements with sir W. M'Naghten, the British envoy at the court of Shah Soojah, invited him to a conference ; he went, accompanied by four ofhcers and a small escort ; when the trea- cherous Affghan, after abusing the British ambassador, drew a pistol and shot him dead on the spot. Capt. Trevor, of the 3rd Bengal cavalry, on rushing to his assist- ance, was cut down, three other officers were made prisoners, and the mutilated body of the ambassador was then barba- rously paraded through the town. It was also stated that some severe figbtinR had taken place, hut under the greatest disad- vantage to the British and native troops, and tliat the army in Caboul had been almost literally annihilated. A capitula- tion was then entered into, by which the remainder of the Anglo Indian army re- tired from the town, leaving all the sick, wounded, and sixteen ladies, wives of otH- cers, behind. They had not, however, pro- ceeded far before they were assailed from the mountains by an immense force, when the native troops, having fought three days, and wading through deep snow, gave way, and nearly the whole were massacred. So terrible a disaster had never visited the British arms since India first acknow- ledged the supremacy of England. A fatal mistake had been committed by the for- mer government, and it was feared that all the energy of the new ministry would be insufficient to maintain that degree of in- fluence over the vast and thickly peopled provinces of India, which was necessary to ensure the safetv of our possessions. The governor-general, lord Auckland, was recalled; and his place supplied by lord Ellenborough, whose reputation for a cor- rect knowledge of Indian affairs was un- disputed. His lordship arrived at Calcutta on Feb. 28 ; at which time sir Robert Sale was safe at Jellalabad; but he was most critically situated. The garrison, however, maintained their post with great gallantry, and were able to defy the utmost efforts of the Affghans, having in one instance saL lied forth and attacked their camp, of 6,00A men, and gained a signal victory. At length general I'ollork effected a junction with the troops of sir R. Sale, and released them from a sie^re of 154 days' duration ; having previously forced, with very little loss, the dreaded pass of the Khyber, twenty-eight miles in length. Gen. rJott also, who ad- vanced from Candahar to meet general England, who had sustained considerable loss at the pass of Kojuck, encountered a large force of Affghans, and completely defeated them. But, on the other hand, colonel Palmer surrendered the celebrated fortress of Gliuznee, on eordition that the garrison should be sateiy conduated to Caboul. The day of retribution was now at hand. General Nott, .at the head of 7>0U0 men, having left Candahar on the lOth of Au- gust, proceeded towards Ghuznee and Ca- oul; while general England, with the re- mainder of the troops lately stationed at Candahar, marched back in safety to Quetta. On the 30th of August Shah Shoudeen, the governor of Ghuznee, with nearly the whole of his army, amounting to not less than 12,000 men, arrived in the neighbourhood of the British camp ; and general Nott pre- pared to meet him with one half of liia force. The enemy came boldly forward, each division cheering as they came into position, and occupying their ground in excellent style ; but after a short and spi- rited contest, they were completely de- feated, and dispersed in every direction ; their guns, tents, ammunition, &c. falling into the hands of the English. On the 5th of September general Nott invested the city of Ghuznee, which wa* strongly gar- risoned, while the hills to the north-east- ward swarmed with soldiery ; but they soon abandoned the place, and the British flags TUB FOrULATION CENSUS 18 IZCLVSITB OF TUB ARMY AND NAVY. A.D. 1842.— TUS KINO or rBDStiA ouita KSicii. — ITictoria. 307 < t r u £ H M M e a « o M ■ H n a H A r. H H K H M M n M U «! M M *) '4 >4 M ig H u M M >4 H O M H as M O N K O H were hoisted in triumph on the Bala Hit- «nr. Tlie citadel of Ghuznee, and other formidable works and defences were razed to tlie ground. , „ „ , Early in September general FoUoek marched from Gundamuck on his way to Caboul. On reaching the hills which com- mand the road through the pass of Jug- duUuck, the enem;f was found strongly posted and in considerable numbers. In this action most of the influential Affghan chiefs were engaged, and their troops manfully maintained their position; but at length the heights were stormed, and, after much arduous exertion, they were dis< lodged and dispersed. General Pollock pro- ceeded onwards, and does not appear to have encountered any further opposition until bis arrival, Sept. 13, in the Tehtear v^ley, where an army of 16,000 men, com- mauded by Akhbar Khan in person, was assembled to meet him. A desperate fight ensued ; the enemy was completely defeat- ed and driven from the field. On the day following this engagement the general ad- vanced to BoodknaK : and on the ICth he made his triumphal entry into the citadel, and planted the British colours on its walls. " Thus," said lord EUenborough, in his general orders, " have all past iTis- asters been retrieved and avenged on every scene on which they were sustained, and repeated victories in the field, and the cap- ture of the cities and citadels of Ghuzuee and Caboul have advanced the glory and established the accustomed superiority of the British arms." At length the long and anxiously desired liberation of the whole of the British pri- soners iti the hands of the Affghans was effected. Their number was 31 officers, 9 ladies, and IS children, with fil European soldiers, 2 clerks, and 4 women, making in all 109 persons, who had suffered captivity from Jan. 10 to Sept. 27. It appeared that, by direction of Akhbar Khan, the prisoners had been taken to Bameean, 90 miles to the westward, and that they were destined to be distributed amongst the Toorkistan chiefs. General PoUoclt and some other officers proposed to the Affghan chief, that if he would send them back to Caboul, they would give him 2,0001. at once, and 1,200(. a year for life. The chief complied, and on the second day they were met by sir Rich- mond Shakspear, with 610 Kuzzilbashes, and shortly afterwards by general Sale, with 2,000 cavalry and infantry, when they returned to Caboul. Besides the Europeans, there were 337 sepoys found at Ghuznee, and 1,200 sick and wounded who were beg- ging about Caboul. On the arrival of gene- ral Nott's division,'the resolution adopted by the British government to destroy all the Affghan strongholds was carried into execution; though not without resistance, particularly at the town and fort of Istaliff, where a strong body of Affghans, led on by Ameer Oola, and sixteen of their most determined chiefs, had posted themselves. This town consisted of masses of houses buUt on the slope of a mountain, in the rear of which were lofty eminences, shut- ting in a defile to Tourkistan. The number of Us inhabitants exceeded 15,000, who, from their defences and difficulties of ap- proach, considered their possession unas- sailable. The greater part of the plunder seized last Jknuary from the British was placed there j the chiefs kept their wives and families in it; and manr of those who had escaped from Caboul had sought refuge there. Its capture, however, was • work of no great difficulty; the British troop* driving the enemy before them with consi- derabw slaughter. The Anglo-Indian troops soon afterwards commenced their home- ward march in three divisions; the first under general Pollock, the second under general M'Caskill, and the third under ge- neral Nott. The first division effected their march through the passes without loss; but the second was less successful, the mountaineers attacking it about Ali-Mus- jid, and plundering it of part of the bag- gage. General Nott, with his division, ar- rived in safety; bearing with them the celebrated gates of Somnauth, which, it is said, a Manometan conqueror had taken away from an Indian temple, and which, during nearly eight centuries, formed the chief ornament of his tomb at Ghuznee. The Niger expedition, as it was termed, which was undertaken last vear by bene- volent individuals, supported by a govern- ment grant of 60,000{., was totally defeated by the pestilential effects of the climate. The intention was, to plant in the centre of Africa an English colony, in the hope, by the proofs amirded of the advantages of agriculture and trade, to reclaim the na- tives from the custom of selling their cap- tives into slavery. Among the various domestic incidents which diversify a nation's annaln, none excite such lively interest or give birth to such a spontaneous burst of loyal feeling, as outrages directed against the life or welfare of a beloved sovereign. On the 30th of May, as her majesty, accompanied by prince Albert, was returning down Con- stitution-hill to Buckingham-Palace, from her afternoon's ride, a young man, named John Francis, fired a pistol at the carriage, but without effecting any injury. He was immediately taken into custody, when it appeared that he was by trade a carpenter, but being out of employ, had attempted to establish a snuff-shop, in which he was unsuccessful. It was supposed that he was incited to this criminal act partly by desperation, and partly by the ecl&t and permanent provision (though in an apart- ment at Bedlam) awarded to Edward Ox- ford, who, it will be remembered, per- formed a similar exploit at nearly the same spot in June, 1840. The news reached the house of commons while the debate on the third reading of the property tax was in progress; which was suddenly stopped, and the house broke up. The next day, however, the bill was again proposed, and carried by a tiiigurity oi 1U6. A joint address congratulating her ma- i A.n. 1842.— TBBBIBLT DBSTBUCTITI riBB AT BAMBUBO, MAT 4 1 LOIS, 7,000,000;. r m A.D. IS-tS.— TUR NEW TIUAL DOCK AT 80UTU4MFTO:« OFENKD, AUO. 29. 509 Vti)t ©rcasunj of l^istorp, $cc. J'esty on her happy escape, was presented from both houses of parliament on the Ist of June, and a form of thankspfivinK was sanctioned by the privy council. It ap- peared that some danger had been appre- hended in consequence of the same per- son having been observed in the park with a pistol on the preceding day; and lord Ifortman stated in the house of lords that her majesty in conspqueuce would not per- mit, on the 30th of May, the attendance of those ladies whose duty it is to wait upon her on such occasions. Francis was ex- amined before the privy council, and then committed to Newgate ; he was tried, found guilty of high treason, and sentenced to be hung, beheaded, and (juartered ; but it was deemed proi>er to remit the extreme penal- ties of treasi n, and commute his sentence to transportation for life. Scarcely more than a month had elapsed, when a third attempt, or pretended at- tempt, on the life of the queen was made in St. James's park, her majesty being at the time on her way from Buckingham palace to the chapel royal, accompanied by prince Albert and the king of the Belgi- ans. A lad, about eighteen years of age, named John William Bean, was observed to present a pistol at her majesty's car- riage, by a youth named Dassct, who seized him, and related the circumstance to two Solicenien. Tliey treated it as a joke, and lean was allowed to depart ; but he was subsequently apprehended at his father's house, and committed to prison. On his examination he persisted in asserting that there was nothing but powder and paper in the pistol, and that he did not intend to hurt the queen ; in faiX, he appeared to be one of those weak and thoughtless beings, who, regardless of the consequences, seem always actuated by a morbid desire of noto- riety. It was evident that the false and repre- hensible sympathy shewn to Oxford had encouraged otners in their base attempts ; and sir Robert Feel, acting on that con- viction, introduced a bill into parliament for the better security of her majesty's per- son : his object being to consign the of- fenders to that contempt and to that sort of punishment which beflttcd their dis- graceful practices. The bill was so framed as to inflict for the offences of presenting fire-arms at her majesty, or striking or at- tempting to strike her person with missilc!<, and for various other acts of violence in- tended to alarm her majesty, or disturb the public peace, the penalty of seven years' transportation, with previous imprisonment and a good flogging, or other bodily chas- tisement. Her majesty having signifled her inten- tion of visiting Scotland this summer, she and prince Albert embarked at Woolwich Aug. 29, in the Royal George yacht, com- manded bjr lord Adolphus Fitzclarence. During their progress every tower and bea- con along the coast vied in demonstrations of loyalty. Her majestv arrived Sept. 1 ; and on landing, proceeded direct to Dal- keith palace, the authorities of Edinburgh not being prepared for her reception at so early an hour as nine in the morning. On the 3rd her majesty made her public entry into Edinburgh, and was received at Holy- rood palace by the royal body-guard of archers, commanded by the carl of Dal- housic. On the Silt the queen held a levee in Dalkeith palace, which was attended by an extraordinary concourse of the nobility of Scotland. On the fith the royal party Sroceeded by sea towards the north ; and ined and slept at Scone palace, tlie seat of the earl of Mansfield. On the 7th the queen departed from Scone for Taymouth castle, the seat of the marquis of Breadal- bane. At Dunkeld she wns received by a gallant array of lord Glenlyon's clansmen, 1,000 in number ; and on her majesty's ap- proach to Taymouth castle, a striking dis- play was made of "bonnie laddies" in their national costume. A splendid discharge of fire-works greeted her arrival ; and the evening was passed in the exhibition of Highland dancing on a platform formed under the windows of the castle. The next day a deer-stalking, in which 150 men were employed, was undertaken for the entertain- ment of prince Albert, who, doubtless, felt himself more agreeably employed in kill- ing a score of rnc deer, than he would have been if engaged in feats of arms with hardy Scotchmen. The royal visitors having ho- noured several other noblemen with their presence, and partaken of the amusements peculiar to the country, departed highly gratified ; and re-embarking on the IStli, in two days reached Windsor castle. We must once more recur to the warlike operations in China. After the arrival of reinforcements, the British expedition on the 13th of June entered the large river called Yang-tze-Kiang, on the banks of which were immense fortificaMons. The fleet at daylight having taken their stotions, the batteries opened a fire, which lasted two hours. The seamen and marines then landed, and drove the enemy out of the bat- teries before the troops could be disem- barked. 253 guns were nere taken, of heavy calibre, and 1 1 feet long. On the 19th two other batteries were tiiken, in which were 48 guns. The troops then took possession of tlie city of Shanghai, destroyed the pub- lic buildings, and distributed the granaries among the people. Two other field-works were also taken, and the total of the guns captured amounted to the astonishing num- ber of 364. The squadron set sail from Woosung on the 6th of July ; on the 20th the vessels anchored abreast of the city of Ching-Keang-foo, which commands the en- trance of the grand canul, and the next morning the troops were disembarked, and marched to the attack of the Chinese forces. One brigade was directed to move against the enemy's camp, situated about three miles distant; another was ordered to co- operate with this division in cutting off the expected retreat of the Chinese from the camp; while the third received instructions to escalade the northern wall of the town. A. D. 1842.— THB NKW-DOCK AT NEWPORT, MON MOVTBSUinB, OrlHKD, OCT. 10. A.D. 1843.— THE VRBNCU TAKB rOSICSIIOM Of TBI MAaQUBSA* ISLAilDa. lEnglanti.— I^ouse of ISrunsbiicb.— Uictotia. fiog The Chineifi, after firing a few distant vol- leys, fled from the camp with precipitation, and dispersed over tlie country. The city itself, however, was manfully defended by the Tartar soldiers, who prolonged the con- test for several hours, resisting with despe- rate valour the combined efforts of the three brigades, aided by a reinforcement of ma- rines and seamen. At length opposition ceased, and ere nightfall the British were complete masters of the place. Cbiug- Keaug-foo, like Amoy, was most strongly fortified, and the works in excellent repair. It is supposed that the garrison consisted of not less than 3,000 men, and of these about 1,000 and 40 mandarins were killed and wounded. The Tartar general retired to his house when he saw that all was lost, made his servants set it on fire, and sat in his chair till he was burned to death. On the side of the British, 15 officers and 154 men, of both services, were killed and wounded. A strong garrison being left behind for the retention of Ching-keang-foo, the fleet Sroceeded towards Nankin, about 40 miles istant, and arrived on the Cth of August, when preparations were immediately made for an attack on the city. A strong force, under the command of major-general lord Saltoun, was landed, and took up their po- sition to the west of the town ; and opera- tions were about to be commenced, when a letter was sent off to the plenipotentiary, requesting a truce, as certain high com- missioners, specially delegated by the em- peror, and possessed of (uU powers to negotiate, were on their way to treat with the English. After several visits and long discussions between the contracting pow- ers, the treaty was publicly signed on board the Cornwallis, by sir H. Fottinger and the three commissioners. Of this convention the following are the most important arti- cles: — 1. Lasting peace and friendship be- tween the two empires. 3. China to pay 21 millions of dollars in the course of that and three succeeding years. 3. The ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-choo-foo, Ningpo, and Shanghai, to be thrown open to British merchants, consular ofticers to he appoint- ed to reside at them, and regular and just tariffs of import and export (as well as in- land transit) duties to be established and published. 4. The island of Hong-Kong to be ceded in perpetuity to her Britannic majesty, her heirs, and successors. 5. All subjects of her Britannic majesty (whether natives of' Europe or India,) who maybe confined in any part of the Chinese empire, to be unconditionally released. 6. An act of full and entire amnestjr to be published by the emperor under his imperial sign manual and seal to all Chinese subjects, on account of their having held service or intercourse with, or resided under, the British government or its officers. 7. Cor- respondence to be conducted on terms of Eerfect equality amongst the officers of oth governments. 8. On the emperor's as- sent being received to this treaty, and the payment of the first instalment, 6,000,000 dollars, her Britannic majesty's forces to retire from Nankin and the grand canal, and the military posts at Chinghai to be also withdrawn ; but the islands of Chusan and Kolangsoo are to be held until the money pavmenta and the arrangements for opening the ports be completed. A. D. 1843. — On the 3nd of February the parliamentary session commenced; the royal speech, which was read by the lord chancellor, referrins in terms of just con- gratulation to— 1. Tne successful termina- tion of hostilitiea with China, and the pros- pect it afforded of assisting the commer- cial enterpriie of her people. 3. The com- plete success of the recent military opera- tions in Affghaniatan, where the superiority of her majesty's arms had hcpn established by decisive victories on tht 'uea of for- mer disasters; and the compoie liberation of her majesty's subjects, for whom she felt the deepest interest, had been effected. 3. The adjustment of those differeneea with the United States of America, which from their long continuance had endangered the preservation of peace. 4. The obtaining, in concert with her allies, for the Christian population of Syria an establiabment of a system of administration which they were entitled to expect from the enga{^raenta of the Sultan, and from the good faith of thia country. And, 6. A treaty of commerce and navigation with Russia, which her ma- jesty regarded as the foundation for in- creased intercourse between her subjects and those of the emperor. At 'i beginning of the year the perpe- tration of a crime, which was in some measure regarded as of a political charac- ter, excited the indignant feelings of the public. As Edward Drummond, esq., pri- vate secreta?v to sir Robert Peel, was walk- ing from Downing-street towards Charing- cross, he was shot through the back by a man, who was seized by a policeman just as he was about to discharge a second pis- tol. It was at first hoped that the wound was not mortal, but after lingering five days Mr. Drummond expired. The assas- sin was Daniel M'Naughten, aged 28, late a wood-turner at Glasgow ; and it appeared that, although he had never received the slightest provocation, either real or imagi- nary, he had long harboured the design of taking the life of the premier, for whom he had mistaken Mr. Drummond. On bis trial before lord chief justice Tindal, the absence of all motive for committing the detestable act being admitted, it was at- tempted to be shewn that he was of un- sound mind ; and the idea of his being a monomaniac being supported by the opi- nions of Dr. Munro and other medical men, the judge stopped the trial, and the jury consequently returned a verdict of " Not guilty, on the ground of insanity." A theory more dangeroua than that of attributing the commission of heinoua crimes to mono- mania can scarcely be conceived ; and the sensation of alarm produced by this cul- prit's acquittal was both just and natural. To return, however, to Indian affairs. NBD, OCT. 10. A SCHISM TAKB8 PLACB IN TUB BSTABLISUBD CHUBCH OF SCOTLAND. [2.Y3 A.D. 1S43.— A OBlAt HIBUBBBCTION III IFAIR AOAIIiaT BSrAMTKBO. 510 ^tie ^reasuri) A 3^tstorn, Sec. IVheii the expedition to Affghanistan wta first undertaken, it wa« intended to open the Indua for the transit of British mer- chandise, and render it one of the great highways to Asia. The objeet was not lost sight of, though Affghanistan had been abandoned ; and endeavours were made to obtain from the Ameers of Bcinde such a treaty as would secure the safe navigation of that river. In December, m«ior Outram was dispatched to Hyder- abad to conclude the best terms in his power with the native chiefs. Not being in a condition immediately to refuse to give np for the use of the navigation certain strips of land lying along the river, they temporised until at length their troops were collected, when on the 14th of Fe- bruarjr they sent word to mioo' Outram to retire from their city. The major, not •apposing they would proceed to extremi- ties, delaved. The next day the residence of the British political agent was attacked ; it was gallantlv defended by 100 men for several hours; out at length their ammu- nition having been expended, the British soldiers retired with a small loss to the steamers, and proceeded to join sir C. J. Napier, then at the head of about 2,700 men, at a distance of about 20 miles from the capital of the Ameers. The latter has- tened at the head of 32,000 men to attack the British force. On the 17th a battle took place, in which, after a severe strug- gle of three hoars, the Ameers were totally routed, although they outnumbered the British force b^ seven to one. The Ameers on the followmg day surrendered them- selves prisoners of war, and Hyderabad was occupied by the conquerors. Treasure and jewels were found to an amount consi- derably exceeding one million sterling. In consequence of this success, the territories of Scinde, with the exception of that por- tion belonging to Meer Aii, the morad of Khyrpore, nave been declared by the gover- nor-g^Bsral to be a British province, and sir Chai les J. Napier was appointed governor. Tlie new governor, however, was not to remain in undisturbed possession for any length of time. An army of Beloochees, twenty thousand strong, under the com- mand of Meer Shere Mahomed, had taken up a strong position on the river Fullalie, near the spot where the Ameers of Scinde were so signally defeated, and sir C. J. Na- pier, on ascertaining the fact, resolved to attack them forthwith. On the 24th of March he moved from Hvderabad at the head of 6,000 men. The battle lasted for three hours, when victory declared for the British ; eleven guns and nineteen stand- ards were taken ; abont 1,000 of the enemy were killed, and 4,000 wounded : the loss of the British amounting to only 30 killed and 231 wounded. By this victory the fate of Scinde and Beloochistan was sealed, and the whole territory finally annexed to the Anglo-Indian empire. In an age of experimental science like the l>resent, where the wonders of nature seem scarcely to rival those of art, it ap- i vears almost invidious in a work of this kind to allude to itny. In truth, our limits have compiled us to omit the mention of many works of national importance, of which the country has reason to be proud ; and we trust to be excused for such omis- sions, while we insert the following. In order to save the vast amount of manual labour necessary to form a sea wall on the coarse of the south-eastern railway, near Dover, the great experiment of exploding 18,600 lbs. or 8^ tons of gunpowder, under Round-down cliff, was on tne 26th of January Attempted by the engineers, with perfect success. On the signal being given, the miners communicated, by connecting wires, the electric spark to the gunpowder depo- sited in chambers formed in the cliff; the earth trembled for half a mile each way ; a stifled report, not loud, but deep, was heard, and the cliff, extending on either hand to upwards of 600 feet, gradually subsided seaward : in a few seconds, not less than 1,000,000 tons of chalk were dislodged by the shock, settling into the sea oelow, frothing and boiling as it displaced the liquid element, till it occupied the expanse of many acres, and extended outward on its ocean bed to a distance of two or three thousand feet. This operation was man aged with such admirable skill and preci sion, that it would appear just so much of the cliff was removed as was necessary to make way for the sea-wall, while an immense saving in time and labour was also effected. Now that we have trespassed on the province of ai% and alluded to its wonders, we cannot forbear to notice that wonder- ful and gi|;antic undertaking, the Thnracs Tunnel. For twenty years that stupendous labour had been gomg on, when on the 25th of May it was opened for foot passen- gers, at one penny each. At a recent meet- ing of the proprietors, a vote of thanks was offered to the engineer in the follow- ing terms:— "That the cordial thunks and congratulation of the assembly are hereby tendered to sir Isambert Brunei, F. R. 8., for the distinguished talent, ener^, and perseverance evinced by him in the de- sign, construction, and completion of I lie Thames Tunnel, a work unprecedented in the annals of science and ingenuity, and exhibiting a triumph of genius over phy- sical difficulties, declared by some of the most enUghtened men of the age to be insurmountable." This great work was commenced in 1825, but stopped in 1828 by an irrruption of the Thames, and uo further progress was made until 18;i'>. Loans were then granted by government, and the works were uninterruptedly con- tinued: the total expense being 446,0U0/. On the 21st of April, his royal liiglmcss the dijke of Sussex died. On the 25tli the queen was safely delivered of a prin- cess, who was christened Alice Maud Mary. And on the same afternoon that the queen gave birth to a princess, the king of Han- nover arrived in London, in a steamer from Calais, it being his majesty's first visit to England since his accession. A. D. 1843. — LOSS OF THB PSGASUS STBAMBM (HULL TO LBITH) PIFTT DBOWNRn. Ill I ■■ I III II — ■r A aaUBBAL " tTHIKS" Or THB WBtlH MIRBRI ADDSV TO THB UllTUUBANCES. . a work of this truth, our limits t the mention of importance, of ion to be proud ; id for such omis- e following. In lount of manual I sea wall on the rn railway, near tnt of exploding iinpowder, under e 26th of January :rs, with perfect leing given, the onnecting wires, pinpowder depo- in the cliff; the lile each way ; a deep, was heard, a either hand to tdually subsided s, not less than '.te dislodged by the sea oelow, it displaced the pied the expanse led outward on I of two or three \ ation was man-i skill and preci- just so much of vas necessary to rhile an immense pas also effected, ispassed on the I to its wonders, :e that wonder- ng, the Thnmcs that stupendous a, when on the for foot passcQ- t a recent meet- vote of thanks r in the follow- dial thunks and nbly are hereby Jrunel, F. R. S., nt, energy, and lim iu the de- mpletion of tlie iprecedented in ingenuity, and enius over pliy- by some of tlie the age to be :rent work was topped in 1828 'liames, and no de until 18;i'). by governmenr, erruptcdly cun- being 446,000 ^ royal highness On the 2dth ered of a prin- ice Maud Mary. : that the quccu e king of Ilan- a steamer from r'a first visit to r BBOWNRD. » N M M M H ■ i o H h O M H al n m M n lEnglantf.— 1|ousc of 33runstDicli.— Fictorta. 51 1 On the 28th of June the princess An- gusta, eldest daughter of the dake of Cam- bridge, was married to his royal highness Fre&rick William, hereditary grand duke of Mecklenburg Streliti. A grant of 3,0001. per annum was settled on her by the go- vernment, and in a few days after the mar- riage they embarked for the continent. In Carmarthenshire and aonie of tLe neighbouring Welsh counties, a novel spe- cies of insurrection had for a long time past kept that part of the country in a state of alarm, and rendered military assis- tance neeessanr. Certain small farmera, and the agricultural population generally, united (under the singular appellation of "Rebecca and her daughters^') for the avowed object of resisting the payment of turnpike tolls, which are notoriously ex- orbitant there, and for the abatement of certain other jrrievan'i^s— the present ad- ministration of the poor lawa being among the number— of which they loudly, and with no little shew of justice, complained. Scarcely a night was suffered to pass with- out the removal of a gate or the aemolition of a toll-house ; and it usually happened that as soon as the work of destruction was completed, Rebecca's band quietly and stealthily dispersed to their respective homes. It will be sufficient to give merely one instance of these riots; but we should remark that the account of the riot we here subjoin was on a much larger scale, and attended with more serious results than any that occurred either before or since : — They were expected to attack the town of Carmarthen on Sunday the 18th of June, but did not come. On the following morn- ing, however, at 12 o'clock, several thou- sand of the rioters were seen approaching, about 900 being on horseback, with one in front disguised with a woman's curls, to represent Rebecca, and from 7>000 to 8,000 on foot, walking about fourteen or fifteen abreast. Every man was armed with a bludgeon, and some of them bad pistols. At their head were carried two bannera, bearing inscriptions in Welsh, of " Free- dom, Liberty, and Better Feed ;" and " Free Toll and Liberty." On reaching the work- house, they broke open the gates of the court in front, and naving gained an en- trance into the house, they immediately demolished the furniture, and threw the beds and bedding out of the windows. While they were thus pursuing the work of destruction, a troop of the 4th light dragoons arrived from Neath, and having entered the court, succeeded in taking aU those within prisoners, about 250 in num- ber, during which time thejr were pelted with stones and other missiles. The riot act beinj; read, and a cry being raised that the soldiera were going to charge, the mob fled in every direction, leaving more than sixty horses, besides the above prisoners, in the hands of the captors. With respect to the proceedings in par- liament, it may be stated, that a great por- tion of the session was occupied in discuss- ing the merits, or rather in opposing the re-enactment of the " Irish arms bill." On the second reading, Mav the 20tb, the at- torney-general for Irelana declared that the objects of the present repeal agitatora were, first, the total abolition of the tithes com- mutation rent-charge ; next, the extension of the parliamentary suffrage to all sana male adults not convicted of a crime ; next, fixity of tenure — • phrase meaning the transfer of the whole landed property of Inland from the landlord to the tenant; and some other extreme propositions of the same class. The measures provided b^ this bill had been in existence with little inter- mission for almost a century, and the ex^ treme avidity shewn by the Irish peasantry for the possession of arms proved its ne- cessity to be most cogent. For about a month, almost every alternate evening waa occupied vrith discussions in committee on the said bill. Afterwards a motion waa brought forward by Mr. O'Brien for " the radress of grievances in Inland," the debate on which waa again and again adjourned, till at length the motion was negatived. On that occasion, sir R. Peel discussed the alleged grievances ttriatim; and in reply to an observation of lord Howick's, he said that the Roman catholics now enjoyed equal ciril rights as the other subjects of the crown, and that the oaths were so altered that the offensive portions relating to transubstantiation were abolished. " I am asked," said the right honourable ba- ronet, " what coune I intend to pursue 7 'Declare your coune,' is the demand. I am prepared to pursue that coune which I consider I have pursued, namely, to ad- minister the government of Inland upon the principles of justice and impartialitv. I am pnpared to recognise the principle eatabhshed by law, that then shall be equi'ity of civil privileges. I am prepand in respect of the franchise to give a sub- stantial and not a fictitious right of suf- frage. In nspect to the social condition of Ireland we are prepand also — but that is a matter for legislation, and we all feel that no partial legislation will be proper or effective— we an prepand to consider the relations cf landlord and tenant deliberately and all the important quevtions involved therein. With nspect to the established church, we are not prepared to make one alteration in the law by which that church and its nveuues shall be impaind. He was not ashamed to act with care and moder- ation; and if the necessity should arise, he knew that past forbearance was the strongest claim to being entrusted with fuller powen when they thought proper to ask for them." On the 9th of August, the third nading of the Irish arms bill was carried by a majority of 66. During the remainder of the session many other acts were passed, among them the following:— The church of Scotland benefices' bill. The poor relief bill for Ire- land. The Irish municipal corporations' bill. The Chelsea pensioners' bill, empow- ering government to call out and arm the out-pensioners of Chelsea hospital if It Was BErOnXBD THAT MABTIAL lAW WOVLn BB BBSOBTBD TO IN WALBS. THI QVIIN'i Tint TO VBAROB aATB Bill TO MANV AMOBB OONJBCtUBCa. 512 ?!r^e ^rcBSuri} of l^iBtors, ^c. thouKht neceiuury. The epitcopal func- tions bill. The defBmation and lA>el bUI. Parliament was prorogued on the a4th of Au((ust b; the queen in penon; on which oocatioB her majesty expreteed Iiertelf highly gratifted with the advantageoue po- sition in which the country was placed by the successful terminauon of the war in China and India, and with the assurances of perfect amity which she continued to receive firom foreign powers. At the same time she viewed with the deepest concern the persevering efforts that were made to stir up discontent and disaffection in Ire- land, and to excite her Irish subjects to demand & repeal of the union. The laws were administered with strict justice and impartiality, and it was the duty of all her subjects to discountenance the present sys- tem of pernicious agitation. It was her ma- jesty's sincere conviction that the legisla- tive union was not less essential to the comfort nnd prosperity of the people, than it was to the strength and stability of the empire; and it was her firm determination to maintain inviolate that great bond of connexion between the two countries. Wiien her majesty and prince Albert re- turned from their visit to Scotland last year, it was generally understood that their next marine excursion would be to Ireland; and it is believed that the royal intention was abandoned with considerable regret, owing to the rife and rapid progress of the repeM agitation, so insidiously instilled into the minds and hearts of the Irish by the wily demagogue and his Jesuitical satel- lites. There was, however, no reason that the queen of England and her illustrious consort should, on that account, be debar- red from enjoying the healthful recreation of a short summer voyage — now so com- monly indulged in by thousands of her sub- jects ; and tne necessary preparations had accordingly been made for an excursion round the western coast. At that precise moment the prince de Joinville and the duke d'Aumale, sons of Louis Philippe, ar- rived in England, and with all speed posted off to 'Windsor; but as they returned to France with even more haste than they came, conjecture was busy in attempting to discover the cause ; and, as a matter of course, it was attributed to something poli- tically wrong in their estimation at the English court. Now it happened that Bs- partero, the ex-regent of Spain, had just reached this country, and had been intro- duced to and graciously received by her majesty ; and as it was believed that France had been secretly engaged in promoting the dissensio. s in Spain which led to Espar- tero's downfall, no other hypothesis was sought for. But just as this solution of the enigma became current, it was ascertained that the French princes had merely crossed the channel as the bearers of a pressing in- vitation from their royal father, that the queen of England and her illustrious con- sort would embrace the opportunity which so seasonably offered of spending a few days, M famille, at his favourite chateau or palace of Eu, on the coast of Normandy, where the king and the principal members of his family paaa a few weeVs every au- tumn in the pleasurea of domestic retire- ment. No interview between the reigning sove- reigns of England and France had taken place since the days of old, when our " bluff Harry" and his gallant knights met Francis and his chivalry on " the fleld of the cloth of gold." That was a gorgeous display of costly grandeur, in which two gay and youthful monarcha strove to excel each other in profuse magniflcence. The present meeting was to be unattended with pomp or ceremony— a mere interchange of friendly civilities, dictated by pun good feeling on the part of Louis Philippe, and responded to by her majesty with recipro- cal frankness and cordiality. All thin;4 »> e lEnglanTJ.— lUlouse of 19runsb)icii.— Uictoria. fii3 there are few sighti more magniflcent than a fleet of hattlc-nhipt with their yards manned. Alter leaving Spithead heif ma- jeaty viiited the town of Ilyae, and then returned with the rest of Hie squadron to Cowei roads, where the royal yacht an- chored, and the queen slept on board. Her majesty was now in a neiilibourhood beautiful in itself, but rendered doubW in- teresting to her by many pleasant recollec- tions of by-gone days. The oicturesque and elegant modern mansion, Norris cas- tle, originally built by lord Henrv Seymour, and now the scat of Robert Bell, esq. was at no great distance ; and there were too many joys associated with her majesty's so- journ at Norris castle to be forgotten. Her desire to visit it was accordiuKly made known to Mr. Bell, who expressed his great gratification at the honour about to be conferred upon him, and intimated that, though the period between the announce- ment of her migesty's proposed visit and her arrival was short, he would be most happy to welcome her to the threshold of a mansion in which she had in her early youth experienced so much delight. In the evening, Norris castle presented a gay and animated appearance; the embattled walls and turrets were hung with innumer- able lamps; fire -works were discharged, and tar-barrels burnt on an elevated spot. The atmosphere, in fact, was illuminated for hours, and the scene, looking at the commanding situation of the castle, was one of considerable attraction and- beauty. Thus was the night spent at Cowes ; and each person retired to rest, buoyant with the hope of seeing her majesty on the fol- lowing morning, in the pride and beauty of youth, treading a spot on which she was wont to gambol when a mere child. At an early hour on Tuesday morning the queen and prince Albert landed at West Cowes, and proceeded in the earl of Dcla- warr's carriage to the castle, amid the en- thusiastic greetings of the people who lined the road. On their arrival the royal guests sat down and partook of refreshments, and after familiarly talking over the scenes of her vonth, and expressing her admiration of the beautiful locality, and the kind and trulv English welcome that greeted her ar- rival at the castle, bade a reluctant fare- well. As soon as her mnjesty returned on board the royal yacht, from Norris castle, the vessel immediately got under way, and went to the eastward, round St. Helen's, and on the back of the island. She was accompanied by the Cyclops, Prometheus, Lightning, and other steamers, and also by commodore the earl of Yarborough, in the Kestrel, and a numerous fleet of yachts; but the sailing vessels being unable to keep up with the royal yacht, they fired a salute when off St. Helen's, and followed the royal voyagers at a humble distance. After having visited Ventnor, Shanklin Chine. Blackgang Chine, Freshwater, and other places at the back of the Isle of Wight, her majesty proceeded to the westward along the coast. Of the royal yacht squadron, which left in the morning, with the queen, not one vessel was able to keep up with the yacht, and the headmost of them, when her ma- jesty left the Isle of Wight, were seea many miles astern. Between Ave and sis o'clock the royal yacht let go her anchor in Portland roads, off Weymouth, the en- tire population of which town, with its nu- merous visitors, hastened to the shore in the full expectation of having the pleasure to welcome their sovereign to a spot which her venerated grandfatner, George III. had for so manv summers honoured with bis presence. The hoprsof the people of Weymouth were, however, doomed to be disappointed ; for on the return of the mayor, Ac, who had procc led in a boat to the royal yacht, to know her majesty's pleasure, they brought the intelligence that the queen did not intend to land. Early on Wednesday morning, the roval yacht and the other steamers got under way, and, proceeding down the channel, reached Plymouth about live o'clock in the afternoon. A signal flag was immediately hoisted at Mount-wise, and also on board the Caledonia flag-ship, anchored in the Sound ; on which tiie several men-of-war in the harbour, including the Caledonia, In- constant, Formidable, and a Neapolitan frigate, fired a royal salute. The yards were then manned, and the ships decorated with flags of all descriptions. The royal yacht entered the eastern channel, and rapidly passed through the Soun'l to Bam- pool, where she was moored. Royal salutea were fired from the men-of-war, the citadel. Mount-wise and Mount Edgecumhe, as her majesty approached. The numerous work- men of the Breakwater were drawn up at the eastern end, and gave three times three hearty cheers as her majesty passed that great national undertaking. On Thursday morning her migesty visited Mount Edgcumbe, and prince Albert went over Plymouth dock-yard. After holdinc a levee on board the royal yacht, at which the government and civic authorities of Ply- mouth attended, her majesty landed, enter- ed the royal carriage in attendance, and proceeded through tne towns of Plymouth and Devonport ; her loyal subjects display- ing the same zealous devotion they had done elsewhere. Her msjesty then re-em- barked, visited the Breakwater, and, to- gether with prince Albert, paid a visit to the Caledonia, of 120 guns ; but dined and slept on board the royal yacht. On Friday morning, at nine o'clock, the royal yacht got under way, and proceeded out to sea by the western passage of the Breakwater. While passing through the Sound, her majesty was saluted on her de- parture by all the men-of-war in the port, and by the batteries on shore. The morn- ing was exceedingly fine, and displayed the beautiful coast scenery to the best advan- tage. The heights on shore— the Hoe at Plymouth, and Mount-wise at Devonport --were crowded with loyal subjects, male and female, who assembled there in thou- ■< H M m m f M m o 4 K M h M m « S M O Ik H <• t> o * a o M •• K «i e K t> M M R or THB LAW. BXVONPOBT IS A RKOITLABI.T FOBTlrlXD TOWN, BUT PLTUOVTH IS WOT. rALMODTH la CILBIBATID FOE ITS UkfM AHO COMMOBIOVI HAKBOUB. 514 Efft tUxtMuxm Of l^istore, ^c. •and* to witnet* the departure of their lovereic". A few minutet before ten o'clock •he took her departure, (teerinc towards the Eddyitone lighthouw, which the royal party wai deairout of cloaely inapectitifr. From the Eddyatone the yacht ateered to the weatward, towards Falmouth, which she made about half paat ten o'clock, and came to an anchor off St. Paul'a caatle. Her ma- Jeatv did not land at Falmouth, but pro- ceeded from the yacht into the harbour in the barge, accompanied by prince Albert. Salutea were Area from the forta and ahip- ping, and ererywhere aa her ma^eaty paaaed ahe was received with the moat enthuaiaatic cheering by the crowda which lined the ahore. The mayora and corporations of Falmouth, Penryn, and Truro, put off in boats to wait upon her m^jeatjr, and were moat gracioualy reeeiTed. After pulling round the harbour, and inapectin^ all that was worth attention, the illuatnoua riai- tors returned on board the yacht, which immediately got under way. Her misjeaty then returned up channel, paasing the Ead;rstone in the evening. Be- tween Ave and six the St. Vincent hove to in the offing, and telecraphed with the Caledonia, which was then lying in the Sound. After which the Caledonia and For- midable got under way and joined the reat of the aouadron, and the whole of them proceeded over with her mi^^sty to Tr6- port. The fleet consisted of the St. Vin- cent, 120; Caledonia, 120; Camperdown, 104; Formidable, 80 {Warspite, SO; Cyclops, ateam-frigate ; Tartarua, steamer ; rrome- theus, steamer. At Cherbourg, when the royal yacht first made the land at five on Saturday morn- ing, her majeaty waa viaited by prince de Joinville, who despatched the ArchimedeR, French government ateamer, with letters to the king, announcing that the queen might be expected at 'Tr^port about five o'clock that afternoon. The necessary pre- parations for her mtgesty's reception were instantly made; and nothing that good taste could suggest was omitted on the part of Louis Philippe, and the persons to whom he had entrusted the execution of bis arrangements. When the royal yacht was perceived, Louis Philippe left the shore in his state barge, landed on the quarter-deck as the vessel cast anchor, and took care that the first person to welcome the queen to France should be the monarch of the land. The meeting mingled in a delightful manner the grace and dignity of courts with the warmth and affectionate regard of private life. Louis Philippe earnestly folded her Britannic mijesty in his embrace, at once broke through all the formal rules of eti- quette, and seemed from the first moment he beheld his royal guest only to study how he could best render the visit agree- able to her. After a welcome to prince Albert, scarcely less cordial, the king con- ducted her majesty to his state barge, and, as they entered it together, the royal stand- ards Of England and France were hoisted in union, salutea were fired from sea and shore, and amid the tremendous cheering of some thousands of spectators the rowers gave way, and the barge swiftly advanced towards the shore. In the mean time the roval family of France had ranged them- selves at the jetty-head, close to the land- ing-place ; the circle was a most brilliant one, comprising not only the queen of the Freneb, the kinit's sister, madame Adelaide, the duchess iTOrleans, the prince and princess de Joinville, the king and queen of the Belgians, the princess Clementine, but many of the most distinguished men in France. The queen of the French stood two paces in advance of the rest, and vraa the first to welcome queen Victoria as ahe landed. No sooner had the king intro- duced her, than his queen took her by both hands, and saluted her several timet on both cheeks, with on evident warmth of manner which showed that she meant more than mere courtly etiauette. The queen of the Belgians and other ladies of the royal family (to most of whom her ma- jesty was previously known) then came forward, and alto saluted her with great cordiality and affection. Prince Albert was presented to all the ladles present in the same way. The shouts of "Vive la Reine Victoria I " " Vive la Heine d'Angle- terre I " which Arom the landing continued almost vrithout interruption, were redoubled upon seeing the kinaly feeling exhibited by the royal personages on both sides. A temporary pavilion hod been erected near' the landing-place, to which the roval party repaired, and then they entered the carri- ages provided by the kug of the French, and, amidst the most loyal greetings, pro- ceeded to the chttteau d'Bu. Shortly after their arrival the king of the French ap- peared at the balcony, leading queen Vic- toria by the hand, and, presenting her to the multitude, called for three cheers for the sovereign of England. With his own voice, he led the shout, which rose and swelled vivb an exn^Tant enthusiasm that nothing could surpass. The principal persons in her m^jcbty's suite were the earls of Aberdeen, Delawarr, and Liver- pool; lord and lady Canning, lord Adol- phus Fitzdarence (commander of the Vic- toria and Albert royal yacht), lord Charles Wellesley, O. Anson, esa., colonel Wylde, sir James Clark, and the non. Miss Liddell, the maid of honour in waiting on her ma- jesty. At eight o'clock the royal party descend- ed into the talle A manger, which is on the rer de ehauuie, or ground floor of the ch m a S I » H •i 4 O 0HBBBOUB& IS IfHABLT OPFOSITB TBB WEST BND OV THB ISIiB OF WISBT. ■ It IIIUATI* 4B0CT lA MIUI R. >. OF Olirr*. AMB 48 VBOM BODBR. IcnglanV.— 1|onse of 18ruiusii)icii.— U(ctoria. 616 Bpartment in which the banquet took plu« was a very ipleudid one ; and, without de- icending to miuutia, we may obierve that the iceoe waa altogether what may be termed gergeoua. Considerable anxiety waa expressed by the Enitlish visitors at Eu. and in the neigh- boarhood. as to the manner in which her midesty of England would pass the Sunda* ; and it occasioned much satisfaction to ob- serre that her majesty, with that respect for the tenets of the protestant church which has always made her conduct a model for her subjects, appropriated the same portion of the day to pubuc religious worship as would have been devoted to it had the Sabbath been spent in England. An apartment in the ch&teau haviuK been arranged for the purpose, her majesty and prince Albert proceeded there, accompanied by all their ladies and ouicers, aua took their places for prayers. The service was read by one of the suite, and joined in by the queen with her usual respectful devo- tion. Her majesty and the prince then retired for some time before again joining the royal circle. In short, with the excep- tion of the royal party takiuij an airing m the park and ita immediate vicinity in the morning, and the national guard firing; a aalvo oftwenty-one guns, there was nothing to denote the presence of the illustrious guests. The dinner at the ch&teau, in the evenin|r> was of a very grand description, partaking somewhat of the character of a state frsUval, inaamuch as all the civil au- thorities, as well as the naval and military officers assembled at Tr^port and Ville d' Bu, of a rank entitling them to that dis- tinction, were invited. Covers were laid for between seventy and ei(^hty persons. Her mi^esty wore the insignia of the Oarter on her arm, and the blue ribbon. Fart of the queen's head-dress, consisting of a small crown, encircling the back of her coiffUre, was very much admired. The guests of kin;; Louis Philippe who had not already received that honour were presented seve- rallv to her majesty, whose gracious and affable manner of receiving their obeitancet produced a deep and most favourable im- pression. But all waa in good keeping. If Sunday had been observed with due silence and solemnity, Monday was looked forward to as a day of sylvan recreation— nothing less than " a gipsy party " in the forest of Au- male (or Blangy), distant from Eu about eight miles, being the order of the day. The forest is a favourite place of recreation for the royal family, and the king has don«> much to improve it, beautiful drives hemi cut in all directions leading to the m st picturesque spots. In the morning all the inhabitanta of, and all the visitors at, the place were out of their beds at an early hour, making prepa- rations for their dep&i cure to the forest ; and all the carriages and horse* that could be procured were put in motion, conveying parties to the siiene of action, and then re- turning for fresh loads. In courtesy to her migesty, the Freneh people politely designated the splendid meal witn which the royal gipsying waa to terminate, with the homely English name of " luncheon : " but, with the exception of a very few dishes, the whole of the repast waa a regular summer dinner in the open air. The place on which the tents were flxed is called Le Mont d'Orleans ; it is a small bill or elevation in the centre of a large part of the woods, on which the ground is cleared, and forms a small circular grass plat, from which the eye commands a rural Jianoramie view of manv miles in circum- erence. The principal tei)| was about seventy-five feet long, and down the middle waa placed the table, set out for seventy- two persons. The servants in the royal livery amounted to nearly one hundred, whilst about a dozen mailre$ \Vkotel, in black, . )mpleted the number of attend- ants. T>'o other tents were pt.iccd at a little d>< >uce ii. the rear of the platform, one of wiich served as a-, office, and the other as a kitchen. Nine sideboards were set in various pla?es in tbt; interior of the large tent loadrd with al! the matters ne- cessary for the rapast. Notwithstanding these luiniite arrange ^snts for '' con- venience and comfort of the guest' , '.11 was in Kood style, and in admirable <• iping witn the scene. The cuisiae ai. '. < «. tporary offices were concealed by the fo a^»! of the forest. There was '-^'t k^st possible ap- pearance of military ,>i^:-:'>i and the spec- tators were permitt^'d to t sproach as clost: to the place set ap rt for ' he royal party as could without inconvenience be gn^anted. It was nearly four o'clock when a noble cavalcade of horsemen entered the grass- plat. Amongst them were prince Albert, prince Augustus of Saxe Coburg, the prince de Joinville, the duket of Aumale and Montpensier, and many other persons of high rank, with the!'- i.ttendants, &c. ; the whole of whom were in plain clothes. This illustrious group of horsemen had scarcely dismounted, when the approach of the royal carriages was announced by the shouts aud hurrahs of the spectators. The eortige consisted of six carriages, char-a-bane, four drawn by six horses each, and two by four horses each. In the first were her majesty (fueen Victoria and his majesty Louis Phi- h.' r, who sat together on the first seat : on • ht second seat of this carriage were he ' r. ,„oi)ty the queen of the French and madauie Adelaide ; on the third the queen of the Belgians and the duchess of Or- leans, who was in deep mourning; and on the fourth the princesses Clementine and de Joinville. In the second ehar-a-bane were lords Aberdeen and Liverpool, with M. Guiiot, lord and lady Cowley, marshal Sebastiani, viscountess Canning, the hon. Miss Liddel, &c. The other four carriages were occupied by the remainder of the Eng- lish suite and several French officers of high rank, military and civil, medical attend- ants, &c. On alighting, his mtoestv Louis Philipi^e handed his fair guest to her chair on hia TBB RCBNBBT MBAK B0 BBIBKBLBI TRB COAST OV XBJfT AND 8U8IBX. II. • : .■■* ■ IB- '.' f ■ THK GALKRII DSS OUISBB IS VIltRD WITH rOBTBAITS OV THAT FAMILY. 616 Vtfft treasure of l^istor^, $cc. right hand, and next to her mfyesty sat the queen of the French ; but the whole had more the appearance of an actual /i!te ehampelre than a repast of state, at which so many eialted personages assisted. The whole party seemed to enjo;|r themselves with the good feeling and familiarity of old acquaintance. Queen Victoria was in ex- celleut health and spirits, and listened with apparent pleasure to the conversation of the king of the French, who evidently stu- died, and apparently with complete success, to render himself agreeable to her. The 'people were admitted close to the royal table during'the collation, and every oppor- tunity was afforded to allow them to ob- serve narrowly the illustrious guests. Du- ring the greater part of the repast the count de Paris stood at the left corner of the tent outside, observing his relatives. The dfjetner being finished, the royal party promenaded round the grass plat. The king took queen Victoria by the hand, and led her round the circle of spectators, pre- senting her to his subjects with evident gratification. Loud cheers, waving of hand- kerchiefs and hats, greeted this royal pro- gress. Her majesty returned those marks of respect and affection by repeated obei- sances. The rest of the royal family fol- lowed in pairs, prince Albert following the king, with the queen of the French on his arm. The cheering was then enthusiastic, and the close approach to royalty now had an almost electrical effect on the people. The repeated exclamations of " Vive la Reine d'Angleterre," mingled with cries of " God bless the queen," " God save the queen," from the English portion of the assemblage, evidently affected her majesty, who once or twice audibly observed to Louis Philippe, " those are English people." Af- ter a short interval, during which the king conversed with several of tliose who had the good fortune to get near him, the queen of England entered the small tent appro- priated to the count de Paris and the prmce of Wirtemberg, aud conversed with them for a few minutes, patting them on the head, and enjoying their ^ood humour and childish delight. All this time the band was playing " God save the queen." Wuen this was concluded the party re- turned to the small tent, and the carnages were ordered round. Every possible oppor- tunitv was seized of admitting the French population to see the royal visitors; and every tongue was loud in praise of queen Victoria's grace and good looks. The cor- ttgt then drove off amidst loud cheers and every manifestation of enthusiasm on the part of the people. The crowd was ex- ceedingly great, and consisted chiefly of the better class of society. A great num- ber of English were present, the chief part of whom came over from Brighton in the Dart the preceding day. They were greatly gratified at the reception which their sove- reign had met witii. The whole effect of this delightftil ftte was that of a happy fiamily meeting without ceremony and with- out restraint. Nothing of state was appa- rent beyond the proper degrree of form which ought always to encircle royalty, even in its hours of amusement. On their return to the ch&teau an even- ing concert was given, the king having provided a corps of vocal and instrumental performers for the occasion. After the con- cert, supper was served in the talle it man- ger, to which her majesty queen Victoria was conducted by his majesty the king of the French ; his royal highness prince Al- bert conducting her majesty the queen of the French. The morning of Tuesday was appointed for a review of the French cavalry regi- ment, the carabineers, by prince Albert, which took place in a large plain about five miles from Eu. His royal highness was dressed in the costume or an English field- marshal, and rode a very beautiful white charger, which he sat with the grace and skill of an experienced horseman. The ap- pearance of the carabineers was grand and warlike. The French princes, generals, and other ofl[icers were in their respective uniforms, and the appearance of the caval- cade was noble and imposing. At the conclusion of the review his royal highness prince Albert, and the Frebch princes and generals, &c., dismounted. His royal highnoss then expressed his wishes that the oflicers of the regiment should be introduced to him: his wishes were, of course, complied with ; and the oflicers hav- ing dismounted, advanced on foot to the place on which prince Albert stood, when the introduction took place, and his royal highness thanked the gallant band for the satisfaction they had given him by their display of military tactics, and the gratifi- cation he had received by this representa- tion of the art of war. His royal highness and the rest of the party then remounted and returned to town. In the afternoon the royal party visited the fine old church of Eu, dedicated to the Virgin and St. Lawrence of Dublin. Imme- diately after leaving the church they drove to Tr^port, where great crowds had assem- bled to welcome tne party, as it had been previously announced that it was the inten- tion of queen Victoria to receive the royal family of France on board the royal yacht, where a collation was prepared for the oc- casion. The whole of the preparations for this visit were completed, but unfortu- nately the weather proved unfavourable; for, though the day itself was beautiful, a strong west wind caused such a surf na made it difilcult, if not dangerous, for the royal party to embark. This visit was tliere- fore postponed. The scene, however, wnh n very animated and gay one, and the people seemed greatly delighted with the opportu- nity they had of shewing their loyalty. In the evening, after dinner, a concert was given in the mile de» Guises. It was understood that the cntcrtainmrnt on board the royal yacht would take place on the following day, nor was it until after breakfeast that the marine excursion was abandoned; but so pleasantly had the TUB lALLI DXa BOIB BBCBITBD ITS NAMB rBOU THB ROTAI/ ronXRAITS. I,ODI« VHIUrrB AND HIS VAMILT OCCUrT THE lALON D« VAMILLB. lEnglantf.— 1|ousc oC ISrunsintcfi.-Fictoria. &17 " PP'y'os" KO"^ off on Monday, and bo in- tenselj hot wa» it on Wedne»dajr, that an- other /r(e ehaupitre was soon substituted for the proposed diieAner on the deck of a vessel. The French ladies, too, it is said, showed some timidity at the idea of being rowed across the dazsUng sea to the ves- sel ; but whatever the cause, a quiet ride through five leagues of the prettiest country in France, amid the delightful glades of a forest, whose rich foliage was just tinted with the first hues of autumn, must be al- lowed to be far preferable. The scene of this second fete ehampttre was Mount St. Catheri je, a beautiful spo*. in the middle of the forest, and no less than fifteen miles from the ch&teau, where the ro'^al party arrived about four o'clock, having pro- ceeded thither in much the same order as on the former occasion. Having partaken of their repast, with all the freedom and absence of etiquette which would characte- rise a Hocial party, they returned to the ch&teuu at half-past six o'clock. A nume- rous dinner party followed, served in the same splendid style as before ; and in the evening a company of vaudeville perform- ers from Paris, who had been summoned expressly for the occasion, nve a repre- sentation of two popular pieces on a tem- porary stage fitted up in the ealle dei Guiiee, m the ch&teau. Thursday being the day fixed for the de- parture of her majesty and her illustrious consort from the shores of France, they left the ch&teau at a little after eight, accom- panied by all the members of the royal family, including the king and queen of the French, the queen of the Helgiaus, the duchess of Orleans, madame Adelaide, the princess Clementine, the prince and prin- cess de Joinville, and the dukes of Aumale and Montpensier. The escort consisted of a troop of the splendid regiment of cara- bineers before mentioned. The Ist regi- ment of the line was stationed on the pier at Tr^port, and the 24th occupied the sourt of the chMeau d'Eu. On the arrival of the cavalcade at Triport they were received with loud shouts ; the yachts in the harbour manned their yards, and gave three ani- mated cheers, which were enthusiastically responded to by the multitude. The royal party entered the tent prepared for their reception, where they remained for some minutes in friendiv discourse. U|>on leav- ing it, the king, taking the hand of her ma- jesty, led her on board of the barge which was prepared for the occasion. The king, the auke d' Aumale, and the duke de Mont- pensier, together with M. Guizot and some others, accompanied her majesty and prince Albert on board the yacht. On leaving shore, shortly after nine o'clock, a royal salute was fired from the batteries, which was returned by the ships, the people cheer- ing the party loudly until they reached the yacht. The king of the ii'rench and his suite re- mained on board for a short time, and on leaving was. saluted with a royal salute from all the lingUsh ships. Immediately afterwards the royal squadron, consisting of the royal yacht Victoria and Albert, the St. Vincent man-of-war, and four steamers- of- war,' Bailed. The Plutou and Napoleon accompanied the squadron; the former being commanded by his royal highness the prince de Joinville, wno escorted her miuesty to England. It was the general remark that from the first moment that queen Victoria set her foot on the soil of France till the time she left it, no single circumstance occurred to mar the feelings which brought the royal personages more immediately concerned together. " None," says the correspondent of one of the London morning papers, " but those who were present at her ma- jesty's landing, and at her subsequent ap- pearance in public, can be fully sensible of the extent of the enthusiasm, nor of the warmth and unanimity with which it was expressed. Perhaps it may be too much to suppose that this incident, however in- teresting or gratifying it may be, not only to the personages immediately concerned, but to the people generally, should have any permanent effect upon the mutual in- tercourse of the two countries ; but surely it is not too much to hope that so much good seed should produce good fruit. The only regret here is, that tier majesty did not complete what was sunposed to be her first intention — a trip to Paris." For our own parts, we think her majesty exercised a sound discretion, and cannot but applaud her answer, when at the ch&teau she was pressed to visit Versailles and Paris: "I assure you I came not for the purpose of seeing France, but to visit the king and roval family." History informs us that when Francis, attended by only two of his gentlemen and a page, rode into Henry's quarters, the English monarch threw upon the French king's neck a pearl collar worth five or six thousand pounds, which Francis repaid by the present of nn nrralet worth twice as much— so profuse and gorgeous were these youug kings. There was no affectation of that sort at Eu; but when queen Victoria was admiring the pictures and ornaments which abound in the palace, the king of the French made her a present of two of the finest specimens of the Gobelins tapes- try extant (the death of Meleagcr and the bear hunt of Calydon) and a matchless casket of Sevres porcelain. On her depar- ture her majesty made a few haii(l!jumc presents to certain gentlemen of the liuuse- hold, and left for the attendants of ilie ch&teau 26,t.J0 francs, besides lUO I'ranes each to ever^ person connected in any way with her migesty's persoiiHl service. As it was generally known that her m^iestv intended to laud at Urighroii uii Thursday, the authorities of tliut town made preparations to receive tlwir queen with bclitting liouour. At one o'clock tir- ing was heard in the direction of Ueueliy Head, but the liazc was iio tliiek ilmt no sea view extended beyond lour or live luile^. The grenadier guards, u iletaclnueiii ol tlie rAI< rOBTBAITS. THIRB ABI THB r09TBAIT8 OV LOUIS XTI., HIS QUBBN, AND SON. [2 y I. ^i BBVaiKLS CONTAIIfl BBVXBAI. OBAHD AND TIMMBABLB CATHBSBAI.4. 518 ^f)e ^reastti? of l^istori), $cc. coast guard, the naval oficeri, and all the oflScials were, however, on the alert, ready to welcome her majesty to her island home. As soon as her majesty's yacht was dis- coverable, a royal salute was fired from the pier-head, and the band of the grenadier guards struck up a martial air. The sight was indeed beautiful at this time; the cliffs from the Royal Crescent to Ship-street were lined with spectators in their best and holiday attire ; the beach was studded thick with visitors and inhabitants, and the sky was without a cloud. As the state of the tide did not permit the royal vacht to come close to the pier, the royal barge was soon lowered, and was rowed towards the eastern side of the pier by ten of the queen's crew, being steered by lord Adol- phus Fitzclarence in person, and the stan- dard of England floatmg gaily at her bow. Her majesty sat in the centre of the barge, having the prince de Joiiivilleon her right and prince Albert on her left. In the barg^, also, were the earls of Aberdeen and Liverpool, the viscountess Canning, &c. On uearing the pier a slight delay took place, in consequence of the platform not reaching so low as the gunwale of the barge, and whilst it was removed her ma- jesty appeared somewhat nervous; the cheering added to the excitement, and she held up her tinger as a signal that she would he pleased at its ceasing for a few minutes. The sign and the wish were res- ponded to on the instant by hundreds in the boats ; not a sound was heard till they saw all was right ; but the moment she stepped upon the pier, the pent-up loyalty found its loudest burst. They cheered her because they were rejoiced once more to see her ; but the moment that demonstra- tion of delight was in any way annoying, it stopped, as if by magic. No wave of a monarch's hand ever produced a more perfect effect. She acknowledged the at- tention by repeated bows, and her eyes glistened with delight. "The approach to the shore was the signal for the loudest huzzas of the thousands on the beach and on the cliffs. A walking procession was soon formed, and her ma- jesty proceeded towards the royal carriages on the esplanade, accompanied by her royal consort and the prince de Joinville, her suite and (hepuMic functionaries following uncovered. 'The utmost joy was testified by all who witnessed the gratitying scene ; it was, indeed, picturesque and heart-stir- ring, and appeared to make a deep impres- sion on her majesty. We Imve thought proper to describe the ctrcuni ances attending this marine ex> cursion, embracing her mai'Hty's visit to the royal family of France, ith a degree of minuteness we should scarcely have be- stowed on any other. The extreme novelty of such an occurrence, and the historical recollections it calls up, to say nothing of the happy consequences which it may pos- sibly produce, attach to it a degree ot inte- rest which a royal progress in any other di- rection would not command. Thus, though we have to notice a second marine trip which her migesty and the prince consort made to Belgium, on a visit to her uncle, king Leopold, we ahall do so in the briefest manner. Having remained at Brighton a few days only, the queen and prince, with their suite, again embarked on board the royal yacht and proceeded to Ostend, on Tuesday, Sept. 12, where they were met by the king and queen of the Belgians, and received by the people with every token of delight. Nothing was neglected that could show honour and respect to the royal visitors, and they appeared to appreciate and fully enjoy the various entertainments that had been prepared for them. On Friday they left Ostend for the ancient city of Bruges, long celebrated for the brilliancy, the lavish display, and the peculiar feature oi exclu- siveness which have characterised the ro^al f£tes that are recorded in the pages of his- tory as having been given there; but in honest welcome and hearty good feeling this exceeded them all. The next day the royal travellers visited Ghent ; Sunday was wholly devoted by her majesty to repose, and cUvine service was performed in a pri- vate apartment of the palace. On Mon- day her migesty arrived at Brussels; aild was there welcomed with a joyous expres- sion of public feeling, and entertained with great mai^nificence. On Tuesday she left the royal palace of Laecken, and passed on, through Mechlin, to Antwerp, where she was received in a style that evinced an ar- dent determination to do her honour. The illumination at niglkt was even more mag- nificent than at Brussels; all the public edifices were one blaze of light, so that the streets were as bright as day; the steamers and boats in thu river were lighted up with blue lights; and the lofty spire of the cathedral, receiving the rays from these countless fires, rose in bold relief against the dark sky, elaborated in its minutest de- tails. About one, f. m. on Wednesday the queen and prince Albert, with their suite, took their departure; before eleven o'clock on Thursday they landed at Woolwich; lit- tle time was lost iu reaching the railway station at Paddington; and they were thence conveyed to their right royal resi- dence at Windsor. " The progress of the queen through Bel- gium," says a contemporary writer, " is an event totally unexampled in history, when considered with the friendly nature of her visit, and the manner of her reception every where and by all classes of the population. It has exceeded, as far as cordiality, good feeling, the honours prepared spontane- ously by the people of the great cities and villages through which she has passed, any thing that the records of fornier days de- tail. Not queen Elizabeth, iu tier progress through England, was received in so wel- come, so noble, and so national a manner as qunen Victoria has been, in a land to which till now she was a stranger." TUS CATURDRAL OF ST. OCDULB, F0I7IfDBD IN 1010, IB THB FINEST IN BRUSSELS. ■DBAI-a. td. Thu«,thout[h ond marine trip le prince consort jit to her uncle, «o in the briefest ighton a tew dayi !,with their luite, I the royal yacht id, on Tuesday, met by the king ns, and received token of delight, that could show he royal visitors, ireciate and fully mments that had On Friday they nt city of Bruges, lliancy, the lavish feature o> exclu- kcterised the royal I the pages of his- en there; but in arty good feeling The next day the lent ; Sunday was nigesty to repose, erformed in a p|ri- lalace. On Moii- at Brussels; aiid I a joyous expres- 1 entertained with Tuesday she left en, and passed on, twerp, where she lat evinced an ar- her honour. The B even more mag- s; all the public ' light, BO thnt the lay; the steamers were liKhted up he lofty spire of le rays from these told relief against n its minutest de- )n VVednesday the , with their suite, ore eleven o'clock at Woolwich; lit- ihing the railway and they were right royal resi- ueen through Bel- ary writer, " is an 1 in history, when dly nature of her er reception every )f the population. IS cordiality, good epared spontanc- le great cities and le has passed, any f former days de- h, in tier progress sccived in so wel- ational a manner een, in a land to stranger," « I r IN BRUSSELS zj ►-a THB SUarACK OF IBKIASB, THOVOH FIAT, II MUCB DITBBSIFIBD. THE HISTORY OF IRELAND. IS < f M •* a) H a o n m m o n a o u a f ■< H a H H O n a M a < a < > ■ o n CHAPTER I. Thbbb is no other country in the world the history of which has been written and commented upon in so tmwise and unjust, not to say unchristian, a temper and tone, as that of Ireland. And, strange to say, the persons who have been the most fre- quently and the most vioelntly wrong in tneir statements of the evils of Ireland, and on their proposal* for remedying them, have been precisely those persons who have made the loudest professions of desire to serve her. It is not worth while to say how much of this mis-statement has arisen from their want of correct information, and how much from a deliberately bad spirit ; certain it is, however, that Ireland has few worse ene- mies than those who in ignorance or in evil- temper attribute motives and feelings to England and English statesmen of which thev are quite innocent, and who assign for Irish poverty and Irish suffering causes which have really had no part in producing them, and thus assist in maintaining a most fatal ignorance of the real causes not only in the minds- of the sufferers themselves, but even in those of too many public writers and legislators upon whom so much of the nation's weal or woe de- pends. Unwise laws and harsh rule of centuries long passed are quite coolly cited as proof of a partial tyranny of Ireland by England ; yet a single glance at our statutes, a single reflection upon the punishments which to a very recent date were still allowed to dis- gust the wise, thrill the merciful, and bru- talize the bad, would show that Ireland was not a jot less mercifully governed than Kent or Yorkshire, and that the cruelties of English law, whether administered in London or in Dublin, at Bristol or Cape Clear, were no proofs of English dislike of Ireland; but the inevitable result of the ignorance of which the laws of every nation have required long centuries of the patient toil of the good and the wise to rid them. "The folly which flatters nations with fables of antique splendour and conse- quence which are sternly contradicted by every page of their authentic history is, if ludicrous, at the least harmless ; but they who aid a vast body of people to close their eyes upon the real causes of the worst evils to which a people can be subjected, incur a most, fearful responsibilitv ; for surely he who aids in perpetuating tlie causes of fa- mine, discomfort, anti-social feeling, vice, and crime, is to be looked upon iu no other light than as the inflictor and creator of those evils; and however painful the duty may be, it is one from which we must not shrink, to express briefly, but emphatically, our firm opinion, that the deadliest enemies of Ireland have been and are precisely those persons who arrogate to themselves all pa- triotic and all just feeling, and whose anti- English railings, however much they may fail to irritate the common-sense of Eng- land, have not failed and cannot fail to act most injuriously upon the worst igno- rance and flercest prejudices of Ireland. The delusions of self-flattery may be par- doned and dismissed with a pitying smile ; but a sterner sentence must wait the mis- representation which walks hand in hand with malignity, and which abuses and libels one gallant and high-hearted race, only to the effect of keeping another no less gal- lant and highhearted, though far less rea- sonable race, in a moral and physical de- gradation which is terrible even to wit- ness. Thus much we have deemed it uece'^sary to say iu reprobation of the shameful and absurdly nnreasonable abuse that is heaped by Irish orators and writers upon the En- f:lish government as to its treatment of Ire- and. Were that abuse less injurious to the millions of Ireland it would be un- worthy of notice ; but it unfortunately hap- pens that in attributing Irish distress to English oppression, Irish mismanagement is sanctioned and Irish suffering perpetu- ated; and it thus becomes a duty as im- perative as it is painful to destroy the illu- sion, as far as we may be able, that has been so artfully and unfairly thrown around the subject. The early history of most countries is so uncertain, that but little more credit is due to it than to any other romance ; and when we read of the splendours of a country which during the whole period of its au- thentic history has been poor ; of the power of a country which during all the period of its authentic history has been divided, tur- bulent, and weak ; and of the learning and civilization of a country which even now has less of diffused learning and civilization than any other country in Europe, it is quite consistent with the severest logic and with the utmost charity to look upon the rela- tions of the historian as being founded rather upon fancy than upon fact. The best authorities agree in stating Ire- land to have been peopled from the Spanish colonies of the partly trading; and partly piratical Phcenicians; and this statement, credible from the unanimity of authori- ties otherwise conflicting, is still farther strengthened by the facts of the Pliceni- cians having been well known to have traded largely with the British isles, and of the frequent finding, even at the present STONB QUABRIBB ABOUND IN ALMOST BTBBT FABT OF THK ISLAND. IRRLAMD BA8 MINES OV COPrlBi hEAB, MAkBLB, AMD lOMK IILVBK. ! iJli n 520 ^l^e ^rcasuri) o{ mstotvi, ^c d«T, of ornamenti and utensili which are in- dubitably of Pkoenieian manufacture. That gold and silver miuei existed in Wicklow and some other parts of Ireland is asserted very positively, but we think with far more positiveness than proof of their productive- ness ; certain it is, that a recent attempt to find gold in a district in which it was once said to aboand,i|hroved to be a complete and lamentable failure. If, as seems to be cer- tain, Ireland was once colonized by indi- viduals of a people so wealthy as the Phoe- nicians, that fact would at once account for the valuable articles so frequently recovered from the soil. But it by no means goes to Erove that Ireland in the early ages could oast of either learning or civilization of the high order claimed for it. It is not the most refined or most learned class that will venture into far and foreign lands to war with the wild animals, to reclaim the morass, aud to level the primsval forest. The hardiest, the rudest, the least civilized ; those who have the most to hope for and the least to lose or to fear are the men who usually go forth to colonize strange lands; and the Phoenicians who seized upon Ire- land as their abiding place, were in all hu- man probability the hardy and resolute rovers of the sea for many a long aud strife- ful year before thev became dwellers upon and cultivators of the land. That they came from Phoenicia, from a civilized, ingenious, and wealthy land, proves literally nothing as to their own civilization or their own wealth, as any one may perceive who will take the trouble to observe the majority of the colonists who leave the civilized and luxurious nations of our own day, to build cities in the desert, and to place palaces and thronged marts stored with costly wares where, even within the memory of man, the dnnse forest sheltered only the wild animal or the scarcely less savage man. The Phoenician colonists of Spain, were at once eager speculators and bold seamen : visiting the British coast as traders, especi- ally in order to procure tin, they could scarcely fail to admire the soil and climate of Ireland, and could have but little diffi- culty in subduing or destroying the mere handful of poor and all but actually savage aborigines; who mutt have been a mere handful, destitute as they were of commerce or manufactures, and warring, as we know that they did at a much later date, with the wolf and the hillfox who disputed the swamp and the forest with them. 'When historians tell us that splendidly mauufactured and extremely costly articles are frequently excavated from the Irish soil, we do not dispute the accuracy of the state- ment ; but we deny its cogency ns proving that the early colonists of Ireland' were learned, or civilized, or even wealthjr. A magnificent ornament or a costly and inge- nious machine taken from France or En- gland to the arid desert of Africa or the swampy flat of the Swan River would prove that tue country had been visited bv pco{NTIRH SUBFACa CONSISTS OP BOOB. U LV». It her; in short, ract of emigra- > opposite state I the dominant y called lerne, western land,— Bts of the fire- the actual go> r and religious, itain, there is ar East, indeed, I supplied with ell as with the and desperate Europe on the the vast steppes ia too narrow I assaults level- le stem rule of rand nations at , wiser in law- it should seem, rmanenc^, as in e aborigines, if licenicians colo- iray for a more rious people, so soon obliged t4 a fiercer and oti, one of those , under the vari- sa-kings, Danes, gated seas and them from over- ;Iiest portions of forth from the had been colo- ;e horde led by Scoti are more ; the term Scoti 1 another swarm 'hich at a later e, also, in Ire- t their purpose, 1 founded the at war with the ith them against d Britons, were th, courage, and n-ere famous for ht even the Ro- ;m as foes, ages se arts of peace ad heralded into ions which have uope originated d that the north ribes nominally he resting place rants, very mnny e; but perhaps the general re> itical and the re> lally and directly ! and settling in id that the I'hce- ist of the Modi- nbled, in many igious, the Scoti h coast who cer- BOOB. i f f LOAMT sons raBooiiiRaTB; THsaB is no chalk, and littlc sard. ^Ift llistote of Srclantl. 521 tainly had settled there from the north of Europe, where, it is nearly as certain, they had originally halted on tbisir march from the eastern quarter of the world ; and these, again, in like manner resembled the Bri- tons. Between the Magi of the Phoenician Irish, (those priests of the false faith of Zo- roaster who were perfectly undisturbed in their rites, or rather who were continued in their power as priests, sages, seers, and statesmen by the fierce Milesians,) and the Druids of Britain, there were so many and such striking resemblances, that the Mile- sians called their priesta Magi and Druids indiscriminately. The dark grove and the unsparing sacrificial knife of the stem and unquestioned priest marked both offshoots or corraptions of the fire-worshippers ; and the mysteries, craelties and sacrifices, from the first fmits of the earth to the first bom child of the idolator's family, of the Druids were, with but such difference as long jour- nies and distant residence will easily and fully account for, the mysteries, the cruel- ties, and the sacrifices of the Magi, too. The dreadful and fierce sacrifices of the Draids were put an end to in Britain by the Romans; but, strange to say, that mighty and enterprising people seem never to nave visited Ireland, where the Magi exercised their terrible rule quite undisturbed during all the long lustres of the Roman sway in Britain. Tet, geographically speaking, Ire- land was well known to the ancients. The Greeks called it lerae, the Romans Hiber- nia; and it was also called the Holy or Sacred Isle, not, as has been with much defiance of chronology and common-sense affirmed, on account of its owing its Chris- tianity to one of the immediate disciples of the ^at founder of our faith, but to the precisely opposite reason that it was notori- ous as the residence of the Magi, and as the scene of their terrible rites long after those rites had disappeared elsewhere be- fore the all-conquenng and all-reforming Roman. The Scoti, or Milesians, whether inter- marrying with the Fhcenician first colo- nists, or annihilating them, are the real ancestors of the Irish people ; and yet we are asked to believe in an almost unbound- ed wealth, learning, and civilization, among this horde of semi-savages ; these contem- poraries and CO equals of the other Scandi- navian and Scythian hordes who, probably during ages, had been wandering by slow degrees and in savage guise from the steppes of Tartarv to the forests of Oer- manv, and from the bleak north, with its ice-cnained rivers and piercing blasts, to the luxurious coasts of Spain and Portugal, and the voluptuous plains and rivers of Italy I The glories and the magnificence, the learn- ing, pietv, and national fame of such peo- ple may oe subjects equally convenient and unexceptionably for the romancer and the poet ; but for the historian and the orator, the statesman who makes, or the student who suggests laws, to ask our belief in such manifest absurdity, and to ground upon such absurdities fierce declamations against a jtenerous, great, and wealthy people, as hav- ing ruined these antique splendours by their injustice, and as having planted semi- barbarism where there was refinement, is not only tob ridiculous for belief, but too much even for patient endurance. That some wealthy Phoenicians settled and traded on the coastward counties of Ireland, as they did on the coasts of every country from the extreme west of the Medi- terranean to their own antique Canaan in the extreme east of that sea, is auite trae ; just as it is that a Herschell, devoted to science, has ere now set up his observatory within sight of kraals of tnose Caffrea who are but a step above the very brutes which' they hunt down for food: and just as it has been true in all ages of the world, that mil- lionaires in their fierce and unslaked thirst after more gold, have gone forth to dare the desert and the storm, the savage beast and the scarcely less savage man. But these Phoenicians gave place to or were amal- gamated with a fierce, brave, rapacious and miserably poor horde, whose long resi- dence at first in the bleak north of Europe and subsequently in the north of Spain, without arts and but too often witnout sufficient subsistence for their swarming population, had left them no trace of their common eastern origin with the Phcenici- ans, save general resemblances between the religious rites of the one and the religious traditions of the other. These were the real ancestors of the Irish people; these were the " ancient Milesians" and " Irish of the old time" in whose gold and gems, in whose piety, learning, and delicate breed- ing we aie called upon to believe. Had Ireland been so civilized and learn- ed at this early day, we should surely not be even now ignorant whether the round towers were Phoenician temples or beacons for the Scoti, the Danes, and the other hos- tile settlers or piratical visitors of Ireland ; and had Ireland been so rich at that day, the Romans would never have left her in contempt and in unvisited security, while ruling and reforming Britain for nearly four centuries. We conclude this chapter, then, with stating and with begging particular atten- tion to the statement, — that the early his- tory of Ireland is as fabulous in all that re- lates to glory, learning, weidth, and heroes, as any other earlv history whatever ; that, in the case of Ireland this fabulous turn of early writers has been made the foundation of great injustice committed by later wri- ters, and bv orators and statesmen, too, as to England; that though, no doubt, En- glish kings and their advisers in past days may have unwisely decreed or unjustly ac- ted in Ireland, as in any other country, yet Ireland never began to be civilized, popu- lous,vlearned, wealthy, or important, until connected with England; that English con- nection has done much, and is still doing much, to make Ireland both prosperous and happy, and would do far more but for the fierce party spirit of some, and the equally fierce out still more disgraceful personcu TUB BOOS II« OBNEBAL BBBT UPON A 8THATUU Of BLUB CLAY. [sra Si I ■ I THI IBISU C0A8* ir SBKFLT IHDBNTKD WITU BATS AND OULrUI. 1 ff I ^;H U 522 ^^e ^rcasttiB of l^istort?, ire. lelflahnest and ambition of otliers, which are constantly and throughout that torn land at work to perpetuate the grossest prejudices and the basest feelings. This, indeed, will incidentally Income so evident in the course of the history of Ireland, that we only make this emphatic general state- ment, because we deem it an act of real and important justice to both England and Ireland, and, substantially, even a moreim> portant justice to the poor of the latter countrv than to the wealthy and powerful of the rormer, thus to draw the special at- tention of all readers of history, and espe- cially of all young readers, to the utter in- correctness of the ill-natured declamations which cbar^fe England with an injustice never committed, by way of sui>poTting the character of Ireland for an ancient prospe- rity which she never possessed. CHAPTER II. Thb eery early power, wealth, and learn- ing of Ireland seem to be negatived in a variety of ways ; the nature of the govern- ment of the country would alone, we think, have been quite sufficient, in addition to the worst species of heathenism, to render its achievement of prosperity at home or influeace abroad a thing quite impossible, A pluralitjr of kin^s in different districts of a very limited territory, and those districts for the most part destitute of natural par- titions, must necessarily make a people bar- barous or keep them so ; and what could be expected when five kings — each having a host of turbulent, ambitious, and to a very great extent independent chieftains and their clans, or septs to keep in order — di- vided the sway of the conparatively small portion that was fairly inhabited of so small an island as Ireland. In England, in Scot- land, in India, in America, in France, every where, in all climates, and under whatever civil or religious rule, numerous sovereign Sowers without natural partitions have pro- uced hostilities and jealousies, which have made each rival power in its turn the easy prey of an invaaer, or of some one of the rival powers themselves that chance, skill, superior virtue, or surpassing wickedness, inspires and enables to overwhelm the others. Had the Indian tribes of North America been united under one head, whe- ther that head had been a monarch, or the chief village of the most powerful of the whole federated tribes, the pilgrim fathers and the first bold pioneers wlio looked from the rock of Plymouth, with eager eye and covetous heart towards the mighty forests and rich prairies of the far west, would have left their landing place on that rock, only to return to it appalled and in despair of finding even in the new world a refuge from the evils which had driven th<>m forth in disgust, weariness, and natural love of life from the old world; or they would have fal- len beneath the tomahawk and the scalping- knife, and their bones would have whitened in the wintry air, after furnishing many a feast to the panther and the bud eagle. The enmity of tribe to tribe, it chiefly was, that kept the red man inferior in every way to his white foe, and enabled the latter to destroy whole tribes in succession, with less actual loss to himself than it would cost him to put down an ordinarv town riot in the streets he had reared where the forest lately waved, " And wild in woods the noble savage ran." The same thing is remarkably observable even in India. Wealth, learning which is antique if limited, a subordination of ranks, and a simplicity of living utterly undreamed of in Europe ; all these liave not sufficed to prevent a vast portion of Indian wealth, Indian territory, and Indian rule, from being grasped by a mere handful of Euro- pean merchants. Had the Indian princes been united, we should now have a mere factory, as at China ; but the eternal rule prevailed here as elsewhere; each rival prince hated his fellow's power and pros- perity even more than he loved or valued nis own, and no one of them was powerful enough to compel union even where union alone could save. In South America tbe 8po..iards owed their success to the sanifp cause ; and if ever the fast increasing stated of North America, spreading us tiiey do over so many degrees of latitude that some have the productions of a high northern climate and others the productions of the tropics, shall allow commercial jealousies to prevail over political feeling, it is by no means improbable that two monarchies may arise on the ruins of the one existing federation of republics. When the ancient kings of Ireland and the ancient glories of Ireland are spoken of, inexperienced readers of history are very apt to picture one king of Ireland swaying the whole Irish territory from the Giants Causeway to Cape Clear, and from Oalway- bay to the Hill of Howth. This, however, was so far from being the case, that within that island there were five separate king- doms, always jealous of each other, and fre- quently at open war, either against each other or against one or more of the turbu- lent chieftains, whose power, recklessness, and utter detestation of peace and quiet- ness, subdivided each of these five king- doms into several more, with rulers who were more likely to quarrel frequently, and to sanguinary result, than the kings tliem- selves, from the very proximity and com- parative pettiness of each chieftain's pos- session, and the increased bitterness and personal sense of injury which entered into every dispute whether personal or terri- torial. The five provinces or kingdoms of Ire- land were Meatb, Leinster, Munster, Con- naught, and Ulster. The first named was considered the chief sovereignty; at the hill of Tara, famed alike in true history and bard's romance, which was situated in that kingdom, was the great assemblages of princes and chiefs ; and the other four kings were nominally tributary to the king of Meatb, just as the tanists, or chien of M M < h «s M O •i H H •• i M 3 : *Ua LABBI, OB "LOUOHB" OV IBILAND ABB lAHSB AM^ RUMEBOVI. IN BONBOAL AND OALWAT «XC«1.L«NT STATUARY MABBLI II FOUND, VL^t "J^tetorB of SrcIanTl. 523 (9 e Pn B 4 >a M •1 M IE 9) f a M H lepts, in their retpectiTe kiiiRdonis were to them. But iu all tliese caset alike the iub- • jection of the inferiors was merclr nominal, and was thrown off or acknowledged just as the caprice, convenience, or interests of the inferior dictated. "With • very small island thus divided among very many nerce, proud, jealous, and scarcely halfcivilucd rulers, it would be strange indeed if the history of Ireland, while such a state of things existed, could afford matter of sut- ficient interest to occupy the reader's atten- tion. In truth, a ruder state of aociety short of that extreme bar! arism in which, literally, every man's luu ' is against his fellow man, could not cAist than that of Ireland under her early Milesian kings. The tribute paid by the sept to the tanist, by the tanist to his immediate king, and by the kings and chief tanists to the king of Meath, was, when paid at all, paid in the solid shape in which all other claims were paid, even to the fee of priest or harper, viz. in cattle. That a country which is said at that very time to have exported gold and silver in exchange for foreign luxuries should not have hit upon coined gold and silver, or even upon ingots, however rude, of those metals, for a home currency, to avoid the great inconvenience and loss at- tendant upon a system of barter, in many cases demanding the purchaser or debtor to drive his live legal currency from one end of the island to the other, seems to say as plainly as one fact can testify for ano- ther, that the gold and silver mines of that day in Ireland were not more productive than they have been more recently ; and that the ornaments which have at times been found, whatever they may say for Phoenician taste, or wealth, or skill, bear sti'ong testimony against both the Milesian people and their kings and princes having been perfectly destitute of all three. Kingdom against kingdom, sept against sept, neighbour against neighbour, and often brother against brother and son against fa- ther; such was the state of society which, however lamentable, was quite inevitable and natural under such a system. To re- fuse to pay a tribute was to declare war against a superior; to insist upon the pay- ment of a tribute was, generally speaking, to call the inferior to arms, aided by all the power, or, as they called it, all the " back," they could cominsnd. Sometimes, indeed, a superior who could not procure payment of so manv head of sheep or horned cattle, alive ana in good order, would invite himself and his "back" or " following" to board and lodging with the defaulter for a period proportioned to the tribute, rent, or other debt in default ; and when the self-invited guest chanced to be a gtetA tani$t or other personage with a nnmerous following, the unwilling tenant, as in the case of many recorded "royal pro- gresses" in England, felt the effects of en- tertaining bis superior for manjr a long year afterwards in baron and byre, in field and house. So ruinous, indeed, were these self- invite'ions, these totheringt, in which we may easily believe tbat a powerful creditor would sometimes eat more beef and mut- ton than could ever have been covered by the skins of as many oxen and sheep as were due to him, that it was no uncommon thing for the visited debtor, in sheer des- peration, to call together his " back," and very fairly refuse to allow a morsel of his food or a drop of bis drink to pass the lips of his creditor. In this case a sanguinary fight, leading probably to a docen or more in explanation or support, in reprobation or in vindication of the conduct of one or other of the parties, was usually the result. How could a people thus situated, a peo- ple, too, high of heart and hot of bead, and ready of hand, beyond almost any other people on the face of the earth, be other- wise than a turbulent, a divided, an always uninfluential and a frequently diseased and starving people? Barter and tribute in kind among people who carry arms and are prone to bloodshed, is only another name for perpetual war, arising out of the desire of the weak to cheat and of the strong to extort. The wealth and power of a prince or other great man in a country situnted, as to barter and tribute, as Ireland was, ne- cessarily depended upon the extent and fertility of his land ; and as though there were not in the ordinary course of things only too much temptation to bloodshed, the law for the division of landed property on the death of the owner was admirably adapted to awaken avarice into scheming, and bate and jealousy into sanguinary violence. In a land in which bloodshed and dis- turbance were not the occasional and rare exception, but the frequent, almost the con- stant rule, cousins and more remote rela- tions, nay even brothers themselves, were but too apt to live upon terms which were little likely to make them desirous to be- nefit each other; but the law said that a man dying possessed of landed property should not bestow it solely upon his chil- dren — to whom he would naturally be more attached than to any one else, but that all male relation* even to the mott distant, and without the slightest reference to friendli- ness or feud however deadly or long stand- ing, should equally share with the eldest or best-beloved child. It thus often chanced that the eldest son, or only son, of a de- ceased tanist or chieftain cailed his friends and sept around him, and pursued his cousins or male relatives to the actual death, as the only means of keeping his position in society by keeping his property intact and unbroken. Nor did even the chieftianship itself of necessity descend to the eldest, or any, son of a deceased tanist ; he whom the family and the sept of the deceased chief elected as worthiest was to succeed ; and it is unnecessary to say that rivalry and partizanship not unfrequently proceeded to the full length of bloodshed and even of murder. The residence of the chief was usually a long low wooden hut, situated on a hill top. QUANTITIla OF BLACK AND ABIT MABBLB ABB VOUHD IN XILKBHMT. " COHRAVaHl" IlfCLUDIk— OALWAT, I.BITKIN, MATO, BOICOMMON, AMO SHOO. t y \a >■■: Ihl E> O u 624 ^l^e ^reasute of l^istotQ, ^c. ■URoanded by a lawn or yard, and defended by a rampart of mud : and caves, natural or excavated, were the residence of the meaner persons of the sopt, whose attire was chieiHy composed of undressed sheep- skins. Cloaks and other garments of woollen cloth, of scarlet or some other gay colour, were not uncommon among the higher people; though it is not improbable that even much later than the period at which romance and factious feeling have joined to paint this people as being learned, luxurious, and weidtny, even this coarse and almost primitive manufacture only reached them through the medium of foreign traders and native pirates, who had great skill in the management of the coracles or curraghs which they, like the Britons, constructed of wicker iframes covered with skins of beasts. The bards, an idle, imaginative, and not remarkably moral set of men, were not merely the attendants upon and diverters of the chieftain's hours of recreation and wassail; the chieftain's bard was also his recorder, and we may cease to wonder at the exaggerations that have come tradi- tionally down to us when we consider that, besides gaining at every generation, these marvels were originally said, sung, and written— if written at all— by men whose comfort depended upon the complacent feelings of him whose deeds and posses- sions they sang, and who, therefore, were certainly under no very great temptation to observe a too rigid adlierence to squalid or paltry realities. Every chieftain had his oard, and the chronicles thus composed of the affairs of all the chief families in the kingdom are said to have been committed to tne care of keepers in the royal castle of Tara, but to have been burned about the middle of the ttfth century after Christ, in common with all the magian or druidical writings, bv order of St. Patrick; by no means the least service that that excellent first bishop of Armagh — so excellent a bi- shop that even the stupid exaggerations attached to him as a saint cannot diminish him in the eyes of those who admire use- fulness and piety — rendered to the be- nighted Land in which he and his handful of coadjutors from Rome, were the first to preach the gospel. ,.v ■■ » - _^ ■( ■ CHAPTER III. Wb have spoken of St. Patrick as of a benefactor to Ireland; even the falsehoods of sedentary monks and of wandering and immoral bards and story-tellers cennot throw an air of ridicule over his t.rn\y Christian and venerable character ; aad higher praise, seeing their power of mak- ing truth doubtful and grave things ludi- crous, it would not be easy to bestow. The horrible superstitions which the Mi- lesian priests propagated and supported by steru and unsparing cruelty remained in full force for above four centuries and a quarter after the light of the gospel had aned its rays of divine and glorious bright- ness upon nearly all the rest of Europe. Elsewhere the gospel no sooner was preached than it had its converts, con- vinced beyond the power of human sophis- try, and faithful even unto martyrdom ; but Ireland remained the prey of the bigot heathen, the abode of the heathen who was deluded, or the heathen who was co- erced. In one of the freouent piratical excur- sions that were made by the Irish, Mac Nial, a petty king, lauded on the coast of Brittany, slew, burned, and spoiled; and brought spoil living as well as dead, human as well as brute. Among the captives was a youth of some fifteen or sixteen years of age, who, on arriving in Ireland, was sold as a slave and employed in herding sheep. This youth was the afterwards so cele- hrated St. Patrick. Naturally of a thought- ful turn, the mountain track and the fo- rest glade in which his vocation caused him to spend much of his time, deep- ened all his meditative habits, and gave teal and fervour to his native religious im- pressions. " He looked upon the land and saw that it was very good ;' but he saw that it was peopled by idolaters and polluted bs idolatrous cruelties. Even amid the bittet[- ness of the reflections caused by his own situation, a slave and a captive in a foreign land, he felt that it would be a great and a truly Christian deed to open the eyes of the blinded heathen among whom his lot was so unhappily cast, and save their minds from the bondage of a false faith, and the lives of their firstborn from being sa- crificed in torture at the flaming altars of senseless and graven idols. Fortunately, Patrick had scarcely attained the age of manhood ere he escaped from his slavery and got safely back to France, and for up- wards of twenty years applied himself with constancy and diligence to learning, such as was then attainable. But neither the long lapse of years nor the pride of culti- vated and matured intellect, could banish from his mind the recollection of the un- happy state of the Irish, or his early deter- mination to make the attempt, at least, to enlighten tlieir minds, and to raise their social condition. A. i>. 432. — Accordingly in the year 432, and when he was himself about forty-five years of age, he applied to the pope for permission to preach the gospel in Ireland. Such a permission was willingly granted by the pope, and Patrick, accompanied by a few l^rench monks whom he had inte- rested by his descriptions of the character and condition of the Irish, landed in Ulster, after an absence of nearly or quite a quarter of a century. The foreign garb and striking appearance of Patrick and liis companions filled the peasantry whom they first encountered ,with the notion that they were pirates, and preparations were mad« for driving them back to their vessels. But their quiet demeanour, the benevolence of their coun- tenances, and the earnest and simple as- Burances given by Patrick, in the language MDIiaTIK"— CLASS, COBK, KBBKY, LIHBBICK, XIFPBBAHT, AND WATBBFOBO. '■\ AND SLIOO. TUH MOIfKI AND RUN* OV IKILAMD WSKB BVBJICT TO TBB ITKICTSST DVLKS. Cl^e l^istorn of StdanV. 525 of the peaMnt*, that he and his compa- nions had arrived on an errand of peace and good-will to all men, speedily con- verted fear and hostility into admiration and confidence. The hospitality of the principal people wai cheerfully and heartily bestowed upon the disinterested strangers who had traversed land and sea in the hope of benefiting their rude but cordial enter- tainers ; and Patrick and his companions presented themselves at Tara attended by a numerous and enthusiastic corttge. The mild and venerable aspect of the preachers {;ave full weight to the sublime and benevo- ent doctrines which they propounded. King and people listened at first with inte- rest, and then with full and deeply inte- rested credence; and in an incredibly short time after their first landing, idols and idol-worship became hateful to the people, the Christian doctrines were everywhere re- ceived, and churches and monasteries arose where the flames had but recently licked up the blood of the shrieking and expiring human victims of ferocious error or more hateful fraud. The success with which Christianity was preached from the very first was such, that even the warmest and most inte- rested advocates of the idolatrous wor- sliip seem to have made by no means such strenuous or fierce efforts in opposition to the new faith, as the general oigotry and sanguinary ruthlessness of their own pre- cepts and practice would have taught one to anticipate. Occasional violence, indeed, was displayed by both the magi, or druids, and isolated g^roups of the more fanatical of their deluded followers ; and upon more than one occasion St., Patrick was himself in considerable danger of being butchered. But there was none of that general and rapturous enthusiasm of opposition which could seriously or for any long time impede the progress of doctrines, which attracted by their novelty, and fixed and interested by their benevolence no less than by their authority. On the other hand, the mission of St. Patrick, although it destroyed paganism in Ireland, not only produced none of that individual suSering which but too gene- rally accompanies extensive changes, how- ever good and desirable in themselves, but it immediately and to a vast extent im- proved the political and social state of the converted people. There was no massacre, no sweeping and sanguinary persecution of the priests or people of the old faith ; but both seem quietly and imperceptibly to have adhered to Christianity. The tem- poral distress to which the nia(|i or druids might otherwise have been subjected, as a consequence of the change of faith of those who had previously supplied their revenue was, doubtless, to a very great extent, pre- vented or shortened by the early and rapid founding ofan immense number of churches and monasteries, to the service of which the converted magi were not merely eligible, but, in fact, indispensable. Episcopal sees were eslabUshed throughout the country, and Armagh was made the metropolitan see, of which the Irish apostle was himself the first prelate. Learnea, active, and pious, St. Patrick's conduct so well warranted and seconded his precepts, that the preachers of the Irish churcnes and the monks of Ireland's numerous monasteries soon be- came famous throughout Europe for such branches of learning as were tnen attain- able ; Irish monks traversed foreign coun- tries as secular and religious teachers, and the mnsic of the Irish churches was per- formed in a style of suc)t nnni)ual excel- lence, that in tne reign of Pepin tci.ohers were sent for to Ireland at an expence of great magnitude, considering the general poverty of the time, to instruct the nuns of Nivelle, in France, in psalmody. The reforms effected by St. Patrick were doubtless of a most extensive and valuable kind ; and, as has already been pointed out, the early establishment of numerous monas- teries must have had a venr potent effect, both in aiding the peaceful propagation of Christianity, and in averting the tempo- ral evils which so extensive and sudden a change might otherwise have produced- But the monasteries, which at first were so valuable, soon became both mischievous and onerous; to found them came to be considered a set-off against the most enor- mous crimes and the most unchristian life ; and to inhabit them was too often considered preferable to the exercise of the Christian usefulness which benefits so- ciety, and the Christian virtve, in the true and original sense of that word, which en- dures the evils of life instead of flying them, and lives to resist and overcome the temptations of the world instead of vege- tatin{; in ignorance of them. For the most part, indeed, the religious recluses of both sexes were subjected to very strict rule. Their diet was scanty and simple, their fasts frequent and severe, and their pilgrimages long and painful. But the seclusion of such a multitude of persons from the ordi- nary avocations of societv, and the em- ployment of vast sums in founding and en- dowing their abiding places, could not but be a gnreat evil in a country wliich was still poor in spite of its natural fertility, and still very imperfectly civilized, in spite of the fame which a portion of its population acquired for solitary piety and unproduc- tive learning. But though, whether politically, morally, or religiously, th . undue number of religi- ous establishments and their inmates was an evil which could not but become more and more enormous with every succeeding generation. Though the Christianity of both the doctrine and practice of Ireland at this portion of her history was far beneath the genuine practical andapostolic Christianity, it is impossible not to perceive that St. Patrick,— pious, benevolent, and, consider- ing the age in which he lived, learned,— laid a broad and a solid foundation for the im- provement that island has made since its connection with England. From the information which we derive LINEN AHO OTHBB CLOTS WAS AH IMFOBTRD FBOM FOBBION COVNTBIBB TBI SAXONS IN aNObAUD LIVID IN I.UZVBIOUS KABI AND PLSNTt. 1 : tl: ft : U 526 tlTl^c ^rcBButs of IlistocQ, Sec. from St. Fatrick himaelf, we gather lome curious particu'ars of the condition of the Irish people during his time. Thus we find that the numbers of colours to be u«ed in dress were particularized for each rank ; and we may from the relatiTe number of these, allotted to the three principal ranks, form a shrewd judgment of the degree to which the magi, from whose ranks the bards, law- yers, and historians, as well as priests, were always taken, had usurped and used autho- rity. To kings and queens seven colours were allowed, to tanists or nobles only five; but to bards six colours were allowed. Both policy and the etiquette which so largely influences even the rudest courts compelled the magi to allow an outward social supe- riority to their kings and queens, through whom they, in fact, governed ; but however warlike or wealthy the noble, he was re- minded even by his very dress that he was held inferior to the magi. CHAPTER IV. It was not to Ireland alone that St. Pa- trick did the inestimable service of substi- tuting the mild truths of Christianity for the furious errors of paganism; indirectly, indeed, but substantially, he was the Chris- tian apostle also of Scotland, into which country Christianity was introduced in the sixth century by St. Columb, an Irish monk of great zeal and learning, who founded the long famous monastery in the island of lona. For three centuries after the arrival of St. Patrick the influence of Christianity in humanizing the people and elevating their coudition was weakened, greatly weakened, at once by the plurality of kings and by the enormous number of the monastic esta- blishments ; and during those three centu- ries the wars of ^etty princes and of five kings retarded civilization and produced a sickening and pitiable amount of human misery. The fiercer and prouder spirits among the chief families scourged the country as warriors; the quieter spirits scour|[ed it scarcely less bv their learned and pious seclusion ; and while even Eng- land was sending her best sons to the monks of Ireland, that they might enjoy the very best attainable education, those monks studied and prayed and taught foreign youth in cloistered ease, and in coiled and selfish indifference to the world's sufferings and the world's crimes, without seeking to make their learning available to lessening the one, or their rank and in- fluence useful in restraining the other. Though England at this time was divided into seven kingdoms, and though each of these, like each of the five Irish Kingdoms, was again divided into petty but indepen- dent lordships; though, in fact, England fully shared with Ireland the evils of di- vided sovereignties where no natural divi- sion of territory exists, the Saxon popu- lation of England enjoyed a plentifulness of the most nourishing food, and a com- fort both of habitation and apparel far su- perior to those of the Irish, with all the superiority allowed to the clerical and mo- nastic population of Ireland as to learn- ing. A clearer proof needs not be adduced of the mischief, serious, widely- spreading, and of the utmost practical importance, that was done by the preposterous extent to which monasteries were founded by mis- taken piety and inhabited by indolent idle- ness. Corn and cattle of every description were abundantly produced ; vet the great mass of the people were poorly fed, wretch- edly lodged, and coarsely clad; for the simple reason that they were injured indi- vidually by their fierce petty princes when at war, and nef^lected by their priests and scholars at all times. The confusion nnd petty warfare inevit- able upon a plurality of sovereigns and petty princes, we have already alluded to as an obvious cause of a low social con- dition. A no less inevitable evil attendant upon that pluralitv is, that it bares tlie bosom of the people who are unfortunate enough to be subjected to it, to the attacks of foreign foes. The imminent danger of the whole country from some vast invading force may for a time cause all the petty Srinces and their turbulent and almost^ in- ependent inferior chieftains to unite; 'far a time each may learn to forget his envy, his hatred, the insult that has stung, or the injury that has robbed him, and in the mere instinct of self-preservation each may do good service towards the preservation of all. This, we say, may happen in the case of the whole of such a country being threatened by a terrible and numerous in- vader ; but so it may happen, too, that ha- tred of the native and neighbouring enemy may not merely overpower that sentiment towards the foreign foeman, but may even convert it into a feeling of sympathy and a desire for his alliance or protection. But even where domestic differences do not, in the case of a great invasion, produce trea- son in some cases and ruin in the rest ; the mere weakness which internal warfare ever produces must render the temporarily united foes comparatively inefficient just at the moment when they more than ever ueed strength, and more than ever desire to use that strength to ^ood and wise pur- poses- If in actual wariarC of king against king, chiefs against the king, or, the still more common case, of chief against chief, each of the five kingdoms of Ireland lost from the year 700 to the year 717 one hun- dred men per annum, here would be a vast army— for that time and country — of 8,600 men. We have reckoned the loss of the five Irish kingdoms in the seventeen years specified at a very low probable average ; and we have only reckoned with reference to tiiose actually slain in battle, or in the occasional sanguinary skirmishes ; of those who subsequently perished by the famine caused by war, or of the pestilential dis- eases invariably attendant upon famine, we take no account. No period could be bet- ter suited for the fair illustration of tlie evU to which we have adverted than seven- tan laisB bxcki.lkd in lvarniho, but were imferiob in civilization. D PLINTI. OH ANT lUODKH ATTACK, BBACOM VIkXI BLAIBD OR ALL TBI >II.t«. ^{)e l^ijstore of SrclanD. 627 m n n o f K m H M H H H Sd >• H O A M teen years-, for while that neriod wauld make the mere infant capable of beanng arm*— particularly among a hardy, warlike, and half barbarous people— it would still leave in soldierly vigour and activity the roan of twenty-five, or even of thirty years of age, who escaped unwounded from bat- tle on the very day of that infant's birth. Here, then, in seventeen years of miserable squabbling we have an army of 8,500 men utterly destroyed; and at the end of that time we find that Ireland was insulted, in- vaded, and plundered for the first time by any considerable piratical force of North- men, or Danes, as the piratical northmen and sea-kings were generally called. Here, then, we have evidence as irrefragable as evidence can be, that to the plurality of so- vereignty in Ireland, and to the at once paltry and ferocious internal warfare to which that plurality gave rise, Ireland, when the fierce northmen sailed up ..''' rivers, burned and sacked her mor^stbHet, slew the monk in his cell, the peasant in the field, the penitent at the altar, and the nursling child at his mother's breast, owei the loss of an army thrice as numerous as would have sufficed to crush, ere he could have well landed, the slaying and spoiling foti who wrought so much liavoc and so much woe. The evil effect of divided and petty au- thority requires, surely, no farther proof ; and how extensively that divided and petty authority obtained in Ireland may be pretty accurately judged from the single fact, that in one battle against the invading north- men, two hundred nominal kings or chiefs of Irish septs fell upon the field. The kingdom of Meath, being nearly in the central part of Ireland, was, though originally the smallest of the five chief kingdoms, the titular chief; and the suc- cessful attempts of the kings of Meath to wrest territory from the other kings, and of those latter, individually to obtain the envied titular royalty in chief, were a fruit- ful source, both of general national distur- bance, and of partial and at the same time implacable feuds among the septs siding with the various kings. For nearly forty years the northmen con- fined their attacks upon Ireland to mere predatory descents, m which they were usually, from the disunion we have de- scribed, successful in carrying off consi- derable spoil and numerous captives. But the very success of these descents, and the experience the marauders acquired alike of the fertility of the soil and of the dis- union of the inhabitants, invited larger ex- peditions and more extended views of con- quest. About the close of the eighth cen- tury they began to send as many as a hun- dred vessels laden with fierce warriors into the Boyne and Liffey. The monasteries, both as being the wealthiest places in the island, and as being the abode of the teach- ers of the faith of that hated Charlemagne, whose prowess and whose sternness had made his faith odious to the northern ma- rauders, Y ;■:-! Ill •- if 530 ^fit ^reasurp of l^istote, Sec. kept them perfectly in order; but as a new generation sprang into active life, and long abit had made itrict rule much 'ess im- posing, they again began to show symp- toms of a desire to return to their old course of varying the life of the trader with that of the armed and insolent rob- ber. Perhaps, too, they were encouraged by supposing that the long lapse of year* had deprived the once terrible Brian Bo- rohme of his courage and conduct, as it was well known that it had of his physical strength and activity. Tiie king of Dublin suddenly and without provocation led hit northmen into the kingdom of Meath, plundering without limit, and, wherever resisted, murdering without mercy. As if to show that Irishmen were never to see the misfortunes of their country without doing their own shameAil part to- wards inflicting them, the king of Leinater joined his forces to those of the northmen, and partook to the fullest in their out- rageous violence. At the same moment- most probably by long preconcerted ar- rangement—a new horde of northmen, each man followed by women and children, en- tered Munster evidently with the intention not merely to plnnder the country, but also to effect a permanent settlemei.t. Malachi and Brian Borohme put them- selves at the head of the other kings and leaden, to oppose the hosts of foreign and domeatic foes that had thus suddenly sprung up amidst the profoundest peace and the most promising prospects of equal prosperity. Rightly believing that the na- tive foes were at once more guilty than the foreign ones, Borohme dispatched a large part of his force under his son Donough, to overrun the kingdom of Leinster, and drive off or destroy all the cattle on which the enemy would greatly depend for provisions. This service the old warrior judged that his young and active son could effect in three days, to which period he limited his absence. Under all ordinary circumstances this course would have been both politic and safe ; for the position of the northmen was such, that it was to the last degree an- likely that any general engagement would ensue until after the return of Donough firom an expedition toe success of which would be of such material tuture value to the Irish, But once again a son of Ire- land—probably from some dastardly fear or revenge, or from petty personal hope- was Ireland's enemy : treason was in the camp of the brr.ve and good Borohme. whose gallant son was no sooner beyond recall, than some deserter from the camp made the northmen aware how mnch the Irish were weakened b) this detachment of 10 large a number of their best troops, and they at once forced on a general eu> gagement. Flight, even had it been in hia power, Borohme would not have for a moment thought of; he formed bis troops in battle array, and though more than four score years had blanched his hair and abated his natural Ktrength, he rode along the ranks and shouted his exhortations in the ge- nuine and passionate eloquence of which, in former times, he had so often witnessed the thrilling and inspiring effect upon the troops who bad followed him to victory. Pointing to the northmen, whose tumul- tuous ranks were swelled by Norwegians, Danes, and Britons from the Orkneys, the Hebrides, and the mountain* of Wales, he called upon Irishmen to strike no blow but in remembrance of priest* and nuns mur- dered, churches burned, and the sacred things polluted or plundered ; age cast forth to perish in the forest, and the young child smitten dead with the mother whose milk ■tillhunjg upon its Up; ".bearing a crucifix in his left hand as he brapdished his fami- liar sword in bis right, he called upon them to follow where he should lead, and to strike for the religion of the saints with the firm hearts and vigorous arms of men who knew how to die as Christians, but never so submit to heathens in heart, name, or alliance." A.D. 1014.— It was shortly after day break on the 33rd of April in the year 1014, that the venerable king and veteran warrior thus addressed his army, who, greatly ^m they knew their numerical force to be w«a kened by the detachment of the troops under Donough on the Leinster expedition, responded to the address by commencing the fight with cries of rapturous excite- ment, which proved that their king and general had only done them justice in say- ing that they knew how to die for their cause. The battle lasted — success now in- clining to the Irish, and now to the north- men — during the whole of the day; and wherever the onward charge of the Irish was the fiercest and farthest upon the foe, and wherever the foe in his turn repulsed tbem the most murderously and effectively, there gleamed the sword and pealed the still sonorous tones of Brian Borohme. Though ai;e had dimmed the old man's eyes and abated his natural strength, be continued thus activeljr performing the duty of both skilful chieftain and stout soldier, quite literally, " From mom to noon, from noon to dewy eve." But as the shadows of the mountains fell denser and deeper, he became too weak to remain longer in the field, and was obliged to seek rest in hi* tent, though even here his mental vigour mocked liis physical debility, and he continued to direct the fight by brief and judicious messages to the cbiets. At length the glad shouts of the Irish proclaimed that the foe was broken beyond hope; the king foil upon his knees in the thrilling gladness of the patriot king and the loyal soldier, and his tent, in the general joy, was left unguarded save by a single stripling page. The traitor who had warned the Danes of the detachment beini; sent under Donough into Leinster, could scarcely have wished a heavier calninity to Ireland than that which was cnMsvd by the eager rush of the king's personal j,'uard to I i.n AFTBB THIS PBRIOD NO maSU IlBtllFORCBMaNTS OP DAUBS AuniVBO. MALACBI. At TBB «IMI or HIB DXATR BRIAN BOBOBMK WAS HIHBTT TBABB OLD. from noon to dewy ^l^e l^istore of Srclantf. 631 join in the slaughter and pursuit of their enemies, who were now to be seen flying in every direction, whetherthat rush was made merely in obedience to their own desire or in compliance with the king's command. He was recognized by a flying party of the enemy only a few miuutes after tie was thus left unguarded ; and neither his thin white hairs, nis venerable aspect, nor his pious posture, could save him. In an instant his enemies were upon him ; the loud shriek and feeble though zealous blow of the young page delayed the sacrifice not a mo- ment J Brian Borohme, the terrible in bat- tle, the wise in council, and the inflexibly just in rule, was slain, with many and ghastly wounds, even as he knelt in thanks- giving for the victory he had dune so much towards obtaining for his country. CHAPTER V. The defeat of the northmeu was com- Slete at Clontarf ; and though the death of Irian Borohme was felt by his troops as a very serious drawback upon their victory, such instant and excellent measures were taken for following it up, that the fierce sea kings did not feel inclined to risk such another. The armed invaders fled to their ships and sought safety in flight ; and the northmen who were naturalized in Ireland, despairing of any farther aid from beyond sea, had no recourse but to live in peace with their neighbours, with whom the in- termarriages of a few generations so incor- porated them, that all distinction, save in a few male names of families, was lost be- tween the two people lately so hostile. Malachi, who had ably and bravely dis- tinguished himself on this occasion at the very first outbreak of the northmen and their treacherous allies of Leinster, and who in many a former perilous time had amyly earned the fame which won him the praise of the bards of his own time, and has nearly a thousand years later obtained from the greatest bard of his country the praise of having worn " his collar of gold That he won from the fierce invader," Was now by common consent and acclaim called a^fiin to the chief sovereignty, which he eujoved in all pence and honour i itil his death. A. n. 1022.— Full of years and infirmities, but no less full of honours, Malachi expired peacefully in the year 1022 } and the death of that venerable monarch was the signal for a renewal of those shameful civil wars, and their consequent miseries and degra- dations from which the strong hand and vigorous mind of Brian Borohme had so long kept the country free. The high re- nown of Malachi had caused all the kings and chiefs to hail him as the most worthy successor of Brian Borohme, but the rela- tives of those two truly great princcti and warriors could not so easily agree as to the riffhtful successor of the former. If the principles of equity and plain reasoning had been appealed to, the claims of Malachi's heir would unquestionably have at once been admitted; and th£t upon two broad and intelligible grounds. In the first place, glorious and useful as the reign of Brian Borohme had been, he had olitained the throne by violence; and it is more than possible that even his valour and conduct would have failed to secure him upon it, had not the patriotic Malachi waived his own personal interest* in favour of those of bis country. In the next place, the unani- mous consent of the kini^ and chiefs to Malachi's succeeding Bnan very clearly pointed out the latter as the merely per- sonal possessor of the throne, who nad obtained it wrongfully, who, probably, at least, was allowed to retain it only on con- siderations of expediency, and whose heirs, consequently, even bad he died after Mala- chi, could not, upon any sane view of the hereditary principle, for an instant be put into competition with those of Malachi. But equity and reason were allowed no voice in the matter. Many competitors appeared, loud disputes and sanguinary struggles en- sued, and at length the field was cleared of all aspirants but two. These were Donough, king of Munster, heir of Brian Borohme, and Turlough, great nephew of the latter and nephew of the former ; both, it will be perceived, claiming in hereditary succession to him who had been to all intents an usurping king, however good and able one. The struggle between these two princes was long and sanguinary; but Donough, though already in possession of the kiug- dom of Munster, was vanquished. Baffled m his hi^h ambition, and detesting the scene in which his rival had exhibited so marked a superiority in both talent and popularity, Donough almost immediately resigned his proper kingdom of Munster, and set out on a pilgrimage to Rome. Arrived .at " the eternal city," he entered into a monastery, and there obscurely finished his life. Turlough on mounting the throne spee- dily proved tiiat he inherited with it much of the ability and warlike courage of his great uncle, together with a double portion of his despotic and resolved self-will. Much as he owed to the inferior kings and chiefs, he imposed upon them unusually heavy tri- butes ; a tyranny the full weight of which was chiefly felt by the unfortunate kerne, or peasantry, from whom, in addition to all their heavy local burthens, it was of course wrung by their tyrants. From the Irish natives, Turlough turned his strong hand upon the northern settlers and traders. Even under the firm and steady rule of Brian Borohme, these people, though strictly prevented from indulging their secminj^ly inherent and inextinguish- able love ot violence and plunder, were allowed to follow their peaceable pursuits, and the customs of their own countries ; and their .towns had invariably been go- verned by their own peculiar laws, admi- nistered by princes or governors of their own race. One of these, Godfred, king or governor of Dublin, was banished almost ts AuniVEO. MAI.ACm IS BKCKONKD THB FOnTYSHCOWn CHBI8TIAH KINO OF IBBLAND. tnB CAVTLSS IN IHRLAKD WBBI VASTIiT INFKRIOR TO XHOSB IN BNOI.AND. 'K , I I \ u 4 u ■4 7/ 532 ^^e ^reasuco of llistori), $ce. immediately aftertke accession of Turlough, wlio filled the vacancy with Murkertach, his own son. A similar course was sub- sequently followed as to all the Danish towns; and when we consii* t how little formidable the northmen ht'.O for some time shown themselves, and hcv very much they had even lost of their distinct naiionality by frequent intermarriages with the Irish, it is diilicuU to resist the belief that this sweeping change originated far less in ne- cessity or patriotism than in self-will and a desire to aggrandize the royal family or its favourites. At this period Ireland seems to have ob- tained a very considerable improvement as to wraith, it not as to refinement. We find mei'tion more frequently made of gold in pajrmtnt of tribute where formerly it was paid in cattle or other kine ; and to its for- mer exports of wheat, wool, hides, and cattle, we now find timber added. Indeed, BO fine was the Irish timber at that period, and Irish bog oak especially, that William Rufus, whose reign in England was con- temporary with that of Turlough in Ire- land, actually imported Irish oak for the splendid roof of Westminster-liall. A. n. 1080. — After an active and generally Srpsperous and valuable reign, Turlough ied in 1U86. His kingdom was partitioned among his three sons ; the hereditary prin- ciple being thus again set aside, u„c on this occasion with at least the colour of justice, inaguijch as the principle of equal division — though ircluding the most dis- tant male relatives — was that of the Urehon laws in the pulniy days of the Magi. One of the sons dying, a contest arote netween the two survivors, Murkentach — already mentioned as succeeding Godfred the north- man in the government of Dublin — and Dermot. The latter was defeated and driven into exile, and Murkentach now claimed and was about to assume the whole king- dom. But a rival was s!>t up against him in the person of a chieftain of the old blood- royal, named Donald MaeLoughlin, who was extremely popular among the princes both on account of his personal qualities and his descent; and again the unhappy country was visited with a civil war upon a question the justice of which was so ob- vious, that anv twelve honest men, how- ever unlettered and unskilled in chicane, might have set it at rest in an hour. For eight years the old scenes of rapine, blood- shed, and misery bade fair to undo all that invaders— far leas cruel and mischievous than the turbule>it and justice-despising sons of the soil— had done towards improv- ing and enriching it ; and after all this strife and misery the rivals at length agreed to divide the regal spoil between them. The southern moiety of the kingdom was given to Murkentach, and bore the title of Leathmogh, or Mogh's share; and the northern moiety to MacLoughlin, and bore the title of Leath Cunnin, or Conn's share. Even this seemingly equitable arruujge- mcnt did not restore a solid and lasting peace. We call the arrangement seemingly equitable, because it seems to have met Uie full consent of botU competitors and their respective friends, and so far we are obliged to call it so ; though, ab initio, one or the other party must have been entitled to all, if either was entitled to any. Clearly, how- ever, this ground of debate was fully aban- doned by the deliberate agreement we have referred to. But with the characteristic pugnacity of the time and country, the two kings, though they possessed, by treaty, and each within his own limits, the utmost kingly independence, a peaceful enjoyment of limited and defined authority, however, seems to have been by no means to the taste of either king. Perpetual encroach- ments were made by one or the other, and a long series of sanguinary and very mis- chievous battles terminated in the utter defeat of Murkentach, who, beaten at all points and utterly despairing of an^ better success, retired from the contest m i 103, and sought refuge in a monastery, where he terminated his days. During the long and obstinate struggle between the native Irish kings, the coast- ward parts of the country were repeatedly annoyed by the northmen, especially by the Norwegian Magnus. His prowess and au- dacity had possessed him of the Hebrides and the Isle of Man, and under the title of the Lord of the Isles he struck terror and dismay far and near. Emboldened by tho unnatural and senseless dis&ensions of the Irish, he sailed up the Lilfey, ravaging and destroying, and at length possessed himself of Dublin, where, having fallen into an ambush, he lost his life. From all that has been said it will, we trust, be very evident, that the flaming ac- counts given of the very early wealth, grandeur, and learning of Ireland, are sheer exaggerations for the most part, and un- founded assumptions for the rest. The earliest inhabitants of it, of wliom any thing is certainly known, were divided into numerous septs, individually too rude, and as a whole too much divided among them- selves, to have been either prosperous or influential. The towns upon the coast were either founded or raised into importance *>v subsequent invaders of a more advanced knowledge and refinement; and at the period to which we have brought down this history, the coi.i.ition of Ireland had nothing desirable whioh was not owing to those invaders, and was, even then, such as to make it morally certa'n, that the im- provement of the countrv, ov even its cscfiite from retrograding into its original misery and barbarism, could only result from such an event as that to which we now pass, namely, the appearance of England on the Irish stage ; from which period the history of Ireland begins to possess that clearness of which all Its earlier portion is so strik- ingly deficient. THB CUURCHBS ANn MONABTBBIB8 OP IBBLAND TVISRB ALI, BUILT OV WOOD. II ENOI.ANO. I »B»Bnoii wAfl pmvm»Ai., ai thbeb wa« no wsvoal »twm hi ibbiawi). ®l^e l^iatotfi of JEifilantr. 533 C'HAPTBE VI. r or WOOD. The various ware and arrangenieuU in Ireland did not prevent the whole island from being still divided into the five chief kingdoms of which mention has idready been made. The titular chief royrity. as well as the real chief power and influence which to the time of Malachi had apper- tained as by prescription to Meatb, subse- quently passed now .to one and now to another kingdom. Munster, under Brian Borohme, had both the chief title and the chief sway, which afterwards appertained to Connaught. Roderio O'Connor, king of Connaught aud titular king of Ireland, however, had but little of the power which Brian Bo- rohme had so sternly and steadily wielded. All his energies were required to enable him I tc govern Connaught, and he was incapable 1 of either composing th.; diflferences of the ! other kings, or of uniting them all under j his own authority in the coinmoa defence of ' their common interest*. In a word, Ire- land was in the twelfth century as divided as ever it had been ; and only so far im- proved in wealth as to tempt aggression by exciting cupidity. That Ireland had so long remained free from the aggressions of other than mere ravaging nonhmen would be wonderful, indeed, but for the poverty v.liich we iiave shown to have caused that forbearance or contempt. Heathen Rome and Christian Rome alike had, for long ages, allowed the semi-barbarous people of the " sacred island" to light and destroy Ht their own good pleasure. But the time at length came when Christian Rome, already en- throned as the mistress of empires and ai- bitress of the temporal and spiritual princes of the earth, looked with a longing eye upon the fertile island on which prosperity, thanks to her iuvnders, had begun to dawn. The attention of Rome would probably have been drawn to Ireland us early as it was, under any circumstances; but Ire- land's near and ambitious neighbour, Henry II. of England, it was who immediately c'rcw the attention of the ponlifif to her value and capabilities; overlooking, as it would seem, the extreme probability that the papal power would some day prove as formidable in enmity as it could possibly be useful in friendship. Attracted by the fertility of Ireland and its contiguity to his o-.vn kingdom, and being well informed of the internal dissensions of the kings and chieftains, wh'ch bade so fair to render the island an eB6y prey, he applied to the papal court 1 jr its sanction to his subdu- ing Ireland. A.D. Ulfi.— Pope Adrian III,, who then filled the papal chair, was doubly glad to receive this request. An Engli'shman by birth, lie was naturally anxious for the ag- grandizement of his native country; and, as pope, he could not but be rejoiced at having from the king of England this em- phatic ackn(>wledgment of the temporal as well as spiritued supremacy of Rome. Neither of these motives waa allowed to appear ; Adrian professed to be actuated in according his permission to Henry by the anxious care shown by that prince to en> large the Christian church. The pretext waa sounding and specious; but we can scarcely allow much weight to it when we remember that Ireland had for five cen- turies been acquainted with Christianity. But, then, it had owned no submission to Rome — and to Rome it had produced no revenue I Had Henry invaded Ireland simply as being an island extremely convenient to him, it W9uld savour rather of cant than of sincere and wholesome fealing to lament or even to blame his course ; for it was fas necessary that Ireland should b i conquered in order to its being rescued f om its bar- barism and perpetual strife, ai it was, in an earlier day, that the Romi.n and the Saxon should prepare the wry for that Eiiglian nation which owes ni le-tenths of its marvellous greatness to that other for- tunate injustice, the Norman conquest. But the pretences upon whicl , as set forth in the papal bull, he proceeded to his task of pleasure are grossly hypr;critical. The bull in question, says Huir.e, "after pre- mising that this prince had ever shown an anxious care to enlarge the church of God on earth, and to increase the number of his saints and elect in heaven, represents his design of subduing Ireland as being derii'ed from the same pious motive ; con- siders his care of previously applying for the apostolic sanction as a sure earnest of success and victory ; and, having esta- blished it as a point incontestable, that all Christian kingdoms belong to the patri- mony of St. Peter, acknowledges it to be the pope's own duty to sow among them the sfieds of the gospel which might in the last day fructify to their eternal salva- tion." The pope having thus shown that Ireland ought to be conquered, and that Henry is its appointed conqueror, " ex- horts him to in-ade Ireland, in order to extirpate the vi .e and wickedness of the natives, and obi- ge them to pay yearly, from evcy house., a penny to the see of Rome; gives him entire right and authority over the island, commands all the inhabitants to obey him as their sovereign, and invests with fUll power all such godly inslrumevits as he should think proper to employ, in an enterprise thus calculated for tlie glory of God and the salvation of the souls of men." This bull, encouraging as it was, did not alone occur to inflame the ambiiion of Henry. The state of Ireland soon after this bull was issued was precisely such as its foreign foeraan might have desired it to be; one of the intestine brawls which formed so large a portion of Irish 'xistence break- ing out just then with even more than the usual virulence and fury. Ucrmot Muc- morrogh, the then king of Leinster, who was remarkable even among his licentious eountrymen for his gross immorality, had Sreatly provoked the chief men of his king- oin by his tyrannical conduct. Unaware TUK LGARNINO OF TUB MOHKS WAS COMriNBO TO TBBItt OWN CLASS. [3Z3 i--' r UP TO TUla TIME THB BlfOLISH HITBK THOUeHT OV CONQVBKIIfft imXLANB. i:f[|:::jil 534 ^^e ^rtasuri) of 1|istori9, ^c. or eontemptuou* of the general feeling that existed against him, lie wantonly ad- ded to it by abducting the wife of Ororic, prince of Breffney, during ber butband't absence. Prince Ororic, on his return to the bog island in which he had, as he ima- gined, secured the safety of his wife, was roused to the utmost rage by the informa- tion that Macmorrogh had made a descent upon it and forcibly carried away the prin- cess. Irish morality at that time was at so low an ebb, that nearly any man but the king of Leinster might have abducted his neighbour's wife, without running serious risk of incurring anjr enmity or censure be- jrond that of the injured husband and his immediate friends and followers. But Mac- morrogh's character was so generally de- tested, that the prince of Breffny met with warm and unusual sympathy. Among those who hastened to assist him was Roderic, king of Connaught ; and so powerful a force was speedily led to the punishment of the ravisher, that he was fairly driven from the territory he had so scandalously misgo- verned. Chastised but impenitent, disgraced and burning for revenge, the exile went to France, where Henry II. of England then was, and solicited his aid. Delighted at having^ an additional excuse for his medi- tated invasioi' tlius opportunely afforded him, Henry aiiected to give faith and full credence to the version of the story which it suited Macraorrogh's purpose to tell him ; especially as he oifered, if restored to his kingdom, to hold it as vassal of the English crown. Just at that moment, however, Henry was too busily engaged in Guienne in quelling the rebellious spirit of his French subjects, to be able to go per- sonally to the aid of his Irish supplicant. Nevertheless he cordially promised him Iiuissant support, and furnished him with etters patent by which all subjects of the king of England were empowered and en couragcd to aid the exiled king of Leinster in his attempts to recover his dominion. With this important document Dermot Macmorrogh hastened to Bristol to raise a force upon its authority. For a consider- able time, however, he found even the king's letters patent insufficient to induce men to volunteer for Ireland, where, ac- cording to the general notion of the coun- try, hard blows were likely to constitute the principal bootv. It is very likely that Macmorrogh would have been still longer without reaping any substantial benefit from the possession of the king's letters patent, had he not fortunately met with a ruined noble of the illustrious house of Clare, who, by a furious course of pleasure and extravagance, had so reduced uimself, that he would gladly have shared in even a less promising adventure. Richard, surnnmed Strongbow, earl st Strigul, wns rasily induced to enter into the cause of the King of Leinster, on being pro- mised his dnughter Eva as a wife, with a present portion and the reversion of her father's dominion. Having secured this potent ally — for Strongbow was a good and approved soldier,— Macmorrogh left his new ally to raise and arrange forces, and pro- ceeded to Wales, where by large and liberal promises he produced two other allies, Man- rice Fitzgerald, and Robert Fitsstephen, constable of Abertivi. Having thus secured abundant aid, he made arrangements for future proceedings with the three leaders, and then clandestinely re-entered his king- dom of Leinster and secreted himself in the monastery of Femes, of which — so little had the founding of monasteries, at tliat time so common in Ireland, to do with re- ligious life or religious feeling — this tyrant and ravisher was the founder. It is probable that Dermot Macmorrogh had only his own revenge and his own in- terest in view when he sought the protec- tion and aid of the English king. Yet when be thttsproposed to introduce foreign troops into Ireiana, and, like count Julian of 9pnm who introduced the fierce Arabs into his country, called the foreigner to look at once upon the loveliness, the fertility, and the feebleness of the land, it seems scarcely possible that he could have been wholly without a presentiment of the natural re- sult. Some writers even go so fnr as to spy, that his assisting Henry of England >''. overrun the rest of Ireland was actually one of the conditions upon which he ob- tained his countenance. In this there is more of bold conjecture than of legitimate reasoning ; but if Macmorrogh had no fears that the foreign soldierv might allow their plans to go a trifle farther than the mere recovery of his dominion, he only furnishes another proof that revenge, like drunken- ness, blinds the keenest eye and bewilders the shrewdest intellect. Robert Fitzstephen, with thirty knights, sixty esquires, and three hundred archers, was the first of the friends of Dermot to make his appearance in Ireland. The ar- chers, besides being well and completely armed, were for the most part men wno had seen considerable service, and their com- pact and orderly march struck terror wher- ever they appeared. Ten knights, thirty esquires, and sixty archers having, under the leadership of Maurice de Prendergast, joined this force, an attack was made upon the town of Wexford, which had been greatly improved and was chiefly inhabited by a partv of Danes. The town was car- ried, and here the adventurers awaited the arrival of Maurice Fitzgerald. He joined them soon after with ten knights, thirty esquires, and a hundred archers ; and the whole force of the adventurers was now fully equal to the task of defeating any force that Ireland could draw to one point. Roderic, king of Connaught, who had taken so signal a part in expelling the guilty and detested Maumorro^h, made a gallant resistance to the foreigners and their alljr of Leinster; but he was beaten at all points, and Mncmorro|;h now, look- ing beyond the mere restoration of the au- tliority from which he had so deservedly been driven, began to project the dethron- turn TRACK FUR8UBD BY 8TBOHOBOW WAS MABKBU WITU FIBB AND SI.AUOUTBR. BBA or THB CKMBBATID IT. LAWBMNCB o'TOOLB, BISHOF OF DUBMN. Vlift l^totors of Srelantl. 535 ing and exile or death of Roderie, and his own elevation to the dignitjr of chief king of Ireland. And tbii fact, we may remark, goei far to ditcredit the opinion of tiis har- ing entered into compact with Henrijr to the extent, and with the particular 8tipa> lation to which we have before alluded ; for he could scarcely think Henry of Snelend, the opponent even of the dreaded and mighty papal power, a safe person to rival ; far less could he sai>pose that, even in vas- salage, he could reign over the whole of Ireland, but by the direct consent of Henry himself, should that formidable monarch conquer Ireland — as, be it observed, it is assumed that Macmorrogh expected. How- ever this may be, the ambitious aspirations of Macmorrogh, who had so lately been an outcast and a suer for foreign pity, seemed fully warranted by the success which had hitherto hovered over the pennons of his allies. In addition to the successes that we have spoken of, they obtained signal advantage over the prince of Ossory, who not merely rendered himself to their cle-° mency, but also gave hostages for bis fu- ture conduct. While these things were being enacted, Strongbow, though anxiously and impa- tiently expected in Ireland, and though, as far as mustering and equipping his troops went, was quite ready to go thither, had, in fact, made his way to Normandy, where, as we have said, Henry II. at that time was. Though an approved and gallant knight, Strongbow was largely endowed with that suspicious and prevoyaut shrewd- ness, which if not genius, is ver^ like it, and Quite as serviceable a quality; and thougn the written authority of the king to all English subjects to aid the banished and deprived king of Leinster seemed to be both full and unequivocal, Strongbow too i\ ell knew the waywardness, and the passionate wilfulness when offended, of his royal mas- ter, not to feel anxious for a more direct and personal permission to act ; lest he should by chance be running counter to the king's privste wishes ^' hile acting un- der his openly expressed authority. Nor doej it seem that he was Rri'^tly lAiataken FrobaVily the king thought tlir.t the previ- ous conquest and occupation cf parts of Ireland, by accomplished and knighdy lead- ers of strong parties of his own bluff and brave archery of England might not, even- tually, tend to make his own intendc' /iUOUTKIU KlWa BBN. r MSnlTATBa TVS INVASION OF lUBlAND WITH A I.AKOB ABMT. r ♦■ ' I- ■*_*= 1. L. *■ ^il BVBBY rBIRCB ANO.CBIBV IM THB ISIiAHB ACEHOWLBSOBO BBHRT'B aUrBBICBITT. 536 ^i)e ^rcnsurg of l^istoni, $cc. place; that Strongbow, Fitzgerald, and many other knights of name had perished, and that Roderick was now marching to- wards him with tlie avowed determination to spare neither sex nor age of the English. Now Fitzstephen, confident that a barba- rous country like Irelamd would be easily subdued, had brought over his wife and children with him, that he might settle his lands as soon as he should have conquered them. He was, therefore, on their account, s*ruck so with terror, that he readily gave credence to the intelligence; the truth of which, indeed, the general character of Irish warfare rendered but too probable in every particular, except the conquest of Strongbow and his English host ny their ill-armed and worse disciplined opponents. The messenger perceiving the impression his false tidings made upon Fitzstephen, now persuaded him to allow him to guide him to a shelter, together with his family and his immediate followers. In an evil hour his anxiety for the safety of his wife and children caused him to abandon the strong fort in which he could, at the very worst, have held out for some time, and plHce himself and his family in the hands of Ills bitterest enemies. He discovered his error almost as soon as he had committed it. Many of his roost valued followers were put to death on the instant, wiiile he and the rest were committed tu prison and closely guarded. But how I'reatly was his chagrin increased when ho heard of the splendid success of Stn'-ngbow at Dub- lin ; and that he was iiastening to Car- rick for the express purpose of affording that aid which Fitzstephen's own precipi- tancy had now rendered ui'.eless. The people of Waterford, well knowing what fate they miufht expect tihould thjy fall into the hands of the terrible Strongbow, gathered up every portable part of their property, set fire to the town in several places, and then, carrying their prisoners with them, took shelter in a little island near Waterford harbov.r. Thither Strongbow pursued them with thi-eats of taking tlie most signal and te .ible vengeance; out just as he was "-.'jout to attack the island, he was induced cry depart by the most soh^mn assurances which the euemy caused to be given to him, that the landing of his first n.an should be the signal for striking off the head of every English prisoner. While speaking of the siege of Dublin by the Irish, or, more correctly, of their rout before that place, we mentioned that Strongbow '>»id liis fo'.l'.^wers bad been much straitened o.' orovitTJis.. What Strongbow had from tiie very first foreseen, V»dby this time taken ptiice; Henry II. he? became jealous cf "ns barons. Doubtful !.ow far feelings ol a'legiance would weigh with such turbulent and self-willed men against the promptings of young ambition, kmdled and increasedby splendid victories, he saw in each new enterprise a new instance of contempt of his authority, and in each new success a new temptation to actual inde- pendence of his crown. Hoping, probably, that want of munitiona and provisions would cause them to suffer such reverse as would make them glad to sue to their liege sovereign for sanction and aid, in an enterprise which thev had carried on vrith as much apparent independence at though no soverei^ existed to claim the fealty or resent their disrespect, he had, for some time, forbidden all aid to be sent to them from England. As soon a* the state of af- fairs in Ireland would admit of hi* doing •o, and urged, in addition to other conside- rations, by certain intelligence he had re- ceived, that the king was on his way to Ireland at the head of a nnmerous force, Strongbow hastened to England and met the king in Gloucester, where he had m- sembled a very powerful force. Hei>ry at first refused to admit Strongbow to his pre- sence; but on the earl urging that he could clearly show that, in all that he had done, he had acted solely for the king's service, and thftt he would not even stir a rtep in tht JAih expeditiau until he had rev-iiived hou: a general and particular permission from the king, he was admitted. It must be very clear t--' si! who have read thus far, that Strongbow, froic the first, had deter- mined to make his military and mutriloao- nial connection with Dermot Macmorr^gh the stepping-stone to the sole and complete sovereingiy of Ireland. But when hie wary measures had proved the justice of his sus- picions of the kinjs's true feelings upon that subject, he shrewdly determined that to hold much under the king was far better than tu have his conquests wrested from hiin by a powerful monarch ; and he boldly affirmed, on being admitted to the royal pre- sence, that he aimed at Irish conquest only for the king's service, and that for himself, he should be content with whatever reward his royal master might deign to bestow upon him. Pacified by a submission so complete, and seemingly so disinterested, the king ac- cepted the surrender of Dublin and all other ports and fortresses conouered or to be conquered in Ireland; and granted to the earl and his heirs for ever, all his other Irish acquisitions to be helds as fiefs of the English crown. A. D. 1171. — The conciliatory policy of the shrewd earl having thus averted the storm of royal wrath in which he and his fortunes would otherwise have probably suffered shipwreck, Henry hastened his prepara- tions, and, accompanied by Strongbow, landed at Waterford about the middle of October, 11 71. The large force by which the king was accompanied, and the gallant appearance of his knights, armed rap H pU, procured him a degree of respect from the natives which they probably would have withheld from the name of king, which was too common among them to have much of that prestige which attached to it else- where. Not the slightest opposition was made to his landing, and as he progressed through the country, kin^s and chiefs flocked to him to tender their homage. To each who thus came in to surrender his possessions and authority, Henry instantly I'HB TENUnS OF LAnOS DBTIRMINBD WITH TUB t\V» OF THB POSBBSSCB. 'a avriBiaKiTT. HIRKT GDARTRD KBTATCa TO BH OFFICBKa rOK MILITABT aKHVICBI. ^^e T^ifitoxis of Srelantr. 637 restored both on tbe easy condition of hom^ ante being done and vassalage confessed. Even Rodericic O'Connor, the original op- ponent of Derniot, peaceably submitted, and without a single battle Henry II. of England became also king of Ireland. Uaving held a council at Caahel, in which apeciaf provisions were made for the sup- port and protection of the clergy, upon whose exertions the king well knew tliat the peaceable maintenance of his authority would depend, and in which a variety of other laws for the regulation of marriage, wills, and sueceasioti of property were pro- pounded, the king proceeded to celebrate th' feast of Christmas at Dublin. The city poMessed no apartment large enough to serve for the royal banqueting room on this occasion, but a temporary pavilion was erected, in which Henrv feasted O'Connor and the other principal Irish i>rincea in a style of profuse and costly hospitality such as they had never before witnessed. The king appointed a lord high consta- ble, an earl marshal, and a high steward ; and distributed vast tracts of Irish ter- ritory among English nobles, but on the strictest feudal principle. Thus, for in- stance, byway of preventing the great pos- sessions and equally great talentsof Strong- bow from being so predominant in Ireland as to tempt him to endeavour to throw off the royal authority, the king gave the whole of Meath, so long the seat of the chief Irish royalty, to Hugh de Lacy and his heirs for ever, on the tenure of Afty knights' ser- vice. Nay, so particular was the king that the feudal tenure and forms should in no- wise be neglected, that though Strongbow had acquired his Leinster possessions by marriage and not by the sword, Henry, before he left Ireland, compelled him to resign them in form, and then conferred them upon him on the usual military tenure. Having thus far provided for the future p^vernment nnd security of Ireland as an integral part of his dominion, and made such minor arrangements as chanced to occur to his mind or to the minds of his advisers, Henry departed from the scene of his easy conquest— if conauest indeed that could be called in which he never Iwd oc- casion to strike a blow,— in April, 1172, having been in Ire'.and barely six months ; and on landing in Wales, proceeded imme- diately to St. David's church to return thanks for a success of which he seemi to have felt all tbe importance. CHAPTER VII. A.D. 1173.— Thb reputation of Ireland for rudeness and poverty was such, that, with the exception of a few of the leaders, the first English invaders and settlers were chiefly men of despi^rate fortunes and of a character rathnr fitting them to battle with the natives than to civilixe them. Even had they, however, been well fitted for that task, and ever so zealous in its perform- ance, the very relations of conqueror and conquered, possessor and dispossessed, would probanly have made their (-xertions of but little avail, at leaat in ti.*- earlier years of their residence. The profuseness with \«hich Henry had parcelled out Irish lands among English soldiers, and the stern and jealous rigour with which each English pale or settle- ment repressed the slightest Irish disturb- ance in Its neighbourhood, soon caused the deepest and fiercest hatred. While the king aud his formidable army remained, the Irish affected the most cordial and peaceful feelings ; nav, perhaps, while the King's presence acted as a strong check upon the haughty and insolent tyranny of the conquerors, the coni^uered actually did entertain the hope of bein^ allowed to live in peace and good fellowship. But the king had no sooner departed than the fiercest animosities began to display themselves. The natives, especially those who were in the immediate neighbourhood of the pa- latinates, and who, therefore, were especi- ally subjected to the insolence and oppres- sion of the English, looked with detestation upon these possessors of countless acres wliich they bad forcibly wrested from the rightful nossessors. From murmurs they Eroceeded to actions ; rebellions on the one and and unsparing severity on the other ensued; and again this luckless land seemed doomed to long centuries of petty but ruin- ous wars. Strongbow v^as the principal man among the new comers, and was known to be the very soul of their councils, so against him the animosity of the natives was especially directed. To render his situation still more perilous, his own followers, who, justly or not, had acquired so much through hia daring and skill, began to show strong symptoms of insubordination. His ap- Eearance was hailed with less cordiality; is orders obeyed with less promptitude. A chief cause of this want of cordiality among the English soldiers was the strict- ness of Fitsmaurice, who had the immediate command. He was a good soldier and a rigid disciplinarian, and being, as it would appear, sincerely desirous that tbe native* and the Euglisn should, for the sake of both parties, Hve in peace and in the muturl performances of good offices, he strict ly forbade all plundering and drawling, to which the English showed thenuelves onl^ too prone. This strictness, whioh the li- centious soldiery considered all the more unreasonable, inasmuch aa they were nost irregularly paid, at length led to an opeuly expressed determination of the soldiers to abandon Ireland altogether, unless the command were taken from Fitzmaurice, and given to Raymond Le Gros, an oflicer who was altogether as popular among tliem. Raymond Le Gros, per-^eivinjc how import- ant his support was to Strongbow, ventured to ask the hand of that nobleman's sister Basilia, a very beautiful woman, of whom Raymond had long been enamoured, but whom his comparatively humble fortune would probably never have allowed hiiu to IHB IBiaif, WIIB FBW BXCBFTIOMB, WKBB BTnANOBRS TO CIVILISATION. TBI VAFAL BULL, SBAIfTIMO imiLANS TO BBNkT, BIABI DATH 1174. ;;. '« M.f h^ ! ! i| * :, 638 ^^e ^rtasurfi of l^ifttorp, $(rc. seek in marriage, but for the adTentitiout importance into which he was litled by the mutinous spirit of the soldiery. Strong- bow was far too acute not to be well aware of the delicacy and even peril of his situa- tion, but he was as proud as he was brave, and without hesitation refused Raymond both the hand of the lady and constable- ship of Leinster, which he also demanded. Raymond immediately embarked, taking a considerable portion of the armv with him. Their departure was the signal for an im- mediate outbreak of the natives : while the English were so luuch weakened by the sud- den loss of so large a body, that Strongbow found it necesaarv to dispatch a messenger to Lc Gros, who had landed in Wales, pro- mising that his double demand should be immediately complied with if he would re- turn with the soldiers. He did so at a most critical moment ; arriving just in time to save the garrison of Waterford, of whom the Irish bad vowed not to spare a man. Le Gros received both his bride and his appointment, and then hurried to meet a vast force of Irish whom O'Connor was leading against Dublin. As usual, the superior arms and discipline of the Eng- lish overcame the tumultuous though brave multitudes of the Irish. Roderick sou{;ht safety in flight, and Raymond Le Gros in- dulged his victorious followers to the ut- most extent of their wishes in all the dis- orders of semi-barbarous warfare. Though defeated un this particular occasion, O'Con- nor was not subdued. Often routed, he as often gathered his wild followers to a head again, and his persevering and desultory attacks defied even the skill of the brilliant Le Gros. At length O'Connor entered into a new treaty, by which he cngae";d to hold his rightful dominions as the liege vassal of the king of England ; and in consider- ation of his having the chief sovereiguty of Ireland, exclusive of the English pale, — he undertook to secure the peaceable conduct of the other native princes, to whom Henry assured the possession and peaceful en- joyment of their respective territories on condition of their regular payment of tri- bute, consisting of a hide for every ten headof cattle slaughtered. Roderick O'Con- nor, therefore, was king, in vassalage to England, of all Ireland except the English £ale, which included Dublin, Waterford, einster, Meath, and the whole extent of country from Dungarvon to Waterford. A. D. 1175.— Strongbow died in 1175, leav- ing his daughter Isabel de Clare heiress to his immense wealth, with the exception of certain lands witli which he endowed the priory which, in compliance with the guaai devout spirit of the age, he had founded at Kilmainham. At the death of Strongbow a new gover- nor, Fitz-Adelm, went to Ireland. In his train was a knight, of no great previous notoriety, named De Courcy, who, in pur- suance of a singular fancy, lighted up the flames of war in a part of the country which amid all the recent bloodshed had remained at peace. I'ying towards Scotland, and beinK inhabited chieily by Scotsmen and ■hepnerds, the province of Ulster might have long remained unditturbed, but that a headstrong English knijght conceived the humane andworsbipfol plan of fulflUing an Irish prophecy, at no matter what expence of blood, Scotch, English, or Irish. The prophecy ran that Ulster should be con- quered bv a knight from over sea, riding on a white norce and bearing birdt upon his shield. De Courcy bad come from over ■ea, he epeedily provided himself with a white horse, and though hia thicld bore not birds but bees, yet as the latter as well at the former have wings, he was decidedly of opinion that he was tout d fait the very knight alluded to in the prophecy t And to this mere whim of a foreigner, who in more sober times would have been laughed at as a coxcomb, or shut up as a dangerous lunatic, the unhappy people of Ulster were to see homes and lives sacrificed ! In despite of the express prohibition of the governor, Fitz-Adelm, De Courcy mus- tered a numerous band of followers, and with pennant flying and trumpets sound- ing, galloped at day-break into the streets of Downpatrick, the capital of Ulster. The pope's legate, cardinal viviani, who Was in that province, endeavoured to dissuadle De Courcy fk-om violence; bat the cardinal's eloquence was powerless against the pro- phecy. The cardinal, then, becoming in- dignant at the senseless and unprincipled conduct of De Courcy, advised the king of Ulster, O'Neil, to oppose him in arms. In the first engagement O'Neil was defeated, but subsequently De Courcy, though gene- rally successful in pitched battles, was fre- quently reduced to great straits; and on one occasion he only escaped capture— which in his case would have been inevi- table death— by flying before his enemies for two days and nights, without other sus- tenance than water and wild berries. The petty and mischievous warfare which De Courcy had commenced in Ulster natu- rally led to similar disturbances in other parts. Fitz-Adelm, the governor, was de- tested ; and Henry imagining that a more popu'aur governor would perhaps succeed in restoring and preserving the peace of the country— a peace which was indispensable towards making the possession of the country a source of revenue to England- removed Fitz-Adelm, and gave his post to Hugh de Lacy, the lord of Meath, whom he instructed to take ell possible means to conciliate the natives, but at the same time to exert himself in the erection of castles sufficiently strong and advantageously situ- ated for the detence of the Eni^lish pale. Nor did the king's anxious efforts to secure the peace of Ireland stop even here. He applied to Rome for permission to crown his son prince John as king of Ireland, though of course in vassalage to England. The court of Rome, which, even onlv with reference to the Peter-pence, and still more with reference to future contingencies, had a deep stake in the tranquillity and pros- perity of Ireland, readily gave the permis- WHILB HKNRY WAS IN IRBLANO TUB NATIVB CUIBFS REMAIMBD CONTBNTRD. TBX CHOIICH Of ■O, IN 1«0»1I*I«BT, I» BRDICAMB 10 ST. LAWRKNCC o'TOOLE. illy by Scottmen and nee of UUter might indistarbed, but that knicht conceived the ol pliua of fulfilling ag matter what expence [Hah, or Irish. The later ahould be eon- »m oter aea, riding on aring birda upon his had come from over nded himself with a lugh hia ahicld bore t aa the lattfv &i well ngs, be was decidedly » tout d fait the very the prophecy ! And j a foreigner, who in ' Id have been laughed at up as a dangerous >eople of Ulster were sacrificed ! (press prohibition of :1m. Be Courcy mus- id of followers, and nd trumpeta sound. reak into the streets ipital of Ulster. The Viviani, who Was in lured to dissuade Oe but the cardinal's '*» against the pro- then, becoming in- :ss and unprincipled advised the king of j se him in arms. In | )'Neil was defeated, Durcy, though gene- led battles, was fre- eat atraita; andou escaped capture— 4 bave been inevi- before hia enemies without other sus- wild berries, ivous warfare which ned in Ulster natu- i turbancea in other i governor, was de- ' ;ining that a more ! perhaps succeed in t the peace of the ' was indispensable { possession of the inue to England— 1 gave his post to I of Meath, whom possible means to ' t at the same time ,' erection of castles I Ivantageoualy situ- i the English pale. ' 05 efforts to secure •p even here. He mission to crown king of Ireland, alage to England. :li, even only with nee, and still more :ontingencies, had iquillity and pros- gave the perniis- CORTBNTRD. ®!)e listorp of 3ErcIanB. 539 sion required. But, whether from already perceiving something of John's real na- ture, or from some other unexplained feel- ing, the king did not avail himself of it, but merely sent him over as lord of Ire- land, where the prince arrived in the year 1186. CHAPTER VIII. A. D. 1185.— Pbincb John was at this period about nineteen years of age. Arro- gant, heartless, and destitute even of the prudence which would have taught him to imitate the affability and kindliness of man- ner by which his father, during the whole of his stay in Ireland, had contrived to con- ciliate and even attach the tetchy but warm- hearted chieftains, John by his very first act disgusted those who approached him for the purpose of renewing their oath of allegiance to the Enitlish crown. The flow- ing yellow garments and the preposterously long hair and beards of the Irish, presented a very odd appearance, no doubt ; though, aa the Irish were a singularly well and powerfully made race, one would imagine that their peculiarities of costume tended to make their appearance imposing rather than ludicrous. But when they were in- troduced to prince John, who seems to have been surrounded chiefly by persons as young and as ignorant as himself, they were received with peals of intuiting laugh- ter, and some of the boy-courtiers are said to have even gone so far as to pull the bearda of these fiery and veteran warriors with every manifestation of contempt. The Irish nature was precisely such aa it would be far safer to injure than to insult. Burn- ing with rage, the chieftains departed from the prince's presence with the deepest de- termination to leave no effort untried to- wards shakiug off the English yoke. They who had been the most cordially and sin- cerely desirous to show themselves faithful to the absent king of England, now unhesi- tatingly joined those of their fellow-coun- trymen who were already in arms against him, and an insurrection of the most ex- tensive and terrilic description forthwith broke out. The English army, beaten at various points, was in a great measure de- stroyed, and the Irish even made them- selves a passage into the English pale, plundering and then burning many of the nouses and butchering many of the inhabi- tants. So extensive was this revolt, and so deadly the animosity that was felt towards prince John, that it is most likely Ireland would have been wholly lost to England, for a time at least, bad he longer continued in that island. Fortunately, however, gen- uine information, not always procurable by even the most powerful kings, reached the ears of Henry; and he instantly recalled his petulant and incapable son, and gave the government to De Courcy, earl of Ulster. He, probably, combining as he did both civil and military talents, and pos- sessing enormous property and proportion- ate influence in Ulster, was the fittest man then in Ireland to overcome the formidable difficulties and danger consequent upon prince John's absurd and most unjustiH- able conduct. Hugh de Lacy, who had formerly replaced Fitz-Adelin, would, in- deed, have been a still more efficient go- vernor than De Courcy, but he had recently been murdered in cold hlood, by an Iri»h labourer, wliile superintending the building of a castle in his lordship of Meath. De Courcy, well knowing the propensity of the Irish princes to make war upon each other, upon even the slightest provocation, so skilfully exerted himself to foment quar- rels among them, that he easily broke up their league; and, once separated from their common object, they weakened each other so far that he had but little difficulty in quelling their desultory and individual at- tacks upon the English. A. u. 1189.— Henry the Second, after a reign of tliirty-Ave years, the latter portion of which had been tormented by the un- natural misconduct of his sons, die on the 6th of July, 1 189, and was succeedet by the renownedking Richard the First. Attached, even to the verge of actual insanity, to warfare, Richard was more anxious to hum- ble France or to lead an army against the fur distant hosts of Heathenesse, than to improve a conquest that was already made in his own immediate neighbourhood. He left Ireland wholly unnoticed : yet it was in his reign that the final annexation of Ire- land to the English crown may in some sort be said to have taken place: as in the year 1198 Roderick O'Connor, the last na- tive king of Ireland, expired in the monas- tery in which for thirteen years he had lived in peace while so much of strife and misery pervaded his country. But in his retirement he was far more useful to his country than its kings usually were. As he was the last Irish king, so was he the first of them who had the sagacity to perceive that the great source of Irish weakness and Irish misery was ignorance. Though mo- nasteries and their inhabitants existed in very evil abundance, the great mass of the people were in the most deplorable state of ignorance. Roderick O'Connor exerted himself to establish schools, especially in Armagh ; and by that wise act deserved an admiration vhich, unfortunately, the world is far more willing to bestow upon the brilliant but destructive career of the king who leads in war, than upon that of him who points the road to civilization and con- sequent happiness. De Courcy, by nature bold, restless, and ambitious, availed himself of the neglect shown to Ireland by Richard, and made war and took spoil at his own pleasure; and when, in 1J99, John succeeded to Richard, De Courcy had the boldness to refuse to acknowledge him as his sovereign. As the matter really stood between John and his nephew, Arthur of Brittany, his claim certainly was open to reasonable question. But powerful as De Courcy was in Ireland and against Irish chieftains, he soon discovered that he had overshot his o'TOOLI WAS 0CCA8I0IfAI.LT AMBAIIAOOB TO TUB OOUKT OF BNOLAMD. 'irf J! ik^i ^ Tm VIUDAL AUTHOEITf WAI HOW BXBkCiaail BT BABONI VBOM KNaiANB. 640 Vl\)t treasury of l^istory, $cc. mark in venturinic to beard the king of Bngland, eveu in the perion of ao every way contemptible a man aa John waa. De Courcy, in the life time of Richard had given great offence to prince John by the utter contempt with which he had treated all the prince'a orderi having relation to Ireland ; and John, now that he had come to the throne, reiolved to curb the proud vaiBal. De Courcy was accordingly arreit- ed and sent to England. How or when he died ia not accurately known, but it ia cer- tain that he was never allowed to return to hia Irish poaaeasiona ; and even liia lordahip of Ulater waa tnkeu from him and beatowed upon Hugh, the aon of Hugh de Lacy, the murdered governor. Though anything but warlike in diapoai- tion, John made au expedition to Ireland; leas, it would aeem, for the aake of putting an end to the diaordera which exiated there, than aa an ezcuae for leaving England while the minda of hia aubjecta were alarmed and irritated by the tremendoua effecta of the papal interdict. Attended by a powerful army, he was apeedily waited upon at Dub- lin by twenty of the moat powerful chief- taina, who did homage ana took an oath of allegiance. Anxioua now to conciliate, as formerly he had been hasty to offend, he made many preaenta among them ; and we may take it aa a sure proof that these brave chieftains were even yet not far removed from barbarism, when we learn that of all the preaenta he made them, they were by far the moat delighted with a quantity of scarlet cloth. The reader of Engliah hiatory ia aware of the important law regnlationa which were made in England durmg the reign of John ; all chuae regulations were equally extended to Ireland, as were the proviaiona of that freat political blessing — magna charta. iKt, unfortunately, these benefits, though tUey were actually conferred upon all, were eujoyed only by the Engliah, in Ireland; !Ue turbulence, the ignorance, and the in- domitable prejudicea of the dwellers beyond the Engliah pale, making them look with mingled deteatation and contempt upon all liberty and enjoyment procured otherwise than by force of arms. Where the barona from England subdued tracta of country and subjected the iubabitanta to the feudal law, those inhabitants undoubtedly enjoyed the same imperfect and restricted liberty as Englishmen of the same rank ; and no- thing cat': be more groasly unjust and un- true than to represent aa a consequence of English partiality, that difference between the people which really arose from the wild and ignorant, though not altogether unge- nerous, fierceneas and turbulence of the Iriah themcelvea. A.D. 1216.— John, whose attention to Ire- land waa but temporary, was now succeeded by Henry III. The long reign of this prince extended to fifty-six years ; and the weak- ness of his character, especially, unfitting him to contend with the bold, able, and rest- less baronK of his time, made the struggles of England more than enough to employ him ; and Ireland waa conaequently left to be acourged by the cunatant wara between the Iriah people and their English rulers, the latter of whom atill farther increaaed the confusion of that unhappy couutry by fierce and frequent conteata among them- aelvea. Mow deaperate the condition of the country had i\. length become, may be in- ferred froiu tt petition of the Iriah people to Edward I., in which thejr implored him to compel the barona to adminiater the lawa equally whether to Engliah or Iriah vassals of hia majeaty, and to compel the extension of all English lawa and customa to the whole Irish people. Utterly heedless, u would seem, of the fact that, aa far aa decree could avail, al) this had been done iu the reign of John, and that it was the Irish people themaelvea who had prevented prac- tice from being aaaimilated to thaory ; yet at the aanie time painfully sensible of the existing evils, though blind to iheir real causes, they offered to pay the sum of eight thouaand marka to the king aa the price of hia rendering them this great and necea- aary service. He made an order accord- ingly ; but the order of the great Edward was as ineffectual aa that of the mean John, when oppoaed to the habita and prrjudices of a people at once brave, reatleaa, and igno- rant, living in a state of aociety ao provoca- tive of injuatice and tyranny aa that of the feudal ayatem. The long war in which Edward I. waa en- gaged with Scotland compelled him to sum- mon his barons from Ireland, and during their absence the natives made frequent and very destructive attacks upon the Eng- lish pale. The death of Edward enabled the celebrated Bobert Bruce to aeat himself firmly upon the throne of Scotland. Know- ing how ardently the Iriah deaired to throw off the English /oke, and judging how im- Sortantly useful he could make them in iverting the attacks of the Engliah from Scotland, king Robert Bruce in the year after hia acceasion to the Scottish throne, (1315) sent hia brother Edward Bruce into Ireland with fv Vrell equipped army of fiOOO men. He waa received with open arms as deliverer, and took upon himself the title of king. Hia brother soon afterwarda landed in Ireland with a still more powerful army. But just at this time there waa an absolute famine in both England and Ireland ; and the latter covntry, suffering under the ef- fecta of long civil war as well as of the bad season, was still more terribly destitute than the former. The most splendid successes of war could avail nothing against famine. Reduced to feed upon the horses as tliey died of actual hunger, the soldiers of Bruce perished in awful numbers, and he at length returned to Scotland, leaving his brother to contest his usurped crown with the Eng- lish or abandon it, as he might lee lit. Ed- ward Bruce, who was to the full as cruel as he was brave, bore up with a most constunt spirit against all diltlcultiea. But thuugli he had much auccess in the livid, and made terrible cxamplea of ths vanquislied, he found it utterly impossible to drive the TBI IRISH CLEBOT STILIi PBBSBBVBD UVCB Of TUBIR FOUMKB FOWKA. !«• VBOM XNSLAIIB. cc. 1 WM consequently left to le constant wars between and their English rulers, >m still farther increased that unhappy couutry by Dt contests among them- lerate the condition of the tuKth become, may be in- tition of the Irish people which they implored him mat to administer the laws to English or Irish vassals id to compel the extensiou aws and customs to the iple. Utterly heedless, it le fact that, as far as decree ;his had been done iu the ind that it was the Irish !S who had prevented prac- assimilated to theory ; yet e painfully sensible of the hough blind to iheir real red to pay the sum of eight to the king as the price of em this great and necea- le made an order accord- )rder of the great Edward 1 as that of the mean John, I the habits and pffjudices ce brave, restless, aba if(no- state of society so provoca- and tyranny as that of the In which Edward I. was en- land compelled him to sum- from Ireland, and during he natives made frequent :tive attacks upon the Eng- eath of Edward enabled the ert Bruce to seat himself throne of Scotland. Know- y the Irish desired to throw /oke, and judging how im- l' he could make them in :tacks of the English from Robert Bruce in the year ion to the Scottish throne, brother Edward Bruce into well equipped army of GOOD received with open arms as >ok upon himself the title of her soon afterwards landed a still more powerful army. time there was an absolute England and Ireland; and try, suffering under the ef- i\\ war a« well as of the bad 1 more terribly destitute than he most splendid successes 'ail nothing ag:ainst famine. d upon the horses as they lunger, the soldiers of Bruce 111 numbers, and he at length itland, leaving his brother to irpcd crown with the Erji?- i it, as he might lee lit . Ed- lo was to the full as cruel as lore up with a most constant M difficulties. But though success in the Held, anil ixamples of the vanquished, erly impossible to drive the RIB FOBMKB POWKB. MANf KNOLISU WARRIOBI WRBR BKWABDRO WITH LANDS ANU IRISH TITLRS. ^\m ^\)t ir^istoro of ]£relantf. 541 English from their strong holds. The Irish were, indeed, for the most part very favour- able to hira ; but if they hated the English much, they hated each other still inure, and, at usual, their mutual strife rendered it im- possible that they could constantly and cordially co-operate even for a purpose and a cause which they all had strongly at heart. A. D. 1.318.— Under such circumstances, it is most likely that Edward Bruce would at length have seen that the conquest of Ire- land from such a people as the English was a project too vast for Scotland, even with the mighty Robert Bnicc for her king. But ere he had yet made up his mind to abandon his usurped royalty and return to Scotland, he was encountered at Dundalk by the English army, under the lord Ber- niingbam. Edward Bruce on this import- ant dav performed the part of a good gene- ral and 'a stout soldier; but all his clforts were in vain, and he fell upon the field of battle while making efforts to rallv a por- tion of his routed and dispirited force Conspicuous by his arms and ornament he was marked out by an English knight, sir John Maupas. Holding Edward Bruce in especial detestation, and lirmly believing his death to be in every way deserved and desirable, be vowed himself, after the cus- tom of the age, to destroying him. Accord- ingly, though Edward was zealously de- fended by his friends and attendants, sir John succeeded in reaching him ; and after the battle their dead bodies were found still grasping each other in the death gripe. Rarely, if ever, in modern wartarc will an instance be found, where personal feelings are so linked with patriotic zenl I Knowing what we do of the turbulence of the barons wherever the feudal law pre- vailed, how difflcult the firmest and ablest kings found it to curb them, and how much they eccroached upon the kingly authority even in the king's immediate vicinage, we have no room to doubt that the English barons in Ireland made their vassals, whe- ther Irish or Englisli by birth, feel the full weight of their feudal chains. Removed as they were from the check of the king's per- sonal presence, and living in a country in which civil strife was not the mere excep- tion but the general, almost the universal rule, it would have been strange indeed if those barons had been less tyrannous than the men of their order who lived under cir- cumstances less provocative of the evil im- pulses of our nature. Bat though the his- torian would sadly mistake his vocation who should represent the conduct of the English nobles in Ireland as being free from all spot and exception; though the very nature of the feudal tenure was pro- vocative of wrong doing ; yet, it behoves us, on the other hand, not to attribute to one cause, however open to censure in its own nature, evils which did not spring from it. And it is abundantly evident, that after making the fullest allowance for the evils which Ireland, in common with other coun- tries, must of necessity have owed to the abuses of the feudal system, the chief and the abiding cause of Irish misery '^.,s the inherent disordcrliness of the Irish charac- ter. The clergy, for instance, both Eng- lish and Irish, maintained their place and privileges against even the boldest and most unprincipled of the nobles; but did the clergy of Ireland act as a united body ? So far from doing so, the Irish clergy and the clergy of the English pale were at deadly feud. No English monk was al- lowed to enter an Irish monastery ; and the monasteries of the English pale were hope- lessly inaccessible to the native Irish monk. When we see that even the common bond of spiritual and temporal interest could nut induce the clergy to lay aside their animo- sities, we need not marvel that the best attempts at causing a general union uf the people failed, and that perpetual revolts, sometimes justified by tyrannous practices, and sometimes the mere flush and out- break of fierv and turbulent spirits, at th tired the conquerors of their vain nps to live in peace and unity with the .1 luercd. liJward III., who did so much towards improving the laws and raising the trade of England, was equally desirous to render the same service to Ireland. Clearly per- ceiving 'hat it was next to impossible to obtain the exact obedience of the barons whose lands lay in Ireland; and, at tlio same time, very desirous to prevent the Irish people from being oppressed; he threw, as far as possible, the government of Ireland into the hands of nobles whose property lay in England, and for whose obedience and good conduct they conse- quently had some security. But this really excellent stroke of policy and humanity was made too late to have the effect it would have had at an earlier date. A.D.I 361 .—Lionel, duke of Clarence, was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the year 1361 ; and he evidently went there with the most sincere desire to give effect to his royal father's benevolent wishes for the people's welfare. But the animosities which had been so many years increasing were now beyond the possibility of a speedy re. medy. Such was the hostility between the t\yo races, that under the governorship of Lionel, it was found absolutely requisite to pass the stringent regulations known to lawyers as the statute of Kilkenny. Hi- therto, even under the arbitrary John, at- tempts had been made to govern Ireland rather by affection than by severity, and the law left it quite open to the two races to become, in the course of time, amalga- mated by marriage and friendship. But by this statute, which seems really to have been called for by the danger of the Eng- lish, and by the exceeding rancour of the Irish, the latter were at length treated fornially, and by the express sanction of the law, as a conquered, inferior, and dan- gerous people. Marriage with the Irish \va8 forbidden under the heaviest penal- ties ; the nursing of English infants by Irish women wac discountenanced, and severe punishments were allotted to the M H a f o a n M H f m O Pa t! M M M n f M K n u •« H n n SOME MAXUFaCTOBIBS OP WOOLIBN STUFFS ESTABLISHED IN IBBI.AND. [3^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. 1.0 I.I li^liil IIIII2.5 li: lis llll|^ 1.8 1-25 ||.4 1.6 ■« 6" ► V] <^ /a 4» ? Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ast accessible spots id mountains. But it upon avenging the to listen to those who lulty of following the treats. Burning tlie It he marched along, • sufferings and com- ■rs, who often floun- rous soil of the boRS, lielpless marks for the their enemies, he fol- i I so closely, that the | I gladly submitted on ] jccived into the king's emnity for the past. , lineKl descendant of misconduct had first nto Ireland, held out that neither fear nor iduce him to submit, land was not, however, by a chieftain so com- , and Macmorrogh at real with the earl of len the meeting took tain was so enraged at e insulting terms pro- e angrily broke up tlie ok himself to his savage i than ever to submis- lan ever in a condition nanent or effective war. I very large reward for lorrogh, living ot dead ; his time, taken place m muelled him to forego 1 the haughty and hnlt for the earl of Lancas- tly dethroned Uieliard, under the title of Hen- in England, and been the most powerful ot ,n army of nearly sixty chard was consequently a whatever projects he ftnd no leisure to attend sland, though many and were sent to hiin ; and of his reign the tucbu- chieftains, and the cupi- I of the English antlip- Bountry a ecene ot wild BOWl AND ABKOWa WKBB BBOUOHT tO IBBLAND BT BNSLiaH M^BCHANTI. tirt^e IlijStotQ of SrelanU. 543 a r. M H M ■< f a " I 5 I S ! <« ! s! •a o a disorder and wretchedness i in which con- dition it remained from the close of the fourteenth century to the accession of HeDry VII. of England. During this long period of four-score years, the whole his- tory of Ireland may he written in two words, itrife and mUery ; and to enter into an; detail would be merely to wearv the reader with a monotonous recital of all the wrong that disgraces abused might, and dl the misery that degrades while it tor- tures trampled weakness. CHAPTER IX. ' A. D. 148fi.— As though Ireland had not already suffered sufficiently from wars, re> volts, and their inevitable results, the ac- cession to the throne of England of one of its most solidly wise and peace loving kings, Henry VII., was the signal for more Irish disturbance. Hitherto the unhappy people had at least fought about their own affairs ; hut now they were involved in the cause of a low-boru boy, a silly impostor, and the mere tool of a more knavish one. The his- tory of the equally impudent and unsuc- cessful attempt of the priest Simon to palm a in«an youtli, named Lambert Sininel, upovi the people as the earl of Warwick, the uephew of Edward IV., and heir to the throne of England, we gave in detail under the history of that country. But it is ne- cessary that we speak of it here, inasmuch as that gross imposture became a cause of vei'y considerable suffering to the Irish. Richard Simon, a priest living in Oxford, was undoubtedly the chief and direct in- structor of the young impostor, Lambert Simnel ; but considering the mode in which the king had arrived at his royal dignity, and considering the number, rank and tem- per of his enemies, nnd especially consider- ing the character of the dowager queen, there is but little reason to doubt that Simon was himself a mere tool in the hands of persons far higher in rank. Though, by whatever means procured, young iSimiiel was well furnished with information of the circumstances connected with the royal fa- milv ; and though, consequently, it might fairly be expected that all examination of his own storv by those who also had means of knowing those circumstances, would but tend to strengthen his cause, his tutor judged it best to let him make his first essay at imposture at a distance from the court. Both for the sake of its ignorance and its propensity to fighting for any or for no cause, Ireland was judged to be the fit- test scene for the first attempt ; especially as many of the Irish were fondly attached to the cause of the house of York, of which it was pretended that the young impostor was a scion, and were still more especially attached to his alleged parent, the duke of Clarence, who, as lord-lieutenant of Ireland, had been a very general favourite. All these circumstances induced the friends and ad- visers of Simnel to take him to Ireland, and his reception there fully answered their most languine expectations. The lord- deputv of Ireland, Thomas Fitsgerald, ear of Kildare, received the impostor's story without suspicion or hesitation, the people followed the example of the court, and the impudent son of a poor baker was actually crowned,— the crown being taken 'or that fmrpose from an image of the virgin — odged iu Dublin castle with all regal ho- nours, and received throughout Ireland, under the title of king Edward VI. without a word said, or a blow stricken in defence of king Henry VII. Much as we know of the ignorance that pervaded the great mass of the people pre- vious to the general diffusion of informa- tion by means of the press, the success, however temporary, of tnis most impudent impostor, is marvellous even as regards the common people ; and as regards the higher order of his adherents, it requires no small exertion of charitable judgment to acquit them of having feigned credulity, in order to play off a low-bom imimstor against their king, in hatred of that kin^a talents, firm- ness, economy, and love ot peace. For, in the first place, had the person to whose tale such extraordinary credence was yielded been the actual earl of Warwick, he would, even setting all the claims of Henry, the de facto king, aside, have had no title until after the daughters of Edward IV. And, in the next place, Henry Vll.iuWith the prudence which characterised nis whole life, no sooner heard of the pretensions of Simnel, than he put all douot out of the question, and rendered all disputation upon the subject utterly ridiculous, by causing the real earl of Warwick to be taken from his confinement in the Tower of London, and exhibited to the popuiace in the most public manner at Paul's cross. Margaret cf Burgundy, however, affecting to believe the absurd tale, got together two thousand German troops, under the command of an able and enterprising officer named Swarts, and sent them to Ireland. The arrival of such a force, sent, too, by a person of such influence as the duchess dowager of Bur- gundy, raised the Irish enthusiasm to the highest pitch. Too poor to be able much longer to support the pretender and his numerous followers, the Irish now be- came eager to be led to the support of his claims in England, where, moreover, it may fairly be presumed that they hoped to profit largely in the way of plunder, even should they not succeed in dethron- ing Henry. That shrewd and sensible mo- narch had, however, wisely contented him- self with convincing his English subjects of Simnel's imposture, and thus preparing them to give him a cold or hostile recep- tion should he attempt to leave Ireland for England. It is singular to reflect what might have been the consequence to both Simnel and Ireland had the impostor thoroughly under- stood the views of the wary Henry, and availed himself of them. Henry, content with exposing the imposture in England, would scarcely, so cautious was he and so little was Ireland directly profitable to the MOBB ATTBMFIS WXBB MADB TO COBVCB THAN 10 CONCILIATB THB IBIIH- TUB 8TATUTBI OV KILKaNMV WIM BBNCBFORTB OBAOUALLT MOOItlBO. -!>' ' 544 Vl\)t ^reasur]) of l^istory, $cc. English crowA^ have taken the trouble or run the risk of going thither, in which caie Simnel might have usurped Ireland, and in the distracted state of England at the death of Edward VI. the credulous English mi^ht hav* taken the son or grandson of the Irish usurper for the true heir to the English throne, in preference alike to the lady Jane Grey and the lady Mary — especially as the legitimacy of the' latter could be so plausi- bly called in question. But in political ad- venture as in landscapes, " 'tis distance lends enchantment to the view ;" and Sim- nel, intoxicated with the honours which art in some and credulity in others caused him to receive in Ireland, was easily in- duced to believe that his cause and name were equally popular in England ; and, in the full pet-suasion that he had only to show himself in order to secure English support to his cause, he actually disem- barked his Germans and a host of the wild- est of the kerne, as the native Irish war- riors of that day were called, at Foudrey, in Lancashire. This was precisely what the king desired. He had completely des- troyed the pretender's character in Eng- land by the simple but irrefragable ' evi- dence of the real and living earl of War- wick, and having thus rendered it next to impossible for the pretender to excite Eng- lish syniiuithy, he marched against him. The hostile forces met in Nottinghamshire, and near Stoke in that county a most san- guinary action was fought. The impostor was completely defeated, and both he and his tutor were taken prisoners. The Irish, who fought with even more than their ac- customed bravery, suffered dreadfully in this engagement. Ill provided with offensive weapons, they were altogether destitute of defensive armour; and consequently re- ceived the most ghastly and fatal wounds. Rushing, half naked, upon the cool and well-protected soldierv of England, they saw their ranks awfully thinned at every charge, and when the battle was over but comparatively few of them remained alive. With the capture of Simnel the king's anger ended. He immediately dispatched sir Richard Edgecombe with a full and free pardon to all m Ireland who had abetted or aided the impostor, and with authority and commandment to take their renewed oaths of allegiance. To Thomas, earl of Kildare, he sent, with the letter contain- ing his pardon, a splendid ^old chain ; and shortly afterwards the principal lords of Ireland were summoned to wait upon the king at his palace at Greenwich, ostensibly for the purpose of doing homage and tak- ing oaths of allegiance to him in person, as they already had done to his confidential representative. But the ever-politic king had a deeper design ; that of making the Irish lords so ashamed of the impostor to whose designs they had so foolishly lent themselves, that they should be for ever after little disposed to countenance similar adventurers. And, accordingly, at a grand banquet to which they were invited, they had the surprise and mortification to find omong the liveried menials who waited upon them, that identical Simnel whom a short time previous they had crowned as their kin^— and crowned, too, with a dia- dem sacrilegiously taken from the head of an image of the Virgin ! While a portion of the Irish were as foolishly as hardily throwing away their lives in England in support of Simnel, the Irish at home were fighting furiously among themselves. Bad as the situation of Ireland generidly was, it was just now even worse than usual. The continual wars which were carried on by the Irish chief- tains against each other and against the lords of the English pale, had thrown all the country beyond the then very narrow limits of that pale completely back into its primeval barbarism. Their huts, where they had them, were dreadfully mean, squa- lid, and unwholesome ; thousands of them had no shelter but the woods and the mountain caves, and for the most part they lived like the nomade tribes of the east, shifting from place to place with their flocks and herds for the sake of pasturage, and neither practising nor profiting by the cultivation of their singularly fei-tilc country. ' Partly, perhaps, because he deemed that the mere existence of such a state of things proved the negligence or the incompetency of the earl of Kildare, and partly from in- formation that another conspiracy was on foot, and that the earl was concerned in it, the king dismissed that nobleman from his oflSce of lord-deputy of Ireland. Incensed at this disgrace and deprivation, Kildare leagued with O'Donucll, O'Neill, and other Irish chieftains, and all the horrors of war were again inflicted with increased se- verity. The English pale was invaded and ravaged; and the sufferers, in revenge, made incursions upon the neighbouring country ; each party vied with the other in ferocity and injustice ; and, such was the strange and fearful lot of Ireland, the pru- dent and just precaution of the most peace- loving of English kings caused all the worst horrors of civil war to rage with tenfold violence throughout Ireland. It seems to be a law as invariable as any physical law of nature, that evil deed shall be an evil seed ; in other words, that in addition to the present evil which results from crime or folly, some future crime or folly shall result immediately from the one and mediately from the other. Ireland, poor, half barbarous, and distant, would have been but little likely to have been dragged into the seditions of the enemies of Henry VII. if that same country had not also been desperate and turbulent. But its known propensity to turbulence and blood- shed, the ready credulity with which it had listened to Simnel, and the at once igno- rant and faithful ferocity with which its thousands had perilled life and limb in that impostor's cause, could not fail to point it out to any new adventurer of the same stamp, as a sure refuge and nursery of his embryo conspiracy. Accordingly, that Fer- XILDARB OOTBRNBD IBBTiAHD MORB MKB A KINO THAN A TICBROT. MomriBo. ;nial» who waited lal Simnel whom a ' had crowned as , too, with a dia- froin the head of A TBIBVTB CAILBS " BMCK ABNT," WAS 8TILL PAID CO lOMB IBISH CHIBrS. ^I^e T^iatory of Scclantf. 545 kin AVarbeclc, of whom we have had occa- sion to speak at length under the head of England, chose Ireland as the abiding- place of his designs upon the English crown. He landed at Cork, and was re- ceived there with a warmth and credulity even superior to ^hose which had been be- stowed upon Simnel. Pretending to be Richard Plantagenet, one of those young princes who were murdered by Richard III. in the Tower of London, he had no sooner landed in Ireland than he sent out his false missives in every direction ; especially di- recting his attention to Desmond and Kil- dare, as knowing them to be beforehand inclined to treasonable practices against their sovereign. Fortunately for the usu- ally unfortunate Irish people, the infatu- ation in favour of this pretender reached France, and was still stronger there than in Ireland, and Warbeck accepted an invi> tation to the former country. But Henry VII., who, though he loved peace and preferred the amassing of money to the showy but empty glories of the mere conqueror, was, nevertheless, very capable of exerting real vigour upon real and solid occasion, now cauie to the conclusiuD that the existing state of things in Ireland was far too favourable to the enemies of his throne ; and he at once determined to make such alterations as would prevent that island from being so convenient a re- fuge and recruiting place for pretenders and their traitorous friends. It is a sin- gular fact that Ireland, overrun and terri- bly injured by her own native factions, was at this time an avowed and permitted sanc- tuary to evil doers. He who Imd committed in England an offence by which he hadfor- feited bis life or liberty, had only to escape from Errland into Ireland, and no man could touch him. This right of sanctuary was first formally recognized by Richard, duke of York— father of Edward IV.— dur- ing his governorship of Ireland, but for its actual origin we must look to the numerous monastic houses there. Henry VII. per- ceiving the immense and pernicious advan- tages which the worst enemies of England derived from this Irish right of sanctuary, very wisely determined to abolish it ; and he entrusted this and some other important reforms to a man of considerable talent and still more energy, sir Edward Poyn- ings, whose able and firm conduct caused his name to be given to the important regu- lations known to lawyers under the name of'Poyning's law," which struck at the very root of Irish sedition and turbulence, by taking away from the lords, parliament, and all other authorities in Ireland, the power of giving force and validity to any law until it should have been considered and sanctioned by the king of England. Sir Edward Poyning at the same time re- vived, as far as practicable, the celebrated statute of Kilkenny, and did much towards rendering the lords of the English pale less powerful, bath as to wantonly oppressing the Irish, and as to carrying on with im- punitv their rebellious and traitorous prac- tices against the king of England. Per- haps the most important act performsd by sir Edward Poyning towards discounte- nancing the disorderly conduct of the lords of the pale, was his arresting and sending Srisoner to England the celebrated earl of jldare. The earl, however, was in no real danger. In this, as in not a few other cases, Henry VII. carried his usually praise- worthy temporising and peaceable policy too far, ana allowed an exceedingly doll joke of the earl's to serve as an excuse not merely for pardoning him, but even for re- appointing bim to the daiiKerously power- ful office for which he had anownhunaelf so singularly unfit. A.S. 1497.— Warned by his narrow escape, the earl of Kildare seems henceforward to have conducted himself with considerable discretion. Perkin Warbeck, aided by hia French friends, having made an attempt upon England, was signally disapi>ointed by the loyal men of Kent. TheV invited him to laud, intending to seize nim, but the pretender was too experienced a cheat to fall into the snare, and the result fully justified his caution. Those of hia adher- ents who had landed were either alain or made prisoners ; and Warbeck, unaware or neglectful of the alteration in the temper and opportunities of Ireland that had been wrought by Poyning's law, proceeded thither. But though on landing at Cork he was well received by the mayor of that place, and also by the factious earl of Des- mond, he speedily found it necessary to de- part for Scotland, where he had a most credulous and fast friend in James IV., who protected and honoured him to the utmost, and even went so far as to give him the hand of his owu relative the lovely Catherine Gordou, daughter of the earl of Huntley, who, to the honour of Henry VII. be it said, was must kindly and hospitably treated after the fall and execution of her husband. This short stay of Warbeck in Ireland was, thanks to the good order es- tablished by Poyning, productive of no general injury ; the mayor of Cork, who was subsequently executed for his treasonable concert with the pretender, being the chief sufferer. A. D. 153 /.—The earl of Kildare had now for some time been in a sort of honourable impriso'iraent in England; cardinal Wol- sey, th J able minister of Henry VIII., hav- ing decidedly, and very wisely, objected to allowing that nobleman's use or abuse of his immense power in Ireland to depend upon his more or less lively recollection of the narrow escape his father had formerly had; and the cardinal had an additional reason to doubt the loyalty and faith of the young earl, from the fact of his being very closely allied with the notoriously sediti- ous and powerful chieftains of the septs O'Carrol and O'Connor. During Kildare's enforced absence he left all his interests and influence in the hands of his son, lord Tliomns Fitzgerald, who was then barely twenty-one yeurs of age. The usual feuds were rife in Ireland, riCBBOT. TBI SBIONOBT or THB BRITISH CBOWN WAR IfOW VOBMAILV CLAIMBD. [3^3 :t Tns STILV ov "lord ov ibbland" was mow cbaiioko tu " Kxne. H ">^\ 'M: fi -', ;• fit H ^ V; I 546 ^^e ^reasuru of l^istoin, $cc. and the usual suffering and desperation existed ; and the immense estates of Kil- dare would, consequently, have tasked the whole of even his great and practised ta- lents for their defence against open enmitjr, or the still more dangerous arts of pre- tended friendship. It is not surprising that, under such circumstances, so very young a man as the lord Thomas Fitzgerald should fall into the snare that was laid for him by his father's enemies. They, in or- der to involve him with the English go- vernment, caused it to be reported to him, that his father had been put to death in England, and that orders had been actually issued for his own arrest and that of other members of his family. Hot-headed, and, to say the truth, partly justitied by the pro- babilities of the case, the young man as- sembled his armed followers and gallopped off to Dublin, where he scornfully threw down his father's state sword, and made a solemn renunciation, in both his own and his father's name, of all allegiance and re- spect to the English crown. It was to no purpose that the chancellor, one of the few real friends in Ireland of the Fitzgerald familv, implored the enthusiastic and de- ceived young man not to commit himself too hastily and too fac. The mere rhymed follies of an Irish bard were, with this hot* headed and most ill-advised voung noble- man, sufBcieut to counterbalance all the wisdom of a grave and really honest coun- sellor. He collected all the friends and stores he could command ; and though the plague was then raging in Dublin, he pro- ceeded to invest that citv. Knowing that he had many friends, he sent proposi- tions to the principal citizens, assuring the safety of the city itself, provided that they would aid him in laying siege to the castle. Alarmed for their own property and safety, the citizens consented to these terms ; and the lord Thomas accordingly attacked the castle. The archbishop, — who also had friends proof to the ordinary temptations which make men traitors, — contrived to get on board rhip, and would most probably have escaped, but for the circumstance of the vessel in which he had embarked going ashore in a gale of wind at Clontarf. The unfortunate prelate got safely to land, but was seized by the adherents of Fitzgerald ; and to the eternal disgrace of that person- age, who actually witnessed the execution of his own most unjust as well as impolitic command, was immediately put to death. After this disgraceful murder, lord Thomas left a part of his army in blockade of the castle, and led the remainder into Kilkenny to invade the property of the earl of Ossory, to whom he had previously sent an offer of alliance. The earl, far n-ore honest than was the wont of the Irish nobles of that time, sternly refused the offer that was thus craftily made to him in the double character of threat and promise. His loyal conduct was most providentially rewarded by a sudden change of determination on the part of the citizens of Dublin, who refused to allow the siege of the castle to be car- ried on any farther. They employed scouts to spread a report that troops had arrived from England; and so implicitly did the people believe it, that they boldly threw open the castle gates, and sallied out with so much fury upon the domestic enemy, that they completely put them to the rout. Lord Thomas, who on learning the change that bad taken place in the determination of the people of Dublin, had hastened back, was wholly unable to restrain the panic among his men, and was himself fain to take refuge in a monastery for the night. On the following day, being secure in his camp, he proposed terms ; but as he re- fused to give up the children of several leading citizens of Dublin unless he were first assured of the king's pardon— an as- surance which the citizens of course were ttuable to give him— the treaty came to nothing, and a terrible civil war ensued, the horrors of which were aggravated b^ a pestilence which, originating in Dublin, spread itself thence through the whole country. A. D. 1535.— Lord Leonard Grey, newly appointed to the government of Ireland, displayed considerable talent in the course of this terrible strife ; and after upwards ^f six months of hard fighting he obliged lord Thomas to surrender. He and five of his uncles, who had been as deeply concerned as himself, were sent to London as pri- soners and there executed. Henry VIII. was the more enraged by the extent and continuance of this rebellion, because it put a stop to the efforts he was just then making to carry into the religion of Ireland the same reformation he had brought about in England. As soon as the rebeUion was surpressed, Henry renewed his endeavours to that end; and so evident an evil was the multitude of monastic houses in Ireland, that the archbishop of Dublin was the very first person to fall in with the king's design. By that prelate's advice the Irish parliament was called to- gether, and an act was forthwith passed for transferring to the crown the first fruits and other spiritual dues which hitherto had been paid to the pope. This politic step was soon after followed up by the issuing of a commission, similar to that which had existed in England, for suppressing the monasteries. Unquestionably good and necessary as this measure was in itself, it was carried into effect without a sufficient regard to considerations of political econ- omy, or even of ordinary humanity. The very enormousness of the evil required that the remedy should be applied with all the greater prudence. Almost destitute as Ire- land was at this time of manufactures and commerce, the suddenly turning 'af;ed to such an extent as almost to depopulate Munster. Raleigh and other Englishmen got grants of the land that was thus left untenanted; up- wards of forty new lordships being distri- bute i, at almost nominal rents, upon the condition of settling English families. This, however, could only be partially done, for we have not a greater horror of the most savage desarts of Africa at the present day than the generality of Englishmen then had of that poor and turbulent Ireland, of whose misery and barbarous cruelty they heard so much. Irish tenants, therefore, were, in many cases, accepted by the new owners of the soil. We have mentioned among these new owners the celebrated sir Walter Raleigh ; and to the accident of his obtaining a grant Ireland owes the introduction of her staple food, potatoes, which he first brought into that country from Spanish America. He also introduced the cultivation of tobacco,, but the climate of Ireland— more moist even than England —prevented the quality from being good, or the crop from being even moderately safe, and, ezcenting as a matter of curiosity, it is now but little grown there. But, by introducing the potato, Raleigh conferred a real and permanent benetit upon that country. Hugh O'Neill, who had received much kindness from queen Elizabeth, by whom he had been created earl of Tyrone, and to whom he was indebted for the restoration of a very considerable part of the earldom, which had been forfeited to the crown by the treason of his uncle Shane O'Neill, was for some time one of the most loyal of the queen's nobles in Ireland. It chanced, however, that when the great and providen- tial tempest dispersed that armada which Philip of Spain and the pope had presump- tuously named the "invincible," some of the vessels composing it were wrecked upon the coast of Ireland. Tyrone, whose art had not so completely concealed his real feelings as to cause his loyalty to be wholly unsuspected, behaved with so much cordiality to the shipwrecked Spaniards, as to give an opportunity to his cousin, a son of Shane O'Neill, to accuse him of treason- able correspondence with Spain. All the long suppressed violence of the earl's na- ture now burst fiercely forth, and with a violence which give ample occasion to be- lieve that the real sting of the charge lay in its truth. Having, for many years, been favoured and distinguished by the queen, in whose service he had in his youth norne arms against the earl of Desmond, had he really been innocent, and indignant at the impeachment of his loyalty, it is quite ob- vious that he could have had no difficulty in obtaining an opportunity to clear him- self in the eyes of her mtgesty. But instead of taking this safe and straight-forward coursa, he caused his cousin to be seized and pat to death ; and having thus, by an inhuman and gratuitous crime put himself out of the queen's peace, he impudently set himself up as the patriotic enemv of that queen, to whose favour he owed all that he possessed, levving war under the pretence of patriotism ; but, in reality, to save him- self from the deserved penalty of murder, he also excited the M'Ouires, M'Mahons, and other septs to join in his rebellion ; and while the English government and its au- thorised officers and agents were endea- vouring to civilize and enrich the country, these patriots were doing their utmost to throw It deeper and deeper into barbarism and poverty, for the mere sake of serving their own most disgracefully selfish pur- poses. A. D. 1694.— The experience of ages had not as yet taught the Irish that peace is the true nursing mother of prosperity and hap- piness. Tyrone and his rebellious assoui- ates, with abundant support, had commit- ted proportionate crime, and inflicted pro- portionate misery. And yet, when in 1694, sir William Russell went to Ireland as lord deputy, Tyrone had the consummate assurance to go to Dublin to take the oath of allegiance and give assurances of ^is de- sire to support her majesty's govern)r.ent. Sir Ilcnry Bagnal, a shrewd man and *s^em soldier, who then filled the office of mar- shal of the army in Ireland, was for putting it out of the practised traitor's power to commit further crime by at once sending him over to England. But sir WilUam Russell, desirous above all things of car- rying conciliation to its utmost prudent length, determined to trust the earl's pro- mise of faith and loyalty ; and the earl showed his sense of this too trusting and chivalrous conduct, by immediately going to his own territory and opening a cor- respondence with her miyesty's bitterest viemy, the Spaniard, from whom he ob- tained a large supply of arms and ammuni- tion, and then openly placed himself at the head of a confederacy of Irish chiefs, the avowed object being the ruin of the Eng- lish power in Ireland. The very poverty of the Irish, added to the nature of their country, abounding in wood, bog, and mountain, rendered the putting down of an armed rebellion in that country a mat- ter of extreme difficulty under an^ circum- stances: and this difficulty was increased by queen Elizabeth's well known parsi- mony, which, in this case, was as censur- able as it usually was praiseworthy. Ill pro- vided vvitli means of paying any thing like a considerable force, her commanders iu Ireland had their best laid plans defeated; and the rebels retiring for a time to tlieir wild fastnesses, made their appearance in as full force as ever the instant that the English troops were disbanded or reduced. It was chiefly, beyond all doubt, to this cir- cumstance, that the treacherous Tyrone owed his long impunity. Knowing the dif- ficulty of finally and efficiently crushing such an enemy, without a far larger sum than the queen was ever likely to devote to that purpose, the queen's officers were na- HBWB-TILIBBB WBBB OF A VBBT ANCIBNT UATB IN IBBIiAND. ■ABBTU'S BBieir. oua crime put himself ace, he impudently aet itriotie enemv of that ur he owed all that ho rar under the pretence n reality, to aave him- ed penalty of murder, M'Ouirea, M'Mahona, n in his rebellion ; and tvemment and its au- [ agents were endea- id enrich the country, loing their utmost to deeper into barbarism mere sake of aerving gracefully selfiah pur- ipcrience of ages had Iriah that peace is the of proaperity and hap- hia reoellioua associ- aupport, had commit- me, and inflicted pro- Ind yet, when in 1694, . went to Ireland as had the conaummate ublin to take the oath B aasurances of l^is de- n^jeaty's governU'ent. shrewd man and vr.crn led the office of mar- 'eland, was fur putting led traitor's power to e by at once sending id. But sir William Dve all things of car- > its utmost prudent trust the earl's pro- oyalty ; and the earl thia too trusting and by immediately going f and opening a cor- er m«ieaty's bitterest 1, from whom he ob- of arms and animuni- ' placed himself at the cy of Iriah chiefs, the the ruin of the £ng- ,. The very poverty of the nature of their in wood, bog, and the putting down of n that country a mat- ilty under any circum- ifticulty was mcreaeed a well known parsi- 1 case, was aa ccnsur- praiseworthy. Ill pro- paying any thing like , her commanders in it laid plans defeated; ng for a time to their e their appearance in ' the instant that the disbanded or reduced. 1 all doubt, to this cir- ! treacheroua Tyrone ity. Knowing the dif- 1 efficiently crushing lOut a far larger sum !ver likely to devote to !en'a officers were na- IBBLANO. aoMB ur tns srARiSH abmada wkbb wbbcbbd on tbb laiau coAai. ^f^e llistory of Srclantl. 549 turally better inclined than they otherwiae would have been, to liatcn to Tyrone'a ape- cious proposals for accommodation ; which proposals he regularly made, and aa regu- larly broke, according as the fortune of war made the one courae necessary or the other seductive. Shrewd and well advised aa Elitabeth was beyond almost all English aovereigna, it was, probably, only her ruling paasion that would thus have been allowedf to injure her interest, without check from her own strong aensc, or censure from her miniatera' faith- ful zeal. But maffnum vectigal parsimoHia est was the ruling maxim of her life; to parsimony she owed not a little of that re- spect which the profusion of her successor caused to be withheld from him ; to parsi- mony she owed not a little of her impunity in despotism ten times sterner and a thou- sand times more gratuitous and wilful than the most despotic act that ever was charged against her successor's martyred son ; and there was too much of the tierce spirit of the fiercest of the Tudors in the nature of Elizabeth of England to render it possible for any minister, however able, successfully to combat, even in a particular case, a maxim to which the whole experience of lier life taught her that she owed so much. And, accordingly, to the six thousand pounds vKhich was the ordinary revenue of Ireland, the queen added only twenty thousand, when emergency required the doubling or trebling of the ordinary En- glish force of a thousand men ; and it is easy to perceive that however fortunate on particular occasions her most skilful com- manders might be, they were far too poorly supplied to allow of their following up the enemy with the requisite vigour and per- tinacity. While sir John Norris waa in command of the English force in Ireland, Tyrone, who was extremely artful, availed himself of his knowledge of the limited extent to which the queen supplied her officers, to play upon that commander's feelings, to make and break treaties to such an extent, that the unfortunate {(entlemau actually died of a complaint which the doctors at- tributed solely to his mental sufferings. He was succeeded by sir Henry Bagnal, of whom mention has already been made as an able and shrewd officer. Being well aware of the real disposition and intentions of Tyrone, this gallant officer resolved to press him to the utmost ; but an unfortu- nate circumstance caused the first of his operations to terminate in hia death. The rebels at that time were besieging the fort of Black water, the garrison of which they had already reduced to great distress. Sir Henry led his troops to the relief of the fort, and was suddenly attacked on very disadvantageous ground; and one of the ammunition waggons accidentally blowing up, so increased the panic into which the men had been thrown by the suddenness of the attack, that a complete rout took place. The loss on the English aide was fully fif- teen hundred, and unhappily included the gallant air Henry; and but for the able and daring conduct of Montacute, the com- mander of the cavalry, who fortunately held the enemy in check, the loss would have been much greater. The rebels were natu- rally very much elated by thia victory, which was more deciaive than they were accua- tomed to achieve ; and it also put them in poaaesaion of a very considerable supply of arms and ammunition, of both of which they stood in great need. As for Tyrone, he was so elated, that he assumed to him- self the title of deliverer of the Irish people and patron of Irish liberty. This event caused no little anxiety at the English court ; and Elizabeth and her councillors at length came to the determi- nation to give no future room to the rebels to avail themselves of truces and treaties. The queen, in truth, deemed it high time, as it assuredly was, to put her Irisli affairs in the hands of some commander posses- sing such rank as well as ability as would impose upon the Irish. Her own opinion inclined towards Charlea Blount, the young and high-spirited Lord Mountjoy. But Es- sex, who was now high in his sovereign's favour, was himself ambitious of acquiring fame and influence by pacifying Irelann, and he urged that Mountjoy was not pos- sessed eitner of the requisite standi.ig or the requisite talent; plainly giving the queen to understand that he was himself by far the fittest person she could send. Those courtiers who were his sincere friends — and few men ever had friends more sin- cere in tliat order of society — endeavoured to persuade him that no office, however hif^h, was worth his acceptance, if it would rcqiure bis permanent absence from the court. Deaf to the wise counsel of bis friends, Essex so perseveriiigly pushed his suit, that Elizabeth at length consented to en- trust him with the much coveted office ; and in the patent by which she constituted him her lord lieutenant of Ireland, she gave him powers which had never before been entrusted to that officer ; the power, namely, of peace and war, of pardoning rebels, and of appointing &'.' the principal officers in his heutenan' < ta H is o a H o li '•J ■ 1< BIANT BBBBL CRIBFTAIKS tBPT THBIB BOUBR AMD FLBD TO OTHER COVIfTBIHS, •; t mmm TUB BAUI. OV KaSCX CBBATBD BT BlISABBTH LOBD-LIBUTINAMT Of IBBLAMD. 550 ISlft ^reasttte of l^istote* ^(* 1 ■! i. t f Eiiex, wholly losing ligUt of prudence in the exultation of present honour and in the enthusiastic but empty acclamations of the populace, went to Ireland in the high- est possible spirits; little dreaming how many courtiers rejoiced in his success only because they saw in it the sure precursor of his fall, and utterly unsuspicious that he was carrying even in his personal train not a few whose sole purpose in accom- panying was to espy his actions and report tiis words. The situation in which Essex was placed by the eagerness and pertinacity with which he had sought his mission, by the immense importance and the inevitable publicity of every false step he could take, and by the singular liberality with which the queen had supplied him with every thing that could aid him in being successful, seems so obvious and simple, that it in difficult to understand how a man of unquestionable genius could possiblv fail to see the pecu- liar necessity in whicn he was placed, firstly, to abide with the most inflexible strictness to all positive and particular commands that be had received from the queen, how trifling soever they mi^ht be, and secondly, to allow no consideration to tempt him out of the coarse of action he had pledged him- self to as being the best calculated to en- sure success. And yet, in these two capital particulars, Essex was false to his own safety and the interest of his royal mistress from the very outset t So much can youth, vanity, and too much prosperity intoxicate even those minds to which nature has been the most liberal. The earl of Southampton had incurred the anger of Elizabeth by marrying without her permission, — an offence which never failed very deeply to incense her against those of her courtiers who committed it; and ere Essex left England the queen gave him express and positive orders not to give any command to Southampton. But Essex was his personal and particular friend; moreover the queen had just delighted to honour Essex far above aU her other cour- tiers ; and he, generously desirous to serve his friend, could not see that even the most trivial disobedience would tell with fearful consequence against himself, should any ill success in bis important mission make the queen's future anger proportionate to her present favour, her future disappointment proportionate to her present trust and con- fidence. One of the very first acts of Essex on his arrival in Ireland was to give his friend Southampton the command of the horse. This error, gross enough singly, was still farther aggravated. The queen no sooner heard of this signal disobedience than she sent her special command to Essex to re- voke Southampton's commission, and Es- sex, instead of obeying this command, con- tented himself with remonstrating upon its impolicy; nor did he obey it until a new and more positive order convinced him that his own command would be taken from him if he longer hesitated to obey. Considering the impetuous and self- willed character of the sovereiprn whom he served, Essex placed himself in sufficient peril and disaavantagc by this one error; but as if he were utterly infatuated and determined upon ruin, he immediately af- terwards committed an error still more grave, because striking still more directly and fatally against the success of the enter- prise that hwl been entrusted to him. At the English council board he had con- stantly, and in no measured terms, cen- sured the folly of wasting time, strength, and opportunity in petty operations of de- tail against the Irish rebels; and he had positivelj[ pledged himself to proceed at once against the main body under Tyrone himself. The queen and her able advisers having perfectly agreed with him upon this point, his instructions were drawn up in exact conformity with the opinions he had so often and so strongly expressed. He was now, therefore, doubly pledged; at once by his own judgment and by his duty. Yet he had scarcely landed in Dublin when he allowed himself to be persuaded that the season was too early tor passing the bogs which sheltered Tyrone, and that his better plan would be to devote sonie time to an expedition into Munster, where par- ties of the rebels were doing much mischief and exercising much tyranny. Now, mak- ing every allowance for the climate of Ire- land, it is difficult to understand how it could be too earl^ for soldiers, men wlioie duty and boast it is to overcome difficulties, to make their way through the bogs, when we remember that Essex did not leave Lon- don until the month of March. A man of prudence would have enquired how far such a strange excuse ori^ated in the selfish interest rather than in the sincere convic- | tion of the advisers. But gallant as Essex ' had proved himself, and especially at Cadiz, he had none of that deep reflection and eagle-eyed glance at details which are so | necessary to a commander-in-chief ; and in- ' stead of discovering, as with more solidity i and less brilliancy, he must have dis- ! covered, that the person who thus advised I him had possessions in Munster, about I which they were far more anxious than about the national honour, he at once fell into the snare, and entployed himself in the very task of mere detail which he had so emphatically censured in other command- ers. He was very successful in Munster— while he remained there ; but when in July the English troops, thinned and sicklv, re- turned to Dublin, the dispersed rebels re- turned to Munster as strong as ever, and far more confident ; for they now perceived that Essex was by no means the consum- mate commander he had been called. The course he had so unwisely pursued had yet farther ill consequence. For the sake of what must of necessity have been merely temporary success in Munster, he had not only thinned and weakened his men, but, in mere partial actions, had given them the opportunity to form a very respectful opi- nion of the Irish prowess. On one occa- TUBBB WAS Mi;CH FBUITLB8B BXrEIfDITVBE IN ATTBMFTS TO BBDUCX TYBONB. HART or IBBLAMD. impetuoui and »elf- the aoverei^ whom he d himself in lufflcient age by thit one error; utterly infatuated and lin, be immediately af- an error atlU more ing still more directly he succeiB of the enter- entrusted to him. At il board he had eon- measured terms, cen- rasting time, strength, petty operations of de- th rebels; and he had himself to proceed at ain body under Tyrone n and her able advisers eed with him upon this ons were drawn up in Xh the opinions he had Tongly expressed. He doubly pledged; at igment and by his duty, landed in Dublin when to be persuaded that ) early for passing the id Tyrone, and that his le to devote sonie time to Munster, where oar- I ire doing much miscnief ; h tyranny. Now, mak- for the climate of Ire- i to understand how it j for soldiers, men whose \ to overcome difSculties, through the bogs, when Sssex did not leave Lon- ti of March. A man of re enquired how far such | iriginated in the selfish i in the sincere convic- I. But gallant as Essex ' I and especially at Cadiz, < tat deep reflection and at details which are ao | lander-in-chief ; and in- ' g, as with more solidity ! y, he must have dia- j erson who thus advised I ns in Munster, about I far more anxious than honour, he at once fell employed himself in the detail which he had ao red in other command- luccessful in Munster— there ; but when in July thinned and sicklv, re- ;he dispersed rebels re- as strong as ever, and for they now perceived no means the consum- e had been called. The iwisely pursued had yet ence. For the sake of issity have been merely in Munster, he had not reakened his men, but, )ns, had given them the 1 a very respectful opi- irowess. On one occa- TO BBDUCB TYBOAB. MA«T ULO IBIC- rAMILIBS BBCAMB RXTIHCT IN BLIIABBTU'a BBIOlf. V^i)t I^istore of Srclantr. fid I sion his men behaved so timidly, that he I cashiered the oMcers of the detachment, and actually decimated the common men. I Nothing worst than this could have occur- { red in a decisive affair with Tyrone himself; nothing of the sort was likely to have hap- pened while the English troops were fresn, strong, and full of contempt for the kerne of Ireland ; but after being so disheartened in detail, how could men be expected to show any great seal for more decisive and extensive operations ? Moreover, so much time had been wasted, that, as formerly, it was said to be too early for passing the .'jiorasses, so now it was said to be too late. Essex now wrote home for reinforcements, and the queen, seemingly resolute to leave him no reasonable excuse for ultimate and signal failure, at once reinforced him. But real and counterfeited sickness, and very numerous desertions, rendered it impossi- ble for him, out of the imposing force which he had frittered away in idle detail skir- mishing, to lead more than four thousand men against the main enemy. With this I force he found it impossible to bring Tyrone to action ; for that wily chieftain was far I more desirous of wearing out his enemy, than of giving him an opportunity of pro- 1 flting by superior discipline and equipment. And with his usual and often successful impudence, he demanded a personal con- ference with the English commander. Here again Essex displayed great unfitness for his command, lie was fully authorised, it is true, to pardon rebels, but he betrayed at once his own dignity, and that of his roval mistress, in consenting to give the rebel i chief au interview without first insisting I upon his submission. Tyrone, who was I as deeply politic as Essex was open and ; thoughtless, seems to have understood at a g' lance the character of the man with whom e had to deal. While making stipulations I which, as coming from a rebel, could bo i looked upon only as insult to the queen, he behaved to the queen's lieutenant with the most profound personal respect ; persuaded him into a truce until the following May, and even, it would seem, caused him to listen, at least, to insinuations which it was treason even to hear without resent- ment. This "most lame and important conclu- sion" could not fail to be deeply annoying ! to Elizabeth, after she had departed so far from her usual economical policy in order to ensure a complete conquest of the Irish rebels. And Essex was so far from even : now seeing his error, and taking the only mode by which Elizabeth could have been i soothed, that he excited her temper still ' farther by peevish and petulant letters in which he sought to throw the blame rather • upon an alleged want of means and oppor- tunity, than upon his own want of firm- i ness and sagacity. Though the queen's : answers plainly showed that she really was deeply offended, she was even yet disin- clined to wound his proud spirit by so pub- , lie a disgrace as immediate recall would by I both his friends and his foes have been con- sidered ; and she expressly ordered him to remain in Ireland. Judicious action, or even judicious refraining from such action as could probably add to the queen's anger, might even now have enabled him to re- cover his ground in Ireland ; but instead of availing himself of the opening the queen afforded him by refraining from recalling him, the spoiled favourite, nappening while in his worst humour with the English court and with himself, to hear that the queen had promoted his rival, sir Robert Cecil, to an ofilce which he had long coveted for him- self, took no farther notice of the queen's express command, but hastened over to England. His reception there belongs to the history of England; we must here confine ourselves to Ireland, and its af- fairs, as he, on this petulant departure, left them. Lord Mountjoy, whom Elizabeth, as we have said, originally intended for the Irish expedition, was now sent over, in the hope that he would repair the evils caused by the flighty and inconsiderate conduct of his accomplished, but, i^ this case at least, in- capable rival. The Irish rebels speedily discovered that they now had to deal with a lord lieutenant very different in character from the vain and facile Essex. Brave and accomplished as a soldier, Mountjoy was also somewhat inclined to sternness and severity in his individual character. A.D. 1602.— On taking the command in Ireland, Mountjoy determined neither to employ all his force upon one point, nor to make a war of detail in such a wise as could be advantageous to the rebels. Divi- ding his force into detachments, he gave the commands to men of known ability and courage, with orders to act with the utmost vigour while opposed, and to give no quar- ter even when opposition had ceased. The rebels being thus attacked in all quarters at once, and finding that their new oppo- nent was impracticable in negociation as he was irresistible in war, threw dovtrn their arms. Many of them sought safety by re- tiring into the most inaccessible morasses and mountain caves, and remaining hidden there, and half starved, while their friends exerted themselves to obtain their peace on such terms as Mountjoy chose to dic- tate. Tyrone was no exception to this general rule. At first, indeed, he tried to obtain terms, but his days of successful deception was now at length abandoned. Mountjoy inflexibly refused to admit him to mercy on any other condition than that of the most absolute and literal surrender of both his life and fortunes to the queen's pleasure. A.D. 1603— Finding that any attempt to palter Mountjoy would probably put him in some danger of being altogether excluded from the queen's mercy, he appeared before the lord lieutenant and made the required submission. But he was even now too late. Elizabeth had expired while he still hesitated; and as the character of her suc- cessor rendered it very unlikely that he I would show mercy to rebels so crafty and TO BBFBOFLB MUNSTBB, FOBTT NBW LORDSHIPa WEBB CRBATED OUT OF VACANT LANDS. ONDBU TUm MILD SWAT PV JAMBI, I»LAHD AltVMID A HUW AlfkCV. 652 ^{)t ^rcajsukv of l|istori), Sec. faithleii at Tyrone, both he and O'Dunnel made their racape to Italy ; « '-re Tyrone lived loine yean, lupportcd oi / by a pen- (ion allowed to him by the pc c. He wai blind for many year* before Iiii death; and the poverty and ohtcurity into which hi* misconduct plunged him, compared with the rank, wealth, influence, nnd respect which he forfeited, ought to warn such men —if indeed men of ambition and ill ref- lated energies can be warned by^ anything of the danger as well as impronriety of- in- citing the i^orant and the violent to that worst of crimes, rebellion ; a crime which is fatal to the criminals, and, unfortunately, still more fatal to those who neither share the crime nor possess the power to prevent ita commission. CHAPTER X. A. D. 1612.— Tbr most efficient of the English commanders in curbing the rest- less spirit of Ireland was undoubtedly the lord Mountjoy; and perhaps, but for his stern chastisement of armed rebellion, Ire- land would not have been in • state to pro- tit by the wise and humane desire of Eliza- beth's successor, James I., to civilize the people by raising them socially as well as intellectually, by giving them an interest in the preservation of peace bv putting them in possession of the manifold luxuries and comforts which are only obtainable by the practice of the arts of peace. It is impos- sible to rate too highly the good effect of the wise policy of Jamea towards Ireland ; and when he boasts of that policy, we must read his self-laudation altogether without that pitying smile vhich we bestow upon his vedantries, and upon the absurdities whicli even his native sagacity did not pre- vent him from partaking with the majority of his subjects. He clearly perceived what, next to the putting down of actual rebellion, was the most pressing and the most vital want of Ireland ; manufactures, trade, and the op- portunity, means, and, above all, the ex- amples of using them. The immense tracts of land which civil war and rebellion had depopulated in Ire- land, and especially in Ulster, furnished the sagacious James with the first great ele- ment, room for civilized colonists whose example of industry and prosperity could not fail to have the effect of raising all the rest of the country in the social scale. On all former occasions the scheme of colo- nizing Ireland had a radically bad piinchile which constantly caused it to fail. The English pale was held by swordsmen, not by manufacturers, or flven to any consider- able extent by traders. Bold soldiers, but for the mbst part as uncultivated as the very natives whom they had dispossessed, these men either were constantly engaged in petty warfare with the "mere Irish," as the men beyond the English pale were called, or if they fell into peaceable inti- macy with them, were far more apt to fall with them into barbarism, than to raise them into civilization and a propension to- wards the arts of peace. And that, as must be abundantly evident to the attentive rea- der, was actuallv the process which took place, not merely with the general mass here, but also with men of some mark and note. Aware that a large sum of English money was absolutely necessary for the carrying out of his admirable plan of Irish reforma- tion, and aware too tliat practiral mercan- tile men were the best possible persons to look after the details upoix which so much would necessarily depend, James incorpo- rated the Royal Irish Society. The mem- bers were to be annually elected from among the aldermen and common council of London ; and to the committee, thus formed, were all matters to be entrusted 'onnett'id with the management of the Irish fisheries, and the waste tracts of land which were to be disposed of. These lands were to be let to three distinct classes of undertakers ; so called because they under, took to fulfil certain conditions. Those who received two thousand acres were to ' build a castle, with a proportionate baten or yard, surrounded by a substantial wall ; those who received fifteen hundred acres were to build a substantial stone h(^se. J also surrounded b^ a bawn, unless in jiiu- i ations where a bridge would be still more desirable ; and those who received a thou- sand acres were to build a good and sub- stantial dwelling to their own taste. In some cases Irish chieftains were allowed to undertake upon these terms, and to have ' Irish tenants, on condition that these lat- j ter should abandon their wandering and predatory habits, and dwell together in ' steady, peaceful, and industrious pursuits ; : but, for the most part, preference whs j given to English undertakers, who were to | ave English or Lowland Scotch tenants, i Nor did this excellent scheme comprehend ; merely the open and wholly depopulated i country ; Coleraiue, Londonderry, and some ! smaller towns had considerable sums spent I upon them in repairing and rebuilding; and hundreds of Englisn and Scotch me- chanics, with their families and all neces. sary appliances for their several trades, were sent thither. At the same time, churches were endowed and schools esta- blished ; and those who so loudly charge it upon England as an injustice that the pro- testant church is supported in Ireland, would do well to look Back, and to look at- tentively, upon this passage in Irish his- tory. They who do so will not fail to per- ceive that the same power and the tame period that laid a comparatively tmall charge upon the wealth of Ireland, gave Ire- land all it$ wealth, in esse et in posse. How much of railing, violence, and misery would be subtracted from the great sum of the world's endurance, if men would thus look at both sides of a Question I Aud how es- pecially would that be the case with respect to Ireland 1 Imperfection is inseparable from even the best human schemes. It is quite ccr- VNTIt TBIS TIMB TUK 8TATIBTICS OT IBVLAND WXBB WHOLLY UNKNOWN. !h^ mw AirtcT. and • propension to- e. And that, at muit to the attentive rea- proceit which took :h the general matt in of aome mark and um of Englith money lary for the carrying Ian of Irith refornia- lat practiral mercan- t posiible perioni to apovx which lo much tend, Jamei incorpo- Society. The mem- inually elected from and common council he committee, thus tert to be entrusted management of the ! waste tracts of land loscd of. These lands >e distinct classes of I because they under- conditions. Those asand acres were to proportionate bawn ly a substantial wall ; ifteen hundred acres itantial atone house, ftatott, unless in riiiu- i would be still more who received a thou- lild a good and sub- their own taste. In tains were allowed to e terms, and to have lition that these lat- their wandering and id dwell together in industrious pursuits; tart, preference was Ttakera, who were to land Scotch tenants, scheme comprehend i wholly depopulated >ndonderry, and some siderable sums spent ing and rebuilding ; [lisn and Scotch me- oailies and all neces- their several trades. At the same time, ed and schools esta- lio to loudly charge it njustice that the pro- ipported in Irelund, back, and to look at- )as8age in Irish liis- > will not fail to pcr- pouier and the same comparatively small k of Ireland, gave Ire- es»eet inpotae. How ice, and misery would :he great sum of the men would thus look stion t And how es- the case with respect separable from even aes. It is quite ccr- •I a H ;= H ' M ' < I a <\ m M *• '. KILEBHNT BAD lOHO •■■H A COJISIORaABLI TBADINa TOWH. LLT UNKNOWN. Wl)t lliistoru of ]£rclantf. 553 tain that the ends of civilisation would have been both more rapidly and more com- pletely accomplished had uulv English, and of the most steady character, beoD occeptcd either as undertakers or inferior tenants ; but how, consistently with humanity, could those Irish have been excluded who pro- fessed a willingness and desire to remain upon their native soil, and conform to the English rules, habits, and pursuits 7 It is certain, too, that so magniAcent a political scheme would have been more completely free from risk of injury or failure, could it have been carried out entirely under go> vcrnment control, and without the inter- vention of individuals embarking in it merely for the sake of individual specula- tion and gain. But the sum of money re- quired was vast, the modern English system of finance was utterly unknown and un- imagined, and, "nnsequently, the king had no other alternai ve but to allow his noble plan to fall to the ground altogether, or to carry it into effect with the two disadvan- tages to which we have alluded. Disad- vantages they undoubtedly were. The in- veterate habits of the flrst generation of Irish undertakers and their settlers greatly deteriorated the character and habits of their English and Scotch neighbours ; and knowing how powerfully men of all times, and of all nations, are unavoidably influ- enced by pecuniai-y considerations, we can scarcely be surprised, however much we may regret, that undertakers, both English and Irish, were sometimes more iutcnt upon their individual bargains, than upon the successful working out of a great po- litical problem; less particular about the moral fitness of tenants, than about their pecuniary solidity. But whatever unavoid- able defects may be alleged against the actual working out of the plan, the plan itself was a mighty, a comprehensive, and an admirable one ; and we think that few will be disposed to differ from sir John Dnvies, who says, as quoted by Hume, thai " James in nine years made grco.tcr ad- vances towards the civilizatioi-. of Ireland, than had been made in the four hundred and forty years which had elapsed since the conquest was flrst attempted." Having done so much towards introduc- ing the industry and profit in the train of which civilization, comfort, and an attach- ment to peace, are so sure to follow, James declared all the people of Ireland to be equally his subjects, abolished the whole of the Brehou laws, and stationed a small army in Ireland, which was regularly paid from England, and thus spared all temp- tation to excite disturbances in the country by levying contributions upon its inhabi- tants. The good effect of this was strik- ingly shown in the case of an outbreak ex- cited and headed by a turbulent chief named O'Dogherty. This chieftain, among many, was very much enraged at seeing the com- fort and prosperity in which strangers dwelt in his native country ; and he was especially opposed to the abolition of the Brehon laws, which gave occasion to peri- odical warfare by a most absurd divi«ion of property, and made murder and other crimes as purchaseable as auv manufac- tured luxurv, by aflixiug n price to each crime; as the Normans and, Saxons, and most other partially barbarous people, had done at an earlier day. Taking counsel with other chieftains at prejudiced and tur- bulent as himself, O'Dogherty endeavoured to plunge the country into a civil war once more. But his first outbreak was steadily met by the resident English troops ; rein- forcements were speedily sent; and he who but a few vears before might have sacked towns, and then have sold his good be- haviour for a peerage, was easiW and spee- dily put down, itcgular circuits for the adminiatration of justice were formed ; chariert of incorporation were bestowed rpon the larger and more prosperous towni; and James had the trulv enviable pleasure of seeing prosperity and growing civiliza- tion accomplished by hit peaceful and equi- table rule, for a country which his prede- cessors had for nearly four hundred and fifty years failed even to begin to rule with either certainty or advantage. Hume, to whom we are indebted for the principal facts of this portion of our his- tory more esperialW, gives a curious anec- dote illustrative of the effect which the affixing orices to crimes had, in diminish- ing not merely the lej/al fear of commit- ting them, but alto the moral sense of their enoi-mity. When sir William FitzwiUiams was lord-deputy, he told the powerful and unruly M'Guire that he, the deputy, was about to send a sheriff into Fermanagh. " I'our iheriff thall be welcome," said M'Guire, " but let me know beforehand whnt a ther\ff't head i» rated at, that I man be prepared to levy the amount vpon the county if my people chance to cut hii head off," CHAPTER XI. A. n. 1G41.— Fbom the year 1G03 Ireland liftd been constantly progressing, some- times slowly, sometimes more rapidly, but always progressing, more or less, towards the comparative perfection of England; and if in the year 1041, Brian Borohmc, or Malachi of the golden collar, those sincere and— the age in which they lived being considered— sensible friends of their native country, could have seen the splendid al- terations that had been wrought in its fa- vour, they would have denounced to the death the traitor, who, for the sake of his own base interests, or his own ignorant fancies, should have proposed to hght up the torch of war, and undo, in a few weeks of violence, what had been accomplished by the wisdom, patience, and unbounded liberality of so many years. But unhappily the times were favourable to the worst de- signs of the worst description of mock pa- triots. The unfortunate Charles I. was now upon the English throne, and deeply in- volved m the fatal disputes with the par- jiament, which ended so lamentably for both king and people. To all discerning JBeejchoolsw.be KSTABu .nicn in most of the pb.ncipal towns: [311 ■'— •-*-*-■ I' ^l :ir . I II: ira ■U ii i TBK KEV MANDFACTVHINO rOFDLATION WBBX CHIKFLX FROTIBTANTa. 554 ^f)e treasure of lltstorp, iScc. men it was evident, tliat both king and parliament had drawu the sword and tfirown away the scabbard. Scotland had openly thrown off its allegiance ; and though in England Charles BtUl had the title of king ; his most reasonable demands were treated with mockery; and as the Irish parliament — as was evident in the case of Strafford —was the ally, or rather the subservient tool of the English commons, it was ob- viously impossible for the king to have that influence with the former, without which he was powerless to keep the coun- try in order. The settlers in Ireland under the noble scheme of king James were almost exclu- sively protestant, and they naturally had the utmost horror of the opposite faith, in the iiame of which so much cruel persecu- tion had taken place under former sove- reigns, and constantly sympathised with the puritan party in the English house of commons in its opposition to the court and high church party. In their zealous attention to this one point, they quite over- looked the peculiarity of their own situa- tion. Owing every thing to roval authority, and protected i^ike in their properties and liberties by the royal troops, the Irish pro- testants were probably the very last of all the ill-fated Charles's subjects who, even with a view to selfish interests alone, should have done au^ht that could aid the triumphs of his enemies. Though a iong lapse of years, and the steady and consistent wis- dom of the successive administrations of Chichester, Grandison, Falkland, and the murdered Strafford, had fairly established Ireland among the prosperous and civilized nations ; though septs after septs had be- come peaceful and settled tillers of the earth, or of prosperous artizans and traders in the town ; neither time nor ministerial wisdom had, as yet, abated the detestation in which the Irishman held the Enghshman, in which the catholic held the protestant, in wliich, in a word, the conquered lield the conqueror. There was still much of the old leaven of Irish turbulence in existence; and at the very moment when the ungrateful i)rotest- ants of Ireland were indulging their puri- tan hostility to the throne to which they owed so much, they were watched with a grim smUe of approving hate by the ene- mies who smiled upon thera, only that de- struction might fall the more suddenly and surely upon them. Following the example of the English and Scotch parliaments, the Irish had raised their demands upon their harassed sovereign with a .pertinacity of greedy and blind injustice, which grew only more craving and more insatiable upon each new coucension which he made. No matter whether the question were one of finance, of substantial power, or of the form and etiquette so important to the safety and efficacy of the ruler, yet so ut- terly without injury or danger to the ruled, the Irish protcstants in parliament assem- bled took every opportunity to despoil and mortify their kiu^, in the most complete and egregious unconsciousness, as it would seem, that the^ were in precisely the same degree preparing and precipitating their own ruin. While the Irish protestants were thus ignorantly and ungratefully departing as well from the line of policy as that of duty, the cathoUcs and old Irish were long- ing for an opportunity to avail themselves of the fatal error. The substitution of the English for the Brehon laws with relation to tne distribution of propertv, the patron- age of the protestant religion oy the state- though the catholic had perfect freedom of conscience— these, and a thousand miuur causes of complaint, rankled in the breasts of the catholics and old Irish, and there was nothing needed to plunge the now smiling and prosperous land into the hor- rors of a civil war, but a daring, active, and eloquent leader, capable of taking advan- tage of the state of public affairs in Eng- land, and of suiting the various reasons i'ur Irish revolt to the various Irish chieftains whom he desired to engage in the work. Unhappilv, such a man was at hand iu the person of Rogjer Moore, a gentleman nf ability and daring, and very popular among the "old Irish," of whom by descent he was one. Hating even the beneficence of i the English rule, as tending to reconcile 1 his countrymen to the wild and squalid inde- pendence to which he passionately wished to see them return, he took advantage of the unsettled state of England, and of the blundering ingratitude of the Irish protest- ants, to excite the Irish catholics and mal- contents to insurrection. Active and inde- fatigable, he corresponded with the discon- tented in every direction; artful and elo- quent, he suited his complaint to every man's peculiar charactev, and pressed them alike upon the sympathy of all. To sir Phelim O'Neill, and the lord M'Guire, lie early and successfully addressed himself, and he and they used the most untiring in- dustrv to induce other leading men of the old blood and the old faith to join them. They pointed out the crippled condition of the royal authority iu England and of the vice-regal authority in Ireland; and they dwelt upon the inferiority of the English in numbers, and upon the ignorant and inso- lent confidence of safety in which they lived, even their comparatively small standing being so loosely subdivided throughout the land without any attention to the mainte- nance of lines of communication, that it might actually be surprised and butchered in detail even before danger could be sus- Eected. It was a striking instance of retri- utive justice, too, that the very ingrati- tude of the protestants of Ireland was now made a weapon, and a very powerful wea- pon, in the hands of their most implacable enemies. For Moore most artfully and elo- quently urged that the decay of the royal authority boded persecution and ruin to the catholics. He said, that though, as Irish- men, they were wronged by being subjected to English rule under any circumstances, yet the king had shown no disijosition of persecute them especially on account of their religion; but if the puritans, as THE FAVOURITE INSTHUMENTS OF THE IIUSH WEBE THE HARP AND ilAQFIPR. CROWDS Oy FRIBITS AND JSBU1T8 ILOCKID OTBR FROM rORIiaX COUrtTRIKS. ^i)e l^tstors of Irelanti. 555 perfect freedom of a thouBftnd minor kled in the breasts i Irish, and there ( plunge the now land into the hor- daring, active, and B of taking advan- blic affairs in Eug- variouB reasons for JUS Irish chieftains igage in the work. was at hand iu tlic ■e, a gentleman of very popular among m by descent he was beneficence ofUhe ng to reconcile iliis \ d and squalid inde- | passionately wished B took advantage of England, and of the of the Irish protest- h catholics and mal- n. Active and inde- ded with the discon- ion; artful and elo- complaint to every er, and pressed them ithy of all. To sir he lord M'Guire, he addressed himself, he most untiring in- r leading men of the I faith to join them. crippled condition of England and of the a Ireland; and they rity of the English in le Ignorant and inso- ty in which they lived, ively small standing vided throughout the ntion to the mainte- nmunication, that it prised and butchered i danger could be sus- dng instance of retri- liat the very ingrnti- \ ;8 of Ireland was now I a very powerful wea- | heir most implacable . most artfully and elo- lie decay of the royal , cution and ruin to the | hat though, as Irish- ted by being subjecteil er any circumstances, hown no disposition jspecially on account It if the puritans, as kBP AND aAQPIPB- seemed certain, should succeed in wholly subjecting their high-church sovereign in England, would they have any toleration to spare for his catholic uubjects in Ireland.? If any Irishman had a doubt upon that point, he had to look at the persecution al- ready endured br his fellow religionists in England. As catliolics, it was their bounden duty to prevent themselves from falling vic- tims to the fierce and persecuting zeal of the puritans ; as Irishmen, they would at all times, and under any circumstances, have been warranted in throwing off the foreign yoke which conquest had fixed upon them; end they were now especially called upon to do so, both by the favourable op- portunity afforded to them by the fierce dis- sensions of their enemies, and by the high probability that those very enemies would rid themselves of the legal, established, and mild authority of their kin^', to make their little fingers heavier upon Ireland than ever his loins had been. Moore's artful eloquence was the more effective, because one or other of his argu- ments found an echo in the secret and long uurturcd thoughts of each of the chieftains to whom he iu the first instance addressed himself. The utmost evil of man could have de- vised nothing better calculated to assist the designs of Moore and his fellow mal- contents, than the virulent and daily in- creasing enmity to catholics which was manifested by the English parliament, and, indeed, by the people in general. O'Neill engaged to head an insurrection in the pro- vinces, the signal for which was to be given simultaneously, to the very hour, with an attack upon the castle of Dublin, which was to be headed by Roger Moore and the lord M'Guire. Cardinal Richelieu, indi- rectly at least, promised arms and other aid; numerous Irish officers who were serv- ing in the Spanish army promised to join them ; and with the unconscious aid which the English puritans were giving them by their savage and coarse invectives and me- naces, there could be no doubt that when the first signal of revolt was given, the whole catholic population of Ireland, even including the catholics of the English pale, would join in a revolt originating iu zeal for the catholic religion. Every arrangement having been made to ensure the active simultaneous outbreak of leading parties in every quarter oi Ireland, it now only remained to fix the exact day which was to prove fatal to every protestant iu the island; all minor arrangements, and the rousing the mass of the people into ac- tion, being, by Moore's shrewd advice, de- ferred to the very hour of action itself, that the plot, being until then entrusted to the knowledge only of the comparatively few leading men, might thus run the less risk of being revealed, whether by actual trea- chery or by waut of prudence. The day fixed upon was the 23rd of October, 1641; that late period of the year being named by Moore on account of the darkness of the nights, which would favour the dark deeds that were in contemplation, and un account of the difliculty that stormy season of the ! year would throw in the way of transporting i men and arms from England, when news of the outbreak should reach that country, j Great and prudent precaution as Moure ' and his fellow-conspirators had taken to I limit their numbers, and thus diminish the i chances of treachery or imprudence, their i terrible design would in all human proba- : bility have been frustrated, but for the un- happy difference between the king and bis people. For whatever caution might be used in holding foreign correspondence, it was scarcely possible that so vast and ter- rible a conspiracy could he known at foreign courts without some "inkling of the mat- ter" getting to the ears of some one of the numerous intelligent spies, who, for^'iin or other motives, busy themselves in tattling to the attaches of the embassies. And though no definite and tangible news of the matter in agitation reached the king from his ambassadors, yet he was warned by them that there assuredly was some deep and dangerous thing being planned in Ire- land. Had the king been in concord with his people at home, and had the Irish au- thorities been, as they in that case had been, men zealous in h-i service and in- debted only to his favour for their prefer- ment, even these slight hints would doubt- less have been do used as to have led to the discovery of the whole plot, and the pre- vention of one of the most extensive and terrible massacres that has ever occurred. But the lord lieutenant, the earl of Leices- ter, was detained in London, and sir John Borlase and sir AVilliam Parsons, who dis- charged his duties by commission, owed their promotion to the king's domestic ene- mies, the puritans, and therefore paid little attention to his warnings and made no use of them. So contemptuous were they, in- deed, of their royal master's advice, or so tbo> roughly besotted by their ignorant and con- ceited notions of English superiority, that even within four-and-twenty hours of the time appointed for the xt'holesale slaughter of the protestants of Ireland, these tho- roughly reckless or thoroughly incapable wen had not so much as doubled the guards at Dublin castle, though its routine guard was at that time but fifty men, while it held out to rebels the tempting booty of thirty-five pieces of artillery, and arms for ten thousand men, with ammunition in pro- portion. Yes; such was the fatal blindness or presumption of these men t The 23rd day of October, as we have mentioned, was the day appointed for the outbreak : the 22nd had alreadn arrived; Moore and M'Guire were in Dublin, their every signal carefully watched and zealously obeyed by a whole host of their disguised followers, and a still larger following was hourlv expected ; yet not a doubt or a fear disturbed the serenity of the castle, until now when the eleventh hour was past and the twelfth had well nigh struck, sir William Parsons was roused from his complacent indolence by the SCBRMKS OF IN8URHBCTI0N WBRB FLiNHED LOt«a BliFOBB TOBT TOOK FLACR. ii > it". : *;■ imiii v!»T7 TDB EXKBTIOnS or TBI COIISFIRATOBS ABBOAS FIBST ATTBACTBD IIOTICK. 556 ®l^e ^Treasury of l^latorp, $cc. appearance berore liiiu of one O'Conolly, who, though au Iriahmau and a conspirator, was also a protestant, and shuddered a« the very hour approached which was to doom every man, woman, and child of his own faith throughout Ireknd to inevitable death. The repentance and confession of O'ConoUy were in time, though barely in time, to save Dublin castle from capture, and the protestants of Dublin from death ; but, alas ! it was now beyond all human power to prevent revolt and massacre from stalkin);, unsparing and ghastly, through- out the rest of the land. Sir William Par- sons and his colleague, though the news fell upon them like a thunderbolt, acted with great promptitude and energy the moment that the positive assurances of in- stant danger, that were given to them by a repentant conspirator, convinced them how much they had erred in neglecting to found inquiries upon the hints they had received from their royal master himself. The guards were increased at the castle, and the gates shut ; officers were dispatched to appre- hend Moore and M'Guire, and to warn the protestants, from street to street, and even from house to house, to arm and prepare themselves for c death-struggle. Moore, shrewd, suspicious, and active, perceived that sometning had alarmed the castle, and he took his departure from the city before the officers could find him ; M'Guire and Mahony were less fortunate ; they were seized and examined ay the lords-justices, andMahoney'sconfessiovi i onveycdtothem the astounding and awful intelligence that the fate from which the protestants of Dublin had so narrowly escaped, was but too certainly in store for their unhappy co- religionists throughout all the rest of tlie unfortunate island. U'Neill and other leaders, not dreaming of anv check to their design taking place in Dublin, where the authorities had seemed so blind, deaf, and presumptuous past all human saving, were true to their time and to their ruthless purposes. The signal was given, and the signal was obeyed, not merely by those who had been initiated in the horrid design, but by the whole catho- lic population ; for, alas ! they who called upon that fervid and unreflecting people, called upon them to revenge the real or fancied wrongs over which each bosom had brooded in lon;^, silent, but i.ot the less stern yearning, for the vengeance that now was at hand; and they called upon that people, at once devout, ignorant, bigoted, and fierce, to do the deeds of demons, in that name whose very sound breathes peace and good-will to men. No matter what the tie which bound the catholic and the protestant together, the Irish and the English, no sooner was the dread signal given than those ties were laughed to scorn in most cases, broken and forgotten in all. To the astounded English the very first burst of the fury of tnose among whom thev had so long lived in all peace and good fellowship, and in the most implicit trust, it must have seemed as though they were labouring under some distempered dream, dreadful even as a dream, and far, far too grotesquely terrible to be any thing but one. Without the slightest previous diminution of the cordi- ality of apparent friendship, the Irish seized at first upon the property and houses of the astounded English of their various neighbourhoods. Even then the English suspected nothing of a universal conspi- racy; but each family, village, or town thus injured, strove to defend its own pro- perty; rapacity then disappeared for cruelty the most unsparing. Men, women, and children were indiscriminately put to death, with circumstances, in many cases, of too revolting a cruelty to be detailed. No for- mer kindness, no present connection, even, was suffered to save the unhappy creatures who were known to be guilty of the inex- piable crimes of being English and of being protestants ; and so extreme and insane was the bigoted rage of the thoroughly aroused demon of national and religious animosity, that in many cases the plunderers and murderers maimed, or wantonly and use- lessly put to death, cattle of which they had become possessed .by plundering the English, as though the very brute creation had acquired some ineradicable bad qual ty from merely having belonged to people of the detested nation. And it was by no means the least horrible feature of this truly horrible scene, that even the little children of the Irish, imitating the frantic ferocitjr of their parents, were to be seen bestowing their impotent blows and child- ish imprecations on the bodies of poor in- nocents of their own age. In but comparatively few cases had the English time or opportunity to make any attempt at defence ; and even in those cases fire usually drew them forth from their bar- ricaded houses, or both houses and owners perished in the same flames. But where from their numbers and desperation, or from the strength of the position they had taken up, the English protracted their de- fence and showed a dangerous front to their foes, perfidy was called in to the aid of the latter, who tempted their victims to surrender on the most solemn oaths of sparing them ; but the moment of their surrender was also the moment of their de- struction. Nay, in some cases even this shameful perjury was refined upon by the demoniac villainy of the rebels. They swore to spare some, only, of the victims, on con- dition that tlie spared should put the re- mainder to death. And when the insanity of terror had induced friends to slay friends, or relatives to slay relatives, — and, swch is the weakness of human nature when called upon to confront the mortal agony, there were, unfortunately, many such cases— the credulous criminals, they who had slaugh- tered that themselves might be spared, were themselves put to death with every circumstance of the most diabolically in- genious cruelty. Never in the world's history was massa- cre more unrelentingly carried on. Always VNDER THB BACBBD NAUB OF RBI.IOIU?! WKBE TUESB BNUItMITIBR COMMITTED ! CTBD nOTICK. TBB UORT DIBSVSTIMa BSriHEIIBNTS IN XOUTUBE WBBB BBBOBTBD TO. ®t)e 1|i»torB oi lErcIantJ. 557 prone to violence, and accuatomed to see or hear of bloodshed as the ordinary conseo 3uence from triflintr political or pecuniary iiptttes, the Irish were especially fit instru- ments of the fierce bigotry which assured them that in torturing and slaying the English heretics, they were doing a ser- vice very acceptable to God, as well as ne- cessary for their country. Though in every province of Ireland, and every town, ex- cept Dublin, these unutterable barbari- ties were perpetrated; yet as in Ulster the rebellion first broke out, so it was in Ulster that its cruelties were moat hideous and most conspicuous. Roger More, who, though he was enthusiastic in his hatred of the English, was by no means a cruel man, endeavoured to prevail upon O'Neill to put a stop to the heedless cruelties and slaughter. But the latter was brutal as he was fearlets, and while one English man, woman, or child remained alive in the north of Ireland, over the whole of which he now had the most unbounded authority, he seemed to think the work but imperfectly done. Grieved to the heart at the wide- spreading horrors of which his own exer- tions had been the first cause, Moore re- tired to Flanders. It is remarkable that while the English of Ulster, who chiefly were engaged in agri- culture, were wholly destroyed, the Scotch manufacturers of Belfast, Coleraine, and the other towns scarcely suffered at all. The Irish affected, and perhaps felt, a con- nection between themselves and men of a common, though very remotely common, ancestry; and thus the more timid had opportunity for flight, and the bolder for strengthening their defences and thus en- abling themselves to preserve by force, if necessary, that safety which, it is likely, had been accorded to them either in caprice, or treachery. This latter is, ind>^ed, the more probable, because had the Scotch been less selfishly intent upon their own sole safety, had they invited and mustered in their towns the persecuted and astounded Eng- lish, the rebels would have found the latter far less easy victims. O'Neill, who added talent to brutality, most probably foresaw this difiiculty ; and overcame it by his skil- ful appeal to that most deeply rooted of all human imperfections, selfishness. To the confession of O'ConnoUv, tardy as it was, it alone was owing that the Eng- lish in Ireland were not utterly destroyed. Dublin, saved by that man's confession, and the promptitude of sir William Far- sons, became the refuge of the maimed and destitute fugitives from the provinces. To these unhappy people the citizens of Dublin showed, as troop after troop of them arrived, each one more forlorn and exhausted and suffering then the last, the most unbounded and tender hospitality. Many were saved by the kindness and skill that were lavished upon their wounded and exhausted frames ; but a vast number per- ished of diseases caused by their sufferings long after they were safe in Dublin. It must not be supposed that the lords justices were idle while these horrors were being perpetrated all over the island : though they seem chiefly to have consulted the safety of the capital. They immedi- atelv summoned to Dublin all detachments of the army. Many of those detachments had been either hemmed in beyond the power of escape, or cut to pieces at the Dreaking out of the rebellion. But upwards of fifteen hundred arrived at Dublin, and tothit considerable body upwards of four thousand were added by enlistment, and armed from the ample stores in the castle. A detachment of aix hundred was tent to the relief of Tredah, which was invested by the rebels ; but on being attacked, this de- tachment was completely panic-stricken, and routed, almost without firing a shot. By far the greater number of them were slain ; and in addition to this large loss of men, the English had to regret that so many stand of arms had fallen into the hands of the rebels. Considerable blame has been attached to the lords justices for the exclusive atten- tion they btstowed upon the safety of Dublin ; but though they undoubtedly do seem to have been quite sufficiently careful upon that point, it must not be forgotten that the greater part of the force at their command was untried and undisciplined; that the whole island abounded with armed rebels; that in the case of Tredah their (endeavour to extend their rule had been signally unfortunate; and that the most experienced military men of the present day would find it difficult, in such a state of the whole country, to suggest a better nlaii for the cmplovment of a small and out partially disciplined force, than that of keeping open a shelter and a rallying place for the fugitives from other parts of the country, and one, too, which ensured communication with England. It would seem, however, that some opportunities of enterprise against the rebels were really and glaringly neglected, since the brave earl of Ormond complained that the lords justices bestowed far too exclusive a care upon themselves and the capital. The catholic English of the pale at the outset of the barbarous massacre expressed their strongest indi^-nation against the rebels, and applied to government for arms, that they might defend themselves and aid ia preserring Ireland to the English un^jwn. If the rebellion had broken out upon merely political grounds, it is most likely, as they liad so deep a stake in the country, that they would have kept this promise. But the political rancour of the rebels, as we have already shown, was joined and al- most merged in their religious bigotry ; and this their common feeling soon caused the catholics of the pale not merelv to lay aside, if they had ever entertained it, the intention of defending the government, but even to range themselves, with lord Gormanston for their general, on the re- bels' side, and in -heir violence and cru- elty to the unfortunate protestants they actually outdid the old Irish. ITIBB COMMITTED ! A?TS or PIBBCK BBTALIATION WBBB OVTBN COMMITTBD BX FROTBSTANTI. [3 B 8 ' ;i V. TU* CATUOLIC .'>ABTT TERHBO THB BEBKL8 "OISCOMTBHTBO OBNTLBUBM." 558 Vlfft ^rcaauru of l^iaioro, $cc. As tlie puritan violence of conduct and threat bad furnished the rebels with a strong argument when rebellion was first proposed by Roger Moore, so it afterwards was made the subject of a gross fraud by sir Phelim O'Neill. That cruel and crafty man having, on one of his murdering and marauding expeditions, found in the house of one of his victims a royal patent, re- moved the royal seal and affixed it to a forged commission, by which it appeared that he and other rebel leaders were ex- horted and authorized by both the king and queen to take up arms to defend them and the roval prerogative against the vio- lence and insolence of the puritans. This impudent forgery could scarcely fail to have great influence upon the ignorant multitude, who, though they could not read the instrument, would see the most authentic and indisputable evidence in the great seal ; and it is probable that tliou- sands who were active in rebellious ruffian- ism conscientiously believed that they were doing good service to the king. The tremendous "troubles" by which all England was now agitated prevented the king from sending the requisite sup- plies to Ireland; the consequence was, tliat the unfortunate peasantry were plun- dered not only by the Irish rebels, but also by the English soldiers whenever these latter sallied forth I'roni Dublin. A short truce at length took place. The very rebels themselves were wearied with the loni; continuance of strife and blood- shed ; and the marquis of Ormond being desirous of personally fighting for the king against the rebellious puritans in England, and wishing, also, to procure all the co- operation that was practicable from Ire- land, entered into a correspondence with sir Phelim O'Neill, between whom and the rebel parliament nt Kilkenny and the royal authorities at Dublin a peace was agreed upon. How long so bloodthirsty and turbulent a person as O'Neill would, under the most favourable circumstances have remained peaceable, it is difficult to guess; most probably, no longer than until the country had sufficiently recovered to offer new booty to himself and his fellow bandits. But he was not allowed to exhibit himself as a faithful keeper of his solemn agreement even so long. The pope looked longingly upon the peter-pence and the absolute au- thority of the green isle ; and the instant he heard that O'Neill had agreed to give the torn land and the suffering people rest, he sent a confidential priest named Rinuc- cini as his nuncio. Rinuccini took over a few men, a large supply of arms and ammunition, and a very considerable sum of gold. As he was, ac- cording to his instructions, even profuse in his distribution of the money among the influential leaders, he found no difficulty in procuring the answer that he required to the cry of " war to the heretics I wnr, war ! " which formed the burden of all his dis- courses. While he was exerting himself to procure a renewal of war, in which he suc- ceeded to his utmost wish, he exerted him- self also in preparing Ireland to become not only catholic but also monastic as ever. Whatever else the court of Rome under- stood, it was profoundly ignorant of political econom.y. For while that grasping and in- solent power was ready to brave all divine laws and outrage all human feelings in its ardour for conquering countries, it was to the full as anxious to impoverish as to conquer them ; and while desirous of tribute, was ever bent upon multiplying those non-producing communities, which could neither pav tribute themselves nor exist but by huf(ely diminishing that which but for them might have been wrung from the laitjr. It was in accordance with this equally invariable and ignorant policy of Rome that Rinuccini now did all that ex- hortation, threat, intreaty, and gold could accomplish, to rebuild, beautify, and re- people the religious houses that had been demolished by Henry VIII.; and, still farther, the monks, whether Jesuits or franciscans, carmelites or dominicans, who were placed in the principal abbeys and monasteries that were restored under his own directions, had it, in charge frt>m the zealous Jesuit, that they should be instant in season and out of season in exhorting the laity to aid in restoring and beautifying all the monasteries throughout the island, of which it is quite clear that Rome felt confident of obtaining the com- plete dominion. The assistance which the rebels received from Rome enabled them to recommence and continue the civil war with great ad- vnntage over the royal force, for the king was now in the power of the puritans ; and much as those bigots hated the papist!! of Ireland, they loved their own aggrandize- ment still more ; and while thev obtained large sums from the gulled people of Eng- land, under the pretence of putting down the Irish rebels, they cooll;^ applied those sums to the support of their own treason- able schemes, and left the luckless autho- rities at Dublin wholly unaided. Rinuccini, though his ostensible mission was only of a spiritual character, no doubt had more ample secret powers and instruc- tions. At all events, he by no means con- fined himself to matters spiritual, but iu- terfered, and with so much insolence, in civil affairs, and showed so evident an in- tent to usurp all authority, that even the most bigoted among the Irish rebels be- came disgusted, and he was at length fairly driven out of the country. After the murder of Charles I. that event added to the previously existing topics of strife in Ireland. The "king's party" in- cluded not a few of those who had rebelled against the authority of Charles I., and was, from a variety of causes, so strong, that the marquis of Ormoad, then at Pnris with the (|uccn and Charles II., complied with the invitation that was sent to him to go over and take the chief command, in the hope that both his experience, his cour- O S! H I TUB rBOTBSTANTS rSRSBVHBnn IN CALLING TUBM " RBBBL8 ' AND "PAPISTS.' A.D. 1649.— C ROM WILL ABBITBS IN SVBLIIf, WITH A lAaOB ABMT, AUG. IS. M m ^^e l^istors of Srelantr. 659 BBC, nbility, and hit popularity, a» being, himself an Irishman, would wake hi- oo efticient a rallyine point for the royahbts, that Ireland might enable the young king at some future day to reconquer England. For a time, in truth, it seemed ns if this really would be the case. Notwithstanding the numerous causes of hate and strife which not merely divided the Irish people into royalists and parliamentarians, but also divided each of those two leading par- ties into many smaller factions that were cither openly or secretly at the bitterest enmity, all differences among the royalists seemed to cease. Ormond was most cor- dially received among them, and speedily found himself at the head of an army of nearly twenty thousand men. Colonel Jones, who was a mere creature of the par- liament, and to whom Ormond had de- livered the chief command in Ireland when he himself hastened to aid the untbrtunate Charles I. in England, was compelled to bestow all his care upon Dublin, where the parliament left him unaided, Ormond, therefore, found but little difliculty in the earlier part of his attempt to reduce Ire- land to subjection to Charles II. At Dun- dalk, Ormond had no sooner summoned the place, than the garrison mutinied against their governor. Monk, and compel- led him to surrender without tiring a shot. Tredah and several other places were taken with comparatively small trouble and loss ; and Ormond now proposed, after giving liis troops necessary repose, to advance to the siege of Dublin. Could he have succeeded in that important point, it is very possi- ble that Ireland would have wholly been lost to the parliament ; for, considering the enthusiastic nature of the Irish people, it is highly probable the appearance of the young king in Dublin, whither he would have proceeded immediately on the success of Ormond, would have united the whole Irish people in defence of their king against the puritans, and their country against usurpers. But a change had come over the spirit of things. Cromwell was now more potent in England than the pnrliamcnt whose tool he had seemed to be . and though England S resented abundant labour and no little anger, general Cromwell grudged Waller and Lambert the glory, which both aspired to, of conquering Ireland, in the character of its lord-lieutenant. With his usual art, he procured his own nomination ; and, with his usual promptitude and energy, he no sooner received his appointment than he prepared to fulfil his task. He immedi- ately sent over a strong reinforcement of both horse and foot to colonel Jones, in Dublin, Never was reinforcement sent at a more critically welcome moment. Or- mond, and Inchiquin, who hod joined him, had actually proceeded to repair a fort close to Dublin, and had carried forward their work very considerably toward com- pletion. Colonel Jones, who, though he was originally educated not for the army but for the law, was a gallant and energetic officer, had no sooner received this rein- forcement, than he tallied out suddenly upon the royalists, and put them com- pletelv to the rout. One thousand of them were killed; and twice that number, with all the ammunition and munitions of the royal army, graced the triumphal return of the colonel to Dublin. In the midst of the joy and exultation of the garrison and Eeople of Dublin at this success, Cromwell imself, accompanied by Ireton, arrived upon the scene. Tredah, or Drogheda, a strong and well fortified town near Dublin, was garrisoned for the king bv three thou- sand men, principally English, under the command of sir Arthur Aston, an able and experienced officer. Thither Cromwell hastened, battered a breach in the wall, and led the wa;^ in person to an assault. Though the parliamentary soldiery of Eng- land, with Cromwell and scarcely less ter- rible Ireton at their head, sword in hand, were not the men to be easily repelled, the garrison of Tredah showed that they were "English, too;" for the assailants were twice beaten back with great carnage. A third assault was more successful, and partly in implacable rage at having been even temporarily held in check, and partly as the surest way to deter other places from venturing to resist his formidable power, Cromwell, to his eternal disgrace, gave the fatal word " No quarter ;" and to deter- mined was he in this barbarous resolution, that even a wretched handful of men w ho were spared by the carnage, were, on the fact becoming known to Cromwell, imme- diately put to the sword. The excuse that Cromwell made for this barbarity, so tho- roughly disgraceful to the soldierly charac- ter, was his desire to avenge the shocking crueltiei of the massacre. Professing so much religious feeling, even that motive would scarcely have palliated his cruelty ; but the excuse was as ill-founded as the measure was ruffianly, for the garrison were not Irishmen stained with the horrible guilt of the ever execrable massacre, but, as Cromwell well knew. Englishmen, true alike to their monarch, their faith, and their country. Having thus barbarously destroyed the entire garrison of Tredah, with the excep- tion of one solitary soldier, whose life was merely spared that he might carry through the country the tale of the prowess and rcmorselessness of the English general, Cromwell advanced upon Wexford. Ilern he had the same success, and showed the tame murderous severity as at Tredah ; and in less than a year from his landing in Ireland he was in possession of all its chief towns and fortresses, and had driven both English royalists and Irish rebels to such straits, that no fewer than forty thousand withdrew from the island altogether. But Scotland now attracted the ambition of Cromwell; and having looked well to the garrisoning of the iirincipal towns, and sent a vast number of the inhabitants, and especially young people, of both sexes, to the West Indies as slaves, he left the go- g IND "PAPISIS. TUB BXCESaiVK CBt>Bt.TIKa OF CBOMWBLI, IN IBlStANB SUBPASB ALL BEMKF. ■ ■| ■1 1 n it' A. p. 1668,— OBOMWRLL, Il< CONTINUAL DBIAD Or AIIABIINATION, SI«D IKFT. 3. 560 M M U K > X ! ^^e ^rcasurg of l^istori), $cc. vernment of Ireland to Ireton, upon whom also devolved the task of finishing the sub- jection of the country. Ireton, who was both a stout soldier and an accomplished otiicer, followed the parting advice and in- structions of Cromwell to the very letter. With a well disciplined and well f uppUed array of thirty thousand men, he ruled the country with an iron and unfaltering hand. Wherever the rebels appeared in force, there he was sure to meet them ; and wherever he met, there he also defeated them. This war was almost literally without an excep- tion against the native Irish, for the Eng- lish royalists had departed before Crom- well committed the lord-lieutenantcy to Ire- ton. This latter, therefore, was probably quite sincere, however otherwise blamewor- tliy, when he alleged, as the cause of his inflexible severity to the prisoners he took in his various battles and skirmishes, his determination to take full vengeance for the massacre of the protestants. And however much we may pttv the fate of those pri- soners, many of wnom, in all human pro- bability, had no kind of concern in the massacre, it is impossible not to see in the cruRltf of Ireton a fearful consequence of the original crime of the Irish themselves. There was one prisoner, however, for whose death, or even for the ignominious manner of it, the most sincere and earnest hater of severity could scarcely find a tear. The faithless, selfish, and black-hearted Phelim O'Neill, the real autlior of the worst atrocities of the rebellion, was at length taken prisoner; and if ever the gibbet was rightfully employed in taking aw.iy human lite, it was most certainly so on this occa- sion. As far as his means had permitted hiui, this man, who was in every sense of the word a mere bandit, caring little for creed and less for country, and intent solely upon his own aggrandizement, had rivulled Nero and all the worst tyrants and mis- creants of antiquity. That he at one time contemplated the possibility ol making him- self king of Ireland, his whole conduct du- ring the stay of the nuncio Rinuccini goes strongly to show; and however great the horrors inflicted upon Ireland by Cromwell, whose name to this day is the bye-word of terror throughout the island, that unhappy country was at least fortunate in being re- conquered by even a Cromwell, instead of fulling under the awful dictatorship of an O'NeiU. The only town of any grreat strength or importance that had now not yielded to the Englisli was Limerick. Ajifainst this town Ireton led his men with his usual success. A fierce resistance was made to him, and when he at length took it by assault, he took a no less fierce revenge. But here it was ordained that both his success and his crtjulty should terminate. The crowded state of tlie place and the scarcity of pro- visions had generated one of those fevers so common in Ireland, which arc as infec- tious as the plague of the East, and nearly as fatal. Iretun had scarcely stilled the tumult and excitement inseparable from the taking of a besieged town, when he waa attacked by thia fever; and as he was already very much weakened by fatigues and exposure, it very speedily proved fatal. After what we have said of his inflexible severity to his Irish prisoners, it mav seem paradoxical to afilnn that his deatu was a new calamity to Ireland. And yet as such we really view it. We firmly believe that he was loMy led to that cruel inflexibility by a sincere horror of the orueltv of the rebels, and by an equally sincere belief that it was hia duty to ooth God and man to avenge it. But in his civil administration he was a just and calm governor ; and as the country became orderly and obedient, so would he, we feel sure, have relaxed from his sternness and become the best resident ruler that Ireland ever possessed. Ireton was succeeded in the lieutenancy by Ludlow. lie drove the native Irish, almost without exception, into Connaught ; and so completely was the Irish cause a lost one, that Clanricarde, who had succeeded O'Neill as its chief hope and champion, lost all heart and confidence, made his peace with parliament, and was allowed to find a shelter in England, where he resided in peace until his death. Under Ludlowl and Henry Cromwell, Ireland, although ih an awful state, as the consequence of so nmuy years' continuance of all the ravages and neglect attendant on civil war, grndualiy improved. On the restoration ot Charles II., the duke of Ormond, who was con- demned to death at the same time as O'Neill, but spared and allowed to retire to France, returned to Ireland us lord lieuten- ant. Though brave and accomplished as a military man, Ormond, unlike soldiers in general, set a due value upon the more peaceable arts, and he wiselv considered that the best way to ensure the peace and the obedience of a people, is to encourage commerce and manufactures among them. And, accordingly, he exerted himself to promote the immigration of English and foreign artizans, and established linen and woollen factories in Clonmel, Carrick and other towns. In the first named of these he established, also, a manufactory of that most beautiful of all the materials of Indies' dress which is known by the name of pop- lin, an article of commerce from which Ireland, for many years after she had for- gotten the very name of the benefactor to whom she owed its possession, derived an immense annual income. The duke of Ormond continued to be lord lieutenant of Ireland during the whole of the reign of Charles II.; and the im- provement of the country was proportionate to his great and well-directed efforts to that end. On the accession of James II., that monarch, who was extremely anxious to fill all the ofliccs of that country with zealous catholics, as though he foresaw that it would one day be the la^t spot of his do- minions upon which he could, with even a chance of succesi', attempt to defend his crown, removed the duke ; but Ireland still i continued steadily to improve in wealth, CHABLBB II. WAS PROCLAIUBU, WITH OIIBAT JOY, TUilOUQUOUT IBKLAND. Diao i*rT. 3. OUTI.AWBIia WBHB BBTBBamD, AKO BBBELS DAILY TAKBIf INTO rATOUB. ^})t 1§(8iorB of lEtcIantJ. £61 lUOUT IIIKLAND. niorRls, and comfort, until tlic ahdicntion of James once more involved that ill-fated country in warfare. Aided by Louis XIV., James led a stroiijj force to Ireland, where he landed, at Kinsnle, on the I'th of March, ir.89. The earl of Tyrcoiini l.whom he had himself made lord licuteni-ut, escorted him to Dublin, where he was received with every demonstration of loyalty and respect by the catholic clergy and pcoiile, the former meet- ing him at some distance from the city in their full clerical attire. But his whole conduct while in the country was arbitrary and mischievous in the extreme. As if the country had not already suffered. long nnd severely enough from religious diflTercn- ces, he called them into fierce and active life again, by arbitrarily dismisning from the parliament the whole of the protes- tant members. Having thus done what was most calculated to embitter men's minds, and make any disputes that might occur between men of the opposite faiths desperate and fatal, he next proceeded to make it quite certain that of such disputes there should be no scarcity. Whatever might be the original sins of the act of settlement, bv which all the real property tenures of the island were fixed, men's minds were now accustomed to consider that settlement as final and indefeasible. Lands and tenements had changed owners again and again since the passing of that act. To take the land from persons who had paid fur it, merely because the origi- nal holders held under that act, was not merely arbitrary, but dishonest ; and in the spirit which dictated such a course, we see a spirit not less detestable than that of any of the agrarian theorists, who have from time to time varied the vagaries of mad or dishonest political speculators, by gravely proposing, that lands, which during many centuries have been in a state of improvement, should be taken from those whose toil, expense, and skill — or those of their ancestors — hove made them worth something, and given them to those who have done nothing towards their improve- ment ; for no better reason than that of allowing them, in due course of neglect, to relapse into their original condition of swamp and heath, with their inevitable concomitants, fever and famine. Even here James did not halt in his ingenious efforts for deteriorating the condition of the coun- try to which he bad appealed for shelter and aid. Having unsettled men's minds by a point- ed and insulting exclusion of men of pro- testant faith and profession from parlia- ment, and having literally robbed others of their property ; having done all this, James now proceeded to debase the coin ; a mea- sure destructive of trade and contidciice, of private enterprize and of public credit, wherever it is ventured upon. To tamper with the coin of a country, to however tri- fling an extent, is to do that country an in- jury which must be great, but of which no human sagacity and skill can enable any one to say what will be the whole extent. But Jr.mcs did not merely tamper with the oan of Ireland ; he debased it in a manner so wholesale and so sliamcleas, that one might almost suppose that he foresaw that he would ultimately be driven from Ireland bjr the son-in-law who had already driven him from England. Harsh as this censure may sound, it will not seem too harsh to our readers, when they are told that James caused several pieces of brass artillery to be melted down and coined. The utmost value of each of these coius was sixpence, but the current value given to them by the preposterously dishonest order of James was five pounds I Not contented with subsist- ing his arm^, his suite, and his friends, upon this shamelul difference between the nomi- nal and the intrinsic value of his currency, he went still farther, and did what wc think would justify even sterner censure than we have pronounced unon him ; for with thit lame bast money, so oase as to have scarcely any intrinsic value at all, he purchaieil rait quuntiiiea of every detcription nf goods and shipped them off to Prunee. Nothing could have been more impolitic than this varied and persevering injustice to his Irish subjects; by it James not only sharpened the zeal against him of the pro- testants, and made them more than ever willing to die, to the very last man, rather than live under his rule; but it also alien- ated many of the catholics, and consider- ably abated the confidence and zeal of still more. That he would ever, under Any cir- cumstances, have succeeded in recovering England by means of Ireland, or even in holding the latter as an independent king- dom, no one who appreciates the superiority of AVilliam III. con for a moment suppose. But it is by no means so certain that James would not, by wiser, more lenient, and more just conduct^ have held out much longer, and have finally retired from Ireland under better circumstances, and on terms far more advantageous to himself. In the province of Ulster, where nearly the whole population were traders and pro- testants, and where very much of the real property tenure was affected by the act of settlement, the tyranny of James aroused a spirit of the mcst determined resistance. The king, obstinate in his determinations and implacable in his resentments, looked upon the natural dislike of his subjects to a wholesale destruction of both their poli- tical liberty and their private property, as nothing less than treason against his autho' rity ; and made war upon them as fiercely as though they had had no more right or tit le to their land than the meanest of the fierce mercenaries by whom he was accompanied. Derry, commanded by the famous protes- tont clergyman, George Walker, closed her gates against him ; ond to the steady bravery with which, under circumstances of r.uper- human constancy, that city was held out against liim, as more particularly deRcribed in the history of England, it waAMES II. rs of war, and those j foreign service to ; vera to be conveyed of the government ; nd gentry, without us distinction, were keeping and CHrry- )r defence of their F peace were always nable and honour- surely be shorn of more than half its was fairly settled -nd as well as Eng- t manifest improve- imerce. Ignorant or indeed, still found y speeches and writ- y or politic restric- )h government placed ish wool ; and in the ing's law, which pre- iament from passing ot first received the rliament of England. f of Ireland tends to ess for an immediate untry was into r^iigi- law was the greatest J been bestowed upon iiament could decide out reference to par- ed by an uncontrolled Id have been nothing ! renunciation of the itreds of this or that have the temporary [ancy. But the event Dg upon the subject , The country, under hich factious men at implained of, recovered aculous rapidity from iars of strife and wan- ery description of la- and more in requ'tst; de became more and agriculturists of the ;o their export trade, nd a profitable market tures of Ulster. That 1 exist was inevitable ; lot wholly governed by that Ireland improved lidly, upon the whole, It elapsed between the ad the accession to the Jeorge III., that is to 591 to the year 1760. e very first year of his lincere anxiety to pro- y and comfort of his ilic works of great ex- e gave employment to ho, in the inevitable B and speculation, were roads were made, piers B sea-ports, a splendid imerick, and that mag- lanned which connects ,INBN TB.\DK. BABL tUUthn ArrulNTED I.OnD-LICnTBNAIlT: AHBIVBS IN IBILAND, 1782. ^fft l^iatorp of ErclantJ 563 Dublin with the Shannon, carrying busi> ness, employment, and prosperity through- out its course. A single glance at the ex- teat and number of the public works thus commenced, and a single liour of reflection upon their inevitable effect in giving an im- pulse equally to the enterpriie of the capi- talist and the industry of the poor man, whose only capital is his labour, will prove equally the wisdom and the good feeUng of the king and his advisers ; and, if it were necessary, we should be able to prove be- yond all dispute, and without any difficulty, that so far as this wisdom and good feeling failed to preserve Ireland from a recurrence of violence, outrage, deep wrong to many, and still deeper suffering to more, Ireland in this case, as in almost all previous cases, was afflicted and arrested in her course of prosperity, not by the cruelty or the neg- lect, the oppression or the ignorance of England, but simply by the intense and untamed propensity of Ireland's own sons to make their own wretchedness, in despite of all that could be planned for their bene- fit by wisdom, and accomplished by wealth and liberality. In 1786, that perpetual source of ill blood, the tithe system, met with a deter- mined resistance from a laree party in the south of Ireland, who styled themselves Right-boyt. They administered oaths, bind- iug the people not to pay more tithe per acre than a certain sum they fixed — to per- mit no proctors— and not to allow the cler- gyman to take his tithes in kind. They also proceeded to fix the rents of land — to raise the wages of labour — and to oppose the collection of the tax called hearth- money. It was impossible that the legisla- ture could allow this violation of the law to pas> unnoticed, and in the following year an act was passed, to prevent tumultuous assemblies and illegal combinations. A very few years passed from this time before the French revolution broke out; when all who were dissatisfied with the go- vernment, and hoped to profit by the con- vulsion into which the country was likely to be thrown, as well as those who sighed for catholic emancipation, or clamoured for the redress of grievances, hailed the success of revolutionary principles in that coun- try, as the day-spring of liberty in their own ; but while they professed to forward a " brotherhood of affection, a communion of rights, and a union of power among Irish- men of every religious persuasion," the leaders of this " association" contemplated nothing short of the subversion of the mo- narchy in Ireland, and a perfect fraterniza- tion with the republicans of France, whom they invited to come to their assistanc-. That such was their intention, was after- wards fully proved on the trials of Nap- pcr Tandy and others; and it was also evident from the formation in Dublin of national guards, distinguished by a green uniform, and by buttons with a harp under a cap of liberty instead of a crown. The 9th of December, 1792, was appointed for the general muster of these guards; but government interfered with their proceed- ings, and the muster never took place. But although the progress of insurrec- tion was staved for a time, the spirit of dis- affection only lay dormant till a more fa- vourable opportunity should offer for dis- playing its activity. At length, however, an arrangement was made between the ringleaders and the French government, that an armament should be sent in the winter of 1796-7, with whom the Irish in- surgents would be ready to co-operate. Accordingly, the invading fleet anchored in Bantry Bay, on the 24th of December, 1796 ; but as the general and a great part of the troops were on board ships that had not arrived, the admiral, after waiting for him a few days, returned to Brest ; having previously ascertained, however, that the country was in a better state of defence, and that the population was less disaffected to the English government, than the French directory had reason to suppose. In May, 1797, a proclamation was issued, declaring the civil power inadequate to quell the insurrection, and ordering the military to act upon the responsibility of their own ofBcers. Many severities were consequently practised ; and the United Irishmen, perceiving that their only chance of success was by assuming the appear- ance of being reduced to obedience, they conducted their operations in a more secret manner, discontinuing their meetings, and putting on the semblance of loyalty with such consummate art, that, the government being deceived by these appearances, the administration of justice was again, in about three months from the date of the proclamation, committed to the civil power. The organization of the United Irishmen, however, had been going on all the time in a manner the most secret and effectual. Secretaries, delegates, committees, and even an executive directory were respectively en- gaged in furnishing supplies and arrang- ing the materials necessary for carrying out their plans ; and in the spring of 1797, the Irish union was extending far and wide throughout the island. Not being able to propagate their instructions by means of the public press, hand-bills were privately printed and circulated by their agents. In theie, abstinence from spiritvoua liquors was strongly recommended— for the two-fold rea- son of impairing the revenue, and of guard- ing against intoxication, lest the secrets of the society should be incautiously divulged to the agents of government. Those who thought they knew the character of the lower Irish would not have believed that any motive would induce them to follow this advice; but it was so generally and faithfully obeyed, that drunkenness among United Irishmen became a comparatively rare occurrence. The members were cau- tioned against purchasing the quit-rents of the crown, as the bargains would not be valid in case of a change in the govern- ment; and the taking of bank notes was also to be especially avoided. These things indicated an approaching revolution, and THK BABI. OF WKSTMOBBLAWP BOCCKMDBD TBB DUKB OP BUCKINGHAM, 1789. O H H 1.1 H M K < I f I ■ y .1 >! \ i ::(^i ■ ABL riTCWILLIAM ArFOINTBD V1CBK01 IN 1795, BUT BOON BBCALLBD. 564 ^i^e ^teasuro of I^isiorg, $cc. to effect it tliejr looked with intense anxiety to France for military aid. Tliii was rcndily promiied them; and preparations fur the invasion of Ireland were made at Brest and in the Tcxel ; but lord Duncan's victory off Camperdown rendered the latter abortive, while that at Brest met with unexpected delays. By thii time the number of men sworn into the conspiracy amounted nearly to half a million, and plans were formed for the simultaneous rising of this body; their filans were, however, defeated by the vigi- ance of the ministry, and some of their most influential leaders arrested. In March, 1798, government issued a proclamation for the immediate suppression of the disaffec- tion and disorders in Ireland ; while gene- ral Abercrombie, at the head of the forces, marched into the most disturbed districts ; not, however, till the insurrection bad risen to a most alarming height. Vigorous mea- sures were now taken ; and gensral Lake, who succeeded Abercrombie in the com- mand of the army, proclaimed martial law, and eventually crushed the rebellion in the raemorable conflict at Vinegar-hill. But it is needless to proccotl : for the scenes which followed, and the affairs of Ireland fenerally, are so bound up with those of Ingland from this period, that the reader will find the material points already suc- cinctlv given. And, in sooth, where there is nothing pleasant to recite, it is an irk- some task to prolong a narration that may be speedily concluded. We shall therefore here introduce a few remarks relative to the inevitalilc tendency of the repeal agita- tion, which at present bids fair to dismem- ber the British empire; unless, indeed, the machinations of the arch-traitor and his abettors speedily receive their merited re- ward — "a consummation devoutly to be wished" by all who would preserve Ire- land from the horrors of civil war ; for a war of surpassing horrors it assuredly will be, if once began, now that the poison of sedition has been so thoroughly instilled into the minds and hearts of the people, in every part of the island. Insulting epithets, sarcastic gibes, the basest falsehoods that malice could suggest or impudence give utterance to, have %een used by O'Connell again and again, to bring the government and people of England into contempt ; the most furious denunciations against the " Saxon," be has coupled with tlie mean- est sycophancy to an ignorant rabble ; he has boasted of his power to wage success- ful war against the British army, while in the same breath he has affected to recom- mend peace, or insinuated that the soldiers were friendly to the cause of repeal. " If," said he, at a recent " monster" meeting, " it should be necessary for me to call this vast assemblage to arms— to bid you march to the battle-field, there is not one of you that would refuse the summons ; ay, and ?our enemies know it as well as I do. Yes, have set them at defiance, and I defy them again. I despise their threats of coer- cion." — Again, " I am no vain prophet. / ant no deluding juyglcrl God has given you the highest inonil— he will, tlicrvforp, give you the highest tenipurnl — blosiiinji;^! / am leading you into no crime. You may exhibit your strength thus in peaceful ma- jesty; and ir tub timb should come run VSINO IT, TIIKHR IS OKR IIRRB WILt, TKM, lou HOW TO USB IT. Voe to them teho nf. tack you I Let the villaitiB attack us if they dare! No master of thirty legiong ever had more power than J have enjoyed within the last fix monthg. I havr cowkd Enoi.aku. I IIAVB COWED TUK EnOMIU MIMSTSn. IrBLAND ailALI, AND MUST BB FRBB." To write at all on Ireland, and not to allude to the threatened crisis which is thus so ostentationsly announced, would seem to be a positive dereliction of one's duty. To hear that the people arc called together for an illegal object, in multitudes so immense that they are only to be esti- mated by " hundreds of thousands," as- sembled at one time and place — with sniue fifty thousand, more or less, perhaps, tlian attended the bidding of the "liberator" at a previous "monster" meeting;— to see that the same thread-bare fustian is for ever made to supply the place of truth and fair argument ; and that, with th^ most specious lip-loyalty to the queen, icr uu- tliority is openly derided, and her govern- ment treated with ineffable contempt ;— to know all this, and to suppose that tlie ex- cited passions of "millions" are to be al- layed with as much ease as they have been lashed into fury ; or to believe that the good of Ireland and its inhabitants has ever been the real object of this monster -making, money-raising system of rebellion,— would be, according to our honest conviction, to exhibit a criminal apathy in the liour of danger, arising from a blind and fatul cre- dulity. Shakspeare says, — "When clouds are seen, wise men put on their cloaks." | That we may not, however, be subject to ' the charge of taking a one-sided view of Irish grievances, we shall make a few ex- tracts from the observations of an able popular writer, who in discussing political questions is never justly charged with any lack of liberal sentimeuts. "In truth, however, this independence was apparent only. The wretched state of the elective franchise in Ireland was totally inconsistent with any tliinj; like real independence ; and so venal was the Irish parliament, that any minister, how unpopular 80c\t'i', had no difflculty in se. curing a majority in that asaembl}-. Uencc the anticipations in which the liiorc smi- guine Irish patriots had indulged \rere des- tined soon to experience a most moitifyina; disappointment ; and this, and tlic hopes inspired by the French revolution, teruii- nated in tlie rebellion of 17'JS, which was not suppressed without a repetition of I lie former scenes of devastation and blood- ' shed. ! "The British government at lenRth wise- ly determined to effect a legislative union ,.. I TBB UNION OF IRELAND WITS ENOLAND TOOK FLACB JAN. 1, ISO). ZZi \ ON RECALLBD. 17/ci'/ God has given ill — lie will, therefore, ; tcnipornl — blessinga. no crime. You may 1 thus in peaceful ina- MR BUOVLO COME ruR ONK IIRItR WILL TKM, Woe to them u-ho at- Uains attack «s \f fhcy thirty legions ever had ave enjoyed within the AVR COWKD EkOI.AM), Enomih minister. must bb free." Ireland, and not to itcned crisis which is isly announced, would ve dereliction of one's the people are called nl object, in multitudes ley are only to be esti- ds of thousands," ns- ! and place — with some ! or less, perhaps, than ng of the "liberator" ster" meetinff ;— to see I ead-bare fustian is for j the place of truth and 1 1 that, with thb most to the queen, k<>r uu- ridcd, and her govern- aeffable contempt ;— to o suppose that the ex- oillions " are to be al- ease as they have been to believe that the good ihabitants has ever been this monster - raakiiij^, em of rebellion,— would ir honest conviction, to apathy in the hour of a a blind and fatal ci'c- 3 says, — seen, wise men put on , however, be subject to ng a one-sided view of e shall make a few ex- bservations of an able r> in discussing political iustly charged with any imeuts. ever, this independence The wrolclied state tnchise in Ireland was it with any tiling like ; and so venal was the that any minister, how had no diftieulty in se. n that assembly. Hence m which the more saii- 8 had indulged were dea- rience a most nioitifyin'^ itid this, and the hopes rencli revolution, teruii- lion of 17'JS, which was bout a repetition of tlie devastation and blood- irernmciit at lenRthwise- ffcct B legislative union '* B JAN. 1, ISOI WU»:« BAD MEN C0»8PI«E, IT II HUB fO» OOOD MEN TO CUMOIKK. ^^c T5lstoro of Krdanty. 5G5 between Great Britain and Ireland, and to suppress the separate legislature of the latter. This nieas'ire, notwitlistanding a strenuous opposition, was happily carried, and took etfect from the Ist of January, IHOI. And, unless it were resolved or wished to put an end to all political con- nection between the two countries, no- thing could be more inexpedient and ab- surd than the existence of a separate inde- pendent legiilature for Ireland. Perpetual jealousies could not have failed to arise between it and the legislature of Great llritain, which must iieccnsarily in the end have led to estrangement, and probably separation. A legislative union was the only means of obviating these and other sources of mischief ; its repeal would make Ireland a theatre for all sorts of projects and intrigues, and it would be sure to be fol- lowed, at DO distant period, by the dismem- berment of the emfire,"—it'Culloch'$ Diet. POSTSCRIPT. Our preceding remarks were written, and first published, at (he precise time that Mr. O'ConiicIl was not only vauntingly pro- phesying the repeal of the union, but that Ireland would see her own independent parliament legislating in Dublin by the approaching Christmas. For a long time previous, his delusive promises had been echoed throughout the land ; and the exul- tation of his supporters and followers- priestly as well as secular— at the prospect of so soon obtaining " Ireland for the Irish," was as extravagant, as his ha- rangues and proclamations were artful, in- lulting, and fulsome. It was too apparent, at the same time, to escape observation, that while he boasted of preserving the peace, and charged the government with attempting to overawe the people by the presence of the military, the mighty " gatherings" of repealers were conducted to the ground, in companies and detachments, with all the precision and re- gularity of disciplined bodies. At Tara, Mullaghmast, and many other places, these monster mcetinjss had thus displayed their "moral" strength. At length, great pre- parations having been made for holding a repeal meeting at Cloutarf, near Dublin, on Sunday the 15th of October, 1843, which was expected to he one of immense magni- tude, the lord-lieutenant, with the lord- chancellor, and other members of the Irish government, suddenly held a council at the castle on Saturday, and published a procla- mation, denouncing repeal agitation, and cautioning all persons from attending the Clontarf meeting, on pain of being pro- ceeded against according to law. Mean- time fresli troops, in considerable numbers, arrived from England ; and at Mr. O'Con- nell's bidding the meeting was abandoned ! But, notwithstanding this, government isi^ued a warrant for the arrest of nine of the leading aaitators: viz. Daniel O'Con- nell, John (3'Coiinell, Thomas M. Ray, Thomas Steele, Dr. Gray, Richard Bur- nett, Charles G. Duffy, Rev. Mr. Tyrrell, P. P., and Rev. James Tierney, P. P., all of whom had taken a conspicuous part in recent repeal meetings. The offence with which all these persons were charged was a conspiracy to excite disaffection and con- tempt among her Majesty's subjects, and amongst others, those serving in the army and navy ; to excite unlawful opposition to the government by the demonstration of physical force ; and to bring into oontempt ihe legal tribunals of the country by usurp- ing t he queen's prerogative in the establisn- raent of courts for the administration of the law. They were also charged with en- deavouring to forward those objects by se- ditious speeches and libels, and with soli- citing and obtaining from different parts of the United Kingdom, as well as from foreign countries, divers large sums of money. The whole of the parties were then held to bail, to take their trials in the Queen's Bench, Dublin. Wo have no space to enter into a detail of the judicial proceedings which followed; but we must say that so numerous were the objections, and so technical the argu- ments, which were brought forward by the professional phalanx employed to defend the "traversers," that it seemed for a long time doubtful whether the trial would ever be brought to a close. The arguments were, however, combated seriatim by the counsel for the crown, the objections overruled by the judges, and a verdict of GuiLTT was at length recorded against all of them, except the Rev. Mr. Tierney, who had been previously discharged. Daniel O'ConncU was sentenced to one year's imprisonment, to pay a fine of 2U00^, and to find bondsmen for his good behaviour for five years from the expiration of the term of his imprisonment; the rest to nine months each and a tine of SU/., and all to find sureties for keeping the peace after their terms of durance had ex- pired. Against this judgment an appeal was made to the House of Lords on a " writ of error." Regarding the question as one of law rather than/«f^ the Peers, insteadof themselves adjudicating, referred the subject in the first instance to the En- glish judges, who severally delivered their opinions on the different counts of the in- dictments, &c., the decision of the majority being in aflirmntion of the proceedings of the Irish Court. It then (ou the 3rd of September, 1344) came before the Peers, when the " lay lords " consented to leave the decision of this most important national question to the " law lords," of whom there were only five. Of these, two voted against, and three in favour of, the prisoners ; thus abrogating all that had been done in viii- dication of the offended lasvs, and leaving the question of "repeal " open for future strife and contentious disputation I MINISTERIAI, INDECISIOIt IS TBB FABENT OF UOSTILB ACTION. K ' I f t: r i Wit PI f : » i kv.i Hill 1 I^^S 1 fi *if - fci: ^^Ij ,L : :.l CUMrAHRD WITD K^tOt.AND, ICOTLAMO II BUOOIID AND MOUNTAIHODI. THE HISTORY OF SCOTLAND. CHAPTER I. " IIisTOBT," i«y» Dr. Robertgon, "which ought to record truth and to teach wisdom, often sets out with retaiUng tlctioni and abiurdities." Never wai a sentence raoro literally true, nor ii there a truism more necessary to be borne in mind by all who prefer the sober paths of history to the tortuous labyrinths of romance. Relying upon uncertain legends, and the tradition* ot their bards, still more uncertain, the Scots reckon up a series of kings several ages before the birth of Christ; but the earliest accounts we can depend upon we obtain from Roman historians; and even these are very meagre. The Scots appear to have been descended from the Britons of the south, or from the Caledonians, both of Celtic origin, who be- ing pressed forward by new colonies from Gaul, till they came to the western shores of Britain, there took shipping and passed over to Ireland, about a century before the Christian era. In their new abode, it is said, they obtained the name of Scuyts, or Wanderers ; from which the modern term Scots is supposed to be derived. About A. D. 320, they returned to Britain, or at least a large colony of them, under the conduct of Fergus, and settled on the wes- tern coasts of Caledonia, whence they had formerly emigrated, and in a few years after we find them associated with the Picts in their expeditions against the Roman pro- vince of South Britain. The modern inha- bitants of Scotland are divided into High- landers and LowJanders ; but the general name of both is Scots ; and if the etymology of that name be correct, we may say, with- out sarcasm or reproach, that they still merit it as much as their ancestors; for there is scarcely a place in the world where they arc not to be found. There has been much dispute among an- tiquaries whether, in the first place, the Picts and Caledonians were the same race ; and whether, secondly, they were of Gothic origin ; but, according to the best autho- rities, both these points have been very satisfactorily demonstrated. Tacitus de- scribes the Caledonians as being of tall stature, light hair, and blue eyes, and he deduces their Gothic origin from their ap- pearance; the Celts being, on the other hand, a small and dark people, with black eyes and hair. In the year 81, the Romans, under Agri- cola, carried their arms into the northern Earts of Britain, which they found possessed y the Caledonians, a fierce and warlike people ; and having repulsed, rather than conquered them, they erected a strong wall, or line of forts, between the friths of Forth and Clyde, which served as the northern boundary of their empire. In 12), Adrian, on account of the difficulty of defending such a distant frontier, built a second wall much more southward, which extcuded from Newcastle to Carlisle. However, the coun- try between the two walls was alternately under the dominion of the Romans and tin; Caledonians. In the reign of Antoninus Pius, the pro- prator LoUius Urbius drove the Scots far to the northward, and repaired the chain of forts built by Agricola, which lay be. tween the Carron on the frith of Forth and Dunglass on the Clyde. However, after the death of Antoninus, Conimodus having recalled Calpurnius Agricola, nn able commander, who kept the Scuts in awe, a more dangerous war broke out than had ever been experienced bv the Romans in that quarter. The Scots having passed the wall, put all the Romans they could meet with to the sword; hut they were soon repulsed by Ulpius 3Iarcellu8, a ge- neral of consummate abilities, whom Corn- modus sent into the island. In a short time the tyrant also recalled this able com- mander. After his departure the Roman discipline suffered a total relaxation; the soldiery grew mutinous, and great disorder ensued : but these were all happily removed by the arrival of Clodius Albinus, who pos- sessed great skill and experience in mili- tary affairs. His presence for some time restrained the Scots, but a civil war break- ing out betweeu him and Severus, Albinus crossed over to the continent with the greatest part of the Roman forces in Bri- tain; and meeting his antagonist at Lyons a dreadful battle ensued, in which AlLinus was utterly defeated. The withdrawal of the Roman troops gave encouragement to the Scots to renew their insurrection, which they did with such success, that the emperor became ap- prehensive of losing the whole island, on which he determined to take the field against them in person. The army he col- lected on this occasion was far more nu- merous than any the Romans had ever sent into Britain; and it is asserted that in re-conquering Scotland he lost no lees than 50,000 men. On his return from the northern extremity of the island he built much 8tron!»er fortifications to secure the frontiers than had ever been done before, and which in some places coincided with Adrian's wall, but extended farther at each end. But, in the meantime, the Soots, provoked by the brutality of the emperor's THE HISBLANDS COMPBIRB TUB NOBTB, THB LOWLANDS TUB 30UTU. MOVNTAINOUI. ■ EX nSTia, TUB UIBBEIT ICOTTIIH MOVHTAIN, IS 4,370 riBT BIOII. icjr erected a »trong whU, ween the friths of Forth served as the northern I nnpire. In 121, Adrian, on Iculty of defcndiuK auch luilt a second wall much which extended from sle. However, the coun- ivo walls was alternately D of the Romans and the Vntoninus Pius, the pro- )iuR drove the Scots far and repaired the chain Aftricola, which lay be- on the frith of Forth the Clyde. However, r Antoninus, Coiuniodus ^alpurnius Agricola, nn who kept the Scots in rous war broke out than erienced bv the Romans riie Scots having passed the Romans they could ! sword; but they were Ulpius Marcellus, a ge- ate abilities, whom Coin- the island. In a short !0 recalled this able corn- is departure the Roman 1 a total relaxation; the inous, and great disorder were all happily removed !lodiu8 Albinus, who pns- and experience in mill- presence for some time its, but a civil war break- lim and Sevcrus, Albinus the continent with the he Roman forces in Bri- ; his antagonist at Lyons insued, in which AlLinus ed. 1 of the Roman troops !nt to the Scots to renew I, which they did with ; the emperor became ap- ing the whole island, on lined to take the fiehl erson. The army he col- casion was far more nu- r the Romans had ever ; and it is asserted that Scotland he lost no less On his return from the ty of the island he built Ttifications to secure the id aver been done before, ne places coincided with extended farther at each 10 meantime, the Snots, | jrutality of the emperor's NDS THE aOUTU. C4 M H f o o M H ■ H O H M H « H H ■ u o ^^e Teuton) of Scotland. 567 son Caracalla, whom In had left regent in his absence, again took arms: on which Severus put hnnseif at the head of his legions, with a dttr-rniination. as he said of extirpating llie viliole imtion. llut hu death, which happened sourt after, put a stop to the txcrution of a tbfi'H* 'o dire- ful ; and we find 1 1 I his son ( iir/f'alla ratiHed the peace wili. ' Up. Scots. At (hil period Scotland was govprncd by Donald 1., who is said to have been it* first Chris- tian king. He died a. d. 21iI. From the reign of Donald I. to that of Eugene I. in 3A7, during which time eleven kings tilled the throne, no important event occurs for which we have authentic history; though we are told that for the great aid afforded by one of the Scottish kings, named Fin- cormacbus, to the liritons, in their contest with the Romans, Westmoreland and Cum- berland were ceded to Scotland. In the reign of Eugene I. we read that the Ro- man and Fictish forces v.-ere united against the Scots. The Picts were commanded by their king, named Hargust ; and the Ro- mans by Maximus, who murdered Valen- tinian III., and afterwards assumed the imperial purple. The allies defeated Eu- gene in the county of Galloway ; but Maxi- mus being obliged to return southward on account of an insurrection, the Picts were in their turn defeated by the Scots, In the following yeaft however, Maximus again marched against the Scots, and not only gained a complete victory over them, but the king, with the greater part of his no- bles, were among the slain. So well, in- deed, did the conquerors improve their vic- tory, that their antagonists were at last totally driven out of the country. Some of them took refuge in the iflbudee islands, and some in Scandinavia, but most of them ded to Ireland, whence they made frequent descents upon Scotland. The Picts were at first greatly pleased with the victory they had gained over their warlike antagonists : but being commanded to adopt the laws of the Romans, and to choose no king who was not sent from Rome, they began to repent of their having contributed to the expulsion of the Scots; and in the vcar 4-i], wuen Autulphus, king of the Goths, sent over a body of exiled Scots to Britain, under Fergus, a descend- ant of the kings of Scotland, the Picts im- mediately joined them against the common enemy. It was at this period that the Romans were obliged, by the inundation of nor- thern barbarians who poured in upon them, to recall their legions and abandon their conquests in Britain. The native Britons, therefore, so long accustomed to the dominion of these mighty conquerors, and now so incorporated with them, se- verely felt the perils of their situation when left to defend themselves i hence originated that supplicating letter to Rome, entitled " the groans of the Britons," This, how- ever, not being attended with success, the Britons called in the Saxons to their aid. By these new allies the Scots were defeated in a great battle, a id their king, Dongard, successor to Eugene, drowned in the Hum- ber, A. D. 457> wnich put a slop fur some time to these excursions. Hitherto we have seen the Scots very formidable enemies of the southern Britons : but when the Sax- ons usurped the kingdom, and subjected those whom tliey came to aid, the Scots joined in a strict alliance with the latter ; nor does it appear that the league thus formed was afterwards broken. Three centuries now pass without any thing occurring calculated to interest the reader, or to throw light on the Scottish history, beyond what has been related in the history of England during the Heptar- chy. In 7^7 we And that Achaius, king of the Scots, after qifflling some insurrec- tions, entered into a treaty of perpetual amity with Charles the Great, king of France and emperor of Germany, which treaty continued to be observed inviolably between the two nations, till the accession of James VI. to the throne of England. The next remarkable event in the history of Scotland is the war with the Picts. Don- gal, king of the Scots, claimed a right to the Pictish throne, .vhich being rejected by the letter, they bad recourse to arms. At this time the dominions of the Scots com- prehended the western islands, together with the counties of Argyle, Knapdale, Kyle, Kintyre. Lochaber, and a part of Breadalbane ; while the Picts possessed the rest of Scotland, and a considerable part of Northumberland. The Scots, liowever, ap- pear to have been superior in military skill; fur Alpin, the successor of Dongal, having engaged the Pictish army near Forfar, de- feated them, and killed their king, though not without suffering great loss himself. The Picts then chose Brudus, the son of their former king, to succeed him, but soon after deposed and put him to death. His brother Kenneth shared the bame fate. Brudus, who next ascended the throne, was a brave and spirited prince : he Urst offered terms of peace to the Scots ; which, how- ever, Alpin rejected, and insisted on a total surrender of his crown. After vainly en- deavouring to obtain the assistance of Edwin, king of Northumberland, Brudus marched resolutely against his enemies; and the two armies came to nn engagement near Dundee. The superior skill of the Scots in military affairs was about to have decided the victory in their favour, when Brudus is said to have had recourse to the following stratagem to preserve his army from destruction. He caused all the at- tendants, female as well as male, to assem- ble and show themselves nt a distance, as a .powerful reinforcement coming to the Picts. This caused such a panic in the Scottish ranks, that all the efforts of their leader could not recover them ; and they were accordingly defeated with great slaughter. Alpin himself was taken pri- soner, and soon after beheaded. Kenneth II., the son of Alpin, succeeded his father, and proved himself a brave and enterprising prince. Resolved to take a i BEN LUMOND, IN BTIBLIIf OSBIBI, IS 3,195 FEB! IN HRIQUT. 1^ l> ' 4m ^! .» ^ ,, t ii;| W \W\^ limi 1'? TUK COASTS OF SCOTLAND AIlS BOLD, BOCKT, AND MUCU IWDEMTKD. 668 Vii)t CTnasutB of ITjistori}, ?fc. severe revenge for his fatlier's death, he made th'^ tnoRt vigorous preparations for war; %n'>is gratitude for the restoration of his independence, by continuing a faitliful ally of the English till his death, in 12U. ■\Villiam was succeeded by his son Alex- ander II., a youth of sixteen. He took tlic side of the English barons in their conten- tions with Jolin, their feeble and imprudent monarch. He was a wise and good prince, and maintained with steadiness and spirit THE SALMON FISHBIIIEB OF TUK TAY, TWEKU, &C. ADB VRBY IMFOttTANT. ANNUALLY. tlon of his northtni Carlisle, which had Danes 200 years he. g within the feudal n, he complained of , as a breach of the war was the natural Scottish king, with lied in attempting to (vick, A.D. looa. ft male heirs, yet his first by his brother terwards by Duncan, the interpoaition ol however, Kdsar, law- was placed upon the fter a reign distin- irkable event, lidgar •as succeeded by liis lumamed the Ficrco, f of his temper. Hut lie was severely just, : chiefly remarkable by i to the administration Ireus of wrong. A con- st the life of this good by the vigour of his • assisting Henry I. of ith the Welsh, he died ft no issue, Alexander avid, his younger bro- led St. David, on ac- iety and excessive lilie- and clergy. David in- the affnirs of England. ! of Maud against Ste- igageinents he was suc- i others defeated; and le effectually to supjioit mdertaken. He died in leeded by Malcolm IV., body, and no less feeble 1 11G5. left his crown to ir' of his reign, William iry of England the carl- erland, which had been alcolin; hut afterwards nto England, and cou- th too little caution, he r by surprise, and de- , till, in order .o regain lented to declare hiniselt id, and to do homajjo for . Richard CoeurdeLioii, iceedtd Henry, remitted rras, and declared Scot- pendent kingdom : a nica- was induced, partly ny le claim itself, and partly rendering the Scots Ins expedition which he was c into Palestine. William ide for the restoration ot by continuing a fnitlitul I till his death, in 12U. cceeded by his son Alex. of sixteen. He look the ih barons in their conten- heir feeble and impviwcnt IS a wise and good pvmce, 'ilh steadiness and spint MANY lUrnOVEMENTS IN ACniCl'LTUBK HAVB OBieiNATED IN SCOTLAND. ^f)e l^istorp of ScotlanlJ. 671 the independency of his crown abroad, and the authority of his government at home. At his death, in 124'J, he was succeeded by his son .Uexandcr, a child of eight years of age, who was immediately crowned at Scone as Alexandcv 111. Having been betrothed, when an infant, to the princess Margaret of England, their nuptials were celebrated at York in 1251, and he did homage to Henry for his English possessions. The latter monarch demanded homage for the kingdom of Scotland, but the young prince rcpued with spirit, that he came to York to marry the princess of England, not to treat of state affairs, and that he would not take so important a step without the con- currence of the national council. One of the principal events of Alexander's reign was tlie battle of Largs. Haco, king of Norway, having collected a fleet of one hundred and sixty ships, sailed towards Scotland with a numerous army, a. d. 1263, with a view to recover such of the western isles as had formerly belonged to his crown, but which had been wrested from it by the Scots. He made himself master of Arrau and llute, and afterwards landed on the coast of Ayrshire. Alexander attacked him at Largs ; where, after a tierce contest, vic- tory at last declared for the Scots, and the greater part of the invading army fell cither in the action or the pursuit. Haco reached the Orkneys, but soon afterwards died, as is said, of a broken heart; and was suc- ceeded by Magnus, who, discouraged by the disaster which had befallen his father, yielded all his rights to the Western Islands and the Isle of Man to the crown of Scot- land, for the sum of 4000 marks, to be paid in four years, and a quit rent of one hun- dred marks yearly: a.d. 12G6. The Norwe- gians still retained the Orkney and Shet- land islands. From this period, Alexander was employed for several years in maintain- ing the independence of the Scottish church against the pretensions of the pope, and in restraining the encroachments of the clergy. His reign was a long and prosper- ous one; and his death was, in its conse- quences, a serious calamity to Scotland. While riding in the dusk of the evening along the sea-coast of Fife, his horse start- ed, and he was thrown over the rock and killed on the spot. A. D. 1285. — Alexander's children had all died before him. His daughter Margaret had married Eric, king of Norway, and died, leaving issue one daughter, Margaret, usually called the Maiden of Norway, the now undoubted heiress of the crown of Scotland, and recognized as such by the states of the kingdom about three weeks after Alexander's death. The same conven- tion appointed a regency of six noblemen during the absence of the young queen. These regents for some time acted with wisdom and unanimity; but two of them dying, dissensions arose among the remain- ing four; and Eric, king of Norway, appre- hensive for the interests of his daughter, applied to Edward, king of En(;land, for his assistance and proiection. Edward had I at already formed a scheme for uniting the two kingdoms by the marriage of his eldest son, Edward, with the queen ot Scots. A treaty was entered into for this purpose ; but the Maiden of Norway unfortunately died at Orkney, on her passage to Scot- land ; and the nation was struck wiih g:ricf and consternation in beholding the extinc- tion of a race of sovereigns who had distin- guished themselves for their bravery and wisdom, and in anticipating the miseries of a contested succession. The line of Alexander's descendants being thus extinguished, the right of succession devolved on the descendants of David, earl of Huntingdon, third son of David I. Among these, Robert Druce and John Baliol ap- peared as competitork for the crown. Bruce was the son of Isabel, earl David's second daughter : Baliol, the grandson of Margaret, the eldest daughter. Although the right was incontestable in Baliol, the prejudices of the people favoured Bruce : each was supported By a powerful faction ; and arms alone, it was feared, must decide the dis- pute. In order to avoid the threatened miseries of civil war, Edward I. king of England, was chosen umpire, and both parties agreed to acquiesce in his decree. This .neasuro had nearly proved fatal to the independence of Scotland. Edward was artful, brave, and enterprising. The anarchy which prevailed in Scotland in- vited him first to seize, and then to sub- ject the kingdom. Under the authority of an umpire, he summoned all the Scottish barons to Norham ; and having gained some, and intimidated others, he prevailed on all who were present, not excepting Bruce and Baliol, the competitors, to ac- knowledge Scotland to be a hef of the crown of England, and to swear fealty to him as their sovereign lord. Edward now demand- ed jposscssiou of the kingdom, that he might be able to deliver it to him whose right should be found preferable; and such was the pusillanimity of the nobles, and the impatience of the competitors, that both assented to his demand; and Gilbert d'Umpfreville, earl of Angus, was the only man who refused to surrender the castles in his custody to the enemy of his country. Edward, finding Baliol had tlic best right, and was the least formidable of the two competitors, gave judgment in his favour; and Baliol once more confessed himself the vassal of England. Edward now concluded that his domi- nion was fully established in Scotland, and began to assume the master : his new vas- sals, however, bore the yoke with impa- tience. Provoked by his haughtiness, the humble spirit of Baliol began to mutiny. But Edward, who had no further use for such a pageant king, forced him to resign the crown; and attempted to seize it, ns having fallen to himselt by the rebellion of his vassal. Sir William Wallace, a hero and patiiot, now first made his appearance, and almost singly ventured to take arms in defence of the kingdom; but his courage, altliough FOTATOBa AIIK NOW VKBY VXTUNSIVRLY CULTIVATKD IN TUB LOWLANDS. u Z H H n IS "I o H H ■< n >i H O t- H M M H H H 674 ^j^e ^reasttte of 1|istoip, 8cc. kinit's promises, who had now attained to the years of manhood, and having obtained a safe conduct under the great seal, he ven- tured to meet him in StirUng castle. James urged him to dissolve that dangerous con- federacy into which he had entered: the earl obstinately refused. " If you will not," said the enraged monarch, drawing his dag- ger, " this shall ;" and stabbed him to the heart. This filled the nation with asto- nishment. The earl's vassals ran to arms, marclicd to Stirling, burnt the town, and threatened to besiege the castle. An ac- commodation, however, ensued: on what terms is not kn^n ; but the king's jea- lousy, and the new earl's power and resent- ment, prevented it from being of long con- tinuance. Both took the field at the head of their armies, and met near Abercorn. That of the earl, composed chiefly of bor- derers, was far superior to the king's both in number and in valour; and a single bat- tle must, in all probability, have decided whether the house of Stuart or of Douglas was henceforth to possess the throne of Scotland. But as his troops were impa- tiently expecting the signal to engage, the earl ordered them to retire to their camp. His principal officers, now convinced of his want of genius and courage, deserted him ; and he was soon after driven out of the kingdom, and obliged to depend for his sub- sistence on the friendship of the king of England. The ruin of this great family, which had so long rivalled and overawed the crown, secured the king for some time from oppo- sition, and tlic royal authority remained un- controlled, and almost absolute. James did not suffer this favourable interval to pass unimproved: he procured the consent of parliament to laws more advantageous to the prerogative, and more subversive of the privileges of the aristocracy, than were ever obtained by any former or subsequent mo- narch of Scotland. During the remainder of his reign, this prince pursued the plan which he had be- gan with the utmost vigour ; and had not a sudden death, occasioned by the splinter of a cannon, which hurst near liim at the siege of Boxburgh, prevented liis progress, he wanted neither genius nor courage to per- fect it ; and Scotland might, in all probabi- lity, liave been the first kingdom in Europe which would have seen the subversion of the feudal system, A.». 1460. — James III. succeeded his fa- ther in 1460, and discovered no less eager- ness than his father, or grandfather, to humble the nobility: but, far inferior to either of them in abilities and address, he adopted a plan extremely impolitic ; and his reign was disastrous, as well as his end tra- gical. James feared and hated his nobles ; he kept them at an unusual distance ; and bestowed evury.mark of confidence and af- fection upon a few mean persons, Shut up with these in his castle of Stirling, he sel- dom appeared in public, and amused him- self in architecture, music, and other arts, which were then little esteemed. The no- bles resented this conduct in the king; and combinations, secret intrigues with Eng. land, and all the usual preparations for civil war, were the effects of their resent- ment. Alexander, duke of Albany, and John, earl of Mar, the king's brothers— two young men of turbulent and ambitious spirits, and incensed against James, who treated them with great coldness — entered deej^v into all their cabals. The king de- tected their designs before they were ripe for execution ; and seizing his two brothers, committed the duke of Albany to Edin- burgh castle. The earl of Mar, having re- monstrated with too much boldness, it is said, was murdered by the king's com- mand. Albany, apprehensive of the same fate, made his escape out of the castle, and reached France. James's attachment to favourites render- ing him every day more odious to his no- bles, soon inspired Albany with more am- bitious and criminal thoughts. He con- cluded a treaty with Edward IV. of Eng- land, in which he assumed the name of Alexander, king of Scots; and, in return for the assistance which was promised him towards dethroning his brother, he bound himself, as soon as he was put in ]^ogses- sion of the kingdom, to swear fealty and do homage to the English monarch, to re- nounce the ancient alliance with France, to contract a new one with England, and to surrender some of the strongest castles and most valuable counties in Scotland. The aid which the duke so basely pvir- chased, at I he price of his own honour and the indepeudence of his country, was punc- tually granted him ; and Richard, duke of Gloucester, with a powerful army, conduct- ed him towards Scotland. The danger of a foreign invasion soon induced James to ask the assistance of those nobles whom he had so long treated with contempt. They ex- pressed their readiness to stand forward in defence of their king and country against all invaders, and took the field at the head of a large army of their followers ; but it was evident at the same time that they were animated by a stronger desire to redress their own grievances, than to annoy the enemy; and with a fixed determination of punishing those favourites whose inso- lence had become intolerable. This reso- lution they executed in the camp near Lau- der. Having previously concerted their plan, the earls of Angus, Huntley, and Lau- der, followed by almost all the barous of note in the army, forcibly entered the apart- ments of the king, seized every one therein, except Ramsay, who had taken shelter in his arms, and hanged them immediately over a bridge. Among the most remark- able of those who had engrossed the king's favour, were Cochran, a mason : Hommil, a tailor ; Leonard, a smith ; Rogers, a mu- sician; and Torlifan, a fencing-master. Having no -'.son 'o confide iu an army so little ■■,;ii).'t- ' .-3 command, James dis- missed it, aud shut himself 'jp in tlie castle of Edinburgh. At length Albany made his peace with the king, but it was not of long COTTON OOODa FBODUCBD IN SCOTLAND AMOUNT TO 5,000,000/. A-YEAR, IF LATB YEABS. iduct in the king ; and intrigues with Eng. Bual preparations for iffects of their resent- duke of Albany, and ! king's brothers— two lulent and ambitious I against James, who eat coldness — entered cabals. The king de- before they were ripe izing his two brothers, B of Albany to Edin- arl of Mar, having re. I much boldness, it is by the king's com- rehensive of the same ! out of the castle, and it to favourites render- ore odious to his no- klbany with more am- .1 thoughts. He con- Edward IV. of Eng- issumed the name of Scots; and, in return lich was promised him his brother, he bound lie was put in i^ossea- i, to swear fealty and iglish monarch, to re- tliance with France, to with England, and to the strongest castles counties in Scotland, duke so basely pvir- jf his own honour and his country, was punc- and Richard, duke of )werful army, conduct- land. The danger of a I induced James to ask se nobles whom he had I contempt. They ex- 88 to stand forward in ftrid country against all he field at the head of followers ; but it was B time that they were iger desire to redress 8, than to annoy tlin fixed determiuatiun favourites whose inso- itolerable. This reso- in the camp near Lau- lusly concerted their [US, Huntley, and Lau- ost all the barous of ibly entered theapart- ized every one therein, had taken shelter in ed them immediately ng the most remark- 1 engrossed the king's I, a mason : Homniil, smith I Rogers, a nm- a t'encing-master. *o confide in an army ommand, James dis- imself 'jpin the castle igth Albany made his but it was not of long 1,000/. A-YEAR. THI OKBAT EHroniVlIS Of COMMBSCB ARM I.XITB, OLABOOW, AND DUNDEE. ®^c li»tor» of ScotlantJ. 575 duration; for Jnmes abandoned himself once more to his favourites; and Albany, again disgusted, retired to his castle at Dunbar, and renewed hit former confede- racy with Edward. The death of Edward, soon after, blasted his hopes of reigning in Scotland. He fled first to England, and then to France; and from that time he took no part in the affairs of hia native country. Orown fonder of retirement than ever, and sunk into indolence or superstition, James suffered his whole authority to de- volve upon his favourites. The nobles flew to arms, and obliged or persuaded the duke of Rothsay, the king's eldest son, a youth of fifteen, to set himself at their head; and they then openly declared their intention of depriving James of the crown. Roused by this danger, the king quitted his retire- ment, took the field, and encountered them a . Bannockburn ; but his army was soon routed, and he was slain in the pursuit. Suspicion, indolence, immoderate attach- ment to favourites, and all the vices of a feeble mind, are visible in his whole conduct. Mtrnv of those who acted against James, being fearful of the terrors of excommuni- cation for having imbrued their hands in the blood of their king, endeavoured to atone for the treatment of the father by their loyalty and duty towards the son. They placed him instantly on the throne ; and the whole kingdom soon united in ac- knowledging his authority. A.D. 1488. — James IV. ascended the Scot- tish throne in the year 1488. He was na turally generous and brave : loved magnifi- cence, and delighted in arms. Indeed, so well suited was he for those over whom he ruled, that during his reign the ancient enmity between the king and the nobles seemed almost to have entirely ceased. He envied not their splendour, because it con- tributed to the ornament of his court; and their power he considered as the se- curity of his kingdom, not as an object of terror to himself. This confidence on his part met with duty and affection on theirs ; and in his war with England he experienced how much a king beloved by his nobles is able to perform. Through the ardour of his courage, rather than from any prospect of national advantage, he de- clared war against England, and was fol- lowed by as gallant an army as ever any of his anojestors had led into England. The battle of Flodden Field, [see " England," p. 297] gained by the earl of Surrey over James, and in which he lost his life, serv- ed to humble the aristocracy of Scotland more than all the premeditated attacks of the preceding kings. Twelve carls, thirteen lords, five eldest sons of noblemen, and a great number of barons, fell with the king. A. B. 1517. — James v. succeeded his father when only one year old. The office of re- gfcnt was conferred upon his cousin, the duke of Albany, a man of genius and en- terprise, a native of France. A stranger to the manners, the laws, and the language of the peoole over whom he was called to rule, he acted rather as a viceroy of the French king, than the governor of Scotland. When James had attained his thirteenth year, Albany retired to France; and the nobles agreed that the king should assume the government, with the assistance of eight counsellors, among whom was the earl of Angus, who soon got the whole authority into his own bauds. James was continually surrounded bv the earl's spies and confi- dants, who closely watched his motions; he, however, eluded all their vigilance, and escaping from Falkland, fled to the castle of Stirling, the residence of the queen, his mother, and the only place of strength in the kingdom which was not in the hands of the Douglasses. The nobles soon appear- ed t Stirling,- and the court of James was prcViently filled by persons of the first dis- tinction. In a parliament held soon after, Angus and his adherents were attainted, and he was at length obliged to fly to Eng- land for refuge. James had now not only the name, but the authority of a king. His understanding was good, and his person graceful ; but his education had been neglected. He, how- ever, formed a plan for humbling the power of the nobles, more profound and more systematic than any of his predecessors. The Scottish monarchs had the sole right of nomination to vacant bishoprics and ab- beys; and James naturally concluded, that men who expected preferment from his fa- vour, would be willing to merit it by pro- moting his designs. Happily for him, the nobles had not yet recovered the blow which fell on their order at Fludden, and James treated them with coldness and reserve. Those offices which, from long possession, they considered as appropriated to their order, were bestowed on ecclesiastics, who alone possessed his confidence, together with a few gentlemen of inferior rank. These ministers were chosen with judg- ment; and cardinal Beaton was a man of superior geniu^^. However, a false step which they took, presented to the nobles an advantage which they did not fail to improve. Henry VIII. of England, uncle to James, proprosed a personal interview with him at York, with a view to induce him to throw off his allegiance to the pope ; and James accepted the invitation. By the persuasion of his ministers, however, James broke his agreement with Henry, who, in expectation of meeting him, had already come to York ; and that haughty monarch resented the affront, by declaring war against Scotland. James was now obliged to have recourse to his nobles for the defence of his dominions. At his command they assembled their fol- lowers, it is true; but with the same dispo- sitions which had animated their ancestors in the reign of Jnmes III. The king, per- ceiving their designs, disbanded the army, and returned into the heart of the kingdoiii. Impatience, indignation, and resentment against the nobles, filled his bosom by TUB SCOTCH FOnMERLY EXCBANOED WOOL, HIDES, &C. FOR CORN AND WINE. TBI SCOTCH JOIIIT-STUCK DAIfKI U&VI OBIATLV BCRTaD THB COVNTKT. 676 ^l^e ?!Freastttii of distort}, $cc. turns. He became penaive, sulicu, and re- tired. In order to revive his spiritg, au in- road on tlie western border was concerted by liis ministers, wlio prevailed upon the barons in the nciKlibouring provinces, to raise is many troops as were thought ne- cessary, and to enter England. Uut nothing could remove the king's aversion to his no- bility, or diminish his jealousy of their power. lie would not even trust them with the command of the forces which they had assembled, but appointed Oliver Sin- clair, his favourite, to that post. As might have been foreseen, Sinclair no sooner ap- peared to take upon him the dignity con- ferred, than an universiil mutiny took place in the army. Five hundred English, who happened to be drawn up in siglit, taking advantage of this disorder, attacked the Scots ; when hatred to the king, and con- tempt for his general, produced an effect to which there is no parallel in history. Ten thousand men fled before an army so vastly inferior, without striking a blow. About thirty were killed; above u thousand were taken prisoners, and among them one hundred and sixty persons of condition. The small number of the English prevent- ed their taking more prisoners. As soon as this affair reached the king, all the violent passions which are the ene- mies of life preyed on his mind : the deep- est melancholy and despair succeeded to the furious transports of his rage. Death relieved him from his anxietjr ; but whether frou\ the diseases of his nund, or by poi- son, is not sufficiently ascertained. It took place in December, 15'I2. CHAPTER III. The Keign of Mary.— Hou,« of Stuart, A.D. 1543. — Mahy, only child of James v. and Mary of Guise, who was born only a few days before the death of her father, succeeded to the crown. The situation in which he left the kingd.im, nnd the perils to be apprehended from n len,a;thened re- gency, alarmed all ranks of men with the prospect of a turbulent and disastrous reign. Cardinal Beaton, who for many years had been considered as prime minister, was the first that claimed the high dignity of re- gent ; in support of his pretensions, he produced a will, which he himself had for- ged in the name of the late king, and, with- out any other right, instantly assumed the title of regent, lie hoped, by the assistance of the clergy, the countenance of France, the connivon'ce of the queen dowager, and the support of the whole popish faction, to liold by force what he had seized on by froud. But Beaton had enjoyed power too long to be a favourite of the nation, James Hamilton, earl of Arran, the next heir to the queen, was called forth, by the general voice of the nation, to take upon himself the high office ; and the nobles, who were assembled for that purpose, unanimously proclaimed him regent. The earl of Arran had scarcely taken possession of his new dignity, when a ne- gotiation was opened with England, which gbve rise to events of the moat fatal eunae- quenco to himself, and to the kingdom. This negotiation embraced n proposal from Henry, of the marriage of Edward, his only son, with the young queen of Scots. All those who feared the cardinal, or who de- sired a change in religion, were pleased with the idea of an alliance that would af- ford protection to the doctrine which they had embraced, as well as to their own per- sons, against the rage of that powerful and haughty prelate. The designs which Henry had formed upon Scotland, were obvious from the mnr- riage which he had proposed, and he hud not dexterity enough to disguise them. lie demanded that the young queen should be put under his care, and the government of the kingdom placed in his liands during her minority. The Scots parliament consented to a treaty of marriage and of union, but upon terras somewhat more equal. The Sonts agreed to send their sovereign into England as soon as she had attained the age of ten years; and to deliver six persons of the first rank, to be kept as hostages by Henry till the queen's arrival at his court. On the side of Henry, it was agreed that the queen should continue to reside in Scotland, and himself remain excluded from any share in the government of the kingdom. The cardinal complained loudly that the regent had betrayed the kingdom to its most inveterate enemtea, and sacrificed its honour to his own ambition : he lament- ed to see an ancient kingdom consenting to its own servitude, and descending into the ignominious station of a province ; and in one hour, the weakness or treachery of one man, surrendering every thing for which the Scottish nation had stru|;!>;Icd and fought during so many ages. These remonstrances of the cardinal were not without etfect, and the whole nation de- clared against the alliance which had been concluded. Argyll, Huntley, Bothwell, and other powerful barons, declared openly against the alliance with England. By tlieir'assis. tance the cardinal seized on the persona of the young queen and her mother. On the 2Sth of August, 1643, the regent ratified the treaty with Henry, and pro. claimed the cardinal, who still continued to oppose it, an enemy to his country. On the 3rd of September, he secretly withdrew from Edinburgh, and had an interview with the cardinal at Callandur, where he not only renounced the friendship of England, and declared for the interests of Friince, but also changed his sentiments concern- ing religion, and publicly renounced the doctrine of the retormers in the Francis- can church at Stirling. The cardinal was now in possession of every thing his ambition could desire, and exercised all the authority of n rei^fiit, without the envy nnd opprobrium attaelied to the name. Henry VIII. was not of a TUE CUnUBKCY OF SCOTLAND CONSISTS PBINCIPALLY OF TUB JOINT-STOCK NOTES. TBS COVMTRT. w dignity, when a ne- 1 with Enxland, which ' tlie uioit fatal conae- and to the kinudom. graced n proposnl from ge of Edward, his only ; queen of Scotl. All e cardinal, or who de- religion, were pleased iilliftnce that would af- ic doctrine which they ;U as to their own per- ;e of that powerful and ;h Henry hnd formed obvious from the mnr- proposed, and he hnd li to disguise them. lie young queen should be and the government of d in his liands during Etmcnt consented to a and of union, but upon lore equal. The Soots : sovereign into England attained the age of ten ver six persons of the )t as hostages by Henry val at his court. On the 8 agreed that the queen reside in Scotland, and ludod from any share in the kingdom, iplained loudly that the red the kingdom to its | emies, and sacriliced ita : I ambition : he lament- 1 nt kingdom consenting j e, and" descending into I ition of a province ; mid pakncsB or treachery of | lering every thing for j nation had 8tru!!;^:lcd BO many ages, these the cardinal were not the whole nation de- alliance which had been Dothwell, and other leclared openly agninst ngland. My their assis. seized on the persons of id her mother. iVugust, 1543, the regent with Henry, and pro- il, who still continued to ny to his country. On ler, he secretly withdrew nd had an interview with allaudar, where he not friendship of England, the interests of France, lis gentiuients concern- _ publicly renounced the j iformers in the Francis- | " IS now m possession ot ibition could desire, and authority of a ro!,'f'n(, nd opprobrium attaclied •nry VIII. was not of a IK JOINT-STOCK WOTES. turn lALART or THE ORDINABT JUDOK* !• 3,000<. *-«SAB RACU. HLfft l^tstory of Scotland. 677 a a o i a temper to bear tamely the indignity with winch he had been treated both bv the regent and the parliHrneiit of Scotland, and determined on invading tliat counlry. The carl of Hertford had the command of the army destined for the enterprise, and land- ed it, without opposition, a few miles above leith. He marclied directly for Edinburgh, which city he entered May .3rd, 1544. Alter plundering the adjacent country, he set «re to both these towns ; then putting his booty on board the tleet, reached the Eng- lish borders in safety. Peace followed soon alter ; but cardinal Beaton had previously been murdered by the means of Norman Leslie, eldest son of the earl of Rothes, whom the cardinal had treated not only with iiijiistire, but contempt. The prelate resided at that time in the castle of St. Andrew's, which he had forti- Heil !it a great expense, imd, in the opinion of the age, had rendeied^it impregnable. His retinue was numerous, the town at his devotion, and tlie neiglibour'ng country full of his dependents. In this situation Leslie, with lil'tcen others, undertook to surprise his castle, and assassinate him ; and their success was equal to the boldness of the attempt. May '20th, 1546, early in the morning, they seized on the gate of the CBHtle, which was open for the accom- modation of the workmen who were em- tduyed in iinishing the lortitications ; and laving placed sentries at the door of the cardinal's apartment, they awakened his domestics one by one, and turning them out of the castle, they murdered him with- out offering violence to any other person ; thereby delivering their couiitry from a man whose pride was insupportable, and whose cruelty and cunning were great checks to the reformation. The deoth of Beaton was fatal to the catholic religion, and to the French interest in Scotland. The regent threatened vengeance, but the threat was as impotent as it was unwise. The death of Henry VIIJ , which hnp- pened January 2Hth, 1547, blasted the hopes of the conspirators, by whom they were supported both with money and pro- visions. Henry II. of France, sent power- ful succours to the regent, under the com- mand of Leon Strozzi ; and the conspira- tors, after a short resistance, surrendered, with the assurance of their lives, and were sent prisoners to Fronce. The castle, the monument of Beaton's power and vanity, was demolished in obedience to the canon law, which denounces it« anathemas even against the house in which the sacred blood of a cardinal happens to be shed, and or- dains it to he laid in ashes. Edward VI. was now king of England ; and the earl of Hertford, now duke of Somerset, and protector of the kingdom, entered Scotland at the head of eighteen thousand men : at the same time a fleet of sixty ships appeared on the coast, to se- cond his land forces. The Scots had for some time seen this storm gathering, and were prepared for it. Their army was almost double thart of the enemy, and post- ed to the greatest advantage on a rising ground above Musselhurg, nor far from the banks of the Esk. Co-^dent of success, they attacked the Engl. iiider the duke of Somerset, near I'iiikc), jeptember lutli, I 1547, who, taking advantage of their im- petuous haste, routed them with consider- I able loss. The encounter in the tield was not long, but the pursuit was continued for some lime, and to a great distance : the three roads by which tlie Scots fled, were strewed with spears, swords, and targets, and covered with the bodies of the slain. More than ten thousand men fell on this day, one of the most fatal Scotland had ever seen. A few were taken prisoners, and among them some persons uf distinc- tion. A. D. 1548. — The Scottish nobles falling in with the prejudices of the queen dowa- ger in favour of France, in the violence of their resentment against England, volunta- rily proposed to Henry II. of France, a marriage of their young queen, only six ?ears old, with the dauuhin, eldest son of lenry II., and to send tier to his court for education. Henry without hesitation ac- cepted these offers, and prepared for n vigorous defence of his new acquisition. On the 15th of June, 1548, the treaty was concluded by the parliament assembled in the camp before Haddington ; and Mary was immediately sent to France, at that time notoriously the most corrupt court in Europe. Here she acquired every accom- plishment that could add to her charms as a woman, and contracted many of those prejudices which occasioned her misfor- tunes as a queen. Feace was soon afterwards made with England ; and both the British and Scot- tish nations lost power by this unhappy quarrel, while France obtained a decided advantage. The reformation, however, gain- ed ground. At this time appeared the famous John Knox, a man whose natural intrepidity of mind placed him above fear. He began his public ministry at St. An- drew's, in 1547. with that success which always accompanies a bold and popular eloquence. He was patronised by the con- spirators while they kept possession of the castle, which he made the place of his abode. At this timo the queen dowager, Mary of Guise, aspired at the office of regent. She had already nearly engrossed tlie adminis- tration of affairs into her hands. Her de- signs were concealed with the utmost care, and advanced by address and retinement : her brothers entered warmly into the scheme, and supported it with all their credit at the'court of France. The queen dowager visited France in 1550: from thence overtures were made to the reicent to resign his situation in her favour, which the king of France enforced, by on artful admixture of threats and promises ; so that he was induced to relinquish his power, which he formally laid down in 1554 ; and the parliament raised Mary of Guise to that dignity. Thus was a woman, and a THB I.0KP JUSTICE CLKUK's SALABY, 4,000/. J lOBD FBBSIQENt's, 4,600/. [3 JSii. biOKmmmi^ eiBOOIT OB AMlll COVBT*, Al IN MtliZktlD, ABB HBLO «WICB A-TBAB, ^ |i-i'- I <: A. A ( :l'li m ■ 9 w a 678 ^\ft ^reasuru of llistonj, 8cc. ■tranRer/ advanced to the supreme autho- rity in Scotland t A. D. 1358. — On the I4th of April, the mtfrriave of the younjr queen took place with the dauphin Francis ; and the parlia- ment of Scotland sent eiifht of its members to represent their whole body at the nup- tialsi In tiie treaty of marriage, the dau- ttliin was allowed to assume the title of king of Scotland as an honorary title. The French kini;, liowever, soon after insisted that the dauphin's title should he publicly RCngnised, and all the right appertainiuK to the husband of a queen sliould be vested in his persnn : upon which the Scots' par- liament, (Nov. 2y), passed an act ctmfer- rinK the crown matrimonial on the dauphin. The earl of Ar)(yll. and James Stuart, prior of St. Andrew's, were appoiutcd to curry the crown and other ensigns of royalty to the dauphin. But from this they were di- verted by the part they were culled upon tu act in a more interesting scene, whicli now beean to open. The bigoted queen 'Mary, of England, whose religious persecuiiuns had earned for her a still more offensive name, died on the 17th of November, 1558 ; and Elizabeth, her sister, took possession uf the English throne. In order to gratify the arbitrary caprice of Henry, Elizabeth, as well as her prfdecessor, Mary, had been declared ille- gitimate by the parliament : but in his last will he declared them the successors on the throne to their brother Edward ; at the same time passing by the posterity of his Bister Margaret, queen of Sc-orlund, and continuing the' line of suc^ression to his sister, the duchess of Suffolk. Rome trem- bled.for the catholic- faith under a queen itf such- abilities as. Elizabeth was known o possess. Spain and France were equaliv alarmed. Instigated by thi; impetuous am- bition of the Guises, who governed the itourt of France, Henry, soon after the death of Mary, persuaded his daugliter-in- law, and his son, her husband, tu assume the title of king and queen of England. They affected to publish this to 3II Europe, and used that style and appellation in pub- lic papers. The arms of England was en- graveo on their coin, and on their plate, and borne by them on all occasions; but no preparations were made to support this impolitic and premature claim. Elizabeth was already seated on her throne : she pos- sessed all the intrepidity of spirit, and all the arts of policy, wliicli were necessary fur maintaining that station ; and England was growing into reputation fur naval power, while that of France had been utterly neg- lected. It was absurd to expect that the Scot- tish protestants would assist to dethrone a queen whom all Europe began to consider as the most powerful guardian and defender of tlie rei'ofmed faith. Yet, absurd us it was, in 155!), the queeu-regeut issued a proclamation, enjoiuliig all persona to ob- serve the approaching festival uf Easter ac- cording to the Itumish ritual. The protes- tants, who saw danger approaching, in order to avert it, engaged the earl of Glen- cairn, ant) «ir Hugh CiUnubell, of Lomlon, to expostulate with her. Without disguine or apology, she avowed to them her reno- lutiun ut extirpating the rel'iirmed religion out of the kingdom ; and soon after sum- moned all the protestant preachers in the kingdom to a court of justice, to be held at Stirling on tiie lUtli day of May. The re- formed convened in great numbers to at- tend their pastors to Stirling. The regent being alarmed at their being so numerous, although unarmed, promised to put a stop to the intended trial and they dispersed towards their own habitaiiuiis. The regent had little regard to her pro- mise. The lUth of May arrived. The names of tli(»e were culled who had been sum- moned; and, upon their nonappearance, they were pronounced outlaws. This con- duct occasioned an insurrection in I'ertli: the churches wire defaced, the altars over- turned, the images broken in pieces, the pictures torn, and the niouastcries aininat | levelled with the ground. A truce was soon 1 after concluded between the regent mid j the proieslanls, ,■> hich was presently broken by the former ; end the prutestunta again \ took to arms, noi only with a view of re. dressing their religious, but their civil grievances ; otid the protestant army, wherever it came, spread the ardour of re- formation. The gates of every town were thrown open to receive them ; and, with- out striking a blow, they took possession of Ediiihurgh June 29, 1559. On the 8th of July, Ueiiry II. of France died ; and Francis, tlie husband uf Mary, queen of Scots, succeeded to the throne. The queen-regent was soon after deprived of her power by the prutcstanis; but the French garrison iu Leith refused to sur- render that place, nor were the Scots in a condition to oblige them. In this situation of affairs, application was made to Llizubeth for assistance. She sent to them a supply of four thimsund crowns, which was mtercepted by Uotli- well, and carried off. A second application was made, imploring her assistance. Eliza- beth had observed the prevalence of French councils, and had already come to a reso- lution with regard to the part she would act, if their power should grow more for- midablet In January, 1560, an English fleet arrived in the frith of Forth, and cast anchor in tlie road of Leith. The Kngliah army, con- sisting of 6,000 foot and 2,6ou horse, under the conimand of the lord Grey of SVilton, and attended by a prodigious number of protesiauts, entered i^coiluiid early in the sprinic, and advanced towards Leith, which they invested. Nothing could now save the French troops shut up in Leith, hut the immediate conclusion uf a peace, or the arrival of a powerful army from the cimtinent. Tliey chose the former; and EiizKhelh nut only obtained honourable conditions for her al- lies, but for herself; particularly lui ac- kuowledgment of her ri^ht to the crown of TIIK ACCUSKD rAUTY HAS NOW 'mi UIOHT Of CUAI.I.KNOINO JIIRTMKN. r s A — A» — - ^ UNO JIIRTUBN. TUB uirimoii coB«i» or t*w a»* " baiub." jntticB*, ^})t l^istort} of ScotlanT). EnKland from Frnncis und Mnry. who in the treatv •oleninlv enttngfcd neither to .«■• ■uine th« title, nor to benr the nrin» ol king and queen of England, in anytime to come: tlii» prace was signed July 6, 1660. While this peace wai negotiating, the queen-re- gent dli-d ; and on the 4th of December Francis II. paid the debt of nature. He win a prince of a weak con«titutinn, and ■till weaker intellect. The ancient con- fedt-racv of the two kingdoms had already heeii broken ; and bv the death •>» brancis the cliief bond of tinion which remained was dissolved. In lafiJ. the convention invited the queen to return to Scoilnnd, her iintive country, and to Bs»uiiie the reins of goveroiiient. She sailt-d from Cainin in a gallev, and on the 19th of August Iniided sufely at lpt very difl'erent senti- ments, and from that period we may date a totnl alteration in the political constitution ot Scotland. "The feudal aristocracy, which had been subverted in most nations of Europe by the policy of their princes, or had been under- mined by the progress of commerce, still subsisted with full force in Scotland. Many causes had contributed grndnally to aug- ment the power of the Scottish noble.s ; and even the Reformation, which, in every other country where it prevailed, added to the authority of the monarch, had increiised their wealth and influence. A king pos- sessed of a small revenue, with a peroga- tive extremely limited, and unsupported by a standing army, could not exei-cise much authority over such potent subjects. He was obliged to govern by expedients; and the laws derived their force not from his power to execute them, but from the volun- tary submission of the nobles. But tliougii this produced a species of government ex- tremely feeble and irregular; though Scot- Innd, under the name, and with all the nut- ward ensiftnsof a monarchy, was really sub- ject to an aristocracy, the people were not altogether unhappy; and, even in this wild form of constitution, there were priiiciphs which tended to their security and advan- tage. The king, checked and overawed by the nobles, durst venture upon no act of arbitrary power. The nobles, jealous of the king, whose claims and pretensions were many, though his power was small, were afraid of irritating their dependants by unreasonable exactions, and tempered the rigour of aristocratieal tyranny, with a mildness and equality to which it is natu- rally a stranger. As long as the iniliiary genius of the feudal government reuiaioed 1 1 » 'A I : z < , ' r.':\ U < a ) *! ! 1 r- s ' NO nELioious test is rkquibbd foom tub bcotcu btuobnts. SDICAL SCHOOL. aturbances, rather e strong ties ot' iiiu- irocal aiiacliiiicnts. tilings cuuiuiciiced accession of James d, or even during lus must be attributed entiuu of the suve- isfcr of the sove- prc he )f my, ntrodnce the re- storian, Dr. Robert- oduced iu tlie po- of tscotland by this says, " had so long chs as next heirs to at they had full lei- consequences of that dignity. But giving a sovereign relying on the tive prince, and in ring liberally in the hich he now would ly attended little to isequences of that d at his accession to as if it had been no kingdom than hu- They had soon rea- very different senti- >eriod we may date a political constitution acy, whicli had been ons of Europe by the , or had been under- s of commerce, still :c in Scotland. Many !d graduHlIy to aug- he Scottish nobles ; tion, which, in every : prevailed, added to march, had incrensed lence. A king pos- mue, with a pemga- and unsupported by 1 not exercise much otent Hubjccta. He by expedients; and ' force not from his , hut from the volun- lobles. l]ut thougii s of government cx- gular; though Scot- und with all tlienut- rchy, was really sub- the people w ere not nd, even in this wild >ere were pnneipks security und advan- ed and overawed by ure upon no net of nobles, jealous of [18 and preleiisioiiB i power was small, g their dependants ons, and tempered ieal tyranny, with a to which it is natu- jng as the military vernraeut remaioed SCOTCU FIB IS TUB MOST COMMON FINB IN TUB PLANTATIONS. r €f)e 'I^tstorn of Scotlantir. 683 in vigour, the vassals both of the crown and of tiie biirons were generally not only free from oppression, but were courted by their superiors, whose powerandii'iporlancewere founded on their attachment and love. " But, by his accession to the throne of England, Jnmcs acquired such an immense accession of wealth, of power, and of splen- dour, that the nobles, astonished and inti- midated, thought it vaiu to struggle for privileges «liich they were now unable to defend. Nor was it from fear alone that they submitted to the yoke ; James, partial to his countrymen, and willing that they should partake in his good fortune, loaded them with riches and honours; and the hope of bis favour concurred with the dread of his power, in taming their fierce and independent spirits. The will of the prince became the supreme law in Scot- land ; and the nobles strove, with emula- tion, who should most implicitly obey com- mands which they had formerly been ac- customed to contemn. Satistied with hav ing subjected the nobles to the crown, tlie king left them in full possession of their ancient jurisdiction over their own vassals. The extensive rights, vested in a feudal chief, became in their hands dreadful in- struments of oppression, and the military ideas on which these rights were founded, being gradually lost or disregarded, no- thing remained to correct or to mitigate the rigour with which they were exercised. The nobles exhausting their fortunes by the expense of frequent attendance upon the English court, und by attempts to imi- tate the manners and luxury of their more wealthy neighbours, multiplied exactions upon the people, who ,dur8t hardly utter complaints which they knew would never reach the car of their sovereign, nor move him to grant, them any redress. From the union of the crowns to the revolution in 1083, Scotland was placed in a political situation, of all others the most singular and the most unhappy ; subjected at once to the absolute will of a monarch, and to the oppressive jurisdiction of an aristo- cracy, it suffered all the miseries peculiar to both these forms of government. Its kings were despotic ; its nobles were slaves and tyrants; und the people groaned un- der the rigorous domination of both. " During this period, thennbles, it istrue, made one effort to shake off the yoke, and to regain their ancient independency. After the death of James, the Scottish na- tion was no longer viewed by our monarchs with any p irtinl affection. Charles I., edu- cated among the English, discovered no peculiar attachment to the kingdom of which he was a native. The nobles, per- ceiving the sceptre to be now in hands less friendly, and swayed by a prince with whom they had little connection, and over whose councils they had little influence, no lon;ter suhmitled with the same implicit obedience. I'rovolied by some encroach- ments of the king on their order, and ap- prehensive of others the remains of their ancieut spirit began to appear. They com- plained and remonstrated. The people being, at the same lime, violently dis- gusted at the innovations in religion, tlie nobles secretly heightened this disgust ; and their artifices, together with the ill- conduct of the court, raised such a spirit, that the whole nation took arms against their sovereign, with an union and animo- sity of which there had formerly been no example. Charles brought against them the forces of England, and, notwithstand- ing their own union, and the zeal of the people, the nobles must have sunk in the struggle. But the disaffection whicli was growing among his English subjects pre- vented the king from acting with vigour. A civil war broke out in both kingdoms: and after many battles and revolutions, which are well known, the Scottish nobles, who tirsr began the war, were involved in the same ruin with the throne. At the re- storation, Charles II. regained full posses- sion of the royal prerogative in Scotland ; and the nobles, whose estates were wasted, or their spirit broken, by the calamities to which they had been exposed, were less able and less willing than ever to resist the power of the crown. During his reign, and that of James VII. the dictates of the mo- narch were received in Scotland with most abject submission. The poverty to which many of the nobles were reduced, rendered them meaner slaves and more intolerable tyrants than ever. The people, always neg- lected, were now odious, and loaded with every injury, on account of their attach- ment to religious and political principles, extremely repugnant to those adopted by their princes. " The revolution introduced other max- ims into the government of Scotland. To increase the authority of the prince, or to spcure the privileges of the nobles, had hitherto been almost the sole object of our laws. The rights of the people were hardly ever mentioned, were disregarded, or un- known. Attention began, henceforward to be paid to the welfare of the people. By the c/a«m of right, their liberties were se- cured ; and the number of their represen- tatives being increased, they gradually ac- quired new weight and consideration in parliament. As they came to enjoy more security and greater power, their minds began to open, and to form more extensive plans of commerce, of industry, and of police. But the aristocratical spirit, which still predominated, together with many other accidents, retarded the improvement and happiness of the nation. " Another great event completed what the revolution had begun. Tlie political power of the nobles, already broken by the union of the two crowns, was almost anni- hilated by the union of the two kingdoms. Instead of making a part, as formerly, of the supreme assembly of the natiim,' in- stead of bearing the most considerable sway there, the peers of Scotland ure ad- mitted into the British parliament bv their representatives only, and form but an in considerable part of one of those bodies in M THB JONIPEB SHRUB OROWS NATDBALLT ON THB SCOTCH HILLS, THB SRSK, OU OAKLIC, IS TUB L&NOUAOB OF TUB ANtlKNT IRnABITANTS. I M if 5S4 VL\)e ^rcasun) oC ^tstoru* ^c* which the legislative antliority is vested. Tlit-y themselves are excluded absolutely from the house of coninioiis, and evvn their eldest sons are not permitted to represent their couDtrvmen in that Hugust assembly. Nor have their tieudal privileKss remained, to compensate for this extinction of their (lolilica) authority. As commerce advanced in its progress, and government attained nearer to perfection, these were insensi- bly circumscribed, and at last, by laws no less salutary to the public than fatal to the nobles, they have been almost totally abolished. As tlie nobles were deprived of power, the people acquired liberty. Ex- empted from burdens, to which they were formerly subject, screened from oppression, to which they had lung been exposed, and adopted into a constitution, whose genius and laws were more liberal than tlieir own, they have extended their commerce, retined tli«ir manners, made improvements in the elegancies of life, and cultivated the arts and sciences. " This survey of the political state of Scut- land, in which events and their causes have been mentioned rather than developed, en- ables us to point out three eras, from each of which we may date some great altera- tion in one or otiier of the three different memhers of which the supreme legislative asse:iibly in our couslitutiun is composed. At their aecetiion to the throne of lingland, the kings of Scotland, once the most limit- ed, became, in an instant, the most abso- lute princes in Europe, and exercised a despotic authority, which their parliaments were unable to contfoul, or their nobles to resist. .At the union of the two kini^doms the feudal uristocrHcy, which had subiiisted so many ages, and with power so exor- bitant, was overturned, and 'lie Scottish nobles having surrendered ri^uis and pre- eminences peculiar to their order, reduced themselves to a condition which is no Ioniser the terror and envy of other sub- jects. Since the union, the commons, an- ciently neglected by their kings, and sel- dom courted by the nobles, have emerged into dijjnity; and, being adniittad to a par- ticipation of all the urivileges which the English had purehaKca at the expense of so much blood, must now be deemed a body nut less considerable in the one kingdom, than they have long been in the other. "The -church felt the elfects of the abso- lute power which the king acquired by his accession; and its revolut'onH, too, are wortliy of notice. James, during the latter years of his administratiim in Scotland, Imd revived the name and office of bishops. But they possessed no ecclesiastical jurisdiction or pre-eminence; their reveimes were in- considerable, and they were scarcely dis- tinguished by anything but by their seat in parliament, and by heing the object of the clergy's jealousy, and the people's hatred. "The king, delighted with the splendour and authority wliich the English bishops enjoyed, and eager to effect an union in the ecclesiastieal policy, which he had, in vain, attempted in the civil government of the two kingdoms, resolved to bring both churches to an exact conformity with each other. Three Scotsmen were consecrated bishops at London. From them, their bre- thren were commanded to received orders. Ceremonies unknown in Scotland were im- posed ; and though the clergy, less obse- quious than the nobles, boldly opposed these innovations, James, lung practised and well skilled in the arts cf managing them, obtained at length their compliauce. liut Charles I., a superstitious prince, un- acquainted with the genius of the Scots, imprudent and precipitant in all the mea- sures he pursued in that kingdom, pre8^ing too eagerly the reception of the English liturgy, and indiicreetly attempting a re- sumption of church lands, kindled the flames of civil war; and the people being left at liberty to indulge their own wishes, the episcopal church was overturned, and the prcsbyterian government and discipline were re- established with new vigour. To- gether with monarchy, /episcopacy was re- stored in Scotland. A form ol government, so odious to the people, required force to uphold it; and though not only the whole rigour of authority, but all the barbaritv of persecution, were employed in its sup[y-irt, the aversion of the nation was insurmount- able, and it subsisted with difficulty. At the revolution, the inclinatious of the peo- ple were thought worthy the attention of the legislatui'f, the prcsbyterian govern- ment wiM again e«tablisliVd, and, being ratified by the union, is still maintained in the kingdom. " Nik- did the influence of the accession extend to the civil and ecclesiastical ci-t models; as ihey were un- infected wnh those barbarisms, which the inaccuracy of familiar conversation, the af- Buans Alio 8C0TT uavf: trndid to rorubAaicB ma scotch LAiiauAoa. I !i \ mnABITANTI. solved to bring both oiil'iirmity with euch en were consecrated rom ilieni, their bre- d to received orders, in Scotland were im- le clergy, lets obse- >les, boldly opposed imt'S, lonK practised he arts cl' managing ;th their coinpliHiice. t-rstitious prince, un- icenius of the Scots, liiant in all th^ inea- lat kingdom, ures^ing ition of the English tly attempting a re- lands, kindled the ind the people being Ige their own wishes, was overtnrned, and rnment and discipline ith new vigour. To- y, /episcopacy was re- I'orni ol {government, pie, required force to :h not only the whole ut all the barboritv of ployed in its suppiirt, ition was insunnouni- 1 with difKculty. At clinatiOus of the peo- rtiiy the attention of presbytevian govern- iibtislud, and, bring is still luaintaiued in encc of the accession lid evclesiiistical con- grnius of the nation, linj^s of a nature still nsibly nffected by that iig revived in the lif- centuries, nil the mo- in a state extremely legance, of vigour, and No author thought ;e so ill adapted to ex- his seniiinents, or of muiorinlity with such nateriaU. As the spi- iit that time, did not original effort of the as excited chicHy by nrients, wliicli began ith attention in every ir c was y formed thei> style els; as they were uii- larbarisins, which the r conversation, the af- TBB BBSS OB OA MC TONGUB BBABS GBEAT BKSBMBLANCB TO TUB IBISH. 'Eift l^iatotD of SeotlanU. 686 fectation of courts, intercourse with stran- gers, and a thousand other causes, intro- duced into living languages ; many moderns have attained to a decree of eloiiuence in their Latin compositions, which the Ro- mans themselves scarce possessed beyond the limits of the Augustan age. While this was almost the oniy species of composi- tion, and all authors, by using one common language, could be brought to a nearer comparison, the Scottish writers were not inferior to those of any other nation. The happy genius of Buchanan, equally formed to excel in prose and in verse, more various, more original, and more elegant, than that of almost any other modern who writes in Latin, reflects, with regard to this particu- lar, the greatest lustre on his country. " But the labour attending the study of a dead tongue was irksome; the unequal return for their industry which authors met with, who could be read and admired only within the narrow circle of the learned, was mortifying; and men, instead of wast- ing half their lives in learning the language of the Romans, begun to retine and to polish their own. The modern tongues were found to be susceptible of beauties and graces, which, if not equal to those of the ancient ones, were at least more attainable. The Italians having tirst set the example, Latin was no longer used in works of tastef it was confined to books of science; and the politer nations have banished it even from these. The Scots, we may pttsume, would have had no cause to regret this clianrc in the public taste, and would still have Oeen able to maintain some equality with other nations, in their pursuit of literary honour. The English and Scottish languages, de- rived from the same sources, were, at the end of the sixteenth century, in a state nearly similar, dilfering from one another somewhat in ( .'tho^raphy, though not only the words, but the idioms, were much the same. The letters of several Scottish states- men of that age are not inferior in ele- gance, or in purity, to those of the English ministers with whom they corresponded. James himself was master of a style far from contemptible; and by his example and encouragement, the Scottish language might have kept pace with the English in retinement. Scotland might have had a series of authors in its own, as well as in the Jiatin language to boast of; and the improvements in taste, in the arts, and in the sciences, which spread over the other polished nations of Europe, would not have been unknonn there. " But, at the very time when other na- tions were beginning to drop the use of Latin in works of taste, and to make trial of the streii|;tli and ciimpass of their own languages, Scotland ceased to be a king- dom. The transports of joy, which the ac- ce»sion at tirst occasioned, were soon over: and the Scots, being at once deprived of all the olijecis that retine or animate a people; of the presence of their prince, of the concourse of nobles, of the splendour and elegance of a court, an universal de- jection of spirit seems to have seized the nation. The court being withdrawn, no domestic standard of propriety and cor- rectness of speech remained ; the few com- gositions that Scotland produced were tried y the English standard, and every word or phrase that varied in the least from that, was condemned as barbarous; whereas, if the two nations had continued distinct, each might have ribtained idioms and forms of speech peculiar to itself; and these, rendered fashionable by the example of a court, and supported by the authority of writers of reputation, might have been viewed in the same light with the varieties occasioned by the different dialects in the Greek tongue; tbcy even might have been considered as beauties ; and in many cases, might have been used promiscuously by the authors of both nations. But, by the accession, the English became the sole judges and lawgivers in language, and re- jected, as solecisms, every form of speech to which their ear was not accustomed. Nor did the Scots, while the intercourse between tne two nations was inconsider- able, and ancient prejudices were still so violent as to prevent imitation, possess the means of refining their own tongue ac- cording to the purity of the English stan- dard. On the contrary, new corruptions flowed into it from every different source. The clergy of Scotland, in that age, were more eminent for piety than for learning ; and though there did not arise many au- thors among them, yet being in possession of the privilege of discoursing publicly to the people, and their sermons being too long, and perhaps too frequent, such h.tsty productions could not be elegant, and many slovenly and incorrect modes of expression may be traced back to that origiial. The p'<;adinga of lawyers were equally loose and inaccurate, and that profession having fur- nished more authors, and the matters of which they treat mingling daily in com- mon discourse and business, many of those vicious forms of speech, which are deno- minated Scotticisms, have been introduced by them into the language. Nor did either tlie language or public taste receive any improvement in parliament, where a more liberal and more correct eloquence might have been expected. All business was transacted there by the lords of articles, and they were so servilely devoted to the court, that few debates arose, and, prior to the revolution, none were conducted with the spirit and vigour natural to a popular assembly. " Thus, during the whole seventeenth century, the English were gradually re- flning their language and their taste; in Scotland the fuinier was much debased, and the latter almost entirely lost. In the beginning of that period, both nations were emerging out of barbarity ; but the diiitance between them, which was then inconsiderable, became, before the end of it, immense. Even after science had once dawned upon them, the Soots seemed to sink back into ignorance and obscurity; i 1 THB SCOTCH ABB MOBB Pl.OI.niKO AN» MliTAPnirSICAI, THAU THB BNOLISII. i MANY OBMS AMD FBKCIUUS STONBS AHB TODHD IN tCOTLAHD. 656 ^^t ^reasuri) of 3[|(8tori3, $cc. Ifi > i« rji' and active and intelligent a»they nafurally are, lliey riiiilinued, while other nation* were eHger in Ihu pursuit of fame and knowledge, in a stale of langoiir. This, liowcvcr, must he imputed to the unhap- piness of their political situation, not to Htiy defect of genius; for no sooner was the one removed in any degree, than the other began to display itself. The act abolishing the power of the lords of the articles, and other salutary laws passed at the revolution, having introduced freedom of debate into the Scottish parliament, eloquence, with all the arts that acciim- puny or perfect it, became immediate ob- jects of attention; and the example of Fletcher of Sallon alone is sutiicient to shew that the Scots were sliil capable of generous sentimemii, and, notwithstand- ing some peculiar idioms, were able to ex> press themselves with energy and with ele- gance. "At length the union having incorpo- rated the two nations, and rendered them one people, the distinctions which had sub- sisted -for miiny ages gradually wear away ; peculiarities disappear; the same manners prevail in both parts of the island; the same authors are read and admired; the same entertainments are frequented by the elegant and polite ; and the same standard of taste and of purity in language, is esta- blished. The Kcois, after being placed, during a whole century, in a situation no less fatal to the liberty than to the taste and genius of t he nation, were at once put in possession of privileges more valitiible than those which their ancestors had for- merly enjoyed; and every obstruction that had retard'ed their pursuit, or prevented their acquisition of literary fame, was to- tally removed." There were seven Scottish parliaments called after the accession of James, where- . in he presided by a commissioner. An act >'as passed in I6U6 for the resto- ration of the estate of bishops; which was followed by a great variety of laws for giv- ing proper effect to the general principle ; and there were also many laws enacted for promoting domestic economy. After go- verning Scotland with considerable success during his occupation of the throne of Eng- land, he di>don the 37>l> uf March, 1()25, and was succeeded by his son Charles 1., then in the twenty lifih year of his age. CHAPTER V. From the AcceasioH nf Cuari.ks I. to the Death nfWihl.lMil III. Di;hino the Arst ten years of Charles's reign nothing occurred in Scotland calcu- lated to disturb the serenity of his rule; but this calm was succeeded by frequent broils and contentions, arising Ironi many causes, but chielty originating in ecclesi- astical matters. Among niiiny laws of a •iilutary tendency, they piissed an act, re- servluic to the crown those lands nliich the barotmge hud wiestrd from the church ; the clergy were thus benL'tiied, the people were relieved, but the barons were offended. Charles, who was attached to episcopacy from sincere religious convictions, as well as troiu views of political expediency, form- ed the scheme of assimilating in all res. fleets the churches in England and Scut- and. With this view he determined to introduce a liturgy, which in Scotland had never been regularly used; and he insisted upon the reception of a set of canons abo- lishing the control over ecclesiastical mea- sures which the inferior church judicatories had been permitted to exercise. The vio- lence with wliieh all this was resisted was cTirried to the most extravagant pitch: the clergy were insu'.ted, and episcopacy whs again contemplated as the engine of popery and despotism. The dissensions which soon arose in England cherished this state of mind: the discontented in Scotland made common cause with the disaffected in the southern part of the island: they bound themselves by the extraordinary deed which they entitled "the solemn league andc-ove- nant," to exterminate prelacy as a corrup- tion of the gospel ; and they took an active part in those violent scenes which ended in the death of Charles and the erection of the commonwealth. \ To describe the battles which took iHttte between royalists and roundheads, or to make cnmm'enis on the hypocrisy and faith- lessness of the times, would be to repeat that which has already found a place in this volume, and w hicli ;nust ever remain the loulest blot in the annals of England. We shall therefore merely observe, that after the execution of Charles I., in 1648, the Scots proclaimed his son king, under the title of Charles II. ; and that some months after his defeat at Worcester, Scot- laud was incorporated into one coinmun- wealth with England. On the restoration of Charles II., the Scottish parliament assembled, under the earl of Middleton, the king's commissioner, on the 1st of January, 1661. He declared the king's resolution to maii>tain the true refuriiird protesiant religion, as it had been established during the reigns of his fatlier and graiidfuther; intimating, however, that he wtmid restore the episcopal government, though he allowed, mi'anwhile, tlie admi- nistration of sessions, presbyteries, and sy- nods. This endeavour to establish episco- pacy was violently opposed, and led to the most cruel persecution of the presbyteri- ans, which lasted, with more or less se- verity, during the whuleof his reign, Nuni- hers were executed ; others were tined, im- prisoned, and tortured; and whole trHCts of the country were placed undera military desiJOtisni of the worot description. Driven to desperatiiiD, the presi^yierian party had several times recourse to iirnis, and, al- though in some cases successful, they were finally defeated and scatteied at Uutuwell- briilge. A, u. 1685. —On ascending the throne, James 11. professt'd his intention to sup- port the goveinment, in church and stnte, as by law established ; yet his predilection nUDtliS AND nTACIMrnS HAVB BISKN found in FIFKSUiaB. •ABHBT* or aooD tins abs yB«ttO«WTi.Y fouNo m th» HiaaLAWD*. of Cliarlea II., the assembled, und^r the Iciiik's coiiiiniB»ioiier, t, 1661. He declared to niaintnin the true iljgion, M it liad been e reiKH* of his father niatiug, however, that pi»cu|iHl governiiieiir, icaiiwhile, the adini- presbytei ies, and gy- ir lo establish eiiisco- |iO»ed, and led tu tiic uii of the pri:8b)'ieri- ith more or less se- )leof his i-eiifu. Niim others were lined, iiii- pd; atid whole tracts laced underaniilitury ed to heiiettt largely bv it, satistied with its t>:rnis. Notwithstanding every opposition, however, the treaty of union was ratitied by both parliaments, and ou the Ist of May, 17h7i the legislative union of England aud Scotland was ratilied. For several years the union whs unpro- ductive of those Kilvaiitages which were at tirsi expected : no new mnuufactories were attrneledto Scotland, and commerce grew more languid than before. But by a con- siderable assimilation of the lairs to those of England, the courts of justice were bet- ter regulated, and legal redress more easily obtained; while llm barbarous practice of subjecling prisoners to the torture was I abolished. It was stipulated by the treaty I that no alterations should be made in the I chureli of Scotland; that the commereiHl ! laws ami customs sliould be the same in all parts of the united kingdom; tliiit the Scotch royal bnrglis should rciain nil their ancient privileiics; and that no persons aliould be deprived of those hereditary KMUaAI.US AND AMDTUTSTS AUB ALSO raKaUBNTI.Y MBT WITH, TUK HOBIHBIlIf AND BOUTHBBN MOUMTAIN* ABB CHIBrLT OF OBANITB. 588 ^l^e treasure of l^istore, $rc. !l — . i! right! and offices which they had enjoyed by the laws ol Scotland. Looking nt these and other conditions of the union, it is cer- tain that if the Scotch would nbandon pre- judices that oui;ht to be obsolete, and re- solve to proiit by the connexion, they would soon have ample opportunity of so doing; ; while, on the part of Enj^land, it was evi- dent that the zealous cooperation of her northern neighbour in times f war must tend to the security of the whole island, and in peace contribute to its commercial importance. Queen Anne died on the Ist of August, 1714 ; and, under the act of set- tlement, the united crown was transferied to George I. We conceive it to be unnecessary to carry the general narrntive beyond this prriod ; thp affairs of Scotland beinghenceforth de- tailed, in common with those of England, in the history of that country. But, in con- cluding this sketch, it appears requisite to give a brief account of the peculiarities which attach to matters ecclesiastical. — In 1560, the Roman catholic religion was abo- lished, and the reformation was sanctioned by act of parliament; the distinguishing tenets of the Scotch church having been first embodied in the formulary of faith at- tributed to John Knox, who had adopted the doctrines of Calvin, established at Ge- neva. General assemblies at that time be- gan, and continued to meet twice every year, for the space of twenty years ; after which they were annual. From 157°^ to 1592, a sort of episcopacy obtained in the church, while the ecrlesinsticai form of government was presbyterian. Meantime, the dignitaries of the church and the no- bilitv monopolized the revenues of the church, and left the reformed clergy in a state of indigence. After much delibera- tion, the protectant leaders resolved to pro- vide a state-maintenance ibr their teachers, and the following plan was adopted. Two- thirds of all ecclesiastical benetires were reserved to the present possessor, and to the crown the remainder was annexed, out of wiiicli a competent subsistence was to be asrijtned to the protestant clergy. But the revenue thus appropriated, instead of being duly applied, was diverted into other channels. In 168/, all the unalienated church lands were annexed to tllecro^^n; and the tithes alone were reserved for the support of the clergy. Bishops continued till 1592, when presbyteriau government was established by an act of parliament, and a division was made of the church into sjrnods imd presbyteries. But the king, de- •irous of having the power of the bishops restored as a balance to the nobles in parliament, prevailed 011 a majority of the clergy, in 1597 and 1698, to agree that some ministers should represent the church in parliament, and that there should be cou- stant moderators in presbyteries. By an act of parliament in IfiOG, the tempornli- ties of bishops were restored, and i!. were allowed a seat in parliament ; aud thus the presbyterian government was over- turned. But episcopacy at length grew so obnoxious to the people, that, in 16K9, pre- lacy was declared, by a convention ot es- tates, fo be a national grievance, which ought to be abolished ; and in the follow- ing year the presbyterian government was restored and established by parliament; and the general assembly met, after it had been discontinued from the year 1652. Hitherto the provision for the maintenance of the clergy was inidequate, but their stipends were now raised and regulated by the price of grain. The presbyterian church government af- terwards secured in the treaty of union, is founded on a parity of ecclesiastical autho- rity among all its presbyters or pastors, and modelled after the Calvinistic plan, which Knox recommended to his country- men. This form of government excludes all pre-eminence of order, all ministers being held equal in rank and po^er. In matters relating to discipline a i/hsior is assisted by ciders, who ought to be selected from among the most intelligent and con- sistent of the parishioners, but have no right to teach, nor to dispense the sacraments. Their proper office is to watch over the morals of the people, and to catechise and visit the sick. They likewise discharge the office of de&cona by managing the funds for the maintenance of the poor within their districts. The elders and ministers com- pose what is called a kirk or cAurcA-session, the lowest ecclesiiastical judicature in Scot- land. When a parishioner is convicted of immoral conduct, the church-session in- flicts some ecclesiastical censure. If a per- son considers himself aggrieved; he niny appeal to the presbytery, which is the next superior court. The ministers of an inde- finite number of contiguous parishes, with one ruling elder chosen half yearly, out of every church-sesaion, constitute what is called a presbytery, which has cogni- zance of all ecclesiastical matters within its bounds. Syvodt are composed of several presbyteries, and of a ruling elder from every church-session within their bounds. They review the proceedinics of presbyte- ries, and judge in references, complaints, aud appeals from the inferior court. But their decisidn* and nets ore reversible by the general assembly, vihxaYi is the highest ecclesiastical court, and from which there is no appeal. B I " il * •'. ■ i' S! : * II \ e I X i S' a If M BESIDES OEMS AND MINBRALS, SCOTLAND HAS MAHT BARB F0II8ILS. jT or OBAHITX. 'present the church in t there should be cou- n presbyteries. By an in lfi06, the tenipornli- ;re restored, and il. at in parliament ; and in government was over- jpacy at length grew so ■ople, that, in 1089, pre- by a convention ol es- lional grievance, which ^ ^ bed ; and in the follow. ] ^ vterian government was •> ikhed by parliament; and i , ily met, after it had been " the year 16S2. Hitherto I « the maintenance of tlie i ' iiate, but their stipends ! »d regulated by the price : ^ church government af. j ' in the treaty of union, is I i :y of ecclesiastical autlio- • \ s presbyters or pastors, er the Calvinistic plnn, ; nmended to his country. | of government excludes , of order, all ministers in rank and pof er. In to discipline a {Jaslor is , who ought to be selected most intelligent and con. Bhioners, but have no right ! dispense the sacraments. ! ce is to watch over the i nple, and to catechise and hey likewise discliarge the jy managing the funds for : of the poor witliin their ; Iders and ministers com- i :d a kirk or cAwrc/i-session, iastical judicature in Scut- 1 )arishioner is convicted of t, the church-session in- iiastical censure. If a per- imself aggrieved, he may •sbytery, which is the next The ministers of an inde- contiguous parishes, with r chosen half yearly, out i-session, constitute what \bytery, which has cogni- clesiastical matters withm nit are composed of several id of a ruling elder from ssiou within their bounds, e proceedinsts of preshyte- iu references, complaints, im the inferior court. But and nets nre reversible by tmft'y, wbich is the hiRhest jurt, and from which there raAN'CB AT TUB PBESBnX TIMS COWTAIMl 34 MILLIONS Of INUADITA^CTS. THE HISTORY OF FRANCE. Fbauck, which in the times of the Ro- mans was culled Gaul, or Gnllin, extended from the Pyrenees to the Rhine, and on the side of Italy, beyond the Alps to the Adriatic: that which was situated on the Italian side of the Alps being named Cis- alpine Guul, and that beyond the Alps, Transalpine Gaul. The part of Transalpine Guul nearest Upper Italy, and stretching along the Mediteranean towards the Pyre- nees, was conquered by Fubius. As this was the (irst part that was converted into a Roman province, it was called, by way of eminence, the frovincia (afterwards changed into Provence). It was bounded by the .\lps, the Cevennes, and the Rhone. Csesar, who conquered Transalpine Gaul iit a later period, found it divided into three parts: 1. Aquitania, extending from the Pyrenees to the Garonne, chielly occupied by Iberian tribes; 2. Gallia Celiica, from the Garonne to the Seine and Marne; 'A. Gallia Belgica, in the north, extending to the Rhine. But subsequently, by the coiu> mand of Augustus, a very different and much more minute division of the country took place, which, however, it is not here necessary to describe. The Gauls were the chief branch of the great original stock of Celts: and as they called themselves Gail, the name Gaul pro- bably thus took its rise. A great resem- blance appears to have existed among all the Celts; and although they were divided into numerous tribes, there were hut few branches that were perceptibly diflfcreiit from each other. The period of their ear- liest migrations is, however, too remote for history, and, moreover, inapplicable to our present object. Caesar represents all the Gallic tribes as warlike, going always armed, and ready on all occasions to deride their differences by the swurd ; as a people of great levity, and little inclined to idleness; but hospita- ble, generous, contiding, and sincere. The Druids, their priests, who were the sole de- positaries of learning amongst them, were indebted to the credulity of the people for the deference they paid to them. These priests ruled the people by the terror of their anathemas ; they were exempt from all tribute to the stale, and abounded in riches. They had also bards or poets, who composed war songs to animate the com- batants, and to perpetuate the memory of their heroes. The elders, or senators of their towns, together with the military and their chiefs, formed what we call the nobi- lity; these, in conjunction with the priests, possessed the riches and the power; vassa- laKB and misery were the portion of the commonalty. The discipline of the Romans, and the genius and good fortune of Ctesiir, tri- umphed in ten years over the valour of the Gauls.— Colonies had commenced the work of their subjugation, and conquest com- pleted it Gaul became a Roman province. The municipal regulations, and the agri- culture of the Romans, soon rendered the countrv flourishing ; and despotism alter- wards despoiled it. This state of things continued for four centuries, when the peo- pie were reduced to the low est depths of misery, impoverished by the proconsuls, the prey of factions, and alternately passing from insurrection to slavery, under tyrants, who were perpetually changing. But the " incursions of the barbarians" on the Ro- man territorv, had by this time greatly humbled the former mistress of the world. The civiliiaiion, arts, and literature of the Romans were on the decline ; the empire, divided and weakened, was falling into ruin, discipline was relaxed; the glory of the Roman name faded before the barbaric hosts that issued from the north, and over ran the live provinces which had flourished under the administratiou of a Trajan and an Antonine. Upwards of four Imndred years after the Roman conquests, and under the reign of the weak Uonoriu-, a people known by the name of Franks, from Fraiiconia in Germany, abandoned their morasses and their woods, in search of a better country. Under ilie direction of their king Phara- mond, they passed the Rhine, and entered Gaul, but carried their arms no furth r than Belgic Gaul, that part of modern France till lately called the Netherlands. Pharamond died soon after he had effected the settlement The long lists of kings which followed Pharamond, are divided into three races. T\^e first is called the Mkbovinoian, from Merovius, the third king of the Franks: it produced twenty-one kings to France, from the year 448 to the year 751, and ended with Cbilderic III. surnamed the Foolish. The lecond rare began with Pepin, mayor of the palace, who did nut take upcn himself the title of king; nor did his son, the cele- brated Charles Hartel. Pepin the Short, his son, deprived Cbilderic Ill.ofhiscrown. This race, called the Cahi.ovingian, gave thirteen kings to France. It acquired much glory under Charlemagne, but be- came very weak under his successors, and terminated with Louis V. called the Slue- gard, atter having possessed the throne 233 years, from "32 to 98/. The third race, cal- led the Cafi{tii«k, commenced with Hugh Capet, and gave to France thirty-three kings, who reigned 806 years, and flnished THB IHFIRB VNDBR NAFOLBON NUMBIRBD 42,500,000 INHABITANTS. [ZE -^=:fex «H1 CLIMATB OF VBAHCI II HOT BZCSLLID •« ANl IN XDBOPB. / ' ■, f 590 ^i^c ^reaisuri) of l^iistory, See. with Louis XVI. who was belieaded Jan. unry, 1793. France then becHine u repub- lic, wliich lasted until May, 18U4; when it was transfurnied into an empire by Napo- leon Buonaparte, who had risen on the ruins of tlie republic, and had been dic- tator of France under tlie appellation of chief consul. The imperial title, however, lasted but ten years ; Napoleon haviiiir been driven from his usurped throne, and LouiK XVIII. restored to the throne of hii ancestors. In tracing the obscure records of the early periods.we behold alternately wars and alliances auiong the Iloniana and Franks, the Visigoths, and other barbarians; am- bitious generals raised to power by the im- perial court, but quickly overcoming their feeble masters, and calling in the aid of the barbarous tribes to serve the rver-va- rying purposes of their persona ambition. The western empire was then decliuiug: the Saxons seizea upon ^njou and Maine ; the Burgundians occupied the country near the Seine; the Goths and Visigoths extend- ed their dominions as fur as tlie Loire ; the Pranks and the Allmanns, branches of the different hordes which issued from Ger- many, contended for the possession of the north ; while the Romans or Gauls kept the remaining part of the country. Vfe may here observe, that on the con- quest of Gaul by the Franks, the lands were distributed among their officers ; and these, with the clergy, formed the tirst great councils or parliaments. Thus the government was evidently a kind of mixed monarchy, in which nothing of moment was transacted without the grand council of the nation, consisting of the principal officers, who held their lands by military tenures. It appears, indeed, that when Gaul became the possession of northern invaders, it did not acquire that de<;reu of freedom to its constitution which Britain received, about the same time, from con- querors who sprung from the same com- mon stock. The Merovingian Dynasty, «r First Race. A. D. 420. — Pharamond, the first king of the Franks, was succeeded by Clodio, who extended the bounds of his kingdom. Me- rovius secured the acquisitions of his pre- decessor; and Childeric, his son, pushed his conquests to the banks of the river Seine. Clovis, his son, and tlie inheritor of his ambition, aggrandized his kingdom, and so far extended his power, that he ! is ranked as the founder of the French I monarchy. This prince, the tirst of the I Frank kings who had embraced Chrisli- I anity, brought ahnost all the Gauls under his government. He parted his dominions, before he died, between his children. Clovis owed his conversion to Cbristi- ! anity frbra his marriage with a Christian Itriiicess of Spain, and his r.iample was fol- owed by most of the Fiauks, who until ' that tinie had been pagans. He was bap- tised with great splendour in the catlii-drul i at Rheims ; on which occasion the king 1 granted freedom to a number of slaves, and received the title of " Most Christian King," which has ever since been retained by tlie monarchs of France. Clotaire I., the youngest and most bar- barous of the sons of Clovis, and the last survivor of them, at the time of his death possessed the whole of Prance : his domi- nion extended from the banks of the Elbe to the sea of Aquitaine, in the Atlantic Ocean ; and from the Scheldt to the sources of the liOire. At his death he divided it among his four sons. The kingdom was soon after rendered mtserahle. from the jealousy of two ambitious women, the , VIII. surnauied the Lion. His short reign was not marked by any great events; but he distinguished it by enlranchising a great number of serfs or villeins. He sit;naiized his courage against the English; and died, of a conta- gious distemper, at the uge of thirty-nine years. A. u. 1236. — Louis IX. surnamed for his piety. Saint Louis, having defeated the King of England, and many ot tlie grand vassals of France, at Tailleburg, conducted an army to Palestine, took Dumieita in Kgvpt, and distinguished himself at Massous, where he was taken prisoner. He was a IViind to t he indigent, and a zealous advocate for the Christian religion He died belore Tunis, where he had gone upon a second crnsiide against the infidels. Philip 111. suViiunied the Bold, his son, was proclaimed king by the army : he whs liberal, henevnieiit, and just, but displayed no striking abilities. He was succeeded hy his son, Philip the Fair. A. o. 1285.— Philip IV. suruamed Ic Bel, < 3. — DBF. OF AI8NE— S ABBOHD.— 37 OAWTOHB— 838 COM. — (7 DBFS.)— illOn. \i pi J 4. — Dir. orAll-'ES (bassbs)— 5 abbond.— 30 cant.— 257 com.— (2 0Kr».)— -D'frn*. I m H B a I a o b I « B e B A E O M M < n I n u C4' B M s H < M a I; to 592 ^^c SEreasure of l^latory, $fc. or the Fair, celebrated for liia disputes with Edward the First of EoKland, ana pope Bo- uituce the Eighth, abolished tlie order of the Templars, reduced the Fleminxs, and made the seat of the parliament permanent in Paris. He was of a lively disposition, but cruel and unfeeling; and employed lui- Disters who possessed all his defects, with- out his good qualities. In his reign, the states - general, or representatives of the three estates of the kingdom the nobility, clergy and commonalty, were tirst assem- bled. Philip IV. was succeeded by his son, Louis X., during whose reign, which was short, the people were burdened with im- posts. The two brothers of Louis, Philip the Long, and Charles IV. succeeded succes- sively. Philip signalized himself by a num- ber of wise regulations in the courts of jus- tice. Charles followed his brother's steps in this particular: but the stale was loaded with debts and badly governed. Second Bkancb. — House of Valois, *. B. 1328. — Queen Jane, wife of Charles IV. being delivered of a posthumous daugh- ter, the House of Valois mounted the throne; the slates of France having de- creed feii.ales to be incapable of inheriting the crown of France. This is culled the Salic law, from its having been the prac- tice of a tribe of Franks, called Salians, to exclude females from all inheritance to landed property. Philip IV. soon after hia succession, defeated the Flemings; but was defeaied by the English in a sea-light near Sluys; also at Cressy and Calais. In this reign Dauphiny was annexed to the crown of France. A.D. 1350.— John, a brave prince, but with- out genius or political discernment, suc- ceeded Philip. He continued to war against England, but was defeated, and taken pri- soner at the battle of Poitiers. The king- dom became ttie theatre of factions and carnage, and was drained of its valuables to ransom the king. He had stipulated for the cession of one-third of the kingdom, and 3,000,^00 of gold crowns. Not being able to raise tliis enormous sum, John volunta- rily returned to London, where he died in the Savoy, a. d. 13ti4. His son, Charles, surnained the Wise, succeeded him. Charles v., 8econ'''-d by De Guesclin, con- stable ( r France, rnged the honour of the natici, and re-catablished order in the state. Every thing wore a new face under this king, who was wise, laborious, and eco- nomical; a friend to the arts, to letters, and to virtue. A. D. 1380.— Charles VI. succeeded to the crown; and France, under his government, fell ir.i> great disorder. This prince having lost his rea8on,'and recovering it at inter- vals, nothing decisive could be effected. The English king Henry V. entered France, and gained the battle of Agincourt. Henry, by treaty, became heir to the crown ; but died a few days before Charles VI. Henry VI. of England was crowned king of France at A very early oge. His uncle John, duke of Bedford, acted as regent, and during his life the power of the Dnglish increased in France. About this time Joan of Arc, an enthusiast hi the cause of her country, re- animated the valour and patriotism uf the French nation. She fought several battles with success; but was at length taken at Corapi^gne, and burnt as a witch, bvordrr of the English. \fiee"2,^a\.Kvn,"UenryVI.] During this time, Charles VII. reigned only over a part of France. But the duke of Bedford was no sooner dead, than the duke of Burgundy became reconciled with Charles. Normandy, Guicnne, and the other provinces which had been held by the power of the duke of Bedford, acknow- ledged Chailcs ; and the English were com- pelled to evacuate France. Charles VII. was succeeded by Louis XI. his rebellious son. He established the posts. He was a bad son, and as bad a father; a severe prince, but a deep politician. Some important changes in the political condi- tion and the manners of the nation were produced in this reign. The royal power was extended and consolidated ; the knights and nobles assisting in this, becttuse it gave scope for their exploits. The getidiir- inerie, or body of permanent cavalry, was formed, and a corps of foot archers. Charles VIII. who succeeded him, mar- ried Anne of Brittany; thereby putting an end to the last of the great feudal tiet's of France. He restored to Ferdinand V. Car- dagne and Roussillon. He was an amia- ble prince, and his death was considered as a public loss. The House of Valoii-Orleans. A.D. 1493.— Charles A'lII. dying without children, Louis, duke of Orleans, descend- ed fro'n Charles V., obtained the crown, of which he appeared worthy by his good qualities and nis virtues. He commenced his reign by forgiving his enemies, and befriending his people. He conquered tlie Milanese, which he afterwards lost. He made himself master of the kingdom of Naples, conjointly with the king of Arra- gon. He made war also against pope Julius I L Gaston, duke of Nemours, and the che- valier Bayard, greatly distinguished them, selves; but the French were obliged to quit Italy. Louis XII. acquired gloiy more du- rable, by gaining the love of his people, and by his extraordinary affability, ihuu bv his wars. House of Vdlois-AngouUme. A.D. 1615. — A prince of the house of Va lois-Angoul£me ascended the throne after the death of Louis XII., who left an only daughter, married to Francis, count of Angouleme, heir to the crown. Francis de- feated the Swiss at Murignan ; re-united Brittany to the crown ; and coiiqueicd Luxembourg. He was the protuctiir and promoter of the tine arts, and a great en- courager of the harned. He died with the reputation of being the most polite prince in Europe. A. D. 1547. — Henry II. succeeded Francis. 6^— DBP. OP ALPES (hautbs)— 3 abrond.— 24 cant.— 189 com. (2 Dnps.)— Gap. \< 2 Dtr».)—Dignt, t, And during his iiKlissI) increased in lie Joan ui' Arc, an of her country, re- d patriotism uf tlie ught several battles at lenictli taken at a witch, by order of oi.AN u," Henry VI.] horles VII. reigned mce. But the dul. 15S9.— Henry IV. took the title of king of France and Navarre; aud his flrst care was to put an end (o the religious disputes which had su long diatracted the kingdom. For this purpose he subse- quently promulgated the celebrated edict of Nantes, which re-established all the fa- vours ilial had ever been granted to the reformed by other princet. He was ac- knowledged by the lords of the court, but opposed by the catholic league, which set up the old cardinal of Bourbun as king, under the title of Charles X. Henry IV., with a small army and little money, was obliged tu conquer hi» kingdom. He raised the siege of Paris, and defeated the duke of Mayenne at Arque* and at Ivri, After this success, he presented himself before Paris, and before Bouen, which places he besieged in form ; but was compelled to abandon them by the duke of Parma. The duke of Mayenne assembled the slates- general for the election of a king of France: but the victory gained by Henry at Dreux, and his abjuration of the protestant reli- gion, overthrew all their projects ; and Paris, and the greater part of the cities in the kingdom, submitted to his government. The duke of Mayenne retired into Bur- gundy ; but the leaguers, supported by Spain, were still iu opposition in Brittany. Henry declared war against Spain, and de- feiiteii the Spanish army at Fontaine- Fran- ^ise. With the assistance of his sagacious friend and minister. Sully, he established order in the finances, and in every depart- ment of the state; and whilst intent on reducing the dangerous power of the house of Austria, and rendering still greater ser- vice to the people, he was stabbed by a fa- natical priest named Ilavilliac. Thus fell the greatest pi-iucc ever known in France; the best and bravest of its kings. - a. D. KilU. — Louis XIII., suriiamcd th^ Just, Kucceeded Henry IV. Being a minor, Mary de Medicis was declared regent of the kingdom, and dispensed with profusion tlic riches which Henry had amassed to render France powerful. The queen's favourite, a Florentine, named Concini, governed tlie state. The lords, dissatisfied with the pride and despotism of this stranger, took to arms ; and the death of the favourite calmed the intestine division. But no scMmer was Concini in his grave, than another favourite, De Luynes, appeared, possessing more power, if possible, than the former. Liniis banished his mother to Blols. The cele- brated Richelieu, ilien bishop of liucon, effected a reconciliation between them, and received, as a reward, a cardinal's hat. The protestants, much aggrieved by the catho- lics, took tu arms. The king marched against tliem, and was victorious in every quarter, except at Moutauban, from whence he was obliged to retire with great loss. The credit and ambition of Richelieu increased daily, until he was declared minister of the state. The war was renewed with tlie protes- tants; and Uochelle, the liulwaik of the Calvinists, was, after a severe coiiHict, re duced by the king. The queen-mother. 0.— D«f. OF AUBE— 5 ABBOwp.— 26 can*.— 447 com.— (4 dbps.)— 7royM. [3 B8 il I 12.— DBF. OF CALVADOS— 6 abboso.— 87 cant.- 809 com.— (7 bbfb. )—Ca««. 594 VLfft VLxtMMtu of l^iMotny ^c. and Gatton d'Orleann, becnme jealoui of the authority of Richelieu, and, diigusied with his pride, left the kingdom ; and tlie duke de Montniorenci wai beliearted at Toulouge. Richelieu died iuthe Hfty eighth year of his age ; and his death was soun followed bv that of the king, who was suc- ceeded by {lis son. A. II. in43. — Louis XIV. beinK only six years old when his father died, the queen, Anne of Austria, was declared regent of the kingdom, and appointed cardinal Ma- zarine as minister. Cond^ defeatt'd the emperor at Rocroy, at Fribourg, at Nord- lingen, and at Lens; and these successes, seconded by those of Turenne's, determined the emperor to conclude peace. The Span- iards still continued the war. The young king took the tiold in person at the head cf his armies, and Sienay and Montmedi were the fruits of his fii. ' effort for military fame. Peace was soon after concluded be- tween Don Louis de Ilaro, on the part of the Spaniards, and cardinal Mazarine, ou that of the French. The cardinal died soon after, leaving the finances in the most de- ranged Riate, and the navy nearljr ruined. Louis XIV. now took the reins ot govern- ment into his own hands. He thirsted for glory, and had the dim-crnment to choose great men as his ministers. Col- bert and Louvois tilled the first offices of the state. The finances, the commerce, the marine, the rivi' and military govern- ment, the sciences, and the arts, experi- enced a happy change. The death of Phillip IV. of Spain occa- sioned the renewal of war. Louis headed his troops, shewing a great example of ac- tivity and courage ; and his conquests were the means of re-establishin); peace. The success of his arms alarmed the neighbour- ing powers, who entered into a defensive league against France. Louis again took the field, and conquered the greater part of Holland, which he was obliged to evacuate throu;;h the firmness and intrepidity of the stadtholder, afterwards William III. king of Great Britain. The theatre of the war was soon after changed, and Franche Comptd was reconquered. In the zenith of his conquests, Louis dic- tated the conditions of the peace of Nime- guen ; but this peace was soon after infract- ed. The Spaniard.^ lost Luxembourg: Al- giers, Tripoli, and Geneva were bombarded, and oltained peace by making reparation in proponion to the offences they had given. T'lP princes of Europe formed the league of Augsburg against Louis, of which AViU liara, prince of Orange, was the soul. Louis iinpolitirally revoked the edict of Nantes, thereby depriving himself of the services of many thousands of his best and most useful subjects, the protestauts, whom he threw into the arxfii of his enemies. Hfiv- ing so done, he marched against the allied powers. He took, in person, Mons and Na- mur ; and under Luxembourg, Catinat, and Vendome, the French signalized themselves at Fleurus, at Steinkirk, at Neuvinde, at Barcelona, and elsewhere. James II. of England, having abdirated his throne, he flew to France as an asjrium ; and Louis rndeavoured, but iii vain, to re-rstablish him. Peace was made at Rys- wick, and Europe ouce more enjoyed re- pose. Peace was of short duration: the death of Charles II. of Spain rekindled the flames of war. Philip, duke of Uerri, by the will of the late king, was named heir to the Spanish throne, which he ascended by the name of Philip V. The emperor claimed the crown of Spain for his son. War was declared ; and the fortune of arms appear, ed to have abandoned Louis, who, as well as Phihp, sued for peace : but the terms offered by the allies were so hard, as to excite the indignation of the Bourbons. The war was continued ; and at length ter- minated in favour of France, who saw Phi- lip in peaceable possession of the crown of Spain, secured by the peace of Utrecht in 1713. Two years alter, Louis died, having reigned seventy-two years. The reign ot Louis XIV. has been cele- brated as the era which produced every thing great and noble in France. He has been held up to the world as the munidcent patron of tlie arts, and a prince whose con- ceptions and plans were always grand and digniried. The true character of kings can only be justly determined by posterity, and the reputation of this celebrated monarch has not been strengthened by time. After every proper tribute of applause is rendered him. It may be asserted, that, in general, he rather displayed a preposterous vanity than true greatness of character, which has been productive of such baneful effects, that the decline of the French monarchy may be said to have mainly originated from his conduct. It must be admitted that in the earlier years of his reign, Louis was a liberal patron of letters, and many of the most celebrated writers flourished; as Cor- neille and Racine, the two greatest tragic poets of France, and Moliere, the tivst comic writer; Boileau, the satirist; Fnii- thine, Fcnclon, Massilon, and others. The close of the long career of Loui^i, once styled by the French "the great," was dis- graced by H gloomy and bigoted intoler- ance. A. ». 171s. — Louis XV. succceeded his grandfather at the age of five years and a half. The regency was conferred on his uncle, the duke of Orleans, under whose auspices the unfortunate Missis- sippi scheme, planned by Law, a Scotch- man, took place. The king took the go- vernment upon himself at the age of fif- teen, and appointed cardinal Fieiiry, his preceptor, prime minister. The emperor disturbing the peace of Europe, Spain and Sardinia united with France, and dcelared war. The taking of Philipshurg, the vic- tories of Pnrma and Flacentia, and the conquests of Don Carlos, put an end to this short war, which gave Lorraine to France. The death of the emperor Charles VI. plunged Europe again into war. France ll H I « ! H ! H < X ' (. IS H H g 13.— 0BF. OF CANTAL— 4 abrosd.— 23 cant.— 265 com.— (4 BKTB.)—Aurillae. 7 B%r».)—Caen. duration: the death I rekindled the flames I of Bi-rri, by the will I named heir to the I he ascended by the | 'he emperor claimed j ir his son. War was i tune of arms appeiir- { Lotlis, who, as well • icacc : but the terms were so hard, as to jn of the Bourbons. •d ; and at lenKth ter- France, who saw Phi- ;sston of the crown of ; peace of Utrecht in cr, Louis died, having pears. I XIV. has been ccle- hich produced every le in France. I}e has rorldas the munidcent id a prince whose con- ! lere always Rrand and I character of kings can | lined by posterity, and 8 celebrated monarch hened by time. After >f applause is rendered rted, that, in general, a preposterous vanity Df character, which has such baneiul etfects, the French monarchy mainly originated from St be admitted that in his reign, Louis was a | ters, and many of the i :ers flourished; as Cor- | lie two greatest tropic nd Mohere, the first au, the satirist; Fnii- ' lilon, and others. The ' career of Louis once j li "the great," was dis- j y and bigoted iutoler- ' s XV. succcecded his nge of five years and ncy was conferred on ie of Orleans, under ! unfortunate Missis- led by Law, a Scotch- rhe king took the go- iself at the nge of tif- 1 cardinal Fleury, his iuister. The emperor e of Europe, Spain and 1 France, and declared if I'hilipshurg, the vic- nd Plucentia, and the Carlos, put an end to jich gave Lorraine to B emperor Charles VL ;ain into war. France (4 BBT».)—AuriHac. 16. Dir. or CHEU— a a«boii».— 29 cawt.— 397 com.— (4 oira.)— Bovrfrra. Cfjc l^iatorp of JFrance. 695 ! favoured the pretensions of the elector of Bavaria. The combined armies of France and Davaria subdued Upper Austria, and possessed themselves of Prague, where the elector was crowned king of Bohemia, iiut a sad reverse was soon after experi- enced. Austria and Uohemia were torn from Charles VII., who had been elected emperor by the assistance of France ; and peace was demanded of the Hungarian queen, but refused. Louis XV. who, after the death of cardinal Fleury, governed for some time in his own person, set four armies on foot, and march- ed into Flanders. He took Menin, Ypres, and Fumes; wliiUt the prince of Conti signalized himself in Italy. In the mean- time Alsace was attacked : Louis flew to its askistance, and fell sick at Menlz. As soon as his health was reestablished, he besieg- ed Friburg, which surrendered. Several campaigns followed with various success, until peace was made at Aix-la-ChapcUe in 17-ta. War recommenced in 1755, between the English and French. In Germany it was carried on with advantage to the latter. Hanover was taken, and the duke of Cum- berland made the capitulation of Closter- seven, disgraceful to the English. The king of Prussia defeated the French and Aus- trians at Roshach, which instantly changed the face of alfairs. Hanover was retaken, and the French beaten at Crevelt, by the prince of Brunswick. They were defeated at Warburg, and at Minden, by the Eng- lish, wlio proved successful both by sea and land. Spain, alarmed at the many con- quests of their arms, joined a ronfederacy of the princes of the house of Bourbon, known by the name of the "family cum. pact ;" and the dame of war raged in both hemispheres, to the glory of the English nation, and the loss of the Bourbons. Tlie pence of 1763 put au end to this war. Durinic the interval of peace, Louis con- quereil Corsica, after a desperate struggle on the part of that brave people for their independence, under Pascal Paoli. He died in 1774- He was a prince of very moderate parts, and was governed in a great measure by his mistresses and his favourites, who also governed France. A. i> \7T-i- — Louis XVI., grandson of the last king, succeeded to the throne, and soon alter his accession married Antoi- nette, princess of Austria. He regenerated the murine, much weakened by the suc- cesses of the English in the late war ; and the navy of France, in a few years after his succession, could boast of one Itundred sail of the line. He assisted the Anglo- Americans to throw off the yoke of the mother country, which they effected ; but it WHS in this war that the seeds were sown of that revolution which proved his ruin. ''' The war of American independence had, in truth, taught the people of every country to know their power; and in France, the influence of the nubility and the crown had been annihilated, by their contemptible profligacy in the preceding reign. A set of powerful but intolerant writers had also arisen, at the head of whom were Voltaire and Rousseau, who attacked all existing institutions with a wit and eloquence that made them universally popular. The taxes were most unjustly distributed; the clergy and nobility being exempt from taxation, and the middling classes and the poor being obliged to defray the whole. Towards the close of the year 1788, when famine stared the miserable peasants in the face, the greatest difltculty was found to supply the enormous expenses which were every day increasing. The king was advised to call a meeting of the states-gen- eral ; a measure seldom recurred to, but in cases of the greatest necessity. The states- general, consisting of the nobles, clergy, and others, assembled, and commenced their sittings in the king's royal palace at Versailles, May 6th, 1789.' They soon dis- covered the situation of the country; and they also felt their power and their conse- quence, from the eyes of all France being directed to their proceedings. They bound themselves, by an oath, never to separate until the constitution of the kingdom, and the regeneratiim of public order, were estatj- lished and fixed on a solid basis. Tliey de- clared themselves inviolable, by a majority of 493 against 34 ; and seemed passionately in love with freedom and their country. The celebrated Necker was dismissed the ministry, and retired from France. A state of universal agitation was now on the eve of commencing; an awful scene approached — a scene from which we date the period of the French revolution. The citizens of Paris, who had assembled on Sunday evening, the 12th of July, 1789, in the public walks of the Palais Royal, pro- ceeded from thence to the bouse ot an artist on the Boulevards; and having pro- cured a bust of M. Necker, and also of the duke of Orleans, they adorned them with crape, and carried them through the streets in triumph. When they came to the Square or Place Vend6ine, they were stopped by the German regiment of horse, who dis- persed the people, and broke the bust of Necker. Some few were wounded ; but they soon rallied in increased numbers.. The army, which had been stationed round Paris, now came forward in full force with a body of cavalry ; and the prince de Lam- besq, of the house of Lorraine, at their head. He had received orders from mar- shal Broglio, to lake post neur the gardens of the Tuilleries, and maintain himself in that position, without doing any mischief to the people : but they were now assem- bled in such numbers, and were so tumul- tuous, that the prince, finding himself hemmed in, and fearful of being cut off, entered the gardens of the Tuilleries at the head of his German regiment, and, with his drawn sword, wounded a peaceable citizen who was walking there. The dis- order from that time became universal; the soldiers fired on the people; and what with the shrieks of the women, the groaus of the wounded, and the arbitrary behavi- 17-— PKP. OF CORBEZE— 3 arbond.— 29 cant.— 291 com.— (4 vxra.)— Tulle. ) ^ ! )l ! : 1 i ■ 1. ! I "^•!W«"«W ■WMtH ,! ■* \i M:^ m I.— DKr. or COTE D'OR— 4 abbohd.— 36 cahx.— 728 cam.— 5 BEta.—Itijoit. 596 ^l)t treasury o( l^tstorp, ^c. il our of the military, tlie wliole city was in an instant thrown into a convulsed state. Tlie leeneral cry was, " To arms !" Mus- kets, and otlier weapons of defence, were soon in every hand. Tlie French ttuards not only refused to fire on their country- men, but united in tlieir cause. Tliey marched to the Plare of Louis XV. to meet the German rogiment. They soon came up with them, as well as with some hus- sars of the Hungarian light-horse, who had joined the Germans. A smart action took place, and the ..Germans were driven back in great disorder, leaving eleven of their , comrades killed or wounded behind them. I On the 14th of July, in the morning, al- ' most every person in Paris was armed ; the soldiers mingled with the populace, and all at once a numemus body esclaimed, " Let us storm the Bastile." That instant they proceeded towards it, and presented thrinselvra; before the tremendous fort- ress, by the great alrect of 8t. Anthony. M. I)e Launay, the governor, caused a flng of truce to be hung out; upon which a de- tachment of the patriotic guards, with Ave or six hundred citizens, introduced them- selves into the tirst court. The governor havint; advanced to the drawbridge, re- quired of the people what they wanted. They answered, "ammunition and arms." He iironiiscd to furnish them; instead of : which, he caused the drawbridge to be ' raised, and a discharge of artillery on all those men who were in the tirst court, whereby many were killed and wounded. The governor now turned the cannon on the city. The populace, burning with re- venge, sent for the cannon from the In- valids; upon which tive pieces were soon brought thpm, and delivered to experienced gunners. Three pieces of artillery, under thedirection of M. Hulin, were also brought into the court of the Saltputriere, contigu- ous to the Uaiitile, and immpd^iately pointed against that fortress, on which they tired ' with great vivacity. The governor perceiv- ing he could not hold out against such a phalanx as opposed him, threw out a white flag. The besiegers, however, would look at nothing that might lessen their resent- ment, or excite pity in favour of the be- sieged. The governor made a second at- tempt to paciiy them, but in vain. He acquainted them, by a paper introduced through a crevice of the drawbridge, that he had 2O,UU0lb. weight of gunpowder « and would blow up the garrison, and all its environs, if a capitulation was not ac- cepted. The besiegers despised this me- naee, and continued their firing with addi- tional vigour. Three cannon were brought forward to beat down the drawbridge. The governor tliuii demolished the little bridge of pas* sage on the leflthand, at the entrance of the fortress. Ilely, Hulin, and Muillard, leaped on the bridge, and demanded that the inmost gate should be instantly opened. The liesii'ged obeyed ; and the besiegers pushed forward to make good their en- trance, mai-sacreing all who came in their way ; and soon after the standard of the victors was seen hoisted on the highest tower. lu the meantime (he principal drawbridge was let down; the populace rushed in, every one eager to discover the governor, and to plunge his sword into his treacherous bosom. Oue Arxii, a grena- dier, singled him out, seized, and disarmed him, Bua delivered him up to Hulin and Hely. The deputy governor, the major, and the captain of the gunners, were also seized. The victors proceeoed with their prisoners to the Hotel de Ville : but they were scarce- ly arrived, when the mob tore them from the hands of those who held them in secu- rity, and trampled them under-fott ; and De Launay, and the minor, pierced with coiuitless wounds, expired. Thus fell the Bastile, after a siege of three hours only : a fortress that the most experieuced generals of the age of Louis XIV. had deemed impregnable. It whs began by Charles V. in 1369, and finished in 1.383. The court, utterly astounded at these pro- ceedings, now ordered the dismissal 'lOf the troops, and the recall of Necker. llailly, who presided at the tennis court, wk& no- minated'mayor of Paris, and Lafayette be- came commander of the national guards. A crowd of the. lowest rabble, accompanied by some of the national guards, proceeded to Versailles, and entered the palace amidst threats and execrations the most indecent and revolting. The king was compelled to accompany them to Paris, and to receive from the hands of Bailly the tri-colourcd cockade, as a mark of his union with tlie people. At this period the famons Jacobin club was formed ; an illegal ind violent power, which raised itself at the side of the na- tional representation in order soon atti:r to crush it. At first it consisted of a lew well-disposed deputies and patriots ; but it soon changed its character, and became the focus uf insurrection and treasonable excitement. Tub Fhench Rsvoi.vt(oi«.— TAe Limited Monarchy. A.n- 1/89.— We now come to the month of August, an ever memorable era in the history of France. The new constitution was finally ushered into the national as- sembly on the Ist dny of the month. The articles being all discussed, the king ac- cepted it with seeming sincerity, reiurnin<.' the assembly thanks for the title they had bestowed on him ; that of "restorer of the liberties of France." It was not long after this, however, that Louis, probably from finding his power cir- cumscribed, ntlempled to leave France, wilh the queen and family, and liad actually pro- I ceedod near the frontiers, when he was re- cognized by Drouet, son of the postmaster I at Varennes, nho contrived to impede his I journey by overturning a cart in the war. In the meantime he conveyed the iiitelll gence to the guard. The king was non- Si.— dbp. OF C0T3 DU-NOllD— 6 AnnoifO.—- IS rANT.— 376 com.— (6 bbps.)— SMJi-iVu*. ■fi nttt.—Dijo*. the alandavd of tlie sted on tlie highest jitime Mie principal down; the populace ager to discover the ge hia »word into his Que Ami, a grent.. seized, and disarmed im up ^0 Hulin and >r, the major, and the ers, were also seized. i with their prisoners but they were scarce- mob tore them from ho held I hem in secu- hem under-foct; and major, pierced with pired. jtile, after a siege of brtress that the most I of the axe of Louis niprefcnable. It whs in 136&, and finished kstounded at these pro- ;d the dismissal 'lOf tlic Eill of Necker. Uailly, ! tennis court, wa6 no- '&vi», and Lafayette be- f the national )(ua<'ds. St rabble, accouipaiiied onal guards, proceeded tcred the palace amidst ^ ions the most indecent "? king was compelled to Paris, and to receive Bailly the tri-Coloured ; of his union with the le famous Jacobin club egal ind violent power, at the side of the na- in in order soon attir St it consistftd of n few ties and patriots ; but 1 character, and became rection aud rreasunable otUTlON. — The Limited march!/. low come to the month : memorable era m the The new constitution d into the national as- day of the month. The discussed, the king ac- ning sincerity, rcturnmir ks for the title tliry had that of "restorer of (lie it after this, however, that im Hndiiig his power cir- jifd to leave l'rHnce,wilh ily, and had actually pio- iiitiers, when he was re- t, son of the postmaster contrived to iniiiede his •nini< « cait in the way. he conveyed the intelli rd. The king was now M.— (6 DBFS.)— Sf.Bn>n*. 24.— DBF. OF DOUBS— 4 abbowb.— 27 oaht.— 639 coii.— (5 iibfs.)— BManron. ^I^e l^istorp of ^France. 597 fully identified, but denied having any in- tention of leaving France. He was, how- ever, conveyed back to Paris, where he had been but a very short time missed. Uis brothers escaped by taking different routes. This attempt of Louis to leave the king- dom, irritated the Parisians almost to frenzy ; and he was soon after conveyed to the Temple as a prisoner, together with his queen, his children, and his sister, Madame Elizabeth. Here he suffered a rigorous continement, until he was brought to trial before the national convention; for by that appellation the national assembly was then known. Being convicted of what they termed treason against that constitution which he had sworn, to defend, he was con- demned to die by the guillotine; which death he suffered on the 21st of January, 179.1, with great fortitude, and was buried privately, in a churchyard of Paris ; his grave being tilled with lime, in order to preveiit his partizans from removing his body. Thus died Louis XVI., who if not the greatest of the French mnnarchs, was certainly one of the most unoffending : but he was irresolute, brought up in the nabits of indolence, and of a court famous for its breach of faith. He was, in fact, in every respects, unsuitable to the government of the French nation, whether as a despotism, or a free government : the latter he him- self certainly was the means of introdu- cing, by the part he took in the contest between Great Britain and her American colonies. 2. The Republican Government, A. D. 1792.— During the conflnemeut of Louis, the constitution was modelled anew. The limited monarchy gave way to the re- publican governmeut.'which took place the 23rd of September, 1792. The death of the queen soon followed : the absurd and infa- mous charges brought against her asto- nished all Europe. But no power could save the once beautiful Marie Antoinette: her doom had doubtless long been decreed ; and she suffered by the axe of the guillo- tine, on the 16lh of October, 1/93, after having been treated with every possible in- dignity. Her body was immediately in- tened in a grave filled with quick lime, like that of her husband. This highly accom- plished woman, who is described as a model of grace and beauty, was in her 38th year, and sister of Leopold II., late emperor of Germany. La Vendee rose, and the continent as well as England armed in hostility to the convention, whom nothing seemed to in- timidate. Fourteen armies, without ex- perience, and merely with the aid of paper money, were set in motion. Custine took Mentz ; Montesquieu invaded Savoy ; Lille repulsed the Auslrians, who bombarded the city ; and Dumouriez, making a descent upon Belgium, carried the redoubts of Je- nappe at the point of the bavonet. The generals had only to sound the Marseillais hymn, and the citizeu soldiers saw in the republic a futurity of peace and prosperity, although the roots of what was called the tree of liberty was saturated with blood. Lyons, after a two months' siege, sur- rendered to the republicans,-and there are few examples, even amid the horrid scenes of barbarous warfare, of more vindictive cruelty than took place there. The guillo- tine being deemed too slow an engine of destruction, crowds were driven into the Rhone, or butchered in the squares by discharges of grape-shot. Banrire sent a naming account to the convention, which decreed that the walls and public buildings of the city should be razed, and Lyons henceforth called La fille JjgFranchie. The excesses and enormities of this period of French history are almost, in- deed, too incredible for the sober pen of history to record. A new calendar was formed ; and in order'to obliterate the re- membrance of the Christian sabbath, each month was subdivided into three decades, the first days of which were festivals or days of rest. A few days after, the munici- pal authorities of Paris appeared in the convention, attended by the biahop and clergy decorated with caps of liberty, who publicly renounced their offices of Christian pastors. The bishop of Moulins threw down his mitre, and preached the doctrine that "death is an eternal sleep." Various allegorical creations, such as Liberty and Equality, were deified, and a youni; woman of abandoned character was enshrined as the Goddess of Reason on the altar of Notre Dame, to receive the adoration of the multitude. The reign of Robespierre was now in its plenitude: a tyrant more savage and bloody cannot be found since the days of Nero and Caligula. The guillotine was in con- stant action, and thousands were immo- lated to his sanguinary vengeance. Royal- ists and republicans indiscriminately felt the nxc ; and amongst his victims were Madame Elizabeth, sister to the king; and the duke of Orleans, the king's cousin, wlin had, in the national convention, voted for the death of Louis. The latter not only died uiipiiied, but execrated by both par- ties, for the infamous part he had acted towards his near relation. This " bold bad mon," who had renounced his title, and adopted the name of Philip Egalit^, was in his 46ih year, and met death with apparent indifference. Under the mask of pairioti»m he aspired to the throne, but met liis just reward (though not for his regicidal and unnatural crime) from the guillotine. Who at that time could have imagined that young Egalil^, his son, who had fought under tliu banners of the republic, would one day be saluted as Louis Philippe, king of the French I This era was appropriatelv termed " the reign of terror." But the power of Robe- spierre was not to endure for ever. Ta- lien had the virtue and courage to de- nounce him, in the convention, for his num- berlesss barbarities. The members well knew they held their heads by the slight tenor of his will only: they we're therelure 25.-BBP. of DROME-4 AnB0WD.-28 cawt.-360 com.-(4 i,iLvs.)-raUnee. I I ll V "28.— DBP. o» FINISTKRUE— 6 abeohd.— 43 cajii.'— 281 com.— (8 defs.)— QHi'mper. 598 ^l^e treasure of '^i8tore» Sec. gratitied by the opportunity wliich now of- fered itsrlt' for Lis destruction t they sup iiorteJ tlie denuuciatiuu against hiin ; and but a few hours elapsed between his accu- sation and his death, on tliat scaffold where he had so recently sent his victims by dozens. This event, which gave general satisfaction, took place the 28th of July, 1794. The constitution of the third year, was, ■oon after the death of Robespierre, in some degree, put into force. A directory, consisting of live, forming the executive power, was appointed: it consisted of Ueu- bel, Barrai, La Reveilliere Lepaux, Merlin, and Treilliard; and two councils; thetirst, of the "elders;" and the latter of "five hundred," formed the legialative part. One third of each chamber was to be renewed annually; and one of the "directors" was to Ko out yearly, and be replaced by the election of another. The armies of France had been contend- ing, from the year 1792, with those^ of al- most every power in Europe. Prussia was, indeed, early drawn off from the contest ; though it had penetrated the French terri- tory. Tlie republican arms were in g[eneral successful by land; and, in the beginning of 1795, they were in possession of all the Austrian Netherlands, Holland, and Ger- many, to the banlntiarie8i wereasEassiiiitted by I on their return th liRvintc in the interim li, reneived tlie war. entioned negotiation, ince tor tlie conquest lingly titled out a t'nr- in, on board of whidi I troops, tlie flower of us Italian orniy. All d in tlie destination armament, but more Buonaparte, it v as was to hate the com- : secrecy with which iieretowas conducted, at the discovery of left Toulon in May, land of Brteux as ud- te as commnnder-in- nd steered to the east- :a submitted ; and on cached Alexandria, in lie Kood fortune to es> admiral Nelson, nilo in search of it as soon I certainty that It had Alexandria wasitjiken beys and Mamlukes ireral actions. Egypt, Grand Cairo, was in French in twenty one mdcd Ins lorces but a ?. English fleet appear- jypt. The French fleet loukir, moored in the le intrepid Nelson nt- of August, anil gained le as any in the naval ry. f brought Egypt under object was Syria, for ch he was in readiness '99. He marched from the Desert. He took 1 Jerusalem, and peiie- Bs far as Acre, which Here he met with an he captains and crews Icet, commanded hy sir I had come to the as- a ; and after manv mo!t take that city, during ' vards, he retired with le siege of Acre that sard of the reverses of loss of the greater part Italy. He soon after- army of the pacha of and his departure from ledialcly on that event, ent of his new con<|UC9t er: and, embarking on .with a few of his piin- he jrood forluiie to es- English cruizers, and n the I3th of October. Paris en the 16th amidst f the people; and was [5 BKr t.)—Nimea. 22_n«f. Of GIBONDE— 6 abbosd.— 48 ci.nt. 643 com.— (9 Btr».)— Bon Jeaux. tE^^t l^istorn oC JptAnce. 599 t m M B D a * V I ■ B O H B < H H m toon made acquamted with the external ■nd internal situation of France. He de- plored the loss of those conquests which bad acquired to him immortal fame; but he further deplored the state of the coun- try, torn into a variety of factions. An army, unclothed, unfed, and unpaid ; a part of the interior of the republic in rebellion ; a host of foes from without pressing it on alt sides: the iinances in the utmost possi- ble state of derangement ; and the resources drained almost to the Inst livre. The quick discernment of Buonaparte told iiiin that nothing short of a grand effort could save France from ruin. He soon made up his mind to the action, and, assisted by a few friends, his generals, and his army, actually assumed the government on the 9th of No- vember; abolishing, at the same time, the constitution of the third year. He was soon after elected first consul, with extraordi- nary powers. The scene that took place on this me- niorable occasion is well worth transcrib- ing: — The legislature met at St. Cloud< the cimncil of elders in the great gallery ; and that of five hundred, of whom Lucien Buonaparte was president, in the orangery. Buonaparte entered the council of elders, and, ill an animated address, described the dangers that menaced the republic, and conjured them lo associate their wisdom with the force which surrounded him. A member using the word " cousiiiution," Buuiia)i pushed him towards the door. One mem- I Der aimed a blow at hiui wi'h a dagver, which was parried by a grenadier. Dis- ' concerted at this routih treatment, general LeI'ubvre cainc in his aid ; and Buonaparte ; retiring, mounted his hoi-se, and addressed the troops outside. His brother Lucien olso made a forcible appeal to the military, ond the result was, that a picket of grena- diers °ntered the hall, and, the drums beatiug the pus ile charge, cleared it at the j point of the bayonet. This truly Crom- I wcllian argument decided the affair, and { in the evening it was declared that the di- I rectory had ceased to exist; that a provi- ; sumal consular commission should be up- I pointed, composed of citizens Sieyes, Ducos, and Buonaparte ; and that the iwo councils should name committees, of 26 members each, to preuare a new roustitntion. In the interval between the abolition of one constitution and the creation of another. the consuls were invested with a dictator ship. Lneien Buonaparte w as made minis- | terof the interior; THiIeyriind, of foreign af- fairs; Carnot,ofwar; and Fouch^, of police. The Coiuular Government. A. D. 1900.— The new constitution con- sisted of an executive composed of three consuls, one hearing the title of chief, and in fact possessing all the authority of a conservative senate, composed of 80 mem- bers, appointed for lile; the first 6U to be nominated by the consuls, ond the number to be completed by adding t.wo, annually, for ten years: and a legislative body of 'MO members; and a tribunate of lUU. Buo- naparte was nominated the first consul, for ten years ; Camhac6res and Lebriin, second and third consuls, for five years. Sifiyes, who had taken an active part in bringing about the revolution, and ia framing the new constitution, wps reward- ed by the grant of an estate, worth lo.UUO francs per annum. One of the first acts of the consulate was a direct overture from Buonaparte lo the king of England for peace; which was replied to by the English minister, who adverted to the origin of the war, and inil- luated that " the restoration of the ancient line of princes, under vthoni Fraiire had ciijored so many centuries t.f prosperity," would afford the best guarantee for the maintenance of peace between the two countries. This was of course construed, as it was meant, a rejection of the offer. The strength and energy of the new go- vernment made itself vieilile in the imme- diate union of the best leaders of all par- ties; in the return of many thousand emi- grants in the humbler ranks of life; and in the activity which was displayed by all who held office under the consular govern- ment. Buonaparte soon put himself at the head of the army of Italy, and by the ra- pidity of his operations out-generaled hi* opponents. Having made himself acquaint- ed with the position of the Austrian army, encamped in a valley at the foot of Mount St. Bernard, he formed the bold design of surprising them by crossing that part of the Alps, which was before considered in- accessible to a regularly equipped army. It was, in truth, a most difficult and daring exploit, exceeding any thing that had oc- curred since the days of Hannibal: but in proporiiiin to the peril of the uiidertnkinir, was the glory that awaited it. The battle of Marengo, which was fought on the ]4th of June, I84I ' S6.— DBF. Of INDRE-ET-LUIRE— 3 akrosd.— 24 casi.— 285 com.— (4 napi,)— Tourt. 600 ^f)e treasury o( lltstorp, $c:c. tbeir territories beyond the Rhine by this new arrangement, were to be indemnified by additional possessions on the right bunk of that river. In Italy the course of the Adige was fixed as tlie boundary between Austria and the Cisalpine republic, and the former power gave the Briesgau and Orte- nau to the duke of Modena. The terri- tories of the grand duke of Tuscany were erected into the kingdom of Etruria, which was given to the hereditary prince of Par- ma, according to a treaty between France and Spain : the grand duke being to be in- demnified in Germany for the loss of his territories. This peace was the prelude to others. On the 29th of September, 18U1, Portugal concluded a treaty with France ; and Russia and Turkey on the 8th and 9th of October. A. D. 1802. — England was also now dis- posed to enter into negotiations for peace ; and the terms of the treaty of Amiens were soon arranged. France retained her acqui- sitions in Germany and the Netherlands, and her supremacy ia Holland, Switzer- land, and Italy. England consented to resign Malta to the knights of St. John, to make the Ionian islands an independent republic, and to restore all the colonies she had taken from France, except Ceylon and Trinidad. France, on the other hand, gua- ranteed the existence of the kingdoms of Naples and Portugal. The treaty was signed on the S7th of March, 1802 ; and for a short time the inhabitants of Europe were flat- tered with the prospect of continued tran- quillity. In May, Buonaparte founded the legion of honour; and soon after, he was chosen first consul for life. He had just before concluded with the new-electod pope a concordat for the Gallicau church, the articles of which were— the estanlishmcnt of the free exercise of the catholic religion ; a new division of the French dioceses ; the bi'hops to be nominated' by the first consul, and to take an oath of fidelity to the republic. He also put an end to the proscriptionof the emigrants, and numbers returned to end their days in the land of their birth. But his extraordinary successes, the adU' lation of the army, and his elevation, in- toxicated the chief consul ; so much so in- deed, that it was not long before he took an opportunity of openly insulting the En- glish ambassador, A renewal of hostilities was the natural result ; and to such an ex- tent did Buonaparte carry his animosity to- wards England, that on the ground that two French ships had been captured prior to the formal declaration of war, he issued a decree for the detention of all the English in France; and under this infringement of international law, the number of British subjects detained in France amounted to 11,000, and in Holland to 1,300 A. D. 1804. — In February a plot was dis- covered in Paris- tor the assassination of Buonaparte and the overthrow of the con- sular Kovcrnment. The principals in this conspiracy were general Pichegru ; Georges, an enthusiastic loyalist; and Ltyolais, a friend of general Moreau, who also was charged with disaffection to the consular government. Pending the trials Pichegru was found strangled in prison ; Georges and some of his accomplices were publicly executed ; and Moreau was sentenced to two years' imprisonment, which was com- muted to banishment to America. One of the foulest atrocities of modern times was next perpetrated by the order of Buonaparte. The duke d'Enghien, eldest son of the duke of Bourbon, was seized in the neutral territory of Baden, and taken first to Strasburg, thence to Paris, and afterwards to the castle of Vincennes, where a military commission met on the night of his arrival, to try him, on the charges of having served m the emigrant armies against France, and of being privy to the conspiracy of Georges. If, however, signi- fled little what the charges were; he was predestined for immediate execution; and, in defiance of every barrier of international law, justioe, and humanity, he was taken out and shot in the castle ditch, almost im- mediately after his midnight trial was con- cluded. The prince had the reputation of being a brave soldier and a virtuovis man; hence he was the more obnoxious I > The ambition of Buonaparte to obtain the imperial dignity, and his denunciations against England, seemed to occupy all his thoughts; And, truly, these were objects of no little magnitude. At length, on the Ist of May, a motion was made in the tri- bunate for conferring on Napoleon Buona- parte the rank of emperor, with hereditary succession in his family. The decree of the tribunate was adopted by the senate; and power given to Buonaparte, if he had no male issue, to adopt an licir from the chil- dren of his brothers. The title of prince, princess, and imrerial highness, were con- ferred on all members of the Buonaparte family. Thus ended the French republic, uuder all its phases. It had lasted eleven years and four months— almost the exact duration of the English commonwealth from the death of Charles I. Pope Piua VII. now proceeded to Paris, and on the 2nd of December solemnly anointed the new emperor, who himself placed the imperial crown upon his own head. The Italian republic followed the example of France; and on the ISlh of March, 1805, having named their president king of Italy, Napoleon, on I he 26th of May, with his own hands also placed the new crown of the Lombardian kings upon his own head, and was anointed by the archbishop of Milan. During his presence in Italy, the scnnte of the Ligurian republic demanded and ob- tained the incorporation of the Genoese state with the French empire, on the 4ih of June; and the small republic of Lucca was transformed in the same year into an hereditary principahty for Buonannriu's sister, the princess Eliza. He was already, also, preparing thrones to establish his brothers. 87.— DKP, OF ISERE— 4. AnnoND.— 45 cant.— 655 com.— (7 jtKva.)— Grenoble. " il " I H 3 I ,' s Z I ! a t 1' n U Q < t> E N I ■-A »'»'W*«f*Vfc«iii«-'j^sa «.i -(4 DBP«.)— Tour*. ist; and Lajolais, a ireau, wlio also wa« ;tion to the consular g the trials Fichegru in prison ; Georges mplices were publicly au was sentenced to lent, which was com- ; to America. , atrocities of modern itrated by the order of ake d'Enghien, eldest tourbon, was seized in r of Baden, and taken thence to Paris, and tie of Vincennes, where in met on the night of im, on the charges of the emigrant armies I of being privy to the es. It, however, signi- charges were ; he was ediate execution ; and, barrier of international imanity, he was taken castle ditch, almost im- midnight trial was con- e had the reputation of er and a virtuoi^s man ; ore obnoxious 1 1 Buonaparte to obtain ', and his denunciations >emed to occupy all his ily, these were objects ide. At length, on the n was made in the tri- ig on Napoleon Buodu- mperor, with hereditary mily. The decree of the ted" by the senate; and onaparte, if he had no t an Iteir from tlie chil- •s. The title of prince, rial highness, were con- icrs of the Buoiiapsirte ed the French republic, s. It had lasted eleven nths— almost the exact English commonwealth Sliarles I. low proceeded to Pans, of December solemnly emperor, who himself il crown upon his own n republic followed the e; and on the 15lh of j ig named their president poleon, on the 26th of n bands also placed the Lombardian kings upon id was anointed by the Ml. ence in Italy, the senate public demanded and ob- (oration of the Genoese ench empire, on the 4ih small republic of Lucea in the same year into an uality for Buonannrics a Eliza. He was already, ihrones to establish his -(7 ttiiv a.)— Grenoble. 40.— DEP. o» LOIBE-ET-CHEB— 3 »r«owb.— 24 cakt.— 297 com.— (3 ocrs.)- fitoit. « >4 o ^ije l^istoiB of jFrantc. 601 The threatened invasion of Britain had long been the theme of every tongiie, and the people of France had been diverted from all other thoughts during the mo- mentous changes which, with a magician's wand, had taken place in that system of government for the attainment of which the blood of Frenchmen bad flowed with such reckless prodigality. A third coalition against France was concluded at Pcters- burgli, between England and Russia, April 11: Austria joined the confederacy in Au- gust ; and Sweden likewise was made a party to it, and received a subsidy. But the emperor Napoleon felt assured, that while he could detach Prussia from the alliance, which he did by promising Hano- ver to the king, he had no great reason to apprehend any serious injury from the other powers. In Italy the archduke Charles was op- posed to marshal Masstna; at the same time 25,000 French marched under St. Cyr from Naples into Upper Italy, after a treaty of neutrality had been concluded between France and Naples. The Austrian army in Germany was commanded by the archduke Ferdinand and general Mack. This army penetrated into Bavaria in September, 18U5, and demanded that the elector should either unite his forces with the Austrians or disband them : upon which the elector joined Napoleon ; and a similar course was adopted by the dukes of Wirtemberg and Baden. Forsaking the camp of Boulogne, where he had been preparing the "army of Eng- land " for the projected invasion. Napoleon hastened towards Wirtemberg, and issued a declaration of war. The corps of Berna- dotte and the Bavarians having marched towards the Danube, through the neutral province of Anspach, belonging to Prussia, the latter power, which bad assembled its armies in the neighbourhood of the Rus- sian frontier, renounced its obligations to France-; and by the treaty of Potsdam, con- cluded on the 3rd of November, during the stay of the emperor Alexander at Berlin, promised to join the enemies of Napoleon. Tlie Prussian armies, in conjunction with the Saxons and Hessians, took up n hostile position extending between the Ironliers of Silesia and the Danube. But the Austrian armies in Sunbia had been rapidly turned and defeated by the French, in a series of operations extending f>-om the 6th to the 13th of October; upon which Mack, in the infamous capitulation of Ulm, surrendered with 30,000 men, but the archduke Ferdi- nand by constant fighting readied Bohe- mia. The French now penetrated through Bavaria and Au.jtria into Moravia, and after having obtained possession in November of the defiles of the Tyrol, and driven back several Russian corps in a series of skir- misiies, they occupied Vienna on the 13th of November, and afterwards took posses- sion of Presburg. The next great battle, fought at Austerlitz on the 2nd of De- cember, decided the war although it had only lasted two months; and the archduke Charles, having received information of the event in Suabia, retired ihrou^h the Ger- man provinces, after having fought a dread- ful battle upon the Adige, which lasted three days. The battle of Austerlitz, in which Napoleon so signally defeated the allies, was well contested by the troops on both sides. The Austro-Russian armies amounted to HO.OOO men, commanded by general Kutusolf and prince Lichenstein ; but 100 pieces of cannon, and ,30,000 killed, wounded, and prisoners on the side of the allies, was an irresistible proof of the despe- rate nature of the conflict, as well as of the good fortune of Napoleon. An immenee number perished in a lake by the ice givms way. Davoust, Soult, Lannes, Bertliier, and Murat most distinguished themselves among the French marshals. An interview between Napoleon and Francis II. immediately followed, and an armistice was concluded on the 6tb. By the treaty of peace of Presburg, Austria Yielded its Venetian possessions to the Kingdom of Italy ; the Tyrol and neveral German countries to Bavaria; Briesgau to Baden, and other Suabian possessions to Wirtemberg. She also recognised the elec- tors of Bavaria and Wirtemberg as kings, and the elector of Baden as sovereign elec- tor. These and other concessions Austria was compelled to make. But during the victorious course of the armies of France by laud, she suffered deeply from the naval power of England ; the united fleets of France and Spain, under Villeneuve and Gravina, being nearly annihilated bv Nel- son in the battle of Trafalgar. This took place on the 21st of October. On the loth of December the emperor concluded a treaty with Prussia at Vienna, in which the alliance between both these powers was renewed, and a reciprocal gua- rantee of the ancient aud newly-acquired states exchanged. France pretended to give Hanover to Prussia; and, on the other hand, Prussia yielded to France, Anspach, Cleve, and Neufchatcl. Prussia was now obliged to act offensively against England, as well by taking possession of Hanover as by excluding English vessels from the ports under hep control. Joseph, the elder bro- ther of Napoleon, was by an imperial de- cree named king of Naples and Sicily, which had been conquered by marshal Masscna, who marched with an army from Upper Italy into Naples, on account of o pretended breach of neutrality occasioned by the landing of the English and Russians, But Ferdinand IV. took refuge in Sicily with his family ; and that island being pro- tected by the English fleet, formed merely a nominal appendage to the crown of Jo- seph Buonaparte. Prince Eugene Beau- haruois, son of the empress Josephine by her first husband, was named viceroy of Italy ; Talleyrand received the nominal title of prince of Bencvento; Bernadotte was £roclaimed prince of Ponte Corvo; and ouis, the second brother of the emperor, was proclaimed hereditary and constitutio- nal king of Holland. With the same disre- H P 41.— B»p. OP lOIRE— 3 Aanowp.— 28 cakt.- 318 com.- (5 dbps.)— ilfon<6iiMon. [3 F ; 1 if: -'i |j«f •I'- ''■' 'I! 1 W" 4' i % fl r i H m "m ii ij 1 1 44.— DSP. o» LOIRET— 4 ABBOND.— 41 CAHT. 348 COM.— (5 Dvrs.)— Or/ran*. 602 ^l^e ^teaisure of llistors, See. B«rd of political justice, the conititutinn of the German empire, wliicli liud lasted Tor above a thousand years, was ovprthruwii on the I2th of July, 1806, to make way for the Rhenish confederation, of which the empe- ror Napoleon was nameil protector. Prussiu, at th s period, still trembling for her own safety, was once more excited by England and Russia to resistance; upon which Napoleon transported his immrnse army across the continent, and in less than one month he arrived at Rcrlin, having gained the ever-memorable battle of Jena, in which 23U,U(iU men were vUijaged in the wo«k of mutual destruction. More than 2U,0 Prussians were killed and wounded, and 4'),0UO taken prisoners, with 300 pieces of ean.^on. Prince Ferdmand died of his wounds. A panic seized the garrisons, and all the principal towns of Prussia, west of the Uder, surrendered to the French soon after the battle; and on the -.5th of Octo- ber Napoleon entered the capital. Buimaparte next promulgated the cele- brated Berlin decree, or "continental sys- tem." by which the British islands were declared in a slate of blockade ; all articles of Briliith manufacture were interdicted; and all vessels touchiuK at Fngland, or any English colony, excluded from every har- bour under the control of France. Beyond the Vistula, the war between France and Russia was opened on the 21th of December, I8U6, by the light of Czar- nowo, in which the French carried the Russian redoubts upon the left bank of the Ukra. On the succeeding morning Diivoust drove Held marshal Kameuskji out of his position ; and on the day following the marshal rem>unced the cummitnd-ii-chief, in which he was succeeded by Ueiining'ien. This general suddenly transported the the- atre of war into Eastern Prussia, where the Russians, on the -.^3d of January, 1807, at- tacked the advanced posts of the prince of Pome Corvo, who engaured them on the 2Sth at Mohrungen, and by his manoeuvres covered the flank of the French army until ft junction was formed. After continual tighting from the 1st to the 7th of Febru- ary, the battle of Eyiau took place. The sinughter was dreadful; both parties claim- ed the victory, and both were glad to pause while they recruited their respective ar- mies. The next operation of consequence, was the siege and bombardment of Dantzic, by Lefehvre; and general Kalkreulh was com- pelled to capitulate on the 24tli of May, after Marshal Laniies had defeated a body of Russians who had landed at Weichsef- munde with the view of raising the siege. At last, after a series of skirmishes be- tween the different divisions of the hostile armies, the decisive victory of the French over the Russians at Friedland,on the 14th of June, 1807, led to the peace of Tilsit; which was conchideii. on the 9th of July, between Fiance and Prussia, by Talley- rand and count Kalkreuth, after an inter- view between the three raonarclis upim the Niemen.and subsequently at Tilsit. In this peace Prussia was shorn of territories con- taining upwards of one half of the former popiilaiion of that kingdom; ai>d frimi the various districts which fell into theconq;ie. ror's hands were fnrmt-d two new stutes: the kingdom of Westphalia, and the duke- dom of VVarsaw. The former was given to Jerome Buonaparte, and the king of Sax- ony was flattered witti the title of duke of Warsaw. Upon the intercession of Russia, the dukes of Mecklenburgh-Schweriu, 01- denburgh, and Cohurg, were reinstated; and France and Russia exchanged recipro- cal guarantees of their possessions, and of those of the other powers included in this peace. Never had the fortune of man been more brilliant ; the ivhole world was struck with astonishment at victories so rapid, and seemed to bow itself before so colossal a power. But his ambition was boundless; ' and under the guise of giving freedom to the world, he becahie its greatest tyrnnt. No sovereign could be more absolute ; lie regarded other men as insigniflcant ciphers destined to increase the amount of tliut ■ unity which centered in himself. He talked j of the glory of France; but thought only of ' his own exaltation, and was gratiliud with I the increase of servile adulation. H^ re- estahliehed the imposts, the abuses, and ' prodigalities of tlie ancient monarchy. The i aids and monopolies re appeared under the ! name of united duties. The press was kept under by a merciless censorship ; juries were perverted ; prefects and other petty di^spots assumed the place of free adminis. traiiims of justice; the emperor noniiuHtcd all the public functionaries, and all were inviolable: the enuneil of state, a depend- ent and removable body, was the sole ar- biter of their responsibility. The election of the depnties whs ridiculous in this pre- tfiided representative government, the laws of which were the dicta of the empenir, under the name of decrees or scnatuiial edicts. Individual liberty no longer ex- isted: a police, that was a true political inquisition, suspected even silence itself; accused even the thuiights of men, and ex- tended over Europe a net of iron. All this time, too, the conscription, a dreaful tax upon human life, was levied with iinspMr- ing activity; and the French youth were surrendered to his will by the senate as a sort of annual tnntribution. The affairs of Spain now began to occupy the attention of Napoleon : nut- of his Hrst objects, however, was to destroy the Eng- lish iiitluenci. ■■■ "ortuj;.'!!. A French tinny, in concert with a Spanish one, marelieil against that kingdom, the partition iif which had been concerted between France and Spain, on the 27ih of October, I8i<7; the northern part being given to the house of Parma; the southern part to Godoy, prince of peace; and the middle, on the conclii- siim of peace, to the house of Brau'iinza. Tuscany was lo be Ki'ven to France, and the king of Spain to be di-clared pMicctor of the three states, erected out ot PuriiiKHl; the Spanish monarch was also to assume, as ■ I J I' K 46. — Bip. OP LOT— 8 ABBONfl.— 29 cawt.— 300 cow — (5 dbps.)— CoAor*. *■ ^: m tB.)—OrUani. •tune of man been ' h lole world was struck S aeidricB so rapid, and J f before so coloRsal a ] ition was boundless i • •; of Klvintc freedom to ' « e its greatest tyrant. ► je more absolute ; lie I i iDsinntflcaut oipliers J the amount of tlmt ; ^ in himself. He talked i >■ ; but tbouRbt ply of , nd was ^ratiliwd with i Ic adulation. He re- osts, the abuses, and ucient monarchy. The j re appeared under the , 'S. The press was kept ] 88 censorship ; ju"e» I fects and other petty | place of free ad minis. | he cmperornominated | ;ioniirie8, and all were 1 oil of state, a depend- l)ody, was the sole ar- nsibilitv. The eleciuin , 1 ridiculous in this pie- j e ({ovcrnment, the laws i dicta of the emperor, | f decrees or seiiatoiial I liberty no loiiser ex- it was a true poUtiPHl ed even silence itaelt; ,oiight8 of men, and ex- a net of iron. All this icription, a dreaful tax VU8 levied with unspar- he French youth were will by the senate as a ;ribution. tin now began to occupy luoleou : one of his hrsl ills to destroy the Eiig ir;u»r.!. A French army, I Spanish one, niarclieil im, the partition ntwhii'li [;d between France ami h of October, 18i.7; «''« UK niven to the house ot Bi II part to Godoy. pniice • middle, on the concln- the house of Brauimza. iriven to France, and tlie ; be d.-clared pr.iiecior ot erected out ot Portuiral; irch was also to assume, 4S.-BKt. Of MANCHE-6 a»howb.-49 c>tiT.-646 com.— (8 Bar:)- St. U. ®^e ^istoro of jFrance. 603 H a t-t o >-) 'A H o H H a < H Q after th« maritime peace should be con- cluded, the title of emperor of both Ame- rictts. Ill conformity with this treaty, lus- caiiy was given up to Napoleon in 1807, Hnd afterwards incorporated with France; und marslial Junot, duke of BraKanza, en- tered Lisbon on the .HOth of Novtmber, alter the royal family had embarked with their treasures, and a few of the principal nobilitv, in a British fleet, for the Brazils. But, iii 1808, the Spanish nobility, tired of the Koverninent of the prince of peace, formed a plot to raise Ferdinand VII. to the throne, and free tlieir country from foreign influence. It required no great ef- fort to induce Charles lo resign in lavour of his sun; but this was an arrangement to which Napoleon would not consent; and both father and son now became pensioners of the French conqueror, who invested his brother Joseph, at that time king of Na- ples, with the sovereignty of Spain and In- dia. The people now row en maase to vin- dicate tlieir rights, and that struggle com- menced in which the patriotic Spaniards were so warnily and successfully supported by the Briti&h under Wellington, during the long and arduous military operations which in England are known as the ' I'e- ninsular war." The war in Spain appeared to give Aus- tria a new and favourable opportunity for attempting the reesrablishmentof her for- mer influence in Germany. The emperor Francis accordingly declared war against France, and his armies advanced into Ba- varia, Italy, and the dukedom of Warsaw. But the rapid measures of Napoleon baffled the Austrian calculation:*; and, collecting a large arrav, he defeated the t'chduke Louis so sererely at Eckniuhl and at B«tisbon, on the 22nd and 23rd of April, that he was compelled to cross the Danube. Vienna was llius opened to the conquerors, and Napoleon took possession of that capital. The archduke Charles was, liowever. undis- mayed; he attacked tlie French in their position at Asperii, on the 21st of May, and the battle continuing throu^ch the next day, Napoleon was compelled to retreat into the isle of Loban, where his army was placed in a situation of great jeopardy, the flood having carried away the bridge that con- nected the inland in the middle of the river with the right hank of the Danube ; and two mnntli8 elapsed before he was able to repair the disasters of the battle, and again transport his array acioss the river. Then followed the ^reat battle of Wagram, which was fought oh the Stb and 6th of July : and in tills desperate conflict the loss of the Austrians whs so great, that tliey immedi- ately sought an armistice of the French emperor, which led to the peace of Vienua, signed on the 14th of October, lH(l!l. By this pence Austria was obliged In re- sis;n' tcrritoi-ies containing three millions of Buhjectx. Sultzhiirg, Berciitolagaden, &c. were given to Bavaria; the whole of Western Gallicia, and a part of Eos'ern Gallicia, with the town of Cracow, were united to the dukedom of Warsaw; and other provinces, with part of the kingdom of Italy, were destined to form the new stale of the Illyrian provinces; while Aus- tria was absolutely cut uflf from all commu- nication with the sea, by the loss of her ports on the Adriatic. The Tyrolese, who had been transferred to the kin^ of Bavaria by the treaty of Pres- burg. finding that their ancient immunities and privileges had been violated, and that they were crnshed~by severe taxation, seized the opportunity of the Austrian war to raise the standard of revolt ; and in their early operations they expelled the Bava- rians from the principal towns. A French army entered the country and laid it waste with Are and sword;, and the Tyrolese, ani- mated by an heroic peasant mimed Huffvr, expelled the invaders one ore, and se- cured a brief iniervul of tm.jquillity. The results of the battle of WHgiam, however, gave the French and Bavarian forcea an opportunity of overwhelming ihem ; they penetrated their mountain lastnesses, de- solated the land, executed the leading pa- triots as rebels, and the land was again subjected to the tyranny of Maximilian Joseph, the puppet of Napoleon. Several efforts were simultaneously made in Ger- many to shake off the French yoke ; but after the overthrow of the Austrians therq were no longer an) hopes for them, and the emperor of the French exercised an al- most unlimited power over the northern part of continental Europe. In this concise history we are obliged to pas' ' >r those transactions which we have recorded elsewhere, and shall therefore not enter further than is absolutely necessary upon the particulars of the peninsular con- test, the chief events of which are given un- der " England " and " Spam." This, in fact, should be jorne in mind, generally, while turning over the subsequent pages ; fur, during the long war in which England and France were the principal belligerents, such were the alliances on both sides, that the leading events pro(>erly belonging to other countries, were too involved in the affairs of England to be there omitted; and where space can so ill be spared, though the reader may sometimes And a " ihrice told tale," we wish tu lake credit for the avoid- uiice, as far as is possible, of tautology. During Napoleon's residence at Vienna, he abolished the temporal power of the pope, and united the remaining, territories uf the slates of the church with France, to which he had previously united Piedmont, Liguria. Tuscany, and Parma, besides Savoy and Nice. A. pension was assigned to his holiness, and llie city of Rome declared an imperial and free city. The pope was con- ducted to Foutaiuebleau. where Napoleon concluded a second conrjirdat with him. in whirli. though the pope did not resume his temporal jurisdiction, he obtained I lie right tu keep ambassadors at toreijfU Ciiuits, to receive ambassadors, and tu appoint to cer- tain bishoprics. Oue of the consequences of the peace of Vienna was the dissolution uf the uiarrini^e 40.— BBP. OF MARNE— 5 ARitonn.— 32 caht.— 693 com.— (6 dkps.)— CAafon*. 63.— Dsr. OF MAYENNE— 3 abi jbb.— 2; cant.— 275 com.— (6 DtrsJ— Laval I I It H 39 P H a 604 Sri^c ^rcaiJitrB of l|(sion), $fc. between Napoleon and Jotephinr, which took place in December. 1909 ; and liis se- cond marriage with the archduchess Maria Louiia, dauf;hlcr of the emperor of Aus- tria, in April, 1810. And when Napoleon declared the papal territory a province of France, and Rome a ciiv of the empire, he determined that the heir apparent of France should bear the title of king of Rome, and that the emperor of France should be crowned in Rome within the first ten years of his government. The iirmness with which he was opposed in Spain ; the perseverance of Great Britain in maintaining the orders in council, to counteract the decrees of Berlin and Mi- lan ; and the daily increasing prospect of an approaching uar in the North, where longer submission to the arbitrary man- dates of Napoleon was refused, did not au- gur favourahly for the future stability of his vast power. The British also carried on an important commerce with Russia, through Gottenburg and the ports of the Baltic, of which complaints was made to the courts of Htockholm and Petersburg. The commercial policy of Russia in 1810 and 1811, and its disapprobation of the treatment of the duke of Oldenburg, (a near relation of the emperor Alexander), had excited the distrust of Napoleon ; and he spoke the language of offended confi- dence in remonstrating with "his brother the emperor." At length Rusbia and Sweden made com- mon cause with Great Britain in opposing Napoleon's darling " continental system ;" while the latter arrayed under his banners the military strengh of western and south- ern Europe, and, trusting to the vast num- ber of his victorious legions, he crossed the Niemen, and directed his march to the capital of Lithuania. As the French ad- vanced, the Russians retired, wasting the country in their retreat. Napoleon then with his main body marched upon Moscow, while a large division of his forces menaced the road to St. Petersburg. But the main force of the invaders advanced to Smulen- sko, which was justly regarded as the huU wark of Moscow. This strongly fortiiiu'd position was taken by storm on the 17th of August, after a brief but bloody strugitle; the Russian general, Barclay de Tolly, firing the town on his retreat. But Moscow was not to be abandoned without another effort. Kutusoff, who now assumed the command of the Russians, fixed upon a position near the village of Borodino, and there ririnly awaited the in- vading host. Nearly seventy thousand men fell in this furious and sanguinary conflict; and as the French were joined by new rein- forcements after the battle. Napoleon en- tered Moscow, and took up his residence in the Kremlin, the ancient palace of the czars. The citizens, however, under the direction, or with -the sancti(m, of the go- vernor Rostojjchin, not only determined to abandon their beloved metropolis, but to consign it to the flames; and scarcely had the French troops congratulated themselves on having secured winter tjuarters in that cold and inhospitable region, ere the con. flagrations burst forth in every direction ; and notwithstanding every device was tried to subdue the flames, they ceased not until more than three-fourths of the city were a mass of smoking embers. In this unexpected and embarrassing po- sition. Napoleon gave orders for a retreat. All the horrors that the imagination can conceive were now felt by the hapless fugi- tives, who so lately were the boasted con- querors of southern Europe. The winter had set in unusually early, and brave as the French soldiers were, the climate of Russia was an enemy too powerful for them to contend with. Thousands upon thousands perished with cold and hunger; thousands upon thou»ands fell beneath the swords of their relentless pursuers, who, maddened by the recollection that their hearths and homes had been polluted bv these invaders, and that their ancient city lay smouldering in the dust, heeded not their cries fur mercy. But why should we repeat the tale of horrors ? Suffice it to say, that the wreck of this mighty army retreated through Prussia and Poland, into Saxony; vhile Napoleon, bent on providing for his own personal safety, and anxious to devise some new plan by which the progress of the en- raged enemy might be impeded, hastened to Paris with all the speed that post horses could effect, and with all the comfort thnt a close carriage and fur garments could bestow. Napoleon appealed to the senate for men, money, and the other munitions of war, and his appeal was promptly responded to. Notwithstanding his recent reverses, he felt that he still possessed the confidence of the French nation ; and a large conscription was ordered < o supply the losiies of the late cam- paign : as soon, therefore, as the new levies were organized, he hastened to the north ; and, to the astonishment of all Europe, the army under his command was numerically superior to those of his adversaries. The public voice in Prussia loudly demanded war with France, and the Prussian monarch took courage to assert his independence and enter into alliance with Alexander. The armies of these newly-united powers sustained a considerable loss at Lutzen ou the 2nd of May, and at Bautzen on the Slat and 22ud, in engagements with the French, but neither battle was decisive; and Na- fioleon, alarmed by the magnitude of his osses, and the obstinacy of his enemies, consented to an armistice. During the truce the British government encouraged tlie allies by large subsidies; but what was of most consequence, the emperor of Aus- tria, who had never cordially assented to an alliance with his son-in-law, now abun- doneil his cause, and took an active part iu the confederation against him. Napoleon established his head-quarters at Dresden, and commenced a series of operations against his several foes, wliich at first were successful; hut the tide of for- tune turned ; different divisions of his army s s ! 63.— DKp. OP MEURTHE— 5 abbond.- 29 cant.— 714 com.— (6 Dies.)— ^'ancy- DKTU.J — Laval, T quarters in that { egion, ere the con- j in every direction ; j cry device was tried ley ceased not until of tiie city were a : — s. id embarrassing po. arders for a retreat. le imoRinaiion can by the hapless fugi- re the boa»ted con- urope. The winter riy, and brave as the he climate of Russia werful for them to inds upon thousands hunger; thousands •neatli the swords of ers, who, maddened St their hearths and ed by these invaders, city lay smouldering not their cries for lid we repeat the (ale 10 say, that the wreck f retreated through into Saxony ; v liile roviding for his own ixious to devise some e progress of the en- le impeded, hastened ipeed that post horses 1 all the comfort that fur garments could to the senate for men, jr munitions of war, roinptly responded to. recent reverses, he felt 1 the confidence of the large conscription was losxes of the late cam- fore, as the new levies RStened to the north ; lent of all Europe, the nand was numerically his adversaries. The ssia loudly demanded the Prussian monnrch lert his independence »nce with Alexander. newly-united powers ible loss at Lutzen ou nt Bautzen on the 21st nents w ith the French, ,as decisive; and Na- the magnitude of his tinacy of his enemies, inistice. During the wernment tncoiirased ibsidies; but what was !, the emperor of Aus- cordially assented to son-in-law, now abun- 1 took an active part iu < ainst him. hed his headquarters | ommenced a seiies of [lis several foes, wliicli ful; but the tide of for- It divisions of his army -(6 Bxra.)— Nancy. 66,— OkP. or MOSELLE— 4 akbomd.— 27 c»«t.— 494 com.->-(6 »Brs.)— ir«(«. < I Q a o >. a ^f^e Bistorp of J^rance. 605 were successively ilefeatei ; and he collected his scattered forces for one tremendous ef- fort, which was to decide tlie fate of Eu- rope. Retiring to Leipsic, he there made n stand, and under the walls of that ancient city he sustained a terrible defeat, Uct. 18, the Saxon iniops in his smioe having de- serted in a body to the rllies during the engagement. Compelled to evacuate L«ip- sic, he retreated upon the Rhine, followed by tlie allied troops; and after a severe struggle at Hanau, Oct. SO, in which the Bavarians, under tlie command of general Wredc, took a decisive part against the French, they were defeated, and mulli- tiides were made prisoners. Rernadotte nn- dartook the task of expelling the French fioiii Saxony. The sovervign governments in the kingdom Of Westphalia, the grand dukedom of Frr-kfurt and lierg, and the countries of the princes of Isenburg And Vonder Leyen, were nnw overturned ; the elector of llesse-Cassel, the duke of Bruns- wick- Wolfenbiittel, and the duke of Olden- burg, relumed to their own ciiunlry; the Hanoverians again acknowledged their old paternal govemiiieni ; and the Russian ad- ministration was re-introdiiced into the provinces between the Rhine and the Elbe. Considerable masses of troops, partly vu lunierrs, and partly drafted from the Prus- sian militia, enthusiastically followed the Austriaiis, Russians, and Prussians, across the Rhine. The Itame of independence spread to Hiilland, the yoke uf France was spurned, and the hereditary claims of the house of Orange were rapturously acknow- ledged. ' A. i>. 18M.— While the allies were thus eifecting the humiliation of Napoleon by following up tlicir successes to the v.Ty gates of Paris, Wellington's army advancec. slowly hut steadily towards Bayoiine. As III! advanced, the old partisans of the Bour- bons heicau to revive, the exiled family. was proclaimed, and the while Hag ttoate'd on the walls of Bordeaux. Napoleon had the advantHtfe over Blucher at Brienne on the 291 li of .lanunry, but was forced to retreat Ht Lu Kochiire, where the allies had con- centrated their forces. He now retired be- tween the Loire and the Marne, with the view of covering Paris; ond it was not without ditticulty that Blucher succeeded in penetrating the French line. But the order uf murch was still " forward ! for- ward !" On the 31st of March, 1814, the allied troops entered Paris, and Alexander de- clared, ill I he name of the allied sovereigns, that they wouhl not negotiate with Napo- leon Biiiinaparte, nor with any of his fa- mily; tliut they ucknowledged the right of Franre only to the territory embraced within its uiieieiil limits under its kings; anil, HiiHlly, that they would aekiiowleilgu and icuHruntee ihe government which the Freiirli nation should adopt. They there- fore invited the senate to estHlilisii a pro- visory ;(iivernm(e king on the 4tli of June. It rontaineci the prin- ciples of a limited monarchy; as, the equa- lity of all Frenchmen in the eye of the law; the equal obligation of all to contribute to the expenses of the state; the equal right of all Frenchmen to all offices; personal liberty; the free exercise of religion, and theliberty of the press; the security of pro- perty; obilivion uf the past; and the sup- pression of the conscription. The person of the king (in whom was vested the exe- cutive power, the cumronnd of the forces of the kingdom, the right of declaring war and making peace, of appointing officers, and proposing and publishing the laws) was declared to be inviolable; the legis- lative power was vested in him in conjimc tion with the two chambers ; laws relating to imposts and taxes were required to be presented first to the chamber uf deputies; nnd the legislature was required to grant t'le civil list uf the king for the period of bis r>Mgn. The king convoked tlie chambers, named the peers, hereditary or personal, prorogued the chambers, and dissolved the chamner of deputies, hut was required to summon a new one within three months. The chamber of deputies was to be com- posed of deputies chosen by the electoral colleges, one fifth part to be renewed y^'ar- ly ; to lie eligible as a deputy, it was neces- sary to be forty years old," and |iav 1000 francs of direct taxes. On the Uth of May Louis created the new miuistry, and on the Hi'd of August a new council of state. The ruynl orders of the Holy Ghost, of inililarv merit, the order of St.* Louis, and that of St. Michael, were revived: the legion of honour received a new decoration (the portrait of Henry IV.) and a new organi- zation, and the order of the silver lily was founded. There were still, however, many preju- I 'S^ 67.— p«r. OP NIEVRE— 4 ianoifD.— 25 cant.— 319 com. (4 DKra.)— JVe«er«. [3P3 00.— Dir. or OBNE.— 4 ahromo.— 86 cant.— 634 com.— (7 sBri.) — Altnfon. !:i *i 5- \l n m I 6»3 s 3 H a T s o Q Q »■ o f< K m ft H a I 606 ^^e treasury of l^istotQ, $cc. dice* in favour of tiie abdicated emperor to overcome, and many restless spirits to Roollie. It was soon perceived that a great difference of opinion prevailed among the members of the royal family and Hiunug the ministers. The honours conferred on the old nobilitj nd the emigrants who had retut..ed with the court, excited great discontent; and the national pride was of- fended by the public declaration of the king, that he owed his crown to the prince rcKeut of Great Britain. The army, so long used to war and the rewards which awaited a successful career, was in a state of the highest irritation ; the remembrance of him by whom they had so often been led to victory was yet fresh, when they saw their corps dissolved, their dotations, their pay, and their pensions diminished, their importance and their influence destroyed, and they themselves compelled to change their favourite badges for others, on which they had formerly trampled. The holders of the national domains feared to lose them. The people were discontented with the burden of the taxes, the alleviation of which had been promised to them. In this state of public feeling nothing could be more fatal for the royal government than the sudden re-appearance of Napo- leon on the coast of France, the Ist of March, 1815. These circumstances explain why, without the existence of an actual conspiracy in favour of Napoleon, the mea- sures taken to oppose his progress were unsuccessful; why the army and a great part of the nation declared for him; and why, after a march of eighteen days, which resembled a triumph, he was able to enter Paris without shedding a drop of blood. The king and his adherents left the coun- try. Napoleon immediately annulled most of the royal ordinances, diRsolved the two chambers, and named a new ministry. He declared that he should content himself Willi the limits of France, as settled bv the peace of Paris, and that he would establish his government on liberal principles. But lie could not satisfy the expectations of the ditfereut parties ; much less could he avert the danger of a new war with Europe. As soon as the news of Napoleon's land- ing: in France was known at Vienna, the iiiinifilerE of all the allied pnwers, who were assembled in congress there, denounced him as the enemy and disturber of the repose of the world ; and declared that the powers were tirmly resolved to employ all means, and unite all their efforts, to main- tain the treaty of Paris. For ihis purpose, Austria, Russia, Britain, and Prussia cun- clu. °d a new treaty, on the basis of that of March 1st, 1814, whereby each power agreed to bring 15U,000 men into the tield against Napoleon ; who, on his part, was in- defatigable in making preparations for war. At the same time, April 22, he published the additional act to the constitutions of the empire, and summoned the meeting of the Champ dt ilfai,-which accepted that act, June 1. As we gave in the " History of England " a succinct account of the operations of the French and allied armies, which ended iu the battle of Waterloo ; as also the depor- tation of Napoleon to St. Helena, and the events which immediately followed the se- cond restoration of Louis XVIII,, we shall not repeat them in this place; but carry on our narrative to the period when the two chambers passed the law of amnesty pro- nosed by the king, by which all those who nad voted for the death of Louis XYI., or had accepted offices from Napoleon, during the " hundred days," were for ever banished from the kingdom. 'With the evacuation of the French terri- tory by the foreign troops, which was de- termined on by the congress of Aix-la-Cha- pelle, the 0th of October, 1818, and accom- plished in the course of the same year, was connected the payment of the expenses of the war, and of the individual claims of the subjects of foreign powers on the French government and nation. Here French di- plomacy was successful ; and ultimately a very small proportion of the real claims was accepted as a liquidation of the whole. France was now admitted into the alliance of the great European powers ; and the old royalist spirit continued to revive. While strict monarchical principles were gradually gaining strength and influence in all de- partments of the domestic administration, the French cabinet entered more and more deeply into the contmental system of the icreat European powers. But the return of France to royalty, and in a great measure the oncien regime, was far from satisfac- tory to the bulk of the people ; and the go- vernment was kept in a continual state of oscillation, — now a set of ultra-royalists, and now the liberal party, directing the na- tional councils. While strict monarchical principles were gradually gaining strength and influence in all departments of the domestic adniinis- tratiou, the French cabinet entered more deeply into the continental system of the great European powers. The election laws were found too favourable to the liberal party, and the ministry therefore proposed a new election law, for the purpose of kIv ing the richest lund-lioldcrs the preponder- ance in the eleciious of the deputies, and, at the same time, some laws of exception, relative to personal liberty and the lilierty of the press, for the purpose of checking public opinion. Under these circumstances much acrimonious discussion look place iu the French chambers: and the sessions of 1819 and 1820 were agitated hy the most violent conflicts. The two parties attacked each other with reciprocal accusations, and Decazes, the president of the ministry, had already proposed several bills, calculated to gain over the moderate of both sides to the ministry, when, in February, 18:20, the as- sassination of Mie duke of Berri by Liiuvel (who to the last moment of his life ex- pressed his tierce hatred of thewhole Kour- non race, and his detestation of royalty) drew forth the most virulent accusations from the extreme right. The minister De- u I ! E I P 1 E I I U H i H * 61. — DBf. OP PAS-DE- CALAIS— 6 arrond.— 43 camt.— 903 com.— (8 deps.)— .i/rras. ra.)—Jltnfon, e operations of tlic ■I, which ended iu ai alto the depor> it. Helena, and the iljr followed the »c- is XVIII., we shall tiace ; but carry on riod when the two w of amnesty pro- hich all those who of Louis XVI., or Napoleon, during re for ever banished >f the French terri- >p8, which was de- ress of Aix-Ia-Cha- r, 1818, and accom- the same year, was of the expenses of vidual claims of the teta on the French Here French di- 1; and ultimately a of the real claims lation of the whole, ed into the alliance >owers; and the old d to revive. Wliile liples were gradiially influence in all de- Stic administration, ered more and more ental system of the But the return of in a great measure k far from satisfac- people ; and the i;o- a continual state of t of ultra-royalists, rty, directing the na- lical principles were gth and innurnce in ! domestic adininis- ibinet entered more ental system of the 1. The election laws 'able to the liberal r therefore proposed the purpose of niv Idcrs the preponder- f the deputies, and, ! laws of exception, erty and the liberty urpose of checking these circumstances ussion took place in and the sessions of ^itated hy the most two parties attacked cal accusations, and of the ministry, had .1 bills, calculated to of both sides to the ruary, 18i0, the ns- ! of Berri by l%Ta.)—StratboHrg. 607^ W)t l^iaiorp of ^frante. eaces resigned, and the duke of Richelieu succeeded him. A new law of election was carried, amid the most violent opposition on the part of the doctrinairei (members who defended a consistent maintenance of the principles of the charte) and the lihe. rals. Many officers of government, by their writings, and in their places as deputies, opposed the new system ; so that with every new ministry there were numerous dismis- sions, and many names were even erased from the army-rolls for political opinions. It was evident, indeed, that many conspi- rators were secretly employed in attempts to excite the troops to a revolt, abd some were tried, found guilty, and suffered the penalty due to treason. The king opened the session of 1823 with a speech announcing the march of 100,000 French troops to Spain. He was alarmed for the safety of France bT the revolution- ary movements of his nrighbours ; i.nd this army, which was commanded by the duke of Angoultme, was sent expressly to restore the royal authority. The invaders encoun- tered no effective upposiiion ; the cortes fled before them to Cadiz ; and when king Fer- dinaiid approached that city, they permitted him to resume his despotic sway. During the last few years of .he reign of Louis XVIII. he was much enfeebled by disease, and, consequently, unable to act with the energy necessary for establishing a Hrm and at the same time a conciliatory government. He died in September, 1814, nine years subseiiuent to his restoration. On the accession of Charles X., brother of the deceased king, he declared his inten- tion of confirming the charter, appointed the dauphin (duke of Angoulimc) as mem- ber of the ministerial council, and suppres- sed the censorship of the public journals. Viiidle V.HS his prime minister. In May, 1826, the splendid coronation of Charles took place at Rheims, according to ancient custom, with the addition, however, of the oath of the king, to govern according to the charter. On Lafayette's return from America in 1825, the citizens of Havre having received him with some demonstrations of joy, the government manifested their resentment by ordering out the gendarmes, who charged the multitude with drawn sabres. The in- fluence of the Jesuits was seen in the pro- secution of the Conatitut ionnel ani Cour- tier Franeaii, two of the best liberal jour- nals. Villfele, who had discernment enough to see (o what this fanaticism would lead, and who was, at the Sdme time, obnoxious to the liberals, on account of his anti-con- stitutional principles, and his operations in the funds, became less secure. The parties assumed a nioi-e hostile attitude towards each other. The royalists and the sup- porters of the Jesuits became more open in the expression of their real sentiments; the liberals became stronger and bolder; and the government assumed a tone ill calcu- lated to conciliate its avowed opponents. On the opening of the session, Dec. 12, 1826, Damas, minister of foreign affairs, in- formed the chamber that all the continen- tal powers had endeavoured to prevent the interference of Spain in the affHirs of Por- tugal; that France had co-operated with them, had withdrawn her ambassador from Madrid, and had entered into arrangements with England to leave Portugal and Spain to settle their affairs in their own way. Several unpopular measures brought for- ward by the ministers, were after violent discussions rejected; among which was a proposed law concerning the liberty of the press. The withdrawal of this by an ordi- nance was regarded as a popular triumph. This event was followed by the disbanding of the national guards of Paris, a body of 45,000 men, who, at a review in the Champ de Mars, had joined tl. cries of -hatred against the ministry. This was a hiichly unpopular measure; and Lafitte, Benjamin Constant, and some other roirabers talked of impeaching the ministers ; but Vil6lle took credit to himself for having ventured on a step which he knew to be unpopulhr, but considered necessary. Every proceed- ing, however, served to shew that the mi- nisterial parly was gradually losing ground, and that no trifling concessions to their op- ponents would avail. While Charles was much more resolutely opposed to the prevalence of democratic | prmciples than his brother, and yielded to the counsels of priests who were intent on the restoration of the church to the power it possessed some centuries before, the peo- Sle were taught to believe, and actually rended, that a plot was forming to deprive them of the constitutional privileges which they had gained after so lung a struggle. Thus the nation became gradually alienated from the court, and the court from the nation ; while every opportunity was seized by the turbulent spirits of the time to widen the breach, and, if possible, to over- turn the monarchy. A new ministry was forced upon the king by the popular party ; they professed moderate principles, it is true; Dut they had neither the abilities nor the influence necessary for steering a sufe course between the extremes of royal pre- rogative on one side, and popular encroach- ment on the )ther : the cunaequence of which was, that while the ulira-royaiists were deeply offended by their liberal mea- sures, ihe revolutionary party treated them as drivellers and incapablea. In this state of opposite feeling, Charles suddenly dis- missed them, and entrusted the formation of a new cabinet to prince Pulignac. On Aug. 9, 1939, the following appoint- ments were announced: prince Polignac, minister of foreign affairs; M. Courvoisier, keeper of the seals and minister of justice ; count Bourmont, minister of war, count de Bourdonaye, minister of the interior; baron de Muntbel, minister of ecclesiasti- cal affairs, and public instruction ; and count Cliabrol de Crousol, minister of ti- nance To these was afterwards added M. d|Haussey, minister of marine and the colo- nies, in lieu of admiral count Rigny, who declined the offered portfolio. The minis- ■r s I 14 « '4 ft. H a •k o 79 a H 5 o m Cd W 55 M I _65^i>BP. or RHIN (nAUT)-3 abrowp.-29 cawt— 490 com.- (5 i)KTs.)-Culmar. {»!- * 68.— Sir. ov BHONE— S abbohd.— 89 cant.— 36A com.— (5 Dirt.)— Xyoiu. 608 ^{)e ^rcasur^ of T^istorn, $cc. try WBH drridedW ultra-roynliit ; nnd never, perlinpK, had an adniiiiiRirittion in any coiin- trv t«enc«"lller «iicli a »t<>rra u( virulence aiid invective a« that wliicli aisailed tlie cubinnt of I'liliffnac. On looltin(f diHpa*- ■ionitiely nl their Hrat menkurrs, they ap- pear diKnitkrd, moderate, and even concilia- tory; but nolliini; could convince the de- mocrat* of the rectitude of tlie inlentionit of eitlier Charlei or liis favourite niiniiteri. And when it was seen tliat tlie king not only favoured the jennits and monastic orders, hut that he showi'd a marked dis* hke to those who hud ncqtiln-d emineiire in the revolution, or under Napoleon, and tiiut the riicid court etiquette of lormer days WHS revived, they were ready to he- hevc the most absurd rumours of hi* in- tended designs, not merely to crush the rising spirit of liberty, hut to rule over France with the most absolute despotism. But though Charh-s and his ministers had endeavoured to uphold the aristocratic power of the state, uiuiiy of their measures liud a Ciinirary t-neol. The nobles hiid censed in France to form an nri»tocrary. Their great nunilier^ and little weullli; the mixture of political elemeots they pre- senied: their totnl want of liny politieiil privileges, &c., had left the noblesse en- tirely without consequence : and it was ap- parent from the Hrst that iieiiher the king nor Pullgiiae fully comprehended the wishes or wants of the people, but trusted that something niiulit arise to turn the popular current in their favour. A. u. 18:tO. — Though they knew not the signs Africa or on France. Resolved to take advantage of ilic moral elfect which the " conquest " of Algiers might produce, on the l/th of May appear- ed in the ilfotti/«Hr the royal ordinance riis- sidvjiig the chainbers^at the naine time, new clectuins were ordered, and the two chambers convoked for August Jrd. The iVoni^rurof June 16lh contained a procia mat ion of the king, in which he called upon all Freuchmen to do their duty in the colleges, to rely upon his consiiiutlunal intentions, &c. Id this proclamation are these remarkable words: "As the father of my people, my heart was grieved; as king, I fell insulted. I pronounced the dissolution of that chamber." it ends ihusi " Electors, hasten tu your colleges. Let no reprehensible negligence deprive theiu nf your presence I liet one sentiment ani- mate you ail ; let one standard be your ral- lying jioint 1 It is your king who tleniands this of you; it is a father who call* upon you. FtiltU your duties. I will take care to fiiliil mine." The elections for the new chamber took place in the latter part of June and in July. Though the success of the army in Altciers became known during the electoral struggle at home, nnd thitugh all parties exiiltetl in the success oflthe French arms, the iiiinintry appeared to giiiu no popularity by it. All the returns of the new elecliona indicated a strung majority against the ministry, so that, in the be- ginning ui July, intelligent men spoke uf a ehange in the administration as a natural Consequence. A crisis was evidently ap- proach in g. A blind infatuation scemii to have pos- sessed prince I'oligiiac and his colleagues, 'i'liey preferred to attack the charter, vio- late the social contract, and expose France to a civil war, rathrr than to yield. During this time the kintHte of political iill'air*. The king also ordered il'e Deuin to be sung in all the churches of the kingdom fur the victory of his army in Africii, the nens of which renched Paris four days after the capture of Algiers. .Ardently as some of the tierce and un- ruly demagogues of Paris desired to see Ihe munai'chy overthrown, the miijorltr of the cominerciiil classes and landed proprie- tors in France dreaded the renewal of civil commotions; they knew there whs an ac- tive republican party in the conniry, which though not very numerous, was unscrupu- lous and energetic: and they had a just apprehension thnt if the revolutionary parly gained Ihe ascendancy, it would lend to a renewal of those dreadful eiiortnities whicli were committed during the reign of terror, when Ihe Jacobins were in power. But at the same time they were hostile to the res- toration of tlin ancient despotiem, which they had been taught to believe was the determination of king Ciiarles and tlie i'u- lignac ministry to revive. Iliid Charles X. dismissed his obnoxious ministers, and funned a cabinet of mode- rate men, the crisis would, in all proba- 6!)c— DBF. or SARTHE— 4 auromo.— »33 caht,— 393 com.— (7 dbps.)— Z« Mant, Ira.)— ZyoM. 1 age of tltc niornl |uf»l" or AlKifu lb of May appfar- tyal ordinance riii. >t ibe name time, red, and the two Au(cu»t 3rd. The iiitaiiied a procla- which he called do tlieir dury in hisconsiiiutiunol | proclaiitatioii are I : "Aa the iathrr i waa grieved ; ai I pronuiiDcrd the ; Iff." it cndflihui: | ir collcKes. Let no ' de|>rive them of |ne seniiment ani. indard be your rn|. kiiiK who demand! ler who call* upon I will take care ection* for I he new the latter part of ugh the aucceas of I uuie known duiinv Inline, and thouKh :lie success otithe ry appeared toJ^HJu 1 the ri-turns of the a strong mnjurity 10 that, in the be- ;ent men spoke uf a ration (is a natural wus evidently ap- srems to have poa- mid his collcHgiies. ck the cliurter, vio- , and rxpuse Krance iiM to yield. During d queen uf Naples any iVstivala took nist. with tlio state e king also ordered all the churches of tory ol' Ilia nriny in liich reiiched Paris ui-e of Algiers, the tierce and nn- aria desired to see K'n, the miijoritv of and landed proprie- the renewal uf civil «' there was an ac- tlie conniry, which ous, was iinscrupii- id they had a just revolutionary parly it would lend to a III enormities which the reign of terror. ! in power. But at i; hostile to the res- : despniisin, which to believe was the Charles and the J'u- e. ssed Ills obnoxious I cabinet of inode- ould, in all proba- UPS.)— 1« Mont, j2.—ttur. Of SEINE— 3 *bbond.— 8 cawt.— 81 com.— (U oara.)— Pari*. ^f)e '©(story of JFrance. 609 bility, have passed over without danger, and the prerogatives of • constitutional monarch would have been secured to him. Instead of which the ministers made a " re- port to the king" (July 26), setting forth at length the dangers of a free press, and calling upon him to suspend the liberty ut the press. "The state,'' they said, " is in danxer, and your majesty has the right to provide for its safety. No government can stand, if it has not the right to provide for its own safely; besides, the Hth article of the charter only gives every Frenchman the right of publishing his own opinions, but not, as the Jnurnals do, the opinions of others; the charier does not expressly al- low journals and the liberty of the press. The journals misrepresent the best inten- tions of government ; and the liberty of the prbss produces the vei/ contrary of pub- licity, because ill-intentioned writers mis- construe everything, and the public never knows the truth." This report was ac- companied by three ordinances, which vir- tually subverted the cimstiintional privi- leges of the charter. The ftrst dissolved the ntwly-elccted chamber of deputies be- fore it. assembled; the second changed the law of elections, and disfranchised the f^eat body of electors; and the third sub- jected the press to new and severe restric- tions which would have completely annihi- lated its liberties. Astonishment and in- dignation seized the people of Paris as soon as the news reached the different quarters of the city; but no tumult occurred; but while the ministers were congratulating themselves on the apparent tranquillity of tlie citizens, the latter had been actively employed in summoning the deputies of their party within reach, or in concerting measures for a vigorous resistance. The principal journalists prepared and printed a spirited protest against the restrictions on the press, declaring their ri.fi;ht to pub- lish as usual, and enlorcinj; that right upon the ground that property in a journal dif- fered in no respect from any other kind of property, and that it could only be attacked by regular judicial proceedings fur a breach of the law. The liberal papers, notwith- standing, were all suppressed, and only those which were known to be favourable to the government allowed to appear. It was impossible that this state of things could long exist. The deputies represent- ing the electors of the city, and some fro." other parts of the kingdom who were then in Pans, in all thirty-two, assembled at the house of the deputy, M. Lafitte, the banker, to take the subject into serious cunsideia- tion, and decide on some immediate r-rarsc of action. A number of constitutional peers also met at the duke de Choiseul's. At each of these meetings a \t'as resolved not to submit. The peers signed a pro- test, and sent it by a deputation to the king, who refused to receive it. The rejection strengthened the resolution of the depu- ties, and forty couriers were sent with dis- patches to towns and villages within a hun- dred miles of the metropolis, representing the outrageous conduct uf government, and urging the inhaliiiants to co-operate with the Parisians in a determined sinud lor the liberties of France. In the meaiiliine the government was on the alert, and sent a general officer to Grenelle, ond another to Angers, fur mili- tary purposes. The military coiniiiand of Paris was entrusted to iiiurslial Mariiiont, duke of Ragusa. Troops were ordered in from the barracks within ttfty miles around ; and the guards in the citv were doubled. Towards tlie evening, bimies of f/endur- mfrie were stationed about the lloiirse and on the Boulevards. In cunseqiienceof the bank refusing to discuuiit biUx, I lie manufacturers perceived it had not coiiti- dence in the government, and they iuiiiie- diately discharged their workmen. Tliese artizans congregated in the ditferent streets and ; ported what had happened to listen- ing cr w'ds. An ordinance we. now issued by t'l'. prelect of police, detnins:, among other tilings of a rcstrictin;; kind, that " Every indiviuiial kce| '.ng a reiidinitruoin, coffee-house, *c. who aVull give to be rend journals, or <>;' er withigs, printed con- trary to the ordinance of'ihe king of the 2oth in-t. relative j the pres" shall ' prosecuted as guilty of the mi>' " ..icanoutJi which these journals or writiu. may con- stitute, and his establislmi'"'' ... 1 be pro- visionally closed." This or 'ir ice showed a great if^norance of cliaraci<.r ; tor a new- paper with a f'.' I :■! nan's coffee is re dered by habit . :i ii,- as indi^ipensable "• his morning's i- eal. '"cverthcless, the ot- iicers of police cleared the culfee-houses, reading rooms, &c. and shut them up. By their interference also the theatres were closed. A sullen discontent was seen in every countenance, and occasionally was heard the cry of fitu- la charts; yet during all this time, it would seem, the ministers had no idea of the mischief that was brood- ing. On Tuesday the 2rth, in the forenoon, the police and a large force of gendnrines, mounted and on foot, appeared before the office of the KaJinnnel, a popular journal. They found the door fast closed ; and, being refused entrance, broke in, seized the types, and carried the editor to prison. They then proceeded to the office of the Tempi, another popular newspaper, which, ;' ^'igh the door-way was barricaded, and .: ..'lermined resistance was offered by tlie printers, they forced, and seized the printed papers and the types This was the signal for a general resistance to the ordinances. All work was now abandoned, every manu- factory was closed, and detachments of arti- sans with large slicks traversed the streets. Troops of gendarmes patrolled the streets at full g<^llop to disperse the accumulating crowds. The people were silent, and at an early hour the shops throughout Purls were closed. Troops of the royal guard and soldiers of the line came pouring in. The people looked sullen and determined. The chief points of rendezvous were the Palais RoyaJ, the Palais de Justice, and the 1 1 73.— car, or SEINE-ET-MARNE— 5 abrond.— 29 cant.— 556 com.— (5 J)iti8.)—Melun. f' '■iu mi ^ ;(,:a iil » r*i!-' m f I ^1 li 70.— DSP. o» SEVRES (dbux)— 4 abboko.— 31 cant.— 356 com.— (4 »«»8.)— iViort. 610 ^{;e ^icasutn of l|tstorp, $rc. Bourse, There were nimultaneous erics of " yire la charte!" "Down with the iibso- liiti! listened nod hiirred, as if the inhabitants fully anticipated an approaching cnlainity. The tocsin sounded, and tlie people ttocked in from the faux- bourt;s and different quarters of the city. 'J'he press had been in nctivc operation during the night :, handbills were pro- fusely distributed, containing vehement philippics against Charles and his minis- ters, and summoning every man to arm for his country, and to aid in ejecting the Bourbons. Nor had the citizens in gene- ral been idle, during that eventful night; they were leady and orgnniicd for a de- cisive contest; they were in possession of the arsenal and powder insgazinej tliey had procured arms from the sliops ol the gunsmiths and the police stntions ; they had ihi'own up rude barricades across the principal streets to prevent the attacks of cavalry, and bad selected leaders compe- tent to direct their exertions. A red Hag was hoisted on the several buildings, amidst the shouts of the people. Tri-coloured flags were promenaded in the streets, and tri- colotiied cockades and breast -knots were worn by all classes. All Paris, in short, wos in a state of insurrceiiott, and every niovenient of the people portended a terrible conflict. A deputation of the most influential men in Pans waited upon marslial RIarmont, and represented to iiimthe di-plorable stale of the capital; stating, at the same time, tliB' 'bey made him personally responsible, in tne name of the assembhd deputies of France, for its present alarming situation, and lor the fatal consequences which must inevitably ensue. The marshal replied, "The honour of a soldier is obedience; but, gentlemen," said he, "what ore the comliiioiiB you propose V To this M. La- .titte made answei — "The revocation uf the illegal ordinances of the 2otli of July, the di»ini»»al of the ministers, and the convo- cation of the chambers on the :ird of Au- gust." The murshal replied, that though as a citizen he might even participate in the opinions of the deputies, as a soldier he had only to carry his orders into exe- cution ; but that if they wished to have a CI inference with M. de Poligimc, he was close nt hand, and he would go and ask him if be would receive them. A quarter of an hour passed, when the niarshal re- turned with bis manner much changed, and told the deiiuties that M. de Polignae had declared to liim that the conditions propos. ed rendered any conference tiseless. "We have then civil war." said M. Latiltc. The marshal bowed, and the deputies retired. As soon as Polignac's answer was made known, all the stifled feelings of resent- ment burst forth, and the people rushed eagerly forward to oppose the troops wher- ever a favourable opportunity presented it- self. With a disinclination to take any decisive steps, it was noon before marslial Marinont determined to clear the streets by military force; and he then unwisely divided bis troops into four columns, whieh he sent in different directions, thereby destriiyinK the great advantage they pos- sessed in neing able to act in concert. The drums of the national guard soon beat "to arms I " and the struggle began in earnest. Every step taken by the columns]v.as marked by a series of murderous contfitis; they were assailed by musketry from the barricades, from the windows and tops of houses, from the corners uf streets, and from the narrow alleys and passages which abound in Paris. The hottest engagement seems to have been in the Rue ISi. Honur^, opposite the Palais Royal, where the mili- tary were assembled in great force, and I lie people resisted tiieni with desperate deter- mination. At the Place de Gr£ve tliey fiercely contended with the Swiss guards, and compelled them to retreat with great loss. In the Rue Montmartre an attack was made by the duke of Ragusa in per- son; but the obstacles which everywhere presented themselves to the troops were so formidable, and the disinclination of the troops of the line to engage with the citi- zens so apparent, that the insurgents were enabled to seize many important posts; and when evening closed, the troops, de- feated in every direction, returned to their barracks, weary, hungry, and dispirited ; for while they had been the whole day with- out food, every family in Paris vied with each other in supplying their fellow citi- zens with refreshment. As soon as the firing ceased, the people made preparations for the next day by strengthening the barricades and increas- ing their number. Excellent materials viere at hand in the naving stones, which were dug up and pilea across the street in walls breast high, and four or five feet thick, about fifty paces distant from each other. Besides these defences, hundredn of flne trees were cut down lor blockades ; in short, nothing was lett undone that ingenuity could de- vise, or perseverance accomplish, towards making un energetic and determined stand against the military on the morrow, Tiiursd.sy morning had scarcely dawned 77.— HEP. OP SOMNE— 5 AUHo.ND.— 41 cant.— 835 com.— (" dbfs.) — Amieni. (4 DKF8.) —JVior^ tutien, aa a soldier in ordera into rxe- !y wiHlit'd to have a Holigimo, lie was M'liulil go nnd ask e them. A quarter n I he niarshal re. inurh changed, and M. de P(>lit;iMc had • cuiidilioiis propoa- ence viseless. "We lid M. Lntitte. The ? ilepiitieK reiireil. B answer was made reelings of resent- the people rushed se the troops whcr- tunity presented it- iHti began in earnest. the columnslwas iiurderous condfcis; musketry tVoin the indows and tops of icrs of streets, and nnd passiages which hottest engagement the Rue ISi. Honur^, ral, where ihe mili- greai force, and the iih desperate deter- ace de Gr£ve they I the Swiss guards, o retreat with greiit intniartre an attack ! of Ragusa in per- 8 which everywhere the troops were so iisinclinatiun of the 'ngage with the ciii- the insurgents were ly important posts; sed, the troops, de- on, returned to their gry, and dinpiriled ; 1 the whole day with- r in Paris vieil with ng their fellow citi- ig censed, tlie people 3r the next day by TJcades and inrrens- lelleiit materials were ; stones, which were IBS the street in walls r five feet thick, about 1 each other. Uesides eds of tine trees were IS ; in short, nothing iiiKentiity could de- nccomplish, towards md determined stand 1 the morrow, had scarcely dawned 80.— nxp. o» VAR— 4. abjiosb— 35 cast.— 210 com.— (5 BKta.)—Draguignan, ^f)c matoxTSi of Jprancc. 61] DBFS.) — Amient, when the tocsin sounded "To arms ! " and the people began to assemble rapidly nnd in urent crowds. The military, whose guard- houses had been destroyed, where chieHy quartered at the Loutre and the Tuillerics, the Swiss and the royal guards being posted in the houses of the Rue St. Honors and the adjacent s-.reets. At the same time the students of the polytechnic school joined the citizens nearly to a man; they then se- parated, proceediuit singly to difi'erent parts to take the command of the people, and nobly repaid the conlidence that was re- posed 'ii them, by the coolness ,"iud cou- rage they displayed. The garden of the Tullleries was closed. In Ihe Place du Ca- rousel were three squadrons ol lancers of the garde royale, a battalion of the 3rd regi< ment of the guards, and six pieces of can- non. The royal guards had hardly maoe themselves masters of the Hotel de Ville, when they were assailed on all sides with a shower of bullets from the windows of the houses of the Place dc Gi:6ve and in the streets abutting on the quay. The royal guards resisted vigorously, but were ulti- mately compelled to retreat along the quay ; their tiring by tiles and by platoons suc- ceeding each other with nvvonishing rapi- dity. They were soon joined by fresh troops, including lOU cuirassiers of Ihe guard, and four uieces of artillery, each of them es- cortea by a dozen artillerymen on horse- back. With this reinforcement they again advanced on the Hotel de Ville, and a frightful firing began on all sides. Tiic artillery deboucliinic from tho quay, nnd their pieces charged with cannister shot, swept the Place de Gr£ve in a terriH( man- ner. They succeeded in driving ihe citizens into the Rues du Matriot and du Mouton, and entered for the second time that day into their position at the hotel de Ville; but their possession of it did not continue long, for they were soon again attacked with a perseverance and courage that was almost irresistible. On the 29th general Lafayette was ap- pointed commander in-chief of the national guards b^ the liberal deputies, and was re- ceived with enthusiasm by the Parisians. A youth of twenty years of age belonKing to the polytechnic school, led tlie attack on the Louvre, from which the Swiss guards retreated to the Tuilleries. This place was also taken by the people, with one of these youth* at their head. The Luxembourg had already fallen into their hands. The young men of this school rendered the greatest service lo the cause of the nation; and afterwards declined the medals granted to them, and also the rank of lieutenant, o.lered to each, in case he entered the army. Many of the soldiers solemnly vowed they would not continue to act against the peo- ple; others were disheartened and disrom- filed; and two whole regiments went over in a body to the -ide of ihe Parisiaiis. At length, kII the royal troops left the capital by the wav of the Champs Elys^es, and in their retreat were tired upon by the people. At night the city was partially'illuminated, and perfect tranquillity prevailed, while strong patrols silently paraded llie streets, and passed gently from barricade to bar- ricade. A deputation from Charles X. at St. Cloud, arrived at the Hotel de Ville early in the iiiorninu;. iVt eleven o'clock, the de- puties and peers then in Paris at'semliled 111 their respective halls, and established regular commtinicutions with each other. The duke de Mortemart was introduced to the chamber of deputies, and delivered four ordinances signed the previous day by the king. One of lliem recalled the latal ordi- nances of the 25th; another convoked the chambers on the 3rd ; the third appointed the duke de Mortemart president of the council ; and the fourth appointed count Gerard minister of war, and M. Casiniir- Perier minister of tinancc. The reading of these ordinances was listened to with the greatest attention. But at the termina- tion no observation was made — the most profound silence was for a time observed —and then the deputies passed to other business. The manner in which the duke and his communications were received by the deputies was nn announcement that Charlej X. had ceased to reign. On the 31st of Julj^ the deputies pub- lished n proclamation, declaring that they had invited the duke of Orleans to become lieutenant-general of the kingdom. At noon of the same day, Louis Philippe d'Or- leans issued a proclamation, declaring timt he had hastened to Paris, wearing the " glo rious colours" of France, to accept the in- vitation of the assembled deputies to be- come lieutenant-general of Ihe kingdnni. A proclamation of the same date appoinied Srovisional commissaries for the diO'erent epartmenls of government. The king, with his family, had fled to St. Cloud. They now proceeded to Rambouil- let, a small place six leagues w. a. w. of Versaillbs. Three commissioners were sent from Paris to treat with him ; who, on their return, informed the authorities, that the king wished to leave France by way of Cherbourg; to restore the crown jewels, which he had taken from Parix, &c. These concessions were produced by the advance of the national guard towardx Ramhiiuillet. On the mornin!; of Aug. 2, the alidieaiinn of Charles X. nnd the dauphin, Loiils .Aii- toiiic, was placed in the hands of the lieu- tenant-general: the abdication, however, was made in favour of the duke of Bor- deaux. A letter of the kini;, hearing that date, appo' ited the duke of Orleans lieu- tenant general of the kingdom, and ordered him to nvoclaim the duke of Uordeaux, king, under the title of Henry V. 'llie abdication of Charles was announced to the peers ond the deputies by the Ijcn- tenant-general on the 3rd of August : and Casimir Perierwas at the same time ehnseii president of the ehamher. On the Oili, ihe chamber of deputies declared the tlirour of France vacant, tie jure and ile fiicin, and discussed the provisions oi' the clitirter. On the 7th, new changes were adopted in 81.— DBF, or VAUCLUSE- 4 aruond— 32 cant.— 148 com.— (I t>v.vs.)— Avignon. mm I ■■ ■;.'.' r> I Ji 84.— i)EP. OP VIENNE— 6 abboiid.— 31 CAMT.— 299 com.— (6 i>kf«.)— Foirf. I n I '* M I « S ' S ■ o ?, s li 012 VI\)ti 5Frca»urt} of l^tatore, ^c it J Bnd it was voted to invite the duke of Orlenns to become king of the French, on condition of his accepting; these changea. On thn 8th, the chamber went in a body to the duke, and offered him the crown, which he accepted; and" on the 9th, he took the prescribed constitutional oath. The spirit of order, manifested by the people during the stiugjfles in Paris, which prevented all outrage and plundering, was still furdier shewn in tlie unmolested re- treat of Charles X., who took passage for Kngland in two American vessels. On ar- riving he was received merely as a private person. Tlie revolution of July, 1830, thus drove one dynasty from the throne of France, and seated another in its place. In theory, it sanctioned the doctrine of the Bovi^r'eignty of the people, and dealt a fatal blow to the ancient notion of pas- sive obedience; but, in practice, it dis- appointed the " movement party," who looked to see a monarchy shorn of its pre- rogatives and surrounded by republican in- stitutions. Thoui^h this extraordinary revolution had been effected with such comparative ease, ; justice could hardly be considered as com- I plcle without the trial of tliose responsible officers of government who had originated, or, III least, sanctioned this war on the li- berties of France. In the course of the mouth, four of the ex-ministers, I'eyrounct, Guernun de Raiiville, Chantelauze, end Poliguae, were arrested, tried by their peers, and being found guiltyj were sen- tenced to imprisonment for life. While the trial was goins on, the Luxembourg was surrounded by a clamorous mob, de- manding the death of the prisoners, and threatening vengeance in case the sentence was not satisfactory. As the trial pro- cei'ded, and it began to be suspected that a cii|iitul sentence wiiuld not he pronounced, tlie violence of the multitude increased, and every thins; seemed to menace a new insur- rrction. The troops and national guards were kept under arms bv night, and oivou- acked in the public places. The whole persouul influence of tlic.king and of La- fiiyelte wns also employed to soothe the pcipulacc; still the number and clamour ot the mob became so alarming, that it was determined to remove the prisoners se- cretly to Vincennes beCore sentence was pronbunced; and the ruse succeeded. In the beginning of the year lb31, the public mind continued to be agitated by conspiracies and rumours of conspiracies of Carlists, or partisans of the exiled fa- milv. Nor we • there wanting, on the other bund, repi >licnns and Buonaparlists to tall tlic liaiiie uf insurrection both in the cupitHi and in the provinces. In the midst of this auarcliv, the king of the French, with that prudential foresight and conci- liatory dispcmitjdu which have character- ized most ol his niovemp'its, determined on a tour tlirongh his d(,KrB.)—J»xerre, Krs.) — Poitiert. id to join tbe cai- ibid feeling of repub- )rciWy Bay*, " when edition were brouglit maintained tlieir re- ; treated the liiiig in i inveighed against on» of tlie country; and violent alterca- prosecutor ; menaced ed the judges. The - this evil at length : the bombast of (he ed to such an excess became ridiculous; J disarmed when they lense of their inflated not inti'^idation, but Moderate men took le classes, to whose aroad and tranquillity ntially necessary, ral- arcliy, and tlie repub- to remain silent, until nt of the public mind )portunity for dissemi- 1 falsehoods." , od to which vfe have ry, nothing of any nio- in France, that is not ned in the latter part of irland; as, tbe various lie life of the king; the 1 expedition by a nephew lad the temerity to land 1 August. 1840, with a srs as weak as himself, t he could overturn tlie nd place himself on the al of the remains of Buo- Helena to the chapel of PHiis ; the visit nf queen I Philippe and family at of Eu, &c, Philippe is apprehensive f the country will not be or whether he is anxious izens of Paris from show- imen of their courage, it ey should be brought into e military— or whether it lually against either cqn- •e than we will venture to m ; but we must not close out stating that he is at I in fortifying Pans in a Bd to afford great tacilities either emergency. These in in Septeinher, 1840, and lied. \Vhen complete, the , of Paris will be enclosed iKh wall, defended by bas- in various parts. At some this wall, exterior woiUs, By of detached torts, will I the inner fortiflcalions, revent an enemy Iroiii iip- wHlls of the town. 1 his ; niet with considerable op- viewing it as a deteusive recollecting how lately the Hi! •* : AOBICULTUBB IM FUAHO IS IN TH8 MOST RVDB AMD UNIHFROTBD ITATl. ^irijc 3[^i8tort} of iprancc. 613 French capital was compelled to open its gatec Ko i. invading army, these defences are i:ov. re .arded with more satisfaction than u";..ca8ure. Subjoined to an excellent article on French statistics, &c., in Mr. M'CuUoch's Dictionary, are the following pertinent ob- servatious on " the probable continuance of the existing order of things in France ;" which, as an appropriate conclusion of this brief history, we take the liberty to trans- fer to our pages: — "It would be to no purpose to take up the reader's time by making any observations on the grept in- fluence exercised by France in the politics of EurApe and the world. That is too ob- vious, and has been too strikingly exera- plitied during the last half century, to re- quire being pointed out. But, since the overthrow of Napoleon, France has been rather an object of awe, and of vague ap- prehension, from a want of confidence in the stability of her existing institutions, than from any fear of what she might be able to effect under a constitutional and settled form of government. Under all the circumstances, this feeling is, perhaps, not very unreasonable; for, were anything to occur to subvert the present order of things, and to excite the popular enthu- siasm, it is difficult to say what the result might be. There are, indeed, many per- sons who are inclined to regard all appre- hensif^ns as to the subversion of the pre- sent constitution in France as chimerical ; we confess, howexer, that we are unable to participate in their confidence. Every thing in France appears to be tending to a pure democracy ; and were there nothing else, the law of equal succession, by pre- venting the coutinuunce of large fortunes in single families, would suffice to bring it about. AVhat, in fact, is there in France to oppose a revolution ? With the excep- tion of the holders of funded property, and of those in the immediate employment of the court, hardly any one could apprehend any injury from it ; and it is most probable the property of the former would be jiro- tccted. There are no lunger any great landholders; and it is immaterial to the holder of a small patch of land who is at the head of affairs, provided the burdens laid on him be not increased. Monarchy in France is vrithout all those old asso- ciations and powerful bulwarks whence it derives almost all its support in this, and most other countries; and there is really nothing to hinder a hostile majority in the chamber of deputies, or any thing that should powerfully influence tlie pub- lic mind, from at once subverting the regal branch of the constitution. The peers have no real power; and there is no class that has that deep and abiding interest in tbe support of the existing institutions, that seems indispensable to rescue a govern- ment fi-om sudden popular impulses, and give it security and tree action. Napoleon will, most probably, be found to have cor- rectly appreciated the existing sta -f ( I J. =f THE HISTORY OF SPAIN. This country, situated in tlie south-west of Europe, and bounded by the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, Portugal, and Frnnce, was well known tuiHic I'hcanicians at least a thousand years before the Christian era ; yet it appears to have been very imper- fectly known to the Greeks in the time of Herodotus. As far as history or tradition makes us acquainted with its aboriginal inhabitants, they were the Celtic and Ibe- rians, wRo became blended in the com- mon name of Celtiberians. Till the coming of the Carthaginians into Spain, however, nothing certain can be affirmed of the Spaniards, and this happened not long be- fore the first punic war. In ancient times Spain was regarded as a country replete with riclies; and though at the time of the Roman conquest pro- digious quantities of gold and silver had been carried out of it by the Carthagi- nians and Tyrians, it still had the repu- tation of being very rich. We are inform- ed by Aristotle, that when the Phoenicians first arrived in Spain, they exchanged their naval commodities for such immense quan- tities of silver, that their ships could nei- ther contain nor sustain their load, though thev used it for ballast, and made their 'anciiors and other implements of silver. Nor could it have been much diminished when the Carthaginians came, since the inhabitants at that time made all their utensils, even their mangers of that pre- cious inetal. In the time of the Romans this amazing plenty was greatly reduced; still their gleanings were by no means des- picable, since in nine years they carried off 111,642 {is. of silver, and 4,U9S;6«. of gold, besides an immense quantity of coin and other things of valuc.- Although the earliest inhabitants of Spain appear to have consisted of Celtic tribes, which probably entered the jpeninsula from the neighbouring country of Gaul, and oc- cupied the northern districts, there is every reason to believe that the southern part of the countrv was possessed by the Mauri- tani from the opposite coast of Africa; the narrowness of the strait of Gibraltar, and the valuable products of Spain, being in- ducements quite sufiicient for the African barbarians to form settlements there. Ac- cordingly, the Carthaginians, whose descent from tne Phoenicians led them to traffic with all those nations who could supply them with' useful commodities, early di- rected their views towards Spain, and about the year 300 n.c. had established a colony in the north-east of the peninsula, and founded the town of Barceno, the modern Barcelona. In the course of the same cen- tury their ombition and jealousy of the Romans induced them to attempt the con- quest of a country so advantageously situ- ated for their commercial enterprises. This attempt gave rise to the second punic war. The result was the gradual annexalion of the whole peninsula to th<' Roman repiib- lic; and it continued, under the nnnie of Hispania, to form an important province of the empire for nearly seven centuries. It was usually divided into three great por- tions, Lusitania, Boeticaor Hispania Ulteri- or, and Tnrraconensis or Hispania Citci ior. The Spaniards were naturally brave; and though the inhabitants of the eastern and .southern coasts had been reduced ton state of servile subjection, yet, as the Romans penetrated farther into the country tlinn the Carthaginians had done, they ti.ct with nations whose love of liberty was e {ual tu their valour, and whom the whole strength of their empire was scarcely able to sub- due. Of these the most formidable weie the Numantines, Cantabrians, and Astu- rians. In the time of the third punic war, one Vieriathus, a celebrated hunter, and af- terwards the captain of a gang of banditti, took upon him the command of some na- tions who had been in alliance with Car- thage, and ventured to oppose the Roman power in that part of Spain called Lusita- nia, now Portugal. The prtetor Vetilius, who commanded in those parts, marched against him with 10,000 men; but was de- feated and killed, with the loss of 4,000 of his troops. The Romans immediately dis- patched another prsetor with 10,000 foot and 1,300 horse ; but Viriathus, having first cut off a detachment of 4,000 of them, en- gaged the rest in a pitched battle; and, having entirely defeated them, reduced great part of the country. Another prajtor, who was sent with a new army, met with the same fate ; so that, after the destruc- tion of Carthage, the Romans thought pro- per to send their consul, Quintus Fabius, who defeated the Lusitanians in several battles. It is not, however, necessary to pursue this portion of the Spanish history with minuteness; suffice it to say, that after many severe contests, in which the Romans were often obliged to yield to the bravery of the Celtiberians, Numantines, and Cantabrians, Scipio i'Emilinnus, the destroyer of Carthage, was sent nk;aiiist Numantia, which, after a most desperate resistance, submitted to the Roman coni- tnander, though scarcely an inhabitant sur- vived to grace the conqueror's triumpli. This was a Anal overthrow, and the whole of Spain very speedily became a province of Rome, governed by two annual piKtors. THI MOIT TALUABI.B OF IT! IZIITINO UIHBS ABB IHOSR OF LOAD. lOUHTKieS. :i!j.--'\"::'' and jealouty of the em to attempt the con- 10 advantageously sitii- ercial enterprises. This the Becond punic war. gradnal annexnlion of a to thi' Roman repuh- led, under the name of in important province of ly seven centuries. It into tliree great por- eticaor Hispania lUtcri- sis or Hispania CIteiior. ere naturally brave; and ants of the eastern and d been reduced to n state on, yet, us the Komans into the country than had done, they ti.ct witli t of liberty was c pial to hom the whole strength as scarcely able to suh- e most formidable were Cantabrians, and Astu. e of the third punic war, celebrated hunter, and af- ^in of a gang of banditti, le command of some na- Bcn in alliance with Car- ed to oppose the Roman ■t of Spain called Lusita- tl. The prretor Vetilius, in those parts, marched 10,000 men; but was dc- with the loss of 4,000 of Romans immediately dis- prtetor with 10,000 foot hut Viriathus, having first lent of 4,000 of them, en- n a pitched battle; and, defeated them, reduced country. Another prretor, :h a new army, met with o that, after the destruc- the Romans thought pro- r consul, Quintus Frtbins, le Lusitnnians in several 3t, however, necessary to on of the Spanish history ; BuSlcc it to say, that 'e contests, in which the en obliged to yield to the ^eltiberians, Nuniantines, 1, Scipio i'Emilinnus, the rthage, was sent against 1, after a most desperate ittcd to the Koman com- icarcely an inhabitant sur- Ihe conqueror's triumph. overthrow, ond the wholfi eedily became a province id by two annual pra-tors. THOSB OP I.BAD. J Wi:«B IS BAIRBD ABUNDANTLT, rARTICULARLT Itf TBI COAST DIBTBICTS. Ef)e l^istoru of S^pain. 615 I . I I n M ! % e •! a a M a o Nothing of importance now occurred in the history of the peninsula till the civil war between Marius and Sylla : b. c. 76. The latter having crushed the Marian fac- tion, proscribed all those that had joined against him whom he could not destroy. Among these was Sertorius, who had col- lected a powerful army from the relics of that party, and contended with great suc- cess against Caius Annius and Metellns, who were sent against him. Sertorius now formed a design of erecting Lusitania into an independent republic ; and so vigor- ously were his measures prosecuted, that the Romans became seriously alarmed for the safety of their empire in that quarter. On the death of Sylla, the most emi- nent generals in Rome contended for the honoi.ir of having the command of the army which it was intended to send n?;ainst this formidable enemy. After some deli- beration, the management of this war was intrusted to Pompey, afterwards Burnamed the Great, though he bad not yet attained the consular dignity. Metellus was not, however, recalled; but Sertorius for a long time proved more than a match for them both; and after establishing himself in Lusitania, he made such perpetual at- tacks on their united armies, that they found it necessary to separate, one retreat- ing into Gaul, and the other to the foot of the Pyrenees. Treachery at length effected for the Roman cause what valour tried in vain ; the bold and skilful Sertorius being assassinated at an entertainment by Pcr- perna, after having made head against the Koman forces for almost ten years. Pom- pev now pressed forward with redoubled ardour against the insurgent army, and the ti-oops, deprived of their able leader, were tinaily subdued by him. Though conquered, Spain was not alto- gether in a state of tranquillity ; many of the most warlike nations, particularly the Cantabrians and Asturians, continuing, wherever opportunities presented them- selves, to struggle for their independence. Dut from the time of Agrippa, who carried on a war of extermination against them, till the decline of the western empire, they remained in quiet subjection to the Ro- mans. Augustus himself founded the co- lony of Ca:sar Augusta (Saragossa) and Augustus Emerita (Merida). For400yenrs the Roman manners and language took root in the Spanish provinces, which in Csesar'a time had a population of forty mil- lions. Tarragona had 2,000,000 inhabitants ; and Merida supported a garrison of !)0,000 men. In the arts of war and peace, the peninsula at that period rivalled Rome; und it gave birth to many men of drst-rate character and abilities ; among them, Fom- ponius Mela, Seneca, Lucan, Trajan, and Theodosius the Great. In the reign of the emperor Ilonorius, the Gothic tribes of Vandals, Suevi, and -Vluns, snread themselves over the penin- sula. About the yenr 420 the brave Wallia founded the kingdom of the Visigoths in Spain. The Vaudals, from whom Anda- lusia received its name, could not with- stand him, and withdrew into Africa in a few years after. The Visigoths, under Kuric, extended their kinj^dom by the ex- pulsion of the Romans in 484; and at length Leovigild, in 583, overthrew the kingdom of tlie Suevi, in Galicia. Under his successor, Reccared I., the introduc- tion of the catholic faith gave the corrupt Latin language the predominance over the Gothic ; and, after that time, the unity of the Spanish nation was maintained by the catholic religion and the political influence of the clergy. Towards the end of the seventh century, the Saracens (the name adopted by the Arabs after their settlement in Europe), having overran Barbary with a rapidity which nothing could resist, and possessed themselves of the Gothic dominions in Africa, they made a descent upon Spain. Roderic, the king of the Goths, was a usurper, and having occasioned great dis- affection among his subjects, he determined to come to an engagement, knowing that he could not depend upon the fidelity of his own people if he allowed the enemy time to tamper with them. The two ar- mies met in a plain near Xercs, in Anda- lusia. The Goths began the attack with great fury ; hut they were totally defeated, and Roderic, in his flight, was drowned ia the Guadalquiver, a.d. 711> Nearly tlie whole of Spain was brought under the dominion of the Moors (as the Arabs of Spain are usually called) by this decisive battle; those Goths who still con- tended for independence retiring into the mountainous parts of Asturias, Burgos, and Biscay. But in 718 their power began to revive under Pelayo (or Don Pelagio), a prince of the royal blood, who headed those that had retired to the mountains after the fatal battle of Xeres. In the most inaccessible parts of these regions Pelayo established himself; and such were its natural defences, that although the Moorish governor, Alakor, sent a powerful army to crush him, the followers of Pelayo were so concealed among the precipices, that, almost un:ieen, they anniliilated their enemies. In a second attempt the Moors were equally unsuccessful, nearly the whole of their army being either cut in pieces or taken prisoners. At this time the greater part of Spain became a province of the caliphs of Bag- dad ; but in the middle of the eighth cen- tury Abderahman, the caliph's viceroy in Spain, threw off the yoke, and rendered him- self independent, fixing the seat of his go- vernment at Cordova. Abderahman's first care was to regulate the affairs of his king- dom; and though he could not alter the Mahommedan laws, which are unchange- able as the koran wherein they are written, he appointed just magistrates, released his Christian subjects from a great part of the tribute-money hitherto exacted from them, and patronised commerce and the arts. At Cordova he built one of the most su- perb mosques in the world, and it still re- BFAIW fBODt'GKS BBVBBAIl VAUIKTIBB OF TUB OAK AND OTHBR MOBIK TBBBB. TBM BFAIIISH 7.0B3IS, THOVOH SBOSIfKBATID, WBBB OBIOINALLT ARABIANS. I'.f N r'5 '/ !' A^ 616 ^^e ^reasut^ of llistorti, 8cc. mains a splendid monument of the skill and magnificence of that enlightened peo- ple. The descenunts of Abderahman conti- nued for nearly two centuries to reign in Spain, at their capital Cordova, patronising the sciences and arts, particularly astro- nomy and medicine, at a period when chris- tian Europe was immersed in ignorance and barbarism. In 778, Charlemagne en- tered Spain with two great armies, one passing through Catalonia, and the_ other through Navarre, where he pushed his con- quests as far as the Ebro. On his return he was attacked and defeated by the Moors ; though this did not prevent him from keep- ing possession of all those places he had reduced. In the meantime the kingdom founded by Pelayo, now called the kingdom of Leon and Oviedo, continued to increase rapidly in strength, and many advantages were gained over the Moors. In the early part of the tenth century, a distinguished general, named Mohammed Ebn Amir Almanzor, appeared to support the sinking cause of that people. He took the city of Leon, which he reduced to ashes, and destroyed the inhabitants. Barcelona shared the same fate ; Castile was reduced and depopulated ; Galicia and Portugal ravaged; and he is said to have overcome the Christians in fifty different engagements. A pestilence, however, having attacked his army just af- ter be had demolished the city of Compos- tella, and carried off in triumph the gates of the church of St. James, the Christians Buperstitiously attributed it to a divine jndg- ment ; and, in the full persuasion that the Moors wen destitute of all heavenly aid, they fell upon them with such fury in the next battle, that all the valour of Alman- zor and his soldiers could not save them from a terrible defeat ; and, overrorae with shame and despair, he starved himself to death. During this period a new Christian prin- cipality appeared in Spain namely, that of Castile, which lay in the middle between the Christian kingdom of Leon and Oviedo, and the Moorish kingdom of Cordova. This district soon became an object of contention between the kings of Leon and those of Cordova; but by degrees Castile fell entirely under the power of the kings of Leon and Oviedo ; in 1035, Don Sanchez bestowed it on his son, Don Ferdinand, with the title of king, and by this event the territories of Castile were first firmly united to those of Leon and Oviedo, and the sove- reigns were from that time styled kings of Leon and Castile. Arragon, another Christian kingdom, was set up in Spain about the beginning of the eleventh century. The history of Arragon, however, during its infancy is but little known. But about the year 1035, Don Sanchez, surnamed the Great, king of Na- varre, erected Arragon into a kingdom in favour of his son, Don Ramira, and after- wards it became very powerful. At this time the continent of Spain was divided into two unequal parts, by a straight line drawn from east to west, from the coasts of Valentia to a little below the mouth of the Donro. The country north of this be- longed to the Christians, who, as yet, had the smallest and least valuable share, and all the rest to the Moors. In point of wealth and, real power, both by land and sea, the Moors were greatly superior; but their continual dissensions weakened them, and every day facilitated the progress of the Christians. The Moorish governments, indeed, being weakened by changes of dynasties, as well as by internal dissensions, the Christian kings wrested from them one portion of the country after another, till, after the great victory which the united Christian princes gained over the Moors, in 12i:2, at Tolosa, in Sierra Morena, there remained to tliem only the kingdom of Granada, which was likewise obliged to acknowledge the Castilian supremacy in 1246, and was finally conquered by Ferdinand and Isa- bella. In 1080, the king of Toledo engaged in a war with the king of Seville, another Moor- ish potentate, which being observed by Al- phonso, king of Castile, he also invaded his territories, and in four years made him- self master of the city of Toledo, with all the places of importance in its neighbour- hood, and from tnat time he made Toledo the capital of his dominions. In a short time the whole province of New Castile submitted, and Madrid fell into the hands of the Christians. The only son of Alphonso died without heirs ; and Ferdinand, the son of his daugh- ter, united Castile and Leon. Having thus become more powerful than the former kings, he conquered Baeza and Cordova, and after a difficult siege of eighteen months, made himself master of Seville, A. D. 1248. Setting out thence, he gain- ed possession of Cadiz. In vain the moun- tains of Jaens opposed themselves to liis career ; the coasts no longer allowed re- inforcenients to arrive from Africa to the Arabian Spaniards, and Granada was hence- forward their chief possession. Ferdinand III., after conquering Cordo- va, Murcia, Jaen, Seville, Cadiz, and sub- jecting Grenada to a feudal dependence on him, became, in 1252, the true founder of Castile, by establishing the rule of indi- visibility and primogeniture, in the suc- cession. Still the whole was as yet an imperfect confederation. The privileges granted to the Jews in Spain, in the mid- dle ages, had an injurious influence on the government and the public welfare. They were placed nearly on a level with the nobles; they were appointed ministers of finance, farmers of the public revenues, and stewards to the great : thus they ob- tained possession of all the money in the country, and, by their excessive usury, at length excited a universal outcry against them ; and, in 1492, they were banished for ever, to the number of 8(I0,000, from Spain. The improvement of the coun- OBBAT MUUBBRS OF MCLK8 ABB BBBD, PARTICULARI.Y IN OLD CASTILB. OP ALL ANIMALS, IHKBr ARK THE MOST VALUED STOCK IN SfAIN. lALIaT ARABIANS. rts, by a straight line west, from the coasts ' le below the mouth of intry north of this bc- ians, who, as yet, had 1st valuable share, and Moors. In point of srer, both by land and > greatly superior ; but nsions weakened them, itated the progress of irnments, indeed, being !8 of dynasties, as well lensious, the Christian 1 them one portion of another, till, after the the united Christian the Moors, in 1222, at lorena, there remained kingdom of Granada, obliged to acknowledge emacy in 1246, and was by Ferdinand and Isa- of Toledo engaged in a of Seville, another Moor- ;h being observed by Al- :;Rstile, he also invaded in four years made him- I city of Toledo, with all irtance in its neighbour- at time he made Toledo dominions. In a short rovince of New Castile adrid fell into the hands f Alphonso died without and, the son of his daugh- ; and Leon. Having thus )werful than the former ;red Baeza and Cordova, Bcuit siege of eighteen iraself master of Seville, ,ng out thence, lie gain- 2adi«. In vain the moun- pposed themselves to his Its no longer allowed re- arrive from Africa to the s, and Granada was hence- ef possession. , after conquering Cordo- 1, Seville, Cadiz, and sub- to a feudal dependence on 1252, the true founder of blishing the rule of indi- imogeniture, in the suc- he whole was as yet an deration. The privilcRes Jews in Spain, in the mid- in injurious influence on , and the public welfare. ed nearly on a level with J were appointed ministers crs of the public revenues, I the great : thus they ob- n of all the money in the y their excessive usury, at a universal outcry against 1492, they were banished 3 number of 8110,000, from mprovement of the coun- t.X IN OLD CASTILK. atfjt "liatori) of SSyain. 617 J'' try was much retarded by the defects in tlie public administration, particularly in rejfiiid'to the taxes, by powerful vassals, bad kings, and family disputes : so that the third estate was not formed in Castile till A. D. 1325, two hundred years later than that of .\rragon, and with inferior privi- leges. Meanwhile the Cortes, consisting of the estates of the kingdom, namely, the cler«y, the high nobility, the orders^ of kni;;hts. and eighteen great cities, restrict- ed the royal power, without, however, bring injf about a state of legal order. But, in Arra^on, of which Alphonso I., since the conquest of Sarngoss.', in 1115, had been in complete possession, ;he third estate was formed before the r -Idle of the twelfth century, — sooner thaa in any other Euro- pean country,— and a well settled political order ensut^d. In the time of Edward III. we find Ens;- laud, for the first time, interfering with the affairs of Spain. In the year 1284 the kingdom of Navarre bad been united to that of France by the marriage of Donna Joanna, queen of Navarre, with Diilip the Fair of France. In 1323, however, the King- doms were again separated, though the sovereigns of Navarre were still related to those of France. In 1350, Charles, sur- nnnied the Wicked, ascended the throne of Navarre, and married the diuighter of John, king of France. Notwitlistanding this alliance, and that he himself was re- lated to the royal family of France, he se- cretly entered into a negotiation with Eng- land against the French monarrli, and even drew into his schemes the diiuphin Cliarlcs, afterwards surnamcd the Wise. When the young prince was made sensible of the dan- ger of his connexions, by way of atonement he promised to sacrifice his new associates. Accordingly, he invited the king of Na- varre, and some of the principal nobility of the same party, to a feast at Rouen, where he betrayed them to his father. The most obnoxious were executed, and the king of Navarre was thrown into prison. In this extremity, the party of the King of Navarre had recourse to England. The prince of Wales, surnamed the Black Prince, in- vaded France, defeated king John at Poic- tiers, and took him prisoner, which unfortu- nate event produced the most violent dis- turbances in that kingdom. The dauphin, then about nineteen years of age, natu- rally assumed the royal power during his father's captivity. In order to obtain sup- plies, he assembled the states of the king- dom ; but that assembly, instead of sup- porting his administration, demanded limi- tations of the prince's power, the punish- ment of past malversations, and the liberty of the king of Navarre. A rebellion en- sued ; and amidst the disorders that con- vulsed the kingdom, the king of Navarre made his escape from prison, and presented a dangerous leader to the malcontents. Those of the French people who wished to restore peace to their country, turned their eyes towiirds the dauphin. Marcel, the seditious provost of Paris, was slain in at- tempting to deliver that city to the king of Navarre. The cR|)ital immcdiaiely returned to its duty ; considerable bodies of the mu- tinous peasants were dispersed or put to the sword; sonic! bands of military robbers underwent the same fate, and France be- gan once more to assume the appearance of civil government. In the thirteenth century, during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, the cities in the kingdoms of Arragon and Castile liad formed themselves into an association, distinguished by the name of the Holy Bro- therhood. They exacted a certain contri- bution from each of the associated towns ; they levied a considerable body of troops, in order to protect travellers and pursue criminals; and they appointed judges, who opened courts in various parts of the king- dom. The nobles ofteti murmured against this salutary institution ; they complained of it as an encroachment of their most valuable privileges, and endeavoured to have it abolished. But their catholic ma- jesties (for such was the title they now bore), sensible of the beneficial effects of the Brotherhood, not only in regard to the peace of their kingdom, but in its tendency to abridge, and by degrees annihilate the tcr"itorial jurisdiction of the nobility, coun- tenanced the institution upon every occa- sion, and supported it with the whole force of royal authority ; by which means the prompt and impartial administration of justice was restored, and with it tranquil- lity and order. But at the same time that they were giving vigour and justice to their civil government, and securing their sub- jects from violence and oppression, an in- temperate zeal led them to establish an ecclesiastical tribunal, equally contrary to the natural rights of humanity and the mild spirit of the gospel ; and thus origi- nated the most baleful of all institutions, the Inquisition. Wherever the footsteps of the " uoLY OFFICK" may be traced, the path is marked with blood; but in no part of the world has it run such a sanguinary career as iu Spain. Of all the Mohammedan possessions in Spain the kingdom of Granada now alone remained. Princes equally zealous and am- bitious naturally wished to add that fertile territory to their hereditary dominions, by expelling the enemies of Christianity and extending its doctrines. Everything con- spired to favour their project ; the Moor- ish kingdom was a prey to civil wars ; when Ferdinand, having obtained the bull of Sixtus IV., authorising a crusade, put himself at the head of his troops, and en- tered Granada. Its subjugation quickly followed. When the capital surrendered, it was stipulated that their king should enjoy the revenue of certain places in the fertile mountains of Alpujnrros ; that the inhabitants should retain undisturbed pos- session of their houses, goods, and inhe- ritances, their laws and religion. Thus endrd the empire of the Arabs in Spain, which had flourished for more than eight hundred years. p c IIOGS AIIB nllED IN GRUAT NUMOBRS, AND ARB NOWHEUB EXCIiLLKO. [3G3 f I. I).JI' '11,111 TBI lUaAH-CAHK II CDLTIVATXD IN OBANADA AND VAiaMCIA. m i-r^l th'l ' "t; u 1 ll 618 ^l^e treasury of l^istorj), Ut. During the pariod of Arabian power, agri- culture, commerce, the arts, and sciencea, flourished in Spain. The universities and libraries at Cordova and other places were resorted to by the Christians, as the seat of the Greco-Arabic literature and the Aris- totelian philosophy. From these institu- tions Europe received the knowledge of the arithmetical characters, of gunpowder, and of paper made from rags, ; while, on the other hand, among the Gothic Spaniards, the blending of the chivalrous and reli- gious spirit gave occasion to the founda- tion of several military orders. We may here remark, that Don Rodrigo Diaz de Vival el Campeador, the hero without an equal, has been celebrated since the end of the eleventh century as the hero of his age. The romantic elevation of national feeling, which found its support in the religious faith and national church, pre- served the Christian Gothic states of Na- varre, Arragon, and Asturia, from many in- ternal and external dangers. It was in the reign of Ferdinand and Isa- bella, and through the patronage of the latter, that Columbus, a Genoese naviga- tor, discovered America. The country was afterwards subdued by Cortez and Pizarro ; and its valuable mines of gold and silver continued, until of late, to till the coffers of Spain ; but riches so easily acquired in the new world withdrew much of the ac- tivity of the nation from the improvement of the mother country ; and avarice, united with fanaticism, established an impolitic colonial system. Still, the extensive con- U8 clinracter, pri- pnrvd contest. Tlie emperor ibounded glory, and ini- 1 plan* lor realizing it, rer, by pitrBuitiK his vie. lit by recurring to artful i;harles sought to gain ligned to humble Fran- th indignation the igno- deliverance which were ' spent one long sad year the strictest custody. > or liberty overcame him, the 14th of January, led the peace of Mndrid; \ Burgundy, and rvnnun. j ilan and all other Itnliaii 3 relinquished his feudal \ landers and Artois; pro- o the duke of Oourliuii ! all their posKPssiuus, lo ] of the king of Navairp, ng his two elder sons na ing his oath tjiat if all ed he would return into eed the invioUuility uf < But we must not forget : >■ hours before he signed ng Francis had protettftl faithful friends, secretly, ng, against this treaty, | was compelled by unjust and by vshich he thought und. And let us not for- te Clement II. soon after- leased him from the obli- II I ad returned to his king- [ ambassadors in vain itc- nent of this treaty. Tlie ates of Burgundy, Imving heir presence at the same t the king had passed tlic r by ceding their country, indoned them, they would selves foreign doniiniim ower. At the same time rend of the alliance con- iie king of France and the the Vcuetians, the duke le king of England also was designed by force of luirles subscribe to more and the alliance was callid i But Francis, liRvin« he- 'd by his previous niisfor- , instead of fighting, wliilat | succumbed to the supe- cmperor. me Charles had strengtli- by new levies ; and they Bourbon's conmiand. Hut mixture of Spaniards, lin- ns, who, devoid of nntiiin;il hout love for the cause, pay and booty. So badly le finances of the cnipcior, rhose power Europe treni- It that time, furnish monty TS or BBKOISM. NATIONAL PBIDI !■ BVHIt INJVBIOUS, WUKN CABKIKD TO BXCRSI. ®^e l^iatoty of Spain. 621 sufficient to pay 25,0(10 men. In that di- Icinma the general led the armr agoinst Ilonic, and promised to enrich them with the spoils of the eternal city. Nor did he make an idle boast : for though Bourbon liimseU' was shot while planting a scaling- ladder agninat the walla, the soldiera, infu- riated rather than diacouraged by the death of their beloved commander, mounted to the aasault, took the city, and pillaged it with all the atrocities of rapacity and brutality. Never did Rome in any age suffer so many calamities, not even from the bar- barians, by whom she was often subdued, the Huns, Vandals, or Goths, as now from the subjects of a christian and catholic monarch. During this storm the pope had taken refuge in the castle |of 8t. Angelo, and, not making his escape in time, was taken prisoner. Me was contined till he should pay an enormous ranso.: iir.po i. < by the victorious army, and surrcn'"' -o the emperor all the places of strength f. e- longing to the papal dominions. AVell knowing the horrol* which his Spanish subjects would feel at the indig- nity thus offered to the sovereign pontiff, Charles not only repressed all outward demonstration of joy nt this new triumph, but hterally put himself and his court into mourning, and, with unexampled hypo- crisy, had prayers offered up in all the churches of Spain for the recovery of the pope's liberty; when an imperial order would have instantly procured his freedom! A.D. 1929.— Charles had, however, more to apprehend from the resentment of other powers than from his own subjects ; and it was not long before his old competitor, Francis, with the aid of English money, was able to send a formidable army into Italy, under the command of marshal Lau- tree Clement then regained his freedom ; but the death of the French marshal, and the revolt of Andrew Doria, a Genoese ad- miral in the service of France, were serious disasters, which inclined Francis to try the ell'ect of negotiation in lieu of the force of arms. The progress of the reformation in Germany — to which Charles was ever most strenuously opposed — at this time threat- ened the tranquillity of the empire; while the victorious sultan Solyman, who had overrun Hungary, was ready to break in upon the Austrian territories with an overwhelming force. In this state of things, a pacitic accommodation was too desirable to be re- fused by Charles, notwithstanding he had lately gained such advantages; and it was agreed that Margaret of Austria, (Charles's aunt,) and Louisa, (the mother of Francis,) should meet at Camhray, with a view of adjusting the terms of a treaty between the two inonarchs. The result was, that Francis agreed to pay two millions of crowns as the ransom Qf his two sons, to resign the sovereignty of Flanders and Ar- tois, and to forego all his claims on Italy ; and Charles ceased to demand' the res- titution of Burgundy. On this occasion, Henry VIII. was so generous to his friend and ally Francis, that he sent him an ac- quittal of near fiOO,000 crowns, in order to enable him to fulHl his agreement with the emperor. 'I he terrors of the Turkish arms were at this time greatly increased by the cruel- ties exercised on the subjects of Christian states who were so unfortunate as to fall into the power of the Algerinc pirate, Bar- barossa. This man was the son of a potter at Leabos, and by deeds of violence had raised himself to the throne. He regu- lated with much prudence the interior po- lice of his kingdom, carried on his piracies with great vigour, and extended his con- quests on the continent of Africa ; but {lerceiving that the natives submitted to lis government with impatience, he put his dominions under the protection of the grand seignior. Solyman, tiattored by such an act of submission, and couaideriiig him the only adversary worthy of being ouposed to the renowned Doria, appointed una to the command of the Turkish licet. Thus assisted, he not only strengthened his former kingdom, but usurped that of Tu- nis; and now carried on his depredations against the Christian states with more de- structive violence than ever. AVilling to support the exiled king of Tunis, Muly Hassan, but far more desirous of delivering his dominions from so dan- gerous a neighbour as Barbarossa, the em- peror readily concluded a treaty with the former, and set eail for Tunis with a for- midable armament. This was the most brilliant exploit of his life. He sailed from Cagliari to the African coast, took the strong sea-port town Goletta by storm, with 300 pieces of cannon and all Bar- barossa's nect ; defeated the tyrant in a pitched battle; and 10,000 Cbriatinn slaves having overpowered the guards and got possession of the citadel, he made Tiis triumphant entry into Tunis. Muly Has- san, on being reinstated, agreed to ac- knowledge himself a vassal of the crown of Spain, to put the emperor in possession of all the fortified sea-ports in the king- dom of Tunis, and to pay annually 12,(lU0 crowns for the subsistence of the Spanish garrison in Coletta. These points being settled, and 20,000 Christian slaves freed from bondage, either by arms or by treaty, Charles, covered with glory, returned to Europe, and was received as the deliverer of Christendom ; while Barbarossa, who had retired to Bona, lost no time in ga- thering around him the necessary means of becoming again the tyrant of the ocean. Whilst Charles was lighting in so glo- rious a manner against the hereditary ene- my of the Christian name, the king of France took advantage of his absence to revive his pretensions in Italy. Glorious as the result had been, the temerity of the Algerine expeditiou at flrst portended no- thing but misfortune; and Francis thought such an opportunity of turning the poli- tical scale might not again occur. How ciuickly did the prospect change ! Barba- rossa defeated and obliged to fly ; the bar- barian prince for whom Charles had ia- THB PBIDH Of ANCZSTBX IS KOWHKBB MORB CONSPICUOOS THAN I!* STAIN. TITLBS AKI BBlrSCTABLB ONLT WIIBN A ID BT FBOBITT. 622 W\)t ^rrasurv nf l^iau, f' i^-l i ■■■? '( H m H •S M n M o H O n tcreited himielf replaced upou the tliruno of TuniM, and lliat kintcdum made tribu< tary to Spain ; while almm were erected there t pal fleets. But all this was of little avail. Andrew Doria remained master at sea, and the five armies of France, notwithstanding I heir succes:i in the begiitning (and notwith- standing even the brilliant victory of Ce- risoles, in which 10,0UU of the emperor's best troops fell), yielded nt perseverance, prudence, md Innt to the fortune of Charles and Ins (;eneraU, ()u the other hand, Charles having renewed his old alli- ance with Henry, king of England, had already penetrated into Champagne, and menaced the heart of France, whilst Ilenry was advancing thnmgli Picardy, in order to unite with Charles at Paris. At length, mutually tired of harassing eiieh other, the rival monarchs concluded a i eaty of pence at Cmsuy (LSU), which, ii the main, re- newed tlie conditions of tl c earlier one at Cambray, but contained dso the project of a matrimonial connexuin between llie two houses. Francis died in 1047. In conse(|uence of the emperor's resolu- tion to humble the protestant princes, lie concluded a dishonourable peace with tlie Porte, stipulating that his b'-olher Ferdi- nand should pay tribute for i''9t part uf Hungary wliich he still possessed; while the sultan enjoyed undisturbed possession of the rest. At the same time he entered into a league with pope Paul III. for the extirpation of heresy, out iu reality to op- press the liberty of Germany. But he failed iu his object, and was obli^ted, iu 1552 to conclude a peace with tho pro- testants on their own terms. By (his peace the eniperur lost Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which hud -formed the barrier of the em- pire in that quarter; he therefore, soon alter, put himself at the head of an army, in order to recover these three bishoprics. In this he was unsuccessful. The defence of Metz was cominitlrd to Francis of Lor- raine, duke of Ciuiso, who possessed in on eminent degree all the qualities that ren- der men great in military command ; and although the emperor marched into Lor- raine at the head of (iO.UUO men, and laid siego to Metz, attempting nil that was thought possible for art or valour to effect, he was obliged to abandon the enterprise, with the loss of one half of his troops. Breathing vengeance against France, and impatient to efface the stain his reputntion had received, Charles retired to the Low Countries, and took Terouanne and Uesdin. In Italy and in IIungHry, however, the imjie- rial arms were less successful : still.by efforts of wisdom, celerity, and prudence, he agiiiu snatched the laurel from his enemy's brow. At length, after having reigned over Spain for thirty-nine years, this mighty monarch, whose life had been one continued scene of ardent pursuits, — either disgusted with the pomp of power and the projects of ambi- tion, or sickened by repeated disappoint- ments, — resigned the empire to his brother Ferdinand, and his hereditary dominions (Spain, Italy, Flanders, and the American possessions), to his son Philip. Ue then sought happiness in quiet obscurity, and retired to the monastery of St. Juste, in the provence of Estremadura, where, after two years' tranquillity, he closed one of the most tumulyious lives that it to be met with in history : a. d. 155H. extraordinary pcnetrotion, astonishing skill, unwearied application to business, a a I H I M 9 « , M a H M TIIR SPANISU raOVEBB SAYI, 'A CilKBIlFUI, LAY DBIVES GIIIEP AWAT.' s^ [ vaOBITT. Ided »» Innt to the I Be, and fortune of l rnlv. On the other ' renewed his old alii- ig of Kngloiid, hnd to C'humpHKne, nud frnncc, wliilst Henry ^h Picardy, in order at I'arii. At lenKth, niing fitch other, the j ,ded H maty of pence ! Ich, ii the main, re- ; of tl <' earlier one at ned il«o the project incx.iin betweun the died in 1047. the emperor'i reaolu- ;)rote8tant princes, he irable peace with the | It hit* brother Kerdi- I )ute for i'"it part of itill posseiaed; wliile jdisturbed poRsetaion Ranie time he entered ope Paul III. for tlie r, out in reality to op. (iermany. i)ut he and was oblVcd, in peace with thn pro- 1 termi. Dy this peace eti, Toul, and Verdun, lie barrier of the oin- '; he therefore, soon the head of an army, ihciie three bishoprics, cciissful. The defence led to Francis of Lor- | 3, who possessed in au the qualities that rcn- lilitary command ; and :or marched into Lor- if 6U,UU0 men, and laid empting nil that was ■ art or valour to effect, bandon the enterprise, I half of his troops, nue against France, and the stain his reputation les retixed to the Low Terouanne andllesdin. | jary, however, the impe- iiccessful : still.by efforts and prudence, he again from his enemy's brow, ring reigned over Spain 8, this mighty monarch, t one continued scene of ither disgusted with the i the projects of ambi- \>y repeated disappoint- he empire to his brother is hereditary dominions ders, and the American 8 son Philip. He then in quiet obscurity, and | lastery of 8t. Juste, in stremadura, where, after lity, he closed one of the lives that it to be met , D. 155H. jcnct ration, astonishing pplication to business, a ES OnlEF AWAI.' ANABCUT DAI MOB! miODBRTI-T VOMINATID IH ■fAli') THAN OBirOTIIM. ^I^e l^tstonj of Spain. 623 H I ^ is It 9 profound knowledge of men, and of the art of plnciiig them properly j a mind calm in prosperity, and unshaken in adversity; an activity which continuully liurriei him from one extremity of his nnpire to the other — were the talents that distinguished Charles, and raised him to the first rank niiiong those who governed the world. He was inferior to his rival, Francis, in the quali- ties of the heart, but far exceeded him >ii abilities, and, indcuendeut of superiority of power, was formed to triumiih over him. Ambitious, artful, prudent; little scriipu- louH in point of religion, and always ntfrct- ing to appear the reverse; prodigal of his promises in danger, and preferring the ad- vantages of breaking to the honour of keep- ing tliein; afl'ahle and open with subjects who, in a manner, adored him ; a dissembler with hiseneiiiicM, whimi he Haltered only to destroy; tins prince possessed all the vir- tues Hiiil vices necessary for the C(m(iue!.l of Europe, and would in all probability have subjected it, but for the courage of I'rancis and the capacity of Solyinan. When diaries V. resigned his dominions to his son Philip II., anxious that he should pursue the same plans of conduct and prin- ciples of policy, he put into his hands all the political observations which lie had written down during his long reign, and which formed a system of the art of go- vernment both in peace and war. Although Philip treated his father with great disre- spect after he hnd abdicated the crown, yet he highly' valued and carefully studied this his political testament, which being the re- sult of long experience, and dictated by great abilities, mi;;ht be thought an inesti- mable gift; but the event has proved that the maxims adopted and principles laid down were in their tendency destructive of the true interests of Spmn, whose power has been gradually weakened, and wealth exhausted, liy the system of aggrandizement therein recommended, and pursued during the two succeeding reigns. The Spaniards, even to this time, ietiiin the memory of this fact, on which they have founded a prover- bial expression, that " in all great emergen- cies, their ministers are wont to consult the spirit of Charles V." At the period to which we are now ar- rived, how powerful was the throne of Spain ! Ucsides that tine and warlike coun- try, it governed also in Europe the two Si- cilies, the Milanese, the seventeen provinces of the Low Countries and Franche Conipt<^*. in Africa, Tunis and (Jinn, with their terri- tories, the Canaries and some of the Cape Verd islands : in Asia, the Philippin'es, the islands of Sundi and a part of the Moluc- cas ; ill America, tlie empires of Mexico and Peru, New Spain, Chili, and almost all the iel.'iiiils situate between those two couti- neitts. 'I'lie troops of Spain were the first in Euiope; their armii.'», reckoned invincible, were composed of veterans trained in actual service, iuuied to fatigue, and animated by the remembrance of various triumphs. They were commanded by the dukes of Alva and Savoy, both pupil* of Charles V., who had been brought up in his rainp, and were already dilttuKUished by their victo- ries. Her liiiiiiense Meets, which in a man- ner covered (he seas, had been taught to contend with Uarbarussn, and to triumph under Dona: the mines of Potosi, and Chili, lately opuncil, were in full vigour, and en- richi'd Cadiie with an annual tribute of twenty millions sterling. Philip II. was master of all those pos- sessions. He hnd recently married the queen of England ; and the passionate fond- ness of Mary for a husband who niiide no return to her ulfection, gnve him the coin- maiid of ail the forces of her kingdom. This moiiareh had iiuither the valour or activity of his fat her, nor that affability which iiinde the emperor the idol of his subjects : but he had all his anibiliiin, and supported it with those tiileiits and vices which iiinke tyrants so foriiiiduble. ills fienetrutioii and rapacity were extensivi! ; »ut he was callous to every generous feel- ing, full of duplicity and fuspiciun, cruel, revengeful, mid superstitious. A truce of live years, settled by the man- agement of Charles V., had given some re- fiose to Europe, and seemed to promise a asting peace. An aged pontiti revived the animosity of nations, and kindled the flames of & general war. Paul IV., impa- tient to be revenged on Phillip, lent his nephew to Henry II., in order to persuade him to take up arms. Montmorency in vain ur^ed him to reject the solicitations of an ambitious old man : Guise, who ar- dently wished to display bis lalenti, pre- vailed upon the monarch to assist the pope, and hostilities were renewed. Henry, wlio always found a faithful ally in Solyman, was joined by the sultan and the pontiff against Philip. The latter, who, notwiih- standing the indifference he showed for his consort, still preserved an absolute em- pire over her, and found no great dilHculty in obtaining the assistance of English forces. Thus Italy, Hungary, and the frontiers of France, were at the same time in a flame. Tranquillity, however, soon re- vived in Italy, where the misfortunes of Henry, the defeats of Guise, and the abili- ties of the duke of Alva, obli^'cd the pontiff to abandon the monarch whose assistance be had implored. In Flanders Philip appeared in person, at the head of a numerous nrmv ; the ope- rations being directed by Philibcrt of Sa- voy, a prince of great abilities, which he was particularly desirous of exerting on this occasion, from motives of resentment against the oppressors of his country. The flower of the French troops advanced to meet the Spaniards, and a splendid train of nobles followed their warlike leader ; the king was prepared to join them, and the city of St. Quentin became the general ren- deivous of those numerous forces. Phili- bcrt laid siege to it ; and it was defended by the gallant Coligny, nephew of the con- stable. The prodigious efforts of the in- habitants, animated by that young hero. TBK LOVE OP FBBlinOM 13 A 8BMTIMKNI NATUBAl- TO TUK UUMAK SPKCIBS. mm III':? I , ;! THB NATIONAL BB0SN8BATI0N OV SPAIN TASKS ITS DATS mOH 1820. 624 Vt'^t ^rcasuru of llistore, ^c. confounded Philip ; and he already began to dread that he should be under the ne- cessity of raising the siege in a shameful manner, when the impetuous Montmo- rency appeared under the walls, and of- fered battle. The French fought valiantly, but their courage was useless; the capa- city of the Spanish general triumphed over the rash valour of his opponent ; a bloody defeat threw Montmorency into chains, and destroyed the greater part of the nobles under his command. The capture of the city immediately followed. France, unprotected on all sides, thought herself undone, and Paris trembled with apprehensions of soon seeing the enemy at her gates. Charles, who was informed in his retreat of the success of his son, no longer doubted of the destruction of his ancient rivals, and the French monarch was preparing to fly for shelter to some re- mote province. The duke of Guise, who had been recalled from Italy, was the only person that did not despair of preserving the state. With incredible diligence he collected the scat- tered remains of the vanquished army; and when, by judicious marches and con- tinued skirmishes, he had given a check to the ardour of the enemy, and i vived the courage of the French, he suddenly turned towards Calais, and, after a vigorous and wel'-concerted attack, deprived the English of a place that, for three centuries, had given them a ready entrance to tl^e conti- nent. Philip fixed his residence at Madrid, and governed his vast dominions, without the aid of any ostensible ministers, in perfect despotism. By his intrigues the popedom was conferred on cardinal Medicis, who was attached to the house of Austria, and became the minister of his designs. The new pontiff loaded him with favours, and declared him the protector of the church, which title the monarch justified by extra- ordinary condescensioq. He submitted to bulls and papal edicts that affected the majesty of the throjie, and paid a blind deference to the clergy. He raised im- mense and magnificent monasteries, rigor- ously persecuted the enemies of Rome, and presided at those horrid rites which bigotry and enthusiasm dignified with the vmnc o{ acta 0/ faith. He gave orders for establishing that court in all the provinces under his authority, and published decrees to intlamc the zeal of the tyrants who pre- sided over it. Can it be wondered at that the oppicssive severity of this execrable court should cause disaffection 7 The Moors, who remained in Spain on the faith of treaties, were enraged to see their privileges violated, their liberty con- tinually menaced, and the blood of their dearest friends flowing beneath the hands of public executioners. 0espair supplied the place of strength ; they considered no- thing but the excess of their misery, and endeavoured to break their chains, the weight of which was become insupport- able. Tlie execution of one of their coun- trymen, whom they had crowned, did not terrify them; they supplied his place by another, and ioiplored the assistance of strangers who professed the religion of their ancestors. A general rebellion rent the southern parts of the kingdom, which now became once more the theatre of an- cient animosity. All Spain was alarmed ; Philip alone secretly exulted at the revolt he had produced. Tne valour of his troops and the abilities of his generals triumphed over the desperate resolution of the Moors, and these unfortunate people were obliged to submit to the mercy of the king : they lost their rights and possessions, and were transplanted to the provinces that lay most remote from their former settlements. The people of Arragon, at the same time, demanded a restoration of their violated privileges ; Naples thraatened to shake off the yoke : and Milan, so long remark, ble for fidelity, was endeavouring likewist to break her fetters. The establishment of the Inquisition tenilied the inhabitants, and prompted them to take up arms. Uut the same crafty measures also appeased those disturbances, and the efforts exerted by BO many nations for the recovery of their liberty, served only to rivet their chaius the faster. The tumults and confusion in Flanders were still more violent. The people were extremely jealous of their privilege", which they had preserved under their counts and the dukes of Burgundy ; they compelled Charles V. to respect them, and that prince, after despairing to subject them by terror, adopted the more generous method of con- ciliating their affection. Philip, who never had a heart to relish such an expedient, was passionately desirous of bending the stub- norn necks of this people to the most op- pressive and humiliating yoke ; their privi- leges were obnoxious to his pride, and their immense riches inflamed his cupidity. AVhen he quitted that country, with a resolution never to return, he seemed in- clined to contiuue the mildness of his fa- ther's rule : he appointed Margaret, the daughter of Charles V. and widow of Oc- tavius, duke of Parma, its ruler. The wit, charms, and clemency of this princess, were well calculated to gain the hearts of n gene- rous people; but, at the same time, the un- feeling cardinal Granville, who made no distinction between policy and pertidy, or zeal and persecution, was placed at' the head of the council. This ecclesiastic was the depository of the secrets of the cabinet, and while he appeared to perform hut a scr-ondary port, was actually employed in the first. He treated the nobles with con- tempt, issued extravagant edicts that were prejudicial to indi'stry and commerce, mul- tiplied taxes, trampled on the laws, and punished the most humble remonstrances and timid representations as crimes. The Flemings, thus oppressed under the yoke of a stranger, contented thcmselvei, with lamenting their distress in private; but the sight of the tribunal of the inquisition, erected in tht'ir principal cities, raised a < ■ a ° I H < it < 1 IS WHKN A SI'AWIAUU L0TK8, HIS HBinT IS LIKE A VOLCANO. ■ rnoH 1820. had croM'ned, did not upplied hia place by cd the asstgtance of issed the religion of ;eueral rebellion rent f the kingdom, which )re the theatre of an- I Spain WAS alarmed ; r exulted at the revolt he valour of his troops is generals triumphed solution of the Moors, e people were obliged ■cy of the king : they possessions, and were rovinces that laymoBt rrner settlements, gon, at the same time, ition of their violated hrzatened to shake off , so long remark, ble ieavouring likewist to The establishment of ilied the inhabitants, to take up arms. But \ easures also appeased i and the efforts exerted j or the recovery of their ' rivet their chains the ' confusinn in Flanders i ent. The people were their privilegex, which i inder their counts and ' indy ; they compelled : them, and that prince, \ lubject them by terror, !ne;'ous method of con- ion. Philip, who never such an expedient, was ' s of bending the stub- > people to the most op- j Uing yoke ; their privi- , s to his pride, and their ! imcd his capidity. I that country, with a ' return, he seemed in- i :he mildness of his fa- pointed Margaret, the 1 v. and widow of Oe- j na, its ruler. The wit, ! ;y of this princess, were un the hearts of a gene- the same time, the un- 'anville, who made no policy and pertidy, or m, was placed at' the This ecclesiastic was ! secrets of tlie cabinet, ired to perform but a 'agant edicts that were :ry and commerce, roul- pled on the laws, and bumble remonstrances ations as crimes. The resscd under the yoke ented themsclvei. with stress in private; but unal of the inquisition, inripal cities, raised a VOLCANO. A niD NATITB GOTXBNHBNT IS FBKFIBABLB TO A VOnSieN TOKR. ©I;c l^istorn of Spain. 625 general indignation ; the people forgot theii weakness, and thought not of their duty; protestants, impelled bv rage and fury, pulled down churches, subverted al- tars, and obliged the clergy totly. Margaret trembled at lliose increasing tumults, and endeavoured to appease them by a prudent compliance with the desires of the people : the cardinal overturned all her measures, and published a decree of council, equally ridiculous and cruel, against those sediti- ous proceedings, which condemned all the citizens indiscrimiuately— the heretics for having destroyed the temples, and the catholics because they did not prevent them. The nobles, foreseeing the consequences of the ill-advised acts of the minister, en- deavoured to persuade him from such in- considerate conduct ; but being dismissed with haughtiness, and finding themselves disappointed in their hopes of meeting with justice from the throne, they deter- mined, if possible, to save their country, by a resolute opposition to the council, that should re-establish the vigour of the laws. At the head of those nobles was VTilliam, f prince of Orange, descended from the il- ustrious house of Nassau, tliat three cen- turies before had swayed the imperial scep- tre. With every necessary qualitication for eitcctiug a revolution, William had am- bition, capacitv, and courage to undertake any thing, and saw, with secret pleasure, that the imprudent haughtiness of the Spa- nish ministers was opening a road to give him independence. In order to conceal his ambitious designs, he assumed an air of submission and respect, and talked of no- thing but carrying the complaints of his countrymen to Madrid ; but he secretly concerted a more extensive plan. With this view he conciliated the friend- ship of the great, and ingratiated himself in a particular manner with the counts Egmont and Horn. These two noblemen were descended from very ancient families, and were both excellent citizens and faith- ful 81 lijccts : Egmoni was distinguished for victories he had gained for the house of Austria; Horn was respected for his vir- . tucs by nil parties. The cries of the nation carried to the throne by such venerable ad- vocates seemed to alTect Philip; Granville was recalled, and the people ttattert I them- selves with the hope of seeing their griev- ances redressed by a new minister. In some men the most valuable powers of the mind are united with the basest passions. Thus it was with Alva, whom Philip had appointed to succeed Granville, As soon as he arrived in Flanders, by an affected- show of lenity and moderation that silcuced all difhdence and apprehen- sions, he Appeased and united the Flem- ings, disarmed them, and decoyed the prin- cipal nobility to Brussels, The governor, thus master of their fiito, threw oft" the musk that till then concealed his despotic and sanguinnry sentiments, confined the most distinguished persons in a dungeon. and appointed a special commission for their trial. Judges, devoted to his mandates, condemned eighteen noblemen to death, and a few days after pronounced the like sentence against Egmont and Horn. These executions, conducted with the most awful solemnity, were a prelude to many others. Executioners were dispatched from one city to another, and in the space of one month thousands perished under their hands. Terror, which at first chilled the courage of the people, at length gave place to despair, by which it was relieved. Nu- merous armies appeared on every side, all animated by the desire of avenging the blood of their friends and fellow-citizens shed on the scaffold, and all made despe- rate by the certainty of having no hope of pardon. Alva, no less great as a comman- der than he was barbarous as a minister, hastened at the head of a small body of bpaniards to the different provinces, fought and triumphed at every step, dispersed the confederates, beat down the walls of the cities, and deluged the streets with blood. One head, however, escaped the gover- nor's snares: William, priuce of Orange, having more penetration than his unfortu- nate (Viends, did not give way to the fiat- tering invitations of the Spaniard. lie re- tired to Germany, whore he learned, with the rest of Europe, the miseries of his country: proscribed as he was, and his for- tune confiscated; without friends or sup- port, he ventured to declare himself openly the avenger of his countrymen. A general hatred against Philip, whose enormities he laid open; horror and detestation against the duke of Alva, whose tyrannical excesses he painted in strong colours ; the interest of , the protestant religion, the alliances of the house of Nassau with bo many sove- reigns, his prayers, his potience and reso- lution, procured him a small army, and his two brothers who joir.cd him gave increase to his hopes. He scarce raised the standard of liberty, when the people flocked round him ready to obey his orders. His first attotnpts were unsuccessful, and gave way to the superior fortune of t^io duke of Alva; he returned to Germany, collected another army, made his appearance in Ilolliind again, and was once more obliged to fly. Haarlem, Flush- ing, Leyden, and most of the maritime towns renounced all obedience to the duke of Alva; the love of civil and religious li- berty animated every breast, and the Hol- landers, till then obscure and insignifi- cant, seemed to become a nation of heroes. Courage and skill were in vain opposed to them ; the love of liberty supplied U>e place of numbers, policy, experience, and riches. At length the sovereignty of Philip was abjured, the Roman catholic religion abo- lished, the state erected into a republic, and William declared their chief, und-r the title of siadtlwlOtr. But he did not long enjoy the title. An assassin employed by Phihp gratified his revenge against Wil- liam; and the sudden death of that great man seemed to threaten the extinction of civil, WAB IS KG I.BSS A HEINOUS CBIMB THAN A GnEAT CALAMITY. [3 11 m^ Tns SPANISH SOLDIBnS ABB CAFABLK OF BNUVBINO OBBaT nABDSUirs, m n-i '4 . ^f I Jr'i It fi'. 626 ^j^e ^reaauie of l^iatory, $fc. tho republic he had created ; but Maurice, his worthy son, inherited his dignity, his talents, and his zeal. The new stadthol<'.--r was not dismayed at the approach .' the duke of Parma, though that hero possb=«ed all the capacity of the duke of Alva, and, with more know- ledge and experience, had many excellent qualities. Tliough reduced to the last extremity by the amazing efforts of their enemies, they would listen to no accom- modation, and contented themselves with soliciting succours from queen Elizabeth. Their persevering efforts were rewarded; the republic revived, her fleets returned from distant countries richly laden, and furnished her with new resources for re- pelling her tyrants and securing her liberty on a solid foundation. While Philip was pursuing the war against these obstinate revoltcrs, an un- expected revolution procured him a new kingdom. John III., who during a long reign saw Portugal enjoy the most splendid prosperity, left only a grandson for liis suc- cessor, who was still an infant, and pro- mised to be the model of happy nionarchs. A peaceful and wise regency augmented those expectations, which were coutirmed by the great qualities that appeared in Se- bastian. This prince, in peace wi.li all Europe, inast( r of the most extensive commerce till then carried on, idolized by his people, who fancied the great kings liis predecessors were revived in liini, appeared to have no- thing that could prevent him from enjoy ing an enviable felicity. But a vain pas- sion for glory having suddenly captivated the mind of Sebastian, hurried him to the tomb, and with liiui the glory and pros- perity of the nation vanished for ever. One of those scenes of ambition so fre- quent among barbarians, had lately been exhibited at Morocco. The ruler of that country was botli weak and odious, and his uncle taking advantage of his unpopu- larity, obtained the crown. The uniurtu- nat' monarch having no hopes of assisuuiee from subjects that had sufl'ered by his op- pression, applied to the Clirittian princes, and endeavoured to interest them in his cause by the most specious p.'omiscs. Phi- lip was too prudent to engage in a war from which he could derive but liti.e ad- vantage, and therefore rejected the solici tations and offers of the African. Sebas- tian e, gerly embraced them, and resolved to ein> loy all his forces in restoring the tyrant. Deaf to all advice, and blind to every other- consequence, he could see no- thing Tn the prosecution of this design but the honour of being the protector of kings, the glory of having an emperor for his vas- sal, and of planting the standard of Chris- tianity in the capital of one of the most powerful enemies of tho, cross, lie led the army in person to Africa, and having landed with such success as scenied to presage still greafrr advantages, lie exulted in tlie geueralci.nHternation that appeared around him. But iiis fond hopes were speedily dissipated ; for when on the plains of Al- cassar the armies of Europe and Africa contested the prize of valour, the van- Suished Christians suffered a memorable efeat: half the Portuguese nobility fell beneath the Moorish scimitar, and three kings were slain. Tlie cardinal Henry immediately ascend- ed the throne of Portugal, but he survived bis accession only two years ; and Philip, being in the same degree of affinity with Catherine, duchess of Braganza, who then claimed the sceptre, supported his preten- sions by force of arms, and proved victori- ous in many a sanguinary encounter. Lis- bon was taken, plundered, and deluged with blood. Executioners succeeded to the soldiery ; the whole kingdom w as sub- jected to Philip, and his good fortune at the same time gave him possession of all the appendages of the crown — the Portu- gese colonies on the coasts of Africa, Bra- zil, and the richest islands of the Indies. Yet, rich and extensive as wer-^ his posses- sions, valiant as were his troops, and in- flexible as he was in all tliat he undertook, the brave Flemings, assisted by Elizabeth of England, carried on the war in support of their independence with unconquerable fortitude. Impatient of this long pro- tracted struggle, so disgraceful to him who could boast the best troops and most able generals in the world, Philip resolved, by one stupendous effort, to subdue the spirit of revolt, and chastise the powers which lind abetted it. He fitted out, in the year 1588, the most formidable fleet that had ever sailed, and, that religious zeal might give greater force to the weapons of war, the pope (Sixtus V.) bestowed on it his benediction, and styled it " the invin. cible armada." Three years had been cpeiit in preparing this armament, which was destined for the conquest of England. It consisted of 130 sliips, most of which, from their large size, w ere unwieldy ; nor was the skill of the Spaniards in maritime affairs equal to the management of such a lleet. j No sooner had the armada entered the nar- i row seas, than it was beset with violent ! tempests j whilst the whole naval force of England, then composed of liglit ouick- i sailing ships, was drawn together to oppose the attack. Lord Elhngham had the chief commai' 1, and sir Francis Drake, the rir- cumnavigutor^ who was vice-admiral, pur- formed Bi^'"al services. The superior sea- muisbip of the English was very success- fully displayed in tliis important contest, in which great advantages "ore obtained from the use o( tire-ships, v 4ii'li were liist brought into use upon this memorable oc- casion. Such were the consequence , both from th'.' elementary war and the attacka of their enemies, that in the course of a month from the time they left Corunna, no more than lifty-threc shiiis had escaped de- struction, and about "U,UUU persons perislicJ in the expedition. [For a more detailed account, see " England," p. IMa, &c.] Philip died in the year 1098, having reigned forty-three years. He has been 2 K ; s TBOrOH FOnMAI., TUR BPANIAaDS ARB COUllTEOUS IN TIISIR BUIIAVIOUR. i.T UASDIUirs. inOUOB FB1SHDI.T, A SFAHIABB IS BASILT OPfBHDED, AW» VISDXCTIVK. ®j[)e Hljstori) of Spatn. 627] y immediately ascend- tugal, but lie survived wo years ; and Philip, legree of affinity witli }f Bvaganza, who tlien supported his preten- tts, and proved victori- inary encounter. Lis- undered, and deluged itioners succeeded to lole kingdom was sub- 1 1 his good fortune at i him possession of all ' the crown— the Portu- | coasts of Africa, Bra- ', islands of the Indies, live as wer-^ his posses- sre his troops, and in- 1 all tiiat he undertook, 1, assisted by Klizabetli on the war in support ice with unconquerable !nt of this long pro- io disgraceful to him I best troops and most ■ world, Philip resolved, 1 i effort, to subdue the id chastise the powers it. He fitted out, in the ,t formidable fleet that ,nd, that religious zeal force to the weapons of itus V.) bestowed on it id styled it "the invin- fee years had been ppent armament, which was in(iuest of England. It ips, most of which, from tere unwieldy ; nor was j iiiards in maritime affairs igemcnt of such a fleet, j anuada entered the nar- i was beset with violent I the whole naval force of ] raposed of light (luick- 1 Irawn together to oppose 1 Klhngham had the chief i • I'rnncis Drake, the rir- , was vice-admiral, per- j ices. The superior sea- nglish was very success- j this important contest, \ Wantages "ere olitained | fC-sliipa, V •lieli were first j upon this meniovablc oc- | B the consetiuence , both ary wnr and the attiicko that in the course of a me they left Corunna, no rec ships had escaped de- nt i;0,UUU persons perished . [Tor a more detailed OLAND," p. ;t4i), &c.] 1 the year 1598, Imvini? ue years. He has been TIIKIR DKJIAVIOUB. P o » B compared, and in some respects with jus- tice, to Tiberius. Both these tyrants at- tempted and accomplished the abasement of the character of their people ; both were equally dreaded by their own families and by their subjects ; both were full of the deepest dissimulation ; both were severe towards others, and licentious in their own habits. But Philip possessed great perse- verance, admirable firmness under adverse circumstances, and an appearance of de- votion calculated to make a strong im- pression on the people, together with that stately reserve which the multitude mis- takes for dignity. Notwithstanding this sevcrilvof deportment, his manners were affable' and gracious when he chose to as- sume that character. He suffered nothing to stand in the way of his undertakings; he regarded religion and crime as two in- struments, of which he equally availed himself without hesitation, according as either was suitable to bin purpost s ; for he seemed to think that the performance of certain exterior rites of devotion, and a strict adherence in religious opinions to the dogmas of Rome, gave him unbounded license in all other respects. He was suc- ceeded by Philip III., his son by his fourth wife, Anna of Austria; Don Carlos, his eldest son, who was accused of a conspi- racy against the life of his father, having ended liis days in 1568. Philip 111. was not less bigoted or super- stitious than his predecessors, but he was less stained with crime and without the dangerous ambition of his father. A peace with England was concluded in u;04, and an armistice for twelve years with the Ne- therlands in 1609; but Spain suffered an irreparable loss in population and wealth by the expulsion of the Moriscoes or des- cendants of the Moors. They were allowed thirty days to banish themselves, and death was the punishment appointed for such as remained behind after the specified time. By this impolitic act, and the subsequent expulsion of the Jews, Spain lost 600,000 of her most industrious inhabitants, besides those who were successively butchered, a loss which transt'eried five-sixths of hor commerce and manufactures toother coun- tries, and reduced the public revenue from thirty to fourteen millions of ducats. After a reign of twenty-two years, he died, and was succeeded by his son ; a. n. 1621. Under the reign of Philip IV. Portugal shook off its bonds by a happily conducted revolutio) , which placed the house of Bra- ganza on the throne in 1640. The war in the Netl erlands was renewed, but to no other pii pose than to bring about a peace, in 1648, by which the king of Spain, ac- knowledged the independence of the Seven United Provinces. During the tliirty ycais' war France acted against Spain, which was allied to .Vustria; and this striiggle> was not even terminated by the pence of Wesf- plmlin, but continued till the peace of the Pyrenees, in 1659, by which lloiisillon and Perpignan were ccttcd to Prance, and a marriage was concerted between the in- fanta Maria Theresa, Philip's daughter, and : Louis XIV. I In 1665 Philip IV. died, leaving for his ' successor an iatVnt son (Charles II.) only four years of ; ge, during whose minority the queen dowager, Mary Anne of Austria, governed the kingdom, whilst she resigned herself to the government of her confessor, i a Jesuit, and by birth a German, named Nitard, whom she caused to be appointed ! inquisitor-general. The king, when eighteen ' years of age, married a daughter of Philip, . duke of Orleans, who by her mother was grand-daughter to Charles I. of England; but this marriage producing no issue, ou the death of the king, which happened in 1700, the succession to the i rown of Spain was contested between Phil p duke of An- jou, second son of the dauphin, and grand- son to Louis XIV. by Mavia '^.'hcresa, whom the deceased king had in his will named for his immediate successor and the arch- duke Charles of Austria, brother to the emperor Jo.'teph. On this occasion, the jealousy which pre- vailed of the increnping po .ver of the French monarchy, occasioned a grand alliance to be formed between the niHritime powers and the house of Austria, Io prevent the duke of Aiijou from obtaining the crown of Spain, and to place that diadem ou the head of the archduke Charles. Tins occa- sioned a long anil destructive war; but the unexpected death of the emperor Joseph, in 17)1, when he was in the Mrd year of his age, entirely changed the political as- pect of Europe; and Charles, who had as- sumed the title of king of Spain, and en- tered Madrid in triumph, in consequence of the wonderful successes of the earl of Peterborough succeeding his brother in the empire, that idea of maintaining the bai nice of power in Europe, which had procured the nrciidukc such jiowerful sup- port against the pretensions of Philip, now pointed cut the bad policy of suffering the empire and he kingdom of Spain to be again held ly the same sovereign. This, together wit .1 the reverse of fortune which had happened to Charles, by the defeat at Almanza, brought about the peace of Utrecht, which confirmed tiie crown of Spain to Philip, but stripped it of all those valuable European appendages which had for many years been annexed to that mo- narchy : Belgium, Naples, Sicily, and Mi- lan being resigned to .\ustria ; Sardinia to Savoy ; and Minorca and Gibraltar to Eng- land. To prevent, as much as possible, the dan- ger apprehended from two kingdoms being possessed by one prince of tlie house of Bourbon, Philip V, solemnly renounced his right to the crown of France, in case the succession should happen to devolve on him ; and his bvuihers, the dukes of Berri and Orleans, on their parts renounced all claim to the crown of Spain; but as iliere has not bei^n wanting lineal decendaiits to succeed to the sovereignty of each king- dom, the collateral branches have not had occasion to make known to the world how HOST OV TUB SrANIABDS ABB UAKDY, AMD FATIBKT VNOBB SUFFBUING. lilt* »i«»i K'^ii.lliiii .,«..,- i Mm MJiii I Hi I U i f¥ i\ Us I'l! ' rniDR AND AnilOQANOH ARK A BrANIAItu's ItlBTINaUIIIIIINa TRAIII. G28 (fTIje ^vcflsitru oC Ifjiatoin, $cc. fnr thoy roimiilri' tlicmnplvvii houml liy tlionn Rtitriini iiols lo (lt>iirivi> tliiMiini^lvrii of their imtiirni rii(litii, wliivli iicU iiiiKlit iidicr- wino Imvc' licpii foiiiut wvnk ri'il mints upon llicir miiliitioii. Miiiiy iiiiportniit roni^urKtK wctn inmln by tliv nnvy ot (ir<ritiiiii in lliu Mcdi- tcrrniiRun, during tlid wnr for tlin iiuciti'!*- nioii ; Mixl tlio RtrriiKtli niid rcnntircnii of S|iniii worn in i-very iTmicct giTiuly r\- hiiiiNtcil by it. Thn provincua of Viilfnciii, Tntnlonin, iinil ArriiKon, wliii'li biiil nilhcnwl to t\w intrrPHlR of ('Uiu'Ick, iinvt'rcly fitlt tbo rciicntniRnt of I'bilip, wlipii lii< bi'dnnit (*>■ tiibliKhcd on the Ibrono; nil IboroiiminN of liberty wliioh tbiiRC prople bud been nllow- ed to retnin siuee tlin diiys of tlie Ootbic ktn)(R, were nbolished, nnd the BovcreiKU nRRiinird nn nbRolvitn power over tlic lives nnd fortunes of biR subjeeta. CHrdinnl Alberoni, hu Itnlinn, wbo be- rHnie uiiniRter to I'hilip IV. roou nfter bo innrried bis second wife, tbc prineeas Kli/.n- betb, dniiKbler of tbe duUe of I'nrnin ( l7M)i WHR formed for entnrni'izc and intrJKiie: bo Inboured indcfntiftitbiy to rostore tbe king- dom to Bonictbin|{ of its former coiiru- quencc ; nnd by bis nttenlion nnd Riiperior tnlenis tb« SpHnisb nnvy wns Ki'<'»tly nuic inented. Ilis desii^ns were so bold uiid ex-, letisive, tbnt for n short time they seemed likely to elTect uiiKbty cbnnKes in the poli- lienl Rystein of Europe; nnd in 1717 Spiiin refused to ratify tbo ponce of tJtrecbt. All tbcRc ideal nrojects were, however, «t oneo disconcerteii by the Kritisb court, in send- inu; n lleet into the Medilerraiienn, wliieb, without liny previous deelnrntion of wnr, nttueked the imvnl force of Spain, nt Capo I'lissaro, nenr Sicily (Ahr. 171^). and took or destroyed tbe Krcntcst part of their ships. This decided step on the part of r.ngland soon procured the diitmissnl of Alberoni, nnd nt the snmc time Kave birth to the ipiadruplp alliniicc between (ircat riritnin, Frnnce, Holland, and (jernuiny. In I7;IU ffviun miRunderstandinxH arose between the courts of Madrid and London, in respect to tbe riplit which tbo subjects of tbo latter einiineii to cut logwood on the Spanish main, and from tbo conduct of the jtuiirila-riialaa of the fiiriner in the West liiilies, in seizin;^ upon nnd contlscating Ilritlsli merchant ships there. Tlicse dis- putes ({ave rise to « war, tbo p.'.icipal event of wliicli WHS the taking of I'orto Hello by tbo ICnglish. riiiliii V. died in 17-1^, nnd was Bucceeduu by Ferdinand VI., his son by bis tirst t\ueen, who reigned thirteen yeurs, nnd during without issue, was suc- ceeded by bis hnlf-brolber Charles III., then king of the two Siciliea. Under tbe reign of Clmrles III. tbo llourbnn family compact of '7)>1 involved Spain, to its injury, in the war between Unglnnd find France. The expeditions Hgniust Algiers likewise miscnrricd ; ns did tbo siege of Ciibrnltnr, in tbc war of I'!l7-S:i. Vet the internal ndininistratinn improved, ns wns seen in the advancement of ngrieulturc, cmnmeree, and the useful aits, while tbo population was consider- nbly on the incrense. Thn nowor of tlin In- (|uinition also was reslriclcil, and the secret oiipnsition of tbe Jesuits annilillated at n blow, by the " prngiimlie snnclion" of I7t;7, wbicii baiiiMlieil them from nil tbe Spnnisli dominions, and coiillHeiiled their properly, 'I'lio grossest siiprrMliliim, however, slill abounded, and n strict observance of the most frivolous ceremonials of the eliiireh wnM regarded ub obligatory and iniliipeii- s'lble. ('bnrlos IV. ascended the throne in 178s. The progress of iiiiiirovrment was still oh- servHlile while the ni)le Flinida lllaiicn coii' ducted the nflnirs of tbo nation, jliit lie was superseded, in 17'.>-. by (lodoy, whose ndministralion was as void of plan as it was injurious to the stale, and greatly ex nsperatcd tbe people; so that the full nt the most fortunate and proudest fnvoiirile of modern limes, wns immediately fultuwed by that of the royal family. Spain at llrsl entered with zeal into the war against the French republic; but the favourite ruined nil, by hastening to con- elude the discreditable peace of Hash-, by which Spain resigned half of St. DoiniiiKo; on which occasion (iodoy receive'' t'.n- lille of " I'rinco of Peace " lie then i.MiVliidcd with tbo republic tbc important olVeiisivc and defensive nlliance of St. lUlcfonsn, ill 17!li>i and declared war against (iiTiit llritnin; but being defeated at sea, Spnin lost Trinidad, by the peace of Amiens, in IHII'J. The prince witbdrew from the eon- duet of afl'airs, but retiiiiied his iiitliii'iice, nnd rose to high dignities. In IHUI mili- tary operations were commenced nKniiist I'ortiigal, which was obliged to cede Oli. vcncH, lo Spain, ot tbc peace of Iladiijns; whilst Franco took possession of rarina, and made its duke kin^- of ICtriirin, in KSOl; ill consei|uence of which Spain ecdnl Louisiana to Napoleon, who, in IHOII, sold it to tbe Diiited States. Charles IV., in tbe war between (ironl Ilritain and Franco in IHda, baviiiK' par- chased permission to remain neiilrnl, liy the payment of a monthly tribiili" nt' 1,11(1(1,(11111 jiiastres to Napoleon, tbe Itriliiili seized the Spanish frigates wliieli were cur- rying the products of the American mines to Cadiz, in IHiM; and Spain was eoinpelli'd to declare wnr. Tbe victory of the Itiilisli nt Trafalgar, Oct. 'Jl, \HW>, destroyed its naval power; tbo bold Miranda exeiti .1 the desire for independence in Spaiiinli ,",nir- rica, in IHtMi; and Napoleon overlhn-.v llie throne of tbc ll lH(i7i be concluded a secret trciiiy nt Fontainbleau, respecting tbo division of Portugal ; nnd 2H,(i(iO French soldiers, iiwiiii- tiiined by Spain, mnrched over the Pyre- nees, nnd were joined by 11,(100 Spaiiiiods. Tbe family (lunrrels oi' the royal family favoured tbe plans of the French riiler in Spain. At the iiistigution of Uoduy, A BrANiAnn riinsUKS with vioi.rnck wiiRnu ii:^ tassions t.fao iiim. TRAITS. hi) nowor of tlin Iii- clcil, mill lliii HiMTia tM iiniiililliiti'il nt n nniirliiin" nf l/H?. 'roiu nil I 111' Spmimli iilnl flitir iiropi'ily. I ill", liowovfr, ulill , olmerviiiico of (lio .liiilH of tlir clinrrli {utory mh\ iiuliipeii- j ilin tlirom' in l/Hs. vniii'ut will! Btill 111). ■ Miiridn lUiiucn ciin- ... ! iiulion. Hilt lip ',»'.', Iiy (Imloy, wluim; I voiil of iilim n" it iilK, nud urrnily fx mi tlmt till- full nf •1 (irouilrHt fnvimrilc iiiimodiiiti'ly foUowi'il .iiiily. (•(1 witli rfivl into llic loli rcpvililic; but llm hy liikHtcninK to con- 1(! pi-ncn of UhkIi', liy , liiilf of HI. DojiiinKii; iidoy rofi'ivc'' '.;•'■ lilli; lit! tlipii t, '111 Imlcd ic import lint olVcniiivi; lice of Ht. lUli'fonno, i-d wiir nnuiiist (irnit ili'fi'.iilcd III m-ii, Spnin ; JIIMICI! of AuiilMIH, ill itliilifW from tin: imui- ri'tiiiiird liis intliinici', ij?iiitic». Ill l«tJl iiiili- ■c commonciid nuiimit R oblined to ci-ilr Oli- tlie jii'iu'o of Iliicliijns; lioiisfsiiion of riinim, B kiiiK of Kli'iiviii, ill oof wliicli Spiiin i-nli'il ooii, wlio, in IHOU, Hold ll-R. Iio wnr bctwi'iMi (Irnnl [• in lH(i;t, hiiviiiK pur- to rcmiiin ui'ulinl, liy i montlily Irilmlr nf ) Niipolron, tlir llnliuli rriiCRti'swl"'''' "'•'•'"' '"''• of tliu AmiMiniii miiicii iid SpiiinwiiR I'oiiipi'llrd i(' virtiiry of tin" llriiitli '2], ISOft, di'ntioyril its Dili Miriiiidii oxriti I tlip Iriicc in SpuiiiHli Ami'- Nnpoleon ovi'I-iIdi w llic irboim in Niipb'". Tlic ,v ciilli'd on tlic Sp»iii«li iiist "I lie comiiioii i-iii!- i.thiTfforr, M'utii Spun- iiunnii, to DiMiimirk, nml •'iirrill, to 'ruBi'iiiiy. t>i:- oiicludi^d iisiMMTltiTnly •spi'etinn tin; division ot iOl''rencU8oldi(M's,iiiaiii- iinrclii'd over tlie I'yrn- ipd b» 11,(1(1(1 Spmiiiiid!". :«l8 of tlic rnynl fnmily IB of the Fii'iii-U riiliT • iiisliKution of Uodoy, PASSIONS I.BAn IIIM. irAIIIAHnS VBH MUCn tobacco, both in BMOKINO AMU CBaWINO. drije l^isioni of Spain. 629 Chnrlcs I V. wrotn to Nnpoleon, stiitlnn tlmt III! mill I'lrdinnnd, priiict! of Anturiiis, Imd intended to dethrone him, nnd to deprive his mother of life, bo thnt he onght to he excluded from the Hiieceniioii, The junta, hiiwcver, iiiinnimouKly lU'ijuitted the prince nnd the other prinoiiers ; hut (iodoy in- duced Fcrdinnna to ask pardon . despotic moiiHreh ; the higher classes seeking n foreign master ; the lower iiriiicd in the cause of bigotry nnd misrule. The upHtart li-adern, secretly ubhorring frecildin, thoiigli governing in her nnme, trembled nt the democratic activity they had themselves excited; they called forth all the had passions of Uie multitude, and repressed the patriotism that would re- generate as well as save Tin country suffered the evils, without eiijoyiii)? the benetits, of a revolution ; for while tiimiilts and nssassinalioiiB terrilied or disgusleil the sensible part of the community, a cor- rupt administration of the resources ex- tiiii^uished patriotism, nnd neglect ruined the armies. The peasant-soldier, uMially flying nt the first onsc't, threw away his arms and returned to his limiie, or, at traded by the license of the purlulan, joined the banners of men, who, for the most pnrt, origiuallv robbers, were ns oppressive to the people as the enemy; and these puenV/a chiefs would, in their turn, have been as quickly exterminated, had not the French, pressed by lord Wellington's battalions, been obliged to keep in large mnsBcs; this was the secret of Spanish conBtnncy. It was the copious supplies from I'.iiglniid, mill the valour of the Anglol'ortuguese troop 1, that supported the war, and it was TBRTiaiAII, OB KVEMINO PABUKS, AIIE VIKY FBUQUUMT IN TUy, I.AUOB TOWNS. [3W3 li MiillftHW 'Eh ^, ' ' ' m ■■(«. ■ CLOAKS AMD BBOAD-BBIHHBD HATS ABB OBNEBAI.LY ITOBIf III TUB WKK. 630 Vl\)t treasure of 3|(»torB, $fe. the K>Kantin vigour with which the duke of ■Wellington resisted the fierceness of Frnncc, and sustained the weakness of three iiiefticient cabinets, that dcliTered the pe ninsula." The people in Asturias first took up arms; Arragon, Seville, and Badajos fol- lowed. Palafox carried from Bayonne to Saragossa the order of the prince of As- turias that the people should arm ; ard the supreme junta received permission to M- semble the cortes. Uarly in June the junta at Seville had issued a proclamation of war, and the French s(}uadrou at Cadiz surren- dered to the Spaniards. Six days later an insurrection broke out in Portugal, and the alliance of Great Britain with the Spanish nation was proclaimed. The great struggle now commenced. Marshal Bessieres was successful in the battle at Medina del Bio Secco over general Cuesta; but the previ- ous defeat of Dupont at Baylen, decided the retreat of the French from Madrid, and Castanos entered the city. General Romana had secretly embarked his troops at FUnen, and landed in Spain ; and Wel- lesley was victorioua over the French nnUer Junot, at Viraeira, on which the French general capitulated the day after nt Cintra, and soon after evacuated Portugal. Napo- leon advanced with a new army as far as the Ebro, and on the 10th of September Soult defeated the cep're of the great Spa- nish army. Victor av.d Lefcbvre's victory on the 11th, at Hspi.iosa, opened the way to Asturia and the northern coast ; und, in consequence of tiie success of Lannes nt Todela, great numbers of fugitives took refuge in Saragosso. The mountain pass of Souio Sierra was taken by assault, by the French and Poles, r.iider Napoleon and Bessieres ; and the French army appeared before Madrid, which surrendered Dec. 4. The French gained many victories and took many fortresses ; but the conquerors re- mained masters only of the places which they occupied, as the guerillas everywhere surrounded and liarassed them. Austria now declared war, and Napoleoil was obliged, in January, 1809, to leave tlie coudi'ct of the war to hia marshals. Two objects chiefly occuined the French gene- rals in that aud the following year — the re-conquest of Portugal, and 'lie march over the Sierra Morcna to Cadiz. The Bri- tish had become masters of Portugal. Sir Arthur Wellesley advanced from Lisbon, by the way of Aleantora, up the Tagus, and Cii'sia joined him near Tiuxillo; whilst gpiA' il sir iloiirrt Wilson advanced over Placet zia, ano. Vcnegas, the Spanish gene- ral, from the Sierra Mo. >-'iia, towards 3Ia- drid. This bold plan o. ,:»»iM:k was frus- trated by the battle of Tulavcra. The Bri- tish, indeed, were victorious over Joseph, Victor, and Jourdan ; but not being sufli- eieutly supported by the Spaniards, and being threatened by Soult and Ney advanc- ing on their flunk, they .vcre obliged to re- tiro to the frontiers of Portugal; after which Vencgas also began to retreat, "id was defeated by Joseph at Ahnonaeid, as was Wilson by Ney in the passes of Bares. Madrid thus escaped a siege. The central junta at Seville now resolved to yield to the universal wish, to assemble the cortes and to nominate a regeccy. New armies were created, and Arezaga ad- vanced with 55,000 men as far as Ucana, where, however, he was entirely defeated by Mortier. Madrid, therefore.was again saved; but in Catalonia, Arragon, and Biscay, the' most desperate struggle was ciurried on with the bands of the patriots. The Empeci- nado'a troops advanced even to the vi- cinity of Madrid. In Old Castile several guerilla parties hovered on the French; and in Navarre the troops of Mina were an absolute terror to them. The largest com- pany of them, under the dreaded Marque- Bito, formerly a colonel in the army, en- countered several generals in the open field. In vain did the French establish fortresses on their lines of communication, and endeavour to protect their rear by jvioveable columns. Yet their plan against Andalusia s-jcceeded. With 2i,000 men, the rash Arezaga thought he could main- tain the line on the Sierra Morena, fifteen leagues long, :ntrenched and mined, and having in its c ntre the fortified pass of Pe- rapcros, against 60,000 troops, commanded by the best generals of France. Des.solles and Gazan, in January, 1810, took the pass uf Despenna • Peras ; Sebastiana stormed the defile of St. Estevan, aud took the bridges over the Guadalquiver ; and on the 21st of January Joseph Buonaparte entered Baylen. Jaen was conquered ; Cordova sub- mitted. Sebastian! occupied Granada; and Joseph entered Seville on the 1st of Febru- ary, from which the junta had fled to Cadiz. This place, the only one which remained in the hands of the Spaniards, and which nas defended by 16,000 men under Albuquerque, and 4000 English soldiers under Graham, besides the combined British and Spanish fleets, was besieged in February, but all the efforts and oflFers of the French were in vain. The war in Catalonia and Arra- gou continued. In Leon, the French con- quered Astorga, and thett directed their arms against Portugal. In this country, to the north of the I'agus, Wellington com- manded a British army of 30,000 men, and Beresford a Portuguese army nearly 60,0(10 strong, besides 52,000 militia. The right wing of Wellington, at Badujos, was joined by 20,000 Spaniards under Romana, and 8000 under Balliisteros. The main body of the allied force was posted on the lieiglits of Lisbon, which had been rendered im- pregnable. The plan of the British com- mander, therefore, was defensive. Massena began his undertaking in June, by the siege of Cuidau llodrigo, which surrendered on the 10th of July, and Ney entered Portugal over the river Coa; but Almeida detained Massena till the 27th of August, when it was obliged to capitulate. Wellington or- dered the whole country through which Massena could follow liiin, to be laid waste ; and the latter was consequently eompelled to defer his luarch some time. He was af- I ■' TlIK MANTILLA AND FAN ARB IN IJNIVKRHAL VSK AMONa FE.UALE8. a \ Bl a I i!| «! \ TUB WXH. le passes of Uaros, Jpge. icville now resolved 1 wish, to assemble ninate a regeccy. ;d, and Arezsj^a nd- 1 ns far as Ucana, entirely defeated by 9re,was again saved; on, and Biscay, the was curried on with ots. The Empeci- even to the vi- Old Castile several d on the French j ps of Mina were an The largest com- le dreaded Llarque- el in the army, cn> erals in the open e French establish s of communication, Btect their rear by et their plan against With 22,00t) men, ight he could main- ierra Morena, fifteen led and mined, and e fortified pass of Pc- troops, commanded : France. DessoUes , 1810, took the pass Sebastiana stormed evan, and took tlie alquiver ; and on the 1 Buonaparte entered juered ; Cordova sub- cupied Granada; and J on the 1st of Febru- [nta had tied to Cadiz. me which remained in liards, and which was n under Albuquerque, diers under Graham, [ British and Spanish in February, but all i of the French were Catalonia and Arra- leon, the French con- thea directed their I. In this country, to pus, Wellington cora- ly of 30,000 men, and se army nearly 6li,UC0 militia. The right at Badujos, was joined under Roman a, and )8. The main body of posted on the lipiglits id been rcndeii-d im- n of the British com- ns defensive. Massena ig in June, by the siege ' which surrendered on I Ney entered Portugal ' but Almeida detained th of August, when it ulnte. Wellington or- : luntry through which / him, to be laid waste: ansequently oompelled jine time. lie was af- i KQ FK.UALEI. TBI SPANlSa IS TBa MOST MAJISTIC OF ALL TUK XUBOFIAIf LAN0VA0B8. ^i)t ^i«tor0 of Spain. 631 terwards beaten at Bnsaco; and Wellington now entered the strong position of Torres- Vedras, which consisted of two lines on the heights of Lisbon, defended by 170 well- placed works and 444 cannons. Massena found this position unassailable, and re- treated, after several engagements of little importance, in November, to Santarem. Here he remained till March, 1811, when he was compelled, by want of provisions, to evacuate Portugal entirely. But the French were victorious at other points. Suchet.in January, 1811, took the important fortress of Tortosa, in Catalonia; and, in the fol- lowing June, after a murderous assault of five days, the fortress of Tarragona. Soult took the frontier fortresses towards Portu- gal— Oliven^a and Badajos; and Victor de- feated general Graham at Chiclana. In the autumn, Suchet marched against Va- lencia ; and after having beaten the army under general Blake, Saguntum fell on the 26th of October, and Valencia surrendered in January, 1812. Lord Wellington now again entered Spain. He took Cuidad-Itodrigo and Ba- dajos: but he was ill supported by the cortes and the regency. At this time Marinont was at the head of the French army in Portugal ; but the loss of the deci- sive battle of Salamanca, on the 22nd of July, 1812, obliged him to give up the de- fence of Madrid. Wellington entered the city on the 22nd of August, and the French retired from before Cadiz about the same time: thus withdrawing their forces from the south of Spain, and concentrating them in the eastern and northern parts. After the occupation of Madrid, Wellington fol- lowed the enemy to Burgos; but he gave up the siege of the castle of Burgos, after several unsuccessful assaults, as the Spa- niards afforded him insufficient .luppopt, and the French had received succours. After several engagements, he transferred his hcad-ui'Ji'ters to Freynada, on the fron- tier of Portugal, and the French again en- tered Madrid. At length. Napoleon's disasters in Russia decided the fate of the peninsula. Soult was recalled in the beginning of 1813, with 311,000 men, from Spam. Suchet left Va- lencia in July, but delivered Tarragona, which was besieged by Bentinck, in Au- gust, and withstood Clinton on the Lobrc- pat. But Joseph had been obliged to leave Madrid again, and Wellington had occu- pied Salamanca. T!ie French army, com- mnndcil by Joseph Buonaparte and Jour- dan, retreated to Vittoria. Here ^^■elling- tun overtook the enemy, and gained the splcndiil* victory of Vittoria; after which the French army, pursued by Graham and Hill, retreated in disorder over the Pyrenees to Bayonne, and lost all its baggage. The victors immediately invested Pampeluna. Count Abisbul occupied the pass of Pan- corbo. Graham btsieged St. Sebastian, and Wellington entered France on the 9th of July. In the mcuatime. Napoleon, then in Dresden, had appointed maishal Soult his lieutenant, and commander-in-chief of his armies in Spain. He united the beaten corps, and opposed a considerable force to the victor. On the 24th of Julv the strug- gle began in the Pyrenees, ai= was main- tained until August on every point. Wel- lington took St. Sebastian by assault, after having several times rij^ulsed the enemy, who approached to deliver the garrison. It was not, however, till the 7th of October that he left the Pyrenees, and passed the Bidassoa. After Pampeluna had fallen, no French soldier was left on the Spanish ter- ritory, except in Barcelona, and a few other places in Catalonia. Wellington now at- tacked the enemy on the fortified banks of the Nivelle, and Soult retreated into the camp of Bayonne. But until Wellington had passed the Nive, and had repulsed se- veral attacks, it was not possible for him to obtain a secure footing in the hostile country. His head-quarters were at St. Jean de Luz. Thence he repulsed Suehet's attacks on the Gave. On the 28th of Fe- bruary he fought a battle with Soult at Orthes, by which the latter was driven from his strong position, and obliged to retreat, in great disorder, to the Upper Garonne. Wellington followed the French, under Soult, to Toulouse, where a sanguinary en- gagement took place on the 10th of April ; and the occupation of France by the allied armies put an end to the war. The cortes had already held its first ses- sion, and had resolved that Ferdinand Vll. sliould swear to preserve the constitution, before he should be recognized as king. The treaty of Vulcn?ay, between Ferdinand and Napoleon, was nmde void by declaring all the acts of the king during his captivity null. On the Mth of May, 1814, he en- tered Madrid: the people, dissatistied wfth the new taxes which had been imposed by the cortes, received him with acclama- tions, and the friends of the cortes and king Joseph were persecuted with the greatest rigour. Freemasonry was abo- lished, and the inquisition revived ; the conventual estates were restored, and the Jesuits recalled, and reinstated in all the rights and property of which they had been deprived since l/fi?- And, although the king had solemnly promised a new constitution, liberty of the press. Sic, he regarded none of his promises, and reigned with absolute power. The army, however, was highly disaf- fected to these proceeding.^, and guerillas, or bands of soldiers, infested the interior. Even the lower classes, though averse to liberal principles, were discontented with the severity of the government, while the better classes were divided into the hostile factions of the serviles and the liberals. Those councillors who ventured to remon- strate with the king, ns Empecinado, Bal- lasteros, &c., were banished or thrown into prison. From 1814 to 1819, there were twenty-five changes in the ministry, mostly sudden, and attended with severities. They were produced by the camarilla, or persons in the personal service of the king. Every attempt to save the state was frustrated SfAMIABBS, LIKB TUB FRKNCH AND ITALIANS, TALK LOUB ANn OESTXCVLATB. II IHHK ■ — ^— ^— ^^11— - - ■ ».^— ^» IN CrAIN THBI ICABCKLT BAT ANT THINS WITHOUT SArfRON OB OARLIC. ,||f li mil ; I K a a o si h A H > IM M H SI M > SQ A « KS ■<1 H : u : H ! ^ i 5 632 ®l^e STrcasurw of I^istory, $cc. hy such counsellors, and the overthrow of this ancient inonnrchy was accelerated by the loss of the American colonies. The army was the instrumrnt of its fall : seve- ral conspiracies had been organised by the offlcers for tiie restoration of the consti- tution of the cortes; and I'ortier, Mina, Lacy, and Vidal, were successively the lea- ders of the conspirators. Mina had been obliged to save himself by flight; the others had been executed, and their friends had suffered on the rack, or been thrown into prison. The army was indisposed to the Ameri- can service, for which it was destined, and the officers favourable to the constitutiou of t)ie cortes took advantage of this state of feeling to effect their own purposes: whole rcifiments bad determined not to embHrk, and the commander hiiiisclf, O'Dnnnel, conde del Abisbal, was in the secret. But, finding his ambitious project of becoming dictator of the monarchy frus- trated by the civil authority, he caused a division of troops which had given the sig- nal of insurrection to be disarmed (July 8, 1819), and the oHlccrs, 123 in number, to be arrested. The embarkation of the troops was fixed for January; but on the 1st of the month, four battalions under Riego, proclaimed the constitution of 1813, surrounded the head-quarters . of general Callejo, who had succeeded O'Donnel in the command, took possession of the town of lain de Leon, and delivered the oflicers arrested in July, among whom was Qui- Toga. The insurgents were unsuccessful in their attack on Cadiz, but occupied La Caracca, where the naval arsenal, a ship oi the line, and other vessels of war, with some transports, fell into their hands. Quiroga declared, in the name of the army of the nation — the title assumed by the insurgents — that it was their purpose to obtain from the king the acceptance of the constitution. llicgo, at the head of a troop of 2,500 men, now occupied Algesiras, entered Ma- laga, and after some fighting with O'Don- nel, advanced through Ecija and Cordova to Antequera; while the national army, under Quiroga, in addresses to the king and to the nation, declared their only ob- ject was to save their country bv the re- storation of the constitution, which had al- ready been accepted by the nation. Risings now took place in all quarters in favpur of the constitution of the cortes; the royal forces joined the insurgents; Freyre liim- Bclf was obliged to proclnim the constitu- tion in Seville; and Ferdinand, abandoned by his own troops, was compelled to yield to the general cry, and, by proclamation, declared himself ready to summon the cortes of 1812, and accept the constitution of that year. On the same day a general amnesty was proclaimed. On the Oth a provisory junta of eleven members was named, to conduct affairs till the meeting of the cortes; find Ferdinand swore to ob- serve the constitution in presence of this body, and of the municipal nutboritics of Madrid. The inquisition was abolished, as inconsistent with the constitutiou, and obnoxious ministers, &c., were succeeded by others favourable to constitutional prin- ciples. In place of the council of Castile and that ot the Indies, a supreme judi- cial tribunal, with appropriate subordinate courts, was established, national guards were organised in the provinces, the mu- nicipal authorities were made to conform to the constitutiou, and the cortes finally assembled. Much was done to heal the wounds of the countrv ; but an apostolical junta established itself on the frontiers of Portugal, and bands of peasants, monks, and guerilla soldiers were formed, for the purpose of restoring the privileges of the crown and the clergy. I £ ! The second session of the cortes began ' ° ; in March, 1821, who declared the whole i n country in danger, and in a state of siege, i S ' The command of the armed force was now I ° given to Morillo, and quiet was in some ! i measure restored. But the ultra-liberals, I • i or exaltados, as they were called, were not I * : a little excited by the events in Naples and £ Piedmont, in 1821, and the kingdom wri i * , I in so disturbed a state that an extraordi- I s : I nary cortes was summoned iu Sepjeniber. ! '' | ! At the same time Mexico declared itself i « ■ j independent ; Lima wag occupied by the i «'■ ■ Chilians, under San Martin; and the Spa- | i I Dish part of the island of St. Doniinpfo i f' was lost by its union with Hayti. Upon ; i which the cortes urged the king to ap- '. = point an abler ministry, and, after some I " : contention, his majesty yielded to their i ^ | wishes. In January, 1822, the cortes de- i » . clared themselves ready to acknowledge f ' America as a kingdom independent of i^ ! Spain, but united with her under Ferrti- : " , nand VII. their common sovereign. The § ' dgputies sent to America, however, could c i effect nothing on these conditions ; auJ ' > I the session of the cortes was concluded on i s the 14th of February. ^ i At the outset of the third session the i 1 moderate liberal parly prevailed, and trim- : « i quillity was gradually restored to the in- i 5 j ternal affairs of the country, when it began ! " | to be threatened from without. The strong I g i sanitary cordon of French troops along the j ' ' Pyrenees, and the intrigues of the exiles, led the government to suspect that the disturbances excited among the peasant a ill Navarre and Catalonia, and the hands of "soldiers of the faith," so called, v/ero instigated by the French government. The cortes therefore armed the volunteer na- tional guards; but the pecuniary re90uree. i Sre made to conrorm ' and the cortcs finally as done to heal the f ; but an apostolical ! f on the frontiers of i of peasants, monks, ! were formed, for the | the privileges of the ! of the cortes began ' declared the whole i id in a state of siege. > armed force was now ! d quiet was in some ! 3ut the uUra-liberuit, | were called, were not I : events in Naples and ' and the kingdom wni i ate that an extraordi- I imoned in Septatiber. j Mexico declared itaelf i was occupied by the i Martin ; and the Spa- j iland of St. Domiii|!;o ]n with Hayti. Upon ; rged the king to ap- istry, and, after name | jesty yielded to their i y, 1822, the cortcs de- ; ready to acknowledge gdom independent of A'ith her under Ferdi- , inmon sovereign. The merica, however, could these conditions ; and irtes was concluded on the third session the rty prevailed, and tran- Uy restored to the in- country, when it began im without. The strong ''rench troops along the intrigues of the exiles, i t to suspect that the d among the peasants talonia, and the hands faith," so called, v,'ere ronch government. The med the volunteer na- ihe pecuniary rcaource-s [lands of the supporters ! roynl guards* in spite of Murillo, their com- [adrid July 7, but llal- i of the n.itional guards, they fled into the royal iig, who favoured them wed himself irresolute. to resist the popular tve been allowed to re- lot again fired on the 10 then fell upon them, [.L AND TASTB. ALL OBSTACLaa A SrAltlABD ■HCOOKIBBS BS ATTHIBUTBS «0 TBBACBBRT. ^t)e Klistoru of Spain. 633 and killed or wounded the greater part. The niiilleros, or moderate party, who had been in favour of a chamber of peers and the extension of the royal power, now joined the communeros, or popular party, and all tlie ministers resigned. The new ministers acted in conformity with the views of the communeros; and the king, whose authority had sunk en- tirely, consented to all they proposed. Many persons of rank, including bishops, were banished. General Eiio was exe- cuted; but the guards were treated with great leniency. The king again declared his adherence to the constitution; but the apostolical troops in Biscay, Navarre, and Catalonia, continued their revolting cruel- tics. Under the marquis Matailorida a rcgency'of the friends of absolute govern- ment was established at Seo d'Urgcl, near the French frontier, in August, 1832. It issued orders, in the name of the "impri- soned king," for the restoration of every thing to the state in which it had been before the 7th of March, 1820. The troops of the. apostolical party, after much blood- shed, were beaten by Mina and Milans. Generals Espinosn, Torrijos, and El Pastor distinguished themselves against Quesada, a Trappist, and others. The regency fled to France in November, 1822, and it was obvious that its cause was not that of the nation. No troops of the line or national guards, no important cities nor individuals, went over to them. Some "soldiers of the faitli," however, still continued in Spain, particularly those of UessifJres, UUmnnn, &c. At no period was Spain in a more un- settled stale than now, and nothing less than a desperate struggle between despo- tism and revolution could be calculated on. The French had acceded to the principle of an armed intervention pronounced by Austria, Russia, and Prussia, in relation to Spain ; and the French ambassador at Ma- drid received orders to advise a change in the constitution, as the condition on which the continuance of peace between the two countries must depend ; and, in order to en- able Ferdinand VII. to make such changes freely, he must first of all be restored to the full enjoyment of sovereign power. The same demand, and even in bolder terms, was made by the ministers of Prussia, Aus- tria, and llussia, while Great Uritain ad- vised the cortes to yield, ond oflfered her mediation. The Spanish government re- pelled with indignation the interference of the foreign powers, and the threatened dis- continuance of diplomatic intercourse took place. The foreign ambassadors were re- called from Madrid. One hundred thou- sand French soldiers were assembled with the soldiers of the faith at Perpignan and Bayonne, and the cortes summoned the national guards to serve with tlie troops of the line ; but the attempts to raise an army were unsuccessful, because the bands of the absolutists gave full employment to the troops of the line and the national guards in the various provinces. The duke of Angouldmfe, at the head of the French army, issued a proclamation to the Spaniards, declaring that the object of the French was only to aid them, and that France desired nsthing but the deliverance of Spain from the evils of revolution. His army then passed the Bidassoa ; a junta was established, who formed a provisional government, declaring the king the sole depository of sovereign power, and that no change in the government should be re- cognised but such as the king should make of his own free choice ; and all the decreet of the cortes were declared void. Great Britain remained neutral, or rather affected neutrality ; for the government allowed the exportation of arms and ammunition to Spain; and, in return, the ports of the New World were opened to her ships. A long, tedious, and cruel warfare was now kept up by the Spanish troops under the control of^ Ballasteros, Mina, L'Abisbal, and Morillo against the French, and the supporters of the "absolute king." On the 2-(th of May the duke of AugoulAnie entered Madrid amid the acclamations of the populace. He nominated a regt icy, consisting of the duke of Infantado, the duke of Monteniar, the bishop of Osma, the baron d'Eroles, and Don Gomez Calde- ron ; but they bad no pecuniary resources, and no power, if they had the will, to pre- vent the furious eruptions of party hatred. The cortes had in vain tried to excite a general guerilla war. On account of the want of money, they decreed the seizure of all the property of persons of the opposite party, n forced loan of 200,000,000 of reals, and the coining of the superfluous church pin* ', by which measures the hatred of the people was still more increased. Yet the ruinisters did not dare to propose to the cortcs the mediation offered by England, through Sir W. A'Court, the British minis- ter. The king refused to go to Cadiz ; and a regency of three members, with royal powers, was appointed, because the case of moral incapacity on the part of the king, provided for by the constitution, had oc- curred. On the 12th of June, the cortes and the king, with the regency, departed for Cadiz ; but the people were' so furious against the constitutionalists, that the au- thorities called in the aid of the French. Meanwhile the regency in Madrid declared all the members uf the cortes who had participated in the session of the lllh, when the king was declared morally inca- pable, to be traitors; but more it could not do : it was so destitute of resources that it was even supported by French mo- ney. The duke of Angoul£me took posses- sion of Cadiz on the 4tli of October. An act of the cortes had already reinvested the king with absolute power, and request- ed him to retire to the French camp, where he had been received in form by the duke, with cries of "Viva. el rey ! Viva la reli- gion I Muera la nacion I"&c. Ferdinand's first measure was to declare all the acts of the constitutional government, from March 7, 1820, to October 1. 1823, void, on the ground that during that time the king wag SPANIABDS AUE GBNFBALLY THTN AND SALLOW, WITH DABK lIAin AND EYES. MOIT BFANIIH WOMSIf rOSBBSI OIlBiT flBtOnAL ATTBACTIONB. 634 Vl'f)t STreasurp of ljl»tor|), $cc. acting under compulsion. The partisan warfare still continued to rage with great rterceness, particularly in Catalonia; but the defection of some of the leaders soon after took place j it appeared fast drawing to a termination ; antl on the 22nd of Octo- ber, 1823, the duke of Augoulfime took his leave of the army of the Pyrenees, which liad so successfully accomplished the mili- tary objects of its mission. The political objects of the expedition, to secure a system of mildness and mode- ration, were frustrated by the bad faith of the Spanish government. In direct viola- tion of the terms of the military capitula- tions, a persecuting and vindictive policy was adopted towards the former partisans of the constitution. Among the crowds of fugitives were Mina, the count del Abisbal, Morillo, &c. Ricgo was executed at Ma- drid, and the king made his entry into the capital on a triumphal car twcniy-rtve feet high, drawn by a hundred men, and amidst tli^ rejoicings of the people. It was not, however, to be expected that the excesses vf political and religious bigotry would sud- denly subside, or that the people would quietly submit to the heavy taxation which the bad state of the finances rendered ne- cessary. A treaty was therefore concluded with France, stipulating for the mainte- nance of a French force of 45,000 men in the country, until the Spanish army could be ori^anised; and the debt due to France fur the expenses of the French expedition was rtxed at 34,000,000 francs. The year 1825 was disturbed by several insurrections of the Carlists, who were anxious to effect the abdication of Ferdi- nand, and place his brother Don Carlos on thr tlirone. Numerous executions and fre- quL-nt changes of ministry took place, all pU.inly indicative of the weakness of the p.-.-ernment; while the independence of the colonies was acknowledged by foreign powers, and a general interruption of com- uierce and industry throughout Spain was mauifes*. In this state the country conti- nued for several subsequent years. In 1827, Spanish subjects were permitted to trade with the Spanish American republics, but under foreign flags ; and in the following year Spain was evacuated by the French troops. The sword, the scaffold, exile, and the dungeon had done so much to subdue the national spirit, and to reduce the numbers of the coiistitutio'inlists, that when, in 1830, the French revolution jiroduced such effects in Belgium, and excited so much alarm in Germany and other neighbouring countries, it scarcely awakened the popular feeling on this side the Pyrenees : the troubles of Spain were now mostly contined to the strut(gle for power between the more or less absolute of the absolutist!!, the for- mer having been favoured by the views of Don Carlos, then heir presumptive to the throne, and the latter by the king. But on the birth of a royal princess, in 1830, by Maria Christina, his fourth wife, a royal decree rendered the crown hereditary in the female line, in default of male hcirs> and entirely changed the relation of tlio prince to the throne. During a severe attack of illness, Ferdi- nand, at the instigation of the friends of Don CarliH, in iS32, renewed the SaUc law, which roiidoi'c^ the throne of Spain heredi- tary only it^ '':o male line; but, with that vacitUliug conduct which is one of the surest marks of a weak mind, his majesty, on his recovery, forntally protested a^ninst the decree, which he staled to have been extorted from him ; and he then again de. dared his (laughter to be his only Ivgi- timate successor to the tlirone of Spniii. Shortly after this, Don Carlos was banish- ed from the kingdom; and Ferdinand, who was in his fiftieth year, dieil suddenly of apoplexy, on the 2'Jth of Septeniber, ls;j;j. The death of Ferdinand VII. became the signal for the breaking out of frpsli dissensions. In order still further to for- tify the right of his daughter to the throne, ho had exercised the prerogative of nnniing her his successor in his will; and hy the same instrument he appointed the queen regent till the infanta Isabella attained the age of eighteen years. Don Carlos, however, claimed the throne in virli e of the Salic law, although it had beoii ve- pealed, and was never, in fan, practically in force. The rights of Isabella II. were supported by the liberals ; the pretensions of Don Carlos by the absolutists. Guided by the councils of M. Zea, the chief miiij- ster, the queen depended upon the support of the constitutionalists for securing tli.: succession to her infant daughter. The strength of the Carlists lay chiefly in Na- varre, Catalonia, the Biscayau provinces, Old Castile, and Estremi.dura. The chief strength of the constitutionalists was in Madrid, and in the provinces of Andahisia, Murcia, Valencia, and other districts bor- dering on the Mediterranean. The queen regent was not slow in adopting vigorous and popular measures to counteract the Carlists. With the aid of the provincial militia and tiie volunteers, she disbanded the royalist volunteers of the capital, and in Toledo; she also remodelled the post- ofiice laws, the censorship of the press, and public education; while at tiie sr.me time care was taken not to disturb existing interests and prejudices. Meantime seve- ral contests took place between the rival parties, accompanied with the exercise of great cruelties on both sides ; but the queen's party was generally successful, and at the close of the year the civil war ap- peared nearly at an end. The reciprocal massacre of prisoners had several times occurred, and the deadliest hatred and revenge was manifestly encou- raged by both parties; in short, so s.'tvagely was the Spanish contest carried on, that the duke of Vfellington, from motives of humanity, sent lord £lliot and colonel Gur- wood on a mission to Spain, to endeavour to put a stop to the cruelties practised by the belligerents, and render the war less bloody and revengeful. The Christinos hc- s I B I is ! ?.\ AN AIA OF nOUANCB IS TUBOWN OVBH ALL THBIB WOOOS AND ACTIONS. inACTIONI. default of male hcirsi !d llie rclatiou of the ttack of illncaa, Ferdi- ttion of the friends of renewed the Salic Inw, hrone of Spain heredi- ' e line ; hut, with that , which is one of the ] eiik mind, his majesty, : inlly protested axiiinst ' le stilled to hnve heea i and he then again de- | r to be his only Ic^fi. the throne of Spiiiii. )ou Carlos was banish. ! n ; and Terdinand, who j year, died suddenly of i h of September, Is.'iX I erdinand VII. became , breaking ont of fresh der still further to for- ! daughter to the throne, I e prcrot;ative of naming \ in his will; and hy the le appointed the queen ' anta Isabella attained ;n years. Don Carlos, ;he "throne in virti e of i iiough it had beoii re- iver, in fact, practit-nlly ' Its of Isabella 11. were berals ; the pretensiuns lie absolutists. Guided ' M. Zea, the chief miii^- ended upon the snppcvt lalists for securing th.i infant daughter. The irlists lay chiefly in Na- ' the IJiscayan provinces, Istremi'.dura. The chief onstitutionaiists was in i I provinces of Andalusia, and other districts hor- | diterranean. The ([uecn | aw in adopting vigorous j lurcs to counterKct the j le aid of the provincial i ^lunteers, she disbanded :cers of the capital, and i so remodelled the post- i ensorship of the press, j ;ion; while at the same in not to disturb existing | udices. Meantime seve- place between the rival j led with the exercise of ' II both sides ; but the I generally successful, and ' le year the civil war ap- u end. I nassacre of prisoners had urrcd, and the deadliest {C was manifestly encou- tiea ; in short, so savagely contest carried on, that ington, from motives of •d Klliot and colonel Gur- n to Spain, to endeavour te cruelties practised by and render the war less eful. The Christinos hc- nOS AND ACTIOIVS. ItlkT BAI MADE tH« MOtlB OtOOHIt, lOT IB«« ABB WAtt;»Atl.» OAt. ^^e l^istorc of Spain. 635 M t» U O M •< H M > m h o M > H ■* m 3) H H M H sitated at tirat to enter into any terms with the Carlists, whom thry deemed rebes; and although, at length, it was inutually agreed upou to treat the prisoners taken on citlicr side according «o the ordinary rules of war, a few months only elapsed before similar barbarities were practised with all their former remorselessness. In the spring of 1834 a treaty was con- cluded in London, by the courts of Great Britain, France, Spain, and I'orlugal, hav- ing for its object the pacirication of the peninsula. By this quadruple treaty it was agreed,— that Spain and Poriiigal should assist each other in the e^ipulsion from their respective territories of Don Carlos and Don Miguel ; that Britain should co- rfperate by employing a naval force ; and that France should assist the contracting parties in any way that they in common accord might determine upon. The war thus continued to rage with unabated fury; but the queen's party tained an auxiliary force, which was r in England, and the command givi general Evans. The British governm t was pledged to assist with a naval force only; the troops therefore, which were denominated the " British legion," were raised without the sanction, though cer- tainly with the connivance of ministers. They were ill equipped and ill clad, nor could any thing be managed much worse than their commisariat. Notwithstanding these disadvantages, and the motley cha- racter of the recruits, they fought bravely, and thereby contributed in no alight degree to the success of the queen'a cause. On the 5th of May, 1836, some fortified works, which had cost the Carlists three or four months to erect, and through the centre of which ran the high road to Ilernani, were gallantly carried by the auxiliary legion; while two anned steamers, commanded by lord John Ilay, lent very opportune aid to the victors. On this occasion the loss of the British in killed and wounded amounted to 800, among whom were upwards of se- venty officers. About this time Mendiiabel, the Spanish prime minister, from whose abilities much had been anticipated, but who had not been zealously supported by the cortes, resigned, and was succeeded by M. Isturitz. Another violent change was, however, near at hand. At Malaga, Cadiz, Seville, and Cordova, the Cadiz constitution of 1812 had been Eroclaimed, and provincial juntas esta- lished, wholly independent of the queen's authority. On the 3rd of August a move- ment commenced in Madrid; but it was put down, and the capital declared in a state of siege; but on the 12th the insur- rection became more serious, and a regi- ment of provincial militia forced their way into the apartments of the queen-regent, and obtained from her a promise of the ac- cej)tance of the constitution. This pro- duced a revolution in the metropolis. Istu- ritz, the prime minister, made his escape to Lisbon, and thence to England. Gene- ril Quesada, the military governor of Ma- drid, was seized by the nopulon. and in- humanly put to death. Ultimately, the con- stitution was proclaimed by the qncen-re- gent, subject to the revision of tliu cortes, and a new ministry of decided lihenila formed, of which Mendiiabel was milliliter of linance. The new (government coni- mencei with vigour. The sum of 2,UGO,UliO/. was sjught to be raised by a forced loan; a conscription of 60,000 men was called for, to tend against the Carlists ; the property of 'Muigraut Carlists was confiscated ; and the example of France and Portugal wai proposed to be followed, by the extinction of the remaining moiety of tithe, leaving the clergy stipendiaries of the state, or de- pendent on voluntary contributions. On the IGtIi of June, 1837, tbe revised constitution of the Spanish monarchy was proclaimed. Its articles appear to be of a popular and liberal character. From among them we select the following:—!. All Spa- niards may print and publish freely their opinions, without submitting thein to any previous censorship, by merely conforming to the laws. 2. All Spaniards are admissi- ble to all oftices and public functions ac- cording to their merit and capacity. 3. The power of making laws resides in the cartel and the king. The cortes to con- sist of two legislative assemblies equal in rights and power — a senate and a congress of deputies: the senators must be forty years old, possessed of an independent for- tune, and are chosen for life. To the con- gress of deputies each province to return one deputy, at least, for every 60,000 souls of its population : the deputies arc elected for three years. 4. The person of the king sacred and inviolate, nnd not responsible: the ministers to be held responsible. The powers of the crown are analoRous to those of the British sovereign. 6. The civil list of the king and royal family to be fixed at the commencement of each reign, fi. The successiou to the crown to be in the order of primogeniture, preferring the male to the female branch. 7. The cortes may ex. elude from the succession persons they deem incapable to govern, or who have been guilty of any act for which they ought to lose their right to the crown. 7- Inde- pendence of the judges and judicial admi- nistration are secured. In order to complete this epitome of Spanish history, it is necessary that some account of the Carlist and Christino war- fare should be here introduced; the more especially as the " British legion," whieli, as we before said, was raiKcd without the sanction of the British government, played in it 80 conspicuous a part. In June, 1836, colonel De Lacy Evans, one of the members for Westminster, was appointed by the Spanish authorities to the command of the said British auxiliary legion which was to co-operate with the queen's troops against Don Carlos. On the Ist of October, 1836, n vigorous assault was made on the lines of the British legion at Sebastian by the Carlists, who made an unsuccessful attempt to carry b O M P. a M U r. H B e TBR FUIK3T8 AND INNKBBPBB8 ABB THB ONLT rORTLY FEBSOMS IN SPAIN. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) k{0 £/ /l^^^, 1.0 IrKS I l.i 1^ 1^ _ yi |40 III 2.0 1.8 1-25 ■ 1.4 1^ V] ^ <^ ^ ,%. /2 /a 7 Photographic Sdences Coiporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 7a s ^ V f! •: f LISTLXSS IlfSOLKHCB IS NOirHIBa UOtLM XRBITLOBD THAN III SPAIN. 636 Eitt treasure of l|istor?, See. thcin. Both parties fou(;ht bravely. The Carlists charging down-hill, frequently sal- lied from their works in force, but each time were driven back at the point of the bayonet. The Westminster grenadiers dis- tinguished themselves ; and a small corps of lancers, under colonel Wakefield, made several brilliant charges; but a much more effective arm was the well-appointed artil- lery under the direction of colonel Colqu- houn. The conflict lasted twelve hours. General Evans lost 376 men and 37 offi- cers killed and wounded, and was slightly wounded himself. The loss of the Carlists in killed and wounded was estimated at 1000 men. In December, 1836, the siege of Bilboa was raised, by the operations of the com- bined British and Christinos forces. Ge- neral Espartero, assisted by a small band of British engineers, artillerymen, and sail- ors, entered the city of Bilboa on Cliristmas- day, at the head of his army, after a series of contests with the enemy. The works raised by the Carlists were of great strength, and nothing but the enthusiasm of the troops could have enabled them to over- come the difficulties with which they had to contend. A vote of thanks to the libe- rators of Bilboa, and to the Spanish and British forces, was moved in the cortc« ; and the official gazette of Jan. 4, 1837, con- tuned a royal decree, in wliich the queen- regent expressed, in the name of her daugh- ter, her gratitude to general Espartero and his army, the national and auxiliary British force, and to all those, whether Spaniards or English, who took a part in the memor- able engagements of the 24th and 25th of December. A month had scarcely elapsed, however, before the affairs of Don Carlos appeared to revive; general Evans having sustain. cd a defeat before St. Sebastian, and the queen's armies under generals Saarsfleld and Espartero having found it necessary to make simultaneous retreats. These rever- ses made such an impression, that at a secret sitting of the cortcs on the 30th of March, the acting war-minister described Spain to be "without credit at home or abroad— with a depreciated nnd ill-con- cocted revenue -with an drmy in the worst state as to subordination or military disci- pline—whilst the chiefs were at variance with each other." It was originally arranged that Espartero, Saarsfield, and Evans, should move simul- taneously to the points of attack ; but owing to mismanagement or treachery, this plan was not carried into operation. On the lOth of March, general Evans broke ground from St. Sebastian, and commencing his operations by an attack upon the heights of Ametzagana, at the eastern extremity of the chain of hills, carried that position. On the 16th he prepared to make his deci- sive attack upon the town of Hemaui, and succeeded in gaining possession of the wooded heights which rise above it on the north. All was prepared for a forward movement, when he discovered, most un- expectedly, that the Carlists had been so powerfully reinforced as to rem! >r an ad- vance desperately hazardous; and almost at the same moiiient the whole of his left wing was thrown into confusion, by the appearance in its rear of three battalions of Carlists, who, under the cover of the night, had been brought, by a circuitous march, to the right bank of the Urumea, and having passed that river at Axterra- gaga, again moved in the direction of the north-west. The regiment on the extreme left of the Anglo • Christinos' line, thus finding itself attacked in front, and on the left flank and in the rear, made a rapid lateral movement to the right, which was soon accelerated to a panic flight. A regi- ment of Castile, which stood next in the line, was at once infected by its terror, and the alarm ran through the line, until it approached the battalion of royal British marines, on the extreme right. This noble corps maintained gloriously the character of the royal troops of Great Britain ; it re- pulsed every attack upon its position, and did not make a retrograde step, until it had covered the retreat of the whole allied army, and seen the artillery, wounded, and baggage of the allies placed in security. The Anglo-Christinos are said to have lost between 1500 and 2000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners— and immeasurably more in moral influence. The next accounts from Spain showed that the cause of the queen was somewhat improving. After an obstinate defence by the Carlist troops, general Evans succeeded in carrying Irun, where a dreadful scene of pillage and massaere ensued. Fontarabia sooi afterwards capitulated. On the 13th of J'.ay, Espartero entered Hernani, after having beaten the Carlists, and taken COO of them prisoners. In several otiicr en- gagements he was also successful. Yet such was the uncertainty of this contest, that in the following month the forces of Don Carlos were almost everywhere suc- cessful. On one occasion— the battle of Barbastro— the Carlists gained a great vic- tory, upwards of 2,500 Christinos being put kori de combat. This was the most san- guinary engagement that had been fought since the eommencement of the civil war. Whilst Don Carlos was advancing to- wards Upper Catalonia, and preparing to place himself in the centre of the moun- tains of that province, the revolutionary hydra had raised its head with more hardi- hood than ever. And, to add to the calami- ties of the Christinos, general Evans, with the greatest part of the officers belonging to the legion, had abandoned the cause as hopeless, and returned to England: only 1600 remaining behind, who formed a bri- gade under the command of colonel O'Con- nell. The cause of the queen now wore a most unpromising aspect. Her troops iiad sus- tained several severe defeats ; and, in Sep- tember, the forces of Carlos were actually investing the capital. On the 24th of Au- gust, general Buerens was defeated, with TUB " H0RB8C0B8," OR SRSCBNOAMTS OV TUK M00B8, SWBI.Ii IN OBANADA. / \l 1 been »o votes as sole regent of Spain during the minority of Isabella; the queen mother, Christina, having previously sought refuge in France. For a considerable time after this event, the new regent possessed the confidence ot the people, and effected many useful reforms in the state ; but owing to his having given great offence to the clergy, in consequence ot his having sanctioned the appropriation of part of tlie ecclesias- tical revenues to secular purposes, a power- ful party continued to harass and distract his government ; till, at length, the insur- rectionary movements in various parts of the country denoted that another crisis was aproaching. That crisis at length arrived, and the poli- tub " oitanos," ob ovpsibs, fursub fixed occupations in tiik 1ow^'s. 32 '.•%v...j.:s.^'^:x'^^j.i-^'..u:'i'/i>!rft i i KOaiLITT III SPAIII II' AT A 8TII.L LOWBM MBB TBAR IN ITAI.1. 638 Uift tRttsavixvt of I^istoi?, Sec. tical career of Etpartero was brought to a close. In June, 1843, Coranna, Seville, and many oilier towns declared in favour of his opponents : and Madrid surrendered to them on the 24th of July. On receiving this information, Espartero immediately raised the siege of Seville, and started for Cadi;, with -iuO cavalry. He was pursued to Fort fit. Maiys by general Concha, at tie hi:ad of 600 horse, who arrived on the strand only iive minutes after the regent had embarked in a boat for the English ship Malabar, of 72 guns. Nogueras, Go- mez, and a few other officers escaped with him. A manly and patriotic manitesto was addressed by Espartero to the nation prior to hia departure for England; which thus concludes : — "A military insurrection, with- out the slightest pretext, concluded the work commenced by a mere few ; and, aban- doned by those whom I so often had led to victttry, I am compelled to seek refuge in a foreign land, fervently desiring the felicity of my beloved country. To its justice I re- commend those who never abandoned the cause of legitimacy, loyal to the last, even in the most critical moments. In theso the state will ever find its most decided assi«tant8." His enemies also addressed a manifesto to the people of Spain, with the alleged view of explaining and justifying the revo- lution, and also of vindiaatiug themselves and those who co operated with them in procuring the defection of the nrray, and the consequent overthrow of Espartero, by means of foreign gold. On the 30th of July, the duke of Baylen assumed the functions of guardian of the queen and the princess her sister. The new ministry adopted the decided course of de- claring queen Isabella of age after the meeting of the cortes, which w^s appointed to take place on the lath of October; to which proposal the queen gave her con- sent. Espartero left Spain, on his voyage to England, on board the Prometheus steam- vessBcl; and on his arrival at Woolwich he was received with marked respect by lord Blomfleld, commandant of the royal arsenal. Sir F. CoUver, &c. On arriving in London he took up lifs residence at Mivart's hotel, which was literally besiegfed by visi- tors of rank, amongst whom were the duke of Wellington, lord Aberdeen, and Sir Robert Peel. The regent subsequently paid a visit to her msjesty at Windsor; and the cor- poration of London made him welcome by inviting him to a festive entertainment in true civic style. It appears, by the last accounts Aram Madrid, that general Concha had been dis- patched by government into Arragon, be- cause general Carredo, who commands be- fore Saraj^ossa, was on the point of con- cluding with the inhabitants a capitulation similar to that entered into at Madrid by general Aspiroz; and, as the {(overnment would not consent that the military autho- rities should treat under these circumstan- ces, general Concha was sent, and ordered to enter Saragussa unconditionally. E. Blaquire, esq., author of the History of the Spanish Revolution, says, " there is no country where the harmony of sweet sounds has dispensed more happiness, or produced such salutary effects as in the Peninsula," and quotes Riego't hymn as one among many of the lays composed during the war of independence, which had a talismanic effect. The following trans- lation of it is by Dr. Bowring: " The country we cherish Hath summon'd us now. To conquer or perish. Our promise — our vow. " In joy and in triumph. Serene, but delighted. Our voices united. Sing Victory's lay: ■ -w The Cid was our father, And proud gratulations. Proclaim from all nations ' His children are they !' " Unsheath then your weapons. For freedom and bravery. The hirelings of slavery Shall scatter to nought ; Like dew on thr mountains Which morniuK assembles. Their armament trembles And flies at the thought. " Oh I mid-day of glory I . , , ' Gave history's pages, " f ;' In records of ages, ' ' '" A record so bright ; > "^ As when our Riego, By liberty lighted. His legions invited To liberty's fight. " Oh I crown them with laurels. And wreaths bright and vernal. And glory eterntu. Who first drew the sword I They call'd on our country, She heard them, she bless'd them, And weeping carcss'd them. And rose at the word I " She stood in her glory. Her voice was like thunder. Then tore she asunder The fetters of shame. Death had not a terror. It could but unchain lu. Or victory gain us Both freedom and fame. " The fetters are broken. The vile one who bears them. Shall feel as he wears them, Tliev enter his soul. We, liberty's children. His madness redeeming, March, — victory beaming, To liberty's goal. " The trumpet is sounding I Shrink slaverjr and folly, \ Our conduct is holy, ' ■ Our conscience is pure. Te vassals of tyrants. Ye tremble— y« tremble. Our heroes assemble, <■•■■•■■■: Our triumph is sure." H a a n C! M H t> >• ,1 >a a M B H « M M < ■J u ■J <* o e f < o H U u PBBSONAIi CLBAIIUNBIB IB UTTLB ITDIIIBD IN BPAIIt, AMU LBSS VAI.UJtU. r / > •I • he HUtor? , " there is ly of BWCRt tppineBs, or B as in the ,'$ hymn as I composed >, which knd wing trans- iw. ms By I* capons, ry. y jht; taina blei, lies jght. ■ I •} I. . • J laurels, ,nd vernal, swoid ! untry, bless'd them, I thcni, rdl under, er rie. . -^ or, . . I us, '. v . ; fame. en, ars tliem, ■s theua, il. n, • ■ ding, kming, nding ! folly, r. I pure, ;», inble, le, me." K H H >< a » as H « M o H ■• H n f a iS IS 1.4 < ai o H P u m M m H M H « K M t4 9 a tSI VAI.UJJU. TUB SIMBBAI. ASflOI OV rOKTUSAk OmiAXLX BMUBLBt «HAT 0> BVAlir. '7/M THE HISTORY OF PORTUGAL. ■v, iT/J'* PoRTuoAii, anciently called £u«i7aiiia, is supposed to have been originally colonized by tne Phoenicians and Carthaginians; but was taken possession of by tlie Romans about 250 years before Christ, and became a Roman province under the emperor Au- gustus. Towards the beginning of the fifth century the Alans, and afterward the Sua- bians and the Visigoths, successively made themselves roasters of this country. In the eighth century it was overrun by the Moors and Saracens, but was gradually wrested from them by the Christians. Henry, duke of Burgundy, distinguishing himself by his eminent services against the Moors, Al- phonso VI., king of Castile, gave him his daughter Theresa in marriage, created him earl of Portugal, and in 1110 left him that kingdom. Alphonso Hcnriques, his son and successor, obtained a signal victory, in 1136, over the Moors, was created king by the people; and in 1181, at an assembly of the states, the succession of the crown was settled. Alphonso III. added Algarve to the crown of Portugal. In 1383 the legiti- mate male line of this family becoming ex- tinct in the person of Ferdinand, John I. his natural son, was, two years after, ad- mitted to the crown, and iu his reign the Portuguese made settlements in Africa, and discovered the islands of the Azores. In 1482 his great rrandson John II. received the Jews who had oeen expelled from Spain, and gave great encouragement to naviga- tion and discoveries. Afterwards, in the reign of king Emanuel, Vasco de Gama dis- covered a passage to the East Indies by doubling the Cape of Good Hope. In 1500, Brazil was discovered by Don Pedro Alvarez, and the Portuguese made most valuable discoveries iu the East In- dies, where they soon erected forts, sub- dued the neighbouring inhabitants, and at the same time carried on a sanguinary war in Africa. The power of Portugal was then at its height ; but iu 1580, on the decease of Henry the Cardinal, the male line of the royal family became extinct, and in the succeeding year the kingdom was subdued by Spain. The Portuguese now lost racsi of the advantages they had obtained under their own monarclis ; their possessions in the East Indies, in Brazil, and on the coast of Africa; were neglected, and many of them wrested from them by the new republic of Holland, and by the other maritime powers, while at home the Portuguese were much oppressed ; but in 1640, they shook off the Spanish yoke, by electing John, duke of BragauzB, a descendant of the old royal family, for their king. This prince, who assumed the title of John IV., drove the Dutch out of Brazil ; and Iron: !um all the succeeding kings of Portugal have been de- scended. Alphonso VI. the son of John IV., was dethroned by his brother Peter, who in 1668 concluded a treaty with Spain, by which Portugal was declared an indepen- dent kingdom. This was brought about by the mediation of Charles II. of Great Bri- tain, who had married the infanta Cathe- rine, sister to Alphonso and Peter. In 1706, John V. succeeded to the throne on the death of his father. In 1729 a dotible mar- riage took place between the courts of Spain and Portugal, a prince of each court marrying a princess of the other court. Although Brazil again belonged to Por- tugal, its former greatness could not now have been restored, even had the princes of the house of Braganza displayed as much vigour and wisdom as some of them show- ed good intentions. A commercial treaty had been concluded under the first prince of this line, and in 1703 a new treaty was concluded by the English ambassador, which secured to England the advantages of the newly discovered gold mines in Brazil. From this time the relations with England continued to become more inti- mate, until Portugal was no longer in a condition to maintain an independent atti- tude in European politics. During the long reign of John V., from 1707 to 1760, some vigour was exerted in regard to the foreign relations, and something was attempted for the promotion of the nation^ welfare at home (the restrictions on the power of the inquisition, and the formation of an academy of Portuguese history, for exam- ple) ; but, in the former case, without deci- sive consequences, and, in the latter, with- out a completion of the plans proposed. On the death of John, in 17S0, his son, Joseph I., prince of the Brazils, succeeded him, and the marquis of Pombal, a vigorous reformer, administered the government, to the universal satisfaction of the people. He attacked the Jesuits and the nobility, who during t!.e preceding reigns had exercised a sec'Ci. influence in the government, Tlie ex- posure of the power of the Jesuits in Para- guay, their conduct at the time of the earth- quake in Lisbon (1755), and the conspiracy against the life of the king (1759), led to the suppression of the order: in 1/57 they had been deprived of the post of confessors to the royal family, and forbidden the court. Two years after, all the Jesuits were ban- ished the kingdom, and their estates were contiscated. The brave count of Schauen- burg Lippe, to whose services against Spain, in 1/60, Portugal was so much indebted, likewise reformed the Portuguese army; but soon after his departure, the effects of his improvements disappeared. THB BXTKHC OF CO.' J't u.'on UIQH MOUHTAins UlSNDBn TUB OI.IMATB MILOBH. THB OBIXV VBVITI OF FOITUSAL AS! OLITBS, OlARaXI, AMD lIMOIfa. ■ ( 640 Vlfit treasure of 1|ifttor]9, $;c. On the Bccetiion of Maria Francisea I«a- bella, eldest daughter of Joieph (in 1777}i the marquis of Poinbal lost the influence which he had possessed for twenty-five years. To him Portugal owed her revival from her previous lethargjr ; and although many of his useful regulations did not sur- vive his fall, yet the enlightened views he introduced, and the national feeling which he awakened, were not without permanent effects. In 1792, ou account of the sick- ness of the queen, Juan Maria Joseph, prince of Brazil (the title of the prince- royal until 1816), was declared regent: and, in 1799, her malady having terminated in a confirmed mental aberration, the prince was declared regent with full regal powers, but made no change in the policy of the p;overnmcnt. His connexions with England involved him in the wars of that country a|;ainst France; and the Portuguese troops distinguished themselves by their valour in the peninsular campaigrns. Commercial distress, the accumulating debt, and the threatening language whicn Spain was com- pelled by France to adopt, led to a peace with France in 1797: but the disasters of the French arms in 1799 encouraged the regent to renew hostilities, in alliance with England and Russia. As soon, however, as Buonaparte had es- tablished his authority, Spain was obliged to declare war against Portugal; but it was terminated the same year (1801) by the treaty of Badajos, by which Portugal was obliged to cede Olivensa, with the payment of a large sura of money to Spain. Portu* gal, meanwhile, preserved a mere shadow of independence by the greatest sacrifices, until at last Junot entered the country, and the house of Braganza was declared, by Napoleon, to have forfeited the throne ; this most impudent and arbitrary declara- tion arising from the refusal of the prince to seize the English merchandise in his do- minions. The regent now threw himself entirely into the arms of the English, and on the 9th of November, 1807. embarked for Brazil. Junot entered the capital the next day, and Portugal was treated as a conquered coun- try. An English force was landed, and, in the northern provinces, numerous bodies of native troops determined to maintain the struggle for freedom ; a junta was also established in Oporto to conduct the go- vernment. After some hard fighting, the decisive battle of Vimeira took place (Aug. 21, 1808), which was followed by the con- vention of Cintra, and the evacuation of the country by the French forces. During 1808,1809, and 1810,Portug'0 was the chief scene o^the military contest be- tween Great Britain and France ; and the Portuguese subsequently also took an ac- tive part in the war for Spanisluindepen- dence. On the death of Maria, John VI. as- cended the throne of Portugal and Brazil. This transference of the court of Lisbon into an American colony was followed by important consequences ; firstly, that BrazU attempted to withdraw itself from depen- dence on England; and, secondly, that the colony gradually became a separate state. In Portugal, on the contrary, the influence of England continued, and the condition of the kingdom was not essentially changed. In 1816 John VI. refused to return to Lisbon, whither a squadron under Sir John Beresford had been sent to convey liim ; partly, it is said, because he was displeased at the disregard to his rights shown by the congress of Vienna ; partly because the un- popularity of the commercial treaty had alienated him from England; but, proba- bly, still more because he was influenced by the visible gnrowth of a Brazilian party which now aimed at independence. Hence- forward, indeed, the separation of Portugal from Brazil manifestly approached. The Portuguese of Europe began to despair of seeing the seat of the monarchy at Lisbon : the regency there were without strength, all appointments «'ere obtained from the distant court of Bio Janiero; men and money were drawn away for the Brazilian war on the Rio de la Plata; the army left behind was unpaid ; in fine, all the mate- rials of formidaole discontent were heaped up in Portugal, when the Spanish revolu- tion broke out in the beginning of 1820. Six months elapsed without its oommuni- cating to Portugal ; but in August the gar- rison of Oporto declared for a revolution ; and, being joined on their march to the capital by all the troops on their line, were received with open arms by the garrison of Lisbon ; and it was determined to bestow on Portugal a still more popular constitu- tion than that of Spain. This revolution was unattended by vio- lence or bloodshed. A provisional govern- ment was established, which, on the 1st of October, formed a union with the junta of Oporto. Count Palmella, the head of the royal regency, was dispatched to Rio Jane- iro with an account of what had happened, and a petition that the king or the prince royal would return to Lisbon. The mode of electing the cortes was settled chiefly in imitation of the Spanish constitution; and the liberal party, which was desirous of the immediate adoption of that constitution, obliged the supreme junta (Nov. 11) to ad- minister the oath of obedience to it to the troops. The regency of Lisbon, by the ad- vice of a Portuguese minister, at once faith- ful to his sovereign and friendly to the li- berty of his country, made an attempt to stem the torrent by summoning an assem- bly of the cortes. The attempt was too late ; but it pointed to the only means of saving the monarchy. The same minister, on his arrival in Brazil, at the end of 1820, advised the king to send his eldest son to Portugal as vicerov, with a constitutional charter, in which the legislature was to be divided into two chambers. He also recom- mended an assembly of the most respect- able Brazilians at Rio Janiero to organise their affairs. But a revolution in that digi- tal speedily brouiclit matters to a «risis; and the popular party, headed by Don Pe- nt SOMB or TUB FBOTINCBS TBB VINBTABOS ABB UIOHI.T FBOnUCTITE. ONB. 'rom depen- lly, that the >arate state, he influence le conditioa illy changed. :o return to der Sir John ■onvey him ; la displeased liown by the lause the un- 1 treaty had but, proba- ta influenced azUian party nee. Hence- i of Portugal ached. The to despair of liy at Lisbon: }ut strength, led from the }; men and the Brazilian the army left all the mate- were heaped anish revolu- ning of 1820. its oommuni- igttst the gar- a revolution ; march to the leir line, were he garrison of led to bestow ular constitu- ended byvio- lional govern- on the 1st of li the junta of e head of the 1 to Rio Jane- lad happened, or the prince ji. The mode tied chiefly in ititution ; and tesirous of the constitution, Jov. 11) to ad- ce to it to the ion, by the ad- , at once faith- ndly to the li- ttn attempt to ing an asiem- empt was too only means of lame minister, te end of 1820, t eldest son to constitutional ture was to be He also recom- most rcilpect- ro to organise n in that c*j)i- 8 to a «ris)8 ; id by Don Pe- BOSail ABB ICABCB IN rOBTUSAL, BUT TBBBB ABB BZCBLbBMT MVLBI. a a) gl n M el O n ■4 K H K M P 9 M •8 K e u a e o o K n M M a IE p H m u H M a O f »• M o H M * M ft '8 lUCTIVB. ^^e llistori? of ^ortngal. 641 dro, the king's eldest ton, declared for the constitution of Portugal, and the separa- tion of Brasil at the same time. On the 9th of March, 1821, the articles of the new constitution, securing freedom of person and property, the liberty of the press, legal equality, and the abolition of privileges, the admission of all citizens to all offices, and the sovereignty of the na- tion, were adopted almost unanimously. There was more diversity of opinion con- cerning the organization of the chambers, and the royal veto ; but large majorities fi- nally decided in favour of one chamber and a conditional veto. After some disturb- ances in Brazil, the king sailed for Portu- gal, but was not permitted to land until he had given his consent to several acts of the cortes, imposing restrictions on his power. On landing, he immediately swore to ob- serve the new constitution, and concurred, without opposition, to all the succeeding acts of the cortes. The revolutionary cortes were as tenaci- ous of the authority of the mother country as the royal administration ; and they ac- cordiD((ly recalled the heir apparent to Lis- bon. But the spirit of independence arose among the Brazilians, who, encouraged by the example of the Spanish Americans, pre- sented addresses to the prince, beseeching him not to yield to the demands of the Portuguese assembly, who desired to make him a prisoner, as they had made his fa- ther ; but, by assuming the crown of Bra- zil, to provide for his own safety, as well as for their liberty. In truth, it is evident ho neither could have continued in Brazil with- out acceding to the popular desire, nor have then left it without ensuring the destruc- tion of monarchy in that country. He ac- quiesced therefore in the prayer of these pe- titions : the independence of Brazil was pro- claimed; and the Portuguese monarchy thus finally dismembered. In the summer of 1823 the advance of the French army into Spain excited a revolt of the Portuguese royalists ; and now the in- fant Dun Miguel, the king's second son, attracted notice, by appearing at the head of a battallion who declared against the constitution; and the inconstant soldiery, equally ignorant of tlie object of their re- volts against the king or the cortes, were easily induced to overthrow their own slight work. After a short interval, the possessors of authority relapsed into the ancient and fatal error of their kind ; — that of placing their security in maintaining unlimited power. A resistance to the constitution, which grew up in the interior of the court, was fostered by foreign influence; and, after a struggle of some months, prevented the promulgation of a charter well consi- derea and digested. In April, 1824, part of the garrison of Lisbon surrounded the king's palace, and hindered the access of his servants to him ; some of his ministers were imprisoned ; and the diplomatic body, includiiie; the papal nuncio, the French ambassadora, and the llussian as well as the English minister. were the only means at last of restoring him to some degree of liberty ; which was, however, so imperfect, that, by the advice of the French ambassador, the king, ac- companied by bis two daughters, (May 9), took refuge on board of an English ship of war in the Tagus, where, with the assist- ance of the whole diplomatic corps, he was at length able to re-establish his authority. In all the transactions which rendered this step necessary, Don Miguel had acted a most conspicuous part. He, however, de- clared that his object was to frustrate a con- spiracy, which was on the point of break- ing out, against the life of the king and the queen; and so well inclined was the king to pardon his son, that he accepted his explanation, and forgave these youthful faults as involuntary errors. The king, at length, issued a proclama- tion (June 4), for restoring the ancient constitution of the Portuguese monarchy, with assurances that an assembly of the cortes, or three estates of the realm, should be speedily held with all their legal rights, and especially with the privilege of laying before the king, for his consideration, the heads of such measures as they might deem necessary for the public good, for tiie admi- nistration of justice, and for the redress of grievances, whether public or private. To that assembly was referred the considera- tion of the periodical meetings of succeed- ing cortes, and the means of progressively ameliorating the administration of the state. On the 14th of May the king re- turned ashore ; and on the 4th of the fol- lowing month he proclaimed an act of am- nesty for the adherents of the cortes of 1820, from which only a few exceptions were made ; on the same day appeared the decree of June 4, reviving the old consti- tution of the estates, and summoning the cortes of Lamego. At the same time, the junta for the preparation of a constitu- tion was superseded by another, which was directed to make preparations for the election of the deputies of the old cortes. But Spain opposed the convocation of the old cortes, and the influence of the queen was thus revived. New conspiracies were formed against the king; and the minis- try was divided in its views, principally in regard to the policy to be pursued to- wards Brasil. In January, 1825, a new ministry was formed; and a negotiation was opened in London, under the mediation of Austria and England, to adjust the .differences be- tween Portugal and Brazil. The Brazilians bad tasted independence; and it was soon evident that no amicable issue of such ne- gotiation was possible which did not in- volve acquiescence in the separation of th^ two countries. Accordingly, a treaty was concluded, and finally ratified at Lisbon (Nov. 6), recognizing the independence and separation of Brazil ; acknowledging the sovereignty of that country to be vested in Don Pedro; allowing the king of Portugal also to a»amne the imperial title ; and hind- ing the eiuperor of Brazil to reject the offer IN ANCIENT TIMBS TUB TAOUS WAB FAMOUS VOB ITS OOLDBN BANDS. [3/3 i^.i.'^—^jHitr^tvmmmmmm TUB rollTUaVBIB LAN«UA«I UimHI BUT LITTLB VBOM TBB irMliaH. \ ^ », H u M 4 G42 ^l^e ^reasurQ oC l^istoriY, $cc. of Any I*ortu{i[ueRc colony to be incorporated with his (Inniiiiinni. The death of John VI. took place Mnrch 10, 1R26, after having named the infanta Iiabelln regent ; who governed in the name of the emperor of Urnzil, ai khifr of Portu- gal. In the following month, I)un Pc-dro granted a constitution, establishing two chambem, and iu other respects resembling the French charter. Mny 2, lie abdicated the Portuguese throne, in favour of his daughter Donna Maria (he remaining king during her minority), on condition of her marrymg her uncle Migviel. But a party was formed, which ninird at the overtlirow of this constitution, and proclaimed the prince absolute king of Portugal. The marquis of Chaves and the marquis of Abrantes appeared at the head of the in- surgents ; and Spain, which alone had not acknowledged the new order of thing*, as- sembled an army on the Portuguese fron- tiers. In this emergency Portugal appealed to England, and 15,000 British troops were lauded in Lisbon. Thus assisted, the in- surrection was completely nut down ; Siiain was forced to yield ; 'and the cortes, wiiich had been convened in October, 182C, closed its session in March, 1827. In July, Don Pedro named his brother Miguel lieutenant and regent of the king- dom, with all the rights established by the charter, according to which the government was to be administered. The prince ac- cordingly leftViennii, and arrived at Lisbon in February, 1828. The cortes was then in session, and, on the 2rith, Miguel took the •onth to observe the charter, in the presence of the two chambers. But the apostolicals or absolutists, to whom the disposition of the regent was well known, already began to speak openly of his right to the throne, and to hail him as absolute king. His mi- nisters were all appointed from that party, except the count Villa Real ; and the popu- lace were permitted to add to their cry, " Long live the absolute king," that of " Down with the constitution." It was now determined that Miguel shoi'.ld go to Villa Vi^osa, a town near the Spanish frontier, where he could be sup- ported by the troops of the marquis of Chaves, and be proclaimed absolute king:; but this project was frustrated by the deci- sion of Mr. Lamb, the British minister, who counteracted the order for thn departure of the British troops, and prerented the pay- ment of the loan made to Don Miguel un- der the guartmtee of the British govern- ment. The cortes, being opposed to the designs of the prince, was dissolved March 14, and the recoil of the Bvitish troops in April removed another obstacle from his '■path. He accordingly, on the 3rd of May, issued a decree in his own namerconvoking the ancient cortes of Lsmego, which had not met since 1697. The military in gene- ral was not favourable to the projects of the prince, and the garrison of Oporto pro- claimed Don Pedro and the charter. May 18. Other garrisons joined them, and the constitutional array, 6000 strong, advanced towards Lisbon. But they were unable to cepe with the absolutists, and after sus- taining a severe defeat towards the end of June, the troops either forced their way to the Spanish frontiers, or embaricd for England, Thus terminated the tlrst ef- forts of the constitutionalists in Portugal, and, with the extinction of that party, the influence of England with the Portuguese government ceased. Don Miguel now turned his attention to the consolidation of bis power; severity and cruelty were his expedients; the prisons were crowded with the suspected, nnd fo- reign countries were filled with fugitives. Man.y noblemen who were known to be at- tached to the cause of the young queen, fortunately made their escape, and some of them came to England, where they were supported by money sent from Brasil by the emperor, for that purpose, to *<.is am- bassador in London. The cortes met June 2.1, and declared Don Miguel lawful king of Portugal nnd Algarve; chielly on the grounds that Don Pedro had fort'cited his right by becoming a Brazilian citizen, and was not a resident in the country, and that therefore he could neither succeed to the throne himself, nor name tlte person who should rci^n in his stead. On the 4tli of July, 1828, Don Miguel confirmed the judg- ment of the cortos, and assumed the royal title. He imroedintelyestuhlished a special commission to punish nil who had taken a gai't in the Oporto insurrection, the mem- ers of the commission being to be paid from the contiscations ihcy should make ; and in the colonies the same course of condemnation was pursued that had been practised at ho-ne. Portugal now oecamc the prey of politi- cal and religious bigots. In March, 1H30, the regency appointed by Don Pedro, as guardian ot his daughter, was installed in Terceira, consisting of Palmella, Villa Flor, and Guerreiro. 'I^e other islands were afterwards reduced by the forces of the regency; and subsequently to the return of Don Pedro to Europe, it was well known that he was making preparations for dis- £ lacing Miguel from his usurped seat, [eanwhile insurrections repeatedly broke out at home, but were suppressed by the vigour of the government and the want of concert in the insurgents. In 1830, it was estimated that the number of prisoners confined for political causes whs above 40,000, and that the number of persons concealed in different parts of the country was about 5000. In consequence of some acts of violence, and a refusal of redress on the part of the government, a British fleet was sent to the Tagus (May 4, 1831) ; but on its appearance the required con- cecsions were made. In July, Miguel was obliged to suffer a second humiliation of this nature ; a French fleet having forced the passage of the Tagus, and taken pos- session of the Portuguese fleet, in conse- quence of the demands of the French go- vernment, for satisfaction for iojnries to French subjects committed by the Portu- ASSABBINATIUIf IB A CRIMB Of VBIQUKIIT OCCUBRBNCB IN FOnTUOAT.. { , TUB ITALIAN OrakA IS TUB CBIBV TBBATBICAL ATTBAOTIOII IN LIIBON. €ift l^ijstort) of Portugal. 643 Ruese authorities, not having been com- plied with. lu Augatt, an insuRection of the Iroopi broke out aicatnit Miguel. At that time Don Pedro hud arrived in Europe, having embarked on board an English ship of war in the sprinv of 1831, and reached France in June. From thence he proceeded to Oporto, and immediately commenced ope- rations for displacing Don Miguel from the throne, and establishing Donna Maria as queen, under a regency. Previous to this, large bodies of volunteers had em- barked from Britain and Ireland in the cause of Don Pedro, the greater number of whom were garrisoned in Oporto. Don Miguel, meanwhile, was not inactive, but advanced with his adherents towards that eity, which he attacked several times with- out success ; on one occasion (Sept. 21, 1833) his loss was 1600 men, while that of Don Pedro was not more than a third of the number. In July of the same year, a naval battle took place between the fleet of Don Pedro, under the command of ad- miral Napier, and that of Don Miguel, in which the latter was defeated, with the loss of two ships of 74 guns, a frigate of 66, a store-ship of 48, and two smaller ves- sels. This event, with other succeaacs of the Pedroite party, led to Miguel's aban- donment of tne throne, consenting at the same time to leave the kingdom, on con- dition of receiving an income for life suited to his rank. Donna Maria da Gloria was proclaimed queen of Portugal, and in 1836 was married to the duke of Leuchtenberg, son of Eugene Beauhamois. This prince died in March of the same year, after hav- ing been married about a month. Don Pedro died a few months after his daughter had assumed the regal power : but his short reign was distinguished by two remarkable acts, one of which is likely to have a benettcial effect on the commerce of the country, the other not less likely to have an influence over the religion and so- cial habits of the people. By the former, the abolition of the Oporto wine company, which was a most injurious monopoly, was effected ; thereby giving the grower a fair recompense for encouraging the cultiva- tion of the grape, and thus producing wine of a better quality; while, owing to the competition of the merchants who export the wine, it could be bought at a lower price. The English being great buyers of port wine, the decree of Don Pedro was therefore advantageous to them, as well as to the Portugt^eac. We must not, how- ever, forget to stale, that the youug queen was prevailed upon, in 1838, to grant a new charier of monopoly to the Oporto wine company for twenty years, thereby frus- trating the benetits which were to be ex- pected from its previous abolition. The other memorable act of the regent was the suppression of all the monasturies and convents in the kinicdom, and the seizure of all lands bclonxing to them ; a measure which was considered as retalia- tory for the aMistance given to Don Migiicl by the monks, &c. during the contest be- tnecn the rival brothers. This waa, not- withstanding, an act of unmerited severity; for although amall pensions— none exceed- ing fifty pounds a year — were granted to those who had not openly avowed them- selves in favour of Don Miguel, it was so easy to accuse them of having done so, that very few actually received the pit- tance. The lands thus conflscated were ordered to be sold for the benettt of the ■late ; and after the death of Don Pedro, the cortes divided them into verv small lots, allowing labouring people to become the purchasers on easy terms. The sale took place in 1835, and among the buyers were many foreigners, who have settled in Portugal on these small estates, and who, as well as the I'ortugueae peasantry thus converted into landed proprietors, will be the means of promoting industry, and thereby increasing the comforts of a large class of the inhabitants. To pursue this sketch of the history of Portugal farther is needless ; for though several attempts have been made to over- turn the existing government, and although the political horizon still wears an unset- tled aspect, the events which have subse- quently occurred present few features wor- thy of comment. The queen's second mar- riage with a prince of the family of Saxe Coourg must not, however, be forgotten ; neither should we omit that Portugal, so early and so constantly foremost among the slave-dealing nations of Europe, has followed the example of Great Britain, and decreed its total aoolition. The government of Portugal is an here- ditary monarchy, with an upper and a lower representative chamber, both of which are elective, the franchise being vested in the holders of a certain small amount of fixed property. 'The cortes Tri'"'t. and dissolve at specified periods, witho .- ;>.<} intervention of the sovereign, and tht .u!'ic:rhas no veto on a law passed twice b.*- both houses. Each province has a governor, to whom the details of its government are entrusted, but great abuses exist in almost every department, both in the judicial and ad- ministrative branches, the inadequacy of the salaries leadiuK to the acceptance of bribes. And with regard to the prevalence of crime, it may be truly said, that so com- mon is assassination, and su numerous are the thefts, that the law and the police are impotent alike to secure either property or life. Though Portugal has lost Brazil, she still retains the Azores, Madeira, Cape de Verd, and Guinea islands ; the settlements of Angola and Mozambique, in Africa; and those of Goa, Dilli, Macao, &c. in Asia. tnTUOAiu TUB MOST ANCIBNT PORTUOUESB rOBTS ARB OP TUB TWRLFTH ri'.NTtlllY. i. ( / •■KMANI OAI.I. THUMIILVaS " UKDTIOHI," Till OOUNTKT " DlUVIOItAMD." .. /Ill ' . JUvJ.V "Ar^iXnnilA- THE HISTORY OF GERMANY. [AUSTRIAN EMflHK. GERMAN ttTATKM, ftc] From nil llut c«ii bo cnllcctcd of the early liislnry of OorniHuy, it niipcnrii to liAvv been dividt'ii into iiiuiiy |ietiy iiHlioiii •nd prhioipiilitif", »oiiic iroviTiied by kiiiKi whoHB (lowi^r wui liiuilvil, othiTi by inch n» were Hboolutci ■oinu of their iiriiiccs wcro ricclivo, and other* hcrrditnry; mid Roiiio ari«tovra(ic'ni the state of the Grrnians be- fore tlipy were roiniuered by the Roninus. At that time the childron went naked, and the men bunx tliu skin uf some wild beast upon their shoulders, fastening it with a thong; and persons of the best quality wore only a little woidlcn niando, or a runt without sleeves. Their usual bod was the ground, a little straw, with the skins of wolvi's or bears. Their food was bread, meat, butter, and IVuit, as nt present, and tlii'ir drink, water, iiiillc, and beer; for in those unrly ages they were strangers to the use of wine. They were aeeuslonied to eoiivivial entertaininentR, sitting in n senii- cirele, with the master of the family in the niidille, and the rest on the right and left, neem-diiig to their quality; but to these feimls no women were admitted, uor a son under twenty years of age. riiey expressed an extraordinary regard for nmvaliiy, and were very striet in divine worship, elumslnit their priests out of the nobility, who were not entirely ignorant of monil philosophy and physies, and were usuiiliy called to couneils of state. Wo- men, we are told, were likewise admitted to tlic priestly ofllee, and both the one and the other were treated with the most pro- found respect by the laity. The doctrine uf transmigration then prevailed in Ger- many ; they believed that departed souls, when they had left these bodies, auimated other creatures ; and, according as they behaved in this life, were happy or miser- able. Cluverius observes, that they wor- shipped the sun with such devotion, that they seemed to acknowledge that planet as the' supreme God, and to it dedicated the first dayof the week. They also worshipped U'oilen, or Godan, after whom the fourth day of the week was called Wednesday. It is said that this word (io^n becoming aftci-wai-ds contracted into God, the Ger- mans and English gave that name to the Deity. They also worshipped the god Fa- ranea, the same with the l)nnisli Thnr, the Thunderer, from whom our Thursday has its uame. The goddess Vreia, or Venus, gave her name to Friday ; and Tul«ro, (lie saiiin with Man, gave name to Tuesday. Like the ancient llrilous, tliey performed their sacrillcet in Krovea, the oak beinft usually chosen for an altar ; and, instead ufa temple, they erected an arbour made of the boughs uf the oak and beech. The priests, as well as the sacrilice, were always crowned with wreaths of oak, or of some - le Krcat, war- with all the picndour, and of the heroic ' the Germaiia r tlie Roman*, cc, that they ig the Rhine arica of their built fortres- on the banks int the incur- Lhe barbnrouB hundred years , the Franks, d other Ger- those bouiid- i dispoiscRied !tin, and Nori- \ft thrniHelves ; 'er the rest, at npire over all id Italy, under le, or Charles s crowned at the church of ', 8U0, amidst lergy aud the , time emperor e coronation ; U the state of limit to each ' exercised all rs; tlie whole Bayonno, and acknowledging iisly been con- ic Winf'icd, an ccted them in OFB. INT. €fit l^Utoro of CKcrmanu. 64S towns, and thus introduced the elements of civilijiatlun anion|(Ht them. The Haxons were nmdo Christnins by Charlemagne, •Iter a long and bloody wnrfarn. After tlin di'Mlli of Clinrlcmagnn, and of Louis lu DcbDiinnirr, bis son and succrs- Bor, the empire was divided between the four suns of Louis ; Lolhaire was cmprror; Pepin, king of Ai|Uitaino ; Louis, king of ficrmnny ; and Charles th« llald, king of France. This partition was n continual source of discontent among the parties. The Fr .nchcnioyud the empire under eight empri-jrs, until ibo year Ul'i, when Louis III., the last prince of the race of Charle- magne, dying without male issue, Conrad, count of Franconia, son-inlaw to Louis, was elected emperor ; but wns not acknow- ledged in Italy, nor in France. The reign ol Conrnd produced no change whatever in (iermany ; but it was about this period that the German bishops flxed themselves in the possession of their flel's; •nd many cities began to enjoy the right of natural liberty! following the example of the cities of Italy, some bought these rights of their lords, and others procured them with arms in their hands. Questions alfecting the general interests of the Germanic body were determined in a Diet, consisting of the emperor, the elec- tors, and the representatives of the princes, and of the free cities. There were also mi- nor diets in the different cities or divisions of the empire. It may, however, bo proper to mention in this place, that the constitu- tion of the empire has undergone a total change. There is no emperor of Germany ; the title is sunk in that of emperor of Aus- tria, which that aovereien holds hy inhe- ritance, not election. The ecclesiastical electorates have been taken possession of by secular princes. Bohemia is united to Austria; the palatinate has disappeared; 8axony is given to the kingdom of Prussia, formerly tlie electorate of Brandcnburf^ ; and the electorates of Hanover and Bavnria arc also converted into kingdoms. Most of these changes are the work of the late wars. Conrad was succeeded by Henry, duke of Saxony, whom on his death-bed he re- commended to the states. And in Henry II. the male race of the Saxon kings and emperors ended, in 1024. The states then elected Conrad II., who, by means of his son, afterwards Henry III., annexed the kingdom of Burgundy to the empire, ren- dered Poland subject to his dominion, and, in a treaty with Denmark, appointed the river Eider as the boundary of the German empire. Henry III. is regarded as the most powerful and absolute ox the German em- perors. Henry III. deposed three popes who had set up against each other, and supported a fourth against them ; from which time tiie vacancy of the papal chair was always inti- mated to the cmVieror, and it became an established form for the emperor to send a deputation to Rome, requesting that a new pope might be elected. Ilenrv IV. his son, was, however, put under tiiu ban by the pope, (iri'Kdry Vil,. and his siilijccts and son excileil tu rebel ngniont him; on which ho was deposed by the stales. Henry V. succeeded his father, but wns obliged to renounce all pretensions to tlie iiivesiituro of bishoprics, wliii'b hiid been claimed by bis ancestors; and in bint be- cniiiK extinct the male line uf the Frank CHiocrors. I'pon this the pope caused Lotliariiis, duke of Saxony, to bo elected ; but lie «ns not acknowledged by all (ieriiiHiiy fur I heir sovereign till after a ten years' wnr. Fre- deric I., who became emperor in ilfiU, ef- fectually exercised his sovereignty over the sen of Rome, by virtue of bis curoiintiiiii at Aries, reservlii^c also bis dnininion over that kingdom, nnd obliging Poliiiid lo pay him tribute and lako nn oath uf alleKiaiice. 'I'o bim succeeded Henry VI,, Philip 111 . and Otho; the latter of whom, being de|iu„ed by the nope, was succeeded by Frederic II,, whom historians extol for bis learning, wis- dom, and resolution : he wax live times ex- communicated bjr three pones; but pre- vailed so far a^a.nst pope Gregory IX, as to depose him from the papal cliair. These continual contest* between him and the popes gave rise to the two famous factions of tho Guelphs and Ghibelines ; the former adhering to the papal see, and the latter to the emperors. About the middle of the thirteenth cen- tury the empire was rent asunder by fac- tions, ench of which supported a particular candidate for the imperial dignity : these were William, earl of Holland ; Henrv of Thuringia ; Richnrd, carl of Cornwall, uro- thcr to Henry 111. of Kngland ; and Al- phonso, king of Castile. At this time the great oflicers of the household laid claim, to a right of electing the emperor, to the exclusion of the princes and grcnt towns, or without consultin}; any other members of the empire ; the diatrncted state of the empire served to confirm to them this claim; and Gregory X,, who then filled the ponti- fical chair at Rome, either considering such claim as valid, or desirous of rendering it so, directed a bull to those great nfHcers, the purport of which was to exhort them to choose an emperor, and by that means to end the troubles in Germany. From that time they have been considered as the sole electors; and their right tu this privi- lege was established beyond all controversy in the reign of Charles IV,, by the glorious constitution known by the title of the golden bull, published in the year ]3u7> which decreed that the territories by virtue of which the grcnt offices were held, should descend to the heirs male for ever, in per- petual entail, entire and indivisible. Germany began to recover from its dis- tracted state in the year 1273, when count Rudolph of Hapsburg, the founder of the house of Austria, was advanced to the im- perial dignity. Charles IV. of the Austrian fnmily, livrd to see his son Wenzel, or 'Wenceslaus, TUH DAKUBB, BUINE, BLBB, ODRB, FO, MOSEILB, SBAVB, ITtN, VrSSBB, &C. r naruna tbb rKincM mroLVTion, •ikmant wai »iTiBaD irto tir oikolsi. 646 ^l)t UTrtasurtt of l^istotp, Ut. elected king of the Romanii. This prir j, who wnsi the fourth xon of Chnrlci, nt 4ii» fnthfr's iloitire micrrcdcd to the rmiiire; but,b(nnK(liiigoUitcHuil rruel, wrr dt-poied, aft«r he liad rciKiird twnity-two yenri. Chnrlfs was iticcrcded by three other prinres, wIiorp reiKm were ihort ; nt length, in Ml liHigiiiniund wniuiiniiiinouilychoien emperor, and in UN, he proclaimed a ite- ncral council to be lii-ld at Constance, in which three popes were deposed and a now one was srt on. At Ibis council the re- formers, John IIuss and Jerome of Prague, were condemned and burnt, although the emperor had granted them a passport, and was engaged in honour and conscience for their safe return to their country; which so exHsperaled the Hussites of Ituhemia, that they raised n formidable army, and tiiider the conduct of Kisca, their gciivrnl, defeated his forces in fourteen battles. Frederic, duke of Austria, son-in-lnw to the emperor 8igismund, was chosen empe- ror upon the death of his father, and reigned flftythree years. His son Miiximilinn was chosen king of the lloiiians during the life of his fntlit-r, and afterwards obtained from the pope the imperial crown. During his reign the empire was divided into ten cir- cles. Charles v., surnamcd the Great, son of Philip, king of Spain, and grandson to Maximilian, was elected emperor in 161!). He procured Luther's doctrine to be con- demned, and in his reign the disciples of that great reformer obtained the name of protestnnts, from their protesting against a decree of the imperial diet in favour of the catholics. He is said to have been victo- rious in seventy battles: he had the pope and French king prisoners at the saiuc time, and carried his arms into Africa, where he conquered the kingdom of Tunis ; but was disgraced in the war with the pira- tical states. He compelled the Turks to raise the siege of Vienna, made war on the protcstant piiuccs, and took the elector of Saxony and the prince of Hesse prisoners; but, alter a reign of thirty-eight years, he resigned the empire to hts brother Ferdi- nand, and the kingdom of Spain to his son Philip II., himself retiring to the convent of St. Juste, in Spain. The abdication of this prince left the power of the princes of Germany more firm. The house of Austria was dividcil into two branches ; one of which reigned in Spain, and which, by the conquests in the New World, had become much superior, in power and riches, to the Austrian branch. Ferdi- nand I., successor to Charles V., had great possessions in Germany: Upper Hungary, which he also possessed, could afford him little more than the support of the troops necessary to make head against the Turks ; Bohemia seemed to bear the yoke with re- gret ; and Livonia, which had hitherto be- longed to the empire, was now detnclicd, and joined to Poland. Ferdinand I. distinguished himself by es- tablishing the iiiilic council of tl;e empire; he was a peaceful prince, and used to as- sign a part of each day to bear the com- filaintr of his peoule. Maximilian 11. and lis son Itodolph 11. were each elected kiiig of the Homans, but the latter could not be prevailed upon to allow a successor to be chosen in his life time. Under Maximilian II., as under Ferdi> nand I., Lombardy was not, in effect, in the nower of Germany i it was in the hands of Philip, appertaining rather to an ally than a vassal. During tiiis lime, the legislative authority resided always in the emperor, notwithstanding the weakness of the impe- rial power; and this authority was iu its greatL^t vigour, when the chief of the em- pire had not diminished his power by in- creasing ihe.i uf the princes. Rodolph II. found tlicse obstacles to his authority, and the empire became more weak in his hands. The philosophy, or rather the effemi- nacy, of this prince, who possessed )iarti- cular virtues, but not those of a sovereign, occasioned many fermentations. Luther- anism had already spread itself in Germany for the space of a century : princes, kings, cities, and nations, hud embraced this doc- trine. In vain (Uiarles V. and his succes- sors had endeavoured to stop its progress ; it manifested itself more and more eveiy day, till at length it broke all bounds, and menaced Germany with o general war. Henry IV. having nullitied the measures of the party formed against the house of Austria, the protestants and cathohci ap- peared reciprocally to fear each other; and liostilities ceased alter the taking of Ju- liers. Germany, however, continued to be di- vided into two parties. The first, which was named the angelic union, had for its chief the elector palatine, united to whom were all the protestant princes, and the greater part of the imperial cities. The se- cond was called the catholic league, at the head of which was the duke of Bavaria. The pope, and king of Spain, joined them- selves to this party; and it was further strengthened by the elector of Saxony, and the landgrave of Ilcsse Darmstadt: the first, because he was jealous of the elector palatine ; and the latter, because he bad his particular reasons for keeping fair with the emperor. Rodolph died in lfil3. The electors, after an interregnum of some months, bestowed the empire on the archduke Matthias, bro- ther to the Inte emperor. This prin9c har^ already mounted the thrones of Hungary and Bohemia, as a friend to the protest- ant cause. But he bad no sooner ascended the imperial throne, than he laid aside the mask, and renounced the reformed religion. It was not long before he received the pro- per reward of his dissimulation. An ir- ruption being made into Hungary by the Turks, he applied to the protestants for succour, who refused him every u|nistance. In 1619 Matthias died, leaving tio issue. The protestant party used its utmost en- deavours to prevent the empire from falling into the hands of a catholic prince, espe- cioUyone of the house of Austria; notwith- MOST OV TUB OUBAT OFVICE8 IN THE BMFIRB WBRX UBUEIIITAUY. u rilf OIKOLII. hcM the com- ixiniiliMn II. And inch elected king Iter cDuld not be ■ucceiior to be •I under Ferdi* t, in rifect, in the 1 in the hnnd* of r to an nlly than e, the Irgisintive in the emperor, nPM of tlic iinpe- iiirity wa» iii in chief of the em- hie power by in- '.en, Rudolph II. in authority, and 'i-nk ill hii liHudi. kthcr the ellenii- pomeased parti- 10 of a lovert-iKn, tationi. Luther- itsetr in Germany 1 1 princes, kiii)(i> i\liraccd thii doc- . and Ilia tuccus- ■top its proKreii ; and more cveiy roke all bound*, ith a general war. ed the uieaaurvi luit the house of and ruthulica ap- r each other; and he taking of Ju- ntinued to be di- Tlie first, which nioH, had for its . united to whom princes, and the " cities. The se- ptic league, at the luke of Bavaria, nin, joined I hem- it was further or of Saxony, and Darmstadt : the ms of the elector because he had keeping fair with he electors, after nonths, bestowed le Matthias, bro- This prinfc har^ incs of Hungary to the protest- sooner ascended he laid aside the eformed religion, received the pro- ulation. An ir- llunttary by the protcstants for every ninistnnce. leaving no issue. [I its utmost en- fiire from falling ic prince, espe- ^ustria; notwith- DITAUY. nm MA10KAI. VBATVBBi o* Ai;iTaiA abb tbbt MAOiiiricaiiT. 18 m M m O " 2 n ^\ft l^istonj of €^cnnani)' 047 ■tanding which, Verdlnand II., cousin to the lata emperor, was elected, and for a lime be was the must happy as well as the inoiit powerful munarcli in Kurnpe ; nut so much from his personal efforts or abilities, as from the gri-at success ot his K<'us- lavus Adolphus, was killed in the battle of Luticn, in the midst of victory. The house of Austria, which had sunk under the arm* of Adolphus, now felt new spirits, and succeeded in detaching the most powerful princes of the empire from the alliance of Sweden. These victorious troops, abandoned by their allies and de- ftrivcd of their king, were beaten at Nord- iugen ; and although more fortunate after- ward!, they were less feared than when under Gustavus. Ferdinand II. died at this conjuncture : he left all his dominions to his son Ferdi- nand III. In the reign of this prince thr celebrated treaty of Westphalia was so- lemnly signed at Munster, October 24ili. 1648. It was the basis of all subsequent treaties, and is esteemed as the fundamen- tal law of the empire. It was by this treaty that the quarrels of the emperors, and the princes of the empire, which had subsisted seven hundred years, and the dis- putes about religion, (although of less duration, not less dangerous), were ter- minated. Germany appeared to recover insensibly its losses; tne fields were cul- tivated, and the cities rebuilt. Leopold, the son of Ferdinand, succeeded. His first war was very unfortunate, and he received the law by the peace of Nimeguen. The interior of Germany was not materi- ally injured ; but the firontiers, on the side of the Rhine, suffered considerably. For- tune was less unequal in the second war, produced by the league of Augsburg ; Ger- many, England, Spain, Savoy, and Sweden, against France. This war ended with the peace of Ryswick, which deprived Louis XIV. of Strasburg. The third war was the most fortunate for Leopold, and for Germany: when Louis XIV. had eousideriilily increased his power; when lie governed Npnin under the name of his grandiuii ; wliiii Inn armies nut only IiunMesKed the Ni'llicitaiiil', and Itavnria, lut were in tlie heart nl Italy and (icr- many, The haitle of llni'lintndt, in l/iM, changed the Hrcne, and inery place he had aci|iilrcd unn luat. l.t'upiilil died the I'ol- Inwinic yeiir, wiili the repntaliun of being the moat piiwerfiil emperor sinec Charles the Filth. The roign of Joseph I., his son, was yet more suecesaful thnii that uf Leopold. The gold of England and llullnnd, the victories of prince Eugene and the duke i>t Murl- hnruugh, ami his guud fortune, rendered him almost absolute. He put to tlie ban of the empire the electors uf Bavaria and Cologne, partisans uf France, and tuiik pos- sessiun uf their duminioiis. Joseph died in 1711, and was succeeded by his hrulhcr, Charles Vi. Although pow- erful as he was, by the posseaaioii of all Hungary, of the Milanese, of Mantua, of Naples, and uf Sicily, the nine pnivinces of the Low Cuuntries, and the tluurishing state of liiit hereditary German dominions, he was obliged to sIkii, on receiving the imperial crown, an uhligatiun to cunservc and augment the rights uf tlic Germanic body. The empire was tranquil and flourishing under the last cnipernr of the liouse uf Austria. The war of 1711, against the Turks, was principally on the frontiers of the Ottoman territory, and terminated glo- riously. Germany had changed its face during the times of Lccuold and Joseph ; but, in the reigu of Charles VI. it may be said to hnvc arrived almost at perfection. Previous to this epoch, the arts were un- cultivated ; .scarcely a house was well built ; and manufactures of fine articles unknown : the thirty years' war had ruined all. The affairs of Clmvles were uniformly successful until l/.'ll. The celebrated vic- tories of prince Eugene over the Turks at Temeswar, and at Belgrade, secured the frontiers of Hungary from inolcstatioii ; and Italy became safe in cunseipicnce of Don Carlos, son of I'hilip V., having con- sented to become his vassal. But these prosperities had their termi- nation. Charles, Dy his credit in Europe, and in conjunction with Ituaaia, endea- voured to procure the crown uf I'otaiid for Augustus III., elector of Saxony. The French, who supported Stanislaus,'hnd the advantage, and Stanislaus was elected king. Don Carlos being declared king of Naples, after the battle of Bitonto, took possession also in 1733. Charles, to obtain Seace, renounced the two kingdoms, and ismembered the Milanese in favour of the king of Sardinia. New misfortunes afflicted him in his lat- ter years. Having declared war against the Turks in 1737> his armies were defeated, and a disadvantageous pence was the con- sequence. Belgrade, Temoswur, Oi-sovn, and all the country between the Danube "i| TBS TIROL ITAIfDa FRB-BMININT VOB ITS riCTVRESQtin SRJt.NIiRY. I 1 TUB MINMKAIi HICUB8 UV AUITniA AM BOTU VAillBD AND IMPORTANT. 648 ^1)8 ^rcaauvy of l^istory, $cc. nnd tlic S«nvr, wore ceded to the Turki. He died broken-hrnrtcd, iii IjT'lO. Tlic di'Hth of Cliurlcs iiluiiRnd Eiirone in oiro goncral niid riiiiinus win*. Ky tlio " iiriiKnintiu annction," wliicli hu hnd »\gn- I'd, and wliich wns Ruarnntccd by I'Vancp, the arohdiicliess Maria Thcvcaa, his eldest dauKhtcr, liad been nnuird as heiress to ail his possessions. This princess married, in l/Ilf), Francis Stephen, last duke of Lor- raine. 8lie solicited the imperial throne Cor her husband, and sued for the iiihcri- taiicn of her father. They were both dis- puted by the elector of llavavia, who, sup- ported by the arms of France, was elected emperor, in 17-l>. Charles Vll. died in U-IS, and was suc- ceeded by Frnr-ris I., the liushand of Maria Theresa. He died in 1765, and was suc- ceeded by his eldest son, Joseph H., who had been elected kin){ of the llomans the preceding year. When this prince attained to tlie imperial dignity, he was considered as distinguished by a steady and active at- tention to every depiii tnicnt of government ; and he actually introduced avariety of bold and salutary reforms in the state. A noble liberality of mind, and enlarged views of politics, were imputed to hnn when he rendered the condition of the lower orders of men in his hereditary dominions less wrciehcd and servile, by alleviating that cruel vassalage in which they were held by the feudal lords of the soil; whilst a free and unreserved toleration was granted to all sects and denominations of Christians: but these hopes were frustrated by a more full development of his character, in whicli, activity without efficiency, enacting laws and ahrogntinfc them, forming great de- signs and terminating them in mean con- cessions, appeared consuicuQiis. On the death of the elector of Bavaria in 1777, the emperor laid claim to a consider- able part of that electorate, founded on a vague right which had been set up, but not contended for, bo long ago as the year 1425, by the emperor Sigismund. The king of Prussia, as elector of Braudcnburgh, op- posed tliesc pretensions, on the ground of firotecting the empire in its rights, privi- eges, and territorial possessions, against all encroachments upon, or diminutions of them ; but the emperor not being induced by negotiation to relinquish his designs, in 177B the two most powerful monarchs in Europe led their formidable armies in per- son, to tccide the dispute by arms; nearly half a million of men appearing in the tield, to tight for a territory which would have been dearly purchased at the sum ex- pended on one year's support of tlissc vast armies — so little is the ambition of princes regulated bv the intrinsic worth of the ob- ject at which they aim ! The kingdom of Bohemia was the scene of action, and the greatest generals of the age rommanded; as, marshal count Lau- dohn, on the side of Austrias prince Henry of Pru&bia, and the hereditary prince (after- wards duke) of Brunswick, on the side of Prussia. The horrors and the ecl&t of war were then expected to ho revived, in all their tremendous pomp, but the campaign was closed without any general action, or any brilliant event whatever; and during the following winter the courts of Peters- burgh and Versailles interposing their good oftlces to make up the breach, terms of peace were soon adjusted at Teschcn, in Austrian 8ilesia. The territory acquired to the house of Austria by virtue of this treaty extends about seventy English miles, and in breadth is about half that suacc. The court of Vienna, being thus put into possession of this territory, renounced, in the fullest and most explicit terms, all other claims whatever on the electorate, by which every latent spark that might kindle future contentions and wars was supposed to be extin^^uishcd. In the year 1781, the court o*' Vienna endeavoured to procure for the archduke Maximilian, bro- ther to the emperor, the election to a par- ticipation of the secular bishoprics of Co- logne and Munster, together with the re- version of the former: this measure was strenuously opposed by the king of Prus- sia, who remonstr.-tcd against it to the reigning elector, and to the chapters, in whom the right of election is lodged; but notwithstanding the power of tho prince who thus interposed, the house of Austria carried its point. After this the views of the emperor wore directed to the restora- tion of the commerce formerly carried on by the ancient city of Antwerp; and also to invite foreign ships to the uort of Os- tend, by which he hoped to render the Aus- trian Netherlands flourishing and opulent ; nor was he less attentive to abridge the power of the clergy, and the authority of the church of Rome, in every part of his hereditary dominions. Joseph II. died February 20, 1790, in the forty-ninth year of his ago, and was suc- ceeded by his brother Leopold II., then grand duke of Tuscany, who becamo em- peror of Germany, and king of Hungary and Bohemia. This prince severely felt the thorns which encompassed a diadem : although a lover of peace, he was compelled to wage war with the French republic ; whilst he saw his sis- ter, the queen of France, degraded from her rank, kept a close prisoner, and in conti- nual danger of an untimely end ; but death closed his eyes upon these afllictive scenes in March 1791, hve months after his ad- vancement, in the forty-fourth year of his age. Francis had no sooner been declared emperor, than he joined in the hostilities carrying on against France, on account of his hereditary stateM, as well as the empire. He soon lost the Netherlands ; and the em- pire all its territory west of the Rhine i the Austrian possessions in Italy followed in 1797. The progress of the French arms was arrested only by the treaty of Campo Formio. A congress was afterwards held at Bastadt, which continued sitting for many months, and at length broke up without procuring peace. During tho year 1799, the MAUBLR, QUARTE, rOnCBT.AIN, AND MINERAL DTKS ABB FLBNTIFUL. {I -*.«., t'^. iRTAMT. revived, in ftll t the campaign ncrul action, or cr; ami during )urti of Pcteri. osingtlirirgood rencli, terms of at Tctclicn, in itory acquired to luo of tlii» treaty glisli niilca, and at Buacc. ng thus put into y, renounced, in ulicit terms, all 1 tlie electorate, ,)ark that wight 8 and wars was liod. In tlie year i\ endeavoured to Maximilian, bro- election to a par- bishoprics of Co- thcr with the ro- this measure was he king of Prus- ugainst it to the the chapters, in lon is lodged ; but ivcr of the prince ! house of Austria this the views of ed to the restora- ormerly carried on Antwerp; and also the port of Os- to render the Aus- ahing ami opulent ; fve to abridge the d the authority ot every part of his uy 20, 1790, in the lagc, ami was suc- ILcopoU II., then who becamo cm- king of Hungary it the thorns which [although a lover of 1 1 to wage war with Lilst he saw his sis- [dcgradcdfrom her Iner, and in conti- lely end ; but death fse afflictive scenes Inths after bis ad- Ifourth year of his |ier been declared ] in the hostilities hce, on account of kcll as the empire, lands i and the em- 1 of the Rhino i the 1 Italy followed in the French arms k treaty of Campo [afterwards held at b sitting for many Ibroke up without t the year 17U9. ibo MDIIC II CULTIVAT«D WITH ■IICOIIS BY AU. CLAIIBa IN OBBMANT. ^!)e l^istort? of CGItrmanu. 649 Ib«tif«I'. Austrian", joined by the Russians under Suwarrow, penetrated into Italy, and de- prived the French of the greater part of their conquests acquired by the military skill of Buonaparte. In 180(1, Buonaparte, havinii returned from Egypt, raised an army', and crossed the Alps, with a view to recover Italy, lost iif his absence. Fortune favoured his arms, and all the possessions of Francis fell into his hands by the famous battle of Marengo. Piedmont also submitted to the conqueror, and was, with Parma, Placentia, and some imperial fiefs, incorporated with France. The peace of Luneville, in 18U1, nmdo the Rhine the boundary between France and Germany; the latter thus lost more than 26,00(1 square miles of territory, and nearly 4,000,000 inhabitants. The Austrian monarch founded the hereditary empire of Austria in lH04i and the first consul of France was declared emperor of the French, under the title of Napoleon I. Austria and Russia soon after united against Napo- leon; and the peace of Presburg, which took place on the 2fith of December, 1806, terminated the war, in which three states of the German empire, Bavaria, Wirlein- berg, and Baden, had taken part as allies of France. In the following year, sixteen German princes renounced their con! pearance for the allies. On the Hih of Oc- tober, 1H13, Bavaria joined the allied arms; and, ten days afterwards, the battle of Leipsic destroyed the French dominion in G.'rmaiiy, and dissolved the confederation of the Rhine. The king of Wirtemberg, and the other princes of the south, soon alter followed the example of Bavaria; and after the buttle of Ilanau, Oct. 30, the French army had re- treated over the Rhine. Kvcrywhcre in Germany the French power wus now onni- hilated: neither the kingdom of Westpha- lia nor the grnnd-duchy of Berg any longer existed. Throughout Germany immense preparations were made for the preserva- tion of the recovered independence. The victorious armies pnsiied the Rhine on the first days of the following year, and all the territory which the French had conquered from Germany since 17U-'I, wns regained and secured by the events of the cam.iaign in France and the peace of Paris. It was sti- pulated, by the articles rf tlio peace, that the German states should be independent, bu' connected together by a federative sys- tem. This provision of the treaty was car- ried into effect by the congress of Vienna, Nov. 1, 1814, and by the stututei of the Germanic confederation in 1815. In the new system of Europe, established at the congress, in 1815, and by the treaty concluded with Bavaria, at Munich, in April, 18in, the Austrian monarchy not only gained more than 4238 square miles of territory, but was also essentially im- proved in compactness; and its commer- cial importance was increased by the ac- cession of Dalnmtia and Venice. The in- fluence of this power among the states of Europe, in consequence of the congrrss of Vienna, as the first member of the reat quadruple alliance (changed, by the con- gress of Aix-la-Chapelle, to a quintuple alliance), and as the head of the German confederation, has since been gradually increasing. Of the foreign affairs of the government, which have been conducted y the prince Von Metternlch, the most important is the connexion of Austria with the German confederation. The termination of the war with Russia, or, as it is called in Germany, " the war of liberation," restored Germany to its geo- graphical and political position in Europe, but not as an empire acknowledging one su- preme head. A confederation of thirly-Hve mdependcnt sovereigns and four free cities has replaced the elective moniircby, that fell under its own decrepitude. In the choice of the smaller princes, who were to become rulers, as well as of those who were obliged to descend to the rank of subjects, more attention was paid to family and political connection than to the old territorial divisions under the empire. The clerical fiefs, and the greater part of the LITBBATUBB AMD TUB PIN! ART! SINSRAI.LT ABB MUCn MBOLBCTBO. 13 K CHS BITABLIIHKD KaLIOIOH UV AUITHIA I> «BI CATHOLIC. >4 H m m o M R m M 650 ^l^c ^reasuru of l^istotL), ^c. free impei'ial cilici, were iiicnrporatpd into (he cstuift ol' the mure powc-rlul priuvfR, upuii the dissolution of the empire, niid were not re established. Unly four cities remained in the enjoyment of thoir politi- cal right I. The followiuK territories, with the populiition of each, according to the statistics of 183B, are comprisea in the present German coufedcratiou :— Population. 1I,7I9,U&U . ID.UUH.HIU 4,83H,470 . l,(iUS,&00 i,7;i7,.'>tio . 1,1)411,780 . I,227,2(i0 . 73I.5SU . 7i>a,i.'Jo 47\irtemberg . . Grand duchy of Uaden '. . Electurnte of ilcssc .... liessc Darmstadt ..... Duchy of llulsti'in .... Grand duchy of Luxemburg Leinburg . Duchy of Drunswirk .... Grand duchy of Meckleuburgh Scwerin 478,800 Duchy of Nassau 3H7,A70 Grand duchy of Saxe-Weimar 24i,5ll(l Duchy of Saxe-Coburg Gotha 140,060 . . . . Saxc-Meiningcu . . . . . . Snxc-Altcnburir . . Grand duchy of Mccklenourg- JStrulitc 87,820 Oldenburg and Kniphausen 267 .'60 Duchy ufAnhult DessAU . . 01,480 . . . . Uernburg .... 46,920 . . . . KOihen 40,200 Principality of Schwarcburg. Sondcrhansen Rudolstadt . Uolienzoltern Uechingeit Liclitenstciu . , . . . . Hohenzoltern- ISiguinringen Walileck . . Rcuss (elder branch) 3I,S00 . . . Reuss( younger branch) 73,060 Schaumburg-Lippe Lippe Detiiiolii . Landgravate of liesse-ilom. bury Free city of Lubeck . . . Frankfort . Bremen . . . Hamburg 63,810 66,130 20,200 6,620 42,990 66,480 27,600 82,970 23,400 47,200 64,670 67,600 1S3,6(J0 Total 38,716,600 The present emperor, Ferdinand I., auc- i ceeded his father, Francis I., on the 2nd I of March, 1836. The accession of Ferdi- nanA to the throne ban been marked by a tendency on the part of the Austrian cabi- net to an enlightened course of domestic and foreign policy, the steady prosecution of which must prove of incalculable ad- vantage for the empire and for^Europc. Uf the provinces which made up the grand imperial dominions of Austria, many of them have constitutions dillcrent from each other. Hungary, as an hereditary and liuiilcd numarehy, has been in (he house of Austria ever since the year 14a7, when the archduke, having married the only daughter of king 8igismund, succeed- ed to tim crown. The na(ion, however, ahares the legislative and executive power with the emperor, who exercii.es his au- thority only through the medium of (he states, a kind of parliament assembling at tixed periods for the transaction of puolic business. The Hungarian nobility also pussCKS great power; and they nlonc, in state languaKP, arc included under (he ap. ftellation of the Hungarian people, the rest leing regarded as an inferior race of beings. Uohemia, Moravia, and the Tyrulese, also have an iuHueuce in the general govern- ment, and possess, (o a certain degree, the privileges of Hungary. Hut in most of the provincial diets, the authority of the crown IS so greot, that the representatives can determine little else than the mode of rais- ii\iK taxes, so that the emperor is in a con- sider.. ble degree unlimited in his sove- reignty. In the ancient diet ol the em- pire, Austria, independent of her electoral vote for Bohemia, had seven votes in the college of princes for the seven states of Austria Proper, Carintliia, Styria, Urixen, Trent, Tyrol, and Carnioln. In the new diet, or " confederation of the sovereigns and free towns of Germany," Austria, with- out having any superiority over the other slates in point of rank, was declared by the congress of Vienna, to have the pre- sidency with a vote. In the general as sembly Austria has now four votes. The executive government consists of four great departments, established at Vienna, orira- nizcd originally by the councils of Maria Theresa. Unc of (hese regulates the in- ternal concerns of the empire, another its foreign affairs, a third its military coiiduet, and the fourth tlie government of Hon. gary. These difterent parts of the admini- stration are identilied in numerous boards, chanceries, councils, ministries, &c. The laws and jurisprudence of his imperial and royal apostolic majesty's dominions are, taken altogether, very vague and compli- cated. Bohemia and Moravia are divided into circlesi^each under a separate court of judicature from which lies a right of appeal (o (he supreme tribunal in (he pro- vincial capital. Every county in Hungary has its ruling assembly and court of jus- tice, subject (o an appeal to the district judicature, thence to the royal tribunal at Buda, and thence to the king in person. A new code of mild and salutary laws was, however, drawn up at the instance of the government, in the early part of the pre- sent century ; which are made the univer- sal code of jurisprudeuce for the Austrian empire. "The importance of Austria in a politi- cal, not less than in a commercial point of view," says Mr. M'Culloeh, " is evident ; and as (hat importance depends altogether upon her power and the judicious develope- ment of her resources, the western states VULL TOLBRATIO.N IS ORAKTKO TO ALL BKLIQI0U8 FEHSDA8I0N*. »/' >' an hereditary I been ill tlie tlie year U.i7, % married tkie iiund, Ruccei-d- tion, however, xecutive power L-rrii^ei his nu- iiedium of Ihc : HiReiiibling at ctioii of public I nobility alio tliey Hlonc, in I under the ap- people, I lie rest r rnceof beioK*. • Tyrolene, al«o );eiieral govern- tain degrre, the t ill inoDi ot'tlm ity of tlie crown ekcntniivca can lie iiiiide of rail- ror ia in a con- il in hi* HOve- lict ol the cm- of her electoral en votes in the seven states of , Styria, Urixen, a. In the new I' the sovereijcns ■/'Austria, with- ' over the other vas declared by n have the pre- the general as I'our votes. The .ts of four Jtreat M Vienna, orjra- uncils of Maria ^'Kulates the in- pire, another its lilitary conduct, itnent of Hun- . of the adniini- iiuei'OUB boards, itries, &c. The is imperial and dominions are, ue and compli- avia are divided separate court lies a riitlit of uniil in the pro- iity in HuuKary I court of jus- to the district lyal tribunal at king ill person, utary laws was, .nstance of the mrt of tlie pre- lUde the univer- ir the Austrian tria in a politi- inercial point of " is evident; ends altogether icious dcvelope- western stales ■4 M K It < m M B O M « K O u M ■ n O ^ tk O M O »■ IONS. IN TYROL TUB oaBMAN COITVMII II RXTRBMRf.T riCTUKaiaOI. ^I^c l^tstori) of CHiermani). G&l are deeply interested in her prosperity. From t he lature of the various states united under the imperial sceptre, it is clear that Austria divides the rule over the Sclavonic nations of Europe with Russia; it must consequently be for her interest to attach to her sway so numerous a portion of her subjects, who have a strong band of lym- patliy with a growing and very powerful rival. A mild government and a sincere attention to the material as well as moral condition of her subjects, will prove the best means of linking together provinces dilfering so much from each other, and each of A'hich is too powerful to be long retained by any other than gentle means. " The conduct of the cabinet of Vienna justifies the expectation that its leading iiieinbers are aware of the part which they are called upon to play, and of the true sources of their own inllucnce and of that of the nation in European politics. If unity at home be promoted, and the material and moral condition of the people be improved, the power of Austria will be such that she need fear nothing even if she had to con- tend single-handed with Russia or France. The variety, however, of her population, and the different, or supposed diRerent inte- rests, of her various provinces, are suffici- ent guarantees to the rest of Europe, that the power of Austria will not be abused. Ttie paciHc policy which her cabi- net has generally observed is dictated by the peculiar composition of the state, and cannot safely bo departed from. VVhile Austria may thus be looked upon as a most useful ally by the other states of Europe, and as their grand bulwark against the power and ambition of Russia, her friend- ship will be courted in proportion to her increase of pcvrer. Her worst enemies are those, who, by fostering disunion at home, or keeping her people in ignnrnnec of their true interests, weaken her influence, and prevent her from attaii.'ug a position to command the respect of her neighbours without exciting their apprehensions." HUNGARY. Aa this country now forms a part of the Austrian empire, a short notice of it is uecossary in tliis place. The Hubs are de- scribed by the old historians as a nation of ft "jcious savages, emanating from Scythia, or VVcBtern Tariary. They lived upon roots, and Hesli, half raw; they had neither houses nor cities ; and their wives and children dwelt under tents. They fought witiiuut order, and wifliout discipline ; and trusted niKrh to the swil'tnetis of their horses. They do not appe.ir to 4iave been known to the lliiiiians, until about the year '209 of the Clii'isliaii era, at which time tlie Ho- inaiis called iheiii i'annonians. TliK people of Hungary couHist of seven disiiiici luees, viz. Magyars, Slowacks, Cro- atiaiis, Germans, Wallacliians, Uusniaeks, and Jews; of whom the Magyars arc by far the most considerable. In their own country tlieir oriental denomination of Magyars is usually given to them, the name ot liuiigariaus being used only by otlier nations. Under Attila, they penetrated into Gaul, and became masters of the finest cities ; and were approuchmg towards Pari% when Actius, the iloman general, defeated them near Trovi'S, in Cliampagne. After this battle Attila retired into Pannonia; but as Kuon as he had repaired his losses, he ravaged Itiily ; and was prepariitg anew to en^'r Guul, when death put an end to his .ictoricM, in the yei.r -tS-t. Atiila was really what he had named himself, " the terror of men, and the scDurjte of God." After his death, great divisions took place amongst the Huns, who no longer kept that name, uut as- sumed the appellation of Hungarians ; but of their history during the time ot the Wes- tern and Kasteru empires, and the various warn and invasions which are said to have taken place between the third and tenth centuries, there is no informatiim upon which reliance can be placed. They bei^an to embrace Christianity un- der the guidance of (ierman miHsionaries : Ktephen, chief of the Hungarians, who had married the sister of the emperor Henry, was baptized at the beginning of the ele- venth century. The pope bestowed upon him the title of" the apostolic king;" and idolatry soon after disappeared in Hungary. Stephen, thus honoured by the pope lor his services in converting the henthens, en- deavoured to strenglhen his kingdom Iry the power of the hierarchy and the aristo- cracy. He established ten richly endowed bishoprics, and divided the whole empin; into seventy counties. These officers and the bishops formed the senate of the king- dom, with whose concurrence king Stephen granted a constitution, tne principal fea- tures of which are still preserved. The un- settled state of the succexsion to the crown, ' and the consequent interference of neigh- bouring princes, and of the Itoniun court, in the domestic concerns of Hungary ; the inveterate hatred of the Magyert against tlie Germans, who were favoured by Pcier, the successor of Stephen ; the secret strug- gle if paganism with Christianity, and par ticalarly the arroganci: of the clergy and nobilily, long retarded the prosperity of the country. TUB AUBTBIAH WUMKN WB&R CAPS OR DONMBTS UADB Of SOLD LACR. A,._, I'll. I' i pi !'■ It If : V ; I 1 i ! ' I IS TUB VILLAOB* IN BUNQAIiy, TIIOUOU WIUKtY ICATTBHKD, ABB POPVLOUa. 652 Wl)t ^reasunj of l^istory, $cc. The reliKiouR real and brnver; of St. La- dialaua, and the energy and prudence of Columann, ihino amidst the dnrUnesK of this period. The«e two inrnnrcha extended the boundarica of the empire; the former by the conuueat of Croatia and Hclavonia, the latter dv the conqueat of Dalmatia. 'I'hejr aaserted with flrmncaa the dignity of the liungHrian crown, and the indepen- dence oi the nation, against all foreign at- tncka ; and rcatorcd order and tranquillity at home by wise lawa and prudent regain- tiona. The introduction of German colo- niata, from Flanders and Alsace, into Zipa and Tranaylvania, by Geysa II., in ll-trt, had an important influence on thoac dia- trictni and the connexion of Ilungarjr with Conatautinople during the reign ot Bela III., who had been educated in that city, had a favourable eRcct on the country in general. The Magyars, who had previ- ously passed the greater part of the year in tents, became more accustomed to living in towns, and to civil institutions. Un the ollirr hand, Hungary became connected with France by the second marriage of Uela with Margaret, riater to Henry, kinx of France, and widow of Hrnry, king of Eng land. She introduced French elegance at the Hungarian court, and at thia time wc iind the tirst mention of Hungarians atu- dying at Paris: but these improvements were soon checked, and the kingdom waa reduced to a moat deplorable condition by the invasions of the Mongols in the middle of the 13th century. Alter the retreat of theae wild hordea, Ucia IV. endeavoured to heal the wounds of hia countrv. He in- duced (jermana to aettle in the depopu- lated provinces, and elevated the condituin of the citizens by increasing the number of royal free cities. The king, Ladislaus, having been killed in li90, by the Tartars, the emperor llo- dolph of Ilapsburg, pretending that Hun- gary was a ticf of the empire, gave the crown to one of hia aona ; but, in l.'tiiO, pope Boniface VIII., supposing it to he his right to dispose of the kingdom, invested Cliarihcrt, who support td hi* aiipuintmeut with hij aword. Under him Hungary be- came powerful : he added to his kingdom Croatia, Servia, Transylvania, Moldavia, and part of Dalmatia. In 1437, Albert of Austria ascended the Hungarian throne. Under him commenced the intestine diviaions which, joined to the irruptions of the Turks, almost depopu- lated the country. The civil war between the people and the nobles, in the reign of Ladislaus V. and the Corvins, weakened it so much, that it waa not in a state to resist Uie Ottoman power; and the army of Soly- man entirely destroyed that of Hungary in 1526; when the king, Louis II., was killed. Two hundred thousand captives were taken away by the Turks. Ferdinand I., emperor of Germany, was elerted king of Hungary by the states in 1337. He found the rnuntry weak in popu- lation, very pour, divided by the catholic and protestant factions, and occupied by the'Iurkish and German armies. It waa in a deplorable atato under all the kin(>;a of the house of Auatrin, but more particu- larly an under Leopold, elected in 1C5S. In hia reign. Upper llungary and Transylva- nia were the theatre of revolution, bloody war, and devastation. Tlie Hungarians defended their liberties against Leopold ; and the consequence waa, the death of the principal nobilitv on the scaffold, at Vienna. A man named Emcric Tekeli, whoae father and frienda had fallen under the handa of the executioner, in order to avenge their deaths, raised u force in Hungary, in 1083, and joined Mahomet IV. then besieging Vienna. John SubicKki, king of Poland, Cliarlea, duke of Lorraine, and the princca ot the empire, had the good fortune to oblige Mahomet to retire, and thua relieved the emperor and hia capital. Leopold waa rcaolved to be revenged on the Hungarians; he erected a acanuld in the month of March, 1687, and it remained until the close of the year, during which time, victiroa without number were immo- lated by the handa of the executioner. The allocking butcheriea which tlie Hun- garians saw practised on their country- men, tilled them with horror, and intimi- dated them. The Turks were twice repulsed, and Hungary submitted. Tranaylvania was conquered, and iu possession of the Im- perialists. The crown, which, since the time of Ferdinand I. had been elective, was declared hereditary ; and Joseph, son of Leopold, was crowned king at the close of the year 1687. It continued in the pus- session of the Old Austrian House until the death of Charley VI., 1740. After his death, Maria Theresa, his daughter, who had married into the Houae of Lorraine, and was by right heiress to his hereditary states, was in great danger of being deurivcd. France and Ilnvaria overran her dominiona ; but at length she overcame all her difflcultica : her husband, after the death of Charles VII. of Bava- ria, waa also invested with the joint sove- reignly. She dying in ITHU, her son, Jo- seph II., emperor of Germany, succeeded. He dying in 1790, his next brother, Peter Leopqid, grand duke of Tuscany, became king of llungary; but died five months after hia elevation, and waa aucceeded by hia eldest aon Francis. By the constitution of Hungary the crown is at ill held to be elective. This point is not disputed. All that i» insisted on is, that the heir of the House of Aus- tria should be elected aa often aa a vacancy happens. IN WIHTBn TUB PBABANTS ABB CBIBFLT BMPLOTBD IN BPINNINa, &0 *^,^' roruLOUs. •f Germany, whs by the states in rv wrnk in jiopu- by tlie catholic Mnd occupied by nrinics. It was Icr all the 1 Prussia to the electoral house of Branden- | burg, with which it had been closely con- { nected. The reign of the elector George ; William was unhappily distinguished by the : calamities of a thirty years' war, in which ' Prussia suffered much from the ravages of the Swedes. Frederic William, called (he " great elec- tor," from his extraordinary talents as a general, a statesman, and a politician, ob- tained, in 16.56, by a treaty with Poland, an extinction of the homage heretofore paid to that kingdom; and ho was acknowledged by the powers of Europe, a sovereign inde- pendent duke. He made Arm his rixht in Juliers; obtained Cleves; recovered part of Pomerania ; and increased the population of his country by affording an asylum to the refugees of France, after the impolitic revo- cation of the edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. Frederic, his son, raised the duchy of Prussia to a kingdom ; and on the 18th of January, 1/01, in a solemn assembly of the states of the empire, placed the' crown, with his own hands, on his own head and that of his consort; soon after which he was acknowledged king of Prussia by all the other Christian powers. His son, Frederic William I., who as- cended the throne in 1713, greatly in- creased the population of his country by the favourable reception he gave to the dis- tressed and persecuted Saltzburgers, as his f;randfathcr had done by making it an nsy- um to the Huguenots, when driven out of France by the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in the ycnr 1684. He was wise, bold, ond economical; his principal study the aggrandizement of h's kingdom. This monarch was succeeded in 1740 by EACH BKOBNCX^^TAKES ITS NAMK FBOM ITS ruINCIPAl, CIIY. w Tim RivHiii or rni'iiiA Arrunn rim mmani ur auon ini,*n» mavimation. 054 t!FI)c (irrcnauru ol 1i)i«tori}, ^t> liii ion t'rmliTin It., tliim in thotwcniy uintli yonr iil' liii nuc, wliii rvmlrrrtl hi* kinKiloni I'ormiilnlilo nv lit* vnlimr miil |iru- (fnncc, nml |ironiiilnii llio li«|M>ii)flM «l' liln tuli)ir«l, |iliil(iiiiuh«r. linn of tlitit* tiMi Ml Itinii Imc, It itiikKl of iiiii>rrli>liiK , lt« rriturilnd '(iIkii k*'"*"*' IIIIIIIKIIlll III* BAriiiK lu >>*> I of lame niiil liiiK* uf Ilr. Iitloii of llll* Im •pimiirod ritmiii "Til* I inUldln ilin. iclivn lor til* linrily liy «»■ ir III* Ronttl- VII lutnii iiotui k niiiioiiiti!** liMii llnii liliin on tlifl wliulii, Ilia I'vnturfl* of nnliiiiiiiuii ops vuiiddnr- i nliuott cou- ld of vain* U Riiblii liiiAidn- yrt llioie who l(i(>« not my ivrvntloiK *rn , nnd few nifn CB in uri'iniir iriuN III* dr«i». onl lined nnd wainlcont Hiid ml* Willi liiia- (Irit Klioilt hi* iVIock In tlia liii king dvdi- icnlly, to pwr- r liiiiini!!* or ipi'itr* nt tliu wlirro women coniiaiinunlly viiU. All liiH vnn, ho iipvnd* cinly of « fi!W Til* only rn- to lilinittif, I* iiIkIu nnd tour I' hi* time, III [{(•voted to no- nind, or both, ((ri'nt for tliiii I too ininll lor nun of wit, yet ly tlio rnuiini: I" nnd iiiiriiovf- Tlin innnncit liiii ill writ iu|r, Ilia tlrnt huai- ^> |i«rntlnK <•' H. aiiiKli) word, AKKI. utORt ooma, imo, i.a*n, anu tin, *•« ruumt in Tui.«n**t,N *HiiNii*NrN. M ■ f M •I »• »r M M • t l» n t M 8 i M « u M Eljc IQiiBloru of )Pru«»{A. niih writtnn with hli panall In thn innrKlu Indi- ontoa thn nii«w«r to hii iiWrii, which la nfinrwnrda inndn out In form by lila ai'itn*- Inrli'a. Iln alta down to ilinnnr prni'lanly at noon I nflainlip haanllowiid mora t linn to thia ritpHal Ihnii I'lirmnrlyi It la Ki>r lo eoiileiid nirniiiat tlin emperor and hia eonl'i'ilernted nlliea. The iieaen of Tilail reiliiend I'riiaain lo hnlf ila niriner dlinnnaloiia, wbleli hnlf bnd lo aupporl lAll.lltHI Kri b aoldiera until the end of INIIH, and to piiy I'JII iiMlliona of frniiea, whlln Krenrli Iroopa were to relniii poaaeaaloii of Ihn forlreaana of Nlini'n eoinpelleii by tliuiil to i|iiit Oermniiy, biiron linrdeiiberK wna pinned nt Ibn bend of llm K'lveriiment na alnte-clianeellor. Thn coniMiiinncn of Kreneh opprraaion, nnd llm InanlliiiK hn- inlllntion thn I'ruaainna bad to endine, nl IniiKlh rouaeil, rallier ibnii anbdiied, the dorninnt apirlt of the peopln. Alter Nnpo- leoii'a lliiaainn rumpniKii thn popnbilion roan «n mii»»i', nnd lo llicir xenlona elforla In Ibn eniian of oiipreaaeil Kiirope, the eoin- pleteneaaof Ilia diaromllliirn iiiny bn nininly attributed. The pnrt wliieli I'riiaxin plnveil In thia Krent Knmn of wnr ue linvn clan- wliern reluind, nnd it ta not cooaiali'iil with tliu liinila of our work lo iiinke nni'illniia repelltioiiai It la aiillleienl lo aintc, lliiit nt thu Keiiernl pence of IHKi, i'ruaaia bcenino 1 nucAi. rnt;*iiA rnonucKH AHnan, amd thh iaxon ruoviacaa (;oi'i>Ha. Tua WOOL OP lAXOHT IS auriBioR bvkn to that or irAix. 660 (ITIjc ^rcasuri} of l^istorw, $fc. more powerful than ever; fur althouKh « ))oriii)ii of licr I'olish doiuiiiions piiBied into till! Iiands of Itiusin, it was more than compensated hy valuable acquiiitions in Snxouy, Pumcrania, ftc. In June, I84U, the king died, and waa Kucceeded by hia «on,_ Frederic William IV., a prince poi- .^essins many amiable qualities. His ma- jesty has since paid a visit to queen Vic- toria, and was sponsor to the inrnnt prince of Wales. The following observations are so expla- natory of the present inrtucnce of Prus- sia iu the senlu of European politics, that we uuhcsiiutinKly adopt them from "The Britannia," and in transferring them to our pages as a very appropriate conclusion to the foregoing historic akclch, wu beg to acknowledge their worth : " Since the peace of 1615 Pnissia has been trnnquil. Her tremendous sufferings in the war had closed in a triumph of the most exalting and mcmornble rank. Of all nations she alone had the pre-eminent honour of sharing in the consummate vic- tory which extinguished the French em- pire; and since that period she has ad- vanced in a course of tranquil but progres- sive prosperity. " Prussia is n despotism, but the beau ideal of n despotism. As Plato imagined a republic, the future Plato who shall adopt the cause of despotism might refer to its reality us the most expressive instance of a government directed by the sole will of an intelligent, active, and patriotic king. Bacon, we think, says that, if an nngel were on the throne, drspotibni would be the tiuest government in the world. This is true, for the unity of council, the deci- sion of conduct, the power which prevents tumults, and tlie imiiartinlity which pro- vides fur justice to all, arc the lirst essen- tials to nil government. But, since men arc nut nngcis, niul the best of kings can- not he security for the principles of his succes8or,'we arft compelled to Knd that security in constitutional restraints, in laws rcKulnting the conduct of kings as well as of subjects, in coronation oaths which are obligations, and in penalties which protect those obliKatiuns. Un this ground is laid the constitution of Unglniid, a human fa- bric, and therefore not faultless, but the ablest work of human wisdom, formed by circumstances, experience, and necessity, the three great sources of all that is solid, permanent, or available iu the labours of a national mind. " But it is one of the fortunate charac- ters of A couniry like ours thut it has the capability of learning from all its neigh- bours, and that, in fact, its existence is a perpetual school, in which the art is con- stantly studied of rendering a popular con- stitution at once vigorous and regular, tit to resist alike foreign aggression and do- mestic disturbance, and to produce the greatest possible share of effective force with the least possible pressure on the peaceful habits and personal expenditure of the nation. " The chief immediate expenditure of all European nations is in their means of de- fence, whether military or naval. In Eng- land it is enormous. At this moment of universal peace, • peace, too, of twenty. flvo years, the expenses of our fleet and army are certainly not under twelve mil- lions of pounds i yet we unquestionably have not more troops than arc actually necessary. 8iill the means of retaining the same amount of force, yet with a re- duced amount of expenditure, would bo among the most valuable discoveries of finance. It is well worth our wonder to know that the whole expense of the whole military force of Prussia, SHO.OUU men, is not much more than half the exDense of the whole military force of England, or 00,000. Thus, in fact, England, the moat secure of all countries, pays for her aimjr nearly few timet the sum paid by Prussia, open on every side to invasion; her ex- pose, including fortresses, their repair, their provisioning, and the general ord- nance of the fortresses and the Held, being returned at twenty-four millions of thalers, or 3,4S0,0U0{. Now, this is done by the simple but admirable ond vrrv effective ar- rangement of dividing the whole military force into two parts, the standing urniy una the landtoehr. We give the following de- tail from the ' Foreign and Quarterly Re- view':— " ' The landwehr it a standing militia, which forms the reserve of the army, and is augmented from the ranks of the regu- lar troops, instead of supjplying recruits to them. This sysiein, which is peculiar to Prussia, is thus organized: — ' Our western neighbours deceive themselves in believing MiRt our landwehr is on a similar footing with their national Kuard. The standing army with us is merely the military schoor, and the landwehr forms the nucleus of the army. The landwehr of the tirst class per- forms the annual exercises with the re- gular troops, and the eye of a military ob- server would detect no difference in the manoeuvres of either corps. The second levy consists chiefly of soldiers who have been draughted from the standing army to the first levy, and from thence to the second, when arrived at the requisite age. The number of men required fur the regu- lar army is taken from those between 20 and 26 years of age, the remainder of whom are enrolled iu the second levy (nr land- wehr of the second class). The period of service in the army is for three years; but young men of any station in life are al- lowed, instead, to enter the army as volun- teers, and serve as privates for one yeur, without receiving any pay. At the end of one year they go over to the reserve, in which they continue for two years ; the others, after three years in the army and two in the reserve, are sent into the levy of the lirst class; and, after twelve years' service in the nrmy, the reserve and the landwehr of the tirst class pass into the hiudwchr of the second. The horses for the cavalry of the landwehr are furnished THS CONSUMFTION OF BRER AND SPIRITS IN rKUSlIA II TBIIY GREAT. Kl "^3*'^*C5*W4- i\. In Eng. moment of , of twemjr- ur flpet nnd twelve mil- qucstionnbly arc actually of retaining t with a re- e, would bo Iscoverirs of ir wniider tu of the whole ),0UO men, i» ic cxuense of EuKiand, or nd, I he nioit ] for her aimy d by Prutiia, lion; her ex- tlieir repair, general ord- le fleld, beinic jnsof tlialen, done by the •v effective ar- fhole military lini? army and foilowing de- Quarterly Re- nding militia, the army, and k» of the rcRU- ng recruits to is peculiar to ■' Our western i?s in believing imilar footing The standing tilitary ichooF, nucleus uf the tirst class per- with the re- a military ob- 'erencc in the The second PTS who have landing army thence to the requisite a(?e. lor the regu- between 20 jnder of w horn levy (or land- The period of ■ee years; but in life arc al- irmy as volun- lor one year, At the end of lie reserve, in .o years ; the the army and into the levy twelve years' lerve and the pass into the lie horses for are furnished onsAT. by the landed owners of tlie Circle during the continuance of the annual exercises. AVhen arrived at the ago of 3!t, the soldiers of the second levy arc incorporated in the landstunn, where they remain until the ageofSU; they are then released from all military service.' "The branches of this great national force arc amply supplied. The fleld artil- lery conniiits of 864 guns. The cavalry (the best disciplined in Europe) reckons a8,U<)U men, in 236 squadrons. The horses for the different services are nearly 7U>tH)0. Ano- ther question arises as tu the force with which Prussia may have especially to con- tend with, namely, France :— "'In Prussia.' says Rtklow Cummcrow, ' a thirtieth part of the whole population would be called into the fleld to defend their conntrv ; and if wo assume that France coula, in case of war, raise her present army of 393,400 men to 80O,UUO, and that her population is now about 35,20n,(J0U, this would amount to only the forty-fourth of her census. Uut a closer examination will diminish considerably (his apparent superiority on her side. Prussia has 500,000 ready for instant service. France has to raise and drill the recruits for such a l^reat ariiiy— she must leave a strong force in her African possessions, and garrison many cities and fortresses, all which would mucli weaken her effective force. Prussia has the money necessary to begin the war, lying readjr; whilst France must apply to the cliamber for the much larger sums which she requires, and, if granted, they must be levied by means of oppressive taxes. All these circumstances are of de- cided importance.' " In Prussia the population, which is about 15,000,000, so much has it increased since the days of Frederic the Great, and is increasing, gives about 130,000 annually obtaining their twentieth year. Of those, making the largest allowance, about lUO.UOO would oe flt tu serve, and of that number not a fourth would be taken for regular service I*" " ' In Prussia about 130,000 men attain annually their twentieth year ; and, al- thuuith more regard is paid to height than in France, only twenty in the hundred would have to be deducted, leaving about 100,(100 tit to serve. Of these from 2.'>,000 to 30,000 are taken, and the rest are dis- tributed into the different classes of the landwehr. It results from this that Prus- sia has a military force well able to repel any invading enemy, not excepting France; and, therefore, when Victor Hugo and other French writers lead their nation to ima- fine that it would be but a breakfast for ranee to devour the left bank of the Rhine, they deceive themselves greatly, and miglit chance to suffer a most troublesome indigc'stiun. But a war with Prussia alone is scarcely possible, and, as our good neigh- bours iu the west do not possess nuy re- markable correct statistics of the strength of the League, we flatter ourselves that the following estimate of the strength of the two sides will And iti way into their jour- nals :— ' CB!iatra or 1840. Square Popu- ^j^i^J^y,, miles. Austria 8,640 Prussia 6,070 States of the German Lea- gue,exclusive of Austria & Prussia .... 4,603 '''"°"- included.) 36,492,734 7t)H,U(IO 1A,0U0,(H)0 600,000 16,315,631 137,983 France 18,112 66,7li8,<'i06 . 9,764 35,000,300 I,39(>,N83 394,400 " We believe that Louis Philippe is as perfectly sincere in his wish for peace, as England is. Uut the people with whom he has to deal have none of his good sense, and the conquest of the Rhenish provinces is the dream of every cobbler in France. We agree entirely in the opinion that France would much more probably lose than gain by an attack on those pro- vinces. Supposing England to be wholly passive, which it is notorious that she would not be, nay, could not, or that Rus- sia would look on, German resistance, in its present stale of preparation, would be formidable. The former facility of French conquest on the Rhine arose almoct wholly from the weakness of the little Rhenish principalities, too small to resist separately, and too jealous to unite. But the greater portion of those states are now consoli- dated into the Prussian sovereignty, and the rest are under the immediate direction of Austria." The principal part of the Prussian domi- nions lies continuously along the south shore of the Baltic, between Russia and Mecklenburg The inland frontier of this part (if the monarchy on the cast and south IS sufficiently connected ; but on the west side its outline is very irregular, some small independent states being almost en- tirely surrounded by the Prussian domi- nions. But exclusive of this principal por- tion, there is an extensive Prussian terri- tory on both sides the Rhine; which is separated from the eastern part of the kingdom by Ilesse Cassell, part of Han- over, Ilruns»ink,&c. The canton of Ncuf- chatel, in Switzerland, and some detached territories in Saxony, also belong to Prus- ■.'.■), Considering the importance of making Prussia a flrst-rate power, as a counter- poise to Russia on the one hand, and to France on the other, it is to be reKretted that at the congress of Vienna her share of Poland was diminished, and that her territories were not rendered more com- pact. TnB ATTSnOAKCR OF CHILDBBIf AT SCHOOL IS BMFOaCBD BT hh\f. TUB CtlMATM Of nOLtAND II CHILLY. DAMP, AlfO aBNIBALI.T UNBIALTnT. i I M M ki m a o M M a THE HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS, t'OMraisiNO HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. Thk NuTnunLAwns, or Low Countriei, which now form two populuus kin^dums, thouKh of srcoiid-ratR imporiance whi-n compared with the great European powers, were, at the comiiiencement of the Chris- tian era, mere dreary marshes and dismal forcstsof vast extent, wliicli were frequently overflowed by the seu. This inhospitable low tract was thinlv inhabited by people of German origin, called Batavians ana Fri- sians, many of whom hved in miserable huts, raised on wooden piles, or built upon mounds of sand, to secure them above the reach of the tides. But it is not to be un- derstood that the entire region was of this description ; although it has been graphi- cally said, that whole forests were occa- sionally thrown down by a tempest, or swept away by an inundation — that the sea had no limits, and the earth no solidity. The higher grounds, extending from the Rhine to the Scheldt, including that vast extent of woody country, the ancient forest of Ardennes, were inhabited by various tribes of the German race, who subsisted by agriculture and the chase. They had towns and villages in the heart of the fo- rest ; their country produced abundant sup- plies of corn and cattle; they were coura- geous and uncivilized ; the rites of Druidism were observed, as in Britain; and the people consisted of two classes, chiefs and slaves. 'When the Romans under Julius Caesar subdued the Gauls, that warlike nation turned their arms also against the people we have just spoken of, whose country they denominated Gallia Belgica, or Belgium; but they did not pursue their conquests farther towards the north, thinking proba- bly that the desert plains and patches of land, rising, as it were, from their watery bed, were scarcely worth the trouble of exploring, much less of contending for. Tliey accordingly offered peace and alliance to that part of the Netherlands now called Holland; while the Frisians were left to struggle with the Roman legions for their liberty. From the writings of CKsar we learn that Flanders was occupied by the Menapii and Morini, Brabant by the Atuatici, Hainault and Namur by the Nervii (so remarkable for desperate courage as to excite the won- der of the veterans of Rome), Luxemburg and Limburg by the Eburones, &c. Ceesar emphatically describerthe Belgians ns the most warlike of tlie Gallic tribes, and ob- serves that in stature and bulk they sur- passed the Romans. But though they iuuKht with an eiirrgy and a determination which nothing could exceed, the discipline and military skill of the Romans eventually obtained the mastery. In subduing this brave people the Ro- mans had recourse to the most barbarous practices of ancient warfare ; and for a time either extermination or expulsion seemed to be necessary to conquer their Herce and valiant spirits: thus we read, that in Ce- sar's celebrated battle with the Nervii, near Namur, the army of the confederated tribes, amounting to 60,000. men, was reduced to 600, and that on taking the town of Ton- gres he sold 53,000 of the Atuatici for slaves. By degrees, however, they became incorporated with their cont^uerors, adopted their manners, and served in their armies, proving themselves, in many memorable instances, the ablest auxiliaries that ever fought by the side of the Roman legions. In this state they remained for about four centuries, during which time the Belgic po- pulation underwent considerable changes from the successive invasions of the Franks from the north, whose progress westward terminated in their estaolishing the Prank- ish empire in Gaul. We have already had occasion more than once in this volume to notice, that wlien the Knmans subjugated any country, the inhabitants, however barbarous, gradually became acquainted with the arts and ad- vantages of civilized life, and that the sub- sequent prosperity and rank to which they attained in the scale of nations may justly be attributed to the connexion which sub- sisted between the conquerors and the con- quered. Thus it was with the Beleic pro vinces. From the Romans they learned how to redeem their inundated lands from the briny flood, by constructing dykes, em- bankments, and canals; and as they were naturally an active and intelligent people, they drained their marshes, and prepared the land not merely as pasture for cattle and the growth of corn, but for the culti- vation of choice fruits and vegetables ; while towns and villages were built on the liiKhcr ground, and the country, instead of being a dreary waste of bog-land and water, pre- sented to the eye a varied prospect of ferti- lity and an industrious population. Towards the declension of the Roman empire, when its rulers were compelled to withdraw their troops from the provinces, Gallia Belgica shared the fate of the rest ; BRLGIVM, TUOUOU COLD AND UVMID, IS MILDER THAN BOLLANO. tBIAIiTnT. ANDS, it though they a determination d, the discipline ■nana eventually people the Ro- nioit barbarous 3i and for a time [pulsion seemed their flerce and !ad, that in Cie- the Nervii, near federated tribes, was reduced to he town of Ton- he Atuatici for er, they became ^uerors, adopted in their armies, any memorable Maries that ever Roman legions, id lor about four le the Belgic po- lerable changes IS of the Frniiks iKress westward liing the Frank- ision more than ice, that when , country, the irons, gradually arts and ad> that the sub- to which they ions may justly ion which sub- irsand the con- the Belgic pro 9 they learned ited lands from ting dykes, era- 1 as they were illigent people, , and prepared iture for cattle t for the culti- getables; while t on the liiKhcr tead of being a nd water, pre- ospect of ferti- latiou. of the Roman compelled to the provinces, te of the rest ; kVB. HAKY PARTI 0» tMB COVnTkY ABOUND IM HATUBAI. CURIOSITIBS. ^f)e l^lstory of tl^e TSTetl^erlantia. 659 and it was sucrcssively overrun hy the va- rious tribes from the north of Germany. Uut notwithstanding these serious dlsna- vnntages, the spirit of improvement kept pace with the age ; more land was reclaimed frnm the ocean, and rendered both pro- ductive ami habitable. The maritime low- land descendants of the Menapii, now blend- ed with Saxons and Frisians, continued to prosper in commerce and ai(riculture. Large towns had been built, and ninny arts and manufactures, brought from other countries, were carried on with credit and success. Bruges, Ghent, Antwerp, andother towns rose into importance, and the com- mercial importance of the Flemings was universally acknowledged. At what precise time the Christian reli- gion was Introduced it is impossible to speak with certainty; but we know that previous to the reign of Charlemagne the conversion of the people had become gene- ral, and tlint churches and monnsieries ex- isted in various parts of the country. But no trace of' the tierce and valiant warriors of former days remained ; thi'ir swords had indeed been turned into ploughshares, and their spears into pruning hooks, but feudal institutions had converted the free sons of the soil into abject vassals, who now toiled only to enrich the baronial lords and haughty priests, whose power and posses- sions were immense. This state of vassal- age did not, however, extend to the towns, the inhabitants of which were mostly mer- chants and manufactures, enjoying all the advantages of free citizens. Their industry and ingenuity not only made them wealthy, but obtained for them attention and re- spect ; and in the course of time they elect- ed their own magistrates, made their own laws, fortitifd their cities, and organized a regular militia from among themselves; so that they were able to maintain their privi- leges and defend their liberties against the encroachments of foreign princes or their own powerful nobles. At the period to which we arc now refer- ring, the maritime commerce of the Flem- ings had made a great progress with Spain and England, frnm whence they obtained large importations of wool. Their skill in t he manufacture of woollen stuffs and cloths had established for then: a market in every foreign port ; the herring ll»herv was also a great source of wealth ; and to these tliey added a large trade in corn, salt, and jewel- lery. In the eleventh century the country was divided into duchies, counties, and impe- rial cities: Brabant, or Lower Lorraine, and afterwards Luxemburg, Liuiburg, and Gueldrcs, wcic governed by dukes ; Flan- ders, Holland, Zealand, liainault, Artuis, Naniur, and Zutphen, by counts. Fries- land Proper remained a free lordship; Utrecht became a bishopric, the secular authority of the bishop extending over Gronin){en and Overyssel. Of all these realms, the counts of Flanders were the most powerful, and, after their possessions had passed, in 1383, to the more powerful house of Burgundy, the latter, partly hy mar- riages, partly by forcu or cession, ohtamed poasession of the largest part of the Low Countries. During the crusades the Flemish burghers obtained great advantages, owing to the mania with which many of the nobles were seized to join the holy leagurrs. In order to raise money for equipping armirs to com- bat against the Saracens, thoy were in- duced to part with their lands and to grant great privileges and political powers to their wealthy tenants, who thus were enabled to purchase Independence nnd a jarisdiciion of their own, as we have before mentioned. " The people, conscious of their power, gra- dually extortfi from their rulers so many concessions, tiiat the provinces formed, in reality, a denmcracy, and were only nomi- nally subject to the monarch of France and Ills nobles. When the rest of Europe was subject to despotism, and involved in com- parative ignorance nnd barbarism, the court of tlic counts of Flanders wns the choiten residence of liberty, civilization, and useful knowledge; and when the ships of other nations scarcely ventured beyond the sight of land, those of the Fleiiiish merchants traversed the ocean, and Bruges and Ant- werp possessed the commerce and wrallh of the north of Europe. In this state (he provinces long continued, until they came under the dominion of the duke of Bur- gundy, about the middle of the 15th cen- tury. Previous to this event, we find only unconnected duchies, counties, lordships, and towns, with innumerable rights, claims, and privileges, advanced and enforced now by subjects and vassals against each other or against their lords; and now by lords and vassals against the monarch, without the expression of anv collective idea of Bel- gium as a nation, tinder the Bur-rundian dynasty the commercial and manufHcturiug towns of the Low Countries enjoyed a re- markable prosperity. The famous order of the Golden Fleece was instituted in 143U; nnd before the end of the IStli century the city of Tpres had 4,000 looms, nnd the city of Ghent .50,000 weavers. Bruges and Antwerp were the great marts of the com- mercial world, and contained each about 200,000 inhabitants. In the Flemish court of the duke of Burgundy, named Philip the Good, about 14.55, luxurious living w.^s car- ried to a vicious and foolish excess. 'Ilic wealthy were clad in gorgeous velvets, sa- tins, and jewellery, and their banquets were given with almost incredible cplendimr. " This luxury produced depravity nnd crime to such an extent, that in one year 1,400 murders were committed in Ghent, in tlie gambling-houses and other resorts of debauchery. The arts were cultivated with greot success. Van Eyek invented the beautiful oil colours for which the Fle- mish school is renowned Painting on glass, polishing diamonds, lace, tapestry, and chimes were also invented in Belgium at this period. Most of the magnilicent cathedrals nnd town halls in the country were built in the 13th and 14th centuries. a I U ' U I s ; (^ i B ■ < i «• i it i> K ■< Bi O IN BBLOIUM AHX BEEN TUB nUINS Ot MANT OLD FEUDAL CABTLBS. i m Ma II f ^h; fci .'? H' BliaiUM II BICH IH MINBa*l< ADA •B0tO«IC«l. rBODUCTIONI. 660 ^^c ^rrasuri} of 1|i«torp, $cc. Iliitory, poetry, and learning were mnch cultivated ; itnil the univmity of Louvain WM the nioii celchmttvl in Europe. In 1477 Belgium paiacd under the dynaity of the empire ot Auatriii ; nud after innn^ ypari of contest between the denpolic Maxi- milian and the democratic I'lemlnKR, the Kovcrnment, in 1519, ilciceniled to hii grnndion, Charlea V., king of Spain and emperor of Oormany. In hii reign the afltucncc of the Flumith burghert attained it! highest point. The city uf Ghent con> taincdi7S,0lt() inhabitant!, of v>hoiu 1U0,(M)0 were rnKaK**'! *i weaving and other indui- trial arti. llrugei annually exported RtulTs of Kngliih and Spanish wool to the value of R,U()U,iM)0 florin*. The Scheldt at Ant- werp often contained 2,fi(IO veRscIa, waiting their turn to come to the wharf*; her gates were daily entered by 600 loaded waggoni ; and her exchange wai attended, twice a day, by fi,UUU merchant!, who expended ISU.UUO golden crowns in a aiiiRle bunuuet given to Philip II., son of Charles V. The Nulue of the wool annually iniiiortcd from England and Spain exceeded 4,UU(),UUU pieces of gold. This amazing prosperity experienced a rapid and fatal decline under the mnlignnnt tyranny nnd bigotry of Phi- lip. The doctrines of the protcsiant re- formation had found very numerous ad- herents in Belgium; Lutheraniam was preached with phrenxied seal by several popular fanatics, who drew around them crowds amounting sometimes to lU.OOU or 15,000. Parties of iconoclasts also ap- peared, and demolished the ornamental property of -lOU churches. Protestant per- secution by the Inquisition had been com- menced by Charles V.; but by Philip If. it was establifcbed in its most diabolical extravagance. He Oiled the country with Spanish soldiers, and commissioned the duke of Alva to extiri>ate, without mercy, every prote stant heretic in Belgium. Vo- lumes have been written to describe the proceedings of this able soldier, but san- guinary persecutor, who boasted that in less than six years he had put to death 18,U0U men and women by the sword, the gibbet, the rack, and the dames. Ruin and dread of death in its most hideous forms drove thousands of artizans to England, where they introduced the manufacturing skill of Bruges and Ghent. Commerce and trade in Flanders dwindled away, many of the rich merchants were reduced to beg for bread, the great cities were half de- serted, and forest wolves often devoured the scattered inhabitants of desolated vil- lages." — For the foregoing spirited sketch of the rise, progress, and decline of com- merce and the arts in Belgium, we are in- debted to Mr. M'CuUoch's Geographical Dictionary. These oppressions being exercised with the most tyrannical fury by Ferdinand of Toledo, duke of Alva, whom Philip had created governor, the'Netherlands made a strong effort for their freedom, and Wil- liam, prince of Orange, in conjunction with Ills brother, count Louis of Nassau, undertook the defence of the inhabitants, in their noblo struggles for religious and rivil liberty. Accordingly, the slates of Holland, in their own names, conferred the ttadlholdtf»htp, a title equivalent to lieutenant, on the forinrr, and several other towns and provinces declared for him. He ttrst uniled them, in I57u« •nd y, tlie iiNtct of inniei, conferred [|o rquivulent to and »«vcrnl olhrr ired tor him. He 11, in one Keneral irie of "The I'B. thi( union beinR e Inbourvd to the orm • more dur- happily accom- it year the celc t was concluded, United Province!, uid plan of their t WAS afterwards ( nominated the jntrlei, but wai 14, by an aiiamin rd, who had as- icii Guyon. Thii ave been hired to y the Spanish mi- ould force a con- ; United Nether- ucd to maintain, rty to wliirh tiiey and Elizabeth of tur her protection, lenlial atiixtance. er, the favourite of ver by her to the ir 1385, the statea [and cnptain-genc- nccK, or in other but hit haughty .nnuer of conduct- ed him unpopular. Limed to kngland. ardi better sup- jaffled all the Al- and their coin- eight, that in 16U3 dia company waa IK both wralceued I ill succeiB of a ed to an armistice le very first article dged the United and independent the republic at- wcr which it has ty to make war , the republicans ailors, and cnter- rchuuts, who vi- liom no port was too discuuraging. Antwerp, and Lis- and in this way ere, in the mid- the first comincr- laritime power in ut lUO vessels of to every rival, e rejoiced in the dcd monarchy of India Company, MADSUES. cor m)t l^istorQ of t^c :K(tt)crIantls. 661 established in \M)i, coniniered islnilds and i kingdoms m Asia; and MJili about l'i><) sliiun, they rarried on a trade » itli China, anil i-ven with Japan. They «|itn« sup- plied Kuroiic with llic pruductiitni, nf llir spice Islands. The gold, i ' pearls, the pre- cious Jewels of the Eaul, Nil (III ksed through their hands. The Wi-st India romnany was not so successful, on account of the jealousy of Kngland and Prance, llnllaud, never! helets, nir a long time maintained the dominion of (he sea. Van Triinu and I)e Kuyter were victorious, and liouis XIV'., who had laid a deep plan fur humbling the daring republic, was finally exhausted, and obliged to sue for peace. These signal successes were principally obtained by the able conduct of prince Maurice of Nassau, the second son of the first stadthulder ; and to the same dignity this prince was chosen when only twenty- one yeitrs of age. He conducted the af- fairs of the states, during twenty Tears, with great ability and success. The latter finrt of (his nrincc's government was sul- ied by cruelly and ingratitude; for he procured the condemnation and deoth of the pensionary ItarneveU, to whose influ- ence he owed his elevation. This man, who was uii Armenian in religion ond a re- publican in politics, was sacrificed to his opinions ; but his death caused the po- liiicitl principles for which he suflered to surcad more widely. Those who opposed tlic sladtholder were afterward called " the liouvcstein oarty," from De Witt, burgo- master of Dort, and five other members of the stutcs general, being imprisoned in that castle for maintaining such scnii- luenti. In 1621 the war was again renewed, during which the stadtholder, prince Fre- deric Henry, youngest sou ot the first VVitliani (who succeeded, on the death of his half brother, prince Mbuiice, in I(i25) greatly distinguished himself. This war was brought to a period in 1648, by the pearo of Munslcr, by which treaty Phi- lip IV., king of Spain, renounced all claim to the United Netherlands. Frederic was succeeded by his only son William, who was fourth stadtholder, being then twenty-one years of oge. He appears to have been ambitious, us was his father. In ir).'>2 a war broke out between the United Provinces and England, the latter country then bein< under a republican form of government : this war was ter- minated two years after, by a treatv, in which the states of Holland engaged for ever to exclude the house of Orange from the stadtliolderstiip of their province. In 16G5 another war was kindled with England, at which time that country had regained its regal constitution : this war continued until the treaty of Breda. The slates of Holland and West Friesland then passed an edict, by which they abolished the Blodtholdcrsliip in their province. This wos ellected by the influence of the grand pensionary De'Witt. When Fran.ce formed u design to seize on the Spiinish Nether- lands, the United Provinces entered into an I' liance with the crowns of Knvland and $^ veden for the defence of (hose countries t by which France was, in IffftH, compelled to agree to the peace of Aix-la-('haprlle ; hut soon took a severe revenge by breaking that iilliance, and inducing Kiigland, Mith some other iiowers, to enter into a league against the C'lillcil Provinces; on which a war ensued. In this critical juncture, the republic, in i()7i, nominated William, the young prince of Orange, captain and admi- ral general: nnd the populace compelled the states of Ifiilland to invest him with the stadtholdrmliin, whieli two years after was derlarcd hereditary in his family. He was the fifih s(adtliolder and the third of that name ; he married the princess Mary, eldest daughter of James II. of England, •nd became king of England. In the year l(i7H a peace was concluded with France, at Nimcguen ; but it was of no long continuance, for, in 1(188, the states supporting their stadtholder in his expedi- tion to England, with a fleet and a large body of troops, France declared war agaiiift them, which was tenninatcd by the peace of Rvswick in 161)7. At length, on the dcalh of Charles II. king of Spain, in the year 1700, the Spanish provinces fell to the share of the house of Austria, and the republic be- came involved in a war respecting (hot suc- cession, which continued till the peace of Utreijht, in 1713. William died king of England and stadt- holder of the United Provinces, in l'02. He appointed John William Frizo, prince of Nassau Dietz, his sole heir, who was born 1CH7, and was drowned in crossing an arm of the sea at Mardyke, 14th July, 1711. Three months alter his death his widow- was delivered of a son, who was christened William, and afterwards became stadthol- der; but on the death of William III. that office was laid aside, until, in 17^S, the pro- vince of Guehlcrs elected him their stadt- holder, notwithstanding the remonstrance* of the other provinces. On the decease of the emperor Charles VI. the Dutch assisted the queen of Hun- gary against France, which drew on them the resentment of that power; and in i747, the French making nn irruption into Dutch Flnndcrs, the republic unanimously de- clared the above mentioned Willioiii, prince of Orange, stadtholder, captain-generul, and adniiral-incbief, making those dignities he- reditary in his family, even in the female and collateral branches. In the general war which broke out in Europe in 1756, the Dutch, taking no part in the quarrel, were perhaps the greatest gainers, by supplying (he belligerent pow- ers with naval and military stores; and when the dispute between Great Britain and the American colonies rekindled the flames of war, the most essential assistance was procured both to America and France, by means of the Dutch settlement at St. Eustatius, and of the freights brought by their ships. At length it was discovered by the capture of an American packet, that a It I.RAD AND IRON ARh rOUNO IN LIEOB, NAMDU, AND LUXBUBUBO. [3£ "s^FSKHI^iSSseil mm Ml A TUX MINXBAL WATBR* OF IFA, MBAR IIBOB, ABB VEBT CBtEBBATBD. 662 ^l^c ®r«asuri) of l^iatoii), $rc. treaty between vlur Aniericnn States oncl the province of Ilollaiid was nctunll^ ad- justed, and that Mr. Laurens, the president of the congress, was appointed to reside at Amsterdam in a public capacity. This oc- casioned the court of London iiist to cancel all treaties of commerce and alliance which then subsisted between that kingdom and the United States, and soon after, in De- cember, I78U, to issue a declaration of hos- tilities against the republic. The resent ment of Great Ilritain proved extremely fatal to the possessions and wealth of the Dutch: the island of St. Kustatius, with a lui'ge fleet of valuable merchant ships, fell an easy prey to a naval and military force under the command of admiral Rodney and gem /al Vuughan ; several homeward-hound East India ships, richly laden, were either taken by the Knglish or destroyed ; Negn- patnam, on the Coi-omandel cuust, and their chief settlement on the island of Cey- lon, were wrested from them ; a fleet of merchant ships bound to the Baltic, con- voyed by a squadron of Dutch men of war, under the command of admiral Zoulman, were obliged to return to the Texcl, and one of the 74 gun ships was sunk in a very sharp action which happened with a Bri- tish squadron under the command of admi- ral (lyde Parker, (afterwards created n ba- ronet). Had the admiral been supplied with only one more ship of the line, he would probably have captured most of the enemy's fleet. In the mean time the cmpornr of Ger- many, aiteniive to the improveniont of his dumiiiions in th& Low Countries, and desi- rous of procuring for his subjects the ad- vantages to be derived from the extension of their commerce, determined to oblige the Dutch to allow a free navigation on the Scheldt, which river, by the treaty of Munster, in the year 1648, they possessed exclusively. To procure this, a ship, bear- ing the imperial flag, proceeded down the Sclieldt from Antwerp; the captain being ordered not to submit to any detention or examination whatever from the ships belonging to the republic of the Seven United Provinces, or to make any deelufn- tion at the custom-houses belonijiiiig to the republic on that river, or to acknowledge them in any manner whatever. At the same time another vessel was ordered to sail from Ostciid up the Scheldt to Ant- werp. They were both stopped by the Dutch on their passage, whicii the emperor construed into a declaration of war on the part uf the ro|iublie, although by the Mth article of the treaty of Munster, entered into with Philip IV. of Spain, it was stipu- lated that the Scheldt should remain shut: in consequence of which that river had remained guunled by two forts, Lillo and Lieskevshnck, assisted by guurd-sliips. An army of 8(i,U(l() men was now a»seiiibling; and siiinc imperial troo|iH, with a train of artillery, advancing towards Lillo, ihe go- vernor ordered the sUiici'S to he opened in Novemhcr, 1"S1, which laid u lar( when the prince having attained to eighteen years of age, toolc upon himself the ad- ministration of public affairs. The year following, he married the princess Frede- ricn Sophia Wilhelinina of Prussia. The ami.Hble mau: ^rs and benign dispo- sition of this prince procured him getie- ral esteem, whil.st the absolute ascendancy which the duke of Brunswick had ae(|uired, during so long a minority, over the mind of a prince in whom geiith'ness and ac- quiescence were such prevailing qualities, caused him still to retain all his plentitude of power. It was not long, however, before the people began to complain that the most undisguised partiality was shown to fo- reigners in the appointments to oltlces. One of the chief favourites about the fierscni of the prince of Orange was Capel- ttii Vander Marah, who had been advanced from a low origin to the station of cham- berlain, and ennobled. This man, having continual opportunities of conversing with the prince in private, represented to him the necessity there was for him to inter- fere, by exerting that authority whicli the states had vested in him, and no longer to delegate it in so unqiialitied n manner. The prince acknowledged the justice of the snggesliun, and promised to act upon it; but when instances were pointed out in which he might render himself highly po- pular by appointing certain persons to vacant otfices, he found the restraints in which he had ever been accustomed to be held too strong to be broken. This led Capcllan to desert the cause of his master, ond to join the republican party. Soon after, the duke of Brunswick resigned his employment and quitted the country. The republican, or unti sindtliolderian party, which, as we have already seen, had subsisted in ihe provinces ever since the year 1()47, or from the death of Maurice, tlie scciind stadi holder, louiid, in the ministry of France, the uiosi elfectual support whicli in- triuue nnd a lavish distribution of money could render. More than a nnlliininfmoncy had been issued I'niiii the treasury of the court ofVersa. Ill's to further tlicf iiiierests of this party. However secretly these practices might be carrieil on, they were not conceal- MANY nlBK.\SKa Anii SAID TO Ul: CtMIED BT TUB SrA WATISHB. ~m. , n I . "T I II II . II I I I ■■ II I "t" I . ~ IX HOLLAND TBKHII ARR NO MINIS Of ANT DBRCHirTION. ^\)t IJbtorn of il)e :N'ct!)erlantis. 663 rd from '.he courts of London nnd Berlin, who were no less strenuous to support tlic Orange pnrty. Interiinl dissensions, thus fomented by foreign interference, rose to a destruetive hciglit; and nnch party im- bibed tlie most rancorous spirit aKninst the other, insomuch tliat it was thouglit to be no longer safe for the prince and princess, with tlieir family, to reside at the Ilague; they therefore, in September, IJSii, retired to Nimcguen. In this posture of affairs, the princess of Orange, wlio possessed an elevated mind, great abilities, and an enterprising spirit, determined uu a very bold and decisive measure ; which was, to proceed, without the prince, and uitli only two nr three at- tendants, to the Hague, to make the expe- riment how far her presence and address could be rendered serviceable to the cause of the prince her husband. As she was prucucdiiig on her journey on the 2Hih of June, 17«7, she was stopped near Schoon- hoven, by a cummandnnt acting under the republican party, detained there during the succeeding night, and absolutely re- stricted from proceeding any further. This indignity determined her to return to Ni- meguen, and a representation of tlie treat- ment she had received was immediately transmitted to the king of Prussia, her brother, who had surceeded " the great Frederic" on that throne. The kin;; sup- ported the cause of his sister with great warmth ; but the states of Holland not being disposed to make any concessions, the reigning duke of Urunswick, nephew to the duke who had tilled the high oHiccs in Holland, was placed ut the head of an army of Vrussians, amounting to about IS.UdO effective men, whom lie led on the 13tli of September into the province of Giielderland, for the express purpose of restoring the prince of Urangc to his rights. The judicious distribution of the troops, and tlie vigour of the operations, reflected the highest credit on the commander. A general panic seized the republican party ; only the town of Goveam, which was com- maiided bv Cnpelinn, sustained a bombard- nifiit of about an hour; the other places of stiength opened their gates iit the first sum- mons. Even the strong city of Utrecht, in which were lO.HHO men 'n arms, and whose fortitieations liad been greatly strength- ened, instead of meeting with Hrmncss the approach of the enemy, was deserted by the whole republican parly, with all the precinitnncy of desperation. These rapid successes of the duke caused the Oraingc party to gain the ascendancy at the Hague: but the city of Amsterdam remained de- termined to resist to the utmost; relying upon the prodigious strength of the place, which both nature and art, it had ever been supposed, had contributed to render, im- pregnable. The duke, however, made his arrangements for ntlaeking the city in va- rious uirectioiis; leading on his choicest troops to the most perilous assault in per- son. After a very obstinate conflict, some of the most important of the outworks were taken, which gave the besiegers a secure lodgment, and threatened the city with a destructive bombardment: the ma- gistracy of Amsterdam Knding themselves thus placed, thought it high time to sub- mit to terms. After this event, nothing material oc- curred till the invasion of the French re- volutionists, which changed the whole as- pect of affairs both in Holland and Ucl- gium. In 1792 the national assembly sent general Dumouriez, at the head of a | large army, to invade llelgium, it being ! an object of flrst-ra'e importance to de- I deprive .Austria of that country ; and, in November, the French general gained a ' great victory at Jemappe, in Hainault. In a few days afterwards Dumouriez made his triumphant entry into Urussels. The party who favoured the French was much too strong, conjointly with the invaders, for the friends of the house of Orange to resist the invaders with any chance of siiccer.s; accordingly, in a very short limp, all the principal towns of the Netherlands suhniii'ed to the French; nnd it was pom- pously asserted by the latter, that it was the wish of the .clgians themselves to ' throw off the govcrnnu'iit of Austria, and be incorporated with the French republic. ; That many really wished this there can be no doubt, but though the turbulent nnd : disaffected were numcrnus, such an union '' was not desired by the majority of those who had any thing to lose. Although by a very easy conquest the . Frinch had gained possession nt the Ne- I theriands, the emperor of Austria took im- ; mediate measures with a view to its reeo- 1 vcrv. A large army, under th'j archduke ! Charles, joitied by the duke of York and the prince of Urange, at the head of their English and Dutch troops, contended for a time with the armies of Fr.ince; but after two years of narfarn, in wliich the allied troops, but more particularly the Dritisb, suffered very severely, the cause of the Btadi holder grew hopdess. When, there- fore, in 1791, the victorious banners of re- publican France waved on the frontiers of Holland, the malcontents again rose. Pi- chevtru, aided by tiie severity of the winter of 1795, and by tlie favour of the popular party towards the French, madi- an easy coni) test of Holland. The hereditary sladt- h(ddjr (led with his family to England, and the Uatavian republic was formed, May \C>, 179'>. The old provinces were now merged into onj republic ; the legislative power, in imi- tation of the French, was given to a re- presentative assembly ; and the executive to a directory of live. The new republic was obliged to cede to France some southern districts, particularly Maestricht, Venloo, Limburg, nnd Dutch Flanders ; to form a perpetual alliance with that state; pay a sum of 100,000,000 guilders; and allow the French troops to occupy its territories. Six years after, it was found necessary to alter this constitution. The republic was 'I I il THB ORBATEST TVORKS OF TUB DUTCU ARB THEIR STUPENDOUS DYKBS. '■ I r TUR BuarACi or uollanu rncRKNta an imhkksk nktwohk or canam. e u M* M H ■ M a IB. 664 El)t ^icasuri; o( H^istonj, $ct. aKain divided into tlic old provinces ; in nddition to wliicli tlic " Innd or tlic gonn- rnlty" wa* I'ormGd into nn oiKlitli- The adniiniitration ol' the Kovcrnmuiit was Him- plltlud; tlie Icgialntive assembly dimiuisdicd lo tliirtytivc aqiulics; and tlic executive power waa extended to a council of atnte of twelve men. Notwithttandiii)^ tliose nl- tcrntions, the Uatuvinn republic, incapable of cflectiuK its ends with tlie feeble re- mains of its strength, saw its Hceta over- nowered by those ul' England ; its colonies laid waste ; its commerce limited to a coast- ing-trade, and to the doinvslic consump- tion; and the bank of Amstcrdaiii ruined. Bjr tlie peace of Amiens, in 1803, it was de- prived of Ceylon, one of its richest colo- nies. AVlien peace had been concluded between Great Britain and France, and the hopes of better times were just awakened, the hal- cyon dream was suddenly dispelled, and the thunder of war again resounded on the shores of Holland. Its ports were block- aded, its fleets were annihilated, and its dis- tant colonies fell into the power of the Uri tisli; its prosperity, indeed, seemed forever gone ; it was treated as a conquered coun- try, and all the advantages promised by its republican allies proved a mere chimera. In 18(16, the Dutch constitution was changed for the third time; lut, so far from any improvement taking piAcc in the condition of the country, it continued to grow worse, and the only remedy that now seemed to present itself was the incor- poration of Holland with the French em- pire. This accordingly took place in 18(l(!, the mode in which it was accomplished being by cn-cting it into a kingdom, of whicli Louis Buonaparte, one of Napoleon's brothers, was invested with the sovereignty. But Holland was equally unfortunate its a kingdom, as when it was designated the Bataviau republic. Though, by n treaty with France, king Louis possessed tlic rights of a constitutional monarch, and was disposed to exercise his authority with mildness and impartiality, he was mnde the mere instrument of Napoleon. It is true that he hesitated in enforcing, if he did not resist, the arbitrary decrees of the emperor, and that he incnred no small share ot his disapprobation in conseouence ; but his efforts to promote the weal of liis subjects proved wholly incfTectual, so tho- roughly controlled was he by the power to whom he owed his regal elevation. Hol- land was exeluded from the conimereinl privileges of France, though it had to fol- low all the wars of Napoleon. The national debt was augmented to 1 ,200().()00,OIIO guil- ders. The only means by which the mer- chant could obtain a support was the smug- gling trade with England. Almost all the former sources of prosperity were obstrnct- ed ; and when Napoleon's Milan decree (of Nov. 11, 18U7) was prumulgntcd, and the Dutch ports were shut against British com- nierce, the trade of Holland was totally ruined. The well-disposed king, lamenting evils which he had no power to remedy, and finding that if he retniiied the sovereignty he niu^t become a tyrant against bis own will, volunturily and u'nexpeetedly abdicated the crown, in favour of his eldest son, a minor, July 1, 1810, and withdrew into the Austrian territory, as a private individual. Napoleon did not, however, sanction his brother's measures. The French troops at once occupied Amsterdam, and a decree was passed for annexing Holland to the French empire; six senators, six deputies in the council of state, two judges in tlio court of cassation, and twenty-live deputies in the legislative body, being assigned to it. The continental system was then more strictly enforced, the taxes were augmented, and the conscription laws were introduced, wliereby husbands, sons, and brothers were torn from their families, and compelled to tight for a cause they detested, and a ty- rant they abhorred. The Dutch depart- ments, which had already been formed in the time of the kingdom, now constituted two military divisions; and all the seven- teen provinces of the Netherlands were united under the dominion of France. At length the fortunes of Buonaparte began to decline, and the people looked forward with hope that their worst days of suffering had passed. The prince of Orange had died in England, in 1800 ; but his son was living, and on him the hopes of the nation were Axed. The Russian cam- paign of 1813, so fatal to the ambition of the French emperor, was regarded by the Dutch patriots as the advent of their dc- liveranee. But Buonaparte was still in power, and most of the fortresses in the Netherlands were garrisoned with French soldiers. Ardent, therefore, as their feel- ings were, and anxious as were their hopes, they patiently watched that portentous cloud wtiieh appeared in the polilieal hori- zon, and which at last burst with deso- lating fury on the hosts of Napoleon at Leipsic. That important battle may be said to have decided the fate of Belgium and Hol- land : the armies of the allies advanced against France ; a combined Prussian and Russian force, under Bulow, was sent against the Netherlands, and was joined by a detachment from Uiigland, uiuli.'r ge- neral Uraluiin. .\11 the great towns now declared for William, prince of Orange, who on the llidi of November, 1813, arrived at the Hague, and was welcomed with the sincerest tokens of joy and aifectiou. He immediately repaired to Amsterdam, where he was proclaimed king, the people being unaniniouslv desirous that the stadtliol- derate should be changed into an heredi- tary monarchy. It was not long before the whole country was entirely freed from the presence of the French, and the new sovereign, (the sixth in descent from the illustrious founder of the republic) was so- lemnly inaugurated nn thellUlh of March, 1814, and proclaimed by the title of Wil- liam I. By a vote of the congress of Vienna, the Bclgic provinces were united with TRB ROADS ABB OOOD, AND OBNBBAM.Y rSNCRD BT CANAtS OH UtTCUBB. hv HOLLAND WHa FOHMIKLY TUB MOIT COMMRRCIAL COUNTBT IN XUBOrB. Cl^e l^istori) of tl^e ^Tctljctlantia. 666 the United Nctlicrlniids, to form one kinpf- (loin.Hiid William wan recuKxized liynll tlic tiou'cra nil novvrRiitii kin^ of the Nctlirr- aiids. At tlic time ol' tliis nrrnnKeinciit u trcMty WAR made with Grcnt Kriluiii, wliich uower Hfcrecd (o ri'Klorc all the ctdonieit it tmd tiiken from the Diilcli, except the C'lipe of (>ood Hope, Ceylon, lCfiRC(|Uil)0, Uerhice, and Deiiii't'iirn. 'i'liix union by no nicnoK giive entire sal iitfiici ion; indeed, then; liad never been any cordiality be- tween tlie two people, ovvinK to tin; rcli IciooH prejndices of I lie IleJKinnK, who arc cutliolicR, and not only dixliko l)einK ko- veriied by a protestiint kin^, but biive u kind of national aiiiinnnity to the Dutch. The people, however, were obliged to ac- quieHce in the deeinion of the rillinu; powcis. Hcai'ci^ly was llie union of llonand and Belgium accompliHlied.when the unexpect- ed re-appciiriince of Biinnupnrle on the soil of France dislurlu'd the peace of Europe; and tlie Netherliinds became onec more a Rcene of warfare. l.oiii!i XVIII. had taken refuge in Ulient, and there remained till the fate of the enemy was dceiilcd on tlie Held of Waterloo. As the principal fea- tures of this important battle have been already given in this vol\ime, it would he n ncedleits repetition to introiluce it in lliis place: we shall therefore merely notice n few ineidentH connected with the subject, or arising out of it. In llie month of June, 1H15, Brussels presented n gay and animated appearance. It being the head-quartern of the Itritish army. Olllcers in tlieir bright uniforms, accompanied by elegantly dressed Indien, thronged the park; and on the 15th the duke of Wellington, with the chief of the ofliccrs was present at a hall Kiven by the duchess of Richmond. Tlie duke had been that day dining at his hotel with some of his aides-de-camp, and before Ihey left tlie table, a dispatch was received from jnar- sbal Ulueher, (who had taken up his posi- tion at some few leagues distance, to guard tlie outposts of the allied armies), iiilorm- ing the British commander that he bad been suddenly and unexpectedly dttaeked by the French, and might probably rccjuirc assistance, in which ease lie might soon expect to hear from him again. Orders were accordingly given by the duke for all the troops in Brussels to be ready to march at. a moment's notice; and then, having made his arrangementH with apparent com- posure, in order not to create unneeessary alarm in the city, he and his olllcers at- tended the ball; and up to a late hour all continued trnn((uil. Soon after midnight, however, the rolling of drums and the sound of bugles alarmed the inliabiiaiitn, but all the Information that could be obtained was, that the (hike of Wellingtini had received a dispatch in the ball-room, of so urgent a kind, that home nf the cavalry oHiecrs, whose vegi- mcnls were quartered in the adjacent vil- lages, had not time to change their iiltirc, but actually galloped olf in their bnll-rooiu dresses. It was at length asiertaincd that the French had obtained some ndvantngcs over the I'ruifsianB, who had been obliged to retreat and take up a new position, about seven miles from the village of Quatre Bras. The rolling drum, the clang of arm*, the trampling of horses, and all the fi^arful din of warlike preparation, resounded in the streets of Brussels during the whole of that eventful niglit; and at break of ''ay were to be seen, among the brave fellows who were wailing for orders to march, many an anxious weeping wife and child j taking their fond farewell of those who, haply, ere the sun went down would leave them wretched and forlorn. Silent and deserted were the streets oi soon as the soldiers had left them for the battle-Held; but wherever human counte- nances appeared during the dreadful mo- ments of Kuspense, it was evident that tear and dismay uMirped all other feelings. Pre- sently tne holhiw sound of distant cannon was distintly heard; and in the absence of authentic intornuition, busy rumour nwig- nitlcd the riuil danger, and circulated ac- counts of disasters the most appalling. On this day (ihe Kith) two battles were fought; one at Ligny, by the Prussians under Blu- clier, against Buonaparte in person; the otlicr at Uuatre Bras, belweer. a part of the British army under the duke of Welling- ton, against the French troops cummanilcd by marshal Ncy, who had intercepted the duke on bis march to aid the Prussians. At night authentic intelligence was re- ceived at Krusscls that a most sanguinary battle had been fought, which was to be renewed on the following day, hut that the French were no nearer than they wej'e in the morning. This latter assurance in some measure allayed the worst tears of the inhabitants ; hut the night was very generally occupieu in packing up their valuables, so that their departure miirlit not he impeded should the French be ulli- mateljr victorious and become masters of the city. Every thing that occurred, in fact, strengthened thi.s impression; and in the midst of the confusion attendant on the hasty harnessing uf liorses to Ihe bag- gage-waggons and the rattling of trains of artillery, a troop of Belgic cavalry, who had tied Irom the Held before tin iiu;bt was over, spread a report that the Itiilihh army was totally defeated, and that iIm; French were wilhin an hour's marcli of tlru.'^sclH. Despair now siized the pHnichiiielicn cilizens, but none had more eau)>e lo dread an unfavourable result than the numirnii') Eiiglitih visitors at that time in the Bclgie capital, who were consequently among llie foremost of the fugitives. At length it was ascertained that a most ti i riljle con- flict bad taken place, in which the heroic duke of Brunswick, and most of the gal- lant Highlanders, who had marched fnim Brussels in the morning, were lying dead upon the Held ; and that the duke of Wel- lington had withdrawn to Wati^rloo, in or- der to he nearer Ihe Prussians, wlio had retreated alter their defeat at higny. Karly next morning a number of loi';; tilted wr.g- « SITCIIK8. ALTUUUOU MOST HMTEUl-BISr NO, TUB DIJICII AUK nKMAHKAatV CAUTIOUS. [3i.1 MP SDVCATIOW in HOLLAND 18 UMBBB TUK SUriRIIfTIHDKIICB OF THB 8TATI. i I ii> :! , ! ' > H c o a f 666 ^f;e ^reasuri) of l^istori), $cc. Kona arrived, conveying the wounded sol- diers slowly through the town to the hos- pitals. Saturday was a day of breathless anxiety and intense grief. Some were mourning the lost ol' friends and relatives, others were anticipating the ruthless violence of the French soldiers when Brussels should be given up to plunder; while all who hod the means of conveyance, and many who had not, set out for Antwerp. But that day passed with very little Aghting, both armies being engaged in making prepa- rations for a decisive contest on the fol- lowing (Sunday, June 18). At ten o'clock the battle of Waterloo commenced, and was not concluded till nine at night, when the complete overthrow of the French army was effected. The tirst accounts which reached Brus- sels ascribed the victory to the enemy, addin;; that the duke of Wellington was severely wounded, and that most of the English officers wdire either killed or made prisoners: nor was it until the following morning that the mournful lamentations of despair were changed into sounds of joy and gratulation. But the terrible na- ture of the conflict was fully understood, for every one who arrived from the battle- fleld agreed that the carnage of that dread- ful day was only surpassed by the match- less valour of the combatants. Lord Byron has so admirably described the state of the Belgic capital during this memorable period, that our readers, we have no doubt, will applaud rather than condemn us for transferring to our pag»s ■tancas so graphic and picturesque :— "There was a sound of revelry by night, And Belgium's capital hud gather'd then Her beauty and her chivalry, and bright The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men ; A thousand hearts beat happily; and when Music arose with its voluptuous swell. Soft eyes look'd love to eyes which spake again. And all went merry as a mnrriage-bell ; But hush I hark I a deep sound strikes like a rising knell ! " Did ye not hear it ?— No j 'twas but the wind, Or the car rattling o'er the stony street j Un with the dance I let joy beunconfined; No sleep till morn, when Youth and Plea- sure mret To chase the glowing Hours with flying feet— But hark I that heavy sound breaks in once more. As if the clouds its echo would repent ; And nearer, cleari'r, deadlier than before ! Arm! Arm I it is— it is — the cannon's opening roar ! " Within a window'd niche of that hinh hall Sate Brunswick's futed chieftain ; he did hear That sound the first amidst the festival. And caught its tone with Death's pro- phetic ear; And when they smiled because he deem'd it near. His heart more truly knew that peal too well Which stretch'd his father on a bloody bier. And roused the vengeance blood alone could quell : He rush'd into the fleld, and, foremost fighting fell. "Ah I then and there was hurrying to and fro, ' And gathering tears and tremblings of distress, And cheeks all pale, which but an hour ago Blush'd at the praise of their own loveli- ness; And there were sudden partings, such as press The life from out young hearts, and choking sighs Which ne'er might be repeated; who could guess If ever mure should meet those mutual eyes. Since upon night so sweet such awful morn could rise 7 " And there was mounting in hot haste : the steed, The mustering squadron, and the clat- tering car. Went pouring forward with impetuous speed. And swiftly forming in the ranks of war; And tlie deep thunder peal on peal afar ; And near, the beat of the alarming drum Housed up the soldier ere the morning star; While throng'd the citizens with terror dumb. Or whispering, with white lips—' The foe I They come ! they come ! " And wild and high the ' Cameron's ga- thering ' rose ! The war-note of Lochiel, which Albyn'a hills Have heard, and heard, too, have her Saxon foes : — How in the noon of night that pibroch thrills. Savage and shrill! But with the breath which tills Their mountain- pipe, so fill the moun- taineers Willi the tierce native daring which instils The stirring nifuiorynftt thousand years. And Dvun's, Donald's I'ltinc rings in each clansman's ears ! " And Ardennes waves above thcni her green leaves. Dewy with nature's tear-drops as they pass. Grieving, if aught innnimnte e'er grieves. Over the unrcturning brave, — alas ! BBLOIUM IS BBMAnKADLK VOIt ITS MUMCnOUS SCHOOLS Ot Mt/SlC. 1 BTATI. t the festival. Death's pro- , m use he deem'd O n that peal too i r on a bloody f c blood alone m B< and, foremost n « M H 1 hurrying to m f tremblings of o H h but an hour H eir own loveli- •9 rtings, such as n s S hearts, and •J epeated; who n < M those mutual s N ch awful morn 14 M DS ■ in hot haste : e i r. i and the clat- •< B ith impetuous 2 ! ranks of war; *• i 1 on peal afar ; S alarniin); drum < e the morning ns with terror : a ps— • The foe ! H le! Cameron's ga- 19 •e. which Albyn's too, have her 4 t that pibroch ith the bi'cnth * » fill the moun- < ig which instils liousand yvurs. S rings in each •J n ove them her drops as they fe e'er grieves, e, — alas ! osic. TUB rBnaoN or tus king is iMTioiAkLa; uis ministibs kksfonsibli. ^Ijc ISiatore of tl^c ^Tet^ttloatJis. 607 E'er evening to be trodden like the grass AVhich now beneath them, but above shall grow In its next verdure, when this fiery mass Of living valour, rolling on the foe And burning with high hope, shall moulder cold and low. " Last noon beheld them full of lusty life. Last eve in Beauty's circle proudly gay, The midnight brought the signal-sound of strife. The morn the marshalling in arms, — the day Battle's magnificently-stcrn array ! The thunder-clouds close o'er it, which when rent The earth is cover'd thick with other clay, Which her own clay shall cover, heap'd and pent. Rider and horse,— friend, foe,— in one red burial blent I" So numerous were the wounded on the field of battle, that although the most ac- tive exertions were used to remove them, it was the work of three days ; but it is satis- factory to know, that nothing could exceed the humanity of the peasantry in the neigh' bouring villages, who were incessantly oc- cupied in conveying food, water, and such other necessaries to the fatal field as were calculated to alleviate the sufferings of those brave men who there lay steeped in gore, the dying mingled with the dead. Nor did their humane attentions end there: they received the perishing sufferers into their humble homes, so that every cottage, as it were, was converted into a hospital, and every inhabitant became a nurse. The public infirmaries of Brussels and Antwerp not being sufficiently extensive for the re- ception of all who were conveyed thither, the citizens made the wounded men their guests, and kindly administered to their necessities. In all the towns of the Ne- therlands subscriptions were set on foot for their relief, and every comfort that could be provided for them was liberally supplied. Among the distinguished commanders who were wounded at the battle of Water- loo was the young prince of Orange, whose conduct in the field earned the warm com- mendations of the duke of Wellington. It also obtained for him among his country- men no small share of popularity ; and as a mark of gratitude for his services, the na- tion presented him with an elegant palace near Brussels. ' The union of Belgium and Holland being finally settled, the king of the Netherlands was inaugurated at Brussels, in the pre- sence of the states-general, on the *21st of September, 1815. Uis first care was to deserve the good opinion of his subjects by giving them equal laws, and in endeavours to put the youthful population of Belgium on an equal footing with those of Holland ; for which purpose he established national schools in every village, and appointed tea- chers properly qualified to impart instruc- tion on the system which he had found so successful in his old dominions. By de- crees, these schools were augmented and improved; and, in the sequel, others of a very superior kind were founded, in which the fine arts were studied, and every incen- tive to emulation promoted by the distri- bution of prizes, &c. Nor was the atten- tion of the king entirely confined to the mental improvement of his subjects. In order to cope with the manufactured goods of other countries, advantage was taken of the discoveries and inventions of scien- tific men wherever they were to be obtain- ed ; steam-engines and new machinery were introduced into the cotton factories; roads, canals, and railways were undertaken; coal and iron-mines were opened; every facility was given to commerce; and nothing but the inveterate prejudice of old habits pre- vented the agriculturists from benefiting by the wise suggestions of king William: such, however, was the obstinacy of the Belgian farmers, that they were determined to retain the rude and awkward imple- ments which the husbandmen of bygone centuries had used, rather than adopt the improvements of modern times. In many respects the laws of the new kingdom of the Netherlands were assimi- lated to those of Great Britain, and the country increased in prosperity with every succeeding year. Still it was evident there was a want of a common feeling between the Belgic and Dutch subjects of the new monarchy ; and the circumstance of the taxes in Belgium being increased since the union, was a constant and a not unreason- able theme for discontent to feed upon, in- asmuch as they had been united without their own consent. On the 17th of May, 1816, a Netherland- ish fleet, under admiral Van der Capellan, joined the English under lord Exmouth, and compelled the dey of Algiers to recog- nize the European law of nations. On the 2Sth, a compact was concluded between the kings of Prussia and of the Nether- lands respecting the cession of a tract of country to the latter: and, about the same time, the king of the Netherlands acceded to the holy alliance. The political rela- tions of France with its new neighbour were pacific. With Sweden and Denmark, as with Spain and Portugal, the relations were purely commercial. But the amalga- mation of the Dutch and Belgians into one nation was not successful: in short, a reci- procal aversion of the northern and the southern people was several times exhi- bited, with great animosity, in the church, in the army, and even in tlie chambers of the states-general. As the difference of languages rendered the union of the southern and northern Netherlands into one nation difficult, the government, while it allowed the use of the French language as well as the Dutch in the proceedings of the states general, abo- lished the use of French in judicial proceed- ings, and by the public authorities, only al- THB FRBSS IB FAKK, AND NO CKNS0R8UIF CAN BE KBTADLISUKO. IN B«I.OIUM Till BXBCUTIVH l-OWKH !« KXKtlCIIBD BT TUB KINO. I M: r; i 668 Vtlft JSxeMVixxi of l^istoiL), ^c. lowing ndvocati'R (o iiinke urc iif it fur n cnr- Iniii pnriod. TIir iillvmpt lo lupprciR tlio rreiicli lanicuiiKe tliiiR iiindo twi> oppotiita pni'livR tli(' R<«rpt IVIlmkU o.' rrHiicii; the catholic Ilel|{iNns, npprehriiRivc for their cliurch, becniiie they believed the object wiiR to uropiiKMn the proleRtnnt fnitb by tiipniiRol the prohibition of French i niid iho UrnbnntRrR und KlemliiK* adhered to Frnnco from old predllietions. ThuR, not with- RInndinK the prohibition of the Freiieli iind OerniHo InoKUHKCR in piiblir life, the bonds of nnlionnl unity were by no oieunH tight- ened. On the contrary. beRides the diver- sity of binKuaKC and rclixion, other canReii separated the Routliern provinces from the northern; but the gireatCRt obRtaele to n cordial onion lay in the unllorm levying; nf taxcR. Ilelgium, u maniifacliuinK and aKri- cultural country, wished to place the bur- denR on aTticles of cxjiort and import; while Holland, to spare itR own commerce, wished 10 impose them on real estate. Tlie budget, therefore, always employed a great part of the time of the Rtntcs-geucral, who wore convened in October ol each year, alternately at the Hague and at Urussels. The new finance law created such disNaiis- faction among the people, especially what related to the meal tax, that in the grand duchy of Luxemburg disturbuncoH arose, which it was found necessary to quell by force. From this period party-violence may be said to have proceeded with tenlbld vigour, and the discordant elements of wliicli the new kingdom of the Nether- lands was composed, speedily led to its destruction. But ir is mure than proba- ble that ii' the revolution in France, wliicli drove one branch of the Ifourboiis from th^ throne i\nd invested the other with sovereign power, had not occurred so early, the revolt of the Belgians would have been delayed a few years longer. As is the case in the capitals of moat Europc;\n countries, so it was custoumry in Brussels to celebrate the king's birth- day with illuminations and other public rejoicings; but while tlio usual jirepiini- tions wore making, placards were pcmted on the walls, iniimatiug tliat the example of the I'ansiaus would on lliat oecasion l>c followed. Thus warned, and being also assured, from tlic prognosties, of iTie in- erensiog disallVrtiou ot tlie people, the lua- j gistruirs imuiediatcly issued orders to sus- I pend the IV^te; and the perforinauee of the I opera of Mussaniello, which had been ad- I vei'tiaed, was also prohibited, on the ground I of its co.itaiuing m.-iny political allusions, i which were calculated to excite the people I at Rueli a juncture, and so accelerate the I thrcateneil revolt. There is no doubt that I the very act of forhiildini; the opera has- tened the dreaded catastrophe; for a mob , nssenibUd in front of the theatre, deiuatid- iii!^ the repiesi'iitation of iMassiinalli) ; and so great was ilie tumult, that the jravcrn- nient llionjiht it prudent to eooiiily. j Tlic (ipi'ia was ncciirilingly peilormed, I and with just siteli results lu might na- I turully bo expected. The audience that evening was composed elilelly of the low^r claRscB, who being predisposed to mischief as well as excited by the revolutionary in- cidents of the drama, a scene of riot and brutal excess commenced as soon an they left the theatre. The gunsmiths' Rhops were broken open for the imrpoRC of obtaining lire-arms, the wine cellars were plundered, the house of the chief minister was set on tire, and the residences of several other persons connected with the government were broken into and dcRpoiled. The riot- ers were, however, held in check by the nioro respeetable inbabitaiits, who, imi- tating tlie I'arisians, on th< following day formed a national guard of citixcii soliliers, for the iirotection of their property againRt the mob, as well as for eifeeting a revolu- tion, thongh by a more orderly and syste- malic plan of operations. A council of Rome of the most induen- tial citi7.cns undertook the manageineiit of affairs, and sent a deputation to the king at the Hague, with a state nenl of their griev- Huces, at the same time demanding redress. The king saw that it was now too late to lemitorlse; he had cither to accede to tli« rcvolulioniRts, in ioto, or to put down by force of arms the incipient rebellion; and he evidently preferred the peril which must attend the latter attempt, to tbe abandon- ment of his riKhts as sovereign of the Ne- therlands. At this critical mmncnt, bis sons, the prince of Orange and prince Frederic, at the head of a strong detachment of Dutch troops, were inarchiug towards Brus- sels. When they reached Vilvordc, about Ave miles from tbu city, the citizens, in linn but respectful terms, iulorined the princes of their deicrmination not to ad- mit the soldiers; and nut a moment was lost in unpaving the streets, cutting down trees lo fonn barricades, and otherwise placing Bru-'Sels in the best state of de- iViice in their power. Sincerely desirous that no blood should be spilt, and anxious to bring this emeule to a favourable issue, the prince of Orange, iiuattended by a military escort, rode into the city ; but no cordial greeting welcomed him, and it was with some diltieulty that he reached the palace, where lie remained til: the deputation returned from tbe Uiigue with the king's answer. As his majesty merely replied to the effect that he would assemble tlie slates-general, and take the subject into consideration, the public dis- content was increased, and the council re- solved oil demnnding a separation from the provinces of Holland, and if they could not obtain it by amicable means, to cll'ect it by force. They accordingly had a confer- ence with the prince, and having stated tliat they were willing to acknowledge the king us th( ir sovereign, but wished to have a separate pnrliauicv. n : ■ a icparate code of laws, he promis • U\ .ue all his iuDiicncp with his father, and liie statcs-gentral, to pnuHiie an aiinealile arrangeuieiit. But although the states-general assem- bled, they spent their time in fruitless de- bates iustead of pnrsuini; measures likely Till! Ji;uiCJARV pnWBH I« EXIiKCJSBJI Dt TUB COUtrs AN» TBIBl'NAIS. INO. ly of tliR lowf>r icd lo iiiiiinlik'f viil\tlionary iit- nn of riot niiil H noon im tluty Ihs'shopitwcre n of oblHininK '(■rn plulidi'rcu, Iter WAS Hfil (III Revirrul ollior ic |j;ov(-riiiii, ro^Rrty nKninst •ctinn n icvolii- rrly and nynle- ! nifliit influen- imnnK<'<'»t of ii to tliu kiii^at t of lliKir uricv- unding ruureai. low tun Intu to o acRcdc lo tlm 1) put down by rRbellioii ; mid cril wbii'li must o the nbnnduii- eign of (he Nc- iiuient, liiitROiiR, prince I'lTdcric, detachment of It townrdu ItruR- Vilvordc, about he citizcnx, in iuforined tlic ion not to ad- a inoinRut was !, rultinn' down and otiicrwine Bt state of de- 10 blood should ing thin emeitte incc of Orantce, cort, rode into cliriK welcomed : dilticulty tliat re lie remained Ironi the Ilaj^ue As hiH majesty that lie would il, and take the tlie public dis- the council re- iration from the f they could not ins, to cll'ect it y had a confer- having btatcd cknowledge the : wished to have a 1 epnrate code all his inDucncp atcs-gentral, to ;cnicnt. general nssein- ill fruitless de- measures likely (Bl'NAM, BKbOIUM IS MOST rAVOUnABLT tITI/ATIIU fOK IIAILWATI. u M H M n r. a M I r. r. * r. Wci% Tgistori) of t!)e l^Tct^trlantia. 669 to lesd to an arcomnindatlnn, Meanlinif, the revolt had spread IhrouKliniit the Del- gM! provinces, and the acts of the insiir- genls at Liege, Nnniur, and other towns, showed that the spirit of discontent was not to be easily repressed. From among the citizens of UrusscU was formed nn executive government, under the title of the committee of public snfctv ; but their councils were thought too moderate by the turbulent multitude, who refused to sub- mit lo their authority, and displayed nil the violent passions common to an infuri- ated and lawless populace. On this lieing communicated to the king, prince Frederic, as cnininander-in-chief of the Dutch army, received his nitjcsty's orders to take iin- mediaio steps for enforcing obedience ; on which he issued a proclamation, preparn. tory to his entering Krussels, stating that if the people laid down their arms and re- turned pcaeeiibly to their allegiance, a general pardon would he granted, but not otherwise. This brought matters to an issue. \ determined resistance on the part of the insurgents was resolved on, and a scene resembling that of the revolution in I'uris followed; the Hgliting, like that, con- tinuing for three days. On the 2/th of September the Dutch troops quitted Itrusscis, and the provisional government immediately issucii a procla- mation declaring the independence of ilcl- giuni. Up to this period the citizens of Antwerp iiad taken nn part in the revo- lution ; but they now admitted a body of Huigic soldiers into the town, and, uniting with them, compelled the Dutch troops to take shelter within the citadel, « hicli, after some smart cannonading that did consider- able damage to the houses, they were al- lowed to keep possession of; the iSelgian auxiliaries being prevailed upon to leave the citizens to delend themselves in the best manner they could. It was now fully evident that the king of Holland had not the power to retain, or rather to regain, the sovereignty of the southern provinces ; and as the four great flowers, llussiia, Austria, Prussia, and Kiig- nnd, had been the means of effecting the union, envoys from the three foreign courts were sent to London to settle the terms upon which the kingdom of the Nether- lands should be separated. The council of llrussels appeared to be in favour of a con- stitutional monarchy; and they offered Ihc crown lo the duke of Nemours, second son of Louis riiilippe of France. The prince, however, declined the offer, and they then fixed on prince Leopold of Saxe Cuburg, wlio, uflcr some hesitation, consented to become king of the Ilelgians, and was pro- claimed, on the -Ith of July, by the title of Leopold the First. The ambassadors who had met in Lon- don to settle the terms of the separation, agreed that, while the negotiations were pending, all hostilities should cease be- tween the Belgians and Dutch, and that the troop: of both parties should retire within the limits of their respective coun- tries, according to their former boundsrir's. Hut this arrangement wan opposed by the king of Holland, because it would cunipel him to surrender the citadel of Antwerp and also some forts on the Hchcldt. Aus- tria, llussia, and Prussia declined in inter- fere in ihe matter; but Great Itritaiii and France foreseeing that nn final settlement could be effected while the Dutch held thene important places, look a decided part in iimisling on their imincdiutc evacuation. Tim citadel of Antwerp was one of the Kirnngest in Kiirope, and its garrison of 6UIIU men was commanded by KeiiernI Chasse, an intrepid and skilful veteran. An English Meet was sent to blockade the inoiitli of the Scheldt, while a Freiieh army of f)l),U(JO men, under marshal Vtn- rard, laid siege to Ihe citadel of Antwerp; but before Ihe siege commenced, the two generals came to an uiiderHtanding that the town should not be injured by either party, and that the inbabltanls should take nn part in the contest. As far as ponsihlc this arrangement was observed, but during ten days of almost incessant caiinonailiHg, the loss of life on each side was great, and the citadel was literally battered to pieces. At length, the gallant old general offered to capitulate, on condition that be and his men might be allowed to retire lo Holland ; this, however, marshal Gerard rel'iived, un- less two of the forts on the Scheldt were given up; hut as they were not under the command of general Chasse, and the king refused to sanction their surrender, the brave defender ofllie citadel, and tliesurviv- iiiK remnant of the garriiioii, were marched into France as prisoners of war. There were still some minor points of dispute left untouched, particularly the ap- propriation of the provinces of Liinbiirg and Luxemburg; but the siege of Antwerp was ttiu last event of a hostile nature that occurred. The direct interference of Kiig- land and France had terminated as must have been expected ; and though there was much contention respecting the possession of the two provinces just mentioned, it was eventually arranged, through the mediation of the Dritish government, that they should be divided between the Iwo kingdoms, the king of Holland retaining Luxemburg, with the title of grand duke. King Willliam I. being nearly seventy years of age, and wishing tcj retire from the cares of public life, in IKIU abdicated in favour of his son, the liereditary prince of Orange, who was proclaimed king on th(! 8lli of October. No man eiui be more generally esteemed by his subjects than the new sovereign, or more entitled to their esteem; uiid, indeed, it may with great truth be said, that William II. of Holland, and Leopold 1. of Itelgium, are both well culculuted lo promote the pros- perilv of their respective countries and tlie weli'beiDf^ of those over whuni they have been destined to iiway the regal HCeptre. On the 12th of December, \%\i, the ex- king of Holland died, suddenly, at Berlin, having been seized with apoplexy. « I M > U M a i^ THB CITY OP MKCULIN WAS MADB TUa CaNTRE OP TBB HAILWAT SYSTEM. SWEDKN IB DIVBBSlrlED WITU FORIITI, fLAINS, MOUNTAinS, AMD SRBP OI.ENS. ff '■ M n o u «) >< O as o H THE HISTORY OP SWEDEN, DENMARK, AND NORWAY. SWEDEN. Thb early history of Sweden ia no lesi involved in fables tlinn that of most oilier nations: but as it is fanioua fur beinn; the nHtivc country of the tierce and warlike Guths, who&c cmi:;;ratioiiB eiferted the most Rin|i;ular nnd rapid rcvolulions on tlie Eu- ropean continent that history records, we shall in the first pluco consider who were till! curliest inhabitants of those rugficd coasts and mountainous regions, whence issued the bold and barbarous Northmen, whose devastations and cruelties rendered them terrible as the invaders of more peaceful and sunnier lands. The ancient name of the region now comprehending the thrive northern king- doms, Denniurk,' Sweden, ond Norway, was Scandinavia; but the inhabitants were at that time known to the nations of the south of Europe only by vagiio rumour. About A. D. 25U commence the fabulous accounts of Odin, or Woden. Till tiie mid- dle of the ninth century Scandinavia was little known ; but the hold expeditidns of the natives into the southern and western parts of Europe, and the dilfusinn of Chris- tianity amongst them, about the year lUUU, shed light on this region. The kingdom of the Swedes was separated fnim that of the Goths till the twelfth century; but in li:i2 both nations, with their several de- pendencies, were united under Suerclier, king of the Ostrogoths, who was proclaim- ed King of the Svtedes and Goths. It was afterwards agreed by both nations, that the Swedish and Gothic princes should hold the sovereignty allernati-ly: but this occa- sioned many bloody intestine wars. Magnus Smeck added Schonen and the adjacent territories to the kingdom ; but at length, by his maladministration, he deprived boih himself and his family of the throne; for afier Albert, duke of Meck- lenburg, his sister's son, had been elected king, Margaret, who was heiress to the crowns of Denmark and Norway, com- pelled him to give up ilie kingdom of Swe- den to her ; and by the union of Calmar, in the year 1397, the same princess united the three northern kingdnins under one head. This union excited in the Swedes the greatest indignation: and in 1448, the Swedes and Norwegians elected a sepa- rate king, Karl Knuisen, or Charles, the son of Canute, and formally renounced the union. After the death of Charles, several of the family of Charles reigned in succes- sion, with the title of presidents, though with regal authority, until, in 1520, Chris- tian II. of Denmark was acknowledged king of Sweden, liut his tyranny disgust- I ed the people. Even during the ceremony of the coronation, notwithstanding his pro- mises of amnesty, he ordered ninety-four j Swedish noblemen to be bchendi'd in the market - place of Stockholm, and pcrpc- I trated similar nets of cruelly in the provin- j ces. At length, by the assistance of a Swe- I dish nobleman, named Uuslavns Eriekson von Ynsa, they shook off the Danish yoke. I The brave Gustavus Vasa, who had ren- dered himself extremely popular by the conduct and intrepidity he had showed I in rescuing Sweden from the oppression I of the Danes, was elected king, and not only became the founder of a line of nio- narchs of his family, but advanced the royal authority to a very great height. The crown of Sweden had hitherto been elective; but the Swedes had been deprived of this right under the Danish kings: ac- cording to the l.Hwa of Sweden, the royal authority was so limited '.hat the king could neither make war nor peace, levy money nor troops, without the consent of the states; he could neither erect a fortress, introduce foreign troops, nor put any strong place into the hands of n foreigner. Tlie reve- nue of the crown then solely arose from some inconsiderable domains about Upsul, a small poll tax on the peasants, and from tines ami forfeitures which fell to the crown ill criminal proceedings. The government of custlcs, tiefs, or manors, which were at first granted by the crown only for a term of years, or nt most for life, were insensibly changed into hereditary posscsi^ions, which the nubility held by force, wiiliout paying the rents that had been reserved out ot them. This was also done by the bishops and clergy, who possessed such estates, on pretence that the lands of the churrh ought to be exempted from all duties ; nnd by these encroachments the royal le- vi'iiue was so reduced, that the king could scarcely maintain more than five hundred horse. He was considered only as a kind of captain -general during a war, and as president of the senate in time of pence. The prelates and nobility fortiKed their castles, and rendered them the seats of so many independent states; nnd arming their vassals, fretiuently made war on each oilier, and sometimes on their sovereign. They neither sought nor expected redress from the king's courts, when they thouglit them- selves injured : but proceeded by force of arms to avenge their own cause. The king- doms of Norway nnd Denmark were under the like form of government ; both were elective, and had their respective senates, without whose concurrence or that of the TDBRB ABB UrWARDS OF BIQHTY CONSIOBRABLU LAKES IN SWBVBN. EP OI.CMa. IVAY. the ceremony nding liiH pro- A ninety-four liendcd in the 1, and pcrpe- in the provin- ince of a Swe- iviis Erickson Danisli yoke, wlio liad len- ipulnr by the liud showed lie oppression kin^, and not a line of nio- advunced the it heii;lit. hitherto been been deprived ish kings: ac- ien, the royal the king could levy money nor of the Btales; rcss, introduce strong place er. The reve- ly arose from s about Upsnl, eints, and troiu 1 to the crown e government nhich were at nly for a term ere iiisicnsibly !S!>ions, which iliout paying served out ot y the bis^liops ich estates, on the church in all duties ; the royal te- lle king could five hundred only as a kind a war, and as time of pence, fortitied their he seats of so d arming tlieir on each other, ereign. They redress from thought them- d by force of ISC. The king- rk were under t; both were >cfive senates, or that of the H " I M > " I EVBN. ■ WIDIN CONTAINS ALMOIT ITIIIT XIMD Or MIMSBAI. rttOBUCTIO!«. ^I)e l^istoTQ of SiDcKcn. 671 ■1 states assembled in their diet, the king could transact nothing of importance. Bui to return to Guitavus Vasa, who found the kinxdum in this situation. The states, to express their ardent gratitude to their deliverer, passed a solemn decree, by which they obliged themselves to approve whatsoever that patriot should think lit to enact for- the preservation of his dignity, against a pretender who was set up in op> position to him. They, in particular, iin- powercd him to make peace and war, and resolved that his enemies should be ac- counted tlie enemies of the nation. This liappend at the time that the doc- trines of the reformation began to prevail in Sweden : and the Romish clergy, Gus- tavus'a greatest enemies, being in posses- sion of one half of the lands and revenues of the kingdom, also holding many royal castles and domains, the new king, in or- der to resume these possessions, embraced the doctrines of Luther, procured an act to be passed, by which it was ordained, that the bishops should immediately sur- render their castles to the king, and dis. band their troops ; that their pretended rights to fines and forfeited estates, which originally belonged to the crown, should be abrogated; that all the superfluous plate and bells belonging to the churches should be sold to pay the public debts « that all the grants of estates to the clergy, since the year 1-145, should be revoked, and the lands*k'e-united to the crown; that two- thirds of the tithes, generally possessed by the bishops and abbots, should be sequest- ered, for maintaining the army in the time of war, and for erecting and endowing public schools and hospitals in time of peace; and that all the privileges of the | clergy should be entirely at the king's dis- posal. Vasa having thus obtained a conslitu- I tional title to the revenues of the church, • marched through great part of his domi- | nions, at the head of a body of horse, to ' see the act put into execntion, attended by Olaus Petri, and other Lutheran doctors, | whom he ordered to preach before him in the principal churches. Wherever he came, he commanded the titles and grants by which the clergy held their lands to be ! brought before hini, and either re-united I them to the crown, or restored them to ' the heirs of the ancient proprietors ; by j which means he recovered from the se- cular and regular clergy above two thirds of their revenues, and seized upon near thirteen thousand considerable farms. He also caused the superlluous church plate to be melted down and carried into the public treasury. Tliis, indeed, occasioned some conspiracies and insurrectious; but they were easily quelled. Having now succeeded so happily in sup- pressing his greatest enemies, he obliged the nobility and gentry who held the crown lands, which they had kept ns their ovn, to resign their fiefs or to pay the rents that were originally due to the crown. Upon this they were obliged to compound with the king, and agree to pa> n annually a certain sum for all their fiets and manors. The crown was next rendered hereditary to the issue of the reigning prince by the free consent of the states, nnd it has ac- cordingly been enjoyed by his descendant* until the present century. Guslavus Vasa died in 1560; but the division of the king- dom among his children, the maladminis- tration of his son John, together with the propensity of Erick, John's brother, and of Sigisnuind, king of Poland, the son of John, to popery, threw the kingdom into great dis- order, which it required all the energy and prudence of Charles IX. and his son Gusla- vus Adolphus to suppress. Under the latter prince, who began liis reign in 1611, the importance of Sweden rose to its greatest height: his armies supported the protest- ant interest in Europe, whilst his domestic I policy established good order in his king- | dom. He reduced the greatest part of { Livonia, and penetrated so far into Ger- many as to become formidable to the em- peror; but in the year 1632 he lost his life at the battle of Lutzen, dying in the arms of victory. This prince was one of those rare mortals that join to the abilities of a great warrior and statesman the virtues that refine and exalt humanity. In bis life and death he gained the noblest reward that worth like his could crave. His daughter Christina succeeded to the throne in lUXi, when only six years of age. She wrested from Norway and Denmark the territories of Jcmptland and Harjeda- len, with the islands of Gothland and Oe- land, and in 16-18 added Upper Pomcrania, Bremen, Verden, and Wisraar, to the Swe- dish dominions. She was no less remark- able for her learning and capacity, than for her singularities of conduct. In the year 1654 that princess solemnly resigned the crown of Sweden, and was very instrumen- tal in advancing to the throne her cousin Charles Gustavus, prince palatine of Deux- Ponts, son of John Casimir, prince palatine of the Rhine, by Catherine, daughter of Charles IX. and sister to Gustavus Adol- phus, whom her subjects had wished her to have made her husband. Charles, who coveted a crown rather than a marriage with his cousin, in 1658 added Schonen, Halland, and other places to the Swedish dominions. His eon Charles XI. re-as- sumed all the alienated crown-lands, and rendered himself an absolute monarch. Charles XI. dying in 1697. in the forty, second year of his age, ar.d the thirty- seventh of his reign, was succeeded by his only son Charles XII., who being under fifteen years of age, a regency was appoint- ed; but the uncommon talents of this young prince soon procured for him the government ; and through \m mediation the peace of Ilyswick was concluded, be- fore he had completed his lOth ycnr. In the year IJOO, the Poles, Dane.f, and Rus- sians, taking advantage of the king's ymith, endeavoured to recover the doniinioiis if which their ancestors bad been deprived. ■'(• If I HOME OF THIS LAKES IN SWBDBN ARE VROH 30 TO 40 MII.BS LOKO. JH i ;l t il TBI aOViaNMIMff It A MOM4 IINB. 672 ^l^e ^reasiUD of 1|istorij, ^c. The English and Dutch sent a fleet into the Oaltic to his assistance, and compelled the Dunes to conclude a peace with him. This young prince then inarched against the Russians and Folei, whom at the be- ginning o( the war he defeated in ainiost every engagement, with numbers far infe- rior to those of his enemies, thouKh he had well-disciplined veteran troops iif Saxons to contend with, at well as Russians and I'oles. In the year 1708, the glory of Sweden rose to an unparalleled height. Its king then held the balance of Europe, and might have dictated to all its powers; but the superior address of the auke of Marlbo- rough, whose abilities as a statesman and negotiator were equal to those which he Possessed as a general, caused the force of weden to be directed against the Rus- sians, which might otherwise have turned the fortune of the war then waging against Franje. The ciar Peter the Great, im- proving by hi* former miscarriages, at length formed his troops to conquest : Charles was defeated at Pultowa, in June, 17U9; his whole army, consisting of 30,000 men, entirely cut off, or made prisoners, except three or four hundred horse, with whom the king escaped to Dender, in Tur- key, lie there gave signal proofs of a des- per^e intrepidity, as incapable of fear as void of discretion, having with a handful of men performed prodigies of personal valour against the whole force of the Turks : but he was at length made prisoner. The numerous enemies of Sweden p.vailed themselves of this reverse of fortune. Fre- deric IV., then king of Denmark, declared war, but could not obtain tlie object for which he contended. Augustus, the de- posed king of Poland, was more successful. The Russians overran the most valuanle territories held by the Swedes on the eas- tern shores of the Baltic, whilst those in Germany were divided among the confede- rates: Swedish Pomerania was annexed to Prussia, and Bremen and Verden fell into the hands of the Danes, whose king dis- posed of them to the elector of Hanover, afterwards king George the First of Eng- land. Thus were the accessions of terri- tory, which had been made by the princes of the house of Vasa, severed from that kingdom. A peace being ratiAed in 1714, Charles regained his liberty : but his pns- sion for war tiurrying him into fresh broils, he met his deatli by a cannon-ball at the siege of Fredericshall, when he had invaded Norway, in 1718. Two more extraordinary characters never appeared on the stage of human life at one time, than Peter the Great of Russia, and Charles the Twelfth of Sweden. Of the former we shall speak more at large anon : of the latter it may be safely assert- ed, that no dangers, however sudden or im- minent, ever occasioned in him the least dismay, even when, they have shaken the constancy of the firmest among his follow- ers : he seems, in short, to have been a man divested of the smallest particle of fear; and the manner in which he is relat- ed to hitve endured cold and hunger shew hiui to have been a prodigy of strength at well a* of courage. His rapid successes against the combined force of Denmark, Poland, and Russia, prove him to have been an able general ; but although his successes astonished nil Europe, yet in their conse- quences they were fatal to the kingdom which he governed. A strong resentment against the unprovoked attacks made up- on him, led him to meditate enterprises against his enemies, extravagant and im- practicable in their nature; and the cool and undismayed perseverance of his great adversary, tiie czar Peter, at length pre- vailed over his ill-directed ardour. The following justly-drawn portrait of the adventurous Swede is from the pen of Dr. Johnson : — " On what foundation stands the warrior's pride, How iust his hopes, lei Swedish Charles decide ; A frame of adamant ; a ^ ml of Are, No dangers fright him atid no labours tire; O'er love, o'er fear, extui.da liis wide do- main, Unconquer'd lord of pleasure and of pain ; No joys to him pacific sceptres yield. War sounds the trump, 'he rushes to the field; Behold surrounding kings their power combine. And one capitulate, and one resign ;- Peace courts his hand, but spreads her charms in vain : 'Th and was succeeded by Gustavus III., bis eldest son, then twenty-five years of age. The accession of this young prince to the throne, with the prepossessions of the people strongly in his favour, was a favourable period for extending the power of the crown by the reduction of that of the senate. An aristocracy naturally and rapidly degenerates into despotism ; the voice of which is rendered more intolera- ble to a people in proportion as the op- pressions of a number of tyrants are more grievous than those of a single one. The new king found his people divided into two great political parties, distinguished by the names of "hats" and "caps;" the former espoused the interest of the court, the latter the country or patriotic fiarty. The most masterly strokes of po- icy, as well as the most profound dissimu- lation, were used by this monarch lo cir- cumvent and destroy the influence of the senate. The people were grievously op- pressed; for besides the rigorous exactions made on the common people by their rulers, they suffered every calamity which a year of great scarcity necessarily occasions. The army was devoted to his interest ; and his two brothers, prince Charles and prince Frederic Augustus, each communded a body of troops. The next year, whilst the king was amusing the senate at Stock- holm with the warmest professions of dis- interestedness, and of his wishes to be thought only the first citizen of a free country, an insurrection of tlie military happened at Christian8tadt,in the province of Scano ; which was set on foot by one Uellicliius, who commanded there. The plea made use of to justify it was, the tyranny and oppression of the governing powers. Prince Charles, who was pur- posely in those parts, made thi* ii pretence to assemble the trno^.s under his com- mand, whilst the king, his brother, who was at Ostrogothia, put himself at the same lime at the head of the troops there. The senate was much alarmed at these proceedings, whilst the king, with the most consummate dissimulation, expressed n H ki O H j ti < M » X H DnUDQUllY. TnS PRINCIPAL IBOIf MINXS AnR IN THK PnOVINCG OF IJTLANO. [3Af I i; If mu ' il II '!! I U \ t :f. H BIAB*HVMTl! the crown by a diet held at Orebro in I8IU; and having accepted the hnnoiii', and been adopted bv the king under tlie name of Charles John, he soon alter arrived in Swe- den, of which he became king on the death of Charles Mil. in 181H. Sweden now declared war against Great Britain; but the pressure of the war, and tiie increasing encroachments of France, produced a change of policy in 1M12, and she joined the allies against Napoleon. By the peace with Denmark, concluded at Kiel, Jan. 14, ^SU, Sweden received Nor way as an independent, free, indivisible, and inalienable kingdom, in return for her possessions in Pomerama and the island of Rugen. Since the union of Norway and Sweden, this double kingdom has roiiibined, under one king and two very different constitu- tions, two proud and free-spirited nations, each jealous of its peculiar privileges. The political condition of Sweden and Norway forms A permanent partition between them : there, a jealous aristocracy is perpetually watching over its ancient privileges; here, the democracy struggles to defend its new- born rights. In both kingdoms the pea- santry and the citizens hold a higher rank than in most European states. In Norway there is no hereditary nobility, and the veto of the king is only conditional. These cir- cumstances seem to separate the Scandi- navian peninsula from the European system of politics, with which, however, it is closely connected. To the discrepancy of domestic and foreign relations is added an inces- sant struggle with the climate and soil, with obstructions in trade, depreciated pa- per money, and an oppressive public debt. Charles XIV. is a sovereign suited to the country and the age. Looking steadily to the future, ha meets present ditticultics with tirmness and wisdom. He possesses the affections of the majority of the nation, and especially of the army ; and has imiiiied his successor with his own principles. The crown-prince, Uscnr, lives and thinks as a Swede. He met with a distinguished re- ception, at Verona, at the lime of the Con- gress, in 1822, where the visits of the two emperors seemed to contirm the opinion that his succession to the throne whs gua- ranteed by Russia. Soon afterwards, the marriage of the prince with Joseph Maxi- miliana, daughter of Kugenc Beauharnois, duke of Leuchtenberg (whose wife wos Augusta .\\i\clm, princess of Bav.Tria), took place nt Stockholm June 18, lSj;i. Some iniriuues and conspiracies for the restoratiiiii of the family of Vasa occurnd iu Sweden; but the estates took the op- OF TDB WILD AM1IAL8, DEARS AND WOLVES ABE THE MOST rOBMIDABLG. [. -i J~ ■■iT:iaXtss!r-d?;Tt-:: • w IBWAT. (UKtenburg (who larlea AuKUstui) di'clared crown- le new iiioiiHrch ;ace Iroiii Ituaain I, and llie rxclu- iiiii the port* of e, liowuv«T, djin;^ dottp, piince of luccrsKir tf> the (li'L'l)io in I8IU; lonoiu', and been Jer tliu name of er arrived in 8we- :ing on the dcuth ar Bsoinit Great of the war, and lent* of I'laiicr, iliey in \»Vi, and (ainst Napoleon, irk, conrluded at en received Xor free, indiviaible, in return for her and the island uf way and Sweden, combined, under ifferent conhtitu- 'Spirited nations, r privilege*. Tlie cden and Norway )n between thcni : cy is perpetually privileges; here, o defend its new- ni^doms the pea- Id a higher rank ites. Ill Norway ity,and the veto anal. These cir- rate the Scandi- Uuropeansys.'eni !ver, it is closely uiicy uf domestic added an inces- imate and soil, depreciated pa- mvc public debt, n suited to the king steadily to ;sent ditKcultics He possesses ity of the nation, and has imliiicd principles. The and thinks as a istinguislied rc- inie of the Con- isits of the two irm the opinion throne whs giia- alterwanls, the li Joseph I^Iaxi- ne Ui'auharnois, whose wife was f Bnv.Tria), took piracies for the t Vasa ocrurri d cs took the op- BMID.iBLB. s. DIRIfAKK UAI no M0I;NTAIIII, ROM ANT C0NIIDIBA*LI BtTlkl. JK\)t l^istori) of Btntnaili. 676 portunity to give the king and the erown- prinre the strongest a^suranres of Hdrlity. ' Tin; kuii{ mid Swedish estates, in order to interrupt all coinmuuicntion with the ex- iled laniily, determined to transfer to it all its prill -rty remaining in the kingdom, and to v\\' i^iutli its pension by the payment of a ctriain sum, mutually agreed upon by the two parties, which was done in IH'4. The personal chararter and constitutional principles of the king have secured him the love and fidelity of his subjects. He often visits the remote provinces of his two kingdoms, relieving distress wherever h«f flnds it, usually irom his private purse, and takes no important measures without being assured ol the conrurrence of the estates, which meet every six years, and of the majority of the nation. The nobilitgr of Sweden are subdivided into three classes— the lords, including counts and barons; the knights, or those whose ancestors have held the place of royal counuillors ; and the simple noble- men. The clergy are represented by the bishop of each diocese, and the citizens and peasants, the latter comprising only the free peasants of the crown, bydenuties. The sovereign disposes of the higher civil and military ortlces, from which fo- reigners ar« excluded by law. Without the consent of the states, the kinx cannot enact new laws or abolish old ones ; and the constitution requires the king to as- semble the states once in five years. The legislative power in Norway is lodged in the " storthing," which meets every three years. A viceroy, or governor-general, re- sides at Christiana. The revenue and trooui of the kingdoms are kept distinct : and ine fortirications of Norway are only in part occupied by Sweden. For the levying of tuxes the consent of the states is neces- sary ; and all the troops and officers are re- quired to take the oath of allegiance to t^iem, as well as to the king. The sove- reign has the right to make war and peace, to regulate the judiciary, and to conduct the general administration without re- straint. The succession to the throne is hereditary in the male line, according to the law of primogeniture : on the extinc- tion of the male line the states have full power to elect a king. Before his corona- tion, the king is required to take the inau- gural oaths, and to subscribe an ciignge- nient to maintain inviolate the evangelical Lutheran religion. A Swede who aban- dons the Lutheran religion loses his civil rights. DENMARK. Tup. aborigines of Denmark nre tup- posed to have come from Germany, and to huTC gained their support from the sea. The Cinibri, who derived their origin from them, dwelt in the peninsula of Jutland, the Chcrsonesus Cimbrica of the Romans. They tirst struck terror into the Uomaus by their incursion, with the Teutones, into the rich provinces of Gaul. After this, led hy the mysterious Odin, the Goths broke into Scandinavia, and appointed chiefs from their own nation over Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. But the early history of this country is involved in fable, and presents nothing that is interesting to a stranger. All that is known with certainty is, that at tlic period of which we are speaking, Den- mark was divided into many small states, that the inhabitants gained their subsist- ence hy piracy, and spread terror through every sea, and along every coast, wherever they came. In the ei'4;litli century the Danes became formidable to their ::c::'libours by their piratical depredations on the coasts of England, Flanders, Normandy, and Ger- many ; which desultory warfare was main- tained for more than two centuries, till at length their rude and savage manners being somewhat meliorated, tliey became cultivators of their native boil instead of adventurers at sea. Utiier causes likewise concurred to put an end to these outrages: that redundant population, which had been the means of pouring forth such swarms of plunderers, no longer continued; many had fallen by the sword in those invacinns; conquests had been made, and emigrants hud settled on the acquired territories in vast numbers ; the introduction of Christi- anity, in the tenth century, served likewise to abate their ferocity, while the increased strength of the neighbouring states, and the force they had acquired at sea, became too formidable to be contended with. Canute, or ICuute, commonly called the Great, who died in England, in the year WM, advanced the dignity of this kingdom to its highest pitch ; but the BOvereiKiis w ho succeeded him were little distinguished until towards the close of the fourteenth century; when Margaret obtained the re- gal iiower on the death of her son Olaus, or Orlaf III., who had united the king- dom of Norway to that of Denmark. In the year 13S8 (three years after her acces- sion), having deleuted and taken prisoner Albert, king of Sweden, she was enabled to urge her pretensions to that crowu ; of which she cutained possc!^3ion hy the con- sent of the states, at the assembly of the representatives of the three kingdoms held at Calmar, in the year 1397, at which time a confederated constitution was formed of the greatest consequence to the northern states, and called " the union of Calmar." This wise and heroic princess, to whom liistorians have g^vcn the distinguishing appellation of " the Semiramis of the north," reigned over Denmark and Nor- way twenty six, and over Sweden sixteen years. After this, n century elapsed with- A r. ■* m a B D o M H (> o n B I O I H 1 t ? ¥ DKNMAHK IS NRARI.Y KVBRTWIIBHS RUnBOUNDED UY TUE SB.\. TUa DANES ARB A FKACKFUI., rAINSTAKINO, AMU INDUITHIUUS rKOVLR. mf ''M 9 -iij \> 676 ^Ije ^rcasuii) of l^istorij, $cc. 2 I M rt M B M a aiil nnv tiling liiglily impiu'tiiut occiiVriiig ii) the histury of this ununlrv. Christian I., count of Oldcnburfr, wlio cami: to the tlirone iii U (H, wh* tho founder of the Danish royal family, which has wet since kopt iiosscsaion of the throne, and from which, in mndorn times, Russia, Sweden, and OldcnburK have rrccived their ruliM-s. He connected Norway, Sloswieic, and Ilolstcin with the crown of Denmark, but wan so fettered by his capitulations, that he seemed to be ratiiur the head of a roval council than a sovereign kini)^. In the year lA-.'3, Frederic, duke of IIol- stein, was raised to the throne by the voice of the people, who had deposed their king Christian II. for his cruelty and tyranny, in whose reign the crown of Sweden hud been dismembered from that of Denmark, and placed on the patriotic brow of Gus. tavus Vasa. Frederic I. bavin); embraced the doctrines of Luther, the tenets of that reformer spread with great rapidity through the kingdom. The event which chiefly distinguishes the history of this kingdom since the reii;'n of Frederic I. is the unprecedented revolution which took place in the 17ih century, nnd which merits piirlictilar notice here. Denmark whs then governed by a king chosen by a delegation from people of all ranks, assembled in a diet, who in their choice paid a due regard to the family of tho preceding prince; and if they found one of his line properly qnalilied to dis- charge the duties of that high station, they thought it just to prefer bim before any other, and the eldest son before a ^'ounger, if his merits warranted the adoption -, out if those of the royal family were either de- ficient in abilities, or bad rendered them- selves unworthy by their vices, they chose some other person, and sometimes raised a private man to that high dignity. To the king thii^ elected, and a senate consist- ing of the principal nobility, the executive powers of government were entrusted. Unc of the most fundamental parts of the constitution was the frequent meetings of the states, in order to regulate every thing relating to the government. In these meetings new laws were enacted, and all aflTuirs relating to peace and war, the dis- po!lrto that of an xnliiniied monarchy. Wc here sec a house of com- mons stimulated by resentmcni, and filled Willi indignation at the iiiMileiice of the nobility, belraying their constiluents, ond, instead of a noble elTorl to oblige those nobles to allow them the privileges they had a right to dcinniid, voluDtarily giving up for themselves, ilieir constinicnis, ond their pustei'ity, what they ought to have stniggiiM to preserve nt the l>azard of their lives; while tlieonly comfort the people had left, WHS, ill being fVeed from the tyranny of their former oppressors, and seeing them an much humbled as themselves. The revolution being thus accomplished, n new eonstiiution was cslablishcd, by an edict consisting of forty articles, and en- titled "the royal law of Dcninnrk," hy which the succession was settled on the king's eldest son, and, on failure of male issue, in the female line. The kings of Denmark and Norway are therein declared to be above all human laws, ncknowledg- iiig in all ecclcsiastieal and civil affairs no higher power than God alone. They may make, interpret, abrogate, and dispense with laws, except the royal law, which must remain irrevocable, and be considered as the fundamental law of the Blatc. The kings of Ueiimark have likewise the power of declaring war, making peace, imposing taxes, and levying contributions of all kinds. The kings who have reigned siuee this revolution have been Christian V., (IO70); Frederic IV., (KillO) ; Christian VI., (I7:t0) ; Frederic V., (17-«()) ; Cluisiian VII., (171)0); Frederic VI., (18U8) ; mid Christian VIII., (IHIU). In 1792, when the allied powers wished Denmark to take part in the war against France, she maintained her neutrality. Hut, by her accession to the northern confeile- raey in 18U0, she was involved in n war with (irent Hritain, in which the Diinish fleet was defeated at Copenhagen, April 2, l:-tOI. The courage of the Danes very deserved- ly obtained liir them n truce; upon Hliieli Denmark acceded to the treaty of Russia with Knglaiid, evacuated Ilainbiirg and Lu- beck, of which she tbeti had possession. !) AMi TRAVEtl.Kll» DBSCIIIUJi: TilU UANOS All IMMOOKHATIS EATKRI. [3 M :j VIB TIMBCB, DIALS, AND FISU ARK TUB rRINCIFAt BXFOBTS UF NORWAY. 5 678 ^i)e tJrcaaitro ot l^istorn, Sec. and received back her own coloniea. At Iciif^tli, in 1807, this state was included in Napoleon's continental policy. A French army stood on the borders of Denmark; Russia had adopted the continental system at the peace of Tilsit; and England thought it her duty to prevent the accession of Denmark to this alliance. To carry that object, an EuKlish fleet, conveying a large army, was sent up the Sound; and as the Danish government refused to join in a drfensivc alliance with Great Britain, as demanded, or to surrender the fleet as a pledge of its neutrality, the capital was nombarded for three days, and tlie whole fleet, consisting of eighteen ships of the line, fifteen frigates, &c. was delivered up to the British, and carried olT in triumph. Great Britain now offered the crown-prince neutrality or an alliance. If he accepted the first, the Danish fleet was to be re- stored in three years ofter the general peace, and the islnnd of Heligoland was to be ceded to the British crown. The crown- prince, however, rejected all proposals, de- dared war against Great Britain in Octo> ber, IROr, and entered into a treaty with Napoleon. This alliance with France was no sooner concluded than Bernadotte occupied the Danish islands with 30,000 men, in order to land in Sweden, against which power Denmark declared war in April, 1808; hut this plan was defeated by the wnr with Austria, in 1800. The demand made by the court of Stockholm, in 18!3, of a trans- fer of Norway to Sweden, was followed hy a new war with this crown, and a new alliance with France. On this account, after the battle of Leipsic, the northern powers who were united against FruiK-:<, occupied Ilolstein and Slesure. Gliick- Rtadt and other fortitications were cap- tured, and the Danish troops driven be- yond Flensburg. The court of Denmark seeing the un- favourable position in which tliu countiy was placed hy the declining t'ortune.s of Napoleon, not only concluded a pence with England and Sweden, but entered into nn alliance against France, nnd euutrihuted a body of troops to the allied forces. Den- mark was also obliged to cede Ileliuoland to Great Britain (receiving in cxcliHiigc several West India islands), and Norway to Sweden (for which she was couiinn- sated hy Swedish Pomerania and Ilogcn, but which were afterwards exchanged for Lauenburg with Prussia). A peace was concluded with Russia iu February, 181 1. NORWAY. Tbr observations that have been made respecting the early history of Sweden and Denmark apply also to Norway, ''n to I the ninth century it was governed by a ; number of petty princes; until one, more i bold and powerful than the rest, named Harold Harfaagre, who had renounced the idols of Scandinavian worship for the doc- trines of Christianity, conquered them, and [ became sole and absolute monarch of the j country. I Like the other Christian princes of Eu- rope, Harold Harfaagre was anxious to introduce the feudal system ; and having wrested the various petty principalities from those who before possessed them, he reduced the people to a state of vassal- age, and placed a governor over each pro- vince, to collect the revenues and hold courts of justice. But among so brave and stubborn a race as these Northmen, many there were who, rather than submit to Harold's despotism, emigrated to .other countries, Ireland being among the num- ber. They, however, chiefly settled in Ice- land, nn lininhabited and uninviting spot, yet in time it became not only very popu- lous, but was the favourite resort of their scalds, or poets, and their historians, whom they treated with every mark of honour able regard. Norway having beeo'hie a regular and independent kingdom under Harold Har- faagre, during a reign which lasted more than half a century, many customs were introduced which tended to raise the cha- racter of the Norwegians as a nation de- sirous of cultivating the arts of civilized life, but which still would not ub.ite one iota of its warlike pretensions. He hud bestowed fiefs on many of the nobles, amongst whom was Rognvnid, fnlher of the famous Uollo, duke of Normandy ; ro that, in fact, it may be said that the usur- pation of Harold in Norway led to the set- tlement of the Normans in France. Ha- rold died in 934, and was succeeded by hi;! son Eric, who proving a tyrant, sinne of the principal chiefs made propositions to his brother Haco, who had been educiitcd in England, and was then residing at tlic court of king Atiielstan. He accordingly went over to Norway, and having pledged himself to abolish the feudal laws, and re- store the allodiul tenure, he was proclaim- ed king. Eric seeing that there wos im chance of recovering the throne, collected a fleet, and sailed to the Orkney islands, from which point he could readily assail the coasts of Scotland and Northumbria. In I02S, Canute the Great, king of Den- mark, conquered Norway, but did not long retain possession of it, and the country had its own monarchs again from 1034 to 1380. On the death of Olnf IV., his mo ther, Margaret, daughter ot'Waldenmr III., king of Denmark, inherited bolli thrones; from which time Denmark and Norway re- mained united, till 1814, when its cession to Sweden took place. TUB NORWBOIAN f/aSANT UNITES MOST TRADKS IN DIS OWN fBRSON. men, in ordor ; which power pril, 1808; l)ut tliB wnr with and made by i'3, of a tranii- is followed by ), and a new this account, the northern [ninst Franc:', aure. Gliick- iMS were cap- ipa driven bc- eeingf the nn- h the counti7 K fortunes of A a pence with ntcred iiilo nn contributed a forces. Den- dc llcliuolnnd in exchange , and Norwny was conipin- a and Ilugcn, cxrlinn;(i'd for A pence was brunry, 181 1. raise the clia- ) a nation de- ls of civilized not uhiitc one ons. lie hud f the nolili's, nld, fnlher of *Joruiandy; ro that the usur- led to the set- France. Ha- ;cnedi'd by his rant, some of ropnsitions to lecn educated jsidin^ at the le accordingly ivini; pledged laws, and re- was proclaim- there was no one, collected rkney islands, readily assail orthunibria. king of I)on- : did not long the country from 1034 to IV., his mo 'aldeniar III., both thrones; id Norwny re- in its cession ;nsoN. m o KUMIA inULVDBS I«BABLT 1-7tB Of TBI TBDUKSTKIAI. PABT Or TRB OI.ODB. THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA. Thk original inhabitants of this gigantic empire, (which cm'iraccs nearly half of Europe, and the whole of Northern Asia- reaching from the frontiers of China to the contines of Poland, Sweden, and Turkey— besides having vast possessions on the north -western coast of North America), were doubtless a multitude of nomadic tribes, classed under the common appel- lation of Snmiatians and Scythians. These northern hordes, at a very early period, be- gan (o menace the Roman frontiers, and even before the time of Cyrus had invaded what was then called tlie civilized world, IMirticularly Southern Asia. They inhabited the countries described by Herodotus be- tween the Don and the Dnieper ; and Strabo and Tacitus mention the lloxolani, after- wards called Ros, as highly distinguished among the Snrmatian tribes, dwelling in that district. The Greeks early established colonies here ; and in the second century the Goths came from the Baltic, and, lo- cating in the neighbourhood of the Dor, extended themselves to the Danube. In the tilth century, the country in the neighbourhood of these rivers was overrun by numerous migratory hordes of Alans, Uuns, Avarians, and Bulgarians, who were followed by the Slavi, or Sclavonians, a Sarmatian people, who took a more nor- thcrlv direction than their predecessors had done. In the next century, the Kho- cari, pressed upon by the Avarians, entered the country between the Wolga and the Don, conquered the Crimea, and thus S laced themselves in connexion with the iyzautine empire. These and numerous other tribes, directed the course of their migrations towards the west, forced the Huns into Pannonia, and occupied the country between the Don and the Alanta; while the Tchoudes, or Ishudi, a tribe of the Fiunic race, inhabited the northern parts of Russia. All these tribes main- tained themselves by pasture and the chase, and exhibited the usual barbarism of wan- dering nomndes. The Sclavonians, coming from the nor- thern Danube, and spreading themselves along the Dnieper, in the tifth and sixth centuries, early acquired, from a commerce with their southern neighbours, habits of civilized life, and embraced the Christian religion. They founded in the country afterwards called Russia the two cities of Novogorod and Kiof, which early attained a couimercial importance. Their wealth, however, soon excited the avidity of the Khozari, with whom they were compelled to maintain a perpetual struggle; but Novo- gorod found another and more formiduhle enemy in the Varangians, a race of bold pirates who infested the coasts of the Bal- tic, and who had previously subdued the Coiirlanders, Livonians, and Ksthonians. To these bold invaders the name of Russes, or Russians, is thought by the most emi- nent authors to owe its origin. Be that, however, ns it may, it appears certain that in these dark ages the country was divided among a great number of petty princes, who made war upon each other with great ferocity and cruelty, so that the people were reduced to the utmost misery ; and the Sclavonians seeing that the warlike rovers threatened their rising state with devastation, were prompted by the neccs sity of self-preservation to offer the govern- ment of their country to them. In conse- quence of this, a celebrated Vnranginn chief, named Ruric, arrived, in 862, with a body of his countrymen, in the nciRhbour- hood of the lake Cadogn, and laid the foun- dation of the present empire of Cliina, by uniting his people with those who already occupied the soil. Ruric has the credit of being zealous for the strict administration of justice, and enforcing its exercise on all the boyars who possessed territories under him. lie died in 879, and was succeeded by his son Ighor, who conquered Kiof, and removed the "cat of government from Novogorod to that place. Ighor's widow and successor, Olga, publicly embraced Christianity at Constant mople in 935, and attempted, hut without success, to introduce the Greek ritual among the people. Her son Sviu- tosinf, after conquering Bulgaria, and even threatening Constantinople itself, fell in battle against the Pesshenegri, near the cascades of the Dnieper, in 972. The Russian empire continued to flourish till the end of the reign of Vladimir (or Wolodomir), who ascended the throne in 976- Having settled the affairs of his em- pire, he demanded in marriage tlic princess Anne, sister to the Greek emperor Baeilius Porphyrogenitus. His suit was granted, on condition that he should embrace Christi- anity. With this the Russian monarch com- plied ; and that vast empire was thence- forward considered ns belonging to the patriarchate of Constantinople. Vladimir received the name of BasiHus on t)ie day he was baptized ; and, according to the Russian annals, L'0,000 of his subjects were baptized on the same day. The idols of pagnni»m were now thrown down, churchea and monasteries were erect- ed, towns built, and the arts began to nou- rish. The Sclavoninn letters were now Hist introduced into Ru'^sin; and Vladimir scut missionaries to convert the Bulgnrians, hut without much success. We nre tuld tliiit IN so VAST A counrnT tub climatb ov counsu onBATi.T VAnins. fl .r' Pli I ( ( RUaHIA POaUBSSR* ALL TUB ^BCES8ABIBS, AND HAIfT LUXURIIB OV IiIVB. 680 ?!ri)e ZIFicasuru of Ifjiistorn, $rc. Vlndiinir calli-d tlio iirts froiii (irccre, rul- tivittvU lluMii iiillu; |)('Hmil>le |ici'iiiilH of liis rciKii, mill ((L'nrriiuHly rcwiintrd tlit'ir pro- t'ossors. His iiierits, iiidvcd, appfiir to linve biMMi very CDiisidcinhle. lie lias bneii ex- tolled by the iiiiiiiks as tlie wise!ut the cease- less insutreelions nnd calamities which had l)een weakening the strength of the Rus- sian state since the death of Vladimir the (irent, I'iicililttted the enterprises of tlie Mongols; and after the death of George, I who was killed in battle, the whole king- Join, with the exccptfou of Novogorod, wbieh presoned its independence by trea- tic!>, fell into the baud* of the Mongols. Hitherto the Russian state bad made comparalively little progress in civilization: a circumstance to be attributed to the va- riety of nations of which it was composed, i and to the military constitution of the Va- . rangians. Commerce remaineil chietly in i the hands of those German merchants who I bad followed the Christian missionaries | who came into Russia after the commence- I ment of the Kith century; and the princi- 1 pal seats of this commerce were the towns of Novogorod and Kiof. The trattic with the Roulii was mostly under the manage- mrnt of Greek merchants. From the time Christianity bad been introduced there bad been monasteries in Russia; and in these establishments the scanty literature of the age was preserved. Tbougli reduced to the most degrading servitude by their Asiatic conquerors, the Russians successfully resisted the attempts of new enemies, which appeared in the Livonians, the Teutonic knights, and the Swedes. Jarislaus conquered Finland, but perished by poison among the Tartars. His son Alexander defeated the Danes and Swedes in l'24l, in a great battle upon the Neva, and received for this action the ap- pellation of Alexander Nevsky. His young- est son Daniel mounted the throne in 1:!47. He renu)ved his residence to Moacow, and in \i'M) assuiued the title of grand duke of Moscow. This prince founded the cele- brated palace of the Kremlin in that city, in 13(IU. Daniel was succeeded by his don George; who successfully resisted the Swedes, and built the town of Orshek, now Scblussenburg. During several succeeding reigns the Russians bad to contend, first, with the Tartars, and subsequently with the Livo- nians and Poles ; the miseries of a foreign yoke being also aggravated by all the cala- mities of intestine discord. The Livonians took Pleskow; and the Poles made them- selves masters of Black Russia, the Ukraine, Podolia, and the city of Kiof. Casiinir the Gieat, one of tbeir kings, carried bis con- quests still farther. He claimed a part of Rustiia,iii right of his relation toBolcslaus, duke of Halitz, who took the duchies of Perzemyslia, Halitz, and Luckow, and the districts of Sanock, Lubackzow, and Tre- bowla; all which countries be made a pro- vince of Poland. The newly conquered Russians were ill disposed to brook the government of the Poles, whose laws and customs were more contrary to their own than those of the Tartars had been. They joined the latter to rid themselves of the yoke, and assem- bled an army numerous enough to over- whelm all Poland, but destitute of valour and discipline. Caslmir, undaunted by this deluge of barbarians, presented himself at the bead of a few troops on the borders of the Vistula, and obliged his enemies to re- tire. Demetrius, w bo commanded in Mos- cow, made frequent efforts to rid himself of the galling yoke. He defeated in several battles Maymay, khan of the Tartars; and, when conqueror, refused to pay them any TUTI CI or i.iyc. itale had made IK ill civilization : butcd lu tlie va- t was composed, ulioii of the Va- ainoi] cliietly in merchants who un missionaries the coinmence- and tlic priiici- were the towns riic traltic with ler the manaice- From tli« time duced there had u; and in these literature of the most degradinfr conquerors, tlie ed the attempts ppeared in the nights, and the 'eil Finland, but g the Tartars. I the Dunes and battle upon the I action tlie np> ky. His younK- throne in lil?. lo Moscow, and r grand duke of nded the cele- in in that city, ceeded by his illy resisted the of Orshek, now infr reiji;ns the first, with the with the Livo- es of a foreign by all the rala- The Livonians es made tliem- la, the Ukraine, '. Casimir the nriied his con- imcd a part of m toBoieslans, the duchies of ickow, and the zow, and Tre- he made a pro- Bsians were ill rnnient of the ims were more those of the ined the latter !e, and assent- ough to ovcr- ilute of valour uuntcd by this ted liiiiKself nt the borders of enemies to re- andod in Mos- rid himself of ted in severitl Tartars; and, pay thera any ly. RLBDOR-TnAVBLLINO OVBU IU« INOW II aOTU SAVE AND AOaBBABLC. laift Igistori) of l^ussia. Gdi tribute, and assumed the title of grand dukcof Muscovv. Uut theoppressorsof the north appearea in greater numbers thali before; and Demetrius, at length over- powered, after • struggle of three years, perished with his whole army, amounting to S-iU,000 men. Basiliui, (or Basilowits) the ion of De- metrius, revenged his father's death. He attacked his enemies, drove them out of his dominions, and conquered Bulgaria. He made an alliance with the Poles, whom he could not subdue ; and even ceded to them « part of his country, on condition that they should help him to defend the rest Bgainit any new incursions of the Tar- tars. But this treaty wai a weak barrier agftinst ambition. The Ruisians found new enemies in their allies, and the Tartars soon returned. Basilius bad a son of the lame name, to whom the erown ought to have descended ; but the father, inspecting his legitimacy, left it to liii own brother, Gre- gorjr, a man of a severe and tvrannical dis- position, and therefore hated by the people, who asserted the lon'i right, and pro- claimed him their sovereign. The Tartan took cognizance of the dispute, and deter- mined it in favour of Basilius ; upon which Gregory had recourse to arms, drove his nephew from Moscow to the principality of Uglitc, and usurped his throne. Upon the death of Gregory, Basilius returned to Moscow; but Andrew and Demetrius, sons of the late usurper, laid siege to that city, and obliged him to retire to the monastery of Troitz, where they took him prisoner, with his wife and son, and put out his eyes. The subjects of the unfortunate princo, in- censed at the cruel treatment he received, forced the perpetrators of it to flv to Novo- gorod,and reinstated their lawful sovereign at Moscow, where he died. In the midst of this general confusion, John I., the son of Basilius (or as he is called in the Rus- sian tongue, Ivan Basilowitz), by his invin- cible spirit and refined policy, became both the conqueror and deliverer of his country, and laid the first foundation of its future grandeur. In this period the Cossacks arose. The Polea and Lithuanians had conquered the whole of the Western Russia to Kiof, and subjected the vanquished people to reli- gious persecution, as well as political op- pression ; and on the east, the Tartars of the Crimea endeavoured to subdue the Russians. The discontented, therefore, rc> tired into the fertile but uninliubiied Ukraine, and adopted a military organiza- tion, under the control of a superior ofiicer styled a hetman. In the promotion of civilization, Ivan II. surpassed all his predecessors. German artists and learned men were welcomed and liberally rewarded by theczar; printing offices were established ; and commerce was firomoted by a treaty with Elizabeth of Kng- and in 1563. He established a standing army; conquered Kasan in 1552, the king- dom of Astracan in 1654, and endeavoured to drive the Teutonic Knights from Livo- nia ; but Denmark, Poland, and Sweden attacked him, and a conspiracy in the in- terior broke out. In this rmharrasHnieiit he implored the emperor Rodolph II. and pope uregorv XIII. to interfere; and the nuncio ot the latter brought about the peace of Zapolia between Ivan II. and Ste- phen Uathory, king of Poland, in Ifiy;!, by which Livonia was ceded to Poland. Ivuu died in 1684. Towards the end of Ivan's reign, Yer- mack, a Cossack, discovered Siberia. Fco- dor, his successor, conquered Siberia en- tirely in 15H7, and surrendered Etiionin to Sweden in 1695. Feodor, the last of Ru- ric's decendants, died in 1698; and Russia was shaken by internal convulsions and external wars, which greatlv retarded her propesi in civilization. The war of the Polish party with the party of the pseudo- Demetrius was not endea until Michael Fedorowitz (of the faiuily of Romanoff') ascended the throne in 1613; after which a treaty of peace was concluded with Swe- den and Poland. The young Michael was proclaimed, and signed a compact with his new subjects, by which he promised to protect the es- tablished religion ; to make no new laws, nor change the old; not to raiite imposts ; and to make neither war nor peace, with- out the consent of the sennte. The Rus- sians, or rather the senators, seized this opportunity to have a part of the (govern- ment. Michael remained faithful to his promise; and died in 1654, leaving liix tliroiie to his son Alexis. So long as the Swedes maintained the ascendancy over the Rus- sians, their principal view was directed to exclude that power from the poxscssion of any port on the Baltic; being weil aware that the natural advantages which tiieir rival possessed, would, whenever that pow- erful empire should a\ail itself of them, raise the commercial consequence of Rus- sia on the ruin of that of Sweden. Alexis, the lather of his country, %vns only sixteen years of age at his accession to the throne. The despotism and insolence of his ministers drew upon him the hatred of the people during his minority ; but when lie took upon him»elf the Kovernuieiit, he wits both loved and respected. He eiicouriiged an intercourse with foreign nations, mid inauced instructive and laborious strangers to people his desert provinces; and RuD.- even there. Haviiig established a regency to direct the government during his ab«ence, he himself left hisdominlnnx, and travelled incognito through vnrious European states. Having arrived at Amsterdam, lie inscribed his name as Peter IVIichaeloff in the list of carpenters of the Indis Company. Here he performed all the duties of his situa- tion ; and at the intervals from labour, stu- died mathematics, fortification, navigation, and drawing plans. From Holland he came to England, where he completed his studies in ship-building, and examined the princi- pal naval arsenals. King William permit- ted him to engage several ingenious Eng- lish artificers, and he returned, by way of Holland and Germany, to Moscow, after an absence of nearly two years ; having ac- quired a fund of knowledge which after- wards so much contributed to bis country's glory. He had no sooner arrived, than he was followed by crowds of every species of arti- sans, to whom he held out the greatest en- couragement; and for the first time was seen large Russian vessels on the Baltic, on the Black Sea, and on the ocean. Ar- chitectural building began to rise among the Russian huts; colleges, academies, printing-houses, and libraries, sprung up under his fostering hand. The habits and customs changed by degrees, although with difficulty, and the Muscovites began to know something of civil society. At the same time commerce had its birth in Russia. Laws, military and marine dis- cipline, and manufactures, the sciences and fine arts, and all that appeared to him de- sirable in nature, was introduced. [The leading events of his war with Charles XII. being related in the history of Sweden, are here omitted.] Peter died, regretted by his subjects, in 1723; and was succeeded by his wife, the empress Catherine I., who supported the splendour of the empire, and held the sovereignty of Russia with a firm rule till her death, which happened two years after her elevation. Peter II., grandson of Peter the Great, being only twelve years of age, then be- came czar. The reins of government, dur- ing this minority, were held by prince Menzikoff, whom' the first Peter had ad- vanced to the highest offices in the state, and who was no less the favourite of the czarina, Catherine. The young czar dying in 1730, Anne, duchess of Courland, niece to Peter the Great, and daughter of Ivan, ascended the throne, which she filled ten years. This empress rendered herself me- morable by the decisive turn she gave to the contests which arose in Europe; she assisted the emperor Charles VI., frus- trated the schemes of the French ministry for placing Stanislaus on the throne of Po- land, and actually procured the crown for his competitor Augustus, at thesame time tlmt she triumiihed over the Turks and Tar- tars, the natural competitors with Russia. Ivan, or John III., great nephew to Anne, became her successor, when only two years of Hire. He was son of the princess Anne of Mecklenburg, the daughter of her eldest sister, w lio had married prince Anthiiny Ul- ric of Brunswick Beveren. This infnnt was deposed by the general concurrence of all ranks in the empire; and th^ princess Eli- zabeth Petrowiia, dauKliter to Peter the Great by the empress Catherine, was raised to the imperial dignity in Dccenibcr, 1741. Her reign, which continued twenty years. THR NOSTBII.S OF FBI.0N8 USED TO BB 8LIT, AKO THBIR FACES BRANDED. i ij i ,TH. on, navigation, Dlland lie came !ted his studies nei the princi- 7illiam (lermit- iDgenious Eng- rned, by way of Moscow, after Eirs ; liaving ac- e which after- to his country's d, than he was species of arti- he greatest en- first time -sat on the Baltic, tlie ocean. Ar- to rise among ;e8, academies, ries, sprung up riie habits and s, although with vites begun to liety. ce had its birth and marine dis- he sciences and arcd to him de> roduced. [The th Charles XII. of Sweden, are regretted by his B succeeded by Iherine I., who the empire, and ssia with a linn happened two etcr the Great, f age, then be- overnment, dur- leld by prince Peter had ad- es in the state, avourite of the junj; czar dying ourland, niece ughter of Ivan, she filled ten red herself me- iru she gave to in Europe; she »rles VI., trus- ?reiich ministry e throne of Po- ihe crown for the same time Turks and Tar- s with Russia, epiitnx to Aline, only two yi'urs princess Anne er of her eldest ce Anthiiny Ul- Tliis infiint was icurrence of all \ib pi'incess Eli- to PettT the fine, was raised Jeceuiber, I741. twenty years, BRANnGDa t e (< " I M O a H a n M FBICBDXNCB IB DBTBRHIHID In RUIIIA Bt MILITABT BA!«K. €^^t l^ifttori) of Bussia. C83 was prosperous. In the war which broke out on the continent in 1756, she took a decided part iu favour of (he house of Aus- tria; and was on the poiut of rrnshing the Prussian monarcli, and possessing herself of his most valuable territories, when death suddenly closed her career, in 17'«3. Her nephew, Charles Pelcr t'lrir, duke of HoUtein, grand duke of Ruxsin now became czar, by the title of Pt-ier HI. The friendship which this prince bure to the kin;; of Prussia saved that hero from his impending fate, and converted a for- midable enemy into a beneficial auxiliary. An intemperate zeal, which led Peter to attempt cutting ulf the venerable beards of liis clergy, and to abolish some established and favourite military fashions, joined to an unbounded fondness for a mistress, and a strong antipathy to his wife and son, termiuaied his reign in a few months. The general odium v.'liich Peier III. had drawn upon himself, united all orders of his subjects agaiust him; he wiis seized and deposed, and his wife raised to the imperial dignity, by the title of Cathe- rine II., in July, 1762. The captive prince was soon after cruelly deprived of life. Some letters written by the king of Prus- sia to this weak prince, found after his de- cease, which strongly recnnimendcdto him a change of conduct, and particularly pleaded in behalf of his repudiated consort, fixed that princess in the interests of I'rederic. Catherine II. was notoriously licentious, yet her reign may be regarded as one of the most prosperous in the annals of Rus- sia. As soon as she had relieved the coun- try from an exhausting war, she invited artisans and workmen of all kinds to settle in her empire, and collected around her dis- tinguished foreigners to assist her plans iu the improvement of the laws, and to in- fuse a healthy vigour into the commerce of Russia. She was victorious by land and sea against the Porte, with whom she concluded a peace in 1774, whereby Rus- sia gained a considerable accessiou of territory. In 1776, Catherine divided her empire into separate governments. In 178", she instituted the armed neutrality between Russia, the emperor of Germany, Prussia, and Portugal, against the naval power of the English; and, three years afterwards, she planned the expulsion of the Turks from Europe, and the re-establishment of the Byzantine empire; hut some political considerations caused the execution of this project to be abandoned at the time, and when it was resumed, ten years later, it by no means succeeded to the extent that had been anticipated. At the conclusion of the Turkish war in 17'J3, the Dniester became the frontier of Russia towards Moldavia and Bessarabia; and as the war with Sweden was now con- verted into an alliance with that power, the ambitious emprsss again turned her eyes upon Poland, whither her army march- ed with the certainty of conquest; niid on tiic occasion of the second partition, iu 1793, a territory of 86,000 square miles was added to the Russian empire. On the remaining part of Poland rhe imposed the most opprcKRive restrictions, which pro- duced a formulable rebellmn in 1794. The gallant Kosciusko strove hard to effect the independence of his country, but he was overwhelmed by numbers and taken pri- soner, vihile Suwu'rof stormed and devas- tated with more than barbarian fury the suburbs of Warsaw. The dissolution of tlw: kingdom was now at hand; and in the third partition of Poland, in 1795, Russia extended her power towards the west as far as the Vistula. It now extended it- self from the shores of the Baltic to the western end of North America and the Ja- pan islands. Yet, in the midst of her mili- tary operations, she protected and encou- raged the arts and sciences, and gave a new code of lav;-s to the subjects of her vast empire. She died November 17, 17'.>6, and was succeeded by her eon Paul I., who, capricious as he was, began his rei^n by a noble act of justice, namely, the liberation of the brave Kosciusko. The late empress had engaged early in the confederacy against France ; but, from some unexplained cause, did not come into action against that power. The emperor Paul likewise remained almost in a neutral state, until the beginning of the year 1799, when he sent a powerful army to the as- sistance of the allies into Italy, under the command of Suwarrof, a general well known before by his conquests and cruel- ties in Poland. The successes of this man were extraordinary during several months after his arrival in Italy; but towards the end of the campaign, his good fortune seemed to desert him ; and it was not w ith- out great difficulty and loss, that he reach- ed Germany across the Grisnns couiiiry, harassed by the French armies under Mo- reau and Massenn. The ill success of the Russian arms against the French, augmented by the hud understanding which subsisted between his generals and those of Austria, appeared to nave an extraordinary effect on the mind of the emperor Paul, who, from having been theunconiproniisiug enemy of Buo- naparte, now entered into amicable corrr spondence with him, and became one of his most ardent admirers. He laid an embargo on all the English vessels in his ports, and induced Sweden, Denmark, and Prussia to join him in the northern urnied confederacy. But on the night of the 23i'd of March, 1801, just at the time the British fleet was sailing through the Sound to the attacIw>on Copenhagen, Paul was assas- sinated by some of the Russian nubility, whom he had treated with harshness and contumely. How far his sons were cogni- zant of what was going on it is impossible to tell; but it was generally believed that they were in the secret, and connived at it from a conviction that their father intiiul- ed to immure them in a fortress. And such an event was very probable, lor there is little doubt of his beiug iusaue at the time. OP I/ATE YEARS GRRAT BNCOURAOKMENT HAS OI£BN OIVEN TO TUB ARTS. ! 3 V\ « '""■•x.Vi-^ . i iffillWWW UHHiJI,,! . •-- r \\ { i (• tt K a K O H « m > Til vta o» *iia VArovR ■atr i« uNiTaiiiAii in ntritiA. G84 1!l\)t tirrtasurt) of l^istori}, $ie. Un Aloxniutcr, the tnte cmimror't eldeit 8nn, iiircrcdiiiK (u tlie tliruiie, a drgrnn of nirrKy luid cnnsistciiry wni noon iccn in fvrry (Icpnrtioviit ol' tlie iiovorninent ; niul su|mrniiiiK liiiiiirit' from tlio northern IdtKiii', he roncludi'd n trenty with Grcnt HriiHin (June 7, INOI), nnd nt the innie time rcMoiincvd the Krnnd-innstorRhi|> of MhIiii, which hnd hern conferred on hii I'm Iter. Ill June, INdJ, he nppenred, for the tli'Ht time, peraonnllv anionic the potentHtei ofUuropc, and hna an interview with the kiiifr of Vi'usiin at Meinel. France, under the guidance of Napoleon, wai at thi* period mnkinar rapid eonqueits in the touth of liuropo; Buoiinpartc having been, in the iirccudioK month, crowned king of Italy at Milan ; shortly alter which he annexed (>enoa to France. Itut the cabinet of St. IVtersburgh aceini wisely to .'° ve thought that its distance from the scene of action niiitht well excuse the emperor from any active interference with belligerent states. He, however, conHrmcd the incorporation of the goveruincnt of Georgia with the Rus- sian empire; concluded treaties of peace with France and Spain ; and offered, in ISil.'t, to interpose his good ofltcvs in re- storing the newly ruptured peace between England and France and 8pain. Itut after tlie exeeution of the duke D'Unghein all intercourse between Uursia and France ceased ; nnd in April, IMdS, Alexander join- ed the third coalitiim a|(ainst France : but the loss of the battle oi Austerlitc clouded the prospects of the allies, and the Ilussian cinncror returned to Petersburg. The buttle of Eylau was fought on the 8th of February, 1807; that of Friedland, on the 4th of June following ; the Russians then retired, nnd after an interview be- tween the two emperors, which took place on the river Nieiuen, in a handsome pavi- lion erected on a raft for the occasion, pence was concluded on the 8th of July, 1807. At this nicmoruhlc interview the outward forms of friendship were display- ed hclwcen these rival monai-chs, and an ahundnnce of courtly dissimulation used to testify the sincerity of their profes- sions. Alexander, by this compact, acknow- ledged the brothers of Buonaparte as kings respectively, of Naules, Holland, and West- plinliu; he formally recognized aUo the eon federation of the Rhine, and promised to iicknowledge all the sovereigns who miiiht hereafter liecomc members of that coiiledtrntion. He engnged, that hostili- ties on the part of Russia should instantly ci'iise with the Ottoman Porte.. lie under- took, also, to medial e for a peace between England and France ; and if he should prove unsuccessful, he was to close the ports of Rusisia against all nrii.sh ships; which, in fact, w/is soon after done. In 18U8, Alexander had an interview with Na- poleon at EifurtlC and otterwards took part, M the ally of France, in the war with Austria ; but his w ant of teal in the cause was too evident to escape the penetration of the French emperor, and a growing coldness between the itnperiol allies be* gan to appear. Great injury had been done to Russian commerce, and heavy complaints made by merchants, in conkci|uenc« of their ports having been shut against the Elpglish ; they were tlierefore again openeu to them, pro- vided they hoisted American colours, while French goods were very stristly prohibited. Tliis induced Napoleon to make himself master of the principal northern ports of Germany, and to incorporate the posses- sions of the duko of Oldenburg, a near re- lation of Alexander, with Franco. Against this proceeding Russia made a very cnrr- 5:etic protest; and, as early as 1811, Ave lussian divisions assumed a position oppo- site Warsaw. On the other hand. Napo- leon caused the fortresses on the Vistula and Oder to be declared in a state of siege, sent thither large masses of troops, and occupied Swedish Pomerania, because Charles XIII. of Sweden declined a closer connexion with Franco. The contest in Spain was at this time daily growing more obstinate, and the large amount of men and money it consumed might well have appeared to Napoleon a sumcient obstacle to a struggle with Russia ; but ho calculated that his xrmy, amounting to nearly a million of ciTeclive men, would be sutllciont for the conflict in both quarters ; and he also relied upon a great mass of auxiliary forces, chirlly pro- mised bv the confederotion of the Rhine; besides his alliance with Prussia and Aus- trie, which covered him on both Onnks, and secured his retreat. He, however, made peaceable offers, through the count do Narhonne, his ambassador ; but the object of his mission being unattained, half a million of soldiers, couHisting of French, Germans, Italians, Poles, Swiss, Spaniards, and Portuguese, with mere than 13(10 cannon, were put in motion, about the end of July, to attack the Rus- sians on the other side of the Niemen and the Vistula. The Russians, in three di- visions, occupied a line including Kiof and Smolensko to Riga. The first western army of 137,UUO men, in Lithuania and Courland, was commanded by Barclay de Tolly, who had till then been minister of war; the other western army, of 48,00U men, was commanded by prince Bagrution. A third body of forces, led by gciiernl DoctoroB', served to keep up the commuuicatiou be- tween the other two. All the disposable property nnd records had long before been generally conveyed into the interior. Tlie tirst western Rus- sian army was stationed along the Niemen as far as Grodno, and coiiipi'i>ed six corps of infantry and two of cavalry. The se- cond wetitern army whs in the vicinity of Honim, consioiing of fiiur battalions of infantry and one uf cavalry. The commu- nication was kept between them by the hetman Platoff, with lO.UUO Cossacks, nt Bialystock. The army of Volhynia, under Tormasoff, at Lutzk, was composed of two divisions of infantry and one of cavalry. THR CONSVSirTION OP BFIRITUOUB IIQUORI IN RUSIIA IS IMMRN8S. 1 > ' UNDRH OATIIKIIINH II. Tllll C.'UtSACRI WKUR rUHMRU INro * I.IUIIT CAVALRY. inl ulUei be- le to nuitlan tiniR nindoby of their porti ^pgliBli I tliry lo th««ii P'o- colottTK. vi}ii\a Illy proliihite"- mafco him»clf ■ihern pofH of ite the po»M»- urK. » ""'•' '*' anco. Auwiitt de A very ciicr- ,y ni IHll, «vo K positioii oppo- Br hHiui, N»pp. on ih« ViiiulH a itate of •ienc. of troopi. and rania, bicanse lecUneda cloier in» at thit time »ie, and tlie lat«e ey it contumcd i to Napoleon a k atrugKla «^>tb d tlint hi» »rniy, illion of efffciiye or the cnuHicl in ■o relied upon n >rce», cUiflly P'O" i on of the Rhine ; I'ruMia and Aua- on both tinnki, He, however, llrough the count isgHdurj but the icinn unattained, jrs, coiiBi»li"8 "' Mia, roles, Swiw, ueac, with niore e put in motion, o attack the Rus- if the Niemen and ians. in three di- iicludinB Kwf and ftr«t western army aniu and Courland, clay de Tolly, who liAlcr of war; the ■ 48,000 men, was aeration. A third gcuvral DoctoroB, -.•(Humauication be- •opcrtv and records o | ireuerttlly conveyed o , first western Rub- " ' . along the Niemen " onlpvi^ed six corps cavalry. The si- , in the vicinity of tmt battalions ot airy. The coinniu- wcen them by the 10,000 Cossacks, at of Volhynia, under lis composed of two iiid one of cavalry, IMMRNSB« ^I)e If^istod; of l^uMio. 085 containing together abuut 20,000 men; and there were other corps siniioned elsewhere, amounting to iihuiii lO.lNHl mm nmrc. The Russian plan of the campaiKii was —by retreating, to avoid a decisive battle, until the enemy should be remote from all bis resources, and weakened by marches thmugh a desolate region, and the Russian army should be so considerably strength. cned by the accession of all the forces that might be, meanwhile, raised, as to have a decided supeiiurity. Napoleon's scheme, on the contrary, was— to use every elTort to compel the Russians to battle, to destroy them after the defeat, and, pressing for- ward with baste to the capital, to proffer peace. Uut be not only entirely mistook the character of his enemy, but he over- looked the important fact, that though the Russians miglit retreat, tlicy would still be in possession of their resources. On the fllh of June, Napoleon passed the Vistula, and shortly after, the Niemen. " Russia," said he, in one of his favourite harangues, " is dragged along by a fatalilyl Her destinies must be accomplished. — Are wo no longer to be regarded as the soldiers of Austerlitz ? Let us carry the war into her territory : a second war in Poland will be as glorious to the French arms as the lirst." After several severe battles, and the loss of many men on each side, the victory generally inclining in favour of the French, the main body of the Russian army retired to Smolensko. Fatigue, and want of all kinds, had mean- while operated so dctrimrntally on the French army, that it was obliged to halt at this point for ten days, during which the two Russian armies finally formed a junction under the walls of Smolensko. They then immediately began to act on the offensive. With 12,000 cavalry they attacked general Hcbnstlnni, and drove liini back with considerable Ions. On the 17th of August the main body put itself in motion to encounter the French army, which had advanced, in order, if possible, to compel a general battle. When Napo- leon saw his attempts to surround the right wing of the llussiuns defeated, he ordered bis right wing, under Poniatow- ski, to hasten, by way of Oriza, by rapid marches, to cut oif the Russians from Moscow. On the other hand, liagration hastened to defend this road, and liar- clay de Tolly sought to retard the enemy as much as possible. Smolensko, an old place, formerly strongly fortified, and the whole position on the Dnieper, greatly fa- voured his plan ; and not till the midnight of the 17th, after a loss of many thousands, did the French succeed in taking this bulwark, reduced, for the most part, to a ruin. The Russian army retired in haste, burn- ing all the towns through which it passed, while Napol«:ou followed, his troops suffer- ing more a Mi morn from want and climate. MeanwhilR, Uarclay de Tolly had to resign the chief coinmand to KutusolT, who had reaped new laurels in the Turkish war just ended. Rrinforocd by militia and reserves, he resolved lo await the enemy seventy miles from Moscow, in a strong entrench- ed position. The French rnine up, and a terrible battle ensued, in which the Rus- sians lost 35,000 men. The French esti- mated their own loss at IO,0(KI; it was, however, supposed to be nearer double that number. The Russian* remained masters of the field of battle; and, without any great loss of artillery, and still less of pri- soners, they were able to retire to Moscow. Napoleon, after two days repose, followed them; and KutusolT, insteaa of awaiting his enemy at the gates of Moscow, march- ed through. The news of KutusofTs dcfca^ had spread the greatest consternation Moscow. Hastily collftctinir their mnn. .:nd valu- ables, the nobles led, abandoning their pa- laces and furniture to the mercy of the in- vaders. Merchants and tradesmen closed their warehouses and shops, seeking refuge from the enemy wherever tliey could find shelter; the sick and woundea were con- veyed away from the hospitals in waggons; and the prisons were cleared of their in- mates, who were sent under an escort to Novogorod. And now the flames burst forth from the house of count Rostopchin —sure and awful evidence that the patrio- tic governor, by setting Are to hi* own re- sidence, intended that the venerable city should not harbour the enemies of hi* country. The confiagration of the gover- nor's house was the signal for the re*t; and suddenly were seen, issuing from va- riims ((iiarters of Moscow, vivid columns of fire and dense masses of smoke. Doomed, as it were, to pass their winter amiu the unhospitable snows of Russia unless they could extinguish the flames, the French soldiery exerted themselves to the utmost to stay the devoMring element ; but though they partially succeeded, so lii!le remained of Moscow, that it was incapabli> of afford- ing them protection. It must be remem- bered, also, that the French troops having had permission to plunder the city, such a scene of confusion and drunkenness fol- lowed, that number* of them perished in the burning ruins. All the hopes which Napoleon had built on the possession of Moscow were now disappointed ; famine and desolation stared him in the face ; and as the Russians ga- thered round on all sides, it was evident that nothing could save hi* army but a speedy retreat or peace. Every day height- ened their sufferings, the provisions having been wasted, and foraging becoming con- tinually more dangerous, from the conflux of Russian peasants and Cossacks. At length, on the I'jth of October the French evacuated Moscow, and commenced their retrograde march. The country waa a de- sert; and the privations felt by the oriny had dissolved all bonds of obedience, while the severity of the winter now covered the roads with ice and snow, destroying men and horses by thousands. By the 12th of November they reached Smolensko. But TUB nUSBIAN SOLDIKH IS IIKSOI.UTR, OnCDIRNT, AND BNDirRtNO. [3iV TUB MUlll* AHMt II tUrrullTRD AT VKKY I.ITTI.K RXntKHK. 686 ^l)z tlvcnBuru of H^istovy, ^c. in viiiii )iA(l the rotnnniitt of tlir nriny liuiicd to Hud tlirrc rcpoxu nnil nnurithiiiciit. llul the iucrniitiiig Humbert of tliu IluRriiiiis who liovcrvd round Kiul hnrniiod the re- treat iiiK enemy urcveutcd thorn from re- uikiriMK nny of liieir viiRt loiies, or of re- inviKoratiuK theraielvci by rcit. At the puiaat(e of thu Uereiink they lott 3U,00() men, and a great part of their bai^KAK" nnd artillery; and the rold, which iiiurpHaed every day, togi-tlier with the nioiit horrible want, carried diiordcr, ntiicry, nnd dcipair to the highest pitch. At Icngtli Napoleon eut rutted the command nf hit thattrrcd army to Murat, and hnttcucd himself, un- der the strictest incognito, by way of War- saw and Uretden. to I'aris. Mnrihuls, olU- ccrt of high and low rank— all who could— followed the example of their emperor. No company kept long together. The sole object ol all wut to lavo life. Thoemperor Alexander, who had hitherto only fought for independence, now resolved in flit turn to become the aggrcttor; and, joining his army in I'olnnd, uublithed in February, 1813, the colebrateu manifciito, which lervcd at a batii for the coalition of the other poweri of Europe ngninst the ra- pacity of tlie Treach. Tlie king of i'rutsia at the tame time lumnioned nil cnpuble of bearing arms to battle for their country; and though he did not then designate his object. Ins people, who for tive years had been humbled nnd degraded, uiiilcrstood him, and, with unparalleled enthusiasm, thousands poured forth from the iilnces of rendeivout from every section of the coun- try. In vain had the French, with the oid of their last retervcs nnd of troops drawn together in baste, made efforts to remain on the Pregel, on the Vistula, and on the Oder. The Russians advanced slowly in- deed, but every where with overwhelming power; and all that the French could do was to retire behind the Elbe with the least pottible loss. Prussia now declared war against France, and concluded an alliance withRustia; the confederation of the Rhine was dissolved; and, though Austria re- mained neutral, t>'e popular insurrection was almost universal in northern Germany. Happily for Napoleon, the Prussians and Russians were not in a state to derive the full advantage from this situation of things. The forces of the Russians ' 'e almost ex- hausted, those ot he I'russi. , had drst to be formed ; much time was lost in ncKotia- tions with the king of Saxony, and Kutu- soff fell sick and died at Buntzlaw. These circumstances were promptly taken advan- tage of by Napoleon ; but though this pro- lon«[ed the contest, it proved but of little avail in the sec lel. In August ilie war was resumed with great vigour, Austria participating in it as an ally of Russia and Prussia. Napoleon had been joined by a corps of chosen men, chiedy cavalry, which had oome from Spain ; and the chances of victory, for a time, ouce more appeared to be in his favour. Hut after the battle of Dresden, where Moreau was mortally wounded, he was staid in his progress by the defeat of Viutilmnme, nt (ailni ; by tlic sinmltancouN ovcrtlirow of hit nrmy In Hilrrin, under Macdiinulil; by the liHril-fongbt linttlct nt (irott- llccren ■, at llcUig', Hiid by the defout which Ney lufTt'red at Deuncwitz. In addition to thcHo niitfortunot, want of all kinds prevailed in exhausted Hnxony, and lamentations in the hospitals, where thousands died of dysen- teries and fevers. At Inst, by some rapid, wellcovered marches, DIucher formed a junction on the Elbe with thecrown-urince of Sweden, while he lurprited a French corpt under count Hertrnnd, and took un a potition between the Miildan and the Elbe. As soon as he was advised of thit. Napoleon started from Dresden, in the hope ot over- f)owering tlicm both spparntely: but they lud already crossed the Muldon to the Saalc. The grent Ilohcmian army bud alto advanced on bis right llnnk. These and liluebor's flying corps met in his rear i nnd general Tliielomann, who had exchanged the Saxon service for the Russian, took whole troops of French fugitives, nnd fought several battles between the Elstor ond the Sualc, almost nil of which rctultcd to the diRndvantagc of the French. Napoleon now proceeded witli his ninin army to the plains of Leipsic, where he ar- rived Uclober 1,'i, Here Schwartzenberg had alreudy commenced a recnnnoisanco against the king of Nnples ; meanwhile Augcrau's division had been greatly rein- forced; and, OS he hud probably thought be hnd deceived the crown-prince nnd DIu- cher by movements made on the other side of Wittenberg, and that be had gained so much time that he could meet the great Bohemiim army alone in a decisive engage- ment, he did not delay to encounter it in the spacious pluin near Leipsic. The en- {(agement commoiiccd about nine o'clock in the morning of October IR. After severely destructive attacks on both sides. Napo- leon hud gained tome ground in the centre nnd on tlie left wing. But the duke of Rugusa, who occupied a wide line to the north of Leipsic, was unexpectedly attacked by Bluchor with the greatest impetuosity, totally defeated, after an obstinate resist- ance, and driven bnck in disorder. On the 17tli Napoleon negotiated through count Meerveldt, who lind been taken pri- soner, for liberty to retire undisturbed, nnd for an armistice ; both of which proposals were the lest listened to, because the alliet could now Cuuduct their operations with a mutual understanding, the crown-prince of Sweden having joined Blucher with up- wards of 60,UUU men, and general Bennig- sen, with almost as many, being hourly ex- pected from Griinma. On the IStli of Oc- tober, therefore, a fenrful cuiiilict took place at Leipsic. The French fought with despe- ration, to save their honour and secure their retreat, which lind been commenced nt day- break: but on the following dny their re- treat was converted into a flight, and a general overthrow. This battle emanci- pated Germany. Bavaria had already re- nounced the confederation of the Rhine, D O n a K ■4 CHILOBEN OV SOLDIKRa ARK BDtJCATUD AT PUBLIC MILITARY 8CU00LS. r \- 7 VnniUiniin'. iiH ovt-rllirow Miicilonulil i iroii»Hcer«in : which Ncy Uion to thcKO t prpvniled in tatiuiii in tho licil of dyicn- y «ome rapid, icr formed a icrown-ptince icd a l'r«"ch and toolc up a 1 and tlic Klbo. tliii, Nauoleon ! hope ot over- iicly. but they iliildnn to tl»e I ariuv luiJ Bluo It. Tlicse and II hit rear i and liad cxc»mu(5«'d Russian, took fugiiivca, and rccii thn Elstor whioli resulted I'rcncli. I witli his >nuin lie, wlicrc ho ar- 8chwart*enbcrg » rceonnoisance le»; mranwhile en areatiy rein- robably tliouRlit .prince and Ulu- U till! other side c had gained so meet tlie great decisive enijone. I encounter it »n ,cip»ic. Tlie en- out nine o'clock 16. Alter sevi-rcly ith sides, Napo- ind in the centre lut tiic duke of wide lino to the pectedly attacked test impetuosity, obstinate resist- lisordcr. •uotiatcd through been taken pri- undisturbed, and i which proposals because the allies operations wilh a t! crown-prince of Jlucher with up- ■^ general Bennig , being hourly ex ■n the Irtth ot Oc conflict took place ought with despc- u» and secure their ommcnced nt day iving day thuir re o a flight, and a Kis battle emanci- ia had already re- ion of the llhiiie, BCUO0L8. BDVCATIOrt, TUUUOII BACKWAaD, IS MAKINO HAriU PaOUUHSI in niisiiA. ^{)e l^istotu of BussiA. «H7 and united with Austria. All thn German princes followed this example, with the ex- ception of the king of Mnxon^, Jriomn of Weslplialla, and thn princc-prtniatc. After the loss of many thoiisntids, in prisoners and wounded, Napoleon, assailed or harassed in every miarter, was obliged. In order to Sain the Uhinn, to sustain a desperate con- irt with thn llavarians and Austrinns sta- tioned at llnnau. The allies madn a halt on the Rhine, in order to unite the forces (if liberated Oerniany with those furnished hy Ihiglnnd and Holland. Even the Danes, who hud been forred to form the closest union with Napoleon, in consequence of the hard Inrins proffered them by England and Sweden in the spring of ISlIi, were obliged to concede all that they had for- merly refused, KrcncU affairs in Hpain had also taken a most iinravourahle turn. Marshal Jourdan had been totally defeated by Wellington at Viltoria, had been forced back to ilui Py- renees, with the loss of his artillery; and, subscnucntly, 8oult and Hucbet had with dtfllculty kept the English from thn soil of franco itself, and it was consequently ne- cessary to send tliiiher new forces. The Trench senate, always before obsequious enough, now ventured to remonstrate, wheu repeated decrees of the emperor had already ordered the levy of nearly half a million of conseriots, the organization of cohorts of national guards, and the formation of four ariiiiea of reserve. Still stronger terms of ilissntisfaction were used by some of the deputies; and, in eon8C(|uenee of the gene- ral indignation at the enormous expendi. ture of liunian life, great ditHculties now presented themselves in the furnintion of a new I'rench army. Beyond the Rhine from Switzerland to Holland, the allies found but liMlc resist- ance. They made themselves masters of all the passes to Italy, of the cities of Ge- neva, of the roads over the 8iinplon and 8t. Rernard, and early in January they occu- pied a new line, covered on the left by the Seine, on the right by the Meuse, in Al- sace, Lorraine, Dcux-I'onts, &c., with the exception of the invested fortresses. Na- tioleon had issued a proclamation for a [ind of general rising of the people : but mciiHUves of this kind, which worked won- ders in the revolution, were now almost wholly diarci;nrded. Meanwhile the allied troops steadily advanced, and though seve- ral engagements took place, in no instance had a French general strength enough to maintain the most important points against the overwhelming force of the invader*. On the 1st of February was fought the sanguinary battle of Rricnne, in which Na- poleon U>st I'J.UUO prisoners and seventy- three cannon. He had 7U,UU0 men in the field, and no blame can attach to cither tnoin or their commander for the loss of tlie day ; tho most desperate resistance on tlie part of the troops, and the most active guperinteiiunnce on the part of Napoleon being everywhere apparent. Eager to iiua prove their tirst victory on French ground, the allies pushed forward, and divided their forces, of which Nnpolrnn, with great bold- ness and address, took advantage. Hut, I bough he had received considerable re- inforcements from the army in Hpain, be was loo much enfeebled to prevent the Russian, Austrian and I'ruisinn eominan- ders from proceeding towards Paris in two large columns, one on the Seine, thn other on the Marnn. The operations of the allied troops from this period, and thn important consequen- ces which f*'7&, at the head of no more than 6,UUU men, he defeated GO.OUO Turks and Tartars : after which, re- ceiving a reinforcement of lU.UOO troops, he drove lUU.UUO of the enemy out of Podolin, and was crowned at Cracow, in February, K)7fi. The Turks by these defeats were brought to ac(|uie8cn in terms of peace, which were observed during seven years: but in \(>H',i the Ottomans invaded Hungary, and laid siege lO Vienna. The neighbouring princes being roused to action by the impending danger, put their forces under the com- mand ot Sobivski, whose iirmv mustered 40,000 strong; with which force he attacked and defeated the infidels, whose numbers were little short of 20U,(IU0. This decisive stroke restored pence: but the great mili- tary talents of tlic king, joined to his ex- treme parsimony, created jealousies nmong the Polish nobility, of his having formed designs of changing the constitution of the kingdom, and renacring himself an abso- lute monarch. These apprehensions, which were never supported Ly any direct proofs, embittered his latter days. He died in 1696, ill the sixty-sixth ^'car of his age, and the twenty-second of his reign. He left a son, prince James Sobieski, whom, however, the Poles did not nominate for their king. An interregnum of a twelvemonth iol- lowed: at leng^th Frederic Augustus, elec- tor of Saxony, was chjscn, in preference to the prince of Conti, whose pretensions were backed by the interests of France: but in 17Uo, the Poles being tampered with by Charles XII. of Sweden, declared the crown vncant, and chose Stanislaus Leesonski, palatine of Posnania; to establish whom on the throne, Charles of Sweden entered Saxony with a powerful army, and compel- led Augustus to save his electorate by abandoning his pretensions to the crown of Poland. The reverse of fortune whicli Charles experienced in 1708, gnvo .\ugus- tus the ascendancy ; and his competitor found it necessary, in his turn, to quit the kingdom. Disputes and itUwill, however. f prevailed between Augustus and the nobi- ity, from this time until his death, which happened in January, 1732-;t. vvhether the house of Austria, or that of Kourbon, should fix the succession to the throne of Poland, then plunged Europe into war. The former supported the pre- tensions of Augustus, the eon of the de- ceased king ; in which nomination the court of St. Petersburg also concurred : the latter aimed at restoring the abdicated Stanis- laus, whose daughter, the princess Marv, was married to Louis XV. Notwithstand- ing this alliance, his interest was not vigor- ously supported bv the court of Versailles ; and he was finally driven out of Poland, possessed of nothing more than the empty title of king; he, however, gained the duchy of Lorraine and Bar, which he enjoyed the remainder of bis life. Stanislaus died in January, 1766, having attained to the great uge of eif/^lityninc years. He was distin- guished tor his talents and virtues ; his liumanity was active, and displayed itself in many nuble instances of kindness and generosity. Though deprived of the crown of Poland, be expressed bis strong attach- ment to the prosperity of llint country, and his thorough knowledge of its interests, in a work which he wrote and published in the year 17<'>!), entitled. La Vnix Libre e/u Ciloyen ; nu, Vbtervationi tur le Oouverne- ment dit I'ologne. Frederic Augustus, elector of Saxony, was choiien king of Poland in Septeniber, I73.'l, in the forty-sixth yenr uf his uge. He whs the third kiuK of tliut name. He married Maria Josepha, daughter of the emperor Ju8(!ph I. In the winter of 17-16, the king of Prussia nltneked hiin in his hereditary dominions, made himself master of Dres- den, and furced the elector to oceept such conditions of peace as were proffered. In 1756, the king of Poland having secretly become a parly in a eonfederncy formed by the empress queen and the king of Frnnce, to strip tiie king of Prus-:iia of the provinrc of SiJKbin, the nnfortunntc Augustus sud- denly fell a victim to the resentments of that monarch, who took possession of Dres- den, his Capital, uud cuinpelled his whole army, consisting of 13,000 men, to surren- der prisoners of war; after which he expe- rienced the most bitter calamities. His queen, whose every motion was nnrrnwly watched by the emissuries of the Prussinn monarch, died of a broken heart ; whilst the dcHlf^ns which the king had formed fur the advancement of his family, by procur- ing for one of his sons the dukedom of Courland, and for another the bisliinfric of Liege, were entirely frutlratcd. 'Worn down with years us well as Hiih sorrows, he re- signed bis breath on the Alli of October, 176.1, in the seventy-sixth yenr of his age, and the thirtieth year from his election to the crown of Poland. The son of Augustus declared Iiinifclf n candidate for the vacant crown ; Imt he died of the small-pox in less tnan tv.o months after. Count I'oniatowflii, on ac- count of his eminent merit, was unani- r THE BOASTSn PKKUnOM OF rOLAND BXTHMUKU ONLY TO TITK UlCU. ! i f; I m UOST or TIIH FOI.ISU COHN IS BXrORTKO FROM UANTBICi 692 ^I)e ^icasurn of l^istots, $cc. mouMy elected king, on the 7tl» "f Sep- toinbrr, 1704, without any commotion or diaturbniice. Tlie powers of Itussin, Prus- sia, luid Turkny, supported liis pretennions. Tliu ambassadors of France, Spain, and the empire, who opposed his election, retired from Warsaw, when the diet assembled. He took the name of Stanislaus Augustus. The new kin^ had not long sat upon the thrnne, before some Russian troops enter- ed his kingdom on the ))Iea of procuring a toleration and other privileges for the op- pressed and persecuted " dissidents," who were of the Greek church, and also for the Lutheran and other reformed Christians. The bitter enmity which subsisted between the llnman Catholics and the dissidents, kindled the llamc of a fierce, bloody, and desolating civil war, which raged during the years 1769, 1770, and 1771 ; in the midst of which, the miserablo Poles were visit- ed with the pestilence, which swept oiT 'J.ld.OOO of the population. The part which the king of Poland took against the dis- sidents, caused n conspiracy to be formed to assassinate him, in November, 1771 i from which attempt upon his life he es- caprd almost by a miracle. Many of the conspirators lost their lives by the hands of the executioner. AmoHifst the Poles the love of freedom had long prevailed, without the spirit of union. A kingdom fertile and extensive aa that of Poland, torn by intestine com- motions, and unprovided with the means of self-defence, presented a most alluring prospect to its powerful neighbours. The censures which have been passed on the great southern kingdoms of Europe, for the tanieness and unconcern with which they looked on and saw a noble king- dom mutilated, arc in reality unmeaning charges. Had the states of the empire, Fronci!, and the niiu'itimo powers, jomed in a heterogenous league with the courts of Stockholm and Copenhagen ; had they even engaged the Ottomans in the alliauce, what could their fullest exertions have availed, toward securing Poland from the depredations of three powers capable of brmging tlve or six hundred thousand men into the tield ? Fleets would have been in- effectual in a contest carried on in the cen- tre of Europe. These confederating pow- ers could have brought no force equal to that possessed by the partitioning princes. In fact, the latter, by their union, had ef- fectually prevented all attempts to form an opposition capable of thwarting their designs. It is needless to mention the frivolous and obscure claims which were set up by the three partitioning powers, to the terri- tories which they designed to appropriate : it is Bufllcicnt to describe the countries which were thus forcibly wrested. The claims of Austria comprehended the south- ern parts of Little' Poland, and the whole of Red Russia, with Procutia. The royal salt mines at Wieluska, Bochnia, and other places in Little Poland were comprehended m the territory thus seized. The produce of these mines supplied the king with a part of his private revenue. The whole of the territory wrested by Austria contains about three hundred miles from cast to west, and two hundred from north to south. The district seized upon by the empress of Russia, was the whole of Polish Livo- nia, and that part of Lithuania which borders on the Russian empire, and ex- tending over that dnchy even beyond the river Beresinai the whole lying under more than four degrees of latitude, but much less considerable in width. The king of Prussia took possession of all the western parts of Pomerania, bounded on the south- ward by the river Netz, together with the whole of Polish Prussia ; the cities of Dant- zic and Thorn only excepted. To this terri- tory he gave the name of New Prussia. As these countries form the southern shores of the Baltic, and give the command of the Vistula, they were highly important to n monarch, whose dominions, before this acquisition, could not furnish a deep, con- venient, and capacious harbour for ship- ping. The political views of the king of Prussia thereby became much enlarged, being directed to commercial and maritime objects. The inhabitants of the countries thus dismembered were required, by the mani- festos, to take oaths of allegiance and fidelity to their new sovereigns, within a very short space of time, on pain of for- feiting their estates. The independent spirit of the Polish nobility could ill brook such mandates : many chose rather to abandon their country and estates, and submit to voluntary exile ; carrying with tlium such parts of their property as the short time allotted them would enable them to collect. The confiscation of these estates was an object of {(reat conseqtiencc to each sovereign ; it bcmg a cruel policy constantly practiced by invaders and usurp- ers, to oppress and ruin the native nobility, in order to provide for theirown adherents. The emprcssof Russia, however, conducted these proscriptions with less severity than her two confederates. This memorable event took place in September, 1772. The king of Poland, unable to make any effectual opposition to these violent acts of power, was at length induced to give his sanction to the partition, by being put into possession of a rich territory, wliich was rendered hereditary in his family ; and which was guaranteed by the three courts ; besides which, a larjpie sum of money, to enable him to pay off his heavy debts, was presented to him, as the farther price for this his sacrifice of duty to tyranny. Still, however, to add insult to injury, a diet was called ; the members of which, by the most undisguised violence, were compelled to give their votes to ratify the alienation of so great a part of the kingdom. It was thought, however, that this change of go- vernment, •'•ougli brought about without any colour of justice, or plausible claim of right, might, after the convulsions caused by its first establishment had subsided. IN lOMB OI' THE FOHIiSTS TUB BIION, OR WILD DULL, IS VOVttO. IK with n pnrt i wliole of the ■ontniiiB nhuut cast to west, rth to loiith. f the empress if Polish liivo- hunnia which jpirc, and ex- eu beyond the ng under more ide, but much The king of tU the western 1 on the louth- ;ether with the ! cities of Dant- l. To this tcrri- sw Prussia. As outhcrn shores lO command of ly important to ms, before this sh a deep, con- rbour for shlp- of the king of nuch cnlariccd, al and maritime countries thus J, by tlie mani- nllegiancc and eigns, within a un pnin of for- \c independent f could ill brook hose rather to id estates, and ; carrying with property ns the I would i-nnblc isration of these ent consequence g a cruel policy iders and usurp- ! native nobility, rown adherents, lever, conducted !8S severity than riiis memorable iber, 1772. ble to make any se violent nets of uced to give his )y being put into itory, which was lis fanuly ; and the three courts; im of money, to heavy debts, was further price for B tyranny. Still, iijury, a diet was hich,by themost ire compelled to the alienation of ingiloni. It was lis change of go- jt about without ilausible elaiui of nvulsions caused It had subsided, VlfOKa TUB RSrUBLIO TUS HOBILITT Of rOLANO WKRI riBriOT DBSrOTS. VUUND. ^f)t l^istorp o{ ^olantf. 693 tend to enlarge the sum of human happi- ness in those districts, as well as to render the country more wealthy and tlourishing, ns the oppressions of iLe nobility were likely to be greatly rcstriiiiied, and the con- dition of the peasantry to be considerably amended. That the three great northern powers should concur in the design of dismenihcr- ing Poland, by mutually acknowledging and supporting each others' claims, ap- peared so essentially necessary to the ac- edmplishment of the purpose, that each became disposed to hty aside those jealou- sies and bickerings which subsisted aguinst the others; nud for the sake of further- ing its own particular interest, to assist in strengthening its rivals. To the empress of Russia, indeed, the claims of Austria and Prussia must hove been particularly unwelcome ; for she gave up that un- bounded influence and authority which she had acquired in the distracted king- dom, for a territory little adequate to the loss of such power ; but this concession was made to purchase a continuance of the good understanding that subsisted betwocu her and the court of Vienna; and to check those designs which were forming by the latter court to reduce the ascendant fortunes of Russia : so that mu- tual jealousies, in fact, cemented the great northern confederacy ; which may be con- sidered as the forerunner of a very impor- tant revolution in the political system of Europe. I)y the exertions and abilities of the king of Poland, which the general sense of misery and degradation, occasioned by in- testine anarchy and sovereign interference, contributed very essentially to render ef- fectual, a new constitution was settled for Poland on the 3d of May, 17 ^c- nut Iheie promises were kept only to the ear s rnstriciions un the press, arbitrnry iniprisouiiient, and piinishiiicnts; insults added to injuries; a solemn mocliery of a diet, which was not allowed to exercise any real authority; the violation of every article of the charter by a Rusjian barba- rian; peculation and extortion prnctisod by the inferior oRlcers;— these were some of the features of the Russian government of Poland. On the death of Alexander (December, 1B25) and the accession of Nicholas, a con- spiracy broke out in Russia, and, on pre- tence that it extended to Warsaw, several hundred pc.'sons were arrested in Poland, and a comniiMion constituted, contrary to the provisions of the charter, to inquire into the affair. The only discovery of this inquisitorial tribunal was, that secret so- cieties bad existed in Poland since 1821. In May, 1829, Nicholas was crowned at Warsaw. In IH2H, however, a secret so- cii'ty had been instituted, for the purpose of gaining over the olHecrs of the army to the cause of independence ; and to their agency i* the insurrection of IH.'IO to be at- tributed. It appears, nevertheless, that it was immediately occasioned by a sham cousuiracy got up by tlic Russian police, who had thus induced a number of young men to betray themselves, and crowded the prisons with their victims. Not only the Polish officers, the youth of the military school, and the students, had been gained over to the cause of the patriots ; but the greater part of the citizens, and the chief nobles, were ready to encourage an effort to save themselves from whHt they now foresaw — the occunation of Poland by a Russian army, and the marching of the Polish troops to the south of Europe. Such was the state of things when the insurrection of Warsaw broke out, Nov. 19, 1830. A young officer entered the niili- tarv school, on the evening of that day, and called the youth to arms, Tlicy immedi- ately proceeded to Bclvidere, the residence of Constantine, obout two miles from the city, for the purpose of seizing his person. They were joined, on the way, by the stu- dents of the university, and forced their way into the palace; but the prince was concealed in a clothes-press, by a servant, until he could make his escape by a secret door. Another party of cndcts and students paraded the streets, calling the citizens to arms, and they were joined by the Polish troops. The arsenal was seized, with -lU.OdO stand of arras, and the insurrection now became general. On the next morning 4U,UU0 troops and citizens were in arms, and the Russians were expelled from War- saw. The administrative council was summon- ed to preserve order; and, to give more in- fluence to its measures, several of the most distinguished Poles vicre invited to sit with it. Measures were t«ken for the organiza- tion of a national guard, and of a new police and municipal government. On the 3rd of December, the prince was allowed to leave the neighbourhood of Warsaw, with three regiments of Russian cavalry, and tw,> re- giments of infantry, without opposition. On the 5th, general Clopicki was proclaim- ed dictator till the meeting of the diet, which was convoked for tlie 18th. Mean- while Nicholas issued a proclnmation, in which he declared that no concessions could be made to the rebels, ond, on the 24th, another, addressed to the Russians, tell- ing them that the Poles had dared to pro- pose conditions to their Ifgitimale mmini "Ood," ho adds, "is with us, and, in a single bnitlo we shall be able to reduce to submission these disturbers of the peace." January 24 the Polish diet, which hud been opened on the 18lh of December, declared the absolute independence of Poland, and the termination of the Russian dominion, and on the 25th, that the Polish throne was vacant. Although the immediate cause of this revolution was the severe punishment in- flicted on the pupils of the military aca- demy, as before stated, there is no doubt that the Poles were rncouraged to make the attempt by the success that had at- tended the Parisians in the preceding July, to secure to tlicni a constitutional govern- ment. The object of the Polish revolu- tionists, however, was not to withdraw themselves entirely from the imthority of the Russian emperor, but only to main- tain the privileges that were guaranteed to them at the congress of Vienna, and to get rid of the tyrannous viceroysliip of the grand-duke Coiistontine. They had now however, drawn the sword; and although two coinissionera were sent to St. Peters- burg, to endeavour to effect an arrange- ment, the emperor refused to listen to them, and denounced the revolted Poles as trnitors to whom no lenity would be shown. Marshal Diehitscli, who had so success- fully conducted the war with the Turks, entered Poland nt the head of a large urmy. lie advanced as far as Warsaw, and wos victorious over the Poles ncnr the walls of their capital, February 25, 1H31 (the loss of the Poles is stated to have been 5,500, that of their enemies 4,600) ; but when prince Iludzivil resigned the command on the 28th, and Skrzynecki, then only a colo- nel, was appointed' in his place, the Polish cmise gained strength. This brave officer, though finally ui^successful, like the he- roic Kosciusko, prov'ed that he deserved a better fate. March Ji, iie was victorious over the Russians in a night attack. He advanced cautiously, and, favoured by the darkness of the niglit, reached their can- tonments without being perceived. The advanced guard of general Geisinar, con- sisting of 8,000 or 10,000 men, was first at- tacked, and almost wholly destroyed: the Poles took 4,000 prisoners and 1,600 pieces of cannon. Immediately afterwards, he at- tacked general Rosen, who was posted with 20,000 men at Dembe Wielski, and obliged him to retreat, with the loss of 2,000 pri- soners and nine pieces of cannon. JBWI ARI MOBF NUMKnOVS IN POLAND THA1« IN ANT OTUIill COUNTRT. CUWS, aHKRP, ANB OOATI CONITITUTR TIIR CniRr KICBII* Ot TBB ■WIHI. Wi)t l^ultaru at ^iaititxUixts, 697 Another important victory wns aftcr- wiirdn gaiui'il ui.'ar Zelccliow, wlicn 12,UU() KiiHsinns were Icillpil, woiiiidfd, or talicn, M'itli twulvc pieccK of cannon. During thii aciion, the Litluinnian* and Vnlhyninnii, who (crvcd in the RuRiion army, turned thrir nrini ngainat tlie Kuisiana, and nin- trrinlly contributed to the aucccRi of the Pdlea. The peaannta in vnrioua ((uartcra of Puliiiid n(MV loulc an active part in the war, and hnatcnud, willi whatever wcapona they could olitiiin, to I he army. Inaurrcctiuna broki> out in Litliuanin, Volhynia, Kowno, UltrMine, Wilnn, and even in ancient Po- land, ua far ua Smoienak. On the other liniid, general Dwernicki, who had been sent to make a demonfttration in the rear of the Kuaaiiina, and who had been victo- rious over them, waa at last compelled to iinas into the Atiatrian doniiniona, where Ik- surrendered to the authorilici of that country, April 27, with COUO Poles. The nrduur of the people, however, atill con- tinued, and hopea were entertained in every country that the manly reaistance of the Poles would induce the powerful cabinets to interfrre; but, unfortunately, Prussia and Austria, being themselves in posses- sion of a part of the spoils of Poland, did all in their power to prevent interference, whilst ISritain and France were loo much occupied at home to render essential aid. The military operations were now prose- cuted with new vigour, and the emperor, who, in A manifesto addressed to the Rus- sians, had called them the legitimate mas- ters of the Poles, was ready to make every sacriHcc to regain the Polish throne. Their fate waa soon afterwards decided. After two days lighting, Warsaw was taken by the Russians, (September, 1H31); the confiscation of their property and exile to Siberia followed as a matter of course ; and though many found an ''vlum in England and other countries .cy were mostly in extreme poverty, ana were de- pendent on the benevolence of those who pitied their hard fate while they admired their patriotism. Poland waa soon after- wards incorporated with Russia; and al- though it has its separate diet and code of laws, Russian troops arc stationed in all the principal towns, and it bears every semblance in other respects to a conquer- ed country. THE HISTORY OF SWT'^ZERLAND. 3 ' u » ! From the earliest times this country boa been no leaa celebrated for the spirit of freedom which animated its brave inhabi- tants, than for the beautiful and interest- ing clmractcr of its scenery. Snow-capped niountiiina, with fertile valleys and peace- ful lakes ut their base, are here seen in contrast with noble forests, luxuriant vine- yards, and glaciers of almost boundless ex- tent, whose crystal pinnacles tower above each other and flash their light with all till! brilliancy of a noon-day sun. But in alluding to the geographical features of Switzerland, we must not forget that our present business is more particularly de- voted to its history. The northern and southern nations of Europe have been singularly intermingled in the history of Helvetia, whose Alnine walls seem like a barrier, separating tliem from each other. The Roman legions, in. deed, conquered the Gauls, Rhaitians and Alemnnni, in the forests and marshes ; but tliey could not destroy the northern spirit of freedom. The traces of its ancient sub- jugation to Rome are still visible in the Ro- mimic language of a part of Switzerland. Helvetia, under the Romans, had a flourishing trade, which covered the land with cities und villages; and Switzerland still forms the ronnecting link between Northern Germany, the Netherlands and France on the one side, and Italy on the other. Before the fall of the Roman empire in the wcrt, the northern and largest part of Switzerland, occupied by the Alemanni, had been conquered by the Franks. On the Jura dwelt the Burgundiana, and Rhstia was under the Ostrogoths. Three German nations, therefore, freed the country, about A. D. 4S0, from the dominion of Rome. Christianity had already been introduced into Helvetia from Italy, and as early as the fourth century there were Christian churches nt Geneva, Coirc, and other places. The Alemanni and Burgundians gave their jaws and their habits to the Helvetians ; and the Alemanni occupied the greater part of the country. Each soldier received a farm; a judge, or centgrave, was set over one hundred of these farms (forming a cent, or hundred) : and the place of judg- ment where he settled all questions be- tween the free citizens, was called Malluo. Several cents formed a Gun (hence Thur- gan, Aargan, &c.), the judge of which was styled count (graf) ; and the counts were under a duke. The great irruption of barbarians swept through the peaceful valleys of the Alps, and Roman civilization disappeared. Os- trogoths, Jjombards, and even Huns, set- tled in different parts of the country. At last, the French, who had taken posaessiun of the lands of the conquered Alemanni, drove the Ostrogoths over the Rhoilian mountains. couNtar. THI! CHOPS OF COBN AHK ORNBRALLY SCANTY AND PUKCABIOUS. [3 TBI NIATMBBS Of SWISS ABCViTXCTU** IS KVBRT WHimiC APPAItBHT. 698 €'{)e ^reasucu of ^{storii, $cc. ♦■. i |i I : ■ I > M IS M U M n ■J n b k< M M M H M f m a % M H M f > M H 10 H B »■ M H K is M O H H at es B O »• M H n In 534, they likewise subiected the Bur- gundians: and all Switxerland became a portion of the Prankish empire. The coun- try, however, retained its ancient constitu- tion ; the Romans and the old inhabitants were governed by Roman, the Alemanni by Aleraannic laws; and each of the other nations by its peculiar code. The Chris- tian religion was restored anew, and the desolated fields were again brought under cultivation. On the partition of the empire of the Franks among the Merovingians, Switzer- land was divided between two sovereigns; one reigned over Alemannian, and the other overBurgundian Switzerland, or Little Bur- gundy. Pepin reunited the whole coun- try, and Charlemagne encouraged the arts and sciences in Helvetia. Under his feeble successors, the counts became more and more independent of the royal authority, and finally made the possession of their gam hereditary. One of them (Rodolph) established, in 888,thenew kingdom of Bur- gundy, between the Reuss and the Jura. Nine years previously, Boso had established the kingdom of Aries, in the territory be- tweeu the Jura and the Rhone. Thirty years afterwards, the two Burgundian king- doms were united. The counts in the other part of Switzerland were still nomi- nally subject to the German kings ; but they conducted themselves as princes, as- sumed the name of their castles, and com- pelled the free inhabitants of their (/arts to acknowledge them as their lords. Hence arose a multitude of independent and com- plicated governments, whose chiefs were engaged in continual feuds with each other. War was the business of the nobles, and misery the fate of the people in the dis- tracted land. The emperor Conrad, there- fore, set a duke over the counts in Aleman- nia iu 911. But the emperors of the Saxon house were the first who compelled the dukes, counts and bishops, in Switzerland, to respect their authority. After the death of Rodolph III., the 5th and last king of Burgundy (1032), the em- peror Conrad II. re*united Bur^ndian Switzerland' with Alemannia, which be- longed to the German empire. But undeY Henry IV., grandson of Conrad II., the royal authority in Switzerland was again overthrown. The country people became more secure ; the feuds among the nobility flourished; Geneva and Lausanne, among the Romanic, and Zurich and Basle among the German cities, became thriving towns. The families of Savoy, Kyburg, and Haps- burg were the most powerful among the noble families. Many nobles went, about this time, to Palestine ; and thus the coun- try was delivered from their oppression. After the death of Berthold V., last duke of Zfthringen, in 1218, Alemannia again came into the possession of the emperor. His hereditary estates in the Uchtland and in Little Burgundy, passed by his sister Agnes, to the house of Kyburg. From this time, the Hapsburgs in north- ern Helvetia, and the counts of Savoy in the south-west, grew more and more power- ful. The emperor appointed some noble- man as governor of each city, or com- munity, which was not under a count, to collect the public revenue, and to punish violations ot the public peace. The Ger- man kings were no longer able to afford pro- tection; might gave right, and the bold- est became tne mightiest. Several inferior lords, and several places, therefore, sought the protection of Hapsburg or Savoy. Zu- rich, Berne, Basle and Soleure, the districts of Uri, Schweitz and Underwalden, gradu- ally acquired the seigneurial rights from the emperors, by purchase or by grant, and assumed the name of imperial cities or im- perial districts. They were more prosper- ous and powerful than the ivobility, who lived in their solitary castles, at enmity with each other. Even the crusades, by promoting com- merce, improved the already flourishing condition of the cities, as a part of the troops, arms, provisions, &):. were transmit- ted to Italy, through the passes of the Alps. The crusaders brought back new inventions in the arts, new kinds of fruits, &c. The gold and silk manufacturers of the Ita- lians and eastern nations were imitated in Switzerland ; refinement took the place of rudeness, and poetry became the favourite amusement of the nobles. The cities now formed alliances for their mutual protec- tion against the rapacity of the nobles, and demolished many castles, from which they exercised their oppression upon the peace- ful merchants. At the end of the thirteenth century, Rodolph of Hapsburg, who, in 126-1, had in- herited the estates of his uncle Hartmann, count of Kyburg, became more powerful than the old lords of the soil. As king and emperor of Germany, he held a court at Helvetia; but lie did not abuse his power to reduce the freemen to vassalage. His ambitious sons, however, Rodolph and Albert, encroached upon the rights of the Swiss. Albert, in particular, who succeed- ed to the imperial dignity in 1298, by his tyranny and obstinacy, gave rise to the first confederacy of the Swiss cantons. On the night of November 7. 1307, thirty-three brave countrymen met at Grutlin, a soli- tary spot on the lake of Lucerne. Ftlrst of Uri, Stauffacher of Schweitz, and Mclch- thal of Underwalden, were the leaders on this occasion. All swore to maintain their ancient independence. The three Walds- tKdte, or forest-towns (as these cantons were called), accordingly rose, deposed the Austrian governors, and destroyed the cas- tles built to overawe the country. Henry VII., the successor of Albert on the German throne, confirmed to the fo- rest-towns the rights of which Albert had endeavoured to rob them. The house of Austria still contended obstinately for its lost privileges. But the warlike spirit of the people fostered a love of conquest and plunder ; mutual hatred kindled civil wars between neighbouring cantons; foreign power* sought the aid of the confederates TUB WOMBN, AS WBIiI. AS HBN, PKBFOBM ALL KINDS OF AGRICVLTUBAI/ LABOUR. TUR CLIMATE IN TUB ALriNB HIQIOn* 111 BXCES«ITBI.T COLD. QT^c l^tators of StnU^trlant}. 699 LTURAL LABOUR. in their conteita. In 1424, the people of the Grey League establiahed their inde- pendence, and were soon after joined by those of the other two leaKucs. The emperor Frederic III. then calle<'. a French army into Switzerland to protect Lis family estates. The 8wisa made a se< cond Thermopylae of the church-yard of St. Jacob at Basle, where IGOU of them with- stood 20,000 French under the dauphin Louis, (August 26, 1444.) They next pro- voked Charles the Bold of Burgundy, who marched into their country, but was de- feated at Granson, Murten, or Morat, and Nancy, in 1477. The confederates them- selves aspired to conquest, the people being fired by the desire of plunder, and the no- bles by warlike ambmon. In U60, they wrested Thurita from Austria; and from 1436 to 1450, Zurich, Schweitz, and Glarus contended for Toggenburg, till Berne de- cided the dispute in favour of Schweitz. The confeaerated cantons from this time bore the name of the Swiss confederacy in foreign countries. In 1481, Friburg and Soleure entered the confederacy. The em- peror Maximilian I. now determined to force the Swiss to join the Suabian league, and to submit to the court of the imperial chamber. But they suspected Germany on account of Austria, and joined the Grisons. Hence arose the Suabian war, which was concluded, after the Swiss bad gained six victories over the Germans, by the peace of Basle, in 1499. Basle, Schaffliausen, and Appcnzell, were afterwards' admitted into the confederacy. But the country and peo- ple were disturbed by domestic and foreign wftrs* In the Milanese war of 1512, the Swiss conquered the Valteline and Chiavenna, and obtained from Milan the Italian bail- liages, which form at present the canton of Tessin. They fought on a foreign soil, now for, now against, Milan ; at one time for France, and at another time against her, till after the great battle of Marig- nano, gained by Francis I., in 1515, they concluded a perpetual peace with France, at Friburg, in 1610, which was followed, in 1521, by the first formal alliance with that kingdom. About this time the work of reformation began in Switzerland. Zuinglius, in 1518, E reached against iudulgencics, as Luther ad done in 1517. Even as early as 1516, he had attacked pilgrimages, and the invo- cation of the Virgin Mary; and in 1517, with the knowledge of his patron, the ab- bot of Einsiedeln, several nuns abandoned the monastic life. His removal from Ein- siedeln to Zurich, in 1518, gave him cour- age to speak more openly, as Luther had, meanwhile, appeared in the cause of re- form. But when the principles of the re- formation were diffused through Zurich, Berne, Schaffliausen, Basle (by the labours of (Ecolampadius), St. Gall, MUhlhnusen, and Bienne, religious jealousy separated the reformed and the catholic cantons. In Glarus, Appenzell, and the Grisona, the people were divided between the two con- fessions. Lucerne, Uri, Schweitz, Under- walden, Zug, Friburg, Soleure, adiiercd to the ancient faith; as did likewise the Va- lais and the Italian bailiwicks. Fanaticism kindled a civil war. The Schweitzers burnt a protestant preacher of Zurich. Two Swiss armies, nearlv 30,000 strong, awaited the signal for civil war, a better spirit suddenly prevailed, and the first religious peace was concluded in 1529. It was agreed that the majority of votes in the communities should decide all ques- tions relating to chang;es of faith. Hut the rapid progress of the reformation again provoked the catholic cantons to war ; and the troops of Zurich were routed at Cap- pel (1531), where Zuinglius fell, and at the mountain of Zug. After the second public peace, the catholic religion was restored in Soleure and the common provinces. In the mean time. Savoy, which had long pos- sessed episcopal and seigneurial rights in Geneva, reduced the city to entire submis- sion. But the oppressive manner in which the ducal authority was exercised, led Ge- neva, in 1525, to join Berne and Friburg. The duke was forced to yield. Berne and Geneva concluded the perpetual league of 1531, and Berne gained possession of the Pays de Vaud. At the same time, the re- formed doctrines were propagated from Geneva by Calvin. By the peace of Lau- sanne, in 1564, Savoy drst renounced her claums upon the Pars de Vaud, and was thus driven from Helvetia, as Nenburg had been before. About this time (1555), Berne and Friburg divided between them- selves the territories of the counts of Gru- yei , so that, in all Helvetia, no great fa- mily of the ancient nobles retained its pa- trimonial estates, except that of Henburg. The Swiss, however, were distracted by religious and political controversies. Aris- tocracy and democracy struggled for the superiority, and the intrigues of Spain filled the people of the Valteitne (1G17-21) with a. spirit of fanaticism. In foreign, and es- peciall'.r in the French service, the Swiss adopted foreign manners : he sold his blood to foreign masters ; and the ancient Swiss purity and simplicity retired to the remote valleys of the higher Alps. At the same time, the connection of the confederacy with the German empire became less and less close, while the cantons obtained the confirmation of their rights from the em- peror Maximilian II. But the influence of France soon became predominant, and Rome swayed the minds of its adherents by means of Jesuit col- leges at Lucerne and Friburg; and parti- cularly through the papnl nuncio at Lu- cerne. In the thirty years' war, the con- federates maintained a prudent neutrality ; and, by the peace of Westphulia (1648), the complete separation of Switzerland from the German empire wa« at length solemnly acknowledged. In 1663, France renewed her alliance with the Swiss, and asserted that they had no right to form alliances with other pow- ers. The conquest of the Franche Comt^, aWITZISnLARD DOBS ROT FRODt7CB ART BIRD OF MINBnALS IN ABUNDANCB. y i I 1 ^ 1 'r'l ; i ». tUI SILK M*NUr*OTUIIK II MUITLT CUNOUOTRU IN llini<:il ANII BAIII.H. 700 ^{)( ZITrcnisuri) oC l^istorn, ^t. ill Wi, mid tlio licRO of niiriiireld, In lrt7«, by ihe Frrnch, inKrllicrwitli tlio croc- tiuii of the fortrcii -'f iIUnliiK<' excited the ipprehrnHinni of tliu Hwim, They, however, hnjipily niRintnined llii'ir neutrality, even in the wnr of the HpHnikh tucceuion. During the pumcculiiM) of I lie Sroteitnnti in France, to whom tlicy ren- ily Kdvenn aiiyliim nnd prcuiiinry iiiil, lliey pnid «• little reftnrd to the reiiioniitrniieeR of I,ouis, who viowcil the reforiiifri h« re- bel*, nt: he ilid to the iiitcreemiioii of the EruteKtnnt 8wisi rantuns in favour uf their reihren in the faith. The Nwiii had little influence in foreiicn poliliei during the eiKhteenth century; mid, until towards its cloite, thnv RUfTt'rvd little from foreitfu iiitcrfi'micc. This trnn- quillity, which, liowevcr, was often inter- rupted by iuteriinl disscnnions, was nliku favourabln to the proftress of couiinercc, agriculture, and inanufncturcR, and In the arts and scicucei. In almost every dc- parlnient of huinnn knowledice, the Swiss of the ciKhtcenth century, both at home and nhrond, acc|uired distiiiKiiislied repu- tntion, Its the names of Ilaller, Itoniict, llernoulli, J. Jl. Rousaeau, I,nvntcr, Iloilmcr, Itreitiuger, Orssner, Sul/.or, Hirwl, Fusell, IIottinKcr, Jolin von MUllcr, I'cstalozii, and many others, bear wituesK. The people of the demorrntic cantons enjoyed an almost unlimited tVci'doin, and took a large share in the alfikirs of govern - ineut. Those places whicli were uiulur the general protection of the whole confede- racy, were not burthoncd by excessive taxes; they enjoyed a high degree of civil freedom, and numerous luunicipal rights. Tlie larger cantons, as Heme and /.iirich, in which the government was ailiuinistcred by the capitals, or by n body of the citi- tens, who enjoyed many ^x'culinr privi- leges, were also in a ilourishing condition. Tliere were no oppressive taxes ; but al- most every where the government was oonseieutiously couductcd ; the adminis- tration of justice was cheap and simple, and benevolent institutions were nume- rous. Notwithstanding all these favour- able circumstances, internal dissensions still coutinued, and new troubles arose in 1790, which shook the political fabric ; blood was often spilt, and punii>hiuent rendered necessary. Although the Swiss had at first firmly main'- ined their neutrality in the wars of the French revolution, French power and intrigue gradually deprived them of their former constitution ; and, after incorporat- ing several portions of Switzerland with the French aud Cisalpine republics, the French converted the Swiss confederacy into the Helvetic republic,. one and indi- visible, under an executive directory ol five persons. The legislative power wai di- vided between a senate and a great coun- cil, to which each of tlie fourteen cantons elected twelve members. ]t was in vain that some of the democratic cantons at- tempted to prevent this revolution. They were speedily overpowered. Hut the oppression of the French, the arbitrary niniiui'r in which they disposrd of the Inglii'st otIici'N, and Ihr great nuiiihcr of wcnk and C()rru|it men who were raised to power— soon inaile the now oHlcvrs con- temptible. Aloys Iteding, a man of en- terprising spirit, wliiisH family was cele- brated III the annals of his country, form- ed the plan of overthrowing the central governuiriit. (Tndrrwnldcii, Schweitr., 'An- rich, (JIariiN, Appciiidl, and the (Irisont wished to restore the federal constitution ; and Reding imagined that lluouaparte him- self, wlio linil just withdrawn the French troops from Swilierland, would favour his plan. Tlic smaller cantons, in their diet at Schweitr. (Augimt ll, INII'J), declared that they would not iicecpt tliu couHtilution which had hern forced upon them, and that they prefcred n federal government. The conseiiucnce was a civil war. Kiirich was besieged to no purpone by the troops of the Helvetic republic, against whom its gates where shut. Hodotph von F.rlach and general Auf der Maur, at the In'ad of the insurgents, occupied jleriie and Fri- burg. The Helvetic government retired to Lausanne. Aloys Reding now summoned a general assembly, which was held at Schwcilr., Sep- tember ij- Three days after, tlie first con- sul of France otTered to the cantons his mediation; but the small cantons, guided by Aloys Reding and llirzel of Zurirli, per- severed in their nppositiun. Twelve thou- sand French troops entered Switxrrlaiid, under Ney, and the diet separatcil. Reding and llii'zel were imprisoned. In Ucceniljer, both parties sent deputicH of the elgliteeii cantoiiii to I'aris, to whom lluouaparte transmitted by Rurtht^li^my, Foiiclii', and Rfkderer, the act of mediation of February l!), 1H(I3, rcHtoring the cantonal system, hut grnnting freedom to the former subjects of the cantons. The cantons were now nineteen in num- ber: — Aargau, Ap;ienzell, Ibisle, Heme, Fri- burg, (ilarus, (Prisons, Lucerne, St. (iall, SchafThaiiscn, Schwcitz, Suleurc, Tcssin, Thurgaii, Underwalden, Uri, I'ays de Vniid, Zug.nnd Zurich. The republic ofValais was changed by a decree of Napoleon, in 1810, into a French denartmcnt ; and as early ns LSOfi, be granted Neufchatel (which had been ceded to him by Prussia, but which was under the protection of Switzerland), to general llcrthier, as a sovereign prin- cipality. Napoleon assumed the title of " mediator of Switzerland ; " and the mili- tary service required of the Swiss became more and more oppressive. It was only by great firmness and the sacrifice of im- mense sums of money, that most of the can- tonal governments could avert greater op- pression ; they were obliged to adopt the continental system; and the canton of Tcs- sin was long garrisoned by Frcncii troops. In 18i;i, wlien the theatre of war ap- proached Switzerland, France permitted the Swiss to maintain their neutrality; but the allies expressed themselves am- biguously, and large armies were soon TBB WATCII-HAKINCI TBAOB 18 CABBIBD ON IN OBNBVA AND NBUVOBATBL. TUB AkMI OK ■WITKIMI.ANn III ■TKICTI.T ONI.T A MII.ITIA VDtlCK. ft\)t I)isiori) o( SlDit>erlnnti. 701 innrrhod tlirniiKli tlio country. In vnrioiiii ilirertitnii, to Krancn. Tlii'ir nrriVHlitxcilril It IVrmitntntiun in uiiiny (lunrlcri. Tlio m-i of nivilintion wa« nnnuUvd, Dcci'iiihcr 2\i, iHlil, at Kurich, and mivnrnl cnntoni, of which livrne, waa tho tint, laboured to raviv« their old conatitulioni. ThruuKlk the inHurncfl of tho allied nionarchu, thn canton* wcru flnnlly prnvnilcd on to nui-m- ble n KcnvrnI council ; but rcvoUition* and countRr-revolutionii aKitatcd Rcvcrnl of the cantona. A diet was at Icnith aiivembind at Xurich, and new article! of confedera- tion were agreed upon b* nineteen ciintonc, Reptcmbcr IHth, IH14. They revoinbled tho old federal pact in many reipect*. Thi» confedcrac* wa» acknowledifcd by the con- greit nf Vienna. Tho biinourin of iiaile, with Ilienne, wai (riven to tne canton of Btrno, cxceptiuK tlie diitrict of Uimcclc, which fell to Haile, and a Rniall portion which fell to Neufcnatol. The former re- lationR of the latter place to I'misia were restored, and with (iencva and the Valain, it joined the confoderncv of llio Hwim can- tons, making their nuniuer twenty-two. August 7, IHIS, the compact of Kurioh wns publicly and ?oleninlv adopted, after thn deputies of the confederacy at Vienna had given in their accession to the acts of the congress of Vienna, so far ns thoy re- lated to Switzerland. Hoou after, Switzer- land bccainu a member of the hnlynllianco. Hut the political state of the HwisH cantons as settled by the congress of Vienna, nnd jealously watched by tlin holy alliance, gave rise to niucli disaffection in tlie great body of the people. In this slate of things, the general demand for reform, in the electoral assemblies of Tcssin (one of the small can- tons), compelled the council, June, 1H.'I(), to yield to the public voice, and entablish a system of direct elections, and of pub- licity of proceedings in the great council, and to guarantee the liberty of the press, and the inviolability of persons, as parts of the constitution. Tina event, and tlie French revolution of July, 18.'i0, set the ex- ample for general risings in various ports of the country. In the new cantons, the popular demands were generally so readily complied with as to prevent any serious disturbances, and the democratic cantons took hardly any part in the troubles ; but in the old aristocratic cantons, the opposi- tion was stronger and more systematic. Still, as many of tbe towns - people were favourable to more popular institutions, the governments, even in these cantons, generally yielded, with little opposition, to tiie wishes of the citizens ; and in Friburg, Berne, Lucerne, Soleure, Schalfliausen, the revision of the constitution, the abolition of privileges, the extension of the right of election, abolition of censorship of the press, &c., were among the concessions to popular rights. In Basle alone, where the peasantry are more ignorant and rude than in the other cantons, the insurgents were not aatisHi'd with thr ronci'saicin*; ami a second insurrection, iii tiii; iitiinnii'r of IH.'II, was not put down williuiit liloiid- shrd. Tho ordinary session of the diet took place at I- ing the peace of other countries. In order, tlierefore, to appease the offended powers, and at the same time to keep faith with those individuals who now relied on their protection, an arrangement was elfectcd with the king of the French for granting them passports to pass through his donii- jiions, on their route to America, or any other country to which they chose to re- sort. Another instance occurred in 183H, on the return of prince Louis lluonapurtu from America, whither he had been sent about two years before for attempting to raise a rebellion at Strnshurg. Un his re- turn to Europe he made choice of Switzer- land fur his residence, and possessed an estate in the canton of Thurgau. The proximity of Switzerland to France was, however, a reason for Louis Philippe to demand his expulsion, which being refused by the Swiss, there was every reason to ex- pect a war between them und the French, had not Louis voluntarily departed for England, and thereby prevented a rupture which might have been fatal to Swiss in- dependence. E,l (1 i ■ I SOMB OV TUB CANTONS ARR PnOTBSTANT, AND 0TUEH8 ABB CATHOLIC. [3 3 ifBUIfOnATBIi. TUB LOMn*HU«, IUMRTIMB9 CAM.KII LONUUaADOt, INTADKD ITALY, A. 1). 6C8. Il t THE HISTORY OF ITALY. Tim dcliftlitful region uf Europe, a* rrle- brnlfd for its gcnini climate, m tur liciiiK the lent of tliitt iiiiKlity eiiipirv whicli of oltl gave Inws to the world ; this clamiio hnd, where all that is noble in art and science have flourished ; thoiiKh shorn of ilR former Klories, still claims the traveller's homaKc And the attention of the historian. Dnforc Rome hnd absorbed all the vital powrr of itnir, this country nas thickly inhabited, ana for the most part, by civi- llzed nations. In the north of Italy alone, which offered the longest resistance to the Itontans, dwelt the Uauls. Farther south, on the Arno and the Tiber, a number of small tribes, such as the Utrusci, the 8am- nitcs, and Latins, endeavoured to lind safety by foruiinK confederacies. Less closely united, and often hostile to each other, were the Greek colonies of Lower Italy, called Magna Grecia. Italy, in the middle ages, was divided into t}|i|>er, Middle, nnd Lower Italy. The lirut division comprehended all the states situated in the vicinity of the I'o; the se- cond extended between the former and the kingdom of Naples; which formed the third. At present, it is divided into the following independent states, which arc not connected with cneh other by any po- litical tie:— 1. The kingdom of Siirdiniai 2. Lombardy, or Austrian Italy (including Milan and Venice ) ; .*). the duchy of I'ar- nin; 4. the duchy of Modcna (including Mnssa) ; 5. the grnnd-duchy of Tuscany ; 6. the duchy of Lucca; 7, the republic of Ban Mariuo; 8. the Tapal dominions; 0. the kingdom of Naples, or the Two Si- cilies. Itatia did not become the general name of this country until the age of Augustus. It had been early imperfectly known to the Greeks under the name of Hesperia. Auionia, Saturnia, and lEuotria, were also names applied by them to the southern part, with which alone they were at lirst acquainted. The name Italia was at first merely a partial name for the Bouthcrn ex- tremity, until it was gradually extended to the whole country. The modern history of Italy begins with the fall of the western empire. Romulus Augustus, its last feeble emperor, was de- throned by his German guards. Odoaeer, their leader, assumed the title of king of Italy, and thus this country was separated from the Roman empire. Ifut this valiant barbarian could not communicate n spirit of independence nnd energy to the degene- rate Italians ; nothing but an nmnlgama- tion with a people in a state of nature could eflVct their regeneration. Such a people already stood on the frontiers of Italy. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, in- stigated by Zeno, emperor of the Kast, overthrew the kingdom of Udonccr, in 403, and reduced all Italy. His Goths spread from the Alps to Sicily. In the lagoons of the Adriutic alone, some fugitives, who hnd fled from the devastations of Atlila, maintained their freedom. Theodoric, who combined the vigour of the north with the cultivation of the south, is jnstly termed iXxoGreut. Hut the energy of his people soon yielded to Roman corrup- tion. Tutiln, for ten years, contested in vniB the almost completed conquest with the mi' litary skill of Uelisarius. He fell in bnttle in 552 ; after which Italy was annexed to the eastern empire, under an exarch, who resided at Ravenna. liut the first exnrch, Nnrses, sunk under the intrigues of the Kyzantinc court, and hit successor ne- glected the defence of the pnsses of the Alps. The country was then iiivnded by the Luiubnrds, who, under Alboiii, their chief or king, conquered the territory which afterwnrds received its name from them. The kingdom of the Lombards included Upper Italy, Tuscany, and Umbria. Alboin also created the duvhv of llenevciito, in Lower Italy, with which he invested Zotto. The whole of Lombardian Italy was di- vided into thirty great ticfs, under dukes, counts, &c., which soon becnine liereditary. Together with the new kingdom, the con- federation of the fugitives in the Ingoons still subsisted in undisturbed freedom. The islanders, by the election of their first doge, Annt'eslo, in 697, established a central go- vernment, and the republic of Venice was founded. Ravenna, the seat of the exarch, with Romagna, the Pentapolis, or the five mari- time cities (Ilimini, I'isaro, Fano, Saniga- glia, and Ancoua), and almost all the coasts of Lower Italy, where Amalfl and Gaeta had dukes of their own, of the Greek na- tion, remained uneonqucred, together with Sicily and the capital, Rome, which was governed by a patrician in the name of the emperor. The slight dependence on the court of Byzantium disappeared almost en- tirely in the beginning of the eighth cen- tury, when Leo, the Isaurian, cxnsperatcd the orthodox Italians by his attack of ima- ges. The cities expelled his officers, and chose consuls and a senate, as in ancient times. Rome acknowledged, not indeed the power, but a certain paternal autho- rity of its bishops, even in secular alfairs, in consequence of the respect which their nAVBNNA WAS COVERMiD BY AN KXAnCU ; UUMK, BY A niSUOP. A. l>. 6C8. Such a people m of Italy. )8tri>Kuthi, in- r of (lie Kaat, Jdnncer, in 493, • Uutlis spri-nd [n tho loKooiK ! fugitives, wlio tiona of Attiln, 1 the vigour of an of tha «outh. Hut the energy Roman cnrrup- untestrd in vniB est witli tho mi- I(! full in linltle vua annexed to nn cxareh, who lie first exorch, ntriguea of the RUCccRior nc- ! passes of the lien iiivndcil by r Alboln, llicir i territory which le from tlicin. bnrds included jmhria. Alboin IJencvcuto, in invested 'AoUo. Italy was di- R, inuk'r dukes, nine hereditary, igdoui, tho con- in tho lagoons d freedom. The their first doge, d a central go- es of Veuico was le exarch, with »r the five mari- Fano, Saniga- >st all the coasts [lalfi and Gaeta the Greek na- d, together with )me, which was the name of the endeuce on the Bared almost en- the eighth cen- ian, exasperated is attack of ima- his officers, and ;c, as in ancient cd, not indeed paternal autho- 1 secular alfairs, pect which their snoF. « ■4 m g ■ O US m M H M M ■ ki O f r. » C. o 19 H m n B TH« LOMBAROIAN KINaOON CMASaO WITU TUB CArTUna Of FAVIA. ^^e l^istort} of Stalf). 703 holineii procured them. The popes, in thrir rlTurti to defend tho freedom of Rome against tho Lombards, forsaken by the c3, not only anointed I'epin, who in the preceding year had been made king of the Franks, with the approbation of pope Za- charias, but with the assent ol the munici- pality of Rome, appointed him patrician, as the imperialgovernor had hitherto been denominated. Charlemagne made war upon Uesiderius, the king of the Lombards, in defence of the Roman church, took him prisoner in hi* capital, Pavia, united )iis empire with tho Frankish monarch;-, ,.iii( eventually gave Italy a king in his son Pe- pin. Uut his attempt! against the duchy of Denevento, the independence of which w as maintained by duke Arichis, against the republics in Lower Italy, where Naples, Amalli, and Gaeta, in particular, had be- come rich by navigation and commerce, were unsuccessful. The exarchate, with the five cities, had already been presented to the pope by Pepin, in ihfi, and Charle- magne confirmed the gift ; but the secular supremacy of the popes was not completed until the pontificate of Innocent III., about the year IL'OO.^ Their rank, however, among the ecclesiastics of the west, and the tem- poral power now acquired, gave them an ascendancy over the clergy and laity in Europe, which they failed not to improve until they were acknowledged as the in- fallible heads of the church. Loo III. bestowed on the king of tho Franks, on Christmas day, a. d. 8U0, the imperial crown of the west, which needed a Charlemagne to raise it from nothing. Rut dislike to the Franks, whose conquest was looked upon as a now invasion of^bar- barians, united the free cities, Rome ex- cepted, more closely to the eastern empire. Even during the lifetime of Charlemagne, Frankish Italy was given to his grandson Uernard ; who, however, having attempted to become independent of his uncle, Louis the Debonnaire, was deprived of the crown, and had his eyes torn out. Italy now remained a constituent part of the Frankish monarchy, till the partition of Vordun, which took place in 843 ; when it was allotted, with the imperial dignity, and what was afterwards called Lorraine, to Lothaire I., eldest son of Louis. Lo- thaire left the government to his son Loui>; II., the most estimable of the Italixu Srinces of the Carlovingian line. >ftr r l;>s cath, in 875, Italy became the ap^ie of discord to the whole family. Charles the Bald, of France, first took possession of it ; and after his deal!. Carloraan, king of Bavaria ; who was succeeded, in 880, by his brother Charles the Fat, king of Suabia, who united the whole monarchy of the Franks for the last time. His dethronement, in 887, was the epoch of anarchy and civil war in Italy. Beren- garius, duke of Friuli, and Guido, duke of Hpoleto (besides the manpiis of Ivrea, the only ones remaining of the thirty great vassals), disputed the crown between them. Guido was crowned king and em- peror, and after his death (HUt), his son Lambert. Arnold, the Carlovingian king of the Oeriiians, enforced bis olaimi to the royal and Imperial crown of Italy (HUfi), but, like most of his successors, waa able to maintain them only during his residence in the country. After the death of Lambert and Arnold, Louis, king of Lower Burgundy, became the competitor of Herengarius I.; and this hold and noble prince, although crowned king in fly4, and emiieror in HU5, did not enjo^ quiet till he had expelled the emperor Lotus in and vanquished anotht^r compe- v.*or, Rocvdph of Upper Burgund\ . be was evk.' iher inabk, on acount of ' le feeble condition if the state, to drfend the king- dom effectively agi.inst the nvasions of the Saracens and the llungaria's. After the assaii<:!;.ation of Berengarius, in 9^4, llodolph II. relinquished his claims to Hugh, cou'it of Prove I e, in excha*. e for that country. Hugh scught to stre ^tilien the insecure throne of Italy by a . tody tyranny. His nephew, Bercnfr..- i , innr- quis of Ivrea, fied from bis snar- '. tii Utlio the Great, of Germany, assembU J an army of fugitives, returne*' ' :..< vcrthrew Hugh in 943, who was e .cjet.;'ed by his son Lothaire. Berengn ius b' ame his first counsellor. But, al.er thu death of Lo- thaire, in U5U, (poisoned, it was said, by Berengarius), the latter wished to compel his widow — the beautiful Adelaide — con- trary to her inclination, ;o marry his son. Escaping from the prison to which he had consigned her, she took refuge in the castle of Canossa, wliere sh? was besieged by Be- rengarius II. She II' jw applied for aid to Otho I., king of Germany, who passed the Alps, liberati:d her, conquered Pavia, be- came king of the Franks and Lombards, and married Adelaide. To a prompt submission, and the cession of Friuli, (the kev of Italy,) which Otho gave to his brother Henry, Berengarius was indebted for permission to reign as the vassal of Otho. But the nobles of Itui; preferring new complaints against hi'.., >-.. years after, Otho returned in 9CI, ucposed him, and led him prisoner to Bamberg; and, after having been himself crowned king of Italy with the iron crown, ia 961, united this kingdom with the Ger- man. Otho gave the great imperial fiefs to Germans, and granted to the Italian cities privileges that were the foundation of a free -onstitution, for which they soon became n 3. The gro ing wealth of the papal court, owing to t 'C munificence of the French kings, which had promoted their influence on the government, so beneficial under Leo IV. and popes of a similar character, became, through the corruption of the Roman court, in the tenth century, the first cause of its decline. The clergy and the people elected the popes according to BBVRRAIi enSAT TASSALB op TUE EMPIRB now TUROW off TBKIR OEFBRDIiNCB. ~T' l lj » I m.mmmmmmmmtm^mmm^'^Hmimmim'mmmmmmm^mm^mt I III |,.| i n i n ,^».p— .— >^^. H I TUB TKHFOBAL FOWBH 0» TUB rOFII OBBATLV AIDBD TUKIR aPIRITUAI.. 704 ^l)t ^rcasurt) of I^istoro, $cc. > i I'i I * H M the will of the consuls and a few patri- ciiina. Alberic of Camcrino, and his son Octavian.wcrc absolute ma.^^ers of Rome, and the last was pope, under the name of John XII., when twenty years of age. Otho till! Great, whom he had crowned emperor in Home, in 902, deposed him, and chose Leo VIII in hit stead; but the people, jealous of its right of election, chose Be- nedict V. From this time, the popes, instead of ruling the people of Rome, oecame depen> dent on them. In Lower Italy, the re- publics of Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfl still defended their independence against the Lombard duchy of Benetento, with the more ease, since the duchy had been di- vided, in 830, between Biconolphus of Sa- lerno and RadelghiaiuB of Beuevento, and subsequently among a great number, and since, with the dukes, they had had a com- mon encmjr in the Saracens, who had been previously invited over from Sicily by^ both parties (about 830), as auxiliaries against each other, but who had settled and main- tained chemselves in Apulia. The emperors Louis II. and Basilius Macedo had, with combined forces, broken the power of the Mussulmans ; the former was, neverthe- less, unable to maintain himself in Lower Italy, but the Greeks, on the contrary, gnined a firmer footing, and formed, of the rcxions taken from the Saracens, a sepa- rate province, called the Thema of Lom- bard^, which continued under their do- minion, though without prejudice to the liberty of the republics, upwards of a hun- dred years, being governed by a catapan (or governor - general) at Bari. Otho the Grcnt himself did not succeed in driving them altogether from Italy. The marriage of his son, Otho 11-, with the Greek prin- cess Theonhanin, put an end to his exer- tions for this purpose, as did the unfortu- nate battle at Basentello, to the similar attempts renewed by Otho II. (9S0). In opposition to the designs of the count of Tusculum, who wished to sup- plnnt the absent emperor at Rome, a noble Roman, the consul Crescentius, in 980, attempted to govern Rome under the sem- blance of her ancient liberty. Otho II., king since 973, occupied with his projects of conquest in Lower Italy, did not inter- fere with this administration, which be- came formidable to the vicious popes Boni- ftce VII. and John XV. But when Otho III., who had reigned in Germany since 9S3, raised his kinsman Gregory V. to the Kopedom, Crescentius caused the latter to e expelled, and John XVI., a Greek, to be elected by the people. He also endea- voured to place Rome again under the nominal suprenincy of the Byzantine em- pire. Otho, however, reinstated Gregory, oesieged Crescentius in the castle of St. Angelo, took him prisoner, and caused him to be beheaded, with twelve other noble Ronmns, a n. 998. But the Romans again threw off their allegiance to the emperor, and yielded only to force. On the death of Otho III. (1002), the Italians considered their connexion with the German empire as dissolved. Har- duin, marquis of Ivrea, was elected king, and crowned at Pavia. This was a sufllcl- out motive for Milan, the enemy of Pavia, to declare for Henry IT, of Germany. A civil war ensued, in which every city, rely- ing on its walls, took a greater or '.ess part. Henry was chosen king of Italy by the nobles assembled in Pavia; but distur- bances arose, in which a part of the city was destroyed by fire (a.i>. 1004). Not till after Harduin's death, which occurred in lOIS, was Henrv recognized as king by all Lombardy. He was succeeded by Con- rod II. At a diet held at Roncaglia, near Pla- cenzo, in 1037, Conrad made the fiefs here- ditary by a fundamental law of the em- pire, and endeavoured to give stability and tranquillity to the state, out without suc- cess. The cities (which were daily becom- ing more powerful) and the bishops were enga|[ed in continual quarrels with the nobility, and the nobility vvith their vas- sals, wfiich could not be repressed. Republican Rome, under the influence of the family of Crescentius, could be re- duced to obedience neither by Henry II. and Conrad II., nor by the popes, when Henry III , the son and successor of Con- rad, entered Italy in 1040, he found three popes in Rome, all of whom he deposed, appointed in their stend Clement II., and ever after filled the papal chair, by his own authority, with virtuous German ecclesi- astics. This reform gave the popes new consequence, which afterwards became fatal to his successor. Henry died in 1056. During the minority of his son Henrjr IV. the policy of the popes, directed by Hilde- brand, (afterwards Gregory VII.) succeeded in creating an opposition, which soon be- came formidable to the secular power. The Normans also contributed to this result. As early as 1016, warriors from Normandy had established themselves in Calabria and Apulia. Allies sometimes of the Lombards, sometimes of the republics, sometimes of the Greeks against each other and against the Saracens, they constantly became more powerful by petty wars. 1'he great prepa- ration of Leo IX. for their expulsion termi- nated in his defeat and capture (1053). On the other hand, Nicolas II. united with the Norman princes, and, in 1069| invested Robert Guiscard with all the territories conquered by him in Lower Italy. From that time, the pope, in his conflicts witli the imperial power, relied on the support of his faithfVil vassal, the duke of Apulia and Calabria, to which Sicily was soon added. While the small states of the south were thus united into one large one, the kingdom in the north was dissolving into smaller states. The Lombard cities were laying the foundation of their future im- portance. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa were already powerful. In the Bmallrepublicsof the north of Italy, the government was, in most cases, divided between the consuls, the lesser conucil, the TUK OBnMAN MONARCllS BKCAMB IINOS OP ITALY, A. O. 945. inncxion with solved. Uar- elcctcd kini^> I was a Rufnci- iieniy of I'avin, (iermany. A ircrjr citjr, rely, er or '.ass part. f Italy by the ; but distur- rt of the city nU4). Not till h occurred iu d as king by ceded by Con- ;lia, near PIa> the fiefs here- iw of the cm- stability and t without Buc- « daily becom> bishops were Tela with the rith their vns- ressed. the influence B, could be re- by Henry II. popes. When cessor of Con- le found tliree n he deposed, ement II., and air, by his own Qrman ecclesi. the popes new vards became :j died in lOfiG. son Henry IV. cted by Hilde- ^11.) succeeded rhich soon bc- lar power. The to this result, 'om Normnndy n Calabria and the Lombards, , sometimes of cr and against y became more le (Treat prepa> (pulsion termi- lapture (11)53). II. united with 1 10S9, invested the territories r Italy. From conflicts with •n the support Uike of Apulia icily was soon es of the south large one, the dissolving into ird cities were leir future im- ind Pisa were 9northofItaly, t cases, divided ler council, the 15. M4LABIA raSVAlLS IN TBI CAMFAONA 0» BOMB ANB rOKTINB MABBUBS. Vtl)t l^istort} of lEtalt). 705 frcat council, and the popular assembly, otty feuds developed their youthful ener- gies, Such were those that terminated with the destruction of Lodi by Milan, in 1111, and the ten years' siege of Como by the forces of all the Lombard cities, which Instcd from 1 1 18 to 1 12H. The subjugation of this city rendered Milan the tirst power in Lombardy, and most of the neighbour- ing cities were her allies. Others formed a counter alliance with her auingonist, Pavia. Dlbputcs between Milan and Cre- mona were the occasion of the first war between the two unions (1129), to which the contest of Lothairc II. and Conrad of Ilnhenstaufen for the crown, soon gave another direction. This was the origin of the Ghibclincs (favourers of the cmueror) and the Gurll's (the adherents of the fa- mily of Guclfs, and, in general, the party of tnc popes.) In Uoiiie, the love of liberty, restrained by Gregory VII., rose in proportion as his successors ruled with less energy. The schisms between Gelasius II. and Gregory Vlli., Innocent II., and Anac' tus II., re- newed the hopes of the Ilomans. Arnold of Brescin, formerly proscribed for his vio- lent attacks against the luxury of the clergy in that country, was their leader. After eight years, Adrian IV. succeeded in cSectitig his execution. Frederic I. of Hohcnstaufen (called Bar- barossa) crossed the Alps six times, in or- der to defend his possessions in Italy against the republicanism of the Lombard cities. Embracing the cause of Pavia as the weaker, he devastated the territory of Milan, destroyed Tortona, and was crowned in Pavia and Rome. In 1158, he reduced Milan, demolished the fortifications of I'la* cenzn, and held a diet at Itoncaglia, where he extended the imperial prerogatives con- formably with the Justinian code, gave the cities chief magistrates, and proclaimed a general peace. His rigour having excited a new rebellion, he reduced Cremona to ashes, compelled Milan to submisHion, and having driven out all the inhabitants, de- molished the fortifications. When the emperor entered Itoly in 1163, without an army, the cities concluded a union for maintaining their freedom, which, in 1167, was converted into the Lombard confederacy. The confederates restored Milan, and, to hold in check the Ghibeline city of Pavia, built a new city, called, in honour of the pope, AlesHandria. Neither Frederic's governor, Christian, archbishop of Mentz, nor he himself, could effect any th ng against the confederacy; the former failed before Ancona, with all the power of Ghibeline Tuscany; and the latter, before Alessandria. He was also defeated by Milan, at Legnano, in 1176. He then concluc'ed n concordate with Alexander III., and a truce with the cities at Venice, and u peace, which secured their inde|ieii(lencc, at Con- stance (1183.) The republics retained the pnilcHtd (foreign noblemen, now elected by themselves) as judges and ge.i.-^rnls. As formerly, all were to take the outh uf fealty and allegiance to the emperor. But, in- stead of strengthening their league into a permanent confederacy (the only safety for Italy), they were soon split into new fac- tious, when the designs of the Ilohenstnu- fen on the throne of Sicily drew Frederic and Henry VI. from Lombardy. During the minority of Frederic II., and the disputes for the succession to the Ger- man throne. Innocent III., who was Fre- deric's guardian, succeeded in re-establish- ing the secular authority of the holy see in Home, and the surrounding country, and iu enforcing its claims to the donations of Charlemagne and Matilda. He also brought over almost oil Tuscany, except Pisa, to the {larty of the Guelfs. A blind hereditary latred, rather than a zeal for the caucc, inspired the parties; for when Otho IV. ascended the imperial throne, the Guelfs became his party, and the Ghibclincs the pope's; but the reversion of the imperial throne to the house of Hohenstuufcn, in the person of Frederic II., soon restored the ancient relations. In Florence, this party spirit gave pre- tence to the disputes of the Jtuondelmonti and Donati with the Uberti and Ainadei, originating in private causes; and moat cities were thus internally divided into Guelfs and Ghibelines. The Guelf cities of Lombardy renewed the Lombard con- federacy, in 1226. The Dominican, John of Viceiiza, attacked these civil wars ; and the assembly at Puquara seemed to crown his exertions with success; but his attempt to obtain secular power in Viccnza occa- sioned his fall. Alter the emperor had re- turned from his crusade, in 123U, he waged war, with varying success, against the cities and against Gregory IX., heedless of the exconiniunicatiou; while Ezzclin da Ro- mano, under the pretence of favouring the Ghibelines, established, by every kind of violence, his own power in Padua, Verona, Viccnza, and the neighbourhood. The plan of Gregory IX., to depose Fre- deric, was successfully executed by Inno- cent IV., in the council of Lyons (1245.) This completely weakened the Ghibeline party, which wos already nearly under- mined by the intrigues of the mendicant orders. The Itolognese united all the cities of Italy in a Guelf league, and, in the bat- tle of the Panaro, in 1249, took Knzius prisoner, whom they never released. In the Trevisan Murk alone, the Ghibelines possessed the ^:ul)renlacy, liy means of Fz- zelin, till he fell before a crusade of all the Guelfs against him, in 1255. But these contests were fatal to liberty ; the house Delia Scala followed that of Romano in the dominion; and Milan itself, with a great part of Lombardy, found masters in the house of Delia Torre. Tyrants every- where arose ; the maritime republics' and the republic of Tuscany alone remained free. After Charles I. of Anjou had become, by the favour of the |i(ipc, king of Naples, sena- tor of Rome, papal vicar of Tuscany, and had directed bin ambition to the throne of TUB FONTINB MABSUKS ABB 24 MILBS I.ONO AND 13 BROAD. I I i- I'i f IN ITALY ARB SOMR OV TUS MOST DKAUTlrVI. I.AKKS IN HUROm. 706 ©f)e treasury of loistovij $cc., Italy, (a policy in which his lucoesRors Ecrscvered), the names of Guelfs and Ghi- clines acquired a new sJKnitication. The former denoted the friends, the latter the enemies of the French. To these factions were added in the republics, the parties of the nobility and the people, the latter of which was almost universally victorious. The honest exertions of Gregory X. (who died 1276) to establish peace, were of no avail; those of Nicolas III. who feared the preponderance of Charles, were more efH- cient ; but Martin IV., servilely devoted to Charles, destroyed everythiuK which had been effected, and persecuted the Ghibe> lines with new animosity. A dilferent interest — that of trade and navigation — impelled the maritime re^jub- lies to mutual wars. The Genoese assisted Michael Palieologus, in 1361, to recover Constantinople from the Venetians, and re- ceived in return Chios; at Meloria, they annihilated the navy of the Pisnns, and completed their dominion of the sea by a victory over the Venetians at Curzola, which took place in 1298. Florence ren- dered its democracy complete by the pu- nishment of all the nobles, and strength- ened the Guelf party by wise measures ; but a new schism soon divided the Guelfs in Florence and all Tuscany into two factions— The Neri (Black) and Bianrhi (While). The latter were almost all ex- pelled by the intrigues of Boniface VIII., and joined the Ghibelines. In Lombardy, freedom seemed to have expired, when the people, weary of the everlasting feuds of their tyrants, rose in most of the cities, and expelled them. Henry VII., the first emperor who had appeared in Italy for sixty years (I31U), restored the princes to their cities, and found general submission to his requisi- tions, peace among the parties, and homage to the empire. Florence alone undertook the glorious part which she so nobly sus- tained for two centuries, as tlie guardian of Italian freedom ; she chose llobcrt of Na- ples, tlie enemy of Henry, her protector for tive years, and remained free while the other parts of the kingdom were divided into fac- tions and destroyed by intestine wars. In 1330, John, king of Bohemia, suddenly entered Italy. Invited by the inhabitants of Brescia, favoured by the pope, elected lord of Lucca, every where acting the part of a mediator and peacemaker, he would have !;ii.'>' ji Wenceslaus the investiture of Milan as a duchy, purchased Pisa (which his natural son Gabriel bargained away to Florence, 1405), from the tyrant Gerard of Appiano (who reserved only the principa- lity of Piombino ), and subjugated Sicnnn, Perugia, and Bologna ; so that Florence, fearfully menaced, alone stood against him in the cause of liberty. On his death, in 1402, the prospect brightened, and during the minority of his sons, a great portion of his states were lost. When Ladislaus of Naples, taking advantage of the schism, made himself master of all the Ecclesia- tical States, and threatened to conquer all Italy, Florence again alone dared to resist him. But this danger was transitory ; the Visconti soon rose up again in opposition. Duke Philip Maria reconquered all his states of Lombardy, by means of the great Carmngnola (1416-20). Genoa also, which was sometimes given up, in nominal free- dom to stormy factions (of the Fregasi, Adorni, Montalto, Ouarco), and at other times was subject to France, or to the marquis of Montferrat, submitted to him (1421). Florence subsequently entered into an alliance against him with the Venetians (1425) ; and by means of Carmagnola, who had now come over to them, they conquer- ed the ..hole country as far as the Adda, and retained it in the peace of Fcrrara (1428). After Milan had been enfeebled by the Venetians and Florentines, and while AI- phonso of Arragon was constantly disturb- ed in Maples, by the Aujou party, no dan- gerous predominance of power existed in Italy, though mutual jealousy still excited frequent wars, in which two parties among the Italian mercenary soldiers, the Bra- cheschi and the Sforzeschi, continued al- ways hostile to each other, contrary to the custom of those mercenary bands. Aftt-r the extinction of the Visconti, in 1447, Francis Sforza succeeded in gaining pos- session of the Milanese state. The Vene- tians, who aimed at territorial aggrandize- ment, having formed a connection with some princes against him, he found an ally in Florence, which, with a change of circumstances, wisely altered her policy. About this time, the family of the Medici attained to power in that city by their wealth and talent. Milan, where the Sforza had established themselves ; Venice, which possessed half of Lombardy ; Florence, wisely managed by Lorenzo Medici; the states of the church, for the most part restored to the holy see ; and Naples, which was incapable of employing its forces in direct attacks on other states, constituted, in the fifteenth century, the political balance of Italy, which, during the manifold feuds of these states, per- mitted no one to become daugrrous to the independence of the rest, till 1404, when Charles VIII. of France entered Italy to conquer Naples, and Louis Moro Sforza played the part first of his ally, then of his enemy, while the pope, Alex- ander VI., eagerly sought the friendship of the French, to promote the exaltation of his son, Caesar Borgia. A long succession of military contests now took place, which were chiefly excited by invasions from Germany, or by the ef- forts of party leaders at home to usurp power over the free cities; but we must pass by these, and merely observe that the Medici family ultimately succeeded in es- tablishing their sway. The brief tran()uil- lity of Italy, however, was soon destined to be disturbed by the grasping ambition of the warlike pope, Julius II., who com- pleted the subjugation of the states of the church, not, indeed, for a son or nephew, but in the name of the holy see. He con- cluded with Maximilian I., Ferdinand the Catholic, and Ljuis XII., the league of Cambray (15U8), against the ambitious policy of the Venetians, who succeeded in dissolving the league which threatened them with destruction. The pope the:: formed a league with the Venetians them- selves, Spain, and the Swiss, for the pur- pose of driving the French from Italy. This holy league did not, however, then attain its object, although Julius was little affected by the French and German council held at Pisii to dopose him. Maxi- milian Sforia, wlio had re-acquired Milan, relinquished it without reserve to Fran- cis I., in 161S; but the emperor Charles V. assumed it as a reverted fief of the em- pire, and conferred it on Francisco Sforza, brother of Maximilian, in 1520. This was tlie cause of violent wars, in which the efforts of Francis were always unsuccess- ful. He was taken prisoner at Pavia, and, with his other claims, was conrpelled to renounce those on Milan, which remain- ed to Sforza, and after his death, was granted by Charles V. tu his son Philip. The Medicean popes Leo X. and Clement VII. were bent, for the most part, on the aggrandizement of their family. Charles V., to whom all Italy submitted after the bat- tle of Pavia, frustrated, indeed, the attempts of Clement VII. to weaken his power, and conquered and pillaf^ed Rome in 1527 ; hut, being reconciled with the pope, he raised the Medici to princely authority. Florence incensed at the foolish conduct of Pietro towards France, had banished the Medici in 1494, but recalled them in 1512; and was compelled to take a station among the prinoipalities, under duke Alex- ander I. de Medici. Italian policy, of which Florence had hitherto been the soul, from this period is destitute of a common spirit, and the history of Italy is therefore desti- tute of a central point. After the extinction of the male branch of the marquises of Montferrat, Charles V. gave this country to Gonzaga of Man- tua. Maximilian II., subsequently raised Montferrat to a duchy. The Florentines failed (1637) in a new attempt to emanci- pate themselves, after the death of duke Alexander, who fell by the hands of nn as- sassin. Cosmo I. succeeded him in the government, by the influence of Charles V. Parma and Piacenza, which Julius II. had c •0 1 H I ! S o I * IN BVBttY rniNCIPAL CITY ABB BOHX BELIC8 OF ANCIBKT ORANOBUB. ) '11 f'f 1 1 TIIK KIIKNCII rUmUnNTI.Y INVAUKII ITAI.r, ANI> WRItK OrTKN ItBI'UI.SIIO. F'l'y 708 Crije ^rcasuiy of l^istoru, $fc. ov, tlic lirave SpnniKh |j;encriil The IcKitiiiiatc untie hue of the house of cunqiicri'il for the pnpnl sec, Pniil III. erect- rit into a diirhy, in ISIA, whirli he K^vc to hi« nntiirMlson, I'etcr Alois Farncsc, wlioiie (Oil Ottairo ubtaiiicd the imperial invvRti- turc ill 165(1. (tenon, suhjcet to the I'Veiich since 14<.iu, found a deliverer in Andrew Doria (1.^)28). Ho founded the nristocrncy, ond (he conspiracy of Ficsco (1647) failed to subvert liini. In 1563, besides Milan, Charles V. conferred Naples on his son I'hilip II. Ky the peace of Chntcau-Cnm- brcais, in 16&U, Philiii II. and Henry II. of France, renounced all their claims to I'ied- niont, which was restored to its rightful SDverrign, duke Emanuel I'hilibcrt of Ha- vo, " gitiiiiate Este liecame cMinct in l.T.)?, when the llle- Kitimale Cicaaro of Este obtained Modcnn and Keggio from the empire, and Ferrara was conflscated as a reverted tief by the holy sec. In the second half of the six- teenth century, the prosperity of Italy was increased by n long peace, as much as the loss of its commerce allowed; Henry IV. of France having, by the treaty of Lyons, ceded Saluzzo, the last French possession in Italjr, to Savoy. The trani|uillity coiiti- liued till the contest for the succession of Mantua and Montferrat, after the extinc- tion of the Gonzaga family (Ifi'j;). Mis- fortunes in Germany compelled Ferdinand II. to confer both countries, in KiSl, as a tfcf on Charles of Nevers, the protegtf of France, whose family remained in posses- sion till the war of the Spanish succession. In the peace of Chierasco (Ui31), Riche- lieu's diplomacy acquired also I'iguerol and Casalc — strong points of support, in ease of new invasions of Italy, though he had to relinquish the latter, in iua7. Uy thcextiiic- tion of the house Delia llovcra, the duchy of Urbino, with which Julius II. had inves- ted it, devolved, in ir>31, to the papal sec. In the second half of the seventeenth century, the peace of Italy was not inter- rupted, excepting by the attempts of Louis XIV. on Savoy and i'icdmont, and appeared to be secured for a long time bv the treaty of neutrality at Turin (l()96), when the war of the Spanish succession broke out. Aub< tria having conquered Milan, Mantua, and Montferrat, retained the two first, (for Mantua was forfeits^ by the felony of the duke), and gave the latter to Savoy. In the Scacc of Utrecht, Austria obtained Sar- inia and Naples; Savoy obtained Sicily, which it exchanged with Austria for Sar- dinia, from which it assumed the royal title. Mont Genievre was made the boun- dary between France and Italy. TJie house of Farncse becoming extinct in 1731, the Spanish infant Charles obtained Parma and Viacenza. In the war for the Polish throne, of 1773, Charles Emmanuel of 8a- "oy, iu alliance with France and Spain, conquered the Milanese territory, and re- ceived therefrom; in the peace of Vienna (1738), Novara and Tortona. Charles, in- fant of Spain, became king of the Tw o Siciliei, and ceded Parma and Piacenta to Austria. The Medici of Florence, entitled, since 1676. (trand-dukes of Tuscany, becniiie ex- tinct in 17.I7. Francis Stephan, duke of Lorraine, now received Tuscany by the pre- liminaries of Vienna, and, becoming empe- ror in 1746, made it the appanage of the younger line of the Austro-Lorraine house. In 1746, the Spaniards conquered Milan, but were expelled thence by Charles Em- manuel, to whom Maria Theresa ceded, in reward, some Milanese districts. Massa and Carrara fell to Modena, in 17'I3, by right of inheritance. The Spanish Infant, dou Philip, con(|Ucrcd Parma and Piaccn/.a in his own name, lost them, and obtained them again as a hereditary duchy, by the peace of Aix-laChauelle, in 174H. At the era of the brench revolution, Italy was divided between the principality of Sa- voy, the Ecclesiastical States, the republics of Venice and Genoa, the grand duchy of Tuscany, and the small principalities of Parma and Modena. Naples and Sicily were governed by a king belonging to the house of Bourbon ; and Mantua, Milan, and some other places were in the posses- sion of Austria. In September, 1792, the French troops first penetrated into Savoy, and planted the tree of liberty. Though expelled for some time, in 17U3, by tlfe Picdmontcse and Austrians, they held it at the end of the year. The National Convention had already declared war against Naples, and the French advanced into the Piedmon- tese and Genoese territories, but were ex- pelled from Italy in July, 17U&, by the Aus- trians, Sardinians, and Neapolitans. In 17'J()> Napoleon Uuonaparte received the chief commond of the French army in Italy. He forced the king of Sardinia to conclude a treaty of peoce, by which the latter was obliged to cede Nice and Savoy to France ; conquered Austrian Lunibardy, with the exception of Mantua; put the duke of Parma and the pope under contribution ; and struck such const crnation into the king of Naples, that he bcgi^ed for peace. After Mantua had also iallen, in 17'J7> ISuonapartc formed of Milan, Mantua, the Sortion of Parnia north of the Po, and Mo- cna, the Cisalpine republic. France like- wise made war on t he pope, and annexed Uologna, Fcrrnra, and Roniagna to the Cisalpine republic (17U7), by the pence of Tolcntino. The French then advanced to- wards Ilomc, overthrew the ecclesiastical government, and erected a Roman republic (17l'i<). In Genoa, Ituonapartc occasioned a revolution, by which a democratic re- public was formed after the model of the French under the name of the Ligurian re- public. The French had, meanwhile, pene- trated into Austria, through the Venetian territory. The Venetians now made com- nion cause with the brave Tyrolese, who gained advantages over the French in the Alps. Uuonaparte, therefore, occupied Ve- nice without striking a blow, and gave the republic a democratic constitution ; but, by the peace of Campo-Formio (17th Oct. 1797), the Venetian territory, as far as the BTIBT THinO COHTRIBUTED TO rBBFABB TUB WAT VOB TUB UBFORMATION. KVIII.SKO. FAINTINO, ■CULrTIIRI, rOBTRY, AND MUDIC, WBIi* AI.t rATttONIHBD. Ctje l^istori) of Xtalt?. 709 AdiKCi wni rolinquiihed to Aimtria, and tlip rnitt iiicoriinrntrd with theC^iiialiiinn re- publin. Tlio liiiiK of Hnrdiiiia concluded a trcntv of alliance and lubiiidy with Prance, Uctobcr 2A; but, in I7UH, the directory, as- sailed in Iloino Irom Naplei, deemed it ex- pedient to comipcl him to rGaign hii tcrri- toriei nn the mnin land. NotwitliBtandinK iti treaty of amity with France, Napleo concluded an alliance, in 17'JH, with Britain and Ruwia. The French, therefore, occupied Naplca, and erected there the I'arthenopcan republic. The Krand-dukc of Tuscany had likewise formed an alliance with Naples and Britain, and his country was, in return, compelled by the rrcnch tn receive, like Piedmont, « military administration. After the con- gress of Rndstadt was broken off, Austria and the German empire, under Russian sun- port, renewed the war against the Prcncli, who again loft Naples and Rome to the British, RuHKiuns, and Turks. The king and the pope returned to their capitals in Lombardy ; the Prrncli were defeated by the Austrians, under Krny and Melas, and bv tlie Russians, under Huwarruf, and lost all their fortresses, except Ocnoa, where Masscna sustained n vigorous siege, while his countrymen had to evacuate all Italy. But, in the mean while, Buonaparte was made first consul after his return from Kgvpt. He marched with n new army to Ita\y, defeated the Austrians at the me- morable battle of Marengo (lROU),and com- pelled them to capitulation, by which all the Italian fortresses were again evacuated. By the peace of i.unevillc, Feb. <.), INii), the possession uf Venice was cuufirmcd to Austria, which was to indemnify the duke of Modena, by the cession of firisgau. The duke of Parma received Tuscanv, and after- wards, from Buonaparte, the title of king of Etruria. I'arnm was united with France. The Cisalpine and Ligurian renublics were guaranteed by Austria and France, and with the Ligurian territories were united the imperial flcfs included within their limits. The king of Naples, who had occu- pied the states of the elmreh, was obliged to conclude peace at Florence. By Rus- sian mediation, he escaped with the cession of Piombino, the Stato dcgli Presidj, and his half of the island of Elba, together with the promise uf closing his harbours against the British. The other half of Elba Tus- cany had already relinquished to France. But the whole island was obstinately de- fended by the British and Corsicans, with the armed inhabitants, and not evacuated till autumn. The Stato dvgli Presidj France ceded to Etruria, September 19; but strong drtuchments of French troops remained both in Naples andTuscany, and their sup- port cost immense sums. To the republics of Genoa and Lucca the first consul gave new constitutions in 1801. But, in January, 18U2, the Cisalpine republic was trans- formed into the Italian republic, in imita- tion of the new French constitution, and Buonaparte became president. Genoa also received a new constitution, and Girolamo Durazzo for doge. Piedmont, however, was united with France. After Buonapiirte had become emperor, in 1H(M, he attached (March 17, \HOr,) the royal crown of Italy to the new iniperisl crown i he promised, however, never to unite the new UKmarcby with France, and even to give it a king of its own. The new oonstitution was similar tn that of the French empire. Napoleon founded the or- der of the iron crown, and having placed the crown on his own head, at Milan, he appointed his step-son, Eugene Beaubar- ' nais, viceroy of Italy, who laboured with great zeal for the improvement of all bran- ' che* of the government, of industry, and , the arts. Circumstances, however, render- I ed this new government oppressive, as the public expcnccs, during peace, amounted to UKMIUU.UOU francs, which were all to he , coniriliutcd by less than 4,O0U,U0U people. No European power rcrognized, expressly, | the Italian kingdom of Napoleon. The em- peror continued to strengthen his power against the active enemies of the new order of things, and gave to his sister Eliza the firincipality of Piombino, and to her bus- { land, Pasquale Bacciocchi, the republic of Lucca, as a principality, both as French : fiefs. Parmn, Piaccnza, and Guastalla were i incorporated with the French empire, July j 21st. The pope was obliged to sanction the imperial coronation by his presence. Austria now acceded to the alliance of Rus- sia and Britain against France. Naples, alHO, again suffered the British and Rus- sians to land. But the success of the Aus- trian arms was frustrated by the defeats at Ulm and Austerlitz; after which the peace i of Presburg completed the French supre- macy in Italy. Austrian Venice, with Is- tria and Dnlmatia, were united to the king- dom of Italy ; and this, with all the French institutions, Italy recognized. The kingdom had now an extent of 35,4dU square miles, with 6,667iOOO inhabi- tants. Naples was evacuated by its auxili- aries, and occupied by the French, not- withstanding the attempts of the queen to excite an universal insurrection. Napo- leon then gave the crown of Naples to his brother Joseph. In 18UH, the widow of the king of Etruria, who conducted the regency in behalf of lier minor son, was deprived of her king- dom, which was united with France. Na- poleon, moreover, appointed his brother- in-law, the prince Borgliese, governor- general of the departments beyond the Alps, who took up Ilia residence at Turin. As Napoleon had, meanwhile, given his brother Joseph the crown of Spain, he filled the throne of Naples with his brother- in-law, Joachim Murat, until that period grand'dukc of Berg, who entered Naples Sept. 6, 18U8. In I8(.i'J, the emperor gave Tuscany to his sister Eliza, of Piombino, with the title of grand - duchess. In the same year, Austria made new exertions to break the excessive power of France ; but Nopoleon again drove her troops from the field, and H H V O a »< >! W > M o M M M * It u H M a *< o M H •* « Id y I 1 1 1 UKFORHATIOK. THh ITALIANS STILL BXCBL IN WOnKS OP IHAOINATION. [3P IN I70'J t»M AUITHIANS HAD RKCUVBBaD OIIIAT PART OF ITALY. a 710 ^l^e ^(casuie of l^istoru, ^c. appeared once more victorious in Vienna, wlicre he procUiinei* (Mny 17) the cud of the secular authority of llie popes, and tlic union of the states of the church with France. Rome becnme tlie second city of the empire, and a pension of 2,OUU,UI>0 of francs was assigned to tlie pope. After tlie peace of Vienna, by which Na- foleon acquired the Illyrian provinces, stria and Dalmalia were separated from the kinvdom of Italy, and attached to them. On the other hund, liavaria ceded to Italy the circle of the Adige, a part of Eisacli, and the jurisdiction of Clausen. The- power of the French emperor was now, to all appearance, firmly established in Italy. While the Italian people were supporting French armies, sacriflciuK their own troops in the ambitious wan oT Napoleon in re- mote regions, and were obliged to pay heavy taxes in the midst of the total ruin of their commerce, all the periodicals were full of praises of the institutions for the encou- ragement of science, arts, and industry, in Italy. After the fatal retreat from Russia, Murat, whom Napoleon had personally of- fended, deserted tne cause of France, and joined Austria, (January 11, 1814,) whose army penetrated into Italy, under Belle- garde. The viceroy, Eugene, continued true to Napoleon and his own character, and offered to the enemies of his dynasty the boldest resistance, which was frus- trated by the fall of Napoleon in France. After the truce of April 21, 18H, the French troops evacuated all Italy, and most of the provinces were restored to their legi- timate sovereigns. The wife of Napoleon, however, the empress Maria Louisa, ob- tained the duchies of Parma, Fiacensa, and Guastalla, with reversion to her son ; and Napoleon himself became sovereign of El- ba, of which he took possession, May 4. But before the congress of Vienna had orga- nised the political relations of Europe, he effected his return to France, March 1, 1815. At the same time, Murat, king of Naples, abandoned his former ambiguous attitude, and took up arms, as he pretended, for the independence of Italy. But his appeal to the Italians was answered by a declaration of war by Austria. Driven from Bologna by the Austrian forces, and totally defeated by Bianchi Tolentino, he lost the kingdom of Naples, into which the Austrian general Nugent had penetrated from Rome, and Bianchi from Aquila, seven weeks after the opening of the campaign. He embarked from Naples, with a view of escaping to France. Ferdinand returned from Palermo, and Murat's family found an asylum in Austria. Murat himself made a descent in Calabria, from Corsica, in order to recover his lost kiugdom. He was taken prisoner at Pizxo, brought before a court-martial, and shot (Oct. 13, 1815.) Meanwhile, the tsongress of Vienna, by the act of June 9, 1815, had arranged the affairs of Italy :— 1. The king of Sardinia was reinstated in his territories, according to the boundaries of 1792, with some alte- rations on the side of Geneva ; fur the por- tion of Savoy, left in possession of France by the peace of Paris, of May 30, 1H14, was restored bv the treaty of Paris, of Nov. 20, 1816. To his states was united Genoa, as a duchy, according to the boundaries of that republic, in 1702, and contrary to the promises made to Genoa. — 2. Tliti emperor of Austria united with his hereditary states the new Lombardo-Vcnetian provinces for- merly belonging to Austria, the Vultelinc, Burmio, and Chiavenna, separated from the Orisons, besides Mantua and Milan. Is- tria, however, was united with the Ger- manic-Austrian kingdom of Illyria; Dal- matia, with Ragusa and Cattaro, constitut- ing a distinct Austrian kingdom.— 3. The valley of the Po was adopted as the boun- dary between the states of the church and Parma; otherwise, the boundaries of Jan. 1, 1792, were retained. The Austrian house of Este again received Modena, Reggie, Mirandola, Massa, and Carrara. — 4. The empress Maria Louisa received the state of Parma, as a sovereign duchess, but, by the treaty of Paris, of June 10, 1817, only for life, it having been agreed that the duchess of Lucca and her descendants should in- herit it.— 6. The arch-duke Ferdinand of Austria became again grand-duke of Tus- cany, to which were joined the Btato degli Presidj, the former Neapolitan part of vhe island of Elba, the principality of Piom- bino, and some small included districts, formerly ftefs of the German empire. The prince Buoncompagni Ludovisi retained all nis rights of property in Elba and Piom- bino. — 6. The Infanta, Maria Louisa, re- ceived Lucca, of which she took possession as a sovereign duchy, 1R17, with an an- nuity of 600,000 francs, till the reversion of Parma. — 7< The territories of the church were all restored, with the exception of the strip of land on the left bank of the Po ; and Austria retained the right of main- taining garrisons in Ferrara and Commac- chio.— 8. Ferdinand IV. was again recog- nised as king of the Two Sicilies. Britain retained Malta, and was declared the pro- tectress of the United Ionian Islands. The knights of Malta, who had recovered their possessions in the States of the Church and in the kingdom of the Tnyo Sicilies, for a time made Catania, and aftor 1820, Ferrara, their residence. The republic of San Marino, and the prince of Monaco, whose mountain fortress the Sardinians, and before them, the French occupied, alone remained unharmed amid the fliteen political revolutions which Italy had under- gone in the course of twenty-iive years. The Austrian picdoiuinance was thus more firmly established than ever in Italy. We shall now proceed with a history of Venice, its political and commercial emi- nence having rendered it for many centu- ries by far the most important of the Italian states. H A I O u Q r. BT THB RATTIiB OFMARRTfOu TUE VBBNCH AGAIN OBTAINKU ITAtY. T" ! Tni CITY or ITBNIOB atAIIDI Olf A 1MAI.b CliVIVBM Of ISbAIIOI. THE HISTORY OF VENICE. Or all the republics of raljr, Venice is that whose liistory is the m st intcrestinf; and singular; it has all t'- atartliii); bril- liancy of romance, and fully justities th« remark of a great modern poet, — "Truth is strange, stranger than Action." Even the termination of her independent existence diflcred from that of other states ; it was only in the expiring throes of her once vast power that the springs of the policy which were created, and so long maintained, by that power were laid bare to the world's gaxe. The policy of other states was ob- vious in their acts; but until the last ves- tige of Venetian power and independence was annihilated by the iron hand of Napo- leon, the results, only, of Venetian policy were to be seen, the process never. In look- ing with stedfast eye upon that process it will be impossible to avoid a feeling of disgust and indignation at many of the individyiil acts of the government; but equally impossible will it be to withhold praise from its general wisdom. The ty- ranny to which some of the noblest and best blood in Venice was sacrificed we must detest ; but the stern severity Ttith which the domestic traitor was put down, and the exquisite policy by which the foreign foe was hoodwinked or misled, we cannot but admire and approve. The history of Venice is now, more than ever, interesting to us ; for it is in our day that a blow, as swift and as crushing as the tliunderbolt, has struck out of the list of independent states this ancient republic, BO remarkable in site and in institutions. At the north eastern extremity of Italy, between the Alps and the north-western coast of the Adriatic, there was settled from a very early age a people called the Heneti or Veneti, from whom the fertile district in question was called Venetia. From their Eosition nt the extremity of Italy it might o reasonably inferred that they were ori- ginally some nomade tribe of Northmen, and among the latest, if not the very latest of tiic early colonizers of Italy from that quarter. But a very great difference of opi- nion exists as to their actual origin. Both poetically and popularly they have been supposed to be the Heneto-Paphlagones, mentioned by Homer, who, having lost their leader in the Trojan war, were led into Europe by Antenor, and, having arrived at the head of the Adriatic gulf, expelled the Euganei, and settled there. Strabo thinks differently, and believes them to have been originally from Gaul— there having been a Gallic tribe of that name. But Polyhius states, that though the Veneti undoubtedly resembled the Gauls in some of their man- ners and customs, they differed from them in language. Moreover, it is well observed by a modern historian, timt whatever might be the resemblances between the Veneti and a Gallic tribe of the same name, as to manners, customs, and even dress, there is one striking part in the history of the former which may be looked upon as al- most irrefragable evidence that it is not in Gaul that we must look for their origin. It is this ; that, having a Gallic colony in their immediate neighbourhood, the Veneti constantly took the part of Ilome against that colony in all occasions of dispute. Now if we suppose the Veneti to be of Gallic origin it is impossible to account for this course ; it is contrary to all that we know of the principles of human nature and of the history of human action, that men should side with the stranger against their fellow-countrymen. That the account which makes them the Ilcneto Paphlago- nes of Homer is correct seems by no means improbable. We may easily suppose that, having crossed the Bosnhorus, they pas* sed over the plains of Thrace, skirted the Danube and the Save into Croatia, and at length halted in the north-western shore of tlie Adriatic, and either expelled or sub- jected the people whom they found there. Whatever the origin of the Venetians, it is quite certain that at a very early pe- riod tliey were extremely prosperous and powerful. The very nature of the country would indicate this, as well as account for the long independence of Venice; an inde- pendence which lasted during some of the mightiest desolations of the world ; which witnessed the expiring agony and downfall of the mighty empire of Rome ; the rise of the French empire in the West, when Clo- vis conquered the Gauls; the rise and fall of the Ostrogoths in Italy and of the Visi- goths in Spain ; of the Lombards who suc- ceeded the former, and of the Saracens who supplanted the latter! The Comte Fig- liosi, a learned modem historian of Venice, very clearly shows that in the most distant times the people which occupied the coun- try since called the Venetian states, of the Terra Firma, also occupied Rialto and its sixty neighbouring islets; and that from that circumstance arose the titles of Te- netia Prima and fenetia Secunda, the first being applied to the continental territory, the second to the Venetian isles. The fer- tility of the former naturally inclined the inhabitants to agriculture ; the situation of the latter in the midst of canals, at the embouchure of rivers, and near the Grecian islands, as naturally disposed to navigation and commerce, and led to maritime skill, CANALS ATIO NAnaOW (TBBBTS INTBBSKCT EVBBT FABT OF TBMICB. mm ▼IMICK ABOUIfDI WITH OOBGBOUa IDIflCII AND miTATB rALAOBI. Iff I m 712 ^l^e treasury of l^istory, ^c. and the wealth and po>ver of which that is invariably the creator. It is not until the fourth century after tho building of Rome that we find any mention made of the Venetians as a people ; but the manner in which they are then men- tioned by Polybius, shews that their pros- perity and strcnKth must even then nave been of very long standing, and arrived at a very high pitch. Vfe have it on the au- thority of that historian, that the very ex- istence of Rome may be said to have been preserved by the Vcneti, on an occasion when the Gauls had made themselves mas- ters of every foot of the eternal city, with the exception of the capitol. The Gauls, a restless, nold, and greedy people, were still, even in the fourth century of Rome, an almost nomade people. I'olybius tells us that they were scattered about in villages unenclosed by walls. Of furniture they knew not the use. Their way of life was simple as that of the most unreclaimed savages ; they knew no other bed than the grass, nor any other nutriment than the wild animals which they hunted down or en- snared. The arts and sciences were wholly unknown toithem. Their wealth consisted of gold and cattle : the sole things which could with facility be removed from place to place as vagrant fancy or pressing con- juncture might demand. Such was the people who in the year .( the seas as far as Venetians were concerned therein. This, in addition to many other circumstances, seems to have been a link in a long and unbroken chain of causation of the pros- perity and power of Venice in her subse- quent palmy days; for while the success with which the traders encountered the terrible and notorious pirates was especi- alW well calculated to obtain a high and chivalrous name for the Venetians, even at the outset of their career, the very struggle and warfare in which they were from time to time engaged with so fierce a people, and with every thing at stake upon the issue, must have had a mighty share in in- creasing the energy of the Venetians, and in forming their national character to that striking comm'rture of commercial indus- try and warlike spirit and skill to which their subsequent and loug-continued great- ness may so greatly be ascribed. In the year 568 the Lombards invaded Italy, and so successfully, as completely to cut off all connexion between it and the eastern empire. The Lombards, who came from Pannouia, like all the other barbarian scourges of Italy, commenced their destroy- ing and plundering career in Venice on the main land. And now again, the misfortune of the main land brought benefit to the isles. Not only were the people of the newly rebuilt habitations on the main land glad to abandon their incomplete cities, and take refuge in the isles ; not only did the islanders see the inhabitants of even Padua, their former patron city, imploring shelter, bat even the clergy settled amongst them, and permanently, too; for the Lom- bards established Arian preachers in the towns of continental Venice ; and tlir con- sequence was, so tierce and nanguinary a war and such ceaseless schisms, that the clergy who had found a refuge iu the isles did not think of quitting it. Though the Lombards persecuted the Ca- tholic laith professed by the Venetians, the former, who were at that time neither a commercial nor a maritime people, were to a very great extent depenilciit upon the islanders for their supply of all such neces- saries or luxuries as came from foreij^n countries; and in this particular superiority of the Venetians to the Lombards, and sub- sequently to Charlemagne and his Franks, the attentive and thoughtful reader will scarcely fail to see yet another great ele- ment of the permanency and power of the insular state of Venice. figinard, the contemporary and historian of Charlemagne, makes emphatic mention of the coarseness of the apparel of that monarch and his court, as compared to the fine stufl's and rioli silks brought bv the Venetian traders from the ports of Syria, the Archipelago, and the Ulack Sea. It was in the inevitable nature of things, that the very increase of populati(m which tended so greatly to the increase of the prosperity and consideration of the compa- ratively new state, should bring in its train such a diversity of interests, such a diffe- rence of proportion in the numbers, wealth, and power of the numerous insulated mem- bers of the federative republic as should call aloud for a change in the political sys- tem. Most important changes afterwards took place ; and it is to Venice as an acting and not merely growing state, that we have henceforth to direct our attention. Hut we perceive that we have already greatly trespassed on our limits, and must en- deavour to finish this sketch with a rapid pen. Tbo original form of Venetian govern- ment was purely democratical : magistrates were chosen by a general assembly of the people, who gave them the name of tri- Dunes; one of whom was appointed to pre- side on each island, but to hold hii office only for a year. This form subsisted fur about one hundred and fiftv years; it then appeared expedient to make choice of a chief magistrate, and on him the title of duke was conferred, which has since been corrupted to doge : this dignity was elec- tive, and held for life; he was even en- trusted with the power of nominating to all offices, and of making peace and de- claring war. Paul Luke Anafesto, the first duke, was elected in the year 697 > and Buch was the confidence which the people reposed in their duke, that he was at li- berty to use his own discretion how fur he would avail himself of the advice of thn citi- zens. In the councils which he called on any matter of importance, he sent mes- sages to those citizens for whose judf^mcnt he had the greatest esteem, praying that they would come and assist him with their advice. This form was retained by suc- ceeding doges, and the citizens so sent for, 00N00UKR8 CUT THIIR WAV TUBOITOH THB WATBB WITH ORBAT VKLOCITT. ! i; n -.»MU^T5B«.>:-.^.»«jy-ja (ITIAIf AND CANOVA ABB BVKIBO IN TUB CUUBOII " IL RIDBMrTURB." 718 ^i)e ^reasuru of l|iatory, ^c. were cnWeA pregadi (from the I'sliao word pregare, to pray). The third doge, whose talents for war had proved auccessful in extending the power of the republic, at length meditated the asiumption of a more absolute sway, wishing to render the su- preme authority hereditary in his family : but such conduct excited a general alarm in the people ; he was assaulted in his pa- lace, and there put to death. This event caused the government of Venice to be new modelled, and a chief magistrate, who was now called " master of the militia," waa elected annually ; but his power whilst in office was the same as before. Such form of government continued only five years, when the title of doge was revived (a. d. 740,) in the person of the son of him who had been assassinated. About the latter end of the twelfth cen- tury, when every other part of the Chris- tian world was seized with a frantic rage for recovering the holy land, the Venetians were so far from contributing any forces for the crusades, that they did not scruple to supply the Saracens with arms, ammu- nition, and every :)ther necessary. A* the power of the state became augmented by the acquisition of Istria and many parts of Dalmatia, tlie jealousy of the people to- wards tilt ir doge became stronger. At that time thu only tribunal at Venice consisted of forty judges ; these were called " the council of forty ;" but in the year 1173, an- other doge, named Michieli, being assassi- nated in a popular insurrection, the coun- cil of forty found means to new model the government, by gaining the consent of the propic to delegate the right of voting for lUHKistrates, which each citizen possessed, to four hundred and seventy persons, oivlled councillors, who received the appellation of " the grand council ;" and, acting as dele- gates of the people, became what the gene- rui assembly of the people until that time had been. By this artful innovation (which the people were cajoled into an acquies- cence with, by retaining the right of elect- ing these counsellors annually), the demo- cracy became presently subverted ; and an aristocracy, in its fullest and most rigid form, was introduced, by restricting the power of the doge, and instituting a variety of otficers (all of whom were, in a short time, chosen from among the nobility) which cffi'ctually controlled both the prince and tlic people. Zinni was the first doge elected after the government had received, what the event proves to have been, its permanent modifi- cntion ; and during his administration the sini;ular ceremony of espousing the sea, which has been annually observed ever since, was first adopted, and took its rise from the assistance which the Venetians gave to pope Alexander III. when hard pressed by the emperor Frederic Barba- rossa, and the signal victory they obtained over a formidable fleet under the command of Otho, son of Frederic, in which the ad- miral and thirty of his ships wero taken. Alexander, with the whole city of Venice, went out to meet Ziani, the conqueror, on his return ; to whom his holiness presented a ring, saying, " Use this ring as a chain to retain the sea, henceforth, in subjection to the Venetian state; espouse her with this ring, and let the marriage he solem- nized annually, by you and your successors, to the end of time, that the latest posterity may know that Venice has acquired the empire of the waves, and holds the sea in subjection, in the same manner as a wife is held by her husband." During the continuance of the republic this ceremony was performed by the doge dropping a ring into the sea, pronouncing at the same time the words, VegpoiitamHt te. Mare, in tignum veri perpetuiqiic 3 the Venetians found it neces- sary to pay a subsidy to the dey of Algiers, to preserve their commerce from the de- predations of those corsairs; but they sub- sequently carried on a war with some other of the piratical states, nearer to them, on that coast. Thus did the republic of Venice conti- nued upwards of thirteen hundred years, amidst many foreign wars and intestine commotions. Its grandeur, as we have seen, was chiefly owing to its trade; and, after the decline of that, its Btren|{th and Dower suffered considerable diminution. Ko republic in the history of the world has subsisted for so long a space of time; and, as its independence was nut founded on usurpation, nor cemented with blood, so its descent from that s|>lendour and power which it had once attained, instead of de- grading, reflects the highest honour on them. None of the causes which nubvert- ed the famous republics of antiquity ef- fected the decline of Venice. No tyrants enslaved, no demagogues deluded, no luxu- ries enervated them. They owed their greatness to their industry, bravery, and maritime skill ; and their decline, to *he revolutions which successful pursuits of science had produced in the iintions of Europe. For many years they 'withstood the whole force of the Ottoman eiiiiiire by sea and land; and, although their treasures were eventually exhausted, and their power weakened, their enemies have experienced consequences scarcely less fatal. No government has been more attacked by deep-laid and formidable conspiracies than that of Venice; many of which have been brought to the very eve of execution without discovery or suspicion. But though the entire subversion of the state has been, at times, impending from some of these fdots, yet until the era of the French re- ution, they have been constantly ren- dered ithortive, either by the vigilnnre or good fortune of the senate. One of the most remarkable of these conspiracies was formtd by a doge named Marl 110 Faliero, in the year 1356, who at that time wn$ eighty years of age ; hut, ciiiu-civiiig n vio- lent resentment againnt tin; seiinte, ho formed a ulaii in order tu nssnsniiiale the whole bouy. The design was timely dis- covered, and the dij^nilted hoary traitor was brought to trial, touiul guilty uikiii his own confession, and |iubliely helicnded. Ii< the great chamber ol the piiliu'e, wliirr the portraits of the doges are plaecil, tlieie is a vacant space between the preiieceHNor mid successor of this man, where appears this inscription, " Locui Murini l'o was accused before them, of commit- ting him to close coutinement, and pro- hibiting all communication with his rela- tions and friends, of examining and trying him in a summary manner, and, if a majo- rity of the council pronounced him guilty, of condemning him to death ; they also might order the execution to be either pub- lic or private, as they thought proper. This formidable tribunal was established in the year 1310. About two centuries after, a still more despotic power was entrusted to three in- dividuals, alv.ays chosen from the above council of ten, and forming the co'-n called the atate imjuisition. Tliese iuijuibitors likewise kc,it the keys of chests which are plarcd in several parts of the ducal palace, enclosed within the open jaws of lions' heads carved in the walls ; through which notes were conveyed by any one who was disposed to drop them; and thus notice was secretly given to the government of whatever niJKht concern it to know. The history of Venice furnished a dread- ful instance, in the begiuninti; cl'the seven- teenth century, of a number of confede- rated villnin8,\vh() concerted their measures so artfully as to frame false accusations against some of the Venetian nobles, w|^ch, in the opinion of their judges, convicted them of treasonable practices against the state, and one at least was publicly exe- cuted. At length the frequency of accusa- tions created suspicions, which led to a full detection of the infernal scheme; upon wliirh every possible reparation was made to the manes of the innocent victim, Ih^ honour of whose family was fully restored; but the tribunal, which decreed the sen- tence, was suffered to possess the same un- limited powci ; the only alteration being that anouymras information was somewhat more eaiitiiitisly received; for it was a poli- tical maxim in Venice, that "it is of more importance to the state to intimidate every one even from the appearance of a crime, than to allow a person, against whom a preauuiption of guilt appears, to escape, however innocent he iniiy be." How ditfe- reiit this from the merciful spirit of the English laws, which hold it to be better that ten guilty persona escape than that one innocent person should suffer ! The history of Venice furuishcs two in- stances which bear u strong similarity td the conduct of the Roman Brutus, which we shall give on the authority of Dr. Moore. In the year 14U0, Antonio Venier being doge, his son having committed an offence of no great enormity, was condemned in a fine of one hundred ducats, and to be im- prisoned for a certaiu time. During his confinement, he fell sick, and petitioned to be removed to a purer air. The doge rejected the petition, declaring, that the sentence must be executed literally, and that his son must take the fortune of the rest in the same situation. The youth was much beloved, and many applications were made that the sentence might be softened, on account of the danger which threatened him, but the father was inex- orable, and the son died in prison. Fifty years after this, a son of another doge, named Foscari, being suspected of having been the instigator of the murder of a sena tor, who was one of the " council of ten," was tortured, banished, and on his ap- plication to the duke of Milan, soliciting him to exert his interest for his recall, was brought back to Venice, for the purpose of again undergoing the torture, and being closely contined in the state-prison ; the only mercy shown him being that of granting permission for the doge, the father of the unfortunate youth, to pay him a visit in his confinement. The father, who had held his office for thirty years, and was very eld, exhorted his son to support his hard fate with firmness ; whilst tiie son protested not only his innocence, but that he was utterly incapable of supporting the con- finement to which he was doomed. In an agony of grief he threw himself at his fa- ther's feet, imploring him to take compas- sion on a son whom he had ever loved with the fondest affection, and conjuring him to use his infiucnce with tho council to miti- gate their sentence, that he might be saved from the most cruel of all deaths, that of expiring under the consuming torture of a broken heart, secluded from every creature whom he loved. This melting intercession had no other efl'ect upon the father than to draw from him the following reply;—" My son, submit to th- laws of your country, and do not ask oi mu what it is not in my power to obtain." Alter this interview, the miserable youth languished for n while, and then expired in prison; but .lie vio- lence which his fn'uei-, as a magistrate, did to his paternal feelings, terminated hi life somewhat sooner. A short time after this catastrophe, a Venetian ot noble rank, being on his death-bed, confessed, that, urged by private resentment, he was the murderer of the senator whose assassina- tion had given rise to this tragic scene. TUKT MANtrrA/TIFRE JE WKLI.KllY, QOI.U AND SILVKB STirFFS, VBLVBTB, OM.KS, &C. El:i I!TS, BII.KR, &C. TUB SOCIAL WAIl, It. C. 91.— TlIK SKLVll.K WAH, B.C. 73. THE HISTORY OF ROME. If (says Dp. Arnold, in his nJmirabln his- tory) it is liard to carry bncl< our iilcas of Uoiiic from its nctunl slnta to tlie period of its liii;licst splrndour, it is yet liardcr to go back in fanry to a time still more distant, a time earlier tlian llic beginning of its nutlientic history, before man's art had completely rescued the very soil of the future city from the dominion of nature. Here also it is vain to aitenipt accuracy in the details, or to be certain that the seve- ral features in our description all i.xisted at the same period. It is enough if \vc cm ima;;c to ourselves some likeness of tlie original state of Rome, before the under- taliiiig of those great works which are as- cribed to the late kings. The I'oma'rium of the original city on tlir Palatine, as described by Tacitus, included not only the hill itsiilf, hut some portion of the ;; round immediately below it ; it did not, however, reueli as far is any of the other hills. The valley between the Pala- tine and the Avcmine, aftcrw.irds the site of the Circus IMaximus, was in the earliest times covered with water; so also was ti;e greater part of the valley between the I'a- ialinc and the Capitoline, the ground after- wards occupied by the Ilmnan forum. Ihit the city of the Palatine hill grew in process of time, so as to become a city of seven hills. Not the seven famous hills of i.nperial or reiublican Home, but si^vcn spots more or less elevated, and all hehing. ing to three only of the 1 iter seven hills, that is, to the Palatine, the CJa'liaii, and the Ksquilinc. At this time Rome, already a city on seven hills, was distinct from the Sah'iie city on the Capitoline, Quirinal, and Viminal liiUs. The two cities, although united under one government, had still a separate existence ; they were not com- pletely blended into one till the reigns of the later kings. The territory of the ori- ginal Rome during its (irst period, the true Ager "nmanus, could be gone round in a single dn'. It did not extend beyond the Tiber at all, ncr prob;ibly beyond the Anio; and on the ci st and south, where it had most room to spread, its limit was between five and six miles from the city. This Ager Romamis was th^ exclusive property of the Roman peoiile, that is, of the houses j it did not include the lands conipicrcd from the Latins, .■.'id jriven back to tlicin again when the Latins became the plebs, or commons of Rome. Well indoett may the enquiring historian exclaim— And now what was Home, and what was the country around it, which have bulb aei[uired an illtere^l such as can cease only when earth itself shall perish? The hills of Rome (he continues) are such as we rarely see in Kngland; low in height, hut with steep and rocky sides. In early times the wood remained in natural patches amidst the buildings, as at this day it grows here and there on the green sides of the Monte Tcstaceo. Acrois the Tiber the i;round rises to a greater licigbt thiui that of the Roman hills, but its summit h, n level unbroken line, wliile the heights, which opposite to Rome rise immediately from the river, under the names of Janl- culus and Vaticanus, then sneep away to Some distance from it, and r.!turn in their highest and boldest form at Che Mons Ma- rius, just above the Wi!\iiiii bridge and the Flaminian road. Tlins to the west the view is immediately bounded; but to the north and north-east the eye ranges over the low ground of the Campagna to the nearest line of the Apennines, which closes up, as with a gigantic wall, idl the Sabine, i,atin, and Volscian lowlands, while over it are still distinctly to be seen the high summits of the central Apennines, covered with snow, even at this day, for mure than six months in the year. South and south-west lies the wide plain of the Campagna; its level line succeeded by the equally level line of the sea, which can only be dis- tinguished from it by the brighter light rellected from its waters. Eastward, after ten miles of plain, the view is hounded by the Allian bills, a cluster of high bold points rising o;ii of the Campagna, on the highest of whic i (about .'idOD feet) Blood the temple of J ipiter Latiurius, the scene of the comnior. worship of all the people of the Latin name. Ininediately under this highest point lies the crater-like basin of the Alban lake; and on its nearer rim might be seen the trees of the grove of Ferentia, where the Latins held llie great civil assemblies of their nation. Further to the north, on the edge of the Alban hillfl, looking towards Rome, was the town and citadel of Tuseulum; and beyond ibis, a lower summit crowned with tiie walls and towers of Labicum seems to connect the Albun hills with the line of the Apen- nines, just at the spot where the citadel of Prainestc, high up on the mountain side marks the opening iiWo the country of the Ileniicans, and into the valleys of tilt streams that feed the I/Vris. Returning nearer to Rome, the lowland country of the Campagna is broken by long green swelling ridges. The streams are dull and sluggish, but the hill sides above them constantly break away intolilth; rock clifl's, where on every ledge the wild llg now strikes tmt its branches, ami tufts of broom .; * c.vtii.inb's conscuiacy; and wortiik coni)i;ct ov cicuko, u. c. 0,1. I [:!Q l*i JUMUS r«!IAH INVAIIKD KNai.ANP, AMD MADK TIIK INIIAIIITANTS FAY TKIBIITK. ) ' Pf >i 722 ^f)c CTreasury of ¥]|i»tory ^cc. arc cluBtvriii|ir, hut wliich in old liiiics form- rd the iiitliiral BtmiKth of the citiulcls of the numerous citii's of Lntiuin. lCxcc|it in tlicae nnrrow dells, the proucnt nspect of the country is all bnrn and dcKolntc, with no trees nor any human hnbilAtion. llut anciently, in the early times of.Homo, it was full of independent cities, and in its population and the careful cultivation of Its little K'Brden-likc farms, must have re- sembled tlie most flourishinj^ parts of Lom- bardv. Such was Rome, and such its neigh- bourlinnd. The forceoing^ topographical observations appear to oe necessary, before the reader enters upon even a brief recilal of any of those circumstances which — wliether legendary or strictly true, whether fubulous or merely exaKgeratcd — have been huiuled down from age to age ns the veritable his- tory of Howe. We are told, in the first place, that -Eneas, after the destriictiou of Troy, hav- ing arrived in Italy, married Laviuia, tlic di\ugbter of Lalinus, flfth king of the La- tin*, and succeeded his fnther-in-law, after having deprived Turnus, king of the Ilutuli, flrst of bis sceptre and then of his life. Asranias, after the death of ^ncas, his father, united with it the kingdom of Alba, of which he was the founder. Wc cannot, however, proceed without remarking, that whatever relates to the origin of Rome is attended with the greatest uncertainty ; and that the records of some of the ancient writers are more worthy of a place in the ilSneid of Virgil, than the page of history. In illustration of this remarlc, (although It will trespass on the space which, it may be tliouglit, would be better occupied with the authentic events of history), we shall take the liberty of quoting from the learned author bcforenanied the " Legend of Ro- mulus." " Numitor was the eldest son of Procras, kin^ of Albu Longa, and he had a younger brother called Ainulius. When Procras died, Amulius seized by force on the kingdom, and left to Numitor only bis share of his father's i)rivate inheritaiioe. After this he caused Nuiiiitor's only son to be slain, and made his daughter Silvia become one of the virgins who wairbcd the ever-burning lire of the goddess Vesta. Rut the god Mainers, who is called also Mars, beheld the virgin and loved her, and it was found that she was going to be^onu! the mother of chil- dren. Tlicn Amulius ordered that the chil- dren, when born, should be thrown into the river. It happened that the river at that time had flooded the country; when, there- fore, the two children in their basket were thrown into the river, the waters cxried thcui as far ns the foot of the Palatine hill, and there the basket was upset, near the roots of a wild-fig tree, and the children thrown out upon land. At this moment there came a ihc«wolf down to the water to drink, and when she siiw the children, she carried them to hor cave hard by, niul gave them suck; and whilst tliev were there, n woodpecker came backwarcis and forwards to the cave, and brought thcni food. At Inst one Vaustnlus, the king's herdsman, saw the wolf suckling the chil- dren; and when he went up, the wolf left them and lied ; so he took them lumic to his wife Laurentia, and they were bred up along with her own sons on the I'nlutino hill ; and they were called Romulus und Remus. " When Roinulus and Remus grew up, the herdsmen of the Palatine hill chanced to have a quarrel with the herdsmen of Nu- mitor, who stalled their cattle on the hill Aventinus. Nuinitor's herdsmen laid an nnibush, and Remus fell into it, and was taken and carried olf to Alba, llut when the young man was brought before Numi- tor, he was struck with his noble air and bearing, und niiked him who he was. Ami when Remus told him of his birth, nnd bow he had been saved from death, to- gether with his brother, Numitor innrvel- led, and thought whether this might not be his own daughter's child. In the iiican- while, PaustuluB and Romulus hastened to Alba, to deliver Reinus; and by the )'"!,i of the young men of the Palatine hiii, who had been used to follow him and his bro- ther, Romulus took the city, and Amulius was killed; and Numitor was made king, and owned Romulus and Remus to be burn of his own blood. " The two brothers did not wish to live at Alba, but loved rather the hill on the banks of the Tiber, where they liud been brought up. So they said, that they would build a city there ; and they inquired of the gods by augury, to know which of thcni should give his name to the city. They watched the heavens from morning till evening, and from evening till morning; and as the sun was rising, Remus saw six vultures. This was told to Romulus: but as they were telling him, behold there ap- peared to him twelve vultures. Then it was disputed again, which had seen the truest sign of the gods' favour; hut the most part gave their voices for Romulus. So he be- gan to build his city on the Palatine hill. This made Remus very luigry; and when be saw the ditch and the rampart which were drawn round the space where the city was to be, ho scornfully leapt over them, saying, 'Shall such defences as these kei>p your city ? ' As he did this, Celer, w ho had the charge of the building, struck Keiuus with the spade which he held in his bniid, and slew him; and they buried him on the bill Kemuria, by the banks of the Tiber, on the spot where he had wished to build his city. " But Romulus found that his people were too few in numbers; so he set iipart n place of refuge, to which any man might Bee, and be safe from his pursuers. So many fled thither from the ctyuntries round about : those who bad shed blood, and fled from the vengeance of the Evcnuer of blood; those who were driven out tnim their own homes by their enemies, nnd even men of low degree who had lun away from their lords. Thus the city becnuie i f. n r, ■< u H ALL CASAH B CONUUKBTB WKKIS MADK IN TIIR SI'ACH OP BlOUt yBAHB. FAY TIIIIKITK. COMMKNCBMRNI OV TIIK DIVISION Of TIIK HMPIUU, A.U. 'S'i'i, ^j[)e l£}istoii) of mome. 723 full of iiuoplc; but yet thfijr wanted wives, und the iiuiions round about would not )(ivo tbcin their daughterR in inarriiige. 80 UomtiluB gave out, that he wns goinK to keep n Ki'eut feativiil, and there were to be HiKirta mid kux'^* ^^ draw a multitude to- getlior. The neighbourB came to sec the mIiuw, with their wives and their daugh- t(;i'»: there cunie the people ot'Cgenina.and of CruNtumcrium, and of Antenina, and n )i;ri:at multitude of the 8abincB. Kut while they were lookinx at the p^ames, the people of Romulus rushed out upon them, 1111(1 carried off the womeu, to be their wives. " Upon tliis the people of Cicninn first made war upon the people of Romulus: iiut I hey were beaten, and Iloinulus with Ills own hand slew their kin^ Acron. Next the people of (Jrustumerium, and of Aii- teirnin, tried tlicir fortune, but Romulus (•()ii((iiered]ioth of tlicni. Lant of all cume tliii Siiliiiii'H with a great army, under Titus Tiitius, their king. There is n lull near to tlie Tiber, which was divided from the Pa- latine hill by a low and swam|iy valley ; and on this hill RomuluH nindc a fiirtress, to keei) off till- enemy from his city. Jiut when the fair Tarpcia, llic daughter of tlie chirf who lia.l eharj;' ,d again to the battle. Anil now the fight was fiercer than ever; when, in a sudden, the Subine women, who iiad been carriei' off, ran down from tlieliill I'alaliniis, and ran in b twcen their ImsbaiuU ami tl-.iir fathers, au'l prayed them to lay aside vlaM' tpiarrel. So tiiey nuule pi'aee with ci' luuitlier, and the two people became as one: the Sabines with their kinif dwelt on the hill Katurnius, wliieli is called ('apitoliuni, and on the hill Quirinalis; and the people of Romulus with their king dwelt on the hill I'alatinus. Itut the kings with their counsellors met in the valley between tlaturnius and I'ala- tinus, to consult about their common mat- ters; and the place were they met was call- ed Comitium, which means * the place of meeting.' " Soon after this, Tatius was slain by the Iieoplc of liaurentum, because some of his [iiiHinen had wronged them, and he would not do them justice. Ho Romulus reigned by himself over both nations; and his own people were called the Romans, for Roma was the name of the city on the hill I'ala- tinus; and the Sabines were called Qui- ritcK, for the name of their city on the hills ISuturnius and Quirinalis wus Uui- rium. " The people were divided into three tribes; the Rannienses, and the Titieiises, and the 1/ueeres : the Ramnenses were called from Romulus, and the 'IMtienccs from Tutiiis; and the Luecres were called from Lucumo, an Ktruscan chief, who bad come to help Romulus in his war with the SabiiK^s, and dwelt on the hill called C'lu- liua. Ill each tribe there were ten curia', each of one hundred men; so all the men of the three tribes were three thounand, ond tlicRC fought on foot, and were called a legion. There were also three hundred horsemen, and these were called celcrlans, because their chief was thatCeler who had slain Remus. There was besides a council of two hundred men, which was called a senate, that is, a council of elders. " Romulus was a just king, an'' gentle to his people: if any were^fuilty of crimes, he did not put them to death, but made tliem pay a fine of sheep or of oxen. In his wars he was very successful, and en- riched hispeoplc with the spoils of their en- emies. At last, after he bad reigned i- arly forty years, it chanced tliot one day he call- ed his people tngelher in the field of Mars, near the Ooats' I'ool ; when, all on a sud- den, tiicrc arose a dreadful storm, and all was dark as night; and the rain, and thun- der and lightning, were so terrible, that all tlie people fled from the field, and ran to their several homes. At last the storm was over, and they came back to the field of Mars, hut Romulus was nowhere to be found ; for Mars, bis father, had carried him up to heaven in his chariot. The peo- file knew not at first what was become of liin ; but when it was ni^ht, as one I'rocu- ius Julius was coming from Alba to the city, Romulus appeared to liiin in more than mortal b -auty, and grown to more than mortal stature, and said to him, ' Go, tell my people that they weep not for me any more ; but bid them to be brave and warlike, and so sliiul they make my city the greatest in the earth.' Then the peo- ple knew that Romulus was become a god; so tlyiy built a temple to him, and offered sacrifice to him, und worshipped him ever- more by the nam? of the god tiuirinus." WC YUAItR. o ' r. H I B K a M l»! M la u> •« » B it le w H K £> a M V. O M n O H tn a TUB- V\', H' TIIK IIOJIAN KMFIttU DATKa KllOM THIS TIMK. ■1 'A I I »I1 I )\ . 1 ■• "i M ,'^^ .*- M' 1 1 /' At.WlIC TUUK ttUMIt, AND Ultl.lVKnnn IT Ur TU riLLAQR, A. D. ■101). 1'4 VI\)i tllvcnsuvi) of Insionj, $4C. IJut to quit the liy|icrbole of IcKi'iidnry lore luid H|iuuk iu pliuu tuini!*, it Hiiioiiiitii to tilts— Ilumulus, the ki^hiuUom of Numi- tor, kin^of tliu Latins, joined with his bro- ther lluiiius in uii attempt to rc-estnhlish his Kriuul father in the possession of his throne, mid Amulius, the usurper, whs puv tu dunth. lluviii^ thus far succeeded, the two younff heroes next usseinbled a num- ber of tlie lowest orders of the people, and built a new city on the Avi-utiiie liill, to which Ilumulus gave his name ; and soon after becoming jealous of his brother, caused him to be assassinated. AVc aKaiit turn to the pages of Dr. Ar- nold, who, after referring llioso who desire to go deeply into the whole ([ucstioii, to the 'imniorlal work of Niebuhr,' very justly observes, that "the first question iu the history of every people is, What was their race and language? the next, What was the earliest form of their society, their social and political organization ? " " The language of the Romans was not called Ronuin, but Latin. Politically, Home and Latium were clearly distinguished, but their language appears to ha"e been the same. This language is dilTeroiit from the Ktrusran, and from the Oseun; the Ito- nians, therefore, ate so 'ai marked out as distinct from the great nations of cen- tral Italy, whether Kt'uscans, UinbriiUis, Sabines, or Samnites. " On the other hand, the connection of the Latin Ianguai?e\viih the Greek is ni.-ui- fest. Many eoiiimon words, wliieh no na- tion ever derives from the li'srature of an- otiier, are the same in Greek and liatin; the declensio.is of the nouns and verhsmc, to a great r'.ogrce, similar. It is probable that tilt' Latins belonged to that great race wliioli, in very early times, ovcrsprcnil boih Greece and Italy, under the various iianies of IMasgians, Tyrseniaiis, and Siculians. It n'ay lie believed, that the llellenians V, ere anciently a people of this same race, I but that some peculiar eircuinslanecs gave to them a distinct and KUi'crior eliaraeter, and raised them so far above their lirethien, that, in after ages, they disclaimed uii tun- neelion with them. "Uut in the Latin language there is an- other clentcnt besides that which it has in common with the Greek. This element belongs to the languages of central Italy, and may ' called (Jean. Further, Nie- buhr has n-iimrkeu, liiat whilst the teniis relating to Hgrieulturo and do ticstii li'e are mostly di-rived from the Gr,:i I; ■.!".:t of the language; tho.se relating to avins and war are mcstiy Oscan. it seems, then, not only that the Latins were a mixed people, partly I'clasgian and partly Osean j but, also, that they arose out of a conipiest of j the I'elasgians, by the O.'icans ; to that the latter were the ruling class of the united nat.on; the former were its subjects. " The Latin langifnge, then, may afford us p clue to the origin of the Latin peojile, and so far to that of the Romans. But it does not explain the ditfereure between Romans and Latins, to which the peculiar fates of the Komnn yieopleowc their origin. We must iiKjuire, then, what the Romnns were which the otliir Latins were not; and as language cannot aid us here, we must have rceonrsa to other assistance, to geo- graphy and natiomU traditions. And thus, at the same time, we shall arrive at an an- swer to the second question in lloinaii his- tory, Wliat was the earliest form of civil society at Romi; ? " If we look at the map, we shall sfo that Rome lies at the farthest extremity of Latium, divided from ICtruria only by the Tiber, and having the Snbines close (m the north, between the Tiber and the Aiiio. No other liatin town, so far as we know, was built on ilie Tiber; some were clustered on and round the Alban hilli", others lired the faiint of the Jlediternitienn ; but from a!' 'iuse Rome, by its position, stood aloof. " Tr idition reports tliat as Rome was thus apart from tlie rest of the J/atin cilies, and so near u nfi;tlibour to the Ktruscans and Sabines, .,o it" population was in part formed out of one of these nut ions, and many of iti rites and iiialitutiims borrowed from the other. Trailition describes tlie very ilrst founders of the city as the fhep- birds and herdsmen of the banks of llie 'I'iher, and tells how their numbers were presently swelled by strangers and out- casts from all the countries round about. It speaks of a threefold division of the Rmiiaii people, in the very e.uliest age of its history; the tribes of the Ramuciises, 'I'itiL'nses, and Lueeres. It distinctly ac- knowlcdnea the Titienses to have been Sa- bines ; and in some of its giu'sscs at the ori|',in of the Lueeres, it connects their name with that of the Ktrnsean Lucnmo- nes, and tin i. supposes them to have been composed of Ktruscans. " We know that for all the points of detail, and for keeping a correct account of time, tr.idilion is worthless. It is very possible that all the Ktrnsean rites and usages came in with the Tari|uiiiii, and went falsely car- ried back to an earlier period, lint tlie mix- ture of the Sabines with the original peo- ple of the I'alatine hill, cannot be doubled; and the sir.ies of the asylum, and of the violence done to the Subiiie women, seem to show that the first settlers of the Pala- tine were a mixed race, in which other blood WHS lurgi'ly iiiiiigled with that of the Latins. ^ We may conceive of this earlier people of JMainers, as of the M-imertiiii of a more historical period: that they were a band of resolute adventurers from various parts, practised in arms, and little scrupu- lous how they used them. Thus the origin of the highest RoniHii nobility may have greatly rescnibleil that larger band of ad- venturers who followed the standard of W'illiam the Norman, and were the loun- dcrs of the nobility of Knglinul. " The people or citizens of Rome, were divided into the three tubes of tli j Ram nenscs, Tilienees, and Lueeres, to what- ever time and umler whatever <'ir' niiisinn- c<'s they may have united. Kaeli of ' Iuse tribes was divided into ten sinaii,:: iicdies THE I'HANKS TOOK TOSSKSSIOS OP OAt'I., ANB TUE GOTUS UAH SI'.UN. ▼ AltlOUS RPUCUS AIIE ASBIUKKU rOH THR fODNOATIUH OV HOME, I'. JTijc lf)iatory of IRome. 726 cuIIl'iI cnriie ; so that the wlioic people consisled of thirty curio:: thcae inmu divi- sions were in war represented by the thirty ciMiturics wliich ninde up the legion, just (IS the three tribes were represented by tlie three centuries of horsemen; but that the soldiers of cnch century were exactly a hun- dred, if oppHrcntly as unfounded a conclu- sion, as it would be if wo were to argue in the sinne way ns to the military force of one of our Knglish hundreds." We see, then, that this city, which after- war U became the mistress of the world, was ac this time but a large villaj;e. Its priucipnl inhabiiunts laboured with the ploiiijph in an ungrateful soil. Uvery one made ehuice of the spot he meant to culti- vate ; iiiiil, until the taking of Rome by the Uuiils, 36i years after the foundation, it waN rather to be called n mass of separated ihvclliiiKs, than a regular well-built city. WhercnK, the circumference of the walls in the time of Augustus was thirty thou- t of making his people happy : he subdued the Veientes, the Fidenates, and the Vohcians. lie enibellifihed Rome, built public prisons, and founded the port c.f Ostia. Tarquin the Elder, descended from an illustrious family of Corinth, was elected as the -luccessor of Ancus. The introduc- tion of plebeians into the senate, the deco- ration of Rome with superb cdifiees, and the foundation of the capitol, were the principal events of his reign. 8erviu8 Tullius, a man of obscure birth, succeeded Tarquin in the Roman throne. He subdued the enemies of Rome, enacted salutary laws, enlarged the city, established quit>rcuts, and a body of magistrates to judge particular causes. Having formed the design of making his subjects free, it was his intention to change the form of governtnent from a monarchy to that of a republic; but being murdered by Tarquin, who succeeded him on the throne, this generous resolution was prevented from I'uliilinent. He reigned gloriously, and cc- ! S I P. : o o 'h HI i >i TUK TBAnnidMAHY HISTOUY Ol' BUMK IS INVO'.VKO IN GHKAT GOSCUItlTy. ].3 Q 3 j TUK FATHICIANS OV AOMB WKIII'. DKSCBNDANTS C>P TUU PIIIST NATIVU8. B'^, j. A ( 726 Cri)c CTicasurn of Ijiatoii), $cc. iiiL-ntcd the union between Rome and the neighbouring slates. He was the lirat l(o- man kinx wlio stamped coin. 'I'urquin the Superb, a proud and feroci- ous tyrant, muunlcd the throne after hav- ing murdered Scrvius Tullius, his wife's fa- ther. He formi^d projects disKrnccful to liis country. He delighted in luxury and debauchery ; paying little regard to the established laws, he oppressed the people ; cndravoured to destroy the senate, a body instituted with so much wisdom, and who already began to be the immovable ram- part uf the liberty of the people. The Ito- mans in (his reign triumphed over the Sa- bines and the VoUeians, and finished the capitol. The excesses and despotism of Tarquiuand his sons, increased so much the public hatred against him, that he was preci- pitated from a throne which he disgraced. It is observable, in this sketch of the Roman history, that the Greeks were in every respect superior to the Romans when their stale was in its infancy; the Romans never quitting their huts upon the seven hills, but to make captives of the women, and pillage the neighbouring villages. The Greeks, on the contrary, were occupied in defending their liberties : they repulsed large armies and Meets of the Persians; and they cultivated, ond brought to perfec- tion, tlte tine arts, of which the Runiivus were almost totally ignorant until the time of Si'ipio Afrieauus. The ferocity and spirit of ropinc, which prevailed among the lirst Romans, one nii;(ht suppoi^c would have induced the sur- rounding nations to exterminate them: but the necessities which urged them to com- mit depredations, animated their courage, mid rendered their acts of injustice irre- sistible. They were successful in war, from being inured to it ; and at the end of four centuries, they liiid conquered all the na- tions from the Adriatic Gulf to the river Uuphrutes. The Roman Republic, This republic, hereafter so celebrated, commenced with the expulsion of Tarquin, the last kiug of Rome ; and it having been declared by the BCiiate, that he had for- feited the royal dignity, they elected two chief magistrates, called consuls, whose power was to last only one year. The con- suls had several other magistrates stibor- dinate to them, such as praters, magis- trates whose olHce it was to render justice : tribunes, the mairistratcs of the people; they might oppose all the resolutions of the other magistrates, and their persons were held sacied and inviolable : quesiors, oliieers who took charge of the public money : adiles, oftlecrs who superintended the buildings, and the exhibition of public games : censors, oliieers w huse business it was to rate the people, and inspect and correct their manners : proconsuls, magis- trates commissioned to govern provinces with consular authority; and, on particu- lar occasions, a dictafor was appointed, who possessed sovereign auliiorily. This revolution was the epoch of the glory of Rome. Each consul exerted him- self for the bcn(>rtt of his country during his short administration, in order to merit a future election: but the jealousy of the people demonstrated itself from the first consulates. Valerius, famous for his victo- ries, became suspected; and, to satisfy the plebeians, a law was made, which permit- ted an appeal to the people, after roudem- nation, from the lenate and consuls, in all cases where the punishment of a Roman citizen was intended. In the meantime the Tarquini were busy in soliciting the neighbouring nations to avenge their quarrel. Porsenua, king of Utruria, marched against Rome, and re- duced it to the greatest extrcniities; but the spirit shown by the republicans asto- nished their enemies, who could no longer resist their impetuosity ; and from this time the Tarquins lust all hope. The jealousy which had hitherto sub- sisted between the patricians and the ple- beians had aiignientcd rather than abated; the latter thought the power invested in the consuls too great, although it had been considerably lessened by the Valerian law. They accordingly retired to the sacred mountain, and violent measures were used in vain to reduce them; but the mild and simple eloquence of JMencnius Agrippa in- duced them to listen to terms of acco- modation. They demanded a ningistratc, whose business it should be to keep a watchful eye over their interests, and de- fend them against the intrigues of the con- suls and the senate : occordingly, tribunes were created, and established by a law, de- nominated sacred, and which in some mea- sure relieved them from the yoke of aristo- cracy, now become nearly as heavy as the despotism of their kings. The Roman people continued to be every- where suecesisful in battle : but their intes- tine divisions brought them frequently into the most imminent danger. Coriolonus, one of their most illustrious generals, was banished by a popular faction, and his ser- vices wholly forgotten. Unrngcd at their ingratitude, he put himself at the head of the Volscians, marched against his country, and would probably have become its con- queror, had it not been that the entreaties of his mother prevailed on him to desist from his enterprise. Spurius Cassius, aspiring at tyranny, proposed the agrarian law, and thereby opened a new 8o plundered ond burnt great part ol' it. Camillus was recalled, and mr.de dictator : he entirely defeated the invad- ers; and Rome nrosc from its ashes with additional splendour. The people, prompt- ed thereto by the tribunes, were upon the point of quitting Rome, and transferring the republic to tlie Veientes ; but Camillus opposed their intentions, and turned their restless thoughts towards military achieve- ments. He began with the Samnites, a fierce and warlike nation, hitherto unconquered. A long and bloody war took place. The senate punished, with extreme severity, the trea- son of some of the Roman troops, who, charmed with the climate of Padua, where they lay iu garrison, formed a design of murdering the inhabitants, and establish- ing themselves in the possession of their country. Manlius had his son put to death, although a conqueror, for lighting without orders. About the same time the famous war of Tarentum culled tlie celebrated Pyrrhus info Italy. Active and restless, he was con- tinually forming schemes, and occupied himself more in the affairs of others than in his own. He was a perfect master of the military art, but totally ignorant of that of governing. In addition to the oppo- sition of his army to that of the Roman, ho introduced elephants into the field, which being new to the Roman troops, was the cause of their discomfiture. But, being pware of the unron(iucrable spirit of his oppimcnts, he solicited an alliance with them through the means of the orator Cyneas. lie attempted to corrujtt, by pre- sents, the virtue of Fabriciu». He p,i-vcd into Sicily, with a view to succour that island against the Carthaginians. And afterwards returning to Italy, he aban- doned them entirely, filled with veneration for a people whose courage and constancy he was unable even to shake. Rome now began to fix the attention of strangers. It received ambassadors from, and accepted an alliance with, I'toleniy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, the enlight- ened protector of the arts and sciences. About this time luxury was first intro- duced among the Roman people, the source of all their future misfortunes. It destroyed republican virtue; it debilitated their cou- rage ; and was thus, eventually, the cause of the downfall of Rome. The siege of Messina by the Carthagi- nians, and their union with Ilicro, king of Syracuse, caused the tirst Punic war. Hieri. soon after formed an alliance with the Ro- mans, and remained ever after faithful to their cause. The love of glory rendered them as uncomiucrablc on the sea as they had before been on the land. Sicily, the object of their ambition, was the witness of their naval victories. Africa herself trem- bled at the sight of her fleets. However, Xantippus, the LaeodemoniMn, whom the Carthaginians, with the basest ingriiiitudc, deprived of his life, defeated and made prisoner the biavo but unfortunate Rci^u- lus. The Carthaginians denmndcd pence, and Regulus himself, who was one of the ambassiidcrs, opposed the treaty, and fell a victim to the love of liis country: he re- turned to Ciirtlinge to meet the most horrid death that tl'.e enraged Carthaginians could intlict. Ilamilcar was afterwards defeated, which terminated the first Punic war. The siege and conquest cf Saguntum, a city in alliance with the Romans, pave birth to the second Piiitic war. Hannibal, already famous for his brilliant success in Spain, who had from his infancy been taught to regard the Romans with detes- tation, advanced towards Italy at the head of an army; crossed the Ulione ; traversed the Alps in the midst of winter; defeated Scipio on the banks of the Vesin ; v as coniiueror at Trebia, Thrasymenus, and Cunnn;; and filled Rome itself with alarm. The pleasures of Capua, it is saiil, where he had the imprudence to winter, saved Rome from destruction. It gave the Ro- mans time to recover from the consterna- tion which his rapid progress had occa- sioned ; they collected all their force, and rose more terrible than ever, by thtir con- stancy, their discipline, their courage, and their policy. Their numerous victories nstonishrd Spain and Sicily. They declared war against Philip, the allyof Carthage; took Syracuse, Agrigent'ini, and Capua ; de- feated Asdruhal; and all Spain siilimittrd to the younger Scipin. This general went into Africa, and, by his surccssc::, ohlij;ed Hannibal to quit liurnpe, and return liume. The interview between these two groat NO KOMAN CITIZEN COUIiD BE MADE A SLAVE, TUOUOII STKAN0BR3 COlJI.n. c u a m I I i ,» i > I-. M'- UV TUN WAl.t.n or UOMH AMH AIIOUT II MII.K* IN C'inCUMyKnilNCK. 728 ©I;c tHrcaauiu of IQistovi), $tc. mriirriils hanteiioil Iho liitlllo of Zuiiia, \vhi;ro every iiiuniDuvro in the Mi of wiir WH« lli^l)lnyed. Seipio «n» llie eouqucpir, nntl till! Uuinnii Hninto dietulcil the eiin ilitioiis (if pence. This virtory miKiiiented till! already iiiiiiioderale ninlii'ioii of lluine, wliioli tlii'oatoiied with slavery tliu whulo of the then known world, Hannibal, alter having pnsiieil loino time at tho uoiirl of Aiilioelma, Jtin« of Syria, whom he had eiiKaKiid to declare war aKauiHl the Ruiiinni), returned to llilhynin; but feariiift that he Bhoiild lie delivered tip to his inveterate enemy, hu put an end to his exiHteiiuo by poi»on. Thfl war with rhillii, Kin(? oi and nlYerwards witli I'er^'eiiH, Ills son, wan kin); of Maccdon, a remarkable ciioeh. I'hilip, after having siinVrod great loss, made peaeo with tlio ilomans ; but Perseus, with a view of re- coverini; bnek what bis liitlur had lost, renewed a war wbieb deprived liim both of iiiK liberty and life, and redneoil bis kin((- iloni to n Itoniaii provinee. Antioebiis, kiiifC of Syria, who had declared w ar aKainst the Itonians in eoniplianee with the wishes of Hannibal, was likewise iiblif;ed, in order to obtain peace, to cede all the e of the iciiteiianln of Sylla, having iiifririKeil the treaty, the war reciimiiienced. MilhridHtei prevailed upon TiKiaiiei, king of Aiineiim Majcir, to cii^aKe iii the ipiarrel : hy bin anM'lanec, he tiefcnted the IIiiiiihiiii, and invailed Milhynia. 'I'lie consul IaicuHuk tlirn niaichcd a;""UN riiiuiineil nl llniiie, while Cn'iar was liiisK'd in exten ponnesus ; and Antony abandoned his fleet, and the empire of half the world, to ac- company his mistress to Egypt. Being pursued by his conqueror, he fell upon his sword, and thereby put an end to his life. Cleopatra shut herself within the temp|e of Antony, where she applied an asp to her bosom, and expired kt the base of the statue of her infatuated admirer. Octavius now returned to Rome, and had a public triumph during three days. Hav- ing become sole master, he feigned a desire to resign his authority, and demanded the advice of Agrippa and Mectenas. The former advised nim to re-establish the re- public ; but the opinion of the latter being contrary, and Octavius abiding by it, the slavery of Rome was decided. He left some appearance of authority yet in the hands of the senate, in dividing with them the provinces of the empire; but reserved to himself all those in which the troops were stationed, that he might at all times be master of the army. Thus commenced the mightiest monarchy that any age has produced. It will, perhaps, be interesting tc inves- tigate the cause of the astonishing and rapid elevation of the Roman empire. 1«^ The indignity with which they treated all those whom the fortune of war had placed within their power ; being as ambi- tious of becoming masters of thei.- persons as of their dominions, in order that they might load them with chains, dvag them in triumph after their chariots, and put them to Ignominious deaths ; and us these Srinces were, almost without exception, evotcd to luxury and effeminacy, they be- held Home with terror and humility ; and the presence of an army of veterans was enough to reduce them to servitude. 2nc(. Experience having taught the Ro- man senate how much the people of Eu- rope were better adapted towor than those of Asia, it prohibited entirely the people of Asia from coming into Europe, and the Europeans from going into Asia. tird. Theextcntof their jurisdiction being all the then known world, the seutite de- cided, before their own tribunals, all the IIUMK HAS It. \NV riNR PALACES, BUT MOT A SINOLB BQVABB. S- icincK. t return to Italy when he married iu8, and widow of ion of the empire sastem part* were stern to Octavius, 10 contested Sicily deserted by his small town in La- the charms of time in giving nstead of attend- lis army. He en- conduct tc( the tcensed at his ne- igainst him. The where Octavius ctory, which made Roman republic, sail for the Felo- >andoncd his fleet, the world, to ac- o Egypt. Being r, he fell upon his an end to his lifc. srithia the temple ilied an asp to her base of the statue r. to Rome, and had three days. Hav- he feigned a desire md demanded the MecKnas. The e-establish the re- of the latter being abiding by it, the lecided. He left thority yet in the lividing with them pire; but reserved which the troops night at all times Thus commenced that any age has teresting to inves- ' astonishing and man empire, which they treated tune of war had r ; being as ambi- rs of thei,- persons n order tliat they :haius, dvag them chni'iots, and put tlia; and us these itiiout exception, reniinacy, they be- nd humility ; and |r of veterans was servitude. e (aught the Ro- :ne people of Eu- towor than those ircly tkie people of Europe, and the to Asia. jurisdiction being d, the seuute dc- tribunals, all the l/ABM. BOMB BXC«LS ALt. OTBBB CITIBS IN NOBbB FDBLIO VOIJRTASRB. ^i^c l^istore of Bome. 731 quarrels which took place between the de- pendent kings and tneir subjects, and be- tween different nations. These they ter- minated according to their pleasure, always enfeebling those from whom they had any thinp to Tear ; and, on the contrary, sup- porting those from whom they had any thing to hope. 4m. When any two nations, over whose quarrels the senate had no immediate right of decision, commenced war against each other, the Romans always declared them- selves in favour of the weaker party, whe- ther their assistance had been implored or not. The stronger being reduced, the one through fear, and the other through grati- tude, submitted to chains imposed by the conqueror. They then assumed to them- selves the titles of protectors of the dis- tressed, supporters of the weak, and the avengers of wrongs; and these brilliant titles contributed a* much to extend nnd confirm their autliority, as it made them beloved by those whom they had it in their power to serve, and feared by those who dreaded their punishment. &th. The senate always accustomed itself to speak in the hauftUtiest manner to the ambassadors of the different nations to whom they gave audience; and if, in re- turn, the Romans were treated with con- tempt, tliey complained loudly of the viola- tion of their rightr, and of the insult of- fered to the majesty of the Roman people. Thus they declared war against those who would not submit to their insolence or flat- ter their pride. 6tk. When they were determined to make war upon aity nation, they allied them- selves with some of their neighbours, at whose charge it was carried on. They al- ways had, in the *ieighbuurliood, a second army, before they risked a battle with the first ; and a third in Rontc, ready upon all occasions : these important precautious rcndc.ed their legions inexhaustible. 7th. When they foresaw a probability of having to encounter two nations at the same time, they negotiated with the weak- est, wlio generally accepted, with avidity, the offer of peace. It was therefore very difficult to form a powerful league against the Romans, because, as they were impla- cable in their resentments against their enemies, they intimidated, by their ap- proach, all those who had formed plans inimical to the interest of the republic. The senate, although proud, and addicted to vengeance, were, nevertheless, perfect masters of the art of dissimulation, when it was not in their power to revenge an in- jury: they sometimes even refused suffi- cient satisfaction when offered it, at a time they were otherwiise employed, that the right of reprisal might still remain, and which they intended to exercise, when a more favourable opportunity presented it- self. Thus they never made war but when it was convenient to their interests. Sill, If any general, after having received a check, made an inglorious peace, the senate always refused to ratify it. Thus the prisoners of war, which the conquerors had spared, and released upon their pa role, appeared again in arms under a new chief. These were the more terrible, as they bad to efface, by their valour, the dis- grace which they had formerly sustained. The general who was the author nf the treaty, was delivered up to the enemy ; and this was termed, by tlie senate, a respect to the rights of the people. 9th. It, on the contrary, the enemy, en- feebled by defeat, demanded peace, the senate appeared satistied with the condi. tions they offered, and accepted their terms: in the meantime, hrving recruited their le- gions, they would express a dislike to some of the articles of the negotiation, and offer others with which they knew the enemy would not comply. The war then recom- menced ; and the enemy, in hopes of pence, having neglected their army, were pre- sently subdued. lOth. When the Romans were at war with a prince, if his children betrayed him, his subjects revolted, or his allies deserted him, the senate afforded them an asylum, nnd declared them their allies: this title ren- dered sacred all those that received it, and it protected them in the commission of all crimes that might be useful to the state. 11th. Every treaty of pence was conclud- ed with an alliance; that is to say, an ho- nourable servitude; because the allies of Rome were obliged to assist her in all her wars, and could not undertake any without her participation, and against her enemies. Thus one nation conquered another, weak- ening thereby themselves, and strengthen- ing Rome. This species of alliance was, ne- vertheless, courted ; as the Romans would not suffer any other nation to oppress those whom they protected. 12tA. The first condition of every treaty, was a stipulation for a tribute to Rome; with whicn, however exorbitant, the other contracting party was obliged to comply, or deliver up, as a security for so doing, their frontiers. 13th. That the repetition of conquest should not diminish the thirst of glory among the troops, the greatest part of the plunder taken was divided amongst them : It therefore appeared as if the senate made war not to enrich themselves, but for the benefit of those who voluntarily enlisted into their service. The Roman dominion was thereby extended with the greater cer- tainty, and, as it were, insensibly; being hid under the exterior and seducing nnincs of friendship, of protection, and of libe- rality. '\4th. Tlie nations submitted to the Ro- man arms with less reluctance, because there seemed nothing terrible in the yoke they imposed ; thejr were left in possession of their laws, their manners, and their language: thus they appeared liberal as friends ; but the entire subjection of their tributaries although progressive, was posi- tively certain. Thus war, and a strict adherence to poli- tical maxims, by degrees raised Rome to UICn\EI. ANGBLO AMU BBAMAMTB WBBB TBB CDIBF ABCHITBCTB OV ST. FBTBR'S. CARACAtLA'a UATaS COVKRS0 AN ABBA OV TWIHtX-aiaUT ■IieuiU ACUIB. 732 ^i^e ^rtasttvi) of llistort), $cc. alraoit universal monarchy. Their luccest was viewed with as much astonishment by the nations which thoy subjuKotcd, as we rri^ard, witli wonder, the exploits of their Scipios, tlieir 8yllas, and their Ctesari. The Roman Empire. We have seen Ciesar, the conqueror of Pnmpey, ia the fields of Pharsalia, return triumphant to Rome, and assassinated by Broras and Cnssius in the senate. Antony, Uiidcr the pretence of avenging his death, united himscli'with Lcpidus, and Uctnvius, the nephew ofCa»nr. Octavius, disdaining a division of the empire, found means to quarrel with them both, defeated them in suncession, returned crowned with victory to Rome, and assumed the name of Au- gustus. From the time of Julius Caisar, the re- public took the name of the Roman em- pire ; and those who were at the bund of its fovernmcnt were denominated emperors, 'ho first twelve assumed tlie name uf Cae- sar, that is to say, from Julius Ciesar to Domilian. Augustus, the first emperor, was a most fortunate warrior, and a profound politi- cian. His liberality to the people, his fide- lity to his friends, and his love of the arts and sciences, obliterated from the minds of the people the proscriptions which had taken place during tlie wars which had distracted the empire at the commence- ment of his career. During his reign, Biscay, Dalmatia, Kgypt, Pannonia, Aqui- taine. Illyricum, Rhietia, the country of thr Vindclicians, and all the maritime (owns in Pontus, became subjrct to the Roman state. He defeated the Germans, the Pnrthians, and the Ducians, and died with the reputation of a hoppy monarch. The reign of Augustus wuk remarkable for litercvTy characters, amongst whom were Virgil, the author of tho >finttid ; Hornce, of Odea, Satires, and Upistlcs ; and Ovid, of the Metamorphoses, and other poems. It has since become a proverbial expression to call any period, when the literature of a nation is particularly cultivated, its Au- gustan R^e. The reign of Augustus was also distinguished by the birth of Jesus Christ, which took place in the seven hun- dred and fifty-fourth year from the founda- tion of Rome, and in the thirtieth year of tho reign of Augustus. Tiberius, who had married the daughter of Augustus, and by whom ho had been adopted, abandoned himself to voluptuous- ness, and governed by his ministers. His cruelty and avarice rendered him au object of general detestation. Incapable of dis- tinguishing himself in the field, he left the conduct of his wars to his generals. Ger- inanicus defeated the Germans, and Tibe- rius rewarded his services by ordering him to be poisoned. This monster of perfidy, ingratitude, and cruelty, died at Campania, in the seventy-eighth year of his age. In the eiglitceutli year of his reign Jesus Christ was put to death at Jerusalem. The Pratorian guards were a body of 10,000 men, under the especial orders of the proitor of Rome, who was usually also one of the consuls, or subseouently the em- peror. They were quartered by Augustus, in small detachments, in different parts of Italy; but Tiberius brought them all to Rome, and fixed them in ita neighbourhood in a fortified camp. They soon found the unarmed and timid populace of Rome too feeble to oppose them, and took upon them- selves the nomination or disposal of the em- perors. Cains Caesar, called also Caligula, was the son of Oermanicus, grandson of Dru- sus, and great nephew of Tiberius; and succeeded to the imperial dignity in the twenty-fifth year of his age. His life was a continued scene of debauchery, much worse even than that of his predecessor. He made war against the Suabian Ger- mans, without displaying the least promise of military talents. He was killed in his palace, in the twenty-ninth year of his age, Claudius, uncle and successor to Cali- gula, gave, by turns, symptoms of good sense and moderation, folly and cruelty. He made war upon Britain, which lie re- duced i at his return, he had a ttiutnpb, and took tho iii< ue of Britannicus. He died at the ngc oT seventy-four. He was the husband of Messaliua, so dishonoured by her licentious life. Nero, the son of Domitian iEnobarbus and Agrippina, daugliter of Oermanicus, and sister to Caligula, began his reign by aspiring to virtues which he did not pos- sess. This seeming goodness was, how- ever, of short duration ; he threw off the mask, and appeared to the people in his true character. He tarnished the reputa- tion, and diminished the power of the Ro- man empire. He never undertook any mi- litary expedition; but suffered the Pnr- thians to make themselves masters of Ar- menia, and obliged the Roman legions to pass under the yoke. He had Rome set on fire ; and put his own mother, his preceptor, and severol other persons, to death in the most wanton and cruel manner. At Icngi h the senate declared him an enemy to his country ; and he was condemned to be con- ducted, quite naked, with his head between the prongs of a pitchfork, through the streets of Rome ; then to be whipped to death, and afterwards to be thrown from a high rock into the Tiber. Nero saved him- self from this aeulence by self-murder, at the house of one of his IVeedmen in the country, at the age of thirty-two years, and the fourteenth ot his reign. In his person the family of Augustus became extinct, Bergius Galba, a senator, of an ancient and noble family, was, at the age of sixty- three, proclaimed emperor by the Spaniards and the Gauls; and his election Avas ap- proved by the whole army. He possessed some virtue, but it was eclipsed by his cruelty and his avarice. He fell into the snare which he had laid for Otho, and whs killed at Rome in the seventh montli from his elevation. Otho succeeded as emperor. He united *UR ROMAN AQUKDUCT8 AttB ASTONISUINO EVPOaTS OV HUMAN INnVSTnr. IIU ACUIB. ipecial ordcri of wai uminlly also lequentlytbeem- red by Augustui, different parts of ght them all to ta neiRhbonrhood y toon found the lace of Rome too I took upon them- lipoial of the em- i«o Caliguln, wai Tandaon of Dru- 9f Tiberiui; and at dignity in the iKC. His life was euauchery, much f his predecessor, he Sunbian Ger- the least promise was killed in his Ih year of his age. accessor to Cali- ^mploms of good folly and cruelty, ain, which lie re- e had a ttiutoiph, Britannicus. He ity-four. He was la, BO dishonoured nitian /Enobnrbui r of Germanicus, egan his roign by 1 he did not pos- >dness was, how- he threw off the the people in his ished the reputn- power of the Uo- ndertook any mi- suffered the I'nr- cs masters of Ar- Roman loKions to had Rome set on :her, his preceptor, s, to death in the tanner. At Icnvi h an enemy to liis lemncd to be con- his head between ork, through the to be whipped to be thrown from a Nero saved him- by self-murder, at fVeedmen iu the rty-two years, and (n. In his person ecame extinct, tor, of an ancient the ngc of sixty- r by the Spaniards election "was np- ly. He possessed B eclipsed by his He tell into the for Otho, and whs reuth month from peror. He united N INDUBTHT. THE COLOBSKUU IB TUM MOST arLaNDID KKLIC OV IMraaiAL BOMB. tS,\)t l^istorn of l^omc. 733 in Ills person the extremes of valour and effcmiuaoy. Having been overcome in'bat- tle by Vitullius', his competitor, he stabbed himself, in the thirty-eiglith year of his age, and the nincty-Hfth day of his reign. Vitellius mounted the imperial throne after the death of Otho. He reiifncd with- out honour, and wos cruel in his govern- ment. He killed Sabiiius, the brother of Vespasian, and burnt him with thecapitol. He was an extreme glutton, and was killed by an olllccr in the service of Vespasian, in the fli'ty-sevcnth year of his age, having reigned eight months and one day. His body, after having been dragged tlirough Rome, was thrown into the 'I'ioer. Vespasian succeeded to the purple. He brought under the Roman yoke many pow- erful nations : he took Jerusalem, ana en- tered it in triumph with his son Titus. His death was much regretted by the se- nate and the people. He was good tem- pered, moderate, humane, witty, capable of friendship, and, on tlie whole, the greatest emperor since AuKustus. Titus succeeded his father t he was per- fectly a master of his passions, and go- veriied the empire so admirably as to gain the name of the " Love and Delight of the Human Race.." His eloquence, his valour, and his moderation, were the charms by which he gained the hearts of his subjects. He died in the forty-lirst year of his age, having reigned two years, eight months, and twenty days. Domitian, the younger brother of Titus, ascended the throne. He abandoned him- self to every vice, and was capable of every crime. He raised manv considerable edi- Accs in Rome ; and w''i killed in his paloce, by his domestics, in the fifteenth year of hia reign. Nerva, already advanced in age, was next elected emperor. He governed with jus- tice, and chose Triijan for his successor. He died at Rome, at the age of seventy, havin<{: reigned four months and eight days, regretted by a people whom he had ren- dered happy. Trajan, by birth a Spaniard, succeeded Korvn. He was a successful soldier, and extended the bounds of the Roman empire. He was just, and an enemy to flattery and envy ; he was friendly, and loved his sub- jeutD; and it has been said that his only delects were a love of war and wine. He died iu Asia iu the sixty-third year of his agfi. Adrian was raised to the throne by the means of I'lotina, the wife of Trojan. He had a huppy disposition ; was a protector uf the arts, and of artists; and his greatest anibiiinn was to have the reputation of being learned. He was a perfect master of the Ureek language, and jealous of those who spoke or wrote better than himself. He abandoned many provinces conquered by Trojim, and built a temple in honour of Venus 00 mount Cnlvary. He died in the Cuinpania of Rome, at the age of sixty-two years. Antoninus Pius, of Nismcs, succeeded Adrian. He treated liis subjects aa his children. Liberality, clemency, and affa- bility, formed only a part of the good qua- lities of this prince : htB wit was polished, his sentimrnts noble. He defeated the Britons by his generals. He repulsed the Moors, and took part of Kgypt. His dtath took place at a country seat called Lorium, four leagues from Rome, in the sixty-third year of his age. Marcus Aurelius, the successor of Anto- ninus, took Lucius Verus as his colleague in the empire : they made war upon the I'arthians. Lucius Verus intended to com- mand in person, but stopped at Antioch, and gave his orders to his lieutenants, who de- feated the I'arthians, and took Beleucia.one ofthe Anest cities in Hyria. Lucius Verus returned to Rome, and had a triumph. He died at Venice, of apoplexy, or poison, hav- ing reigned nine years. After the death of Verus, Marcus Aure- lius governed alone, with all the wisdom which characterizes a good prinrc. He overcame several northern nations, and sold the most precious part of his property to compensate his soldiers, rather than op- press tliK people. This crowned philoso- pher would serve as a perfect model for princes, if liis extreme kindness had not sometimes degenerated into weakness. He died at the age of sixty-one years. Commodus, son of Aurelius, but un- worthy of such a parent, succeeded his father on the throne. He made himself detestable by his debaucheries ; but carried on a successful war against the Germans. After having practised the cruelties of a Nero, and the wickedness of a Caligula, by sacrirtciiig the wisest among the Romans, and murdering his wife and his sister, he died, as is supposed, by poisim. I'crtinax, prefect of Rome, succeeded Commodus, at the nge of seventy. He was originally a schoolmaKtcr in Liguria, whicli he quitted [for a military life. In endea- vouring to establish discipline in the army, he was killed by the soldiers of his own guard, after a reign of twenty-four duys. Julian usurped the empire after the death of I'ertiniix : but he was defeated by his rival, Septimus Severus, nnd was slain in his palace in the seventh mouth of his reign. Severus, who had already taken the title of emperor in Illyria, succeeded Julian. He defeated and killed Pesccnnius Niger, who li.id been proclaimed emperor in the eaHt. He also defeated Clodius Alhin, who had assumed the title of Ciesar in Gaul. He subjugated the Farthians and the Arabs, and joined to his military skill the reputa- tion of learning. In England he built the famous wall iu the north, which extended from sea to sea — and which is in part re- maining at this hour— in order to prevent the inroads of the Picts and Scots. He died at York, after having reigned glori- ously eighteen years and four niuiitlis. Caracalla and Geta, the sons of ScveruB, were elected emperors. Caracalla having killed Geta, whom the senate had declared a ; It M 1 .] K o e s H M n b H « w O a O u H H »• k. O TUU ANCIBNT ROMANS nEI.IQUTlID IN FGATB OF BI.OOD ANU CRUBLTT. [.3 A TBI ABCHM or CONST«II*IN«, TRAJAN, AMD ■■VKIIV8, STltL KXIST. \i I 734 ^^e ^reaetUQ of l^istors, $cc. an cuemy to the republic, reigned alone. He governed tyrannically, and abandoned himielf to the moit infamoua and degrad- ing vicet. He carried on a war with tome aucceii against the Germans i and was preparing to march against the Parthians, when he was killed at Edessa, at the age of forty-three yean; after, having reigned six vears and two months, the detestation of the Roman people. Here we date the decline of the Roman empire. Macrinus and Diadamenis, father and son, were placed on the imperial throne. They were killed by the soldiers, after hav- ing reigned fourteen months. Marcus Aurelins A'ntoninus, surnamed Heliogabulus, priest of the Temple ot the Sun, was proclaimed emperor by the army. Ha was a monster of lasciviousness ; and was, with his mother Semiasyra, killed by the soldiers, after having reigned two years and eight months. Alexander Severus, cousin to the last emperor, mounted the throne at the age of fifteen years. The army gave him the name of Caesar, and the senate that of Au- gustus. He gained a signal victory over the Persians ; and was noted as a patron of the arts and sciences. He was Killed in Gaul, by a soldier whom he had raised from the ranks, after a reign of thirteen years ; during which he consoled the em- pire, by his virtues and his kindness, for the tyranny of the preceding reigns. Maximinian, of the Gothic race, elected emperor by the soldiers, was the son of a poor peasant, and, from the station of a common soldier, arose step by step, to the first dignities in the empire. He was eight feet high, and a most voracious glutton. He commenced his reign by the murder of his best friends, and was himself murdered by his soldiers. Gordian was placed upon the imperial throne by the soldiers. He appointed his son as his colleague, whom he sent into Africa against Capeliian, governor of Nu. midia and Mauritania. The younger Gor- dian was vanquished and killed by the Nu- midians, at the age of forty-five years. Gor- dian the elder died with despair, at the age of eighty, in the third year of his reign. Maximus and Balbinus, the first the son of a smith, and the latter of noble origin, had been during the life-time of Maximi- nian elected emperors by the senate, and now assumed the throne. But the soldiers, dissatisfied with their election, entered their palaces, and massacred them. They then set up the grandson of Gordian, whom the senate had also declared Cusar after the death of his grandfather. Gordian II., invested with the purple, opened the temple of Janus, and carried on a successful war against the Parthians and Persians. He pursued Sapor to the confines of Persia, where he was killed through the treacherjr of Philip, whom he had constituted his lieutenant. The Ro- mans, for his virtues, ranked him among the gods. The two Philips, father and son, were proclaimed emperors. The father was the son of an Arab chief of robbers. Before he came into Italy, he had made his peace with Sapor. He abandoned some of Ihe provinces of the empires visited Arabia; and built, at the place of his birth, a city, which he called Pnilippopolis. Daring the reign of the Philips, was celebrated nt Rome, with great magnificence, the year one thousand from the fbundation of the city. Philip, the father, was killed at Ve- rona, and the son at Rome, after having reigned about six years. Decius and his son, who had been aent against the Scythians, being successl'ul, re- ceived from the soldiers the imperial crown. Decius possessed the qualities of a good soldier and an honest man. He, however, persecuted the Christians with rigour, on account of what he considered their fanati- cism. After having reigned two years, he, together with his son, perished bv an am- buscade prepared for them by Treoonianus GalluB. Hostilius and Gallua succeeded Decius in the empire. Hostilius had been named by Decius as his successor; but he died soon after his elevation, with the plague, at Rome. Gnllus, who was saluted em- peror by the legions, divided his power with his son Tolusius. Lucinius, brother of Hostilius, prepared to flight him, but was abandonea, and killed by his soldiers in lUyria. Oallus and Volusius marclied against Einilius, who had revolted in Moe- sia, and were killed at Terano, after having reigned about two years. Emilius, on African, was proclaimed em- peror by the legions which had revolted against Gallus; but the soldiers having learned that Valerian had taken the purple in Gaul, they killed Emilius, after having reigned three months. Valerian, and Gallien, his son, governed the empire jointly. They were unfortunate in their wars, particularly in that carried on against Sapor, king of Persia, who de- feated Valerian in Mesopotamia, took him prisoner, and treated him with everv indig- nity. Oallien defeated and killed Inge- nuus, who had taken the purple. The weakness of the Roman government had encouraged the Germans, who made irrup- tions into Gaul and Italy. At the same time the governors of the provinces aimed at becoming independent ; and at one time no less than thirty had declared themselves emperors. Posthumus usurped the empire in Gaul, which he governed ten years by his valor and prudence. He laid siege to Mayence, whicn had revolted at the solicitation of Lollius, elected emperor by the troops which he commanded. Poshtumus and Lollius were killed by their own soldiers. Marius, originally a blacksmith, elected emperor after the death of Posthumus, was killed on the second day of his reign, by a soldier who had been his boy at the forge. He ran his sword through his body ; telling him, at the same time, that it wai qf hii own forging. i!,'; TUK V'ALLS or TBB CIBCU8 OF OABACALLA STILL HXMA!!! KNTIBB. TBS C0B80, THOUGH RABBOW, MAT BB TBBMID TUB UTOB-FABK UV IIOMK. VL})t l^iston; of l&omc. JSi} K H U M a H o _ Victoriiius lucceeded Marius, and was killed at Cologne) by a writer, wlioie wife he had seduced. Tetricus succeeded Vic- torinus, and look the purple nt Bourdeaux. Gallus succeeded, and was killed with Va- lerian, his brother, at Miluu, in the ninth yeiir of liis reign. ClauUius II. succeeded Gallus. He to- tally defeated the Goths, who had com- mitted great ravages in Greece. His mo- desty, niuderatioii, equity, aud other good qualities, gained him general esteem. He died of a contagious fever, in the second year of his ruign. Quintillus, the brother of Claudius, was saluted emperor by the soldiers, but killed on the seventeenth day of his reign. Aurelian succeeded Uniutillus, and waa esteemed for his valour and his prudence. He defeated, near Chalons, in Champagne, the army of Tetricus. He fought a bloody battle with Zenobiu, a celebrated princess. This astonishing woman, after the death of her husband, Odenatus, who, under the emperor Gallus, was proclaimed emperor in the enst, commanded the army in per- son with much success. Aurelian took her prisoner, aud entered Ilome in triumph, making Zcnobia walk before his chariot. She possessed extraordinary beauty, and a great mind. Aurelian was assassinated by the means of his secretary, in the road be- tween Cuustantiuople aud'Heracleum. The army having refused at this time to betitow the imperial throne, the senate re- assumed its ancient right. Their choice fell on an old man, named Tacitus. He died in the sixth month of his reign. He was just and enlightened, perfectly disinte- rested, and a man well suited to close the wounds of the state. Florian succeeded Tacitus, his brother ; but reigned only two months and twenty days. Tliia prince demanded the empire as the right of his family. Probus, saluted emperor after Florian, was of obscure birth ; but he possessed heroic valour : he drove from Gaul the many barbarians which had nearljr over- run it. He defeated Saturninus in the east, and I'roculus and Uonosus, near Co- logne, usurpers of the empire. Probus was killed by his own soldiers, after having reigned with glory about six years. Aurelius Cams succeeded Probus ; and soon after he had been named Augustus, he created his sons, Carinus and Numerian, CKsars, with whom he reigned about two years. He defeated the Salmatians, and afterwards the Persians, and was killed by lightning on the banks of the Tigris. Nu- merian, who was with his father in the east, was assassinated in his litter. Cari- nus, whom his father had left in the west, to govern Illyria, Gnul, and Italy, had, by his crimes, become the scourge of the hu- iiinn race. The victorious army of Persia rc^t'nacd to acknowledge him, and saluted Uinclctian as emperor. Diocletian was no sooner elected erapr- ror than he marched against Ciirinus, and defeated him in n geueral battle in Mocsia. He bestowed the name of Cnsar on Maxi- min, snrnamed Hercules, and sent him into Gaul, to ((uell an insurrection of the pea- sants, which duty he soon effectively per- formed. Carausiui, geueral of a part of the troops of the empire, and whom Maxi- min had ordered to be killed, took the purple, and possessed himself of Itritain. Achilleus took possession of all Hgy)it ; and Narses used every effort to render him- self master of the east. Diocletian now took for his colleague in office, Maxiinin Hercules, and named him Augustus: be gave, at the same time, the title of Ca:sar to Constance aud Galerus. The two empu' ror* accommodated matters witJi Caruu- sius. They defeated the Persians under Narses, and on their return to Rome, re- ceived the honour of a superb triumph. But they presently grew wcar^ of their grandeur, and both emperors relinquishing the purple on the same day, appeared in the habit of common citizcus : Dioclctinii at Nicomede, and Maximin at Milan. The former retired to Salona, in Dulmatiu ; the latter to Lucania. Diocletian was a phi- losopher, possessing a commanding genius. Maximin was fierce and cruel, possessing more of the courage of ,the soldier, than the genius of a general. Constantius Clorus and Galerus were declared emperors by the senate. Tlipse two princes divided the empire between them. Constantius had Gaul, Italy, and Africa ; Galerus, Illyria, Asia, and the east. Constantius died after a reign of about two years, with the character of a just prince. Constantino the Great, sou of Cfonstun- tius, was elected emperor at York. Uut the soldiers of the prasturian guard, wlio had revolted at Ilome,' gave the title of Augustus to Mttxentius, son of Maximiu Hercules. Maximin, wlio now felt regret at having resigned the purple, left Lucanin, and came to Uome, from whence he wrote in vain to Diocletian to re-assume the im- perial throne. Galerus sent Scverus to Rome, to oppose Maxentius. Severus be- sieged Rome, but was betrayed, and de- feated ; and soon after Maxentius caused him to be strangled between Rome aud Capua. Maximin, having in vain endea- voured to dispossess his son, Mu\catius, retired into Gaul, in search of Constaiiiine, his son-in-law, with a design to kill him. Fausta, daughter of Maximin, and wife of Constantine, being acquainted with the design of her father, informed her husband. Maximin, in order to save himself from the fury of Constantine, endeavoured to em- bark at Marseilles for Italy, but was killed in that city by the order of Constantine. Galerus honoured Licinius with the purple, and died soon after. The Romans at this time obeyed three emperors; Constantine, Maxentius, and Licinius. Constantine pos- sessed talents both for war and politics ; he defeated the army of Maxentius, and afterwards attacked Licinius, who hnd niar- ried his sister; and having deleutcd him in several actions both by sea and land, the vanquished Licinius surrendered at dis> \i I iji TUB UIOUBIt ClASSES IN BOMB AUB SLATBB TO VANITT AHU InDOI.K^(;B. t:l TUB MOOKHN BOMANS AR« SOCIAL IH TUBIR UABITI, AND OBLIOIHO. 736 ^^e treasure of l^istori), ^c. cretioD to the conqueror. Licinius retired to Tliessolonia, where he hved in privacy and tranquillity, until Constanline, hear- ing that he wa« alive, ordered him to be put to death. Constantine, now sole master of the em- pire, trnnsfcrred Uie ceat of government to Uyzantium, whicli he named Conatau- tinople. Under him Chriitinnity began to flourish : ho received baptism ; but, al- though he was a noiuinnl Christian, many of his qualities were repugnant to the principles of Christianity. lie died near Nicomedc. Constantine II., Constance, and Con- stantius, divided the einiiire between them, agreeable to the will or Constantine their father. Constantine had Spain, Gaul, and the Alps: Constance, Asia, Egypt, and the East: Constantius, Italy, Sicily, and Africa. This division was the ruin of the empire. Constantine was killed by the sol- diers of bis brother Constantius, who pe- rished by treason a little time after. Con- stance, sole master of the empire, reigned twenty-four years. Destitute of glory, weak, and inconsistent, he was neither loved uor feared. Julian, called by the Christians the Apos- tate, bjr others the Philosopher, was pro- claimea emperor by the troops in the life- time of Constance. This prince was just, frugal, an enemy to vain-glory and flattery, and affected to hate the name of Chris- tian. He died a hero flghting against the Persians. Jovian, elected by the principal officers of the army, governed with wisdom, and encouraged Christianity. He reigned about eight months. valentinian succeeded Jovian : he join- ed in the government his brother Valens. They divided the empire of the East and the empire of the AVest. Valentinian had the West, and Valens the East. Gratian ascended the imperial throne after the death of his father Valentinian. Valens, defeated by the Goths, and other bar- barians, who established themselves in Thrace and menaced Constantinople, died leaving few subjects to regret his loss. Gratian appointed Theodosius governor of the East, where, by his zeal for the Christian religion, his abhorrence of its opponents, and by his courage, he render- ed himself popular. Gratian being dead, and Valentinian, emperor of the West, being assassinated in the year 39.3, and Theodosius having vanquished Maximus and Eugcnins, who had declared them- selves emperors, re-united the whole em- pire, which he divided between his sons. After the death of Theodosius, all dege- nerated ; and from this epoch may be dated the fall of the Roman empire. The decline of the Roman empire, in I'nct, followed the age of the Antonines. The effeminate and luxurious manners of the nobles and people of Rome ; the vices of the emperors ; the means by which they rose to power : the disposal of sovereignty by the military j the recruiting of the army by natives of Ger- many and other barbarous countries; and the increasing numbers and audacity of the " barbarians," nrcci|iitated Rome from that eminence which she had .tttaiued dur- ing the consulote and the lirst years of the empire. In order to connect the present ^ith the past, and thereby render our sketch of Ro- man history the more complete, we »!.:'! now make some abridged extracts from the observations of a modern tourist, M. Galiffe, of Geneva, in his work entitled " Jtaly nnd its Inhabitants ;"and conclude witli a slight historical notice of Papal Rome, or States of the Church. " If we were to judge of the state of so- ciety in Rome under the kingly power, from the tales which so many writers have dignilied with the title of Roman history, we should find it verjr difficult indeed to account for the astonishing magnilicence of its earliest monuments. Tlie Cloaeo Maxima, built by the elder Tarquin, is I believe the most stupendous worK known in Euroi)e— a work which even Egyptian kings might have admired. The Curia Ilostilia offen remains of similar architec- tecture ; walls and vaults, huilt with stmiis of such enormous size, and so closely join- ed, that they are likelv enough to endure to the end of the world. From these re- mains alone it would be easy to show how ridiculous is the supposition that the com- mon people were of any consideration in the state under the kings of Rome : they were slaves, and could be nothing else. It is clear that they had no votes to give ; that they were never consulted; that tne public resolutions were not even communicated to them, except in so far as it was necessary that they s!>nuld know what duties were prescribed for their performance ; in short, that they were very nearly on the same footing as the Russian peasants in our days, — perhaps rather worse than better. On the other hand, I have no doubt that the aristocracy had a much higher degree of power and dignity than they are gene- rally represented and supposed to have possessed. All those lords who were called patvicianSfVere very nearly on a level with their chief, whom they called king. Their more immediate, armed followers, very pro- bably formed that part of the nation called populut in the general assemblies. The pUbt was considered as far below the popu- lus, which Its name indeed implied, — a nome more expressive than polite-, but po- liteness to that portion of the inhabitants of Rome was then quite out of the ques- tion. " Under such a government, the private houses even of the wealthiest individuals must have been built on a very moderate scale, because each great man nad only a portion of the general riches and a cnrtain number of servile hands at his disposal : but the public buildings were likely to be exceedingly grand, because in them every individual was equally interested, and yet they cost to no one any distinct personal sacrifice. IBB COMMON FBOFLB ABB IHTBLLIOBRT AND CITir., BUT FASSIORATB. J] lino. luiitries; and niidacity of a Konie from attained diir- , years of the icni. 'vitli the iketch of llo- ete, wc ti.. '' acts from the ist, M. Gahffe, d "Jtaly nod ; wUTi a slight mc, or States e state of so- LJngly power, ! writers have )inan history, ult indeed to niBKiiiticence Tlie Cloaeo Tarquin, is I I worK known vcn Egyptian The Curia lilar architec- It with stoiUs 3 closely join- gh to endure rom these re- to show how that the com- ^siderafion in f Rome : they hinx else. It 8 to give ; that hat tne public nmunicatcd to was necessary it duties were nee : in short, on the same isants in our 1 than better, no doubt that higher degree Lhey are gene- osed to have ho were called in a level with 1 king. Their wers, very pro- • nation called emblics. The Blow the popu- I implied, — a lolite-, but po- le inhabitants t of the ques- nt, the private :st individuals very moderate an had only and a certai. his disposal re likely to ' in them every ested, and y tinct person BIILIftlOVa rBSTIVALI A*B TBkT faxaUBNT, ARO ATTRACT OMBAT CKOWOS. a n _1: be ery yet lal r, M D H < H H M u US ■4 M B H M M t) M n M « M M IE -I a tt i» K M M r. M u K ft •< U M a ^I)c l^istory of )Rome. 737 " There is no doubt that these chiefs bad great, and what we generally call heroic, qualities I military skiU, coitrafte, and an independent apirtt. But nothing can be more absurd than to imagine that the common people had republican principles, and feelinn of patriotic love. Every ple- beian family waa appended to their patri- cian chief or patron, whose house or es- tate was their real country i for him they worked, for him thcT pra* ed, for him they fought, him they ooeyea; and it would have been impossible to separate their in- terests from his by anv appeal to their loy- alty to their king ana country. King and country were words— patriotic attachment a feeling — exclusivelv engrossed by the higher classes, and which the lower ones never thought or heard of, except wlien their lords spoke of them in their presence. The plavs of Comeille and Voltaire on Ro- man sunjects in those early ages are the most ridiculous productions that fancy could dictate, at ieast as far as historical truth is involved iu them; and all those declamations scattered through so many books of various descriptions, on the high- spirited republican sentiments of the first Romans, are no better than arrant non- sense I " It was not till very long after the ex- Eulsion of the kings, that the plebeians egan to feel that they were human beings, and that the distance at which they were kept by their lords began to wound their feelings. And it is probable, tliat they would never have dared to make the least attempt to raise themselves above the con- dition of their masters' cattle, if their ser- vices in war had not, by slow de^ees, opened their eyes to their disgraceful si- tuation. In time of peace they had either no leisure to make, or no means to circu- late, observations of this natui;e; but in camps, where the clients of different pa- trons were necessarily often lodf;ed to- gether, and were led to compare their re- spective leaders, to talk of their deeds, and to discuss their private as well as public conduct, they could not fail, sooner or later, to make serious reflections on the extreme ditference which existed between themselves ind their i^, distinction, we may be pretty sure that none were raised to the dignity but men capable of illustrat- ing their name by their deeds, — at least in the earlier times; — afterwards, indeeil, it was grown into a custom, and the election of a plebeian consul had censed to he a party-stroke. On the other hand, the pa- tricians were deeply interested in rivalling and excelling their plebeian colleagues ; so that this double motive of action gave pro- digious strength to the government, and such an impetus to the whole nation, that none of the radical defects of its con!hical pi phi ' the atntc of OS a republic, at ion ol Romo the real clas- tl(|uities : for i8t of the flne that glorious rcatcdt writi'r !ver lived, has on which bo bv Suetonius, the nioet cu- iionts of that is loft to fftd philosophers grandu «oui>«- further side If ; and those ting, as the « arc known ; I may chooRO ongst all the acli fragment n so liberally ing who have tici^ht of the aiiK^'d by the I were thrown of the town, >ae up to the lich towered s liiivc been xisted in an- e places hap- with ruins, more solid. 1 the top of some streets, Forum Roma- MB. Vl^t li^ision.) of laomc. 739 num. nut since we cannot obtain a clear idea of the streets and public buildings of ancient Rome, let us at least turn lo the best account those which are within our reach i and which Rome, /i« it i», olTers in sufHcient abundance to occupy the lei- sore liourt of a man of taste for years. " The Colosseum alone is so vast, so no- ble, so grand (notwithstanding some serious defects in its architecture) and especially so uncommonly pictiireiquc in so many points of view, that it well deserves to be visited, at least twice or thrice a-weck. Nor is .1 necessary to admire the Romans of fotiiier time^, and to hate their present governors, in order to take a lively interest in this magnillccnt fragment of aniiijuiiv. The Colosseum is now, however, the only piece of antiquity that can be seen so often with the same pleasure : the other ruins have no such picturesque merit, and are onlv remarkable for partial considerations, sucli as painted ceilings, the distribution, ■iie, and form of rooms, &c. "There are twelve obelisks in Rome; and Ave grand pillars, the two finest of which are those called the columns of Tra- jan and Antonine, The first gives its name to a square, the middle of which has been excavated as low down as (he levtl of the ancient place, which is, if I remember well, about eight or ten feet lower than that of the buildings around. The other stands in the middle of the I'iazzo Colunna; there is a staircase within it, as in the London monument. The general appearance of these columns is very agreeaDle as well as grand, and they are noble decorations to a square. " The Capitol is so very different from what it was in ancient thncs, that it affords but little satisfaction at first sight; it is, however, far from being so insignificant as some would have it, and it grows more in- teresting on a nearer examination. What people call the Capitol at prcvi-nt, was only the /n/erinon(ium of ancient Home, a sort of midway hill, which joined the Tarpcian rock to the real Capitoline Mount. The latter is extremely high, as one may easily perceive from the church of Ara Ca-li on Its top. The Tarpcian rock is lower, but yet quite lofty enough for its known desti- nation. " It must be observed, that the Romans were exceedingly far from possessing any well-founded pretensions to elegance ; they imitated the Greeks as closely as they could, without ever attaining to their pitch of ex- cellence. They thought there could never be too much of a good or a fine thing; and tlicy crowded temples, houses, statues, obe- lisks, and every sort of ornament, in a ma.'iner that must have seemed absurd to a pcison of tast<>. Rome must have had the appearance ot those very rich, but vul- gar ladies of fortune, who cover themselves with every descripi.ion of jewels and gaudy finery that monev can purchase : and when Roman writers speak of the admiration with which strangers were struck at the sight, I am much disposed to think that they mistook mere Basing for admiration. It is utterly Impossible that a Circek artist could have felt any thing like pleasure, at seeing a dozen temples squecxed togdhcr in a space which he would have thought too small for one. Another proof of the want of taste in the ancient Romans, is the ridiculous practice of placing in their tem- ples pillars which they lirouglit from U recce, i''KTPt, or other countries, and which of cnumc ciiuld hardly ever perfectly agree with the architecture with which they were associated. This was done in so many in- stances, that we may take it for granted they never lost a single opportunity of ad- ding lo their supposed riches in that way. " In general, the Romans were not formed for the fine arts. They had strong and coarse ideas of things, which com- pletely disqualified them from ever ima- gining those delicate touches which they sometimes perceived and felt in Grecian works, and which they strove to imitate, but never could express with the same ele- gance and correctness as their models, be- cause they were not of their own growth. The Roman arms had conquered llie ter- ritory of Greece, but the Grecian acconi- plishmcntR subdued the Romans tliem- aelvcs ; and the latter victory was certainly more glorious than the former; which was only tlie inevitable consequence of an enor- mous disproportion of mere physical force between the combatants." PAPAL ROME, OR STATES OF THE CHURCH. The name of Pope, or Fathi;r, was for- merly given to all bishops. Hut since the time of Gregory VII. it has been solely ap- plied to the bishop of Rome. The temporal grandeur of the Roman pontiff commenced in times very remote. Consiantine gave to the church of Laierau upwards of lUOO marks in gold, and about 3U,0UU marks in silver, besides the assign- ment of rents. The Popes, charged with sending missionaries to the cast and west, and witb providing for the poor, obtained for these pious purposes, from the richer Chris- tiana, without much trouble, considerable sums. The emperors, and the kings of the Lombards, gave to the Holy Father, lands in various parts; and many others, by gift, and by will, increased his patrimony. In the seventh century we find the pontiff pos- sessed of great riches in various countries, and exempted from tax or tribute. The Popes formed the design to render them- selves independent. Under the reign of Pepin, father of Charlemagne, this revolu- tion commenced ; and it was completed un- der that of his son. Adrian I. caused mo- ney to be coined with his name: and the custom of kissing the feet of the Pope began about the close of the eighth cen- tury, when they assumed regal rights, and their power and riches increasod rapidly in the following ages. Gregory IV. rebuilt the port of Oatia; and Leo IV. fortified Rome at his own expcnce. BTnlNOS FOU MUSICAI, IKSTBUMBIfTS ARE OF ROMAN M ANUrACTDRB. u ill f ■ h V DUBINS LIN* INSTHUMBNTAI/ MUlIC IS rORaiDDIII IM *H« ITaBITI. ?■ I i 740 ^f)( ^rtadurn of l^istoru, ^c* Th« election of Pope hai been different in tlic (iilfcrcnt ««• uf the church. Tlie people, and the clerfcy, were the iirit eleO' ton; and tlie emperor had the power of conllrniini|[ the efeetion, after the death of Pope Biropllciui, in 483. Odoacer, king of the Ileruli, and of Italjr, made a law wiiich atrucli at the richt af election, un- der pretence of remedying the diviiiona which (ometimes took place on the elec- tion of a Pope. Thii law wae abolithed about twentr year* after, in the fourteenth eonncil of Borne, held, in 602, under Pope Simmaeut, with the content of the king Thcodoric. Bat thia prince, who wat an Arian, becoming cruel toward* the latter end of hit life, cauted Pope John to be laid in priton, where he died miterabljr in 636. He then uturped to himtelf the right of creating a Pope, and named to the pon- tifical chair Felix IV. The Gothic kinn who aueceeded him followed hit eiample ; yet not entirely, for they contented themtelvet with conHrming the election which the clergy had made. Juttinian, who dettroyed the empire of the Ootht in Italy, and after him the other emperori, preterved thit right; and they obliged the new elected Pope to pay a turn of money for the confirmation of hit elec- tion. Constantine Pogonat delivered the church from thia aervitude and unworthy exaction, in 681. Notwithttanding this apparent relin- quithment on the part of the cuipcrort, they alwayt preterved tome authority in the election of Popes, until the time of Louis le Debonnaire, in 824, and his suc- cessors, Lothaire I. and Louis II., who or- dained that the election of Popes should henceforward be free, and canonical, ac- cording to ancient usage. Parties in favour of the different candi- dates for tli6 Popedom, had now arisen to a great heiKht, and were the raose of the schisms which followed in the church. The emperors were obliged to take on them- selves the right of election : but after the schism of Peter and Victor IV. had been extinguished, all the cnrdinals re-united under the obedience of Innocent II. After his death, the cardinals were the only elec- tors of Cctestine II. in 1143; since which time they have been in fiiU possession of this privilege. Hanorlus III. in 1216, or, according to others, Gregory X. in 12/4, or- dained, that the election should be made in the conclave. The conclave is a part of the palace of the Vatican, composed of many cell", where the cardinals aro shut up for the election, which takes place on the morning of the tenth day after the death of the Pope. | The Pope may be considered under four I different titles: first, as chief of the church; ; second, as patriarch; third, as bishop of | Rome; nud fourth, as a temporal prince. ' At primate, he is the superior of all tliC catholic churches. As patriHrch, his rights extend over ilie kingdoms and proviuces witliin the pale of the Romish church. A« bishop of IU>me, he exercises in the diocese | of Home the ordinary fanctiont which he hat not a right to exercise in other dioceses. As a temporal prince, he is sovereign of Rome, ana the states which have been ac- quired by donation, or bv proscription. No throne upon earth has been filled with men of more exalted genioa, higher ambition, or more depraved vice, than the pontifical chair; but thay are in general old men, well versed in tha knowledge of men and the world. Their council it com- posed of men retembling themtelvet ; and their orders, for a length of time, em- braced almost the universe. Cardinkl Dratchi (Pint VI.) wat elected in the earty part of the year 1776, on the death of the relebt^ted (OangincUi) Cle- ment XVI. He occupied the pontifical chair until the breakin ^ out of the French revolution in 1789; or rather till after the execution of Louia XVI., when he wat in- duced to take a part in the war carrying on againtt France, by the emperor and other potentatea. The French armies hav- ing overrun Italy, teixed upon Rome, and made the venerable pontiff pritoner in 1798 ; from whence he wat convened into France, where he died at Valence, in August, 170U, at a very advanced age. In 1800 a snccet- tor to the popedom wat elected at Venice, who took the name of Pint VII. At hia death Leo XII. wat elected ; who in 1829 wat succeeded by Pius VIII. The government it wholly ecclesiastical, no one being eligible to fill any civil office who has not attained the rank of abbot. The Pope enacts all laws, and nominates to all clerical appointments. He it as- sisted, however, by the high college of car- dinals, comprising about seventy members : and the different branches of the govern- ment are conducted each by congregations, with u cardinal at its head. The laws in force are nominally those of the Justinian code; but the -Pope hat power to alter or annul any previoua lawt. Brigandage it leii frequent than formerly : bnt the police and the law are ttill very defective ; atsaa- sinations and other crimes of violence daily taking place without the perpetrators being ever brought to justice. " On the fall of Napoleon, the alienation of church domains was confirmed ; but the compensation since made to their former owners, and the restoration of luppressed churches and convents, have cost the go- vernment prodigious sums, and are the principal causes of the wretched state of the finances. Within the limits of the Pa- pal States there are no fewer than eight archbishops', and fifty-nine bishops' tees; and it it estimated that in Rome there it a clergyman for every ten families. It is needless to add that this superabundance of priests, instead of promoting religion and morality, is, in fact, a principal cause of their low state in the city. The outward deportment of the papal court is, however, at present highly decorous. Those times so disastrous and disgraceful, when the Popes had so mnny nephews, and those nephews built many splendid palaces and rKUMISRIOIf TO KAT MXAT IN LBNT It KAtlLT OBTAINED. IITI. )iis which he ther iliocetei. ■ovRreign of lave been M* ■cription. been filled eniiu, higher iee, tli«u the e in general knowleirigt' of >uncil ie com- meelTei; and of time, em- ) was elected 177S> on the nKincUi) Cle- ;he pontilical )f the French till after the en he was in- war earryinff emperor and ill armiea hav- tn Rome, and •oner in 1798; 1 into France, August, 1799, laoo a sncees- ed at Venice, \II. At his i who in 1839 ecclesiastical, my civil office ank of abbot, nd nominates I. He is as- college of car- inty members : >f the govern- BongreeatioiiR, The laws in the Justinian rer to alter or Brigandage is but the police Fective; assas- ' violence daily letrators being the alienation rmed ; but the > their former of suppressed B cost the go- and are the tched state of lits of the Pa- er than eight bishops' sees; Llome there is amiliea. It is perabundance utin^ religion 'fincipal cause The outward rt is, however. Those times 'ul, when the vt, and those d palaces and no oiTT in lUBorn oar Tia wito iiArtas ih roinT or bbautt. IJT^c l^tstonj of NapUs. 741 villas, called by the Romans, in derision, miracles of St. Peter, are now almost as much forgotten in Rome, as the time when horses were made consuls, and eunuchs emperors." An English traveller once remarked that the modern Romans put him in mind of impressions of engravings from worn-out plates. They seem so faintly pourt rayed, that you cannot conceive why nature per- severes in striking nir more copied of them : wherever the strokes are deep and stron<^, you may be sure there is a blot. The whole nation seems tired of its existence, and waiting for the sleep of death. Walking, seeing, hearing, — every act, in short, seems to be a painful exertion of exhauited mind nnd body. " I never," says M. Oaliffe, saw one of them smile. I am now speaking of the native Romans of the lower classes, not of the temporary inhabitants of Rome, who come from various districts far and near, to gain their livlihood in the city ; nor am I speaking of the country people in the nrighbournood. The latter, whose appear- ance is classical, graceful, and picturesque, do seem to have some life and spirit re- maining. How different, alas I from the melancholy citizens of Rome I Tet is there something in the sulky insolence of the Romans, — in their morose, ill - natured look, — that puts one strongly in mind of what thev were in the days of their pros- perity. Their manner is like the growling of an old mastiff, conscious at onco of his former strength, and of the loss of his teeth. It is this galling tense of their impotence which makes them such ilanxer- ous enemies; they brood over tlirir inju- ries with a degree of malice of which they would nut be capable, if they thnuKlit they could easily revenge them ; and ns they are possessed of few ideas, that one pnssinn whiclv happens to take full pntscision uf their minds festers sooner or later into a crime, "There is less to be said about the classes which stand immediately above the lowest ; the trades-people are, iu gcnernl, honest and civil, far from cheerful, but yet not sullen. An active life is, undoubtedly, (he best of all remedies against moral as well as physical disorders ; and this class affords a clear proof of tHe truth of this remark ; for there is no other way of accounting for the very striking difference in character be- tween them nnd the poorer classes. As to the higher ranks, they are in all countries so nearly alike, that I had little expectation of finding them marked with any distin- guishing features in Rome ; but I was mis- taken : they are remarkable for the same dull and dissatisfied appearance as the low- est ; arc destitute of all spirit, and all energy; are incapable of pleasureable, as well as of painful exertions; nnd are more like ghosts than beings of this world. There are some few exceptions, but those few are nlmost exclusively among the descendants of mo- thers who were not natives of Rome." But, our author admits, bright contrasts are to be found to all that is absurd and unaiini- able in the general character of even the lower classes. NAPLES. Or the remote antiquity of this country there arc but scanty documents. At a very early period most part of the coasts of N»,- files and Sicily were occupied by Greek cn- jnists, the founders of some of the greatest and most flourishing cities of the ancient world. They received, from this circum- stance, the name of Magna Griecia. But rapidly as the Greek republics of Italy rose to prosperity, it is certain that luxury and corruption kept equal pace with their pros- perity; and in the time of Polybius, the very name of Magna Grtecia was disused. Continental Naples submitted to the Ro- mans at an early period of the republic, subsequent to which it underwent many vicissitudes. In the fifth century it became a prey to the Goths. Belisarius, general of the emperor Justinian, took Naples in 537. Destmed to pass from master to mas- ter, it was conquered by Totila in 543. The Lombards next got possession of it, and kept it until Charlemagne put an end to that kingdom. His successors divided it with the Greek emperors, and the latter soon alter became its sole masters. In the ninth nnd tenth centuries, the Saracens possessed Naples, and after them, the Nor- mani Sicily also fell into the hands of the Fre.i, ii in 1058. The Frc'ich formed Naples into a monar- chy, of which Roger was its lirst king. Constance, Inst princess of the blood of Roger, and heiress of the two kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, was mflrri<'il, in 11S6, to Henry, son of the emperor linrbarossa. This marriage was the source of great mis- fortunes. At length this family became extinct in 1265, wlien Pope Clement IV, gave the investiture of Naples and Sicily to Charles, count of Anjou. Charles was opposed by Conradin, nephew of Manfroid, who had come from Germany to dispute with him the crown. Charles defeated him in battle, and having taken him prisoner, with Frederic of Austria, caused them both to be executed in the market-place of Na- ples in 1268. This execution made the king detested by his new subjects ; and the French in Naples were equallv obnoxi- ous as in Sicily. A Frenchman had com- mitted in Sicily an atrocious act of violence on a woman. On the morrow after Easter, 1283, the people assembled together, and murdered every Frenchmon on the island, with the exception of one gentleman, a na- TIIR CLIMATB IS IN ORNBRAL AS HBALTHT AS IT IS OBNIAI,. ^1 ; i i 1 tux OIXVB 18 CUIiTIVATKD TO A OnBAV SXTSNT IN NAPLia. i 742 ^f)e ^reasurs of l^istory, ^c. tive of Provence. The innocent perished with the Kuilty, and the blood of Conradin wai terrihljr avenged. The dcBcendantB of Charles of Anjou poi- sesRcd the crown until 1384, when Jane I. adopted by her will, Louis I., duke of An- jou, son of king John. At the same time Charles Duras, or Durazzo, a cousin of queen Jane, established himself upon the throne. Tliis event occasioned a hmg war between the two princes, and even between their successors. The posterity of Charles Durazzo, however, maintaiiipd their situa- tion, while that of the count of Anjou also bure the title uf king of Naples, Jane II., last sovereign of Naples, of the house of Durazzo, appointed, by her will, llenc of Anjo'.i tit her successor, which gave the Anjouan family a double right to the kingdom ; but Kene never possessed it. Al- phoiiso, king of Arrngon, took possession of Naples, and the crown. The kings of Arragon possessed Naples until the time of Charles VIII., wlien Louis XII. couqucrv:! the kingdom. The great general Gonsalvo of Cordova drove out the French anii.y. Notwlthstaudir.g thr, treaty made between Louis XII. and Fer- dinand, king of Spain, in favour of the for- mer, the successors of Ferdinand enjoyed it uutil the death of Charles II., but not without frequent revolts on the part of the Neapolitans. The revolt of 1C47 was headed by a man of the name of Massainello, a fisherman, who, during fifteen days, could reckon upwards of 100,000 men, over whom he held a most absolute sway. Henry, duke of Guise, a knight-errant of his day, taking the advantage of the troubles which rent Naples asunder, procured himself to be de- clared king, when, after he had been some months in Naples, he was made prisoner by the Spaniards ; and his partiznns not only disavowed him, but submitted to his conquerors. At'tpr the death of Charles II., who had left Philip V. as the inheritor of his king- dom, the Ncapolitane acknowledged him as their king. Ferdinand IV., the late king of Naples, joined the grand confederacy against France at an early period of the war. He afterwards made liis peace ; but again joining in the war, the French made themselves masters of Naples in January, 1799, and tlic royal family were compelled to fiy from that portion of the Neapolitan dominions, and take refuge in Sicily. In February it was divided iuto eleven depart- ments, and the government new-modelled on the French plan; but, within a few weeks, admiral Nelson appearing upon the coast, ttie French capitulated, the demo- cratic system was overturned, the old mo- narchy and government restored, and the king welcomed back to his throne. The kingdom of Naples was again, how- ever, placed under French dominion by Buonaparte, and its crown conferred on his brother Joseph; the legitimate king having again tied to Sicilv, where he was long supported by a Britisii force under sir John Stewart. In the suring of 1803 Buo- naparte removed Joseph to Spain, and raised Murat to the tributary and usurped throne of Naples, where he remained with- out having been able to annex Sicily to his usurpation, until he was in turn hurled from the throne in 1815. Early in May of that year, the capital was surrendered to a British squadron ; and, on t he 17th of June, Ferdinand IV. re-entered it, amid loud and apparently sincere plaudits of the multi- tude. During the time of Murat's reign consi- derable changes took place, the good ef- fects of which every impartial person was read^ to allow. All branches ol the public admmistration were invigorated and im- proved ; society in the upper ranks was re- constructed upon the Parisian scale ; the French code superseded the ciin)brous aud vicious jurisprudence of ancient Naples; and the nation, notwithstanding its subor- dination to the imperial politics, and its participation in Napoleon's wnrs, appeared to be destined to take a higher rank than before in the scale of nations. In July, 1820, a r- volt, headed by general Fepe, broke out amongst the troo|)s; and the universal cry was for a constitution, though no person seemed to know exactly what constitution to adopt, or how to frame a new one. At length it was determined to imitate that of the Spanish cortes, and the Sarliament was expressly summoned to mo- ify and correct it. An episode to this revo- lutionarv movement was about the same time exhibited in Sicily. No sooner had the citizens of Palermo heard what had been transacted at Naples, and that a par- liament had been convoked there, than they determined to have a parliament and constitution of their own. Of their taste for liberty, us well as of their fitness for it, they gave nn immediate specimen, by let- ting loose from prison nearly a thousand atrocious malefactors. They assailed the houses of the Neapolitan officers, and threw the soldiers into dungeons. It was neces- sary, therefore, to send a large force from Naples to put down the rebellion ; but when that force approached Palermo, a driadful scene of slaughter and cruelty en< sued in that unhappy city. All who refused to join this militia of criminals were shame ■ fully murdered, then cut into pieces, aud their quivering limbs exposed on pikes and bayonets. In the meanwhile, those who led the Neapolitan troops permitted Palermo to surrender on terms of capitulation. 'While at Naples they were thus amusing themselves at constiiution-niongering, and in Sicily every species of horrid barbarity was practised, the allied powers took into their deliberation the changes which po- pular force had worked in the political sys- tem of the country; and the king of the Two Sicilies was invited to the congress. The result was, that the Austrians crossed the Po on the 2Hth of January, and march- ed to Naples. Ilieti was immediately taken by the Austrians, and the Neapolitan army fell back upon Aquila. The Austrians ap- TUK NBAFOMTAN WINES Attn 0UN8HALLT 0000 ANI> VULIi-DODIKD, ! I' Fiiia. iiring of 180S Buo- h to Spain, and utary and luurped he remained with- annex Sicily to his M in turn liurlcd . Early in May of 8 surrendered to a at he 17th of June, I it, amid loud and liti of the niulti- urat's reign consi- lace, the good ef- lartial person wns iches oi the public 'igorated and im- ppcr ranks was re> iirisian scale ; the the ciinjbrnus aud ■ ancient Naples; tanding its siibor- I politics, and its n's wnrs, appeared higlicr rank than ions, headed by general It the troops; and or a constitution, !d to know exactly [>t, or how to frame was determined to ish cortes, and the summoned to mo- pisode to this revo- i about the same . No sooner had I heard what had es, and that a par- oked there, than a parliament and u. Of their taste their fitness for it, specimen, by let- nearly a thousand rhey assailed the officers, and threw IS. It was neces- \ large force from le rebellion; but iched Palermo, a ler and cruelty en> r. All who refused linals were shame - t into pieces, and losed ou pikes and hile, those who led ermitted Palermo capitulation, rere thus amusing in-niongering) and [' horrid barbarity powers took into langes which po- 1 the political sys- 1 the king of the . to the congress. Austrian s crossed luary, and march- nimediatcly taken ! Neapolitan army rhc Austrians ap- 'BODIBO, rUDtIC IlfSTnUCTION IS VIHT LITTLE ATTINDBD TO IN NAPI.RS. ^I^e IlistoTQ of SfciliD. 743 peared in sight ; general Fepe was almost instantly deserted by his troops, and oblig- ed 4o escape as well as he could. This dis- persion was followed by that of the troops at Mignana, who fired on their officers, and then disbanded. The Austrians entered Naples on the morning of the 29th ; and thus ended the Neapolitan revolution. There is something so unique and strik- ing in the Neapolitan character, that we are tempted to conclude this article with an extract from Mr. Forsyth's account of the inhabitants of the capital : " Naples in its interior has no parallel on earth. The crowd of London is uniform and intelligi- ble : it is a double line in quick motion ; it is the crowd of business. The crowd of Naples consists in a general tide rolling up and down ; and in the middle of this tide, a hundred eddies of men. Here you are swept on by the current; there you are wheeled round by the vortex. A diversity of trades dispute with you in the streets. Yott are stopped by a carpenter's bench, you are lost among shoemakers' stools, you dash among the pots of a maccaroni stall, and you escape behind a lazzaroni' s night- basket. In this region of caricature, every bargain sounds like a battle : the popular exhibitions are full of the grotesque : some of their church processions would frighten a war-horse. "The mole seems, on holidays, en epi- tome of the town, and exhibits most cf its humours. Here stands a methodistical friar preaching to one row of lazsaroui ; there. Punch, the representative of the na- tion, holds forth to a crowd. Yonder, ano- ther orator recounts the miracles perform- ed by a sacred wax-work on which he rubs his agmt$e», and sells them, thus impreg- nated with grace, for a grain a piece. Be- yond him are quacks in hussar uniforms, exalting their drugs and brandishing their sabres, as if not content with one mode of killing. The next pro/esiore is a dog of knowledge, great in his own little circle of admirers. Opposite to him stand two jo- cund old men, in the centres of an oval group, singing alternately to their crazy guitars. Further on is a motley audience, seated on planks, and listening to a trai;i- comie ftloMopho, who reads, sings, and ges- ticulates old Gothic tales of Orlando and his Paladins. " If Naples be 'a paradise inhabited by deviU,' I am sure it is by merry devils. Even the lowest class enjoy every bless- ing that can make the animal happy — a delicious climate, high spirits, a facility of satisfying every appetite, a conscience which gives no pain, a convenient igno- rance of their duty, and a chyrcli which ensures heaven to every ruffian that has flikith. Here tatters are not misery, for the climate requires little covering ; filth is nut misery to them who are born to it ; and a few fingerings of maccaroni can wind up the rattling machine for the day. " They are perhaps the only people on earth who do not pretend to virtue. On their own stage they suffer tlic Neapolitan of the drama to be always a rogue. If de- tected in theft, a lazzaroni will as' ynu, with impudent surprise, how you could possibly expect a poor man to be an angel. Yet what are these wretches ? Why, men whose persons might stand as models to a sculptor; whose gestures strike you with the commanding energr of a savage; whose language, gaping and broad as it is, when kindled by passion, bursts into oriental metaphor ; whose ideas, indeed, are cooped within a narrow circle— but a circle in which they are invincible. If you attack them there, you are beaten. "Their exer- tion of soul, their humour, their fancy, their quickness of argument, their address at flattery, their rapidity of utterance, tlieir pantomime and grimace, none can resist but a lazzaroni himself." SICILY. SicitT, the largest, most fertile, and best peopled island in the Mediterranean sea, now forming part of the kin|j;dom of Na- ples, or the Two Sicilies, was inhabited by a people originallv from Hispania, and call- ed Sicanians. The Sicules, inhabitants of Latium, penetrated afterwards into this island, and drove the Sicanians from the south and west parts. Several colonies of Greeks next trans- ported themselves into Sicily, and the an- cient inhabitants were obliged to retire into the interior of the country. The Greeks built several handsome cities, which are re- maining to this day; but the most consi- derable was Syracuse, founded by the iSlto- lians. Archius of Corinth, a bold and en- terprising man, entered Sicily with a co- lony of -Dorians, and made himself master of Syracuse about 7C5 d. c. The fertility of the country, and the convenience of the port, induced him to enlarge the city con- siderabiv, and it soon became one of the first in Europe. Agrigentum, the next city of Sicily after Syracuse, was equally exponed to revolu- tion. Phalaris made himself master of it in the year 572 before Christ, and exercised there, during sixteen vcars, every species of cruelty. He was killed by Telemachus, the grandson of Theron, the liberator of his country, and afterwards its monarch. The fugitives of Syracuse wishing once more to get possession of their city, in the yeor 491 implored succour from Gelon, king of Gela, a city of Sicily. Gelon con- ducted himself with so much prudence, that the Syracisians unnuimously elected him to be their king. Ilia first care wns to reinstate agriculture ; and lie worked NO PLAOB ABOUNDS WITH MOBB IMFDDBNT BBOCABS THAN NAPI.B8. 1:11 11:11 ;■ i- 1a I »f. ■'i 1 ■l TUB VOLCANIC ETNA IB ONB OF TUK IIIUUKST MOUNTAINS OF BUROPB. 744 ^]^e ^reasuro of 1^(191011), $cc. in the fields at tlie head of the labourers. He augmented Syracuse, fortified it, and became Bfterwards so powerful as to be master of all Sicily. The Carthaginians made several attempts npon this island, but were always repulsed by Gelon. Gelon died in the year 476 B.C., leaving behind him the character of a ^reat prince, and regretted by all ranks of Sicilians. He was succeeded by his brother Hieron, a man naturally morose and severe, but softened by Simonides, Pindar, and Xcnophon, whom he encouraged, and always kept at his court. He died 466 b.c, and left the throne to his brother, Thrasybulus, who possessed all the vices of Hieron, without his good qualities. He was driven out for his ty> ranny ; and Sicily was a short time free. Dionysius rendered himself master of Sicily in 405 b. c, and reigned thirtj^-scven years. He was succcded by Dionysius the tyrant, who reigned twenty ■ Ave years : being driven out by Timoleon, he took re- fuge in Corinth, where he set up a school. Agathocles brought the Sicilians under his yoke 317 b. c, and reigned twenty-six years. From his death, Sicily was a thea- tre of continual war between the Cartha- ginians and the Romans. Not the forti- tications of Syracuse, nor the machines invented by Archimedes for its defence, were sufficient to prevent Mnrcellus from becoming master of it in the y:>ar 208 b. c. Sicily tiourished under the Ronini'^; but in the decline, or rather towards che fall, of that empire, it came under the Vandals, and afterwards the kings of Italy. The Saracens were continual in their attacks upon it ; and in the year 823 after Christ, the emperors of the East ceded it to Louis le Deboniiairc, emperor of the West j from which time the Saracens occupied a part of it (a. d. 8-:;7)> until driven out by the Normans in 1UU4. Soon after the expulsion of the Saracens the feudal system was introduced; and in 1072, carl Roger, the Norman, also esta- blished a representative assembly, or par- liament, in which the nobles and clergy nad an overwhelming majority, and whieii sub- sisted, notwithstanding the many changes the island has undergone, dovrh to our own times. The Normans kept possession of the island till the establishment of the Suabian dynasty, in 1194. In 1265 Charles of Anjou became master of Sicily; but the massacre planned by John of Prooidn, known by the name of the " Sicilian Ves- pers," (March 29, 1282), put an end to the sway of the Augevines. It soon after be- came a dependency of Spain, and was go- verned by Spanish vicerovs. At the death of Charles II. of Spain, his spoils became an object of furious contention ; and at the pence of Utrecht, iu 1711) it was ceded to Victor Amadcus of Savoy, who not many years after was forced by the emperor Charles VI. to relinquish it for Sardinia. The Spaniards, however, not having been instrumental in etfecting this disadvanta- geous exchange, made a sudden attempt to recover Sicily, in which they failed, through the vigilance of the English ad- miral Byng, who destroyed their ^eet, and compelled them for that time to abandon the enterprise. In 1734 the Spanish court resumed their design with success. The infant Don Carlos drove the Germans out, and was crowned king of the Two Sicilies at Palermo. When he passed into Spain, to take possession of that crown, he trans- ferred the Sicilian diadem to his son Fer- dinand 111. of Sicily and IV. of Naples. While the continental dominions of Na- ples were held by Niipoleou, Palermo was the residence of the court, the island being defended by an English fleet and gurrisou. THE HISTORY OF SARDINIA. SAnniNiA is nn insular and continental kingdom in the south of Europe. The Cvin- tinental part occupies the north-west por- tion of Italy, and is bounded by Switzer- land on the north, the duchies of Milan and Parma on the east, the Mediterranean on the south, and France on the west. It stretches about 200 miles from north to south, and 130 from east to west. It con- sists at present of Piedmont, with the county of Nice ; the duchy of Montfcrrat; part of the duchy of Milan; the territory of the late republic of Genoa; Savoy (not uro- ncrly included in Italy ;) and the island of Surdiiua, with the adjacent isles. THE ISLAND OF SARDINIA ia divided from Corsica by the Strait of Bonifacio. The Greeks called it Ichnusa Saudaliotis, and Sardo. While it was in the possession of the Romans, it was a place of banishment; and afterwards the Saracens possessed it nearly four centu- ries. Their expulsion could not be elTccted by the Pisancse, on whom pope Innocent III. had assumed the prerogative of be- stowing it in 1132. The emperor Frederic paid so little regard to this grant, that he again reunited it with the empire ; but the Pisancse taking advantage of the long in- terregnum, got possession of it in 1257. A dilierence afterwards arising between them and the see of Rome, the pope again bestowed the island, iu 1298, on James II. of Arragon, whose son, Alphonso IV. niaile himself master of it in 1324. From this time it cimtinued under the crown of Spain, governed by a viceroy until I7O8, when the English making a conquest of it for king Charles III., afterwards emperor, by the BICIf.Y HAS, AT VARIOUS TIMKS, BBRN 8DBJRCT TO nESTHUCTIVIt EABTIIQII AKES. r BUROPS. TUB OI.IVa 18 CHIIFLT CCLTITATKD BOUTU Or TDK ArSNIIIIlaS. Vl\)t l^istoc^ of Sardinia. 745 title of Charles VL, it was confirmed to him by tlit treaty of Utrecht. In 1717. it was recovered by the Spaniard* ; and in 17IH, the emperor exchanged it for Sicily with the duke of Savoy, who was put in actual posnegsion of it in 1720, ana took the title of kinst of Sardinia. " The inhabitants of Sardinia," says Mr. Salt, (I speak of the common people), are yet scarcely above the negative point of civilization ; perhaps it would be more cor- rect to say that they appear to have sunk a certain way back into barbarism. Tliey wear, indeed, linen shirts, fastened at the collar by a pair of silver buttons, like hawks' bills ; but their upper dress of shaggy goats' skins is in the pure savage style. A few have gone one step nearer to perfectibility, and actually do wear tanned leather coats, made somewhat in the fashion of the ar- mour worn in Europe in the 15th century. With such durable habiliments, it is easy to conceive that they do not require much assistance from the manufactures of foreign countries." Another writer, whom we have frequently quoted in this work, says, " Not- withstanding her extent, the richness of her soil, her position iu the centre of the Mediterranean, and her convenient har- bour, Sardinia has been strangely neglect- ed, not only by her own govcrnmcuts, but by the European powers generally; and has remained, down to our own times, in a semi-barbarous state. A long scries of wars and revolutions followed hj the esta- bhshment of the feudal system m its most vexatious and oppressive form ; the fact of '";r having been for a lengthened period a dependency of Spain, and, if that were pos- sible, worse governed even than the domi- nant country ; the division of the island into immense estates, most of which \vere acquired by Spanish grandees ; the want of lenses, and tne restrictions on industry, have paralysed the industry of the inhabi- tants, and sunk them to the lowest point in the scale of civilization. Since 1750, liowcver, improvements of various kinds have been slowly, but gradually gaining ground; and, within the last few years, several important and substantial reforms have been introduced, that will, it is to be hoped, conspire to raise this fine island from the abyss into which it has been cast by bad laws and bad government. GENOA. A history of the various revolutions of Genoa would be a record of continual turbulence, but still interesting. Our li- mits, however, prevent us from attempt- ing even n synopsis of them. In the time of the second Punic war, it was a considerable city under the dominion of Rome. Mago, a Carthaginian general, in the course of this war, attacked, took, and destroyed it. The senate thereupon sent the pro-consul Spurius, who iu less than two years raised it to its former spleudour. It remained under the Romans until it submitted to the Goths. The Lombards next possessed and almost ruined it. Char- lemagne annexed it to the French empire. Pepin, his son, gave the city of Genoa, and its dependencies, to a French lord ot the name of Adhesnar, under the title of count. His descendants reigned until the end of the eleventh century, when the Genoese revolted against their count, set themselves at liberty, and chose magis- trates from among the nobles. In the next century, the citv was taken by the Sara- cens, who put all the men to the sword, and sent the women and children as slave* into Africa. When again re-established, the inhabit- ants, availing themselves of their line situ- ation, turned their attention to commerce, enriched themselves, became powerful in proportionto their riches, and erected their country into a republic. Their enthusiasm for libertv rendered this republic capable of great things. In it were joined the opu- lence of commerce with the superiority of arms. The jealousy and ambition of the citizens at length caused great troubles; the emperors, the kings of Naples, the Yiscontis, the Sforzas, and France, succes- sively called in by the different parties, di- vided the ripublic. In 1217, the principal Genoese, fearful of once more becoming the victims of intes- tine war, chose as tlieir first ma^strntc a stranger. In 13:19, the state appeared in a somewhat more regular form, and had ac- quired tranquillity. Simon Uocanegra, aman of an illustrious family, was elected duke, or doge, with a council composed of the chiefs of the principal families. In 1U96, the Ge- noese put themselves under the protection of Charles VI., king of France, whom they acknowledged as their sovereign. In 1409, they massacred the French, and gave their government to the marquis of Montferrat. In 1438, Francis Sforza, duke of Milan, was acknowledged sovereign protector of the republic of Genoa ; but his administration tending to despotism, they set themselves at liberty. It was at this time that they offered the sovereignty of their city to Louis XI. Louis, well acquainted with the dis- position of the Genoese, unfit either to command or obey, made this answer to their solicitations : " If the Genoese give themselves to me, I will give them all to the devil." In 152S, Andrew Doriahad the happiness and address to unite and conciliate this refractory people, and established an aris- tocratic government. This form continued until the French republicans made their rapid conquests in Italy, Genoa was the scene of many hard - fought battles. At length, iu 1797, a new republic was raised, under the name of the Ligurian republic ; but which, like the rest of the modern French creations, was dissolved at the downfall of Napoleon, in 1813, and trons- formed to a dependent province of Sar- dinia, Ml ^1 i ' \ I yn BADTHQOAKES, LAKU I.V TIIK QEMOESK TliHRITORY IS ORNBKALI.T IIILLT AND HOCKY. [.3S 'i TBI CMMATa OP BATARIA IS IN OBNaBAI. TKMPKHATS AND HEALTHY. 746 tlT^e ^tcasuri) of llistore, $cc. BAVARIA. Bavaria, now one of the princinal se- condary states of Germany, was aerived from a circle of the German empire, of the same name, bounded by Frauconia and Boliemia on tlie nortli, Austria on the east, Tyrol on the south, and Suabia on the west. The earliest inlmbitants of Bavaria were a tribe of Celtic origin called the Boii, from whom it received its old Latin name of Boiaria ; but, about the time of Au- gustus, the Romans subdued it, and it after- wards formed a part of what they termed BhRtio, Vindelicia, and Nori£um. After the downfall of the Roman empire, the Bava- rians fell under the dominion of the Ostro- goths and Franks, by whom it was govern- ed till Charlemagpie took possession of the country, and committed the government to some of his counts, and on the partition of his imperial dominions amongst his grand- sons, Bavaria was assif;ncd to Louis the German. Its rulers bore the title of mar- grave till 920, when Arnold, its reigning prince, was raised to the title of duke, which his successors continued to bear till IG'23, when Maximilian L, having assisted Ferdinand II. against his Bohemian in- surgents, was elevated to the clectorial dignity. In 1070 Bavaria passed into the posses- sion of the Guelphs; and in 1180 it was transferred by imperial grant to Otho, connt of Wittelsbach, whose descendants branched out into two families, the Pala- tine and the Bavarian, the former inherit- ing the palatine of the Rhine, the latter the duchy of Bavaria. Few events of any importance occurred till the war of the Spanish succession, when Bavaria suffered severely from following the fortunes of France. It, however, received a great ac- cession in 1777, when, upon the extinction of the younger line of Wittelsbach, the pa- latinats, after a short contest with Austria, was added to the Bavarian territory. After tlie adjustment of the Austrian pretensions the elcctnrntc enjoyed the blessings of peace till the French revolution, which involved all Germany in the flames of civil discord. The elector remained on the side of the Iniperiulists till 179(), when the French nmrchcd a powerful army into his domi- nions, and concluded a treaty for the ces- sation of hostilities. In the following year was signed the treaty of Campo-Formio, and in 1801 that of Luneville, by which all the German dominions left of the Rhine were annexed to France, and the elector lost the palatinate of the Rhine, his pos- sessions in the Netherlands and Alsnce, and the duchies of Julii'rs and Deux I'onts ; re- rccoiving as indemnities four bishoprics, with ten abbeys, fifteen imperial towns, and two imperial villages. In the conflicts between Prance and the continental powers, Bavaria continued to maintain a neutrality till 1806, when the elector entered into an alliance with Napo- leon, who shortly afterwards raised him to the dignity of king, and enlarged his do- minions at the same time, by the annexa- tion of several important provinces. Of all the allies of the French emperor, no coun- try has retained more solid advantages than Bavaria. Shortly after the campaign of 1806, when Austria, to purchase peace, sn- criticed part of her possessions, Bavaria received a further enlargement, by the ad- dition of Tyrol, Eichstaot, the eastern part of Fassau, and other territories ; when she began to assume a more important station amongst the surrounding states. At the dissolution of the Germanic con- stitution, and the formation of the Rhe- nish confederation, another alteration took place, the duchy of Berg being resigned for the margraviate of Anspach, together with the imperial towns of Augsburg and Nu- remburg. In 18U9, Bavaria ap;ain took part with France against Austria, and aKain shared in the spoils of war; but subse- quently ceded some of her territories to tVirtemburg and Wurtzburg ; and by ano- ther alteration, which shortly followed, ex- changed n great part of Tyrol for Bayrcutli and liatisbon. But the friendship of the Bavarian mo- narch for his ally and patron was soon to be put to the test. When the thirst for military conquest induced Napoleon to march the French armies to Moscow, the Bavarian troops were amongst the number. Apprehending the ruin that awaited the French, but while the fortunes of Napoleon were still doubtful, the king of Bavaria seized the critical moment, and entered into a treaty with the emperor of Austria, and joined the allies in crushing that power which had long held so many nations in thraldom. These important services were not forgotten. Bavaria was contirracd in her extensive acquisitions by the treaties of 1814 and 1815; for though Austria re- covered her ancient possessions in the Tyrol, &c., Bavaria received equivalents in Franconia and the vicinity of the RliiiK-. Though the inferior kingdoms and states of Germany are of too little importance tn become principals in any FiUropcan wnr, they are frequently found very effective al- lies, as was the case with Bavaria. Its army during the war amounted to CO.UUU men. In the history of Greece it will he seen that Otho, a Bavarian prince, was in 18a2 elected king of that country; and that, in 1843, he consented to give" his subjects a more liberal government. o o P O TUB nAVABIAN FORBSTB \BB TBBY BXTBNSIVK, AND FRODUCR GOOD TIMRKR. EAIiTUY. n France and the iria continued to I 1806, when the liance with Nhi)0- rds raised him to enlarged liis do- e, hy the annexa- provinces. Of all •mperor, no coun- d advantages than the campaign of iirchaBe peace, sa- (sessions, Bavaria ement, by the ad- t, the eastern part ritorics ; when she important station K states. ;he Germanic con- ation of the She- her alteration took being resigned for lach, together with iVugshurg and Nu- ria again took part kustria, and a^ain f war; but subse- her territories to ;burg ; and by ano- liortly followed, ex- Tyrol for Bayreuth ■ the Bavarian nio- )atron was soon to flien the thirst for uced Napoleon to ics to Moscow, the longst the number. that awaited the rtunes of >fapolcon e king of Bavaria ment, and entered emperor of Austria, •rushing that power 10 many nations in rtaut services were was confirmed in ms by the treaties though Austria re- jossesBions in the ivcd equivaleniR in lity of the Rliim-. ingdoms and states ittle importance to my r.uropcan war, id very effective al- with Bavaria. Its amounted to CO.UOO ece it will be seen prince, was in 18M untvy ; and that, in give" his subjects a QOOO TIMRBR. a i IN HAMOTBH AHB MAM I XZCKLliBHT LBA», IBON, AND COrrBB MIIIBS. CI)e lltstonj of l^anober. 747 HANOVER. Thb kingdom of Hanover, which, until the year 1815, was an electorate, was form- ed out of the duchies formerly possessed by several families belonging to tlie junior branches of the house of Brunswick. The house of Hanover may, indeed, vie with any in Germany for antiquity and nobleness. It sprung from the ancient family of the Guelphs, dukes and electors of Bavaria, one of whom, Henry the Lion, in 1 UO, mar- ried Maude, eldest daughter of Henry II. king of England. Their son William, called Lougsword, was created first duke thereof. Tlie dominions descendeil in a direct line to Ernest, who divided them, upon liis death in 1546, into two branches ; that of Brunswick Wolfcnbuttel, and Brunswick Ltlneburg. The possessor of the latter, Ernest Augustus, was, in 169*2, raised to the dignity of an elector; before which he was head of the college of Gennan priuces. Ernest married Sophia, daugh- ter of Frederic, elector palatine, and king of Bohemia, by Elizabeth, danghter of James I., king of Great Britain. Sophia being the next protestant heir to the crown of England, through the medium of the house of Stuart, the parliament Axed the succession upon her, on the demise of the then reigning queen Anne. Sophia died a short time before the ^ueen ; and her eldest son, George Louis, m consequence, became king of Great Britain. This was in 1714, from which time till 1837. at the death of William IV., both England and Hanover have had the same sovereign. The families tet aside from the succes- sion by the parliament on that occasion, independent of the family of king James II. by Mary of Este, were as follows ; the royal houses of Savoy, France, and Spain, de- scendants of Charles I., through his daugh- ter Henrietta; Orleans and I ')rruine, de- scendants of James I. through Charles Louis, elector pnlatine, eldest son of Eliza- betli, daughter of the said king : Salm, Ursel, Cond^, Cowti, Maine, Modena, and Austria, descendants of James I., through Edwni'd, elector palatine, youngest son of the said Elizabeth. The history of Hanover for the two cen- turies preceding the Lutheran reformation presents little interest, except in the con- nection of its princes with the wars of the Guelphs and Ghibelines, in the latter end of the 14th century. Amongst the most eealous supporters of the reformation, how- ever, were the urinces of Brunswick, and their subjects auriug the thirty years' war very effectively supported their anti papal efforts* Ernest of Zell, the reigning duke at that period, was one of the most elo- quent defenders of Luther at the diet of Worms; and his endeavour! to improve the people by establishing clerical and general schools, when learning was appreciated by only a few, shew him to have been a man of enlightened and liberal views. On the accession of her present Majesty to the throne of Great Britain, the Hano- verian crown, by virtue of the salic law, devolved on her uncle Ernest, duke of Cumberland, fifth, but eldest surviving ton of George III. It had previously been for many years under the viceroyship of the duke of Cambridge. Hanover suffered in the French war of 1757 ; but it experienced still greater suffer- ings during the French revolutionary war, after the enemy got possession of it. At the peace of Amiens, it was given up to the king of Great Britain ; but that peace being of very short duration, it again fell into the hands of the French, without re- sistance, or without an effort to save it, on the part of the inhabitants or the govern- ment. In 1804 Prussia took possession of Han- over, but ceded it in the same year to the French, who constituted it a part of the kingdom of Westphalia, established in 18U8. At the peace of 1813, the king of Great Britain reclaimed his rightful dominions, which were then formed into a kingdom, and much enlarged by the stipulations of the treaty of Vienna. The countries which compose what is called Hanover, consist of LUnebnrg, ac- quired by inheritance in 1292; Danne- burg, by purchase, 1303 ; Grubenhagen, by inheritance, 1679; Hanover, (Culenburg), by inheritance, 1679; Diepholtz, by ex- change, I680; Hoya, by mheritance, in part,' 1582 ; the remaining part by a grant from the emperor, in 1703 ; Laucnburg, by inheritance, 17O6 ; Bremen and Verdcn, by purchase, 1715 aud 1719; Wildcshausen, by purchase, 1720; and the Hadeln-land, 1731. The district of Laucnburg has since been ceded for the bishopric of Hildeshiem, the principality of East Friesland, the districts of Lingen, Harlingen, &c. Hanover so long formed an appendage to the British crown that we are induced to extend this slight history by quoting from Mr. M'CuUoch an account of its go- vernment ! — " Before Prussia ceded Hanover to France, in 1804, the form of government was mo- narchical, and the various territories were subject to feudal lords. The peasants of the marsh lands had more freedom, and in East Friesland the constitution of the country was almost republican. In the territories of the princes of the empire, the representation of the people by es- tates, composed of the nobles, prelates, and deputies from the towus, served to check the power of the sovereign, as in other parts of Germany. In 18'J8, when Napoleon created the kingdom of West- phalia, the territories of Hanover, with the tli ,!> TUB CIIIK* JMronT.«l OK THR Kl.NODO.tl A 11 K KNOI.ISU MANUKACTUUKS. r TUB rUDLIC rBBSS IN IIANOVBR IB VHDKll A CBIfSOBSHIF. I, i i 748 ©Ijc ©rcaauru of Ijistorp, $cc. diitricls of Ililucshicm and OsnabrUck, funned a port of it, Biid (he code Napoleon took the place of the ancient laws, and a sham representative government was estab- lished. On the return of the rightful so- verci^n to Ilanovcr, in 1813, the French institutions were summarily abolished, and the old forms re-established; and in 1813 the estates, summoned upon the ancient footing, drew up the form of a new consti- tution, modelled on that of England and France, and substituting a uniform system of representation fur the various represen- tative forms which prevailed under the em- pire. The chief change that excited disap- probation arose from the arbitrary decision of the sovereign (George IV. |, advised by cuunt Munster, that there sliould be two chambers instead of one, contrary to the proposal of the estates, and the universal custom of Germany. The respective rights of the sovereign and the country to the crown land revenues were not clearly de- ttned by this fundamental law ; but the interests of the people were supposed to be sufiicicutly consulted by the institution of a national trcHSury, the commissioners of which, named for life, were ex officio mem- bers either of the upper or of the lower chamber. "This constitution, however, contained no properly dclincd statements respecting cither the rights of the people, or the pre- rogatives of the crown; and as the new system of representation was not sutiici- e'utly consolidated to resist the encroach- ments of a monarch supported by power- ful foreign influence, the necessity of a more deHnite fundamental law, iu which the rights of the citizens should at least be declared, was felt on all sides. This feeling led tn the drawing up of the consti- tution of 1833, which dilTered in but few, though most essential, points from that of 1819. The principal points of difference were a fuller acknowledgment of the right of the chambers to control the budget, and to call the ministers to account for their conduct ; the restriction of the king's ex- penditure, by a regulated civil list; and the reservation, for the use of the nation, of the surplus revenue of the crown de- mesnes. These modifications rendered the treasury, whose functions thus devolved upon the chambers, wholly unnecessary ; and it was dissolved. The new fundamental law, after being discussed by both cliam- bcrs, received the assent of William IV. in 1833, who, however, by the same act, modi- fied fourteen articles of the bill. New elec- tions followed, and the new chambers were exhibiting their activity in reforming abuses, and introducing economy into the state dis- bursements, wliun the death of William IV. interrupted the proceedings. As the salic law, excluding females from the succession to the throne, prevails in Ilanovcr, William IV. was succeeded by his eldest surviving brother, Ernest, duke of Cumberland, in England. Immediately on taking the go- vernment, the new king declared tlic cham- bers dissolved ; and previously to their re- assembling, he abolished, bv proclamation, the fundamental law which had been adopt- ed under the reign of his predecessor, and, in the most arbitrary manner, insulting alike his brother's memory and the whole country, declared the fundamental law of 1819 to be alone valid. Under the last named law ho summoned a fresh parlia- ment : but he found the spirit of the nation aroused and indignant ; for not only the courts of law, but the highest legal autho- rity in Germany, and several faculties of universities, declared his proceedings ille- gal ; many towns refused to send represen- tatives to parliament, and those which met signed a memorable protest, declaring tbeir opinion that the fundamental law of 1833 was still the law of the land. As the cham- bers could not be convened, for decency's sake, they were declared dissolved. " In this state of things, the present go- vernment of Hanover is managed by au- thorities partly belonging to the period of 1819 : the independent treasury, however, no longer exists, not having been reinstated by the king, when he abrogated the law of 1833. The privy council, too, which met to advise the king on state affairs, in the same manner as that of England, has been arbi- trarily abolished ; and a cabinet couucil, composed of {lie king's minister and crea- tures, has been appointed in its place. This council, like a new star-chamber, has on one occasion even arrogated the novel power of assuming a judicial control over the su- preme court of appeals at Celle. As none of the decrees which the king, under the advice of this authority, has issued since his accession have received the sanction of the chambers, the legislative power is at present vested in the council of state, or rather in its president the king. " A treaty of mutual inheritance has long existed between Hanover and Brunswick, which was formally renewed in 1836, and by which the Hanoverian crown is declared to descend to the dukes of Brunswick on the extinction of male heirs of the line of Hanover." MOST OF THB HAN0VBRIAN8 AHB DBSCBHDANTS OF THB OLD SAXONS. TUB lOUTU or OMBBCB WAI CALLKO TBI rBLOrONNKSUI, NOW Til* MOIIKA. \,- •*■■ . --. THE HISTORY OF GREECE. CHAPTER I. This deservedly celebrated country of antiquity— the icat of science, literature, and the tine arts, at a period when the greater part of the European continent was involved in the obscurity of barbaric iirno- rnnce — in its most palmy state comprised the southern portion of the great eastern peninsula of Europe, and extended to about 42° of north latitude, including Thessaly and a part of modern Albania, with the Tonian islands, Crete, and tlie islands of tbe Archipelago. Modern Greece, although not so considerable in extent as the far- famed Greece of ancient date, comprises the territories of all the most celebrated and interesting of the (irecian states. By all the accounts which have been handed down, the earliest iiihabiiauts of Greece were barbarous in the extreme. They lived on those fruits of the earth which grew spontaneously; their shelter was in dens or caves, and the country was one wild uncultivated desert. Uy slow de- grees they advanced towards civilization, furniiug themselves into regular societies to cultivate the lands, and build towns and cities. But their ori;rinnl barbarity and mutual violence prevented them from unit- ing as one nation, or even into any consi- derable community: and henco the great number of states into which Greece was originally divided. The history of Greece is divided into three principal periods — the periods of its rise, its power, and its fall. The lirst ex- tends from the origin of the people, about 18UU years b.c, to Lycurgus, 875 years B. c. ; the second extends from that time to the conquest of Greece by the Romans, 146 B.C.; the third shows us the Greeks as a conquered people, constantly on the de- cliuc. until ;'t length, about a. d. 300, the old Griclan states were swallowed up in (he UyzanU)!'! empire. According to tra- dition, the I'.^lasgi, under Inachus, were the first peo) le who wandered into Greece. They dwelt in caves in the earth, sup- porting th'mselves on wild fruits, and eating th' flesh of their conquered ene- mies, utiiil Phoroneus, who is called king of Ar^os, began to introduce civilization among them. Some barbarous tribes received names from the three brothers, AcliKus, Pelasgus, and Pythius, who led colonics from Arcadia into Thessaly, and also from Thessalus and Gricous (the sons of Pelasgus) and others, Deucalion's flood, 1511 B.C., and the emi- gration of a new people from Asia, the Hellenes, produced great changes. Tiic Hellenes spread themselves over Greece, and drove out the Pelasgi, or mingled with them. Their name became the general name of the Greeks. Greece now raised itself from its savage state, and improved still more rapidly alter the arrival of some Phoenician and Egyptian colonies. About sixty years alter the flood of Deucalion, Cadmus the Phoenician settled in Thebes, and introduced a knowledge of the alpha- bet. Ceres from Sicily, and Triptolemus, from Eleusis taught the nation agriculture, and Bacchus planted the vine. Now began the heroic age, to which Hercules, Jason, Pirithous, and Theseus belong, and that of the old bards and sages, as Tamyris, Amphion, Orpheus, Linus, Mu- stcus, Chiron, and many others. A war- like spirit flUed the whole nation, so that every quarrel called all the heroes of Greece to arms ; as, for instance, the war against Thebes, and the Trojim war, 12U0 b. c, which latter forms one of the principal epochs in the history of Greece. This wur deprived many kingdoms of their princes, and produced a general confusion, of which the Ueraclido! took advautage,eighty yenrs after the destruction of Truy, to pos.Hcss themselves of the Peloponnesus. They drove out the lonians and Achxaiis, who took refuge in Attica. But, not flnding here suflleicnt room, Neleus (UI4I) led au Ionian colouy to Asia Minor, where a co- lony of i1 I). 400; and shared in all the miseries, which were brought by the nor- thern barbarians who successively overran and ravaged the south cf Europe. After the Latin conquest of Constantinople, in 1204, Greece was divided into feudal prin- cipalities, and governed by a variety of Norman, Venetian, and Prankish nohlcs ; but in 1261, with the exception of Athens and Nauplia, it was re-united to the Greek empire by Michael Paleologus. liut it not long remained unmolested; for thn TiirKs, then rising into notice, aimed at ohlainingf ALBXANOBH OIBU AT BABYLON, TUB CAPITAL OF CUAI.DBA, B.C. 323. < .A m :| ( 'I ! Till COMMKIICH or ANCIKNT UIIRirR WAR HXTKNIIVM AND IMrOHTANT. 762 ^f)c ^vcnautu of IQiatoiU) ^f- power in Kiiropoi nml Anmnilli 11. tie- privi-d tliu (irecliH of all thirir citius nnd CRHilfs on the Kiixiiic iior, luiil nlouK (ho I'oiistN ol' Tiu-uci*, Miiccilon, and ThuiHitly ; carryiuK hin victorious Hrint, in short, into thi! niidat of the rutopuiinesun. The Ore- ciiin cuipurors acliuowlfd)(ed him nx tlieir supcildi- Kird, 'nnd liu, in turn, ullordcd thiMU in'iitrrliun. Thin couqucit, liowcvt-r, wnt not L'll'uctvd without n britve ru(ist> unco, uiu'liculnrly from two hi'ioir Chris- tiuus, John lIuunindcB, a culcbrnted Hun- tcni'inu )(*'n''>'<>l) snd lieorKR CuRtriut, an Albnuiuii princo, bfttur known iu hiiitury by the niinie of JSeanderberK. >Vh('n Alolianinicd II., in Mul, asrcuded thi' Ottoman ilironc, the futo uf the Urcck (■Mi|iire si'cnicd to bo dvelded. At the livutl ^>f an aiiny of ;i(i(i,(iuo men, Bupportcd by a licet of :<(i(i Mail, lie laid xivgo to Coniitanii- nopic, nnd eneourngcd his troops by spread- iiij^ rrports of prophecies and prodigies that portended the triiinipli of Islumism, Coiistaiitine, the hiiituftheiireckcniiierora, met the wlorm with heeoiniiiK resoliilion, nnd maiiitiuiicd the eityfor llfty-tliree days, thon)(li tlie fanaticism and fury of the he- sicKcrs were raised to tlie lii^liesl pitch. At leiiKth (May 2U, 1-163) tlie 'I'm ks st.irined the walls, and the brave CouHtaiitine per- ished at the head of his faithful troops. The tiual con(|ueat of (irccec did not, how> ever, take phtec till MSI. Neither were the comiucnirs long left in undiHtnrbed possession of their newly acijuircd terri- tory; and during the Kith and l/th centu- ries lireece was the scene of obstinate wars, illl the treaty of Pa^sarovit/., in 171S, continued the Turks in their conquest ; and for a century from that time the inhabi- tants of Greece groaned under ihcu- t'cupo- tic away. " Yet are her skies as blue, her oraj-s as wild. Sweet are her groves and verdant arc her fields, Jler olives ripe as when Minerva smiled, And still his honied wealtli Ilyinettus yields ; There the lilythc bee his fragrant fortress builds. The i'n'i- born wanderer of her mountain air ; Apollo still her long, long summer gilils, Still in his beam Mciideli's marbles glare; Art, ji'lory, freedom fall, but nature still is fair." At the time of the expedition of the French into Egypt, the Greeks, strongly excited by the events of the war, which was thus approaching them, waited for them as liberators, with the firm resolu- tion of going to meet them and conquering their liberty; but again their hopes were disappointed, and the succours tliey ex- pected from France were removed to a dis- tance. Having waited in vain, in the midst of the great events which in several re- spects have changed the whole face of Eu- rope in this century, the Greeks, taking counsel only of their despair, and indig- nant at living always as helot* nn the ruins of Span a and of Athenii, when na- tions but of yesterday were recovering their rights and recognising their toeial rela- tions, rose against their despotic nnd cruel masters, perhaps with greater bolducsi than prudence. The tlrst decided movement took place in the year IHUO, when the (Servians, pro- voked by the cruelty of their oppressors tho TurKR, made a general iiisurrretion, which was headed by their famous chief Czcrni George, who had been a serjeant in tho Austrian service, and afterwards be- came a bandit chief. He was possessed of much energy of character and bravery ; nnd under him the Servians obtained seve- ral victories. He blockaded Delgrode ; and, one of the gates being surrendered to him, he inadn his entry into the city and slaugh- tered all the Turks that were found in it. At this time tho atfairs of the Porto were in great disorder. It had but just ter- minated its war with France; and the ef- forts by which it had been endeavouring to reduce Paswan Oglou, pacha of VVidden, had failed nnd ended in disgrace. At home the Janissaries were over dissatisfied, and lloumulia was in a disturbed state. Tho divan, however, exerted themselves to quell the Servians, and they were aided by the Bosnians, in consequence of which many sanguinary combats took place, Uut rely- ing on the promises of llussia, and receiv- ing pecuniary succour from Ypsilanti, the insurgents continued tho contest, issuing from their fastnesses on every favourable opportunity, and marking their progress through the surrounding country, by spread- ing devastation in every direction. In the meantime Russia openly declared war agaiiiHt the Porte in 180?, and carried on the war until 181'J, when the treaty of llucbarest was negotiated; and though some efforts were made to obtain a coneeg. sioii ill favour of their Servian allies, yet m Ypsilnnii, the I contest, isKuin); every favourable K their progress uuntry, by spread- irection. a openly declared IKU/, and carried when the treaty ited ; and thuugli obtain a conceg- crvian allies, yet ler being stinted M at length con- ich terms as left tte. At lengih it brother-in-law to should be their li(>,OUO/. should be whose f;arrisuna iinubc were to be nee should iiiain- B, fur the rcgula- ued between IKIS tran(iuil : the Ot- isperous ; the sul- gorous measures, his neifjhbours, lutinou:] Jnuissa- evolts in the east- Irove the Wechn- ave more weight thnn they had ut under this ap- all those projects jduced what we on." The Greeks BKTAINKD. TUK CUUMTm ll/kBOtJNDINa TUI VBIHCirAL TUWN« It MOSTLY tUtLTtLU. Vt^t ISistoto of CCIrccte. 763 toon became more open in their ptott against their opprestors, and entertained tome consideraMo hopes from the proba- ble arrangemcutN of the rongrcst of Vien- na; but that cnngreis closed without ef- fecting any result favourable to the li- bertiei of Oreece. Tliis, however, did not damp the ardour of its friendi, nor induce them to abandon the plans they had pro- jected. At length, in INL'U, lymploms of a general rising appeared : and all civilized nation* teemed disposed to aid the cause of the oppressed, iiut that gencroui feel- ing in a great measure tubtided, at the petty diisensions of party, or the despotic notions of arbitrary power, severally dit> played themselves. '1 lie Turks and Orcekt never became one nation ; the relation of conquerors and conquered never ceased. However abject a Iar|(c part of the Greeks became by their continued oppression, they never forgot that they were a distinct nation ; and their patriarch at Constantinople remained a visible point of union for their national feelings. On the 7th of March, 1821, a proclama- tion of Ypsilanti was placarded in Jassy, under the eyes of the hospodar, Michael Huzzo, which declared, that all the Greeks had on that day thrown off the Turkish Toke ; that he would put himself at their head, with his countrymen ; that prince 8u7,zo wished the happiness of the Greeks; and that nothing was to be feared, as a great power was going to march against Turkey. Several otHcers and memberH of the Uetaireia had accompanied Ypsilanti from Bessarabia and Jassy. Some Turks were murdered, but Ypsilanti did all in hit power to prevent excesses, and was gene- rally successful. lie wrote to the emperor of Russia, Alexander, who was then at Lay- bach, asking his protection for the Greek cause, and tlie two principalities, Wallachia and Moldavia; but the revolutions in Spain and Piedmont had just then broke out, and that monarch considered the Greek insur- rection to be nothing but a political fever, caught from Spain and Italy, which could not be checked too soon; besides, Ypsi- lanti was actually in the service of Russia, and therefore had undertaken this step against the rules of military discipline. Alexander publicly disavowed the measure; Ypsilanti's name was struck from the army rolls, and he was declared to be no longer a subject of Russia. The Russian minister, and the Austrian internuncio at Constan- tinople, also declared that their cabinets would not take advantage of the internal troubles of Turkey in any shape whatever, but would remain strictly neutral. Yet the Porte continued suspicious, particularly after the information of an Englishman had led to the detection of some lupposed traces of the Greek conspiracv at Constan- tinople. It therefore ordered the Russian vessels to be searched, contrary to treaty. The commerce of Odessa suffered from this measure, which occasioned a serious cor- reHpondencc between baron Stroganoff, the Russian ambassador, ond the reis effeiiiii. The most vigorous iiirHsures were taken against all Greeks: their rcIhmiIs were sup. pressed; their arms seized; siia^iieiciu wim a sentence of death ; the lliglit iit mmie ri'ii- dercd all guilty, anil it was pri>hit)iied un- der penalty of death : in tlie divan, the total extinction of the (ireek name whs pro- posed; Turkish troops marched into the principalities ; the hospodar Hiizzo was out- lawed; the patriarchs of Constantiiiii|ile and Jerusalem excommunicated all innur- gents (March 21); and a hatti-sherilf of March .'tl, called upon all Mutsulmaiii to arm against the rebels for the protection of the Islanit. No (irrek was, for some time, safe in the streets of Constantinople ; women and children were thrown into the sea ; the noblest females openly violated, and murdered or sold ; the populace broke into the house of Ponton, the Russian counsellor of legation; and prince Murusi was beheaded in the seraglio. After the arrival of the new graud-vjzier, Ilenderii Ali Pacha, who conducted u disorderly army from Asia to the llosphorus, the wildett fanaticism raged in I onstantinoiile. In Wallacnia ami Moldavia the bloody strug- gle was brought to a cIodc through the treachery, discord, and cowardice of tlin pandnurs and Ariiaouts, with the annihi- lation of the valiant " sacred bund " of the Uelaireiu,\i\ the battle of Oragaslinn (June lU, 1K2I), and with Jorduki's heroic death in the monastery of 8eck. In Greece Proper, no cruelty could quench the lire of liberty; the beys of the Mnrea invited all bishops and the no- blest Greeks to Tripollzza, under pretence of consulting with them on the deliverance of the people from their cruel oppression. Several fell into the snare : when they ar- rived, they were thrown into prison. Ger- manos, archbishop of Patras, alone pene- trated the intended treachery, and took measures with the others for frustrating the desiitos of their oppressors. The lievs of the Morea then endeavoured to dixHi'iii the separate tribes ; but it was too late ; the Mainotcs, always free, deecended from mount Taygetos, in obedience to Ypsi- lanti's proclamation ; and tlio heart of all Greece beat for liberty. The revolution in the Morea began, March 2H, 1S21, at Calavrita, a small place in Achaia, where eighty Turks were made prisoners. On the same day, the Turki^ih garrison of Patras fell upon the Greek in- habitants; but they were soon relieved. In the ancient Laconia, Colocotroni and Peter Mavromichalis roused the people to arms. The archbishop Germanos collected the peasants of Achaia. In Patras and the other places, the Turks retreated into the fortresses. As early as April n, a Messc- nian senate assembled in Calaniatn, and the bey of Maina, Peter Mavromichalis, as commander-in-chief, iiroclainied that the Morea had shaken off the yoke of Turkey to save the Cliristian faith, and to restore the ancient character of their country. " From Europe, nothing is wanted but I THE HOnBA DBBITBS ITS NAMB FROM ITS HUIiBBRBT-LBAFBD 8HAFB. IN TIIK WKUI.H or •imiiCII TIIKHB 11 NO NAVIOAaLH RIVKH. a r, < V, -I M W I H U B) f a V. 764 ITI^e ^rcasuru of li^lstorc, ^c. nidiiry, iiriin, itiul couimcU." From that liiiic, till! hiillVi'iii)( lirci'ks found friviitlt ill (iniiiiiiiy, I'miicc, Hwitiicilniiil, ItrilHin. ami tlifl Uiiili'd SlatcN. whii ■jriiipathizeil with thfiii, niiii iliil all in their miwor to nnxM thi'iii in tlirir RtruKKlo. '1^>« cabi- ni'tn of Knropo, ou I ho funtrury, threw rvi'ry iin|ii'ilinii'ut iu the way of tlio llul- liMiistH, until thry were ilnnlly obli|{i>il, aKaiiiat (heir iiichnatiun, to interfere in their favour. Juiituf Si'lini, pnchn of Lepnntn, having rivrivcil information of thciic events from lliu ilipliimatic ajfent of n Kuroiii-nu |io'ver, liaHtciii'd toroliove the citadel ot ratrai.nnd thr (own wax cliaiiKi'd into n heap of minx. The niaHsnore of tlic iiihahitanti, April 15, »'a'« the niKiial for a Rtrii^gh! of life and death. Almost the wholu war \vn» tlienre- forwnrd a BiiereiiBioii of atroeitien. It wai i not a war prosecuted on any tixcd plan, I hut merely a Bericn of devaatalionH anil j niiirderN. 'I'hu law of natioiii) could not I exist helivi'i'ii the Turks and (ireekii, as j they were then itiliiated. Thn monk (ire- ' )(<>ra», !«ion after, occupied ('iiriiilh, at the j liead of a ho>ly of (irceKn. The revolution I spread over Attica, Ihcotia, I'hocis, .ICtolia, I and AiMriiaiiia. The ancient iiaine^ were reviveil. At the same time, the islaudura j declared themsi^WcH free. I 111 t,UUO persons within the walls; yet they allowed (hemselves to he block- aded by tMM undisciplined and ill-armed (■reeks, without artillery or cavalry. Vhilc the Tiirkixh horse were in a state for ser- vice, (he (irecks did not attempt auyihing iu the plain; but their forage soon failed, and the only food they could get was vino leaves. Provisions were become very scarce, and the (irecks had cut the pipes, and ttiui intercepted the supply of water. Vpsilanii, however, was impatient, and felt anxious to begin u regular siege; hut he had neither proper ordnance nor engineers. Hume can- non and mortars had indeed been brought from Malvosiu and Nnvarin, and were en- trusted to the care of an Italian adven- turer, hut in the first essay he burst a uioriar, and was dismissed. Things were in this state, when prince Mavracnrdoto arrived, bringing with him some French and Italian otHcers. In the beginning of Uctobcr tho Turks began to make propositions for n capitu- lation, and the treaty was proceeding, on the &tli, when an accidental circumstance rendered it of no avail, and hastened the catastrophe. Some Greek soldiers, having approached one of the gates, hegiui to con- verse, and, us usual, to barter fruit with the sentinels. The Turks imprudently as- sisted them in mounting the wall, but no sooner had they pined the top when they threw down tlie infidels, opened the gate, and displayed the stondard of the cross above it; the Christians instantly rushed from all quarters to the ossault, and the disorder became general. The Turks im- mediately oj>cned n brisk fire of cannon and small-shot ; but the gates were car- ried; the walls scaled; and a desperate struggle was kept up in the streets and houses. Ueforc the end of the day the contest was over, and the citadel, which held out till the next evening, surrendered at discretion. About 6U(JII Turks, it is said, perished, some thousands were made pri- soners, and uumbors fled to the moun- tains. While these transactions were occurring at Tripolizza, four pachas proceeded in the I month of August from the frontiers of I Thcssaly and Macedonia, to Zcitouni, with j the design of forcing the straits of Ther- Tllli WANT OP NAVI0AUT.K HIVEHS IS ODVIATBD BY NUMEROUii UilI,F!l, &C. M? tfUr tlio ninut :db)rthc jniiii- A>in, tliMt the rly thu Urili'li iicceedcd in in- ' to rcunll tko JlMutsiiliiiaiii, II. ripolitzn, which a utockudv, and c uiiinl |i(>puU- ; it i* uliiu cum- th all thu Alba- )unicd to SdUO Kl'orc, liHvu been ,ithin the wnlli) cs to be block- 1 and ill-armed r cavalry. Wliile n slate tot ncr- t tempt auytbtnK ras*^ *»<>■■ tailed, uld K'"' '*'»» *'"" lomo very learci'i 3 pipes, and thus rnt(M-. YpRilanti, id felt unxiuuH to I he had neither eeri. Home can- ;d been brought in, and wc^re en- 1 Italian advcu- Bsay he burst a d. Things were :e Mnvraeordato lu some French tober the Turks ns for ft capitu- s proceeding, on lal circumstance lid hastened the soldiers, having , hi'Kan to eon- lartor fruit with imprudently aa- tlie wull, but no e top when tliey ipened the gate, ird of the cross instantly rushed asiiAult, and the The Turks im- ilre of cannon gates were car- md a desperate the istreets and of the day the c citadel, which iug, surrendered Turks, it is said, were made pri- to the nioun- s were occurring proceeded in the the frontiers of o Zcitouni, with straits of Ther- U11LV!«, &c. voi.r«i«ic Arrio?) i* TnAcaAni.ii in ma!«t uy tiir iiamta irimndi. ^ Vi\)t '^UBlori) oC CTimtc. 765 nmpylic, and in rnnjiitirtion wl((i Iho Oltci. man Irootm at TliebrK niid Allirns, n-lipv- init till! hfieiKt'd fiirtrcitsrs in ilic .\f"r<'n. Odymriis was stationed mi n li«i)(lit nl/>«vr lbs deHIrs at n plaei* railed I'oiitniiii. Tliijr snnt a body of :ioo Imrse to rccni imiri- hin | ponition, hilt this dclaeliiiieiu » cut to i pieces, TliP next dny lliry nltiickiil liiin I with their w liole forec ; itt first tlin (ircekn gave way, but ii liritve chief, luiined lion ra/., made a stiind, and rallied tlie fugitive!! They returned to the eliiirgr, and the in- fldels were routed with the loss of I'.Mii) men. One of the pachns was slain, niid vast quaiilities of haicgiige and aiiiiiiiiiii- tiiin taken. Thi'iwaHon the Ulst of August, and was a victory of immense importance to the cause. About the nniiie time the bishop of (.'nrystus rained an inaurrectiiiii in ICiihcca, and endeavoured to intercept the cdiiimunicatiou between Alliens and that island. An assembly was now called to meet at Argos for the purpose of organizing a go- vernment, and the prince repaired thillier to attend it; while deputies in the mean- time arrived from dill'erent parts to demand succours from tiiu administrntion of the peninsula, and to report what was doing in tlicir districts. In Macedonia the monks of mount Athos, provoked by the violent proceedings of the Turks, were driven into revolt. The assemblage of a congress hud been regarded as a new and important era in the Greek revolution ; the anxiety of the na- tion for the organizing of n government was evident from th,: eagerness with which the people elected the deputies. By the middle of Ueccinber not less than sixty had arrived, including ecclesiastics, land- owners, merchants, and civilians, most of whom had been liherally cducnted. They first named a comiiiiHsion to draw up a political code; the rest were occupied in examiuing the general state of the nation, and laying plans for the next campaign. On the 27th of January, 1H22, the inde- pendence of the country was proclaimed, and its code published amidst the joyful acclamations of the deputies, the army, and the people. The government was for the present, styled "provisional," while the promulgation of t!lie constitution was ac- companied with an address, exhibiting the reasons for shakiug off the Turkish yoki?. Five members of the congress were nonii- nated as an executive, and prince Mavro- cordato was appointed president. Minis- ters were appointed for the dilferent depart- ments of war, finance, public instruction, the interior, and police ; and a commission named of three individuals to superintend the naval affairs. The new government signalized their liberality by a decree for the abolition of slavery, as well as the sale of any Turkish prisoners who might fall into their hands, prohibiting it under the severest penalties ; they also passed another edict ftjr a com- pensation lor military services, and a pro- vision for the widows' and orphans of those who should fall in lial'le; and a third re- giili I Miiieni'i'il ; a cnrpK riilird the drat rcKiinriit xl the line was fniiiu'd niid I ollx ' f'll I'roiii the viiliiiilerrs nf ililfrrriit ' iiutiiiiiH, Niid, as there were mure nf them tliiin were rii|iM-ile for tlii* mrvn e, ii v'- eniid wan I'nriiirJ ut I lie reiiiiiiiidtT, which look the iiHiiic 111 I'hilhelli nn, Tntras win lilnrkiiili'il HKaiii liy .'liilMl nun, mid a ^iiiiilItT body iiiidrr the Freiich eoloni'l \iiiitler uiis sent to Athens, to re.'.cice the Airopnlii; the forces iK^fnre Ni.|i .li were aiigiii'iited, and Million and t'nrnii I'lnoely liivrHled by the ariiii'd peasantry arniiinl. An event, the inont territic and ntroeinns that liiHtnry has ever recorded, mnrkeil the comineiieenient nl the second eaiiipaiKn ; the (lestriietlnii of Ncio, and its ininenihle inhabitants. The Helots had taken no part in the innveinciit of IN'JI. In the lic;;in- ningof May, in that year, a sinnll si|iin(lron nf Ipsiiriots apprnriiig off the eiiatt, liir- nislied the ngaHith a pretext for Ins op- presnions, niid he began by hei/.ing forty of the elders an I liiihops; who were im- miireil as hostiiK's for the good conduct of the people. " On the -Jllrd (if April," says .Mr. llln- qiiiere, " a fleet of fifty sail, ineliidiiig five of the line, iiiiihnred in the bay, and iin- ineiliutely liegan to bombard the town, whili! si'veral llinuxand Iroops were landed under the guns nf the citadel, which nlnn opened a heavy tire on the (ireeks. It «as in vain for the inlanders to make [i:iy re- sistance ; deserted by the iSaniians, most of whom embarked and sailed uwny when the Turkish Heet hove in sight, they were easily overpowered and obliged toHy. From this moiiieiit, until the last direful act, Scio, lately so great iin object of adniiratinn to strangers, nrcsinted om: continued scene of horror and dismay. Having iiinssaerer! every soul, whell.i r men, woiiiitn, or cliil- dreii, whom they found in the town, tlie Turks first plundered and then !;i.'t tire to it, and watched the flames until not a li'iiise was left, except lliofe of the foriign con- suls. Three days hud, however, been suf- fered to pass, bcrore llie iiitidels vi nliired to pcnetnile into the interior of the island, and even then their excesses were ii ntiiieil to the low grounds. While ^olllo were occupied in plundering the villus of rich iiiercbants, and others setting tire totliC villages, the uir «as rent with the iiiiiij;li;d groans of men, women, and chililnn, who were falling under the .nwords and d«j;(.r'-rs of the infidels. The only exception iu:uli' during il.enmssacrc was in favour of young women and boys, who were preserve,! to lie afterwards sold iis slaves. Many of tin: for- mer, whose husbainis had been biitcliercd, were riinning to ami fro frantic, with turn garments and dishevelled hair, prcsing their trembling infants to their hn-iists, and seeking death as a relief from tin; htili greater caliiniitics that awaited thriii. " Above 40,()(J0 of both sexes had already either fallen victims to the sword, or been ■ M H O r. M a 9 c n ■4 H I 1^ TUB SUOBBS OF THR MOBBA C ):(TAIN AN ADUNDANCK OP FOSSIL SHRI.I.S. •:il TUB MBAN TRMPKRATVRR OF GBBBCB VARIVS MORB THAN IN MOST COUNTRIKS. 756 Ci)e ?!Frcn8ui;i) of l^tstori), $ic. srlt'cled for Bale in the bazaars, when it (iccurrod to the pacha, that no time should bu lost In persuadinK those who had fled to the more inaccessible parts of the island, to Iny down their arms and submit. It bciu); impossible to effect this bjr force, they had recourse to a favourite expedient with Mussulmans ; that of proclaiming an amnesty. In order that no doubt should be entertained of their sincerity, the foreign consuls, more particularly those of Eng- land, France aud Austria, were called upon to guarantee the promises of the Turks : they accordingly went forth, and invited the unfortunate peasantry to give up their arms and rcturu. Notwithstanding their long experience of Turkish pertidy, the solemn pledge given by the consuls at length prevailed, and many thousands who might have successfully resisted until suc- cours had arrived, were sacriflced : for no sooner did they descend from the heights, and give up their arms, than the intidels, totally unmindful of the proffered pardon, put them to death without mercy. The number of persons of every age and sex who became the victims of this perfidious act was estimated at 7000. "After having devoted ten days to the work of slaughter, it was natural to sup- pose that the monsters who directed this frightful tragedy would have been in some degree satiated by the blood of so many innocent victims ; but it was when the excesses had begun to diminish, on the part of the soldiery, that fresh scenes of horror were exhibited on board the licet, and in vhc citadel. In addition to the women iind children embarked for the pur- pose of being conveyed to the markets of Constantinople and Smyrna, several hun- dreds of the natives were also seized, and, among these, all the gardeners of the is- land, who were supposed to know where the treasures of their employers had been concealed. There were no less than 500 of the persons thus collected hung on board the different ships; when these executions commenced, they served as a signal to the commandant of the citadel, who immedi- ately followed the example, by suspending the whole of the liostoges, to the number of seventy-six, on gibbets erected for the occasion. With respect to the numbers who were either killed or consigned to slavery, during the three weeks that fol- lowed" the arrival of the capitan pacha, there is no exaggeration in plttcin)^- the former nt 25,000 souls. It has been ascer- tained that above 30,000 women and chil- dren were condemned to slavery, while the fate of those who escaped was scarcely less calamitous. Though many contrived to get off in open bouts, or such other ves- sels as they could procure, thousands, who were unable to do so, wandered about the mountains, or concealed themselves in caves., without food or clothing, for many days after the massacre had begun to sub. side on the plains. Among those who had availed themselves of the pretended am- nesty, many families took refuge in the houses of the consuls, who were indeed bound by every tie of honour and humanity to afford them protection. It has, how- ever, been asserted, upon authority which cannot well be doubted, that the wretched Deings thus saved from Mussulman ven- geance, were obliged to pay large ransoms efore thev could leave the island. Nay, more, numoers of those who escaped the massacre, affirm, that it was extremely difficult to obtain even temporary protec- tion under the Christian flags, without flrst gratifying the avaricious demands of those who conceived this appalling event a legitimate object of mercautilc specu- lation." At the commencement of the campaign, Colocotroni, with 300 men, was dispatched to Patras, where a part of the Turkish fleet had landed a great body of men in the lat- ter end of February. On his approach the Turks weut to meet him with almost all their force. Colocotroni, not consider- ing himself strong enough for them, re- treated to the mountains; but suddenly stopped, addressed his men, and wheeling about, advanced towards the enemy. Upon this the Turks, struck with a panic, think- ing he had received notice of a reinforce- ment, turned their backs and were pur- sued by the Greeks up to the walls of the town ; 500 of them were slain in less than two hourS) and Colocotroni blockaded the place. The Ottoman fleet was pursued by the Greeks under Miauli and Tumbasi, and the admiral's frigate nearly fell into the hands of the Greeks. Marco Bozzario and Rango gained many advantages in Epirus, and took Arta, the key of Albania ; but, owing to the treachery of Tairabos, it was abandoned. Odysseus and his com- panions endeavoured to check the enemy in Livadia and Negropont ; but the dis- aster of the Greeks at Cassandra so much strengthened them, that they advanced again, aud tiirew some reinforcements into Athens. The fall of All Pacha had now so much increased the resources of Choursid, that he concerted measures, which would have been the destruction of the Greek cause, had they been skilfully executed. Mavro- cordato, in order to frustrate them, laid a plan to undertake an expedition into Epi- rus, draw off the Turks from the Morea, relieve the Suliotes, and carry the war into the heart of Albania. He communicated his plan to the executive, and it was de- termined to place 5U0O men at the disposal of the president, who was to lead the ex- pedition in person. The only forces, how- ever, which could be mustered, were the corps of the Philhcllencs, and the flrst regi- ment of the line, neither of them complete, with 700 men commanded by general Nor- man and Kiriakouli, to relieve the Suli- otes. He arrived at Patras on the 12th of June; but Colocotroni here opposed many difllculties to any of his troops being de- tached, and he was obliged to leave with- out the expected assistance. Accordingly, he sailed to Missolonghi with only a few THK CLIMATB OF ATTICA IS CONSIDEREU THK MOST ORNIAL IN OUKKCE. uunthiks. were indeed and huiuanity It has, how- ithority which the wretched isBulman ven- larne ransoms island. Nay, 10 escaped the was extremely iporary protec- ttags. without BUS demands ot il-palling event rcautilc specu- r the campaign, was dispatched he Turkish fleet men in the lat- (i his approach lira with almost ni, not consider ;h for them, re s ; but suddenly ■n, and wheehng he enemy. Upon :h a panic, think e of a reinforce s and were pur- , the walls of the slain in less than mi blockaded the :t was pursued by x\i and 'i'ombasi, e nearly fell into Marco Bozzario ly advantages in le key of Albania ; ;hcry of Tairabos, iseus and his corn- check the enemy mt J but the dis- i :;a8Randra so much at they advanced einforcements into had now so much of Choursid, that which would have f the Greek cause, executed. Mavro- ptrnte them, laid a xpedition into Kpi- s from the Morca, i carry the war into He communicated ive, and it was de- mon at the disposal ivas to lead the ex- lie only forces, how- mustered, were the ES, and the ttrst regi- er of them complete, led by general Ni«r- to relieve the Suli- atras on the 12th of gi here opposed many lis troops being de- ■liligcd to leave with- tnnce. Accordingly. ;hi with only a few AROMATIC rLA.NTS, I'LCULLtULt ADAPTKn FOR TUR UU!«liY-D£R, ABOUND. ^1)f 1|ii5tory of ^Rrecce. •57 hundred men. A large force of the enemy was in the meantime collected at Larissa and Zctouni ; Colucotruni suddenly left the blockade of I'atrns, and proceeded with alt his army to Tripolizza, leaving an op- portunity for the Turkish garrison either to enter the Morea, or cross the Lepantu. Consternation prevailed in the Pelopon- nesus ; and Corinth was abandoned and re-occupied by tlie enemy, nut without the suspicion of treachery. The situation of Ypsilanti was at this time very critical: he had no money or pro- visions, and hardly 1300 men to oppose 30,000 ; he therefore, in order to stop the enemy's progress, threw himself into the citadel of Argos, while Colocotroni took up the strong position of Lernoon the west of the gulf. The flrst body of the Turks, con- sisting of 7000 cavalry and 4000 foot, halted near Argos, and part of it proceeded to Na- poli ; soon after Marchniont Pacha arrived with 10,000 more. The pacha, iiowever, en- tered Napoli, and continued scvernl days inactive ; when threatened with the ex- tremities of famine and drought, he gave orders for the return to Corinth, and his army set out in the greatest disorder. Co- locotroni attacked and destroyed 5000 of them in a few hours ; the advanced guard was attacked in the detiles by the Mainiotes under Nikitas, and 120U perislied in the first onset. These successes happened be- tween the 4th and 7th of August. On the 18th the pacha attempted to draw the Greeks into an ambuscade, but they got into his rear, and ,he was defeated with great loss ; the next day, determining to re- gain the position they had lost, the Turks again attacked under Iladji Ali, who was slain in the engagement, and nearly 2000 of his men were lost, as well as a large quantity of baggage and several hundred horses. The Greeks, however, had no means of following up their successes. Ypsilanti advanced to Napoli to assist in its reduction, while the troops left un- der the command of Coliopulo, not being supplied with rations or pay, became so weary of the servict that the greater part withdrew, leaving Colocotroni' » eldest son with 200 or 300 men to continue the block- ade of Corinth. Soon after this, Coloco- troni, at the passes near the isthmus, stop- ped the Turks who wished to bring suc- cours to Napoli ; and they being driven to the greatest extremity of fnniine, and tlie Palnmida or citadel having been surprised, the garrison had no alternative left them but to surrender. The Greeks took pos- session of this important place on the 11th of January. The Turkish commanders, on the surrender of Napoli, determined to proceed to Patras, which the Greeks had lately neglected blockading. Setting out in the middle of January, they had reached Akrata near Vostitza, when a detachment from Missolonghi stopped one of the passes, and shortly after another body blocked up the other : so that the Turks were reduced to the greatest straits, feeding upon horses, the herbs on the rocks, their saddles, and at last one another. For nearly three weeks longer the place held out, when Odysseus arriving, and on one of the beys being ac- quainted with hiin, a negotiation was com- menced, by which the garrison obtained per- mission to embark, and the beys were sent prisoners to Napoli. The number of the ene- my that perished on this occasion, without firing a shot, amounted, it is said to 2000. Thus ended the second campaign in the Morea, costing the Turks not fewer than 25,000 men in the Pelopounesus alone. The operations in Kpirus, though on a smaller scale, were little less interesting. Mavrocordato put bis forces in motion, and first making a feint as if he wished to reach Sb'ona, returned on the village of Therasova, and entered Missolonghi on the 17th of October, wliere greater aifficuliies than ever awaited him. Here he was be- seiged by the Turks until the uth of No- vember, when the blockading squadron was chased away by six vessels bearing the Greek flag; and on the 14th Mavromi- clialis arrived with the long expected suc- cours. A sortie was then made; but it was of little avail, and the garrison was so much weakened, that O'r.-'.r Vrioni deter- mined to attack the place. Accordingly on the morning of Christmas-day, at 5 o'clock, 800 men approached the walls with scaling ladders uuperceived, and had even fixed some, but they were instantly cut down ; the conflict that followed was desperate and sanguinary, and the Turks were obliged to retire with the loss of 1200 men and nine pieces of cannon. The rising now became general through the country, and the retreat of the enemy was intercepted ill all quarters; so that of the wiiole force brought into the country, only thre^ months before, not half escaped. Mavro- cordato arrived in the Peloponnesus in the early part of April, 1823, after an absence of ten months. The national congress met at Astros, a small town in Argos, on the 10th of April, 1823, in a garden under the shade of orange trees ; nearly 300 deputies were occupied in the debates, which began at sunrise. The following oath was taken at the first meeting by each member: — "I swear, in the name of God and my country, to act with a pure and unshaken patriotism, to promote a sincere union, and abjure every thought of personal interest in all the dis- cussions which shall take place in this se- cond national congress." Having settled a number of important points, its labours ended on the 30th. The third meeting of the congress was deferred for two years ; and t).Ai !,< m f ! THE HIGH WOOOY DISTHICTS CONTAIN WOLVRS, JACKALLS, LYNXES, HORDVCKB, &C. 768 ^f)e ©"rcaauro of l^istotp, ^c. June. Yuguff Pacha led on a large body to ThermopylK, and Muatapha conducted another to the paas of Neopatra, near Zei- touni, the former, etpecially, laying waste the whole country, and committing all man- ner of excesses. Odysseus in the meantime arrived from Athens, and Nikitas from Tri- polizza, and a sort of guerrilla warfare was commenced, which so harassed the Turks under Yusuff that they retreated in the greatest disorder. Mustapha was attacked, and forced to take refuge in Negropont, at Carystos, where he was closely olockaded. Marco Botearis, who commanded the Greeks at Crionero, fell on the Turks, and either killed or captured two-thirds of their number. The same brave leader under- took a forced march against Mustapha, who liad 14,000 men, while he had only 2000. On assigning each man's part at midnight on the 19th, his last words were, " If you lose sight of me during tlie com- bat, seek me in the pacha's tent." On his arrival at the centre, he sounded his bugle, as agreed upon, and the enemy, panic-struck, fled in all directions. In the midst of the attack, which was now geiiu- ral, he was twice wounded, and at last cur- ried off from the field expiring; the strug- gle, however, was maintained till day-light, when the Greeks were victorious on all points, and the loss of the enemy was not less than 3000. One of the first act j of the capitan pacha, on his arrival with his fleet, had been to declare Missolonghi, and every other Greek port, in a state of blockade. The entrance of a few Greek gun-boats, however, was sufticient to set the capitan pacha at defiance ; having remained inac- tive for above three months, and lost nearly a third of his crews by epidemics, he at length made vhe best of his way to the Archipelago. At the commencement of the year 1824, proclamation was issued by the president and senate of the United States of the Ionian islands, declaring their neutrality, and their firm resolution not to take any part in the contest; also prohibiting any foreigner, who should do so, from residing in the islands. Among the Greeks dissen- sions still prevailed, every faction following its own plans, and seeking to advance its own infiuence. Mavrocordato, Colocotroni, and Ypsilanti, headed different factions, among the members of which there was neither unanimity of counsel, nor unifor- mity of action. The Turkish fleet sailed on the 23rd of April. The Greek senate summoned Colo- cotroni to surrender himself, and to de- liver up Napoli and Tripulizza, but he re- fused ; the troops that were investing Pa- tras quarrelled about the division of some of their booty, and were withdrawn ; in the meantime the Turks sailed from Le- panto with fourteen ships, and blockaded Missolonghi. In order to encourage the Greeks, a loan of SUO,O0U<. was contracted for in London. About this period Ipsara was threatened by the Turkish fleet, which was now at Mitylene. The island of Caso was attacked on the 8lh of June by an Egyptian squadron, and after an obstinate resistance was taken on the Ulh. Several naval actions occurred about this time, in which the Greeks generally had the advantage ; and had not the long delay in paying the loan in London threatened ruin to the cause, the success of their arms was such as to give great hopes of a speedy deliverance from the Ottsman power. On the I8th of April, this year, lord Byron died at Missalonghi, of an inflammatory fever, after having zealously devoted him- self to the cause of the Greeks from the time he first landed, in August, 1823, no to the period of his death. His exertions liad been great and unremitting, but he never seems to have been free from apprehension lest the jealousies and divisions among the Greek leaders would not ultimately prove destructive to all their patriotic efforts. Taking advantage of an insurrection that broke out on the Morea, at the head of which were Colocrotoni and his sons, the troops of Mahomet Ali, pacha of Egypt, were directed to land in great force tnisre ; and it now became evident that the neigh- bourhood of Navarino was destined to be the seat of war. On the 1st of May the Egyptian fleet, from 65 to 70 sail, left the port of Suda, where it had been watched by a Greek squadron under Miaoulis, who now sailed to Navarino. On the 8th, Miaoulis's squa- dron, amounting to 22 vessels, was near Zante; the Egyptian fleet, 46 in number, being off Sphacteria. In about an hour from 2000 to 30(Ht troops effected a debarka- tion from the Egyptian fleet, on the island. The garrison of old Navarino capitulated on the 10th, and the garrison of Navarino on the 23rd. After tiie surrender of Sphac- teria, a great part of the Egyptian fleet was followed by Miaoulis into tlic harbour of Modon, and more than half of it destroyed by fire-ships. In the end of May the Turkish admiral left the Dardanelles, and on the 1st of June was encountered by the Hydriote Sakhturi, who, by means of his fire-ships, destroyed three men of war and some transports. Soon after the capitan pacha entered Suda, and joined tlie Egyptian fleet from Nava- rino. The Greek fleet was dispersed by a tempest, and having no fire-ships, they re- tired to Hydra, while the Turkish admiral landed a reinforcement of dUOU men at Navarino, and went to Missolonghi witli seven frigates and many smaller vessels. The siege was new vigorously pressed; the lagunewas penetrated on the 21st of July, and Anatolica, an island to the north, sur- rendered to the Turks. The supply of water was now cut off, batteries had been erected near the main works of the place, the ramparts had been injured, and part of the ditches filled up ; at length a general attack was ordered on the 1st of August, and the town assailed in four places at once. On the 3rd the Greek fleet, consist- ing of 23 brigs, attacked and destroyed two small ships of war and all the boats in the •J < H e u u BKAR8 AUB BOMBTIMRI MRT WITH ON THE NORTHKRN FnONTIBn, 1URDVCK8, &C. TUK HILLS OF OUBBCK ABB AOMIBABLT AOAriBD FOR TUB VINB. Vlf)t I^istocy of CEiretce. 769 lagune, relieved MiBSolonKhi, and obliged the enemy'* fleet to retire. On the 10th the Greeks attempted, but without suc- cess, to bum the Turkish fleet in the har- bour of Alexandria. On the 20th the fleet of the Greeks, about 30 sail, commanded bjr Miaoulis, engaged the Turks between Zante, Cephalonia, and Chiarenza, and an action ensued, which lasted with little in- termission for two days and nights, till at length the Greeks were obliged to retire. On the 29th another naval action took place, and skirmishes on the two next days, when the Greeks forced the enemy to take shelter in the gulf. Nothing of importance happened during the year 1826 to give the Greeks encou- ragement. After a lengthened blockade of Missolonghi, in which every effort was made by the Greeks to defend it, that im- portant fortress was taken by assault and sacked. Nor were the events of the early part of 1827 such as to hold out hopes of a successful issue of this prolonged and barba- rous contest. Athens was taken in May by the Turks under Kiutaki, not long after the arrival of the gallant lord Cochrane in its neighbourhood, with a considerable naval force. The loss of the Greeks on this oc- casion amounted to 700 men killed, and 240 taken prisoners, including eighteen Philhellenians of different countries. Kiu- taki, supposing that lord Cochrane and general Church were among the Euro- peans, had the prisoners brought before him, and, after examining them carefully, caused the eigL.een Europeans to be po- niarded before his eyes, and ordered the 222 Greeks to be massacred. The interference of the great European powers could no longer well be deferred ; and an important treaty between Great Britain, France, and Russia was concluded, expressly with a view to put an end to this horrid warfare, and, under certain tribu- . tary stipulations, to establish the inde- pendence of Greece. The ambassadors of the tliree powers, on the 16th of August, presented tlie said treaty to the Porte, and waited for an answer till the 31st. Mean- while the Greek government proclaimed an armistice in conformity with the treaty of London ; but the reis effendi rejected the intervention of the three powers. The Greeks then commenced hostilities anew, and on the 9th of September the Turkish- E};yptian fleet entered the bay of Navarino. A Uritish squadron appeared in the bay on the 13th, under admiral Codrington. To this a French squadron, under admiral lUgny, and a Russian, under count Hey- den, united themselves on the 22nd. They demanded from Ibrahim Pacha a cessation of hostilities ; this he promised, and went out with part of his fleet, but was forced to return into the bay. He, however, conti- nued the devastations in the Morea, and gave no answer to the complaints of the admirals. The combined squadrons of England, ■ France, and Russia now entered the bay, I where the Turkish • Egyptian fleet was drawn up in order of battle. The first shots were fired from the Turkish side, and killed two Englishmen. This was the sig- nal for a deadly contest, in which Codring- ton nearly destroyed the Turkish-Egyptian armada of 110 ships. Some were burned, others driven on shore, and the rest dis- abled. Enraged at the battle of Navarino, the Porte seized all the ships of the Franks in Constantinople, detained them for some time, and stopped all communication with the allied powers, till indemnification should be made for the destruction of the fleet. At the same time it prepared for war ; and the several ambassadors left Constantino- ple. Upon this the Porte affected to adopt conciliatorjr measures; but it was evident they were insincere ; for from all parts of the kingdom the ayans were now called to Constantinople, and discussed with the Porte the preparations for war; and all the Moslems, from the age of nineteen to fifty, were called on to arm. In the meantime, the president of the Greeks, Capo d'Istrias, established a high national council at Napoli di Romania: took measures for instituting a national bank ; and put tlie military on a uew foot- ing. The attempts at pacification were fruitless, because the Porte rejected every proposal, and in Britain the battle of Nava- rino was looked on as an " untoward event." In this state of indecision and uncertainty, Ibraham took the opportunity of sending a number of Greek captives as slaves to Egypt. In the meantime, the French cabi- net, in concurrence with the British, to carry into execution the treaty of London, sent a body of troops to the Morea, whilst admiral Codrington concluded a treaty with the viceroy of Egypt, at Alexandria (Au- gust 6), the terms of which were that Ibra- ham Pacha should evacuate the Morea with his troops, and set at liberty his Greek pri- soners. Those Greeks who had been car- ried into slavery in Egypt, were to be freed or ransomed; 1200 men, however, were to be allowed to remain to garrison the for- tresses in the Morea. To force Ibraham to comply with these terms, the French gene- ral Maison arrived, on the 29th of the fol- lowing August, with 154 transport-ships, in the bay of Coron. After an amicable negotiation, Ibrahim left Navarino, and sailed (October 4) with about 21,000 men, whom he carried with the wreck of the fleet to Alexandria ; hut he left garrisons in (he Messenian fortresses, amounting to 25,000 men. Maison occupied the town of Navarino without opposition ; and after a mere show of resistance on the pnrt of those who held the citadels of Modon, Coron, and Patras, the flags of tlie allied powers floated on their walls. Nothing hostile was undertaken against the Turks by the French out of the Morea, because the sultan would in that case have declared war against France; end Britain and France carefully avoided such a result, that they might be able to mediate' between the Porte and Russia. To defend the Mo- rea, however, from new invasions from the 'RONTIBR. , Ml: III ' wukuk'su wu TiiKAo, 'tis uaukteu, uolt oround."— btron. ii \\ r TIIK QIIRAT MASS OF TIIK I'OFUI.ATIUN BBLUKO TO TIIIC ORIIKK CHUBCIIi 2 I 760 ^l^c ^JTrcasury of l^istorn, $fc. Turks, the three powers aitroed to send a rx'Miifcsto to the I'urte to this cilVct : " that they should place the Morea and the Cy- claaus uudcr their protection till the time when n definitive arrangement should de- cide the fate of the provinces wliich the nllics had taken possession of, and that the^ should consider the entrance of any military force into this country as an at- tack upon themselves. They required the Porte to come to an explanation with them concerning the flnnlpacitlcntion of Greece." The Greeks, in the meantime, coutinued hostilities ; and the Turks relaxed not in retaliating with bitter vengeance on all who came within their power; nor would Mahmoud recall the edict of extermination which he had pronounced when he com- manded Dram Ali, a few years before, to bring him the ashes of Peloponnesus. Ibra- him had wantonly burned down the olive groves as far as his Arabians spread, and the Greeks were sunk in the deepest misery. It must not be supposed that the allied powers were whollv unmindful of the great object they had undertaken ; but many seri- ous obstacles tending to delay its accom- plishment presented themselves at every step of the negotiotion. The basis of a settlement was, however, at length agreed upon; the principal points of which may be thus brieily stated:— The Greeks, to pay to the Porte an annual tribute : a joint commission of Turks and Greeks to de- termine the indemnification of the Turks for the loss of property in Greece : Greece to enjoy a qualified independence, under the sovereignty of the Porte: the govern- ment to be under an hereditary Christian prince, not of the family of cither of the allied sovereigns; at every succession of the hereditary prince, an additional year's tribute to be paid : mutual amnesty to be required ; and all Greeks to be allowed a year to sell their property and leave the Turkish territories. The situation of Capo d'Istrias, the presi- dent, was all this time most embarrassing. He was without means, in a land torn by discord ; yet his attention had been zeal- ously directed towards the niainteunnce of order, the suppression of piracy, and the formal ion of a regular niiny ; the estiililish- lucnt of courts of justice, and schools of mutual instruction ; of means for collect- ing the revenue, and providing for the sub- sistence of the wretclied remnants of the population. He called together the fourth niitioual assembly, at Argos, and in a long address (July 23, 1839), gave an account of the state of the country and of his mea- sures, particularly directing the attention of the assembly to the organization of the forces and the revenue. The conferences between the ministers of the three powers, at London, had now for their object to select a prince to wenr the crown of Greece. It was Hrst offered to prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg, Fell. 3, 1830, and was aecrptcd by him, os " sove- reign prince of Greece," on the 2()lh. On further consideration, however, he resigned the honour; alleging as his reasons— the unwillingness of the Greeks to receive him, and their dissatisfaction at the settlement of the boundaries. He further observed, that the answer of the president of Greece to his appointment, in his judgment, an- nounced a forced submission to the allied powers, and even that forced submission was accompanied by reservations of the highest importance. Much dissatisfaction was shown in England, and various motives were assigned to the prince for his refusal ; but it is perhaps unnecessary to seek for any other motive than that which would force itself on the notice of any man of correct feelings and good tostc, namely, the irksomeness of filling a regal station, with the consciousness that his unwilling subjects regarded him as an intruder and a tyrant. After the vcsignotion of Leopold, several princes were proposed as candi- dates for the throne; aiid ut length Othc, a younger son of the king of Kavaria, ac- cepted the trust, and was proclaimed at Nauplia, Aug. 30, 1833. During the dis- contents and jealousies of the previous f'car, count Capo d'Istrias, the president, lad been asRassinated. Such havoc had the ravages of war made in Greece, and so necessary was repose to all classes of its inhabitants, that the first years of Otho's reign passed away in a com- paratively tranquil manner; although the sullen murmur of discontent was occasion- ally heard as, one by one, the several stato appointments were filled by the king's tier- man friends, to the exclusion of natives. At length, in September, 1813, the people, urged by diitress and dissatisfaction, rose against the constituted authorities of the kingdom, nnd accomplished a revolution without bloodshed or violence — without endangering the personal safety, or inflict- ing any humiliation on the king. The mi- nisters were arrested at their houses, but were liberated in a few hours. The popu- lace assembled in front of the pnlace, and demanded a constitution. The king assured the people that he would consider their de- maud, and that of the army, after consult- ing with his ministers, the state council, and foreign ambassadors, but was informed that the ministers were no longer recog- nized, and thnt the council of state were then deliberating on the best course to pursue. An address from this body was sub- sequently presented to the king, in which the instant dismissal of the Uavarian mi- nisters was insisted on, and n list of those chosen to succeed them in office whs pre- sented. AVisely foreseeing the result of re- sisting de'nands, which were founded in justice on 1 reason, his majesty with a good grace aciicded to them, and the aflnir ter- minated apparently to the satisfaction of all parties. It is, however, too iniportnnt a catastrophe in the history of Greece to ho dismissed with so slight a notice: we shall therefore avail ourselves of tlie following extract from an account of this hlonrtlcss revolution, as given in a Greek paper of the 15th of Scpteinher, 1813:— TUB OBKIiK FRIKSTS AHE FOOR, BUT TIIKIlt LIVIIH ARI! KXHMFLAIIV. v. iiuBcn. r. o s reasons— the to receive him, the nettlcment rther observed, ident of Greece judKioeiit, an- m to the allied ccd Buhiiiission rvntions of the dissatisfRCtion various motives for his refusal ; sary to seek for nt which vrould of any man of I taste, niimely, a re^al slntion. It his unwillinK ,u intruder and tion of Leopold, )osed as randi- at lenglh Othc, of Uavarin, ae- I proclaimed at DuriuK the dis- if the previous I, the president, gcs of war made y was repose to ts, that the iirst 1 away in a com- r; although the nt was occasion- he several state Mhe king's ticr- ision of natives. 18 1», the people, latisfaction, rose ithorlties of the cd a revolution ilenec — without safety, or inllict- I king. The mi- leir houses, but lurs. The popu- thc pnlnce, and I'lie king assured onsider their de- jy, after consult- le state council, lut was infonncd 10 longer rccog- ■il of state were best course to lis body was suh- e king," in which he Bavarian mi- d a list of those n office was pre- ; the result of re- vere founded in jesly with a good nd the afl'iiir tcr- e sniisfaction of , too important a of Greece to be notice: we shall of tlie following of this bloodless reek paper uf the c. o H M U H M W Ki H VUI.L RKLIOIOUS TOLKBAtlUN IS OUAaAHTBBO OX TUB CONITITUTION. ^I^e l^istorj) of €llmce. 761 " A wise revolution, accomplished in one day, amidst the most perfect order, without a single offensive cry being uttered, even against the liavariani, has renewed the cluiins of Greece to the esteem and lyni- pathy of nation* and their governments. Every body knows the unfortunate situa- tion in which Greece was placed. The Greeks had exhausted every means in their power to induce the government to adopt a truly national policy. The parliaments of France and England, and the London conference, had vanily acknowledged the many grievances of the Greek people; the government obstinately persevered in it» evil course. The nation liad no other al- ternative but to plunge itself into the abyss opened by ten years' mistakes and incapacity, or to extricate itself therefrom by a dangerous but inevitable eifort. For some time the movement was in progress of preparation on different points of the country, that it might be effected without any disorder. The hostile attitude assum- ed bv the government against those who sought to enlighten it, the extraordinary dispositions adopted within the last few days with a view to assail the liberty and the verv lives of the citizens (a military tribunal had been established) most de- voted to the national interests, necessarily tended to hasten the manifestation of the contemplated movement. " Last night, at two o'clock, a. m., a few musket shots tired in the air announced the assembling of the people in different quarters of Atliens. Soon afterwards the inhabitants, accompanied by the entire garrison, marched towards the square of the palace, crying, ' The constitution for ever!' On reaching the place, the entiie garrison, the artillery, cavalry, and infan- try, drew up under the windows of the king, in front of the palace, and the peo- ple, having stationed themselves in the rear, all in one voice demanded a consti- tution. The king appeared at a low win- dow, and assured the peonle that he would take into consideration tncir demand and tliat of the army, after consulting with his ministers, the council of state, and the re- presentatives of the foreign powers. But the eounnander, M. Calegri, having step- ped forward, nmde known to his majesty that the ministry was no longer recog- nized, and that the council of state was already deliberating on the best course to be adopted under existing circumstances. A deputation of the council shortly after waited on the king with the documents that had been prepared fur his perusal. " The new ministry soon afterwards re- paired to the palace, where they held a long consultation with his mfgesty, who shortly appeared on the balcony, surround- ed by his ministers and other personages, and was received with acclamations by the people. The cry of ' Long live the con- stitutional king' rcKounded, together with that of the 'constitution for ever.' The new MilniMleis entered nnuiediately on the discharge of their functions." It was the opinion of I'eter the Great of Russia, that Greece would at some fu- ture day again become the favoured seat of literature and the arts; nay, that having made the circuit of Europe, and been fos- tered in England, France, and Germany, they would take their departure from those countries, reach llHssia, and thence revisit the place of their birth in all their pris- \ tine glory. That time, should it ever ar- ' rive, IS, in all probability, very fnr distant ; but it may be well to close the present his- toric sketch with a few brief remarks on < Greece in its past and present state. i The government of the different states of ancient Greece was purely monarchical ; it subsequently varied from a mixed uio- j narchy, as in Hparta, to a democracy, as ; at Athens. In most states there was a , continued struggle between an oligarchical | and popular faction : and as one or other j prevailed, their adversaries were exiled, or unrelentingly put to death. In their cultivation of literature and the arts they surpassed all nations. The poems of Homer are still unrivalled ; and Ilesiod, with many others, maintained the reputa- tion which their great poet had won. Dra- matic composition was invented by Thes- pis, and brought to perfection by^schines, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes. History was cultivated with success, by Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon; and, subsequently by I'olybiui, Diodorus KicuUiB, Arriun, and I'lutarch, In oratory also the Greeks excelled; there is, indeed, no name in history more honoured for cumnmnding eloquence than that of De- moKthencs. I'liilosophy was also prosecuted at a very cni'Iy date, and there were several eminent teachers, eutemporary with Solon. Pytha- goras, who taught the doctrine of metemp- sychosis, came next. Uut it flourished must after the time of' Socrates, u. c. 4U0, who introduced a pure system of morality, with a correct mode of reasoning, into Greece. I'lato, Aristotle, and Xenoption, who were termed academics, succeeded him ; and other schools were also set up ; as the scep- tics, by I'yrrho; the stoics, by Zeno; the cynics, by Aristippus; and the epicureans, by Epicurus : the object of all these schools being to discover what was the chief aim uf human existence. The mathematical sciences were also objects of early atten- tion in Greece ; and were pursued by many of their teachers, in conjunction with those which were purely philosophical. In paint- ing, sculpture, and architecture, also, the Greeks g^^'^ proofs of the highest excel- lence ; the flnest statues in the world are of Greek execution ; and the styles of ar- chitecture distinguished as Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, are those to which we are indebted for our most splendid public edi- lires. With some few exceptions, the Greeks were a people of lively temperament, fer- tile iningination, social habits, and elegant taste: hut they were tickle and vindictive, lining little fur principle, and even incul- TUBBB ABB MANY BOMAN CATU0I.ICS, BOMB FBOTKBTANTB, AND ROHB JBWS. [3 Tt ! 1 l:\\ w r>A •« :t; , g Mi I i TniAIi BY JURY IM CBIMINAL CA8BS UAH DBEN IHTHOnUCEO. 762 tHl^e ^r«a«uri) o( 3l^(story, See. cnting a crafty and oTcrrenchinf; policy. Tliey ever shewed an extreme ijroncness to civil discord, and through tlicirowu disscn- Bioni and treachery thev lirst fell a prey to Macedon, and afterwards to Rome. The language of the ancient Greeks has undergone manv alterations in the course of time ; and these commenced with the decline of the eastern empire. The irrup- tion of the barbarians hastened the corrup- tion of the language, as well as the fall of the empire ; and ages have passed in which this nation bad no language but that of its ancestors. About the twelfth century some taste for learning arose ; the crusndos then commenced, which brought the East into relation with the West, the Greeks with the Latins and Saracens ; and though there was a striking distinction between the sub- tle and artful character of the Greeks, and the barbarous rudeness of the Latins, new ideas were inspired into the mind of the nation, and new expressions were intro- duced into its language. The Itahans par- ticularly had great influence over the llo- maic, or modern Greek, which was then funned ; poets and prose writers, availed themselvcb of this new language ; which, though as remote from the ancient Greek as the Italian is from the tongue of ancient llonie, soon became the nntiunul idiom. The modern Greeks nre thus described : — " There is a pretty niorkcd distinction among the inhabitants of the three great divisions of Greece — Greece north of the Isthmus, the Peloponnesus, and the islands. The inhabitants of northern Greece have retained a chivalrous and warlike spirit, with a simplicity of manners and mode of life which strongly remind us of the pic- tures of the heroic age. The soil here is generally cultivated by Uulgarinns, Albani- ans, and Wallachians. In eastern Greece, Parnassus, with its natural bulwarks, is the only place where the Hellenic race has maintained itself; in the mountainous parts of western Greece there are also some rem- nants of the Hellenic stock. In these parts the language is spoken with more purity than elsewhere. The population of the Peloponnesus consists nearly of the same races as that of northern Greece, but the Peloponnesians are more ignorant and less honest than the iuhubitunts of Ilellus. The Albanians occupy Argolio and a part of the ancient Triphylia. Among the rest of the inhabitants, who all speak Greek, there are considerable social diflfcrences. The population of the towns is of a mixed character, as in northern Greece; where there is an active and intelligent body of proprietors, merchants, and artisans in the tonus, nnd among tliem some of Greek stock. The Maiiiotes form a separote class of the population : they are generally called Maniotes from the name of one of their districts; but their true name, which they have never lost, is Spartans. They occupy the lofty and sterile mountains between the gulpliB of Lnconia and Messcnia, the representatives of a race driven from the sunny valley of the Eurotas to the bleak and inhospitable tracts of Taygetns, though the plains which are spread out below them nre no longer held by a conqueror, and (he fertile lands lie uncultivated for want of labourers. In the islands, there is a sin- gular mixture of Albanians and Greeks. The Albanians of Hydra and 8poz7,ia have long been known as active traders and excellent mariners. The Hydriotes made great sacritices for the cause of independ- ence in the late war ; the Spezziotes, more prudent and calculating, increased their wealth and their merchant navy. The island of Syra, which has long been the centre of nn active commerce, now con- tains the remnant of the population of Ipsara and Chios. The Ipsariots arc an active and handsome race, and skilful sea- men: the Chiots, following the habits of their ancestors, are fond of staying at home and attending to their shops and mer- cantile speculations ; they amass wealth, but they employ it in founding establish- ments of public utility, and in the educa- tion of their children. In Tinos, the pea- sants, who arc also the proprietors, culti- vnle the vine and the tig even amidiit the must barren rocks: in Syra, Santorin, nnd at Naxds, tlicy nre the tenants of n miser- able race of nobility, whose origin is traced to the time of the crusades, and who still retain the Latin creed of their ancestors. Ifesidcs these, there arc various bodies of Suliotcs, of people from the heights of Olympus, Cnudiotcs, niuuy Greek families from Asia Minor, Faunriotes, and others, who have emigrated, or been driven by cir- cumstances witliin the limits of the new kingdom. Tlie Ipsnriiits arc those who are supposed to have the least intcrniixttire of foreign blood. Tliey have the line and cha- racteristic Greek physiognomy, as preserv- ed in the marbles of Phidias und other an- cient sculptors ; they are "ingenious, lo- quacious, lively to excess, iiciive, eriiter- prising, vapouring, nnd disputatious." The modern Greeks are generally rather above the middle height, nnd well shaped; tliey have the face oval, features regular niid cxpreg,jivc, eyes large, dark nud animated, eyebrows arched, hnir long and dark, and complexions olive-coloured." The character of the Greeks, while under the Turks, was thus summed up by Mr. Hope. " The complexion of the niodnrn Greek may receive n different cast from different surrounding objects : the core is still the same as in llic days of Pericles. Credulity, versatility, nnd the thirst of dis- tinctions, from the earliest periods formed, still form, and ever will form, the basis of the Greek character. When patriotism, public spirit, and prcer. r 'nee in arts, science, literature, ai. "? W(uf':.i'e, were tlic road to distinction, the ureeks shone .'he first of patriots, of heroes, of painters, of poets, and of philosophers. Now that craft and subtlety, adulation and intrigue, are the only paths to greatness, the same Greeks arc— what you sec them I " TUU LANOUAGK Or TUR ...ODKaN ORISF.nS IS CAliLEU R0M4IC. o H U O a o a »• M O n a 1 TirnxxT coMFRisus suiiu or tub host rnoDUCTiva fuovincri or Kuaora J to the bleak ygctos, though )Ut below them jueror, and the id for want of there is a »in- 18 and Greeks, id Spoz7.ia have re traders and lydriotes made iB of indcpcnd- pezziotes, more increased their at navy. The long been the erce, now con- population of psariots nrc an and skilful sea- g the habits of staying at homo hops and mer- ' amass wealth, [idibg cstablish- d in the educa- Tinos, the pea- oprietors, culti- ;ven amidst the a, Sautorin, and ants of n miser- 3 origin is traced ■s, and who still their ancestors, avious bodies of the heights of y Greek families tcs, and others, en driven by cir- iiiits of the new trc those who arc , intermixture of the fine and elin- lomy, as preserv- ias and other an- " ingenious, lo- !s, Hciive, eiitcr- i sputatioiis." Tlie •ally vKther above ell shivpeJ ; lliej ires n^gular and ik and animated, ig and dark, and d." ecks, while nndcr limed up by Mr. n of the modern Cfeieut cast from jcts : the core is days of Pericles. , the thirst of dis- it periods formed, orni, the basis of Vheu patriotism, r-'nce in arts, .. ''i.i'e, were the jieeks shone !he es, of painters, of 8. Now that craft and intrigue, are Rtness, the same c them 1 " UM^IC. u » K ^* H u o f H e M m •4 M M o THE HISTORY or TUB OTTOMAN OR TURKISH EMPIRE. Thb Turks are of Tartarian or Scythian extraction ; and this appellation was first given them in the middle ages as a proper name; it being a general title of liouour lo all the nations comprehended under the two principal branches of Tartar and Mon- gol, who therefore never nse it as a proper name of any particular nation. The Scy- thian or Turturinn nation, to which the name of Turks has been peculiarly given, dwelt betwixt the Black and Caspian seas, and became first known in the seventh cen- tury, when Heraclius, emperor of the East, took them into his service; in which they so distinguished themselves, by their lide- lity and oravcry in the conquest of I'er- sia, that the Arabian and Saracen caliphs had not only select bodies of them for guards, but their armies were composed of them. Thus gradually 'c;cttiiig the power into their hcinds, they set up and dethroned caliphs at pleasflre. liy this strict union of the Turks with the Saracens or Arabs, the former were brought to embiaec the Mahometan religion, so that they are now become intermixed, and have jointly en- larged their conquests ; but as the Turks became superior to the Saracens, they sub- dued them. The following account bus been given of the origin of the Ottoman empire. Gen- ghis-khan, at the head of his horse, issued out of Great Tartary, and mode himself master of a vast tract of land near the Caspian Sea, and even of all Persia and Asia Minor. Incited by his cxumple and success. Shah Solyman, prince of the town of Nera, on the Car.pian Sco, in the jcor 1214, passed Mount Caucasus with aU,UOO men, and penetrated as far as the borders of Syria; and though his career was stop- ped there by Genghis-khan, yet in the year 1219 he penetrated a second time into Asia Minor, as far as the Euphrates. Uthman, his grandson, made himself master of seve- ral countries and places in Leaser Asia, be- longhig to the Grecian empire: and having, in the year 13U0, at the city of Caracbifer, assumed the title of emperor of the Oth- mans, called his people after hia own name. This prince, among many other towns, took, in the year 1320, Prusa, in liithynia, now called liursa, which Orchan, hia son and successor, made the seat of his empire. Orclian sent Solyman and Amurath, his two sons, on an expedition into Europe ; the former of whom reduced the city of Callipolis, and the latter took Tyrilos. Amurath succeeded his father in the go- vernment, in KiCO; took Ancyra, Adriano- ple, and Philippopolis; and, in 1302, OTer- ran S<:rvia, and invaded Macedonia and Al- bania. Bajazct, his son and successor, was very successful both in Europe and Asia, de- feating the Christians near Nicopolis ; but, in Mill, he was routed and taken prisoner by Tamerlane. Ills sons disagreed ; but Mahomet I. enjoyed the sovereignty, and his son Amurath II. distinguished himself by several important enterprises, and par- ticularly in the year IM-I gained a signal victory over the Hungarians near Varna. The Ityzantinu empire was already cut off from the west, when Mahomet II., the son of Amurath, and his successor, at the age of twenty-six, completed the work of conquest. It is said, that the reading of ancient historians had inspired him with the ambition of equalling Alexander, He soon attacked Constantinople, which was taken. May 2<), MS.!; and the last Poleo- logu:>, Coiistantine XI.. buried himself un- der the ruins of his throne. Mahon:et now built the castle of the Dardanelles, and organized thegnvcrnnient of the empire, tultiiig (or hia model Niishir- van's or];anization of the Persian empire. In 1 I5G, he subdued the Moren, and in Ufil, led Cnranenus, empcrnr of Trcbizoiid, prisoner to Constantinople. Pius II. called in vain npon the nations of Chridtcudom to take up arms. Mahomet conquered the remainder of Hosnia in 1470, and Kpirus in 1 Ifij, after the death of Scandcrbcg. He took Negro- pont and Lemnoa from the Vinetiuns, Cafl'a from the Genoese, and, in 14/3, obliged the khan of the Crini Tartars, of the family of Genghis khan, to do liim homnge. In 14811, he had already conquered Ofrfiiito, in the kingdom of Naples, when he died, in the midst of his great projects against Home and Persia. His grandson, Seliui I., who had dethroned and murdered his fntlipr, drove back the Persian power to th(! Eu- phrates and the Tigris. He defeated the Mamelukes, and conquered, in 1517, 1'gypt, Syria, and Palestine. During filty years, the arms of the Ottoinnus, by sea and by hind, were the terror of Europe and of Asia, especially under Solyman II. the Magnifi- cent, also called the Lawgiver, who reigned between 1519 and 15G6. In l.i22, lie took Ilhodes from the knights of St. John, and, by the victory of Molmtz, in 152(1, subdued half of Hungary. He exactod a tribute from Moldavia, and was bucccrsIuI ngaiii't tli(^ Persians in Asia, so as to nuike Kagddd, Mesopotamia, and Georgia subject to him. BKTBR&L FARTS OF THK TURKISH DOMIHIO?I3 ARK VIUTUAI.LT INOKrENURNT. ■ I i ) i ; ■ \ no COUNTRY la muhb bkdolbnt ur fhuitb and flowbhs tuan tvrkby. 764 ^f)t treasury of l^istonj, $cc. He was nlrcndy tlireHtenin)^ to overrun Ger- many, and to plant ^lie Ktandard of Maho- met in the west, vlicn he was checked be- fore the walls of Vienna, in 1629. But as Hungary had placed its kin^, John Zapo- lyn, under the powerful protection of the padishah, and the successful corsair Bar- DarossA was master of the Mediterranean, had conquered Northern Africa, and laid waste Minorca, Sicily, Apulia, and Corfu, the sultan Sulyman might have conquered Europe, had he known how to give firm- ness and consistency to his plans. He was resisted at sea by the Venetians, and the Genoese Andrew Doria, by the grand-mas- ter Lavalette in Malta, and by Zriny, under the walls of Zigeth. Twelve sultans, all of them brave and warlike, and most of them continually vic- torious, had now, during a period of two centuries and a half, raised the power of the Crescent; but the internal strength of the state was yet undeveloped. Solyman, indeed, by his laws, completed the organ- ization begun by Mohammed II., and in 1638 united the priestly dignity of the cali- phate to the Ottoman porte ; but he could not incorporate into a whole the conquered nations. He also imprisoned his successor in the seraglio. From this time, the race of Osman de- generated, and the power of the Porte de- clined. From Solyman's death, in 156fi, to our own time, most of the Ottoman sove- reigns have ascended the throne from a prison, and lived iu the seraglio until, as It not unfrcquently happened, thoy again exchanged a throne for a prison. Seve- ral grand viziers have, at different periods alone upheld the falling state, while the nation continued to sink deeper into the grossest ignorance and slavery ; and pachas, more rapacious and more arbitrary than the sultan and his divan, ruled in the provin- ces. In its foreign relations, the Porte was thctsport of European politicians, and more than once was embroiled by the cabinet of Versailles in a war with Austria and Russia. 'Wliile all Europe was making rapid pro- gress in the arts of peace and of war, the Ottoman nation and government remained iuactive and stationary. Blindly attached to their doctrines of absolute fate, and elated by their former military glory, the Turks looked upon foreigners with con- tempt, as intidels. Without any settled plan, but incited by hatred and a thirst for conquest, they carried on the wor with Per- sia, Venice, Hungary, and Poland. The re- volts of the janizaries and of the governors became dangerous. The suspicions of the despot, however, were ger.ernlly quieted with the dagger and the bowstring; and the ablest men of the divan were sacrificed to the hatred of the soldiery and of the ulema. The successor to the throne frequently put to death all his brothers ; and the people looked with iniIiff(M'cnce upon the murder of a hated sultan, or the deposition of a. weak one. Mu!iiaphn I. was twice dethroned; Os- man II. and Ibrahim were strangled, the former in 1622, the latter in 1048. Selim II., indeed, conquered Cyprus in 1671, but in the same year, don Johu of Austria de- feated the Turkish fleet at Leuanto. A century after, under Mahomet IV., in IGC'J, Candia was taken, after a resistance of thirteen years ; and the vizier Kara Musta- pha gave to the Hungarians, who had been oppressed by Austria, their general, count Tekeli, for a king, in 1682; out, the very next year, he was driven back from Vienna, which he had beseiged, and, after the de- feat at Mohaez, in 1687, the Ottomans lost most of the strong places in Hungary. The exasperated people threw their sultan into prison ; but, in a short time, the grand vizier, Kiuprili Mustapha, restored order and courage, and recalled victory to the Turkish banners ; but he was slaiu in the battle against the Germans near Salan- kemen, in 1691. At last, the sultan Mus- tapha II. himself took the field ; but he was opposed bv the hero Eugene, the con- queror at Zentha, in 1697; and, on the Don, Peter the Great conquered Asoph. He was obliged, therefore, by the treaty of Carlowitz, in 1699, to renounce his claims upon Transylvania and the country be- tween the Danube and the Theias, to give up the Morea to the Venetians, to restore Podolia and the Ukraine to Poland, and to leave Azoph to the Russians. Thus commenced the fall of the Otto- man power. A revolt of the janizaries, who, abandoning their ancient rigid disci- pline, wished to carry on commerce, and live in houses, obliged the sultan to abdi- cate. His successor, the imbecile and vo- luptuous Achmet III., saw with indiffe- rence the troubles in Hungary, the war of the Spanish succession, and the great northern war. Charles XII., whom he protected after his defeat at Pultawa, fi- nally succeeded iu involving him in a war with Peter; but the czar, although sur- rounded with his whole army, easily ob- tained the peace of the Pruth, by the sur- render of Azoph, in 1711. In 1715, the grand vizier attacked Venice, and took the Morea ; but Austria assisted the republic, and Eugene's victories at Peterwardein and Belgrade in 1717> obliged the Porte to give up, by the treaty of Passarowitz, in 17I8, Temeswar, Belgrade, with a part .of Servia and Wallachia, but still it retained the Morea. Equally unsuccessful were Achmct's arms in Persia ; in consequence of which an in- surrection broke out, and he was thrown into prison in 1730. In 1/36, the Russian general Mdnmich humbled the pride of the Ottomans; but Austria, the ally of Russia, was not successful, and the French ambassador in Constantinople effected the treaty of Belgrade, by which the Porte re- gained Belgrade, with Servia and Walla- chia. Catherine, empress of Russia, soon after her elevation, began to make it a favourite object in her plan of politics to gain a dic- tatorial ascendancy over the king and diet of Poland. This she effected partly by the TEBSSALY 18 RBFUTED AS BBINO TDK OABDEM OP BUBUPIAN TUBKKT. IN TUnKIY. r in 1048. Seliin prus in 1571i but >u of Austria dc- at Lepanto. A ometIV.,in 16f!*, ■ a resistance of izier Kara Musta- ns, who had been ;ir general, count i2 ; out, the very )ack from Vienna, and, after the de- :he Ottomans lost ices in Hungary. :hrew their sultan trttime, the grand a, restored order ;d victory to the ! was slain in the aans near 8a1an- , the sultan Mus- the field; but he Eugene, the con- ; and, on the Don, ered Asoph. lie by the treaty; of lounce his claims the country he- he Theiai, to give netians, to restore ic to Poland, and Lssians. fall of the Otto- of the janizaries, Lucient rigid disci- m commerce, and he sultan to abdi- e imbecile and vo- saw with indiffe- itngarv, the war of anA the great I XII., whom he at at Pultawa, fl- ing him in a war ar, although sur- ! army, easily ob- Pruth, by the sur- 11. In 1715, the nice, and took the sted the republic, at Peterwardein itiged the Porte to of Passarowitz, in le, with a part .of It still it retained ere Achmet's arms ;e of which an la- id he was thrown 1/36, the Russian bled the pride of istria, the ally of ul, and the French Anople effected the hich the Porte re- Servia and Walla- Russia, soon after nakc it a favourite iitics to gain a dic- the king and diet >cted partly by the N TUBKBT. IN NO COUNTHY IS rBOFIDTT SO II«S«CUBB AS IK TlillKBY, tlTfie l^tstort} of tlTur&ci}. 765 intrigues and per?' ,ive bribes of her mi- nister at the cuu> of Warsaw, and partly by marching a powerful army into that kingdom : but as soon as this hostile step was taken, the Porte took the alarm, and, stimulated by jcnlousv of its northern rival, resolved to support the liberties and inde- pendence of the Poles. These resolutions being formed in the divan of Constantinople, M. Obreskow, the Russian resident there, was, according to the constant practice of the Turks on such occasions, committed a prisoner to the castle of the Seven Towers, (Oct. 5, 1768.) War was declared against the empress of Russia, and the most vigorous preparations were made to collect the whole force of the empire. The court of Russia was far from seeking a rupture with the Porte, being fully employed in important objects nearer home; out being unable to prevent a war, two armies, amounting together to 15U,0UU men, were formed, at the head of the largest of which prince Gallitzin crossed the Dniester, and entered Moldavia, with a view of becoming master of Choczin; but the prudent measures taken by the Tur- kish vizier frustrated all his attempts, and obliged him to repass the river. The im- patience of the Turks to pursue these ad- vantages, and to transfer the scat of war into Podolia, excited a general di3<;ust at the cautious and circumspect conduct of their leader; in consequence of which he was removed, and Maldovani Ali Pacha, a man precipitate and incautious, appointed in his stead; who, by repeated attempts to cross the Dneister in sight of the Russian army, lost in the short space of a fortnight 24,000 of his best troops; which spread such general discontent through the army, that, renouncing all subordination, the troops retreated tumultuously towards the Danube, and no less than 40,000 men arc said to have abandoned the standard of Mahomet in this precipitate flight. The Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Wul- lachia were overrun by the Russians, and most of the places of strength became easy preys to the conqueror. The campaign, which opened so auspiciously for the Ot- tomans, ny the rashness and folly of their f;eneral ended in their disgrace and ruin. The vizier was degraded and banished. The czarina, who almost from the com- mencement of her reign had endeavoured to establish an efHcient naval force, which, under the cUilful superintendence of sir Cliarlcs Kiiowtes, had been successfully ef- fected, now caused a large fleet of Russian men-of-war, commanded by count Orlow, to proceed from the llaltic to the Mediteri'a- uean, to annoy the Turks on their extensive coasts in the Levant. The unskillulness of the Russians in maritime affairs greatly re- tarded the progress of their fleet; and it was not until the Spring of 17/0, that it ar- rived at the scene of action, although many experienced Uriiish officers were volunteers in the expedition. The Turks, to whom the sea hns ever proved a fatal element, for some time had no force capable of op- posing the enemy, so that the Mnrca was exposed to their ravages, and several places of strength were taken; the Greek inhabi- tants every where joyfully received the in- vaders ; but at length an army of Alhaniims being collected, they drove the Russians to their ships, and having recovered the whole country, chastised the revolt of its inhabi- tants by the lawlcsj vengeance of a licen- tious soldiery. The Russians, now driven from the Mo- rea, had advanced in full force into the Egean sea, and, passing the straits which divide the island of Scio from the coast of Natolia, were met by a Turkish fleet of su- perior force. A furious engai;ement ensued on the 5th of July, in whicli the Russian admiral Spiritof encountered the captain pacha, in the Sultana of nmountinK in thu whole to nenr thirty lail. The Ruismns had only ten ahipi of the line, and tlve frigateR. The Turkith licet being thu* annihilated, it might have been expected that the Kuuian admiral would have ihakcu the Ottoman euiuiro to iti very foundationi: that he would have put it to the proof how far the Dardnnellea were effectual for the defence of the llel- Icipont. Had he proved vuccCRsful againit thoie celebrated uarrieri, Conatantinople itielf, the seat of umpire, must have fallen into hiB handa. It icems evident that the view* of lluiiia did not extend tu tiiu cOcrt' ing such a purpose ; her licet, during the remainder of the war, was onljr employed in making descents on the Turkish islands, aud with little or no success. In that space of time the great Russian army having passed the Danube, found its progress in Bulgaria stopped by the lungo of mountains which intersects that coun- try, whilst it was continually harassed by detachments from the Turkish camp. The cxpences of the war were severely felt by each empire, and although that of Russia had gained the ascendancy, no benelicial consequences had been realized. In this state of affairs, the grand seignior Musta- pha III,, emperor of the Turks, died, Jan- uary 21, 1774, in the lifty-eighth year of his age, and seventeenth of his reign ; he np- { minted his brother Abdulhamet to succeed nm in the throne. The war was continu- ed with spirit ; but a large Turkish nrmy, cnminanoed by the reis effcndi, being must disgracefully defeated by general Kanien- ski, tiic Porte, no longer able to maintnin the war, was compelled to receive terms from the conqueror. A peace was signed on the 21st of July, 177-1, at Kainnrdginc, to ratify which the inufii issued his fetl'a, or ordinance, in which, to the great degra- dation of Ottoman, pride, it was said, that, " seeing our troops will no longer fight the Russians, it is necessary to conclude a peace." The treaty of peace consisted of twenty- eight articles, by which, among other ad- vantages, the Russians obtained a free navi- gation in all the Turkish seas, together with the passage through the Dnrdnnellcs. Russian consuls were likewise to reside in the Turkish sea-ports. Although pence was, upon these condi- tions, restored, yet it soon became appa- rent that the latent ambition of Catherine caused her to meditate the utter subver- sion of the Turkish empire, and to indulge in the hope that she herself should effect it. To bring forward this grand design she made a progress from Moscow to the Crimea, with all the pageantry of imperial state. Whilst on this journey she received a visit from the emperor of Germany, Jo- seph II.. and, as the visits of potentates are generally fatal to the peace of the world, there was good ground to suppose tlint this was portentous to the Ottoman empire, and had for its chief objects to settle the mode of attacking it, and how it should be divided when conquered. The Porte took the alarm, and, determined not to await the maturaliiin of its enemy's councils and force, published a manifesto, dated the 7th of August, 17^47, and commenced hostilities againit the empress of Russia. The empe- ror of tierniany, soon after, led a formidanle army against the Turkish fastnesses on the frontiers of Hungary, not doubting but that everything would fall before him with the rapidity which Coisar exulted in; but his progress was opnosed, and hit mea- sures frustrated by the surprising valour and conduct of the Turks. The war with Russia was chiefly mari- time, and the scat of it the Black Sea; but here neither success nor glory accrued to the Turkish arms. The Russians became masters of Ocsakow, and in every conflict at sea were decisively superior. This unequal war wos not looked upon with indifference by some ether of the great powers of Europe. Th.; subjugation of the Turkish empire, anii (he vast in- crease of power which Russia would ac- quire, by possessing the most valuable, be- cause the most commercial parts of it, were cousiderud as revolutions in which the other powers of Europe were deeply interested. In consequence of whicli a close alliance was_ formed between Great Britain and Prussia, having for its chief object, the rescuing the Turks from that destruction which hung over them, by re- storing peace to that part of Europe. The losses aiul lilsgraces which the emperor sustained, r >d the death of Laudohn, the only gene-ftl who had effected any thing, rendered thr.t prince anxious to termi- nate the war; and the empress of Rus- sia, through the mediation of the British court, at leni^th acceded to terms of peace, by the conditions of which irery import- ant towns and distiicts were added to her dominions ; which, however, her arms had previously obtained. Buonaparte's campaign in Egypt finally raised the indignation of the Porte, which, on the 1st of September, 1798, declared war for the first time against France. By its alliance with Russia, in December, I7i'^r and with England and Naples, in January, 17'.i'J, it now fell under the direction of the cabinets of St. Petersburg and St. James's. A llussinn fleet sailed through the Darda- nelles, aud a Turkish squadron, in co-ope- ration with it, conquered the Ionian Is- lands. Paul I. and Selim III., by a treaty at Constantinople, formed the republic of the Seven Islands, which, as well as Ra- gusa, was to be under the protection of the Porte. In the following year, this country restored Egypt to the Porte ; but the Mameluke beys and the Arnaouts fill- ed the land with tumult and bloodshed, until, on the Ist of March, 1811, the new governor, Mehemed Ali Pacha, entirely cx- ttrininated the Mamelukes by treachery. Since then he has ruled over Kgypt almost independently. The union with the European powers o « w : u r. > o l\ * BILK IS BXTBNBIVRLY mOOUCKD IN BKVKRAl, nlSTRICTS (IK ASIA MINOR. CIINHTANTINuri.il, AIIHIANori.ll, AN!) SALORICA AHR THM UlirATI Or TRAua. t!ri)c 1i)l»torn of ^urfecij. 767 hill), liowuviT, Hindi' Scliin nnd Romp nf tlin cliiKl'i of lliu viii|iiri! RcniiiblR tlint, if the I'nrli' wiiiilil iiiHiiitnin itit powrr, it iiiiist inlriiUucH iiilo in nrniiPR tliii inoilcrii tiin- tlc«, nnd K>vt' to tlio divHii n form iiiori- luitcd to the liiiiei. The Niznn DhIib- did laboured, therefore, lo form h TurkiHh army on the Europenn model, whicli ihould lupericde the jiiniznriei. Itiit nfter the peaee with Frniiee, in IHUl, there were in the divan two parties, a Riimian mid Kri- tiah, and a Freneli. Tlie Hupcriorilyof Ilus- lia presfied upon the I'orte in the Ionian IiilandK and in Hervia; it wan aecordin^ly inclined to favour France. Wlieii, there- fore, IliisBia, in iHdO, occupied Moldavia and Walliichin, the old hostility hrolce out anew, and (Dec. »Oth, IHOfi) the I'orte, at the insliKBtion of Krniice, declared war aitainBt ItuHsia, which was already ent(i\^c.A with Persia and France. The weakness uf the Ottoman empire was now evident. An EiiKlish ricet forced the passn|{c of the Uardunelles, nnd, on the 3ilth of February, 1H()7, nppenrcd before Constantinople ; but the French general 8clinstiani directed, with success, the resistance of the divan and of the enrn^cd people. On the other hand, the Ilussiaiis made rapid advances. The people murmured ; and 8elim III., on the 2Uth of May, I.S07, was deposed by the mufti, and Mustapha IV. was obli);ed to put a stop to the haled innovations. Hut, after the Turkish fleet had been entirely lienten by the Russians at Leinnos, Kelim'a friend, Mustapha Uairaktar, the brave pacha of Ruschuk, took advantage of the (error of the capital, to seize it. liut the unhappy Sclim loHt his!!ife; and Itnirak- tar, in the place of the deposed MuHiapba IV., raised to the throne the sullan Mah- nioud II. As grand -vizier of Mahmoud, he restored the new military system, and concluded a truce wiih UusHia ; but the fury of the janizaries again broke nut, and destroyed him in the latter end of IHOH. Miibinoud now alone supported the throne : for he was, since the death of Mustapha IV., the only prince of the family of Osman, and he soon displayed an extra- ordinary degree of courage nnd prudence. One of his first acts was to conclude peace Willi Great llritain, in 1S09; he then con- tinued, with redoubled vigour, the war a|.,'niiist the Russians, who already threat- ened the passages of the Balkan. Twice I he Russians were obliged to retreat be- yond the Danube ; nevertheless, their po- licy conquered the French party in the ilivan. In vain did the French emperor, ill his treaty with Austria, March 14, 1812, declare that he would maintain the in- tcjtrity of the Turkish territory. Not- wiilistanding this, before the French army had pussed tlie Niemcn, the sultan bought peace with Russia, at llucliarcst, by ceding that part nf Moldavia and Rcssarabia which lies bcjoiid the I'ruth, with the northern fortresses on the Dniester and at the mouths uf the Danube, and the southern gates of the Caucasus ou the Kur. The Servians, left to themselves, again became subjiTted lo Turkey. They re- taineil, however, by their 'reiity with the I'orte, in Noveiiiher, IHU>, the adiiiiniilra- lion of the goveriiiiieiit. In li(l7t Mahmoud 'vas obliged to give up the principal mouth uf the Danube to Russia. Itiit the Oreek insurrection again disturbed the relations of the two powers, and has produced important changes in the situation of the I'orte. The I'orte be- lieved that Russia secretly favoured ihe in- surrection, and therefore seized Moldavia and Wallachia, and restricted its marine commerce. Uolh were open violations of I lie peace of llueharest. After an inter- change of notes, the Russian ambassador left Constantinople. The mediation iif the Unglish and Austrian courts, together with the emperor Alexander's de«,ii e for peace, prevented the outbreak of a war; but ihe divan, under various pretexts, refused all satisfaction to the Russian cabinet, until, at last, the emperor Nicholas declared the Russian ulliiiiatuin ; upon which the I'orte, in IH'Jfi, granted all the demands of the Russian court, and promised that in Mol- davia and Wallachia (where, in three years, it had raised U7,0(JU,UUO of piastres, which were employed in the war against the Greeks) everything should be replaced on its former footing, and sent commisHioners to Ackerman. Here a final term was again fixed for the decision of the divan, and on the fith of October, 1H26, eighty-two articles of the Russian ultimatum were accepted. The i'orte surrendered to the Russians all the fortresses in Asia which it had hitherto held hack, and acknowledged tlie privileges granted by Russia to Servia, Moldavia, and Wallachia. The treaty was executed in 1827. In the meanwhile the Porte had begun its internal reform, and it was utterly re- solved to exterminate the janizaries, who burnt the suburb of Gulata, between the Hril and Ihe 6tli of January, 1820. An army was funned upon the European system, and in June, 1821!, the janizaries were de- stroyed, after a bloody struggle. The vio- lence employed in the execution of this and other measures, caused an insurrec- tion, in which (iOOO houses were burnt in Constantinople. Instead of military in- subordination, the most rigid military des- potism began, which did not spare even the ulema. At the same time, the I'orte, in June, 1827, firmly refused the ottered mediation of Russia, England, and France, in its war with the Greeks ; and the grand seignior called nil his subjects (Christinns included) to arms, to fight, if necessary, against all Europe. Our limits compel us to bring this sketch somewhat abruptly to a close. Rut for the more recent events connected with the Ot- toman empire, in respect lo its foreign re- lations, we refer the reader to the latter portions of our histories uf Greece, Russia, and England. European powers ASIA MlNOn. TlIK CEHRMONtBS OF RBLIBION ARK A TURK B ONLY FVBMC PI.KA8URKS. Mi 1 i;?l 1 n fm\\ '( fp ^^ ' ffiW' 'J 1 i y%l ;'■* • ! ■;/ |!:f ' i/ . ^ Y f f ', • ;» '' f. 1 /v ' , ih ' ', ,1'i TIIK AIITIIOUII'T 0¥ TIIK alrLTAN II r III NCir Al.bt rOUNUKU UN Till KOHAN. 768 ^Iie ^rcasuri) of l^istonj, ^c. The liiie, Viogrma, iinil KsliililiahiiieHt of MAIl()Mi;rANISM. A Ru1)j('(-t «(> niriDiiH niid iniporlnut nil lliu rcligiDii cf tnlilinliL'il hy Miiliiiiiirt, wliicli hnii lit'cii nnifcRRCil for iiioru iIihii ricven pi'iiliirii-H ny iiinny iiiilliuiiH of tin- liiiiiinn riu'c, iiiid «hicli lit prmitiit prnvniU (roin till? (iuiiKi'N to MoriK'i'o, cxcluxive i>l ii vuit niiiiilii'i* of very |iii|i\ilouii iHlanilH, niid every roiiiilry wlicrr tlit! iril/c?^ of MiilHyi) Rcttio, ill Olio dirrfliiin, mid from tliu ■oiitlicrii rxtrrinity of Arabin to I iiv borders of lliiii- Knrv, ill iiiKilbcr, dcaorvus to be piirticularly iiotiri'il in I bin |ibiCL>, Malioiiict, or iiiiivc properly Mobnmnird, tbe fiimidi'r of lliia aiiiKular and ipread- liiK liulli, was born in tliu year 5filunrtii niiit lixi'il RtarN ; iiukiIh mid iiiihk*'* tlx^y hnnourtil nit inrcrior ili'iti) •>, wliiiiiu iiitori'i-i>iiloiii willi till! Aliiiixlitv 111 tlicir favour they iiiiiilored: tliey liclii'vi III mil! (iod ; in tiii> future pun- inliiiicnt III iliu wicked, tor ii hmg Kcric* of yc.iin, tliiiiiKli nut tor ever; Hiid coiiHtantly (irnyi'd tliri-i- liiiicK h day; iiitiiivly, at mm- riHC, at itH il(>('liiialu)n, and ut nunHttt : they I'lihtifd tliri')! tiiiii-ii a yciii- ; duriiiK iliiitv dayii, niiii: diiyn, and ticveii dayw ; tliiry ot- I'cri-d iimiiy Haiiilii'i!*, but nlu tio part of tliiMii, the wlioli.' Iii-inx burnt; Ibey like- wine tiiriifd tbtir tacoi, ubcn prayiiiK. to a particular part of the horizon •. thi^y pcr- i'orini.'d pilKriinaKcit to tin; city of ifarran in McKopotaniia, and liiid a Krcat rcupcct for thctcnijih! of Mecca and the pyrainidii of Kxypt, iinaniniiin tlio h\tter to be; tbu nepulcbruH of Si.'th, alno uf Kiioh and Sabi, hii two Rons, whom Ibey conKidcrid an lliu foiin'lcrsof their rehKioii. ItcBiduiithe book of rHalins, tliey had ot her bookx which they entcenied ci{nally uacrcd, uarticuiarly one, ia tliu Chaldee tongue, wliicli tliey called " the book of Scth." They have been called "ChriHtianRUI St. John thr lrd, to deitroy the monuments of iihilalry, and, without regarding the SHiietily of day* or months, to pursue the unbelieving nntmns of the earth. The Koran ineiilpatei,in tlie most ahaoluti) sense, the tenets of faith and predestinatum. The flrst companions of Mnhoniet advanced to battle with a tear- less contidenee, their leader having liilly posHcs^tcd their minds with the assiirniiee that paradise awaited those who died IlKht- ing lor the cause of their proiihet, the f;ratilicutions of wliicli were held out to le such as best suited the amorous com- plexions of the Arabians : llouries of black- eyed girls, rcKpiendi^nt in beauty, bluoniiiig youth and virgin purity; every nioinrnt ol pleasure was there to be prolonged to a thousand years, and the powers of the man were to be increased an hundred-fold to render liim capable of such felicity: to those who survived, rich siioilsniid the pns- scKsions of their female captives were to crown their coni|iieats. Mahomet was pre- sent at nine battles or sieges; and fifty en- terii.'iscM of war were nchleved in ten years by hiiiiKelf or his lieiitenanu. Heven years after his (light from Mecca he returned to that city, wiiere he was publicly recognized as a |iniice and prophet: the ididatn u.» worship of the C'aabn was immediately Htm- lished, and suecicded hv the siinplie i uf the Mahometan cstalilisliment. Thi \j'ab lawgiver retained hot h his mental and mlil jr powers unimpaired till he reached h -> tillth year, when his health began todech'ie, and lie bimsidf suspected that a slow poiaon had been udiniiiistered to him by a Jewess, under the ell'ects of which he languished; but his death was caused by a fever, in the filld year of his age, the li.'tJd of the Cliris- tian era, and KUh of the liegira. There are some particulars told rexpeeting Ma- homet, which have gained geuerul belii.'f, although void of all foundatinn : such is the story of the tame pigeon, which the people were taught to believe imparted religious truths to the car of the prophet ; the epi- leptic tits, which hive been said to cause him to fall down as in a trance, he is not supposed to have been subject to ; and the suspension of his iron eotlhi at Mecca is a must absurd falsehood, it being well know n that he was buried at Medina, in a stone cutiin. Of the chapters of the Koran, which are lit in number, tlie Sieiir ilu Kycr makes ninety-four to have been received at Mecca, and twenty at Medina; but, according to Mr. Sale, a much betterauthority, the com- mentators on the Koran have not tixcd the place where about twenty of these revela- tions were imparted ; so that no inference can be drawn how far the prophet had pro- ceeded in his pretended inspirations when he fled from Jlecca ; neither does the order in which they stand point out the time when they were written, for the 7-1'h chapter is supposed to have been the first revealed, and the litith to have immediately followed it. K a H n lu Till. SUDDBN EI.KVATION AND FAM. OP PUBLIC OFFICKRS IS QUITE COMMON. [S U VUni.lC IIATIIR ANU 1:U >N8 ARK fOUND IN MOST PAUTS Of TIIKKRT. »$■ li: ii i ■■ m f 770 Cl^e tlTrcasuri) oi l^istott}, $cc. The most amiable featurm in tlic roliKion which Mnhomct establixhcd uro, prutbund adoration of one (iod, whose iiuiiivs, or rather titles, are niuazinKly divernifled in the Koran ; (these arc collected, to the amount of nine hundred and ninety-nine, and servo as a manual of devotion;) the daily ofl'erinff up of prayers to him, which consist of snort ejaculations; stated fasts, and a constant distribution of a laru;e por- tion of personal property to the relier of the indigent and distressed: nor is the charity which is enjoined contined to alms-KiviiiK, but comprehends, in its fullest extent, ge- neral humanity and acts of bcncticence to all Mussulmans. A general resurrection of the dead is another article of belief reite- rated in the Koran. Whatever superstitious practices adhere to it, cannot be imputed to priestcraft, for no rcligiou that ever was promulgated to the world, the unadulter- ated religion of Jesus Christ excepted, so entirely excluded the influence of the priest- hood; it may indeed be called emphatically " the laical religion," since its founder had the address to obtain the most enthusiastic regard to his dogmas, without giving wealth or consequence to those wlio were ap- Sointrd to illustrate and enforce them ; in- eed, the Koran reproaches the Christians for taking their priests and monks for their lords beside Uod. — The pilgrimage to Mecca, praying toward that place, and the ablutions which arc eiijoinca on the most ordinary acts and occasions, together with the adoption of that religious sophism pre- destination, in its most extravagant extent, seem to comprehend the superstitious parts of this religior ; but it has other character- istics which betray its spurious origin, and prove its destructive tendency. To compensate for the rigid fastings which it enjoins, and the disuse of wine which it requires, a most licentious indul- gence is allowed in the use of women ; and though they may not, as has been imputed to ttiem, deny to that sex a future state of existence, yet, as they consider women merely as instruments of gratitication, all those amiable qualities which the sex is capable of displaying when the faculties are properly expanded by a judicious and libe- ral coarse of education, are suppressed as soon as formed. Another foul taint in this religion is, the abhorrence which it creates against all thcoe wlio do not embrace the same doc- trines ; and also, the direct tendency of that faith to consign the human mind to a state of arrogant and incurable ignorance by considering the Koran as comprising every thing worthy of being known. The Arabs, from the genial influence of their climate, as well as from habits transmitted through so many generations as to be formed into innate principles, were libidinous beyond most of their species, and no individual among them felt that propensity stronger than their prophet; neither policy nor in- clination therefore prompted him to bring his disciples under severe rextraints witli respect to women; he ought not, however, to be denied the praise which is duo to having in some measure tempered the lust- ful Herceness r( his countrymen ; and he may be said to have elfected some reforma- tion, when he restrained his followers even to four wives, when ho forbad incestuous alliances, entitled a repudiated wife to a dower from her husband, made adultery a capital offence, and rendered fornication punishable by law. Uesides the Koran, which is the written law to the Mahometans, alike as to I ho be- lief and practice of religion and the admi- nistration of public justice, there is the Sunnah, or oral law, which waH selected, two hundred years after the death of Ma- homet,- from a vast number of precepts and injunctions which had been handed down from ago to age, as bearing the stamp of his authority. In this work the rite of circumcision is enjoined, concern- ing which the Koran was silent ; nor was it necessary to be there commanded, as the Arabians adhered to it before this esta- blishment. By the express command of their founder, the Mahometans set apart Friday in each week for the especial wor- ship of God. They are ever assiduous to mako converts to their faith, nor can they reject the most abject or jprofligato wretch, who declares his desire of becoming a true believer, even although they know him to be ignorant alike of their language and the principles of their religion. Charity, as already ooserved, is enjoined in the strongest terms in the Koran : and the Turks are remarkable for acts of be- nevolence to the poor and the distressed, and are even careful to prevent the unfor- tunate being reduced to necessities. They repair highways, erect cisterns of water for the convenience of travellers, build kahns or caravanseras for their reception ; and some devout people, it is said, erect sheds by the way side, that the weary traveller may sit under the shade and take his refreshment. In chap. iv. of the Koran, are the following injunctions : " Show kindness to thy parents, to thy relations, to orphans, to the poor ; to tliy neighbour who is related to thee, and to thy neighbour who is a stranger; to Ihy familiar companion, to the traveller, and lo the captive whom thy right hand has taken : for God loveth not the proud, the vain glorious, the covetous, or those who bestow their wealth in order to be seen of men." They name their children as soon as they are born ; when the father, putting some grains of salt into its mouth, and lifting it on high, as dedicating it to God, cries out, " God grant, my son 8olymon, that his holy name may be as savoury in thy mouth as tliis salt, and that he nniy preserve thee from being too much in lovo with the world." As to the infantH who die young, before they are circumcised, they believe they are laved by the circunioision of their father. Their children arc not circumcised, like those of the Jews, at eight days old, but TUB USB OF TUB WARM BATH IS UNIVKRSAI. AMONG AI.I, CLASSES. rUI.TUAMY IS AinUOUlBKU Ut TIIK KOBAN, BUT NUT UrTKN UKIUUTKD TO. CTI^e l^lsioru of ^JTurfccj}. 771 at eleven or twelve, ami iDinciime* at four- tern or fifteen yearw of age, wlit'ii tliey are able tu make u prot'enHiori of their lailli. Wlicn any rcneitado Christian in circuiii- ciaed, two ba«inii are usually carried after him, to I'athcr the alms which the speota- tors freely give. Those who are uncircum- cised, whether Turkish children ur Chris- tiann, are not allowed to he present at their public prayers; and if they are taken in Ihcir mos((UCB, they arc liable tu be impaled or burnt. The fast of Ilamadan U observed by the Turks exaclly in the same manner us by the Persians. The feast of Itairam bc)^ins with the next new moon after that last, and ,ia published by firing of guns, bon- fires, and other rejoicings. At this feast the houses and shops are adorned with tlicir finest hangings, tapestries, and solas. In the streets are swings ornamented with festoons, in which the people sit, and are tossed in the air, while they are at the same time entertained with vocal and in- strumental music performed by persotis hired by the masters of the swings. They have also fireworks ; and, during the three days of this festival, many women, who arc in a manner confined the rest of the year, liavc liberty to walk abroad. At this time they forgive their enemies, and be- come reconciled to them; for they think they have made a bad bairam, if they har- bour the least malice in their hearts against any person whatsoever. This is termed the Great Bairam, to distinguish it from the Little liairam, which they keep seventy days after. They have also several other festivals, on aU which the steeples of the mosques are adorned with lamps placed in various figures. They regularly pray three times a day, and are obliged to wash before their pray- ers, as well as before they presume to touch the Koran. As they make great use of their fingers in eating, they arc required to wnah after every meal, and the more cleanly among them do it before meals. After every kind of defilement, in fact, ablution is enjoined. By the Mahometan law a man may di- vorca his wife twice, and if he afterwards repents, he may lawfully take her again; laut Mahomet, to prevent his followers from divorcing their wives upon every slight oc- casion, or merely from an inconstant hu- mour, ordained, that if any man divorces his wife a third time, it is not lawful for him to take her again, till she has been married and bedded by another, and di- vorced from that husband. The Koran al- lows no man to have more than four wives and concubines, but the prophet and his successors are laid under no restriction. Church government, by the institutions of Mahomet, appears to have centered in the mufti, and the order of the moulahs, from which the mufti must be chosen. The moulahs have been looked upon as ecclesiastics, and the mufti as their head ; but the Turks consider the first rather as expoundurs of the law, mid the l.iltcr ns the great law olliccr. Tho»e who really act as divines are the iniaums, or puriiili priests, who olllciate in, and are net aniile for the service of the mosques. No church revenues are appropriated to the particu- lar use of the moulahs; the iinauniH are the ecclcHiastics in inmiediate pay. Their Hcheiks are the chiefs of their dorvixes, (dervishes) or monks, and form religious communities, or orders, established on so- lemn vows; they consecrate themselves merely to religious otllces, domestic devo- tion, and public prayer and preaching: there are four of these orders, the BeK- tushi, Mcvelevi, Kadri, and Seyah, who are very numerous throughout the empire. The monks of the first ol these orders are permitted to marry, but are obliged to travel through the empire. The Mcvelevi, in their acts of devotion, turn round with velocity fur two or three hours incessantly. They are passionately fond of music, parti- cularly a tlute funned of an Indian reed : the^ live in their monastery ; profess poverty and humility; entertain kindly all strangers, of whatever religion, whu visit them ; and receive alm». They sometimes even offer to wash the feet of a Mussulman. The Kadri express their devotion by lacerating their bodies; they walk the streets almost naked, with distracted and wild lookH ; they hold their hands joined together, as if in the act of jjrayer, except when they perform their religious dances, which they continue many hours, and sometimes the whole day, repeating incessantly, IIu ! hii I hut hu! one of their names of the deity; until at last, as if they were in a violent rage or phrcnsy, they fall to the ground, foaming at the mouth, and every part of their body bathed in sweat. The Seyahs, like the Indian fakiers, are little better than mere vagabonds. The Turks appropriate to themselves the name of Mosleniim, which has been cor- rupted into Mussulman, signifying persons professing the doctrine of Mahomet. They also term themselves Sunnites, or obser- vers of the oral traditions of Mahomet and his three successors; and likewise call themselves True Believers, in upposition to the Persians and others, the adherents of Ali, whom they call a wicked and abo- minable sect. Their rule of faith and prac- tice is the Koran. Some externals of their religion, besides the prescribed ablutions, are prayers, which are to be said five times every twenty-four hours, with the face turned towards Mecca; and alms, which are both enjoined and voluntary : the for- mer consists of paying two and a half per cent, to charitable uses out of their whole income. Their feasts have been already spoken of; and every Mahometan must, at least, once in his life-time, go in pilgrim- age, either personally or by proxy, to the Cuaha, or house of God at Mecca. IN l-KKI'OHMINO THKIIl DKVUTIUNS, TUB TVHKS TAKK UVP THKIR BUOBS. TIIK I'KINClrAL 1UVU118 Or INIIIA ItlSB IN TlIK UIMALAYAII MUUMTAItlS. i^. HI H «l M M W ►< M M > THE HISTORY OF INDIA. As the Ilindiia (or Hindoos) never had any historicnl wri(iug!<, nil the infornintion to be ubtHiiied resiiectiiig the original in- hnbitants of India is gleaned from popu- lar poems or the accounts of foreijiners. How vague and unsatisfactory bucIi ac- counts always are, and how mixed with fa- bulous invention, the result of nil researches in such labyrinths most abundantly proves : we shall, therefore, make but a biief ana- lysis of it. Under the name of Imlia the ancients included no more than the peninsula on this side the Ganges, and the peninsula beyond it, having little or no knowledge of the countries which lie farther east- ward. Uy whom these countries were ori- ginally peopled is a question which has given rise to much speculation, but which, in all probability, will never be solved. Certain it is, that some works in these parts discover marks of astonishing skill and power in the inhabitants; such as the images in the island of'Ulephanta, the observatory at Benares, and ninny others. These stupendous works are, by Uryant, attributed to the Cushites or Kabyloninns ; and it is possible that the subjects of Nin rod, the beginning of whose kingdom was in Shinar, might extend themselves in this direction, and thus till the fertile regions of the east with inhabitants, before they migrated to the less mild and rich coun- tries to the westward. Thus would be formed for a time that great division be- twixt the inhabitants of India and other countries ; so that the western nations knew not even of the existence of India, but by obscure report ; while the inhabi- tants of the latter, ignorant of their own origin, invented a thousand idle talcs con- cerning the antiquity of their tribes. According to Hindis tradition, then, and the popular legends of their bards, their country was at tlrst divided between two principal fnmilies ; called in oriental phrase- ology, " the families of the sun and moon." These were both said to be descended from Brahma originally, through the patriarchs Daksha and Atri, his sons. Vaiwaswat, (the sun,) had Daksha for his father ; and So- ma, (the moon,) sprung from Atri. The tirst prince of the family of the sun was named Ikshwaku, who whs succeeded by his grandson, named Kakutslha. But the most celebrated prince was Rnma, the son of Uasarutha, who was banished to the forests by his father for fourteen years, and was accompanied there by iSita, his wile. Sita having been carried off by Ravann, (or the giant with ten heads), "who was king of Lanka, or Ceylon, Rama, assisted by Sugriva and Ilnnuman, (who arc de- scribed us monkies), pursued him to his capital, took it, put liim to death, and placed his brother Vibhishna on the t hrone. The traditions of the south of India add, that upon Rama's victory, colonists eanie from Ayodhya, or Oude, cleared and tilled the ground, and introduced the arts of civilized lite. Rama returned to Ayodhya, over which he ruled for many years; and was succeeded by his son Kusn, whose posterity inherited the throne after hiui. I'ururaves, the son of Budha, the son of the moon, was the first prince of the lunar dynasty. His capital was Pratishthilna, at the cop'iucncc of the Ganges and Jumna. To hiiii is attributed the discovery of the art of kindling fire. His eldest son, Ayus, succeeded him. Ayus had two sons, Nahushn, who suc- ceeded him; and Kshetravtiddlin, who es- tablished a separate principality at Kasi, or Benurcs. Nnhusha's surcessor was Ya- yati, who had five sons, the youngest of whom, I'uru, he named as his successor. To the other four, whose names were Yndn, TurvasH, Druhya, and Ann, he gave the viceroyship, under Puru, of certain pro- vinces of the paternal kingdom. One of the descendants of Druhya was Gnndhar, from whom the province now called Candahnr, received its name. The posterity of Anu established themselves from the south of the pvovinoe of Bchar to the upper part of the Coromandcl coast. In fact, it appears that the descendants of Yaynti colonized and introduced civiliza- tion throughout the greater part of south- ern and western India. Among the descendants of Puru there were several celebrated princes; one of whom, named Bharnta, the son of Dush- yanta, ruled over a very extensive territory, so that India has been sometimes called alter his name, Bharata Versha, the coun- try of Bharata. The most material facts that we next notice in these annals are, that some centuries niter this, Ilasti, a descendant of Puru, removed the capital further north, on the banks of the Ganges; which city was called after him, Ilastina- pur: also that, four descents after Ilasti, the sovereign of Ilastinapur was Kuru, from whom the country to the north-west was called Kurukshetra, n nome it still retains. From what we hove alrendy produced as specimen of the Hindii annals,— which we have endeavoured to give as free from mythological distortions as possible, — it will be admitted that a further analysis of them, unless we had space sufficient to THB WIIOLK COURRR OP TlIU OAMOES IS nBrKONRU AT AltOUT l.t'jO MILKS, m I (WTAIIJS. » 'A c! u a w •4 n SB «l >■. w eo tt H _ n ■< , (who pre (In- itcd him to his b to (Ipaili, and f nonlhc thiono. *> Ii of Iiidin odd. r. colonislH csnie iat'cd and tilled ai cd the arts of fu icd to Ayodliyn, M lany ycais; mid m n Kuan, wiiose M jnc after him. SB idha, the son of a ncc of the liitiar M fratishthCuia, at * ens and Junnm. discovery of I lie ca a Idest sun, Ayus, < lushn, who suc- n r. tiddlin, who cs- ipnlity at Knsi, m occssor was Ya- a llie younncst of o s his sticressor. y. Fimcs were Yndii, < u, he ifiwe the a of certain pro- « dom. of Druhva was & ( province now >» its nnnie. The K hed themselves jvinre of Dchar romnndel coast. VI ;he descendants ft roduced civiliza- b ;r part of south- O D 1 of Puru there irinces; one of W e son of Dush- D ensive territory, m )nictimes called a irsha, the coun- 'f. t material facts -I icse annals are. n r this, Ilasti, a Q )vcd the capital T. softhe Ganges; B r him, Ilasiina- r. nts after Ifasti, pur was Kuru, M 1 the north-west ti a name it still ndy produced as annals, — which a ive as free from iS possihle, — it further analysis < SCO sufficient to ^50 MILKS. TUB HUMBBU Of TUOSB WHO SFKAK BBNOALKK IS ABOUT 25 MILLIONS. ®I;e l^lstoru of EntJia. 773 make suitable comments as we proceeded, would be both uninterRsting and an unpro- fitable occupation of time. " The whole course of the fiolitical his- tory of ancient India," as Professor Wilson observes, " shows it to have been a co\in- try divided arao»Kst numerous petty rfgahs, constantly at variance with one another, and incapable of securing their subjects from the inroads of their neighbours, or the invasions of foreign enemies. " The early religion of the Hindus, as represented in the Vedns, seems to have been little more than the adoration of fire and the elements. The attributes of a Su- preme Ueing, as creator, preserver, and de- stroyer, were afterwards pcrsouiAed, and worshipped as the deities Urahina, Vishnu, and Siva. Philosophical notions of matter and spirit were next embodied ; and cele- brated individuals, like the demigods of Greece, added to the Pantheon: other mo- dificHtioDs, some as recent as four or Ave centuries, were subsequently introduced. " The division of the Ilinuils into castes is a peculiarity in their social condition, which early attracted notice ; but such an arrangement was not uncommon in anti- quity, and it prevailed in Persia and Kgypt. In these countries it gradually ceased; but in India it has been carried far beyond the extent contemplated in the original system. " The original distinction was into Brah- man, religious teacher; Kshctruja, war- rior; Vaisya, agriculturist and trader; and Sudra, servile: but from the intermixture of these and their descendants, arose nu- merous other tribes or castes, of which the Hindlls now ch'>!fly consist; the ISrah- nian being the only one of the four original divisions remaining." The Hrst among the western nations who distinguished themselves by their applica- tion to navigation and commerce, and who were of consequence likely to discover these distant nations, were the Egyptians and Phccnicians. The former, however, soon lust their inclination for naval affairs, and held all sea-faring people in detesta- tion ; though to the extensive conquests of Sesostris, if we can believe them, must this feeling in a great measure be attributed, lie is said to have fitted out a fleet of 4(10 sail in the Arabian Gulf or Red Sea, which conquered all the countries lying along the Krythrean Sea to India; while the army, led by himself, marched through Asia, and 8ul3dued all the countries to the Ganges ; after which he crossed that river, and advanced to the Eastern ocean. Strabo rejected the account altogether, and ranks the exploits of Sesostris in India with the fabulous ones of Uacchus and Hercules. Soon after the destruction of the Baby- lonian monarchy by the Persians, we find Darius Hystaspes undertaking an expedi- tion against the Indians. Herodotus in- forms us, that he sent Scylax of Caryandra to explore the river Indus; who sailed from Caspatyrus, a town ut its source, and near the territories of Pactya, eastward to the sea; thence, turning westward, he arrived at the place where the Phoenicians had formerly sailed round Africa, after which Uarius subdued the Indians, and became master of that coast. His conquests, how- ever, were not extensive, as tiiey did not reach beyond the territory watered by the Indus; yet the acquisition was very impur- tant, as the revenue derived from the con- quered territory, according to Herodotus, was near a third of that ot the whole Per- sian empire. According to major Rennel, the space of country through which Alexander sailed on tlic Indus was not less than lUOU miles; and as, during the whole of that naviga- tion, he obliged the nations on both sides of the river to submit to him, we may be certain that the country on each side was explored to some distance. An exact ac- count, not only of his military operations, but of every thing worthy of notice relating to the countries through which he passed, was preserved in the journals of his three officers, Lagus, Nearchus, and Aristobu- lus: and these journals Arrian followed in the composition of his history. From these authors wc learn, that, in the time of Alex- ander, the western part of India was pos- sessed by seven very powerful monarchs. The territory of Porus, which Alexander first conquered and then restored to him, is said to have contained no fewer than 2,000 towns ; and the king of the Prasii had assembled an army of 20,0110 cavalry, 2,000 armed chariots, and a great number of ele- phants, to oppose the Macedonian monarch on the banks of the Ganges. The . ountry on each side the Indus was found, in the time of Alexander, to be in no degree inferior in population to the kingdom of Porus. The climate, soil, and productions of India, as well as the man- ners and customs of the inhabitants, arc ex- actly described, and the descriptions found to correspond in a surprising manner with modern accounts. The stated change of seasons, now known by the name of mon- soons, the periodical rains, the swellings and inundations of the rivers, with the ap- pearance of the country during the time they continue, are particularly mentioned. The descriptions of the inhabitants arc equally particular; their living entirely upon vegetables ; their division into tribes or castes, witlrmany of the particularities of the modern Hindoos. The military ope- rations, however, extended but a very little way into India properly so called ; no fur- ther indeed than tlie modern province of Lahore, and the countries on the banks of the Indus, from Moultan to the sea. On the death of Alexander, the eastern part of his dominions devolved first on Fytho, the son of Agenor, and afterwards on Selcucus. The latter was sensible of the advantages of keeping India in subjec- tion. With this view, he undertook an ex- pedition into that country, partly to con- firm his authority, and partly to defend the Macedonian territories against Sandracot- tus, king of the Prasii. The particulars of THOSE WHO SPBAK HINOOSTANBE ABB NOT VKWBB THAN 20 MILLIONS. [3U8 Ml / f I'l > T>IB UI8TINCTI0:s ^l}t ?^istor@ of Intiia. 775 India which had .been visited formerly by merchants from the west. Long before this period, however, a much better method of sailing to India had been discovered by one Ilippalus, the commander of an In- dian ship, who lived about eighty years after Egypt had been annexed to the Ro- man empire. This man having observed the periodical shifting of the monsoons, and now steadily they blew from the east to west during some months, ventured to leave the coast, and sail boldly across the Indian Ocean, from the mouth of the Ara- bian Gulf to Musiris, a port on the Mala- bar coast; which discovery was reckoned a matter of such importance, that the name of Ilippalus was given, to the wind by which he performed the voyage. Pliny gives a very particular account of the man- ner in which the Indian traffic was now carried on, mentioning the particular stages and the distances between them. V/hile the Seleucidee continued to enjoy the empire of Syria, the trade with India continued to be carried on by laud. The Romans, having extended their dominions ns far as the Euphrates, found this method of conveyance still established, and the trade was by them encouraged and pro- tected. But the progress of the caravans being freqviently interrupted by the Par- thians, particularly when they travelled towards those countries where silk and other of the most valuable manufactures were procured, it became an object to the Romans to conciliate the friendship of the sovereigns of those distant countries. Dr. llobcrtson takes notice, that, from the evidence of an Arabian merchant who wrote in 852, it appears, that not only the Saracens, but the Chinese also, were desti- tute of the mariner's compass ; contrary to a common opinion, that this instrument was known in the east long before its dis- covery in Europe. Notwithstanding this disadvantage, they penetrated far beyond Siam, which had set bounds to the naviga- tion of Europeans. They became acquaint- ed with Sumatra and other Indian islands ; extending their navigation as far as Can- ton in China. A regular commerce was now carried on from the Persian Gulf to all the countries lying betwixt it and China, and even with China itself. Many Saracens settled in India, properly so called, ab well as in the countries beyond it. In the city of Canton they were so numerous that the emperor permitted them to have a cadi or judge of their own religion ; the Arabian language was understood and spoken in every place of consequence ; and ships from China even are said to have visited the Persian Gulf. According to the Arabian accounts of those days, the peninsula of India was at that time divided into four kingdoms. The first was composed of the provinces situ- ated on the Indus and its branches, the capital of which was Moultan. The second had the city of Canogc, which, from its re- maining ruins, appears to have been a very large place. The Indian historians relate, that it contained 30,(i(K) shops in which betel nut was sold, and fio.oou sets of mu- sicians and singers who paid a tax to go- vernment. The third kingdom was that of Caeheraire, tiist mentioned byMassoudi, who gives a short desc^ri^tion of it. The fourth kingdom, Guzcrat, is represented by the same author as the most powerful of the whole. Another Arab writer, who flou- rished about the middle of the fourteenth century, divides India into three parts ; the northern comprehending all the pro- vinces on the Indus; the middle extend- ing from Guzerat to the Ganges; and the southern, which he denominates Comar, from Cape Comorin. From the relation of the Arabian mer- chant above mentioned, explained by the commentary of another Arabian who had likewise visited the eartern parts of Asia, we learn many particulars concerning the inhabitants of these distant regions at that time, which correspond with what is ob- served among them at this day. They take notice of the general use of silk among the Chinese, and the manufacture of porcelain, which they compare to glass. They also describe the tea-plant, with the manner of using its leaves; whence it appears, that in the ninth century the use of this plant in China was as common as it is at pre- sent. They mention likewise the great pro- gress which the Indians had made in as- tronomy ; a circumstance which seems to have been unknown to the Greeks and Ro- mans; they assert, that in this branch of science they were far superior to the most enlightened nations of the west, on which account their sovereign was called the king of wisdom. The superstitions, extravagant penan- ces, &c., known to exist at this day among the Indians, are also mentioned by those writers ; all nhich particulars manifest that the Arabians had a knowledge of India far superior to that of the Greeks or Romans. The industry of the Mohammedans, in exploring the most distant regions of the east, was rivalled, however, by the Chris- tians of Persia, who sent missionaries all over India and the countries adjoining, as far as China itself. But, while the west- ern Asiatics thus kept up a constant inter- course with these parts, the Europeans had in a manner lost all knowledge of them. The port of Alexandria, from which they had formerly been supplied with the Indian goods, was now shut against them ; and the Arabs, satisfied with supplying the de- mands of their own subjects, neglected to send any by the usual channels to the towns on the Mediterranean. The inhabi- tants of Constantinople and some other great towns were supplied with Chinese commodities by the most tedious and difH- cult passage imaginable. In spite of every difficulty, however, this commerce flourished, and Constantinople became a considerable mnrt for Knat In- dian commodities ; and from it all the rest of Europe was chiefly supplied with theiii for more than two centuries. The pcr- M H < o o M (• ■I < M •a C4 O t ! TUB GOnS OP THK HINDOO PANTBBON AHB LITnitALTiY INNUHBBABI.R. Nf; ii! ? 1; t'. I , !*•' ? i| TUK DIVISIONS INTO OASTBB, OB CLAIBBS, ABB HBHBDITABV AND IKrAMABbB. i'9^ 776 ^f)z ^reastuo of 1|istote, $c(. petual hoRtilitici in which the Chriitians and Molmmmedans were during tliia period eu^aged, contributed still to increase the ditliculty; but, the more it increased, the more desirous Europeans seemed to be of poHRCsaiiiK the luxuries of Asia. About this time the cities of Amalfi and Venice, with some others in Italy, having acquired a great degree of independence, began to exert themselves in promoting domestic manufactures, and importing the productions of India. About the end of the tenth century, a considerable revolution took place in India, by the conquests of Mahmud Gazni, who erected the empire of Oasna. And it is at this period that the authentic history is generally reckoned to commence. Mahniud's kingdom had arisen out of that of the Saracens, who had extended their conquests immensely, under the caliph Al- Walid, both to the east and west. He possessed great part of the ancient ]lac- tria. Uazna, near the source of the Indus, and Balkh, were his chief cities. After conquering the rest of Baciria, he invaded Uindostan a . d. lOUO, and reduced the pro- vince o:' Moultan, which was inhabited by the Kuttry and Rajpoot tribes (theCatheri and Malli uf Alexander), who still retained their ancient bravery, and made a very formidable resistance. Aiahnmd being equally iuiluenccd by a love of conquest, and a superstitious zeal to exterminate the Hindoo religion, a league was at last formed against him among all the Indian princes, irom the Ganges to the Nerbudda. Their allied troops were, however, defeated; aud in 10U8 the famous temple of Nngrncut in the Punjab was destroyed. In lUll Mah- mud destroyed the city and temple ofTa- nafar, and reduced Delhi. In 1018 he look Canogc, and demolished the temples of that and several other cities; but failed in his attempts on Ajimere. In his twelfth expedition, in 1024, he reduced the whole peninsula of Guzerat, and destroyed the famous temple of Sumnaut, as well as those of all the other cities he conquered. At his death, in 102S, he possessed the east and largest part of Persia, with the Indian provinces irom the west part of the Ganges to Guzerat, and those between the Indus and the mountains of Ajimere. But in 1158 this extensive empire began to fall to pieces. The west and largest part was seized by the Gauri, while the east con- tiguous to the Indus remained in the pos- session of Cosroe, whose capital was La- hore. In 1184 his sons were expelled by the Gauri, aud in 1194 Mohammed Gori penetrated into Hindostan as far as Be- nares, committing as great devastation as Mahmud Gazni had done. He also re> duced the south port of Ajimere, aud the territory south of the Jumna, the fort' of Gualior, &c. On his death, (12U5,) the em- pire of Gazna was again divided, and the Patan or Alghan empire wns founded by Catlub, who had the Indian part, the Per- sian remaining to Kldoze. l^attuh made Delhi his capital; aud in 121U his succes- sor, Altumish, reduced the greatest part of Hindostan Proper. One of his sons ob- tained the government of Bengal, and, from this period, one of the emperor's sons had alwavs that government. During his reign, the bloody Jenghii Khan put an end to 'he other oranen of the Gaznian empire, but Hindostan was left undisturbed. From this period the most dreadful con- fusion and nmssacres followed almost to the time that the British government com- menced. The empire being subdivided among a set of rapacious governors, the people were reduced to the greatest degree of misery. To add to their distress, the Moguls made such frequent and formidable invasions, that at last the emperor Fcrose II. allowed them to settle in the country in 1292. The emperor was incited by Alia, governor of Gurrah, to attempt the conuuest of the Deccan ; and Alia being employed in that business, wherein he amassed an immense quantity of treasure, no sooner accomplished it, than he de- posed and murdered Ferose, aud assumed the sovereignty of Hindostan. In l3U(i the conquest of the Deccan was undertaken; and m 1310 Alia carried, his army into Dowlatnbad and the Carna'tic. But all this usurper's expeditions and those of his general, Cafoor, seem to have been made more with a view of plunder tlkan of permanent conquest. Under Mohammed III. the inhabitants of the Deccan revolted, and drove the Mo- hammedans completely out of all their territories, except the city of Dowlatabad. Ferose III., who succeeded Mohammed in 1351, was a wise prince, who preferred the improvement of his empire by the arts of peace, to the extension of it by war and conquest. In his reign, which lasted thirty- seven years, agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, were encouraged. But upon his death in 1388, a civil war broke out, which continued five years, till Malinmd III. succeeded, in 1393. During this period Uindostan exhibited the uncommon phe- nomenon of two emperors 'residing in the same capital, yet at war with each other. In this unfortunate situation of affairs, Tamerlane, after subduing nil the west of Tartary and Asia, turned his arms against Hindostan, and made an easy conquest of it. But the cruel monster, not contented with his victory, ordered a general massa- cre of the inhabitants, i.i consequence of which, it is said, that 100,OUO of them were murdered in one hour. In January, 1399, he defeated the Indian army, with great slaughter, and soon after took Delhi, which then consisted of three cities, surrounded by walls. Though no resistance was made, and of course there was no pretence for blood- shed, yet a quarrel was fomented within a few days by his Tartar soldiers, who pil- laged the city, massacred most of the peo- ple, and sold the rest for slaves. The spoils, in plate und jewels, were immense. After this dreadful carnage, Tamerlane marched through the other provinces of Hindus- UK WHO BATS UKBV IB NO HINDOO, BUT AN UTTBB OUTCAST. IKfAIIABbB. greatest part of of his tont ob- lengnl, and, from peror's Rons had Juring hia reigu, I put an end to Uainian empire, [disturbed, ist dreadful con- lowed almost to (ovemnient com- eing subdivided t governors, the 9 greatest degree leir distress, the It and formidable t emperor Ferose 3 in the country was incited by , to attempt the . and Alia being ess, wherein he ntity of treasure, it, than he de- se, aud assumed itan. ' the Deccan Was Alia carried his nd the Carna'tic. iditions and those ;em to have been of plunder than , the inhabitants nd drove the Mo- out of all their ,' of Dowlatabad eded Muhamraed c, who preferred mpire by the arts 1 of it by war and lich lasted thirty- commerce, and iraged. But upon I war broke out, irs, till Mahniud turing this period uncommon phe- srosidinii; in the with each other, nation of affairs, g nil the west of his arms agaiiist easy conquest of er, not contented a general inass'a- 1 consequence of ,000 of them were In January, 1399, army, with great took Delhi, which :ities, surrounded ras made, and of itence for blood- omented within a soldiers, who pil- most of the peo- ilaves. The spoils, immense. After Linerlane marched noes of Hiudos- tCKBt. THR UOOUI. BUriUK WAS CONSOllnATBD VNDBR AUttUFIOIiBBK, !:« l/OO. s m H M O a M m m M o ■ m H t< K O *) t> H M a o >i o p* o n o 9 p M H o M M a b H a > H M •«l O a » U H o o O u H St f n Q OS < o Vtl)t l^iatovu of KntJia. 777 tan, defeating the Indians everywhere, and Mlaughtering the worshippers of lire. Un the 2Sth of March this insatiable conque- ror retired, leaving Mahmud in possession of the throne, and reserving only Punjab to himself. The death of Mahmud III., in 1413, put an end to the I'atan dynasty. lie was suc- ceeded by Chizcr, a acscendant of Maho- met, and his posterity continued to reign until 1460, when Alia II. abdicated the throne, and liclloli, an Afghan, took pos- session of it. Under him a prince who re- sided at Jionpour, became so formidable, that he left him only the shadow of autho- rity. Belloli's son, however, recovered a great part of the empire, about 1501, when he made Agra his residence. In the reign of Ibrahain II. sultan liabcr, a descendant of Tamerlane, conquered a considerable part of the empire. His first expedition was in 1518; and in 152n he took Delhi. On the death of llnber, who reigned only Ave years, his son llumaioon was driven from the throne, and obliged to take shelter among the Rajpoot princes of Ajimere. The sove- reignty was usurped by Khccr Khan, who in 1545 was killed at the seige of Clieitou. His territories extended from the Indus to Bengal ; but the government was so un- settled, that no fewer than Hve novercigus succeeded within nine years after his death. This induced a strong party to join in re- caUing Hiimaioon, who is said to have been a prince of great virtue and abilities ; but he lived only one year after his return. Upon his death, in 1555, his son Ackbar, one of the greatest princes that ever reigned in Hindostan, succeeded. He was then only fourteen years of age; but, during his long reign of fifty-one years, he established the empire on a more sure foundation than it had probably ever been before. We are now come to a period when the European powers began to be interested in the affairs of Hindostan. The Cape of Good Hope had been doubled in the reign of John II., king of Portugal : Emanuel, his successor, equipped four ships, for the discovery of the Indian coast, and gave the command to Vusco de Gama ; who, having weathered several storms in his cruise along the eastern coast of Africa, landed in Hindostan, after a voyage of thirteen months. This country, which has since been al- most entirely reduced by war under a fo- reign yoke, was, at the tmie of the arrival .'f the Portuguese, divided between the kings of Cambayn, Delhi, Bisnagur, Nar- ziiigua, and Cnlicut, each of which reck- oned several sovereigns among their tribu- taries. The last of these monarchs, who is better known by the name of zamorin, which signifies emperor, possessed the mosit maritime states, and liis empire ex- tended over all Malabar. Vasco de Gama having informed himself of the"; particulars when he touched at Melinda, hired an able pilot to conduct him to that port, in whicli trade was the most llourishing. Here he fortunately met with a Moor of Tunis, who understood tlic Portngucse language, and he put himself under his directmn. He procured Gama an audience of the zamorin, who proposed an alliance and a treaty of commerce with the king his master. This was upon the point of being concluded, when the Mtis- sulmen interfered, who so far swayed the monarch from his purpose, that he resolved to destroy the adventurers, to whom he had just before given so favourable a re- ception. The zamorin, who wanted neither power nor inclination, wanted courage to put his dcnign into execution ; and Gama was per- mitted to return to his fleet : he sailed for Lisbon, which he reached in safety, and was received with rapturous joy by the people. The pope gave to Portugal all the coasts they should discover in the cast: and a second expedition soon after took place, under the command of Alvarez Ca- hral, consisting of thirteen vessels. They first visited Calicut, where fifty Portuguese weremaxsacrcd by the inhabitantH, through the intrigues of tlie Moors. (Jubral, in re- venge, burnt all the Arabian vessels in the harbour, cannonaded the town, and then sailed to Cochin, and from thence to Ca- nanor. The kings of both these towns gave him spices, gold, and nilver, and pro- posed an alliance with him against the zamorin, to whom they were tributaries. Uther kings followed their example ; and this infatuation became so general, that the Portuguese gave the law to almost the whole country of Muluhar. The port of Lisbon had now become the grand mart of Indian commodities. To secure and extend the^je advantages, it was necessary to establish a Rystciu of power and commerce. With a view to tl«;ae ob- jects, the court of Portugal wisely reposed its confidence in Alphonso Albuquerque, the most discerning of all the Portuguese that had been in India. The new viceroy acquitted himself beyond expectation. He fixed upon Goa, where there was a good harbour and wliolesonic air, as an esta- blishment, being situated in the middle of Malabar, belonging to the king of the Dec- can, and which soon after beciime the me- tropolis of all the Portuguese settlements in India. As the government soon changed its schemes of trade into projects of conquest, the nation, which had never been guided by the true commercial spirit, soon as- sumed that of riipinc and plunder. In re- ference to this we may observe, that of all the conquests made by the Portuguese in India, they posses at prjscnt only Macao, Diu, and Goa : and the united importance of these three settlements in their inter- course with India and Portugal is very in- considerable. Towards the close of the 16tli century, Drake, Stephens, Cuvendisli, and 6itcr« reduced this thing." )um, Aian,Knutn- I last had rebelled een obliged to tly tore. A civil war lUium and Azem ; B fought, wherein cd on each side, Mid killed. Mau- title of Bahader hort reign of Jive liderable abilities, lis brother Kaum- duccd the seiks, n ho, in the reign of established tbem- I mountains, and IS in Lahore, ra- the banks of the ngliah East India amoua tirman, or nds of export nnd ■om duties. Fur- . murdered by the bdoollah, who set lom they also de- ic same year; and ftcr Aurungzebe's sterity, who had n competitors for HKBKDITABY. i - I y. ' g I >! 1 u I " I H »• < U a a PB a TUB rOPULATION ur UINOOITAN IS BSTIMATBO AT ABOUT 130 MILLIUNS. i Cl^c l^istotQ of ilnHia. 779 the throne, were externiinatud ; and the goTcrnmcut declined so rapidly, that the empire seemed ready to fall to pieces. In 17IH the two brothers raised to the throne Mohammed Shah, the grandson of llahader: who, warned by the fate of his predecessors, soon rid himself of these two powerful subjects, though at the expense of a civil war. But new enemies started up. Nizam Al Mulck, viceroy of the Dec- can, in 1722, had been offered the place of vicier, or prime minister, but did not ac- cept it. Independence was his aim, and the increasing power of the Mahrattas fur- nished him with a pretence fur augment- ing his army. Persuaded that he had a party at court, he, in 1738, came thither, with a great body of armed followers ; but, finding that the interest of the emperor was still too powerful for him, he invited the famous Persian usurper, Nadir Shah, or Kouli Khan, to invade Hindostan. This invitation was readily accepted, and Nadir entered the country without opposi- tion ; yet, when far advanced into Hindos- tan, he considered the issue of matters to be so uncertain, that he offered to evacu- ate the country and retire for Hfty lacks of rupees, about GUO,0i)Ul. sterling. The in- trigues of the Nizam and his party hin- dered the emperor from complying with this demand; instead of whicti he threw himself upon the usurper's mercy, who then took possession of Delhi, and demanded a ransom of 30,U00,00U{. sterling. After a conference with the emperor. Nadir seized upon 200 cannon, with some treasure and jewels, which he sent off to Candahar. He then marehiid back to Delhi, where a com- motion arose about the price of corn. 'While Nadir endeavoured to quell it, a shot was flred at him, and narrowly missed him ; upon which the barbarian ordered a general massacre of the inhabitants, and slaughtered 120,000, or, according to some, ISO.UOO persons. This was followed by a eeicure of all the jewels, plate, &c., which could be found; besides, exacting the 30,000,0001., which was done with the ut- most rigour. In the m'idst of these scenes Nadir caused the marriage of his son to be ce- lebrated with a grand-daughter of Au- rungzebe, and then took leave of the em- peror, with professions of friendship, on the Tith of May, 1739. He is said to have carried off goods and treasure to the value of 135,000,000^ sterling. Mohammed had also ceded to him all the provinces of Hin- dostan west of the Indus. About the same time the Rohillas, a tribe from the mountains between India and Persia, erected an independent state on the east of the Ganges, eixhty miles from Delhi. The empire seemed now to be running fast to its dissolution. Nadir Shah being murdered, Abdallah, one of his generals, seized on the east part of Persia, and ihe adjacent Indian provinces which Mohammed Shah had ceded to Nadir, and formedthem into the kingdom of Kandahar. In 1739 Mohammed Shah died, and was succeeded by his son Ahmed ; during whose reign, which lusted only six years, the divi- sion of the remuisider of the empire took place: and nothing reniiiincd to tiiu family of Tamerlane but a small tract of territory round Delhi. In 17'tH the Nizam Al Mulck died, at the age of 104, and was succeeded by his son Nazir Jung, to the prejudice of his elder brother Gazi, vizier to (he nominal empe- ror. The contest that followed on this occa- sion, for the throne of the Deccan and the nabobship of Arcot, ftrst engaged the liri- tish and French to act as a'lxiliaries on op- posite sides. Immediately after the peace of Aix-la-Clia|ielle, the French ominand- ant, M. Dupleix, began to sow 'tension among the nabobs, who had b, .lis time usurped the sovereignty of the country. Un this occasion Mr. (afterwards lord) Clive first appeared in a mihtary capacity. He had been employed before as a writer, but seemed very little qualified for that de- partment of civil life. He now marched towards Arcot at the head of 21U Euro- peans and 500 sepoys; and in his first ex- pedition displajred the qualities of a great commander. His movements were conduct- ediwith such secresy and dispatch, that he made himself master of the enemy's capital before they knew of his march ; and gained the affections of the people by his genero- sity, in affording protection without ransom. In a short time, however, he found himself invested in Fort St. David's by rajah Saib, son to Chunda Saib, an Indian chief, pre- tender to the nabobship of Arcot, at the head of a numerous army ; the operations of the seige being conducted by European engineers. Uut Mr. Clive, having intelli- gence of the intended attack, defended him- self with such vigour, that the assailants were every where repulsed with loss, and obliged precipitately to raise the seige. He then marched in quest of the enemy ; ond, having overtaken them in the plains of Arani, attacked and entirely defeated them. This victory was followed by the surren- der of the forts of Timery, Conjaveram, and Arani: after which, he returned in triumph to Fort St. David's. In the he- einning of 1752, he marched towards lUn- dras, where he was reinforced by a small body of troops from Bengal. Though the whole did not exceed 300 Europeans, with as many natives as were sufficient to give the appearance of an army, he boldly pro- ceeded to a place called Koveripank, about fifteen miles from Arcot, where the enemy lay to the number of 1,500 sepors, 1,700 horse, with 160 Europeans, and eight pieces of cannon. Victory was long doubtful, until Mr. Clive having sent round a detachment to fall upon the rear of the enemy, while the English attacked the entrenchments in front with their bayonets, a general con- fusion ensued, the enemy was routed with considerable slaughter, and only saved from total destruction by the darkness of the night. The French to a man threw down their arms on this occasion, and surren- dered themselves prisoners of war; all the o (• H H M rs a r. < I . I •> I r. i " I H I " I M ; » < Si u H < M a M H TUB CURISTIANS ABOUND MOST IN TUB SOUTHBBN PARTS OF INDIA. jl 'Ui »' '- W. :l: ]¥v a ' iH tJ i . am rr * m . "■:< i ■ ACB FBKSIDBr :'T UAS ITS SRFARATI ABMT, COMMANOIB-IH-CUtBr, &0. M. 780 ^l^e ^reasurD of "^iMoxn, txt. baggage and cannon falling at the same time into the hands of the victors. M. Dupleix, morliticd at this bad suc- cess, proclaimed rajah Saib, son of Cbunda Saib, nabob of Arcot ; and afterwards pro- duced forced commissions from the great Mogul, appointing him governor of all the Carnatic from the Kristnah to the sea. To carry on this deception, a messenger pretended to come from Delhi, and was re- ceived with all the pomp of an ambassador from the great MokuI. Dupleix, mounted on an elephant and preceded by music and dancing women, after the oriental fashion, received his eommission from the hands of this impostor: after which he affected the state of an eastern prince ; kept his durbas at court, appeared sitting cross-legged on a sofa, and received presents as sovereign of the country, from his own council as well from the natives. Thus the forces of the English and French East India companies were engaged in a course of hostilities, un- der the title of auxiliaries to. the contend- ing parties at a time when no war existed between the two nations. Next year both parties received consider- able reinforcements; the English by the arrival of admiral Watson with a squadron of ships of war, hiving on board a regi- ment commanded by colonel Aldercroon ; and the French by M. Gadcheu, commis- sary and governor general of nil their set- tlements, on whose arrival M. Dupleix de- parted for Europe ; and a provisional treaty and truce were concluded, on condition that neither of the two companies should for the future interfere in an^ of the differ- ences that might take place in the country. Matters, however, did not long continue in a state of tranquillity. Early in 17SS it appeared that the French were endeavour- ing to get possession of nil the Deccan. M. Bussy, the successor of Dupleix, demand- ed the fortress of Golconda, from' Balabat Zing ; and M. Leyrit encouraged the go- vernor who rented Velu to take iii> arras against the nabob. He even sent 300 French and as many sepoys from Pondicherry to support this rebel, ani oppose the English employed by the nabob to collect his reve- nues from the tributary princes. Aliverdi Khan, an able and prudent sub- ahdar, who had fur ttfteeu years been nabob of Bengal, Bnhar, and Orissa, ' 'ing died in ITal), ijurajah D>. via succci i to the nabobship. He was jongratulntcd on his accession by Mr. Drake, the English pre- sident at Calcutta, and readily promised protoctipu to his countrymen; but he soon after took offence at the imprisonment of Omichund, an eminent Gentoo merchant, who hod lived s'-veral years under the protection of the 1. .glish government. Of this circumstance, however, Surajah did not directly complain ; but founded his pre- tence of war upon the conduct of the Eng- lish in repairing the fortifications of Cal- cutta; which indeed was absolutely neces- sary, on account of the great probability of a war with the French. The nabob, how- ever, threatened an attack if the works were not instantly demolished. With this requisition the president and council pre- tended to comply; but they nevertheless went on with them. 8urnjuh Dowla took the Held on the :4Uth of May, 17&6, with an army of 40,000 foot, 30,000 horse, and 400 elephants ; and on the 2nd of June, detached 20,000 men to invest the fort at Cassumbazar, a large town on an island formed by the west branch of the Ganges. This fort was regularly built, with sixty cannon, and defended by 3U0 men, prin- cipally sepoys. The nabob pretending a desire to treat, Mr. Watts, the chief of the factory, was persuaded to put himself in his power; which he had no sooner done, than he was made a close prisoner, along with Mr. Botson, a surgeon, who ac- companied him. The two prisoners were treated with great indignity, and threaten- ed with death; but two of the council who had been sent for by the tyrant's command were sent back again, with orders to per- suade the people of the factory to surren- der at discretion. This proposal met with great opposition ; but was at last complied with, though very little to the advantage of the prisoners ; for they were not only de- prived of every thing they possessed, but stripped almost naked, and sent to Hoogly, where they were closely confined. The na- bob, encouraged by this success, marched directly to Calcutta, which he invested on the 15th. It was impossible that the prrison could long defend themselves against the great force brought against it; little or no at- tempt was therefore made at resistance: the fort was consequently soon taken, and the effects of the factory destroyed. Many of the English escaped in boats and ships down the river, but many were taken ; of these, 146 were confined for the night in a room twenty feet square, named the Black- hole, and which the English had made for a place of confinement. The dreadful heat 4nd want of air quickly deprived some of existence ; others lost their reason, and ex- pired raving mad ; their entreaties and of- fers of money to their guards to give them water, or to remove them, were mocked at or disregarded ; and when the door of the dungeon was opened next morning, only twenty-three were taken out alive. Having plundered the town, Surajah Dowla de- parted, leaving in it a garrison of 3000 men. The news of this disaster put an end to the expedition projected against M. Bussy ; and colonel Clive was insttintly dispatched to Bengal with 400 Europeans and 1000 sepoys, on board of the fleet commanded by admiral Watson. They did not arrive till the 15th of December at a village called Fulta, situated on a branch of the Ganges, where the inhabitants of Calcutta had taken refuge after their misfortune. Their first operations were against the forts of Bus- budgia, Tanna, Fort William, and Calcutta, now in the hands of the enemy. All these were reduced almost as soon as they ap- proached them. Hoogly, the place of ren- dezvous for all nations who traded to Bcu- « a B K O Z I DISCIPLINE IS MAINTAINED BT IMFRISONHRNT, NOT BY I'LOOUINO. ■i J cniir, &c. liihcd. With this t and council prc- they ncvertbclesi \rnjiih Uowln took ){ May, 1766, with SO.UUO hone, and the 2nd of June, invest the fort at own on an island ich of the Oanf^es. f built, with sixty by 3U0 men, prin- \ioh pretending a Atts, the chief of Jed to put himself le had no sooner e a close prisoner, a surgeon, who ac- wo prisoners were nity, and threaten- of the council who tyrant's command A'ith orders to per- factory to surren- proposal met with as at last complied to the advantage of ' were not only de- liey possessed, but md sent to Iloogly, confined. The na- s success, marched ich he invested on t the i^rrison could I agamst the great it; little or no at- iade at resistance: [tly soon taken, and r destroyed. Many in boats and ships my were taken ; of ^ for the night in a , named the Black- ;1igh had made for The dreadful heat deprived some of leir reason, and ex- entreaties and of- uarJs to give them til, were mocked at in the door of the cxt morning, only out alive. Having urajah Dowla de- 'rison of 3000 men. ster put an end to against M. Bussy ; stantly dispatched iropeans and 1000 fleet commanded hey did not arrive at a village called jch of the Ganges, Calcutta had taken tune. Their tirst the forts of r>us- iam, and Calcutta, enemy. All ♦.hese soon as they ap- , the place of ren- ho traded to Bcn- LOUUINC. Tim CurTOK ri.ANT IS OUUWN IN ALMOST ■VIRY PART Of INDIA. ^fjc l^istory of SnUin. 781 gal, (its warehouses and shops being al- ways tilled with the richest merchandize of the country), was likewise reduced and destroyed, with the granaries and store- houses of salt on each side of the river ; which proved very detrimental to the na- bob, by depriving liim of the means of sub- sistence for his army. Surujah Dowla, enraged at the success of the English, now seemed determined to crush them at once by a general engage- ment. From this, however, be was intimi- dated by a successful attack on his camp, which induced him to conclude a treaty, on the Sth of February, 1757, on the following conditions : — 1. That the privileges granted to the English by the Mogul should not be disputed :--2. That all euuds with English orders should pass by land or water, free of any tax : — 3. All the company's facto- ries whicli had been seized by the nabob should be restored ; and the goods, money, and eft'ects accounted for: — 4. That the English should have liberty to fortify Cal- cutta: and 5. To coin their own gold and silver. As intelligence was now received of a war between France and England, an at- tack was meditated on Chandernagore. It remained, therefore, only to obtain the con- sent of the nabob; but, in ten days after the conclusion of the treaty, he sent a let- ter to admiral Watson, complaining of his intention, and surmising that the English designed to turn their arms against him as soon as they made themselves masters of Chandernagore. This was strenuously denied by the admiral ; and a number of letters passed, in which the latter made use of expressions which were supposed to imply a tacit consent that Chanderna- gore should he attacked. An attack was therefore made, and it soon capitulated. This intelligence, however, seemed to be by no means agreeable to Surajah Dowla. He pretended displeasure on account of the Englisli infringing the treaties, and complained that they had ravaged some Earts of his dominions. This was denied y the admiral ; but from this time both parties made preparations for war. The nabob returned no answer till the 13th of June, when he sent a declaration of war. Tlie English council at Calcutta now re- solved un tlic deposition of the nabob ; which at this time appeared practicable, by supporting the pretensions of Meer Jaf- tier Ali Cawn, who had entered into a con- spiracy against him. Meer Jaftier had mar- ried dte sister of Ailverdi Cawn, the prede- cessor of Sui'^iah ; and was now supported in his pretensions by the general of the horse, and by Jugget Sect, the nabob's banker, the richest merchant in all India. Colonel Clive began bis inarch against Surajah Dowla on the 13th of June. The decisive action at Plassey followed (June 23), in which the treachery of Meer Jaf- fier, who commanded part of the nabob's troops, stood neuter during the engage- ment, and rendered the victory easy. At day-break the nabob's army of lo.UUO horse and 15,000 foot, advanced to attack the English, dive's troops were posted in a grove defended by mud-banks. After can- nonading them till noon, the enemy retired to their fortified camp; and shortly after, Clive stormed an angle of it, put them to the rout, and pursued them for a space of six miles. The unfortunate nabob tied to his capital, but left it the following even- ing disguised like a faquir, with only two attendants. By these he appears to have been abandoned and even robbed ; for on the 3rd of July he was found wandering for- saken and almost naked on the roud to Fatna. Next day he was brought back to Muxadabad, and a few hours alter privately beheaded by Meer Jafiier's eldest son. Meer Jaftier and his English allies now took possession of the capital in triumph. On the 29th of June, colonel Clive went to the palace, and, in presence of the rajahs and grandees of the court, solemnly handed him to the musnud (or carpet) and throne of state, where he was unanimously saluted subahdar, or nabob, and received the sub- mission of all present. While these trans- actions were going forward, the utmost ef- forts were used to expel the French en- tirely from Bengal. It had all along, in- deed, been the opinion of Clive that it was impossible for the French and the English to co-exist in India. Both parties now received considerable reinforcements from Europe ; admiral Po- cock being joined on the 24th of March by commodore Stevens with a squadron of tivc men-of-war and two frigates; having on board general Lally with a large body of troops. The British admiral went in quest of the French fleet, and an engagement took place, in which the French were de- feated with the loss of 6U0 killed and a great number wounded. In the treaty concluded by Clive with the new subahdar, it was stipulated that one hundred lacs of rupees should be paid to the East India Company for their losses and the expenses of the campaign, with compensation to all the sufferers at the taking of Calcutta : the company was also to have the zemindary, (or right of farming the produce of the soil claimed by the crown) of a tract of country to the south of that city. The subahdar was also pro- fuse in his donations to those to whom he was indebted for his throne. His gifts to Clive amounted to 180,0002. : and however much the latter may have been censured at the time for receiving a reward from the subahdar, he was justified by the usages of Asia, and there seems to be no reason why he shou'i refuse- a gift from the prince whom hi. had so greatly benefitted. The remainder of the year 1759 proved entirely favourable to the British arms. D'Achc, the French admiral, who had been very roughly handled by admiral Focock on the 3rd of August, 1758, having relitted his fleet, and being reinforced by three men-of- war at the islands of Mauritius and Bour- bon, now ventured once more to face his antagonist. A third battle ensued on the 11 TUB SII.K FABBICS OV UINOOSTAN ARB NOT EQUAL TO THOSE OV CHINA. 13 X Tim ■IIITIIH UUVKHMMKNT IN INDIA II AN KNI.IOHTBNaU UliruTIIM. li \ii I y 782 "JKht ^rtasurn of l^istoiy, ^c. loth of Hpptember, 175l, by which hii end was put to the power of the French in thin part ol the world. While the Uritish were thus cinployrd. Meer Jalller, the nabob of Bengal, wUn liiiil been raised to that dignity by the rum of SiirHJnh Dowla, found liimnclf in a very dia- agrecnble situation. The treiuure of (lie late nabob bad been valued at Hixty-liiur erore of rupees (about HO.OOO.OOII/. nlcrling), and in expectation of this sum, Meer Jaf- tier had submitted to the exactions of the English. On his accession to t he govern- ment, however, the treasure of which ho became master fell so much short of expec- tation, tlint he could not fulfil his engage- ments to them, and was reduced to the extremity of nmrtgaging his revenues. In this dilemma his grandees became faetiDns and discontented, his army mutinous for want of pay, and himself odious to his sub- jects. To this it may be added, that Mr. Vim- sittart,the successorofClive, who knew but little of the merits of the respective parties, was willing to conclude a treaty with Cus- sini Ali, the nabob's son-in-law, for his dethronement ; by which the provinces of Burdwan, Midnapore, and Chittagong, were to be made over to the company, and largo rewards given to the members of council. Meer Cussim waa accordingly raised to the musnud ; and the old nabob hurried into a boat with a few of his domestics and necessaries, and sent away to Calcutta in a manner wholly unworthv of the high rank he so lately held. So unnlushiugly, indeed, was the whole of this affair conducted, that the servants of the company, who were the projectors of the revolution, made no secret that there was a present promised them of twenty lacs of rupees from Cossim, who was desirous of making the first act of his power the assassination of Jafller ; and was very much displeased when he found that the English intended giving him protection at Calcutta. It could scarcely be supposed that Meer Cossim, raised to the naoobship in this manner, would be more faithful to the En- glish than Meer Jaflicr had been. Nothing advantageous to the interests of the com- pany could indeed be reasonably expected from such n revolution. No successor of Meev Jaffier could be more entirely in sub- jection than the late nabob, from his na- tural imbecility, had been. This last con- sideration had induced man^ of the council at first to oppose the revolution ; and indeed the only plausable pretence for it was, that the administration of Meer Jaltier was so very weak, that, unless he was aided and even controlled by some persons of ability, he himself must soon be ruined, and very probably the interests of the company along with him. Meer Cossim, however, was a man of a very different disposition from his father-in-law. As he knew that he had not been served by the English out of friend- ship, so he did not think of making any re- turn out of gratitude ; but, instead of this, considered only bow he could most easily BUBOrBANS ARS TAI.LIB, STRONGER, AND MORK ROBUST TRAN TUB DINDOOS. iiriiTiiiM. il on thn IStli of 11 eiiil wnH put lo II tliiit part III' tlic R tliui ciniiloyi'il. ' tli'iiK*l> ^vliii liiiil ity by I In* nun iil' mrllin H vrry , who knew but renpective partiri, a treaty with Cot- n- in -law, for hit I the province* of 1 ChittaKOUK. were impauy, and Inrfirc nbert of counril. urdiiigly raised to )ld nabob hurried hifi domestics and ay to Calcutta in a r of the high rank Dlushinely, indeed, air conducted, that )any, who were the on, made no secret nt promised them from Cossim, who tlie first act of his of Jaffier; and was lien he found that iug him protection upposed that Meer naoobship in this faithful to the Un- lad been. Nothing crests of the com- eosnnably expected . No successor of Dre entirely in sub- bob, from his na- ;n. This last con- aan^of the council ilution ; and indeed nee for it was, that ileer Jafller was so he was aided and persons of ability, 9e ruined, and very 'the company along n, however, was a isposition from his ew that he had not ^lish out of friend- i of making any re- )ut, instead of this, could most easily TUB niNDOOS. IN •■»■•*!,, THi uiNoooa rossast Muua AotbiTi than ma auaora*iii. ^i)t l^istoiu o< lEntiia. 783 break with such troublesome allies. For a wliilit, however, it wnii necesinry for him to take all ihu mlviinlHKH hu could of Ins ftlliHiii-e with thrill. Ily their aMlstniice ho i-lnircil hin diimiiiioiis nf iiiviiilirrs, ami striMiKthiMifil his frniitirri, iiiid he rt'Jucud thf rajnlis who liail rilieliird nKiiiiist hi* predrcvisor, iil)li)(iii)( them to pay tho usual tribute; liyulnch iiii'hiis ho roiiaircd his llniliii'es, and thereby secured tiiu lidelity of his troops. llnviiig thus, by the assistance of the I'.iifrlisb, brought his government into sub- JKCtioii, ho took the most elfoetunl means of ■eeuriiig himself ugHinst their power. As tliu vicinity of his capital, Muxadahud, to Calcutln, gave the English factory there an oppiiriuiiity uf inspecting hi* actions, and interrupting his design* when they thought proper, he took up his residence at Mongheer, a place 2U() iiiile* farther up the Oangcx, whicu he fortitled in tho best and most expeditious manner. Heiisiblo of the advantages of the Kuropean discipline, he now resolved to new-model his army. Kor this purpose he collected all the Arnieiiian, Persian, Tartar, and other soldiers of for- tune, whose military characters might serve to raise the spirits of his Indian forces, and abate their natural timidity. He also col- lected all the wandering European* who had bonie arms, and the scpiiys who had been dismissed from the English service, and distributed them among his troops. He changed the fashion of the Indian match- locks to muskets, and made many excellent improvements in the discipline of his army. Uut it was soon discovered that all the pains taken by Meer Cossim to discipline hi* troops bad not rendered them able to cope with the European*. Several act* of trea- cherous hostility on his part was followed by a formal declaration of war ; and aeveral engagement* took place, in all of which the British army proved victoriou*, and Cossim'* army retreated. Hi* active enemy accordingly penetrated into the heart of hi* territories, crossed the numerous branches of the Ganges, and traversed morasses and forests in pearcli of the native foe. At length the two armies met on the banks of a river called Nunas Nulla*, Aui;. 2, 1763. Cossim had chosen his post with great judgment, and his forces liad much of the appearance of an European army, not only in their arms and accoutrements, but in their division into brigades, and even in their clothing. The battle was more ob- stinate than usual, being continued for four hours : but though the Indian army con- sisted of no fewer than 2U,UU0 horse and 8U00 foot, the English proved in the end victorious, and the enemy were obliged to quit the iield with the loss of all their can- non. It is impossible for ua to pursue this history of Anglo-Indian warfare into all its details. Our readers must, therefore, be content with rapid descriptions or passing remarks, as may happen, in the narration of events sufficiently important in them- selves to require a lengthened notice in work* of inaKuilude wholly devoted to the •ubject. We pass on, then, by observing that Menr Cossim was suliUucd and de- posed ; and that Meer Jafller was oncn imiro aiiteil iiu the musiiud. His reign was, however, very short ; and ou liis dtath the council uf Calcutta raised tu it his sou, Nujuiu-ud - Uuwla, making him pay, a* u*umI, a large sum for hi* eTcvation. The high character which lord Clivo had already gained io the East Justly marked him out for the governmeut of India ; and on the .'ird of May, 1765, be landed, with full powers a* commander-in-chief, presi- dent, and governor of Ueugal. Ho remained in India about two years, during which period he effected the most desirable refor- mation* iu both the civil and mihtary de- partment*. 8ujnh-Ad-Dowla, subahdar of Oudc, and the nominal emperor of Delhi, Shah Alem II., having asHisted Meer Cossim, the Eiig- li*h marched against them. Allahabad and Luckiiow were taken. Thn nabob was glad to purchase peace hv paying the expenses of the war; and the emperor conferred upon the English the revenues of Ucngal, Babar, and Urissa, and liis imperial cuiitir- matiou of all the territories conquered by them within the nominal extent of the Mogul empire. The East India Company had now acquired territory equal in extent to the most flourishing kingdom of Eu- rope; and from this date, a. u. 17(>&, com- mences the recognized sovereignty of the English in Ilindontan. It is worthy of no- tice that, although actually independent, the great subahdars continued to the last moment of the empire to solicit imperial firmans or patents from the court of l)ollii, confirming them in the power they already possessed. In the south of India, beside* the real authority in the Carnatic, the Englisli had received the northern circar* in grant from the Nizam, on condition of furnishing a body of troop* in time of war. This alli- ance involved them iu a series of contests with Hyder Ali, who had made himself sultan of the Uindi'i state of Mysore. The political importance acquired by the £a*t India Company induced the govern- ment of Great Britain to clniui a share in the administration of the Indian terri- tories ; and in 1773 it was determined in parliament, that all civil and military cor- respondence nhould be submitted to the king's ministers ; that a supreme court of judicature s.aould be sent out from Eng- land ; and (hat the three presidencies should be subject to a governor-general and council, the former to be approved of by the king. Warren Hastings, the first govenior- feneral, found the company's finances in ndia much embarrassed, and a general confederation against the English in pro- gress amongst the native poucrs. Not- withstandiiig violent opposition in his council, he conducted the government through its difliculties, repulsed Hyder, humbled the Mahrattas, and obtained from I 5 is TUB UIN0008 AUK TUB UEBT HUNHBHS ARU WHESTLKRS IN ASIA. UIKDOOS ARB OKNKHALLT 8RBEWD, WAUY, AND CALCVI.ATINO rBOTLB, ■I ! l ;4 fe'. 784 Eiit ^tcasutf) of l^istorQ, $cc. Asef-ad-Dowla, the subahdar of Oude, the ccmindary of Benares. On his return to England, Warren Hastini;s was inipcaclied by tiie house of commons for corruption and oppression, and tried before the house of lords. The trial, owing to frequent inter- ruptions, was protracted for seven years, at the end of wuich he was honourably ac- quitted. Those proceedings, however, are not necessary to be here dwelt upon, as tliey bcloDK more especially to the parlia- mentary history of Kngland. During his twelve years' government in India, Warren Hastings had raised the revenue to double its previous amount ; but he had added twelve millions and a half to the debt of the Company. Lord Cornwallis succeeded as governor- general in 1/86. The relations between the British government and those of Luck- now and Hyderabad, were revised and strengthened; and in a war with Tippoo 8aib, who had succeeded Hyder in the principality of Mysore, lord Cornwallis de- feated his armies, and besieged his capital, Seringapatam. The sultan, to obtain peace, gave up considerable territory to the Bri- tish. It was under the administration of lord Cornwallis, who was possessed of flrst- rate qualities for this office, that the princi- pal judicial and revenue regulations, still in force, were enacted, particularly the per- petual settlement of the revenue of Bengal with the zemindars. In 1793 lord Cornwallis returned to Eng- land, and was succeeded by sir John Shore ; but the pacific system of policy followed by him forfeited that consideration which the British government held in his predeces- sor's time amongst the native states. In 1798 he was succeeded by lord Mornington, afterwards marquis of Wellesley. Tijipoo bad greatly augmented his army, and many severe battles had been fought between him and the British, but without humbling his tone, or much diminishing his power. For several years, in fact, the affairs of India had continued in a state of doubtful tranquillity. The jealousy of the British was at length justly aroused by a proclamation of the French governor of the isle of France, in 1798, which openly mentioned an alliance formed between Tippoo and the French republic, for the destruction of the British power in India. The governor-general, on this, demanded an explanation of him, which being evasive and evidently intended to procrastinate our military operations, the reduction of the fort of Seringapatam was immediately re- solved on. After having been repulsed, with con- siderable loss, in an attack of the Bombay army under general Stuart, Tippoo Saib re- treated to Seringapatam. The main army, under general Harris, consisted of 31,000 men, besides the nizam's cavalry, all com- pletely equipped : that under general Stu- art was equally efficient. On the 3rd of April the army came within sight of Se- ringapatam, took its position on the Sth, and on the 6th the principal outposts were in possession of the British. Several let- ters passed, and on the 2Uth general Har- ris received an overture of peace from Tip- poo, which he answered, on the Si'nd, with a draft of preliminaries ; but the terms were too severe for the enemy to accept. On the 2nd of May, therefore, the British batteries began to open, and in the course of the day a breach was made in the fausse- bray wall; the main rampart was shat- tered ; and, to complete the misfortune of the besieged, a shot having struck their magazine, it blew up with a dreadful ex- plosion. The breach being thought prac- ticable, on the night of the 4th of May 4U00 men were stationed in the trenches before day -break. The assault was led on by general Baird, and began at one o'clock. I n six minutes the forlorn hope had reached the summit of the breach, where the Bri- tish colours were instantly planted. In a few minutes, the breach, which was 100 feet wide, was crowded with men. After a short conflict the panic became general in the fort ; thousands quitted it, and others laid down their arms. A flag of truce was soon after sent to the palace of the sultan, offering protection to liim and his friends upon surrendering unconditionally. The young prince surrendered to general Baird, and the body of Tippoo was afterwards found in the gateway of the fort, lying among heaps of slain, covered with wounds. His dominions were now partitioned among his conquerors, and the Mahrattas were admitted to a share, from motives of policy, though they had taken no part in the war. A descendant of the ancient ra- jahs of Mysore, about Ave years oi.l, was sought out and placed on the throne with great ceremony, under certain conditions: and the sons and relations of Tippoo were removed to the Carnatic. Thus terminated one of the most important wars in which the Anglo-Indians had been ever engaged ; and for some time at least it secured them from the re appearance of a formid- able enemy, a. d. 1799. As the conquests of Tippoo and Hyder were retained by the British, and a sub- sidiary treaty had been formed with the nizara, by which the defence of his domi- nions was undertaken by them upon his providing for the expense, the greater part of the Deccan was now directly or indi- rectly subject to their authority. Arrangements were next concluded with the nabob of Oudc, by which the lower part of the Doab and other countries were ceded to the British for the support of a subsidiary force. Upon these transactions followed a war with the Mahratta chiefs, Scindia, and Kagoji Bliosla, rajah of Berar, whose armies were defeated in the south by sir Arthur Wellesley, brother of the gover- nor-general, ond in the north by lord Lake ; and the upper part of the Douab, with Delhi and Agra, wore taken (losscssion of in the north; whilst in the south, Cuttack on the eastern, and part of Guzerat on the western coast, were annexed to the British dominions. A war with Ilolkar, another It< TIOOVB AND MANLINBSS OP MIND TUBY AUB INPBUIOIl TO TUB ARABS. i FBOrLB. r= ish. Several let- 20th general Har- f peace from Tip- on the Sind, with ; but the terms enemy to accept, efore, the British and in the course lade in the fausse- Eimpart was shat- the misfortune of ving struck their th a dreadful ex* ng thought prac- lte4thof May 4000 \e trenches before It was led on by at one o'clock. In hope had reached ch, where the Bri- tly planted. In a h, which was 100 ritU men. After a )ecame general in tted it, and others I flag of truce was lace of the sultan, m and his friends onditionally. The d to general Baird, 10 was afterwards of the fort, lying rered with wounds. 1 now partitioned and the Mahrattas e, from motives of I taken no part in [of the ancient ra- Sve years Oi.l, was n the throne with ertain conditions: ms of Tippoo were . Thus terminated !\nt wars in which leen ever engaged ; least it secured ranee of a formid- rippoo and Hyder ritish, and a sub- formed with the cnce of his domi- )y them upon his e, the greater part directly or indi- thority. xt concluded with which the lower her countries were the support of a these transactions Maliratla chiefs, ila, rajah of Uerar, ted in the south by )thcr of the gover- lorth by lord Lake ; the Dounb, with ikcn possession of lie south, Cuttack of Guzerat on the ;xod to the British Ilolkar, another IN 1814 TBI INBIAIt THAOa WAS IN A «BVAT MSASUHB THBOWN OPIN. TnE ARABS. V^fft l^istorQ of lEntJia. 785 Mahratta prince, followed. He made a rapid incursion into the Douab, and com- mitted some ravages ; but was pursued by lord Lake to the Sikh country, and all his territories occupied by a British force. The whole, however, was restored to him at the peace. Such was the situation of British India at the period of the marquis of Wellesley's return to Europe. He had conducted our aifairs in this quarter of the globe with an oriental magnilicence of design, and per- haps of expenditure ; but he seems fairly to claim the merit of having crushed in a most masterly manner the alarming com- binations of Mahratta and French enmity, and entirely to have laid the basis of the measures which were successfully follow- ed out by lord Comwallis. And hei-e for a moment must we pause. Whilst we are thus slightly recording some of the actions of this great statesman, his funeral knell is tolling. Niue-and-thirty years have almost passed away since he left that scene of eastern glory, where his wise councils were so ably seconded by the bra- very and skill of a brother who has long since earned the title of " the greatest cap- tain of the age," and who, thank Heaven 1 still survives, to vindicate, if necessary, the honour of a grateful country. Glorious compeers I venerable in age, but more ven- erable still in noble patriotism ! In 1805 lord Wellesley was succeeded by lord C irnwallis, again appointed governor- general. His policy was of a pacilir, char- acter ; and upon his death, soon alter his arrival in India, it was adopted bv his tem- porary successor, sir George Barlo v. Lord Minto arrived in India in 1807. His attention was chiefly directed to the subju- fation of the remaining possessions of the rench in the East ; and the Isle of France and Mauritius, and the large island of Java, were cubdued by armaments fitted out in India. At the end of 1813 the marquis of Hast- iugs arrived as governor - general. The de- termination of liis predecessors to abstain from interference with the native states had been attended with deplorable dis- sensions amongst themselves, and had en- couraged them to commit outrages on the Britisu dominions, the repressalof which soon led to active warfare. On the northern frontier the conduct of the Gorkha govern- ment of Nepaul having provoked hostili- ties, the Himalaya was traversed by the British armies, and an extensive tract of mountain country permanently. annexed to the state. The aggressions of the Pindarees, a set of freebooters, secretly supported by the Mahratta princes, were next punished by the annihilation of their hordes. In 1814 these bands comprised about 40,000 bone. who subsisted wholly on plunder. In the course of the operations against them, the peishwa and the rajah of Nagpore attempt- ed, by treacherv and murder, to rid them- selves of British controul ; and hostillities ensued, which placed the territories and persons of both princes in the hands of their enemies, a. d. 1818. The Pindarees were at first bodies of mercenary horse, serving different princes for hire during war, and in time of peace subsisting upon plunder. Lands along the Nerbuddah had been assigned to some of their leaders by the princes of Malwa; and from hence they occasionally made incursions into the Bri- tish provinces, devastating the country in the most ferocious manner, and disappear- ing before a force could be assembled against them. It was resolved, however, in the vear 1817, to hunt them into their native holds, and either to exterminate them, or to drive them from the position which they occupied, in the very centre of India. By the end of the rainy season of that year, a numerous army took the field for this purpoce. The plan was, that the armies of the different presidencies should advance southward, and gradually conver- ging to a common centre, hem in, on every side, the territory of the robbers. This was at length effected ; the greater part of them being destroyed, and the rest hum- bled to complete submission. Upon the re -establishment of peace. Puna, and part of the Mahratta territories, were retained, and the rest restored to the rajah of Satara. Appa Saib, the rajuli of Nagpore, who had escaped from confine- ment, was deposed, and a giandsun of the former rajah elevated on the throne. Holkar, a youth, was taken under the Bri- tish protection, which was also extended to the Ilajput princes. By these arrange- ments the whole of Hindostan was brought under the power or coHtroul of the British government. In 1833 the marquis of Hastings quitted his government, leaving British India in a proud and prosperous condition. At the end of the same year lord Amherst arrived from England. In 1824 war broke out with the Burmese, who had for many years given much trouble on the eastern fron- tier. An expedition was sent to Rangoon, which, in the second year of hostiliiie.', advanced nearly to Ava, the capital ; and the Burman government was glad tu pur- chase peace in 1826 by the cession of As- sam, Aracan, and the Tenasserim provinces. The beginning of the same year was sig- nalized by the capture of Bhurtpore, a strong fortvess in Upper India. The more recent events in Kritisli India will be found given as fully as our limits would permit, in the latter portion of the history of Kngland, IN 1834 TBH IiAIT VkatlOB O* HOMOPOLT WAS FIRALLT FUT AN BNO TO. [3 JC 3 w : ! M ^?. H B a o n H M I'KnilA IB UBMABKAULK ron ITS LONG ABID VALLBYB AHO lAHOT DBBRIITB. THE HISTORY OF PERSIA. TiiR limits of this most ancient and cele- Dratcd empire Imve been variously slated; but its origiunl name was Elam, so called from the son of Sliem, whose descendants were itH first inhabitants. In the books of Daniel, E^dras, &c., it is called by the names of Pars or Pharas, whence the mo- dern name of Persia ; but from what those names were derived is now uncertain. From the accounts of those who have most studied the subject it would appear that the ancient kingdom of Persia was situated more to the cast and north-east than the present; whence, until its autho- rity extended over Media and Assyria, it was but little known to the nations of Eu- rope. It is sometimes spoken of as the kingdom of Hactria, from Uahlica, or Balkh, its capital ; but is termed by Oriental wri- ters, Iran. The country beyond it consti- tuting modern Tarlary, the Scythia of the ancients, is called by the orientals, Turan; and between these two, Iran and Turan, collisions were frequent in early times. The history of Persia first cmert;rs from the obscurity of antiquity with Cyrus. Ilys- taspes, the Median Cyaxares, or his con- temporary, under whom Zoroaster lived, belongs to the uncertain time before Cyrus. With Cyrus (659 — 62'J n. c.) began the period of Persian power in the west. Ky uniting the Persians and Medes under his sceptre, he made them the ruling nation in western Asia; he conquered Croesus, took ISabylon, and reduced Asia Minor. Although the history of Cyrus is very ob- scure, it is certain that he not only founded n vast empire, but established it by his uc- nius and valour. He defeated the Daby- lonians, together with all their numerous allic!!, at the famous battle of Thynihra, overturned the monarchy, and made him- self roaster of Babylon. lie afterwards considerably extended his conquests ; and the boundary of his vast empire was the river Indus on the eost, the Caspian and Euxino Seas on the north, the iEgean Sea on the west, and ilStolia, with the Arabian or Persian Gulf, on the south. Although the character of Cyrus has been given to us very differently by Xcno- phon and Herodotus, it must be allowed, upon the whole, that he was both a power- ful and a worthy prince. He introduced a new discipline into his army ; and furnish- ed them with weapons for dose combat in- stead of bows and arrows, which con'ri- buted in n great measure towards his ex- traordinary surccRS. Having scfilcd the civil governinont of the conquered kingdoms, and restored the Jews to their own land, Cyrus took a re- view of all his forces, which he found to consist of (iOO, n. c; dangerous insur- ;cs of ptovernmcnt icrxcs II., hisoiily ered, after u rpign natural brother, lie same fate eix lie hands of nno- laxprxcs— OchuR, nf Darius II., and der the intlitence "he revolts of his ine of the empire, iliged to acknow- I in Egypt. Hut Greece, of which advantage, saved united attack by (or Mncmon) was le will of his mo- other Cyrus, who ir of Asia Minor, 'kfi, uuilor Xrtio- .irono him, ( lUO il and killed. Pa- ged the Lacedoi- tB UARK. THIS ORCUAROS OV VBRSIA AUB RICH IN ALL TUB VttUlTB OF BUHOFB. ^f)t l^istotQ of Persia. 787 monians to abandon their advantages in Asia Minor, nnd to conclude the disad- vantageoui peace of Antalcidas f3H7 b.c.)' The army of Cyrus comprised a body of Greek mcrcenariei, who, alter the death of the prince, effected their retreat through the neart of Persia, in defiance of all at- tempts to cut them off. A particular ac- count of this has been given by their com- mander, Xenophun, and is known as " the retreat of the ten thousand." Artaxerxes III. secured his throne by ?utting to death his numerous brothers. le reestablished the Persian supremacy over I'licenicia and Kgypt, but was a luxu- rious and cruel prince. After a reign of 23 years, he was poisoned by his minister, Uagoas, an Egyptian, in revenge for the indignities he had heaped on the religion of his countrjr. Uagoas then gave the crown to Darms Codomanus, a prince of the blood, who was conquered bv Alexan- der in three decisive actions, on the Grani- cus, at Issus, and at Arbelu, and lost his life (330 B. c.) ; after which Alexander made himself master of the whole empire. After the battle of Arbela, Alexander took and plundered Perscpolis, whence he marched into Media, in pursuit of Darius, who had fled to Ecbatana, the capital. This prince had still an army of 3U,(KiU foot, among whom were 4000 Greeks, who continued fnithful to the last. Besides these he had 4UU0 slingers and 3000 horse, most of them Bactrians, commanded by Itcssus. AVhcn Darius heard that Alexan- der had marched to Kcbatann, he retired into Bactria, with a design to raise another army j but soon after he determined to vcn- ture a battle with the forces he still had left. On this, Bessus, governor of lUictria, and Nabarzanes, a Persian lord, formed a conspiracy to seize his person, and, if Alex- ander pursued them, to gain his friendship by betraying their master into his hands; but if they escaped, their design was to murder him, and usurp the crown. The troops were easily gained over; but Darius himself, when informed of their proceed- ings, and solicited to trust his person among the Greeks, could not give credit to the report. The consequence was, that he was in a few days seized by traitors ; who bound him with golden chains, and, shut- ting him up in a ccvcred cart, fled with him to Bact- ia. After a most extraordi- nary march in pursuit of Darius, Alexander was informed that the Persian monarch was in the custodv of Bessus and Nabarzanes, and that he himself was within one day's march of the conspirators, whom, indeed, he soon afterwards overtook, marching in great confusion. His unexpected appear- ance struck them, though far superior in number, with such terror, that they imme- diately lied ; and, because Darius refused to follow thcin, Bessus, nnd those who were about him, discharged their darts at the unfortunate prince, leaving him wallowing in his blood. After this they all fled dif- ferent ways, and were pursued by the Ma- cedonians with great slaughter. In the meantime, the horses that drew the cart in which Darius was shut up, stop- ped ; for the drivers had been previously killed by Bessus; and Pnlystratus, a Mace- donian, being distressed with thirst, was directed by tlie inhabitants to a fountain near the place. As he was tilling his hel- met with water, he heard the groans of a dying man ; and, looking round him, dis- covered a cart with a team of wounded horses, unable to move. Approaching it, he perceived Darius lying in the curt, having sevcrni darts in his body. He hud enough of strength, however, left to call for some water, which Polystratiis brought him; and, after drinking, he turned to the Macedonian, and with a faint voice told him, that, in the deplorable state to which he was reduced, it was no sninll comfort to him that his last words would not be lust : he then charged him to return his hearty thanks to Alexander for the kindness he had shown to his wife and family, and to acquaint him, that, with his lust breath, he besought the gods to prosper him, and make him sole monarch of the world. He added, tlint it did not so much concern him as Alexander to pursue and bring to con- dign punishment those traitors who had treated their lawful sovereign with such cruelty. Then taking Polystratus by the hand, " Give Alexander your hand," said he, "as I give you mine, and carry him, in my name, the only pledge 1 nni able to give, in this condition, of my gratitude nnd uileclion." Having uttered these words, he expired in the arms of Polystratus. Alex- ander coming up a few minutes alter, be- wailed his denth, nnd cnused his body to be interred with the highest honours. The traitor Bessus being at last reduced to ex- treme difficulties, was delivered up by his own men, naked and bound, into the li'nnds of the Macedonians; on which Alexander gave him to Oxyathres, the brother of Da- rius, to suffer what punishment he iwhen Scocktechin, a Turkish slave and governor of the Sama- nides at Gazna and Khorasan, made him- self independent at Gazna. His son Mah- raood Esubdued, in 999, Khorasan, and in 1012, Farsistan, and thus put an end to the dominion of the Samanides. He subse- quently conquered Irak Agemi (1017) from the Bouides, and even extended his con- quests into India. But his son Masud was stripped of Irak Agemi and Khorasan by the Seljooks (firom 1037 to 1044) ; and the Gaznavides, weakened by domestic divi- sions, became, under Malek Shah (1182), a prey to the Gourides ;— 6. llie sultans of Gour (Gourides) became powerful in 1150, by means of Aladdin Hosain, but lost their ascendancy, after several important reigns, partly by the encroachments of the princes of Khowaresm, and partly bv domestic dis- sensions ; — 6. The dynasty of IChowaresmian Shahs (from 1097 to 1230) was founded by ' Aziz, governor of the Seljooks in Khowa- resm, or Karasm, where he rendered him- THE TUHQUOIBB IS FRCULIAR TO rBRSIA, AND fOUND Ilf OBBAT QUARTITIXB. LAHD-CAnRIAOB IS PERFORMBO BY CABATAHS OF CAMRI.S, UVLKS, &C. )U II.| under whom iched it* highest irc he extended his aide to ChaJcedon •r Kgypt to Lyhia ly to Yemen. But suddenly changed f the emperor He- all his conquests, made him prisoner, 28). \ was hastened by ds. Sirhes, or Ka- dered in the same (Artaxerxes III-), icceeded him, and ly his general 8er- chief Persians pre- ending the throne : ilutions succeeding tiat historians have , Yezdegerd HI., a icended the throne xteen. He was at- Omar, in 6B<, and to the Arabs and his life in 651. ?ersia by the caliphs ;he modern Persian of the Arabs lasted 1220. As some of de themselves inde- md Turkish princes of single provinces, divided into nume- nong the principal e north and north- ouse of the Thahc- , 820 to 8"2 J— 2. The e Srjfarides, which t named, and ruled rsiatan until 902;— ty, which egtablished lorasan in 874, under cc Mavaralnar, and bI, Ahmed's son, de- , and became power- udants originated, — 7,when Sebektechin, vernor of the Sama- horasan, made him- izna. His son Muh- ), Khorasan, ond in us put an end to the lanides. He subse- k Agerai (1017) ffom 1 extended bis con- t his son Masud was M and Khorasan by J7 to 1044) ; and the ) by domestic divi- tlalekShah (1182), a •,—6. ITie sultans of me powerful in 1150, losain, but lost their ral important reigns, iments of the princes irtly bv domestic dis- iBty of Khowaresmiau 230) was founded by Seliooks in Khowa- re he rendered him- KAT QUAIfTITIIB. Clje li»tonj of ^eraia. 789 self independent. Tagash (1192) destroyed the empire of the Scljooks, and look Kho- rasan from the Gourides. His son Mo- hammed conquered Mavaraluar, subdued the Gourides and Gazna, and occupied the greater part of Persia. But, in 1220, the great khan of the Monguls, GenghiH Khau, and his heroio son Gelaleddin Mankbcrn, deprived him of nis dominions ; and he died in 1230, after a struggle of ten years, in a lonely hut in the mountains of Kurdistan. In western and north-eastern Persia reigned — 7. Mardawig, a Persian warrior, who found- ed a kingdom at Dilcm, in 928, which soon extended over Ispahan, but was destroyed by the Bouides-, — 8. The Bouides (sons of Bouia, a poor fisherman, who derived his origin from the 8as3anides),by their valour and prudence, extended their sway over the greater part of Persia, aud, in 94S, even over Bagdad. They were chiefly distin- guished for their virtues and love of science, and maintained themselves until 1056, when Malek Rahjra was obliged to yield to the Seljooks; — 9. The Seljooks, a Turkish dy- nasty, as ia supposed, driven by the Chinese from Turkestan, first became powerful in Khorasan, with the Gaznavides. Togrul- bcg Mahmood, a brave and prudent war- rior, drove out the son of Mahmood, the Gaznavide sultan, in 1037 ; extended his do- minion over Mavaralnar, Adcrbijan, Arme- nia, Farsistan, Irak Agemi, and IrakArabi, where he put an end to the rule of the Bouides at Bagdad, in 1055, and was in- vested with their dignity, as Emir el Oinrah, by the caliphs. Some of his descendants were distinguished for great activity and humanity. The most powerful of them, Melak Shah, conquered also Georgia, Syria, and Natolia. But the empire gradually declined, and was divided into four king- doms, which were destroyed by the shahs of Khowaresm, the atabeks of Aleppo, and the Monguls. Genghis-khan established the power of the Tartars and Monguls in Persia (1120— 1405). Those Persian provinces which had been acquired by Genghis-khan fell to his younger son, Tauli, in 1229, and tlien to the son of the latter, Hulaku, at first as gover- nors of the Mongolian khans, Kajuk and Mangu, Hulaku extended his dominion over Syria, Natolia, and Irak Arabi. He or his successor became independent of the great khan, and formed a separate Mon- golian dynaaty in those countries, aud sat on the throne till the death of Abusaid, without heirs, in 1335. His successors also descendants of Genghis-khan, had merely the title of khans ot Persia. The empire was weak and divided. Then appeared (1387) Timurlenk (Tamerlane) at the head of a new liordc of Monguls, who conquered Persia, aud filled the world, from Hindos- tan to Smyrna, with terror. But the death of this famous conqueror was followed by the downfall of the Mongul dominion in Persia, of which the Turkomans then re- mained masters for a hundred years. These nomadic tribes, who had plun- dered Persia for two centuries, wrested, under the reigns of Kara Juasuf and his successors, the greatest part of Persia from the Timurides, were suliducd by other Turkoman tribes under Usong Hassan (1468), and incorporated with them. They sunk before Ismail Sophi (15115), who art- fully made use of fanaticism for lits politi- cal purposes, and whose dynasty lasted from 1505 to 1722. Ismail Sophi, whose ancestor Sheikh Sophi pretended to be descended from Ali, took from the Turkomans of the white ram, Aderbijan and part of Armenia, slew both their princes, and founded upon the ruins of their empire, after having con- quered Shirvan, Diarbeker, Georgia, Tur- kestan, and Mavaralnar, an empire which comprised Aderbijan, Uiarbeker, Irak, Pur- aistan, and Kermau. He assumed the name of a shah, and introduced the sect of Ali into the conquered countries. His succes- sors, Thamas, Ishmacl II., Malionnned, Hamzeh, and Ishmael III., (from 1523 to 1587), carried on unsuccessful wars against the Turks and the Usbecks. B-it Shah Abbas the Great (1587 to 1639), re-established the empire by his con(iuests. He took from the Turks Armenia, Irak Arabi, Mesopotamia, the cities of Tauris, Bagdad, and Bassora ; Khorasan from the Usbecks; Ormuz from the Portuguese, and Kandahar from the Monguls: and hum- bled Gcoi'gis, which had refused to pny tri- bute. He introduced absolute power into Persia, transferred his residence to Ispa- han, and instituted tlie pilgrimage to Mes- hid, in order to abolish that to Mecca among the Persians. The following rulers. Shah Saffl and Ab- bas II. (from 1629 to 1660) had new wars with the Turks and Indians; with the for- mer on account of Bagdad, which was lost ; and with the latter on account of Kanda- har, which was reconquered in liKiO. Un- der Shah Sulyman, however, (1666 to 1694), the empire declined, and entirely sunk under his son Hussein. The AlTghans in Kandahar revolted, in 1709, under iMirweis ; and his son Mir Mahinud conquered the whole empire, in 1722. A state of anarcliy followed. Mahmud having become in.snne, was dethroned by Asharf in 1725 ; the latter was subdued by Thamas Kuli Khan, who, with the assistance of the Russians and Turks, placed Thamas, son of Hussein, on the throne in 1729. But when the latter ceded Georgia and Armenia to the Turks, Kuli Khan de- throned him, and placed his minor son, Abbus III. on the throne. He recovered, by conquest or treaties, the province" ccdi'd to the Bussiuns and Turks, and ascended the throne under the title of Nadir Hhak, Abbas III. having died in 1736. He re- stored Persia to her former importance by successful wars aud a strong goveninient. The booty carried off by Nadir has boen estimated at 70 millions sterling. The em- peror and I'll the principal nol)leuieu were obliged to make up the sum deniaiided, with their jewels and richest furniture. Amongst the most remarkable of the lat- FBRBIA UAS BUT FEW 8EA-FORT8 ON THK CASPIAN AND TUB GUI.F. IN aXHMBAI., TUB PBBBIAMI ABB nANOIOMBi ACTIVB, AIIO BOBUIT. ( :• t. i 790 Vl\)t ^ttasuru of 1|i»toip, ^t. i tcr articles was the throne of the emperors of Delhi, made in the ihape of a pea- cuck, and richly ornamented with precious stones. After his return from India, Nadir sub- dued the northern kingdoms of Khwarasm and Bokhara, and settled at Meshed, which he made his capital: entertaining suspi- cions of his eldest son, lie had his eyes put out, and remorse for the crime made him IVanticly ferocious. Vast numbers of people, of every rank, fell victims to his rage, until some of his otHcers conspired against, and assnssinateU him, A.n. ir^?- The death .n was debated in a r COllPLIMKNTS. Vti)i l^istovg of 'Arabia. 701 sovereign council, composed of seven prin- cipal lords, who always accompanied the prince. The QrceliR observed among the Persians a great attention to justice; tlie king frequently rendering it himself to his subjects, and not confldiug in any instance, this material duty of the prince, but to such persons as were profoundly learned in the law, and who could not attain the eminence of the judgment-seat under the age of fifty years. The lives of slaves did nut altogether depend on the will of their masters ; and the pain of death could not be pronounced upon them fur the first fault. This empire, according to the best information, was divided into 137 govern- ments. The lords who presided over them were called satraps, (similar to viceroys of our day), to whom the king consigned a considerable revenue. -Agriculture was par- ticularly honoured by the Persians ; there was in every district officers appointed by the state to overlook the cultivation of the earth. The conquered nations supported tlie expences of the state, the Persians themselves being exempt from every tax and impost. The present government of Persia is an absolute monarchy : but the right of suc- cession, as in ancient times, and as in all Asiatic monarchies, ia undefined, and ge- nerally rests with the strongest, whence a perpetual recurrence of bloodshed and anarchy arises. The religion is Moham- medan, and the Persians are zealous fol- lowers of the Sheah persuasion, or those who look upon Ali, the son-in-law of the prophet, as his legitimate successor. The people consist of four classes -, the first are the native tribes, who live in tents, and are migatory with the seaHnns — nn the /jcnil, Affshar, and others ; the seconil nre siniilnr tribes, of Mongol or Turkoiiinu origin, set- tled in the country, of which tlie Knjnr, or royal tribe, is one; the third are the in- habitauts of the towiix, and thoKc r.i' :iie country who follow ngrioiiltiire ; and tlie fourth are Arab tribes, who occupy the country towards the Pernian Gulf. When the Arabs overrun Persia, about the middle of the seventh century, three languages were spoken in the country, the Parsee, Pehlvi, and Deri, excluau '' the Zend, or language dedicated to i ^lon. The Persians make high claims to ancient literature; but the greater part of that which escaped destruction in the time of Alexander, was destroyed under the ra- liphs. Persian civilization declined during the first period of the Arabian dominion. But learning revived in Persia in the time of the Abassides, and learned men and poets were encouraged by personal favours and distinctions, till the time of Cieugliis Khan, in the thirteenth century. Under Timur, in the fourteenth century, and the Turks in the fifteenth, it continually de- clined, and in the sixteenth was almost en- tirely extinct. The oppressions and dis- turbances to which Persia has since been continually su'-'-ct, have prevented the re- vival of learning. No oriental nation pos- sesses richer literary treasures of the ear- lier periods, particularly in poetry and his- tory; but their acquaintance with useful science, or the fine arts, is.iuost crude and limited indeed. ARABIA. Thb liistorv of the Arabians, called by some " the children of the east," is one of an unstable, but interesting people. Con- nected with the early portions of the Sacred History, and reflecting strong evidences of the truth of that history, we find in its annals the descendants of the patriarchs. Ishmael and Esau, in particular, throw an interest over the map of this country, and carry us back to that era when the hope of the promised seed was the star of guid- ance to the chosen family. Various are the tribes that peopled this country ; from three of these the present Arabians nre supposed to be descended — two of them from the race of Ishmael, and the third from Cush, the son of Ham. Of the early history of these wandering peo- ple, it may truly be said, in the language of scripture, respecting Ishmael, "he has been a wild man ; his hand has been against every man, and every man's hand against hi"d emperor; for both he and the empire wert completely ruled by Wang-mang, a prince of^ great energy, who, on the death of Ping-tc, took actual possession of the throne, of which he had long been the virtual owner. Many princes espoused the cause of the displaced dynasty; but though they perpetually made war upon the able usurper, he kept posses- sion of the throne during the remainder of his life. Wang-mang died a. d. 23, and was suc- ceeded by Hwae-yang-wang; he died in A. D. 68, and was succeeded by Kwang-Woo. This reign is chiefly remarkable on account of the introduction into China, from the neighbouring country of Eastern India, of the Ituddhist religion. In the year 89, and the reign of IlO'te, the Tartars, who as well as the Huns and the Cochins were the perpetual pest of China, again made their appearance. They were worsted in several encounters, and very many thousands of them perished. They were driven, broken and dispirited, to the Caspian, and only then escaped owing to the fear with which the mere prospect of a long voyage inspired the Chinese. For se- veral years after this event the afTaira of China were in a very pitiable state ; the Tartars, returning again and again, added by their ravages to the distress caused by bad seasons ; and just under those very circum- stances which made the rule of a vigorous and able man more than ever desirable, it, singularly enough, chanced that reign after reign fell to the lot of mere children, ia whose names the kingdom was of course governed by the court favourites of the ex- istinp empress; the high trust of the fa- vourite naturally arising more from the empress's favour than from his fitness or inte^ty. Drought, famine, plague, and the Irequent curse of foreign invasion, made this part of Chinese history truly lament- able. In the year 320 the empire was divided into three, and with the usual effect of di- vided rule in neighbours between whom nature has placed no boundary of sea, or rock, or impracticable desert. In the year 288, the emperor Woo-te suc- ceeded in again uniting the states into one empire. He died about two years later, and was succeeded by Uwuy-te, who reigned seventeen years, but was guilty of many cruelties, and consc(iuently much disliked. The history of no fewer than 113 years, terminating a. d. 420, may be summed up ;n cniNA. TUE EMFEROU 18, IN RE.VLITY, TUB SLAVIi OP CUSTO.M AND KTIdUElTK. 'I /'• u f i TOH rULICa OF CIIIMA is KXTIISAIKtY ACTIVK AND VIUII.ANT. 796 Ci)e t!rna»unj of l^iatoin, $ic. in three words— confusion, pillnge, nnd slaughter. Either native gcnernU nnd na- tive armies fought, or the llercc Hun nnd still fiercer Tnrtar carried death and dis- may throughout the empire. Years of bloodshed and confusion at length inclined the more important among the nntive com- petitors to peace, and two empires were formed, the northern and southern ;— the Nan and the Yuhchow. Lew-yn,orWoo-te, emperor of the south- ern empire, though he was fur superior in the wealthincss of his share to the prince of the north, was originallv the orphan of parents of low rank, who left him in cir- cumstances of such destitution, that his youth was supported by the actual chnrity of an old woiunn, who reared, him as her own son. As soon as he was old enough he enlisted as a soldier, and subsequently made his way to the empire by a succession of murders upon members of the roynl fa- mily, including the emperor Kung-te, who was the last of the Tsin dynasty. Lew-yn, or Woo-te, compelled that unfortunate mo- narch publicly to abdicate in his favour. The prison of deposed kings is proverbially synonymous with their grave. The case of Kung-te was no exception to the general rule ; he whs put to death by poison. Woo-te died in 423: his son, YingYmig- Wang succeeded him ; but was speedily de- posed iu favour of Wan-te. This prince issued an edict against the Buddhist doc- trines, which in the northern dominions, where the prince just at that time was pos- sessed of far more power than his southern brother, proceeded still more harshly. All Buddhists were banished: the Buddhist temples burned, nnd many priests put to death or cruelly tortured and mutilated. Wan-te, learned himself, was n great friend and promoter of learning. Several colleges were founded by him, and his exertions in this respect were the more valuable, as they were imitated by the prince of the north. Wan-te having sharply reproved his son Lew Chaou, for some misconduct, and threatened to disinherit him, the son bru- tally murdered him nt the instigation of a bonze or priest, who represented thnt act as the only means of preventing the father's threat from being carried into efifect. The guilt of both the prince and his priestly instigator met with its fitting reward. Lew- scnen, half-brother to the prince, raised a powerful army, and attacked Lew Chaou, who with his whole family were beheaded, and all his palaces razed to the ground. Fei-le King- Ho has been aptly enough compared to the Caius Caligula of Rome : bloodshed appeared to be his greatest de- light; to be privileged to approach him was at the same time to be in constant peril of being butchered j and he was no less ooscene than cruel ; an immense and gorgeously decorated hall being built by him, and ex- clusively devoted to the most disgusting and frontie orgies. The reign of so foul a monster could not be otherwise than short. The very officers of his palace could not to- lerate his conduct, and in the year follow- ing his nrcosxion to the throne he whs dispatched by one of tlic eunuchs of his pnlnci'. Ming-te Tnc-chc Kucceodcd to the throne A.D. -UHl. What he luinlit linvc proved if hit accession had been unnpiioncd we can but guess ; but, being opposed, he was nrouncd to a rage perl'ectly unyovernnblc. Tliose of his relatives who nctunlly took up arms aKninst him were not more hateful tliiin thute of them who dil not, and ninuy of the latter were put to death by him. His wlu)le reign wns passed in warlnre with one or mure of the princes of his fnmilv. This state of things lusted for iiciirly six ycnrs, nnd caused so much misery to the people, that there would speedily have beenn ncnc- rnl rising for tlie purpose of dethroning iiiiu, but for his opportune death. Anarchy and war marked the two follow- ing reigns of Chwang-yu-wnng nnd Siiun-tp ; the former was dispatched T)y an cuiiurh employed by an aspiring general, who iilso compelled 8hun-te to abdicate in his favour, and soon afterwards nssnssiiiatnd him. In 479 the aspiring and reckless general Seawu-Tnduching ascended the throne, un- der the title of Knou-tenow ; he reigned but two years, and the succeeding princes of this dynasty, Tsi, which terminated in 602, v.'cre engaged in continual war with the prince of the north, but performed nei- ther warlike nor peaceful services to merit notice. A new dynasty, the Lcang, was now com- menced by Woo-te, who ascended the throne in 502. Under him the old wnrs between the northern and southern empires were continued. Nevertheless, though war- like nnd active at the commencement of his reign, he showed himself a great admirer and patron of learning. He revived some learned establishments that had fallen into decay, nnd founded some new ones; but prohablythe most important service tliat lie did it was that of publicly teaching in person. We may fairly doubt whether such a prince was not better skilled in the arts of war, as* then practised, than in studious lore ; but his example tended to make learur in^ fashionable, and he may tlierefore be said to have nfTorded it the greatest encou- ragement. Whatever his actual attainments, his love of study seems to have been both deep and sincere ; for while yet in the prime of mental and bodily vigour, he abandoned the pomp and power of the throne, and re- tired to a monastery with the avowed inten- tion of devoting the remainder of his life to study. This, however, had such mis- chievous effect u)ion public affairs, that the principal mandarins compelled him to quit his peaceful retirement and rcaseend the throne ; but the rest of his life was passed in strife and tumult, which eventually broke his heart. His son and successor had scarce- ly commenced his reign, when he was put to death, and succeeded by Yuen-te. This emperor also was fond of retirement and study, and greatly neglected the ntfairs of his empire, which, distracted as it con- stantly was by the violence and intrigues of SEDITION IS FUNISnED IN COINA WITH EXTHAORDINAHY SEVKRITY. I.ANT. le throne he wnn ic eunuchs of his r.AcA to tlif throne Imvc jirovcil if lit* >|io»cti made for the emperor. That cowardlv si u- sualist had taken refuge with all his family in a dry well, whence he was dragged out half dead with terror, and expecting no less than instant death at the iianda of the vic- torious rebel leader. But Yang-keen, either in mercy, or with the politic view of placing an additional obstacle to all other pretenders that might arise, spared both him and his family. On usurping the throne, a. d. 572, Tang- keen's very first act was to consolidate the northern empire with the southern. In this he found little difflrulty. Wei, the last really great prince of the northern empire, was both so well able to war, and so little in- clined to do so without occasion, that he made hit state at once feared withont, and peaceftil and prosperoua within. He waa poisoned by hit own mother, a woman of nigh but cruel tpirit, and of great talenta but mott rettlett dUpotition. Both the, while the acted at regent to her grandton, and the latter when he had taken the reina of gOTemment into hit own hands, plunged the state into alt the venomoiu and mischierout wara of the imperial princet: and thit fatal departure from the peaceful polity of the former ruler, and the absence of anv impt'ivement in hit military rH>wer, ttrucK a bio - * at th*^ safety and intr .;rity of the northi-.'t empite, which, after a sepa- rate exitter ;e of np^'ardt of > century and a half, wat re-annexed to the southern em- pire alraott without irt effort. C>1APTEB ; I. Tano-kbbn having been to succeiii. v in obtaining the throne and consolidntii / ' iie empire, turned his attention to re < ai -.ing the violence and rapine of thcTarttr chief*. His reputation for skill, "nh ur, and firm- ness, here did him coort eei ^ e. Bold and rapacious as the Tart irs we ", they were too well aware of the < laract-ji. of the mo- narch whom they now had to deal with, to hope that he would either overlook any of the advantages he possessed, or neglect to use them. They professed tliemselves de- sirous rather of Ins friendship than his en- mity; and to show the siKoeritv of what they called their amity, but what would have been far more co) ei. tly termed their terror, they went so far as to pay him ho- mage. With his usual shrewd policy, Yang- keen gave one of the imperial princesses in marriage to the principal Tartar chief. Nor was he ill rewarded for the facility with which he permitted himself to substitute alliance for strife. During his reign, hit people remained free from the incursions of the Tartars, which had previously been as f?eqi: v'. an the natural tepipests, and far more M'ur •stive. Ou .;'.v .\eath of Yang-keen, in 604, the heir to (he throne was strangled by a younger brother, Yang-te, who, having com- mitted the fratricide, and removed all other '^'.'Staclcs from his path, ascended the throne iu 605. The means by which this prince obtained thethrone, common as such means are in despo ic and but partially civilized nations, dese ve all the detestation that we can bestow u|..'n them; bttt if he obtained the throne si imefully, he filled it well. Though eminently a man of taste and plea- sure, he wat no less a man of judgment, enterprise, and energy. In the early part of his reign he formed extensive gardens, which for magnitude and tastefulness were never before witnessed in China; and in these gardens it was his chief delight to ride, attended by a retinue of a thousand A >> m .4 O B O a a K M B m m H m m I: THI LOWER ORDEBS ABB PASSIONATKLY ADniCTEn TO GAMBI.INO. [3r3! (l ' ■: I' I 1 If t i iMi ? THIS COItOITION OV THR FOOR IN CHINA IS WRETCUF.D IN TUB EXTREMK. 798 STi^c treasure of l^istoru, $cc. ladies, splendidly attired, who amused him with vocal and iiistrumentnl music, and with dancing and feats of grace ai.d agility on horseback. This luxurious habit did not, however, prevent him from paying great attention to the solid improvements of which China at that time stood so much in need. It would be idle to remark upon the imi>ortance (to both the prosperity and the civilization of a people) of good and numerous nfeans of communication be- tween all the extremities of their land. Many of his canals and bridges still exist, as proofs both of his zeal and judgment in this most important department of the duty of a ruler. His talents, energy, and accomplishments did not save him from the fate which we deplore, even when the worst of rulers are its victims. He bad been on a tour, not improbably with a view to some new improvement in the face of the country, when he was assassinated. This melan- choly event, it seems very probable, arose from the succcssfnl artifices of Le-yuen: he was both powerful and disaffected; ha^ previously signalized himself by the most factious conduct, and immediately after the assassination put himself forward to place King-te upon the vacant throne. What motive Le-yuen had in making this man the mere puppet of sovereignty for a brief time, it is difficult to conjecture ; but it is certain that King-te had scarcely ascended the throne before Le-yuen caused him to be strangled, and assumed the sovereign power himself. It is strange that ill acquired power is often used at once with the greatest wis- dom and the greatest moderation, as though in the struggle to obtain it all the evil por- tion of the possessor's nature had been ex- hausted. Le-yuen, or rather Kaou-tsoo, wliich name he took on ascending the throne, was a remarkable instance of this. Nothing could be more sanguinary or un- scrupulous than tlie course by which he became master of the empire ; nothing could be braver, more politic, or as regarded his internal administration, milder, than his conduct after he had obtained it. For some years previous to his usurpa- tion, the Tartars had returned to their old practice of making incursions into the nor- thern parts of China, on some portion of which they had actually proceeded to settle themselves. Kaou-tsoo attacked them with great spirit, and in many severe engage- ments made such slaughter anions them as to impress tltcui with a salutary fear of pushing their encroachments farther. Lookmg with a politic and prescient eye at the state of other nations, Kaou-tsoo was extremely anxious about that singular and ferocious people the Turks, who about the commencement of his reign began to be very troublesome to Asm. Dwelling between the Caspian sea and the river Hypanis, the Turks were a sylvan people, hardy, and living chietly \ipon the spoils of the chncc. Thus prepared hy their way of life for the hardships of war, and having their cupidity excited by the rich booty of the caravans, which tlicy occasion- ally rushed upon from tlieir peninsular lair to plunder, this people could not fail to be otherwise than terrible when, under a brave and politic leader, they went forth to the conquest of nations instead of tlie pillage of a caravan, and appeared as a great mul- titude instead of a mere isolated handful of robbers. To China they were especi- ally hateful and mischievous; for they were perpetually at war with the Persians, with whom, just at that time, far the most valuable portion of Chinese commerce was carried on. The Persians fell before the Turkish power, and that restless power endeavoured to push its conquests iuto China. It might probably have effected this had a different man ruled the empire ; but the emperor not merely repulsed them from his own territory, but chastised the disaffected Thibetians who had aided them and pushed forward into China, whence he expelled the Turks. After a victorious and active reign of twenty, two years and a few months, this brave and politic emperor died, and was succeeded by Chun-tsung, whose effemi- nacy was the more glarmgly disgraceful from contrast with the brave and active character of his predecessor. The single act for which his historians give him any credit, is that of having made it necessary for the literati, who by this time exercised pretty nearly as much inlluenee in both private and public affairs in China as the clergy did in Europe during the middle ages, to sustain a rather severe public exa- mination. Of tlic next seventeen monarchs of China there is literally nothing recorded that is worthy of transcript ; nor during their reigns did anything of moment occur to China beyond the civil dissensions, which were frequent, and, indeed, inevitable in a country where effeminate princes commit- ted tlieir power to intriguing eunuchs, who scarcely ever failed to prevent a resumption of it, by the dagger, or the poisoned cup. Chwang-tsung, son of a brave and skil- ful general, founded the How Tang dynasty, and, at least at the outset of his reign, was a bright contrast to his predecessors, He had trom mere boyhood shared the perils and hardshins of his father, whom he had accompaniea in many of his expeditions. At the commencement of his reign he gave every promise of being the greatest mo- narch China ever saw. In his apparel and diet he emulated the frugality of the mean- est peasant and the plainest of his troops. Lest he should indulge in more sleep than nature actually required, he was accustomed to have no other bed than the bare ground, and, as if this luxurious way of lying might lead him to waste in sleep any of that pre- cious time of which lie was a most rigid economist, he had a bell so fastened to his person, that it rang on his attempting to turn round, so loudly as to awoken him, and after it did so he immediately rose, to repose no more until his usual hour on the RODBBBIliB IN CHINA ARE VERY nARKl.T ACCOMPANIED AVITII MUIlDBn. EXTBEMV. THB CHINESB ARE THB MOST EXFBItT VISUERMKN IN TUB WORLD. I^tstoru of Ctina. i99 ensuing night. Extremes are proverbially said to meet ; but certainly one would never have suspected that so Spartan a youth would have heralded a manhood of exceed- ing luxury, and even licentiousness. But so it was ; his companions were among the most debauched waasailers in his empire, and he emulated their conduct. Yet though he departed from the, perhaps, too rigid severity of his manners, he was, to the last, a brave and artive man, and was slain at the head of his tioops in a battle fought in U2C, having, in spite of some peisoual dei'ects of character already noted, been on the whole one of the most respectable of all the native Chinese emperors. The next emperor was Ming-taung, who reigned for only seven years. But if his reign was short, it was both active and be- nclicent ; and if there are many greater names in the imperial annals, there is not one more beloved. Ilis people looked upon him as a parent, and his whole reign seems, in fact, to have been the expression and achievement of a truly kind and maternal feeling. He died in 9.'i3, with a ;;iiaracter which greater monarchs might envy. Min-te succeeded to the throne in 033. He only reigned one year ; but in that very brief space of time he contrived to deserve, if not to obtain, the execration of the Chinese women, not only of his own time but up to the present hour. He it was who established the truly barbarous prac- tice of cuutiniug the feet of female chifdreu in such a manner that the toes are bent completely under the soles of the feet, which are, it is true, rendered very diminu- tive in appearance by this abominable me- thod, but are at the same time rendered almost useless. The loitering and awkward guit of the women would be sulKcicnt to make this practice deserving of all abhor- rence as a matter of taste merely, but when we consider the exquisite torture which the unhappy creatures must have suffered in girlhood, it is really wonderful that sui-h a practice can so long have existed in any nation possessing eren the first rudiments of civilization. Min-te died in 031, in the first year of his reign, and was succeeded by Fei Tei, who paid the fearful price of fratricide for the throne. He possessed, it would seem, a great share of merely animal courage, and like the generality of persons who do so, he was distinguished for his exceeding bar- barity. Even the Chinese, accustomed as they were to despotism in all its varieties of misfule, could not endure the excess and wantonness of his cruelty. A formidable revolt broke out; and finding himself hard pressed by his enemies, and abandoned at every moment by his troops, he collected the whole of his family together, and, like another Sardannpalus, set fire to his palace — his wcnitli, his family, and himself being consumed in the flames. Kaou-tse now ascended the throne, being the first of tire How-tsin dynasty. T'e was more the nominal than the real monarch, his minister, Hung-taieu, usurping a more than imperial power. The minister, in fact, is in everyway more worthy of mention than the monarch, for according to the most credible accounts the invention of printing from blocks was a boon conferred by him upon China in the year 937. Both this {««gn and that of Chuh-te, which closed this short-lived dynasty, were occupied in perpetual battling with the restless Tartars, who, for ages, seem to have had an instinctive certainty of having, sooner or later, the rule of China as the re- ward of their determined and pertinacious inroads. In 91)0, Kung-te, a child of only six years of age, being upon ttie throne, the people arose and demanded his abdication. Of maternal and eunuch misgovemment they certainly had for centuries past had abun- dant and very sad experience. How far the successful aspirant to the throne was con- cerned in rousing their fears into activity and fervour does not appear; but it is cer- tain that the revolt against the infant em- peror, and the election of Chaou-quangyin as his succesor, were events in which the people showed great unanimity of feeling. This founder of the Sung dynasty did not commence his reign under the most pro- mising circumstances; for on the ceremo- nial of his acceptance of the throne, he ac- tually ascended it in a state of intoxication. Nevertheless, this prince, who on his elevr.tiou to the throne took the name of Taou-tsoo, was in reality one of the beat of the Chinese monarchs, both as a warrior and ns a domestic ruler. The imbecility or infancy of some of his predecessors, and the pernicious habit into which others fell of leaving the actual administration of af- fairs in tlie hands of eunuchs and other corrupt favourites, had caused the court expcnccs as well as the court retinue to be swelled to a shameful extent. The new emperor, immediutelv at'ter his accession, caused the most rigid enquiry to be made into the expenses of the state; ond every useless office was abolished, and every un- fair charge sternly and promptly disallowed. In effecting this great and important re- form, the emperor derived no suuiU advan- tage from having formerly been a private person, as in that capacity he no duubt would have the opportunity to note many abuses which could never be discovered by the emperor or an" of the imperial princes. His frugality seems to have been as impar- tial as it was wise; for though he rni^-ud his family, for four generations, to the rank of imperial princes, he at the same time in- sisted upon their being content with the most moilcvate revenue that was at all con- sistent with their rank. Though the election of the new emperor was nearly as unanimous as such an event can reasonably be expected to be, it must not be understood thot his elevation n\et with no opposition, even of an armed clm- racter. On the contrary, the indrpondent princes of Han and thi" c\lremo iiorfliern people of the empire rose in Hmi.itoop))osc him. ;. f t !l VKOETADI.ES AUK THE CUIKF PIIOVISIO?) OV AI.T. KANKS IS IIIIN'. I : TI18 JKSUITS WBHB TUB KARI.IIST CUBISTIAN MISalONABISS IN CHINA. B 800 ZlTIjc treasury of llistorp, §cc. When we bear in mind tbe long and in- defatigable endeavours of the Tartars to ob- tain a footing in the interior of the Chinese empire, and conple that fact with that of their now leaguing with the Chinese re- voltcrs against the new emperor, we shall not be very presumptuous if we affirm that the opposition to him was in fact, though not in appearance and name, far more fo- reign than native. The emperor made im- mense levies of men throughout the pro- vinces that were faithful to him, and march- ed against his enemies. The subsequent conflicts were dreadful ; the troops of the Prince of Han well knowing that they had little mercv to hope for if taken prisoners, fought with the fury and obstinacy cf des- pair, and they were well secondea by the Tartars. Thousands fell in each engage- ment ; and though the emperor was a war- rior, and a brave one, he is said to have often subsequently shed tears at the mere remembrance of the bloodshed he witnessed during this war. The overwhelming levies of the emperor, and, perhaps, tliat " tower of strength " — the royal name — ^whick the adverse faction wanted, made him, but not till after a desperate struggle, completely successful. Having put down this opposition, he next Eroceeded against the prince of Cboo, whom e captured and deprived of his dominions. Among the millions of souls whom he thus added to his subjects was an extremely nu- inei-ous and well-appointed army. This he forthwith incorporated with his own, and thus strengthened in force, marched against Kyang Nan and southern Han. Here again he was completely successful, and he now turned his attention to the chastisement of the Mongols of Leaon-tung, who had joined the prince of Han in the former war ; but the issue of this expedition was still uncertain when the emperor died. Though engaged in war from the begin- ning to the very end of his reign, this em- peror was extremely attentive to the internal state of his empire, and more especially in a particular wmch previously had been nut too much neglected — the impartial adminis- trat ion of justice. When he was not actually in the field he was at all times accessible ; to the humblest as to the highest the gates of the imperial palace were always open, and in giving his decision he knew no dis- tinction between the mandarin and the poor labourer. This conduct in his military and civil affair!! roduced him the enviable cha- racter of being "the terror of his enemies and the delignt of his subject' " While actively engaged in the prosecui >n of the war against the Mongols, he was seized with an illness which terminated his valuable life, in the year 976. Tae-tsung, son of the last mentioned mo- narch, ascended tbe throne at the death of his father, whose warlike measures he pro- ceeded to carry out, and whose warlike cha- racter and abilities he to a very great extent inherited. During his entire reign ho was engaged in wnr ; now with the Mongols, at that time the most threatening of all the enemies of the empire, and now with this or that reiiractory native prince. It is strange that in all the ages in which so much blood- shed and misery had been caused by wars between the princes and the emperors, the latter never thought, so far as we can per- ceive fipom the account now extant of their proceedings, of the obvious and efficient po- licy of concentrating their forees upon the Sositions of individual princes, and on every ecisive advantage over an individual prince thus unfavourably situated for resistance, demanding such a contribution in money as would effectually impoverish him ; at the same time demanding as hostages from him, not only some of the more important of his own family, but of all the other great families connected with him. These mea- sures, severe as the^ undoubtedly would have been upon individuals, would have been merciful indeed as regards the great mass of both the contending parties ; more- over, the hostages might have been so em- ployed and so treated at the imperial court as greatly to reduce tbe individual hard- ship. After twenty-one years of almost perpetual warfare, with many successes and comparativeljr few defeats, Tae-tsung died in 997, leaving behind him a cha- racter only less honourable than that of his predecessor, inasmucii as he paid far less constant and minute attention to the internal order of the empire and the indi- vidual welfare of his subjects. Chin-tsung now succeeded to the em- pire, a prince whose character and con- duct strangely contrasted with those of his two immediate predecessors. The bonzes, or priests, were the only persons who had reason to like him ; and even their liking, excited though it was by personal advan- tage, must have been mixed with no slight feeling of contempt. There was no tale that they could tell him which was too ex- travagant for his implicit belief; no com- mand too absurd for his unquadifled obe- dience. Every morning the imperial zany was busied in relating his overnight dreams, and it need scarcely ne said that the bonzes took especial care so to interpret those dreams as to tend to confirm the weak- minded and hypochondriac monarch in his fatuous course, and to make that course as profi'dble as possible to themselves indi- vidually, and as favourable as possible to their order at large. The bonzes were not the only persons who profited by this emperor's fatuity ; the warlike, indefatigable, and shrewd Tartars speedily perceived the difference betwixt an emperor who divided his time between dreaming and listening to the interpreta- tions of bis dreams — leaving the empire and its vast complicated interests to the care, or carelessness, of eunuchs and time-servers— and the warlike and deax-headed emperors with whom they had to deal duiing the two preceding reigns. They poured in upon the empire with a fury proportioned to the ineffective resistance they anticipated, and their shrewd conjectures were amply justi- fied by the event. Resistance, indeed, was OP LATK YEARS TUB PBQTBSTANT MISSIONS UAVB GAINED OBOVND. IN CHINA. id now with this nee. It is strange :h so much blood- I caused by wars he emperors, the ir as we can per- extant of their sand efficient po- forees upon the ices, and on every individual prince id for resistance, bution in money loverish him ; at as hostages firom more important II the other great lim. These mea- doubtedly would lals, would have regards the great ng parties ; more- have been so em- he imj^erial court individual hard- years of almost many successes efcats, Tae-tsung lind him a cha- hle than that of :ii as he paid far Lttentiou to the )iTe and the indi- icts. leded to the em- aracter and con- L with those of bis tors. The bouzes, persons who had even their liking, r personal advan- led with no slight here was no tale which was too ex- it belief; no cora- I unqualified obe- tho imperial zany overnight dreams, id that the bonzes o interpret those onfirm the weak- ac monarch in bis ike that course as themselves indi- )le as possible to the only persons jror's fatuity ; the d shrewd Tartars liffercnce betwixt his time between :o the interpreta- ngthe empire and csts to the care, or ,nd time-servers — :-headed emperors Ml duiing the two poured in upon oportioned to the r anticipated, and were amply justi- ance, indeed, was DBOVND. TO LKABN TO OOBT IS TUK SUHUUM BONUll OP FEMALE BDUCATION. lltBtori) of €rf)ina. 801 made to thr n on ne frontiers ; but instead of their bein^, driven beyond the frontiers with a message of mourning to thousands of Tartar families, their absence was pur- chased. Great stores of both money and silk were paid to them by order of the Chinese court, which, like the Romans when Rome bad become utterly degenerate, was fain to purchase the peace it dared not or could not battle for. Ying-tsung, Shin-tsung, and Uwuy-tsung, the three immediate successors of the weak prince of whose reign we have just spoken, followed his impolitic and shameful policy of purchasing peace. We emphatically say impolitic, because common sense tells us that to yield tribute once, is to encourA{[e the demand of it in future. And so it proved in this case. The tribute once se- cured, the hardy and unprincipled Tartars again returned to the charge, to be again bought off, and to derive, of course, renewed assurance of booty whensoever they should again think proper to apply for it. Hwuy-tsung, the third of the emperors named above, having a dire perception of the error committed by himself and his three immediate predecessors, determined to adopt a new course, and, instead of bribing the "barbarians" who sO cruelly annoyed hi^, to hire other barbarians to expel them, thus adding to the folly of buy- ing peace the still farther folly of giving the clearest possible* insii^ht into the actual weakness of his condition, to those who, being his allies as long as they received his wages, would infallibly become his enemies the instant he ceased to hire them. This prince en^^aged the warlike tribe of Neu-che Tartars in the defence of his ter- ritory. They ably and faithfully performed what they had engaged; but when they had driven out the Nieu-clieng Tartars they tlatly refused to quit the territory, and made a hostile descent upon the provinces of I'e- cheli and Shansi, which they took posses- sion of. At the same time the Mongols were pouring furiously down upon the pro- vinces of Shan-tong and Horan; and the terrified and utterly unwarlike emperor saw no other means of saving his dominions than by coming to immediate terms with his late allies and present foes— the victo- rious mid imperious Neu-che Tartars. He accordingly went to their camp, attended by a splendid retinue of his chief officers, to nc;;otiate not only for a peace, but also for their active and prompt aid against the Mongols. But the emperor had so long left the affairs of the empire in the hands of intriguers and venal sycophants, that he was not sufficiently acquainted with his ac- tual position to take even ordinary precau- tions; he was literally sold by his minis- ters into the hands of his enemies; and on reaching the Tartar camp, he found that he was no longer a powerful prince treating for peace and alliance with an inferior people, but a powerless prisoner of war, in the hands of his enemies, and abandoned by his friends. And abandoned he indeed was, by all save his son. That spirited prince, faithful to his fallen father, and in- dignant at the treachery that had been practised against him, put the ministers to death, and gathered au immense force against the Mongols, who, in the mean time, had been making the most rapid and terrible advances. Rapine and fire marked their path whithersoever they went. The emperor's gallant and faithful son made admirable but useless efforts to approach them. Leaving devastation and misery in their rear, they rapidly approached the ca- pital, laid siege to the imperial palace itself, butchered thousands or the inhabitants, including some of the imperial family, and sent the rest into captivity. CHAPTER IV. Kaou-tsuno II. It this period reigned over the southern provinces. When the barbarians overran the northern parts o( the empire he made bold and able attempts at beating them off from his dominions ; but they were far too warlike and numerous for his limited resources. To the nortb.crn provinces and to the captive emperor he was unable to afford any assistance by force of arms, nor could his humblest and most tempting offers to the savage foes induce them to liberate a prisoner or evacuate a rood of land. All that he was able to gain from them was permission to retain his own rule in peace, on paying an annual tri- bute and acknowledging his subjection. During two succeeding reigns the Chinese enjoyed the blessings of peace; but the im- prudence of Ning-tsung, untaught by ex- perience of the danger of calling in barba- rian aid, brought into China a vast horde Mongols — the fiercest and greediest even among the barbarous Tartar tribes. In 1194 the celebrated Genghis Khan was at the head of the Mongol Tartars. At the outset of this warrior's career his people re- volted from him, excepting only a very few fttmilies, on the ground of liis being, at the death of his father, too young to rule a numerous and extremely warlike people. But the youth displayed so much talent and courage, and his earliest essays as a war- rior were so entirely and strikingly success- ful, that the tide of opinion speedily turned in his favour; and an old and venerated Mongol chief having, in a public assembly of the people, prophesied that the youth, then known by his family nameof Teinujin, would, if supported as he deserved to be, prove to be the greatest of their khaus — Genghis Khan (the Mongol words for great- est king) was immediately made the youth's name by acclamation, and the bold, but barbarous and vacillating people as unani- mously submitted to him now, as formerly they had seceded from him. It was to this chief, who had already made his name a name of terror far bevond the banks of the Selinga, the native abode of his fierce race, that Ning-tsunjs.the then emperor, applied for aid to drive .iit other Tartars, by whom, a» well as by native mal- contents, the nation was very sorely op- pressed at that period. ! r |H i! ^,0 M IN A ClIINIiBE KUVCATION MBHOBT IS FIlKFIsnnKn TO TAI.F..\r. -t' IN CUINA, BDCCBBDINa AOKa ADD NOTHIIfa TO HUUA.f XROWLBDOB. I'! I £ I 802 Vi'fft treasure of llistor^, $cc. Genghis Khan, already inured to con- quest and tliirsting for extended dominion, eagerly complied with the impolitic request of NiiiR tsuiiif. During the reign of that monai'ch, and of lie-tRung-, by whom he whb, nt hiii death in 123o, surcerded, the Mongols passed from triumph to triumph, the un- happy natives nufferinicnuless fromthc bar- harians who wn-o hircil to defend tliem than from the other barbarians who avowedly en- tered the empire for p\irposes of rapine and bloodshed. Le-tsung, a prince whose na- tural indolence was increased by his supersti- tious attachment to the most superstitious priests in his empire, was a voluntary pri- soner in his palace, while the Mongols were driving from one province to another, not merely the intruding: foe and foreiicner, hut also the rightful and already sutfering inha- bitant. The atrocities committed in what the Mongols seemed to be bent upon making an actual war of extcmiinntion were dread- ful ; the most authentic accounts, and those which seem most entirely free from exag- geration, speaking of the slaughter among the unfortunate people as amounting to some hundreds of thousands. Genghis Khan dying, was succeeded by a grandson named Kublai; and Le-tsung also dying, was succeeded by Too-tsung. This last named prince was as debauched as his predecessor had been superstitious ; and, wholly taken up with the gratification of his shameful sensuality, he saw, almost without a care or struggle, the Mongols under Kublai proceeding with their ravages, and Kublai at length become master of the northern provinces. Thus far successful, it was not likely that the conquering chief should forbear from turning his attention to the southern pro- vinces, which, as we learn from Marco Polo, was considered by far the most wealthy and splendid of the kingdoms of the east. The very wealth of the southern empire, and its comparatively long exemption from war, rendered it pretty certain that it would easily be overrun oy him who had conquered the hardier and more experienced warriors of the north. Province after province and city after city was taken, without the expe- rience on the part of the Mongols of any- thing even approaching to a severe check : many of the most powerful nobles, who were the most bound in honour anddutjr to have defended the country, actually joining the enemy. With rapid and sure steps the enemy at length approached the city of Kinsai, the capital and royal residence, and wealthy to an extent not easily to be described. The then emperor, Kung-tsung, seems to have despaired of successful defence against a foe so long and to such an extent victorious, and to have supposed that his empress could more successfully appeal to a victor's mercy than he could to the fortune of war. He accordingly got together all the treasure that could be at all conveniently embarked on board his fleet, gave the command of it to his most experienced naval commander, and put out to sea. A strange circumstance it related of the siege of this city, a circumstance, to say the truth, which has so strong a family like- ness to incidents that nre given to other psriies, both by authentic liistorv and by Actions, that we give it with but little be- lief in its truth, and only relate it, lest in omitting so striking an mcident, which is S;iven by some very grave writers, we should lay ourselves open to the charge of careless- ness in overlooKing, or presumption in re- jecting it. The fact of th« defence of Kinsid being committed to a beautifVil woman, did not prevent Kublai from ordering his generals to use the utmost exertions in bringing the siege to a speedy conclusion. Such orders ensured an activity which reduced the em- press Hud her garrison to the most alarming distresses ; but the empress consoled her- self under every new disaster by a prophecy which had been made by a court astrologer — a kind of cheat verv popular with most of the Chinese monarchs of that time— that Kinsni could only bo taken by a general having a hundred eyes. As such' a specimen of natural history was by no means Hkely to appear, the empress allowed nothing to daunt her, until on enc^uiring the name of a general whom Kublai had entrusted to make a new and vigorous assault on the city, she was told that it was Chin tan ba yan. These words — which mean the hundred-eyed —seemed in such ominous agreement with the requirement of the prophecy, that the empress allowed her hitherto high courage to give place to a superstitious horror, and she immediately surrendered the city, on receiving from Kublai assurance, which he very honourably fulfilled, of treatment and an allowance in conformity with her rank. 8a-yan-fu, which was a far stronger city than the capital, and against which no super- stitious influence was brought, held bravely out agaibst the utmost eflmrts of the Mon- gols for upwards of three years. Marco Polo and his brother Nicolo, the Italian travel- lers and traders, anxious to ingratiate them- selves witli the formidable and prosperous Kublai, supplied him with besieging engines which threw stone balls of the tremendous weight of 120 pounds. Such missiles soon made practicable breaches in the hitherto impregnable walls. The town was stormed, ana Kublai, enraged at its long and obsti- nate resistance, gave it up to the mercy of his troops. CHAPTER V. ToB Aigitive emperor found in some dis- tant and strongly fortified islets, a shelter for his treasure, but not that safety for himself which he had sought with so much sacrifice of dignity and character. He had not long been at his post of ignoble se- curity wnen he was seized with an illness which speedily terminated his life. The empress, who seems to have been alto- gether as brave and adventurous as her husband was timid, strengthened the fleet at Tae islands, under the command of the NO ONK MUST PnESITMR TO HE WISER THAN HIS FOnKVATUEnS. i IN CHINA TIIK HOST TRIVIAL ACTIONS ARK EKOULATKD BY LAW. VLBDOV. is related of the .stance, to say the ag a family like- •e given to other c history and by ith but little be. relate it, lest in ncident, which is mters, we should harge of carelesS' resumption in re- e of Kinaid being 1 woman, did not iring his generals OS in bringing the on. Such orders I reduced the em- ttie most alarming ess consoled her- 9ter by a prophecy a court astrologer pular with most of f that time— that iken by a general is such a specimen y no means Hkely lUowed nothing to luiring the name II had entrusted to 18 assault on the as CAintanftayan. in the hundred-eyed IS agreement with >rophecy, that the lerto high courage titiouB horror, and lered the city, on Burance, which he , of treatment and ity with her rank, a far stronger city Qst which no Buper- )aght, held bravely sfrorts of the Mon- years. Marco Polo the Italian travel- to ingratiate them- >le and prosperous ti besieging engines of the tremendous Such missiles soon les in the hitherto : town was stormed, its long and obsti- up to the mercy of R V. found in some diB> led islets, a shelter lot that safety for )ught with BO much character. He had lost of ignoble se- zed with an illness ftted his life. The ;o have been alto- idventurouB as her engthenedthe fleet tc command of the 'ATUsns. I^btoii) of (S^m. 803 emperor's favourite admiral, Low-scwfoo, proclaimed 1'e-ping, her son, omperor, and repaired with him on board the tfeet. The Mongol fleet, after attacking Canton, hove in Bight of the imperial flvct, when a tre- mendous action commenced and continued for an entire day. The Mongols, though even their loss was dreadful, were victo. rious, and the Chinese or imperial fleet was so much shattered that Low-sewfoo found it impossible to get his crippled ves- sels through the straits. Dreading the verjr worst from the resentment which Kublai was likely to feel at this new resistance on the part of the empress, that brave but un- fortunate woman committed suicide by jumping overbonrd. Her terrible example was followed by several of her principal attendants, including the admiral, wtio leaned overboard with the young emperor in his arms. So disastrous a day ns this could not fail to be decisive ; all the com- paratively small part of the south that had hitherto held out was quickly overrun, and the whole empire was now vinder a Mongol emperor concentrated into one. Under the title of Shi-tsu, Kublai ascend- ed the imperial throne in 1279, and in so doing laid the foundation of the Yuen dy- nasty. With the greediness and want of judg- ment witli which conquerors, in common with more vulgar gnmblers, appear to be incurably afflicted, Shi-tsu having obtained the mighty and vast empire of China, now determined to use its rcsohrces in adding Japan to his already unwieldy possession. But this time he was fated to a fortune very different from tha which usually at- tended him. The Japanese, instead of shrinking at the approach of a force that from its previous successes might well have made them pause as to the prudence of re- sistance, fortified their forts in the strongest manner time would admit. One beinjc at length taken, the resistance of the garrison was punished by the butchery of every man, without exception, eight of the num- ber being beaten to death with rluhs. The real reason of this cruel distinction being awarded to the eight unhappy persons was, most likely, that they were distinguished either in their rank or in the zeal and de- termination of their resistance. But the fondness that exists for the marvellous hns caused this occurrence to be attributed to the somewhat inexplicable mechanical im- possibility of putting them to death by de- capitation, on account of iron chains which they wore round their necks. The brutal cruelty displayed by Shi-tsu or his officers to the garrison of this single fort, was productive of no advantage to his arms. Before the terror such barbarity might possibly have carried into the hearts of other garrisons had time to produce weakness or treachery, a tremendous storm arose by which a )?reat portion of the Tartar, or rather the Tartar-Chinese, fleet was wrecked. The extent of injury so alarmed the commanders, that they hastened home with the remainder of tlicir shipB, abandon- ing many thousandof their followers to the vengeance of the Japanese. Shi-tsu died in 12'J5 ; and it was not until his grandson, Tching-sung, ascended the throne, and began to imitate the ambitiouH and warlike conduct of his great predeces- sor, that anything worthy of even casual mention occurred in the history of the sub- jugated people of China. Tching-sung is better known in Europe as Timoor the Tartar, or Tamerlane, whose treatment of his opponent Bfgazet has been made the subject of so many dramas and tales. His name of Timoor (the iron) teems to have been exactly suited to his energetic, untiring, and unsparing nature. Fixing the imperial residence at Samarcand, he ap- pears to have formed the project of carry- ing); on the work of subjugation to the ut- most possible extent in all directions. Persia, Georgia, and Delhi, speedily felt and succumbed to his power; he drove the IndianB quite to the Ganges, and utterly destroyed Astraean and other places iu that direction. Bajazet, the Ottoman mo- narch, seems to us to have had the most just cause imaginable to arrest the course of a man who was evidently determined upon making himself, if posBible, the sole mouarch of the east. But the Ottoman was far inferior to theTartar in that strength which is as important to success as even a good cause itself. VTe are assured that while Bajazet had only 120,0(10 men, his opponent brought 700,000 into the field. Probably the force of Tamerlane has been very much exaggerated, though even allow- ing for great exaggeration there can be no doubt that, in numbers, the army of Bajazet was infinitely exceeded by that of his oppo- nent. The day on which this tremendous battle was fought was sultry in the extreme, yet so obstinate were both parties, that the contest continued from the morning until a late hour at night. The comparatively small army of Bajazet was in the end com- Eletely routed, and the unfortunate monarch imself taken prisoner. The conduct of Tamerlane on this occasion was such as would cast disgpraccon theraost signal cou- rage and talents, instead of allowing the sympathies of a brave man to soften him towards his singularly brave though unfor- tunate opponent, he had him put into an iron cage and carried from place to place vfith him in all his cxcursiong, exhibiting him as one would a wild beast, and at the same time displaying on his own part a temper far more 'ike that of a wild beast than a brave and successful warrior. The unfortunate Bajazet lived in this most piti- able condition until the year 1403, when he died, as tradition says, and as was most likely, of a broken heart. Tamerlane during his various and exten- sive expeditions had committed the inter- nal government of his empire to certain princes of his house — his grandsons and nephews. Their authority and character being far less respected and feared than his own, several insurrections had taken place, and Tamerlone, or Tchin-sung, now march- 'Si i i-. '■•;■ CKMia AN1> IMAOINATION AUK ALIKE II.NKNOWN AMONO THE CHINESE. HI ll-. ('. % { TUB GOLD MINK? ABK WOBKKD KXCI.USIVKLY BY aOTERNMKNT. 804 ^|)K treasure of l^istorQ, $cc. ed towardi China with the avowed deter- miuation of inflietine severe chastisement ; bat as he was advancing with forced marches for that purpose, he was siczed with an illness which terminated both his enterprises and his life, in 1.105. After the death of the formidable Tamer- lane his descendants kept up a perpetual scramble for the empire, in which they con- trived the utter ruiu of the hi^h character they owed to him. A series ot revolts and intrigues followed each other during the rule or the strifes of some succeeding em- perors and pretenders ; and the next event of wliich we feel it necessary to give any account is an embassy sent from Persia to China in the reign of Yunglo, also called Ching'tHoo. The occount of this embassy is the more interesting, because it gives us consider- able insight into the manners and state of society in China ni that time, and men- tions what Marco Polo does not — tea, to which, more than aught else, China owes its importance in the eyes of the modern inhabitants of Europe. Even at this early period tiie Cliinesu seem to have all the modern jealoujy of the entrance of stran- gers into the so-called " Celestial Empire." Before the embassy in question was allowed even to set foot upon the boundaries of the empire, an exact list of all persons belong- ing to the embassage was required, in- cluding even the very humblest attendants, and the ambassadors-in-chief were called upon to swear to the truth and exactness ot the list. Chinese jealousy being satislied thus far, the embassage commenced its toilsome journey of one Hundred days to- wards the capital. It is only fair to add, however, that after their first suspicion was formally and ofiicially silenced, there seems to have been a most liberal hospitality shown in the way of substantial good fare, accompanied by an unstiutcd supply of ex- cellent wines. The capital of China, Cambulu, now known far better by the name of Fekin, is spoken of as being even at that time a city of great magnitude and opulence. It would seem not unlikely that the silly absurdity of the Chinese, in speaking of such people as the English, Dutch, and other highly civilized Europeans, under the opprobrious name of outside barbarians, is an absurdity which others beside the Chinese are unfor- tunately guilty of. The way in wliich mo- dern writers allow themselves to speak of the Chinese is in many things to be equally reprobated. The long intercourse with Jesuits, mis- sionaries, and others specially sent there, with a reference to their science, judgment, and aptitude for the difficult business of communicating, not merely knowledge it- self but also the desire for it, could scarcely have left the Chinese so much behind the rest of the world in invention and practice in the higher productions, even had no pro- gress been previously made by them. But when so early as the ISth century we hear of such an achievement as the Turning Tower, of which we are about to give a de- scription, who will consent to believe that above four centuries later they are the backward and ignorant people they are called 7 That really wonderful structure, the turning tower, is stated by shrewd and in- telligent observers to whom we owe our knowledge of it, to be worthy of the visit and careful examination of every smith and carpenter upon the face of the earth. What, in tact, are we acquainted with of merely human construction that can for an instant bear comnarison with a tower fifteen stories high, encli story twelve cubits high, and the whole edifice twenty cubits in circum- ference ? What can surpass the ingenuity of the people who could make this large structure, having a total height of 180 cubits which turns round upou a metal axi»; and that with little more difficulty than if it were merely a child's toy ? Assuredly, the people who even in whim could erect such a structure as this at a period of more than four centuries a;^, cannot now be the in- capable and unprovided race which many late accounts would represent them. The emperor's palace at Pekin is described as being rich and spacious in the extreme. While tne ambassadors and their suite were there, it was constant ly surrounded by about two thousand musicians, playing and sing- ing anthems to the prnise of the emperor, whose throne was of solid gold, ascended by a flight of nine silver steps. On the emperor ascending this cxtremelv gorgeous throne, the chiefs of the embassy were intro- duced; and after a brief and merely formal audience, at which they did not prostrate themselves in the Chinese fashion, but bowed in that of the Persians, they were reconducted to the apartments provided for them, where a sheep, a goose, and two fowls, with fruit, vegetables, and tea, were daily served out to every tix person*. ' The evil deed, whether of man or nation, very rarely proves to be other than an evil seed. The unprovoked aggression of the Chinese-Tartars under Kublai, was not only productive of great injury to the Chinese fleet at the time, bu^ led to very many sub- sequent losses and calamities. Favourably situated as Japan was for the maintenance of a fleet, it was a power upon which such a piratical attack as that of Kublai could not be made without incurring serious dan- ger of heavy reprisals. Tiu-tsung, an extremely well-inclined prince, found the attacks of the Japanese so frequent and so fearfully injurious to his people, and to the imperial fleet, that his earliest care was directed to that sub- ject. The Japanese, an essentially sea- faring people, had, according to the least exaggerated accounts, from six to seven thousand vessels of various sizes, manned with their most daring and unprincipled peo- ple, not a few of them ready for piracy and murder, as a part of their proper trade. Running suddenly into the Chinese ports, the daring adventurers committed acts not merely of robbery, but of the most wanton IRON AND SEVERAL SORTS OV COFFBR ABK FOUND IN ABVNDANCB. ;hnmknt. I about to give a de- iscut to believe that later they are the nt people they are irful structure, the d by shrewd and in- whom we owe our e worthy of the visit >n of every smith and e of the earth. What, nted with of merely lat can for an instant 1 tower fifteen stories ve cubits high, and nty cubits in circum- uruasa the ingenuity uld make this large nl hciglit of 18U cubits m a metal axis; and difticulty than if it toy ? Assuredly, the im could erect such a period of more than innot now be the in- ed race which many epreaent them. !at Pekin is described ■iuus in the extreme, rsaud their suite were y surrounded by about ns, playing and sing- rnise of the emperor, nlid gold, ascended by iteps. On the emperor lelv gorgeous tlirone, (muassy were intro- ief and merely formal hoy did not prostrate iHiincRe fashion, but : Persians, they were artmcnts provided for 1 goose, and two fowls, I, and ten, were daily : persona.' her of man or nation, be other than an evil ed aggression of the r Kublai, was not only njury to the Chinese led to very many sub- laniities. Favourably ) for the maintenance wer upon which such that of Kublai could incurring serious dan- remely well-inclined acks of the Japanese tearfully injurious to le imperial fleet, that directed to that suh- , an essentially sea- iccording to the least s, from six to seven larious sizes, manned ; and unprincipled peo- 1 ready for piracy and f their proper trade, ito the Chinese ports, rs committed acts not t of the most wanton ABUMOANCB. SOMR rABTS or CHINA AUB UKBCIIIOCD AS HIUHI.T PICTUHRSUIII. l^istotD oC ^f)ina. 805 destruction of property and life, flringwhole towns and villaiceH, and retiring with im- mense bootv. During the eleven years of hi.i rcicn the emperor Tiu-tsung was so spirited and incessant in his opposition to these during rovers, that he would most probably have permanently rid his country of them, had his life not been so early ter- minated. Sucn-tsung, who succeeded to the last- named emperor, was but barely allowed to ascend the throne when he wa \ about to be dethroned by some of the randees of the empire, among whom *"..4 his own uncle. Fortunately for the emperor, his army was more faithful trn province!, he pot- ! capital. Nankin, and of aurucssci, became L'liipire, with theexcep. [>nrativdy unimportant jrincc* of even these c been hie tributaries lent ruler*. tirst emperor of China t hostile collision with n his reign made their !r Amur on the border* UuBsinns seized upon I'urtar town of some ivcral buttles obtained But subsequently the leir |(round, and a treaty which all the northern toge titer with the sole river, was a*8igncd to )bolsk was Axed as the lud of the two nation*, sfully as Shun-chc was seems to have been by i to the importance of The I'ortuKuese and nd scholars who, in de- micrable obstacles, had 1 themselves in China, ,bcrs, found at the hands arch a degree of friend- e highly creditable to r prevented them from iny annoyance, l)ut even ;hem, Adam Schaal, to endant of mathematics, of some importance in that gave opportunity, the next reign very skil- f, of obtaining the high- state. Ii an energetic iiiiiii, as rlike acliievcmentu, and [ve may judge both from ei to learned foreigners. n IN CHINA. THK OniNKIR ABM A LIVIKS Ta*)«*C«lf* 0» TUB AMCIB!«T WOB(.». ^istoti) of (iC^ina. F07 n and tlio readiness with which he accepted of tlirir instruction in many hrnnchcs of learning, was, at the same time, somewhat of a BfnsualiKt. Towards the close nf hi^ lii« he devoted an undue pnrtiim of liis time to piciwnrr, and liiKilcHin, which took plncr iu 111(11, ■■ Niiirl li> liave nrciirred tlirouKii rxiTHi' of grirl', iici'iisioiied by the death iil A liivoui'itc roneuliinc; of wliioli, had we nut DO iiiniiy instHnccs on record of human inenniiititonfy, one would have supposed it iniuossiblc for n man nf lus stern and mar- tial nature to bo guilty. Kang-hc, who now ascended the Ihrnno, was n minor ; four principal personnKCs of the empire forming the regcncv. The Ger- ninn, iSclmnl, was niipointvd to the important post nf principal tutor. Huch was the iu- tluenco Schaal acquired in this position, that he was virtually for some time prime minister of China. Hut the abilitiea of Schaal and the other missionaries, though they could raise tlicm to power and iuHuence, could not guard them from envy. The Chiuc.ne liternti, and even the regents tlienisclves, nt length be- enme excited to anger by the very learning they had availed themselves of, and by the inlluence it had procured for the foreigners, through Schaal ; fur among the many ser- vices he had rendered to the slate, it is said that on one occasion he actually prencrved Macnn from destruction. Hut envy was a-foot, the most absurd charges were made against the missiunaries, and they were at length deprived of all employment, while many of them were loaded with chains and thrown into prison. Schaal, who was now far advanced in years and very inflrm, sank beneath his afliictions soon after their com- mencement, and died at tlio oge of acventy- uine. It in much to the credit of the voung emperor that he had so well profited by the instructions of his foreign friends, that as soon as he attained his majority he restored them to their influence and appointments, tlie place of the deceased Schaal being be- stowed upon the missionary Verbeist. We must, perhaps, blame rather the barbarous cruelty of his time and country when we add, that on discovering that his four guar- dians and regents of tlie empire were the chief instiiiHtors of tlic disgrace and suffer- ing that had been inflicted on the mission- aries, he confirmed the horrid decree of the tribunal, which sentenced not only the of- fenders, but also their unfortunate families to be cut into a thousand pieces I We have previously alluded to the skill and courage evinced by the general Woo- san-quci when the'Mantcboo Tartars and the rebels caused so much misery to the empire ; when the Mantchoo Tartars, after aiding him in putting down the rebels, had fairly established the Mantchoo dynasty upon the throne, the general was appointed governor of Kweichow and Yun-nan. His Sosition in the north west of the empire, iscnntent with his command, distinguished as it was, added, perhaps, to a natural rest- lessness and love of warfare, caused him now to levy war upon the neighbouring places. His military skill and hi* great i resource* *perdily enabled him to make blm*elf master of the southern and western provineco. His sucn'ss wan «♦ nucr soprraf and so rapid, thst. Ilie iiuin ror i>iiiV lii« court were thl'o«^n iiiio rim''ti'niNttiiii, imil Vcrbiest, who among his uiiiiin uus iililliiii" ineUidrd timl of ii l'# THI Tint riAIANTI IN CniNA ABB ATTBNTIVa TO ■TmVHTTM. !f '' ! i I 808 ?!ri;( ^rcasuri} of l^tstoru, $c(. the most importKnt nervioei. In doing lo, and in enjoying the high imperial Ihvuur which thotr arrvlcm Rrcured to tlicm, it WK» to lie expected tlint they iliould incur many enmities; and lind the new cmpcrur been as wise as liis predecessor, to soch enmities would he have attributed the host of complaints which now assailed his cars. Dut the emperor was at least equal to any man in his vast dominions in tierce and bigoted hatred of Christianity ; and he gladly received and implicitly listened to all complaints against the missionaries and their native converts, who at this time pro- bably numbered about a quarter of a mil- lion. Orders were issued for the expulsion of the whole of the missionaries, with the exception of a few whose mathematical attainments rendered their services of '.he utmost consequence to the court ; and there were a few sheltered at the imminent risk of both parties by the more Ecalous of their pupils, and thus enabled to evade the edict and in some measure to preserve the leading truths of their teaching among the native converts. But it was a very in- signiHcant number of these missionaries tKat remained in China owin|( to both these causes, and the whole of their clinpels and stations were either sacked and destroyed by ferocious mobs, converted into public offices, or perverted to idolatrous worship. The excessive violence which this emperor displayed towards the rntholic missionaries caused the king of Tortugal in l/"-(i to dis- t)atch an embassy to the emperor on their lehnlf. The ambassadors were received with distinction ; but, though general pro- mises were given even with profusion, the converts to Christianity derived not the slightest practical bencHt from this inter- ference on their behalf. The persecution of Christianity in China was, indeed, no excep- tion to the general rule— for the more the persecution raged, the more numerous did the proselytes become. It would seem that the errors of their heathenism were in too many eases blended by the converts with the truths they were taught by the mis- sionaries ; and even the most intelligent of the higher classes were seen to worship the imagfes of saints, ns formerly they had wor- shipped the idols of their native supersti- tion. Christian charity demands that we should attribute this unfortunate confusion of ideas to the obstinate and ineradicable superstition of the converts, rather than to neglect or design on the part of the teachers. Unhappilv, in the year 1726 a new and more terrible persecution took place. Both torture and imprisonment, the former in most cases terminating, after the most frightful agonies, in the death of the suf- fercrs.were now resorted to in every cor- ner of the land where a Christian could be discovered. Deep policy, however, was mixed up with this veiiget'al spirit ; and to avoid the persecution it was only neces- sary to declare reconversion to Confucius or Buddha. It may easily be supposed that, under such circumstances, the num- ber of Christians was, nominally at least. •oon reduced lo a mere hand Ail. One of the causes of this terrible persecution was B dreadful famine which ovcurred in the previous year, and which was attributed to the sin oi conversion to Christianity. With the usual inconsistency of fanaticism, it was quite overlooked, that of the hundreds of thousands who perished, not one in a thousaud had ever even heard of Christ- ianity, The year 1730 was marked by an event which Vung-ching's worst Hatterers could not, after his two tcrrihls persecutions of the Christians, venture to attribute to any undue encouragement of the new faith. The whole province of I'cchcli— in which Pekin is situated— WHS shaken by an earth- quake. The imperial city was for the most part laid in ruins; and the emperor, who was at the time walking in tlie garden, was violently thrown to the ground. In I'ckin alone upwards of l(),fl(MI souls perish- ed by this lamentable occurrence, and at least thrice that number in other parts of the nrovince. The emperor distributed up- wuras of a quarter ot a million of money for therclief of the survivors. The bigotry and cruelty of this prince can scarcely be excused on the plea of his being ill advised, for it is certain that he was ncrsonally aware of the great henelits that the calum- niated and persecuted missionaries had con- ferred upon his people. The best tliat enn be said of his rei|^n is, that it wns a peaceful one ; and the inter- val of peace would have been infinitely more valuable than it wns, had the ClinsliHns and tlieir fnrciirn and highly intcll^'cnt in- structors been allowed to improve it to the best advantage. lie died iu the year 1735. CHAPTER VII. The throne was now filled by Keen- lung; wlio?e first act was to recall the princes and courtiers who had been ban- ished by his father. This done, he put down some revolts among the Elenths and other tribes on the north-western fron- tiers. Probably it wa^ the vigour with which he executed this latter measure, that caused a deputation to he sent from Rus- sia to settle the disputes which were per- petually breaking out as to the trade be- tween the two countries. llngusinki, who was at the head of the Russian embassy, acquitted himself witli BO much address, that he obtained a treaty by which a Russian caravan, not to exceed two hundred in number, was to visit China for purposes of trade once in every three years ; a churcli wns to be erected ; and h limited number of Russians were to take up their permanent abode in the Chinese capital for the purpose of acquiring the language. In this treaty, which is called "the treaty of Kiachta," the Chinese authorities, urged nu doubt by sound considerations of mer- cantile profit, conceded much, yet they could not forbear from giving one chnra'c- teristic specimen of the extreme jcaloucy CHINKSn rOI.ITBNRSS AI.WAT8 SVPrLIES IHB WANT OF 8l^CIiUITr \* ITIQUHTTN. lis called "the treaty ese authorities, urged msiderations of nier- led much, yet they i» giving one chnra'c- he extreme jealou-y 8I^CKUITT irre handl\il. One of rrilile pemccutiun wa« iliich nvcurrcd in the liirh was attributed to to t'liristianity. With inry uf fanaticism, it , that of the hundred* cri.ihed, not one in a iveii licard of Chi-ist- I marked by an event worst flatterers could ^rrible persecution* of ire tu altrihulo to any nt of tlifl new faith, of rcchcli— in which s slinkcn by an earth- 1 city was for the iiiott ind the emperor, who liking in the Kardrn, n to the ground. In of 10,000 souls perish- le occurrence, and at nher in other parts of iipcror distributed up. >t a million of money nrvivors. The bivotry irincc can scarcely ho f Ilia being ill advised, nt he was ncrsonally 'uetits that the calum- I missionaries had con- ic. lie said of his rcij^n is, I one ; and the luter- ,ve been intinituly more s, had the Cliristinns i highly inteli^'cnt in- !d to improve it to the died iu the year l7Ji. ER VII. now filled by Keen- ict was to recall the 1 who had been ban- This done, he put non^ the Klenlhs and north-western fron- na5 the viRour with is latter measure, that to be sent from lliis- utcs which were per- t as to the trade be* ics. IS at the head of the quitted himself with { ; he obtained a treaty nravan, not to cxeec^d er, was to visit China once in every three to be erected ; and a iiSHians were to take ibode in the Chinese ise of aciiuiring the n *- I h M w m TIIN CMIIfMia AHB rAIIION ATKLY roitD or naAM.\1IC rmtfonMANCRI. 1|istor» o( Ci)ina. fcOQ of the national polity. Thus though • cara- van was permitted to visit the capital, it wai to halt upon the frontier* until the arrival of the proper ofltcer to conduct it IhrouKh the emperor** people. The next important event of this rci|rn wa* the expedition scut by the emperor in 17A7 aKainit the Burmese. This expedi- tion teems to have originated wholly in the mo*t wanton lust of war on the part of the ChineRe, who, in the *equct, were very de- servedly punished. An army of above a 100,01)0 men marched into Burmab ; hut no regular army app«wed to oppose its pro- grei*. A* it penetrated farther, however, every foot of country, and especially where •wamp or jungle rendered the route natu- rally more diflicult, had to be traversed with active and daring hordes of guerillas hovering upon it* rear and flanks, cuttini^ off straggler*, pouring suddenly down upon weak detachments or division*— such as the verv nature of the country made inevitable; and, in short, acting with such efficient de- struetivencAH, that the Chinese lost up- wards of AU,(i(iO men without ever coming to n general engagement ! Incredible as it would Boem in European warfare, of the immense armv of 100,000 men, only 3001) returned to China — the rest were aii killed or taken prisoners; and all in the latter category were naturalized and settled in Burmah. Even this horrible loss of life did not prevent the emperor from persisting in hii unjust scheme. He sent a still greater force under his favourite general A-quci. who was aii fond of war and as ferocious as himself. Choosing what he thought a less diflicult line of march, A-quei hiia scarcely entered tlic Burmese territory when he found that if he had fewer human enemies to contend against than his predecessor, he hiul a still more deadly and irresistible enemy, the jungle fever. He saw his men perish around him by thousands, and he was glad to hasten from the deadly place with even a dimini*hed army, rather than remain to see it wholly annihilated. And the result of all tliis loss was, that China was obliged to agree to a treaty which con- fined her dominion within her natural fron- tiers, thereby giving to Burmah rich gold and silver mines which otherwise would liave remained undisputed in the posses- sion of China. Keen-Lung wa* engaged in several minor warfares originating in endeavours of the more distant northern and western tribes to throw off the yoke. The Mahometan Tartars, a brave and bigotted race, made an inroad into the pro- vince of 8hen-si ; A-quei, who was sent against them, called upon them to surren- der the city in which they bad entrenched themselves, and, on being refnsed, took it by storm, and put every human being he found within the walls to the sword, save a few of the chiefs whom he sent to court. The emperor, whose blood-thirsty nature waE such that he was accuHtomcd to have criminal* tortured in his presence, ordered these unhappy chiefs to be tortured before hi* a**cmbled court, and then cut to piece* and thrown to the dog* I Not roiitent with thi* (anguiniry act, the monster gave order* to A-quci to march upon the Maho- metan Tartar*, and put all to the sword who were above flfteen vear* of age. Many, very many, rebellion* took place during this reigii; among them wa* that of the people of the iaiand of Fomio*a. The mandarin* who acted a* viceroy* in thi* i*land were guilty of the most shame- ful exaction* ana crueltie*. On one occa- sion they put to death a mandarin who had ill-treated them. The viceroy of Pub-keen, being cumrai*sioned to aveni^e the death of the mandarin, aailed to the uland and sa- criUced victim* to hi* mane*, without re- gard to the guilt or innocence of those he immolated. The Formoaan* *oon became so II. iged that they rose en mamt, butch- > .V . every Chinese and Tartar in the island, and were only at length induced to return to their yoke— after having bravely beaten off the imncrial fleet — on beiog indemniiied for their losses, and assurea againat the recurrence of the tyranny of wliich they couiplained. As though fairly wearied out with the strife and bloodshed of sixty vear* of per- petual warfares, Kccn-lung abdicated the throne in favour of hi* *on Kea-king. Though he never pcraonally commanded his armies, he caused more bloodshed than, probably, any modem commander, witli the single exception of Napoleon. Ken-king's first use of hia power was to renew tliose persecutions of the cat)- - lies which in the last reign had aeemcu to be falling into desuetude. Torture and death were the fate of many ; *till more were sentenced to wear the cangOH or wooden collar during their lives, or were banished to Tartary, which last wnn a sin- gularly impolitic punishment, as the Tartar* needed no discontented men to incite them to revolt. A rebellion of a very threatening nature, inasmuch aa some member* of the imperial family, and other principal per*ona were concerned in it, wa* planned in 1H03. By aome fortunate accident, or, still more pro- bably, through the treachery of aome of^thc confederated, the plot waa discovered ere it was ripe for execution. Many of the prin- cipal conapiratora were put to death, and others only escaped death to suffer the con- fiscation of their property, which was pecu- liarly acceptable to the almost utterly empty treasury of the emperor. In 1792 lord Macartney waa sent aa am- baasador to China, to endeavoar to estab- lish our trade with that country upon a better and surer footing, and more especi- ally to obtain for the British factory a ces- sation of the insolence and extortion of the viceroy of Canton. The embassy was pro- ductive of but little good effect. The inso- lent and extortionate viceroy wa* recall- ed, it is true, but his predecessor was iiot long in office ere he went far beyond him in both of those bad qualities. The am- bassador was blamed at home for having r. o t. t> A H « een too high niid unbending In hit do> nirnnnur; hut the truth ii, that tho timt had not come fur a prn^tcr underitniidiiig to exlit botwrcii the Cliineie and any Eu- ropean nation. when in ISUH it wai frnrcd that Ituona- parte would aim at our castrrn trndr, ad- miral Ururjr waa ordrri-d to Mncao; hut aCier inueh wordy dinuutatiou hctwcrii the ('hinrie authoriilei there and tho admiral, lhi« latter rrlirrd after a tliKht ci>lli»iou in whirh we loit one man. Tho Chincac pre- tended to have K^'n^'d • K'cnt victory, a niHKiiiloquoiit account of llic »niuc wa» sent to iV-kiu, and a pn|[odn actually erected to conuncniorate it. In 1H16 another amhai>»ador, lord Am- herst, was Rcnt to China, but his miRsinu wui to the full ai uniatisfactury ai that of lord Macartney. It wa« about this time that the opium spcculaiioii began to grow tu tomcihinK lilce a noticeable extent— but on that head we ihall have to speak at length iu our next chapter. After twenly-flve years reign, marked far more by despotic temper I linn by the_ ta- lent necessary to render it cBcclivo, Kca- kiiiK (lied in the year 1830, and was sue- cueded by the present monarch. CIIAVTER VIII. Tiia reigning emperor of China, Tareu- kwang, is tlic second son of tho preceding inunnrch, and owes his rise to the throne, in preference to his elder brother, to the Kreat resolution and attachment to his fa- ther, displayed by him on an occasion of a revolt. The parties concerned in it had proceeded to such an extent, that some of them actually forced their way into the palace, with the avowed intention of pi\tting the emperor. Ken-king, to death. TaoBU- kwang, with a mere handful of the imperial guards, repulsed the conspirators, two of whom he shot with his own hand. Since his advancement to the throne, however, he has by no means displayed tho vigour that might have been auiicipated. He has for the iuo" question; had the article of trade been Yorkshire cloths or llirinin)(linm hardware, the same collision must sooner or later have taken place. Onium was imported into China as early as the 17th century, and it was not until towards the close of the I8th century that Kea-king prohibited it. Wn apploud him for doing this. It was high time to put ■omi! check upon the use of it ; for though it was professedly imported only as a mc- dicinnl drug, it was imported to the extent of lOUU chests per annum as early ns 17'>7i and the importation had been perpetually increasing in amount up to 17!>0- Up to this time, be it remembered, the tratlic was strictly legal; it paid a duty of five mace per catty, and was fur the most part deli- vered to and bonded by the government. It is clear that from 1790 the trade in this drug was mere smuggling ; equally clear that whether John Tomkins or "The Company" was the trader, thot trader was a smuggler. We will go farther. When the East India Company, having the mo- TRA WAS A LVXUBY SBLDOM BBKN IN KNGLAMO BVKM IN ANNX'b MEION. ^^'^mmmmmm wa* AirnUhfd a •rrioui revolt iic- CKiilon, wlicrf, niunicatluii with revolt wn» nipc- to ho put down, itii the iterneu Kh tho Cd< >tt»l an nrmy of < mil- generMl I'< . who volt.coiilil iiftrrljr ill arnicil und ill « WA* ob lifted to ncca of pHyiiig an to the rcbeli, ni well n« of all la hni over beeii H, and been liable front the capricn ho iniolenco with been acted upon, roni time to time the chnracler of (ardi article! lo in could b]r poial- " opium" dispute, been much neg- leading political :y havo looked nt norni than a puli- ncd our political suit becnuNO that made upon a point wu» arl/uUy mUed nd to vindicate tho 'iie than n« a very itfria medica; no crwiscthiin highly of tliis "inBnne" (ication should be pent, though nur Bc ha» chanced to if the importation [deration as to the g arc really quite id the article of ha or Uirminghnm sion must sooner ito China as early I it was not until 18ih century that We applaud Itim high time to put of it ; for though ed only as a me- rted to the extent I as early as 17r>7, 1 been perpetually 1 to 17 nounci'd, and which the Knglisli senate ought to have put a stop to, on pain of the loss of the Company's charter. All this is clear as noon-dny; but there is another consideration. Tlin government of China is essentially paternul ; from the emperor to the lowest olHcnr of his state link connects link, as from the father of a faiiilly to his youngest cliild or his meanest servant. The trade in oniuiu was forbidden from lime to time byrdiets; true: but the ver^ otilcers who were charged with the duly ol enforce- iiig those edicts were themselves the virtual importers of opium I Had the Chinese au- thoritics at Canton and along the coast not connived at the trade for riiormouR bribes, or, us was even more frequently the case been themselves actnni traders in the ar- ticle, the trade would havo been at an end years ago, and when only a comparatively small portion of Urilisli capital was in- volved in it. It appears to us that the public prohibi- tion of a drug of which the consumption was hourly increasing, and the aid given to Its iniiiortatinn by the very persons ap- pointed to carry that prohibition into effect, are merely " part and parcel" of the settled Chinese policy of fleecing barbarians to the utmost possible extent, on the one hand, and of always having a convenient pretext for sucli a stoppage in trade as circum- stances might make convenient in the way of tcniuornrily or permanently making the fleece longer and flner I It would bo an instructive lesson for some of our puliti- cions to con — the difference of |jrotit to China, between the lUO chests imported in 1776 at a ftxed duty of five mace the catty, and that upon the 40,0UO chests smuggled in 184U— at whatever proflt the unscrupulous authorities could extort I It was not until I83'J that anything in the shape of a real determination to put down the trade was exhibited by the Chinese ; for the occasional stoppages of trade and blus- tering manifestoes, as already said, we look at as mere measures for moking the fleece longer and finer 1 Lin appeared at Canton, in that year, a "high commissioner"— an oflicer possess- ing almost dictatorial powers, and one who had not been more than thrice previously appointed during the present dynasty. In an edict he said, " I, the commissioner, am sworn to remove utterly this root of misery; nor will I let the foreign vessels have anv offshoot left for the evil to bud forth again." The British commissioner and between two and three hundred British subjects were then thrown into a state of close confine- ment; the guards placed over them heaped every insult upon them, and threatened them with being deprived of provisions and water. Captain Klliot, the Hrilish super- Intendant, under such circumstances, saw no means of evading the demands of the Chinese; and upwards of 3IMKI0 chests of opium, valued at 'JII,imM),(HM) of dollars, were delivered lo oominissioner Lin for destruc- tion. In 1H40 war was declared by England against the Chinese. The leading events, however, which followed being related in the history of our own country, it would be superfluous lo repeat them here. We will merely add what has transpired since that was written. All dilfi-rences being Anally adjusted, and his celestial majesty being on terms of the strirlcst amity with iier Itritunnic majesty, • ratification of the treaty between the two countries was announced on the S7th of July, inia. Krnm that day the Hong mer- chants' mononoly and Consoo charges were lo cease; and the conditions upon which trade was in future to bo carried on, ap- Iieared in a iiotire issued by sir Henry 'ottinger, the Itntisli plenipotentiary in China; who published an export and im- port tariff, and also a proclaniHtion, in which he trusts that thecuinmerciul treaty will bc found, in practice, mutually advan- tageous, beneficial and just, as regards the interest, honour, and the future augment- ed prosperity of the governments of the two mighty contracting empires and their subjects; and bo " most solemnly and ur- gently calls upon all subjects of the Uri- lisli crown, not only to strictly conform and act up to the said provisions of the commercial treaty, but to snurn, decry, and make known to tho world any base, unprincipled, and traitorous overtures that may be made to them, towards entering into any collusion or scheme fur the pur- pose of evading, or acting in contravention of, the said provisions of the commercial treaty." In the proclamation issued by the impe- rial commission, after referring to the ta- riff, &c. it says, " Henceforth, then, the weapons of war shall ever be laid aside, and joy and profit shall be the perpetual lot of all : neither slight nor few will be the advantages reaped by the merchants alike of China ana of foreign countries. From this time forward alt must free them- selves from prejudice and suspicious, pur- suing each his proper avocation, and care- ful always to retain no inimical feelings from the recollection of the hostilities that have before taken place; for such feelings ind recollection can have no other elTcct than to hinder the growth of a good un- derstanding between the two people." It also contains a perfect aronestv, and the remission of punishment for all who have served the English soldiers with sup* plies, &c. in days past, and concludes by stating that, " From henceforward amity and goodwill shall ever continue, and those from afar, and those who are near, shall perpetually rejoice together." H t M m s a a M K '4 IE NBXT TO ISA, BAW 8II.K AMD BILK OOODS ARR TBBIR CBIXf BXPOBTS. I" I UAIICO rOLO MRS* MADE KNOWN TO XUBOPIANI THV BXISTBNCB OP JAPAN. ■«. , >:. V Pa O « o e n ■ M ■ 812 ^fie ^reasurt) oC 1|{stoi;u, $cc. ■^c^ THE HISTORY OF JAPAN. Japan is a general name given, by Euro- Eeaua, to a great number of islands, lying etween the eastern coast of Asia and the western coast of America, and which to- ?;ether compose a large empire, extending rom the 30th to the 4Ist degree of north latitude, and from the 130th to the 147th degree of east longitude. The inhabitants call this empire Niphon. which is the name of the largest island belonging to it. It was discovered by the Portuguese about the year 1452. The religion of the Japanese is Paganism, divided into several sects, who live together in harmony. Every sect has its own tem- ples and priests. The spiritual emperor, or daifi-sama, is the chief of their religion. They acknowledge and honour a Supreme Being; and the temples are open to every individual, whatever his creed or country. Christianity had once made a consider- able progress in Japan, under the auspices of the Portuguese and Spanish Jesuits, among whom was the famous St. Francis Xavier; but it ended tragically, owing to an ill-conducted conspiracy of the fathers a!|i;ainBt the state. This proceeding pro- duced a persecution of forty years' dura- tion, and terminated by a most horrible niRssacre, scarcely to be paralleled in his- tory. After this, not only the Portuguese, but Christians of every nation were totally expelled the country, and the most effec- tual means taken for preventing their re- turn. In 1611, the Dutch had the liberty of a free commerce granted>them by the impe- rial letters patent, and established a fac- tory at Firando. They were then at war with Spain, and Portugal was at that time under the Spanish government. The for- mer, by taking an homeward- bound Por- tuguese ship, found a traitorous letter to the kiiii? by a captain Moro, chief of the Portuguese in Japan. The Dutch imme- diately Ibrwardcd this Icttter to their pro- tector, the prince of Firando. This letter laid open the whole plot which the Ja- panese Christians, in conjunction with the Portuguese, had laid against the emperor's life and throne. In consequence of this discovery, in the year 1637, an imperial order whs sent to the governor of Naga- saki, to admit no more Portuguese into the empire. Notwithstanding this proclamation, the Portuguese found means to carry on their trade two years longer, hoping to obtain leave to stay in the island of Desiina, and there continue to trade : but they found themselves disappointed; for the emperor on the assurance given him by the Dutch East India Company, that they would sup- ply him in future with all the artistes here- tofore supplied by the Portuguese, declared them, and the Castilians, enciiiies of the empire ; and they were totally expelled the (ountry in 1640. Their extirjiation, and with them the Christian religion, was so eomplete, that not a vestige can now be discerned of its having ever existed there. The government of the Japan empire IB an hereditary, absolute monarchy. The imperial dignity had been enjoyed, for a considerable time before the year 1500, by a regular succession of princes, under the title of dairoa. Soon after that epoch, a civil war broke oat, which lasted many years. During the destructions it occa- sioned, a common soldier, named Tayckoy, found means to raise himself to the im- perial dignity, and the dairo was obliged to submit to terms. This revolution took place in 1S17. Tayckoy reigned several vears, during which he made excellent laws, which still subsist. At his death he left the crown to his son, Tayckossama, then a minor ; but the treacherous prince under whose 'guardianship he was left, de- prived him of his life before he came of age. By this murder the crown passed to the family of Jejassama,. in which it still continues. The Japanese must be placed rather a- mong the polished nations than otherwise. Their mode of government, their skill in agriculture, in manufactures, arts, and sciences — their politeness, good -nature, prudence, frankness, and courage— entitle them to this distinction. Tbey seem to possess nothing of the vanitv of Asiatics and Africans ; but are careful only to pro- vide themselves, from the productions of their own country, with those necessaries and comforts of life, so desirable to enlight- ened human beings. The language of the Japanese has some affinity to the Chinese ; though it appears, from its various dialects, to have oeen a kind of compound of that and other Ian* guages, derived from the various nations that first peopled these islands. Their man- ner of writing, and their architecture, are very similar to those of China. The internal trade of Japan is very ex- tensive, and their industry will bear com- parison with tl'at of the Hindoos, or even Chinese. Foreign commerce, however, is vigorously opposed by the government, in consequence of the supposed Portuguese treachery before mentioned, and the at- temps of the Jesuit missionaries to Chris- tianise the people. The number of Dutch vessels allowed to come each year, and the quantity of each description of wares to be sold, are strictly deflDed. The ships, imme- diately on their arrival, are stricttv search- ed, and the crews arc kept, during their stay in port, completely secluded from the natives ; while all the business trannoctions are conducted by the Japanese, who also unload and re-load the vessels. Nay, so TUB CBIMINAIi . .iWS Ot JAPAN ARE TINDICTIVR AND SANBUINAHV. llfCB OF JiFAN. totally expelled the it extirt>atioD, and ian religion, was lo vestige can now be ever existed there. the Japan empire ite monarchy. The been enjoyed, for a re the year 160O, by 'princes, under the after that epoch, a which lasted many !Structiona it occa- ier, named Tayckoy, himself to the im- dairo was obliged 'his revolution took oy reigned several ^e made excellent It. At his death he sou, Tayckossamn, treacherous prince hip he was left, de- before he carae of he crown passed to a» in which it still be placed rather a- ons than otherwise, inent, their skill in 'actures, arts, and ness, good -nature, nd co\irage— entitle on. They seem to vanity of Asiatics careful only to pro- the productions of I those necessaries lesirable to enlight' Japanese has some though it appears, ts. to have been a hat and other Ian- he various nations slands. Their man- ir architecture, are China, " Japan is very ex- itry will bear com- e Hindoos, or even nierce, however, is he government, in iposed Portuguese >ned, and the at- sionaries to Chris- number of Dutch each year, and the tion of wares to be The ships, imme> ue strictly search- tept, durinsf their secluded from tlie iiness transactions spanese, who also vessels. Nay, so lUINAHT. \ TOB CBTLONBSB ABB DITIDBD IIITO CASTBS, LIKB TBB UINDOOS. ^l)t lEaat 3Intita Sslantis. 813 rigid are they in preventing their subjects from having intercourse with otlier nations, that it is a capital oflfence for the natives of Japan to travel into other countries ; and their seamen even, when accidentally cast on foreign siiores, are, on their return, sub- jected to vigorous examination, and some- times tedious imprisonment, to purify them from the supposed pollution contracted abroad. The cautious and ceremonious way in which the Japanese transact their busi- ness with the Dutch merchants is thus de- scribed : — About tiie time when the Dutch ships are expected, several outposts are stationed .on the highest hills by the go- vernment ; they are provided with tele- scopes, and when seen at a distance, notice is given to the governor of Nagasaki. As soon as they anchor in the harbour, offi- cers go on board, with interpreters, to whom is delivered a chest, in which all the sailors' books, the muster-roll wf the whole crew, six small barrels of powder, six bar- rels of balls, six muskets, six bayonets, six pistols, and six swords, are deposited. This 18 supposed to be the whole remaining am- munition, after the imperial garrison has been saluted. These things nre conveyed on shore, and housed ; but returned again on the day that the ship quits the harbour. The beginning of the vear is the time ob- served for holidays, or days of leisure and enjoyment ; and at this time the ceremony of trampling on images, representing the cross, and the virgin and child, is ptttorm- ed. The images are of copper, about a foot long. This ceremony is intended to im- press every individual with hatred of the Christian doctrine, and the Portuguese, who attempted to introduce it; nod also to discover whether any remnant of it is left among the Japanese. It is performed in the places where the Christians chiedy resided. In Nagasaki it lasts four days ; then the images are conveyed to the cir- cumjacent places, and afterwards are laid aside till the next year. Every person, ex- cept the Japanese governor and his attend- ants, even the smallest child, must be pre- sent. The population of Japan is supposed to exceed fifty millions. The army in time of peace consists of 100,000 infantry, and 20,000 cavalry : the force during war being increased by' levies from the different pro- vinces to 400,000 infantry, and 40,000 ca- valry. The arms used by the former are the musket, pike, bow, sabre, and dagger ; those of the mounted troops being the lance, sabre, and pistol. Their artillery is very inconsiderable. THE EAST INDIA ISLANDS. CEYLON. Ceylon is a large island of the East In- dies, separated from the continent by the Gulph of Manaar and Palk's Straits, near the southern extremity of Ilindostan. It is 250 miles in length from north to south, and averagra about 100 in breadth. The conquest of this island was the first at- tempt of Albuquerque, the celebrated Por- tuguese admiral. He found it well peopled, ond inhabited by two dilTcreut nations ; the Bedat in tlir north, and the Cinglassea, or Sinyalese, in the south. The former wer- very barbarous ; but the latter in some state of civilization. These, however, de- rived great advantage from the mines of pt';cious stones, and also from their pearl fishery, the greatest in the East. It is said that the proper name of the island is Singhala, and that part of the po- pulation called Singalese have a tradition that their ancestors came thither from the eastward nearly 2,400 years ago ; but many authors suppose them to be a colony of Singhs or Rajpoots, who arrived about 500 years b.c. From the ruins of cities, tanks, aqueducts, canals, bridges, temples, &c. at Trini'omalee and other places, Ceylon has evidently been at some remote period a rich, populous, and comparatively civilized country. The Portuguese not only con- quered, hut tyrannized over them to such a dcijree, that they assisted the Dutch in expelling them from the island in 1C58, after a bloody and obstinate war, by which all the Portuguese settlements fell into the hands of the Dutch East India Company. The wars with the king of Candy, the most potent, if not the sole sovereign of the island, were very detrimental to Hol- land. In a sanguinary war, which ended in 1766, the Ceylonese monarch was driven from his capital, and the Dutch made a v('i7 advantageous treaty. Their sovereignty was acknowledged over all those parts of the country they possessed before the war, and that part of the coasts held by the natives was ceded to thcni. They were allowed to gather cinnamon in nil the plains; and the court stipulated to sell them the best sort, which is produced in the mountains, at a very moderate price. The government also engaged to have no connection with any foreign power, and even to deliver up any liuropcans who might happen to come into the island. In return for so many concessions the king was to receive annually the value of the produce of the ceded coasts ; and from thence his subjects were to he furnished, gratis, with as much salt as they had oc- casion for. Matters were in this situation when the English attacked the Dutch in 1794, and conquered Trincomalee, and all their settlements in the island; and it afterwards became a part of the price of the peace of Amiens in favour of England. The English had no sooner taken pos- session, than they unhappily were involved IN CIVIMZATIOH, TUB CBTLONBSB ABB ON A FAB WITU THB HINOOOS. JAVA IS SI8TINOVI8HXD BT TUB MUMBIR AND KXCKLI.KMCK OF ITS FnUITS. t-f 'I H H H O H H O m n e IS M M n M 814 HLfft treasure of ll^tstoii), $cc. in n war with the king of C''.ri>-l]r, owing to some misunderstanding r '.-cive to certain articles of commerce; e lives of many brave men were sacrificed to it ; ra- ther, ^wever, by the treachery and bad iHitli of the CeyloneHe king and his mini- ster, than by fair and honourable warfare. The population of Ceylon, independently of tho colonists who have at various times possessed themselves of the coasts, consist of— 1st, the native Singalese or Ceylonese, one branch occupying the Candyan terri- tories, and the other the coasts; 2nd, the Yeaclalis, or aborigines, who, in an almost savage state, inhabited the mountainous regions and unexplored fastnesses; 3rd, the Moors, who ore found in all parts of the island; and 4th, the Malabar and other Hindoos, who dwell chiefly on the northern and ciistern coasts. Of all these races the Candyan Ceylonese differ least from Euro- peans in form, feature, and physical power. The Singalese are more timid and effemi- nate ; but it may be observed that although some assume a haughty and iuilependeut bearing, yet indoleuce, deceit, and revenge are the generally prevailing qualities of these islanders. There are also eon'i' Caf- fres and Javanese, a few Chinese and 1'hv- see traders, xid n considerable number of Knglish, Dutch, s.nd Portuguese; besides a hybrid population from the intermixture of all these and the native races. The upper classes among the Singnlese profess Christianity, and ninny are converts to ^lohammedanism ; but the general re- ligion is Buddhism. The government is vested in the iiands of a Hritish governor, assisted by a council of European civil ser- vants ; but nil la\;s, before being acted upon, arc publi^ihed in the official gazette, for their general diffusion and translation into the native Inngtiagrs. SUMATRA. Sumatra is a large island in the Tndian Ocean, being, next to Borneo, the largest iu the pustern seas. It is about 1000 miles in length, from north-west to south-east ; but, in general, not more than 150 iu breadth. This is the lirst of the islands which form the great East India Archipe- lago ; and is separated from the peninsula beyond the Gan^;e8 by the straits of Ma- lacca ; which is Uie usual passage from the bay of Bengal and the Coromandel coast to Borneo or China, and, consequently to the Gulph of Siara, Cambodia, Cochin China, and the Gulph of Tonquin. Gold dust is au article of considerable traffic, and is brought by merchants from the interior to the sea-coast, where it is bartered lor iron tools, and various kinds of East Indian and European manufac- tures of silk, cotton, broad cloths, &c. But the most valuable and important produc- tion of the island is pepper, the average produce of which at this time is supposed to amount to 30,000,000 lbs. n-year. Turnie ric, cassia, ging'T, coffee, and many kinds of seen led woods nro. also produced here. After the capture of the Moluccas by the British, in IJUG, the nutmeg and clove were introduced at Bcncoolen, but though large qnantitics were raised, the quality was iiitVrior lo aiiuiliir products obtained from Auiboyiia and the llnndh i^lcs. The Sumal ran camphor is in high estimation. Cocoa-nnt, belcl, bamboo, sugar-cane, va- rious palms, and an abundance of tropical fruits, are indigenous. At Bencoolen, on the west side of Suma- tra, is the English factory, belonging lo the East India Company. The factory' was once entirely deserted, through the fre- quent quarrels and bickerings of the na- tives and the English ; and had nut the former found Ihiit trade decreased iu con- sequence of the absence of the latter, they never would have been invited lo settle there again. PRINCE OF WALES'S ISLAND. PaiNCB of Wales's Island, or I'ulo i'e- nany, is situated in the straits of Malacca, about two miles from the west coast of the Malay peninsula. The India Company in 1784, came to the resolution of esta- blishing a settlement here. This island is about seventeen miles long, by ten broad : its northern extremity runs nearly parallel with the main land, at a distance o*' about | two miles, by which a tine channel is form- i ed, where the largest fleet may ride in per- j feet safety ; the height of the surrounding i mountains acting ns a barrier against the | force of the prevailing winds. In fact, the j advantages attending this island, both in a { political and commercial view, are obvious. JAVA. J.t V A is a large island, extending in length naarly 700 miles, and averaging in breadth about 90; and is separated from Sumatra by the strait of Sunda. Towards the close of the IGth century, Cornelius Houtman, a Dutchman, conduct- ed four vessels to Java by the Cape of Good Hope ; and his prudence procured him an "ntcrview with the principal king of the island ; but the Portuguese created him some enemies. ITiv,.nggot the better iu several skirmishes iu which he was en- gaged, he returned with his small squad- ron to Holland, where, though he brrught but little wealth, he r: ised much -xpec- tation. He brought .iway some Negroes, Chinese, and inhabitants of Malabar, a native of Malacca, a Japanese, and Abdul, a pilot of the Guzerat, a man of great abi- lities, and perlcctly acquainted with the coasts of India. The account given by Houtman encour- aged the merchants of Aiusterdam to form the plan of a settlement at Java, which, at the same time that it would throw the pepper trade into their hands, would place them also near the islands that produce the more valuable spices, and facilitate their enmmunieatioii with China and Japan, Admiral Van Neck was therefore sent on I !f ■ ABTBaUAKKI AMU FnBQUKNT IN JAVA, HUT HUBBIUANliS ABB UKKNOWN. Oy ITS FBUITS. tlie Moluccas by the ! nutmeg and clove cucoolen, but thouKli p laised, tli« (lualitv iir (irodiict!! ohtaiiiod lie linudh i^Ic". The ill liigli cstiniation. nboo, «(igai'-raiic, vh- tiundauce ol' tiopicMl ift west side of Suuia- fnctory, belonging to iny. The factory" was ;d, through the fre- lickoriiigs of the iia- li ; and had nut tlie idu decreased in coii- icu of the latter, tliey een invited to settle LES'S ISLAND. Island, or Pulo i'e- c straits of MhIhccb, u the west coHst of The India Company B resolution of esta- licre. This island is s loiix, by ten broad : y runs nearly parallel t a distance o*' about j tine channel is fonii- I tlei.'t may ride in per- | u of the siirroiiniling i 'a hairier against the i g winds. In fact, the i this island, both in a i Rial view, are obvious, j V^A. d, extending in length averaging in breadth arnted from Sumatra of the IGth century. I Dutchman, conduct- L by the Cape of Good nee procured him an rincipal king of tlie tiiguese created him ;ng got the better in I which ho was en- ith his small squad- \ though he btrught t: ised much -xpec- .iway some Negroes, ants of Malabar, a 'apanese. and Abdul, :, a man of great abi- acquaintcd with the by Houtman encour- f Aiusterdani to form lent at Java, which, t it would throw the r hands, would place slands that produce pices, and facilitate ath China and Japan. 18 therefore sent on IRB (UNKNOWN. '% % ? TBK INCRKASK Or SUOAR FROCJCRD IK JAVA OV IiATit IS IMMKIflK. - \l i O O f a L Vtl)t lEast SntJia BEsIantfs. 815 thii important expedition with eight ves- sels, and arrived safe at Java, wiiere he found the inhabitants prejudiced against his nation. They fougnt and negotiated by turns. At length they were permitted to trade, and, in a short time, loaded four vessels with spices and linens. The admi- ral, with his fleet, sailed to the Moluccas, where he learned that the natives of the country had forced the Portuguese to aban- don some of the places in which they liad settled, and that they only waited for a favourable opportunity of expelling them from the rest. He established factories in several of these islands, entered into a treaty with some of the kings, and relumed to £urope laden with riches. In 160?, the states-general formed the Dutch India Company. It was invested with authoriiy to make peace or war with the eastern princes, to erect forts, main- tain garrisons, and to nominate officers for the conduct of the police and the adminis- tration of justice. The company, which had no parallel in antiijuity, und was the pattern of all siic- cecdmg societies of the kind, set out with great advantages ; and, soon after its csta- blishment, they titled out for India four- teen ships and some yachts, under the command of admiral Warwick, whom the Hollanders look npca as the founder of their commerce, and of their colonics, in the East. He built a factory in this island, and secured it by fortifications. He had IVc- quent engagements with the Portuguese, in which he generally came o£f victorious. A sanguinary war was the consequence of these hostilities between tlie two nations, in which the Dutch were succes'ful. Batavia, which, from a small beginiiiii^', has become the capital of all the Dutch possessions in India, has one of the best and safest harbours in the world. The city is surrounded by a rampart 21 feet in thlek- ntss, covered on the outside with stone, and fortitied with 2" bastions. This ram- part is environed by a ditch, 43 yards over, and full of water. The river Jueutra runs through the uiidst of the city, and funns ftftcen canals of running water, adorned with evergreens. The inhabitants consist of Dutch, French, Portuguese, Javanese, Chinese, Malays, Negroes, and many other.s. Coffee, sugar, and spices are proilucc^d hero in great abmdance: and, nltoncther, it may be said ti be one of the most valu- able colonies be longing to any European nation. The isl md was taken by a liritisli force from India iu 1811, and held ;ill 1316, when it was restored to the Dutch. BORNEO. Borneo is one of the largest islands in the world, being 1500 miles in circumference. Is is seated under the equator, and occu- pies nearly the centre of the eastern archi- pelago. The west and north-east sides of It are a desert, and the cast is compara- tively little known. The inland parts are mountainous; and the south-east, for many leagues together, is an unwholesome mo- ra»8. ! The Portuguese, who first discovered Bor- neo, had been in the Indies thirty years before they knew any thing of it more than the name and its situation, by reason of their frequently passing by its coast. At length captain Edward Corral had orders to examine it with attention. From thence becoming acquainted with its worth, they made frequent voyages thither. They found the coast inhabited by Malayan Moor!>, who had certainly established the.nselvps there by conquest; but the interior «nd part of the north-west coast are peopl.>d by a savage race, believed to be the ano.'igines, and called Dyaks. They u«e long (hallow canoes hollowed out of a singletree; and kill wild animals I'ur their food, by r hooting them nith arrows blown ihrougV a tube. They wear very little clothing, and have all the habits and superffitions of the most savage tribes. Borneo is rich in valuable miricrnls, and it is the only island of the eastern archipe- lago where diamonds are found. The cli- mate is similar to that of Ceylon, and those parts of the island which arc under cultiva- tion are decidedly fertile. CELEBES. ! Tins is a large island, under the equator: the length and breadth have nut been ac- curately computed ; but the circumference, taken at a medium, is aliout 800 miles. The principal Dutch settlemeiit is Macas- sar, which contains Fort llotterdani, the residence of the governor: they have also a fort at a place called Jainpandain. i There ,ire several independent tribes or nations of Celebes, each having their pe- culiar form of government. Among them the Tuwadju tribe, 'iilnbiting the body of theisland, arcdistip j;iiishedasHn en term ii;- ing und ingenious people. Thefts, robbe- ries, and murder arc comiiuin with all tlie tribes. The island was taken by tlie Hritinh in 1S14, bat restored lo Holland m I.SIG. THE MOLUCCAS, Oil SPICE ISLANDS. TuKSK consist of .\mboyna, Ternate, Fe- dor, Motyr, Cilolo, and neverul other small islands. The Portuguese were the tirst Europeans who possessed them, hut were obliged to shari: their advantages with the Spaniards, and at length to give up tlie trade almost entirely to thein. Tbei^e two nations joined to oppose the Dutch in their first attempts to gain a settlement ; but the Dutch, assisted by the natives of the country, by degrees gained the superiority. The ancient conquerors were driven out about the year 16ir>, and their place sup- filied by others equally avaricious, though ess turbulent. As foon as the Dutch had cstal.'lished themselves in the Moluccas, they endea» voured to get the exclusive trade of spices into their own hands ; an advantage which TUB CLOVB PLANT REBBMBLB8 A LAROB TBAB TRBB, 20 TO 40 VKRT IIIGU. ■ AOO rORHB TUK CIIIKV FOOD OV TUII INIiABITANTa OV AMBOYNA. .1 I i ; ■* 816 VL\)t ©reasut!) of I^istonj, ^c. the nation tliey had jutt pxpclled was never ali'.e to procure. They akilfiilly availed themRclves of the forts they had taken, and those they had erected, to draw tlia kingu of Ternnte and Tydor, who were masters of this archipelago, into their sehcmea. These princes, for a small sum of money, (little more tlian 300(){.) agreed to root out all (ho clove and nutmeg trees in the islands under their dominions : and a garrison of seven hundred men was appointed to aecure the pcribrmance of the treaty. At Amboyna they engrossed the v.'holo cultivation of cloves. They allotted to the inhabitants four thousand parcels of land, on each of which they were compelled to plant one hundred and twenty-Ave trees, amounting, in the whole, to tlvu hundred thousand : and the collective produce avo- ragos about one million of pounds. The island of Amboyna is about thirty- two miles long and ten broad, and is di- vided into two parts, a greater and a lesser peninsula: the foruier is called Iliton; and the latter, Ltytimor. As the massacre of the English at Am- boyna, by the Dutch, in 1621, was attended with such acts of pertidy and cruelty, it may be necessary, even at this time, not to pass them over in silence. We have before observed, that the Dutch disposessed the Portuguese of -Amboyna in 1615. They did not, however, become masters of the island at once. The English had here tivc facto- ries, who lived under the protection of the Dutch castle; holding themselves safe, in re- spect of the friendship existing between the two nations. Great differences had arisen between the English and Dutch colonists: at length a treaty was concluded, in l(iiu, by which the concerns of both were regulated, and certain measures ogreed upon for pre- venting future disputes. Some short time after, the Dutch pretended that the English and Amboynese had formed a conspiracy to dispossess them of one of their forts. The plot, it was alleged, had been discovered by a Japanese and Portuguese in the English service, who were most inhumanly tortured into such confessions at their cruel inqui- sitors thought proper. Upon this evidence, they immediately accused the English fac- tors of the pretended conspiracy. Some of them they imprisoned j and others they loaded with irons, and sent on board their ships; seizing, at the same time all the English merchandise, with their writings and books. These nets of violence were followed by a scene of horror unexampled in the pun- ishment of the most atrocious offenders. The tormenting tortures to which they put the innocent factors, are too shocking to relate ; and those who did not die under the agonies of pain, were consigned to the executioner. The whole of the transaction affords the most irrefragable testimony that the Hol- landers did it with no other view, than of monopolizing the whole trade of the Spice Islands. They acted a similar tragedy at Poleron, about the same time, where they put to the torture one hundred and sixty- two of the natives, whom they likewise charged with a pretended conspiracy. Until the Prench revolutionary war, the Dutch enjoyed, in peace, these invaluable islands, when Amboyna, and the other Mo- luccas, submitted to the English. Thk BANDA, oit NUTMEG ISLES. TuM Banda Isles is the general name of twelve small islands in tlio East Indian Archipelago. Two of them are uncolti- vatcd, and almost uninhabited ; the other three claim the distinction of being the only islands in the world that produce the nutmeg. If we except this valuable spice, the islands of Bauda are barren to a dreadful degree. The land will not produce any kind of corn, and the pith of the sago serves the natives of the country instead of bread. This is the only settlement inthe East Indian isles, that can be considered as a European colony : because it is the only one where the Europeans are proprieto- ; of lauds. The Dutch company linding tht.* the inhabitants of Banda were savage, cruel, and treacherous, because they were impatient under their yoke, resolved to ex- terminate (hem : and their possessions were divided among the white people, who pro- cured slaves from some of the neighbour- ing islands to cultivate the lands. The cli- mate of Banda is particularly unhealthy; on which account the company attempted to transfer the culture of the nutmeg to Amboyna: but all the experiments that have been made have proved unsuccessful. The Bunda Islands were discovered by the Portuguese in 1012, nnd colonized in 1524; but were taken by the Dutch in 1599. The English possessed themselves of them in ISlU.but restored them to the Dutch in 1814. THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Tub Philippine Islands are a large group belonging to the eastern archipelago, the principal of which is Luzon, a long, irregu- lar, and narrow island. They were disco- vered by Magellan, in 1521, who called them the archipelago of St. Lazarus, as the dis- covery was made on that saint's day. But they were subjected, or ruthcrpart of them, to the Spaniards, by Don Louiss de Velasco, in I5r>4, in the reign of Philip II. and de- rive their present name from him. Tlie natives are supposed to be of Chinese ex- traction. Manilla, the capital of the island of Lu- zon, and oC ull the Philippines, is situated on the south-east part of the island, where a large river falls into the sea, and fonuE a noble bay, thirty leagues in coinpnsa. On the 0th of October, l/fi. the Eng- lish, under general Draper and admiral Cornisi), took Manilla by storm, after a •icgc of twelve days ; but, to save so tine a city from destruction, they agreed to ac- cept a ransom, amounting to a million ster- ling, part of which, it is said, was never paid. THK DANDA ISI.KS PUOUUCK ABOUT 100,000 LUR. OP NUTMRGS ANNUALLT. ^^ r AMBOtNA. nc hundred and sixty- wlium they iikewue ndcd conipirany. revolutioiinry war, the PBce, thcie invaluable na, and the other Mo- the English. NUTMEG ISLES. I the eeneral name of I in tlie £ast Indian of them are uncKlti' ninhabitedj the other itinction of being the 'arid that produce the is valuable spice, the e barren to a dreadful 1 not produce any kind th of the sago serves untry instead of bread, icttleincnt in' the Eust nu be considered as n because it is the only opcnns are proprieto- ; I company iindtng tht.* Banna were savage, JUS, because they were ir yoke, resolved to ex- 1 their possessions were k'hite people, who pro- ome of the nciphbour- ate the lands. The cli- larticularly unhealthy: lie company attempted ture of the nutmeg to the experiments that o proved unsuccessful, were discovered by the and colonized in 1524 ; lie Dutch in 1599. The themselves of them in unto the Dutch in 1814. PINE ISLANDS. lands are a large group iHterii urchipelu^o, the Luzon, n long, irregu- ind. Thoy were disco- 1521, who called tlicm St. Lazarus, as the dis- that saint's day. But or rutlicr part of them, Don Louis de Velasco, 1 of Philip II. and dc- name from him. The d to be of Chinese ex- nl of the island of Lu- I'liilippiucs, is situated irt of the island, where o the sen, niid ioriUE a gues in compass^, ctober, l/G. , the Eng- Di'iipcr and admiral ilia by storm, after a but, to save so tine a on, they agreed to bc- mting to a million stcr- it is said, was never [lUiS ANNUALLY. rALBSTINR CONSISTS CHIKfLT OV BUOOBD HILLS AND NARROW VALLBTI. THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE, AND, MORI FARTICULARLT, Of THE JEWS. Dt the various names of Hehrcws, Is- raelitcH, or Jews, were this most illustrious people of ancient times known, who dwell in tlie land then called Cnuann. Contrary to the obscurity in which the origin of other nations is veiled, wo have the evidence of Holy Writ for the rise, progress, decline, and fall of the Jews. Tliey deduced their descent from Arphaxad the son of 8hem ; and we have it on record, that Abralinin, the sixth in descent from Eber, the grand- son of Arphaxad, dwelt in Assyria, but re- moved into Cniiuan or Palestine, with his family, to tlie intent that the true religion of Gud should be preserved by them, his " chosen people," ainid the idolatrous cor- ruptions of other nations by whom they were surrounded. The period of which we are now speak- ing was about two thousand y^iars before the birth of Clir^st. At that time the in- habitants of Mesopotamia and Syria ap- pear to have been partly noniadic, or wan- dering, like the Tartars or Scythians; for we lind that Abraham and his duscendantH sojourned in dilTerent parts of Canaan iind Egypt, until the time of their protracted residence in the hitter country. Abraham at his deatli transmitted the inheril.i'wcc of the "promised land" to his son Isnuc ; and Isaac was succeeded in the patiiarcliatc by his yo'nicrer son Jacob, also callod Isr.iol. Jacob tiad twelve sons; the dcsrendiinis of whom remaining distinct, eonstiuitttl the twelve tribes of the Israelites in aftei-time. I Joseph, the youngest bvt one of theuo soiis, having unconsciously excited the jealousy of the rebt, was sold by them as a slave, to some Arabian mercliants, by whom he was carried into Egypt : there, as we read, he became known to the king, and wan made his chief minister; and in a time of tamine, for which his foresight had provided, he was the linppy means of providing his nii^cd father and the whole of his family an osy- lum in the fertile district of Uoshen (d. c. i;o5). Tlie pathetic and interesting story »( '' Jasepli and his Brethren," as narrated in the llible, rripiires ■ <'ommcnt in this place; but, we may, ^ ^ps, be allowed slightly to digress, in order to illustrate the case of Joseph's memorable rise from the condition of a slave to that of the chief ruler of I'haroah's household. European notions of slavery very naturally picture to the mind all that is horriiilo, cnicl, and re- voltiuK; and it would 8e>\>i n \t to an im- finssibility that, by anycliuncr', ( ne so help- ess and degraded as a slave ould become an officer of trust, or— more wonderful still — the chief minister and adviser of a mo- narch of a mighty kingdom. It is, however, remarked by marxhal Marmont, who some years ago travelled through Turkey, He, and who evidently paid great attention to the condition of the people and the cus- toms of the countries he visited, that slaves in the East arc far from being in the con- dition we might suppose; and it is there- fore not unreadonahle to believe that the kindness with wlileli tliev are treated at tho present day is derived from immemo- rial custom. lie observes, " The most docile slave rejects with indignation any order that is not personally (jiven him by his master; and he feels himself placed immeasurably above the level of a free or hired servant. He is a child of the house; and it is not unusual to see ii Turk entertain so strong a predilection for a slave he has purchased, as to prefer him to his own son. He often overloads him with favours, gives him his coiitidence, ind raises his position; and, when the master is powerful, he opens lo his slave the path of honour and of pi^b- lic employment." As peaceful dwellers m the rirh and fertile valleys of Goshen, the Israelites in process of time became sullicienlly nume- rous to excite the envious alarm of the Egyptians ; and they accordingly under went many persecutions, until the Almightv raif'id up Moses as their deliverer. The miracles he was empowered to work, the niurmurings and backslidinga of the peo- ple, their idolatrous propensities, and all other particulars relative to them while wandering through the parched and arid deserts of Arabia, form interesting iiorlions of the sacred volume; we shall therefore pasu on briefly to the death of Moses, and the delegation of power to Joshua, the ac- knowledged chief of the Jewish nation, u. c. 14ji. Joshua was now ninety-three years of age, and had under his command six hun- dred thousand men capable of bearing arms, besides the agt u and iiiiirm, women, children, and servants. On every side were warlike nations, some of them represented as containing men of gigantic stature and immense personal prowesi-. ; their towns were well fortified, and every necessary preparation had been made to repel inva- sion. The veteran leader was, however, un- dismayed ; and, relying on that protecting Power who had delivered the people from Egyptian bondage, am'. Irought them safely to the frontiers of Canaan, he went on BOTH PAI.USTINK AM) SYUIA AHE 80URTIMRS VI.lirEn UY TUB PI.AOUK. HJ Pl- ^'!- f I I 818 TIIK II.orKI UV MOUNT I.KBANON AHH MOIT CAnRrlll.l.T Ctll.TITATKII. tSl)t ^renauiy of 1i)li5ton>, $cc. "coiu|ii«riu|( Aiul tu coiuiuvr." At IniRlli, Hiti-r ■ul)tliiiiiK tlio " proiiiiiied liiiiil," mid viilnliliiliiii)( lit trHiii|iiillily, liu ilividnl it itmoiiK the twvlvo tribpi; ulinrKiuK tliuiii, Ht till! iniiitt linir, to ((ivu h tciitli ptirt of lltrir goodi to llui tribn of l.uvi, wlio worn couKa-rHtcd Holelv fur lliu |irii'Nthood i niid liruco in-ocecd* tiiu oriKin of lit lie: llnv- iiiK rulfd l'nIi>Rtiiui kh wini'ly n« ho lind coniiiii'rcd it briwoly, luul liriiiK now one liuiith't'il Hiid tfii yt'Hri old, tliu Hged wnr- riur ri'>it(iii'd')ii« brfHili, Joshua WHi no looiirr dcHd, tiinit tho Jew* fin\e ihcinselvcH u|> to luiarcliy, by which iiioani thoy ibortly full under the power of Cimliun, kiiiK of Mriiiiiolamin. Xl'Irr n xerviiudi* of eiulit yuAri, Othoni't'l bei'ttiiio jiiilgd of larHcl; ni whoie death, EkU>ii, king of Moah, reduced theui in Iiih obi'dicMicc ; and under his yoke tliey i Israel about twenty years, the people, wishing to imitate the extiniplo of their neighbours, demanded that they should have a king to rule over them. Samuel accordingly se- lected Saul for that high oWce, and on pre- senting him for their acceptance, "all the pe\'ple shouted and said, (iod save the king!" Although many of the Israelites were afterwards discontented with having a king who had been their companion and equal, the uumeroui proofs which ijaul gave of his military qualifications checked their murmurs. He attacked and defeated the forces of the different nations who ha- rasKcd the frontiers of his kiiigdoin, and took siuiial vengeance of their old and implacaMle tineniies, the I'liilistines. Ax a warlike monarch ho reigned wiih glory. In;*, put an end to his life. Ti. Mnc pi'ince, mu\ bis writings and his Idv.s ivf .r received and esteemed in the ni'ist distant countries, with all that vene- ration the^ dcserv..:'. Ills son, Uehoboain, an insensible deitpot, ruled the Isrncliius with an iron rod. Ten of the trihai sepa- rated themse'ves from his government, and chose Jerohuiim for their king. I'alestine now became i.wo kingdoms ; the one called Juilnli, and the other Israel. A dilferenco ill religion was soon after introduced! that called the Saniarilaii, or Israelite, was em- braced by the ten tribes; while Judah and Ueiijamiii kept to the oucicut usage of their forefathers. Ihider Hosea, king of Israel, the ten tribes were carried away captive to Nine- veh, by Salmanazer. Nebucliadnezzar very soon placed the people of .Judah in the like unhappy situa- tion of the people of Israel. After having conquered Jerusalem, he transported them to Ilabylon, the capital of his empire. This captivity lasted seventy years, when Cyrus gave them the liberty of returning to their country. Great numbers accepted the oiler, conducted by Zerobabcl, Nchcmiah, and Ksdras. They rebuilt Jerusaiein and the Temple. They re-CRlablifhed their state, and lived under their own laws, paying a small tribute to the kings of Persia ; and KiilTered idolatry no more to take place of their devotion to the true God. The Jews were subject to the kings of Persia at the time Alexander made the conquest of that empire. At his death, his vast doiuinions were divided between liia firineipal captains; and the king oiT Svria lad a part of Juilea; but lyin:;, as it we e, upon t lie frontiers of botli Syria and I'lrypt, it suffered scvi'rely from alternate luva- stons. Jerusalem, since the nabylouian captivity, had no particular governors who took unon themselves the title of king; the hignpriests held the interior adminis- tration, and were respected as much as if they had actually been in posseiision of the throne. Ptolemy Soter besieged Jerusalem, and carried away one hundred thousand en;)- fives, whom he dispersed through Egypt, Libya, and tlio country about t'yrene, where their posterity for many centuries after continued to exist. Duriiii^ this period, Si- " I 3 o It k< O M r. a Z "I r. CLOUDS or LOCUSTS BOMRTIMKS DRSTnUY TUVi rROUUCR OP TUB WnOI.R LAND. Dl.TlTAtUttf f 111* VinK''"»n. ""'I 1 i)f tlii'ir olil «'»» I lU lMiili»iiii«ii An n reiKued wiili l!l"'y. litV. , , .■ urt! ti> bi< ronmcltMea liKioii, Riiil the pro- icy ilic.iiltul upoii wiir nt «U liiiien mnnit- ly l)»via, n uliokilurd h, uuJer wlioin tlui ,n»iat!ri»bln »tren|ctl'. y Solomon, Ui» «»n, loin Hiid hi» miiKUirt- Me iieopU' Imppy "V , ly tin: ciu'OUin«e>n>'>'». i (d ilm roputntioii ot ' fti,a hi* wrilingH rttid I Mid eutei'iiifd iii tlie i», with all tlint vcne- His son. lleholionm, , ruled the I»r»elliu» oil of thi! irihd* sfpn- u hi* Bc.vL'inmPnt, imd llieirViiiK- l'Hlc»<'"fl [doiiis ; the one ettlUU • Urnid. A differenco after introduced i thnt I, or luraelito, wa« ciii- ihcn; while Judah and ! ancient uiagc of their ng of liirael, the ten away captivd to Nine- very soon plnecd the ihe like unhappy nitua- r Ihrael. After havinR II, he trannporied them ital of his empire. Tins enty years, when Cyrus ty of returniiiK to their libers ncccptedtlieoflcr, .babel, Neheiniah, and uilt Jerusaiem and the rntftblii'hed tlieir utiite, leir own Inws, (layniK « c kinRs of PeiRia; luid more to take pluee of lie true God. ■ subject to the kings of le Alexinidcr made the mpirc. At his death, his ere divided between hia ; and the king oi" Svnu ia; but lyinK. «« " «'"''' i of both Syria and Kirypt, \ ■ly from alternate luva- 1 , since the Jlabylonian \ particular goycniors who 1 selves the title of kinj?; 1 icld the interior adniinis- ! respected as much as it i been in posseBsion of the , besieged Jernsnlcm, ntid ( hundred thousand en;)- | dispersed through Egypt, ^ untry about I'yrenc, where i for many eeuUiries niter it. Duvins this period, 8i- 1 OF TllK WIIOI.R L*NI>' TUB ANCINNT ART Of D(«INO IN rUliri.ll I* LUST «T TtRK. ^I)c lL)i9toi-Q of ^Palestine. 819 moil, luriiumed the Just, wax lilgh-prieHt : a man not lens remarkHbiu for iiis innrits us H governor, than for his eminent pieiy. I'lidi'i his ilireetloiiN the eaniiii of tlie Did 'reHldiiieiit «HH eoinplcti'd, and Ihcrierfor- warJ tiiDixiiiltli'il to future ^''^eratinns witlioul fiiitlirr letisMl: it r. 2!l'-'. It wbm Hltoilt this limn tliHt I lie nect of I lie Huddu- eees m'ose, who denied the existence of a future stale. Tliey weri', however, inferior in numbers uiid popiilm'ity to the I'liHri- sees, who entertained n deeideil belief in the lesurrcetlon, and in the doetrino of future rewards and punishments. Under the uatronage of I'tolemy IMiiladelnhus, the Ilnlirew Scriptures were translate*! into (Ireek, fur the beneflt of the .lews residing in Kgypt. This version is usunlly called the Sepliingint, because, neeordiiig to tra- dition, the Irnnslation was entrusted to Mcveiily persons. 'I'lie situation of the Jews under the Ry- rians was various. Antioelius KpiphnncN, wlKhing to alter their religious opinions, took the power of the disposal of the high priesthood into his own hands, which he alternately disponed of, and dispossessed, according to his eapriec. He pilliiged the temple, and put l^letr/.er to death ; and also the seven brolhcrK, MneeaheeH, with their niotlier. lie also caused to he put to the sword, on the Mubhath-day, all those that had assembled together for the |)ur- jiose of devotion. This cruel and unjust pcrsceuttoii caused the Jews to rebel : they were bended by Mnttalhias; and, after his death, by his son, tlio celebrated Judas Maccabeus, the defender of the religion, i and the saviour of his country. That hero being killed in battle, was succeeded hy Jonathan, who mited in himself the spiri- tual and tempoi-d powers. Ilis brother Simon succeeded, and was C(|ually cele- brated for his wisdom as his virtues, and was the flrst of his nation who had govern- ed Jiidea peaceably and absolutely, since the return from llabylon. He wa« killed at n banquet, and was succeeded by his son, .Tolin Hyrcanus, who was succeeded I by .iudas, surnamed Aristobulus, assuming ' to himself the title of king. I Alexander Jnnnicus was the next king, a j hero very little inferior to David. He left two sons, Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. The j former held the sceptre during the life of ' AleXHiiiIra, his mother ; but, soon after the death of that princess, Aristobiihis declared war against his brother, and deprived him of his kingdom. Judeu having become a Roman province, Pompey the Great, its conqueror, re-estab- lislied Hyrcanus in the Kovernment, and took with him Aristobulus to Rome, to heighten the glory of his triumph. Phrii- a'es, king of I'arthia, deposed Hyrcanus, and put in his place AutigonitH, jon of Aristobulus. Soon after Herod, surnaracd the Great, an Idumean by birth, and pa- tronized by Antony, obtained permission from the p.omans to assume the title of king of the Jews. This prinne, although a tyrant to his Kiibjects and to his family, aildrd lustre to the Jewish nation : he repair I Jcriianlem, rebuilt the temple, and proi uird to him- self sucri'uxively th'- favour of ('simun, (,'k^ sar, Autony, nnd (letnviii*; HiignientinK hi* po'Afr hy the srt wliich hi; iionsitHcil of tilcKsing lliOKC of whom he iii'lii lii» cro'vii, n Ills reign Jvniis Cnkisi' was horn. After lliK death of Herod, Aiigiintiin divided the government ofjuiles lietwicii (he sons of Herod: lie bestowed one half upon Archclaui, and the other half upon Herod - Anli|ias and I'hilip. Nine year* afterwards, Augustus, being ditsatisHed with their conduct, sent them into exile, and placed the government of Judca under the pro-consul of Syria. The governors appointed by the Romans over the Jews were for the most part ty- rants, which served to strengthen in them the propensity for revolt. Tliey had been taught that a descendant of the house of David should deliver them from opprei- siim i tliey believed thst the time was near- ly arrived, and their insoleiiee increased as the fullilinent of the prediction, in their opinion, drew near. They were almost in continual sedition: and although severely punished for their turbulence, their ardour in a cause wherein tliey supposed their own liberties, and those of tlieir posterity deiiended, was not in the least diminished. ill the year (>') after Christ, the standard of revolt was set up. Jerusalem was be- sieged by Cestius, whom the Jews com- pelled to retire. Nero, who was then in Aeliaia, no sooner heard of that event, than he sent Vespasian into Palestine, for the purpose of effecting that conquest which Cestius had been found unequal to obtain. Vespasian, who had already distinguished himself in Germany and Britain, entered this devoted country with a well disci- plined army; and as he encountered every- where a tierce resistance, he put to the ■word men, women, and children. All the cities and towns that lay in the way of his march, were taken and plundered. Those persons who escaped tlic cruelty of the conqueror, fled to Jerusalem, then in tlic hands of two furious parties, each of whom persecuted their opponents with unfeeling cruelty. Civil war and assassination be- came the consequences of their unbridled rage, and the priests themselves were not exempt from the popular fury. The siege of Jerusalem was suspended by the death of Nero. Three emperors mounted the throne ; Galba, Otho, and VitelliuB; all of whom died violent deaths. At length Vespasian wa'i elected to the pur- ple. He immediately sent his son Titus to Jerusalem, to finish n war which he had so successfully begun. Titus having arrived before Jerusalem previous to the feast of Easter, took his station on the Mount of Olives, and, invest- ing the city, he surrounded it with a wall, flanked with thirty towers. The magazines of corn had been destroyed by fire, and a roost cruel famine raged within the city; but, notwithstanding their terribU situa- tt IS H r. I M M H « DAMASCUS BnrOnD-BI.ADKS IIAVK LOST THRItt VOIIMKU HKrUTATION. ^-y^- , L...^ TUR MAROINTBI ARK A CIIIIISTIAN IKCT IN TIIK VICINITY or LBIANON. n !; in r:i i }. *t :| "I 820 ^fie ^reasuri) of l^istorg, $cc. tion, the bciirgcd refuted the ndYnntngfous conditioui ottered to them by the Ilomun Kcncrnl. At length he brcanie mutter of the city, which wai nearly reduced tu anhei, and nlto of the temple. A scene of but- chery then commenced, and waa continued fur Bcvcral duyn, until Jeruialcm was left utterly dctolntc. According to Jotcpbui, eleven hundred thousnud iicrtons perithcd during the aiege, and at the capture ; and thoKe that were taken prisoners were made slaves. The misfortunes of Jerusalem were not con> lined tu the Jews of that city, but ex- tended to the whole of that people under tlie iloumn power; some were thrown to ferocious beasts at the public games, and others sold into bondage. The sulforings, indeed, of the devoted inhabitants, frau)||lit Hs sonic of the scenes are with thrilling interest, are such as humanity shudders to rontemplate, nnd over which pity it glad to throw a veil. The Slate of the Jews since the Destruction of Jerusalem, Tub Jews, obliged to ((uit their coun- try, irritated nnd provoked by the cruel treatment tliry hud received, meditated to avenge themselves of their enemies. They began to put their murderous designs into execution at the cit^ of Cyrene, in Lybia, and in the island ot Cyprus, where, since their flight, they had increased consider- ably. Tney were headed by an entcrpris- ing'but artful ninn, named Andrew, under whom they not only committed the great- est excesses, but also pained some advan- tages over the Egyptians, and even over the Romans. The emperor Trajan found himself obliged to march an army against them; but they were not reduced until after several engagements, maintained with the greatest obstinacy: they were at length overcome, and were treated by the llo- nians rather as enemies of the human race, than as rebels against the power of Rome. Lybia became so far depopulated in this contlict, that the Romans thought it ne- cessary to send a colony to repeoplc the waste. The Jews, notwithstanding their recent misfortune* in Palestine, again revolted. Adrian, the successor of Trajan, sent Ju- lius Severus against them. This general (according to Dion) killed 880,tK)0 in dif- ferent battles ; and, he further asserts, they could not reckon those that perished by famine, or otherwise : so that very few Jews escaped in this war. They razed (continues Dion) fifty fortified castles, pil- laged and burnt 086 cities and towns, and made such a general massacre of the in- habitants through the country, that all Judea was in a manner converted into a desert. Before this massacre, the number of Jews, according to the calculations of the priest made under Nero, and estima- ting those destroyed under Titus, amount- ed to 2,546,000 persons. Adrian, after having ruined and massa- cred the greatest part of the remaining number, prohibited, by a solemn edict, confirmed in the senate, any of those that had escaped the sword, from returning into their own country; and from that time this unfortunate people have been entirely dispersed. Notwithstanding the prodiginui nuni- beri which perished in the successive over- throws of the Jewish nation, it is clear that very considerable colonies of them settled in different countries, as the travels of the apostles alone amply testify. lu Rome, Alexandria, and many other places, there were flourishing communiiies. Some devoted themselves to the cultivation of the arts and sciences, others pursued han- dicraft trades, many practised as j^hysi- cians, but most of tli( in turned their at- tention to commercial speculations, and soon became notorious for their wcalih and overreaching cupidity. In the llfth century they were banished from Alexandria, where tliey had been cs. ablished from the time of Alexander. They rendered themselves the ridicule of all na- tions by their enthusiasm in favour of a false Alessiah, who appeared at that time in Cnndia. This impostor, who was named Moses, and pretended to be the ancient legislator of the Jews, asserted that he h.Hd descended from Heaven, in order to enable the children of Abraham to enter the Land of Promise. A new revolt in Palestine, in the sixth century, served to shew the turbulent dis- position of the Jewish race, and the in- crease of (he massacres of that people. Phocias drove them from Antioch, and Ileraelius from Jerusolem. While some of the scattered families re- sorted to Kgypt, Rabylun, and other po- lished couiilrics in the East, there were others who settled in Arabia, penetrated to China, or wandired over the European con- tinent. But many still remained in Pales- tine. After the conversion of the Roman empire to Christianity, Judea became an object of religious veneration, and the em- press Helena repaired hither in pilgrim- age, and built various splendid temples. A crowd of pilgrims resorted thither subse- quently from every part of the world ; the most numerous arriving from the west, over which the church of Rome liad fully established its domination. In the com- mencement of the sixth century, however, an entire change took place. Judea was among the countries first exposed to the fanatical followers of Mahomet, and soon fell under their sway. But when the Turks poured in from the north, they no longer observed the same courtesy. They pro- faned the holy places, and the intelligence of their outrages being conveyed to Europe, roused the religious spirit of the age into those expeditions called the crusndes. All Europe seemed to pour itself upon Asia: the sJaracen armies were routed, Jerusalem taken by storm, and its garrison put to the sword. The leader of the first crusade, Godfrey of Bouillon, was made king ; and JBRUSALBH HAS NU MANUFACTURX OR TRAUB TO OIVB IT IMPORTAKCB. ■ ■AHON. ' the remuining , ■ulcmn edict, ly of those that n returning into from thnt time ivc been entirely irodiginiis nuni- micccBsive ovcr- tion, it is cleur )lunii■ ARMENIA. TnR ancient liistory *of Ithis large and warlike people it connected with that of the several mighty nations who in turn Ailed the world with the terror of their names. Its first kinx appears to have been Scython, the next Barzanes, after whose death the kingdom was divided into several petty kingdoms. The Medes under Astya- ges subsequently subdued Armenia, which was reduced to a province under Persian governors. It was afterwards divided into Major and Minor by Artarias and Zadri- ades, who having united their forces, esta- blished each himself in his respective pro- vince, independent of his master ; the former possessing Armenia Major, the other Mi- nor. They were contemporary with Han- nibal, who planned for Artarias the cele- brated town of Artarata. Assisted by the Roman alliance, these usurpers maintained their power in despite of the several at- tacks of their former master, Antiochus. After their death, the Armenians suffered cousiderable loss in a war with the Par- thiang. Marc Antony put Artavardes, the sovereign of Armenia, to death, to make room for Alexnuder, his own sou by Cleo- patra ; others say that he led him captive to Rome in golden rli><> .mj. Trigan reduced Armenia to a Roman province; but in the reign of Constantine the Great and his surcessor, it had its own kings, dependent indeed on the emperor. Although St, Bar- tholomew is said to have introduced Chris- tianity into Armenia, there can be no doubt that It was Christian in the beginning of the fourth century. Sapor, the Persian con- queror, reduced it to a province at the end of the fourth century. The Saracens sub- dued it in A.u. 687, who gave way to the Turks about a century afterwards. It was then called Turcomonia. Armenia partially recovered its indepen- dence, but was again subdued by Occadan or Heccate,sonot Genxhis, tirst khan of the Tartars. A remnant of the royal family of Armenia still remained; and we find one of them, Leo, came to England to solicit the aid of Richard II. against the Turks, by whom he had been expelled from his throne. Armenia was again made n pro- vince of the Persian empire, in l-(72. 8e- lim II. reduced it to a Turkish province, in 1522; the greater part of which still re- mains subject to the Crescent, ALBANIA. At.dania was nominally a province of the Turkish empire. Us history is diversified, and mixed up with the various fortunes of ilie surrouncmg nations. Looked upon as barbarous by the Greeks and Romans, be- cause vt>ry filightly explored by them, Alba- nia, betteV known to those celebrated peo- ple as Illvricum, uud Epirus, still retains much of the simplicity of primitive habits, so that it is emphatically called the Scy- thia of the Turkiith empire. The ancient historians describe the inhabitants of this country as peculiarly fierce and untract- able. The remoteness of its situation, and want of union amongst the several tribes winch inhabited the country of Albania, ren- dered the valour of its people of little con- sequence to the gbucral attuirs of Greece, and accordingly we find them but slightly mixed up with Grecian politics. Under the conduct of Fyrrhus II., one of the most consummate generals of antiquity, who waged a bloody war with the Romans in Italy, the Albanians, or Epirotes, routed Antigonus, king of Macedonia, and held that country in subjection; but their con- quest ended with tlie death of their com- mander, and they in turn fell under the powr:r of the Macedonians. Tlie Romans made some settlements in thiir country, and availed themselves of the many fine harbours to be found along its coast. At their decline, with other por- tions of that once mighty empire, Albania fell a prey to Alaric and the Got lis, although some of their descendants afterwards re- tained possession of the northern district. Sigismund, one of its kings, was celebrated for his alliance with Theodoric, the victor of Clovis and Odoaeer, a.d. 526. Albania now became the prey of the Sclavonian na- tions, till it was settled within its present limits, under the Bulgarians, in 870. As the Greek empire declined, the Albanians again rose to distinction, and at last re-es- tablished their independence, in spite of the most strenuous exertions of the Bulga- rians, who were masters of all the neigh- bouring districts of Greece, Forming a fourth division of the army of Nicephorus Basilices, a. d. 1071). they greatly distinguished themselves. During the next century, the period of the cru- sades, there were several settlements on their coasts by the Sicilians, Franks, and other nations. After the conquest of Con- stantinople, 1204, Michael Angelus esta- blished an independent government in this district. Albania has cut some figure in the annals of the last forty years, chiefly through the enterprizing spirit and politic conduct of Ali Pacha, who raised himself to a degree of power which long kept the Turks, who were nominally his masters, in a state of fear to attack him. After amassing im- mense treasures, and keeping up indepen- dent alliances with the Eurnpeaii powers, he was, in 1822, finally cut off by the Turk- ish olilcers. The modern name of Albania is Arnaut. TUK ANCIKNT ABMKMAN £X13TS ONLY AS A DEAD LANOUAOE. M WUBDI. ss. Trajan reduced rovince ; but in the the Great and hii rn kings, dependent Although St. Bar- re introduced Chria- lere can be no doubt n the beginning of per, the Persian con- province at the end The Saracens sub- ho gave way to the afterwards. It was covered its indepen- subdued by Occadan {his, first khan of the if the royal family of d; and we find one England to solicit . against the Turks, n expelled from his i agttin made a pro- empire, in 14/2. Sc- , Turkish province, in rt of which still rc- Crescent. the northern district, kings, was celebrated Theodoric, the victor !r, A.D. 526. Albania of the Sclavonian na- ed within its present ilgarians, in 870. As cliued, the Albanians ion, and at last re-cs- pendence, in spite of xertions of the Bulga- tcrs of all the neigh- Jreece. division of the army ices, A. B. 1079, they I themselves. During f\c period of the cru- Evcriil settlements on Sicilians, Franhs, and r the conquest of Con- licliael Angelas esta- :nt government in this me figure in the annals rs, chiefly through the md politic conduct of Bd himself to a degree 5 kept the Turks, who masters, in a state of . After amassing iiti- d keeping up indepen- the European powers, lly cut off by the TurU- odern name of Albania LANOVAOB. H I ALL KOTrTIAN BBLICa Of AMTIQUITT AtB OIOAKTIC I!* SIfB. THE HISTORY OF EGYPT. (WITH SYRIA.) Tub early history of Egypt, like that of China, is so involved in obscurity and fable, that for many ages it must be passed over in silence; for it would be an insult to com- mon sense, in a work professedly historical, to narrate the marvellous actions ascribed to Osiris, Isis, Typhon, Apollo, and a host of ideal personages who, as we are told, over Egypt " once held sway." After those purely fabulous ages, the first king who ' makes his appfarance in the times called lieroic, but without any certain date, is Menes, who is by some considered the same with Misraim, the son of Ham. He drained the lower part of Egypt, convert- ing that which was before a morass, into firm ground; turned the course of the Nile, so as to render it more beneficial to the country, that river having before his time washed the foot of a sandy mountain in Lybia; built the city of Memphis; insti- tuted solemn festivals and other religious rites; instructed his subjects in many valu- able arts; and accomplished a variety of wonders usually attributed to the founders of kingdoms. It heini^ iiupossible to follow the succes- sion of princes, it most suffice to state, that after the death of Menes, Egypt was di- fided into several dynasties, or principali- ties ; but its most natural and permanent division appears to have been into three por- tions, sometimes under one, and sometimes nnder different kings. The most southerly portion was called Upper Egypt, or The- bais, the capital of which was Thebes, still remarkable for the extent and magnifi- cence of its remains. The central part, or Middle Egypt, had Memphis for its capi- tal, situated o))poeitc to the modern capital Cairo. Lower Egypt was the country along the branches of the Nile, as it approached the sea: many large cities were built in this tract, one of the chief of which was Heliopolis. We learn that some ages afterwards {b.c. 2084), Egypt was invaded by the Hycsos, a pastoral tribe from the north, who pe- netrated to Nubia, and established them- selves in that country, and in Egypt, as the sovereign power. These are known as " the shepherd kings," and they were eventually expelled by Amosis, king of Lower Egypt, B.C. 1825. Various princes succeeded, who all bore the title of Tharaoh. The Israelites set- tled in Egypt, and were reduced to a state of slavery,' from which they were delivered by divine interference ; and, as we are fur- ther informed in Holy Writ, one of the Pharaohs, with all bis host, was drowned in the Red Sea. !U The most distinguished prince of this race was Sesostris, who marched virtori- ounly through both Africa and Asia, as far as to the countries beyond the Gun; o / Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STkEET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 UANY.riNE BPRCIMBMB OP BOirTIAN RBIiICS ARI IN >HK BBITIBB MPIBDII. 824 ^i^e ^reasurp of IIUtotQ, $cc. i j s* m O f B u M ■ H Ik O H a M a K H H if < O M » M O Hi For nearly seven centuries Egypt belong- ed to tlie lloraan nnd Greek empires, and was for a lengthened period the granary, 88 it were, of Rome. It then remained un- der the power of the Mohammedan caliphs till the beginning of the 12th century, when they were expelled by the Turcomans, who in their torn gave way to the Mamelukes, in 1250. Before we proceed further with our hasty sketch of this once mighty kingdom, we will endeavour to give the reader some faint idea of it as it existed in its former state. The ancient kings of Egypt were always considered as subject to the laws of the empire, and their manners were, in some particulars, regulated by set rules ; among which, the quiuity and quantity of the pro- visions for tneir tables were allotted. If a king, during his reign, governed arbitrarily, or unjustly, his memory was condemned after his death. No people were ever more idolatrous or superstitious than the Egyp- tians. Men, animals, and even plants, were the objects of their worship : but the deities Isis and Osiris were in the greatest repute, and adored generally throughout the coun- try. They also especially worshipped Apis, a bull, dedicated to Osiris, at Memphis; and Mnevis, a similar bull at Hcliopolis. But every city had its sacred animal ; a stork, a cat, a monkey, a crocodile, or a goat; any irreverence to which was severely punished, and an injury held deserving of death. The tribunal of Egypt was com- posed of thirty judges, chosen from among the priests of Heliouolis, of Memphis, and of Thebes; who adniiuisteied justice to the people gratuitously, the prince allowing them a suflivient revenue to enable them so to do. The Egyptians had two kinds of writing; one sacred, nnd one common. The former was the representation of ideas by figures of animals, or other sensible objects, called hieroi^lyphics; many inscriptions of which still exist, as do inscriptions and writings in the common character. The priests were held in the highest revei-ence, and the hieroglyphics were known to them alone. J'iiilosophy was early cultivated by the Egyptians, and the doctrine of the Me- tempsychosis taught in their schools, to wliich many of the Greek philosophers re- paired. They also made great progress in astronomy and geometry, and in the arts, particularly of architecture, of which the whole country still otters extensive co- lumns, obelisks, and those stupendous spe- cimens of human labour, the pyramids. We now return to the history of Egypt after it became possessed by the Mame- lukes, of whom it may be as well that we should liere speak. According to M. Vol- ney, they came originally from Mount Cau- casus, and were distinguished by the fiaxen colour of their hair. The expedition of the Tartnrs, in 122r, proved indirectly the means of introducing them into Egypt. These merciless conquerors, having slaughtered till they were weary, brought along with them uu immense number of slaves of both sexes, with whom they filled all the markets in Asia. The Turks purchased about 13,000 young men, whom they bred up in thr pro- fession of arms, which they soon excelled in ; but, becoming mutinous, they deposed and murdered the sultan Malek, in 1260. The Mamelukes having thus got possession of the government, and neither understand- ing nor valuing anything but the art of war, every species of learning decayed in Egypt, and a degree of barbarism was in- troduced. Neither was their empire of lon^ duration, notwithstanding their martial abi- lities : for as they depen4ed upon the Chris- tian slaves, chiefly brought from Circassia, whom they bought for the purpose of train- ing to war, and thus filling up their ranks, these new Mamelukes, or Borgites as they were at first called, in time rose upon their masters, and transferred the government to themselves, about a. o. 1882. They became famous for ferocious valour ; were almost perpetually engaged iu wars either foreign or domestic ; and their domi- nion lasted till 1517, when they were in- vaded by Selim I., the Turkish sultan. The Mamelukes defended themselves with in- credible bravery ; but, overpowered by num- bers, they were defeated in almost every en- gagement. Cairo, their capital, was tuen, and a terrible slaughter made of its defend- ers. The sultan, Tuman Bev, was forced to tly ; and, having collected all hia forces, he ventured a decisive battle. The most ro- mantic efforts of valour, however, were in- sufficient to cope with the innumerable multitude which composed the Turkish army. Most of his men .vere cut in pieces, and the unhappy prince was himself taken and put to death. With him ended the glory of the Mamelukes. The sultan Selim commenced bis govern- ment of Egypt by an unexampled act of wholesale Butchery. Having ordered a theatre to be erected on the Danks of the Nile, he caused all the prisoners (upwards of 30,000] to be beheaded in his presence, and their bodies thrown into the river. He did not, however, attempt the total exter- mination of the Mamelukes, but proposed a new form of government, by which the power, being distributed among the diffe- rent members of the state, shomd preserve an equilibrium ; so that the depenoence of the whole should be upon himself. With this view, be chose from among those Ma- melukes who had escaped the general mas- sacre, a divan, or council of regency, con- sisting of the pacha and chiefs of the seven military corps. The former was to notify to this council the orders of the Porte, to send the tribute to Constantinople, and provide for the safetv of government both external and internal; while, on the other hand, the members of the council had a right to reject the orders of the pacha, or even of deposing him, provided they could assign sufficient reasons. All civil and political ordinances must also be rati- fied by them. Besides this, he formed the whole body into a kind of republic ; for which purpose he issued an edict, stating. ALI) TUB ABCHITBCTUaa OV THE KeTFTIAHS WAS MBANT VOB KNnDBANCB. \* TSBVll. the market! bout 12.000 in th<> pro- on excelled ley depoted ;k, in 1360. t poiaeMion indentMtd- the art of decayed in am waa in- pire of long martial abi- a the Chria- n Circaaaia, oae of traiq- their ranka, itea aa they t upon their rernment to ionayalour; (ed iu wara their domi- ey were in< tultan. The ea with in- red by num- >at every en- , waa taken, f ita defend- raa forced to ia forcca, he lie moat ro- rer, were in« nnumerable the Turkiah ut in piecea, imaelf taken I ended the I hia govern- iplcd act of ordered a lanks of the ra (upward a ia itreaence, le river. He total exter- ut proposed f which the IK the diffe- uld preaerve pendence of laelf. With S thoae Ma- ;eneral maa- igency, con- of the aeven aa to notify lie Porte, to inople, and nment both in the other uncil had a the pacha, ovided they I. All civil also be rati- formed the ipublic; for jct, stating, . iAMCB. VAnlUUS UACKS UAVa BSBII INiaODVCKO BY '>irPKBKNT CUNqUEUOUB. M M »i U a u a IB ^Iz l^istore of lEgnpt. 825 "Though, by the help of the Almighty, we have conquered tlie whole kingdom of Egypt with our invincible armiea, ueverthe- lesa our benevolence ia willing to grant to the twenty-four aangiaca of Egypt a repub- lican government," &c. The couditiona and regulationa then follow, the moat impor- tant of which are those which make it in- cumbent on the republic to provide 12,000 troops at ita own expenae in time of peace, and aa many aa may be neceaaary for ita protection in time of war; and alao to aend to the SubUme Torte a certain aum in money annually aa tribute, with 600,000 measures of com and 400,000 of barley. Upon these conditions the Mamelukes were to have a free government over all the inhabitants of Egypt, independent of the Turkish lieutenant. Thus the power of the Mamelukes still continued in a very considerable degree, and gradually increased so much as to threaten a total loss of dominion to the Turks ; but, singular as it may seem, not- withstanding a residence of nearly six cen- turies, they never became naturalized in the country. They forraed no alliance with the females of Egypt, but had their wives brought from Georgia, Mingrelia, and the adjacent countries; so that, according to Volney, their offspring invariably became extinct in the second genet ation : they were therefore perpetuated by the same means by which thev were first established ; that is, their ranks were recruited by slavea brought from their original country. In- deed, aa many writers nave remarked, the Circaasian territories have at all times been a nursery of slaves. Towards the end of last century, when they constituted the whole military t'orce, and had acquired the entire government of Egypt, the Mamelukes, together with the 8erradijes, a kind of mounted domestics, did not exceed 10,000 men. Sume hundreds of thenA were dispersed throughout the country and in the villages, to maintain the authority of their corps and collect tribute ; but the main body constantly re- mained at Cairo. " Strangers to each other, bound by no ties as parents or children, placed amongst a people with whom they had nothing in common, despised as re- negades by the Turks, ignorant and su- perstitious from education, ferocious, per- fidious, seditious, and corrupted by every species of debauchery, the disorders and cruelties which accompanied their licenti- ous rule may be more easily imagined than described. Sovereignty to them was to have the means of possessing more women, toys, horses, and slaves, than others ; of managing the court of Constantinople, so as to elude the tribute or the menaces of the sultan; and of multiplying partisans, countermining plots, and destroying secret enemies by the dagger or poison. But with all this, they were brave in the ex- treme. Their beys, and even the common soldiers, distinguished themselves by the magnificence and costliness of their ac- coutrements, though these were in gene- ral clumsy and heavy. Being trained from infancy to the use of arms and horseman- ship, they were admirable horsemen ; and used the scimitar, carbine, pistol, uud lance, with almost unequalled skill and vigour." About the year 1746, Ibrahim, an officer of the Janissaries, rendered himself in reality master of Egypt, having managed matters so well, that of the twenty-lour bevs, or sangiacs, eight were of his house- hold : so that by this means, as well as by attaching the officers and soldiers of his corps to his interest, the pacha became altogether unable to oppose him, and the ordera of the aultan were less respected than those of Ibrahim. At his death, in 17S7, his family continued to rule in a despotic manner ; but waging war among each other, Ali Bey, who had been a prin- cipal actor in the disturbances, in 1766 overcame the rest, and for some time ren- dered himself absolute master of Egypt. This remarkable man was a Syrian oy birth, and had been purchased when a vouth in the slave market at Cairo ; but being possessed of great talents, and of a most ambitious turn of mind, he, after a variety of extraordinary adventures, was oiipointed one of the twenty-four beys of Egypt. « The Porte, being at that time on the eve of a dangerous war with Russia, had not leisure to attend to the proceedings of Ali Bey; so that he had an opportunity of vigorously prosecuting hia aesigns. Hia first expedition was against an Arabian pnnce named Hammam ; against whom he sent his favourite Mohammed Bey, under pretence that the former had concealed a treasure entrusted with him by Ibrahim, and that he afforded protection to rebels. Having destroyed this unfortunate prince, he next began to put in execution a plan proposed to him by a young Venetian merchant, of rendering ucdda, the port of Mecca, an emporium for all the com- merce of India ; and he even imagined he should be able to make the Europeans abandon the passage to the Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. With this view, he fitted out some vessels at Suez; and, man- ning them with Mamelukes, commanded the bey Hassan to sail with tliem to Gedda, and seize upon it, while a body of cavalry under Mohammed Bey advanced against the town. Both these commis- sions were executed according to his wish, and Ali became quite intoxicated with his success. Nothing but ideas of conquest now occupied his mind, without consider- ing the immense disproportion between his own force and that of the grand seignior. Circumstances were then indeed very fa- vourable to his schemes. The sheik Duller was in rebellion against the Porte in Syria, and the pacha of Damascus hnd so exas- perated the people by his extortions, that they were ready for a revolt. Having made the necessary prejparationa, AH Bey dispatched about SUO Mamelukes to take possession of Gaza, and thus ae- M u r M a K < a < a K m »■ o xerrT has aurtEBiD thb wobbt kind of SBsrutisM unokb thi tubkb. «■■ laTPTIAR ARMY HAI BIIII NIW-MODXLtU BT MKHIMBf ALL I t ! 5 t •' 826 Vl\)t ^ceastttQ of lliistorfi, 9cc. cure an entrance into Palestine. Oiman, the pacha of Damagcus, however, no sooner heard of the invasion than he prepared for war, while the troops of Ali Bey held them- selves in readiness to fly on the first attack. Sheik Dahcr hastened to their assistance, whila Osman fled without even offering to make the least resistance ; thus leaving the eueiuy masters of all Palestine. The com- bined army of .\U Bey and Sheik Daher ai'ierwards marched to Damascus; where tliR pf.clias rouB general sounded a retreat, and turn- ed towards Egypt with all his cavalry, fly- ing with as frreat precipitation as if he had been pursued by a superior army. Moham- med continued his march with such cele- rity, that the report of his arrival in Eg^pt reached Cairo only six hours before him. Thus Ali Bey found himself at once de- prived of all his expectations of conquest ; and, what was indeed galling, he found a trai- tor, whom he durst not punish, at the head of his forces. A sudden reverse of fortune now took place. Several vessels laden with corn for Sheik Daher were taken by a Rus- sian privateer : and Mohammed Bey, whom he designed to have put to death, not only made his escape, but was so well attended that he could not be attacked. His fol- lowers continuing daily to increase in num- ber, Mohammed soon became sufficiently strong to march towards Cairo ; and, in April, 1772, having defeated the troops of Ali in a rencontre, entered the city sword in hand, while the latter had scarcely time to make his escape with 800 Mamelukes. With difficulty he was enabled to get to Syria by the assistance of Sheik Daher, whom he immediately joined with the troops he had with him. The Turks under Osman were at that time besieging Sidon, but raised the siege on the approach of the allied army, consisting of about 7000 cav- alry. Though the Turkish army was at least three times their number, the allies did not hesitate to attack them, and gained a complete victory. Their ulTairs now began to wear a more favourable aspect ; but the military opera' (ions were retarded by the siege of Tafa | (the ancient Joppa), which had revolted, and held out for eight months. lu the be. ' ginning of 1773 it capitulated, and Ali Bey i began to think of returning to Cairo. For ' this purpose Slicik Daher had promised him succonrx, and the Russians, withwhom he had now contracted an alliance, made him a similarproirise. AK, however, ruined every thing oy his own impatience. He set out with his Ihfamelukes aad 1500 Sall- dians given him by Daher: but he had no sooner entered the desert which separates Gaza from Egypt, than he was attacKed by a body of 1000 chosen Mamelukes, who were lying in wait for his arrival. They were commanded by a young bey, named Mourad ; who, being enamoured of the wife of Ali Bey, had obtained a promise of her from Mohammed, in case he could bring him her husband's head. As soon as Mou- rad perceived the dust by which the ap- proach of All's army was announced,, he rushed forward to the attack and took pri- soner Ali Bey himself, after wounding him in the forehead with a sabre. Being c6ii- ducted to Mohammed Bey, the latter pre- tended to treat him with extraordinary re- spect, and ordered a maguidceut tent to be erected for him ; but in three days he waa found dead of his wounds, as was given out ; though some, with equal probability, affirm that he was poisoned. Upon the death of Ali Bey, Mohammed took upon himself the supreme dignity. At first he pretended to be only the defender of the rights of the sultan, remitted the usual tribute to Constantinople, and took the customary oath of unlimited obedience ; after which he solicited permission to make war upon Sheik Daher, against whom he had a personal pique. In February, 1776, he appeared in Syria with an army equal to that which he had formerly commanded under Ali Bey. Daher's forces despairing of being able to cope with such a formid- able armament, abandoned Gasa, of which Mohammed immediately took possession, and then marched towards Tafa, which de- fended itself so long, that Mohammed waa distracted with rage, anxiety, and despair. The besieged, however, whosenumbers were diminished by the repeated attacks, became weary of the contest ; and it was proposed to abandon the place, on the Egyptians giving huetages. Conditions .were agreed upon, and the treaty might be considered as concluded, when, in the midst of the security occasioned by this belief, some Mamelukes entered the town ; numbers of others followed their example, and attempt- ed to plunder. The inhabitants defended themselves, and the attack recommenced : the whole army then rushed into the town, which sufiered all the horrors of war ; wo- men and children, young '.and old men, were all cut to pieces, and Mohammed, equally mean and barbarous, caused a py- ramid, formed of the heads of the unfor- tunate sufferers, to be raised as a monu- ment of his victory. By this disaster the TUB BOYPTIAN NAVY IS ALSO A CBUATION OF MIHBMKT AI.I. ;t ^y,: •. IT ALL e military opera- le (iege of lafa eh had revolted, nht. Iti the be- lted, and Ali Hey K tu Cairo. For ;i' had promised siani, with whom n alliance, made , however, ruined impfttience. He es abd 1600 Sail- : bat he had no which acparatea was attacked by klamelukes, who s arrival. They ung bey, named ourcdof the wife a promise of her I he could bring As soon as Mou- f which the ap- 1 aunounced,.he ck and took pri- r wounding bim >re. Being c6n- r, the latter pre- 'xtraordinary re- nceiit tent, to be ree days he waa I, as was given lual probability, ley, Mohammed reme dignity. At ity the defender n, remitted the nople, and took sited obedience ; ■mission to make gainst whom he Febraary, 1776, I an army equal erly commanaed Drees despairing 1 such a formid- Gaia, of which ook possession, Yafa, which de- Mohammed waa ty, and despair, le numbers were attacks, became it was proposed the Egyptians na were agreed t be considered le midst of the is belief, some m; numbers of le, and attempt- tants defended recommenced : I into the town, irs of war; wo- 'jtnd old men, id Mohammed, IS, caused a py> s of the unfor- led as a monu- lis disaster the M. coLossAi. vievaits arb uauAt.Lx found as ArraNOAOis to rnn rr.Mrt.ta. a ^ e il 9 « > « M M K M s H M a ^^e l^istore of lEgopt. 827 M ta •a * H tt K s M M ■ o m » B IB M >■ < » M M O *> H u M M *■ m M M A « S O A H u H A < M (t ■4 ■9 M H A n ? greatest terror and consternation were dif- osed everywhere. Sheik Daher himself fled, and Mohammed soon became master of ^cre also. Here he behaved with his usual cruelty, and abandoned the city to be plundered by hia soldiers. But his ca- reer was soon stopped, hia death just at the time occurring through a malignant fever, after two days illness. Soon after Mohammed's death a contest arose antoutt several of the beys, as to who should succeed h>ni. But the chief strug- gle lay between Mourad and Ibrahim, who, having ultimately overcome the rest, agreed in I7S&, to share the government between them, and continued to rule as joint pa- chas for many years. From that time we have no accounts of anv remarkable trans- action in Kgypt, till the French invaded that country in 179fl; which we shall as concisely as possible relate, and then take a brief survey of suine striking events that have occurred more recently. When Selim III. ascended the Ottoman throne, the French revolution was just breaking out ; but until Buonaparte's me- morable invasion of Egypt and Syria, its effects were not much felt in that quarter of the globe. The two Mameluke beys, Mourad and Ibrahim, were at that time at the head of the government. Tlie French landed near Alexandria on the 1st of Julv, 1798; and that city was taken by assault on the 5th, and plundered by the soldiery. They then marched to Cairo, but wtre met by an army of Ma- melukes in the plains near the Pyramids, where the French gained a signal victory, which waa followed by their occupation of the capital, and the submission, in general, of the inhabitants. The destruction of the Frencii fleet, by the English under Nelson, in the bay of Aboukir, was the next event of importance ; Set, notwithstanding this great calamity, luonaparte was not deterred from pursu- ing his original design, but set out at the head of 10,000 men to cross the desert which separates Egypt from Palestine. On his arrival in Syria be conquered several towns, one of which was Jaffa, where an act of atrocitv was committed by him, which, notwithstanding all the sophistry that has been employed to palliate it. will ever remain as a foul and infamous blot on the French commander : this was the deli- berate murder of a large body of prisoners, ehieflv Albanians, who had surrendered to the French, and for whose sustenance, it was pleaded, the latter had not sufficient provisions I We shall not enter into a detail of the memorable siege of Acre, undertaken by Buonaparte, who after putting every engine into operation that skill coiud dictate, or E disappointed ambition suggest, was com- elleo to retire, humbled and discomfited y sir Sydney Smith and his gallant fel- lows, who had been sent to the Syrian coast for the express purpose of assisting to expel the French. In both our histories of " England " and " France," the subject. i. down to the expulsion of the French from £K7Pt> will be found: be it sufficient, there- fore, in this place to say, that the noble defence of Acre in reality put an end tu all his hopes of conquest in the East, and that the British army, under the brave Abcr- combie, completed, in 1801, that overthrow which had so well been begun by a hand- ful of British sailors. The most remarkable person connected with Egypt, after the period of which we have been speaking, was Mehemet Ali, the Turkish pacha of that country. This chief, who baa since become so prominent in Egyptian and Sjrrian history, was ambiti- ons of making himself independent of the Ottoman Porte ; but as this could not be effected while the Mameluke beys retained their power and influence, he determined on their extirpation by a cold-blooded act of treachery. ^He accordingly invited them to a grand festival, to be given in honour of his son Ibrahim, who had just been appointed commander-in-chief of an ex- pedition against the Wahabites of Arabia. Wholly unsuspicious of the treacherous de- sign of Mehemet Ali, thr; bcys arrived at the castle on the appointed day, (March 1st, 1811), each attended by his suite; but they had no sooner entered than they were seized and beheaded. The execution of all the chief Mamelukes throughout the coun- try immediately followed; and Mehemet now, though nominally a vassal of the Turkish empire, exercised all the func- tions and privileges of an absolute sove- reign prince. In the histories of ' Turkey' and ' Greece' will be seen how large a share Mehemet Ali and Ibrahim had in fomenting and car- rying on the war between those countries. It will also be seen in its proper place in the history of " England," that Mehemet Ali had provoked the insurrection in Syria, and but for the interference of England' und her continental allies, would have wrested Exypt and Syria from the Turks. But the allied fleet, under the command of sir R. Stopford and commodore Napier, bombard- ed und captured the whole line of fortiticd places along the coast of Syria, ending their operations with the destruction of St. Jean d' Acre. This place, so renowned of old for scenes of desperate valour— scenes in which British heroism has been so strik- ingly conspicuous— was doomed again to witness the prowess of our anna. A heavy cannonade for nearly three hours was kept up, by which time the guns of the forts were silenced ; when, owing to one of the bomh>sliota falling on the enemy's pow- der magazine, an awful explosion took place, and 1200 human beings were blown into the air. This decided the u tc of the war; and Mehemet Ali, after a long nego- tiation, in which the allied powers of Eu- rope took part, was reinstated in his vice- royship of Egypt, the atovernmcnt of that country to descend in a direct hereditary line, A.n. 1841. That Mehemet Ali is a man of very superior talents, and that un- der his efficient administration of affairs. r. M SOTPTIAN ARCBITKCTUBB IIAS FOUND BUT rRW IMITATORS RtSBWHRRK. //■ ^ ALBSANDIIIA !■ NOW Tim ONTBR Or COMMIINICATIUK WITH INIIIA. 828 ^\)t ^rtasuro of l^istonj, ^c. W M B 9 EKjrpt has inndo vreat adviineei in arli and ill Mntii, and in tlio iniprovenient nf tboia naiurni advaiKagea wliicli alie poateiieifor accurinK her internal proiperity, no one can entertain a doubt; but, at the lame time, we cannot forget that many of hit actioni prove him to lie despotic, cruel, and revengeful. ALEXANDRIA. Ai.RZANDRiA, now cnlli>d Scanderia, the ancient capital of Lower EKVPt, occupies a pruminciit position in the annals of hislory, even from iis first foundation. Perhaps there is no place whose records present to a maritime people more interesting details. Founded by the Grcnt Alexander, whose mind was comprehensive as his valour was unequalled, the very cause of its existence was commercial, and its history for 18U0 years sliows how well the Macedonians ap- preciated the advantages of maritime re> sources. The strength of Tyre which cost him so long aud so dear a contest, probably suggested to him the value of commerce. Accordingly, after the city, "whose mer- chants were princes," had fallen before his victorious banners, and Egypt received his yoke, he formed the design of building a city, in which commerce might And a shel- ter, and from which his vast empire might derive riches and strength. No sooner was his (leoign conceived tlian executed ; and Ak-xander, whose new commercial dep6t was situated alike convenient for the trade of the east and the west, died a.d. ii85. Amidst the convulsions which shook his empire to pieces after his death, Alexan- dria continued to rise in greatness and inngniflcciice under the fostering protec- tion of the enliKlitened Ptolemies, the friLMuls of commerce and science— whose capital it became, a. d. 3(M. But such is the natural pronencss of human things to dt'c-ny, tliat wealth begets luxury, and great- ness is its own destroyer. For 300 years, during which Alexandria was subject to tlic Ptolemies, the canker of corruption lilonted its maguiiicence, and fed upon its luxury. The name of Ptolemy Physcon is syno- iijtnous with vice and cruelty. His savage brutality made Alexandria almost a desert about 130 years before Christ. The deser- tion of snge9, grammarians, philosophers, and ot Iter masters of the liberal sciences, whose presence had shed a lustre over the capital of Eeypt, wns followed by the influx of people of various nations, invited by a l^encral proclamutiou of the tyrant. An inhuman massacre of all the young men of the city shortly afterwards took place, and Alexandria was for some time the scene of commotion and anarchy. In D. c. 48 the conc^ueror of the West visited the city of the victor of the East, in pursuit of Ills defeated rival, where he arbi- troted between Ptolemy XII. and Cleopa- tra. His military conduct was no less con- spicuous here tlian it had been oreviously in G»ul, Dritiiin, and the plains of I'harsiilia. With a small band of Romans, assisted by some forces of the Jews, he defeated the whole army of Ptolemy. Whilst history re- cords with exultation the exploit of Cassar, who swam across the Nile bearing his Com- mentaries aloft safe firom the waters, she droops over the conflagration which acci- dentally consumed the library o( the Uru- chion, consisting of 400,000 volumes. For it must be remembered that the city of Alex- andria was originally designed, and actually proved, to be the mart of philosophy ana science. The emperor Caligula had designed Alex- andria as the seat of his empire, in the event of his massacring the chief senators and knights of Borne.— In the year a. n. 40, the clews, who, to the amount of a million, had for many yean enjoyed a variety of pri- vileges, were, by an edict «fFlaccus, now de- clared strangers in Alexandria— and under- went, as one of the sittns of the time of their approaching destruction and complete dis- {lersion of their nation, grievous privations, osses, and crueltv. It was within a few years after this, that the gospel of Jetua Christ was promulgated in Alexandria, aad received by many. — The names of PantlB- nus, 8t. Clement, sind Origen, are found as presidents of a Christian scliool of con- siderable eminence founded in this city. — The admixture, however, of the philosophy which distinguished Alexandria, with the tenets of Christianity, and (he dogmas of Judaism, tended materially to corrupt both truth and wisdom; and the eclectic philo- sophy proved the foundation of the Jew- ish cabbala, and many corruptions of the Cliristian faith.— Under Claudius, AInxan. dria again reckoned the Jews qs citizens. It WHS the flrst place which hailed Vespa- sian emperor, a. u. (iO ; and here he abode whilst his generals and armies were decid- ing his cause .igainst Vitellius. The ac- count Adrian, who visited the city a. n. 130, gives of it, is characteristic of the industry and enterprise of commerce, as well as of its worst and most pernicious effects upon the inhabitants who thrive under its riches. Under the emperor Scverus, Alexandria ob- ' taincd several immunities and privileges, A. D. 202 ; a grateful sense of which was manifested by a monument erected to him. Diiferent, however, was their fortune un- der the despicable Caracalla, who rewarded . their eutertainment of him, by a general massacre of the inhabitants, a. d. 21& ; by abolishing the societies of learned men, who were maintained in the museum ; by the plunder of temples and private houses; aud by separating different parts of the city from one another by walls and towers. During the reign cf Gullienus, Alexandria suffered most severely both by war and pes- tilence. But histurv, liere, records with admiration the conduct of two Christian bishops, Euscbius and Anatolius, who, like the good Samaritan, bound up the wounds of the wretched, and, like their heavenly Master, were unwearied in alleviating tie distresses nf their suffering fellow creatures. Their conduct sheds a lustre over the an. s M M ■ »< h O H IB M t< H M i m KVKItT DAY TUB FOnT OK AI.RXANDRIA IS RISIRB INTO MORB IMrOnTANCR. i \> m ni, MtUtcd by i dol'eated the iUt hl»tory re- ploit of C«!i«r, •ring his Com- be watcri, ihe Dii which aecl' iry of the Uru> olumee. For it \e city of Ale»- id, nnd actuaUy phtloBophy ana , dedgned A1ex> empire, in the I chief lenatori he year a.d.40, mt of a million) a variety of pri- flaccui, now dc ria— and under- ;he time of their id complete die- tvoue privRtioui, M within a few goipel of Jeiue Alexandria, aad nmet of Pantte- eii,are found ai ■cliool of cou- id in this city.— f the philosophy iindrin, with the 1 Ihe doftniH* of f to corrupt both e eclectic philo- ion of the Jew- rruptiona of the laudiui, Alfixnn- lew* as ciiizcua. ch hailed Vcspa- d here he abode •inics were decid- tclliui. The ao- the city A.n. i:iO, Ic of the industry rce, as well as of ious effects upon ! under its riches. IS, Alexandria ob- s and privileges, ISC of which was It erected to hira. iheir fortune un- lUa, who rewarded lim, by a general nts, A. D. 21S; by of learned men, the museum; by id private houses ; ent parts of the walls and towers, lienus, Alexandria thby warandpes- ere, records with \of two Christian natolius, who, like nd up the wounds ike their heavenly in alleviating tl e ig fellow creatures, lustre over the au- IM^onTA^CI^. ANTiucu wAa rou ma.nv aoks tiim sbat ur hkliuiun anu ri.uAsuaa. ^!jc l^iaiorv of lEgvpt. 889 nals of this city, far transcending the most brilliant exploits which emblazon its heral- dry. Alexandria was now niniost depopu- lated. It, however, again recovered some- what of its former greatness, aKnin to feel the unsparing havoc of war and dissen- sion, iu the reign of Dioclesian, who having captured it from Aehilleus, the usurper of Bgvpt, ga*a it up to indiscriminate pillage ana plunder a. n. 206. He made some re- tribution for this severity by establishing certain salutary regulations, amongst which may bo reckoned, Tiis estublishment for the perpetual distribution of corn, for the be- neAt of this city, a. d. 303. Under Constan- tino Alexandria again flourished by its trade and commerce. A dreadful nnd almost uni- versal earthquake, July 31, 306, shook this city to it* very foundation, and swallowed up fiO,000 of its inhabitants. Although the second capital of the Roman empire, Alex- andria wai captured by the Moslems, un- der Amrou, the general of the caliph Omar, Dec. 33, A. D.64U. Blood* and obstinate was the aiegei amplv supplied with provisions, and devoted to the defence of their dearest right* and honours, it* inhabitant* bravely withstood the astonishing efforts and un- wearied bravery of their enemies; and had Heraclius as promptly seconded their re- solution, the crescent of Mahomet had not li.sn reigned in bloody supremacy over the Christian cross. It was invaluable to He- raclius, and its loss was a source of icreat inconvenience to llvxantiuro, to which it had been the storehouse. Since, in the short space of Ave years, the harbours and fortiticatious of Alexandria were occupied by a fleet and army of Romans, twice did the valour of its conqueror, Amrou, expel them ; but his policy had been to disman- tle aeveral wall* and tower*, in puriuanee of a vow he had made of rendering Alex- andria as acceasibic as Ihe home of a pros- titute. In the year 642 the library of Alex- andria was destroyed by order of the caliph Omar; and so extensive was it, that its vo- lumes of paper or parchment sufficed to light the Are* of the 401)0 bath* which were in the city, for more than six months t So waned the splendour and glory of this miglity city. The dominion of the Sara- cens withered its energies, and Alexandria gradually sunk from its high estate, so that in the year SJi its extent was contracted to half its former dimensions. Mournful, but still rr.ajestic in its decline, it still re- tained the Pharos, and part of its public places and monument*. In 920 its great church, called Cosarea, which had formerly been a pagan temple, erected by Cleopatra, in honour of Saturn, was destroyed by Are ; and two years after, this second, or Arabic, Alexandria, was taken by the Magrebians, \rho, after various vicissitudes, at length Anally lost it to the Moslems, a. d. 928, when more than 200,000 of the wretched inhabitants perished. The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1499 completed the ruin which had, for some centurie*, been advancing under the Turkish dominion; and Alexandria ceases from that time to {losses* any particular interest for the his- orian, until the close of the last century. The Aral consul of France, whose name will be reckoned up with the Macedonian Alex- ander and the Roman CKxar, like these two great prototypes of his ambition, displayed in Alexandria his *kill and progress. It fell to hi* army July 4, 1798, after a d«f«at of the Arab* and Mamelukes. The thun- der* of the Britieh nav* braving defeat and diicomAlure through the shins of France, at Ahoukir, were beard at Alexandria, and the British ensign waved triumphant over its wall* in the year IHOI, as again in 1800. Amongst the name* of variou* heroic* con- nected with thi* once mighty city, that of Abercrombie, who died here in the arm* of victory, shall live enrolled in the annal* of history. ANTIOCH. TuK history of this interesting place is pregnant with great and important events, connected a* well with urofane a* sacred history. It was founded oy Antigonus, and by him called Antigonia, a name which it soon after changed for Antiochia, in ho- nour of Antiochus, father of Seleucus. The seat of empire for the kings of Syria, and of government for the Roman officers. An- tiocli wa* a place of considerable import- ance. It contained four distinct cities, and was therefore called Telrapolis. An- other city, built in its suburb*, called Daphne, superseded it in magniflcence and luxury so much, that, not only did " to live after the manner of Daphne " become proverbial, but Anticch was termed An- tiocli near Daphne. Its history is confined pretty much to the variou* calamitie* of war and peati- lence which, at different times, have vi- sited and scourged this city. By the aa- »i*tauce of Jonathan, the leader of the Maccabee*, king Demetrius nunished the contumacy of his dissatisAed Riibjects by slaying 10,000 of them, a. c. 145. An ex- traordinary earthquake laid it in ruin* in the reign of Trajan, a. d. 115; the emperor himaclf being with difficulty saved from destruction. Autioch rose from its ashe* under the auspices of Trajan, and was again nearly consumed by Are in 155. It wa* restored by Antoninus Pius, but was dispos8e**ed, A.n. 177, by a levere edict of hi*, of all it* ancient rignt* and privilege*, as a punishment for abetting the fac- tion ot Ovidius Cassius, governor of Syria, a measure, however, which was soon an- nulled. In 194 Sevenis, to punish the part which it* natives took in the faction be- tween him and Niger, passed a similar edict, and subjected Antioch, reduced to the level of a village, to Laodicea, but the next year he revoked hi* sentence. In Ihe meanwhile Antioch had been distinguinh- ed for some events connected with the spread of Christianity, which, it is said, wa* established here by St. Peter, in the year 38. It was here the follower* of the Redeemer were flr*t called Christians, and THB AMCIRNT BITKS OV OIlBaCB WKBli IMITATED BT THB COLONT 0» ANTIOCn. [411 '•- iH ■IP" BABBAKT BAI MOB! O* A BUBOVBAN THAN OV AN AVBICAN CDABACTBB. .H"-^. 830 E^t ULttBfmxiBi of 1|istory, $cc. an astembW of the apoitlea waa held, in 66. There nave alio been aeveral councils conTened in Antioch at dilFerent period*. From its situation, it waa necesswdly ex- posed to severe attacka during the wars between the Fersiuis and the Romans, when the power of the latter began to de- cline. It waa three times taken by the Per- sian monarch, Sapor, who, after its last cap- ture, plundered It and laid all its public buildings prostrate. In 331 it was visited by a severe famine. Sixteen years after- wards its importance was increased by Constaiitine II., who, at an immense ex- pense, formed the harbour of Seleucia for Its convenience. During the residence of the emperor Julian here, on his way to the Persian empire, there occurred through- out the Roman provinces a severe famine, which visited Antioch more severely than other places, from the establishment of a corn-law by the emperor. In 381, two great scourges appeared, plap^ue and fa- mine; the former soon subsided, but on the contiuuance of the latter, Libanius, the bishop, entreated assistance from lea- rius, prefect of the East, who answered the entreaty with brutality and insult. A com- motion ensued, which, however, terminated without bloodshed. Six years afterwards, a tremendous tumult took place, in conse- quence of a tax imposed upon the people by the emperor Theodosius, in comme- moration of the tftnth year of his own reign, and the fifth of that of his son Arca- dius. The governor of the city with di£Bl- culty escaped the frenzy of the populace ; and great indignities were offered to the emperor's statues by the people, who were made to atone for this ofience by the most cruel punishments. St. Chrysostom dis- tinguislied himself on this occasion by preaching homilies to the people, which tended very much to reform their dissolute and corrupt practices. Severe measures were on the point of being executed against Antioch by command of Theodosius, when they were averted by the united entreaties of St. Chrysostom, some hermits, and Fla- vianus, bishop of Antioch. But there was no defence to this ill-fated place in the year 598 against the awful visitation of an earth- quake, which, on Sept. 19, laid desolate the most beautiful quarter of the city. A simi- lar visitation occurred in 526, in the reign of Justin. Neither was the fury of man long with- held from working utter destruction to An- tioch. In 540 it was captured by Cosrhoes, king of Persia. The churches were pil- laged, and, like another Nebuchadnezzar, he appropriated their gold and silver to his own use. Rapine, Pillage, and Ai6 in her fullest insnbordination, were let loose. An- tioch had not a dwelling left ; her people were scattered, slain, or carried into capti- vity. Once more, phcenix-like, it rose from its ruins, to experience auother earthquake in 680, which destroyed 30,000 persons. A new enemy now appears on the page of history. The Saracens took Antioch in the year 634, and retained possession of it till 868, when again it was annexed to the Roman empire. The Turks next became masters of it ; and they in turn lost it to the Crusaders, who made a principality of Antioch, in 1098, under Bohemond, prince of Torento. He was taken prisoner by the Turks in 1101, but liberated in 1103. Mean- while Antioch had been governed by Tan- cred, who died the year after his appoint- ment. The whole of the principality ot Antioch, excepting the city, was overrun by the sultan Noureddin in 1148, who in the year 1160 took Bohemond III. prisoner. On his liberation in 117&, he was created knight by Louin VI. of France, and died in 1201; The principality of Antioch was dis- solved in 1268 by the capture of the city by Bibars, sultan of Babylon. It then became a portion of the Turkish empire, which it has since continued, having experienced during that period two eartiiquakes— one in 1769, and the other in 1822. Antioch has listed to the march of em- pires; the splendours of the Macedonian, the majesty of the Roman, the voluptuous- ness of the Persian, the vigour of the Sara- cenic, and the tyranny of the Osmanic, have in turns revelled in her palaces, and adorn- ed or degraded her beauty ; whilst the voice of Christianity has whispered in her tem- ple, and the thunders of the Incomprehen- sible Deity have spoken in awful prodigies, and awed her inhabitants by pestilence, fa- mine and earthquakes. THE BARBARY STATES. Babbabt is a vast territory of Africa, containing the states or kingdoms of Al- giers, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, Tripoli, and Barca. It stretclics entirely across the nothem shores of Africa, from the Atlantic Ocean un the western boundary of Egypt, Inking almost the whole range of the soutb- ei'ii coast of the Mediterranean Sea. In width it is various, and bounded by the " great desert." The Romans obtained possession of Bar- bary in the time of Julius Ceesar, and re- mained masters of it till a. a. 428. At that time Bonifacius, the Roman governor, re- volted, and called in to bis assistance Gen- seric, king of the Vandals, who had been some time settled in Spain.v They agreed to divide the country between them s Gense- ric was to have two-thirds, and Bonifacius one-third. Genseric set sail in May the same year, with an army of 80,000 men, together with their wives, children and effects. Geu- IN ANCIKNT TIMES TUK FEATILITT OP THIS BEGION WAS FROVEUBIAL. lBACTKR. le city. A »imi- 26, in the reign man long with- itruction to An- red by Coirlioet, fches were pU- Febucliadnezzar, and silver to hii and \i6 in her e let loose. An- [eft ; her people rried into captl- ike, it rose from ther earthquake 000 persons. irs on the pajfe took Antiocn in possession of it 1 annexed to the ks next became a turn lost it to a principality of ohemond, prince k prisoner by the din 1103. Mean- roverned by Tan- Iter his appoint- i principality ot ity, was overrun in 1148, who in >nd III. prisoner. 5, he was created ance, and died in Antioch was dis. ure of the city by . It then became empire, which it ving experienced eartliquakes — one 1822. he march of em- the Macedonian, n, the voluptuous- igour of the Sara- the Osmanic, have alaces, and adorn- f ; whilst the voice pered in her tem- the Incomprehen> n awful prodigies, I by pestilence, fa- ns Ctesar, and re- A. ^.428. At that man governor, re- is assistance Gen- ils, who had been in. They agreed to ;en them : Gense- ds, and Bonifacius ail in May the same ,000 men, together D and effects. Gen- 5 a ► H o M M % O h M M K H ^ M KS M « PI £ e m >3 ,i M •> •^ H la ■< ROVBUBIAL. VBCRTAT10.1 IS tUKt SIMILAa TO THAT Of tUI BOUTU OF SfAIN. ^I^e l^istoti; of 9Igitr». 831 ■eric had no sooner effected his landing, and secured a part of the country, than he turned his arms against Uonifacius, defeat- ed him, and obliged him to shelter himself in Hippo, which place he besie^d in May, 430 ; nut was under the necessity of retir- ing, from famine. The Bomant sent an army into Africa, under the conduct of the celebrated Aspar from Constantinople ; a dreadful battle ensued, and Genseric be- came the victor. The Vandals were by this victory rendered masters of Africa. Cirtha and Carthage were the only strong places possessed by the Bomans. In 43d, peace was concluded between the Romans and the Vandals. The former fave up part of Numidia, the province of 'rocon Salaric and Byzancene, tor which a yearly sum was to be paid to the emperor of the East. However, in 439, the Romans being engaged in a war with the Goths of Gaul, Genseric took this advantage to seize Carthage, bj which he considerably en- larged bis Anican dominions. On the taking of Carthage, Genseric made it the seat of his empire ; and, in 440, made a descent on the island of Sicily, plun- dered it, and returned to Africa. Being now become formidable to both empires, Tbeodosius, emperor of the East, resolved to assist Valentinian against so powerful an enemy. Accordingly, he fitted out a fleet, consisting of 1100 ships, filled with the flower of his army, under Arcovindus. Genseric now pretending a desire to be at peace with both empires, amused the Ro- man general with pacific proposals, till the season for action was over. Tbeodo- sius being obliged to recall his forces to oppose the Huns, Valentinian found it ne- cessary to conclude a peace with the Van- dals, yielding them quiet possession of ;.he countries they had seized. Genseric was now become so powerful, or rather so low was the power of the Ro- man empire reduced, that, in 455, he took the city of Rome, and plundered it ; and after his return to Africa, made himself master of all the remaining countries held by the Romans in tliat part of the world. The kingdom of the Vandals in Africa was now fully established; and Genseric made himself master of Sicily, as well as all the other islands between Italy and Africa, without opposition from the western emperors, who were now too feeble to resist him, A. D. 476- Genseric made hia domi- nions a scene of blood, and died in 377> after a reign of forty-seven years. He was succeededny his son Uunnerie, who proved a greater tyrant than his father, persecu- ting the Christians with the utmost fery i ana during his short reign of seven years and a half, he destroyed more of them than Genseric had done daring his whole life. The successors of Hunneric, Gutamund, Tbrasamnnd, and Hilderic, of whom we know very little, except that the latter wm deposed, in the seventh year of his reign, by Gelimer, a prince of the blood royal, who proved a greater tyrant than any that had gone before him, and was held in ab- horrence, when the emperor Justinian pro- iected an invasion of Africa. Accordingly, he sent a powerful fleet and army against Oelimir, under the command of the cele- brated Belisarius. Gelimer committed the management of his army to his brothers, Gundimer and Gelamund; they attacked the Romans ; the engagement was long and bloody, but at length the Vandala were defeated, and the two princes slain. Geli- mer headed a Aresh army, which was also defeated, and the loss of Carthage followed. Another defeat followed close upon the for- mer. Gelimer fled into Numidia, and an end was put to the Vandal power in Barbary. Gelimer was afterwards brought in gold chains before Justinian, whom he besought, in the most submissive manner, to spare his life. This was readily granted by the emperor; and a handsome yearly pension was also allowed him. Barbary remained under the Roman power until the caliphate of Omar, when It was reduced by the Saracens. It con- tinued subject to the caliph till the reign of Haroun al Raschid, wnen Ebn Aglao, the governor, assumed independence. The house of Aglab was driven out by AI Moh- di, the first Fatimite caliph. Al Mohdi reigned twenty-four years, and was succeeded by his son, Abul Kasem, who took the name of Al Kayem MohdL During this reign we read of nothing re- markable, except the rebellion of Yesod. He was succeeded by his son Ithmael, who took upon himself the title cf .' 1 Tdansur. Al Mansur was succeedet '-, his son, Abu Zammin Moad, who assuo.) '. the sur- name of Al Moez Ledenillah. T lis caliph conquered Egypt, and removed the calipn- ate to that country. The other material events that have taken place in the Bar- bary States will be found in the historical notice of Algiers. — .., , ■;! ALGIERS. Aloibrs, a country of northern Africa, and which was regarded as the most pow- erful of the Barbary states, has long been the subject of European indignation for its piratical practices, and the ignominious slavery to which all Christians who fell into its power were irrevocably doomed. But the hour of retribution has at length come; and the events of late years have greatly contributed to call the attention of the civilized world to its past and present history. There is a variety of opinions respecting the original inhahitants : some contending, that they were the Sabans who plundered the patriarch Job; others, the Canaanites who were driven out of their SALINK HOT ANn COLD SFBINOS ABB KXCEBDINOLT ABUNDANT. wmmm T'T'IIM^ ^ p ^im»t CATTLK COKITITUTB THB miNCirAI. WRAI.TH or TUR NATITBI country hi Joihua. Be Ihii •■ it may, (he Alfcrrine klnndom formerly made a contt- derable part of the Mauritania Tincilanin, which Juliiii Cieiar reduced to a Roman province. The Alitcrine* shared in the for- lunea of Rome; lor, at the decline of ita empire, they fell to the Vandali, who in turn were expelled by the Saracens about the middle ot the sevriith century. From that period thoy were subject to the Arabs, till the year 1051, when Abubuker ben Omar, by the aRency of his marabouts or saints, assembled a laive force of malcon- tents in Numidia and Cybia. His follow- ers were called Morabites, and the kinic- dom which he founded is distinguished by that appellation. Religious frenty seems to have imparted resolution and strength, the sinews of victory, to these combatants ; whilst a variety of favourable cireumston- ces, arising firom the absence of the most powerful of the constituted authorities, enabled Abubekcr to vanquish the several sheiks who opposed him, and at length reduce the whole of Tingitania under liis sway. His «neccssor Tuaef, or Joseph, founded Morocco as the capital of the Morabitish kingdom. An event which at Hrst seemed to tnreaten his project with annihilation, turned out to the increase of his power, and tht consolidation of his empire. In order to strengthen his new dynasty, lie sent ambassadors to a powerful sect of the Mohammedans, called Zeneti, dwelling in Tremecen. The Zeneti, whom he wisiicd to bring back 'o what he called the true faith, not only murdered his emissaries, but with a large army invaded his kingdom. FearAil and terrible was the retribution he exacted from them. He ravaged their lands with fire and sword ; and, assisted by the inhabitants of Fez, who refused the Zeneti the succour they had expected from them wnen they retreated upon their city, he al- most annihilated the whole tribe, to the amount of nearly a million of souls, in- cluding women and children. Their deso- lated country was soon repeopled by colo- nies from Fes ; and Joseph, forgetful of the efficient support he had received from the Fezzans, attacked and subdued both them and the remaining Arab sheiks, who, rely- ing upon their supposed impregnable fort- resses, had not yet submitted to his au- thority. This dynasty of the Morabites, founded by the influence of the marabouts, fell before the power of Moliavedin, a ma- rabout, in the middle of the I2th century, whose priestly tribe was expelled by Abdu- lar, governor' of Fez. Tims did the con- quered become conquerors, only to fall be- fore the renovated power of the descend- ants of those very princes whom Abubeker in the 11 th century had stripped of their power. Their descendants divided their new conquests into several small kingdoms or provinces, divining the pretent kingdom of Algiers into Tremecen, Tfnez, Algiers Proper, and Itiijeyah. Tlie Hlliance of iheso four kingdoms was so well cemented, that mutual amity reigned amongst them for nearly three centuries. It was interrupted by the nggrcusiun of the king of Tremecen, who was in cunicquence attacked, and sub- jected by the potentate nf Tenec, Abul Fa- res. He k'tt his power divided amongst his three sons, which occasioned discords, and afforded tlie Spaniards an opportunity of attacking tliem. Ferdinand of Spain liav- ing driven the Snracrns from Europe, fol- lowed them into Africa, and, in 16U-t and inoU, took possession of Oran, Dujeyah, Al- giers, and other places. The successes of the count of Navarre struck such terror into the Algcrines, that they sought the protection of Selim Kute- mi, an Arabian prince. This alliance how- ever, though actively exerted, did not save them from becoming tributary to their F.u- ropean invaders, who raised a strong fort on a small island opposite the city, in order to deter the maraudings of the corsairs. The death of Ferdinand, in 1510, seemed the signal of their liberty ; for they soli- cited, with larger oSlrrs, the succour of Ameh Uarbarossa, whose valour and suc- cess had rendered him the most redoubt- able captain of that period. Barbarossa readily answered their call, and marched with a large and powerful army to Algiers, having first reduced and then treacherously murdered Hassan, another celebrated cor- sair, whose followers, consisting of Turks, he compelled to follow in his ranks. The whole nopulaee of Algiers, with the prince Selim Eutemi at their head, received this accomplished butcher with every de- monstration of gratitude and honour ; which he repaid by causing the prince to be mur- dered, and himself to be saluted by his li. centiuus followers with "Long live king Ameh Barbarossa, the invincible king of Algiers, the chosen of God to deliver the people from the oppression of the Chris- tians." This part of the ncclaraatiun might have been acceptable enough to the Algc- rines in respect of the object for wliieh they had sought his friendship; but the concluding words, " destruction to all who shall oppose, or refuse to own him as their lawful sovereign," struck such terror into them, that they acknowledged his preten- sions and received him as tlicir king. His treachery to Selim was followed by brutal insults to Zaphira, his widow, who having vainly attempted to stab the tyrant, poi- soned herselt. The reign of Barbarossa, began in trea- chery and usurpation, was continued by havoc and bloodshed. The signal barba- rity he exercised over some conspirators whom he had detected, effectually repressed all similar plots against him in those who disliked his authority, whilst his unbound- ed liberality to those who followed him obtained the favour of others who sought their own private advantage, in preference to their country's liberty. An attempt, fomented by Selim, son of the prince whom Barbarossa Imd murdered, proved abortive, although backed hy lO.UOU Spnuiarils under the coiiimand of Don Diego de Vera. The king of Tunis also, at the head of 10,000 ''1 \ TUB AnABS SBI.OOH KILt. TIIRIR SBBBr, &C., BUT I.IVB ON TUBIK MILK. \^ TirBi. It Witt Interrupted king of Tremecen, Nttncked, and lub- if Tenet, Ahul F«- ivided nnioiiKit hit jned ditcorui, and nn opportunitT of and oi Hpaiu liaT- I'rom Europe, fnl- , and, in l&UI and Uran, Bujeyah, Al- count of Navarre lio Alircrinei, that on of Sclim Eute- Tbii alliance how- crted, did not aave lutarjr to their Eu- tiled a ttrong fort tc tlieclty, in order » of the cortairt. [. in IS18, teemed rtjri for they loli- 't, the ittcconr of le valour and luc- the mott redoubt- !riod. Barbaroata call, and marched 111 army to Algieri. then treacherouily iier celebrated cor- )nRiiting of Turkt, n hia rankt. f Algiera, with the their head, received her with every de- and honour ; which ! prince to be niiir- taluted by his li- "Lone live king invincible king of Bod to deliver the ision of the Chris- ncclamatiun might lonith to the Alge- obiect for whinli 'iendship; but the traction to all who o own him as their k luch terror into pledged hit preten- as tlicir king. Hit followed by brutal widow, who having lb the tyrant, pol- ttta, began in trea- wai continued by The aignnl bnrba- tome conspiratora ffectually rupretsed him in those who 'hiltt his unbuund- who followed liim othert who louglit itage, in preference rty. An attempt, uf the prince whom P(I, proved abortive, lUU Spniiiards under iego de Vera. The the head of 10,000 rnsiB MILK. ALUOBT AIL TUB MVaoraAII TaAUHa AkB rOLLOWBB IN TBB lOWNi. Moon, was defeated b* the Algerinc auto- crat with uuly luiio Turkiih iiiu»{uoteert and MM) (iranada Moon, hit capital taken and pillaged, himtelf Uepoied, and Uarba- rotin made tovureign in hit itead. Thit victory, which ho owed to the use of lire- arnia, which had now begun to lend their terrible attitlauce to the dcadlineti of war, wut followed by an embaity from Treme- cen, in which place alto he wat choten king. Hit tyranny in Tremecen led to hit dettruction, for the expelled royal family having obtained the aiiittance of the Spa- niards, aud bei'ig joined by the refugee Al- f|erinet, undc, the guidance of prince 8e- iin, preiied the monarch to closely, that in hit attempt to etcape be wat overtaken, and after a reaiitance dittinguithed by the mott uncompromiting valour of bit fol- lowert, tlain by hit purtuert, in the forty- fourth year of bit age, a. d. 1530. The death of Uaroarotta did not deliver the Algcrlnet from the Turkish authority ; for Uayradiu, hit brother, wat appointed king. To strengthen hit power he tought the protection of the Grand Seignior, from whom he received a confirmation of hia office, and such reinforcements that he both compelled the ac(iuiescenee of the Moora and Arabs to his sway, and wat enabled alto greatly to annoy the Euro- pcani by sea. He captured the Spanith fort of Calan, and by employing 30,000 Christian slaves on the work without inter- mission for three years, he built a ttrong mole, as n protection for his shipping. And not only did he provide thit defence for him- self, but, by repairing and strengthening the captured Spanish fort, he effectually kept out all foreign vessels. He strength- ened, by the assistance of the Ottoman tultan, all the weak places of his kingdom, and was at length rewarded by him with the dignity of bashaw of the empire ; whilst Algiers, now completely tributary to the Porte, received Hassan Aga, a Sardinian renegado, as the Turkish deputy. From this period the history of Algieri for about a hundred years it one bloody teries of piracy abroad, and languinary commotions at home. Uattan gave the Spaniards no respite. He ravaged not only their coasts, but even those of the Papal States, and other parts of Italy. A mi>st formidable armament was fitted out againtt him by the emperor Charles V., at the in- stigation of Paul III., the pope of Rome. This expedition was, in tome respects, like the armada which threatened England with Spanish bigotry in the reign of Elizabeth, and was attended with similar success. Confident in hit numbers and equipments, Charles pushed hit projectt with every pro- bability of success, whilst Hassan, dispirit- ed bT the wcaknett of hit fortificationt and tne paucity of the garrison, was on the point of Burrender, when the predictions of a mad prophet, nnmed Yusef, encou- raged liim to a more desperate resistance. The predictious of the npproHoliing ruin of the Spaniards were soon verified. The war of elements— stormt of wind, bail, rain — a general darkneii— and violent rarthtiunket, combined lo wreck the proud hopes of the Spunith monarch. His army, the finest, perhaps, Europe had seen fur many an age, was scattered, destroyed, or taken captive : hit navv in a few minutci wat swallowed up, ana the great deep closed over the riches, and arms, and human beings with which it was amply Airnished ; and he him- self with difficult! escaped from the gene- ral dettruction which purtued his ill-futed attempt. This extraordinary event occur- red on the 38th of October, 1641. The Spaniards i^ever recovered this lott. and their attempt to annoy the Ahrerinet were henceforth incontiderable. Thit may be contidered at the most splendid victor? which thit free-booting ttate ever acquired. In 16C6, the Algerinot under Pelha-Rait, the tucceitor of Ilattan, ca|itured Bujeyah, which had been in pottetaion of the Spa- niardt for fifty yeart. A period now occurt thickly clustered by names of those who were bathawt for very brief periodt,amongtt which we find Hataan Corto, who wat mur- dered to make room for Tekcli, who in turn wat attatsinated by Tusef Calabres, and he wat bashaw for only six days. Then came Hassan, the ton of llayradin, who defeated another attempt of the Spaniardt with the lott of 13,000 men. Thit Hat- tan wat depoied by the aga of the Janiisa- ries; then reinstated; again deposed by Achmet; and a third time made batbaw, when he undertook the tiege of Maraol- quiver, near Oran, with a powerful army, but which he wat compelled to raite on the approach of the celebrated Doria. He was again recalled from his government, and died at Constantinople, a. o. 1567, His successor Mahomet showed prudence, and by bis wise regulations laid the foun- dation of Algerine independence. He was deposed by tlie notorious renegado Ochali, who reduced Tunis to the tubjection of Algiert, only that in a few yeart it might be made a pachalic of the Porte, in 1686. In the preceding year, the enterpriaing spirit of these pirates carried them through the straits of Cfihraltar as far at the Canary itlands, which they plundered. In the beginning of the following cen- tury the Algerines effected one leading step towards independence, in obtaining from the Porte permission to appoint a dey of their own ; but the sultan atill retained a bashaw, whose office was confined to watch- ing that the interests of his master did not sutfer. Their power, augmented by an in- flux of the Moors who were expelled from Spain in 1609, was now formidable; and the states of Europe, with the exeention of the Dutch, quailed before them. Aluancea were formed againtt them ; and to the honour of France be it aaid, that her navy wot the first which dared openly avenge the cause of insulted Europe and suffering humanity. In 1617 the arms of Gaul fell with violence on the insolence of the pirates. In 1623 Algiers declared itielf indepen- dent of the Porte, and for the next thirty years pillaged without distinction what- BTKAM FACKBTS tAIL BBOUIiABLY TO AND VBOM MABSBILLBt AMD ALAIEBS. [4 ii 3 iiwiwii I! J, :f Tua ratRCn Tsoora in aloiibi amount to aiovt 4U,000 ■■(«. e-4 (Ti^c tfrcasurQ of l^istonj, Sec. etor vei«cl( of the Eurnpcaiii ft-ll in their wnjr; tlien onothcr colliiion took pUco be- tween them and the French havjt : and inon after a large fleet under Ilali Pinchlnin, after earryinft off imroenae bootjr from the Italian coa«t, wai defeated by the Vene- tian* under Capello, with verjr coniider- able lou, whicli greatly crippled their power. Thia relapie was but for two yean i when, a» it were, renovated by the miafor- tune, the* aeoured the whole aea with a fleet of itxty-flre tail, and compelled the Dutch, the French, and Engliih to court their favour. Iv>ng a name to these im- mense discoveries was gained by Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine, who accompanied Alonzo de Ojeda, as pilot, and on returuing published the first account of the several countries ; from which circumstance the newly discovered world was called America. The BuAZii.lAN const was ii. at approach- ed by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese ad- miral, in 150U; and FLunioA by Ponce de Leon, a Spaniard, in 1512. In the eastern part of the peninsula, called YuTACiiN, the natives were found clothed in cotton gar- ments, and exhibiting other marks of civi- lization, by Heruaudcc Cordova, a.o. 1517. The Expedition which followed this disco- very led to the conquest of Mkxico. The spirit of discovery was now active, and all the great European courts enm- lated one another in affording^ facilities to carry into elTect the enterprising efforts of numeroul able and adventurous naviga- tors, who successively prosecuted the at- tempt, aud immortalized their names by the successes which they gained. The hit- turjr of the principal colonies and stales which arose trom these discoveriea will be given in due course. America is divided into North and South. The principal colonies of the first were made by England and France ; tiiose of the south by Spain and Portugal. The distin- guishing spirit of the respective mother countries seem to have been infused into the infant states; for whilst the aout hern division is rent by crude aspiranta after li- berty, the greater part of North America stands conspicuous— a mighty nation, grow- ing in all the essential* of greatness, and Already worthy to rival the leading Euro- pean states. The vigour of the ITnitid Statbs is that of Youth ; whilst the strength of the European dynasties assi- milates very closely to the coalition of Age— some of them strong, it is true, in their grt'y hnirs, but others effete, and tot- tcrin); to their decay. In Korth America there ire now three principal divisions : — The United States, the British Possessions, and the country of Mexico; and first it may not be iii congruous here to give the brief but imporiniit history of that part of N)rth America, now known by the title of THE UNITED STATES. Thbur were originnlly thirteen, colo- nized as follows ; — The Dutch. English Puritans. Whm colonized. By whom 1. rirpinia . . . 1607 The British. 2. New Fork \ ,«ih (Island), r^^^ Z.Maiiaehu- 1,^00 lettt f *"-" 4. iVeio Hamp- \ Bhire .... J f^. Delaware .. 1G26 6. ConneeticHt 1633 { j^^^^^, <7 xr^,.,»/.»j .roof Lord Baltimore and 7. Maryland.. 1(;33| Roman Catholics. 9. Rhode U- 1 ,-,. f Massachusett Emi- lavt |JGJO| grants. 1623 Ditto. The Swedes. fMassachusett Emi- Whtn colonized. By whom. »• ^«,r,'J f«f»; } 16C3 Virginian Settlers. 1°' *"«;;* i^«;^;} 1670 Ditto. 11. New Jeriey. 1670 Dutch and Swedes. V2. Pentitylva- ) ,.„, /AVilliani Penn and nio Hb8l| Quakers. \^. Georgia .. . 1732 Gen. Oglethorpe. These formed the original States, con- nected and swayed by the British ; and their early history is like that of other in- fant countries, whilst the difflculties they had at first to encounter were ng-gravated by the inveterate ho!>tility of the natives, who found tlicniKt-lves displaced, and h>rded over by men of different countries and dif- ■f M •• 4 ■ O if s » 4 >l H A i m b ■ u 4 y THB IKLANO NAVIOATIOM Or TUK UlflTKO STATES IS VHEqUALLED. mStm ■MHP " ■'»» TUB rnOOBKSS OV rOFULATION IN THK UNITBD STATES IS PR0DI0I0D8. ' *: ' I 836 ^|)e ^rcasut)) of l^iMotB, $cc. ferent habits from themselves. Many were the leagues of the natives to crush the rising States, but all alike ineffectual from the time of Philip of Pokanobet to that of Tecumesh. Rude valour is never an equal match to the arts of civilization ; a small power well and skilfully directed easily puts to flight large masses undisciplined and without cultivation. Every age affords numerous instances of the truth of this. But although the European settlers were, by the superiority of their arts and dis- cipline, rendered triumphant over their rude and savage opponents in general en- counters, manv a deed of death was re- taliated upon them, by sudden incursions ; and many an individual and familjr have been immolated to the grim genius of American brutality. Th>> earliest colonists suffered the greatest hardships and encoun- tered the most bloody perils, from which some of the later ones were exempted, as well by the advancement and strength of the others, as bv their own more humane and judicious policy. But the United States had to combat not only with barbarian enemies, but with European also. The adjoining country of Canada was a fertile source of disquie- tude and harassings. For not only did the French settlers, in the wars between their mother states, assault and war with the En- glish colonists, but they stimulated against them the wild war-cry of the native In- dians. The barrier provinces of New York and New England felt most severely this ill neighbourhood. Desolation and blood- shed spread their ravages through these devoted lands on occasion of every renewal of war; and many were the projects of a combination of power, aided by England, to dispossess the French of Canada. In 1690 an attempt was made, but it was ren- dered abortive by the tardiness of the Bri- tish admiral; and the years 1692 and 169G witnessed similar scenes. The short period of repose enjoyed by the colonies subsequent to this period was interrupted by the general war in Europe ; and not only did New York and New Eng- land experience the renewal of former bar- barities, but even Pennsylvania and Vir- ginia, and South Carolina and Georgia es- caped not the lash of European and In- diau depredations. A brighter star now began its dawning, which, though occa- sionally obscurated, at length attained its zenith. In 17-15, Louisbourg was gallantly taken by William Pepperell and a small body of New Englanders. In 1755, the English general Braddock received a sig- nal defeat ; but three years afterwards Fort Duquesne, now called Pittsburg, was cap- tured by the British and provincial troops. Success followed success, till Quebec and the whole of Canada fell under the power of Britain. In this exploit the name of Wolt'u is consecrated on the shrine of im- mortality. Thus relieved from the incur- sions and annoyances of their cncmips, the States wert' so rapidly impelled to wealth and greatness, that iu a lew years the pa- rent country looked towards them to bear some share iu the burden of taxation which the war had imposed upon her. The stamp act, in 1765, elicited the first scintillation of that flame which was afterwards to blaze so brightly on the altar of independence. This was repealed, and tranquillity again settled iu tue States, to be interrupted, however, by another act of the English legislation, levying duties upon certain ar- ticles imported into the colonies. The co- lonists, having acquired some conscious- ness of their own strength and importance during the conflicts which terminated in the expulsion of the French from Canada, and having within them seeds of that stub- born spirit which characterises him whom Goldsmith has elegantly called " True to imagined right beyond controul," felt indignant at the attempt to exact from them taxes in spite of themselves, and re- solutely determined to resist the legisla- tion. The British ministry partially yielded to their resistance, reserving only the duty upon tea. This was met by the colonists with a compact amongst themselves, not to import or use this excisab'e commodity; and so keen was their spirit, and so de- cided their resolution, that the people of Boston seized and threw into the sea a large quantity of it, which had been sent into their port. The legislature of the mother country retaliated upon them by passing an act to close the port of Boston, and by other severe measures against the charter of Massachusetts. This roused the indignation not of them only, but of even the provinces most remote from them, and most removed from the operation of the obnoxious measures. In August, 1774, a confess of delegates assembled at Philadelphia. The proceed- ings iu Massachusetts, where a provincial congress had been constituted, were ap- proved of— a resolution neither to import froin,nor export to,Great Britain was passed, and an earnest remonstrance was addressed to the English parliament. In vain com- pulsion became the languafce ; troops were cent against the colonies, and coercive mea- sures were adopted against all the States except North Cnrolino, New York, and De- laware. This exemption was intended to be the apple of discord, but it failed, for these provinces refused the boon which had been denied to their sister States. Now sounded the cry of preparation, to be rever- berated from ilie engines of war, which opened their destructive fire, April 18, 1776. The first collision took place at Lexing- ton. The Americans had collected some warlike stores at Concord, which a body of 800 English troops destroyed, and in the exploit being assailed by a small party of militia to the amount of 70, they killed eight of them, and wounded a great many. In their turn they were much annoyed by the natives, and though reinforced by guo men, under lord Percy, they lost before they reached Boston 273 men in killed, wound- ed, and prisoners. The next action was at SLATBUY 8TIL!< BXIBTS IN TUIBTBIN 8TATB8 OF TUB UNION. BOmOIODS. vards them to bear D of taxation which ion her. The stamp i first scintillation afterwards to blaze ir of independence. I tranquillity again to be interrupted, ict of the English es upon certain ar- I colonies. The co- d some conscious- ;th and importance hich terminated in 'ench from Canada, I seeds of that stub- icterises him whom y called it beyond controul," tempt to exact from themselves, and re- I resist the legisla- stry partially yielded irving only the duty let by the colonists gst themselves, not Lcisabie commodity; r spirit, and so de- that the people of rew into tlie sea a hich had been sent legislature of the ited upon them by the port of Boston, easures against the tts. This roused the m only, but of even lote from them, and lie operation of the )ngre8s of delegates phia. The proceed- , where a provincial nstitutcd, were ap- n neither to import tt Britain was passed, trance was addressed ^ent. In vain com* iguajte; troops were es, Rnd coercive mea- ;ainst all the States , New York, and De- on was intended to fd, but it failed, for ;d the boon which ir sister States. Now paration, to be rever- ;ines of war, which le fire, April 18, 1776. }ok place at Lexing- had collected some ord, which a body of istroyed, and in the by a small party of t of 70, they killed unded a great many, re much annoyed by ;h reinforced by 900 , they lost before they en in killed, wound- c next action was at UAIZK la THB PBtRCIFAL AftTICLB Of AHEBICAM IIUIDAHOHT. .3 ^ti( l^istocy of llmctio. 837 Bunker's Hill, where 1500 of the American troops, partially protected by entrench- ments, for a long time maintained their post against double the number of regular troops, having three times repulsed their attack, and only yielding when destitute of ammunition, with which to return the fire of the British from their field pieces, and the guns of their ships, which raked with great efiiect their position. Their retreat was effected in good order, with the loss of 453, whilst the British lost above 1000 men, and general Warren. This engagement took place on the I7th June, 1775. Matters now assumed a warlike aspect ( and the following year beheld troops levied in the name of the United Colonies, and general Washington appointed commander- in-chief. The hrst attempt made by this illustrious patriot was the siege of Boston, which commenced in July. In the follow- ing March the British evacuated the place, and embarking aboard their fleet, sailed for Halifax. In the meantime, an expedition undertaken by the Americans in two divi- sions against Canada, failed with great loss, and their general Montgomery was killed, and general Arnold wounded before Quebec. On July 4, 1776, the solemn act of declar- ing the colonies free and independent, with a constituted government of tlieir own, was published, after a suitable address to the king, parliament, and people of Great Bri- tain. Strong measures were now resorted to. The war had become general, and nil hopes of briugin{^ it to a speedy issue, con- sisted in promptitude and large numbers. Accordingly, in August following, 24,000 British troops, under sir William Howe, landed on Long Island, about nine miles from New York, where the American gene- ral held his head-quarters with about 17,000 troops. Four days after (their arrival the British gained a partial victory ; and on the 14th of September, Washington evacuated the island, of which the British took im- mediate possession — and, Nov. 12, they cap- tured Fort Washington, with its garrison of nearly 3000 men. This was followed by the capture also of Fort Lee, on the Jersey shore. The tide of success seemed to set in for the British. Washington's army was dispirited, and very much diminished by the departure of several of the troops whose term of ser- vice had expired. Nothing but the most determined spirit of freedom could have sustained botli the Congress and army to persevere in their now almost hopeless con- test. But the spark of liberty once expanded to a blaze is not to be extinguished by re- rerscs — and true patriotism will generally extract even from depression the means of triumph. Accordingly, Washington strove to dispel the gloom which brooded over the horizon of the New State, heavily and drearily, by some brilliant exploits, which, whilst they thinned the ranks of his op- ponents, shed a luHtrc upon his name, and mfusod fresh onimation into his troops. His successful attacks upon the British posts at Trenton and Princeton, compelled them to evacuate the principal part of New Jersey. Nor were their exploits at the conclu- sion of the year 1776 less injurious to the British, than the skill 'and address of the American general in the following spring, with a great inferiority of force, were supe- rior to the plans and operations of the Bri- tish general, who, baffled in his attempt upon Philadelphia by land, chani;ed his system and resolved to attack it from the south. To counteract thi • attack, Washing- ton pushed Icrward, but having sustained a defeat with the loss of 1200 men, and find- ing the attempt vain, he abandoned Phila- delphia to its fate. Sept. 26, sit W. Howe entered the city, having stationed the prin- cipal part of his army at Germantown, auout six miles distant. An attack made upon this post by the Americans failed, and they Iii< ^c. camp, but happily for the colonies it was rendered abortive by a timely discovery. The name of Arnold is branded with in- famy, and the English mtgor Andr£ was executed by the Americans as a spy. Very early in the following year an infe- rior body of American militia, under gene- ral Morgan, defeated some British troops at Cowpens: whilst at Guildford the colo- nists sustained some loss. Various now wae the fortune of war. Greene, after a partial defeat at Camden, gained a deci- sive advantage at Entau Springs. The cri- sis now apprqached. Comwallis having re- ceived reinforcements, entrenched himself at York Town, in Virginia, when he was blockaded and beseifted by a French army, in conjunction with Washington. After sus- taining their combined attacks for nearly three weeks, lord Cornwallis was reduced to the humiliating necessity of surrendering his army prisoners of war, to the amount of 17,0UO men. From this blow the British never reco- vered. The loss of two armies, by surren- der, convinced the English government, at last, that they were lavishing their re- sources, and wasting their power in a vain contest ; and though they made some par- tial attacks subsequently, the surrender of Cornwallis's army may be considered as the conclusion of this destructive end in- glorious war. The independence of '.';9 colonies was acknowledged by the BritUh government, by a treaty signed September 23, 1/83. We may here remark that the assistance yielded by France contributed to aid the triumph of North American in- dependence, and thereby inflicted a severe blow upon the British possessions and power. But it recoiled with a fearful con- vulsion upon herself. The lessons of Ame- rican freedom were wafted across the At- lantic to the plains of Gaul, and fomented that terrible explosion of public principles in France, which demolished the throne and altar, and strewed the wrecks of its explosion over all the countries of Europe. Ending in a despotism, too great for hu- man strength, the unwarrantable aggres- sions made on Spain and Portugal, applied tlie match to the mine of slavery, which controlled the energies of the various dis- tricts of South America, and led to the emancipation of those states, which now, rising from the ashes of oppression, open to the eye of history, a vista of great events yet hidden beyond the horizon of time. To these states there may be yet seasons of adversity and trial; but where the spirit of freedom is, there is strength— and they who are now feeble in infancy, will here- after become strong in maturity. Their slow advance to consolidated power is strongly contrasted with that speedy and efficient growth of greatness which marks the remaining history of the North Ameri- can colonies, and shows the force of the different genius which had pervaded the respective climes — characteristic of the spi- rit of their mother countries. Noble and spirited as were the cfibrta made by the colonies, and glorious as was the termination of the struggle, they soon found that their condition of independence was not in itself the boon of prosperity. During the war, a scries of danger, and the necessity of union and unceasing actions, had kept their attention devoted to one object; that object obtained, they found leisure to survey their condition. The sa- crifices they had made now began to be felt. A heavy debt had been incurred, and they were a prey to all those evils which war ever bears in its train. Public morals were at a low ebb — public credit deranged— the acts of the congress " more honoured in the breach than the obvervance." The ar- rival of peace, like the sudden calm after a storm, had nearly wrecked the fortunes of the youthful states. The real friends of the country now saw the danger, and a remedy was provided, which, happily for them, proved effective. At Annapolis commissioners from five states assembled in 1786, and the result of their deliberation was a proposition to convene delegates, from all the states, in order to consider the best means of revising their union and alliance. The result was the pre- sent constitution of Tub Uritbd States. This measure tended greatly to consolidate their power, and reduce their executive to order and authority; and although there arose two parties, and some delay took place before its general adoption, it became effective in the year 1789 ; and under the patriotic guidance of Washington, as presi- dent, and John Adams, vice-president, to use the words of Mr. Canning in reference to our own constitution, it was found " to work well." Their wisdom led them, in opposition to great numbers of their countrymen, to re- main neutral in the shock whicn convulsed unhappy France, and caused every state in Europe to reel with a violence which sap- ped the foundations of them all. They had, however, a war of four years with the In- dians, which, though attended with loss and defeat at the beginning, terminated successfully under the auspices of general Wayne (a. 0.1794,) who had previously dis- tinguished himself in the capture of Stoney ?oint from the British, in a most gallant manner. Washington after being twice elected president, declined the office a third time, and was succeeded by John Adams. The aggressive and insulting conduct of the French towards the United States at length aroused them to hostilities. An army of regular troops was established, the command of which was given to Wash- ington, who died, universally lamented, Dec. 14, 1799. The Americans now in- creased their navy; but the war was of short continuance, and confined to one or two actions on the ocean, in which the su- superiority of the youthful state over the French marine was clearly established. In the collision of the two parties, in the year 1801, the democratic or republican party succeeded, in opposition to Adams, in raising Jefferson to the office of presi- < TUB consumption OF SriKITUOUB LIQUOBS IN TUB V. 8, IS BNORHOUS. kn UNITXS kTATKI. 1 glorious uwM :ruK^le, they soon [1 of independence loa of prosperity. >f danger, and the inceasiDg actions, devoted to one lined, they found ndition. The sa- iw began to be felt, ncurred, and they evils which war 'ublic morals were dit deranged — the more honoured in irvance." The ar- sudden calm after eked the fortunes ! country now saw edy was provided, proved effective, lers from five states the result of their osition to convene states, in order to s of revising their result was the pre- E Unitbd States. :atly to consolidate their executive to nd although there some delay took adoption, it became 89; and under the ii&hington, as presi- 1, vice-president, to anning in reference a, it was found " to 9m, in opposition to countrymen, to re- ck which convulsed lused every state in iolence which sap- ;hem all. They had, years with the In- ittended with loss ginning, terminated auspices of general I had previously dis- le capture of Stoney I, in a most gallant after being twice led the office a third ed by John Adams, suiting conduct of le United States at to hostilities. An )a was established, was given to Wash- tiversally lamented, Americans now in- it the war was of I confined to one or in, in which the su- hful state over the arly established, e two parties, in the ratio or republican iposition to Adams, the office of presi- a S BNORMOUS. TUR AMRniCAN BANKS ARB IHRKSroNSIBLB JOINT-STOCK ASSOCIATIONS. €fit l^istoii.) of America. 839 dent, nnd under him, it must be confessed, prosperity shone upon the republic. Uaised now to considerable consequence, the poli- tics of America began to have some influ- ence upon those of Europe; whilst tiie af- fairs of the Old World necessarily impli- cated in fome measure the proceedings of the United States. The measures of re- taliation and blockade, pursued by the Bri- tish and French govcrninent for some years after the rcnew^ uf war in 1SU3, affected not only the whole of £urope, but also the transatlantic world. After a vnriety of events, especially relating to commerce, the intercourse of which had been much prevented, war was declared against Great Britain June 18, 1812. Although in the previous year the Ame- ricans with a body uf regular troops and some militia had defeated a large assem- blage of Indians, their army at the begin- ning of the war was in a very inefficient state, ami their efforts were aeoordinsly at- tended with signal defeats. General Hall, with an army with which he had invaded Canada, was captured by general Broke, at an easy rate ; whilst another army of about 1000 men, under general Van Reueselacr, shared the same fate, but not without a manly struggle. On the ocean they were more fortunate. In several well-fought engagements be- tween frigates and smaller vessels, the Americans displayed great skill and bra- very ; whilst, to balance their defeats, the English have to boast of the capture uf the Chesapeake by the Shannon, captain Buke, in the most gallant and spirited manner, and of the Argus, sloop uf war, by the British ship Pelican. On Lake Erie a British flotilla surrendered, after a long and well-fought action, to an Ame- rican one of inferior force, under com- moJ.ure Perry. The military character of the United States recovered its tarnished glory ; various and bloody were the strug- gles between the belligerents on the north- west frontier, and in Canada; and great loss was sustained by both sides, with al- ternate defeats and victories. In the meanwhile the Atlantic frontier, which bad previously enjoyed tranquillitv, became the scene of bloodshed and hostile movements. The British were completely defeated in an attack upon Craney Island; hut they took and sacked the small town of Hampton. An expedition fitted out by tlie republic against Montreal failed, and was attended with very considerable loss to the Americans, at the close of the year 1813. A similar attempt met with a simi- lar fate in the beginning of the following year ; but general Brown maintained the high character of the American arms at Fort Erie and Chippewa, both of which he captured from the British ; who were also foiled in their attempt to retake the former place. Nor were thoy unsuccessful only by land. Defeated on lake Erie, their cqua- dron on lake Champlain yielded, after a severe contest, to an inferior force of the Americans; whilst an expedition, under governor Prevost, against Platsburg was also abortive. But now liberated from Spain and Por- tugal, Great Britain sent some of her vete- ran warriors to display that prowess in the New, which had been so distinguished in the Old World. An attack was made by a body of 4U00 or 5000 men upon Washing- ton, which proved successful ; but this triumph was counterbalanced by the de- feat and death of general Ross at Balti- more, and the failure of a large army of British troops in an attack upon New Or- leans. Both parties now seemed weary of a contest, in which there was little to gain from victory but empty renown ; and ac- cordingly peace was concluded between them at Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. The thunders of the American navy were first heard in the Mediterranean, in the capture of a frigate and sloop of war, by commodore Decatur, from the Algerines ; whom the Americans compelled to re- nounce by treaty, for ever, the practice of holding American prisoners in slavery. This was in the year IHIS ; and four years afterwards a treaty was concluded with Spain for the cession of Florida to the United States, which did not actually take place till the vear 1821, when the Ameri- can troops tootL possession of the territory. In the following year an almost unanimous vote of the congress acknowledged the in- dependence of the Spanish provinces in South Amer'?a. Little has since occurred in the public history of this new, but vigor- ous nation. Still growing in power, its strength will become every year more for- midable to Europe; but whether the re- publican mode ot government which has propelled its maturity, may be as effective to consolidate its rising greatness as it was to t-ive it a gigantic infancy, must be left for time to unravel. At the ccmmcncemeat of this article we gave the names of the original thirteen states, with the dates of their colonization, &c. We conclude by observing that there are now tuierty-nx states, besides the dis- trict of Columbia, and the territories of Florida, Wisconsin, and Jowa. The names of the itate» are-1. Maine; 2. New-Hamp- shire ; 3. Vermont ; 4. Massachusetts ; 5. Rhode Island ; 6. Connecticut ; 7- New York ; 8. New Jersey ; 9. Pennsylvania; 10. Delaware; 11. Maryland; 12. Virginia ; 13. North Carolina; 14. South Carolina; 15. Georgia ; IG. Alabama; 17 Mississippi ; 18. Louisiana; 19. Arkansas; 20. Tennessee ; 21. Kentucky; 22. Ohio; 23. Michigan; 24. Indiana ; 25. Illinois ; 26 Missouri. MEXICO. This rich and interesting country may be regarded as altogether a Spanish colo- ny, though it is no longer dependent on Spain, having become a federal rcpulilic. Discovered by Fernando Corter, a. n. l.il"), it was by him taken po^isession of in tlio name of the Spanish government. The ex- ploits by which he made himself ninstcr JUSTICE— HONOUR— BVEBY N0BI.B QUALITT, IS SACRIFICKD TO PABTV-Sl'iaiT. SS= TBI SILVKR AND GOLD MINKS Or MRXICO CONSTITUTB ITS CUIKP WIALTU. 840 ^^e ^rtasuty of 'distort), iu. % 1 » V! .I'r < u a) H a a o g« e M H U •< M H M M H •J •4 B < m n (► >^ of this country, seem rather to belong to romance than history; but the circum- stances of the age, and the nature and character of the opposing powers, throw an air of universal mterest over operations so multiform and diversilied, as the con- quest of a great and powerful state by a body of men hitherto unseen by them, pos- sessing all the advantages of skill and ex- perience in war, and resolution and enter- prise in action. The first conquest made by Cortez was on the river Tabasco ; after which, landing at St. Juan de Ulloa, he erected a fort, where he received Vko ambassadors sent by the emperor of Mexico with offers of assistance. A haughty answer was the reply of Cortez; and gifts of the most costly character were heaped upon him by the natives, in the hope of conciliating p(?ace and preventing hts further advance. Dangers, however, encompassed his steps. Sedition broke out in his camp, which he had the address not only to quell, but turn to his own advantage. A new town was founded, called La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. Still a more alarming mutiny showed itself, which he again converted into the means of executing a measure fraught with imminent risk, but calculated to superinduce the deadly courage of de- spair. This measure was the destruction of the fleet. Soon after this, being joined by one of the native caciques, with a force of little mure than 1000 men, fifteen horses, and six Citnnons, he entered the state of the Tlascalans, whom, after a desperate resist- ance of fourteen days, he subdued, and con- verted into allies. At Cholula he massa- cred 6000 of the natives in revenge for their treachery. Success now wafted his ban- ners, and the capital of the empire lay be- fore him. Received byr the emperor Mon- tezuma at the head of his nobles, Cortez was conducted to a house in the city, which he instantly fortified in the strongest man- ner possible. It appears there was a predic- tion amongst the Mexicans, that a strange people should come to chastise them for their sins— a piece of superstition of which Cortez availed himself. By treachery he obtained possession of the person of Mon- tezuma, whom he kept a prisoner for six months. Worn out at length, the Mexican emperor acknowledged himself a vassal of the Spanish throne. In the meanwhile Cortez lost no opportunity of strengthen- ing his power, by surveys of the country, and dividing the spoils amongst bis fol- lowers. He was again on the point of losing the fruit of his exertions ; for Velasquez, who commanded the expedition from which Cor- tez had been dispatched from Cuba, hearing of his success, sent out a large force under ISarvaez, to seize him, and take possession of Mexico. This formidable danger Cortez frustrated, as well by bribes as the rapidity of his movements, almost without blood- shed. But this he observed gave fresh spirit to the Mexicans, who attacked him on his return, and wounded him in his fortress. The wretched Montezuma, who had been placed in the van to deter the assailants from prosecuting their attacks, was wound- ed, and died of a broken heart. Cortez wan compelled to evacuate the place secretljr, but only to return with a largjer body of forces at the expiration of six months. We shortly afterwards find his head-quarters at Tez- cuco, where, with the assistance of the Indians, he built a flotilla of 13 ships. Reinforced with 200 men, eight horses, and some military stores, he renewed the siege. Gallantly was the capital defended by Gua- timezin, the new emperor, and Cortez was once taken prisoner, but rescued at the ex- pense of a severe wound. Seventy-four days did the city hold out, although the ranks of Cortez were augmented by 100,000 Indians. August 12, 1512, beheld Guati- mozin a prisoner, and his capital in the hands of tlie merciless invaders — merciless to him they were, for Cortez stained the lustre of his glory by putting the brave but ill-fated monarch to the torture. But there is even in this world a retributive justice ; and worldly minds, however sublimed by courage and enterprise, generally encounter reverses similar in character to their own conduct. Success had excited envy ; and Cortez was doomed to find that no courage and enterprise can be altogether free from reverses. Created captain-general of New Spain, (the name which he had given to his conquest) even after an order had been issued, out not executed, for his arrest, — established in high favour and honour with the emperor, his native master, — endow- ed with a grant of large possessions in the New World, — he had the mortification to find himself possessing only military com- mand. The political government was vested in a royal ordinance. His enterprising spi- rit led him to the discovery of the great Californian gulf, but his glory was ou the wane : irritated and disappointed, he re- turned to Europe to appeal against the pro- ceedings of the royal ordinance, but with- out redress ; and he, who had barbarously tortured the gallant emperor of Mexico, died 26 years afterwards of a broken heart, A.D. 1547, in the G2nd year of his age. Abstracting the interest which attended the discovery and first conquest of Mexico or New Spain, the historian finds a tame succession of events, which claim but a very vague notice. From the year 1633 to 18U8 there was a succession of fifty vice- roys, one alone an American by birth. At the latter period a spirit broke forth, eli- cited by centuries of oppression and exclu- sive favour to Europeans, which led the Mexicans to oft'er resistance to the disu- nion of Spain. The dissensions were headed by Hidalgo, an enthusiastic patriot, who was proclaimed generalissimo Sept. 17, 1810. He unfortunately halted in his advance to- wards the capital, which gave the royalists time to rally, and enabled them to defeat his intentions a few months, and put him to death. But with him the spirit of inde- pendence vanished not. Morclos, another priest, assumed the command, and several TUB HBXICAN LAWS ABB MIIiD AND JUST, BUT ALMOST FUWBnLKSS. J| IIBF WBALTU. LOWKB CANADA IS IHHABITBD BT DBICBNDANTB 09 rRBNCB ■BTTLBRI. I -7 lS>lft l^istori) of llmerica. 841 princes were completely eniurcd to the side of liberty. A congreis of forty memberi wa« called, but after the defeat and execu- tion of Moreloa, it was disiohed by general Teran, who succeeded him. After lan- guisliing for some time, the revolt was en- tirely quelled in 1819. The change of system introduced into Spain by the cortes alarmed the ecclesi- astics in Mexico, who, for their defence, elected Iturbide, under whom a bloodless rcvolutiou was effected, and Mexico main- tained in all its right, independent of the Spnuisli dominion, a.d. 1822. After an uKiirpntiun of the title of emperor for little more than one year, Iturbide was compcl- lc>l to lay down his usurpation, and he re- tired to Leghorn. A federal government was now formed, and sworn to, Feb. 24, 132 1. Still commo- tions arose, in one of which Iturbide, who had been induced to return, lost his life. Although in the prcenrious situation in which most states rising on a sudden to independence from misrule and oppression, Mexico mav hope to behold brighter days, and at no ilistant day become a great and powerful nation. THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS. Tuts iine and fertile country of the North American continent, lying between the United States and Mexico, formed a rciuote and merely nominal part of the conquests of Cortrz, being almost wholly inhabited by predatory Indian tribes till lUOU; nut in that year the Spaniards, hav- ing driven out a colony of French who had established themselves at Matagorda, made their tirst permaueut settlement in the country. Attcr the establishment of Mexi- can independence, Texas was ronstituted one of the federal states of Mexico, in con- junctiun with the adjacent state of Coa- huilu. This union, however, proving very unpnpul.'tr nitli the Texnns, they took the tirst opportunity of shewing their hostility to the central government, and a war of spparotion ensued, which ended in the de- feat of the Mexican president, Santa Anna, nt Sun Jacinto, in 183fi. This new state possesses .ninple natural resources, and ap- pears to be fast rising in commercial pros- perity ; but the country is at present so much infested by hostile Indians a; to ren- der internal communication far from safe. CANADA. This is the most important province possessed by Great Britiiin in North Ame- rica. Its history is closely interwoven with that of the United States, with the people of which it has been, both under its origi- nal nnd present masters, in almost con- stant collision. Founded by the French in IflOB, (he colonists were for many years in danger of being ovcrwhelmet) by the native Indians, with whom at Irngth they entered into treaties, which enabled them to annoy very materially the neighbour- ing states under the British jurisdiction. Twenty years after the foundrng of Que- bec, the righ£ of trading with Canada was granted exclusively to • company of French merchants, wIhjC in the following years, were dispossessed of Quebec by sir David Keith. This conquest remained in the bands of the British till it was ceded at the treaty of St. Germain*. In 16C3 the West India Company ob- tained the exclusive right of commerce for forty years, and Canada for thirty years enjoyed tranquillity, and its concomitant, prosperity; which wero interrupted by a bold but unsuccessful expedition of the people of New England, consisting of 1,20U or 1,.W0 men under the command of sir William Fhipps. This attempt was re- peated about seventeen years afterwards (1711) on a larger scale, but shared the same result, although -lOUO veteran British troops were employed. Little occurs in the affairs of Canada deserving notice, till the breaking out of the continental war in 1750, when Canada became the theatre of military scenes, which ended, three years afterwards, in the conquest of it by the British. The English general Wolfe, though defeated in his Arst operations by the French, at length, after an action, sustained by equal gallantry on both sides, obtained posses- sion of Quebec. In this exploit the oppos- ing generals, Montcalm and Wolfe, are equally renowned for spirit and courage; one did not survive the mortification of defeat — the other only lived to hear the shouts of victory. This conquest was rati- fied to the English by the treaty of 1763. Since that period it long enjoyed compara- tive peace : for with the exception of one unsuccessful expedition sent against it during the revolutionary war, under gene- ral Montgomery, who was -killed, Canada was exempt from military operations till the last .American war, when it became the theatre of several bloody frays, but re- sisted, by means of the British troops, the reiterated attacks of the Americans. Ca- noda is now rising in importance. The fa- cility of commerce is increased, and it may be hoped that this colony will be a valua- ble acquisition to the British crown. Sir Charles Metcalfe, the present gover- nor, who was appointed on the death of sir Charles Bngot, in 1843, is a man of great experience and ability. " From the first moment of his assumption of tlic vicc-regttl office." says the Montreal Ga- sette, " sir Charles Metcalfe, who had been nsed to represent the crown of England with honour and success in other parts of the globe, found himself, and most natu- rally BO, in a state of 'antagonism,' as they veiy correctly phrase it, with those who were converting Canada into a democracy, and nullifying the royal power. He found the whole power of the provinces united and centralized by the axt of lord Syden- i ham, and the royal and paternal influence PUWBRLKSS. UPPEB CANADA HAS BEIN PKOFLED BT V. 1. I.0TAI.IIT8 AMD BRITISn. liC PBRD OITBR BIBTR TO BOMB OV tUM I.ABBBBT BITBBB IN VHB WOBLD. ml* I 1 m hl^t Wlii !\ 842 ^^e ^reasutQ of 1Qtotori9, $c(. abdicated by that of air Charlei Bagot. He found a democracv concentrated in one chnniber and ruled by one cabal ; claim- ing the right despotically to introduce into the other chamber an^ number of new members necessary to register its decrees — ay, and exercising it too ; demanding that the power of the crown and of the mother country should be a mere nullity, and asserting that the only duty of their representative was to transfer its patron- age to them for the purpose of perpetually confirming their own. Such was the sys- tern which sir Charles Metcalfe found in full operation ; to which, from the first, he intimated himself to be in a state of ' an- tagonism;' to which he opposed himself under tbe great difSculties which circum- stances had arrayed against him ; against which he has now taken his stand, and called on every thing that is loyal and con- stitutional, on every man who loves the British connexions and respects the prin- ciples of constitutional liberty as distin- guished from mere brute democracy, to rally around him." We make no mention in this place of the internal insurrections and piratical inva- sions of Canada in the years 1838 and 1839. but refer the reader to the " History of England," p. 493 et seq. NEWFOUNDLAND. Tuis large island of North America, ci- tuated near the Gulph of St. Lawrence, is supposed to have been first discovered by the Norwegians, about the beginning of the llth century; but be it so or not, it was not generally made known till John Cabot visited it in 1497, and gave it its present name. Immediately after this, we find that an extensive fishery was carried on, by the Portuguese and French, on the neighbouring banks ; but no successful attempt at a settlement was made here till 1623, when lord Baltimore established a colony on the south-east part of the island, and appointed his son governor. In 1633 some colonists arrived from Ireland, and in 1664 a few English settlers came over, having the authority of a parliamentary grant. The Newfoundland fishery has fo^ nearly a century been the occasion of dis- putes between the English, French, and Americans; thou|(h for a great portion of the time the English were enabled to mo- nopolize the greatest part of the trade. Since the peace of 1815, however, it has been very different, the Firench and Ameri- cans now enjoying the greatest share of it. The other BritUk Pouettioni iu North America are Nbw Bbdnswick, Nova Scotia, Capb Bbbtox, and Pbincb Ed- ward's Island ; but the want of space prevents us from entering on the history of either. SOUTH AMERICA. PERU. I Tub Peruvians have stranp^e traditions that their progenitors were instructed in the arts of government and society by a man and woman, named Manco Capac and Mania Ocllo, from an island in a lake south of Peru. Under their instructions their kingdom was established, the royal family instituted, and success and power heaped upon thein. This was about the 13th cen- tury; and previous to the arrival of the Spaniards in 1524, there had been fourteen successive monarchs or incas. On the ar- rival of the Europeans, Huana Capac was the reigning inca, who was taken prisoner and put to death by Fizarro, the discoverer of the country, although he had paid as much ^old for his ransom as filled the Slace oi his confinement. Pizarro likewise efeated his successor, and was created marcjuis of Atibellos, with lar^e possessions in his conquest. His associate, Almagro, was also amply rewarded. The city of Lima was founded by Fi- zaro in 1633, but the Peruvians again took up arms under their inca, Manco Capac, and obtained some successses. A division took place between Pizarro and Almagro, the latter of whom having sustained a de- feat, was taken prisoner and beheaded by his conqueror; who two years afterwards was assassinated by o'.ie of 'Almagro's party. Various insurrections ensued with various successes, in which were conspicuous Vasco de Castro, Blasco Vela, Gonzalez Pizarro, and Pedro dc la Gasca, a priest. Tbe royal authority of tbe Spaniards was at length established by the surrender and execution of the last inca, Tupac Amaru, by Toledo the viceroy, at Cuzco, a. d. 156*2. Peru re- mained in a state of uninterrupted vassal- age to the Spanish crown, till the year 1782, when a descendant of the last inca, on being refused a title which had been granted his ancestor, Sayu Tupac, reared the standard of independence, round which the natives rallied with spirit, an4 in great numbers. For two years the war conti- nued with alternate success. At last Jose Gabriel Coudorcanqui was defeated, and with the rest of his familv, excepting his brother Diego, put to death. The surviv- ing brother shortly afterwards shared the same fate, on suspicion of being engaged in a revolt at Quito. Peru escaped for awhile the rising spirit of insubordination, which convulsed the other colonies; but in 1809 commotions ensued, and juntas were established in the cities of Quito and La Paz, but were sup- pressed. In 1813 the independents of Chili were subjugated, but their elTorts were triumphant in 181/, under general San Martin, and Chili was not only eva- cuated by the Peruvian army, but scut an TUB SHORES OF CBILI ABB OKNBRALLT STBBP, UIOH, AND KOCKT. I f BB WOBLD. DLAND. ' North America, ti" of St. Lawrence, is n flrit diRcovered by it the beginning of t be it BO or not, it de known till John 497, and gave it its liately after this, we fishery was carried and French, on the but no successful t was made here till imore established a St part of the island, L governor. In 1633 1 from Ireland, and settlers came over, of a parliamentary dland fishery has fo^ the occasion of dis- nglish, French, and >r a great portion of vere enabled to mo- part of the trade. 315, however, it has French and Ameri- greatest share of it. PotttMioni iu North Brunswick, Nova !f, and Pbincb Eo- tlie want of space ering on the history ensued with various •te conspicuous Vasco la, Gonzalez Pisarro, I, a priest. The royal liards was at length render and execution ac Amaru, by Toledo A. D. 156-2. Peru re- ininterrupted vassal- crown, till the year iant of the last inca, itle which had been Sayu Tupac, reared !ndence, round which ti spirit, an^ in great rears the war conti- uccess. At last Jose i was defeated, and familv, excepting his death. The surviv- fterwards shared the }n of being engaged bile the rising spirit rhich convulsed the in 1800 commotions ;re established in the a Paz, but were sup- he independents of d, but their efforts 1817, under general Hi WHS not only eva- in army, but sent an rf IH, AND llOCET. TBB DIAMOND IS TBX MOST CBLBBBATBD rBODUCTION OV BBACIL. ^fft ?|istorB of IKmerica. 843 army to retaliate upon Peru. Lima capi- tulated on July 6, 1821, and San Martin held levees in the vice-regal palace. The independence of Peru was solemnly pro- claimed on the 28th of the same month, and San Martin was proclaimed proteotur. This office he laid down, after calling to- gether a constituent and sovereign con- gress, on the 20th of September, 1822. Disinterested as was this abdication, it was not followed by prosperity to the country. The inadequacy of the junta ap- pointed by the congress soon became ma- nifest : the patriots were defeated early in 1823 ; the congress now dissolved, anarchy predominated, and Lima surrendered to the Spanish troops in July of the same year. They were partially dispossessed by Bolivar and the Chilians shortly afterwards ; and Peru, though safe from Spanish subjuga- tion, was like a vessel tossed by every casual wave, unsafe, and exposed to conflicting dangers. CHILI. This country was subjugated in 1450, by the Peruvians, who retained possession of it till they were driven out by the Spaniards under Alraagro, in 1635. The Spaniards were driven out by a general rising of the natives three years afterwards. Pizarro at- tempted to colonize the country in 1540, and though opposed by the natives of Co- piapo, he succeeded in conquering several provinces, and founded the city of Santiago, February, 1541. In attempting to extend his conquest he exposed his settlement for six years to the strongand repeated attacks of the Mapochians, in whose district San- tiago was. His lieutenant, Pedro de Val- divia, to whom this extension was en- trusted, made the Promancians his allies, and, surmounting various attacks and op- positions from the natives, founded the cities of Conception, Imperial, and Valdi- via. He was shortly afterwards defeated by his old enemies the Araucanians, who took him prisoner, and he was at length despatched by an old chief with the blow of a club. These Araucanians kept the new colo- nies for several years in a continual state of alarm and distress; and so far succeeded in avenging their former defeats, as in 1598 to capture Vallanca, Taldivia, Impe- rial, and other towns, and form the cities of Conception and Chillar. Nor were these the only losses sustained by the Spaniards. The Dutch plundered Chiloe, and massa- cred the garrison. The feuds between the Araucanians and Spaniards were settled by a treaty of peace in 1641, which lasted for fourteen years; then came a war of ten years, and another peace. In 1722 a con- spiracy for the extirpation of the whites was happily frustrated. The colonists were gathered into towns, the country divided into provinces, and several new cities found- ed by the governor Don Josef Mauto, 1742. A similar attempt by Don Antonio Gon- I zago, in respect of the Araucanians, re- lighted the torch of war, which blazed three years, when harmony was restored. Nor does anything of particular moment occur in the history of Chili, till 1809 : then a successful revolutionary movement took place, and for four or five years fortune fa- voured the cause of independence ; but in 1814 a royalist army from Peru nearly ex. tinguished the flame of liberty. Success (in 1817) returned with general San Mar- tin, who brought them rreedom. D. Ber- nado O'lliggins was made director of the junta ; and a fatal blow was struck at the power of the royalists on the fith of April, 1818, when a large tract of coast was de- clared in a state of blockade by the Cliilian navy under lord Cochrane. In 1K20, as stated in the history of Peru, the Chilian army under San Martin, liberated Peru from the Spanish thraldom, and San Mar- tin retired into the ranks of private life in Chili. His example was followed by O'llig- gins, who resigned the dictatorship Jan. 28, 182>, and was succeeded by general Freire, the commander-in-chief. The royalist flag, which was hoisted in September, near the city of Conception, was pulled down, after a short period, and a free constitution ap- pointtd, with a popular government. BRAZIL. Tub honour of discovering; this country is contested between Martin Behem, and Pedro Alvarez Cabral, at the close of the 15th century. It was originally called Santa Cruz by Cabral, but afterwards Brazil, from the name of a wood produced there. It was first colonized by some refugee Jews, in 1548, banished from Portugal, and was fostered by the able guidance of governor de Sonza, and the blandishments of the Jesuits. In 1624, San Salvador was taken possession of by the Dutch, who were in turn defeated by an armament of Spaniards under Frederic de Toledo. The Dutch, iu 1630, succeeded in making themselves masters of Temerara, Paraiba, and Rio Grande. Maurice of Nassau ad- ded Scara, Seregippce, and the greater part of Bahia; and the whole of Brazil was on the point of yielding to their arms, when the revolution which drove Philip IV. from the Portuguese throne, afforded an opportunity to both the Dutch and Portu- guese to expel the Spaniards from Brazil. By an agreement between them, the coun- try received a plural title, being called Bra- zils from the circumstance that both the Dutch and Portuguese possessed almost an equal share of it. By conquest and treaty the n hole at length fell to Portugal. In 1806 the royal family of Portugal, driven from Europe by the invasion of the French, migrated to Brazil, which from that period has risen rapidly in import- ance, independence, and etrenKth. In 1817, a revolution broke out in rcrnanibuco, which failed. A free constitution was passed, and the king returned to Lisbon. Subsequently the prince - regent, on his birth-day, Oct. 12, 1822, was proclaimed § I.A rLATA IS HOTBD FOB ITS XXTBN8IVB ABTD AND SALT DBSBBTS. TBI OmlNOCO BUNS TlmOUaR TKNRBOBLA AND NRW OIIANAD*. ' - sf.'i ;!l iii u.] 844 U^t ^reasnti) of 1!^istorn, $:c. conRtitutionnl emperor of Brazil, inde- pendent of the Portuguese throne— a mea- sure which has since been formally recog- nised by the government of the parent country. TH£ REPUBLIC OF LA PLATA, OR ONITED PROVINCES. TiiR title of the United Provinces is of modern date, as the following brief out- line of the history of this part of the New World will exhibit. Juan Diaz dc Soils, a Spaniard, is said to have been the first ad- venturer who explored the country, and took possession of it, a. d. 1513. Sebas- tian Cabot, in 1626, in the La Plata, dis- covered the island St. Gabriel, the river St. Salvador, and the Paraguay. Buenos Ayres was founded in 1635, by Don Pedro de Mendoza. This did not flourish much, on account of the restricted state of commerce, which was, however, gradually relaxed, and in 1748 the annual flota made its last voyage. A free trade with several American ports began in 1774, and an extension to the Spanish ports was granted in 1778. Under a viceroy trade augmented, and commercial prosperity en- sued. Buenos Avres was captured in 1806 by general Beresford, with a British army, which was in turn compelled to surrender a few weeks afterwards to general Liniers, a French officer, at the head of a body of militia. Sir Home Popham, with 5000 men, having captured Fort Maldonado, attacked Monte Video, without success ; but, rein- forced by sir Samuel Auchmuty, at length carried tne town by storm. The operations were extended under general Whitclocke and general Crawford, who with 12,000 men renewed the attack upon Buenos Ayres, but were defeated and raptured by the native militia. Liniers, who had con- tributed so largely to this defeat, was raised by the people to the vice-royalty, upon tlie expulsion of Sobremonte for Cowardice. The United Provinces escaped not the swell of that storm which the French in- vasion stirred up in Spain. After various intrigues and plots, Ferdinand VII. was at length proclaimed in Buenos Ayres by the address of Don Josef de Goyenechc. A rising of the people (August, 1809) was suppressed by Jiiniers, who was shortly after deposed and sent into exile. Rapid were the convulsions which now shook this unhappy country ; till, on May 26, 1810, the people rose, expelled the vice- roy, and appointed a provisional junta of uine persons. This is the eia of their inde- Sendence. In vain the provinces of Cor- ova, Paraguay, and Monte Video refused their co-operation; they were compelled to go along with the tide. In vain Liniers and general Nicto assembled armies ; they were defeated, and beheaded. Shortly after the district of Putosi fell into the hands of the patriots, who deputed, in 181-1, a special mission to Ferdinand, on his restoration to the Spanish throne, with conditions of sub- mission. These, happily for them, were rejected. In the same y«>ar a smiill cinud passed over the hopes of the patriots by general Artigns, which was dispelled by the capture of Monte Video, the Inst strong- hold of the Spaniards. Alter two years of carnage and confusion, in 1816 a rovcrcign congress met at Tucnnian, anc! on Oct. 6, the same year, the act of indepcm'ence was ratified, D. Juan Martin Pucyrsedon being dictator. Monte Video was taken by the Portuguese under the baron de Leguna, who had seized on the most valuable part of Banda Oriental. Petty dissensions and intrigues, incident to the efforts of rising independence, inter- rupted the progress of success necessary for the consolidation of a new state. D. Jose de San Martin cut a distinguished figure in this part of the history, having twice defeated the independents at Entre Rios, in 1811 ; but his efforts failed, and the independence of the provinces of Rio de la Plata was shortly after sealed. Arti- gas, driven by the Portuguese across the Paraguay, was apprehended by tlie dictator Francia, and in 1819 Pueyrscdon the dic- tator fled to Monte Video, and thus dis- solved the confused mass of the union of conflicting and discordant provinces. After a variety of events and political changes, D.Martin Rodriguez was established gover- nor, Oct. 6, 1820 ; and in the following year the independence of Buenos Ayres was re- cognized by the Portuguese government. A general congress was convened at Cor- dova the same year, and on the loth of De- cember they decided the nnmber of depu- ties to be sent by each province. In 1827 a war broke out between the re- public and Brazil, respecting the posses- sion of Uruguay (Banda Oriental) esta- blished as an independent state in 1828; and more recently La Plata has been in- volved in disputes with both Bolivia, and France. These wars have contributed to retard the march of her prosperity; but with all her accumulated difficulties. La Plata has every appearance of soon be- coming a prosperous country. COLOMBIA. This is a new state, formed at the close of the year 1819 from the states of Granada, aud Venezuela or Caraccas. It will there- fore be necessary to detail the distinct his- tory of these two original states. Granada, or as it is called. New Granada, was discovered by Columbus in his fourth voyage, and taken possession of for the Spanish government. He was followed by otiicrs, and especially by Amerigo Ves- pucci, who was the first who made Europe acquainted with a publislied account of this part of the New World. The first regular colonists were Ojcda, and Nica E^sa, in 1508; the former founded the dis- trict called New Andalusia, but with no great success; the latter. Golden Cnstile, and he also perished. These two districts were united (1614) iu one, called Terra THK MKAN EI.BVATION OF TUB ANDBB IN COLOMBIA IS 11,000 PEBT. IRANADA. DIICOVIBT \TAI MOHR IlArlO IN lOVTII THAN IN NOBTU AMKHICA. ®^e llistorn of Hmtrtca. 846 Firma, under Avila, who luccettfully ex- tended the ditcoreriei, and founded the town of Panama. Other additions were subsequently made, and the kingdom of New tSranada was established under a captain-general, in 1547. As it had been established, so did it continue for more than 160 years, when in 1718 it became a vice • royalty, which form of KOvemmCQt lasted but for sis years, when it was sup- planted by the original one, which was again superseded in 1740 by the incubus of the vice-royalty. Thus did it continue, till the weakness of the mother country, from the invasion of the French, afforded an' opportunity to raise the standard of independence. Many and various have been the events attendant upon the strug- Sle for mastery ; but a severe blow was in- icted by their old masters in 1810, who, under Morillo, defeated the colonists with tremendous loss. Three years of renewed subjection followed, when the success of Bolivar, and the union of Granada with Venesaela caused a brighter star to arise. ViifBBDBLA.— This district was discovered somewhat earlier than Granada, by Colum- bus, in l->98. After several fruitless at* tempts to colonize it, the Spanish govern- ment disposed of the partially subdued na- tives to the Weltsers, a German company of merchants. Their mismanagement led to a change in 1560, when Venezuela, like Gra- nada three years before, became a supreme government under a captain-general. From that period to 1806 Venezuela was a torpid vassal under the Spanish crown, when a futile attempt for independence was made under general Mirando, a native. Simul- taneous with Granada, Vpnezuela rallied for liberty when the mother country was prostratebefore the ascendancy of France in 181U. In the following year a formal pro- clamation of independence was made July 6, and success seemed to attend the cause. Then came the dreadful earthquake. Super- stition re-nerved the arm of freedom, and the royalist general, Monteverdc, discom- fited Mirando, and again overran the pro- vince. In 1813 Bolivar called independence a^ain into action, and success attended him for three years, when another defeat was sustained, which was followed by ano* ther in the following year, and then by a victory. Reverses again recurring, com- pelled the congress to appoint Bolivar dic- tator; and in 1819 the union of Venezuela with Granada was effected under the name of Colombia. Colombia may therefore date its history as a nation from this union which was agreed upon Dec. 17, 1819 ; and the instal- lation ot the united congress took place May 6, 18*21 ; which was followed on June 24, by a victory obtained by the president Bolivar over the Spaniards, at the cele- brated battle of Carabobo, in which the royalist army lost above OdUO men, besides their artillery ond baggage. BOLIVIA. TuK history of this recently formed state, known before as Urran Paav, partakes of the nature of an episode in the life of the illustrious Bolivar, in whose honour its present name was given, and to whose wise councils it is so much indebted. Previously to the battle of Ayachuco, io 1824, it form- ed a part of the Spanish viceroyalty of Uue- nos Ayres ; but general Sucre, at the head of the republicans, having then defeated the royalist troops, the independence of the country was effected i and in the fol- lowing year, at the request of the people, Bolivar drew up a constitution for its go- vernance. On referring to our " Biographical Trea- sury" the reader will find in the life of BoMTAB the following passage, which is 80 applicable to our present purpose, that, in this limited space, we cannot perhaps do better than to transcribe it. "His re- nown was now at its height, and every act of his government showed how zealously alive he was to the improvement of the na- tionsl institutions and the moral elevation of the people over whom he ruled. In 1823 he went to the assistance of the Peruvians, and having succeeded in settling their in- ternal divisions, and establishing their in- dependence, he was proclaimed liocrator of Peru, and invested with supreme authority. In 1825 he visited Upper Peru, which de- tached itself from the (government of Bue- nos Ayres, and was formed into a new republic, named Bolivia, in honour of the liberator ; but domestic factions sprung up, the purity of his motives were called in question, and he was charged with aiming at a perpetual dictatorship ; he accordingly declared his determination to resign his power as soon as his numerous enemies were overcome, and to repel the imputa- tions of ambition cast upon him, by retir- ing to seclusion upon his patrimonial es- tates. The vice-president, Santander, urged him, in reply, to resume his station as con- stitutional president; and though he was boset by the jealousy and distrust of rival factions, he continued to exercise the chief authority in Colombia till May, 1830, when, dissatislii'd with the aspect of internal affairs, he resiKUcd the presidency, and expressed his determination to leave the country. The people ere long became sen- sible of their injustice to his merit, and were soliciting hiin to resume the govern- ment, when his death, which happened in December, I030, prevented the accomplish- ment of th-- u wishes." The government of Bolivia is in the hands of a president, to which office general Santa Cruz was elected, in 1829. GUIANA. This is a British posse!>sion, comprising the several districts of llerbice, Essequibo, Oeinerara, and Surinam. It is asserted by some that Columbus saw this coast in 1458, and by others that it was discovered by rliATINA IS AMONG THE VALUADLB MINKBAI. FftOUUCTIOKB Of BUAZIL. 4C3 Tn« CLiMATB or run i.oir lamoi ii tb«t unhbaltut T(t ivnorBANi. ^Ilf.'/ 1 ^ } M ■ I !! 846 Hr^e ^rtasu(9 of l^iiBtory, $cc. Vaico Nunei in 15U't. It became, however, known to Europe in 1696, when Roleigti sail- ed iiD the Orinoco in hii chimerical tearch of El Dorodo, a city (uppoiiid to be paTcd with gold. The coast of Guiana then be- came the resort of Buceanicrs ; and in 1634 a mixed company of these freebooters, Eng- lish and French, formed the settlement of Surinam for the cultivation of tobacco. They were, after twenty years of great hardship and difflcully, taken under the firotection of the British, who appointed ord Willoughby of Farham governor, 1602. The Dutch captured the settlement in 1667, And the possession of it was con- firmed by the treaty of Westminster, Enfir- land receiving the colony of New York in exchange. In 1783, the Dutch settlements on the Essequiho, which had been captured by the British in the American war, were restored to the states-general. In I79G, bath Berbice and Demerara fell to the En- glish, a« also Surinam, in 1799; but again reverted to Holland, at the peace of Amiens, in 18U3; felt to the English arms in 1813, nnd were confirmed by the treaty of Paris, 1814, to Great Britain. AMAZONIA. A country of South America, so called from a martial and powerful state, in which a body of women, with arms in their hands, opposed Francisco Orcllana, in his passage down the river Maragnon. It was first discovered by him, a. d. 1541 ; when, with fifty- soldiers, he was wafted in a vessel down the stream of a smaller river into the channel of the Maragnon, which he also called Amason. The origin of the name Amaton is folded in some mystery. It is applied exclusively to females of stron|( and martial habits, and was first used in reference to a race of them who, whether actualW or fabu> lously is a matter of dispute, rounded an empire in Asia Minor, upon the river Ther- nioaoon, along the coast of the Black Sea, as far as the Caspian. But whether the account of them is fabulous or true, they are mentioned by the most ancient Greek writers, as well as by others of a late date; and various are the accounts given both of their origin and history. THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. ( SOMETIMES CALLED THE ARCHIPELAGO OF THE WEST.) Tua Wcet Indies consist of a number of islands in the central part of America, ex- tending from the tropic of Cancer south- ward, to the coast of Terra Firma and Mexico ; the principal of which are Cuba, Ilayti or St. Domingo, Jamaica, Porto Uico, Trinidad, St. Christopher, (commonly called St. Kitt's, ) Antigua, Guadaloupe, Martinique, Barbadoes, St. Lucia, St. Vin- cent, Grenada, and Tobago ; for the most part discovered by Columbus near the close of the 15th century. The islands are in possession of vari- ous powers, whom we shall notice as we proceed in the description, beginning with CUBA. Cuba, the largest and most westerly is- land in the West Indies, was discovered by Columbus in 1492; and was first called Juana, in honour of prince John, son of Ferdinand and Isabella; afterwards Fer- nandina ; then Santiago and Ave Maria, in deference to the patron saint of Spain and the Virgin. The name of Cuba is that which it was called by the natives at the time of its discovery. It is about 8U0 miles in length, and about 125 in breadth. The Spaniards made no settlement upon it till 1511, when Diego de Velasquez arrived with four ships, and landed on the eastern point. This district was under the government of a cacique, named Hatney, a native of St. Domingo, who had retired hither to avoid the slaverr to which his countrymen were condemnrd. Those who could escape the tyranny oi the Spaniards had followed him iu his retreat. The Spaniards soon overcame the In- dians. Hatney was taken in the woods, and condemned to be burned. When he was fastened to the stake, and waited only for the kindling of the tire, a priest ad- vanced towards him, and proposed the ce- remony of baptism as a means of entering the Christian paradise. " Are there," said the cacique," " any Spaniard* in ihat happy place f" "Ye»," replied the priest. " / will not," returned Ilatney, " go tn a place where I thould be in danger (ff meeting one nf them. Talk to me no more of your religion, but leave me to die," Velasquez found no more enemies. All the caciques hastened to do him homage. After the mines had been opened, and it was found that they did not answer, the inhabitants of Cuba, having become use- less, were exterminated. A small part only of this island is cleared ; there are only some traces of cultivation at St. Jago, and at Matanza; the fine planta- tions are all confined to the beautiful plains cf the Havannah. The Havannah, the capital of Cuba, is a fine city, and the harbour one of the safest in the world. The English took it in the year 1762, and it was restored at the peace of 17|>3, since which time prodigious pains have been taken to render this key to all the Spanish American colonies impregnable. HAYTJ, OR ST. DOMINGO. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1492, and is, next to Cuba, the largest of the West IncUa islands. It is upwards TUB ISLAND OF HAITI IS, AS ITS NAMB IMFLIRS, VKRT MOUNTAINOUS. lii ivnor*AFci. Tlia rALMITTO, 0« CABBAOa-TBIB, OBOWB TO rBBrSCTION Itf IIATTI. VL%t asttst SnUia BlanUs. 847 of 400 miles in length, from ea«t to west, «nd Kveraget more than lUO in breadth. H arinR taken poiiei«iou of it in the name of Spain, Columbus founded the town of La Isabella on the north coast, and esta- blished in it, under his brother Dief^o, the first settlement of the Spaniards in the New World. It was in high estimation for the qnantitjr of gold it supplied ; but this wealth dimmished with the iuhabitnnts of the country, whom they compelled to per- petual labour in the mines; and it was en- tirely lost when those wretched victims were no more. The cruelties of the Spa- niards almost exceed belief. It is com- puted, that considerably more than a mil- lion of natives (the number at the time of its discovery) perished in the space of ftfty years, by the hands or through the means of the conquerors. The gold mines have failed for want of hands to dig them. The Spaniards thought of procuring slaves from Africa, to reopen them, and numbers were imported; but the mines ou the continent having been begun to be worked with good effect, those of St. Domingo were no longer of importance. The settlers then turned their thoughts to agriculture, which was cultivated with success. Sugar, tobacco, cocoa, cassia, gin- ger and cotton, were among their produc- tions at the close of the sixteenth cen- tury. The immense fortunes raised in Mexico, and other parts, induced the inhabitants of St. Domingo to despise their settlements ; and they quitted tne island in numbers, in search of those regions of wealth. This conduct ruined St. Domingo. It had no intercourse with the mother country, but by a single ship, of no great burden, re- ceived from thence every third year; and the whole colony, in 1717, consisted of only 18,410, including Spaniards, Mestees, Mu- lattoes and Negroes. The Spaniards retained possession of the whole island till 1C6S, wlien the French obtained a footing on its western coast, and laid the foundation of that colony, which afterwards became so flourishing. The French settlers increased very fast; and 8U!;ar-works were erected in great numbers. Coffee, cotton, ginger, and other products, were put into cultivation : the planters became rich, and the negroes nu- merous, until the fatal measure of giving liberty to the slaves was adopted, without preparatory means, by the French national convention. At that period the negroes in the French part of St. Domingo were estimated at about 600,000; and while the revolutionary terrorists in France were hourly exhibiting sc(!nes of brutal barbarity, and recommend- ing their actions as worthv of imitation by all other nations, the inhabitants of St. Domingo were precisely in that unsettled situation which seemed to favour the com- mission of similar atrocities, under the pre- text of avenging past injuries and redress- ing present grievances. The laws of St. Domingo were, indeed, according to the account given by Mr. Bryan Edwards in his "Historical Survey," dreadfully unc- (lual ; mulattoes were in a situation more degrading and wretched than that of the enslaved negroes in any part of the West Indies. No law allowed the privileges of a white person to any descendant of an AfHcan, however remote. In such a situ- ation it is not to be wondered at, that they should have listened with pleasure to the news of the French revolution, and to the acts of the assembly, which aboliihed slavery, and established equality of rights. The island was in a political name. The pride of power, the rage of reformation, the contentions of party, and the conflict of opposing interests, now produced a tem- pest that swept everything before it. In October, 1700, James Ogc, a free mulatto, who had been at Paris, and who is de- scribed as an enthusiast for liberty, but mild and humane, returned from France, and put himself at the head of the in- surgent negroes and people of colour; but being defeated, in March, 1791, was betray- ed by the Spaniards, to whom he had fled for refuge, and, with Mark Chavane his lieutenant, broke alive on the wheel. At this time, 8000 troops arrived from France; and Maudit, the new governor, was murdered by his own soldiers, with cir- cumstances of horrible barbarity. I)y a de- cree of the national assembly, of the 16th of May, 1791, people of colour were de- clared eligible to seats in the colonial as- sembly. And on the 11th of September, a concordat, or truce, was signed between the whites and mulattoes. But the opera- tion of this truce was destroyed by an absurd decree of the national assembly, repealing the decree of the 15th of May. Open war in all its horrors was now re- newed. It was no longer a contest for vic- tory, but a diabolical emulation to outvie each other in barbarous atrocities. On the 23rd of August, 1791, Cape Francois was burnt; and it was computed that in the space of two months, upwards of 2000 white persons perished by these horrible massacres, while not fewer than 10,000 of the mulattoes and negroes died by famine and the sword, besides numbers that suf- fered by the executioner. Meantime three commissioners arrived from France, accom- panied by 6000 of the national guards ; and citizen Galbaud was appointed governor. Their attempts, however, (o stop these enor- mities proved fruitless, though they pro- claimed the total abolition of slavery, and a general indemnity. In October, 1793, a body of British forces under colonel Whitelock, landed, and took Eossession of Tiburon, Treves, Jdr^mie, icogane. Cape Nicholas Mole, and upwards of ninety miles of the eastern coast, with little opposition. It was, however, a dis- astrous ac(iuisition to the English, for in less than six months after their arrival, not less than 6000, of whom 150 were officers, fell victims to disease, Leogane was soon after retaken by the negroes, who now amounted to above 100,000, under their OUNTAinOCS. TUB MOUNTAINS, KTBN TO TBBIB BDHMITS, ABB CAFABLB OV CULTIVATION. T UATTI II DIVIOlO INTO IIX BirABTMIMTS AND 33 ft >■ ii ! 848 dt VLxtMMii o{ l^istoru, ^c. gftncral Touiitant L'Uuvvrture ; auj Tibu- ron wm taken by the French under ge- neral RiKnud. To remedy theae diiaitert, another i-xpedltiun wai undertaken by the Uritiih, but was attended with va»t ex- penM and the loii of many brave troopi. Colonels Brisbane and Markham were kill* ed ; and at length, in 1708, the British bar- inc surrendered Port au Prince aud Cape Nusholas Mole to Kcneral Iledonville, the island was totally abandoned by theiu. At this time the name of Port au Printfe was changed to Port Republican ; and the Spanish part of the island was taken pos- session of by L'Ouverture ; a man of su- perior talenta and character, whose un- remitting exertions were directed to the laudable object of healing the wounds and improving the condition of every class in the island. The beneficial effects of such an administration were soon visible. The wasted colony began to revive ; the plan- tations were again brought into a fertile state; the ports were opened to! foreign vessels: •no, notwithstanding the ravages of a ten years war, the commerce of St. Domini^ was rapidly recovering; while the population also increased with astonishing rapidity. In 1798, when the British forces evacu- ated the island, the military establishment of St. Domingo did not exceed 40,000 ; but in two years it was more than double that number. Touissant was regarded aa an extraordinary beiuK by his soldiers, and no European army was ever subject to a more rigorous discipline. Every officer commanded, pistol in hand; and had the power of life and death over the subalterns. Sixty thousand men were frequently re- viewed and exercised together ; on which occasions 2000 otHcers were «een in the field, carrying arms, from the general to the ensign, yet with the utmost attention to rank, and without the smallest symptom of insubordination. In these rcviewx, says M. de la Croix, Touissnnt appeared like an inspired person, and became the fetiche or idol of the blacks who listened to him. In order to make himself better understood, he frequently addressed them in parables, and often made use of the following: — In a glass vessel full of grains of black maise, he would mix a few grains of white maize, and say to those who surrounded him, " You are the black maize ; the whites, who are desirous of enslaving you, are the white muize." He would then shake the vessel, and presenting it to their fascinated eyes, exclaim, " See the white here nnd there I" in other words, " See how far the white are apart in comparison of yourselves." The gleam of prosperity, however, which result- ed from his wise administration was but of short continuance. The independence of St. Domingo was proclaimed on the Ist of July, 1801 ; and while thu inhabitants were indulging the hope of future happiness, a storm was ga- thering, which burst upon them with ac- cumulated fury. Scarcely was the peace of Amiens concluded, whem a formidable ar- mament of twenty-six ships of war waa equipped bv order of the firit consul, with the aetermlnation of reducing the revolted colony of St. Domingo. Un board this fleet were embarked 26.000 chosen troops, amply furnished with all the apparatus of military slaughter ; and the chief command was confided to general Le Clere, the bro- ther-in-Uw of Buonaparte. Before proceed- ing to hostilities, however, recourse waa had to various perfidious acts. Attempts were uiade to sow disunion among the free people of St. Domingo. Proolamationa and letters, expressed in all the delusive iargon of the republic, were widely circu- lated. The chiefs of both colours then in France, and the two sons of Touissant himself, who had aent them thither for in- Btruction, were pressed into the service of this expedition. The French forces arrived in January, 1803; yet so little did Touissant expect to have any enemy to combat, that he was at the time making a tour round the eaatern part of the island, and had given no ordera for resistance in case of attack. Aftrr the French troops had disembarked, and previ- ously to commencing operations in the in- terior of the country, Le Clerc thought proper to try what effect the eight of his two sons, and a speciouk letter from Buo- naparte, would have upon Touissant. Cois- non, their tutor, who had accompanied them fVom France, and was one of the chief confidential agents iu this expedi- tion, was accordingly deputed on this er- rand, with instructions to press Touissant's instant return to the Cape, and to bring back the children in case he should not succeed. On arriving at Touissant's coun- try residence, and learning that its owner would not return from his excursion till the next day, the wily Frenchman availed himself of this delay to work upon the feel- ings of their mother, whose tears, and the solicitations of the children, when their father returned, for a while shook his reso- lutions. But being at length confirmed in his suspicions of the snare that was laid for him, by the conduct and language of Coisnon, Touissant suddenly composed his agitated countenance; and, gently disen- gaging himself from the embraces of his wife and children, he took their preceptor into another apartment and gave him this dignified decision:— "Take back my chil- dren ; since it must be so, I will be faithful to my brethren and my Ood." Unwilling to prolong this painful scene, Touissant mounted his horse, and rode to the camp ; and although a correspondence was after- wards opened between him and Le Clerc, it failed to produce his submission. Hostilities now commenced. After se- veral obstinate conflicts in the open field, and the burning of several towns, tne blacks found themselves overpowered, and were compelled to retire into the inaccessible fortresses of the interior, whence they car- ried on, under their brave chieftain, Touis- sant, a desultorv, but destructive warfare agaiuit detached parties of their enemies. 8T. DOHINQO WAS TBI FIRST rSBMANIRT BBTTLBMBNT MADK IN AMBHICA. tlMINTI. tip* of war wu Irtt contul, with oing the revolted On board this M choaen tioopa. the apparataa of e ehief command e Clere, the bro> Before proceed- er, reoouria waa acta. Attempta Dion among the >. Proclamationa all the delutive ere widely circu> oth colour* then ion* of Touii*ant im thither for in> ito the aervice of rired in January, iuii*ant expect to kt, that he waa at wund the eaatern kd liven no ordera kttack. Aftrr the barked, and previ- eratiou* in the in> a Clerc thought . the eight of ni* letter from Ruo- iToui*sant. Coi*- had accompanied I WAS one of the ;b iu thi* expedi- iputed on this er> 9 pre** Toui«*ant'a ^ape, and to bring me he ahould not t Touiiiant'* conn- ing that it* owner hi* cxcurtion till Frenchman availed tvork upon the feel- hoie tear*, and the ildren, when their liile shook hi* re*o- ength confirmed in nare that was laid et and language of lenly composed hi* and, gently disen- lie embraces of his Dok their preceptor t and gave him thi* Cake back my chil- 10, 1 will be faithful yGod." Unwilling 1 scene, Touissant i rode to the camp ; Kondence was after- im and Le Clerc, it ibmisaion. taenced. After se- t* in the open field, ral towns, tne black* rpowered, and were Ito the inaccessible Dr, whence they car. ave chieftain, Touis- destructivR warfare e* of their enemies. o R O *> M n a K ti ■a o e E > s B U pa H f H S O n < H K IN AMBRICA, riai'ArrLas, onAMaai, aro umi tvh. ^^c SBIest lEntlia lEsInntls. 840 At length, however, the npgrop* and euHi vators were either subdued bv the terror of the French army, or cajoled by tin- deceit- ful promiae* of the French gcncrh aIiu had published in his own name, ami in tliat of the first consul, repeated luleinn derlaratlons that the freedom of nil the in- habitants of 8t. Domingo, of all colours, should be preserved inviolate. But no sooner did Le Clrrc lind that his plan suc- ceeded than he threw aside the niank, and issued an order restoring to the proprie- tors, or their attorneys, all their ancient authority over the negroes upon their es- tates. This order at once opened the eyes of the negro population; Touissant and Chriitophe united their forces; and such was the fierce and active nature of their attacks, that Le Clerc was obliged to aban- don most of his former conquests, and seek refuge iu the town of Cape Franeuis ; where he again issued a proclamation rouclicd in such specious terms, that the blacks and their leaders accepted the conditions of hi* proffered amnesty. This master-piece of deception having thus fullv succeeded, and the French now having the dominion of the whole island, they began to put in execution their medi- tated system of slavery and destruction; and, as a preliminary step towards this ob- ject, Le Clerc caused Touissant to bu pri- vately seized iu the dead of the night, to- gether with his family, and, putting him on board a fast-sailing frigate, he was con- veyed to France, a* a prisoner (May, 18U2). There, under a charge of exciting the ne- groes to rebel, he was committed to close custody, and was no more heard of by his sorrowing countrymen, till his death was announced in the following jear as having taken place in the fortress or Joux. Aroused by the base treachery of Le Clerc, the black chieftains, Dessalincs, Cliristophe, and Clervaux, again raised their standards, aud were soon found at the head of considerable bodies of troops, ready to renew the struggle for liberty, and determined to succeed or perish in the attempt. Many and desperate were the contests which ensued; Le Clerc died, and was succeeded in the command of the French array by Rochambaud; but the losses they sustained by disease as well as by this harassing warfare rendered any escape from Ilayti prefarable to a conti- nuance there; and, as the war had then recommenced between (-reat Britain and France, the French gladly surrendered themselves prisoners of war to a British squadron, and were conveyed to England. The independence of Hayti, which had been first proclaimed in 1800, was thus consolidated, and Dessalincs erected the west or French part of the island into im empire, of which he became emperor, with the title of Jacques I. (Jan. 1, 1804). But his rfi^n was of short duration ; the cruel, lies he perpetrated caused a conspiracy to he formed against him; and, two year* nCter his coronation, he was surround d by tlie conspirators at his head quarters, and struggling ,.) escape, received hi* death- blow. Tll^' assassination of Dessalines caused another division of the island, and another civil war. In the north, Christnphe as- sumed the governttifnt, with the modest designation of chief of the Kovcrnment of Ilayli ; while P4!tijn, a mulailn, asserted his claim to sovereign power. For several years these rival ciiiertiiins carried on a sanguinary contest, with various success, until the year IHIO, wlien hostilities were suspended ; and, though no formal treaty was concluded, the country long enjoyed the blessings of peace. Cliristophe was crowned kiuK of Ilayti in March, 1811, by the title of Henry I.; and P<)tion, a* pre- sident of the republic of Hayti, governed the snulherii part until 1818, when he died, and was succeeded by general lloyer, whom he was allowed to nominate his successor. Both governments evinced a praiseworthy solicitude for the encouragement of agri- culture, as the basis of their national pros- perity ; and both were persevering in their endeavours to promote the intellectual in- struction of the rising generation. Cliris- tophe, in imitation of other monarchs, created various orders of nobility, together with numerous officers of state, fee. His dynasty, however, was like his predeces- sor's, short-lived. In 1H20 a successful con- spiracy n as formed azainst him ; and, find* ing himself surrounded by an overwhelm- ing force, he committed suicide. Boyer now took possession of his dominions; and, the Spanish portion of the island hav- ing, in 1821, voluntarily placed itself under his government, he became master of the whole of Ilayti. Though nominally republican, the go- vernment of Hayti is in reality an elective military monarchy : vested n«tensihly in a president, senate, and chamber of repre- sentatives; but the whole efficient autho- rity is wielded by the chief officer. The president i* charged with all the execu- tive duties; commands the army and navy; makes war, peace, and treaties, subject to the sanction of the senate^ appoints all public functionaries, &c. In 1825, Boyer concluded a treaty with France, by the provisions of which the independence of Hayti was fully recognized, and its ports thrown open to all nations, but with cer- tain exclusive advantages to the French. The Ilaytians also agreed to pay ISO mil- lions of francs to France, in five annual payments, as an indemnity for the losses of the colonist* during the revolution. Q'lic first instalment of 30 millions was paid in 183C; but it being evident that the annual exaction was beyond the ability of Ilnyti to repeat, it was agreed in l.'j38 to reduce the original sura to 60 million francs, to be paid in six instalments by 18G7. PORTO-RICO. Ponxo-Uico was discovered by Colum- bus in 14'j;<; it is about one huiid'ieil miles iu length, from cast to west, and forty from MAICR A1«0 FLAINTAin ABB IHDIGKIfOUB, AND IN BXTBNSIVB USB. ■ft 1: r B* Br *; « f -'I 1; !• I ! TUB TOBACCO or CUBA IS CKI.IBBATXD ALL OVBB TUB WOULD. 850 ?r^c ^Ereaaure of I|ii5tot|), $cc. nortli to south. The Spaniards neglected it till 1509, when thirst of gold brought them thither from St. Domingo, under Ponce de Leon, to make a conquest, which after- wards cost them dear. Ambition, revenge, and the love of gold prompted the Spaniards to the most atro- cious outrages. They found the inhabit- ants brave and fond of liberty; and as they looked up to the European visitants as a superior order of beinjcs, to their authority they voluntarily submitted. It was not long, however, before they wished to shake off the intolerable yoke under which they groaned, and postponed the enterprise only till they could essure themselves that they were not immortal. A cacique, named Broyo, was intrusted with this commis- sion ; and chance soon favoured the de- sign, by bringing to him Salzedo, a young Spaniard, who was travelling. Broyo re- ceived him with the greatest respect, and, at his departure, sent some Indians to at- tend him on his way, in quality of guides. When they came to the bank of the river, which they were tu puss, one of them took him on bis shoulders to ""rry him across ; but no sooner had he got into the middle of the atream, than he th.ew the Spaniard into it, and, with the assistance of his com- panions, he kept him there till no signs of life remained. They then dragged him to the bank, but, as they were still in doubt whether be was dead or living, they begged pardon many times for the accident tnat had happened. This farce lasted three days; till at length being convinced, by the putri- dity of the body, that it was possible for Spaniards to die, the Indians rose on all sides upon their oppressors, and massacred upwards of one hundred of them. Ponce de Leon immediately assembled nil the Castilians who had escaped, and fell upon the Indians, who, as historians re- late, had the extreme folly to suppose that these Spaniards were the same that had been killed, and were come to liie r.gain to tight them. Under this ridiculous and almost incredible nersuasion, dreading to continue a war with men who revived after death, they submitted again to the yoke of a cruel foe ; and being condemned to the mines, 600,000 are said to have fallen mar- tyrs to the sword or the toils of slavery. Under the old colonial system of Spain, in 1788, the population was little more than 80,000; whereas it amounted, in 1836, to 357,000, and it was supposed to con- tain nearer 400,000, of whom an eighth are slaves. Previously to 1815, Porto-Rico being excluded from all direct intercourse with other countries excepting Spain, was but slowly progressive. At that period, how- ever, a royal decree appeared, which ex- empted the trade between Spain and the Spanish colonies and Porto-Ilico from all duties for tifteen years ; and she was then aUp permitted to carry on a free trade, un- der reasonable duties, with other countries. These wise and liberal measures have won- derfully contributed to the prosperity of the island ; and their coffee, sugar, and to- bacco plantations are now in a thriving condition. In the latter part of the ]7(h century, Porto-Rico was taken possession of by the Enghsh; but thev did not long retain it, owing tn the prevalence of dysentery among the troops. The government, laws, and in- stitutions are nearly similar to tliose es- tablished in the other transatlantic colo- nies of Spain. BARBADOES. Uarbadoes is the most easterly island of the West Indies. It is twenty-tvvo miles in length, from north to south, and fifteen in breath, from east to west. The time of its discovery is not certain, nor by whom ; but it is generally attributed to the Portuguese, in their way to Brazil. However, the English touched there in 1615, and, landing some men in 1623, made their first permanent settlement. In 1627, the earl of Pembroke obtained a grant of the island in trust for sir William Courteen, unknown to the earl of Carlisle, who had before obtained a grant of all the Caribbce islands from James I. The_ first planters were gentlemen of Devonshire and Corn- wall, principally of the parliamentarian party. The country bore not the least appear- ance of having ever been peopled: there was no kind of beast of pasture or of prey ; no fruit, herb, or root, fit for the support of human life ; but the soil was good, and soon began to submit to cultivation. Po- pulation increased through a variety of ad- venturers, and the civil wars of England added prodigiously thereto ; Barbadoes, in twenty-five years from its first settlement, containing upwards of 50,000 whites, and a much greater number of negroes and Indian slaves. The former of these they bought, and the latter they seized upon without any pretence. In 1676, the po. pulation and trade were at their highest pitch ; four hundred ships, averaj[ing about 150 tons each, were employed ; since which the island has been much on the decline. Barbadoes has been frequently visited by hurricanes, of which those of August 10, 1674, October 10, 1780, and August 11,1831, have been the most destructive in their ef- fects ; but the fury and violence of the last hurricane far exceeded that of either of the former ; in it 3500 persons were killed, and the loss of property amounted to two mil- lions and a half sterling. By the munifi- cent aid of the British parliament, and the industry of the inhabitants, the plant- ers have now happily recovered from these heavy losses. The population, as in the adjoining islands, may properly be divided into four classes: Creole or native whites; European whites; Creoles of mixed blood; and native blacks. Barbadoes has all along remained in possession of the English. It is the residence of the bishop ol Barba- does and the Leeward Islands ; and the clerical establishment is en a very respect- able and effective scale. OOFFBB AKD BUQAIl ARR RAIBBD IN OnXAT QUANTITIES IN CUBA. WOULD. 1HB IILAKD I« WILL WATKRRD, TniBB ■■INa ABOUT 100 HIVBHS. now in a thriviDg ot the least appear- been peopled: there if pasture or of prey ; t, flt for the support e soil was fjooA, and : to cultivation. Po- ough a variety of ad- vil wars of England ;reto; Barbadoes, in 1 its first settlement, if 60,0U0 whites, and ber of negroes and brmer of these they ;r they seized upon !. In 1676, the po- ere at their highest tips, averaging about iployed ; since which ich on the decline, frequently visited by those of August 10, and August 11,1831, 'Structive in their ef- 1 violence of the last I that ofeitherof the ions were killed, and mounted to two mil- ing. By the munift- ish parliament, and habitants, the plant- recovered from these ipulation, as in the r properly be divided ole or native whites; Dies of mixed blood ; ■badocs has all along I of the English. It le bishop ot Barba- d Islands; and the is en a very respect- IN CUBA. ^Ijc WXm Untiia ]EsIant)j$. 851 ST. CHRISTOPHER'S; OR, ST. KITT'S. Tbis island, which belongs to Great Bri- tain, was discovered, in 169.3, by Columbus, who gave it the name it bears. It was the mother country of all the English and French settlements in the West Indies. Both nations arrived there on the same day in 1825; they shared the isiand be- tween them; signed a perpetual neutrality; and entered into a mutual engagement to assist each other against their common enemy, the Spaniards. War commenced between England and France in 1666, and St. Christopher's be- came a scene of carnage for nearly half a century, terminating only with the total expulsion of the French in 1703. This island is about fifteen miles long, by four broad. There is no harbour in the country, nor the appearance of one. NEVIS. This small island, now belonging to the British, was originally discovered by Co- lumbus ; and the English, under sir Thomas Warner settled on it in 1628. It is sepa- rated from St. Christopher's by a narrow channel ; and is properly only one very high mountain, about seven miles over each way. It was ravaged by the French in 1/06, and the next year almost destroyed by the most violent hurricane ever recorded. ANTIGUA. ANriauA, a West Indian island, belong- ing to Great Britain, is one of those deno- minated the Windward Islands. It was called by the natives Xaymaca, but Colum- bus gave it the name of Santa Maria de la Antigua. The island is about twenty miles long, by eighteen broad. Columbus dis- eovtred it in 1492, but it was found totally uninhabited by those few Frenchmen who fled thither in 1629, upon being driven from St. Christopher's by the Spaniards. The want of fresh water induced these fu|;itives to return as soon as they could gam their former places of residence. It appears that in )640 there were about thirty English families settled in this island; and the number was not much increased when Charles II. granted the property to lord Willoughhy ofParham. Ilis lordship sent over a considerable number of inha- bitants in 16C6 ; but, from that time till 1680, it grew nothing but indigo and to- bacco; when the island being restored again to the state, colonel Codrington in- troduced the culture of sugar. The harbours of this island, particularly that called English Harbour, are the best belonging to the British government in these seas ; and the whole is so much en- compassed with rocks and shoals, that it is very dangerous for those unacquainted with its navigation to effect a landing. For this cause it has remained unmolested by the French in all the late wars. MONTSERRAT. This island was discovered by the Spa- niards in 1493, who gave it the name of a mountain in Catalonia, which it resembled in shape. It is about twelve miles iu length, and five in its broadest part. The English landed here in 1632, and soon after drove off all the natives. The progress of the colony was slow ; and it acquired no kind of importance till the close of the seven, teentn century, when the culture of sugar took place. It has no harbour, nor even a tolerable road ; and masters of vessels are under the necessity of putting to sea when they see a storm approaching. It is in the posteision of the English. JAMAICA. Jamaica, the largest and most valuable of the British West India islands, was dis- covered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1494. It is about one hundred and sixty- five miles in length, from cast to west, and its average breadth about forty miles, bear- ing a resemblance to a long uvpi. in ISO?, Columbus was driven upon t.ic island by a storm, and having lost his shijis, he im- plored the humanity of the natives, who gave him all the assistance that natural pity suggests. They soon, however, g^ew tired of supporting strangers, and insen- sibly withdrew firom their neighbourhood. The Spaniards, who had already treated the Indians ungenerously, now took up arms against one of their chiefs, whom they ac- cused of severity towards them. Columbus, forced to yield to the threats of his people, in order to extricate himself from so peril- ous a situation, availed himself of one if those natural phenomena, in which a man of genius may sometimes find a resource. nom the knowledge he had acquired of astronomy, he knew that an eclipse of the moon was fast approaching. He took ad- vantage of this circumstance, and sum- moned all the caciques in the neglibour- hood to cnme and hear something that concerned them, and was essential to their preservation. He then stood up in the midst of them, and having upbraided them witli their cruelty, in suffering him and hia distressed companions almost to perish, he thus emphatically addressed them: "Tu punish you for this, the God whom I wor- ship is going to strike you with his niodt ter- rible judgments. This very evening you will see the moon turn red, then grow dark, and withhold its light from you. This will be only a prelude to your calamities, if you obstinately persist in refusing to give us food." lie had scarcely done speaking, when his prophecies were fulfilled. The In- dians were terrified beyond measure; they begged for mercy, and promised to do any thing that he should desire. lie then told them, that Heaven, moved with their re- pentance, was appeased, and that nature was going to resume her natural course. From that moment provisions were sent in from all quarters ; and the Spaniards were M IS M U I'i THB DAT8 AND HIOBTS AAB KBABLT XQUAL THROUGnOUT TUB TRAR. W4 ■ i hi: '' ! rn ^# fc mi ii f TUB BHKAU-mUIT THKK WAS OIHOINALI.V INTHOUnCtn FHUM OTAURITS. 852 (>rf)e ^rcasunj of IQiistorn ^ct. never in wniit ofnuy thing during the time thry reinninrd there. It was Uiiii Dirgu Cdlumbus, snn of the discoverer, that tirst tixvd the Simniards in Jamaica. In 1601), he sent thitiier seventy robbers from 8t. Domingo, under the com- niand of John de K8(|uiiuel ; and others soon followed. These wn^lches went over apparently for no other pur|iosc but to shed human blood; iii fact, tliuy never appear to have sheathed their swords while there was an inhabitant left. The murderers raised several settlements upon the ashes of the natives; but that of St. Jago do la Vcgn was the only one that could support itself. The inhiibitanis of that town contented thumselves with living upon the produce of some few plantations, and the overplus they sold to the ships that passed by their coasts. The whole nopiilatiou of the colony, cen- tered in the little spot that fed this race of destroyers, consisted of about ISUO whites, and as niiiny slaves, when the English came and attacked the town, took it, and settled there, in 1(105. The English brought the fatal sources of discord along with tliem, At flrst the new colony was only inhabited by 'MOO of that fanatical army which hud fought and con- quered under the standards of the republi- can ^arty. These were soon followed b^' a multitude of royalists. The divisions wliu h had prevailed fur so long a time, and with so much violence, between the two parties in Europe, followed them beyond the seas. One party triumphed in the protection of Cromwell ; the other trusted to the go- vernor of the island, who was, in secret, a royiilint. The name of this governor was Dudley; and by his disinterested behaviour lie enforced his authority. When Charles II. was restored to the crown, A form of civil government was es- tablished at Jamaica, modelled, like those of the other islands, upon that of the mo- ther country. The governor represented the king; the council, the peers; and three deputies from each town, with two from every parish, constituted the commons. In I(!82 the code of laws was drawn up which has so long existed. Jamaica soon after became the grand de- pot of the bucciiuiurs, a set of pirates who plundered the seas, and ravaged the coasts of America. Here the spoils of Mexico and Peru met witli a ready reception ; and here "extravagance and dcbaucltery held their court," till this destructive race became extinct, or annihilated, in consequence of the frequency of the witrders they com- mitted. The illicit trade carried on between Jamaica and the Spanish colonies, had, in 1731), according to the best calcuia- lions, brought into the former upwards of 05,000,000/. sterling. The court of Ma- drid thought to put a stop to it, by prohi- biting the admission of foreign ships into the Spanish harbours, on any pretence whatever. Hut the people of Jamaica sup- ported themselves in this trade under the protection of the Enitlish meuof-war, by allowing the captain five per cent, upon every article of which ho authorized the smujcgling. Alter the establishing of register ships by Spain, this trade gradually diminished ; and some time previous to the year 17<>(li it was reduced to about 07,0001. per annum. The Uritish ministry at that time wishing to restore or recover the proHl of it, thought that the best expedient to rcfiair the Ioshcs of Jamaica was to inukc it a tree port. This was no sooner done than the Spanish Ame- rican ships flocked thither from all parts, to exchange their gold and silver, and other commodities, for the manufarturcs of Eng- land. St. Jago, or Spanish Town, is the capital, but Kingsion by fur exceeds it in size and opulence. The town of Port Koyal stood on a point of land running far out into the sea, and ships of 700 tons could come up close to the wharfs. 'When the earthi|UHku happened on the 7th of June, 1()1)2, this town contained two thousand houses, all of which were destroyed, and vast num- bers of persons perished. The carthqiinku was followed by an epidemic disease, which carried off 3000 more. Port Royal was soon rebuilt ; but in January, 1703, it experi- enced another great calamity, a Are nearly reducing it to ashes. Many people now re- moved to Kingston. It was, however, built a third time, and was rising towards its former grandeur, when it was overwhelmed by the sea, on the 28th of August, 1722. Kingston, althuu||[h not esteemed as the capital of Jamaica, is the commercial capi- tal: it was built in 16U2, from a plan of colonel Lilly's, after the earthquake which destroyed Port Royal. It is a beautitul city, laid out in squares, with streets wide and regular, crossed by others at right an- gles. The harbour is spacious, and capa- ble of admitting lOOU ships, or more, in safety. The internal quiet of the island has been fully established since the expulsion of the maroon or mountain Negroes, during tlie latter part of the 18th century. Jamaica is divided into three counties ; Middlesex in the centre, Surrey in the east, and Corn- wall in the west. These are subdivided into 21 parishes. The island is governed by the laws of its own house of assembly and council. MARTINIQUE. Martiniquk, one of the discoveries of Columbus, and the principal of the French Caribbec islands, is about forty miles in length, and ten in average breadth. It was first settled by M. Desnainbouc, a French- man, in the ^ear 1635, with only 100 men from St. Christopher's. He chose rather to have it peopled from thence than from Europe ; as he foresaw that men tired with the fatigue of a long voyage, would he likely to perish, after their arrival, either from the climate, or the hardships incident to most emigrations. They completed their first settlement without any dilllculty. The natives, intimidated by fire-arms, or seduced TUK FLANTAIN, BANANA, YAM, CASSAVA, AND BWBKT FOTATO, ABB INDIOBNOUS. ! { HUM OTAUKITB. n five per cent, upon icli he aulhorixed the hiitK of register ships i;rniiuBlly diiiiinished ; Dus to the year 17)>0i it It ajfOml. per annum. f at that time wishing the prolit of it, thouftht cnt to repair the losues ukc it A Iree port. This than the Spanish Ame- thither from all parts, hi and silver, and other I manufarturcs of Eng- ih Town, is the capital, ' exceeds it in size and n of Port Koyal stood Ltnning far out into the U tons could come up When the earthquHke Lh of June, icm, this ) thousand houses, nil royed, and vast num- shed. The earthquake ipidcroic disease, which e. Port Royal was soon iiuary, 1703, it e.xperi- calamity, a Are nearly , Many people now re- It was, however, built was rising towards its leu it was overwhelmed jth of August, \7'2i. ;h not esteemed ns the the commercial capi- 16112, from a plan of r the earthquake which ', It is a beautiful ares, with streets wide I by others at right an- is spacious, and capn- 000 ships, or more, in : of the island has been ce the expulsion of the II Negroes, during the 8th century. Jamaica e counties; Middlesex 1 in the east, and Corn- Thcsc are subdivided rhe island is governed >wn house of assembly INIQUE. e of the discoveries of principal of the French B about forty miles in vnrage breadth. It was i)(>snambouc, a Frcnch- 6'da, with only 100 men cr's. lie chose rather Trom thence than from law that men tired with ; voyage, would be likely ir arrival, cither from hardships incident to Tlicy completed their uiut anyditilculty. The by flrc-arms, or seducud 0, ABB INOIQB.NOVS. Tnii Risuuncia or ront-aico ahm whoi.lt Aoaicui.TuMAi.. ^^e astest JEntiia }E0lanT)«. 863 by promises, gave up to the French the western and the eouthorn parts of the is- land, and retired to the other. This tran- quillity was of short duration. The Caribs, when they saw those enterprising strangers daily increasing, were resolved to extirpate tliein : they therefore called in the natives of the neighbouring isles to their assis- tance, and suddenly attacked a little fort that lind been newly erected. They were, however, repulsed, leaving upwards of 700 of their best warriors dead upon the spot. After this check, they disanpcarcd for n long time ; and when they did nppear, it WHS with presents in their hands to their conquerorrt. The Indians, whose mnnnnr of life re- quires a vast extent of land, tinding them- selves daily more straiteiiod, waylaid the French who frequented the woods, and destroyed them. Twenty men bad been killed, before any one was uble to account for their disBiipcarnnce. No sooner was it discovered, limn the agRfcssors were pur- sued, their houses burnt, their wives and children massncrcd ; and those few that escaped the carnage, tied from Martinique, and never appeared there any more. The French, by this retreat, became sole masters of the island. They were divided into two classes : the tirst consisted of such as had paid their passage to the island, and those were called inhabitants. The govern- ment distributed lands to them, which be- come their absolute property upon paying a yearly tribute. These had under iheir command a number of disorderly people, sent from Europe, at their expense, whom they called engagh, or bondsmen. This engagement was a kind of slavery for three years, and when it expired, they became The first cultivation was confined to to- bacco, cotton, annatto, and indigo. That of sugar was introduced in 1050. llenjamin Dn Costn, ten years after, planted cocoa. In 1718, all the cocoa-trees were destroyed by the season, and the colfce-trce immedi- ately look its place. Early in the 18th century Martinique be- came the mart for oil the windward French settlements; and Port lloyal became the ninguziue for all mailers of exchange be- tween the colonics and the mother country. The prosperity of ihis island was very great until the war of 1711, when a stop was put, in a great measure, to the contraband trade with the Spanish colonies, by the introduc- tion of rcRistered ships. Mnrtinique was taken by the English in the bcKinuing of the year l/fiS, and re- turnedto Francein July, 1763' It was again taken by the English in 180veral years, but were at length TRINIDAD IS WBLL WATBBKD DT NVMIHOVS STRaAMS IN BVRBT DIRBCTION. lUADALOUr*. led for the Spanish jpon the coast. But iicse strangers were d, is now of no im- s treated them with I with them in mar- rung the race called itants oi Martinique snt. The Urst who peaceably, not only t by the assistance, 'his success induced example ; but these, f, or some other rao- ibs a fatal secret ; it ell their lands. This lem to measure, and am that instant peace e island. no sooner knew the opeans set upon the tnan they claimed a iribs, and also a share rovoked at being de- profits, they formed eparate tribe, swore ate with the Red Ca- if their own, and de- i war they were sue- Ives masters of all the equired of the Euro- Id again buy the lands ;hased. A Frenchman i deed of his purchase I he had bought of a r not," said the Black >apcr says; but read ly arrow. There you ers which do not lie, ve me what I demand, our house this uight." I on a change of mea- )f interest, put an end es. The French be- :hc strongest. In less ! population amounted )0 blacks. lu this sl- id when it fell into the n, to whom it was ee- of 1763. In 1779 it he French ; but it re- kin in 1783. no sooner got posses- id an order to deprive le lands of their pro- oed. The settlers re- i proceeding so unjust, 1 ; and the lands were glish ministry, to be jr. This severity made 16 went to St. Martin, Dupe, and Martinique ; to St. Lucia, ccupied the windward which contained fine refused to evacuate so to do by the Eng- k to arms to compel tunate people defend- extraordinary courage », but were at length IVIBT SIBXCTION. TUI AVIBASB VAI.UB OF A SLATB WAS SOMBWBAT LBSS THAN fiO{. ^fft mm £nDia SsIanUs. 855 obliged to aubmit. The greater part had been exterminated during the war, and the remainder either fled, or were sent off the island. DOMINICA. Dominica, discovered by Columbus, in 1493, is about thirtjr miles long, and six- teen broad. This island was for many years afterwards inhabited only by its na- tives. In 1732, nine hundred and thirty- eight Cariba were found there, dispersed in thirty-two carbets, or huts ; and three hundred and forty-nine French lived in a district by the sea-side. At the peace of 1763, when it became an English colony, it was found to contain six hundred whites, and two thousand blaeks. The island was captured by the French in 1778, but re- ■tored at the peace of 1783. The great advantage of this island to the English is its situation. It is nearly equi- distant from Guadaloupe and Martinique, and at a small distance from either; and its safe and commodious roads and bays enable their privateers and squadrons to intercept, without risk, the navigation of France in her colonies. GRENADA. Gbbn ADA, one of the West India islands belonging to Great Britain, is about thirty miles long, and twelve miles broad. The French formed a project for settling there as early as the year 1638, yet they never carried it into execution till 1651. At their arrival, they gave a few hatchets, some knives, and a barrel of brandy, to the chief of the natives they found there; and ima- gining they had purchased the island with these trifles, assumed the sovereignty, and soon a'ted as tvrants. The Caribs, unable to contend with them by open force, took the usual method which weakness inspires to repel oppression: they murdered all whom they found alone and defenceless. The troops that were sent to support the infant colony, destroyed all the natives they found. The remainder of these mi- serable people took refuge upon a steep rock ; preferring rather to throw them- selves down alive from the top of it, than to fall into the hands of au implacable enemy. The French called this rock, Le Morne de» Sauteurs, (the Hill of the Leap- ers), which name it still retains. The French held this island till 1762, when it was captured by the British, to whom it was confirmed by the treaty of 1763. The French, however, retook it in 1779; but restored it in 1783, agreeable to the treaty of peace. TRINIDAD. TiiiKiDAi) is the most southerly of the Windward Islands, and, next to Jamaica, the largest and most valuable of the West India islands belonging to Great Britain. It lies immediately off the north-cast coast of Colombia, being only separated from it by a narrow strait. It was first visited by Columbus in 1408, at the time he discovered the river Orinoco. Its favourable situation for carrying on trade with the main, as well as the neighbouring islands, its ex-^ tent, fruitfulness, and the convenience of its harbours, make it an object of consi- derable importance; indeed, so fertile is the soil, that not more than a thirtii-th part of its surface is incapable of cultiva- tion. Cocoa is more extensively grown in Trinidad than in any of the other Britiiih Antilles, and is of superior quality ; but its sugar plantations are still more important. Coffee, indigo, tobacco, and cotton, also come to perfection here, though the quan- tities grown are but small; but all the fruits and vegetables of the adjacent tro- pical climates are found in abundance ; and the pines transplanted from France or Spain are said to equal their parent stocks. The mineral products of Trinidad are considerable, but the most abundant is that of asphftltum, which is found in the greatest profusion in the lake Brea, or Pitch lake ; part of which is in a liquid state, and consists of fluid pitch of un» known depth, in a state of slow ebullition, and exhaling a strong bituminous and sul- fihurous odour. Exclusive of this pitch ake, Trinidad has several extinct volcanic craters and other positive evidences of vol- canic agency. It is, however, happily ex- empt from the destructive scourge of hur- ricanes. Although discovered in 1498, Trinidad was not taken possession of by the Spa- niards until 1588, when a similar scene of extermination of the natives occurred as marked most of the other territories in the New World wltich fell under their power. Raleigh visited it in 1505 ; and the French took It in 1696, but soon after restored it to the Spaniards, who held it till it was taken by the English in 1797, and ceded to them by the peace of Amiens, ST. EUSTATIUS. St. Eustativs, one of the West India islands, in the group called the Leeward islands, is about fifteen miles in circumfe- rence, and is, properly speaking, nothing but a steep mountain, rising out of the sea in the form of a cone, the centre of which is apparently the crater of an ex- tinct volcano. Some Frenchmen, who had been driven from St. Christopher's, took refuge there in 1629, and abandoned it soon after. The Dutch got possession of it in lO.tO. They were afterwards driven out by the English, and the latter by the French, to whom it was ceded by the treaty of Breda ; notwithstanding winch, Louis XIV. re- stored it to the Dutch, in whose possession it remained until the American war, when it was taken by the English, and retaken by the Dutch. During the French repub- lican war, it was again taken by the En- glish, with whom it now remains. Ml i TUB ISIAHD OF TOUAOO IS BRTOND TUB BANOB OF rUli UUBBICANB8. TBB mUBflANB SISCOVXBBU TUX KOBTH-WSBTIIlIf BHOBXS OF AMXHICA. iff. -«• ■ / 6fi6 VLi}z treasury of l^istori), 8 a French fleet, destined to sieze upon Tobago, fell in with the Dutch fleet sent out to oppose this ex- pedition. They engaged in the road of the island ; and the courage displayed on both sides was such, that every ship was dis> masted, nor did the engagement cease till twelve vessels were burnt. The French lost thf fewest men ; but the Dutch kept possession of the island. D'Estrees was determined to take it, and landed there the same year, in the month of December, at a time when there was no fleet to obstruct his progress. A bomb, thrown from his camp, blew up their pow- der magasine, which proved a decisive stroke; and the Dutch, unable to resist, surrendered at discretion. The conquerors availed themselves to the utmost uf the rights of war : not contented with razing the fortifications, they burnt the plan- tations, seized upon all the sUps in the harbour, and transported the inhabitants. This conquest was secured to France by the peace that soon followed. The French, however, neglected this im- portant island ; not a single man was sent thither for many years, and it fell into n very low condition. The English claimed a right to Tobago; their arms confirmed their preteosions ; and it was ceded to England by the peace of 17C3. It was taken by the French in 1781, and ceded to them by the peace of 1783. The English aprain took it in the French republican war, (1793), and it now remains with them. THE BAHAMAS. Thkbb islands, the first which Colum- bus discovered in America, are about five hundred in number, and belong to Great Britain. St. Salvador, one of them, was the first land discovered by Columbus, on the 12th of October, 1492. They are, in general, little more than rocks just above water. AVhen first discovered, some were densely inhabited, and their natives were sent, by the Spaniards, to perish in the mines of St. Domingo. Not one of them had a single inhabitant in 1672, when the English landed a few men on that e^led New Providence, who were all destroyed by the Spaniards seven or eight years after. This disaster did not deter other English- men from settling there in 1690. They had built about 160 tiouaes, when the French and Spaniards jointly attacked them in 1/03, destrojrcd their plantations, and car- ried o£F their negroes. The pirates next got possession, and insulted every flag, till 1719, when England fitted out a suflBcient force to subdue them. The J^reater part of them accepted the pardon held out upon submission, and served to increase the co- lony, which Woods Ilogers brought with him from Britain. There are other islands in the West Indies, belun^ing to the English, Danes, Swedes, and Dutch, but of so little conside- ration, that to give details of them would afibrd but little interest or real inorma- tiou to our readers. THE HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. Until the last century it was believed that a great continent existed in the South- ern Ocean, to which the name of Terra AustraliB was given ; it being inferred that the different points of land discovered to the south of the islands of Java and Cele- bes, and of the Capcof Good Hope, afforded ample proof of such a theory. The disco- veries of modern geographers, however, go to invalidate the hypothesis that there is any continent south of America. Under the names of Auatralia (or Aus- tralasia] and Polynesia is comprehended a maritime division of the globe, in contradis- tinction to the older terrene divisions of Europe, Asia, Africa, and .'.-..in'.-^; being altogether a classification . ' > si anas, includ- ing no one continent under a general name, like the other divisions of the world, in which various kingdoms are circumscribed by one shore ; and so far it is an anomaly in geographical classitication. We shall first speak of the more important division, now known as TUX BBITiaU rOSSBSBIONS IN AMERICA ABB GKNSRAI.I.Y COLD AND STBItlLB. AMBBICA. ind it fell into n English claimed nrms confirmed it wns ceded to f 17C3. It was rsi, and ceded to 13. The English h republican war, g with them. MAS. It which Colum* ;a, are about five belong to Great ne of them, was by Columbus, on U2. They are, in rocks just above ivcred, some were heir natives were to perish in the Not one of them in 1672, when the en on that called rere all destroyed r eight years after, ter other English- in 1690. They had when the French attacked them in mtations, and car- The pirates next iltcd every flag, till ted out a sufficient riie ifreater part of ion held out upon to increase the co- gers brought with ands in the West le English, Danes, of BO little conside- ails of them would !t or real iuorma- e M IE U M M M •< M M < M (4 H H H 0) O A m JIA. I is comprehended a ! globe, in contradis- terrene divisions of nd A, ,«:-•»; 'jeing on >' iorted should be rent to pass their time of servi- tude. Some difficulties, however, prevented its being pat into execution till December, 1786, when orders were issued, by the king in council, for making a settlement on New Holland. The squadron appointed for put- ting the design in execution, assembled at the Motherbank on the 16th of May, 1787- It consisted of the Sirius frigate, captain John Hunter; the Supply armed tender, lieutenant H. L. BaU ; three storeships, the Golden Grove, Fishburn, aud Borrowdale, for carrying provisions and stores for two years ; and, lastly, six transports ; these were to carry the convicts, with a detachment of marines in each, proportioned to the nature of the service. On tue arrival of governor Philip at the station, he hoisted his flag on board the Sirius, as commodore of the squadron. On the 13th of May they weighed anchor. The number of convicts was 778, of which 558 were men. On the 3rd of Janu- ary, 17H8, the Supply armed tender came within sight of New Holland ; but the winds becoming variable, and a strong current TUB MURRAY BIVBB 18 MOT LBSS THAN 1500 KItBS IN LBNQTH. [4D8 I' > I i ! I: >■ J LAKH AIIB ABVRBAHT IN AVITHALIA, BUT NONI ABB TBIIT LAROK. 858 t!l\)t ^rcasuri} of l^istors, $rc. n M n a o I u I ■* I H I 3 O impeding llicir course, prevented tlicni from reaching liotany Day befor« the 18tk doy of the same month. Governor Philip had no looner landed than he set about an examination of tlie country surrounding Botany Bay, which had been so strongly recommended by cap- tain Cook as the most eligible place for a settlement. He found that neither the bay, nor the land about it, appeared favourable for a colony ; being in some places entirely swampy ; in others, quite destitute of water. The governor, flnding the difflculties that he had to surmount, determined to examine the lands further on, and accordingly went, with several officers, in three boats, to Port Jackson, about three leagues distant from Botany Bay. Here they had the satisfac- tion to find one of the finest harbours in the world, where a thousand sail of the line might ride in perfect safety. A cove, which he called Sydney Cove, in honour of lord Sydney, and the country around it, he destined for the settlement: orders were therefore immediately given for the removal of the fleet to Port JacKson. The convicts, and others, destined to re- main in New South Wales, reached Port Jackson on the 26th of January. No time was lost in beginning to clear the ground for an encampment, storehouses, &c. The work, however, went on but slowly ; partly owing to the natural difflculties they had to encounter, and partly owing to the ha- bitual indolence of the convicts, as well as to a want of carpenters ; only twelve con- victs being of that trade, several of whom were sick, and no more than sixteen could be hired from .Ml the ships. But on the 7th of February a regular form of govcrnnieut was established in the colony. The scurvy soon began to ra^e with vio- lence; so that, bv the beginning of May, two hundred people were rendered incapa- ble of work; and no more than eight or ton acres of barley, or wheat, had been sown, besides what individuals had sown for themselves. Tlie natives now began to show an hostile disposition, whicli they had not hitherto done, and several con- victs, who had strolled into the woods, were murdered. All possible enquiry was made after the natives who had been guilty of the murder, but without effect. Cook's survey of the cast const did more for Australian discovery than the united la- bours of all who preceded him ; nor should it be forgotten that captain Bligh, after the mutiny of the Bounty, in ITSO, thoujj;h in an open boat, and devoid of almost every necessary, carried a series of observatious that added much to tlic information before obtained. By this time, however, many En- glish colonists had arrived, and home and col( nial expeditions were actively set on foot. But tlie greatest discoverers, towards tlie end of last century, were Bass and Flinders. In 1798 they sailed through the strait between Van Dieman's Land (now often called Tasmania) and New Holland ; these two being marked in Cook's chart as continuous, and the fact of their being otherwise not having before boon proved. Further discoveries have since been made ; but it is to Cook and Flinders that we are iudebted for the most valuable information. The eastern coast, or New Soutli Wales, commences at Cape York, in 1U°. SU". S. lat., and terminates at Wilson's Promon- tory in Bass's strait, in 39° 0', including an extent of 700 leagues. A chain of moun- tains appears to run parallel to this coast, through its whole length, whose bases are from lU to 30 leagues from the sea. Until of late years all atienipts to pars this natu- ral barrier have been unsuccessrul. It has, however, at last been overcome ; and, in- stead of the sandy deserts or the inland seas with which conjecture had occupied the interior, the discovery of beautiful mea- dows, watered by considerable rivers and by chains of ponds, has given to the colo- nists new prospects of extension and riches. The coasts towards the south arc in gene- ral elevated and covered with lofty trees. Towards the north they are lower, bordered with mangrove swamps, and lined with a labyrinth of islets and coral reefs. The Blue Mountains, which rise behind the seat of the colony, are a mixture of primitive and secondary rocks. In exhibiting the leading features of this extensive division of the globe, we are bound to give some slight account of the coral reefs and islets with whicli the Australian sens abound. They are seen in all their stages of formation. Captain Flinders, who was wrecked on one of them, conjectures, "that when the animaoulK, which form the co- ral at the bottom of the ocean, cease to live, their structures adhere to each other, by virtue cither of the glutinous remains within, or of some property in salt water ; and the insterstices being filled up with sand and broken pieces ot coral waslied by the sea, which also adhere, a mass of rock is at length formed. Future races of tliese nnimaculte erect tl|eir habitations upon the rising bank, and die in their turn, to in- crease, but principally to elevate, this mo- nument of their labours." It is pretty well authenticated that these submarine labour- ers uniformly build the outer part of their erection perpendicularly from the very bot- tom of the deepest seas. As it rises to the surface, and out of the water, salt plants, vegetable matter of various descriptions, floating wreck, and other accumulations attach themselves to it; "we had wheat- sheafs, mushrooms, stags' horns, cabbage )eavcs, and a variety of other forms, glow- in)t under water," says Dr. Flinders, " with vivid tints of every shade betwixt green, purple, brown, and white." The dung of birds and various seeds and other food they occasionally scatter, are fruitful sources of the growth of these extraordinary produc- tions of the deep; some are seen con- siderably below the water, otliers just ap- pearing above its surface ; some as barren rocks with no indications of soil ; others with a thin layer of enrth, or a few weeds on the highest part ; and others. Again, well clothed with soil, and even with timber. IN DUy SIIASONS TUB VKOKTABLR KINODOM IS ALMOST ANNIBILATBD. r iiAnan. [;forc been proved. iiinco been mnde ; inders that we arc uable inforniatic.n. Vew South Wnici, rk, in 10«>. 31;'. 8. Wilion'a rromoii- 0" ()', including an A cbniii of nioun- nllcl to tliis coait, li, whoic basea are )ni the sea. Until I to past this natu- luccessriil. It buR, >vercoine ; and, in* rrti or the inland turc bad occupied •y of beautiful nica- dcrable rivers and given to the colo- [tension and richei. south are in gene- d with lofty trees, are lower, bordered and lined witit a coral reefs. The rise behind the seat ixture of primitive ing features of this globe, we are bound tnt of the coral reefs he Australian sens in all their stages Flinders, who was , conjectures, " that irhich form the co- he ocean, cease to Ibere to each other, glutinous remains [)erty in salt water ; :ing tilled up with ot coral waslicd by ere, a mass of rock uture races of these labitatious upon the a their turn, to in- to elevate, this mu- s." It is pretty well e submarme labour- outer part of their f from the very bot- I. As it rises to the s water, salt plants, arious descriptions, ther accumulations t; "we had wheat- igs' horns, cabbage ' other forms, glow- Dr. Flinders, "with lade betwixt green, lite." The dung of and other food they e fruitful sources of :traordinary produc- ome are seen con- )ter, others just ap- ce; some as barren ions of soil ; others ovth, or a few weeds id others, again, well I even with timber. tNIHILATID. TIIUNOIR, MQUTNINO, AND BAIL-tTORM* AKB VIKT VHEqUBNT IN AUSTBALIA. ^i)e l^istorp of ISiustraUa. «59 The recent naviy;ator whom we have quot- ed, describes himself as having to seek fourteen days, and sail upwards of 6U0 miles amongst that range of reefs and islets which environs the eastern const of New Ilollniul, before he could And a passage through them to the open sea. In the article jiuitralia in M'Cultoch's Geography, which has been carefully con- structed from the latest authorities, the disadvantages under which the native has to labour are thus ably stated : " Nature has been singularly unkind to the Australian, not in his conformation only, but in the circumstances by which he has been sur- rounded. The fertile spots titted for the supply of hit limited wants are separated by aeserts as wild and inhospitable as the sands of Arabia; and to pass these, he had not, like the Arabs, the assistance of Eatient, strong, and faithful servants of the rute creation. No rivers flow through his strangely constituted land ; and thus com- munication, the great rctluer and improver of men, was rendered difficult and of rare occurrence. His soil was destitute of those plants, which, though " eaten in the sweat of his brow," are the incentives to roan's labour, and the reward of his toil; nor did it feed a single animal like those which, in more favoured regions, have formed from time to time immemorial the shepherd's occupation and wealth. The Australian being shut out from the two grand primi- tive employments, his life could be neitlier pastoral nor agricultural. " Under less adverse circumstances, the red man continued a hunter in the greater part of America, during the ages that pre- ceded his discovery by the European ; but even this resource was only very partially available to the Australian; for not only were the animals around him inferior in kind, but also remarkably few in number. Even the excitement of hunger, which may be supposed to have roused the African to exertion bv making his life a constant strug- gle with the Aerce and powerful tenants of the woods, wac wanting there ; for in Aus- tralia there was nothing dan|{erous, ex- cept some noxious reptiles, which do not, however, appear to have very fatal powers. Tlie Australian has had nothing but hun- ger to contend with : and this he has en- deavoured to appease by picking up the spontaneous productions of his ungrateful soil, and the shell-tish found on the sea- shore, with iuHects and reptiles, to which he occasionally added a kangaroo or bird, overtaken or destroyed by accident. And Mitchell mentions, that such is the icar- city of the latter kind of food, that young men are forbidden to eat it. Of sunerlluities the Australian had no knowledge ; and the surmise of Cook, that it was impossible the inland country should subsist inhabit- ants at all seasons, was found by Sturt to be fatally verified in the dry year of 1828. " Hut the adverse circumstances now al- luded to do not, as some suppose, fully ex- plain the barbarous condition of the Aus- tralian. The stupidity of his nature, and the inertness of his faculties, arc evinced by his having made few or no cflorts to increase his suuply of fond, or to obvinte those incessantly recurring attacks nf fa- mine to which he has always been exposed. His want of other things should liiivoniade him an expert fisher and hunter of such animals as are native to his country; but ho is neither the one nor the other; and though it be probably going too far to say that the Australian is incaiinblc of im- Erovcment, the fair presumption seems to e, that he is destined to remain for ever at the bottom of the scale of civilization ; and to be inferior in point of comfort, as he has hitherto hardly been superior in con- trivance, to many of the lower animals." NEW ZEALAND. Nrw Zkai.ahd, a group of islands in the South Pacific Ucean, was 'liseovercd by Tasman in ICAJ. lie traversed the eastern coast, from latitude 34 to 43 south, and en- tered a strait ; but being attacked by the natives soon after he came to nnrlior, in the place to which he gave the nnnie of Murderer's Bay, he did not go on shore. lie called the country Staten Land, in ho- nour of the States General ; though it has been generally distinfruished, in maps and charts, by the ntme of New Zealand. From the time of Tasman, the whole coun- try, except that part which was seen by him, remained unknown, and was by ninny supposed to make a part of a southern con- tinent. In 1770, it was circumnavigated by cap- tain Cook, who found it to consist of two large islands ; the northernmost called, by the natives, ^ioiomawie; and the southern- most, TotaipotHammoo ; separated by a strait, which he named after himself. The coast is indented with deep bays, affording excellent shelter for shipping. There arc also several rivers, particularly in the north- ern island, capable of receiving large eliips, in which the spring-tide rises ten feet per- pendicular, one of which rivers is called the Thames. Captain Cook, in 1773, planted several spots of ground with European garden seeds ; and in 1777, in several of these spots, although totally neglected and over- run with weeds, were found cabbn^es, onions, leeks, parsley, radishes, niuHtnrd, &c. and a few fine potatoes, greatly im- proved by change of soil. In other pluces, every thing had been rooted out, to make room for temporary villages. Captain Cook also introduced European poultry ; and on his last visit had the satisfaction to find them increased, in a wild and domestic state, beyond all danger of being extermi- nated. From that period the coasts were occasionally visited by whalers, and some communication was held with the natives ; but until 1813, when a missionary ! ropean brunette. MTere it not for tho dis- gusting practice of occasionally feasting on tho prisoners thoy take in battle, and tho crimo of infanticide— both of which barbarities are said to be rapidly on the decline— it may be said that tiie New Zea- landers arc Icis addicted to the vloea of aavago life than most other savages. Thesa islands lia between the .'i'tth and •18th degrees of south latitude, and be< tween ;lie 16 scription necessary. ■ ,' ',\t . '' ' ... .-,■■ t. .'■'■ POLYNESIA. V This name, aa we nnve already observ- ed, is given by modern geographers to va- rious groups of islands in the Great I'aciiic Ocean, lying eait of the Aiiatic iilands and Australia, and on both sides the equator; stretching through on extent of about 5100 miles from north to south, and ;i(U)0 from cast to west.' Every thinii; bespeaks their Rubmnrine creation, and in many are po- sitive evidences of volcanic ngency. They are sometimes divided into Northern and {Southern I'olynesia, and classed in the fol- lowing groups : — Pelew Islands ; Carolines ; Ladroucs ; Sandwich Islands ; Friendly Is- lands; Gnllapagos; Admiralty Iiles; New Ireland; New Hritoin ; and New Hanover; Solomon's Islands ; New Hebrides and New Caledonia ; Queen Charlotte's Islands; Na- vigators' Islands ; Society Islands ; Mar- (|U08ns ; Pitcnirn Island &c. Of these we shall only mention a few ; as they can hardly bo said to come within the scope of n work professedly historicol ; though their entire omission might be regarded as a defect. LADRONES, OR MARIANNE ISLANDS. TuK Ladrones arc a cluster of islands be- longing to Spain, lying in the North Pacific Ocean, between the 12th and 21st degrees of north latitude, and about the 145th decree of cast longitude. They were dis- covered by Magellan, who gave them the name of Ladrone Itlandt, or the lalanda nf Thiereg, from the thievish disposition of the inhabitants. At the time of this discovery, the natives were totally ignorant of any other country than their own, and, as it is said, were actually unacquainted with the clcmont of Are, till Magellan, provoked by their roppfttcd thefts, burned one of their villngrs. At the latter end of the 17tli century thrv obtained the name of the Marianne Islands, iVom the queen of Spain, Mary Ann of Austria, mother of Ohatlki IX., at whose expense missionaries werr sent thither to propagate the Christian faitl>. Though plunged in the deepest ignorance, aud destitute of every thing valued by tha rest of mankind, no nation ever shewed more presumniion, or a greater conceit of themselves, than these islanders; for, to use the words uf an old voyager, they look- ed on themselveiii as the only sensible and polished people in the world. As Japan lies \ ithin six or seven daya sail of them, som ' jave been induced to believe that the tirr.: inhabitants came from that empire : but, from the greater resem- blonce to the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands thau to the Japanese, it ie more probable that they came from tho former. CoBunodore Anson visited the Ladrones in 1742, and describes Tirrian, one of the group, as abounding with every thiag ne- cessary to human subsistence, and pre- senting at the same time a pleasant and delightful appearance, where hill and val- ley, rich verdure, and spreading trees form- ed a happy intermixture. Subsequent navi- gators, liowcver, found the island to have been deserted, and become an uninhabit- able wilderness. The natives of the La- drones are tull, robust, and active, manag- ing their canoes with admirable adroitness, Guajan is the largest island in the group, and the population consists of settlers from Mexico and the Philippine Islands. FRIENDLY ISLANDS. Thb Friendly Islands are a group or cluster of islands said to beupwaras of one hundred in number, in the Southern Paci- fic Ocean. They received their name from the celebrated captain James Cook, in the year 17/3, in consideration of the friendship which appeared to subsist among the in- habitants, and from their courteous beha- viour to atrangera. The chief islands are TUK FUACTICK OV TATTOOING TUB VACH AND BODY aBnBBALI.V rBBVAILS. s M M M K K M e b ■ e M o o a M IS M H t> ki O OLTNIIU. irlc oh«iiiut, thoniih ice to tiio gipRjr, and mpli'xioii of an Ku> e it not for tho dU. coaiioiialljr fnaitlnir Uke ill battle, and ide— botli of wliinli be rapidiv on tlie that the New Zea. ted to tlie vioea of ther Mvagei. tween tlie .l-lth and I latitude, and be- 0th deKreoa of rait itipodea of London reat Britain. — Tlia > the Australian di. riant to render de- M 8 M O *• *• b ■ B e m I* rt other of Ohartcall., iionariea werr acnt e Chriatian faith, e deepest ignorance, hing valued by th« lation ever ahewed » frreatcr conceit of » lalandcra; for, to ToyaKcr.tboy look- e only aenaible and world. I aix or aeven daya "I been induced to labitants came from i the greater reaem- ts of the Philippine | ipaneac, it it more : < from tho former, jited the Ladronea ' I irrian, one of tho I Ih every thiag ne- ' tiatence, and pre- iiic A pleasant and ! >'hero hill and vaU i readinK treea form- ' Subaequcnt nnvi- thc iaiand to have me an uninhabit- ativca of the La- ' nd nptive, innnag- nirableadroitncaa. , and in the group, itaofBettlerafrom )c Islanda. i a B r s A M M M O M l9 O fei O H •LANDS. are a group or beupwardaofone le Southern Paci- 1 their name from mes Cook, in the lofthefrieudsbip It among the in- r courteoua beha- shief iaiands are FKaVAIlS. H b H M e o o H H III riiHiNO la A TBHv rAVouHiTB AMuiaMaiiT or TUKia laLANuaaa. rrrrrr. ^\)t 1^i«tori} of 1|PoIuntsin. 861 Ananio(ika,T(in|i;n(aboo, Lcfoo|(a, and Koon. Abel JanHcn Tamiian, an eminent Dulrh navigator, tirat toucliRd hero in \n4H, and gave nninc* to the principal iilanda. ('an- tain ('uok liilmriouRly explored tho whole cluster, which ho found to coniint of up- warda of lixty. Tliu three lalanda wbicli Taauian inw, be named Aniatrrdni'i, Rot- terdam, and Middlcburg. Tongataboo ii the reiidcnce of tho Rovcritign and tbn chiefs. These iaiands are fertile, and in genrrnl highly cultivated. Uooa is des- cril)ed as a beautiful spot: the land, rising gently to a considerable height, presents tho eye with an extensive view. Captain Cook and some of bis offlecrs walked up to the highest point of the island. " Wliilc I was surveying this delight I'ul prospect," says the captain, " I could not help tlaller ing myself with tho pleasing idea, tliat some future navigator may, from the same station, behold these meadows stocked with cattle, brought to these islands by the ships of Kngland; and that the completion of this single benevolent purpose, indepen- dent of all other considerations, would suf- Hcicutly mark to posterity, that our voyages had uot been useless to the general inte- rests uf humanity." Of the nature ot their government,, no more is known than the general outline. The power of the king is unlimited, and the life and propi^rt^ of the subjects are at his disposal ; and instances enough were seen to prove, that the lower order of peo- ple have no property, nor safety for their persons, but at the will of the chiefa to whom they respectively belong. lialiitantH have degenernted rather than im- proved since Cook's tune. SOCIETY' ISLANDS. TiiR Society Islands, in the Pacitic Ocean, are eight iu number ; viz,, Utabeite, Una- hcine, Ulitea, Otaha, Uolabola, Maurowa, Toobaee, and Tabooyamanoo. They are situated between the latitude of in? lU' and 16" &.V south, and between the longi- tude of luO<> 57' and I62b west. The peo- ple, relif^ioD, language, customs and man- ners, soil, and productions, arc nearly the same aa at Otaheite, of which wc shall speak. Otaheite was discovered by captain VTal- lis in 17C7> who called it King George the Third's Island. Uougainville, a French circumnavigator, next arrived at it in 17(ii^> and staid ten days. Captain Cook, in the Endeavour, next visited it in 1709, in com- pany with Mr. Banks, (afterwards air Jo- seph Banks,) Dr. Solander, and other learn- ed men, to observe the transit of Venus, and staid three months ; and it was visited by captain Cook in his two succeeding voyages; since which time the Spaniards, and other Europeans, have called there. It consists of two peninsulas, great part of which is covered with woods, consisting of bread-fruit trees, palms, cocon-nuts, and all tropical vegetation. The people of this and the neighbouring islands, are the most honest and civilized of any in the Paciflc Ocean ; but it appears certain that the in- SANDWKI! ISLANDS. Thk Handwieb Islaiiiln, in the Nnrth Pa- cific Ocean, ronsist of eleven in Miii>iber. They are called, by the n.'itives, llwbvbee, Mowii', llaiini, Monitoi, Tabiiorowii, VVoii- kdo, AtDoi, Neebeelieow, Orebowa, Mom- tinne, and Takoorn ; all inhiibited, exeriit tbn two la:it. They were discovered by captain Cook in 1777 and \7T^- (ioals and Kuropean seeds were left by tbn Knglish at their depnrturn the tirst time: but tho possession of the goats soon gave rise to a conicHt between two dis- tricts, ill which the breed was entirely de- stroyed. The inhabitants are undoubtedly of tbn same race as those tiiat posHenH I Ik; islands south of the equator; and in ibcir persons and manner, approueb nearer to tbc New /ealanders than to their le:ruary, niteiided hy the lieutenant of niuriiies, a serjeant, a corporal, and seven privates. The crew of the pinnace, under the command of Mr. Huberts, were also armed ; and as they rowed ashore, the cap- tain ordered the launch to leave her station at the opposite point of the liny, in order to astsiKt his own boat. Having landed with ihe marines at the upper end of thu town, the Indians Hocked round him, nnd prostrated themselves before him. The kiiiK's sons waited on the captain as soon as he sent for them, and by their means he was introduced to tho kinir, who readily consented to ^» on board; butin a little time the natives bcKan to arm themselves with loni( spears, clubs, and da)(|f[er8. An old priest now appeared with a cocoa-nut in his hand, wincli he held out asn iircsent to captain Cook, singinK nil the while, with a view to divert the attention of the cnp- tain and his (icople from observing the motions of the Indians, who were now every where putting on their thick mats which they use as defensive armour. Cap- tain Cook begiuninK to think his situa- tion dnnstcrous, ordered the lieutennnt of marines to march towards the shore, as he himself did, having all the while hold of the king'* hand, who verv readily apnoinpn. nied him, attended h» liii wifn, two sons, and several cbiufi. The Indians iiiadu a lane for ihem lo pass) and the distance they hail to go was only about Hfty or sixty yards i while llie hoals lay at no more than tlv« ur lu yards from Ihe land. The kinic's youuKest son, Keowa, went on board llie pinnace without husiiatiun i and Tarrnboo, Ihn kiiiK, wni about to follow, when his wife threw het arini about his nrrk, and. with tho nssislancn of two chiefs, forced him lo sit down. The captain HndiiiK that he could not lakn the kiiia aloiiK with him without n Kreut deal of bloodshed, was on the point of Kivinx orders for bis peoide to re-embark, wTien one of tho Indians threw a stone at him. This insult was returned by the cnptnin, who hnd a duuble-barrelled Kun, bv a discharite of small shot from one of the barrels. This hnd little ell'ect, as the man hnd n Ihiek mal before him ; nnd a* he now brniidished his spear, the captain knocked him down with hi* musket, 'ihe kiuK'a ■<<■> ■I'll leiuaincd in the piniiace ; and the detention of him would have been a KCt'Ot check uiion thu Indians; but Mr. Kuberti, who bau Iho commnnd of ibe pin- nace, set him on shire, nt his reiiuest, soon nfter the tlrst Hre. Another liulian beiiiK observed by thu captain lo be brandishinK his spear at him, Im llred at him, hut miss- iiiK, killed one close by his side; upon which tho lerjeaul, observing that he bad missed the man he aimed at, received or- ders to lire also, which ho did, and killed him on the spot. Cautain Cook now called to the )ieople lu the boats to come nearer, to receive the marines. This ordrr was obeyed by Mr Roberts; but the lieutenant who commanded tho launch, instead of coining nearer, put off to a greater dis- tance, and by his conduct deprived the cnptnin of the only chance he had for hit life. Cnptnin Cook was now observed mak- ing fur the pinnace. An Indian was seen to follow him, who struck him on the back of the head with a club. The captain BtBi^- Kcred a few paces, and then fell on his hand and one knee, and dropiicd his mus- ket, lieforo he could recover himself, ano- ther Indian stabbed him with n dagger in the neck, and he fell into the water; when a savage struck him with a club, which pro- bably put nn end to his life. They hauled bis body on the rocks, and used it in the most barbarous manner. Thu chief who first struck him with the club, was named Kari* inana llaha ; and he who slabbed him with the dagger, was culled Nuoah. Owing to the barbarous disposition of the Indians, it was found impossible to recover captain Cook's body : however, by dint of threats and negotiation, some parts were procured, by which meant the navigators were enabled to perforin the last otUces to their much respected commander. Theae being put into n cottin,nnd tiie service rend over tiicni, were committed to the deep, with the usual honour*, on the 2lstof Feb- ruary, 1771). TUKIIB AHK MANy ISLANDS IN FOI.YNBBIA TKT UNVI8ITKD Bt KUROrBANB. !^ ^ lU AT iui,im. »er» renillly Hrnuinnii- 'If lii» wi(o, two loni, lIlO llllliHIll iiiHilu « '•1 Hnil till) ilulHiirn ¥ about Hliy nr lixty • lay Ml no niiirii ilian lli« land. The kins'i wi-nt on board tin- «tion ; and Tnrrnlioi), III fojlliw, Hhl-li |,U about Ilia nrck, and. i>f two fhirfu, lorci-d n captain HiidiiiK ibat jtiiiBalonKwitb liiui >r bloodaliiid, wan on d«rii for Ilia |iimi|iIi> to if thn liiiliniiN ilircw InaiiU. wai ri'liiniKil lid n doublcbarrulioa "iinall iliot from one nd litilevU'uci, m tlii< before biiui and a* la ipear, tliu captain til Ilia niuikct. 'I'he iiii'd iu the piiiiiMce t bun would havn bt-cn lie ludiaiii; but Mr. coiiiiiiaiiil of llu; pin- p, at hii rcouciit, luon ■lothcr Imlian heiuK lin lo be braiiduliinK red at him, but miia. by bin aide ; upon bn-rvuiK 'liHl hchnd imud ut, received or- ch he did, and killed tain Cook now enlled loHti to come nearer, ic». Tliia Older waa »; but flic lieutenant I launch, insteud of )ff to u Krcater dii- induct deprived the lunce ho had for his a now obaervcd niak- An Indinn was seen uck hill) on the back i>. The cautaiu stair- lid then fell on his id dropucd his nius- recover himself, ano- im with a dagger in uto the water; when til a club, which pro- life. They liHulcd his used it in the most "he chief who lirst jb, was named Kari« lo slabbed him with Nooab. us disposition of the "possible to recover liowevcr, by dint of u, some purls were tans the navigators (1 the last otltces to :ommander. These «nd tlie service rend litted to the deep, on the :21st of I'eb- XUaoPBANS. J ■ SSAI.TIO <.OI.I/MNS lireilN IN MSMT r*HTS U* THK WKSTaHM (MIAST, t!ri)c l^iatoiu of H(clant). 803 ICKl.ANl). IrnLAND Is a larifo UiRnd In th^* northern part of the Atlani Ocean, between the n:ird iind thn ri7ili degrrrs of north lati- tude, and between ihn lltth niid 2;ird de- grees of west longitude from liondon. It IS of a very irregular shape, and eniiiains nhout rill.lHMI iiiliMbilniits. At what time tin- iilaiid of Iceland was first peopled is uneerlaiii. Tim Iceland ehronicles go no farther back than the nr- rival of the Norwegians, about the year Hill, wlien Naddodr, a pirate, was driven on the coast. In Nri-I, (larder Huafarson, a Nwede, eneourngcd by the account given by Naddodr, went In search of It, sailed round it, and gave it thn name of (iarder- sliolmer, nr (inrder's Inland. Having re- mained in Iceland during thn winter, be returned in the spring to Norway, where he described thn iiewdiscovered island as a pleasant, well- wooded country. This ex- cited a desire In Floke, aiuither Hwede, re- puted the best navigator of bis time, to undertake a voyage tbitb 'r. I'loke staid liiu whole winter in the island, and, be- cause hn found great quHnii^ics of floating ice on the north side, he called it Iceland, which name it has ever since retuined. In H74, Ingolfr, aiii^ his friend I.iefr, es- tablished a colony ; and in sixty years the whole island was inhabited. The tyriinny of Harold, king of Norway, contributed not a little to the populatiou of Iceland. He- sides the Norwegians, pew colonies arrived fkum different nations. In 028 they chose a chief; hut his powers were inconsiderable, and the Icelanders began to wage war against ench other. They remained, however, free from a fo- reign yoke till 1201, when they became subject to the Norwegians. Afterwards Iceland, together with Norway, became subject to iFcnmark. Iceland is famous for tlin volcanoes with which it abounds, appearing, indeed, to owe its existence to submarine volcanic agency, and to have been uuheuvvd at in- tervals from the bottom of the sea. Tracts of lava traverse th uir, arrived at last at such an aimi/.ing alti- tiiile as to be seen at the diniHtice of up- wards of 2U0 miles; the wlml.. country, for double that distance, beii.g enveloped in the densest smoke and Kteaiii, while the atnionphere was tilled with sand, brimstone, iind ashes, in such a manner • ». to occasion continual darkness, ('oiisideru'.ic damage was done by the pumice Htone, which fell red-hot in great quantities. Along with thcH);, a tenacious substance, like pilch, fell in abundance. This shower having conti- nued for three days, the Hre lieeHinc very visible, nnd at last arrived at the amazing height alrcaily mentioned. Hoinetiiiies it appeared in a continual stream, at others in tlashcs. with a perpetual iiomc like thun- der, which lasted the whole summer. The obscurity occasioned by this extraordinary eruption, seems to have reached as fur as Great Britain; for, during the whole sum- mer of 1/83, a haze or dullness appeared to darken the atmosphere. The whole extent of ground covered by the lava, was computed to he ninety miles long, by forty-two in breadth ; the depth of the lava being from sixteen to twenty fathoms. Twelve rivers were dried up, twenty-one villages were destroyed, and 224 persons lost their lives. Alter this eruption, two new islands were thrown up in the sea; one of about three miles in circumference, and about u mile 'n height, nt the distance of 100 miles south- west from Iceland, in 100 fathoms water. ^l FRW MSTAI.8 ABK HBT WITU, BUT THR SIII.FIHIS IS i:(BXnAUSTIIlI,K. TIIK KXI'ORTS or OnRHNLAND ABB WUAtB OIL, (BAIi, AND BBAn-RKINS. ; f? m U'' !• 864 ^Ije ^reasuty of l^istori), $cc. Tlin oilier lay to the north-west, between Iceland and Ureenland, Doth tlicie iilunds subteqtu'utly disappeared. Iceland abounds also with hot and boil- ing springs, called geyaera, some of which throw the water into the nir to the sur- prising heiglit of from 2U0 to 300 feet. These arc, indeed, the most remarkable phenomena in Iceland. The great geyser, or principal fountain of this kind, rises from a tube or funnel, seventy-eight feet in perpendicular depth, and from eight to ten feet in diameter at the bottom, but gradually widening till it terminates in a capacious basin. The jets take place at intervals of about six hours ; and when the water, in a violent state of ebullition, be- gins to rise in the pipe or funnel, and to nil the basin, subterraneous noises may be heard like the distant roar of cannon, the earth is slightly shaken, and the agitation increases, till at length a column of water is suddenly thrown up, to n vast height, as before stated. After playing for a time like an immense artiflcial fountain, a column of steam rushes up with great violence, and a thundering noise terminates the erup- tion. All the hot vraters have an iucrust- ing quality : in aome places they tasto of KulpliKr, in others not ; but when drank as soon as cold, they taste like common boiled water. This island is committed to a go- vernor, who resides at Uassa-stadr : he has under him a bailiff, tr.a laymen, a sheriff, and twenty-one sysscluien, or magistrates, who superintend small districts j and al- most every thing is decided according to the laws of Denmark, to whom it belongs. At a period when most parts of conti- nental Bnrope were in a state of rude igno> ranee, the innabitants of this remote island were well acquainted with poetry and his- tory. The most flourishing period of Ice- landic literature appears to have been from the 12th to the end of the 13th century ; but even during the last three centuries, Iceland has produced several eminently learned men. At the present day there is no want of disposition on the part of the people to apply to literature, but they wisely attend more to solid branches of learning than to the lays and legends of their ancient sages. Uumeatic education is universal ; and there are very few among them who cannot read and write, and many among the better class would be distinguished by their taste and learning iu the most culti- vated society in Europe. GREENLAND. llNnKR the name of Greenland is denoted the most easterly parts of America, stretch- ing towards the North I'ole, and likewise some islands to the northward of the con- tinent of Europe, lying in verv high lati- tudes. This country is divided into 'West and East Greenland. West Greenland had louj; been considered to be a part of the continent of America, but recent geogra- phers seem to think :t is an island. It is bounded on the west by ISalHn's liay, on the south by Davis's Sirnits, and on the cast by the Northern Atlantic Ocean. Tliid country was first peopled by Euro- peans from Iceland, headed by Eric Itande, in the eighth century ; and a regular inter- course was maintained between Norway and Greenland till the year HUG; from that time all corre^ondcnee was cut off, and all knowledge of Greenland buried in oblivion. It is supposed that a nation called Bchrel- lings, whose descendants still inhabit the western part, got the better of the settlers, and exterminated them. All that can be learned from the most authentic records is, that Greenland was divided into two dis- tricts, called West Bygd, and East Hygd ; that the western division contained fuuv parishes, and 100 villages ; and the eastern district was still more flourishing. Thii cck.iy, in ancient times, certainly compre- hended twelve exteniive parishes, one hun< drcd and ninety villages, a bishop's see, and two monasteries. Manv attempts have been made to re-discover tfie east country, without effect, by the Danes and the Eng- lish. The land has been seen, but the ice has always prevented any approach to the shore. The Greenland Company at Bergen, in Norway, transported a colony to the west coast; and in 1712, the Rev. Hans Egcde, and others, endeavoured to reach the east- ern district by coasting, but were obliged to return, owing to continual storms. That part of West Greenhind which is now settled by the Danes and Norwegians, lies between the 64th and 08th degrees of north latitude ; and thus far, it is said, the climate is temperate. To the northward of the 68th degree, the cold is prodigiously intense; and towards the end of August all the coast is covered with ice, which never thawa till April or May, and some- times June. Thunder and lightning rarely happen ; but tlic aurora borcalis is very frequent and splendidly luminous. The Grecnlanders are constantly employ- ed either iu fishing or hunting : at sea they pursue the whales, morses, seals, fish, and sea fowl ; and on shore they hunt the rein- deer. f IBB XND. :!* VROKTATION IS LIMITKD TO MOSS, rUNOI, AND A FBW STOHTBD TRBK3. RAn-DKINS. lut when drank an ike common boiled )mraitted to a go- asBH-stadr : he ha» laymen, a sheriff, en, or magictratcs, dittricti; and al' cd according to the lom it hdongs. >«t parts of conti- state of rude igno- this remote island ith poetry and his- hing period of Ice- I to have been from the 13th century ; .»t three centuries, several eminently iresent day there is on the part of the ture, but they wisely ranches of learning ends of their ancient :ntion is universal ; ' among them who !. and many among he distinguished by g ill the most cuUi- e parislies, onr hun. ges, a bishop's sec, Many attempts have ror the cast country, Danes and the Eng- een seen, but the ice any approach to the npany at Bergen, in 1 colony to the west B Rev. Hans Egede, ed to reach the eust- ig, but were obliged itinual storms. Greenliind which is ics and Norwegians, and 08th degrees of us far, it is said, the To the nurthwiii'd cold is prodigiously the end of August ed with ice, which or May, and some- and lightning rarely ira borcalis is very f luminous. ! constantly eniploy- mnting -. at sea they rses, seals, fish, ana : they hunt the reiu- m^ NTBD TRKE9. ;i =r=jj^ February, 18ft6. A CATALOGUE OF NEW WORKS AND NEW EDITIONS PRINTED FOB MESSRS. LONGMAN, BllOWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, LONDON. CLASSIFIED INDEX. W^ AGRICULTURE & RURAL AFFAIRS. Pages nnyldoii on Valuing Rents, etc. • . 6 (Jnu'ker's Land Surveying ... 9 Davy's Agricultural Chemistry - - 9 (ireenwood's (Col.) Trcc-Llfter - * 1? Iliiiinnm On Waste Manures - • - 13 Johnson's Knrnier's Kncyclopiedla . -16 Ijoudon's KncyclopiEdia of Agriculture • 18 ,, Self- instruction for Young Farmers, etc. - - - 18 „ (Mrs.)LiBdv'sCountryCompanlon 18 Low's HreeUsofthe Domesticated Animals of (ircat Britain ... - 19 ,, Elements of Agriculture - -19 „ On Landed Property - • - 19 ,, On the Domesticated Animals • 19 Plouifh (The) 24 Whitley's Agricultural Geology - -32 ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND ARCHITECTURE. Brnndc's Dictionary of Science, Litera- ture, and Art . - , - . . 7 Budge's Miner's Guide . - • . 7 De Uurtin on the Knowledge of Pictures 9 Uruiier's Decorations of the Queen's Pavilion - - - - - -12 Gwilt's Kncyclopaediaof Architecture • 13 Havdon's Lectures on Painting & Design 13 Holland's Muiiufnctures in Metal • -14 LiCrcbours On Photography - - - 17 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa A-i-hitecture and Furniture • 18 Maitiand's Church in the Catacombs - 20 Porter's Manufacture of Silk - - - 25 „ ,, Porcelain & Glass 2S Reid (Dr.) on Warming and Ventilating 2.5 Steam Engine (The) , by the Artisan Club 28 lire's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines - • • • 31 „ Recent Improvements in Arts, Manufactures, and Mines • - 31 BIOGRAPHY. Aikin's Life of Addison . . • . 6 Bell's Lives of the most Eminent British Poets 6 Dover's liife of the Kingflf Prussia - • 10 Dunham's I^ives of the Early Writers of Great Britain . - -10 ,, Lives of the British Dramatists 10 Forster's Statesmen of the Conimonwciilth ofUnglnud ...... 1) Gleig'K Lives of the most Eminent British Military Commanders • > • • 11 Grant (Mrs.) Memoir and Correspondence 12 James's Life of the Black Prince • 16 ,, Lives of the most Eminent Foreign Statesmen - . - - 16 Leslie's I ife of Constable - - - IS Mackintosh's Life of Sir T. More - . 20 Mannder's Biographical Treasury • 21 Mlgnct's Antonio Perez and Philip II. - 22 Roberts's Life of the Duke of Monmouth 26 Roscoe's Lives of Eminent British Lawyers 26 Pages Russell's Correspondence of the Duke of Bedford Shelley's Lives of the most Eminent Lite rary Men of Italy, Spain, and Portugal ,, Lives of the most Eminent French Writers ... Southcy 's Lives of the British Admirals • 'i'ownsend's Livts of Twelve eminent Judges ------- Waterton's Autobiography and Essays ■ - 26 27 27 27 30 31 BOOKS OF GENERAL UTILITY. Acton's (Eliza) Cookery Book - • 8 Black's 'I'rcatise on Brewing . - - 6 ,, Supplement on Bavarian Beer - Collegian's Guide . . . . • 8 Donovan's Domestic Economy - .10 Hsnd-Book of Taste - - - - 13 Hints on Etiquette . - - - - 13 Hudson's Parent's Hand-Book • - 15 ,, Executor's (Juide - - - 15 „ On Making Wills ■ • - 15 Loudon's Self Instruction - - - 18 Mauniler's Treasury of Knowledge • • 22 ,, Scientiiic and Literary Treasury 22 „ Treasury of History - - 22 ,, Biographical Treasury . -21 „ Universal Class-Book' • .22 Parkes's Domestic Duties • - -24 Pycroft's Course of English Reading - 25 Riddle's English-Latin and Latin-English Dictionaries • - • - - • 25 Short Whist .----- 2" Thomson's Domestic Management of the Sick Room - - -30 „ interest Tables - • .30 Tomlins' Law Dictionary - - - .30 Webster's Ency. of Domestic Economy - 31 BOTANY AND GARDENING. Abercrombie's Practical Gardener - • 6 ,, and Main's Gardener's Companion - - - 5 Callcott's Scripture Herbal ... 8 ('(inversatlons on Botany ... 8 Drummond's First Steps to Botany • • 10 Glendinning On the Culture of the Pine Apple - - - - - - .11 Greenwood's (Col.) Tree-Lifter - - 12 Henslow'a Botany . - ... 13 Hoare On Cultivation of the Grape Vine on Open Walls - - - - 14 ,, On the Management of the Roots of Vines ..... 14 Hooker's British Flora • • • -14 ,, and Taylor's MuscologiaBritannica 14 Jackson's Pictorial Flora - - . - 15 Llndley's Theory of Horticulture - - 18 ,, Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden • - • • • 18 ,, Introduction to Botany - .18 ,, Flora MedicB . - • - 18 ,, Synopsis of British Flora • .18 Lo'idon's HortUH Dritannicus • . • 19 5r= =^ 2 CLASSiriED INDKX :; ; M ' I Loudeu's Hortua LigfnosuR Londinensis • 19 „ Eiicyclopiedia of Trees & Shrubs IS ,, ,, Unrdciiiug • 18 ,, „ Plants • - 19 Lindley's Suburban Garden and Villa Com- panion - • - -19 „ Self-Instruction for Young Gar- deners, etc. - • -18 Repton's Landscape Gardening and Land- scape Arciiitecture - - - - 26 Rivera's Rotie Amateur's Guide • - 28 Rogers's Vegetable Cultivator • • -26 Schluideu's Scieutilic Botany • - - 28 Smith's Introduction to Botany - • 28 „ English Flora . . • ■ 28 ,, Compendium of English Flora - 28 CHRONOLOGY. Blidr's Chronological Tables . • - fl Calendar (Illuminated) and Diary, 1846 . 15 Nicolas's Chronology of History - • 23 Riddle's Ecclesiastrcal Chronology . •26 Tate's Horatlus Restitutus - - •29 COMMERCE AND MERCANTILE AFFAIRS. Gilbart On Banking - - - - U Lorimer's Letters to a Young Master Mariner ------ 18 MCDIAS AND DICTK>NARIES. Blaine's Encycloptedia of llurai Sports • Braudc'a Dictionary of Science, Litera- ture, and Art ------ 6 Copland's Dictionary of Medicine • * 8 Gwilt's EntTcluptedia of Architecture . 12 Johnson's Farmer's Encyclopsdlu - 16 Loudon's Encycloptedia of 'Frees & Shrubs 18 ,, Encyclopedia of Gardening • 19 ,, Kncyclopsedia of Agriculture - 19 „ Encyclopaidia of Plants • .19 ,, Rural Architecture 19 M'Culloch's Dictionary, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical 20 ,, Dictionary, Practical, Theo- retical, etc. of Commerce 20 Murray's Encyclopfcdia of Geography - 23 Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines 31 Webster's Encycloptedia of Dom. Economy 31 POETRY AND THE DRAMA. Aikln's (Dr.) British Poets • - ■ 27 Bowdler^s Family Shakspeare • - - 27 Chalenor's Walter Gray - - . 8 ,, Poetical Remains - • . 8 Costelio's Persian Rose Garden • - 9 D.inte, translated by Wright ... 9 Goldsmith's Poems ----- 11 Gry's Elegy, illuminated . - . 12 Horace, by Taie • • - - -29 L.E. L.'s Poetical Works - - . 17 MacHulay's Lays of Ancient Rome - - 20 Montgomery's Poetical Works . .22 Moore's Poetical Works * • ■ . 22 „ LallaRookh . - - . 22 ,, I rMh Melodies ... - 22 Moral of Flowers 23 Reynard the Fox .... - 26 Southey's Poetical Works • - - 28 „ Oliver Newman - - - 28 „ British Poets • - - - 27 Spirit of the Woods - • • '28 1'homson's Seasons • ... 30 Turner's Richard III. - - - - 31 Watts's (A.A.) Lyricsof the Heart - 31 POLITICAL ECONOMY AND STATISTICS. Gilbart on Banking - - - - - II M'Culloch's Geographical, Statistical, and Historical Dictionary - - - 20 M'Culloch's Literature of PoUt. Economy 20 ,, On Taxation and Funding - 20 Strong's Greece as a Kingdom - - 29 Tooke's History of Prices - - -30 RELIGIOUS AND MORAL WORKS, ETC. Amy Herbert, edited by Rev W. Seweil 5 Bailey's Essays on the Pursuit of Truth - 5 Bloomfieid's Greek Testament - - 6 ,, College and School ditto • 7 ,, Greek and Knglish Lexicon to New Testament - - C Burns's Christian Philosophy - • . 7 ,, Christian Fragments - - - 7 Calicott's Scripture Herbal ... 8 Cooper's Sermons - - - . - 9 Dale's Domestic Liturgy • - . 9 Dibdin's Sunday Library .... 29 Doddridge'sFamily Expositor - > • lU '.M. rf4^ ' m vi ttw urt ifci ^ Kater and Lardncr's Mechanic* - - J" Lii Place's System of the World - - 17 Lardner's CaltinetCyelopopdia - " |i ,, Hydrostatics and Pneumatics - 17 ,, and Walker's Klectiicity - 17 Lardner's Arithmetic - - - " {, ,, Geometry " " ' " 1? ,, Treatise on Heat - - - 17 Lercbours On Photography - - - 17 Lloyd On Light and Vision - - 18 Mackenzie's Physiology of Vision - - 20 Marcet's (Mrs.) Conversations on the Sciences, etc. - - - - 21 Moseley's Practical Mechanics - - 23 „ Kngineerinif and Architecture 23 Narrlen'sKlements of Geometry - "25 ,, Astronomy and Geodesy - "26 Owen's Lectures On Comparative Anatomy 23 Parnell On Roads 24 Pearson's Practical Astronomy - " ?1 Peschcl's Phvsics ---""*; Phillips's PalieozoicFossllsof Cornwall, etc. 24 ,, Guide to Geology - - " ?, ,, Treatise on Geology - - - '-j ,, Introduction to Mineralogy - 24 Poisson's Mechanics - - - - 25 Portlock's Report on the Geology of Londonderry - - - - • S.'i Powell's Natural Philosophy - - - 25 Quarterly Journal of theGeologlcal Society 26 Ritchie (Robert) on Railways - - 26 Roberts's Dictionary of Geology - - 26 Sandhurst Mathematical Course - - 26 Scott's Arithmetic and Al^^ebra - - 26 ,, Trigonometry - - - - 26 Thomson's Algebra ----- 30 Wilkinson's Engines of War - - - 32 TOPOGRAPHY & GUIDE BOOKS Addison's History of the Temple Church 6 ,, Guide to ditto - - - - 6 Costello's (Miss) North Wales - - 9 Howitt's German Kxperiences - • - 15 „ (R.) Australia Felix - - 15 TRAVELS. Allan's Mediterranean - - - - 5 Beiile's Vale of the Towey - - - 6 Cooley's World Surveyed - - - 8 Costello's (MissJ North Wales - . 9 De Custine's Russia - - - - 9 Dj Strielecki's New South Wales - - 10 Erman's Travels through Siberia - - 8 Harris's Highlands of yl£thiopia - - 13 Howitt's (R.) Australia Felix - - 15 Laing's Notes of a Traveller - - - 17 ,, Residence in Norway - - - I7 ,, Tourin Sweden - - - - I7 Life of aTravellIng Physician • - 18 Parrot's Ascent of Mount Ararat - - 8 Paton's (A. A.) Scrvia . - - - 24 ,, ,, Modern Syrians * - - 24 Pedestrian Reminiscences - - - 24 Seaward's Narrative of his Shipwreck • 27 Strong's Greece as a Kingdom - - 29 Von Orlich's Travels in India - - - 31 VETERINARY MEDICINE Field's Veterinary Records - - - 11 Morton's Veterinary Toxicological Chart S3 ,, ,, Medicine - - 23 Miles On the Horse's Foot - - - 22 Percivall's Hippopatbology - - - 24 ,, Anatomy of the Horse - - 24 Spooner on the Foot and Leg of the Horse 28 Stable Talk and Table Talk ... 28 Turner On the Foot of the Horse - - 31 Winter On the Horse - . . . 32 l'ai{fH iHtry - - Hi iniilfit - - 16 Vorld • - 17 rUia • • 17 id Pneumatic* - 17 lectiicity - 17 17 a a •> _ . . 17 it - . • 17 y . • 17 n . 18 f Vision . . 20 Bfttiona on the . 21 anict . . 23 a Architectui re 23 oim-try - - 26 icodcsy - - 26 mrative Anatomy 23 . . - 24 nomy - • 24 24 Bof Cornwall, etc .24 logy - Mmeralt . • 24 • - 24 >Ry • 24 . . 25 he Geul o\sy of . . 26 ihy - . . 25 uological Society 26 wavH leo ogy - - 26 - - 26 CourNe . . 26 Igebra - . 26 . « . . 26 . . - 8U Var - - - 32 GUIDE BOOKS Temple Church 6 . • -* ■ 5 Wales - - 9 ncea - • - 15 Felix - - 15 LS. _ „ « « 6 r . . 6 - • ■• 8 Vales • - 9 - • - - !) th Wales • - 10 Siberia . . 8 thiopia . - 13 Kellx . . 15 Her - - - 17 rway - - - 17 . - - 17 Irian . • 18 t Ararat . . 8 • « _ 24 yrians * . - 24 s . - 24 8 Shipwreck . 27 8vo. with Portrait from Sir Godfrey Kneller's Picture, 18i. cloth. 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