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LorsqiriCi Ie document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul cliche, il est film6 d partir de I'angle sup6rieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant Ie nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. ly errata ed to ant me pelure, apon d 1 2 3 32X 1 2 3 4 5 6 ...4.,?, i^'m / *^- '^j/? %U L^ 4l6.. '^^-^.^ c^ "•-u; ^m^^mmmmmfifs^^ .'.r^i i''»T' \ .-• <" fir , V, ■■ :i ^^' ^ • A *. K -> . > ^ * ^■ ; ,<' 1 (Y\ \ -T*'* ■'v »•,,■—»•. J- ■'' ' •> -V^-*" . i; "V^" liA Till, osruicii. 'Wliiit, time sIr' lil'li'tli up luTSi'lf on hiyli. .she .sconictli tlio Iidi-.sc uikI lila rlikr."— Jul) .\.\.\ix. 18. V/ O O D'S Bible Animals. \ DliSt^J'.lPTIltN < I' liil': HAlU'm, RTUUCTURE, AND USKS OP FA'EKY LIViNCi (.niEATlTKE MKNTlOyEJ) IN 'I iIE X> 'Hri'TUllES. FIlO\f TilE AI'E TO TI.IE OOKAL; AND MXPiiAININC* AT.1, TllUrtP "Arfl=UJ*5**'--f Suil^st V^-Sti/tisl R>k&;i*." • !'i..'i.'« IS^ TD V O I. T:'^ T 1 <> N , Bv Uisv. JAMEW MtC<'.>Hi.r, 1>.D„ ' Prpuident of Prliw'tti OilU-g*, teEAROfi AND TfiAVML IN BIBIK LANDS, Jiv Kkv. DkNTFL AIAB^n, D.D. f l!.^ ii;! ■*"-''»4.. GUELfH, O^TrABIO: J. "W. LYON * tlOJITAKY, Pt:i;L«iTERa, 1877. -.A Q. M. ^. »•!'■ f ■'*«^ ■ fc, ' If «i.- "■- ^*^. n Hill tliUL' une iiltetn up liorsill' on liii,'li. slic stm-tic-tli the liorsi' and Ilia rliliT."— .Ion xxxix. 18. ^vooD's Bible Animals. A DESCniPTION OK TIIK HABITS, STRUCTURE, AND USES OF EVERY LIVING CREATURE MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES, FROM THE APE TO THE CORAL ; AND EXPLAININO ALL THOSE PASSAGES IN THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS IN WHICH UBFERENCB IS MADE TO BEAST, BIRD, REPTILE, FISH, OR INSECT. lllnsttattd tvith ooti ajiu Ijunditd TJltu; jntstgns, BY KEYL, WOOD, AND E. A. SMITH; ENGRAVED BY G. I. \ESON. BY THE Rev. J. G. WOOD, M.A., F.L.S., Etc., Author of "Homes Without Hinda," "Cominor. Object* of the Sea-Shore and Oouiitry," "The Illustrated Natural History," "Strange DwelllngB," " Iiiseots at Home," Etc. TO WHICH ARE ADDED ARTICLES ON EVOLUTION, By Rev. JAMES McCOSH, D.D., President of Princetou College, AND RESEARCH AND TRAVEL IN BIBLE LANDS, By Rev. DANIEL MARCH, D.D. GUELPH, ONTARIO: J. W. LYON & COMPANY, Publishers, 1877. O. M. I. ^. COFYUIOIIT, lUlAULKY .& COMPANY, lK7u. ^5 mi PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. The author of " Hiblc Animala" has long been known in England and America ns a learned and accurate oa well m popular writer in various departments of natural history. He has the happy faculty of making the results of dry scientific study and painstaking observation interesting and instructive to all classes of readers. He throws himself into his work with that quiet and genial enthusiasm which awakens sympathy and inspires confidence. He does not mingle so much of romance with sober reality as to leave little distinction between the facts of science and the pleasantries of fiction ; nor is ho so tied to de- tail and definition that the reader gets nothing but the bare skeleton when he would see the grace and action of the living body. Mr. Wood writes about birds and beasts as if he knew them and liked them, and so he makes his readers like them too. He speaks so truly and kindly of his dumb friends and companions of the fields and woods that they would certainly vote him many thanks if they had learned our habit of meeting in public assembly and repaying our benefactors with resolutions. In the present work — a new and enlarged edition of which is now offered to the American public — the author has brought out all the re- s'^urces of his mature and cultivated powers. It has been the more congenial to him, and he has made it the more interesting to othtirs, because the subject touches more closely upon the line of his sacred convictions and his professional studies. In his vivid representations he makes ministers and missionaries of the birds of the air, the beasts of the field and the fish of the sea. He shov/s how closely the Bible is in harmony with the great work of creation which in the beginning was pronounced very good. He gives the habits and the history of every living creature named in the sacred Scriptures, and he makes the whole world of animated nature stand forth to interpret and to adorn the divine word. In this work the Bible is made to appear not &s a dry treatise or a dull compound of theories and propositions, but as a living book, thoroughly in 'iympathy with all the interests and occupations of the living world. It takes us back from this hard-working, matter-of-fact age to the early time when men learned lessons of faith from the birds 3 ! ¥. 4 PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. of the air and the lilies of the field, and they had the less need of trained choirs and cultivated music in worship, because the mountains and the hills broke forth before them into singing, and all the trees of the field clapped their hands. This work combines the best results of both scientific and popular instruction. The lion and the bear, the wolf and the fox, the leviathan and the unicorn, the eagle and the sparrow, do most to illustrate the Bible when they appear in their true character and their habits and history are best understood. The critic will find little in the book to condemn ; the common people will read it tiladly. It is well worthy of a place in every house beside the sacred book which it honors and expounds. The work is enriched with illustrations, all of which are taken from real life, and many are drawn with great spirit and power. "The Ostrich and its Hunters," "Dogs prowling at Night," "Oxen bearing the Yoke," "Camels and their Burdens," "Sheep and the Shepherd," " The Eiver Horse," " The Wild Ass," and many others, will repay a careful study. The accuracy and skill and taste displayed in these illustrations make them a Cummentary and a natural history com- bined. The present edition is provided with an index of texts explained, and the original index has been very much enlarged, to adapt it to general use. The vexed question of evolution comes up just now in connection with all studies and discussions in natural history. And the publishers believe themselves to have added a fitting and valuable appendix to the work in the clear and elaborate article on this subject written expressly for this edition by Eev. Dr. McCosh. AH intelligent readers must agree in the opinion that the learned doctor has been re- markably successful in the attempt to treat so abstruse and complicated a theme in the most condensed and popular form. The closing article upon "Travel and Research in the Bible Lands" is furnished by Rev. Dr. March, who has visited the countries of which be speaks, and who has given especial attention to researches now going on in connection with the Palestine Exploration Society. The publishers are confii'.ant that in issuing the volume in its present form they are supplyin<^ all students of the sacred Scriptures with an important and acceptable addition to the materials for the illustration of the divine word. ^ I PREFACE. Owing to the conditions of time, language, country, and race under which the various books of the Holy Scriptures were written, it is impossible that they sliould be rightly understood at the present day, and in this land, without the aid of many departments of knowledge. Contemporary history, philology, geography, and ethnology must all be pressed into the service of the true Biblical scholar; and there is yet another science which is to the full as important as either of the others. This is Natural History, in its widest sense. The Oriental character of the Scriptural books causes them to abound with metaphors and symbols, taken from the common life of the time. They embrace the barren precipitous rocks alternating with the green and fertile valleys, the trees, flowers, and herbage, the creeping things of the earth, the fishes of the sen, the birds of the air, and the beasts which abode with man or dwelt in the deserts and forests. LTnless, therefore, we under- stand these writings as those understood them for whom they were written, it is evident that we shall misinterpret instead of rightly comprehending them. Even with secular books of equally ancient date, the right understanding of them would be important, but in the case of the Holy Scriptures it is more than important, and becomes a duty. The field which is laid open to us is so large that only one department of Natural History, namely Zoology, can be treated in this work, although it is ^ !■■( !." ll I VI PREFACE. illustrated by many references to other branches of Natuml History, to the physical geography of Palestine, Egypt, and Syria, the race-character of the inhabitants, and historical parallels. The importance of Zoology in elucidating the Scriptures cannot be overrated, and without its aid we shall not only miss the point of innumerable passages of the Old and New Testament, but the words of our Lord Himself will either be totally misin- terpreted, or at least lose the greater part of their significance. The object of the present work is therefore to take, in its proper succession, every creature whose name is given in the Scriptures, and to supply so much of its history as will enable the reader to understand all the passages in which it is men- tioned. A general account of each animal will be first given, followed by special explanations (wherever required) of those texts in whicW pointed reference is made to it, but of \»'hich the full force cannot be gathered without a knowledge of Natural History. The illustrations are all taken from the living animals, while the accessory details have been obtained either from the Egyptian or Assyrian monuments, from actual specimens, or from the photographs and drawings of the latest travellers. They have been selected and arranged so that each illustration explains one or more passages of Scripture, and it is hoped that the work will possess equal interest for the natural historian and the Biblical student. CONTENTS. MAMMALIA. THE APE. The Monkey tribe rarely mentioned in Scripture — Why the Ape waa introduced into Palestine— Solomon's ships, and their cargo of Apes, peacocks, ivory, and gold — Various species of Monkey that might have been imported — The Rhesus Monkey — The Hoonumau, or Entellus — Habits of the Monkey, and reverence in which it is held by the natives — The Egyptians and their Baboon worship — Idols and memorials — The Wandoroo — Its singular aspect — Reasons why it should be introduced into Palestine — General habits of the Wanderoo — Its love of curiosities — Probability that Solomon had a menagerie — Various species of Monkey that may be included in the tei-m Kophim — The Satyr of Scripture — Babylon in its glory and fall — Fulfilment of prophecy — Judaic ideas of the Satyrs, or Seirim 33 THE BAT. The Bat mentioned always with abnorrence — Meaning of the Hebrew name — '"he prohibition against eating Bats — The edible species, their food and mode of life — The noisome character of the Bat, and the nature of its dwelling place- Its hatred of light — Baruch and his prophecy — Appropriateness of the pro- phecy — Singular Mahonimedan legend respecting the original creation of the Bat — The legend compared with theapocrypiial gospels — The Bats of Palestine — Mr. Tristram's discoveries — Bats found in the quarries from which the stone of the Temple was hewn — Edible Bats in a cave near the centre of Palestine— Another species of long-tailed Bat captured in the rock caves where hermits had been buried — Other species wliich probably inhabit Palestine ... 43 THE LION. i'P Frequent mention of the Lion in the Scriptures — Probability that it waa once a common anunal, though now extinct. — Reasons for its disappearance — The Lion employed as an emblem in the Bible — Similarity of the African and Asiatic specieii — The chief characteristics of the Lion— Its strength, activity, ;:^* r .i vm CONTENTS. and mode of seizing its prey — Various names of the Lion — Its courage when roused — Its roar, and peculiar mode of utterance — Invisibility of the Lion at dusk — The Lion lying iu wait — The dwelling-place of the Lion— Its restless- ness at night — Passages illustrative of these characteristics — Modes of cap- tuiing the Lion — The pitfall and the net — Lions kept as curiosities — The Lion-hunt as depicted )a the buildings of ancient Nineveh 50 The THE LEOPABD. The Leopard not often mentioned in the Scriptures — Its attributes exactly described — Probability that several animals were classed under the name— How the Leopard takes its prey— Craft of the Leopard— Its ravages among the flocks — The empire of man over the beast— The Leopard at bay — Localities wh-^rein the Leopard lives — The skin of the Leopard — Various 1 of Scripture explained 63 THE CAT. The Cat never mentioned by name in the canonical Scriptures, and only once in the Apocrypho — The Cat domesticated among the Egyptians, and trained in bird-catching —Neglected capabilities of tli' Cat— Anecdote of an English Cat that caught lish lor her master — Presumed I'eason why the Scriptures are silent about the Cat — The Cat mentioned by Baruch 70 THE DUG. Antipathy displayed by Orientals towards the Dog, and manifested throughout the Scriptures — Contrast between European and Oriental Dngs — Habits of the Dogs of Palestine— The city Dogs and their singular orj^anization — The herdsman's Dog— Various passages of Scripture -Dogs and the crumbs Their numbers — Signor Pierotti's experience of the Dogs — Possibility of their perfect domestication — The peculiar humiliation of Lazarus — Voracity of the Wild Dogs — The fate of Ahab and Jezebel— Anecdote of a volunteer Watch- dog — Innate affection of the Dog towards mankind — Peculiar local instinct of the Oriental Dog— Albert Smith's account of the Dogs at Constantinople The Dervish and his Dogs — The Greyhound— Uncertainty of the word . 73 THE WOLF. Identity of the animal indisputable— Its numbers, past and present — The Wolf never mentioned directly — Its general habits — Hefcrences in Scripture Its mingled ferocity and cowardice— Its association into packs — The Wolf's bite —How it takes its prey— Its ravages among the flocks— Allusions to this habit— The shepherd and his nightly enemies— Mr. Tristram and the Wolf-- A semi-tamed Wolf at Marsaba fi j CONTENTS. 11 THE FOX, OR JACKAL. Tbe two animals comprehended under one name — The Juckal— Its numbers in ancient and modern Palestine — General habits of the Jackal — Localities where the Jackal is found — Samson, and the three hundred " foxes "—Popular objections to the narrative — The required number easily obtained — Signor Pierotti's remarks upon the Jackal — An unpleasant position — How the fields were set on fire — The dread of fire inherent in wild beasts — '^he truth of the narrative proved — The Fox and Jackal destructive among grapes — Allusions to the Fox in the New Testament — Partially tamed Foxes 91 THE HY^NA. The Hy«ena not mentioned by name, but evidently alluded to — Signification of the word Zabua — Translated in the Septuagiut as " Hymna " — A scene described by the Prophet Isaiah — The Hyeeiia plentiful in Palestine at the present day — Its well-known cowardice and fear of man — The uses of the Hyajna, and the services which it renders — The particular species of Hya;na — The Hyana in the burial-grounds— Hunting the Hytena — Curious superstition respecting the talismanic properties of its skin — Precautions adopted in flaying it — Popular legends of the Hyoena and its magical powers — The cavern home of the Hyeerr -The Valley of Zeboim 98 THE WEASEL. Difficulty of identifying the Weasel of Scripture — The Weasel of Palestine — Suggestetl identity with the Ichneumon 104 THE FERRET. Translation of the Hebrew word Anakah — The Shrew-mouse of PalesHne — Etymology of the word — The Gecko or Fau-foot, its habits and peculiar cry — Repugnance felt by the Arabs of the present day towards the Gecko , 105 THE BADGER. Difficulty of ii'ientifying the Tachash of Scripture — References to " badgers' akini>" — The Diigong thought to be the Badger — The Bedouin sandals — Nature of the materials lor the Tabernacle — Habits of the Badger — The species found in Palestine — Uses of the Badgers' skina — Looseness of zoological terms . . lOti -4\ CONTENTS. THE BEAR. The Syriau Bear — Identity of the Hebrew nnd Arabic titka — Its colour variable aucording to age — Bears once numerous in Palestine, and now only occasion- ally soon — Reason for tlioir diminution— Present localities of tlie Rear, and its favourite haunts — Food of the Bear — Its general habits — Its ravages among the flocks — The Bear dangerous to mankind — The Bear robbed of her whelps — Illustrative passages — Its mode of fightinf; — Various references to the Bear, from the time of Samuel to that of St. John 113 THE HEDGEHOG, OR BITTERN. Various readings of the word KippOd — The Jewish Bible and its object — The Syrian Hedgehog and its appearance — Its fondness for dry spots — The pro- phecies of Isaiah and Zephaniidi, nnd their bearing on the subject — The Porcupine supposed to be the Kippod — The Hedgehog and Porcupine called by the saino name in Greek and Arabic — Habits of the Porcupine — Its (juills, and the manner of their shedding 120 THE PORCUPINE. Presumed identity of the Kii)p6d with the Porcupine — The same Greek name applied to the Porcupine and Hedgehog — Habits of the Porcuinne— The common Porcupine found plentifully in Palestine 125 THE MOLE. The two Hebrew words which are ti'anslated as " Mole " — Obscurity of the formei name — A parallel case in our own language — The second name — The Moles and the Bats, why associated together— The real Mole of Scripture, its ditl'erent names, and its place in zoology — Description of the Mole-rat and its general habits — Curious superstition — Discovery of the species by Mr Tristram — Scripture and science — How the Mole-rat finds its f^od — Distinc- tion between the Mole and the present animal 126 THE MOUSK Conjectures as to the right translation of the Hebrew word Akbar — Signification of the word — The Mice which marred the land — Miracles, and their economy of jjower— The Field-mouse — Its destructive habits and i)rolilic nature — The insidious nature of its attacks, and its power of escaping oliservation — The Hamster, and its habits — Its custom of storing up provisions lor the winter — Its fertility and unsociable nature — The Jerboa, its activity and destructive- ness — Jerboas and Hamsters eaten by Arabs and Syrians — Various species of Dormice and Sand-ratt I.'il OOMTENTS. THE HARE. The prohibitions of tho Mosaic law — The chewing of the cud and division of the hoof — Identity of tho Hiiro of Scripture — Rumination described — The Hare • rodent and not a ruminant — Cowper and his Hares — Strui'turo of the rodent tooth — The Mosaic law accommodated to its recipients — The Hares of Palestine and their habits 136 CATTLE. Tho cattle of Palestine, and their decadence at the present day — Ox-flesh not used for food in modern times — Oxen of the stall, and oxon of the pasture — The use of tho ox in agriculture — Tho yoke and its Htructure — The plough and tho goad — The latter capable of being used as a weapon — Treading out the corn — Tiio curt and its wheels — The ox. used as a beast of burden — Cattle turned loose to graze — Tlio bulls of Buslian — Curiosity of the ox tribe — A season of drought — Branding the cattle — An Egyjitian field scene — Cattle- keeping an honourable post — Tho ox as used for sacrifico — Ox-worship — The bull Apis, and his history — Persistency of the bull-worship — .Jeroboam's sin — Various names of cattle — The Indiau buflnlo 141 THE WILD BULL. The T6, Wild Bull of the Old Testament — Passages in vfhich it is mentioned — Tho Wild Bull in the net — Hunting with nets in the Enst — The Oryx sup- posed to be the Td of Scripture — -Description of the Oryx, its locality, ap- pearance, and habits — The points in which tlie Oryx agrees with the Td— The " snare " in which the foot is taken, as distinguished from the net . 158 THE EEf:M, OE "UNICOEN" OF SCEIPTUEE. The ReSm evidently known to the Jews — Various theories concerning the Unicorn — Supposed identity with the Indian Rhinoceros — Passages of Scripture alluding to the , 'rongtii, violent and intractable temper of the Reem — The Reem a two-horned animal — It:, evident connexion with the Ox tribe — Its presumed identity with the now extinct Urns — 5Ii\ Dawkins' treatise on the Unis — Enormous size and dangerous character of the Urus — Rabbinicul legend of the Reem-^ldentity :f tho Urus with the modern varieties of cattle- -The Bull-hunts of Nineveh 1G3 F!;|"S '■■ I lU CONTENTa THE BISON. The Biaon tribe and its distingiiisliing marks — Its former existence in Pale»:oiie— Its j^eneral hahits — Origin of its name — Itn musky odour — Size and speed o( the Bison — Its (langorous character when brought to baj' — Its defence against the Wolf— Its untameable disposition 173 THE GAZELLE, OR ROE OF SCRIPTURE Tiio Gazelle idcntilied with tho TscM, Lo. the Roe or Roebuck of Scripture — Various passages relating to tlio Tsebi — Its swiftness, its capabilities as a bcoat of chase, its beauty, and the (juality of its flesh — The Tsebiyah rendered in Greek as Tabitha, and translated as Dorcas, or Gazelle — Different varieties of tho Gazelle — How tho Gazullo defends itself against wild beasts — Chase of the Gazelle — The net, tho battue, and the pitfall — Coursing the Gazelle with greyhounds and falcons — Mr. Chassoaud's account of a hunting party — Gentleness of tho Gazelle 175 THE PYGARG, OR ADDAX. Tho Dishon or Dyshon — Signification of the word Pygarg — Certainty that the Dlshon is an antelope, and that it must bo one of a few species — Former and present range of tlie Addax^Description of the Addax — The Strepsiceros of Pliny 183 fi THE FALLOW-DEER, OR BUBALE. The word Jachmur evidently represents a species of antelope — Probability that the Jachmur is identical wit'' the Bubale, or Bekk'r-el-Wash — Resemblance of the animal to the ox tribe — Its ox-like horns and mode of attack — Its capability of domestication— Former and present range of the Bubale — Its representation on the monuments of ancient Egypt — Delicacy of its flesh — Size and general appearance of the animal 185 THE SHEEP. Importance of Sheeji in tho Bible — The Sheep the chief wealth of the pastoral tribes — Tenure of land — Value of good pasture-land — Aiab sbej)herds of the present doy — Ditfereiice between the *;ae)iheids of Palestine and Kngland — Wanderings of the Hocks in search of food — Valuo of the wells — How thg CONTENTS, XUl Sheep are wntered — Duties of the shopheitl — The shephrrd a hind of irrcgiilnr soldier — His uho of the sling — Sliecp following; their nhophurd — Calling the 8h«!ep by nanm — The shepherd uauiilly u part owner of the Hocks— Strmture of the sheopfoMs — The rock caverns of I'alostino — David's adventure with Saul — Ponniiif5 of the Sheep by night — Use of the dof;s — Sheep sometimes brought up by huud — How Shuep are fattened in the Lebanon district — The two breeds of Sheep in Palestine — The brood-tailed Sheep, ond its peculiarities — Huforence to Jiis peculiarity in the Bible — The Talmudical writers, und their directions to shoep-owuers 188 THE CHAMOIS. The Zemer or Chamois only once mentioned in the Bible — Signification of the word Zemer — I'robability tiiat the Z> ,. er ia the Aoudad — Appearance of the Aoudad — Its 8tren;{tli and activity — tierce temper of the adult male — Horns of the Aoudad — Their probable use as musical instruments — Habits of the Aoudad — The Moudon probably cliwsed with the Aoudad under the name of Zcnior — Appearance and habits of the Mouilou 2^9 THE GOAT. Value of the Goat — Its use in furnishing food — The niale kid the usual uuimal of slaughter — Excellence of the llesh, and deception of Isaac — Milk of the Goat — An Oriental milking scene — The hair of the Goat, and the uses to which it is put — The Goat's skin used for leather — The " bottle " of Scripture — Mode of making and repairing the bottles — Ruse of the Gibeonites — The " bottle in the smoke " — The sacks and the kneading-troughs — The Goat as used for •acriflce — General habits of the Goat — Sepaiation of the Goats from the sheep — Performing Goats — Difl'ercut breeds of Goats in Palestine .... 233 THE WILD GOAT. The AzelimorWild Goats of Scripture identical with the Bedcu or Arabian Ibex— Dillerent names of the Beden— Its appearance and general habits — En-gedi, or Goats' Fountain — The Beden formerly very plentiful in Palestine, and now tolerably common — Its agility— Difliculty of catching or killing it — How the young are captured — Flesh of the Beden — Use of the horns at the present day — The Ako of Deuteronomy 249 THE DEER. The Hart and Hind of Scripture — Species of Deer existing in Palestine — Earliest mention of the Hind— The Hart classed among the clean animals — Passage* olluiling to its speed — Care of the mother for her young, and her custom of secreting it— Tameable character of the Deer — The Kabbinical writers and their theories — Shedding of the Deer's horns— Its fabled mode of sleeping — The gall in the tail — Curious traditions of the enmity between Deer and serpents— Virtueb of a Deer-skin coat 254 OONTENTa THE CAMEL. CHAPTER I. The two species of Camol, and the mode of distinguishing the. ...ue of the Camel in tho Kiist— Camels montionod as olomonts of wooith — Uses of the Camol— The Jews fi)ibi BIKDS. THE LAMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE. Difficulty of identifying the various birds mentioned in Scripture — Tho Vultures of Palestine — The Liimmergeior, or Ossifrage of Scripture — The Hebrew word Peres, and its signification — Tho Ossifrage, or Bono-breaker — Appearance of the Liimmergeier — Its llight and mode of feeding — How tho Liimmergeier kills snakes and tortoises, and breaks marrow-boues — Mode of destroying the chamois and mountain sheep — Xest of the Liimmergeier 3i)IS THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER-EAGLE. The R&ch&m or Oier-Eagle identified with the Egyptian Vulture — Its appearanco on the Egyptian monuments — Signification of tho word Rdchdm — Various translations of the word — The shape, size, and colour of the bird — Its valuo as a scavenger, and its general habits — The Egyptian Vultures and the griffoni — Its fondness for tho society of man — Neat of the Egyptian Vulture . . 399 v! ! CONTENTS. xtH THE aitlFFON VULTUUE, Oil EAGLE OF SCItlPTURK. Tho O.irton Vuituro itleutilled with the Eagle of Soripturo — The word Ntahtr ami ita sigiiiflcation— Qoograpliical range of tho Gritfon— Uh inudo of flight and socinblo liiihits — Tho fciithcrlcss heail and wvV. of tho bird — The Vuituro used as nn iiniigo of «trungth, HwiftnoM, and rupucity — Its i>()Wi'r8 of sight — How Vultiiros ussomhlo round a carcoan — No8ting-placca of tho fJrillbn — Mr. Tristram's doscription of thu (Jriiron— Uockcaves of tho Wady Hanidm — Care of tlio young, and tottohing tlioni to fly — Strength of th.> Griffon — Its emblo- maticol uso in Kgypt and Assyria — Tho god Nisroch — Noblo aspect of the OrifTou — Ita longevity — Various attitudes asaumod by tho bird .... 404 THE EAGLE. Signification of tho word Asniyeh — ThoOoldou Eagle and its habits — The 'inporial Eagle — Its solitary mode of life — The Short-toed Kaglo common in PiJestine — Its zoological position— Food of tlio Short-toed Eagle — Its form uud colour 416 THE OSPREY. The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle — Its geographical range — Mode of securing prey — Scructure of ita feet — Its power of balancing itself in the air ... . 420 THE KITE, Oli VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE. The word Dayah and its signification — Dayah a rollective tenn for difl'orent species of Kites — The Common or Red Kite ]>lertifulin Palestine — Ita piercing sight and habit of soaring — The Black Kite of Palestine and its habits — The Kgyption Kite — The Raah or Glede of Scripture — The Buziards ami their habits — The Peregrine Falcon an inhabitant of Central Palestine, and the Lannor of tho eastern parts of tho country 428 i THE HAWK. The Netz or Hawk — Number of 8])ecics prolmbly grouped under that name — Rare occurrence of the word — Tho Sparrow-Hawk and its general habits — Its place of nesting — The Kestrel, or Wind-hovor — Various names by which it is known in England — Its mode of feeding and curious flight — The Hariers — Probable derivation jf tho name— Species of Hariers known to inhabit Palestine — Falconry uppnrently unknown to the ant lent Jews 430 1 lii h'l' xviii OONTEim. THE OWL The words which have bean translated as " Owl " — The Cda, or Little Owl — Uie made of the Little Owl in binl-catcliiiig — Habits of the bird — The Barn, Soreech, or White Owl a native of Palestine — The Yan8h THE HERON. The Heron mentioned as an unclean bird— The Heron used for food in England, and considered as r delicacy — Sociable character of the bird, and its mode ol feeding — Its enormous ap])etitc— How the Heron fij;hts— Ancient falconry- CONTENTS. Ul Nesting of the Haron — The papyrus marshes and their dangers — Description of tlio [)apyru9 — Vessels of bulrushes — The Egret and its beautiful plumage- Uses of the train feathers 540 THE CRANE. Various passages in which the Crane is mentioned — Its migratory habits and loud voice — Geographical range of the Crane — The bird once plentiful in the fen districts of England — Its favourite roosting-plaees — Size of the Crane, and measurement of the wiugs — The Crane once used as food — Plumes of the Crane and their use — Structure of the vocal organs — Nest and eggs of the Crane. 546 THE STORK. Signification of the Hebrew word Chasidah — Various passages in whicli it it mentioned — The Chasidah therefore a large, wide-winged, migratory bird — Its ideiititicution with the Stork — Derivation of its Hebrew name — The Stork always protected — Uses of the tail — Its mode of quartering the ground in Roarch of food — Migratory habits of the Stork — Nesting of the bird, and its favourite localities — The fir-trees of Palestine — Love of the Stork for its young 550 THE SWAN. Significatio'i of the word Tinshemeth — The Gallinule and the Ibis — Appear- ance and habits of the Ilj'acinthine Gallinule — A strange use for the bird — The White or Sacred Ibis — The bird mentioned by Herodotus — The Glossy Ibis, or Ulack Ibis — Veneration with which the bird was regarded . . , 559 THE CORMORANT. The wonl Shdldk and its signification — The Greek Catarrhactss — Habits oX the Cormorant— Tlie bird trained to catch lish — Moilo of securing its prey — Nests ajwl eggs of tlie Cormorant — Nesting iu fir-trees — Flesh of the bird . . 504 THE PELICAN. The Pelican of the wilderness — Attitudes of the bird — Ito love of solitude — Derivation of the Hebrew word — Fantastic inter|)retation — Mode of feeding the young- Fables regarding the Pelican — Breeding-places of the bird — The wbject of its wide wiugs and large pouch — Colour of the Pelican . . . oG'J 11 ■ 1 i 1 1 t || 1 1 1 S 1 xzii 00NTBNT8. J REPTILES. r' THE TORTOISE. Reptiles in general — Looseness of the term " creeping things " — The Tzab of the Scriptures, translated ns Tortoise — Flesh and eggs of the Tortoise — Its slow movements — Hibernation dependent on temperature — The Water-Tortoises — Their food and voracity — Their eggs — Their odour terrifying the horses — The Dhubb lizard and its legends — Its armed tail, and the use made of it — Its food, and localities which it prefers 57<) \ "!, i' THE LEVIATHAN, OR CROCODILE. Signification of the word Leviathan — Description in the Book of Job — Structure and general habits of the Crocodile — Tlie throat-vnlve and its use — Position of the nostrils — Worship of the Crocodile — The reptile known in the Holy Land — Two legends respecting its presence there — Mode of taking prey — Cunning of the Crocodile — The baboons and the Crocodile — Speed of the reptile — Eggs and young of the Crocodile, and their enemies — Curious story of the ichnsumon and ibis — Modes of capturing the Crocodile — Analysis of Job's dcscripiion — The Crocodile also signified by the word Tannin. Aaron's rod changed inio a Tannin — Various passages in which the word occurs — Use of the word by the Prophet Jeremiah 588 THE LETAAH OR LIZARD. Difficulty of identifying the Letftah — Probability that it is a collective and not a specific term — Various Lizards of Palestine — The Green or Jersey Lizard — The Cyprius, its appearance and habits — The Glass Snake or Scheltoimsic— Trans- lation of the word Chomet — Probability that it signifies the Skiuk — Medicinal uses of the Lizard — The Seps tribe — The common Cicigna, and the popular belief concerning its habits — Tlic Sphainops and its shallow tunnel . . . C0''> !!^ THE CHAMELEON, MONITOR, AND GECKO. Translation of the word Koach — Sij,'nification of the word, and its applicability to the Chameleon — Power of the reptile's grasp — Tlie prehensile tail — Demeanour of the Chameleon on the ground — The independent eyes — Its frccpieiit change of colour— Mode of taking prey — Strange notions respecting the Clmmeleon — Th(! Monitor, or Land Crocodile — Its liabits and use to mankind — The Nilotic Monitor, and its haliit of destroying the eggs and young of the Crocodile — The Gecko or FeiTot of Scripture 610 \ CONTENTS. xxin SEEPENTS. Serpents in general—- Signification of tho Hebrew word Nachash — Various passagea in which the Nachash is mentioned — The fiery Serpents of the wilderness — ^planation of the words " flying " and " fiery " as applied to Serpents — Haunts of the Serpent — The Cobra, or Asp of Scripture — Meaning of the word Pethen — The deaf Adder that stoppeth her car — Serpent-charming in the East — Prin- ciple on which the charmers work — Sluggishness of tho Serpent nature — Ceremony of initiation into Serpent-charming — Theories res]>ecting tlie deaf Adder- -Luis of Grenada's sermon — The Cerastes, or Horned Serpent — Appear- ance and habits of the reptile — The " Adder in the path " 616 5i;. THE VIPEK, OR EPHEH. Pussager. in which the word Epheh occurs — El-etfa!i — The Sand Viper, or Toxicoa — Its appearance and habits — Tiio Acshub — Adder's poison — The Spuugh- SlaHge — The Cockatrice, or Taepha — The Yellow Viper — Ancient ideas con- cerning the Cockatrice — Power of its venom 628 THE FllOG. The Frog only mentioned in the Old Testament as connected with the plagues of E^ypt — The severity of this plague explained — Tho Frog detestable to tha Egyptians — The Edible Frog and its numbers — Description of the Specioa. 633 FISHES. CHAPTER I. Impossibility of distinguishing the different species of fishes — The fishermen Apostles — Fish used for food — The miracle of the loaves and Fishes — The Fish broiled on the coals — Clean and unclean Fishes — The scientific writings of Solomon— The Sheat-fish, or Siluru.'i — The Eel and the Munena — The Long- headed Barbel— Fish-ponds and preserves — The Fish-ponds of Heshbon — The Sucking-fish — Tlie Lump-sucker — The Tunny — The Coryphene . . . 639 i. r CHAPTER n. Various modes of capturing Fisli — Tho hook and line — Militarj' use of the hook— ■ Putting a hook in the jaws — Tho fishing spear — Uiff'erent kinds of net — The casting-net — Prevalence of this form — Technical words among fishermen — Fishing by night — Tlio draught of Fishes — The real force of the miracle — Selecting the Fish— The Fish-gate and Fish-market — Fish killed by a draught —Fishing in the Dead Sea — Dagon, the fish-god of Philistina, Assyria, and Siam— Various Fishes of Egypt uiid Palestine 647 'il j''[.";ii|| ? ■■:.!l| '■\ XXIV CONTENTS. INVERTEBRATES. MOLLUSCS. The purple of Scripture — Various Molluscs from which it is obtained — ^Tht common Dog whelk of England— The sac containing the purple dye— Curious change of colour — Mode of obtaining the dye — The Tyrian purple — The king of tlie Ethiopians and the purple robe — The professional purple dyers- Various wordo expressive of different shades of purple — Care taken to keeji the preparation of the ilyo secret 061 THE SNAIL. The Snail which melteth — Rendering of the Jewish Bible — Theory respecting the track of tlkc Snail — The Hebrew word iSAati^M^— Various Snails ol Palestine 665 THE ONYCHA. Ingredients of the sacred incense — The Onyx, or Onycha — Derivation of the word — The Arabic Dofr — The Doot'u of Abyssinia — Odour of the perfume 666 THE PEAKL. The Pearl of Scripture — Wisdom coin]iared to Pearl — DifTercnt renderings of the Hebrew word — Opinions of the Talmiulists — Structure of Pearls — The Pearls of the marine and aquatic mussels — l\arl-fisherics of the Conway — Meta- phorical uses of the Pearly — The Pearl of great price— Casting Pearls before swine — An ancient proverb 608 '\ INSECTS. Insects — Beetles not mentioned in Scripture — The Locust — Various species of the insect, and different words used to signify it — The Arbeli of Scripture, and its derivation — The two migratory Locusts at rest and on the wing — The Locust swarms — Gordon Curaming's account — Progress of the insect hosts — Vain attempts to chock them — Tossed up and down as a Locust — ElLct of the winds on the insect — The cast and the west winds— Locusts used for food — Ancient and modern travellers — The food of St. ,Iohn 072 THE BEE. The Hebrew word Debdnih — The Honey Bee of Palestine — Abundance of Bees m the Holy Land — Habitations of the wild Bee — Hissing for the Bee — Bees in dead carcases — The honey of Scripture — Domesticated Bees and their hives — Stores of wild honey — The story of Jonathan— The Crusaiicrs and the honey — Butter and honey — Oriental sweetmeats — The Dibs, or grapc-lmney, and mode of preparation — Wax, its use as a metaphor 683 CONTENTS. THE HORNET. xzv The Trirah or Homot of Scripture — ^Travellen) driven away by Homota — Tlie Hornet used as a metaphor — Oriental symbolism — The Talmudicnl writers- Sting of the Hornet C91 THE ANT. The Ant of Scripturo— Solomon's allusion to the Ant— Habit of aying up stores of food — A controversy respecting tho Ant — The Ants of I'alestiiie, aiui their habits — The Agricultural or Mound-making Ant — Preparing ground, sowing, tending, reaping, and storing the crop — Diflercnt habits of Anta — Development of the insect — The winged Ants — An Arab proverb 694 THE CRIMSON WORM. The scarlet or crimson of Scripture — Signification of tho word Toliidtli — The Coccus or Cochineal of Palestine compared with that of Mexico — Dill'er- ence between the sexes — Moilo of preparing the insect — The Arabic word Kmnes 700 THE CLOTHES MOTH. The Moth of Scriptur-s evidently the Clothes Moth— The Sfis and the 'A!,li— Similitude between the Hebrew sds and the Greek sis — Moths and garments — Accumulation of clothes in the Eost — Various uses of the hoarded robes — The Moths, tho rust, and the thief 702 THE SILKWORM MOTH. Various passages wherein Silk is mentioned — The virtuous wom»n and her household — Probability that the Hebrews were acquainted with Silk — Present cultivntion of the Silkworm — Tho Silk-farms of the Lebanon — Signification of the word .\teshi — Silkworms and thunder — Luis of Grenada's sermon — The Hebrew word Gdzam, and its signification — The Palmer-worm of Scripture 705 FLIES. Flies of Scripture— Dead Flies and the apothecary's ointment — Gadflies and their attacks — Annoyance caused by the House-fly— Flics and ophthalmia —Signer Pierotti's account of the Flies — The sovereign remedy against Flies — Causes of their prevalence 710 i " .mt' ;!r ill! * XXVI CONTENTS. GNATS. Tho Qnat of Soripturo — Striiining out the Gnat and swallowing tho oamol, a typo- grnphioal error— Probable idontit.v of the Gnat niid the mosquito .... 71H THE LOUSE. Insect jjarnsitos — Tho plague of Lico — Its effect on tho magicians or priests — The Hebrew word I'/iiiinhn — Probability that it may bo represented by "tick" — llabit!< of the ticks, their dwellingH in dust, and their effects on man and boast 714 THE FLEA. Provalonco of tho Flea in tho East, and tho annoyance caused by them to travel- lors — Fleas of tho Lebanon — Tho Boy's bedfellows — Thn Pasha at tho bath — Use of tho word in Scripture 710 THE .SCORPION. The Scorpions of Palestine — Signifiuation of tho word Afcrabf 'm — HobitR of the Scorpion — Diingo.-'* of mud walls — Venom of tho Scorpion — Scorpions at sea — Tho Scorpion whip, and its use — Tho Scorpion Pass 718 THE SPIDER. Signification of tho word Semnmith — Vorious interpretations of a Scriptural pas- sago — Talmudical opinions rospeoting tho creature — The 'Akkcbish and its web — Spiders of Palestine 721 II THE WORM. Various words translated as "Worm" — Probabl.i confusion of tho words — Tho Rimmab and tho Tolo'ah — Tho Worm which destroyed Jonah's gourd — the Earthworm 722 THE HORSE LEECH. Signification tif the word Alukah — Tho Arabic word— Leeches in Palestine — Tho horse and the licech — l-ceches in Kngland 724 SPONGE AND CORAL. Use of the Sponge in Scripture — Probability that the ancient .lews wore acquainted with it — Sponges of tho Mediterranean — Tho Coriil, and its value — Signification of the word linmnlh 725 O.N Evolution 727 Resrakch ANn Travki. in Biblk Landa 767 M LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS, TiiR Lion and nis Dkn. (Kzck. xix. 2) ... DOOS PUOWLINO AT NlQIlT. (Psa. Ux. 14^ . . . Tub Hadokr and its Home. (Exod. xxvi. 14) . Br.AUS DK8CENDINO FUDM THE HiLLs. (Prov. xxviii. 15) Oxen deaiuxo the Yoke. (Lam. iii. 27) . . . Sheep and thuiu Sheimiehd and Fold. (Psa. xxiii. 2) Go.VTH wounded dy Lion. (Amos iii. 12) . . . The Hind and heu Youno. (.lob xxxix. 1) . . Camels and theiii Uuiidens. (Isa. xxx. 6) . . The Wah Hoii.se ooino to Datti.k. (Job xxxix. 25) Wild A.sses and the Hunteks. (Job xxxix. 5—8) The Wild Boau in the Vineyakd. (Psa. Ixxx. 1.3) Klevhants in a Foke.st. (Ezok. xxvii. 15) . . TiiK Hiri'OPOTAMUs oil Ueuemotii. (Job xl. 21) Vui;n!nE.s and theiii Pkey. (Matt. xxiv. 28) . The Eagle and its Nest. (Job xxxix. 27) . . The Csi'iiEY and ns Haunts. (Dout. xiv. r.!i . Tub Owl amono Ruins. (Job xxx. 2'.i) . . Pkacocks. (1 Kings x. 22) The OgTRicH and iih HvNTEns. (Job xxxix. 19 The Bittern and its Home. (Isa. xiv. 23) . . The v'tuiuc in the Fih tiikes. (Psh. civ. 17.) The Crocodile or Leviathan. (Job xli. 7) . . Locusts on the March. (ExoJ. x. 5) . . . . Piai to face r)8 II 82 f* 108 II 114 11 144 1* 1!)8 II 246 II 2o8 II 270 II 300 II :!;54 It :i.')4 II ;5(i8 *i .•!82 II 412 II 41() II 420 II 442 )i 4!):i II 520 II 5:5(5 II 5.')4 It ■>u II ()72 ' 'I';. ILLUSTRAriONS IN THr TEXT. The Rhesus and Enti.llus. (1 Kiuf;s x. 22). The Wanderoo Bats in their Cavk^ (Lovit. xi. 19) . . . The Leopard by the Way. (Hos. xiii. 7) . The Wolk amono the Sheep. (John x. 12) . Jackals and the Scapegoat. (Psa. Ixiii. 10) Hyenas and Vultures. (Ezok. xxix. 6) . , The Hedoehoo. (Isa.xxxiv.il) PAUM 35 38 4'J (i4 87 92 101 121 xxviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. rtat Tub Mole-IUt. {Lovit. xl. 30) 127 FiEM)-MicK AMONO CoKK. (1 Sam. vi. 5) 133 SvuiAN Hakks. (Dout. xiv. 7) 137 OXKN TllKADINO OUT COUN. (Deut. XXV. 4) 149 The Buffalo. (Amos vi. 12) 1/56 The Wim) Hull, or Okyx. (fsa. H. 21) 101 TiiF. U.viconv, OR Bison. (Job xxxix. 9) 174 Gazelles upon the Mountains. (Cant. ii. 8) 178 The I'voAiio, or Addax. (Dent. xiv. 4) 184 The Fallow-Deer, ok Huralk. (1 Kings iv. 28) 186 Sheep lkd to I'asturk. (John x. 3) 190 Thb Ram'h Horn Trumpet, (.fosh. vi. 4) 219 The Place of Sacrifice on Mount Gerizim 226 The Chamois, or Aoudad. (Dent. xiv. 4, 5) 231 Goats divided from Shkep. (Matt. xxv. 62) 243 The Wild Goat, or Irex. (Psn. cxiv. 18) 252 The Hind, or Fallow-Deeu. (Cant. ii. 7) 255 The Dromedary and its Kider. (Jcr. ii. 23) 281 The Camel AND THE "Nkedle's Eve." (Matt. xix. 24) 293 Bactrian Camelr hapnes.sed. (Isa. xxi. 7) 290 The War Chariot of Eovit. (Jor. xlvi. 9) 312 The State Chariot of A.'ssvria. (Jcr. xvii. 25) 314 Syrian Asses. (Prov. xxvi. 3) 321 Mules and their Driver. (Psa. xxxii. 9) 340 Conies amono the Hocks. (Prov. xxx. 26) 3"l The Hippopotamus in the Kiver. (Jobxl. 21) 385 The Hippopotamus and Trap. (Job xl. 24) ... 388 The Ossifrage, or Lammeuoeier. (Deut. xiv. 12) 394 The Gier-Eaole, op Egyptian Vulture. (Deut. xiv. 17) 400 The Vulture, ok Kitk. (Job xxviii. 7) 424 The Glede, or Peregrine Falcon. (Dout. xiv. 13) 427 The Lanner Falcon 429 The Hawk, or Kestrel. (Job xxxix. 26) 4:^2 The Little Owl. (Psa. cii. 6) . . . 438 The Night-Hawk. (Deut. xiv, 16) 445 The Swallow and Swift. (Jer. viii. 7) 453 The Lapwing, or Hoopoe. (Lovit. xi. 19) 4(51 The Sparrow, or Rlue Thru-sh. (Psa oii. 7) 467 The Sparrow, or Tree Sparrow. (Psa. Kxxiv. 3) 471 The Cuckoo. (Levit. xi. 16) . . . . 474 The Rock Dove. (Cant. ii. 14) 484 The Turtle Dove. (Cant. ii. 12) 4^8 Poultry. (Luke xiii. 34) 492 The Partridge on the Mountaikb. (1 Sum. xxvi. 20) 498 The Quail. (Psa. cv. 40) 501 The Raven. (Job xxxviii. 41) 510 The Ostrich and its Egos. (Job xxxix. 14) 524 The Bittern. (Isa. xiv. 23) 5315 The Heron. (Deut. xi. 19) 542 The Crank. (Isa. xxxviii. 14) 547 XXIX LIST OF IIXUSTKATIONS. Tub Swan or Idib, or Qallinule. (Dont. xlv. }<)) 860 The Pklioan of tiih WiLDEUNi-ais. {Vhh. eii. 0) 570 Thk Tortoihr and Diiunii. (liuvit. xi. 29) 681 Thb Lizard, oh Cyphiuh. (Lovit. xl. 30) 606 Thb Chamelon and the Gecko. (Lovit. xi. 30) 611 Tub Ahi- ,..nd the Adder, or the roituA and the Ceuahte.s. (l':tn. Iviii. 4; Oen. xlix. 17) 618 The Vii'eu, on Toxicoa. (Joli .\x. 16) 6i2l) The Froo. (Exod. viii. 3) (i;{4 Fishes— MtniiBNA, Barbel, and Sheat-kihh. (Lovit. xi. 10) ... . 042 Fishes— SijcKiNO-Fisii, Tunny, a.nd Coryhiene. (Luvit. x. 9) ... 646 Fishes— Lateh, .Muli.us, and Uranoscopus. (Nutul). xi. 6) . . . . 058 The Pearl Oyster. (Matt. xiii. 45) (jyo , The Bee. (Isa. vii. 19) 684 Thb Hornbt (Exod. xxiil. 28) 692 The Ant. (Prov. vi. 6) 699 The Crimson Worm, ou Cochineal. (Isu. i. 18) 70I Buttruflieh and Caterpillars ok Palkstink. (Joel i. 4) 709 Flies. (Psb. Lxxviii. 45) 713 The Scorpion. iHuv. ix. 10) 7 19 Th» Coral. (Job xxviiL 18) , 72G if' i>"'*n' \>lh \ ,■ 'i Kl MAMMALIA. luHH/J ii 1 1 HIR ' lifl ■ 1 ^f IN i Pl! ,■ ^ i I Ulil ' ' Ilk i ;« ! iwlii occurs III 1 •■ ! ' BIBLE ANIMALS. THE APE. The Monkey tribe rarely mentioned in Scripture — Why the Ape was introduced into Palestine — Solomon's ships, and their cargo of Apes, peacocks, ivory and gold — Various species of Monkey that might have been imported — The Rhesus Monkey — The Hoonuman or Entellus — Habits of the Monkey, and reverence in which it is lield by the natives — The Egyptians and their Baboon worship— Mols and memorials — The Wanderoo — its singular aspect — Reasons why it should be introduced into Palestine — General habits of the Wanderoo — its love of curiosities — Probability that Solomon had o menagerie — Various species of Monkey that maybe included in the term " Kophim" — The Satyr of Scripture — Babylon in its glory and fall — Fulfilment of prophecy— J adaic ideas of the Satyrs, or Seirim. Animals belonging to the monkey tribe are but aparingly mentioned in Holy Writ. If, as is possible, the Satyr of Scripture signifies some species of baboon, there are but three passages either in the Old or New Testament where these animals aie mentioned. In 1 Kings x. 22, and the parallel passage 2 Chron. ix. 21, the sacred historian makes a passing allusion to apes as forming part of the valuable cargoes which were brought by Solomon's fleet to Tharshisli, the remaining articles being gold, ivory, and peacocks. The remaining passage occurs in Is. xiii. 21, where the prophet foretells that on the site of Babylon satyrs shall dance. The reason for this reticence is simple enough. No monkey was indigenous to Palestine when tha various writers of the liible lived, and all their knowledge of such animals must have been derived either from the description of sailors, or from the sight of the few specimens that were brought as curiosities from foreign lands. Such specimens must have been extremely rare., or they would not have been mentioned as adjuncts to the w I m iM^:;.,,, mmm 34 BIBLE ANIMALS. wealth of Solomon, the wealtliiest, as well as the wisest monarch of his time. To the mass of the people they must have been practically unknown, and therefore hold but a very inferior place in th(! Scriptures, which were addressed to all mankind. There is scarcely any familiar animal, bird, reptile or insect, which is not used in some metaphorical sense in the imagery which pervades the whole of the Scriptures. For example, the various carnivorous animals, such as the lion, wolf, and bear, are used as emblems of destruction in various ways ; while the carnivorous birds, such as the oayle and hawlc, and the destructive insects, such as the locust and the caterpillar, are all similarly employed in strengthening and illustrating the words of Holy Writ. But we never find any animal of the monkey tribe mentioned metaphorically, possibly because any monkeys that were im- ported into Palestine must oidy have been intended as objects of curiosity, just as the peacocks which accompanied them were objects of beauty, and the gold and ivory objects of value — all being employed in the decoration of the king's palace. The question that now comes before us is the species of monkey that is signified by the Hebrew word Kophiui. In modern days, we distinguish this tribe of animals into three great sections, namely, the apes, the baboons, and the monkey ; and according to this arrangement the ape, being without tails, must have been either the clumi)aiizee of Africa, the orang-outan of Sumatra, or one of the Giblions. But there is no reason to imagine that the word Kophim was intended to represent any one of these animals, and it seems evident that the word was applied to any specie, of monkcsy, whether it had a tail or not. Perhaps the best method of ascertaining approximately the particular species of monkey, is to notice the land from which the animals came. Accordingly, we find that the ships of Solomon brought gold, ivory, apes, and peacocks, and that they evidently brought their cargoes from the same country. Conse- quently, the country in question nmst produce gold, and must be inhabited by the monkey tribe, by the elephant, and by tJie peaeock. If the peacock had not been thus casually mentioned, we should have been at a loss to identify the particular country to which reference is made ; but the mention of that bird sho' i that some part of Asia must be signified. It is most probt.ole Ni^.'^ leavt ' i THR APR. 85 that the vessels iu question visited both India and Ceylon, although, owing to tlie very inipuifect geographical knowletlge of the perioil, it is not possible to assert absolutely that this is the case. In India, however, and the large irsland of Ceylon, gold, elephants, peacocks, and monkeys exist ; and therefore we will endeavour to identity the animals which are mentioned under the general term Apes, or Kophim. Ulh KIIKNI N AND KNTEI.I.UH. '• HriiiDiug gold, ami sHcer, ivory, and ajws."— T K'.NOs x. 22 We are quite safe in suggesting that some of the apes in question must have belonged to the Macaques, and it is most likely that one of them was the Ehksus, or BilUNDER, scien- titically named MacaciUi Rhc.sits. This animal is very plentiful in India, and is one of the many creatures which are held sacred by the natives. Consequently, it takes up its quarters near human habitations, feeling sure that it will not be injured, and knowing that plenty of food is at lumd. It is .said that in some parts of India the natives always leave one-tenth of their grain-crops for the monkeys, and thus s '.'■••III ^^ ii|;i '^ ', 36 BIBLE ANIMALS. , wi 8f the animals content themselves with this offering, and refrain from devastating the fields, as they would otherwise do. This story may be true or not. It is certainly possible that in a long series of years the monkeys of that neighbourhood have come to look upon their tithe as a matter belonging to the ordinary course of things ; but whether it be true or not, it illustrates the reverence entertained by the Hindoos for their monkeys. In many places where grain and fruit crops are cultivated, the monkeys get rather more than their share, plundering without scruple, and finding no hindrance from the rightful owners, who dare not drive them away, lest they should injure any of these sacred beings. However, being unmindful of the maxim, " qui facit per alium, facit per sc," tney are only too glad to avail themselves of the assistance of Europeans, who have no scruples on the subject. Still, although they are pleased to see the monkeys driven off, and their crops saved, they would rather lose all their harvest than allow a single monkey to be killed, and in the earlier years o'f our Indian colony, several riots took place between the natives and the English, because the latter had killed a monkey through ignorance of the reverence in which it was held. Another monkey which may probably have been brought to Palestine from India is the Hoonuman, Entellus, or Makuk, which is more reverenced by the Hindoos than any other species. Its scientific title is Presbytea entclhis. In sonic; parts of India it is worshipped as a form of divinity, and in all it is reverenced and protected to such an extent that it becomes a positive nuisance to Europeans who are not intluenced by the same superstitious ideas as those wliich are so prevalent in India. Being a very common species, it could easily be captured, especially rf, as is likely to be the case, it was fearless of man through long immunity from harm. The sailors who manned Solomon's navy would not trouble themselves about the sacred character of the monkeys, but would take them without the least scruple wherever they could be found The Hoonuman would also be valued by them on account of its docility when taken young, and the anmsing tricks which it is fond of displaying in captivity as well as in a state oi freedom. Moreover, it is rather a pretty creature, the general colour being yellowish, and the face black. THE APR. 37 Perfectly aware of the iiupuuity with which they are per- mitted to act, tliese monkeys prefer human habitations to the forests which form the natural home of their race, and crowd into the villages and temples, the latter being always swarming with the long-tailed host. As is the case with the Ehesus, the Hoouuniau monkeys are much too fond of helping themselves from the shops and stalls, and if they can lind a convenient roof, will sit there and watch for the arrival of ti^e most dainty fruits. However, the natives, superstitious as they are, and unwilling to inflict personal injury on a monkey, have no scruple in making arrangements by which a monkey that trespasses on forbidden spots will iuHict injury on itself. They may not shoot or wound in any way the monkeys which cluster on their roofs, and the animals are so perfectly aware of the fact, that they refuse to be driven away by shouts and menacing gestures. But, they contrive to make the roofs so uncomfortable by cover- ing them with thorns, that the monkeys are obliged to quit their points of vantage, and to choose some spot where they can sit down without fear of hurting themselves. That the Hindoos should pay homage almost divine to » monkey, does seem equally absurd and contemptible. But, strange as this superstition may be, and the more strange because the intellectual powirs of the educated Hindoos are peculiarly subtle and penetr;. ing, it was shared by a greater, a mightier, and a still more intellectual race, now extinct as a nation. The ancient Egyptians worshipped the baboon, and ranked it among the most potent of their deities ; and it can but strike us with wonder when we reflect thtit a people who could erect buildmgs perfectly unique in the history of the world, who held the fore- most place in civilization, who perfected arts which we, at a distance of three thousand years, have only just learned, should pay divine honours to monkeys, bulls, and snakes. Such, however, was the case ; and we find that the modern Hindoo shows as great reverence for the identical animals as did the Egyptian when Pharaoh wa3 king, and Joseph his. prime minister. It is said by some, that neither the Egyptian of the ancient times, nor the Hindoo of the present day, actually worshipped these creatures, but that they reverenced them as external signs W '-•i^fm mBm ■■■•: J' 38 BIBLK ANIMALS. of some attribute of God. Precisely the same remarks have been made as to the worship of idols, and it is likely enough that the highly educated among the worshippers did look upon a serpent merely as an emblem of divine wisdom, a bull as an image of divine strength, and a monkey as an external memorial of the promised incarnation of divinity So with idols, which to the man of educated and enlarged mind were nothing but visible symbols employed for the purpose of directing the mind in THK WASllERdO. worship. But, though this was the case with the educated and intellectual, the ignorant and uncultivated, who compose the great mass of a nation, did undoubtedly believe that both the living animal and the lifeless idol were themselves divine, and did worship them accordingly. There is one species of monkey, which is extremely likely to have been brought to Palestine, and used for the adorn- ment of a luxurious monarch's palace. This is the Wandekoo, or Nil-Bhunuek {Silenvs veter). The Wanderoo, or Uuanderoo, aa the --i.nie is sometimes spelled, is a very conspicuous animal, THE APE. 39 on account of the curious mane that covers its neck and head, and the peculiarly formed tail, which is rather long and tufted, like that of a baboon, and has caused it to be ranked among those animals by several writers, under the name of the Lion- tailed Baboon. That part of the hairy mass which rolls over the head is nearly black, but as it descends over the shoulders, it assumes a greyer tinge, and in some specimens is nearly white, reminding the observer of the huge wigs which were so pre- valent in the time of Charles II, or of the scarcely less enormous head-dresses with which our judges are decorated. As is the case with many animals, the mane is not seen in the young specimens, and increases in size with age, only reaching its full dimensions when the animal has attained adult age. Moreover, the grey hue belongs exclusively to the elder monkeys, and only in the oldest specimens is the full, white, venerable, wig-like mane to be seen in perfection. In captivity, the general demeanour of this monkey corre- sponds with its grave and dignified aspect. It seems to be more sedate than the ordinary monkeys, to judge from the specimens which have lived in the Zoological Gardens, and sits peering with its sliiny brown eyes out of the enormous mane, with as much gravity as if it were really a judge deciding an im- portant case in law. Not that it will not condescend to the little tricks and playful sallies for which the monkeys are so cele- brated ; but it soon loses the vivacity of youth, and when full- grown, presents as great a contrast to its former vivacity, as does a staid full-grown cat sitting by the fire, to the restless, lively, playful kitten of three months old. During its growth, it can be taught to go through several amusing performances, but it has little of the quick, mercurial manner, which is generally found among the monkey tribe. The docility of the Wanderoo often vanishes together with its youth. The same animal may be gentle, tractable, and teachable when young, and yet, when a, few years have passed over its head and whitened its mane, may be totally obstinate and dull, refusing to perform the feats v/hich it accomplished in its youth, or to learn others more suitable to its years. Consistent kind treatment will, however, have its effect upon the creature, but as u general rule, an old Wanderoo is apt to be a treacherous and spiteful animal. I'll i 1' I'M ^M ,;Jfc«-.J* MS IM :'i: 40 BIBLE ANIMALa m n.: The natives of the country in which the Wnnderoo lives, attribute to it the wisdom which its venerable aspect seems to imply, nnich as the ancient Athenians venerated the owl as the bird of wisdom, and the chosen companion of the learned Minerva. In many places, tlie Wauderoo is thought to be a sort of king among monkeys, and to enjoy the same supremacy over its maneless kinsfolk, that the king- vulture maintains over the other vultures which are destitute of the brilliant crest that marks its rank. I am induced to believe that the Wanderoo must have . been one of the monkeys which were brought to Solomon, for two reasons. In the first place, it is a native both of India and Ceylon, and therefore might have formed an article of merchandise, together with the peacock, gold, and ivory. And if, as is extremely pro- bable, the Tharshish of the Scripture is identical with Ceylon, it is almost certain that the Wanderoo would have been brought to Solomon, in order to increase the glories of his palace. Sir Emerson Tennant points out very forcibly, that in the Tamil language, the words for apes, ivory, and peacocks, are identical with the Hebrew names for the same objects, and thus gives a very strong reason for supposing that Ceylon was the country from which Solomon's fleet drew its supplies. Another reason for conjecturing that the Wanderoo would have been one of the animals sent to grace the palace of Solomon is this. In the days when that mighty sovereign lived, as indeed has been the case in all partially civilized ^ cuatries, the kings and rulers have felt a pride in collecting together the rarest objects which they could purchase, giving the preference to those which were in any way conspicuous, whether for intrinsic value, for size, for beauty, or for ugliness. Thus, giants, dwarfs, and deformed persons of either sex, and even idiots, were seen as regular attendants at the court, a custom which extended even into the modern history of this country, the " Fool " being an indispensable appendage to the train of ever}' person of rank. Animals from foreign lands were also prized, and value was set upon them, not only for their variety, but for any external characteristic which would make them especially conspicuous. Ordinary sovereigns would make collections of such objects, simply because they were rare, and in accordance with the THE APE. 41 general custc ra ; and in importing the " apes " and peacocks together wit i the gold and ivory, Sohiuion but lollowed tlie usual custom. He, however, on wliotn the gilt of wisdom had been especiidly bestowed, woidd have another motive besiilea ostentation or curiosity. Hi^ was learned in the study of that science which we now call Natural History. It is, therefore, extremely probable, tliat he would not neglect any opportunitiiis of procuring animals fron\ distant lands, in order that he might study the products of countries which he had not persouivlly visited, and it is not likely that so conspicuous an animal as the Wanderoo would have escaped the notice of tiiose who proviiled the cargo for which so wealthy a king could pay, and for which they would demand a price proportionate to its variety. There is perhaps no monkey which is so conspicuous among its kin as the Wanderoo, and certainly no monkey or apo inhabiting those parts of the world to which the fleet of Solomon would have access. Its staid, sedate manners, its black body, lion-like tail, and huge Avhite-edgcd mane, would distinguish it so boldly from its kinsfolk, that the sailors would use all their efforts to capture an animal for which they v;ould be likely to obtain a high price. The peculiar and unique charactPi of Solomon affords good reason inr conjecture that, not only were several species of the monkey tribe included under th;? uener.al word Kophim, but that the number of species must have been very large. An ordinary monarch would have been content with one or two species, and would probably have been perfectly satisfied if a number of monkeys had been brought from beyond seas, irrespective of distinction of species. Dut, if we consider the character of Solomon, we shall find that he would not have been content with such imperfect knowledge. We are told that he wrote largely of the various productions of the earth, and, to jud^c him by ourselves, it is certain that with such magnificent means at his command, he would have ransacked every country that his ships could visit, for the purpose of collecting materials for his works. It is therefore almost certain that under the word Kophim may be included all the most plentiful species of monkey which inhabit the countries to which his ileet had access, and that in his palace were collected together si)ecimenB of each monkey which has here been mentioned, besides many m ■.i i :h 42 niBLK ANIMALS. others of which no special notice iiccrt Ue taken, such as the Bonnet Monkeys, nml otlier Macaques. We now come to the vexed question of the Satyrs, respecting which word <,'rcat controversies liave been raised. Tlie Hebrew word Seiriin merely sicnifics " hairy beings," and does not seem to be applied to any definite species of animal. Several scholars, therefore, translate the word by " wild f,'oats," and instead of reading the passages (Is. xiii. 21, and xxxiv. 14) " Satyrs shall dance there," they read them, " The he-goats shall skip there." This is certainly an easitsr interpretation than that which is accepted in our translation, but whether it is more correct may be doubted. Moreovei-, the word " goat " would not convey the idea of utter desolation which the ])ropheey implied, and which has been so signally fulfilled in the l?iil)yloii of the presiait day. The vast palaces and temples have sunk into shapeless heaps of ruins, affording scarcely a trace by which the buildings can be identified. The many massive gates, for which the city was famous, have disappeared. The double lines of forti- fication are only to be distinguished by a few scattered mounds, v.'iiile the wonderful palace of Nebuchadnezzar has left but a few shattered walls as relics of an edifice whose fauje spread over the world. What precise animal was meant by the word Seirim cannot be ascertained, nor is it even certain whether the word signified any particular species at all. The ancient commentators identified Seirim with the semi-human creatures of mythology, known as Satyrs, and strcHgthened this opinion by a reference to Lev. xvii. 7, where the Israelites are warned against worshipping Seirim, or " devils " according to our translation. In connnon with all the civilized world, they fully believed that Satyrs were veritable inhabitants of the woods and deserts, with forms half man half goat, with powers more than human, and with passions below humanity. Of course we cannot now accept such an interpre- tation, but nnist grant, either that a mere metaphor of desolation was intended, or that the prophecy alluded to various wild animals that inhabit deserted places. Accept which interpretation we will, it is impossible to identify any particular animal witli the " Satyr " of Isaiah, and therefore it will be better tu decline giving any opinion on a subject which cannot be definitely explained. THE BAT. 48 THE BAT. The Bat mentioneil always with aMiorrenco — Mi^iniiig of thn Hrbri'W nnirn- —The proliiViition against cntiiij^ lints — 'i'lic ctlilild s|it'cii's, their food and mode of life— Tiui noiaoinp chaiactcr of tlic Mat, and tlio nature of its d\velling]dnce — its hatred uf light Harueli and his iiro]ihe('y-^Ai)|iro])riatones.s of the pro- phecy— Singiilar Mahoinnicdan legend n-.specting the original cruation of the Bat- -The legentl conipared with the iipoervphal gospels — The Bats of Palestine — Mr. Tristram's discoveries —Hats found in the ipiarries from wiiicli the stone of the Temple was hewn— F.dihle Bats in a cave near the centre of Palestine — Another speeies of long-tailed IJat eaiitured in the rock caves where hcrmita had hoen Imricd - Other species which iirohiiJdy inhal)it Palestine. Among the miiiiials that are forhidth'u to be eaten l)y the Israelites we find the 1>\T proniiiieiitly inciitioned, and in one or two parts of Scripture the same creature is alhided to with evident abhorrence. In Isaiah ii. 20, for example, it is pro- phesied that when the day of the Lord comes, the \vors}iip])er3 of idols will try to hide themselves from the presence of the Lord, and will cast their false f^ods to the bats and the moles, both animals being evidently used as end)U'ms of darkness and igiiiiiUK » . and associattid together for a reason which will be given when treating of the mole. The Hebrew name of the I?at is expressive of its nocturnal habits, and literally signifies some b(;ing that files by night, and it is a notable fact that the Greek and Latin names for the bat have also a similar deri- vation. In I..ev. xi. 20, the words, " All fowls that creep, going upon all four, shall be an abomination unto you," are evidently in- tended to apply to the bat, which, as is now w dl known, is not a bird with wings, but a mammal with very long toes, and a w ell developed membrane between them. Like other mammals, the Bat crawls, or walks, on all four legs, though the movement is but a clumsy one, and greatly diiferent from the gi'aceful ease with which the creature urges its course through the evening aii in search of food. ^■J^kwm ni:tj jitiii 44 nmt-K ANIMALS. H» I, Perhaps the prohibition to eat so unsi,i,'litly an aniinni may seom iilinost m'(ull(!.ss ; but it must bt> roiuombcred that in st'Vt'nil pints of the emth, (ritaiii spci-ies of Hut are u.seil as fuotl. The.io arc chiftly tlic hw^v spi'tics, that arc caUcd Kaloni^H, and whicii I'ccd aluKiMt entirely nn IVuit, tiiu.s beiu'^' t(j their illscc'tiv()n»u^ ri'lalivcs wlnit the fruit-loviu},' bear i.s aniou^' the larj,'er earn ivora. These edible Mats have other habits not sliared by the ;4:cncrality of their ivin. Si»nio of the species do not retire to caves and hollow trees lor siielter iliirint,' their Iit>urs of sleep, but suspend themselves by their hind le,<,'s from the topmost braiiehes of the trees whose fruit all'oids them nourish- ment. In this position they have a most siii).,'ular aspect, lookinj,' inui.'h as if they themselves were large bunches of fruit hanging from the boughs. Thus, they are cleaidy animals, and are as little re[)ulsive as bats can i)e expected to be. But the ordiiuiry bats, such as are signified by the "night- fliers" of the Scriptures, are, when in a state of nature, exceed- ingly unpleasant creatures. Almost all animals are infested with parasitic insists, but the llat absol^itely swarms with them, so that it is impossible to handle a liat recently dead without tiiul- ing .some of them on the hands. Also, the bats are in the habit of resorting to caverns, clefts in the rocks, deserted ruins, and similar dark places, wherein they pass the hours of daylight, and will frequent the same spots for a long series of years. In C(»n- sequence of this habit, the spots -which they select for tht^r resting place! beconn; inconceivably noisome, and can scarcely be entered by human beings, so powerful is the odour with which they are imbued. Sometimes, when travellers have been exploring the chambers of ruined i)uildings, or have endeavoured to penetrate into the recesses of rocky caves, they have been repelled by the bats which had taken up their habitation therein. No sooner does the light of the torch or lamp shine upon the walls, than the clusters of bats detach themselves from the spots to which they had Iteeii clinging, and lly to the light like moths to a candle. Xo torch can withstand the multitude of wings that come ilap- ping al)out it, sounding like the rushing of a strong wind, whiii! the bats that do not crowd around the light, dash against the explorers, beating their leathery wings against their fac(?s, and clinging i)i numbers to their dress. They would even .settle on the TMK BAT. lo fiice luileHH kept off hy tlu' liaiwlH, iiud sotnetimes thoy forc<« tlio in trudtTH to lii'nt a rt'ticiit. Tliry do not intciul to iittiick. for tli«y iinMiuito iiicapiiblo of doiii^f any rcul y dash about at random, and (ly blindly towards the torclics in their end(iavours t(> escape. H', then, \vc kfe]) in mind the hal)its of the bats, we shall comprehend tiuit their haliitutions nuist be inexpressibly revolt- ing to human beings, and shall the better understand the force of the prophecy that the idols shall be east to tho liats and the moles. There is another, and a V(!ry forcible pa.ssa.^come a " man-eater." Even in that case, a Lion will seldom attack a man, unless he should be able to do so unseen, but will hang about the villages, pouncing on the women as they come to the wells for water, or upon the little children as they stray from their parents, and continually shifting his quarters lest \k should be assailed during his sleep. The Lion requires a very large tract of country for his maintenance, and the consequence is, that in proportion as the land is populated does the number of Lions decrease. Firearms are the special dread of the Lion. Tn the tirst place, the Lion, like all wild boasts, cannot endure fire, and the flash of the gun terrifies him greatly. Then, there is the report, surpass- ing even his roar in resonance ; and lastly, tliere is the unseen bullet, which seldom kills him at once, but mostly drives him to furious anger by the pain of his wound, yet which he does not dread nearly so much as the harmless flash and report. There is another cause of tlu^ Lion's banislmient from tlie Holy Laud. It is well known that to attract any wild beast or bird to some definite spot, all that is required is to provide them with a suit- able and undisturbed home, and a certainty of food. Conse- quently, the surest method of driving them away is to deprive them of both these essentials. Then the Lion used to live in forests, which formerly stretched over large tracts of ground, but which have long since been cut down, thus depriving the Lion of its home, while the thick population and the general use of file- arms have deprived him of his food. In fact, the Lion has been driven out of Palestine, just as the wolf has been extirpated from England. Hut, in the olden times. Lions must have been very plentiful. There is scarcely a book in the Bible, whether of the Old or New Testaments, whether historical or prophetical, that does not contain some mention of this terrible animal ; sometimes de- hcribing the actions of individual Lions, but mostly using the c2 .K..lli,> 1 " ill ' 1 JiliuiHilii 52 BIBLE ANIMALS. i!>i word as an emblem of strength and force, whether used for a good purpose or abused for a oad one. There are several varieties of Lion, which may be reduced to two, namely, the African and the Asiatic Lion. It is almost certain, however, that these animals really are one and the same species, and that the trlHing diflerences which exist between an African and an Asiatic Lion, are not sufficient to justify a naturalist in considering them to be distinct species. The habits of both are identical, modified, as is sure to be tlie case, by the difference of ]oc9.1ity ; but then, s\ich variations in habit are con- tinually seen in animals confessedly of tlie same species, which happen to be placed in different conditions of climate and locality. That it was once exceedingly plentiful in Palestine is evident, from a very cursory knowledge of the Holy Scriptvues. It is every where mentioned as a well-known aninuil, equally familiar and dreaded. When the disobedient prophet was killed by the Lion near Bethel, the fact seemed not to have caused any sur- prise in the neighbourhood. When the people came out to rescue the body of the prophet, they wondered much because the Lion was standing by the fallen man, but had not torn him, and had left the ass unhurt. But that a Lion should have killed a man seems to have been an event which was not sufficiently rare to he surprising. We will now proceed to those characteristics of the Lion whicli bear especial reference to the Scriptures. In the first place, size for size, the Lion is one of the sti'ongest of beasts. Perhaps it is surpassed in point of she(!r strength by the mole, but it possesses infinitely more activity than that animal. Moreover, the strength of the mole is concentrated in its fore-quarters, the hind limbs being comparatively feeble ; ' whereat^, the strength of the Lion is equally distributed over the body and limbs, giving to the animal an easy grace of movement which is rare except with such a structure. A fuU-giown Lion cannot only knock down and kill, but can carry away in its mouth, an ordinary ox ; and one of these terrible animals has been known to pick up a heifer in its mouth, and to leaj) over a wide ditch still caiTving its burden. Another Lion carried a two-year old heifer, and was chased for five hours by mounted farmers, so that it must have traversed a very considerable distance. Yet, in THE LION. 53 the whole of this long journey, the legs of the heifer had only two or three times touched the ground. It kills man, and oomparativelj"- small animals, such as deer and antelopes, with a blow of its terrible paw ; and often needs to give no second blow to cause the death of its victim. The sharp talons are not needed to cause death, for the weight of the blow is sufficient for that purpose. When the hunter pursues it with dogs, after the usual fashion, there is often a great slaughter among them, especially among those that are inexperienced in the chase of the Lion. Urged by their instinctive antipathy, the dogs rush forward to the spot where the Lion awaits them, and old hounds bay at him from a safe distance, while tJie young and inexperienced among them are apt to convert the sham attack into a real one. Their valour meets with a poor reward, for a few blows from the Lion's ter- rible paws send his assailants flying in all directions, their bodies streaming w'th blood, and in most cases a fatal damage inflicted, while more han one unfortunate dog lies fairly crushed by the weight of a paw laid with apparent carelessness upon its body. There is before me a Lion's skin, a spoil of one of these animals shot by the celebrated sportsman, Gordon Gumming. Although the skin lies flat upon the floor, and the paws are nothing but the skin and talons, the weight of each paw is very consider- able, and always surprises those who hear it fall on the floor. There are several Hebrew words which are used for the Lion, but that which signifies the animal in its adult state is derived from an Arabic word signifying strength ; and therefore the Lion is called the Strong-one, just as the Bat is called the Night- flier. No epithet could be better deserved, for the Lion seems to be a very incarnation of strength, and, even when dead, gives as vivid an idea of concentrated power as when it was living. And, when the skin is stripped from the body, the tremendous muscular development never fails to create a sensation of awe. The muscles of the limbs, themselves so hard as to blunt the keen-edged knives employed by a dissecter, are enveloped in their glittering sheaths, playing upon each other like well-oiled machinery, and terminating in tendons seemingly strong as steel, and nearly as impervious to the knife. Not until the skin is re- moved can any one form a conception of the enormously power- ful muscles of the neck, which enable the Lion to lift the I H'lv: i, ! :i •iUi i '■ ' 1 ■- • . .Ill' '*&&,[ ' \Va i.ffl i !, -A BIBLE AMMALS. weighty prey wliicli it kills, and to convey it to a place of security. Although usually unwilling to attack an armed man, it is one of the most courageous animals in existence when it is driven to tight, and if its anger is excited, it cares l.ide for the number of its foes, or the weapons with which thoy are armed. Even the dreaded firearms lose tlieir terrors to an angry Lion, while a Lioness, who fears for the safety of her young, is simply the most tevrible aninuil in existence. We know how even a hen will light for her chickens, and how she has been known to beat off the fox and the hawk by the reckless fury of her attack. It may be easily imagined, therefore, thai .: Lioness actuated bj' equal courage, and possessed of the terrible weapons given to her by her Creator, would be an animal almost too formidable for the conception of those who have not actually witnessed the scene of a Lioness defending her little ones. The roar of the Lion is another of the characteristics for which it is celebrated. There is no beast that can produce a sound that could for a moment be mistaken for the roar of the Lion. The Lion has a habit of stooping his head towards the ground when he roars, so that the terrible sound rolls along like thunder, and reverberates in many an echo in the far distance. Owing to this curiou3 habit, the roar can be heard at a very great distance, but its locality is rendered uncertain, and it is often difficult to be quite sure whether the Lion is to the right or the left of the hearer. There are few sounds which strike more awe than the Lion's roar. Even at the Zoological Gardens, where the hearei knows that he is in perfect safety, and where the Lion is enclosed in a small cage faced with strong iron bars, the sound of the terrible roar always has a curious effect upon the nerves. It is not exactly fear, because the hearer knows that he is safe ; but it is soniewhat akin to the feeling of mixed awe and admiration with which one listens to the crashing thunder after the lightning has sped its course. If such be the case when the Lion is safely lioused in a cage, and is moreover so tame that even if he did escape, he would be led back by the keeper without doing any harm, the effect of the roar must indeed be terrific when the Lion is at liberty, when he is in his own country, and when the shades of evening prevent him from being seen even at a short distance. THE LION. 55 In the dark, there is no aiiinuil so invisible as a Lion. Almost every hunter has told a similar story — of the Lion's approach at nif;ht, of the terror displayed by dogs and catllo as he drew near, and of the utter inability to see him, though he was so close that they could hear his breathing. Som(!tinies, when he has crept near an encampment, or close to a cattle inclosure, he does not proceed any farther lest he should venture within the radius illumined by the rays of the fire. So he crouches closely to the ground, and, in the semi-darkness, looks .so like a large stone, or a little hillock, that any one might pass close to it without perceiving its real nature. This gives the opportunity for which the Lion has been watching, and in a moment he strikes down the careless straggler, and carries off his prey to the den. Sometimes, when very much excited, he accompanies ihe charge with a roar, but, as a general fact, he secures his prey in silence. The roar of the Lion is veiy peculiar. It is not a mere out- burst of sound, but a curiously graduated performance. No de- scription of the Lion's roar is so vivid, so true, and so graphic as that of Gordon Gumming : " One of the most striking things connected with the Lion is his voice, which is extremely grand and peculiarly striking. It consists it times of a low, deep moaning, repeated five or six times, ending in faintly audible sighs. At other times he startles the forest with loud, deep- toned, solemn roars, repeated five or six times in quick succes- sion, each increasing in loudness to the third or fourth, when his voice dies away in five or six low, muffled sounds, very much resembling distant thunder. As a general rule. Lions roar during the night, their sighing moans commencing as the shades of evening envelop the forest, and continuing at intervals through- out the night. In distant and secluded regions, however, I have constantly heard them roaring loudly as late as nine or ten o'clock on a bright sunny morning. In hazy and rainy weather they are to be heard at every hour in the day, but their roar is subdued." Lastly, we come to the dwelling-place of tha Lion. This animal always fixes its residence in the depths of some forest, through which it threads its stealthy way with admirable cer- tainty. No fox knows every hedgerow, ditch, drain, and covert better than thu Lion knows the whole country around his den.. iMmSLi^ ^liil: Hns HI IB^I^l Ijl 56 BIDLE ANIMALS. 4 ui : ''I ! I I ]i i (;:, Each Lion seems to have hrs peculiar district, in wliicli only hims(!if and his family will be found. These animalst seem to parcel out the nei<.,dil)ourhood ainon<,' themselves l»y a tacit law like that which the doj^s of eastern countries have imi)Osed upon themselves, and whicli forl»ids them to go out of the district in which they were born. Durinj; the ni'^lit he traverses his dominions ; and, as a rule, he retires to his don as soon \s the sun is fairly above the horizon. Sometimea he will be vn wait for prey in the broadest daylight, but his ordinary habits are nocturnal, and in the daytime he is usually asleep in his seoret dwelling-place. We will now glance at a few of the passages in wliich the Lion is mentioned in the Holy Scriptures, selecting those which treat of its Aarious characteristics. The terrible strength of the Lion is the subject of repeated reference. In the magnificent series of prophecies uttered by Jacob on his deathbed, the power of the princely tribe of Judah is predicted under the metaphor of a Lion —the beginning of its power as a Lion's whelp, the fulness of its strength as an adult Lion, and its matured esi iblishment in power as tiie old Lion that couches himself and none dares to disturb him. Then Solomon, in the Proverbs, speaks of the Lion as the " strongest among beasts, and that turneth not awny f^i avy" Solomon also alludes to its courage in the Si me book, Prov. xxviii. 1, in the well-known passage, " The wicl- ed fieetli when no man pursueth : but the righteous are bold ai a lion." And, in 2 Sam. xxiii. 20, the courage of Benaiah, one of the mighty three of David's army, is specially honoured, because he fought and killed a Lion single-handed, and beca ise he conquered " two lion-like men of Moab." David, their leader, had also dis- tinguished himself, when a mere keeper of cattle, by jjursuing and killing a Lion that had come to pluiuler his herd. In the same book o-f Sanmel which has just been quoted (xvii. 10), the valiant men are metaphorically described as having the hearts of Lions. The ferocity of this terrible beast of prey is repeatedly men- tioned, and the Psalms are full of such allusions, the fury and auger of enemies being compared to the attacks of the Lion. Many passages refer to the Lion's roar, and it is remarkable that the Hebrew language contains several words by which the I ■ H , m THK I.K W. 57 different kind of roar is described. One word, for example, reprcuents the low, deep, Umndcr-like roar of the Lion seeking its prey, and which has already lieeii mentioned. This is the word which is used in Amos iii. 4, " Will u lion roar in the forest when he hath no prey?" and if this passage the word which is transhited ns Lion signifies the ninmal when full grown and in the prime of life. Another word is u.sed to signify the sudden exulting cry of Wv. Lion as it leaps upon its victim. A third is used for the angry growl with wliich a Lion resents any endeavoJir to de[)rive it of its prey, a sound with which we are all familiar, on a miniature scale, when we hear a cat growling over a mouse which slie lias just caught. The fourth term signifies the peculiar roar utteuid by the young Lion after it has ceased to be a cub and before it has attained maturity. This last term is employed in Jer. li. 38, " They shall roar together like lions ; they shall i/ell as lions' whelps," in which passage two distinct words are used, one signifying the roar of the Lion when search- ing after prey, and the other the cry of the young Lions. The prophet Amos, who in his capacity of herdsman was familiar with the wild bwvsts, from which he had to guard his i3attle, makes fretpient mention of the Lion, and does so with a force and vigour that betoken practical exMerience. How powerful is this imagery, " The lion hath roared; who will not fear ? The Lord God hath spoken ; who can but prophesy ? " Here we have the picture of the man himself, the herdsman and prophet, who had trembled many a night, as the Lions drew nearer and n(>arer ; and who heard the voice of the Lord, and his lips poured out prophecy. Nothing can be more complete than the parallel which he has drawn. It breathes the very spirit of piety, and may bear comparison even with the prophecies of Isaiah for its simple grandeur. It is remarkable how the sacred writers have entered into the spirit of the world around them, and how closely they observed the minutest details even in the lives of the brute beasts. There is a powerful passage in the book of Job, iv. 11, "The old lion i)erisheth for lack of prey," in which the writer betrays his . thorough knowledge of the habits of the animal, and is aware that the usual mode of a Lion'*s death is through hunger, in con- sequence of his increasing inability to catch prey. The nocturnal habits of the Lion and its custom of lying in riJ'. 58 mnLK ANIMALS. n wait for prey nrc oftfii iiuMitioinil in tlio Scriptures. The former habit is spokoii of in that fiiiniliar and hmiutirul pa.s8ago in the Psalms (civ. 20), "Thou make.st darkness, and it is night; whfToin all tho lieasts of tlu! forest do creep forth. The young Lions roar after their pny ; and seek their meat from (Jod. The 8un ariseth, they gather thom-selvea together, and lay thorn down in their dens." Its custom of lying in wait is frequently alluded to. See I'salm X. 9, where it is said of tlu; wicked man, that " He lietli in wait secretly, as u lion in his den." Also, l.am. iii. 10, " He was unto me as a bear lying in wait, and as a lion in secret places." Also, Ps. xvii. 11, wherein the peculiar gait and demeanour of the Lion is admirably depicted, " They have now compassed us in our steps ; th(^y have set their eyes bowing down to the earth ; like as a lion that is greedy of his prey, and as it were a young lion lurking in secret places." The retired spots, deep in the forest, where the Lion makes his den, are repeatedly mentioned. See for example. Cant. iv. 8, " Look from the top of Amana, from the toj) of Shenir and Hermon, from the lions' dens." Also, Jer. iv. 7, " The lion is come up from his thicket, and the destroyer of the Gentiles is on his way." The same Prophet contains several passages illustrative of tlie Lion's habitation ; see oh. v. 6, " Wherefore a lion out of the forest shall slay them ; " xii. 8, " Mine heritage is unto me as a lion in the forest; " and lastly, xxv, 38, " He hath forsaken his covert as the lion." An animal so destructive among the flocks and herds could not be allowed to carry out its depredations unchecked, and aa we have already seen, tlic warfare waged against it has been so successful, that the Lions have long ago been fairly extirpated in Palestine. The usual method of capturing or killing the Lion was by pitfalls or nets, to both of which there are many refer- ences in the Scriptures. The mode of hunting the Lion with nets was identical with that which is practised in India at the present time. The j^re- cise locality of the Lion's dweiling-phice having been discovered, a circular wall of net is arranged round it, or if only a few nets can be obtained, they are set in a curved form, the concave side being towards tho Lion. They then send dogs into the thicket, hurl stones and sticks at the den, shoot arrows into it, tliug :^' <^im ''v?^r "The lion Is "She la,