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Mrst Steps to Ucommic Botany ; A Dcscrij)tion of the Botanical and Commercial Characters of the Chief Articles of Vegetable Origin used for Food, Clothing, Tanning, Dvein- Building, Medicine, Perfumery, etc. For the use of Schools! By 1 HOMAs C. Archer. With 20 plates. Published for the Department of Science and Art, Marlborough House. Royal 16mo, price 2*. M. minds '• ^ ^ ^''™'^y' ^"'^ ^*« contents familiar with aU risin<» 7. ^^^'^^ T. C. Archer. Popular Economic Botany ; Or, Description of the Botanical and Commercial Characters of the prin- cipal Articles of Vegetable Origin used for Food, Clothing, Tannin- Dyeing, Building, Medicine, Perfumery, etc. By Thomas C. ArchkiT With 20 coloured plates. Royal 16nio, price lOjr, M. HMMiaMU MR. reeve's list OF PUBLICATIOXS. isaSmBMmmtmmmt 3 8. Miss Oatlow. Popular Garden Botany ; Containing a Familiar and Technical Description of Hardy and Fnune Plants, suitable for cultivation in the Garden. By Agnks Catlow With 20 coloured plates by W. Fitch. JRoyal IGmo, price 10.y. ^d. '\^\J\J \j\^\y\jyj ^'^■^'*''\^\^- '\y\f\y\j \,r\f\/y^\y\^\/y /\^^^j^yy^_, 9. Thomas Moore, P.L.S. Popular History of British Ferns and the AUied Plants; comprising the Club Mosses, Peppervvorts, ;iiul Horsetails. By Thomas Moore, F.L.S., Curator of the Botaaic Garden, Chelsea. Second Edition. With 23 coloured plates by Fitch. Royal 16 mo, price lOj. M. 10. Miss Catlow. Popular Field Botany / Containing a Familiar aud Technical Description of the Plants most common to the British Isles, adapted to the study of either the Artificial or Natural System. )^^ Agnks Catlow. Third Edition. In twelve chapters, each being the botanical lesson for the month. With 20 coloured plates. Royal 16rao, price 10*. M. MR. EEEVe's list OP PUBLICATIONS. 11. Sir W. J. Hooker, F.R.S. Cttrti8 8 Botanical Magazine ; Coinpnsing the Plants of the Royal Gardens of Kew, and of other Botanical Establishments in Great Britain, with suitable Descriptions By S,r W. J. Hookee, F.L.S., Director of the lloyal Gardens of Kew. In Numbers, each containing 8 coloured plates. Roval 8vo. Published Monthly. Price 3j. 6d. Vols. I. to XI., price i2s. each. 12. Sir W. J. Hooker, F.R.S. Journal of Botany and Kew Miscellany ; Containing Original Papers by eminent Botanists, the Botanical News ot the Month, Communications from Botanical TraveUers, Notices of New Books, etc. Edited by Sir W. J. Hooker, F.R.S. With plates. In Monthly Numbers, 8vo, price 2*. 13. Sir "W. J. Hooker, F.R.S. Icones Plantarum ; Or, Figures, with brief descriptive Characters and Remarks, of new and rare Plants, selected from the Author's Herbarium By Sir W J. Hooker, F.R.S. New series. Vol. V., with 100 plates. 8vo, price 31*. Gd. ill ler IS. w. MR. reeve's list OF PUBLICATIONS. 5 14. Notes and Notions on Created Things, wltt n,^!f ''"' '"f"' ^' *'^ ^"^^^^ oV Episodes of Insect Life: With numerous wood-engravings. 12mo, price 5*. each Series. We cannot imagine a book that would take a deeper hold of the imagination. Athbwjbi'm, 15. Dr. Hooker, F.B.S. The Rhododendrons of SihUm-Eimalaya j Being an Account of the Rhododendrons recently discovered \n the Mountains of Eastern Himalaya. By J. D. Hooker, M D F R S With 30 plates by W. Fitch. ' Imperial folio, price £3. IGs. 16. Dr. Hooker, P.R.S. nimtrations of SihJcim- Himalayan Plants, Chiefly selected from Drawings made in Sikkim under the superinten dence the late J. F. Cathcart, Esq., Bengal Civil Servir The Botamcal Descnptions and Analyses by J. D. Hooker, M.D., F R S With 24 coloured plates and an illuminated title-page by Fitch. " ' Folio, price £5. 5*. iimM wmmm c Mil. reeve's list op publications. .^ \^v/%/-vy\^ xj-1 ^x ^ 17. Professor Edward Forbes, F.B.S. TAterary Papers on Scientific Subjects. By the late Professor Edward Forbks, F.R.S., Selected from his AVritiiigs ill the 'Literary Giizette.' With a Portrait aud Memoir. Small 8vo, price 0*. "This rq.riiit of reviews forma a charming book of miscelbueoua essavs Th« criliriHii. iH f,'(.nial, Rcnsible, comprehensive, an^ compact It is not onnfmrm f' .ted it should n.eet with honour due But besu es bcnp a Rcientillc professor, a critic, and IHUrafeur, the late Edward ForbP, Tni II"' ""i "r^" '' "''*"-g^"i'^l. 8ympatl,etic, bravo and true-a tho?ouuh Jood lellow, 1 s (jood a fellow as he was a naturalist. The reader cannot do Wf^» f^ . •' Globb. 18. Sir W. J. Hooker, F.B.S. The Victoria Begia, By Sir ^V. J. Hooker, F.R.S. With four coloured plates by Fit h. Elejihant folio, price 21*. 19. Dr. Badham. The Esculent Fmgtises of England; Containing an Account of their Classical History, Uses, Characters Development, Nutritious Properties, Modes of Cooking, etc. By the Rev. Dr. Badham. With 20 coloured plates. Super-royal 8vo, price 21*. i SIR. urevk's list op publtcatioxs. I ■ ^v*^ ^*n j^yyyv,, rv^^ /. 20. Dr. Landsborough, A.L.S. FojHilar History of British Seaweeds; Comprising IheirStruclurc, ftuctification, S,,c„ilic Character,, Arra„Ke. ment, and Gcner„n,i,tributi„„, with Notieo, of some of th. f>c,h.,vaL wt'oo /, r."-, ^^™"-'""'-". '^■•'■«- ^-^-^ ^..x.s.^-.,^>,^ ^^^ Britannia. 30. Joseph Woods, F.L.S. The Tourist's Mora; A Descriptive Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of the British Islands, France, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. By Joseph Woods, F.L.S. With a plate. Bvo, price 18.?. • • MR. reeve's list op PUBLICATIONS. H i i 31. Mrs. Hussey. lUustratiom of British Mycology ■ Royal 4.„. r,,3t Series, 90 coWd pl.te,. priee «. 12,. U ■ Second Senes, 50 plates, priee £4. 7,. id. 32. Sir W. J. Hooker, P.B.S. A Century of OrcMdaceous Plants Ga.de„so.Kew.Ul..„d„"3^tt^^^^^^^^^^ by JOHK Chahles Lyons. 100 col«,„ed plates. °' """ <'°'*""'- Royal 4to, price f 5. is. 33. Dr. Hooker, F.B.S. Cryptogamia Afitarctica ; Or Cryptogamic Botauy of the Antarctic Vova.. of u xj c- Erebus and Terror. Issued separately. With 72 pFatcs: "" '' Royal 4to, price U. 4s. coloured; £2. 17*. plain. '•suiiai -iatff 12 MR. REEVS'S LIST OF PUBLICATIONS. 34. Henry Sowerby. Popular Mineralogy ; Comprising a familiar Account of Minerals and their Uses. By Henkt Sowerby. With 20 coloured plates. Royal 16mo, price 10*. M. .„ ",*?'''/?,^^'"*'y ^^ endeavoured to throw around his subject everv work IS fully and carefully illustrated with coloured plates » ^ attraction. His Spectatob. i i i I H 35. Adam White, FX.S. Popular History of Mammalia ; Containing a Farailiar Account of their Classification and Habits. By ADAM White, F.L.S., of the British Museum. With sixteen coloured plates of Quadrupeds, by B. Waterhouse Hawkins, P.L.S. Royal 16mo, price 10*. &d. down his reflections, SngTed with ea^vfL^arit^^^^ chatty way of putting to zoological pursuit's is su^re to^Sai^ irt&SuJi;Xs^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Hi 36. Francis WalVer, F.L.S., and H. T. Stainton. Imecta Britannica ; Vols. I., II., and III., Diptera. By Francis Walker, F.L S With 30 plates. Vol. III., Lepidoptera: Tineina. By H. T. Stainton With 10 plates, 8vo, price 25*. each. MR. reeve's list OF PUBLICATIONS. 13 ^1 ^KT Hi» By ■ed of 37. Miss M. E. Catlow. ^ ^ Popular British Entomology ; r Containing a familiar and technical Description of the Insects most I common to the British Isles. By Maria E. Catlow. Second EdUion. Jn twelve chapters, each being the entomological lesson for the month. With J 6 coloured plates. Royal 16mo, price 10*. M. of about 70 of those described • Th^^^ii v, ^J* 'P^"^'' together with accurate figures the stud/of tWrfrsSlnglcienee." "^ ^ *''^'"'"' '" ""^ °"^ j"^* commencing Westminstek and Fobeign Quabteely Review. 38. John Ovirtis, P.L.S. Curtis' s British Entomology, Being Illustrations and Descriptions of the Genera of Insects found in Great Bntam and Ireland, containing coloured figures, from nature of the most rare and beautiful species, and, in many instances, of 'the plants upon which they are found. Commenced in 1824 and completed in 1840, in 193 numbers formino- ifi Re-issued also in Monthly Parts, price 3*. U. Vols. I. to V. of the Re-issue now ready, price 42j. each le leloZsTfiVurll'Tc't'd^o^ncT m^d'^^^^^^^^ leur determination reclame trouverez les meiUeures. S,lS de M CurtlTrlp/""' '"^^^"'' '^« livres oii vous rAngleterre. me parait avoir atteint TuW^ntl^Z \T1T.'L^)'^!^^'^ ^^^«^^-^ ^e ^eon^aSf^rgr^t^LrS'd:^^^^^ Leurs caract^res y sont repr^sent^s avec la plurSettTtl-'-CcviKK '*'^'''' f .--ia ■;::-; ^.» -j:::.-:24.xtt. 14 Mil. reeve's list of publications. 39. n y ,. ^" ^' Sowerby, F.L.S. -/^/?^/«r J^riltsk Conchology • plates. ^ • ^- ^^^"'^"^' ^-I^-S- With 20 coloured "Mr G B S K ^°^*^ ^*^'"''' P"^^ ^^^- ^'^^ :S^'^^^^^^^erfS^}'f ^^*^- -^ grandfather as a study of sheUs. This work belones to Mr p! ."^^ n"'^ "^ *° introduction to the Jfatund History, and is a worthrinaS f ^''^ ' lUustrated series on Popular value and interest of which w!^\o^i°° *° ^'^^^^ «* the latter volumes o?f^i seen by the title that t£ work's eonflnK'V>"V^^y ^''^ PublLlei It'v^te d^rT"{^V^*'^'^^°«l^ «t the sea.sTde as ^1 f^^''^ '^'^'- It^»be tbuiS^ost described, but illustrated. It vriU se^e afon ^™-''^ur'?™«" shells are not onlv -k on .British MoUusca .■ W^l'!^L\'Lta%'!:StT^r^^^^ *^« ^-^ N^v. — , ^ Athbn^um. 40. Lovell Reeve, F.L.S. Mements of Conchology • "The work bef • ^''°' ^"""^ ^''" ^"^^ ^^''^• into he\7ture atd origi^ of Xnl'''' P'°'"°*' ^ ""^'^ philosophical spirit of inquiry ■Ecclesiastical Eeview 41. Lovell Reeve, F.L.S. tonchologia Systematica; 300 plates of upwards of 15o'o figu'sof ShlS. '""'■^*^' ^'''' Two vols. 4to, price £10 coloured. Mil. reeve's list op publications. 15 labiting coloured her as a n to the fopular , of the will be a most ot only 8 great BUM. iscous Cha- By quiry 5W. chi- ural vith 42. Lovell Beeve, F.L.S. ^onchologia Iconica ; ^ii^^^Z::^^::"^:!^"^ SheUs of MoH-scous Animals, with Habitation. Tlov^^lrIIT^^^^ "'• den., 4to, eac/containing^elghtVa^^'prir:^^^^^^^ '^"'^^^^^ '" ^-^«' L^arn^G jusf pudlis/ied. ACHATINA f ACHATINELLA....!! A AmphIDKSMA fj Abca ■■■ " Abtkmis i ,„ BucciNUM n To BULIMUS ^J^ B^LLiA : ^^2 Caedium "" CASSIDAErA ... n i Cassis ^ ^ Chiton :.■::;.■:.■ ?, \] Chitonellus A 1 CONUS o i COEBULA \[ ^ !: Ceassatella . ? cypb^a .'; J ,T Cypeicaedia.. o Delphinula. n « Ebuena ^^? In Monographs d. Fasciolaeia .. n FictJLA .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".*.'.'.'.'. 1 6 6 6 H 6 6 6 6 6 6 Mactba f *• Mangelia o in Mesalia & Eglxsia '.■;.■ 1 Mesodesma . X i MiTEA :::;: ;,f, MONOCBBOS .... n K Mt'REX ?, ^ myadoea ;. i ? natica ■■.■.■:.■;::::.•: }fj NaVICELLA & LaTIA . . .■■ 10 nerita ... 1 y omva :::;;;; \ 7 Oniscia ^ ^° Paludomus .... ), i Pabtula X ^ Patella ^ ,° PiJCTEN I If Pectunculus rt n Phoeus J ^l Pleubotoma .... 9 ,n Pteboceea rt u 1 6 PUEPUEA ^ « 1 6 Eanella ^]l 6 filCINULA J 1« HOSTELLAEIA o SiPHONAEIA ), Spondylus ]] y Strombus ., I Steuthiolaeia!. n TUBBINELLA ... n Teitow V TuEBo .■■; J ^, TUEEITELLA JC !^ voLUTA ...!.■.■.".■.■.■:.■.■.■;■■ J 8 .ofar«°S*t'lT'^-*> ^"d i»"«t™tion of FiSSUBELLA Fusus J „ GlACCGITOME (V 1* Haliotis 2 Haepa ji Hblix !..!.!.!!. 13 Hemipecten A Hinnites Q ISOCAEDIA ........[ LUCINA (. ,. LUTEAEIA .'.'.'.'.".".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.".■ 7 thJS ^T* ^^?''^ " intended to <-.abrace'a •J'}^^ °^ moUuscous animals , \ appoint the large expectations thac ti;- tc h^Pn fr.,„,„j "" ""''V' ".^^ ""' s"*^'' shel s are all of full Le: in the desJ iptions a Sl^^^^^^^^^ ''' • '^^' ««"«« «f the of others ; and the author has apparently snarprin!! P^ysis » given of the labours authority on the subject of whicE^rtreats '^ ^'""' *° ""'''' ^''^ ^"'''^ '^ ^t^ndanl AlHENiKfM. 4 9 8 4 1 17 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 p * ; 26 MR. reeve's list of PUBLICATIONS. 43. Miss Koberts. Popfdar Hutory of the Mollmca; ^». vvitii lb coloured plates by Wing. Koyal 16mo, price 10*. 6rf. 1 I \ i I 44. Adam White, S'.L.s. Popular History of Birds. By Adam White, F.L.S. With 20 coloured plates. Royal 16mo, price 10*. M. 45. P. H. Gosse. Popular British Ornithology ■ sr ;r bT^ h tar tt "^ °' *» ^^^^^ °' -= Royal 16mo, price 10*. ^d MoKNiNs Hekaid. MR. reeve's list OF PUBLICATIONS. 17 I>rops of Water ; 46. Miss Catlow. Square 12mo, price 7^. Qd. is accompamed by colSSd^Sfati" /w ^^& "P '"'^^ its literature. tt,. *„ * ""7f trL'-" • *'' '""^ -markabSWe^tirlJof \he Atiibn^um. 47. Dr. Landsborough, A.L.S. Popular History of British Zoophytes; By the Rev. D. Landsborough a t - fK„' "• , ' """ '■"''■^ upon Seaweeds bv *!,» „„"" heapof tangled weed that lies ttu^a^tr""''' '"' ^f " knolkdgelrom evty' •'• liiVERPooL Standard. 13 ^IR. EEEVE\S LIST OP PUBLICATIONS. ri 48. Dr. Thomson, F.L.S. Western Himalaya and Tibet ■ 8vo, price Us. longSeTaS Sffe/^'r^^ °'. ^'''^'^ ^'^''n this by Dr Thn . have passed awavS"K^°"^'*'^'<^' the interest whih'.'^'''"^."" ^^^e been for a ATHEJr,EUM. 49. Dr. Gardner, F.L.S. Travels in the Interior of Brazil F.L.S. SeconiEiUion. Witt h1 .^1^.7" ""'"'• ''•"• 8vo, price 12*. to which they ,iee.^ '^ »l»'"«fOM d»i„ value Lm the „/vSr?'?.°'^°"« uuvcity ot the matter MR. REEVE^S LIST OF PUBLICATIONS. 19 ndia, As- Vlap or a haU able »» t. 50. A. B. Wallace. Traveh on the Amazon mid Bio Nearo W.a an Account of the Native Tribe,, aad Ob»crvatb„, „'„ the Cli- «»buages, Dy k. G, Latham, M D F T? ,a^5'"■l,^!^'^^'^•^°.'^*^''"^^<^'''?^ gardener and garden architect of ereat cxnerience has worked out his design with ability and judgment," ^ Glo«f "The character of this publication is altogether practical, from the oneninrhtf^ upon the house and officps. tn th^ -in-j^o. 5;-p-Hnns Bh«,T«^^ *i vT opening hints pinetum." ' ' '" "" ° — .cctions about the arboretum and the Spectator. mmwmmrmam^ " of e- MR. reeve's list OF PUBLICATIONS. 21 66. Sir Edward Belcher, O.B. The Last of the Arctic Voyages, Daring the Years 1852-4, in H.M.S. Assistance! under the command of Captam Sir E. Belcher, C.B., F.R.G.S. ; with Notes on the Natural History, by Sir J. Richardson, Professor Owen, Thomas BeU, J.W Salter and LoveU Reeve. With 40 plates, and numerous wood-engravings. ' Royal 8vo, 2 vols., price 36*. 56. Ohandos Wren Hoskyns. Talpa ; or, the Chronicles of a Clay Farm. An Agricultural Fragment. By Chandos Ween Hoskyns Nev, and Cheaper Edition, with Frontispiece by George Cruikshank. Fcp. Svo, price 3*. 6^. r\yy^ v/> r\j-^-\^>^ 57. Piscarius. The Artificial Production of Fish, By Piscarius. Third Edition. Price l,y. 22 I'T,» Mil. REEVE S LIST OF PUBLICATIONS. If 58. Arthur Adams, F.L.S. Zoology of the Voyage of E.M,S. Samarany, Under the command of Captain Sir Edward Belcher, C.B., F.R.A.S.. during the Years 1843-46. Edited by Arthur Adams, F.'l.S. The Vertebrata, with 8 plates, by John Edward Gray, F.R.S. ; the Fishes, with 10 plates, by Sir John Richardson, F.R.S. ; the Moll'usca with 24 plates, by Arthur Adams, F.L.S., and Lovell Reeve, F.I.S. ; the Crustacea, with 13 plates, by Arthur Adams, F.L.S., and Adam' White, F.L.S. Royal 4to, price £3. IOj. coloured. J x/X/ %^\y v/\/-s/ >^\J 59. Sir John Eichardson. Zoology of the Voyage of KILS. ITerald, Under the command of Captain KeUett, R.N., during the Years 1845-51. By Sir J. Richardson. Edited by Professor Edward Forbes, F.R.S. Published under the authority of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. Part I. Fossil Mammals, 15 double plates. Royal 4to, 21*. Part II. Fossil Mammals, 10 plates. Royal 4to, 10*. Gel. Pan III, :?eptiles and Fish, 10 plates, ''oyel .;,to, lOi-. Gd. Mil. KEEVE'S LIST Ojf PUBLICATIONS. 28 '*'*^'VNi-»1,-V>^ 9 3.. be a • » m A fiO. Miss M. B. Oatlow. Jo/mlar Scripture Zoology ■ ■^. V.AILOW. With 16 coloured plates. ,.j ^^oy'i' l6mo, price lOtf. 6ar. Notes and Qcekies. 61. E. J. Mann. The Planetary and Stellar Universe A Scnes of Lectures. By Rob«t Ja«es Mann. 12mo, price 5j. 62. H. Edwards, LL.D Illmtrations of the Wisdom and Benevolence »/«^ I>.t,. as ..„ire,.ed in Nature. By H. E.wa.., LLT, . 16mo, price 2j. Qd. Treatise"''ASnir,i!!,„*i\ track of p^jey ^^^ ^^^ j^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^ LiTERAHY Gazette. PBEPABIN& FOB PUBLICATION. Popular History of Alpine Plants and Rockeries. By R. M. Stakk. Popular British Archmlogy. By the Rev. C. Boutell, M.A. Flora Tasmanica : A History of the Plants of Van Dicmen's Land; being the concludinR portion of the ' Flora Antarctica.' By Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S. [In course of publication . Popular Garden Botany. Vol. II., Greenhouse Plants. By Agnes Catlow. Popular History of British Fossils. By Professor Wyville Thomson. Popular History of British Fishes. By the Rev, J. Longmuik. Popular History of British Crustacea. By Adam White, F.L.S. Popular History of the Water Vivarium. . Bj G. B. SowERBY, F.L.S. . ^^ " "."Il ll 1 !i POPULAR HISTORY OF BRITISH LICHENS. Plate I. "Wiima^ad.tvTiidiitK \5uccnt iiTookt I: mp. Plate I. 00)1 P'l Kb V**' / • i \; -Imp. '^^mim mitmummisttmji-.. 'I i )\ POPULAR HISTORY I OF BRITISH LICHE NS, COKPBISINO AN ACCOUKT OP THBIR STRUCTHR.. REPRODUCTION USES, nsTKIBUTION, AND CLASSmCATlON. ' BY W. LAXJDEE LINDSAY, MD XOVE.L REEVE. 5, HENRIETTA STREET. COVENT OARDEN. 1856. i h » ' ■.■ )• *«f JOHN BDWABS TATtOB, PBIKTEB, LITTLB QUEBN 8TBEET, LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS. to SIR WILLIAM JACKSON HOOKER, K.H., LL.D., DIKBCTOR OP XHB EOTAL BOTANIC GABDBITS OF KBW, Airs DR. JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, F.R.S., ASSISTANT-DIHBCTOE OF THB BOYAL BOTAKIC OAEDBN8 OP KEW, THIS HUMBLE AND PIBST ATTEMPT TO POPULAEIZB THE STUDY OP IS, WITH MUCH EESPECT AND ESTEEM, DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR. 2.-3 -^^-3 ^ ! f " In minimis Natura preestat." — Pliny. " Natura maxime miranda in minimis."— Linnaeus. "A Lichen is as perfectly fitted to the condition it is intended to fulfil and Its organs as completely adapted to that purpose, as the stately palm or magmficentforest-tree."— Baskeeville. "The man Whom Nature's works can charm, with God himself Holds conver8e."--THORNTON. I ' DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.* ilfil, I or I! PLATE I. Figs. 1 to 23. Comparative size of spores. 1. Pertusaria communis. 12. Physcia ciliaris. V^'*'*^*^ e-^^^'**-^^— 2. Opegrapha uderella. 3. Thelotrema lepadinum. 4. Aulacof/rapJia elegans. 5. Peltigera horizotitalia. 6. Sticta acrobiculata. 7. Lecanora pallescens^ var. parella. 8. Gr aphis scripta. 9. Urceolaria scruposa. 10. Stereocaulon paschale. 11. Solorina crocea. 13. Verruca r ia nitida. 14. Lecidea geograpJiica. 15. Z. ceruginosa, 16. Ramalina fraxinea. 1 7 . Umbilicaria polymorpha . 1 8 . Lecidea ferruginea. 19. Lecanora subfusca. 20. Panmlia parietina. 21. ?7«»m barbata. 22. CaliciuM Tiyperelhim. 23. Cladonia pyxidata. The majority of the lUustrations are original. For the drawings of the spermogones and sperrnatia, pyenides and stylospores, and a few others, we are indebted to the Memoir of Tulasne. Several drawings illustrative of .e! neral characters or structure have been taken from the works of Leightou aid ' i i if i i p i i "t|»l « IIIWWI Il H ) (l|,H l |M l » viii DESCEIPTION OP THE PLATES. V 26-30. Germinating spores. 26. Zecanora pallescens, var. parella. 27, 28. Parmelia 2)arietina. 29. SplKBroplioron compressum. 30. Lecanora subfusca. l-pl yses. J. Paraphyses acted on by iodine, c. Theca. contain .ng he spores, tinged blue by iodine, a. HypotUeciuI "" c. t^^ rts ' 'izT "' "^'""""^ '"^^-- escape contents, rf. Nuclei or contents, after their tell: ^^P°"'^""^ -^^^Vd around the spore oiClad^iae.. PLATE IT ^^ <.to..-«. Tuberose extremities of paraphyses. h. Thecae con- t'otv o?;w'?T "" T""'" °" "■' 8"™' - 'P-«I "-oscopfc ana- I . t»ESCIlIPTION OF THE PLATES. fj e. MeduUary filaments. / Cortical layer of thallus a Snnri under action of iodine. ^' ^P°^^ 2. Spe,^ogone of P«.^.//, ceratophylla, var. ^;^^,.^,,. 3. Stengmata of the same Lichen. 4. Spermatia, ditto. 5. Sterile spermogonal fiWaents, ditto 6. Sterigmata and spermatia o^ Sticta pulmonaria. 7. Ditto ditto of Calicium turbinatum. 8. Ditto ditto of Lecanora atra. 9. Ditto ditto of Lecanora subfusca. 10. Ditto ditto of Urceolaria scruposa. 11. Sterigmata and spermatia oi Lichma pygnuEa 13. Ditto ditto, of Ramalmafraxinea, 13. Pycnides oi Scittula WallrotUi. 14. Sterigmata and stylospores of ditto. I^I^ATE III. ^^ ^^ 1. TJmea barbata, common form. 2. Ditto, apothecium showing fibriUose-radiate margin 3. Ditto, section of apothecium magnified * condirvcrsir ''- '"^''' -' -'^""-^ ■ ■ s * DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. PLATE IV. o^. ^^ 1. Cetraria aculeata. ^^^ 2. Ditto, apothecium magnified. 3. Cornicularia ochroleuca. 4. Ditto, apothecium magnified. 5. Cornicularia vulpina. 6. G.jubata. 7. Ditto, apothecium magnified. 8. Ditto, spore. ^■Sohrhm crooea.-a. Upper, and 4, lower surface, lu. -Uitto, apothecium mag-nified. 11. Ditto, spore. 12. Solorina saccata. 13. Ditto., vertical section of apothecium. 14. Ditto, apothecium magnified. 15. Ditto, spores germinating. PLATE V. JS^^ cr^. \. RooceUafuciforMk, from Lima, South America,-" Lima (thin) Orchella-weed." Orlwfd'^"'"™''"""""'"'^'^""^^''--"^-^ ('•'->') 3. Ditto, smaU dark variety, neither warted nor very sorcdiife rousjrom the Cape de Verde Idands._"Cape de Verde Orehella- _ I lima. ick) iife- illa- DESCRIPTION OP THE PLATES. jj -eguW apothecia. without a proper excip': rfnd's:;.! T 9. Ditto, transverse section of ditto 11. Ditto, spore. 12. Ditto, spermatia of a variety. PI^ATE VI. ^J^ ^fp 1. Ramalina fraxinea, large variety 2 Ditto, section of mature and young apothecia, a; and of thaUus, showing spermogones, ^. . ». and ot 3. Ditto, section of a spermogone, showing sterigmata sner matia, and network of filaments. ^ ' ^^'^" 4. Pitto, spores of specimens from various habitats in dif aMJalawi i ^ffi a a^ Xll liu '■■I' IM DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 5 . Ditto, var. fastigiata. 6. Ditto, var. calicaris. 7. R. scojoulorum, 8. R. farinacea. soredir'' ^''*"' "^ *''''"' '''^'"' "^^^^^^' «^«™g the PLATE VII. J^^ i^-^. 2. P.>^«r«c.«.-<,. Upper surface, i. Under surface, o. ^. ciLians. 4. Ditto, under surface of thaUine lacinije 5. Ditto, vertical section of thallus showing a spermogone. 6. Ditto, vertical section of a spermogone, showing the steriff- mata and spermatia. ^ ^ 7. Ditto, vertical section of mature apothecium. 8. Ditto, vertical section of young apothecia. 9. Ditto, progressive development of the spore. 10. Ditto, segment of an old spore. PLATE VIIL .^^ ^a 1. Cetraria Islandica, large variety. ^ 2. Ditto, common form. 8. Ditto, apothecium magnified. 4. Ditto, section of ditto. thet'fptr"''"'' '""' "' "'"" ''^""^ '""^ Bpennogones on "" S ^' " * " ***■——'■■ ! " **»■ DESCRIPTION OP THE PLATES. • • • xui spaL!go:;s!" "' ""' "'"" ^•'^''y ™Snified, showing the 7. Ditto, apermogone still ™„re highly magnified. 8. Ditto, stengmata and spennatia. ^ ^ °' y. Ditto, spore. 10. Spore of Cetraria juniperina. 11. Cetraria nivalis. 12. Ditto magnified, showing black-punctate mardn 13. MeduUary tissue of Feltigera venosa. ^' 14. Ditto, P. Jiorizontali^. 1 5 . Cortical ceUular tissue of ditto 16. Medullary filament of ditto, under the action of iodine. I'LATE IX. y<; F^ 1. Teltigera canina, upper surface 2. ^^0 under surface, showing veins and rhizin^ 3. Ditto, margin of thaUus, showing sDermno-nr. a apothecium. ^ spermogones and nascent 4. Ditto, marginal spermogone magnified. 0. ±;itto ditto, much more hiffhlv mafmifiprl d, • mate and spermatia. ^ ^ n^agnified, showmg sterig- 7. Ditto, sterigmata. 8. Ditto, spermatia, isolated. 9. Ditto, spore. 10. P.%.™A<,ri.o„^,;i,. section of young apothecium. ' XIV DESCRIPTION OP THE PLATES. i', 11. Peltiffera horizonMia, spore germinating. 12. Peltigera polj/dactyla, section of young apothecium. 13. Peltigera venosa, upper surface. 14. Dit^o, under surface. 15. Ditto, spore. 16. Nephroma resttpinatum.~a. Upper suri .- ', Under sur- face, showing the apothecia. 17. Ditto, margin of thallus, showing spermogones and nas- cent apothecia. 18. Ditto, marginal spermogone magnified. 19. Ditto, section of ditto. 20. Ditto, spore. 21. Ditto, sterigmata and apermatia. PLATE X. .^ X^/ 1. Umbilicaria pustulata, upper surf.;3e. 2. Ditto, under surface. 3. Ditto, section of apothecium. 4. Ditto, muriform spore. 5. Ditto, section of apothecium, a, and of thaUus, showing a spermogone, b. 6. Ditto, section of thallus, showing a spermogone, «, and a pustular elevation, b. *7. Ditto, sterigmata and spermatia. 8. U.polymorpha, common ciliated variety, upper surface. 9. Ditto, under surface, showing point of attachment, a. ' r sur- nas- aga id a DESCRIPTION OP THE PLATES. XV the'cStr'"' '"""" " ■""^" °^*^ «-»-. lowing 11. Ditto, apothecia. in different stages of develonm^t young »dpapi„ate -. I „at„. and gy4-pIicaTe '^'"™* = "' tmL ""'""°'''"''''°'''^"'™'»'l«"''aU„sshowi„gthe -E:s:s:f^f;^Cr™-- 16. Ditto, spores of diiferent varieties. 17. t/. e/oM, spore. PLATE XI. anaiS.^1:=US -^ --- -- by the G.««. ^&.,„„, l^^ ;;»';'"<"'. "'. ■» taMted old and ™ '"'"°" °^™ apothedum, «,. and of thallus sliowing ow and young spennogones, h. »i>uwing 4. Ditto, spore. 5. Ditto, spore germinating. 7. Ditto, spore. xvi I i \l\ DESCRIPTION OP THE PLATES. ■ '■ ^'""' ""''^' '«^-«. *o^ng the white cypheU.. PLATE XII. J^ ^5- 1. ^armlia pulverulenta ».aS"' "*" "' "*^' *"^""S ^"-^ of "nder surface. 5 D5*""-'^-"Sit3pnu„ose character. 6. P«™.& ,^„««. furfuraceous variety. JJ.tto, section of thaUu, showing theLzin. of the under 8. Ditto, section of apothecium 9. Ditto, spores of var. omphalode,. J^". t-armelia parielim ^ Mfe „ta ., „„ ..^M_ ,j„„.,^ ____^ 16. Ditto, stengmata and spermatia. 17. ^itto, spore under action of iodine. \ rface. ider nal DESCRIPTION OP THE PLATES. xvii 19. P. l^te-virem, var. Uriacea, spore. ■iU. P. stellar) a, spore. 21. Ditto, under action of iodine 22. P. olhacea, mature and young spores. PLATE XIII. J^^ ^^ 2.i)itto.ietior:?:;r„;;:f''^''^™°^°-^^ 3. Ditto, spermatia. 4.i„»,,eetionofaspermogone. 5. Ditto, stengmata and spermatia. <>. M. iartarea. 7. Ditto, section of an apotheeium. 8- Ditto, young apothecia, magnified. J.^ti^"' "'*"" °' ^°™=" ^P"'"---. lowing its concave ^^1^2. Ditto, section of old apothecium, showing its convex con- 13. L. pallescms, nr.parella. 14. Ditto, young apothecia, magnified. 15. Ditto, section of an apothecium. 17 X.::r^^'"*''^-'-^'»g-f development. k mmsm'm»'mr,H I XVlll I Is* i \% I ! f :♦ ' f DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 18. Z. atra, section of thallus, showing apotliecin, a, and sper- mogones, 6. 19. Ditto, apothecium, magnified. ' 20. Ditto, spores, young and mature. 21. Z. varia, ditto. PLATE XIV. ^ /^^ 1. Lecidea (Bruginosa. 2. Ditto, theca and spores. 3. Ditto, free spore. 4. Lecidea atro-alba, var. concentrica (Leight.). 5. L. geographica. 6. Ditto, portion of thaUus, magnified, showing dendritiforra, black, marginal hypothallus, a. 7. Ditto, apothecium magnified. 8. Ditto, section of ditto. 9. Ditto, spore. 10. Lecidea ferruginea. 11. Ditto, aj)othecia, young and old, magnified. 12. Ditto, section of young and old apothecia, showing the concave and convex conditions. 13. Ditto, spore. 14. Ditto, spore acted on by iodine. 15. X. sanguinaria. 16. Ditto, section of apothecium, showing the blood-red sub- stratum. tu -e *e basis of soil and coi:;:?:;^;^ -all section, which furnishes valuable anf f „ iL , " =v::rs;;X"otr^^^^^^^ "crottv.iavebeenfoLgcs,rds::;t:r:;r:: j-*i. Js; that rottles" This ' uctural e occa- to its J oup of j be,^ 1 ds of flobe, is,— f the Y are at a Ijes, lou- erm ase- INTRODUCTION. 5 hold dycagents by the peasantry in many parts of our country ; that in many parts of the world they furnish in- dispensab'.e food not only to cattle but to man ; that they play an important part in the history of Arctic enterprise, inasmuch as they have frequently saved the lives of Arctic travellers; and that they are celebrated in the history of medicine in this and other countries. If, in addition to these high recommendations, we consider that many species have a texture which, by readily i.ibibing and eagerly re- tainiug moisture, renders them in a sense independent of all climatal changes, enabhng them equally to brave polar c Id and tropical heat; that many not only cling with such tenacity as to be inseparable from, but can corrode or dis- integrate, the hardest and barest rocks, even pure quartz ; that the most ample provision has been made by the great Author of all for .heir reproduction or multiplication, in spite of the most adverse external circumstances, and under conditions fatal to all higher vegetation, both by the mul- tiplicity and abundance of their reproductive cells— which sometimes constitute almost the entire bulk of the plant,— the extremely minute size and delicate nature of these ceils, by virtue whereof they are disseminated by every shower or zephyr, and the readiness with which these germinate ; and 6 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. hat throughout the family, both in structure and products. tJiere are many analogies which bind them closely to the Phanerogamia, we cannot fail to increase our surprise that a cunos,ty has not been sooner awakened to become fami- har with the natural history of plants which strew the path ol man wherever he roams over the wide world,-which con- stitute the most universally diffused type of terrestrial vegeta- tion. VThether we look upon the Lichens from a scientific or utilitarian point of viewj whether we regard the univer- sahty of their geographical range,-their beautiful structural adaptations to the position which tliey occupy i„ the scale of vegetation, to the part they play in the economy of Na- ture as the pioneers of vegetable life,-the numemus links in structure and composition which connect them with the Phanerogamia,-i\^ importance of their products in our arts and manufact„res,-their celebrity in the past history of British and continental medicine,-their connection with the history of Arctic e«terprisc,-the abundance of nutritive species m the countries and under the conditions of season and chmate where they are most required for the sustenance of man and the^wer aniraals,-and the curious combina- tion which they present of essential simplicity of structure with mfimte variety of form, we think we have a sufficient INTRODUCTION. basis whereupon to found our plea for the study of Lichen- ology. A passing glance would, we are convinced, demon- strate to the most superficial observer, — " That not alone in trees and flowers The spirit bright of beauty dwells ; That not alouc iu lofty bowers The mighty hand of God is seen ; But more triumphaut still in things men ooimt as mean." One of the most celebrated of recent continental licheno- logists, Schserer, has appended to his latest work the follow- ing expressive quotation from Cicero : — " Ilacc studia adoksccntiam alunt, senectutem oblectant." " These studies invigorate youth and solace old-age." The study of the simplest forms of vegetable organization should naturally form a prelude to, or foundation for, the examination of plants liaving a more complex structure and higher position in the scale o being. It is moreover emi- nently calculated to lead to the acquisition of habits of mi- nute observation and patient research,— -of an accurate sift- ing and noting ot facts,— than which nothing is more valu- able, not only to the student of Natural History, but to the educated of all classes of our community. And, lastly, it could scarcely fail to create or intensify a love of the beau- ** i ^ POPnLAK HISTOHY OP LlClmm. irnDerppnfiKIo « ^ / ^ °^ *^^ observer bv imperceptible gradations to "look fmm ivr ^ ^ ture^s God." ^ ^^^"'^ "P ^^ ^a- There are certain sections of the xmhlin nn. i curriculum „f' . ?"""^ '" '=^^^°«^' ^^^^'^^ '» the Sb dllr? *""'°*^'^"''''°'^^ "« objects are .St! ^ '^ °'"'"'' ''''P°™'^^^ ■- «U o»r mechanics' , institutes and cognate societies; and bv means of T 7 of our fellow-workers on the busy sta»e of lifr Tl.! ceedm,sweaccept.thee.poneLofth:';:Lt:rsrd ay'ifri-j.jj Plat,-.. 11 . 1 Natural Jauties of server by P to Na- se atten- is of Li- i^e would ^r object lenology aches of [•ee, our bis own fc. We rapidlj )ut our in the cts are hanics* 5 Press mblest e pro- 3s and I %^^C^ •>3M^^t^l.' r^ /-^ ^t^vJ^^^OQ^® ■nr'-rf — 1 1. - i i Sm t R' \ \^. /"^K^ , r>~- '/' V;ti' •; sn*. i>i i>.iii ■ ;■ 1 ' INTEODUCTION. 9 tendencies in regard to natural lustory • and w. fl , . lieve that these and their resulting Z ' \ ™'^ '''■ to be directed into proper iT.eTr "^"" °"'^ fertile and remunerative fie ds tn f . ' ""^^"^''^ '" of great good to science ' '' '""'"^''' •"""""^^y ^^^^7:^::'::T':^ — ^ the great -«re important Td : JinrS, ^"'' '" r"''"'^' 'vith such studies as thnlT v /'""'''"'=■"& themselves invalid from Z arl L f "' '^^-^ '""'"^ '-tte PVsiealorgani.aL't;:^:'::^^^^^^^ -dtosee.i:::::r:^ni"^^^ scene in the pure i,Pn;„l * f "'""Se of air and — .ungHoT:::;':::-/---^^ et::;:rtr«:f;::-^--^^^^^^^^^^^^^ alternately leavil and oh > T"' '' *° ^^*'='' ^''^ tides shifting sand tie It 'T^ *''"' ^""'P™*^ on the Places;whoco;pl Mmi^^iT f t'-^^^ -tering. tity of mineral water w'lk 1 " f "f ' "'*^'" •J"^- -d a certain propor'tio: ' ! ": t' '' ''''" ^^ ^"vei, so as to occupy or dis- ■Kffejj 10 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. pate his t™e; the tourist among our Highlands and Islands whose olucf aim is too frequently to pass over the greatest amount of space in the shortest possible time, and who too sedom merges from the beaten traek laid down i„ his favounte guule-book ; the Art student in search of the picturesque among our hills and vales, who cannot truly apprecate the picturesque without being acquainted with the m.r..test elements of which it is composed; and the fair dem.e„ of our urban drawing-rooms, whose accomplishments, gained it may be at a great expense of time and money, ar too irequently frivolous and profitless, and who have, more than any class of persons above mentioned, the necessary time and qualifications. By following out any branch of natural history, the invalid finds a new charm in every walk • he feels that he can profitably employ, without mental o^ bodily fatigue, even the idleness which illness has thrust npon hun, by acquainting himself with the characters of the lowliest yet not least interesting, organisms in the scale of vegetable or animal life. It may not be supererogatory here to -emmd the reader of the well-acknowledged influence over the human mind of gently-exciting studies s moral medi- cines of the most soothing, and intellectual food of the most nourishing, kind. We would commend the invalid- 1 ' INTRODUCTION. H "To pace The forest's ample round, And see the spangled branches shine, And mark the v/oss of many a hue That varies the old tree's brown bark Or o'er the grey stone spreads." let him try our recipe; let Iiira look upon nature vvitl. the eye of a naturalist, and let him communicate his im- pressions to his brethren in affliction. Were he to subject himself to such a course of mental and physical hygiene, we place Ins physician and all the potency of the maieria me- diea at defiance. The lounger at our sea-coast bathing-places would experience a new delight in his scrambles among the cliffs, were he acquainted with the character or uses of the lichens which crust their surface with a grey or yellow coat, tor littoral or marine species are possessed of additional in- terest from the circumstance that they include the most valu- able tinctorial species,-whose products are the bases of the Orchil, Cudbear, and Litmus, so familiar to the dyer and che- mist The tourist, merely in search of fresh air and exercise or of that equally vague entity denominated scenery, clam- bers upwards of three thousand feet to the summit of Ben Lomond or Ben Nevis, for the purpose of catching a glimpse ot sunnse or sunset, or of viewing a certain number of •VTi*» w-m r--— - 12 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. counties,-mountains, river., lakes, --spread like a carpet at his feet. But his hopes in liie majority of cases are too likely to prove delusive : he probably sees nothing but - mists on the brae/' for every traveller in the Scotch Highlands knows full well how apt he is to be disappointed in his expectations by the mists and storms of its moist and treacherous cli- mate. To him the black heaths, time-stained boulders, and bristling crags are only so many obstacles to the attainment of his aim. Instead of beauty, he finds only desolation in the scene ; and under a sense of disappointment, overcome by a fcehng of loneliness and gloom, he is perhaps too prone to have recourse to artificial stimulants of a questionable character. But under the same circumstances, the naturalist requires no other stimulus Vim the sight of the natural ob- jects which encompass and strew his path. His eye never dims,-his energies never flag,-~his spirit never wearies, so long as he can find, on every rock or tree, " Ten thousaud forms minute Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock Or rifted oak." He looks upon every mis-shapen boulder as a treasury of Lecanoras, Lecideas, and Umbilicarias ; mi each he reads valuable lessons on the characters and geographical range of Lichens; he may be said literally to find '^sermonl in INTRODUCTION. 18 stones." In the rock-clefts and gullies of our Highland m^'untains he finds, " Cnbined and confined At once from auu and dew and wind," various Lecideas and Cladonias ; and eve, on the naked ro.ks of their cloud-capped summits, where there is an almost total deficiency of a higher vegetation, luxuriating " AmMst the war of oiomcnts, The wreck of matter and the crash of worlds," he meets with the curious and valuable l>lack leathery Um- bihcarias. Should the mists obscur, his view, they do not damp his s,,irits; he atones for his disappointment by filling his vasculum, and adding to his stock of knowledge a new store of observations. The Art student, in his professional ours among the scenic beauties of our country, would also look m a different light on every mossy tree, crusted crag or time-stamed battlem.nt; he would be led to paint Na- ture from a higher and holier view-po ,t. To the fair sex especially, during their summer search after health and hap- piness, we would commend the study of Natural History as infinitely „ ,re ennobling than the host of fashionable though profitless accomi.,,hments, which they at present take such pains to possess. Many ladies ha. e already taken a h Ax stand as Algologists and Pteridologists; manv have cultivated u POPULAR HISTORY Ol' LICHENS. I. the physical sciences, witli such success as may well en- courage others to follow their example : they are by nature better fitted than men to collect and preserve minute and delicate organisms ; and we see no reason why they should not be equally capable of examining and describing, did they direct their energies or acumen in this direction. The Poet too, whose highest aspiration ought to be to describe Nature, and who frequently borrows his imagery from the beauties of creation, ought to be well acquainted with at least the general- features of Natural History. An ignorance of this subject however is too often, w^e fear, betrayed in his productions. As a humble illustration bearing on our present subject, the poet^Gray speaks of the " Rude aud moas-grown beech ;" while any tyro in Lichenology might have taught him the inappropriateness of such an expression, for the* bark of this tree remains comparatively smooth, although it is liable to separate, as its age increases, in annular masses; and it is ha- bited by Grap/iidea and Lecidea, while it is seldom or never the liabitat of the Ramalinas, Usneas, Physcias, or Corni- cularias, which constitute the familiar "beard'' or "moss'' of aged trees. We have often regretted the many valuable opportunities annually lost of improving our knowledge of natural history in general, and certain branches thereof, of I INTRODUCTION. 16 which Lichenology forms one, in particular; while we are satisfied that the idler, professional or amateur, vohnitary or non-voluntary, couhJ not find a more pleasant as well us pro- fitable moans of dissipating enrtid, and occupying a leisure that must at times lie heavy on his hands. Nay, we may go still further, and recommend it as a delightful relaxation in the intervals of business or more severe study : in our own experience we have found it so. Let it not be supposed that we can recommend these pursuits merely as forms of intellectual gratification to the individual engaged in them ; they are capable of a more extended influence and applica- tion. We believe that every observer, however Immble his sphere, and however meagre his opportunities, has it in his power to contribute materially to the progress of science, and to the development of its economical or practical appli- cations, by the simple noting of matters oifact. No grouj) of plants is more Protean in its characters than that of the Lichens, — none more subject to structural alterations under the influence of external circumstances. Hence the inves- tigation of the innumerable phases or forms under which species may occur — and without an accurate knowledge of which all classification must be unsatitffactory and tempo- rary—is a labour of almost insuperable difficulty to an in- 16 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. mnltitude of observers, working towards a common end under different conditions of climate and country. In no section of botany therefore are the labours of individual col- actors or investigators, on however small a scale, more likely to con nbute to a higher .«« of the science, or a more ac- curate knowledge of the natural history of the plants compos- mgiUnanrnthatofLichenology. The paucity of labourers m this field,-the deficiency of corroborated and multiplied observations common to all countries and climes, have been one great cause of the obscurity which has hitherto enveloped the subject of Lichenology. Should this little Work induce any labourers to enter either upon the comparatively cir- cumscribed, but also comparatively unworked, though pro- miamg, iield of lichenology, or the broader and more at- tractive region of general Natural History, its purpose will havt been fully answered. Within the limits of a popular treatise we feel it impos- sible to do justfce to a subject of such novelty and extent as the Natural History of British Lichens. We can onlv enumerate the general characters of the more common and better known species, which beginners in the study of Li- chenology are most likely to meet in their country rambles - « »» »« . rf i u ii ^to> i » , K . • ' *■ '*f- INTRODUCTION. 17 By confining ourselves to the description of typical or common species, and by means of introductory chapters devoted to the consideration of their external characters, internal structure, uses, distribution, and classification, we hope to be enabled to lay before the general reader, or the young student of Nature, a comparatively complete, though concise, view or account of the principal features of their natural history. Experience of the difficulty of procuring information upoU; or access to lichenological literature has induced us to append, in foot-notes to the several chapters, references to the works most worthy of consultation for fuller details than are hereinafter contained. The addition of these references may, we trust, serve to render the Work not unacceptable to the more advanced student of botany or natural history, as a familiar introduction to the study of native Lichens ; and may enable those who are desirous of dipping more deeply into the study of Lichenology than they can do in the pages of a popular treatise, to prosecute the subject according to their time or inclinations. " Not a plant, a leaf, a flower but contains A folio volume. We may read, and read, And read again, and still find something new,— Something to please,— something to instruct,— Even in the noisome weed." I 18 CHAPTER I. HISTORY OF LICHENOLOGY. "Let me suggest that the study of the simple plants ought to take the precedence of those whose organization is more complex and intricate, as being the simplest expression of the laws of vegetable life."— Coultas. The dark and almost impenetrable veil which has for ages enveloped the subject of Lichenology,— and especially the question of the reproduction of Lichens, — has not been due to the deficiency or absence of a special literature. On the contrary, the Lichens, iike the Saliees and Hieracia, may be said in a manner to have been ^rendered botanically odious by books." In the works of tht earlier Licheno- logists, — who did not possess suitable instruments for re- search,— tlie microscope in particular iaviag been rendered available m botanical science only witMn a comparatively HISTOllY OP LICHEXOLOGY. 19 recent period,— speculafmi to a great extent took the place of fact ; there was proatless straining after analogies which did not really exist,— a bending of fact to the subservience of theory. Observations were imperfectly made, or were coloured and perverted by the dominant idea. Fruitless discussions were entered into on the reproductive functions, based on erroneous or imperfect data : each author built up a new classification and devised a new nomenclature. As a necessary consequence, genera and species have been in a constant state of transition, both as regards name and position in classification. Some T jchenologists, whose dominant ten- dency has been the splitting up of species, and the devising of new names, have been constantly creating new subdivi- sions of the family, new genera, new species, and new va- rieties, thus adding materially to the complexity of nomen- clature and classification; others, whose minds led them to generalize, have, on the other hand, been as actively em- ployed in fusing together or combining certain genera and destroying others, thus contributing towards a simplification of the natural history of the Lichens. Such a condition of Lichenology could not fail to render its study both diffi- cult and repulsive to the general student of natural science; —hence one great cause, undoubtedly, of the obscurity in POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. whicli it I)as hitherto remained, of the neglect which it has hitherfo suffered. Instead of advancing science, the labours of earlier Lichenologists more frequently constituted barriers to its |)rogress, for later authors have been chiefly occupied in correcting the errors, supplying the omissions, and clearing from the field the " Rudis indigestaque moles" of crude theories accumulated by their predecessors. Thus, though much has been written, little real progress has been made until within a comparatively recent period. We may now be said to be entering on a new era in Lichenology ; it is now being studied in a more philosophic spirit, and with all the aids which modern discoveries in science — which the microscope and chemistry — can furnish. Facts are being earnestly and patiently sought after ; generaliza- tion and theory avoided until a sufficiency of data be accu- mulated to form a firm foundation for the superstructure of classification ; and a determination is being evinced to overcome all the obstacles and difficulties w^iich naturally beset a subject whicli lias been rendered so intricate, and which is now being «tx>rmed as a fortress that has succest- fully withstood the repeated assaults of scientific observers ; and moreover we believe the labourers are increasing and HISTORY OP LICHENOLOGY. n volunteers are coming forward who esteem it an honour to join this forlorn hope of Crjptogamic Botany, who are eager for the work solely on account of its difficulty. In propor- tion as the Lichens are more fully studied by the reflected light of modern science, — and especially in proportion as their various forms or phases, produced or modified by variations in external circumstances, are carefully examined in different countries and under different climes, — so will the study of Lichenology become more simple and attractive. It will not suffice to collate the characters of species con- tained in the musty folios of celebrated Herbaria; nor is it enough to apply the microscope and chemical reagents to the examination of old and dried specimens. Of observers of this class we have had enough. But the labours of the student must equally begin and terminate on the spot wliere the Lichens grow; his herbarium and book of reference must be the hill, the heath, the forest; there he must watch patiently and note accurately — it may be for a series of years— the stages of origin, ^rowth, and decay of species under all the influences, terrestrial and aerial, by which these are so liable to be affected. Several Lichens were probably known to the ancients as furnishing valuable purple dyes, and appear to be alluded ■i ! ' ! 1 1 1 ^^■'Jj. 1 i ^^^^m^ ^'^ f 1 ^^^^^^R 'v^ :j 1 ^^^^^^Br Lf, ' ^B| i ^^ra 1 ^^^1 i ^HrB u ^^B ' '' j: ^Bi ^B ill i :| ^^^^B 1 ' B^i 1 i ^^m ' r 1 H^K '^ ■• mmMi^^ fmk ,.-^ 22 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. to under various names in the works of Dioscorides, Theo- phrastus, and Pliny ; but they do not appear to have at- tracted much scientific attention, or to have become the subjects of special classification till about the beginning of the seventeenth century. The ideas of the earlier authors, even for a considerable time subsequent to this period, re- garding their nature and position in the scale of vegetation, were of a very primitive and erroneous kind. Many species were believed to be accidental or anomalous productions, developed according to no known law, — growing under con- ditions inimical to all otlier vegetation : hence the theory of equivocal or spontaneous generation was advanced in ex- planation of their origin and growth. One phasis of this theory appeared in the doctrine that, according to the ex- ternal circumstances by which they are surrounded in ger- mination or genesis, — according as the medium in which they arise and vegetate is earth, water, or decaying organic matter, — certain vegetable cellules become Lichens, Algge, or Fungi ; nay, some authors have even gone the length of asserting, that under certain circumstances they are trans- mutable into animalcules! Another phase assumed the form of a belief that the decomposition of organic bodies gives origin to organic bodies lower in the scale of being, es, Theo- liave at- 3ome the inning of ' authors, eriod, re- !getation, ly species ductions, iider con- theory of d in ex- s of this > the ex- 1 in ger- in which J organic IS, Algse, ength of re trans- med the c bodies if being. WIL milsacy. ^ tltcb ht^ . inc-nr i>.,>oli5 ■A'lf-'f ■.« HISTORY OF LICHENOLOGY. 28 and that the Lichens are merely the result of the decom- position of a higher vegetation. Such ideas, which may be regarded as foreshadows of, or as analogous to, the pro- gressive-development theories of more modern times, how- ever ingenious in themselves and attractive from their ap. parent simplicity, could not for a moment stand the test of experience. They originated in, and were fostered by, the speculative dispositions of the German school of observers Sprengel, who very beautifully designates the C.ptogamia as the "secret recesses of Nature's sanctuary," speaks of many of the Lichens as "formed of nothing but pure pre- cipitation from the vegetable juices, except here and there some slight rudiments of a cellular organization." In reviewing briefly the onward progress or history of Lichenology in Europe, we may regard it as divisible into three eras, the first dating about the year 1700, and marked by the labours of Tournefort ; the second occurring about the year 1800, and characterized by the voluminous and valuable works of Acharius ; and the third commencing about 1850, and distinguished by the important monograph of Tulasne. Prior to the date of the first era above alluded to, the Lichens were included indiscriminately, under various names, among Mosses or Fungi. By Tournefort, in his 'Li- #! m I M. .'I . I u POPUEAE HISTORY OF LICHENS. stitutiones Eei Herbaria,,' they werefor the first time collected into a separate group, to Hhich !>c gave the term Zici,n. Ih.s term, though its derivation has been given variously by different authors, is probably derived from the Greek word Xe^XW leicien or /ide,>., a wart, which tlie fructification of this group of plants frequently resembles. This group, or famdy, Lichen, dis IS the simplest form under which lichenose ve-e- tation occurs ; it is the rudimentary condition of many L. ces, and the abnormal or abortive form of others, depend- ing upon or produced by an absence of the external condi- tions necessary or favourable to development. By the older lichenologists its true nature was not understood; and Li- Chens having this form of thallus were by them constituted nto a distinct genus, under the name of Lepra or Lepraria. the species being chiefly named according to their colour such as L. nigra, alba, flam, eUorina, the black, white' yellow, or green Z^.,.«„«. This form of thallus may be examined by the student in any wood, on the moist rotten ■*•<<"■■ OENEBAL CHARACTERS OP BRITISH LICHENS. 35 Stumps Of dead trees, or in nny glen, i„ damp, slmdy fissures of rocks. It must however be distinguished from a pulve- rulent eondition of the surface of the thalius, which occurs m many foliaceous species. The erustaeeous thalius may be ^/,«., that is, of no determinate shape, and with no visible hmits or border, which is gradually lost on the sur- face of the base of support; or uniform, that is, of definite shape and with a distinct margin. It is denominated eM. gurate when its circumference assumes a radiate or irregu- larly stellate appearance ; and 8q^,mmulo,e or imJjricate when Its peripheral segments, or lacinia>, assume a foliaceous cha- racter, and are arranged in a scale-like or house-tile-like manner. The/o&ffeoM oxfmndose thalius is a flattened, leaf-like expansion, whose texture or consistence, according to its thickness and tlie arrangement of its cellular tissue is inmhranaeeom, coriaceous, or cartiluffinous, and whose margins are divided into segments, which, according to their size, are denominated loles or laciHia, the former being typically broadish and rounded, the latter narrow and Jmear. Fohaceous Lichens include the largest and most brilhantly coloured species, such as those of the genera Parmelia, Peltigera, and Stuta. Their geographical dis- 36 POPULAIl HISTORY OP LICHENS. tribution ,s the opposite of that of crustaceous species, at- taming their maximum development at low altitucfes and "1 tropical countries. Their habitat is most frequently the bark of trees or the ground. Some species adhere to bases of support by numerous minute fibrils or bundles of fila- ments, proceeding from the under surface of the thallus ; these are denominated rhizincs or fimm. They resemble' . rootlets in appearance, but not in function, acting chielly, if not solely, as means of adhesion. In some species growing on moss they are long, pale-coloured, and delicate, as in Peltioera; in others, inhabiting the bark of trees, they are very short, filiform, and black. In some foliaceous Lichens there is a single and frequently central point of adhesion by means of a kind of disc or sucker. The crustaceous and , foliaceous thallus exhibit many intergradations and combi- nations, which give rise to an infinity of irregular forms. The chief subdivisions of the vertical, or typically free, thallus, are the fruticulose and filamentous. The former consists of a shrub-like mass or aggregation of rigid, erect narrow, simple or branched, stem-like segments, which sometimes arise from a common disclike base, as in Spha^ rophjron.—someiime^ spring separately from a small folia- ceous or crustaceous horizontal thallus, as in some Cladonia, GENERAL CHARACTERS OF BRITISH LICHENS. 37 and Stereocaulon. These branch- or stem-like developments of, or prolongations upward from, the thallus ma) be solid or hollow. In the latter case they are frequently cylindrical, and dilated at their apices into cup or funnel-shaped cavi- ties, the margins of *vhich bear the fructification. Such a body may be regarded as a secondary or vertical thallus, developed from the cortical substance of a primary, small, horizontal thallus ; it is designated a podetium (ttov^, Gr., pes, Lat., a foot), and is characteristic of the Cladonias. On this podetium there is frequently to be found a ter- tiary or second horizontal thallus, growing from its surface more or less abundantly in the form of minute foliaceous squamules. Fruticulose Lichens include some of the most valuable dye-species, as the Roccellre ; and some of the commonest species growing on our forest-trees, as the genus Ramal'ma, — on our heaths, as the genus Cladonia, — and on our hills, as the genera Sphcerophoron and Stereocaulon, The filamentous thallus likewise forms a shrub-like mass consisting of flaccid, or somewhat rigid, round, thread-like, or filamentous segments, — sometimes, and especially in the young state, growing erect, more frequently pendulous, and even occasionally prostrate, such as the genus Usnea and some species of Cornicularia. Filamentous Lichens are w^ 38 POPULAR HISTOJIY OJb' LICHENS. ll j chiefly confined to, and form a characteristic coating of. the older trees of our forests, which thus become "mossed their. .TT"'"' ^'"^ ""^^ ^'"^'^'y proximate the chamcters of h.gher plants. Some species appear pos- essed of distinct stem or axis with numerous divergent branches : but these have none of the structural characters of the st.m.s or branches of the nanero.amia, or Flower- wg Hants ; they are wholly cellular. Filamentous species are comparatively limite.' in geographical range, and are ebefly found at low altitudes; they are susceptible o-- few eeonomical applications. As the crustaceous and foliace- ous, so the fruticulose and filamentous thaUus are closely alhed AA these forms pass into each other by insensibl'e ^.da ions, giving rise to great irregularities in the charac ter of the thallus of Lichens. Filamentous species are ^ ua ly adherent to bases of support by means of a central If we tear or cut across any common foliaceous or fru- leulose species, we shall find it, by the naked eye, to con- a. t of three distinct tissues, viz. superiorly or externally of a tough, membranaceous or leathery, impervious, dense L ^>cal layer; immediately subjacent or internal to this, of a thin, bright-green, ^omclio layer; and inferiorly or inter- Plate W ¥l.Una»a^ adBuiaiOi Vnicoit Bi'ookd -.Imp. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF BRITISH LICHENS. 39 nallj, of a white, cottony, spongy, medullary layer. The assistance of the microscope will enable us to determine that the cortical tissue consists of a closely aggregated series of thick-walled, typically spherical cells, but which have assumed various irregularities of shape from pressure and abortion ; that the gonidic layer is composed of a series of globular cells in a very loose state of aggregation, both with each other and with the tissues with which they are in relation, and which contain a greater or less quantity of bright-green chlorophyll, either in the form of distinct gra- nules, or of an amorphous, semi-fluid matter ; and that the medullary layer is composed of a somewhat loose network of branching tubes or filaments delicate or thick-walled, simple or marked by internal septa, which indicate their constitu- ent cells, and which may be empty or filled with a transpa- rent gummy matter : the interstices of this medullary net- work contain air. A large-celled, thick-walled, coarse me- dullary tissue may be easily ' studied in the Peliigerea. Bundles of these filaments are frequently developed down- wards in the form of the rldzhue or Jiocurce already alluded to. The whole tissues of the Lichen-thallus are thus seen to consist of modifications of two forms of simple cell, — the spherical or rounded, which by pressure becomes hexagonal, # . 40 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. I! • I polygonal, oblong, or irregular in different species ; and the cylindrical or elongated cell, by the disappearance of whose septa, when in apposition to other cells, the tube or filament is produced. These medullary tubes, though bearing a ge- neral resemblance, have no functional affinity to the vascular tissue of the Phanerogamia : they are not vessels or canals for the conveyance of sap, though they imbibe and convey water with great readiness and rapidity. The walls of both forms of cell above-mentioned are composed of cellulose, a non-nitrogenous substance resembling starch; and Payen remarks that the cell-wall in Lichens differs from the thick sclerogenous cell-wall of the seed of the Ph/telephas, or Ivory Palm, merely in its superior thinness. Between the individual cells in the various tissues there is an intercellular matter of a gummy nature, which is supposed by some au- thors to be an excretion of, or product thrown out by, these cells. Of all the cell-forms above described, the most important are the isolated cellules of the sub-cortical or gonidic layer, which are denominated Gonidla {y6vr], generation, and eZSo?,' resemUance, probably so called from their functional re- semblance to the spores^). From the important part they ♦ Vide Kcirber 'De Cxonidiis Lichenum;' and also in the 'Annales des "T"!"! M I | l | II JI ! . » i l GENERAL CHARACTERS OF BRITISH LICHENS. 41 play in the multiplication and modification of the Lichen- thallus, they demand more than a passing allusion. They may be regarded as intermediate in function between the vegetative and reproductive cell, assuming the offices and partaking of the characters of both ; but as they are peculiar to, and characteristic of, the thallus of Lichens, — serving to distinguish them from cognate families, — and as their hyper- trophic or abnormal condition is one chief cause of irre- gularity in the external characters of the thallus, we prefer considering them here. Their great peculiarity, we have already incidentally stated, is the want of union between each other and between them and surrounding tissues. They play an important part in the development of the young thallus, and are the main element frequently in the pulverulent form of the crustaceous thallus formerly alluded to. They frequently burst through the cortical layer of a Lichen, appearing on its surface in the form of powdery masses, varying in size and colour, denominated soredia. In the foliaceous thallus, on which they are commonly met Sciences Naturelles,' Second Series, 1840, and the 'Flora/ 1841 ; papers by Thwaites and Dickie in * Annals of Natural History,' formerly the ' Maga- zine of Zoology and Botany,' vols. iii. and viii.-. Cassini in his 'Opusc. Phytol.' 1826 ; ' Botanical Gazette ' (Miiller), April, 1849 (Thwaites), April, 1848, March, 1849, July, 1850. I! i 42 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. With, they usually appear first towards the centre, sometiraes extending centrifugally over its whole surface, so as to give It a general pulverulent appearance ; sometimes they are developed at the extremities of the thalline lobules, or la. cimce, as in Parmelia ceratophjlla, var. phpodes ; some- times they occur in orbicular or globular masses, sprinkled T3ver a fruticulose thallus, as in Ramalina farinacea. Scat- tared sparingly over the surface of a thallus or apothecium, they give it a pruinose or frosted, farinose or mealy appear- ance, according to their quantity and colour. The disc of an apothecium is sometimes rendered abortive by sorediiferous degeneration ; the soredia then become discoid or globular, assuming the form of the abortive apothecium. This is the basis of the old genus Variolaria, which is now found to be merely an abnormal condition of the thallus or its fructi- fication, depending on a hypertrophy, or excessive develop, ment, of the gonidic element. This variolarioid condition IS not uncommon in many crustaceous species, as those of the genera Pertusaria and Lecanora. On the under surface of the thallus of the genus Sf,icta, soredia occur in the form of minute urn or cup-shaped bodies, called Ci/phella, which appear to be excavated in its substance,-sometimes white more frequently yellow or greenish j on the upper surface GENERAL CHABACTEE3 01- BKIIISH UOUENS. 48 Of the thallus, in the same genus, soredia oecar in their usual fom, frequently of a bright yellow colour. These cyphelte are or.g.nally globular or wart-like, and become urceolate. or cup-shaped, only on expanding. With age the soredia sometimes fall out, leaving the cavity empty. In other spec.es gonidia are developed on the surface of the thallus n the form of granules or very minute wartlets, producn.g he condition termed furfuraceon, , or in the form of fo holes or squamules, constituting that called .qnarnuU^e. frequently in i>«.«..& .a.atUu ; the latter in many C/«. ^»^. On the surface of the thallus of some crustaceous speo,es,-asZ.«««m^«&«,,, ,^,..parella, andi. rimom, -they are developed in the form of minute, solid, cylin- dncal, or cone-hke bodies, arranged perpendicularly to its urface, and so closely aggregated as to form a compact tissue, apparently composed of a multitude of small columns Such a condrtion is termed uiMoid, and is the basis of th atte'7tlf:t:' ^? " '''"^ ^""■"' *° •'^ - ""--l state of the thallus of certain crustaceous species. The .sidioid thailus resembles the tartareous in being usualy pale or whitish, cretaceous and friable and in nos • considerable amount of colorific and mineral LtterT'the .- 44 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. same may be said, though in a minor degree, of the vario- larioid form. The pillar or cone-like bodies constituting the isidioid thallus are frequently dark or coloured at their apices; these were supposed by the older authors to be apothecia, to which, from their form, they gave the name glohuli. The soredic and isidioid conditions are sometimes combined in the production of fruticulose, powdery maSses termed glomeruli, which frequently occur on the thallus of Parmelia amplissima and Umbilicaria pudulata. The thallus is develop3d from and upon a rudimentary body termed the hypothallus ; to understand the proper relations and importance of which, it will be advisable to glance briefly at the progressive development of a Lichen- thallus from the germination of a Lichen-spore. In germi- nating, under favourable circumstances with regard to mois- ture, light, heat, etc., the spore, or cellular embryo of a Li- chen, sends forth usually from one, sometimes from both of its extremities, and occasionally from all points of its surface, delicate filaments or tubes which gradually become elongated and branched, spreading upon, or piercing, to various de- grees, the base of support,--the ramifications intertwining so as to form a loose, felted texture, resembling closely, in ge- neral characters, the mycelium of Fungi. This network of GENERAL CHAHACTEBS OP BRITISH LICHENS. 45 filaments is the hypothallus ; its fllameuts, in progress of de- velopment, become co,.tinuous with those of the medullary layer of the Lichen-thallus, and possess similar characters. Like them they may consist of a series of elongated cylin- drical cells placed in apposition, and are then marked by septa at irregular intervals and nsnally possess thickened walls; or, the septa of the constituent cellules having dis- appeared, the filaments are hollow, branching, thin-walled and simple. In the latter case, however complex the net- work may appear, it can only be morphologically regarded as the extension and subsequent ramification of the mem- brane or wall of a .simple cell. The hypothallus is in most Lichens evanescent; after it has served as the basis of the thallus. It disappears. In some species it is persistent, and rnay be recognized as a delicate filamentous network _ frequently having a dendritic and crystalline appearance sometimes pale-coloured, more usually black,-beIow or sur' rounding the thaUus. It is characteristic of the Ehizocar pons section of the Lecidea, and may be easily seen in Le cidea geograpUca in the form of a black dendritic radiating fringe, surrounding the yellowish-green thallus. When this species grows on pure milk-white quartz, as it frequently does on our Scotch mountains, this thalline fringe is very conspicuous. I h hv 46 ff. POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. In the progress of onward development there is first no- ticed, superimposed upon the filamentous network of the hypothallus, a layer of spherical or rounded cellules, colour- less or whitish, in close union both with each other and with the subjacent filaments. Upon this cellular stratum there is gradually deposited a second, which is characterized by its constituent cellules being quite globular, free in relation to each other and subjacent textures, and more or less full of chlorophyll granules ; these cellules are the ^onidia of which we have already spoken. We have now attained the essentials of the Lichen-thallus, viz. gonidia, or isolated eel- lules, and filaments, with which they are intermixed. In some species the thallus attains no higher development, as in the rerrucaria,the most simply organized Lichens. Such Lichens appear indeed destitute of a thallus, but careful microscopic examination will detect the elements we have described. These elements, or, in other words, the possession of this simple and rudimentary thallus, are the only means of dis- tinguishing many Angiocarpous Lichens from species of Sp/ima, belonging to the allied great family of Funp. In the common Verrucarics and Gra^-iliidece of our tree-barks the fructification however appears to spring directly from the sur- face of the bark, and may in a certain sense be said to con- GENERAL CHARACTERS OF BRmsH LICBEN9. 47 stitute the plant. An examination of the pulverulent or ru .mentary thal.us of ™any common Ciadias a L cKleas «.I prove it to be eomposed of the .ame element' m th.s hght also we must regard the old genus Lepratia as a pers,stent hypothalline t,pe or abortive'oouditifn o tl" ha us ovar,ous familiar species of the genera just men! t.o„ d. In somefohaceous species, the hypothallus becomes developed mto fi.ur., which are composed of bundles fllamen s hav,ng the same characters as those desc bed under the head of the medullary layer of the thallus ; i„ some rird :r " ^""^-^ *° '--- ''- ^^-^ ^- ^«- The colour of the Lichen-thallus is as varied as its form and as subject to alteration by external circumstances errestnal and aerial. It is generally greenish, greyish oj b own,sh; frequently also whitish, yellowish, reddish, Z blachsh; or It possesses various shades and combinations of these colours. The colouring matters on which these depend are confined to the cortical layer of the thallus. Of this the student may convince himself by tearing across any Zo ;l Tn ''^""' "^"^ ^ *^ bronze-coloured or almos p, chy thallus of Parhelia Paklunensu, the external or corfcal layer of which is of a deep brown colour, while immm^tmirmmmagmmg^m •dM 48 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. t. ; i i the centre consists of a w/iUe, cottony, spongy, medullary tissue, between which and the cortical layer there may be seen a thin layer of ffreen gonidia. This colouring matter is in many species easily extracted by boiling water, and other solvents, and has been abundantly applied by the peasantry of Scotland, and other countries, in their house- hold arts, and especially to the dyeing of home-spun vest- ments. In the majority of Lichens, from the thinness and comparative transparency of the cortical tissue, the bright green colour of the subjacent gonidic layer plays an impor- tant part in the production of the colour of the thallus. When a Lichen is steeped in water or moistened, the trans- parency of the cortical tissue is greatly increased, and if previously of a pale colour, the green of the gonidic layer now shines through it with almost undiminished intensity. This sufficiently explains the circumstance that most Lichens, when moistened by rain or when growing in damp situa- tions, have much more of a green tint than under opposite conditions. It may be laid down as a general proposition, that whatever be the colour of the cortical layer, that of the gonidic stratum is normally and always ffreen. Changes in colour are greatly under the influence of li^M, as well as moisture. In the vertical thallus, which is equally exposed opposed to, or in u„io, S ' ^ if" "''"^' ^'"<=" "^ paler th.„ the superior or e si "m "'•"'' " '""'"' the sun, ,.nd not unfrec,uLtIv o^ , «' ''' '^ ''>"""^ *° -•' - ™ore l,igl,,, colon ecfe "r" '="'°"'- ^^''"''^ from the comnactn.,, . T., 7' "'^ '''"'" 'Mentioned, firmer in tex^ 1 ^ s^ " °' "'^ '=°'"-' ^"^ uaually present a dull . ^ t ^'""'"^ '" *he shade exposedl tL unitthiJ: b'", /'"""'' '^''"^ '"- »«ked change i„ cotr it be f^^ ^^ ^ transferring a species growirin ! f'^"^"^?™''"^^'! by a dr, light habL, or^Z^ » damp shad, loealit,, to ceptions : some Lichen, 1 ' *"'" "^ ^ f«* «^- £ t 50 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. Before leaving the subject of the thallus, we have still a i^T^ general remarks to make on the subject of its growth and decay. In regard to their foorl^ Lichens have generally been described as aerial, drawing their sole nourishment from the atmosphere. If however we are guided, as we ought to be, in our determination of the nature of their food, by their chemical composition as ascertained by an analysis of their ash, we must come to the conclusion that they derive no inconsiderable amount, at least of their inorganic constitutive elements, from their hases of sup- port. The latter term we employ, not from a common belief with the earlier Lichenologists, that the trees, rocks, or ground on which Lichens grow contribute nowise to the building up of their thallus, but merely as a terra of convenience ; our own opinion is, that, w^hile the atmosphere supplies the chief organic elements of the thallus, the sub- stance on which a Lichen grows furnishes the chief inor- ganic constituents. Almost all Lichens, as we have seen, are more or less intimatelv united to the bodies on which they grow; the surface of the latter is frequently pierced or broken up by the tissues of the Lichen, — nay, the hardest calcareous rock, the smoothest quartz, is corroded and dis- integrated ; and deeply sunk in their substance we find the mm e still a grmcth ^nerally shraeiit as we 3f their by an 311 that if their of sup- ommon , rocks, wise to :erra of osphere he sub- if inor- e seen, 1 which reed or hardest nd dis- ind the GENERAL CHAlMPTT^pe ^r, HAIUCILRS OF BRITISH LICHENS. 5] bably depends o„ s„,„ ll, cT """''™^''^ " "- h the Liehen. There a e C ''"''' °" "" ""^ '0 the ™,e that al, Li:,:,: eXert'l ^''""™*'^ «/^«fo, wliicli constitutes a Jcin/T ' ^''''""'~ ^*- tribes of the Asiatic steles ', '"""1"' "" ""'"«''■" Caucasus, is said to be fee It e '"^'""'^""'""'d of the The .,/. of Lichens oL ^ T^ ^'"'"^- "^ "^ S^vvth. °^'^ei.hu.;a;::z:rr^-^-j- potash, soda, hme ma-ne,;, , ^ bases-such as as carbonic, phosphoric .nlnh„ • V '"'^'^ «^^^^ ^'«o„s :f th^ cr^pi • n Th tT'"- '- species, Mr. Wallace Lind... f ] "^ Particular ''Ioelandmoss% oufdt'st" " "* '^^ "" ^°'"'"- tbe bases ,in,e, Potash s„tf C^^ dT^^^^^^^^^^^^^ » combination with sulphuric hlTn ^''°"'''' ''^'■'""' -■d-S and in that of a rsof^l ! °"'' "' ^*"^^ ~..i fro. the woods oZZrsSr [T °?^^^"-^ l"ne. -da, potash, alumina, JZ^^l^'''"' "" ''^^^^ oxide of iron, in combinat on iTa '"'"'"' ""^ P^^" Probable that in the forme" alth "'"^"■■'^'• ^^ « rmer case^the inorganic matter was 52 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. absorbed from the soil ; in the latter, from the bark of the fir and other trees on which the plant grew. We can however approximate proof more closely, for it has been found that iron is detected in many species growing on fer- ruginous soils, and silica in those inhabiting quartzose rocks. But the chemistry of the Lichens is in a very primitive and unsatisfactory condition ; and, until it is more fully studied, the question of the source or nature of their food cannot be satisfactorily determined. Lichens are perennial ; they grow very slowly, but they attain an extreme age. Some species, growing on the pri- mitive rocks of the highest mountain-ranges in the world, are estimated to have attained an age of at least a thousand years ; and one author mentions, after the lapse of nearly half a century, having observed the same specimen of 8ticta pulmonaria on the same spot of the same tree. If this be the case, it is impossible to calculate how many ages we must go back in memory to trace the origin of the lichenose coat- ing, the grey and yellow " time-stains,^' of many a weather- beaten battlement ; or to consider what deeds these venerable crusts have witnessed — what changes they have outlived in the past history of our country. The hoary Usneas, Kama- linas, and Physcias of our forest-trees, like the grey beard WLLmiiicydBl.RtAlitli . • GENERAL CHAKACTEES OF BMTISII LICHENS. 53 of an old man, silently but eloquently proclaim Time's ravages, and illustrate the constant succession of life upon death growth upon decay, which is going on around us. We have alluded to the age of the individual; we shall find no less interest in regarding the geologic age of the family. Ungcr, in his ' Pateo-phytology,' mentions Lichens among the few cryptogamic plants which have been de- tected m a fossil state in the lower or earlier pateozoic strata. I-rom the cellular character of the lower cryptogamic plants, comparatively few have been preserved to us as fossils Their presence at so early a period of our earth's history leads to reflection on the condition of lichenose vegetation on our globe at the period when the strata which now con- tain tneir remains were originally deposited. It is not in- consistent with analogy to believe-as in the case of an allied family, the Ferns-that the stunted Lichens of our walls or trees are but puny types of a once comparativelv gorgeous vegetation, whose nearest living analogues are the large and showy foliaceous species of tropical forests. We have already alluded to the protean nature of the Lichen-thallus and the frequency of its abnormal conditions. This IS perhaps the most appropriate place to review the causes productive of its infinite alterations and metamor- 51 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. piloses ; in doing so, we shall be led incidentally to consider the chief circumstances which promote or retard the growth of the thallus. The study of these causes and circumstances is one of great importance to the young lichenologist, as a key to the phases or varieties of species. In their influence on the Lichen-thallus no agents are more powerful than moisture, light, and heat; hence we find Lichens at- taining their maximum development under maximum con- ditions of moisture, light, and temperature, that is, in the the tropics. At the same time, however paradoxical it may appear, no plants are more independent of the influence of these agents, for they vegetate in the driest and coldest regions yet discovered by man. Their vitality is more per- sistent than that of any higher plants ; it is frequently sus- pended for long periods by drought, but growth is at once stimulated by the slightest moisture, which is greedily ab- sorbed by all points of the surface. The eff-ect of moisture in producing a change of colour has been mentioned ; it is sometimes more remarkably productive of change in con- sistence. The flaccid membraniform Collema, when mois- tened, swells up into a jelly-like mass, resembling many of the Algce. Some authors indeed believe that Lichens might be caused to assume algoid characters by making them ve- GENERAL CHAEACTEES OF BRITISH LICHENS. 55 getate in a moist or aqueous medium; and Fries, no mean author..,, defines Lichens to be "Al,. born in t e air" terrupted ja their development b, the deficiene, of J te and stnnulated into formn.g a nucleus b, light' E.ces: iTtr r^ ''^'^ '"^'-' "^"^ ''-"op ment , u produces a sterile state of the thallus, and favours h production o a pulverulent or persistent 'h.pothaZ type. A knowledge of this fact has enabled some authors to cause stenle species to become fertile, b, merel, al tril their habitat, ^o species grows normall/ under water or m habitats devoid of light, though appa, J exceptili s have o casionally been described. The n.^.re oftke LiJZ quently exercises a powerful influence, not only by means wh reon a Lichen grows supplies to the building np of ts thallus, that ,s, by means of its chemical ch.ractL ;'bu capability to absorb or retain heat and moisture. To this subject we shall morefully recur under the head of Geogr phical Distribution. Season and the vicissitudes of climate are not without their effect, if we may judge by the ch.,; which hey appear to produce in the chemical composition or products of certain species. It is well known that 2y I "-S^^TTTTTsTt^? mmm wnf 56 POPULAR HISTOTIY OF LICHENS. Ml i 1 I :! ' t. '^ I 11 dye species are richer in colorific matter at certain seasons, at which they are consequently uniformly collected, than at others. The mode of growth in some species, and its fitful and irregular character in all, is also a fertile source of alteration in the form of the thallus. In some foliaceous species. Vowing equally from a common centre, it some- times happens that the centre dies and falls away, while the circumference is vigorously extending itself in an exoge- nous manner, that is, by the production of new peripheral rings. The growth of these rings or zones depends chiefly on moisture ; the development of the thallus is retarded or stopped during drought, but is immediately promoted by the slightest rain or dew; and in proportion as the hy- grometric condition of the atmosphere varies, so do these rings exhibit irregularities in form and size. Such abnor- malities have doubtless formed the basis of many of the "fairy-rings," described as existing on old trees and rocks; they are of common occurrence in Parmelia sawatilis and its variety omphalodes. Frequently this decaying or dead centre becomes the nidus of a new thalline growth, origi- nating from the gonidia of the old thallus ; in such a con- dition we have a fine example of simultaneous growth and decay in the same individual. The gonidic element of the OOEnAL CHAKACTEItS OK BamsH LICHENS. 57 «.all„, in a hypertrophic or abnormal condition is productive neration ^I, . .? ''"'""^ "^ " pulveruleit dege- variolarioid, and ILTL: o'tTu T'''"""' to lite sn ' ' " *° """^ ''"^ *''^ «'''- -"'o- intoCr^r '°^^^^'"^ ^"^" ^ -^^'-^- ^^^^*-/ The Reproductive syUem of Lichens is divisible into tl. Pn«.^-nor.al or typical, .herein it resemb Ian h Secondary, or supplementary, wherebv it wl-\- } f-, that of plants higher L^l^Jl^^^^ c.lh r ^■^''^^^««' ^hich generate and protect the squent development the species is reproduced ; 2. SpZ growth of the plant n.,nute bodies, Speruatia, whose function ^mt 58 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHPJNS. 3 I' is now generally acknowledged to be the fertilization or fe- cundation of the spores : and 3. Pj/aiides, which give rise within their cavities to spore-like bodies, termed S/j/losjjoje.s, whose precise ollice in the physiology of reproduction does not appear yet to have been accurately determined. The Secondary reproductive system consists of the Gouidia, of which we have already spoken. While the spore is a cel- lular embryo, a reproductive cell prepared by a process of fecundation, destined to the propagation of the species, the gonidium is a cellular bud, a reproductive cell, which has undergone no preparatory fertilization, destined to mul- tiply the individual. As we have seen, the latter may multiply either on some part of the parent thallus,— as in the folioles or squamules of the jjodetia in the C/adomcB,—ov external to the parent thallus, as in the rudimentary vegetative system of the same genus. The apothecia are generally easily re- cognizable on some part of the thallus ; they have long been familiar to Lichcnologists, some of whom have taken their characters as the basis of classification. Tlie Spcrmogones and P^cnides have only been fully discovered and described within the last few years : a knowledge of their structure and relations is the key to many hitherto difficult problems in the natural history of the Liciiens. The former are so minute '':^-: OKNKUAL C„.UACTK«S O. BKrnsH UCKNS. 59 a. requ,rc frcnuontly o careful exa,„f„atio„ for their ,1. tecfon ; the, u.uall, coexist o„ the .uno .hall s Jit "/•' Proxu„,ty ,0, the apothecia, a„,l occur i„ tl orl" f 1 with the s(r„ct„; ,'""-"='"'• ^"""JUHint ourselves fully lue siructure and coiisfif ueiit elejnei.ts nf *l, • organs, it is nece«.-irv tn „ i •-""•'"' »' ""^se various of the micros";:; ' ^'^"' "'"""'"'^^"^ '"o"" P— ««ch „a„ te „™,„.ea f„, J^ 'r^^ ^,^-- ;'""'' 0^-l"a„se, „f Pari, power of four l,„,„l,-c.J to six h,„Hl,.r, I . ■•'■''^•''".g a magnifying st-de-t w„ose object i, .„: t^X^T^l^?'' ^ '*"'"" "^ '-» Laiens; for ordinary sto lie, in veJt b ' ° , " """'"'"J' »' "-e power of .„ „ „„,„ j„,„^^, dia J^ ':;"•''■ '"f "'-"' -aeLing » by using IVeneh or German len.es e n n Z *'""«""* "I'tici.us. at a moderate priee; and in eo Ze, 7 '""" """"" '""™™<""' london Soeiely of ^,,», for t ,e be, d T '""' """"^ *''' ''^ ''^ Birmingham fc-m (iUe. r, i^,,l ' '"^''"^H-'^i «l"Je„U' microscopea, a 10- 0* np .0 «. An,o„g e „:r: ;: '7/' » P™« "%'".« from Powell and Lcaland. and Smith aTdH v''™'?''. ^°"''<'" ""k^'S are Eoss, -" i^ve had .neh cvperie:: in reirt^jtr:!:."'""''"^'- '"^'- ^'^- mn 60 POPULAU HISTORY OF LICHENS. 1 ■ < if 111 f^i The Apothecium {inroOrjKr}, a repontor//) consists nor- mally of two distinct parts, the Thalamium (OdXafio^, a re- ceptacle) and the E.rciple [exciplo, to receive) ; in some cases the latter is absent. The thalamium is either typically open, forming a more or less flattened, concave or convex disc, as in the Gymnocarpous {^viivh, naked, and Kapiro^, fruit) section of the Lichen family; or it is typically closed, forming a globular or nucleiform body, which opens in a state of maturit; by a minute ostiole or pore, or by an irre- gular fissure with lacerated edges, as in the Angiocarpous section. The exciple is a capsule or envelope enclosing or protecting the thalamium. In some cases it merely forms a margin or border bounding its sides; in others it consti- tutes both base and border; in i\\?, Anglocarpl (07709 or arffelov, a vessel) it forms a more or less complete globu- lar envelope, which is designated the Perithecium {irepl, round)* The exciple is said to be t/ialline when it is formed of an extension of the cortical layer or other tissues of the * The perithecium is said to be entire when it quite surrounds the nuclei- form thalamium ; dimidiate {dimidiatus, halved) when situated on the upper or exposed half only. Leighton also applies the term to the carbonaceous exciple of the Graphidea, which is entire when enclosing the sides and base of the thalamium, to which it gives a proper margin, as in Opegrapha ; and dimidiate when confined to the sides, the base being naked, as in Graphis. i OENEIUL C..A1UCTEKS O* BlUTISH L.C.iENS. 61 thallu., in which case it is of similar colour therewith; and a .nglc th ammrr, but sometimes two or three are „.«re. gated together, both in Angioearpous and G^mnocajus r ol S' """r?^ ^^'"''•'^-l'"- ''Pothecir, as in some Lladonice. In form f)i« o.^ *i • • -Lii lorm tile apotliecium is usual I v Tl i "'^.^7"7'- ^*^^ (i'^'^". a buckler or target) when of s,m,h.r form, but destitute of a distinct exciple Ineld) when round, convex, or semi-globular, with a proper Zd;r "t r' '"'''"'''' -^'""'^'^ ^'^^. ap X o IT "rf f "'"'' ="'°'"''^'' ''"'3 ^-'^^ - th lus as il Tf ' C°'^*'°" ^^'""' - f°™ of. the thai- [hrdla a furrow) when linear, or elongated in the form of a h uk orfurrow, ii-equentl, irregularly divergent or stelkt w th a proper exc.ple, as in the Gra^hUU. ; and «.«e«« rr? :-7'-^ t" ^'°'"'" ^-^ ^"^'"'^«' -'«='J direc% ou or partialis, .„ the thalline surface, the exciple bei„. a mmmm 62 POPULAR HISTOllY OF LICHENS. i I * 1 perithecium, as in Ferrucana. In regard to its mode of fixture to the thallus, the apotheciam may be sessile, wlien adnate or immediately adherent to, and seated on, the sur- face of the thallus ; partially t^mafe when its base is im- mersed in the superficial tlialline tissues; pedicellate or slipitate when fixed on the apex of a stalk-like projection, as in Calickm. In respect to its position on the thallus— in foliaceous species it may be central, as in many Parmelias, or marginal, as in Feltigera ; while in fruticulose species it IS either lateral, as in many Ramalinas, or terminal, as in Spkrerophoron and Stereocanlon. Abnormal or abortive states of the thalamium or exeiple, but particularly of the latter, frequently give rise (o great irregularities in the characters of the apotheciura in the same species. The scutellate apo- thecium sometimes becomes patellate from the border of the exeiple being so reflexed as to allow the thalamium to cover and conceal it, as in Lecanora ventosa ; and on the other hand the patellate may become scutellate by an inflexed condition of the marginL of the thalamium, and tlie assumption, real or apparent, of a thalline exeiple. Some apothecia in the young state are covered or veiled by an extension of the cortical thalline layer or by a delicate dehiscent membrane, as in VeU tigera. Tlie rudimentary apotliecium appears as a globular i\ GENERAL CHAEACTEHS OF BBIWSH LICHENS. 63 .moleus in the medullary thalline tis.ue; if gradu.llv becomes enlarged and approaches the surface. I„ some e ses-the hrll*'" ^'""--^^-'* bursts through the cortical %er, wh,ch may or may u„t form a i.-argin, in the former case eonstrtnting a rudimentary exciple. i„ a few instan" thcort,eal layer, an extension thereof, or a peculiar mem b«no s ve,l, covers the apothecium up to a certain stage of ts development, as m Pelti.era; while in the J„J„^ the corhcal layer would appear to be extended ov rTe «orm thalamium in the shape of the perithe 1^ rh,s capsule or outer covering-the perithecium-which is frequently black, and sometimes red or pale-coloLed genera llylined by a somewhat tough melra J pa e-coloured, which directly encloses the thalami m. The colour of the thalamium is not fully developed until th apo heemm arrives at maturity; it is as varied as t t o the thallus. In the very young state it is pale or colour. when mature .t has various shades or combination ^ brown, black, red, and yellow. I„ .„™e speciest To U - ver, v,v,d and beautiful; for instance, the bright setl PC heca of a section of the Cladonias. The colour o halamium res.des in, and is due to, the terminal cells „ the paraphysc^, its chief constituent elements, of which wt )'! IJ WMi 64 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. shall immediately speak. Sometimes its colour is similar to that of the thalius ; more frequently it is dissimilar, and of a much more vivid or dark tint. The exciple however is frequently of the same colour with the thalius, and is there- fore dissimilar in colour to the thalamium, than which it is thus usually paler or lighter. The Tkalanihm is made up of a series of elongated cells or cellular bodies arranged vertically to its surface; they are in a state of close aggregation, and are united by means of a mucous or glutinous matter; they arise from the mi- nute, spherical, somewhat irregular cells of a tissue, which forms the base of tlie apothecium, and is hence denominated the hypothecium. These bodies are called respectively them {OrjKri, a sac) and paraphf/ses {irapd(j)V(TLake the. appearance; anumberTf rt! I " '""''"'=^' come aggregated in nuclear mas L w ""°"""'" ''^ ^™ and acquire a membranorL renTr "t"'^ of the vounff sdofp. 7« r- r .- '^^^^™^"<^- The out ine fuse theLlveS ZTJ: ' "'"'^ '' *^« ««-'- enlarges, its wall t cLns ,5 -r'TT ""^^ ^''^ ^P^ ^aoh theca contains tjCrSt^rr"'" spores,-sometimes only four two ! ^ "^°^'^' ^'S''* Hj>i"'«W.l4J'ii,»^»«V... 68 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. thecsD is sent forth by the hypotheciura during the life of the apotheciura, which, like the thallds, is perennial. ■ The S^ore {airopa, a seed) varies greatly in for: '-^,, and colour. Its form is usually ovoid or ellipsoid ; .c- times fusiform, elongated, or linear. It is either simple, consisting of a single cell; or compound, formed of, or containing, two or more smaller cellules arranged in definite series, and usually separated by distinct intervals or septa, or dissimilar in size, and aggregated in a confused manner, constituting what are termed cellular spores. The one-celled or simple spore is usually simple also in shape ; the com- pound spore, on the other hand, presents grc^t irregularity. When the spore consists of two large cells in apposition by one surface, it assumes somewhat of the appearance of the figure 8, modified by pressure ; where there is a greater number of constituent or contained cells, the spore-wall presents a series, Regular or irregular, of bulgings. In one species, the common Pertusaria communis of our trees, the spores are so large when isolated and spread on a slip of glass, as to be, on careful examination, visible to the naked eye j in other common species, such as the Cladonias, on the other hand, they are so small as to require high powers of the microscope for their discrimination; between these i ' If! Plate Ti . !| ^:'^, mm»-^ ^^v ir. H fi: I '-^1 Uft^ 'O/ .C \>=;', . -i.-.-.yii^.ie, riuai.iui lAnce-nx, Broclts ^rn •ft^lP"«*"3^ - GENERAL CHAEACTEKS OF BMTISH LICHENS. 69 there is great variation i„ size. We would reeommend the s udent to study the spore and the tissues which enclose it in ft.&„„« ,,„„,,•„ PA,scia ciliaru, Parhelia Mlaru, and Parmeba panetina. all of which are common species! The.r colour is most frequently a pale straw-yellow; some- t mes they are brownish or reddish ; a few have an intense ^ ohve cobur. In the young state most spores are colour- less; and even when mature, many spores appear colourless ZtTt '^ ^n' '-''' ' distinctly V%ow tint I masee. Ihe spore-wall varies in thickness; typically it is cpmposed of two membranes, the outer consLing , Epupore(e^^, upon or on the mt^de), the inner being de- Bommated the Eniospore (&So., ^itkin). Frequently only one of these can be observed, usually the outer. The epi spore :s generally pellucid and smooth; sometimes it is" coated w,th the remnants of the protoplasmic or mucous matter from which ,t was originally developed; in one species {Solorina saccaia) its surface has been described as granular and in another (TMotrema canthematicum) it is said to be bristled over with very fine, transparent points The contents of the young spore consist usually of mucous' and granular matter, intermixed in some species with a quantity of large oil globules ; as it advances to maturity 70 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. these generally become fused into a homogeneous mass^ which is frequently of an oily nature. The spores are lightly agglutinated to each other by the mucous protoplasm from which they were first developed, but at no period of their development are they attached to the walls of the theca or its spore-sac. Where they exist to the number of eight or upwards in a theca, they have appeared to us to be arranged usually in a spiral manner. From the disappearance of the thecal walls prior to the maturity of the spores, they sometimes appear naked, or extrathecal. When mature they escape from the theca by rupture of its apex; they then find their way to the surface of the thalamium, in gym- nocarpous species, whence they are removed by the winds or rains. In the Angiocarpi they accumulate in the cavity of the thalamium, and issue by the terminal pore or fissure j in some rpecies, by their agglomeration, they form pulveru- lent or scobiform masses on the surface of the thalamium, which appears covered with a bluish-black dust. In germi- nating, one or both ends of the spore usually become lighter in colour : gradually a bulging takes place, apparently by projection of the endospore, or inner membrane, through a rupture or solution of continuity in the epispore, or outer ; this bulging is prolonged into a filament, whose ramifications -A,... GENERAL CHAnACTERS OF BRITISH LICHENS. 71 and intertwinings result in the formation of the hynothallus as we have already seen. For a considerable period the characters of the spore otherwise continue the same; gradu- ally however its surface becomes shrivelled and opaque • its contents, whether cells or granules, disappear; and finally the spore loses form, or is soon lost amid the hypothalline network of filaments. Some authors have alluded to a pe- culiar mohon as occurring in the spores of certain species when mixed with water; but there is every reason to be- lieve that this has merely been the molecular or Brownian movement, now so famihar to botanists.* The mechanism of the ewpulsion of the spores to the surface of the thalamium IS a very curious one : it appears that, under the influence of moisture, the thalamium expands, while the exciple con- tracts; the result is a degree of pressure upon the thee» sufficient to cause their rupture and the simultaneous ex- pulsion of the spores. The S^ermogones [naiia. which'are :ni„ute^^^ ou ar or hnear bodies, straight or curved, varying iu " pa ent, and which sometimes exhibit lirownian mov ments but are dest.tute of ciha or other appendages. When throt' ir rTf ""'' '""^ '''"''^ gradually accumulate u. the av,ty of the spermogone to such an extent that when full of spermatia, this organ becomes so dense tha U n.ay frequently be picked out of the thaUus by means of a needle-point: they ultimately escape from tl ^m ;„ by means of its apicial pore. These bodies may be regarded Wionally as the analogues of the antheroLids of e 05«m, seaweeds, and other higher cyptogamic plants, from winch however they differ remarkably in being developed on the extenor mstead of in the interior, of the parent eel s The spermafa are developed long prior to the spores ; and t' most important that the student should bearLs i^ min as It IS the key to the relation of these bodies to each othe n respect to function. He will therefore select for the study of the spermogoues and their contents young plants prior to he development of their apothecia, and will carefulL oofc for them ,„ the form of black point-like bodies, scattered 74 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. irregularly or in groups, over different parts of the surface of the thalliis. He will then ascertain that the spermatia precede the spores, sometimes hy several months ; that, while he fiads the former in autumn or winter, he may not discover the latter till the following spring or summer ; and that by the time the apothecium and spores are mature, the spermo- gone is an empty or shrivelled cyst, all trace of the sper- matia having disai)peared. Ignorance of this circumstance is one great cause why their existence has been so long overlooked ; for observations on the reproductive system of Lichens have chiefly been made on plants whose apothecia had arrived at maturity. Eeflection upon the analogies of the subject however will make it apparent that we can as reasonably expect to find mature spermatia in their spermo- gones, co-existent with mature spores in their apothecia, as to discover stamens in phanerogamic plants when their seeds are ripe. Another great cause of the total absence hitherto of a knowledge of the characters or functions of the spermatia is undoubtedly their extreme tenuity, and the consequent necessity of applying high powers of the microscope to their examination. In our speculations on the influence of the spermatia upon the spores, it is important to bear in mind that, in regard to their position on the plant, the spermo- GENERAL CHARACTERS OF BRITISH LICHENS. 7^ gones stand in the same relation to the apothecia that the organs which contain the fecundating bodies in higher plants bear to those which generate the seeds or their ana- logues. It must be distinctly understood by the student that no distinct proof has as yet been attained as to the fecundating influence of the spermatia or stylospores on the spores, and that therefore the part which these bodies play in the function of reproduction is still a matter only of pro- bability. The Fycnides {irvKvoTt]^, denseness or closeness, Pi/c iiitis, Lat.) and their contents, from their rarity, require only a few words of explanation. They have been dis- covered and described by Tulasne, in the Memoir formerly alluded to. Their chief interest lies in their being a link in the chain which connects the Lichens with the Fungi, as they exist to a greater extent in the latter'group of plants. They difi'er from the spermogones in being larger, having thicker walls, and in developing from the extremities of sim- ple, tubular, tapering filaments or pedicles, bodies which, in their size and general appearance, more resemble spores than spermatia. These bodies are called Stylospores (o-rOXo?, a pillar), from being generated from the end of pedicles or stalk-like filaments; they are usufilly somewhat oblong, 9 I i 76 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. i Hf I slightly curved, colourless, and contain amorphous granular matter. BiBLiOGRAPH V : Miuufe Anatomy and Morphology .— Tulasne, Memoire pour servir a I'Histoire Organographique et Physiologique des Lichens, in the Annales des Science. NatureUes-Botanique,' Paris, 1852 (especially valuable for Its lucid exposition of the structure and relations of the reproductive organs : papers by Tulasne, Montagne, Nylander, Bornet, and others, in the Annales des Sciences Nat.,' during last five years : papers by Itzigsohn, Von Kotow, Rabenhorst, Speerschneider, Von KoUe. Schuchard, Sachs, and others m the Botanische Zeitung ' since 1850: Buhse, Memoir in the 'Bulletin de la Societe Imp. des Natur. de Moscou' for 1846 : Bayrhoffer, Einiges uber Lichenen und deren Befruchtung, Bern, 1851 : De Notaris, in the ' Memorie della Keale Accad. delle Scienzie di Torino,' 2nd series, about 1850 • and in «o. ^^\!o!: ^*'^-: ^""' ^'^'^ '"'' ^'' Cryptogames des Ecorces Offi'cinales/ 1824 and 1837 : Methode Lichenographique, 1825, and Memoire Liche'no- graphique m the Nova Act. Acad. Natm-. Cur. for 1841 : Mohl, Erlauterung und Vertheid. meiner Ansicht von der Structur der Pflanzensubstanz 1836 Vermischte Schriften, and in the 'Annales des Sc. Nat.,' 183?: Schleiden' Grundzuge der wissenschaft. Botanik, 3rd ed., 1850. and Principles of Botany' translated by Lankester : Meyer, Die Entwickelung, Metam. und Fortpflanz der Flechten. 1825 : Wallroth, Naturgeschichte der Flechten : WiUdenow* Grundzuge der Kmuterkunde, 2nd ed., 1799 : article Lichens, in the «Dic' tiounaire Universelle d'Hist. Natur.' of Orbigny. in the ' Edinburgh Encv" clopaedia,' and in Burnett's ' Outlines of Botany.' ed. 1852 : papers by various authors m 'L'Institut.' ' Comptes rendus de I'Academie des Sciences ' 'Bui letm de la Societe Philomathique,' 'Linnfea,' 'Flora.' and other Continental scientific journals : Link, Ausgewiihlt. Anatom. Botan. Abbildungen (beartiful drawings of minute structure) : N^geli on the Vegetable Cell, in the Rav Society's Reports on Botany, 1846-9 : De CandoUe, Sur la Nutrition des Lichens, in the 'Journal de Physique.' 1798. 77 I CHAPTEfi III. USES OF LICHENS. "Thiag, which are often deemed the most insigniflcant and contemptible by Ignorant men. are by the good providence of God made the meanrjf the greatest blessings to his creatares."-LiaHTP0OT. par 1 Etc nd ; tontcs les plantes seroient reconnues pour «tre ntiles s'il C donne a I'homme de tout eonnoitre."-WiiLEMET. We shall consider, firstly, the great importance of Lichens m the grand economy of Nature, as the pioneers and basis of all vegetation ; and secondly, their various applications to the comforts or necessities of man. Under the latter head we shall speak of their uses, in the form of food, to man and the lower animals, and their applications in medicine and the arts. The late Dr. Patrick Neill,-inhis excellent article Lieien, m the 'Edinburgh Encyclopedia,' to which we have much 78 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. >^ pleasure in referring the student,— eloquently describes the Lichens as " one means of that gradual but never-ceasing disintegration or decay, which is wearing down the densest and loftiest pinnacles of the earth." We shall select for il- lustration of the part which they play in the formation of soil fitted for the germination and growth of higher plants, a saxicolous, crustaceous species, growing on the bare quartz summits of some of our Highland mountains, — '• Cradled in storms, and nurtured by the hand That clothes with varied forms the face of earth. And fills creation's fields with joy and mirth : " or we may suppose its habitat to be the bare lava of a volca- nic district, or the equally sterile surface of a newly upraised coral island. The delicate spores of such a species have been wafted thither by a breeze, or washed to its surface by a shower : they germinate, and develope a thallus which be- comes adherent to the rocky surface by a process of disin- tegration. From the atmospliere chiefly, and from the rock perhaps to a slight extent, the plant derives nourishment, grows, and in course of time dies, thereby adding to the thin stratum of mineral soil, which it has produced, a thicker layer of vegetable soil. This soil is now suited for fruticulose or fo^^'-^'^eous Lichens; these in their turn decay USES OP LICHENS. 79 and contribute to the increase of the vegetable soil, which IS next taken possession of by mosses and ferns, and gradu- aUy by various phanerogamic plants, shrubs, and trees : " They fall successive and successive rise ; So generations in their course decay, So flourish these when those are pass'd away." One of Nature's truest poets, Crabbe, describes this alter- nation of life and death, birth and decay, in the gradual development of vegetation, so well, that we cannot here re- frain from introducing it : " Seeds, to our eyes invisible, will find On the rude rock the bed that fits their kind. There, in the rugged soil, they safely dwell Till showers and snows the subtle atoms swell And spread the enduring foliage : then we trace The freckled flower upon the flinty base : These all increase, till, in united years. The stony tower as grey with age appears With coats of vegetation thinly spread, Coat above coat, the living on the dead : These then dissolve to dust and make a way For bolder foliage, nursed by their decay : The long-enduring ferns in time will all Die and depose their dust upon the wall. Where the wing'd seed may rest tUl many a flower Shows Flora's tnumph o'er the falling tower." TraveUers agree in describing Lichens as the first plants to N .V i 80 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. r ■ 1^ settle on lava, coral islands, and on the bare rocks of moun- tains ; and when we consider that our earth must have at one time presented a similarly naked surface, it is not im- probable to conceive that, without a soil prepared, as we have described, by crustaceous Lichens, there could have arisen no higher vegetation,— that without vegetation herbivorous and carnivorous animals could not have existed, and that as a necessary and correlative result, man himself could never have appeared, or must speedily have become extinct. The variously tinted crusts which soften and adorn our cliffs and rocks or the venerable ruins of ancient castles and abbeys, and the shaggy beard of grey which clothes the monarchs of our forests, are evidences that the Lichens are no insig- nificant elements in the picturesque. Linn^us denominated the mosses /^^m— handmaids of Nature : we think the reader will agree with us in considering that the Lichens have a superior claim to the appellation. The use of certain Lichens ^^ food for man and the lower animals depends on their containing amylaceous and gummy matters ; in addition, some species contain minute quantities of peculiar saccharine principles. The amylaceous matters consist of two substances, aUied in composition, viz. Lichenin, or Lichen-starch,-peculiar to the Lichens; and Inuline, OSES OF UCHENS. 81 wh,ch IS also found in the Dahlia, Elecampane, and other phanerogamous plants; the former exists more or less abuu- dantly in all Lichens, the latter to a limited extent only in certam species. Liehenin may be considered intermediate in composition and characters between the substance termed de^fnn, and common starch; in different species it occurs forming the walls of certain cells, it lines their interior, or It constitutes the basis of the cell-contents or intercellular substance. Diluted and boiling sulphuric acid convert it into ,„gar, while nitric acid transforms it into oxalic and saccharic acids. Inuliue, which has been detected in Cetraria Mandtca, n^y be regarded as intermediate between common starch and sugar; so that the two forms of starch occurring m Licliens fi. up gaps in the series of the four chief che mical substances which enter into the composition of the tissues of phints, viz. Cellulose, Starch, Dextrine, and Sugar Various common species have long been known to yield a ffum similar in properties to gum-arabic, for which it has been recommended as a substitute; such species are i2«„,«. UmfiaMnea, Parmelia ceratoph/lU V2.x.physode,, andP/,.. ^napn^aaUH. One of the projects of the late ingenious Lord Dundonald was to apply this gum to calico-printing. Ihe mcckarhte principles found in minute quantity in some a 83 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. species are of the nature of Mannife, or the sugar of manna By a beautiful provision of Nature, nutritive species occur precisely under the circumstances where tliey are most «antea-m northern or Arctic countries, or on arid steppes, where grain-stuffs are unknown, and food of a better kind IS frequently scarce or delicient. I„ illustration we shall only here cite the "Iceland Moss" (Cetraria hlandica), which in the form of bread, soup, or jelly, or mixed with other articles of diet, constitutes the basis of the food of the poor Icelandei, and which he also gives as fodder to his cattle and domestic animals ; the "Eeindeer Moss" {Gladonia ran- ffiferma). which frequently forms the principal winter food of the Eeindeer, the chief or sole wealth of the Laplander- the "Tripe de Eoche," or Eock Tripe, of the Arctic regions (various species of UmUliearia), which has frequently been the means of preserving for weeks or months the lives of the enterprising bands led by Franklin and other Arctic travel- lers; and a kind of manna (certain species oi Lecanora), which has sometimes served as food for hordes of men and cattle m the arid steppes of various countries lying between Algiers and Tartary. In many countries various Lichens are collected as winter fodder for cattle ; and in northern lati- tudes, especially during winter, they serve as food for wild animals. t " USES OF LICHEXS. gg r,vt '"'^'''''' ""f "''"'' "' ""'^ =""> "^er countries, the L.che„s were used to a considerable extent, chiefly a ru nents, demulcents, febrifuges, astringents, tonics,' p 2 t.ves, and antheln,intics. Not a few were sup, osed to be endowed with specific virtues, such as theTolon pulvs antdyssus," or "pulvis contra rabiem," lon<. re- ^rded as a sovereign cure for hydrophobia. At the°pre. : It ' " "•"""*'^ "'"' °"' ^p-- '^ "-d to'; extent as a nutnent and demnlcent, in various dyspeptic Moss ' i ""f::'-:"^ ^^^-- ^^W., or "Ic'e nd Moss, ,™™ed.ately above alluded to, which is to be n,et with .„ aU our druggists' shops. The virtues of Lichens fa medacane a., certainly n,ore imaginary than real, though th ^ appear to possess to a small extent some of the properties a tnbuted to them. Their nutritive and demulcent properfe depend on the presence of the starchy and gummy ma t already n>ent,oned. Several species yield to boiling w t" a je%, wh,ch, when deprived of certain bitter .ubftan which are also extracted by the water, and flavoured with sugar and sp.ces, mixed with coffee, or forming the bas," f soups, constitute very light and agreeable artLes of dL such are dfrariu Uandica, Stiota pulmonaria, and some S4 POPULAR HISTORY 01? LICHENS. Imkhcancs. Their other properties are due to the' pre- senco of bitter principles, such as cetraric acid,-o, astringent substances, such as ffallic or tannic acid. Hence the em- ployment of the common Parmclia parietina, PAyscia fur. fnracea^nAprunaM, some Cladonias, and the variolarioid forms of Pertusaria communis, as febrifuges in i. termittent and other fevers, or as astringents in various intestinal and chest affections; of Cctraria Islandica and Sticia pnlmonaria as tonics ; or of various Umiilicarias and Peltigeras as pur- gatives or vermifuges. ^ But the most important economical application of the Lichens is based on the valuable purple dyes which many species are capable of yielding. These are producible, and are usua ly produced in the course of manufacture, whether on the large or small scale, by the joint action of atmo- spheric a,r, water, and ammonia on certain colourless, nitro- genous, organic acids, which, from the names of the genera m wh.ch they have been first or chiefly found, have been denominated by their discoverers Orcellic, Lecanoric, Gyro- phone, Boemic acids, etc. The metamorphosis of colour appears to take place, in connection with certain alkalies, by a process of oxidation; but we cannot here enter on the chemistry of the change or of its products. This subject, we '\ 'f |i t- rh.tr ■/, ^^^H ^w Bi 9 1 1 is- USES OP JLICHENS. 85 are bou d to confess, is in a most unsatisfactory condition : we stand much m want of a series of investigations on the composition and products of the Lichens before it can be Foperl, nnderstood; for hitherto scientific evidence has either been excessively vague or contradictory. In their constitute the pigments termed respectively Orchill, Cud- bear, and Litmus, which may be practically regarded as V nous names for the same substance, which differs in character according to differences in the mode of its pre- paration,-Orchill being its Enghsh, Cudbear its ScoL, and L. mus its Dutch name,-the first being mannfacturei n the form of a liquid or paste of a rich purple colour, the econd occurring ,n the form of a powder of a crimso; or carmine tin and the third being met with only in the form of small oblong cakes of an indigo-blue colour. Their colouris naturally reddish: the blue tint is communicated by te addition of alkalies, while consistence is produced by chalk gypsum, and similar substances in a state of pow- der These colouring matters, in some of their forms, have probably been known from remote antiquity. Th re re^on to believe that the dye mentioned in Ezekiel (c. xxvii. V. 1)~ Blue and purple from the isles of Elishah was 86 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. that which covered thee," and the celebrated ''purple of Amorgos/' were orchill. These dyes, which we may hence- forth, for convenience' sake, denominate Orchill,— the name by which their chief form has been longest familiar in com- merce,— are now largely employed, chiefly in combination with other colouring matters, in dyeing or staining with various shades of red, purple, or blue, woollen, silk, and cotton fabrics, leather, wood, marble, feathers, and paper ; in the making of size-jjaint for w^alls, and of the pigments termed lahes. The rationale of their manufacture is the making of the cleansed and powdered Lichen into a pulp with water ; the addition of an ammoniacal liquid, chiefly in the form of gas-liquor; and the maceration of the mass in a moderately warm locality, for periods varying from several days to several weeks. A process of fermentation takes place, and by the end of this period the mass has assumed a beautiful purple colour, and retains a peculiar ammoniacal aroma. This process the student may imitate for himself on the small scale, and may thus be enabled to test the colorific value of common native species. He has merely to macerate, in a small vial or other convenient vessel containing a mixture of hartshorn (liquid ammonia) and water, sufficiently strong to be disagreeably pungent. |i USES OF LICHENS. 87 a small quantity of the powdered Lichen; if it contain any of the colourleas colorific principles capable of generating purjJe dyes the liquid M-iU speedily assume a reddish tint! wl.ch, should they be abundant, will become developed mto a nch purple. He may use more elegant colorific tests, bu we are convinced, fro,n our own experience, that none «.1I be found so easy and so successful as the al^.ve He may make in a test-tube an alkaline or alcoholic' solu- tion of the Lichen, by boiling or maceration; the addition of a few drops of a solution of common bleaching powder chlonde of hme) will then cause the development of a f«g.twe red tint, if it contain any of the colorific principles .n question. This reaction depends on the circumstance of this solution (which may be considered chemically a solution of hypochlorite of lime) striking a fugitive blood-red colour with any of the organic acids before mentioned. Or he may macerate the Lichen in milk of lime, and precipitate by hydrochloric or acetic acid its colorific principles, which he can subsequently collect and weigh. By the aid of such simple chemical experiments we some years ago made a senes of investigations, with a view to ascertain whether many native and colonial Lichens could not be made avail- able m dyeing, and especially as substitutes for the com- f 88 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENSi paratively few and expensive species now employed in the manufacture of orchill, cudbear, and litrnns* We cannot specialize the results, but they were sufficiently encouraging t^arrant us in recommending the subject to the attention «^11 who are likely to travel, at home or abroad, in locali- ties which are rich in crustaceous and fruticulose Lichens,— that is, in mountainous or maritime districts. We found that the species most likely to yield valuable colorific results are those growing on rocks, having a crustaceous, whitish warted, friable thallus; that, to a certain extent, colorific quality is proportionate to the kind or degree of sorediiferous degeneration of the thall.ns; that showy foliaceous species are least hkely to yield purple dyes, though they frequently turnish yellowish, greenish, reddish, or brownish colouring matters; and that, short of actual experiment, it is impos- sible to predicate colorific value, the colour of the thallus » The results were laid before the meeting of the British Assooiatio,, ,t Glasgow, ,o Septemher, ,855, and before the°BotaaieaI Soeie y of mII on vatuous oeeas.ons during the years 1853, 1853, and 1851 , L E n N^" PhUos. Journal, Oct, 1854, Jan. and Julv 1851 ■ • Phw i ■ . . , 867, 901, 998, 10C8 and ™1 v n ]7'- ■>'^» ports on Botany, 1845 : MuidcTvlhM/; f. '""■ '," "" ""^ ^"'''V' »». P>-»^,»-&. ..-Gray, Supplel Lt f th!';r "" '"■™""-^- **««' •Botany: Grave, HLu/iZ, 'li d Lv r;7"'r7™'""'=' ^^=^-«' Murray, Apparatn, Medican,i„„n vof ; T "■:^,'^»«»-« Botany : *««.«„. ^«.„, «»».y;istc„hLet PMolST- "^^'^ 1848 : Proceedings of PhilosonhJnnl « • * ^ J, ^""^^"P^^cal Transactions, ^ai.,„rgM„.. B^n«i„ ^^:^t^,:i:i^'-7'rv ^■-^™' »oph>oal Trans., 1840: Wcstrins in (),. T , , , ' ""■• ^'""= '" Pii'"- 1700 : Papers ^y SoH„nc., 'Se Id 1^ I'TI'"" ''"' '" Schnodermann and Kopp, Herbergcr Heere ' s ,1 T " ""^ ™'"- Annales do Chimie, Licbit and Konn^^ A , f '''°'^'«?". etc., i„ the Chi„,ie, the Philosophioar:;d ^!:'^-t"^': ^'"-™™ '' ^e """'- -^ -■"- -"- ot >^"t:ra:d tr;ir.'r„:r 9i POPULAR HISTOPY OP LICHENS, graphje E.„,,„„i,„. : „„„,,„„,, c„„„„„,„ JvaL^ :''*":; n^» a.,a .Wa La„„„.a . Wa B.^:!:^' '"p^^ ^S -"J,:: 95 CHAPTER IV. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. "■ 'Tis Nature's Uvcry o'er the globe. Where'er Ivor wonders range." " The living stains, which Nature's hand alone. Profuse of life, pours forth upon the stone ; For ever growing ; where the common eye' Can but the bare and rocky bed descry,— There Science loves to trace her tribes minute. The juiceless foliage and the tasteless fruit ; There sae perceives them round the surface' creep And while they meet their due distinctions keep ' Mu'd but not blended : each its name retains And these are Nature's ever-during stain8.»-CEABBE. We shaU consider brit ay the geographiral diffusion of Li- Chens, both horizontally, that is, from the Equator to the Poles, or m general over the earth's surface; ana vertically, that IS, from the base to the summits of mountains. The 9G POPULAR HISTORY OF LICIIEXS. vertical ,s, to a certain extent, a type of the horizontal range; for. ,n ascending the highest mountains of tropical eountnes, we find at their base the handsome foliaeeous Li- chens of warm climates, and at or below their snow-line the puny cruslaceous species, characteristic of Arctic region. • while intermediate between these are to be met with types of most of the forms common to temperate countries. As bearing intimately on geographical range, we shall also here regard the subject of habitat. In the coldest as „-ell as the hottest regions hitherto visited, and at the greatest eleva- tions yet reached by man. Lichens have been found in greater or less abundance. They attain their maximum develop, ment in the form of large foliaeeous Parmelias and Stictls m the tropics; but they also terminate, in the form of saxi- colons Leeideas, the vegetation of the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Little Table Island-at the time of Parry's fourth voyage the most northern known land in the world-has its rc^cky sides " covered with abundance of very large Tripe de -Koche, some Eeindeer moss, and other Lichens ;» while on Coc burn Island Dr. Hooker, who, in his magniticenc works on he Cryptogamic Antarctic Flora, has made many valuable contributions to our knowledge of the geographical distribu- tion of Lichens, found only Lecanoras. Leeideas. and a kw ;^*^^fe-^_. al al i- le • > s s e 3 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 97 Mosses, constituting the last remnants of vegetation in the Southern Hemisphere. Some Lichens may be considered cos- mopohtes, such as our common Lecanora subfmca, Cladonia midata, and U^nea harhata, IVom the evidence of travellers It would appear that there is a great similarity of species in different parts of the world, llobert Brown has shown that of New Holland Licliens two-thirds are natives also of Europe; Don has pronounced the majority of Himalayan Lichens to be identical with European species ; and the same thing has been noticed in regard to those of South America by Humboldt, and of North America, the Arctic and Antarctic regions, by various authors. Many of our commonest British Lecanoras, Lecideas, Cetrarias, Cladonias, Parmelias, Peltigeras, Ramalinas, Sph^rophorons, and Ste- reocaulons are to be found, according to Dr. Hooker, in the Falkland Lslands, Graham's Land, Kerguelen's Land, and other islands or continents of the Antarctic regions; accord- ing to Koyle, on the Himalayas ; to Nylander, in Chili ; to Martins, in equatorial Brazil and South America; to plrry and other Arctic voyagers, in Spitzbergen, Lapland, Iceland Nova Zembla, and more northern polar islands or continents In proportion as our knowledge of Lichenology becomes improved, and especially in proportion as we become ac 98 POPULAR mSTOllY OP LICHENS. quamted ,vith the varieties producible in species by differ, ences m the nature of the habitat, and by climatal aud other changes, so shall ,ve probably find the types of liche- nose vegetation in different parts of the world more nearly simdar. Ihere is good reason to believe that, hitherto n.a„y_var>eties of eon™,„„ species growing on foreign shores have oeen described by their discoverers as new species, or perhaps as the bases of new genera, from an ignorance of the ep,„.heology of Lichens,-of the causes productive of changes ,n form, colour, and general characters. In regard Pola.. species, for instance, the peculiarities of climate, be protracted wmter, the extreme dryness of the air, ani the intensity of light, must be borne in mind ; and it is but reasonable to suppose that British Lichens transferred to the chmate o E«ss's Islet or Kerguelen's Land, would undergo remarkable modifications in their characters, and in parti- cular would probably become deformed, stunted, rigid and .sterde. The same climatal changes arc in operation a's we ascend Ingh mountains, viz. the gradual diminution of tern perature or increase of cold, diminution of moisture or in- crease "f dryness of the atmosphere, and the increased i„. tensity of the hght. We have already seen that Lichens attam their maximum development in tropical regions ■ there GEOGRAPHICAI. DISTEIBUTION. 99 also they reucli their maximum numbers. Mirbel states that, while lu Spitzborge,., at latitude 80° there are ouly about thirty species, in Madagascar, under the tropic of Capncorn, between latitudes 13° and 24°, tiiere are no le^s than five thousand, thus showing the numerical relation of species to temperature and other climatal conditions. But the proportion of cryptogamie to phanerogamic vegetation increases on the other hand from the Equator to the Poles • for, while on equatorial plains it is as one to fifteen, and on equatorial mountains as one to five, in the temperate zone it IS as one to two, and in the frigid zone as one to one ; until he vegetation becomes wholly cryptogamie, thus illustrating the law that the simplest plauts are most widely diffused oyer our globe. There is probably a similar, though not so ' high a proportion, between lichens and other cryptogams m their longitudinal diffusion, though this has never been accurately determined. In taking a survey of the horizontal range of licheiiose vegetation over the world, it is found on the other hand, that in particular countries or hemisphctes certain species, genera, or families have only a limited dif- tusion, or attain only a minimum develoiiment. The Urn bihearias, which are very common in Arctic regions are re- presented by a single species in the Antarctic, where they 100 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. *' ^ con i„e«t.. Tuckerman mentions the absence of Ph,scm Ta :d^^^™'?'"^'^^^^'-^-"^^-*'^- ™c, and Dr Hooker notices the scarcity in the Southern He.n,sphere of some species which are eommonTn the northern and the abundance of some in the souther", x reme of the Western Hemisphere, which arc entirely .W from a s™.lar position in the Eastern. Certain slees aga,n are pecuhar to the Antarctic regions, su h ^^...^/,«-» ««„W, which is confined in ts geogll cal range to the Straits of Ma^^elkn. o^o»i-apni. On the Jn-ghest mountains, b'etween the region of shrubbv ;:- -— the re:*;—:—!:::: t:^, vertical range on a tropieal niountain, the Lichens mal therefore be sa.d to form the base as well as the apex oTa one, wl«,3e s,des .ay be considered as covered Xe ry tn e of the vegetable kingdom, from the proude, to t f Palm fam:^ to the tiniest Moss. On the ceL a„ sou em Alps the highest limit of phanerogamic plants occur t' .n elevafon of about 10,000 Paris feet' But'pec Ls Tfl -/.., leouka, and U^micaH, are found on all the rSc; GEOGRAPHICAL DISTllIBUTION. IQl projecting through the .now, without an^ limitation as to height, and ascending far above the snow-line ; they aho occur at above 10,000 feet on Chimborazo. A.nong the spe- cies found at the greatest elevations hitlierto reached by man none is more common than the familiar Leeidea ,jeoorapUca ] It occurs far above the hue of perpetual sno\v on the Alp. and is^ the last type of vegetation met witli on tlie Andes' and Ilnnalaj'as, and on the deserts of Nova Zembla. The chief hahilaU of Lichens are the bark of trees, rocks or stones, and the soil ; but they likewise grow frequently on the decayed stumps or rotten hollows of old trees, on wooden palings, shrubs, mosses and Jungcrmannia., perennial or eveip'een leaves, the mortar of walls, and sometimes on the thallus of other species. Of cortkolou, species, some are eharacteristie of the rugged bark of old trees, as various larmebas, Eamalinas, or Stictas; others prefer the smooth bark of young trees, as many of the GraphUh^:, whicli are also frequently to be found on the smoothest stems of shrubs. Some Lichens are to be found chiefly on trees such as the ash or oak, which grow on the sides of public nghways, .as Pamelia parietiua, P. MlarU, P. ^mlveru. lenta, and P. ohvacea ; others occur only or chiefly in our forests, as lh,i,u harhata, Slicta p„h,wmna. and various 102 POPULAR HISTORY OF TJCHEXS. 91 i Jiaunt of nany 0,l,e,u,ns „„d Clad„„i„.; wl.ile to M-ooden pahngs a few Leeanons and Par.elias are peculiar. Son " ^ces are ,ecu ar to cer^.i,. trees. In L trees S c case, t ,at a celebrated French author has proposed sS"" Vt r """''"' r "" "'"^"^ s-.Won'ti::- urtace. It has moreover been .stated that the portions of these v.aluable barks covered b. Lichens abound in the pe Ti • • ^ ^iostroyea by tlieir rainjfym^ mycelium Th s crcumstance has been held corroboratL of the belf ' at L,che„s are not destructive of the bark of ees I « neh they grow, as Fungi undoubtedly are- an pi .io,^ wh.ch oes not see,n however fuliy bornelt b; oherTt; A few L,chens inhabit decayed herbaceous plal. ,s a form oZe..nora f.^rtarea, which sometimes incrus, JZn lemas the Snff,aa Bain,ff,.onn coats the leaf of the corn ::. Tob "'^ and the genera ..„.,«..,,:::; 'nd a ..w others, are parasitic on the thallus of variou common species. Of «/«-.„/„„. t;„i,„ 'various i yji Mincoloua Lichens, some are peculiar GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 103 to calcareous rocks, as Urceolaria calcarea, G,jalecta cupu- laris, Lecidea calcarea and immersa j a few are chiefly found on arenaceous rocks, as Lecanora atra, and the saxi- colous forms of Lecidea aurantiaca ; many are common on the granitoid series, including therein micaceous, gneissic, granitic, and quartzose rocks, as Lecanora tartarea and ven- tosa, Parmelia conspersa and Fa/dunensis, and many Led- dem ; and Lecidea geographka is frequent on the purest and smoothest quartz. The student who gives attention to this subject will soon observe that, while Lichens are abundant on sandstone and granitic rocks in Scotland,— on tlie former in lowland, on the latter in alpine regions,— they are com- paratively rare on the basalt series. The nature of the ha- bitat appears to exercise an influence distinct from that of climate ; for we have found granitoid boulders lying at a shght elevation above the sea, in trap and sandstone districts, covered with subalpine or alpine Lichens. Schimper de' scribes the sandstone of the Vosges, which produces a sandy soil, as having a richer lichenose vegetation than that of Al- sace, which gives rise to a clayey marl. On mountains it is frequently easy to determine that Lichens, especially crusta^ ceous species, exist in greiier .abundance and perfection in situations exposed to the north and west. 0( Lichens which E5£S#'i''^*K;' Jfi^!ef- - 104 pophlah history op lichens. argillaceous; ,v„i,e i>...;,,,.. :; ^no cir^ chemieal eomposilr"?;,, J , """"f S'^' ^''--ters or liipuMiioii or tlie soil or rocks nn uri„\.K t • i -re lap., ,.eatea tl^n^: Hlae 'ir. TelrLT'^ 't e IS' r ,?"'*-«-l-'J by the appellation land regions, as P««,,,-« „,;.,, ,^ "^e found onlv ,n low. GEOGllAPIIICAL DISTIIIBUTIOX. 105 tnmria comnnmu; others arc common in s^balpinc districts, on hills of minor elevation, ns Zecanom tartarea and ven- fosa CM, rmiyrferina, G:traria Islamlica <,M acnleata ; «lnlo a few are essentially alpine, and cliaracferistic of the summits of onr highest mountains, as the Umbilicarias, some Cladonias and Lecideas, PellJffcra renosa, Pannelia Fahlnncn^u, and others. There, kxnriating in the moisture . of the dense mists in which they are almost constantly bathed, many species attain a high state of development, and some of tliem, great beauty, as the Sohnna crocea ; of this any tounst may convince himself by clambering to the summit of Ben Lomond or Ben Nevis. AVhile certain spe- ces are found chiefly or solely on trees, rocks, or the ground others, under different circumstances of locality or climate may be indiscriminately corticolous, saxicolous, or terrico- lous ; or species which inhabit rocks in one country or climate •nay be found on trees in another. With such changes m the nature of the habitat, however, it is but reasonable to expect corresponding alterations in the characters of the plants : hence we freqn. ntly find the fructification altered -a Lichen which is fertile when growing on a tree becoming sterile on a rock, or vice versa. B,rLtoo».P„v :-Ho„leriear,a : Miihlenberg. Catalogue of the Plants of North An^,ca Ag..s. on tl. Natural History of Lake Superior: Montague in th L.tany orL'H.sto.re de Pile de Cuba,' by Sagra. and Diagnoses Ph.euogica. (ChilKu, Lichens) in Ann. des Sciences Natur.. 3rd series vol xviu.: A.landcr, Chilian Lichens, Ann. des Sc. Natur., 4th series, vol'iii • EschweM. m Ma^^ius's ' Flora Brasiliensis,' 1833, and in Martius's Icones PlantCrypt Bras.., 1828: Humboldt, Synopsis Plant. .Equin.. Narrative of Ascent ot Ch.mborazo, and miscellaneous Travels: Thomson, Travels in y estern AInnalaya ar.d Tibet : Ermann, Reise urn die Erde durch Nord- Asien und die beiden Oceane in den .Tahren 1828-30 : De la Pykie Vov a rile de Terre-neuve : Narratives of the Voyages of Beechey, Von Baer,'Ross' Dupcrrey.and Freycinet : LinruTus, Amocnitates Academicic, 1759- Schla' gn.tweit, on Vegetu^ou of the Alps. Ann. of Nat. Hist.. Aug.. 1851 -. Milner; Gallery of Nature : Schouw, Earth. Plants, and Man : Barton. Geography of Plants : Darwrn. Researches in Nat. History: Raoul, Choix de Plarttes ie la Nouvelle Zelande, 846 : various general or cryptogamic Floras-of Lapland, by ^^ahlcnbe^g and Sommerfeld ; of Scandinavia, by Fries; of Germany, by ^Aallroth. Rabenhorst, Sturn., Dietrich, Schrader, and others ; of Switzerland by Sch^rer ; of France, by Desmazieres, Mougeot, and Natter, and Lamarck and De Candolle ; and of Italy, by Massalongo. 107 CHAPTER V. COLLECTION, PRESERVATION, AND EXAMINATION. " How sweet to muse upon His skill display'd (Infinite skill !) in all that He has made ; To trace in Nature's most minute design The signature and stamp of jpower divine !" We again repeat, that for the collection and preservation of Lichens no costly or complex apparatus, no profundity of botanical skill, no high degree of manipulative inge- nuity are requisite; though, for the examination of their mi- nute anatomy, especially that of the Reproductive system, it is necessary that the student be familiar with the use of the microscope. It is uncalled-for here to reiterate the advan- tages of studying the Lichens in their living state with a view to a knowledge of the variations of species ; nor is it necessary, after what we have said under the head of habitat * J^^tummmmmm. 108 ■ / POPULAB HISTORY OF LICHENS. — liere to specify tlie localities that by the collecto or boulder, cv ouglit to be searched r. Every roadside wall, every mountain rock cry sea-side cliff, will furnish to hi haustible materials. The timber b I'ou.ffht int m in ex- anl. the fallen tw,gs of Firs a.ul other forest-trees eol- cc eel as fire.ood the ballast of our *ips, our aucieut arehi- t otural nuus, ,v,ll each be found the habitat of an infinity of interestmg speeies. N„t „„,^ „,.,. ^^^ ^.^ ^ / a careful study of their origin, devdo,nnent, and decay, L Chens n>ay be sown and cultivated. A few years ago th ra,s.ng from seej of such plants as Lichens, Mosses, l°u„„i or Alga,, would not even have been conceived possibk • "oy ,t ,s a reality. It appears that Lichens are now bein.,' cultivated wrth great intelligence and success in the Jardi^ dcs P antes of Paris; and in various parts of Prance con! derable attention is now being devoted to the cultivation of ot^icrs of the lower cryptognms,-a circumstance full of sigmficanee, as showing the gradual development of the be- .ef hat the interest of a study cannot be held proportionate the s,ze of the objects of researeh,-that a knowledge of the embryology or organology of the simplest plants is a meessary prelude or key to that of higher vegetables, and ttmt cryptogams cannot be properly examined unless in the living state. vin.'tnt ivv,.a. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 I.I ^ 1^ 112.0 WUU IL25 i 1.4 18 1.6 V] <^ /a / ^ >«^^ ^ 4 rlluujgi-cipiiiL Sciences Corporation 73 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 .fcm.'ii" X- ..^ "'i Pl^ :U^ r O t/j ■ in de COLLECTION, PRESERVE Tin v Axr,. , «i<.bJ!.RVAriOx\, AND EXAMINATION. 109 of adhesion; the, „a, thenbfd J ri '' ^"'"^ ■ air or sun, and packed in « n . ^ ^^ °'"'' *° ^^-^ orthe,n,;besCed in ? T^' ^"* ^^H-boxes; towels j;:*s^^^^^^^^ bulous paper as "^ " P^^^^«« between folds of bi- Bpecimens':;'pL erlr " ^ ^"^"^*'°" ''f ''-''-«'» the n>ost ele ant b fr",' "'" ''''^ '^"^^ ""'''« " to adn^it of its being Lj^ ^y ^T:'2 r^'' " cardboard. This modp ;= i, ^ *° i'^P^^ ^^ species of oerta "tf sulT "n' ""^"^ ^°' *« To separa'te sS^^^^^^^l'--'- port the assistance of an old T,T J " ^^ °^ ^"P" is necessary. Steepil ^It ""^ """"^ "^"^'"^"t this disadvantar thf '> .! T° '"""^ "^^^ ''''"^^^ ^i* or apothee a he r ; "'*"; f^ "''^^'>«'-^ "f the thallus uj' mis means changed tn a a..u u wimmsi 110 POPULAR HISTOllY OP LICHENS. I be allowed to dry spontaneously, subsequently fastened to pieces of cardboard, and arranged in shallow drawers, like eggs or shells,-or they may be kept in small pasteboard trays similarly arranged, or packed in thin paper, like mine- rals. In the case of the Cladonias, also, the individual plants may be detached, steeped in water, dried, and compressed, like fruticulose and filamentous species. Many species ad- here so intimately to, or are so incorporated with, their base of support, that it is impossible to separate them, and it then becomes necessary to remove with them a portion of the latter : such are the Lecideas, Verrucarias, Graphidese, and many Lecanoras. In the case of corticolous species a portion of the bark must be removed by the knife, and ought to be dressed on the spot into a neat and convenient form. Por saxicolous Lichens the geological hammer is called to our aid, and the portion of the rock removed should be dressed, and subsequently preserved, according to the rules observed in the collection and conservation of mi- neralogical and geological specimens. Corticolous and saxi- colons species, which cannot be detached from their base of support, are probably best arranged on cardboard in trays, or packed in paper as above mentioned. In whatever way arranged, it is advisable, so far as possible, to select speci- i I COLLECTION, PRESERVATION, AND EXAMINATION. Ill mens which will exhibit the fertile and sterile conditions of the plant, — both surfaces of the thallus, varieties depending on differences of habitat, — and monstrosities, if any."^ The use of various chemical reagents is a most important auxiliary to the examination of the tissues of Lichens under the microscope. One class of chemical substances is use- ful on account of the colour which they strike with the cel- lulose, amylaceous, and other matters of which the consti- tuent cells of these tissues are composed, or which they contain ; the other, from their power of dissociating certain elements of these tissues which are ^intimately united — of rendering distinct the outlines and structure of various delicate and transparent, cells, and of coagulating their con- tents. Of the former class the most useful reagent is Iodine, in the form of the ordinary tincture of the drug- gist ; of the latter. Sulphuric and other mineral acids : with- out their aid the student will frequently fail to discover certain elements or tissues, which are either very deHcate and transparent or very minute and colourless. We should * The student cannot satisfactorily examine the external characters of the thallus and its fructification without the aid of a simple pocket-lens, which may be had at any optician's, for one or two shillings.— For directions as to the application of the compound microscope, we must refer the uninitiated to works treating of the construction and uses of that most valuable instrument. mmmmm 112 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS, ^1 therefore advise him, especially in his earlier microscopic investigations, to accept the aid of Iodine and Sulphuric acid as types of the two classes of reagents above mentioned. To illustrate their action and uses it may be here advisable to glance briefly at a few of the more prominent physico- chemical characters of the Lichen-tissues and their con- stituent elements. When apphed to certain elements of the reproductive tissues, the peculiar reaction of iodine with starch is at once produced ; they immediately assume a rich Prussian-blue colour : such is the case especially with the theca. The iodine ought to be very diluted, and one drop added on the glass slide to the tissue under examination should suffice, for the very deep colour of the tincture of iodine may obscure delicate shades of blue, and otherwise interfere with the reaction or result produced. The theca is most deeply coloured at its apex, where it is thickest. The spore-sac and its contents, whether in the condition of a grumous or granular protoplasm, or developed into spores, are usually tinged orange or yellow j and the theca, full of mature sporidia, after the application of iodine, is thus a very beautiful object under the microscope. The blue colour of the theca is sometimes so deep, especially in its young state, and the pale-yellow of its contents so obscm-ed COLLECTION, PEESEEVATION, AND EXAMINATION. 113 or destroyed thereby, that the latter may also appear blue ; or the yellow colour of the contents, shining through the transparent blue thecal membrane, may sometimes cause these to assume a green tint. If iodine be applied to an apothecium entire or sectioned, in consequence of this pe- culiar reaction it is frequently possible to distinguish the thecse by the naked eye in the form of a congeries of deep blue lines or points; in some cases so abundant are the thecse that tlie whole apothecium at once becomes blue. By this means also the spore-sac is sometimes rendered visible as a yellowish delicate membrane hning the theca. The spores are generally coloured yellow, their outline and contents rendered more distinct, and the latter, especially in the old state, frequently coagulated and broken up. The hypothecial tissue in most Lichens is also tinged blue. The walls of the paraphyses, with the exception of the terminal cell, which remains unaltered, appear of a very pale blue, if the iodine is sufficiently dilute ; more usually this colour is destroyed by that of the iodine, and they appear yellow; their walls are more distinct, their septa become evident, and their contents are coagulated and form an irregular core or centre in the long axis of each constituent cell. The spermatia are rendered more distinct by being coloured M'( 114 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. I deep brown. The contents of the filaments of the medullary layer of the thallus are coagulated, as in the paraphyses ; and in the other cell-elements of the thallus little change is produced, save a greater distinctness of their walls and con- tents. There are various exceptions to, and anomalies in, the reactions above given ; but they will be found to hold good in the majority of common Lichens. The action of iodine on the reproductive cells of Lichens, in the exami- nation of which it is chiefly useful, ought to be studied in species having comparatively large or distinct thecs and spores, such as Pertusaria communis and Phi/scia ciliaris. The mineral acids are chiefly useful for dissociating the thecsB and paraphyses, and enabling the student to examine their true structure and attachments, lie will also find it convenient sometimes to boil portions of a Lichen, to fa- cilitate the making of a section or to produce a disaggre- gation of its tissues. I 115 CHAPTEli VI. CLASSIFICATION. " "Without system the field of Nature would be a pathless wilderness." White, of Selborne. In regard to their position in the scale of vegetation, Lichens belong to the thallogenous (thallus or frond-bear- ing) or cellular division of Cryptogamic plants ; they are destitute of a vascular system, consisting, as we have seen, entirely of various forms of cellular tissue. By their re- productive system they are closely allied to the Fungi ^ by their vegetative system, to the Algae ; from both they are distinguished by the presence of gonidia as an essential ele- ment of their thallus. So close are the links which bind the Lichens to the allied families of the Algge and Fungi, that Algologists and Fungologists are constantly removing certain genera or species from the Lichens ; while Licheno- logists are on the other hand engaged in swelling the ranks of the Lichens at the expense of the Algae or Fungi. Thus 116 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. I the genera TAchlna and Collema liokl an anomalous position ill regard to the Algse, in which some botanists classify them ; while Bccowyces and other genera occupy a similar de- batable relation to the Fungi. Lichens may also be said to be connected with the Mosses by the transition-group of the Hepaticje,— of which the common Marchantia, or Liverwort, a denizen of the damp, dark sides of rocks in the neighbour- hood of streams or waterfalls, is a familiar example. After what we have said on the subject of the bases of Classification, when describing the history of Lichenology iu our first Chapter, we need make no apology or justifica- tion for preferring, in the following arrangement of British species, a natural to an artificial classification— a classifi- cation founded on natural affinities or structural analogies, rather than one based on the vegetative or reproductive sys- tem of Lichens exclusively. We cannot advance a com- plete natural system of classification ; nor can this be done until our knowledge of the natural history of the Lichens is greatly improved and extended. We consider the dis- tinctive marks of Lichen-species to be at present very im- perfect and unsatisfactory ; many genera and species stand \\\ a most anomalous position in regard to their alliances^ and the progress of Lichenology must soon result iu a com- plete revolution in the classification and nomenclature of CLASSIFICATION. 117 British Lichens. Under these circumstances we think it preferable only to describe the characters of typical and familiar species, believing that an enumeration even of the mere names of rare species and puzzling varieties would serve only to confound and alarm the beginner, for whom this little work is chiefly intended. In our arrangement and description of most of the Gym- nocarpous Lichens, or those in which the thalamiiim is typi- cally open, we have followed Schferer's ' Enumeratio critica Lichenum Europa3orum' (Berne, 1850) ; and in those of the Angiocarpi, or Lichens in which the thalamium is typically closed, as well as of the Gymnocarpous Natural Order Gra- pJiidecs, Leighton's ' British Species of Angiocarpous Lichens elucidated by their Sporidia' (Eay Society, London, 1851) and his 'Monograph on the British Graphidea?' (Annals of Natural History, London, 1854). On these valuable con- tributions to Lichenology the descriptive part of this Work is mainly founded; to their pages we must refer all desirous of prosecuting the subject beyond its mere skeleton or out- lines.* We are also under deep obligations to the memoir * To this statement it may be advisable to add the following qualification, — that we do not regard the classification in these works as at all approaching perfection ; there are many points on which we diflfer materially from their authors. They are however the most recent works on their i-espective sub- jects, and contain comparatively the greatest amount of correct information. 118 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. of Tulasne, already cited, for almost all that we know of tlio spermogonea and pycnides, the spcrmatia and stylosporcs, of Lichens, and of certain minute parasitic species, whose true nature and structure he has been the first to point out ; and also for much valuable information regarding the mi- nute anatomy of Lichens. Great assistance has also been derived from the elaborate descriptions of Eries (aicheno- graphia Europ^ea reformata,' 1 831), as given by Tuckerraan in his ' Synopsis of the Lichenes of 1!^qw England, the other Northern States, and British America' (Cambridge, U.S. 1848). We have preserved, in the following descriptions, the terminology of Schserer and Leighton, both because it economizes space, and serves to convey a much more accu- rate idea of the organisms intended to be described, than afiy popular or general language we could employ. The student may overcome any etymological difficulties by having recourse to a Latin or Greek dictionary. We avoid how- ever, with a view to simplify the study of British Lichens to the beginner, giving any synonyms or references except- ing those which relate to the 'English Botany' of Sowerby (1756)~for nearly a century a standard work on British Botany, and which contains plates of all the British Lichens then known. CLASSIFICATION. 119 BiBiJOOUAniT: liritiah : — Tumor andBorrer, Liclienogrnphia Britannicn Smith's English Flora, vol. v. : Hooker, Flora Scotica ; Brit. Flora, vol. ii. Mackay, Flora Ilibernica: Lightfoot, Flora Scotica: Greville, Flora Edinensis Johnston, Nat. Hist, of Easteni Borders — Hotany : Liiidley'a Vegetable King dom : Burnett's Outlines of Botany : Edinburgh Eucydopnidia, Art. ' Lichens. Foreign : — Schrfirer, Lichenum Helveticorum Spicilegium, 1823 to 1840 Fries, Summa Vegetab. Scandinavia;, 1846 : Acharius, Mcthodus, etc., 1803 Lichenographia Universalis, 1810 : Synopsis Lichenum, 1814 : Prodromus Lichenogrnphifc Suecicre, 1798 : Linnccus, Systema Vegetabilium, 1769 : Flora Lapponica : Eschweiler, Systema Lichenum, 1824 : Soramerfeld, Flora Lap- ponica: Wahlenberg, Flora Lapponica: Dietrich, Lichenographia Germanica, oder Deutschland's Flechten : Korber, Systema Lichenum Germaniee : Wall- roth, I'lora Cryptogamica Germanise, 1824 : Schwartz, Lichenographia Ameri- cana : Chevalier, Flore des Environs de Paris : Lamarck and De Candolle, Flore Fran9ai8e, 1803. SYNOPSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDEES AND GENERA. I. GYMNOCARPI. (According to SchEcrer.) Nat. Ord. I. Usneaceje. Genus 1. Usnea. ii. corniculariaceie. 1. cornicularia. 2. eoccella. 3. Eamalina. 4. Physcia. III. Cetrariace^e. 1. Cetraria. IV. PELTIDEACEiE. 1. Nephroma. 2. Peltigera. 120 POPaLAH HISTORY OV LICHENS. i 3. solorina. • v. umbilicariace.e. 1. Umbilicaria. VI. PARMELIACEiE. 1. Sticta. 2. Parmelia. VII. LECANOREACEyfc. 1. Lecanora. 2. Urceolaria. VIII. Lecideacejj. 1. Gyalecta. 2. Lecidea. IX. GRAPHIDEACE^f:, (Accor-Jing to Leighton.) 1. Ope GRAPH A. 2. Graphis. 3. Hymenodecton. 4. Chiographa. 5. aulacographa. 6. Li?.CANACTIS. 7. Platygramma. 8. Arthonta. 9. coniocarpon. X. Caliciace^. 1. Calicium. 2. Coniocybe. XI. Cladoniace^. 1. Stereocaulon. 2. BiEOMYCES. 3. Cladonia. xii. collemace^. 1. COLLEMA. it fl ^ II. ANGIOCAEPI. (According to Leighton,) Nat. Ord. I. SpH^ROPHORACEiE. 5. Thelotrema. Genus 1. Sph^rophoron. III. Verrucariace^. II. Endocarpace^. 1. Segestrella. 1. Endocarpon. 2. Verrucaria. 2. Sagedia. IV. Limboriacej3. 3. Chiodecton. 1. Pyrenothea. 4. Pertusaria. 3. Strigula. r 121 V Section I. GYMNOCARPI. Nat. Ord. 1. USNEACEyE* Family Character. — Thallus filamentous : filaments round, having a cartilaginous or leathery cortical layer, which is very liable to crack and se parate in annular fragments from a central thread of white, cottony, medullary tissue, — giving the thalline filaments a peculiar articulated and sometimes a moniliform ap- pearance. Apothecium peltate, terminal on the thalline filaments, which appear as if dilated at their extremities into a flattened, somewhat irregularly rounded disc ; margin radiate-ciliate, pale flesh-coloured, or colour 3imilar to that of thallus. Genus L USNEA, i)i^^. Name said to be derived from the Arab AcJineh or Ac/men {Axneeh or TJsnee according to Dillen), a generic term for all Lichens. • The student will derive much assistance from examining nam^d and dried specimens of British or foreign species as contained in the following works : — Leighton, Lichenes Britannici exsiccati, 1851, published in fascicnli, 1 which several have appeared : Bohler's Lichenes Britannici : Schairer, Lichenes Helvetic! exsiccati, 24 fasciculi, last dated 1852 : Mougeot and Nestler, Stirpes Cryptogamicse Vogeso-Rhenanse, 10 fasciculi, 1813, last d ited 1833 : Tuckerman, Lichenes Americse Septentrionalis exsiccati, 2 fasciculi, 1847: Fries, Lichenes Suecici exsiccati : Massolongo, Lichenes Italici exsicc. «t MM 122 POPULAR HISTORY 0¥ LICHENS. \ P k ■ 1. UsNEA BARBATA (davda, a beard). Thallus greyish- green or straw-coloured, frequently, in young state, erect, rigid, and somewhat fruticulose, becoming with age flaccid and pendulous; dense cortical tissue of thallus consists of roundish or polyhedral, thick-walled cells ; thecje small, ob- oval ; spores minute, round, oblong or oval-oblong, double- walled, pale yellow or colourless.— The following varieties of this common species depend chiefly on the number, and mode of ramification, of the cylindrical branches of the thallus. Var. florida; divaricate-ramose, rigid, erect, smooth, fibrillose. A subvariety, Urta, is characterized by a verru- cose or pulverulent condition of the filaments (E. B. 1354).-'^ Var. ceratina differs in being pendulous ; it may be smooth or verrucose-pulverulent, fibrillose or not. \&i.plicata; pale straw-coloured, elongated, subdicho- tomous, flaccid, and slender. Var. dasypoga differs chiefly in the main branches being covered with horizontally divergent fibrils. Var. artkulata is a prostrate or pendulous form, cha- racterized by much stronger, broader branches, which are divided into a series of turgid articulations,-— frequently * The initials represent Sowerby's 'Euglish Botany,' and the number refers to the figure and relative descriptiou of the species. USNEA. 123 appearing as if hollow and inflated, — and connected by a narrow but firm white medullary thread. Another variety has been denominated intestiniformis, from the resemblance of the turgid articulated branches to inflated intestines : this we cannot help regarding as a finical subdivision. This species is very common on our older forest-trees, especially firs, coating them with a shaggy grey fleece. Along with various RamaHnas, Cornicularias, and Physcias, it constitutes the ''Beard-moss^' or "Tree-moss'' of the poets, — the "idle moss" of Shakspeare. Poets usually refer to filamentous and fruticulose corticolous Lichens as " Moss ;" hence they speak expressively of venerable trees being " mossed with age." In this sense the branches and stems of the trees in the fir-woods which are common in this neighbourhood (Perth) are completely " mossed " over. Branches thus adorned are usually selected for the purposes of the bird-stufPer, and must be familiar to all who have seen collections of stuffed birds in public or private museums. It is very widely distributed over the world. In India it is one of the most common species ; it has also been found in Ceylon ; on Chimborazo, and in ChiH, in South America ; in New Holland ; as far south as New Zealand and Tas- mania ; and as far north as Lapland. It is said to be re- ■mmm 124 POPULAR HISTOHY OF LICHENS. ii ' placed in the Arctic and Antarctic regions by another species, Usnea melaxantha, which is interesting in a threefold point of view, but which may be considered a variety of JJ, lar- hata peculiar to a polar climate. It is one of the most handsome and arborescent Lichens, closely assimilating them to the Phanerogamia. Its cross section exhibits a structure resembling, on superficial examination, that of an exogenous stem, having a distinct axis and a separable cortical layer ; and it is the only saxicolous species, for in the Ealkland Islands, Dr. Hooker says, it covers "the surface of the quartz rocks with a miniature forest, seeking the most ex- posed situations, and there attaining its greatest size and beauty.'' Some varieties of U. harhaia have a more limited geographical range than others : var. forida, for instance, is inferior in this respect to vv^v. plicata j this is to be ex- pected, when we consider that these varieties must depend greatly on differences in habitat and climate. What we now regard as varieties were by the older authors considered distinct species ; but they are frequently found graduating into each other in such a way, that it is impossible to de- termine under which form or name to arrange them, and several of them may be met with growing in the same forest, nay on the same tree. Of all the forms the most USNEA. 125 remarkable is that denominated var. articulala ; it is said sometimes to be pendulous from old trees : our own speci- mens were prostrate, spreading over the sandy soil of Ex- mouth Downs; they are from the herbarium of Don. It differs from the others no less in the breadth and inflated character of the nodes, or articulation, into which its fila- ments are divided, than in its size; we have seen speci- mens attaining about two feet in one direction and one in the other. It has been familiarly termed par excellence the " Necklace Moss," but this name has probably been more commonly applied to less rare varieties, in which annular decortication is also frequent. The economical applications of U. harhata are not important, but they are numerous and varied. In some parts of the world it is eaten by wild animals, or is collected and preserved as winter fodder for domestic animals. Bartram states that in Pennsylvania it has been used to yield an orange dye, and Humboldt men- tions its use as a dye species in South America. It appears to have enjoyed great celebrity in medicine, though cer- tainly not from any real advantages which it possesses ; it was at one time much used as an astringent, tonic, and diuretic; it became a favourite remedy in hooping-cough, and under the name of " Muscus arborei, seu querni," was I. ;1 mfm "W ■■MMM '* j: 126 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. even lauded as an anodj'ne ! It was the basis of some hair-powders and perfumes, and was also supposed to pos- sess qualities which rendered it serviceable in the manu- facture of detonating or combustible mixtures. Ray states that it was boiled in beer and drunk in catarrh and dropsy; the Laplanders have used it in scald-head and other erup- tions in children ; and so early as the times of Dioscorides it is said to have been prescribed in diseases of females. Its central medullary thread has been recommended in paper-making; but even in these times, when substitutes for linen rags and flax fabrics in the manufacture of paper have become matters of necessity, we fear such a substance will not be thought of by experimentalists, for one reason alone, that it contains no fibrous tissue. (For the minute anatomy and development of this species, vide Dr. Speer- schneider in the 'Botanische Zeitung' for March 24 and 31, and April 7, 1854.) i Nat. Ord. II. CORNICULARIACE^, Fam. Char.—Thallm filamentous or linear-laciniate, ascending or pendulous. Apothecium scutellate, varying in site and colour"! (Name probably from corniculum, a little horn.) Plate X, V. Hh. '^i^i^hiyfs^ "WLTjulsiyaiiBtchlith ~\fin^ait Tfcooiks Jrap . * ■•■■■IMMi tmmmmqm^ ar on are pe] are or 1 ton are and 127 CORNICULABIA. Qenasl. COUmCVLAUlA. ScArei. and divaricate-ramote (E. B 1853) °''' "^'''' Var. chali/beiformu is a prostratP fn.„ i.- ^ arete : ar^Zr?!' ^^^^ ---* ^nTL, pendulous „ w ! "'^' '""' "'"-SH and - called, .0. s/r: iir q^^ \ «:• j^«^ or the "Horse-tail lichen." Th 'old f " ^ ^'''•" wmm* mmmm 128 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. of one or two feet; their apothccia however are not very frequently rnet with, and from their small size and having a similar colour to the thallus they are apt to be over- looked. In mountain and moorland regions they occur not unfrequently on rocks, as on the Cheviots and Gram- pians, but tliey are always in such circumstances inferior in size, and more rigid. The variety dicolor is peculiar to alpine rocks ; it occurs in various parts of our Highlands, as in the neighbourhoods of Loch Tay and Braemar, but is seldom found in fructification. C.juhata has a wide geo- graphical range, extending as far north as Ross's Islet and and Little Table Island in the Arctic regions. Its thec^ are small, narrowly oboval, eight-spored ; its spores are minute, ellipsoid-oval or roundish, colourless, double-walled. It would appear to possess a certain amount of nutrient properties, being frequently eaten in winter by the Lapland reindeer as a substitute for the Cladonia rangiferina : to enable these useful animals to feed on it with less difficulty, the Laplanders cut down the firs on which it grows. It is said also to be capable of yielding a red dye ; we have not found it to exhibit any colorific properties, but we have frequently noticed the paper in old herbariums stained red or orange by various Cornicularias, especially some North r^tia- cohniculaiua. 129 American species. Some foreign species appear, in a slight degree, to possess nutrient and demulcent properties, but none have been used to any extent in medicine or tlie Irts. 2. CoiiNicuLARiA ocHitoLEUCA [ochm, ociirc, and \ei;A:(59, white). Thallus ochroleucous or pale, terete-compressed,' sub-lacunose, divaricate-ramose; extremities of the ramules sub-fibrillose; apothecia chestimt-coloured. Var. clncuuiata ; thallus much branched, entangled, some- what rigid, deeply ochroleucous ; extremities of ramdes not differing in colour. (E. B. 2040.) There is a rigid fruticulose form, in which the apices of the ramules are rellexed and blackish; and it occurs also in a pendulous filiform condition, growing on trees rlong with Vmiea harhata. This species is alpine, and may be met with, on the ground, on the summits of several of our highest Highland mountains, such as Cairngorm. It is also found in Europe as far north as the Arctic regions, for in- stance on lloss's Islet. 3. CoiiNicuLAiiiA PLAviCANs {flavus, bright yellow). Thallus golden-yellow, terete-compressed or linear, divari- cate-ramose, filiform, and fibrillose; old thallus sometimes becomes white and roughened by soredia; apothecia orange- coloured. (E. B. 2113.) 130 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. It grows on the trunks of old trees, and also sometimes on rocks or the ground ; it has been mentioned as occur- ring on tlie south coast of England, on the Malvern Hills, and on Ailsa Craig in the Eirth of Clyde, but it is a rare species in Britain. Its cortical layer is very dense, con- sisting of almost solid, cylindrical filaments very closely united : iodine communicates to it a rich blue colour. It is the seat of a beautiful yellow colouring matter, probably similar to that of the following species, and has apparently been similarly employed in dyeing. 4. CoRNicuLARiA vuLPiNA {vulpes, a fox). Thallus citron- coloured, divaricate-ramose, linear ; extremities filiform ; sur- face sometimes pulverulent or sorediiferous ; apothecia chest- nut-coloured or blackish, but very rare. Its habitat is the bark of fir-trees in alpine or sub-alpine regions ; but it appears only recently to have been recog- nized as a native of Britain, having been found on the Kil- leney Hills, county Dublin, Ireland. It possesses a very dense, horny cortical layer, of which the cellular elements can scarcely be recognized ; and also a firm central axis or cylinder, formed of solid filaments closely associated. Its cortical layer contains, disseminated through it in the form of small grains of a resinoid appearance, a beautiful nOCCEIXA. 131 colonmig matter, cnlled vvlphic acid, M-hich is easily ex tmcted by various solvents, and l.as been used in Sweden and Norway to dye woollen stuffs. Tl.e Swedes call this spee,es "Ulf-mossa" (Wolf's-moss), from a belief that it i, po,so„ous to wolves; this is very problematical, but cer- nm u ,s that it is ased as a poison to these animals : Pon- toppidnn states that the bait is usually the carcase of some animal smeared and stuffed with a mixture of this Lichen m a powdered state, and pounded glass. Genus II. BOCCELLA, i)G Oeri amr. Thallus fruticniose, sesments springing from a com- men base, round or thong-like. equal or nodulo^.-erecto pen- dulous, glaucous, everywhere of similar colour, bavin., a car iC scutellate, its exciple being innate in the tlmllus, normally lateral Thallium at first covered by a thalline veil, afterward! naS Generic term derived from the Portuguese ^ori ,-ocAa, a rock, in allusion to the habitat of most of the species- or from the name of the family of the Florentine merchant (Oricedarii, or Rucellai) who was the first to manufacture trom them the now familiar dye Ore/Ml 132 POPULAE HISTORY OF LICHENS. 1. EoccELLA TiNCTORiA {thictura,2k colour 01 dye). Thal- lus round, at length nodulose or waited; segments simple or bifurcate, naked or sorediiferous ; old tliallus frequently becomes mucli elongated, pendulous or trailing, rarely branched; apothecia lateral. (E. B. 211.) Its spermogones are frequently absent; when present they are readily recognized as black points scattered over the whitish thallus. They are globular, unilocular, and im- mersed ; their spermatia are linear and feebly curved. There is considerable variety in the form of the apothecia. Some- times they are regularly patellate, resembling the apothecia of Lecidea ; at other times they are misshapen tubercles, appearing to have burst through the cortical layer, which forms around them an irregular thalline exciple ; the latter state is the more usual, but is probably an abnormal con- dition of the former. The spores of both are alike, being eUipsoid-oblong, straight or slightly curved, generally q-.ia- drilocular or triseptate. nearly colourless or pale yellow, re- sembling somewhat those of PeUigera and Sticta, Its habitat is maritime rocks ; it grows to a very limited extent on the Isle of Portland, Guernsey, and other points on or near the south coast of England. It is more abundant on the Mediterranean shores, but reaches its maximum deve- HOCCELLA. 133 lopment only in tropical or warm climates, where however it has a somewhat wide geographical range. 2. EoccELLA ruciFORMis [fucvs, a species of seaweed). Thallus flattened or thong-like, irregularly divided, often fan-shaped j segments variously bent, naked or sorediiferous ; apothecia lateral and superficial. It grows, like the preceding species, chiefly on maritime rocks; but in some foreign countries it is found also on trees, as at Pondicherry, in India, where its habitat is the trunk of the Maiigifera Indica. It occurs very sparingly on the south coast of England, in the Channel Islands, a°nd on the adjacent islands and coasts of Trance. But it is only in tropical Africa, Asia, and South America, tliat it reaches its highest development ; on the coasts of these countries it frequently attains great size, and has a very tough leathery consistence. It usually has a greater abundance of apj- thecia, and is more seldom warted cr mealy, but more fre- quently cracked and fissured, than R. tlncior'ia. Its colour is generally tawny or ochroleucous, and it varies much in the size and mode of division of its lacinife. Its geographical range is greater than that of the preceding species. R. tine- tona and R. fuciformis may be considered types of the most valuable dye-species of the genus Roccella which we 134 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. possess,— the " Orchella weeds" of commerce, which are divisible botaiiically into three classes :— 1. Such as have a cylindrical tapering thallusj 2. those having a flattened or compressed thallus ; and 3. a mixture of the two preceding forms. Of the first class the chief varieties are " Canary/' "Barbary, or Mogador," "thick Lima/' and "Cape" Or- chella weeds ; while of the second the principal are the "Angola/' "Madagascar/' and "thin Lima" weeds. Of these the most valuable kind at present is the Angola weed, from the Portuguese settlement of Angola, in South Africa; it is about an inch and a half to two inches in length. The Canary variety, which includes the " Cape de Yerde weed" from the Canary, Cape de Verde, and adjacent islands off the west coast of Northern Africa, has been the longest known in commerce ; it is a delicate filiform species about half an inch to an inch and a half long, and frequently of a dark brownish colour. Next to these the Lima varieties, from the west coast of South America, are greatly used by the orchill-maker. The thick form is frequently six to eight inches long, with thick tough segments, sometimes superior in diameter to a goose- quill; it usually occurs in the form of fragments having a reddish cross section. The thin va- riety has the characters described under R. fucifomm. The , 4 f'v.— ROCCELLA. 135 }> Cape, Barbary or Mogador, and Madagascar forms are in- ferior in size and quality. Besides R. tinctoria and It. fu- ciformis, and the varieties hi/pomecha of the former and linearis of the latter, the chief botanical sources of these Orchella weeds are R. Montagnei, R. pygnma, R. Jlaccida, R. pUycopsis, and R. dichotoma. Comparatively numerous as are their geographical sources, many n^^ and probdbly superior fields of export remain to be opened up to British commercial enterprise; in illustration of which we need only cite the vast fields of India and the Indian Archi- pelago, the shores of Africa and Asia bordering on the Eed Sea, New Zealand, New South Wales, and many of the Pacific Islands. The Roccellas grow abundantly on the arid rocks of Aden, in Arabia ; and the Indian and Ceylon specimens which we have seen are remarkable for their great size.-^^ The production of an export trade in dye- lichens might not only prove a boon to the poor inhabitants of many a hitherto barren shore, but would probably become remunerative to British manufacturers who are at present paying high prices for the Angola weed and similar fine varieties of Orchella-weed, which are fast becoming scarce *^Vide Paper by the Author in the ' Edinburgh New Philosophical Jour- nal, ' July, 1855, on the " Dyeing Properties of Lichens." 136 rOPrLAE HISTOBY OP IICHENS. in the market. Plants growing in arid situations in tropical countries are fonnd richest in colorific principles ; hence as comparerl with species from tropical Africa, Asia, or South America, European species are worthless in commerce. Bur- nett Illustrates this, by stating £290 per ton as the value of Canary Orchella-weed, while the same plant from Madeira will only bnng £140, and from Barbarv from £.30 to £45 m the market. This is an instructive les'son on the influence of cimate m the production of changes in the chemical com- position or products of Lichens. Tlie estimated annual value of the imports of Orchella-weeds and other dye-lichens many years ago was stated at £60,000 to £80,000. Their value has been gradually rising in the English market. Half a cen- tnry ago only inferior kinds were procured at prices ranging from £20 to £200 per ton; now very fine quahties are imt TltnTr™"' '"'"""'''' P™''""-^ '' - ^^^'»?o price of £200 to £400 ; a„d they have .een known to rise so high as £1000 per ton. While Italy enjoyed a monopoly m the manufacture of Orchill, large quantities ,vere supplied by Teneriffe, the Canaries, Azores, and neighbouring islands; the inhabitants farmed out the right to gather the Orchella- weeds, paying therefor considerable sums to the Government Prior to this the Orchella-weeds were known only in the ■MmmAiUMMiimi RAMALINA. 187 eidentallv discovered by a Fn ''"''" ''^'' "'' "=■ there, who notieed 1/ ,^7™*'"'' '"^'^^-^^ travelling obtainea the manufaefure Tf o J^^'lti^;" "j'^ '""' *''- on with great seeree.v under the Ij^f^^::'''' by wh,eh he realized a handsome fortune ' '"'' ^- ttnctona possesses emolHent „,. i *';. and hence has been ^T^ Z tZflf '"""■ of phthisis, and in other chest nfT 7 '"^ '=''"Sh depend on the presence of , 'V'""'' ""^^'^ ''™'"'^^ g».m, matterH : ,• :t"' '"""* "' ^^'^^'='^^ -" von Esenbeck, resin/: T;;"' "^^'''"^ '^ ^- and oxalate of hme Ind In ^^ TT' ""''"''' *^^'"'«^ bablv due to adr^e 'sett; "' :f ^ "''^ '='«- Pro- soda, ma^nesin alnmin r "* ''°"'^''"^ '™e, bina ion w ^1" ' IT' "" ''"""'^ "^ ™"' '" -- carbonic, snlphunc, and phosphoric acids. fienuslir. RAMALINA, ^e^ &V». a«.. Thallus fruticulose, sen-^ents ari,;„ r ' '•^o"«'its aiising from a coin- » !■; 138 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. mon base, linear-laciniate, glaucous, lacun< e on both sides, every- where of siinihu' colour, having a cartilaginous cortical layer, fre- quently sorediiferous, originally erect, frequently pendulous. Apo- theciuin scutellate, subpedicellate, varying in site. Thalamium always naked, of similar colour to thallus, or pale flesh-coloured. (Name derived from ramale, a dead twig, probably in allusion to a very common habitat of its species.) 1. Ramalina POLLiNARiA {poUeu, fiiie flour or meal). Thallus llaccid, lacero-laciiiiate ; laciiiise flattened, sub-lacu- nose ; soredia somewhat large, usually scattered ; apothecia sub-terminal. (E. B. 1607.) Habitat : the trunks of trees and wooden palings, in or about lowland and sub-alpine woods -, but it is a compara- tively rare species in Britain. 2. Ramalina partnacea (farina, meal or flour). Thal- lus flaccid, somewhat smooth and shining, multifid-laciniate ; lacinise linear-attenuate, flattened ; soredia small, white, fim- briate ; apothecia terminal and lateral, but very rare. (E. B. 889.) A very common species, growing on our forest-trees and hedge \^^. We see no reason for dissociating it from the fol- lowing species, of which it appears to constitute a frequent form, and along with whose varieties it may often be met with on the same habitat. RAMALINA. 139 3 Ramalina FRAXiNEA (Mmms, the asli-tree). TliaUus rigid, sinning, reticulate-lacunose, variously laciniated, very rarely sorediiferous;apothecia vary in site. There are three comparatively well-marked varieties. Yav.amfMa^aj characterized by the breadth and size of the acinic, which are flattened and somewhat simple, and by the apothecia being lateral and superficial. YRv./as^lala; distinguished by the apothecia bein^ terminal, and the lacini^, which are shorter and narrower tastigiate. (E. B. 890.) ' Var. callcaris difters considerably from the others in the tenmty of its lacinia^, which are linear, elongated, dichoto- mously ramose, canaliculate, ribbed or smooth; apothecia terminal, spurred and seated on the deflexed apices of the lacmise. This species is one of the most common Lichens, growing on trees and hedges in onr forests and on onr roadsides. Ut Its varieties the last is the least frequent : but all of them along with the preceding species, frequently grow on the same tree or hedge, and pass by insensible gradations into each other. The oak and ash are probably the most com- mon habitats of the larger forms. Less frequently it grows on rocks, but in this case it is always somewhat dwarfed iwm 14.0 POPTJLAB HISTORY 01? LICHENS. rigid, and altered in form. It. farhacea differs from var c^Ucarh only in tl,e constant prcsenee of sored.a and m the smoother or more flattened character of the lacuna,; we lock npon it as a sorediiferons form of this filiform variety of n. fra.h>ea. The spores of tl>is speces are of med um size, ;nd easily recognizable ; they are somewhat oval-elon- gated, rounded at the ends, straight or curved to vanous degrees, biloeular or uniscptate, of a very pale yellow or eolonrless. The young spore is oval and full of grumous or finely granular protoplasm. In course of deve bpmen there appears at either end a globular aggregation of largish grannies, which increase in size, then disappear into a homo- geneous mass ; this gradually acquires a membrane, and lastly Lmes the form and characters of one of the loculaments or secondary cells of the spore. In the old state of the spo e these contained cellules again break up into a confused granular mass; and it is in this state also that the curved form of the spore is most comn>on. In all the specie^ or varieties of British Bamalinas which we have examined we have found the spores having the same characters, diflering onlv in size, according to habitat. This we consider another - strong argument for the identity of species; tor, with iries, A, are inclined to regard all the British Bamahnas as forms I var. n the ;; we ariety 3clium -elon- arious o\v or amous praent largish houio- d lastly aments e spore anfused curved ecies or ined we iiffering another ]h Tries, as forms ■ ? I KAMALINA. 141 of a .ngle s,,ec,c., Il.fia.Uea. Tl,o tl,ecu= are .o.newhat c onga.ecl, eg t-^pored, and exhibit tlu. blue discoloration nl nod„,e Il,es,ermog„„e»(asoccurnngo„var.«W.-.) to e ,„„ke,l for witb a lenson the ra,„if,i„g venules of th tlall,,, ,„,„,,, ,„ ti, f„,,„ „, ^,„^j,^ . ^^^^^^ tube eles, l,av,„g a snnilar eolour to the thallus, and «hieh closel, resemble in general appearanee the ,oung apotheeia. They are globular or ellipsoid, and eonsist of a .l^nse whitish tissue, winch contrasts strongly with the loose, spongy eir. oun,jace„t„.edullary tissue; the cavity is simple' thcste- rgmata dehcale, simple, straight filaments closely crowded- the spermatia acrogenous and straight. The cavity of the spermogone contains, in addition to the sterignmta, a net- work of loose branching filaments, inferior in thickness, but otherwise snndar to the medullary tubes. This species has a wide geographical range; it occurs abundantly on the Hnnalayas and in dfenf p'arts of th Iud.an Peninsula. Species of the genus Ita,Lua appear to e scattered all over the world, within the limits of e" norji and 7» south latitude, and they extend as far north .hl» ^ '-""olvcij. 1 he Eamalinas contain a consider, able amount of gum, which has been used instead of gum- 142 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. arable in calfco-printiiig nnd in the making of pnrcliniont and pasteboard ; in a pnlvrrized form they have been used as the basis of hair-powders. Some forms, especially the mealy Ramalina, li. farina ^ea, have been recommended as edible, aiid as palat}d)le when eaten with salt. The same species has been recently lauded as a topical application for chilblains and chapped hands ; but its virtues probably depend more on the presence of spirit of wine or harts- horn in the lotion for the former, and of honey, yolk of egg, brandy, and sweet oil in that for the latter troublesome af- fection."^ 4. Ramalina scopulorum [scopulus, a rock or cliff). Thallus rigid, polished, smoothish or striate-lacunose, linear- laciniate or terete, very seldom sorediiferous, often attaining a great size ; apothecia large, terminal and lateral. (E b' 688.) This is a coarse, rigid, deformed variety, peculiar to, and common on, the rocks of our sea-coasts; it frequently forms a shaggy coating on the cliffs of many of our rugged shores and islands, where it sometimes reaches the length of six ♦ Speerschneider, Mikroskopisch-anatomische Untcrsuchung iibcr Rama- hna cahcans, Fr., uud dercn \im.mmfm,-inea,fastlffiata, canaliculata und fannacea, 'Botanische Zeitung,' May 18, 1855. Xk»i^; "'""—— '-mil RAMALINA. 143 to twelve inches. From the Isle of May in the Firth of Forth we have seen it in abundant fructifioation, of great size and very tough, loatliery consistence ; wliile in various otlier localities we have gathered it plentifully in a delicate fili- form state; between these conditions there is everv variety of form and size. The cortical layer is extremely dense and horny; and, being devoid of distinct cellular structure, it ap- pears like a hardened epidermiform excretion on the surface of the plant. The medullary filaments towards the periphery have very thick walls, the central canal being nearly oblite- rated ; in the centre they have more of their ordinary cha- racters. Its spermogones are frequently so numerous as to roughen the thalline laciniaj with the little tubercles of which they consist. Each of these has a central blackish point —the ostiole ; its cavity is almost spherical, but divided into several compartments ; the spermatia are acrogenous and oblong. These spermogones are liable to be confounded with the perithecia of a small, black, punctiform Fungus, or with the spot-like rudiments of a minute Sphceria^ This species has a somewhat wide geographical range, and occurs as far south as the Falkland Islands and Kerguelen's Land. It has been used to yield a red dye; so high an opinion did Lightfoot form of its tinctorial qualities, that he spoke of it 144 POPULAR HISTOUY OF LICHENS. as a fonriiduble rival to the RocnelLe. R. farlnacea has also been said to possess similar colorific properties. Genus IV. PHYSCIA, Schreh, Gen. Char. Thallus linear-laciniate, membranaceous ; lower surfiice of laciniai canaliculate, and ditfering in colour from upper surface. Apothecium scutellate, subpedicellate, terminal or late- ral. Thalaniiuni always naked, varying in colour, and differing in colour from the thallus. 1. Physcia FUiiFUiiACEA (fuffur, bran or scurf). Laci- nise, — above greyish, furfuraceous (covered with a bran- like dust), — below channeled, coal-black, reticulate-lacunose, — becoming attenuated from a broadish base, loosely . inuatc- pinnatifid, naked at margins ; in old plants lacinias become broadened and irregular, and are roughened with minute granular isidioid or scale-like growths ; apothecium normally terminal ; thalamium chestnut-coloured; margin thin, entire. It grows on trees and rocks in subalpine woods, but is not ver^ common ; we have met vA'ith it frequently on firs in the hill woods round Perth, but never in fructification. We have seen large specimens, and in fine fruit, from Eothie- murchus Woods, and from the Andes. It is found abun- PHYSCIA. 145 dantlj on the Hi ma%as, and in many other parts of the world From containing a considerable quantity of a bitter prin- ciple, It has been used as a febrifuge instead of cinchona bark or quinine. We have found it yield, on ammoniacal maceration, a red dye. The Egyptians at one time em- ployed It m the baking of bread, as a substitute for another species, P. pnmaHri; and it has been used also in the making of hair-powders. 2. Pm-sciA oiLiAMs (eilmm, the hairs of the evelids) Lacinia. subasce„di„g,-above brownish-green or gkucous' pubescent,-wlutish and slightly reticulate-lacunose below -linear, divaricate-ramose, eiliate at margins, subcartilagi-' nous; apothecinm varies in site; thalamium blackish sub pminose; margin erect, afterwards lacerate-dentate' fim- briate, or passmg into foliaceons growths. A somewhat elegant and common species, growin- on trees, rocks, and stones in lowland and subalpine regfons- m this neighbourhood we have found it attaining consider- able size and beauty on roadside walls. This species pos sesses great interest, as having been the first Lichen in which the existence of snermogones was, a few years ago discovered and recorded by It.igsohn in Germany.* They ♦ me various papers in the 'Bofanische Zeitung ' for 1860 and 1851. MiM 146 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. ^ are scattered over the lacinise of the thallus in the form of blackish or brownish point-like prominences, whose apices under a lens exhibit pores or chink-like apertures ; their tissue is horny and dense, admitting of division into very thin sections. The sterigmata are short, straight, narrow, obtuse, and obscurely articulated ; the spermatia cylindrical, straight, obtuse at the ends, and very transparent, generated laterally from the sterigmata. The cavity of the spermo- gone is divided into several convergent sinuses. The black- punctate condition of the thalline lacinise has long been familiar to lichenographers, but has usually been supposed due to parasitic organisms, and as such these spermogones have been described by various authors as Sph^eria Lichenum or Endocarpon atJiallum. This is an excellent species in which to study the form and development of the thecse and spores, and the reaction of iodine thereon. In the young state the thecse are elliptic-oblong, but when full of spores they become broadly obovate, tapering suddenly inferiorly into a narrow pedicle; they are comparatively large, distinct, and are eight-spored.^ The mature spores * For the minute anatomy of this species vide Von Holle, zur Entwicke- lungsgeschichte Aex Pliyscia ciliaris, Gdttingen, 1849, and 'Botanische Zei- tung/ July 25, 1851 ; and Dr. Speerschneider in the ' Botanische Zeitung,' Oct. 7 and 14, 1853; Aug. 25, and Sept. 1 and 8, 1854. PHYSCIA. 147 have somewhat the form of the fie -below wh,te.-hnear, divaricate-ramose; apices acu -mate; apothecia lateral; thalamium chestn;t.cZred »Jgm hm entire. (E. B. 859.). There is a sor d feS^ A very common species, pendent on trees and palings in 1 u , '""-™°''^ ^"-""J Perth, coating them with a Scat-:: '^r-' "-' ^^ '^^^ -^ '-^« ^-^ ^.• lruct.ficat.on. It is very apt to be mistaken for, or con- ' f. 4 148 POPULAH HISTORY OF LICHENS. founded with RmnaUna frawinea, with which it frequently grows, but from which it may readily be distinguished by the flaccid, pendent thallus and the white colour of the under side of the lacinise. In some localities it occurs chiefly in a dwarfed, deformed, and very sorediiferous state ; in such a condition we have found it abundant in the woods around Floors Castle, Kelso."'^ It sometimes grows also on stones and rocks, and even in a prostrate state on the ground : of a trailing form of the variety stictocera we have large specimens' from Exmouth Downs, — the same lo- cality where grows the peculiar articulated variety of Usnea harhata. This species yields a gum, which was introduced experimentally into Glasgow, as a substitute for gum-arabic iii calico-printing, by the late Lord Dundonald, but soon fell into disuse. On account of this property also it has been used as a demulcent in chest-complaints. Erom its giving a peculiar and much-reHshed flavour to bread, it was at one time much used in baking in Egypt; for this purpose, Eorskuel says, it was imported in shiploads from * The ash of this sorediiferous variety was found by Mr. Wallace Lindsay to contain the bases potash, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, peroxide of iron, and manganese, in combination with sulphuric, hydrochloric, and phosphoric ax^ids. I.L fHYSCU. U9 the Archipelago into Alexandria : a handful was steeped for W: rfolT-u" ''' '■"^"^'"" ^^'^edtotheC We have found it yield, on ammoniaeal maceration, a fine orchil From the capacity of its powder to absorb nd r tain odours, it was long greatly used in perfumery J\l'"T ""'.^^°^«™-^''^^ (XPv-r6,. gold, and MaX. ^J, the eye). Laeini.,-above yellowish or orange,-bel7» w hte, lac„„ose,-linear, ascending, dichotomou^/ramot ex emifes dilacerate or ciliate; apothecium varies in I thaamium orange; margin thin, naked, or ciliate-radia A very beautiful corticolous species, growing in Th tm of a small fruticulose tuft. In Brital it i! a very ra e pecies; we have seen specimens in abundant ZZl fructification from Switzeriand. Its theca. a„d .! .emble those of Pa^elia parieuj ' ''"''' "" black (E B. 2548) are also very rare in Britain, occurring only in a few localities. The former differs from pJS n us laeini. being naked at the margins, the thalamlm The latter more closely resembles the same species, but the lacinia. are narrow and ascending, and the ciKa or nargina fibres very long, black, and tomentose. ^ 150 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. Nat. Ord. III. CWLRARIACEM Tam. Char. Thallus folinceous or sub-fistulose, prostrate, as- cending or erect, cartilaginous or membranaceous, generally veti- culatc-lacunose. Apotheclum peltate, affixed ob)- .> ''/ aud ante- riorly to the apices of thalline lobules. The Cetrariiis may be considered intermediate between Lichens having a fruticulose, ascending thallus, and those having a foliaceous, horizontal one : hence the sub-fistulose thallus, which is somewhat analogous to the hollow po- detium, approximates a certain section to the Cladonice, as C. Isla7idica, C. acidcatuy and C. nivalis; while certain others, such as C. glauca and C, jmiiperina, closely resem- ble the Parmelias in the nature of their vegetative system. Genus I. CETRARIA, Ach. Name derived from Kalrpea, cetra or catray an ancient shield of a peculiar form, which the apothecia are supposed to resemble. 1. Cetraria glauca {glaucusy greyish-blue). Thallus foliaceous, membranaceous, prostrate, — above glaucous, slightly reticulate-lacunose, — below brownish-black or va- riegated with white, smooth, — sinuate-laciniate ; fertile la- cinise ascending ; apothecia dark brownish-red, terminal. CliTKABlA. 151 In the common form (E. U. ICOG) the undei. surface of the th alks ,s dark, and the fertile laeiui» shortened; i„ the vanet,>/^. the ormer i. variegated brow, and wh te, a.d the latter ckngated. (E. B. 2373.) A common species, growing on trees, the ground and stones ,n and about lowland and subalpine woods; itt however ve,y rarely found ia fructification. I„ Scotland it has been discovered fertile near Inverary hy Maughan; we have seen large specimens abundantly fertile from Norlh Amenca Con^ared with some other Cetrarias it is „ t very widely d,ff„sed over the globe. It is common! Northern and Central Europe and in Sub-arctic America and IS found as far south as the Alps and the Canary Islands' but not further north than Lapland. 2. CEmAMA ,UN.PE.UNA (>»z>«., the juniper-tree) is a smaller form, distinguished by its beautiful gamboge-yel lol eabur; thallus sinuate-lacerate-lacinulate , margin! Usually crisped; apothecia have a thalline crenulate margin In the common form the thaUine margin is naked and usually denticulate; in the variety ^.i /jl ,1 J with a yellow powder (sorediiferous) and simple An alpine or subalpine species, growing on the ground on shrubs, and on trees T>, s„ n i . forouna, ' " ™'^^- ■'■'1 Scotland It occurs on the 1' III 152 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. elm, fir, and other trees in some of our Highland forests ; if is however seldom or never mel with in fructification in Britain, though it is not uufrequently found fertile in Switz- erland. Its thecsD are small; its spores small, oval or globular, colourless, and double-walled, resembling those of Usnea and Cornicidana. It yields readily to boiling water and other solvents a beautiful yellow colouring matter, which has been employed in domestic dyeing by the Swedes. It once enjoyed celebrity as a specific in jaundice, probably on the similia similibus principle, from some fancied connection between its colour and that of the skin in this troublesome disease. 3. Cetraria nia^alis {nix, nivis, snow). Thallus straw- coloured on both sides, frequently of a deep yellow at the base, ascending, membranaceo-cartilaginous, deeply reticu- iate-lacunose or channeled, sinuate-lacerate-lacinulate ; mar- gins crisped, sometimes black-denticulate ; surface of thallus sometimes sprinkled over with white soredia. Apothecia (which are very rare) yellowish-flesh-coloured, terminal, having a thalline, crenulate margin. (E. B. 1994.) A somewhat common alpine and subalpine species, grow- ing on the ground on the summits of our Highland moun- tains, such as Ben Lawers and Cairngorm. In. Britain it CETRAllIA^ 153 tifu fructificafon from Labrador, Newfouudland, and th« ^ale„i,i,„d„.,y„,3,^j^,^^ It. cortical tissue is dens" and horny, composed of polyhedral, thick-walled cellules- i 11 r:'r:r''"''''^' '-^^ «---eoio:-n! matt r L,ke C. Mandiaa, but in a minor degree, it is „u^ ^ ent, emu cent, and tonic. I„ ..orthern coun ries it 1 frequenly eaten by goats and other animals, notwithstanding tlie hardness and rigidity of the thallus. ^ 4 Cetb^bu sm^coLA (.epe., a hedge or fence). Some- and truT " '^ ^'^ ' ^~*"'^ ""■^"^ «" '^^ branch s and trunks of trees ,n alpine and subalpine woods; thallus brown^h, paler below, prostrate, sinuate-lacinulate laeinil Ap tt (wkch are very rare) terminal, having a thalline, orenula e margin, sometimes entirely covering the thallus. We have never met with fertile British specimens but 1-e seen it in fine fructification from .Newfld Zd a, d other parts of Worth America. ^ "'ana and 5. Ca-B.EiA IsLANMCA. Thallus chestnut-coloured exterior paler and marked by wart-like white spots, rner surface smooth, frequently, blood-red at base, cartflaio" AlLt-fi 3 154 ) n POPULAR HISTOJIY OV LICHENS. erect, by dichotornous division sinujite-laciniate, margins coniiivent, ciliatcspimilose; apotlit'cia clicstiiut-coloured, terminal or subterminal, usually aifixed anteriorly to broad- ened, shortened, rounded lobules, having a thallino, entire or crenulate margin. In the common variety the sterile lacinim are sublinear and channeled : the laeinijc are sometimes very broad, llat- tened or waved, with naked or crisped edges. This species, the familiar "Iceland Moss,'' is essentially alpine and subalpine i^i its habitat, growing abundantly on the ground on most of our higher Highland mountains, as well as more sparingly on the Lammcrmuirs, Pentlands, and other mountain-ranges of minor elevation. It is how- ever seldom or never found in the fertile state in British specimens, or in the commercial Lichen, which is chiefly imported from Norway. It developes its fructification only on very high mountains or in very cold regions, for it has a comparatively wide range in Arctic and Antarctic cli- mates; its fruit may be seen in Mougeot and Nestler's valu- able collection of Vosges Cryptogams published some years ago ('Stirpes Cryptogamicaj Vogeso-Rhenana3'). Its ver- tical range on the Scotch hills and mountains varies from 1500 to 4000 feet; it thus descends to a comparatively low CKTIURIA. 155 level ; but ,„ g.:„eral, it. prc^Mice is i„,lic,.tivo of a v^ry cold cl.m« e. I„ the Arctic (^i..clc it ia foun.l at tl,o M ".. . grou. „„ the l,l..ak .stcp,,cs of Centn.l II. J I ' and AW A,.,e..ica ; l.ut a» it spread, southward, it 'clt ■' "oun a,„s. It» brown colour aud the beautiful blood sorbcd Jrom the air. or v»th irou take,, up from the soil bv Ce(ranc acu^,-ti,, peculiar bitter princii which re ," .s ia he cortical la.cr of the plant. With L,„o„ia t ^ d forn. u yellow salt, wliose solution in water becomes W on exposure to the air ; and the cetramte of anunonia, hu " formed, causes a red reaction with persalts of iron Th composition and products of leelaud-moss have been :tu&d by several chemists, who have detected in it starch to th X nt according to ]3er.elius, of 80 per cent., includk« both Licheiun and Inuline; gumm, and wax, ^att s S former also to a considerable extent; a bitter prSi^T ^.™ne aaa;, Uty principle, ^e^^eario aoj (^^ Chen, and .riap, U) ■ Jk>,ane acul, which exists also'^ the common garden fumitor, (/W.. off.iuaU^Z^, ^K 1. astringent principle of gallsf uncr.sJdl- ^ sugai , anct various salts, such as the bitartrate of potash. W~^'' I 156 POPULAR IIISTOIIY OF LICHENS. and the tartrate and phosphate of lime. Its ash, according to the analysis of Mr. Walhice Lindsay, contains the bases lime, potash, soda, magnesia, and peroxide of iron, in com- bination with sulphuric, hydrochloric, and phosphoric acids. Its thecjc are short, small, and closely crowded in the tha- lamium; the spores are minute, oval, simple, colourless, and intermediate in size between those of Corniciilana and Cliulonia. Tlie spermogones are seated on the apices of the rigid marginal cilia, whose function appears normally to bear these organs, but which are frequently sterile. The sper- mogones are solitary or grouped in twos or threes; the spermatia linear and straight. On the presence of a large amount of starch chiefly de- pends the extensive use of this Lichen in northern coun- tries as an article of food, and in medicine as a nutrient, demulcent, and tonic. When boiled in water, it yields a tolerably firm jelly, which however contains some of the bitter principle of the plant, giving it not only a disagree- able taste, but a purgative quality. This can be removed by previously steeping the plant in a weak solution of carbo- nate of potash or soda; and the jelly j^repared from the Li- chen thus purified, when mixed with wines, sugar, or spices, or flavoured with various aromatic substances, is u very ■■V^.u,.L, ay da .fit.ai h.\i, , ..■i'30iit. :n\:. m^mgmM: ^^»A-^_„, CETRARIA. 157 agreeable form of pudding of the blancmange or Irish Moss class. In this form chiefly it is used in this country by dyspeptics and invalids labouring under various chest- diseases, or suffering from chronic exhausting ailments; it constitutes a light and easily digested article of diet' and is employed instead of arrowroot et hoc genus omne. The Icelanders use it in a similar way, and also boiled in milk, whey, and soup. Proust found 1 lb. of Lichen suf- ficient to convert into a tremulous jelly, on cooling, 8 lbs. of soup. In the making of broth in Iceland it frequently serves the same purpose as our ordinary kitchen vegetables. Sir George Mackenzie, in his travels in Iceland, found it very palatable in chocolate; and other travellers mention an agreeable mixture made with sugar, lemon-peel, and butter or oil. The Icelanders frequently reduce it to pow- der, and preserve it for winter use, in the form of bread, porridge, or gruel, as we do meal or flour ; or they clean and wash, dry, and chop it into small pieces. Not only do they make use of it themselves, but they s.^ore it up as fodder for their cattle and domestic animals. In so many ways indeed IS It impo -tant in the domestic economy of the poor Ice- landers, that they declare with a fervent gratitude "a boun- tiful Providence sends them bread out of the very stones.'' 158 POPOLAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. In vanous parts of Scandina-m it is used by the peasantry, especially for the fattening of swine, oxen and horses. Prom a real or supposed capacity for retaining moisture, its gum or muclage has been preferred in Germany to common paste for dressing the warp of webs in the loom; and it has hkewise been used in the sizing of paper. Its bitter nrin- ciple renders it purgative, a quality severely felt by Sir John J-ranklm and his companions in some of their Arctic voy- ages, they being frequently scarcely able to eat this nutri- tious Lichen, though in a state approaching starvation. This purgative property is greatest in the fresh plant, becoming deteriorated by drying; hence the Icelanders were at one time m the habit of using the fresh plant as an evacuant m spring. It has been recommended as a valuable anti- scorbutic in countries where it is abundant. Petersen states that the Iceland scurvy, a kind of elephantiasis, is rare where the inhabitants consume in their food much of this Lichen or other vegetables, and common where, on the other hand, they use chiefly sour milk and rancid fish. Prom its astnngency, which is due to the presence of gallic acid, it has likewise been used in tanning. Moreover it has, at va- nous times, enjoyed celebrity in the treatment of a multitude of diseases ; but its virtues have either been imaginary, or CETRAKIA. 159 have depended on the medicines with which it was combined Its medicinal properties were probably first recognized in Ice and, and were known to Danish apothecaries so early as 1673 In 1683 H,arne lauds it in the haemoptysis, or blood sp,tt,ng of phthisis. It is still imported in compara- ively large quantities into Britain vid Hamburg and Got tenburg . m 1836 no less than 20.000 lbs. paid duty It might be extensively gathered for eommereial purposes on our Scotch mountains. And, lastly, the brown colouring, matter of its thallus has been applied by the Icelanders to the dyeing of woollen stuffs.* 6. Cetoabia aculeata [aenleus, a prickle). Thallus somewhat fruticulose. rigid, chestnut-eoloured. cartilaginous dichotomously or irregularly and very much branched ; laci! ni^ divancate. terete or flattened, smooth or roughish, stel- ulate or bifurcate at extremities; apothecia chestnut-co- loured, terminal, having a thalline. eiliate-denticulate margin A comparatively common species growing on the ground," • Cramer. Be Usu lichenis Mandici, ErlanKen 1780 • FMi„„ a r. ■ ctCet.™ Mandiea, Glasgow, ^m I ^.^L Tr^r^^f^i ^1^:^ and hchenous odour of Iceland Moss, -Jameson's Journal ' 1840 . "■»«»■ 160 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. on the tops of hills of minor elevation, such as the Pent- lands, in the vicinity of Edinburgli, or the hills surounding Perth, but occurring more abundantly on the Highland mountains. It frequently grows along with the preceding species, with narrow or linear forms of M^iich it may be con- founded. Like most of the preceding species, it is not common in fructification; we have found it fertile however on the summit of the Pentlands. Its spermogones are oval or oval-truncate bodies, which constitute the blackish apices of the terminal spinules or ramuscles of the lacinife. In position and appearance they resemble the spermogones of Cladoma rangiferina and other Cladonias. Cetraria cucullata {cucuUns, a hood) closely resembles in habit C. 7iivalis, with which it is usually found growing, but is distinguished by its apothecia being affixed posteriorly to the hood-shaped extremities of the thalHne lobules. It has recently been noticed as a British species, but is very rare ; it is an alpine plant, growing on ground on the highest mountains, or in Arctic countries, to which in Europe it is chiefly confined. Like C. Mandica, we have seen specimens with a beautiful purple mottling or discoloration at the base of the thallus, which would seem to indicate the existence in it of colorific principles. e i '^Mkg^jgum^^^, NEPHROMA. Nat. Ord.IV. PEZTIDEACEJ^, 161 thalline lobes. ^ horizontally or vertically to Genus I. NEPHEOMA, ^e/* Of thalline lobnles. t-i: ^ ^rtr '''r''-"- «#o's, the kidneys.) ^ ^"'- (^"""^ ^om I'his genus has much the habit nf P.n; l . . ->«. to turn upside do:r^,rfr"^^"'"- brownish he.o. ,1, .., ..l^^T^^^.tZZ.^ -prostrate; lac.„i«, minute, multi-Iobular ; lobes rou"! J subcrenate; apothecia chestnut-coloured, arg sh fE R 305 IS a tomentose form.) The thalln, i, ? ' diiferous. (E. B. 2360.) '°™''""^^ ^''^«- A subalpine species, growing on the ground, „„ rocks M -vManaHMMwnMia I 'I I! *'« 162 POPUL^' HISTORY OF LICHENS. and on the trunks and roots of trees on the shores of Loch Lomond and Loch Fine, in Breadalbane, and similar High- land districts ; in many of these localities it is found in abundant fructification. This species has a superior and inferior cortical layer, the former being dense and leathery, formed of superimposed rows of polyhedral cells very in- timately united; the latter thinner, and formed of more irregular cell-elements. The medullary filaments are almost solid, the central canal very narrow, and the septa remote and thickened. Its spermogones occur on the margin of the thallus in the form of small, smooth, brownish tubercles, with an apical pore or ostiole; spermatia linear, very slightly curved, resembling in tenuity those of Cetraria and Cladonia. Its thecse are elongated and eight-spored ; the spores closely packed, apparently in a spiral manner, fusi- form, blunted at ends, polyseptate, very pale yellow or colourless. Some species of Nephroma occur in tlie Arctic and Antarctic regions, there attaining a size and beauty which entitle them to rank among the most handsome of Lichens. Genus II. PELTIGERA, Jfilld. GetL Char. Thallus below veined, fibrillose or spoiigiose, ac- peltigera. , ^ lobules of Ihallus, n. first covered b V V "' ^'"'"'^'^ b-ne or veil, wl.ieh soon ■ and i,ero, to carry.) ^^"""^ ^""^ J><^li«, a target, 1. P^XTiGEKA VENOSA (vena, a vein) Tl.nll sma:!, s,mple, ovate, becoming sublohT f ' "''''='' green above,-beIow whit. ^ '^"'■"''^P^'^' ''"k wbi,., V •„, li: tcnr a? ''^°""" ""^^' apothecium reddish or blackish If . °" P*^"^'^'^' verse,, oblong, .ith a m^:l^;r' "'""^" "' "•- chinks of rocks frennp.f 1 u '' ^^^ ^^^^^^^ "^ the BWr Atholl; and also to a lessTxl't f^r '""' ^""^ in Dumfriesshire. The cell ,h "n ' ^°"'''"'^^' "^^ the cortical layer hav ^ [ 'h " ""' '""^^ ^^ of Wgerand coarL tlJif '^J^f;- ~"^'' -d are amined. Tlie snores «„ „ • -^«%«'-« we have ex- of Airlie, ForlS; ', '^T^'' ^^''^■<= ^-' ^^n b-der, shorter, and lol ^a^^^^ *t^*f ' -eh of an, other species of PeZZ t " "''" "'"" -re«»^«,a; they more resemble the ■s?- r "War ■asra 1*11 11 iwiw ,.j i jm p I I I ! 1 r |c3^i^i<5^^ 164 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. spores of Solorina or Sticta. Its geographical range is not wide : in Europe it is bounded by Lapland on the north and Switzerland on the south; it occurs in various parts of North America j and in the Antarctic regions only in Kerguelen's Land. 2. Peltigera aphthosa [aplUhcs, a disease of the mouth in ciildren). Thallus prostrate, smooth, besprinkled with darkish warts, apple-green above, — below white, reticulated with blackish veins, fibrillose or spongiose; lobes large, rounded ; apothecium chestnut-coloured, vertically affixed to the pioduced and ascending lobules, becoming elongated, with revo^ute margins. A large and handsome species, growing in moist localities among rocks and moss, and on mossy trees, chieifly in sub- alpine districts ; it is not very common in Britain, but occurs in Breadalbane and other Highland districts, in the neighbourhood of the Tails of Clyde, and in similar localities. In geographical range it extends northward to the Arctic regions, where it represents P. cmiina ; but does not occur in the Antarctic regions. Its name is derived from its having been boiled in milk by the Swedes, and given to their children for the disease termed aphtha, or " thrush." It has been said to possess purgative, vermifuge, and L PELTIGERA. 165 emetic properties, probably on insufficient or imaginary grounds. ° • 3. Peltigera canina (canis. a dog). Thallus prostrate membranaceous, brownish.green or greyish, subtomentose,' below spongiose, whitish, reticulated with pale brownish ve.„s, which generally give off vertical fibrils; apothecia diestnut-coloured, at first involute in the margins of th<. thalhne lobes, affixed vertically to the produced and as- cend,ng lobules, orbicular, becoming elongated, with revo- lute margm. (E. B. 2299 var. nlorrUza.) A small digitate-Iobate variety is called var. spuria; along with the commoner form it is sometimes sorediiferous A very common Lichen, growing in somewhat moist places among moss, on stones, the ground, or mossy tree- trunks or roots in lowland, as well as subalpine and alpine woods and heaths. The change in colour produced b; drying :s very marked : i„ the moist state, growing among moss. It has frequently a deep apple-green colour, but her- barium specimens have usually an ashy-grey or brownish tint. Hence its familiar name is "Ash-coloured Ground Liverwort, under which designation it is to be found in the shops of some of the London herbalists. This is a good spec.es in which to study the cells of the vegetative ■f«"w*>»KesB<«« if 1 ! 166 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. system of Lichens ; they are here very large and distinct. The cortical tissue, which is properly confined to the supe- rior SI rface, consists of a series of large thick- walled cells, originally or typically globular, but which present great irregularity in form on account of pressure in a state of close aggregation; they frequently exhibit an irregularly hexagonal form, giving the cortical tissue the character of a honeycomb network, or they are polyhedral. The lower surface is unprotected by a distinct epidermic tissue, but is traversed by venules, which, along with the vertical pro- cesses or fixurse, which they send off at intervals, are com- posed of the medullary filaments, or of filaments similar thereto. These medullary filaments are broad and branch- ing, and are composed of a series of comparatively short, broad, somewhat cylindrical cells, — with walls greatly thick- ened, apparently from internal deposits, — which give them a jointed appearance. The thecse are elongated, narrow, and eight- spored; the spores are closely packed spirally, and are fusiform and much elongated, pale yellow, quadriiocular or triseptate, sometimes curved in various degrees in the old state. The young spore is a simple fusiform cell, full of a grumous or finely granular protoplasm ; this becomes separated into distinct portions, in the same manner as in PELTIGERA. 167 er as m the young state of other .pores we have already described • septa gradually appear, and the secondary cellule are' finally and fully developed. The young spore 'frequent; h state It IS difficult to distinguish it from the paraphyses Bnt sh Peltigeras, we have found little difference, save in size and the number of the septa, in the characters of the spore • and the same remark applies, to some extent, to the othe^ ce -elements of the reproductive and vegetative system Tl spermogones,-which in the Peltigeras are frejuently absent, and when present are to be looked for on the -argms of the thallus,-occur as small obtuse tubercles resembhug the nascent apothecia, than which they 2 generally more deeply coloured; their cavity is simple but very narrow. The sterigmata are staff-shajid, almost soHd filaments, somewhat irregular, articulated and ramose at the ba.e; they generate, in succession, from their apices, many Wrless, ovoi , transparent spermatia. These sp rmatia other Lichens, and more resemble the stylospores formerly described ; but there seems no good reason to doubt their being really spermatia.-Thia Lichen is somewhat widely distributed, occurring i„ Europe between Lapland and .Vi^^giimRi tmmmmnf^ 168 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. Switzerland, over tlie greater part of North America, in Chili and other parts of South America, and in India ; in the southern hemisphere however it occurs only on the island of Juan Fernandez, the fabled scene of Robinson Crusoe's adventures ; and in the Arctic regions its place is taken by the preceding species. Its specific name is de- rived from its celebrity at one time in the cure of hydro- phobia; it formed the basis of the "pulvis antilyssus" {avTL, against, and Xvaaa, canine madness) of Dr. Mead, which consisted chiefly, in addition, of black pepper. It was so lauded as a sovereign cure, that it was admitted into the London Pharmacopoeia in 1721 ; but, we may add, very properly expunged in 1788. In the History of the Royal Society it is mentioned that several rabid dogs be - longing to the Duke of York were preserved by its means. In estimating the chances of its efficacy, it is interesting to consider the circumstances under which the worthy doctor prescribed it : the patient was bled and directed to take, for four consecutive mornings, in warm milk, a dose of his favourite powder; thereafter he was instructed to take a cold bath every morning for a month, and for a fortnight subsequently three times a week ! ^ * Sir Hans Sloane, in Phil. Trans., vol. xx. : Mortimer, in Phil. Trans. : Dr. Mead on Poisons, 5th ed., 1818. PELTIOKRA. 1C9 4. PEmoBUA POT.YDACTYi,A i^oXi,,many,^nd Sd^vXo,, a fuiger) differs from 1>. canim cl.iefly in the smooth, shi- ning character of the upper surface of the thallus ; fertile lobules often very numerous, and somewhat digitately ar- ranged. A variety, icutata (E. B. 1834), is marked by shortened fertile lobules, and s.nall orbicular apothecia Its habitat resembles that of P. canina, but it is much more rare; ,t occurs in various Highland districts, as the vicinity of Callander, from which we have seen specimens in fine fructification. The variety ,eulata is chiefly found on trees, and occurs in the Breadalbane Highlands, the neigh- bourhood of Inverary, and other parts of Scotland, though very sparingly. This species is more widely distributed in central and northern Europe and America than P. canina or P. venom; it occurs in tlie Antarctic regions, and in va- nous warm climates, as the West Indies, Colombia, and the Cape. 5. Peltigeka HonizoNTALis resembles the two precedin.^ species, differing chiefly in the apothecia being transversely oblong, flat, and horizontal, with a thin, subcrenulate margin. It also grows on moist, shady rocks, and on mossy trunks and roots of trees in subalpine and lowland regions, but is ■ ■ C-- // -■t-t^- .'^t. /«£. i^iiip 170 ■r POPULAll HISTORY OF LICHENS. mud, Ics conimon than P. oanina. We have seen fine specimens, with very large apotheeia, from Switzerland It IS spread over central and northern Europe and Non\, America, and occurs in Kerguelen's Laud in the Southern hemisphere, and in the Arctic regions. 6. PmiGKiu KUPESOENS {r,,fe,eo, to become red) resem- bles, and grows sparingly along with, P. caniua, than which U is smaller and thicker; its lobules are somewhat narrow, with elevated and crisped margins, and its apothccia are vertically adnate, oblong, and revolute. (E. B. 2300 ) 7. Peltigeiu sylvatica {.ylva, a wood) dilTers remark- ably from preceding species in the presence of urceolate, white cyphelte on the lower surface of the thallus, which is non.fibriUose; its upper surface is covered with soot-coloured granules or granular masses; extremities of thalline lobes biM or trifad ; the apothecia are brownish-red, oblong-round but appear only to have been found in Britain by Dr Bur' gess, as mentioned in the 'English Botany' (Seha=rer states, pmter JJiUeuium et Leemum a nemine visa"). It grows about the mossy roots of trees and on the ground and stones in subalpine and alpine woods. It occurs about the lalls of Clyde, Falls of Moness, Inverary, Glencoe, and other parts of the Highlands. With the older Lichenologists SOMRINA. 17] .e ganl tins specs as a SUHa, and quite separated from the 1 elfgeras by .ts eyphelte. Tl.ough very rare in frueti- hcation It scoetnnes possesses sperinogones similar to those Genns III. SOLORINA, Ach. Jose below. Apotl>ecium suborbicular, affixed to upper surface of brane. wh.eh soon delnsces, forming an evaneseent margin. Thus genus is elosely allied to Peltigera in the mode of evolufon of the apothecium; it ma, be eonsidered as a tansition-lorm or eonnecting link between Peltiiiera and 1. SoLOEiNA cuocEA (crocm, saifron). Thallus,-above dull green, beeoming cinnamon-coloured when dry,-below of a neh saffron-colour, villous, reticulated with brownish thick vems,-prostrate, laciniate-lobate, with crisp margins • apothecia chestnut-coloured, flat, appressed A very elegant alpine species, growing chiefly on granitoid rocks or on a micaceous soil on the summits of many of ^ii»6fe-Va 172 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. our Higliland mountains, such as Ben Lomond and Ben Lawers. As in Peltigera, the cells of the vegetative system are very large and distinct. The thecse are large, elongated, and eight- spored; the spores are large, broadly ellipsoid, brownish, bilocular or uniseptate, closely packed spirally. From their size and distinctness, this is a good species in which to study the thecse, spores, and paraphyses. 2. SoLORTNA SACCATA {saccus, a bag or pouch). Thallus, above bright green, becoming, when dry, greenish-grey, — below white and fibrillose-gibbous ; apothecia blackish- brown, at first appressed, then depressed and saccate. A less elegant and less common species, growing on earth in the fissures of damp and shady rocks in various parts of the Highlands. The peculiar bagged or saccate character of the fructification is well seen only in old plants. Its spores are thick-walled, broadly ellipsoid or oval-oblong, bilocular, and of a deep brownish tint ; they are remarkable in being externally punctate-granulose. In germinating, they send from both extremities a colourless filament, — proceeding from the endospores, — which gradually becomes elongated and very ramose. .'^....m:i^=,v w r^Mi::!: Vn,i,,-j.i h.o-i>ii ir. yi ■^tflSirW -. "■*. li^T^pwiflfliiiillfl^l.i;* "-^■a OMBIUCAMA. 173 Nat. Ord. V. UMBmCARIACE^. Fam. Char. Tliallm foliaceoiic pnrf,-i„ • fibrillose or naked -affivlTl "''" "^ °"'' P''''*"'''"^' ''«'°"' patellate. flattened, sceti^s ee l^tntTJ'^T .""^' = gyrose (marked by plicate or .„j'f ?'""''"""'• •'"■•"y' surface or papillate^^:; eTt S ItdTi'tr r "" f"""^ ™ P-oper and carbonaceo J ^J^^^^^ Genus I. UMBILICARIA, iy«^^. " A very natural and distinct, and an essentially montane 1. Umbmoabu y^LLEA K&,, a fleece of wool). Thai u , above grey,sh-pruinose, becoming bronze-col ured - b low fron. ochroleucous becoming brownish or blackth pap.llose or hrsute ; apothecia sessile, appressed or dep se ' Some varieties of this snppiVs av^ n ? older antbnr.'i ■ u I ^ ' <3yropJwra murina of Older autlwrs) yield a fine orchill. and are imported to a considerable e.tent into the London market from the Nor! 174 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. wegian mountains, for the manufacture of ornhill i . strafcht In nih.. T ' 'P"™"*'" ''«'■}' fine and thai L.tt^^^^^^^^ r '^""^ '^« "-•'« -lour of their constitute the "Tripe de Bo: e^ ub ^T''. '"''1 the Polar regions Thi. Ki i i , suD-Arctic America and hunter when nre^.P^I h^ v, ^ *^^ Canadian tntious "Iceland Moss -"and it hf T th^morenu- '■^s^JI CMBILICARIA. 175 «>eans of saving the crews from perishing by starvation ptr:ra\^:::;::::;:,«^^^^^^ -.^e..h.e^~i:-^:t:„^^ which IS however accompanied, as in that Lichen bvabitie pnncple possessed of purgative properties. Thl 1,^^ lers who have been c. mpelled to live for a time on "Tripe de Boche." In the account of Franklin's first land ex peT spec.es of G,ro,,ora (the Umbilicarias of tln^ ZTI Lichen known as ' Tripe de Koche/ which scarcel/a L he pangs of hunger, on the 10th they made a good 2 by hlhng a musk-ox. ... Mr. H— .as als! redrced the Tripe de Boche never failed to give him T\r„t u able to find any Tripe de Eoche.^bey drlk ;n intioITf the Labrador tea-plant (Ze^iun. palustre), and ate Tfew morsels of burnt leather for supper. Thit conlutd to bl a frequent occurrence." Linn«us speaks of some Umb 1 ca nas as supenor « nutritive qualities to the Iceland Mo 176 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. 2. Umbilicaiua pustulata (pustula, a pock or blister). Thallus greyish-pruinose, pustulate, usually besprinkled with dark greenish powdery masses, olive-coloured when moist- ened,— below smoothish, brownish, reticulate-lacunose; apo- thecia sessile, orbicular, somewhat simple, with a thick, often roughened margin. A peculi.- and distinctly-marked species, not uncommon on granitoid rocks on the tops of various Highland moun- tains : it is seldom found fertile, but Sir W. Hooker mentions having gathered it in fructification in Skye. It possesses a double cortical layer, the superior being thin and composed of small polygonal cellules intimately united ; the inferior comparatively thick, horny, and very hygrometric, formed of globular, thick-walled cellules, so closely united that their individual boundaries are not recognizable ; the free surface of the latter is marked by the presence of an infinite number of minute conical papillae composed of the same tissue. Its thecae are somewhat short and broadened, containing one perfect or sometimes two abortive spores; the spores are large, oval, and muriform or cellular (containing a great number of secondary cellules, arranged in parallel rows like the bricks in a wall, or irregularly). Its spermogones are rare, and occur in the form of isolated obtuse tubercles; UMBILICAIUA. jy. th^- are i„,„ersed, have a t.,i„ blackish envelope, a greyish horn, tissue, and are apparent!, devoid of a fee elvi tl The stengmata are ramose and solid .1„ i ^' ^o-ni-g a .ost eo^paet or t:::^.^^^!^: ca, maceration, this species yields a very rich orchill n,,^ ; largefy imported by the London orchilliaker f m N^^^^^^^^^^ i:r::."Sn;r;:r;'^-^^^^^^^^^ A ^KT■.^ -^^""^u^ speaks of it as vieldin^ a red dvP and Withering as camhl^ r.f e • u- , ^ ^^' mg as capable of furnishing also a black paint shape's"" "r°""^ ^'"'^''' -"^' -^ ' ^i^. bl "l Lv b "' ^ '"''^'^'-''^'- ochroleucous or bla k sh-grey, hirsute or naked; apothecium sessile or pedicellate, concentrically plicate, margi'n thin, at ultZ JnolZTTi ™™'"' '^'"^"''"'S °" 'he thallns being mono or pdyphyllons,-its surfaces smooth or roughened : th! '^"*:^°'T'''-"^ -g'- ciliate or nated,- 178 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. I? margins; and var. tleusta, in wlncli the tliallus 13 greyish- fuliginose and rugose, with naked margins. These varieties, with their sub-varieties, inchide the Gyrophom cylindrica and jprohoscidea of older authors. They arc comparatively common on the granitoid rocks of the summit? of many of our Highland mountains ; we have met with them also at comparatively low elevations, as on a wall on the slope of a hill a few hundred feet above the mineral well at Inver- leithen, Peebles-shire. The var. deusta usually occurs at higher elevations than; var. cylindrica. The spermogones of this species are frequently abundant, and their presence is indicated by scattered, small, black grains resting on a slight circular elevation formed by their bodies. They are globular or ovoid, depressed or conical; their constituent elements or contents resemble those of U. vellea. The thecae are eight-spored, not large, but very delicate ; the spores are also dehcate, oval, simple, usually colourless. Someti.i es they appear double-walled, have a faint yellow shade, exhibit granular contents wdth a slight septate divi- sion, and have more of an eUipsoid or oval-oblong form. They are much alike in all the species and varieties which we have examined from home and foreign lo alities, with the exception of U. pustulata. Some varieties, probably WKWSSRW.'"»^^ UMBILICARU. jyg from partfcular localities, are ..id to ,ield violet and red the d,ei„. properties oriiehet:: 77"'''""'^"" U™b,„earias capable of y^'Z^ Z^/ «'« .«« of t„is species was a're^ar. 'e, ;' ^^ ;;;• msh.„g no p„,,,e „r red tinge on amuoniaeal rc^tior 4. U„BiucAK,v PO.V.HV... (^„'u„,, , leaf ) T l, h ronze-coloured below fro. ochrlueous be ol. w"' !: : ' ™°""'' ""'^'^ °' ^^^^ «-'-^ biackish-purve It" ^^z^z:"^ :;i' ::-•-■ •* or bS -- bavin, L.n/pi:::LXi~S^^^ ^nT posed longitudinally. ogregated, often dis- In its most common variety, r/ladm thr ih.M • phy.io,. or -bHcate.,obate/;i:s^!: :::::;- «.des, son.etin.es blackish-pulvernlent below t" be are rarely or never met with. opothecia A comparaf ely common species „„ tl.„ o[ tbe Higbland ^-^.ntains/:: r Jl^— rl muior elevation, as tbe Cbeviots. °'^ 'omimmm 180 rOPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. 5. IJmbttjcauta erosa {emlo, to eat into, or perforate) is distinguished bj the reticulate-cribrose character of the thallus, which is bronze-coh)ured,— below ociiroleucous or brownish and papillose. Apothecia innate, then appressed, otherwise resembling those of preceding species. Spermo- gones frequently abundant, but not easily seen, from having the same colour as the thallus; they are small, prominent, obtuse tubercles, with an imperceptible pore or ostiole ; their structure and contents resemble those of U. vellea. This is somewhat rarer than the preceding species, but occurs in similar localities. 6. Umbtlicaria POLYRRHizos {pi^a, a root) is chiefly dis- tinguished by the fibrillose-pannose character of the black under-surface of thallus, and by the apothecia being de- pressed, tumid, devoid of a margin, and marked by lirellse radiating from the centre to the circumference. Its habitat is similar to that of preceding species ; it is not uncommon in the Highlands, and on the border-hills. All the Umbilicarias when moistened are of a more or less deep green or olive-green colour, becoming greyish, bronze- coloured, or blackish in the herbarium. With the marked difference in colour between the natural and dried state, every botanist is familiar who has collected these leathery STICTA. 181 vegetation, ami.l the moisture-laden mists vvl.ich almost co..„^,^e.e,o,e the s...its o. o. .„.. 1,;^ Nat. Ord. VI. PARMELTACE^. tellate. normally affixed by a cent "„ pit Lf'" ""■ or flat, sometimes tumid, varying i„ coC '^'""' """'^ Genus I. STICTA. Soirei. v.uu4ueij amxeu : thalamium at first closprl nr r,.,^i v eoo.i„, elevated and exp.anate ; co.o„;lta ^^ ^ ' f,™; of the thalliis or brownisli.* (Name nrol>al,l„ f - spotted, in allusion to the gibbi and Typh'::^ ' '""" "'^"" * T/tallus belmo gilberose : gjbbi naked 1. Sticta p^moxabia ipnlno, the lungs). Thalluscori- Bo..Ital/'An«.ii wL ?-Z , " '"" ™'- ^''- """■ '■> "«™. "u. II. . i,elizc, L Hist, du Genre Sticta, 1822. te n rt wi» ^^5S*??^^^^? 182 POPULAR HISTOJIY OJ^' LICHENS. V I. aceous,— above greenisli or olive-coloured, deeply reticulate^ lacunose, usually roughened by pale soredia,-~below brown- idi-tomeutose, with white gibbi ; lacinijs broad, elongated, sinuate-lobate, extremities retuse-truncate ; apothecia nor- mally marginal, rarely superficial. A common and handsome species, growing on the rugged bark of old forest-trees, particularly the oak, and also some- times on damp rocks. Corticolous specimens are frequently abundantly fertile ; saxicolous forms are generally dwarfed and sterile. Its thecge are long, narrow, slender, and eight- spored; the spores are of medium size, ellipsoid, sometimes more oblong, rounded at the ends, bilocular, and pale yellow. The spermogones may be recognized as minute, depressed, brownish punctuations, scattered over the surface, and chiefly towards the periphery, >f the thalline lobes. ^They are globrlar or nut-shaped, unicellular, easily enucleated from the thallus, and have a scarcely visible ostiole. The sterigmata arc simple or branching, and consist of a series of cubical, rounded, short articulations. The spermatia are generated laterally from their supports, or from the upper and outer surface of the constituent cells, so numerously as to give the sterigmata a somewhat bristly appearance ; they are linear, straight, squared at both ends, and very mini te. In STICTA. 183 properf,es ,t resembles C^raria Uandica, containing like it starchy matter (thong,. i„ ver, small amount), gum, t d a3t„ngent prineiples. and a brownish colou^ ma to on these propert.es depend its eeonomieal applieatb ns. I : ^pec, e nam as well as its familiar designation, "Lungs of Oak, or "Iree Lungwort," are due either to its effieacy eal or supposed, in pulmonary affeetions, as a „u7r ' demuleen, or tonie; or from some faneied resemb 1; between t e ret.eulate-laennose character of the tl.allus the mesh-hke structure of the lungs. Its alleged virtue puhnonar, affections led to its being at onetime Tthi: countr, „ q.^ntly ,„cscr.bed to invalids in the form of jellie. or -et dnnks. The Swed.sh peasantry were wont to e^ ; t n,_the ep,dem.o catarrh of cattle, and especially of sheep and .n Germany, probably for similar purposes, it'was gi i used as a ton.c and astringent in a great variety of diseases Is astringent principle has been applied to the purposes of tanner, and Us bitter to those of the brewer as a sub- celebn J for ,ts beer, which was flavoured with the bitter pnncple of this L.chen. Its colouring matter has e! la-gely applied to the dyeing of stockings, yarn, and wool, 1S4 lOPnUE, HISTOttY OP LICHENS. goods, by the peasantry in various j.arts of the Scotcli Low- lands, where the Lichen is one of the "crottles;" in the north of Ireland, where it is called " Hazel Rag," or " Hazel Crottles;" ,n Herefordshire, where it is called "Hags" and m other English counties; in the Lsle of Man; as well as m different parts of Germany and France. This species is one of the largest and most handsome of the British Stictas • but the genus attains its maximum development only in the Tropics, where its species possess a great size and beauty frequently covering the trunks of huge forest-trees. Stictas are also among the most handsome of Antarctic Lichens such as S. e^ulochrum, which has a beautiful golden-yellow thallus, and is abundant in luegia, Juan Fernandez, and Aew Zealand. It is curious, in regard to the geographical range of Lichens, to remarl that the Stictas appear to be substitutes in the Antarctic regions for the Umbilicarias whicii are largely developed in the Arctic regions, where btictas are altogether absent. S. puhnonaria oecurs on the Himalayas, and in other parts of the world, but doe^ not appear to be widely diffused. 2 Sticta 8CB0BICULATA {sorobieulm, a lit& forroir) Thallus above greyish-green, deeply or slightlv retieulate- lacunose, usually roughened by lead-coloured soredia -be STICTA. iOW- 185 low browni.h-tomentose, with white -ihhi • In • • u , wood " weZ: ::: f ? ;™"^^ °^ '-^ ■- -^^Ee Loch Loin, ad 1 "'"""^ "^ *'"' *"- ^^ on tl,; P ^^' , "''"'' """"S «°^« on rocky ground on tile Pendand and Malvern rT;il= , i • •> . 6™""1 Tins species ha. been fou d on t a ^ are fusiform .,nH , , Himalayas. Its spores e ,us orm and much elongated, bilocular or unise, tate pale yellow, resembling tho«p nf P //■ ' """'eptate, this species also resembL^ 1^^:^^; l'""' ^^""^ system. We have found fZ "' ^'°'''*'^« New Zealand al o^^ ^ ^^ 1^' rr ■" ^°'"^ examined. The spores of rfTllSfs;: "^" or ^. pulmo7iana; thev oi-p o1c« w i- ^ ^""^'' ones au>orp!.ns mass of gran uL „!«;;; ''''-''' ^""'^^ » 3. SncT. :,„„.«. (&«.,„ a borde.). "Phallus mem- 186 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. braTmceons,-above gws ish or brownish, sn.ooth, often mar- gined by grey soredia,— b(«low ochroleucous or grojish-to- mento^e • cyphelloe plano-concave ; lacirn'a^ rotundate-lobate ; lobes entire or crenate; apotliecia superficial. (E. 13. 1104.) A small form growing on mossy trees and rocks, in moist shady places, as about the Palis of Clyde and the shores of Loch Lomond. 4. Sticta puliginosa [fuligo, soot) is distinguished chiefly by the fuliginose-furfuraceous character of the upper surface of the thallus, and by the apothecia having a ciliate- radiose margin, with fugacious cilia. Not a very common species, growing among moss chiefly on moist rocks, as at the Falls of Clyde, or on trees, as about Loch Lomond : it is rarely found in fruit. In general appearance it resembles PeUigera sylvatica, differing from it chiefly in its rounded, rugose lobes, covered with an isidioid or furfuraceous efflorescence, and in its normally sessile, orbicular apothecia. 5. Sticta macrophylla [iiaKpo^, lyrge), as its name imports, IS a very large-lobed form, which has been found on rocks about the Turk Cascade, on the Turk Mountain, and on Cromaghan Mountain in the viginity of Killarney,' Ireland. It sometimes attains a diameter of a foot or up- i STICTA. 187 i bncate, the lobes at their extremitie., bifid refuse trnn^r - ;t' .Jgarded as a doubtfu, nativl'^-^''^- Uallus below excavated ly cilron-coloured cypMl^ 6. SucTA OROCATA [crocus, .affron). Thallus fl!; naceous-coriaceous,-abovej,ellowishireen r elTf nose, besp^Ued with bright Wn-cEdt^ t"" ^a%owards„argi„s,--belowbrownish4^ about the Palls of Mone. lb 1 ^''"7"^*°"' °" ^««ks of the Perthshire High il Sf d "V"™" 1'"*'^ ;n;o.epart.ofIre1andf;:!rS;or^^^^^^^^^^ over the world I ''^ ^°""'«h''t widely distributed Tab.et:£o:eo7CZe"T'^^""-- I :a Islands, the United States, on the Swan Ri.er s o" of he ra.s of Magellan, and west coast of South A^ 7- SncTA A,E.,:,... [anrun, gold) differs from the pre- I ■WMM mmm •y-;- 18S POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. ceding cliiefly in the upper surface of the thallus bein- smoothish and margined with golden-yellow soredia, the apot (E B Ts?"'^' '"'"^ *^'''' "'''^'" sometimes golden-yellow. It resembles the preceding also in its habitat and in bemg rare in Britain. Like S. macrophylla, it is by some regarded as a doubtful native. We have seen it only from the New Forest, Hampshire. Genus 11. PAEMELIA, ^e/^. Gen. Char. Thallus foliaceous, prostrate, expanded horizontally from a centre; upper and lower surfaces differing in characters', latter usually subfibriUose ; variously laciniate or squamulose! Apothecunn scuteliate, sessile, superficial, varying iu colour, and differing m colour from the thallus; margins at fi.st closed or connivent (Name probably from parma. a round buckler, in allusion to the appearance of the apothecium.) ^ Thallus laciniate-lohate ; lobes rounded, suhascending. ^ 1. Parmelia amplissima [amplus, large). Thallus grey- ish-glaucous, membranaceous, besprinkled with blackish- green glomeruli,-below brownish-tomentose (occasionally With scattered cyphell^) ; lacini^ elongated, sinuate.lobate, Plate m HMMKi I PARMELIA. 189 margins naked. Apothecium chestnut-coloured; margin rugose. Thallus often attains a diameter of upwards of a foot ; the lobes of old plants become transversely rugose. (E. B. 293.) One of the largest and coarsest of British species, grow- ing on the trunks and roots of trees and on rocks in various parts of the Scotch Lowlands and Highlands, as in the Breadalbane district, about Inverary, on the Pentland Hills, and on Craigie Hill in the vicinity of Perth ; but it is not very common, especially in fructification. Its spores are large, fusiform, bilocular or uniseptate, and pale lemon- yellow,— the characters of those of the genus Sticta. The occasional presence of cyphell* seems also to indicate that this species more properly belongs to the genus Sticta, in which it was placed by Fries, under the name of Sticta glomulifera, a name more characteristic of its structure and affinities than the one given it by Schserer. In its young state it closely resembles a following species, P. Icete-virmis, which moreover possesses spores and sperinogones having similar characters. Its spermogones are abundant and easily recog> nized, scattered over the thallus, external to the region occu- pied by the apothecia, in the form of large mammiform tu- bercles, whose apices are depressed and marked by a brownish 190 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. IJt <2/>i'' areola; in general ai)pearance they resemble the nascent apothecia, wliicli liowever have no areola and are less de- pressed at the apex. ' 2. Paumklia perlata. Tluillus grejish-glaucous, mem- branaceous, frequently sorediifcrous, especially at margins,— below brownish-black, somewhat naked; laciniic imbricate- lobate; lobes naked or ciliate at margins. Apothecium tur- binate, chestnut-coloured. (E. B. 341.) A comparatively common corticolous and saxicolous spe- cies in lowland and subalpine districts ; it is rare however in fructification. Specimens in fine fruit may be seen in Tuckerman^s 'Lichcnes Americse Septeiitrionalis exsiccati' (1847). On ammoniacal maceration it yields a fine orchill; and for the manufacture of orchill it is imported to a consi- derable extent into London, from the Canary Islands, under the name of "Canary Eock-moss.^' It occurs likewise on the Himalayas, in Ceylon, and other parts of the world. 3. Parmelia caperata (a/jjero, to wrinkle). Thallus ochroleucous, membranaceous, frequently granulose-pulve^ rulent above,-below blackish, rough, at length rugose- plicate. Apothecium chestnut-coloured; margin crenulate, pulverulent. (E.B. 654.) Also a common corticolous and saxicolous species in low- 1 PAEMELIA. J ' ''"' regions, b.,t rarely fon„d fertile ■ nn ,., • . , --k» the st.rfa.0 o-' ' ,„ ' ' ' °" "'°'^' ""^ ^''""'r >.«meof"S,„„ec™ttles'' V "■ '"'"'' '""^'' ""^ ne uottles, and also in the TsIp mP AT "»d 'ylh peasantry to yielj a , '„ ^'''"^ ^f""' >' »■*' »ooIleu fabrici. It iur/ the '^7'"'' ''' '"' -tofso„thA™eHea;::; 'C:;;tr;r parts of the worhl V i ^ "^"^ "^^^t^r from the Penl d Hi ' '""?'' '' '" '''" ^''"'"'^'-•'"'''" ic xenuana llili.s, near EdinbLr-li .»btz;: 3"r;;""" •'"''"'■■"■* »■«•» Its common form, var. /^edacea, has a simnl^ n I." , broad-lobed thallus. ^^^' orbicular, A not uncommon corticolou^ nnrl on • i mni.i- 1 1 , ^lucuious and saxicolous sneciV«? i„ ? IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 m 1.4 1.6 1 I.I 1.25 ^ f," O • ^ p»/ V. <^ r /] / '> > c/^"? ^ ^ Photographic Sciences Corporation ^<^ '^ lV 73 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) S7!2-4503 V V ^uthors.-E B 1351 1 A common species, growing on roadside walls and trees Its spores are usually somewhat smaller than those of P puherulenta; they are also more oval, often slightly curved and tapering at the extremities, though, being noiched or constricted at the centre, they also resemble the figure 8 Their outer wall or epispore is thick; the endospores are' large and spherical, and occupy the two compartments into w ich the spore is divided by its central septum. The latter, in the process of germination, generate the germ-fila. ments, which burst through the epispore, but are otherwise unconiiected therewith. Its spermogones are scattel small, black, obtuse tubercles; their cavity is pluricellular' mm mmmtnttm I .^^t. mmmmim''mmmr>'K!:»''mm'mmm(imm'mmmm 106 POPULAR HISTOUY OF LICHENS. and their spermatia straight. This species is found in the Antarctic regions, in North America, Austrah'a, and other foreign countries. 8, Paumelia ceratophylla {Kepa<;, a horn). ThalUis membranaceous, whitish-glaucous, below pitch-coloured, smooth ; lacinise sinuate-multifid, somewhat convex or rounded ; at their extremities inflated, imperforate, fringed or tipped with pale soredia. Apothecia reddish-brown, some- times subpedicellate and cup-shaped, becoming explanate, margin entire. This species varies greatly in the discreteness, size, and mode of division of the lacinise, and in the ascend- ing or inflexed, inflated and sorediiferous characters of their extremities ; the lacinise are frequently, especially towards their extremities, black-punctate, or as if pricked over with a thick series of black points, to such an extent that one variety is denominated mtdtipuncfa. One of our commonest British Lichens, growing abun- dantly on trees, rocks, and walls, almost everywhere. In the vicinity of Perth it is exceedingly common on the branches and stems of the fir, and on heather and other shrubs in the hill-woods ; on boulders, especially granitoid, which are plentifully scattered over the face of the country ; and on every roadside wall. It is also frequent in High- ■"Wllll PARHELIA. 197 land distHcts, and on hi,,, of .„i„or elevation, as t,. Pent- lanas. We have on v mpf wifh ,7 ^ • n . . . , '-^ "^^"^ ^"'i It occasiona y in fructifira on, ,.„«.ve, ,„ the woods on KinnouU Hi,l,-so ar I t" are the blaek points formerly mentioned as frequently C ding the surface of the laeini^ • thpv « ['"'^''^'y '^^^- 11 1 , idtiuiae, tnej are spherica ufiVpI lular. and ,.ave a dense, t«ugh en.e,oDe Th. ! rzr " "■ "• "-'■■ »' '■ •-» U 9. Paumelu SAXATIU3 isa^„,, a stone or rock) Thai "s wh,t,sh-g,aueous or bronze-eoloured, .„e. rLcI.t re iculate. laeunose, frequent,, sored.iferons or furfu^eoa^ below lae.fibril,ose;, acini. sinaate.,acinu,ate,s~; retriS '^'"t ^'--'-'."'ose/extrTi Aver,eo..onW:il; r:;:^-^^^^ "'^tSSl^V!^^ if.JHWll l lJl i mxi/- •WMIIW! I 198 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. implies, on rocks and stones, but also on trees, in lowland, subalpine, and alpine districts. Like the preceding, however, it is rare in fructification ; in tliis neighbourhood we have met with it fertile on trees near Pitkuithly Wells, and on granitoid rocks and boulders on Birnam Ilill, Dunkeld. It appears to bo more frequently fertile in highland than low- land districts ; mc have found it abundantly so on Ben Lo- mond and the neighbouring mountains. In its most common form, in lowland districts, the lacinia? are broadish, deeply reticulate^acunose, with somewhat naked margins, smooth or covered with a pulverulent, furfuraceous or isidioid efflo- rescence. A saxicolous variety (var. omjphalodes), peculiar to subalpine and alpine districts, has a smoothish, shining, bronze-coloured thallus, with broadish, slightly reticulate- lacunose l9cinia3, having sometimes black-ciliate margins : this is the Parmelia oviphalodes of older authors ; it is com- mon on boulders and rocks on all our Highland mountains. We Lave found these varieties passing insensibly into each other, especially in respect to colour. The latter variety is probably more frequently fertile; its apothecia are larger, more irregular in form, sometimes confluent, and usually have a crenate margin ; its spores, in the specimens we have examined, are oval or ellipsoid, simple, of medium size, pale- yellow and double-walled. PAllMEUA. 109 P. .«.»<./« Ims a wide gco|,-ra[.l,ical range, oceurri,,.. in S,.. tebergen and oti.er Arctic islands; in Coclcburu's Island Grahan, s Land, and other parts of the Antarctic regions' on the Mexican Andes, and many districts of temperate and Arc :e North America; in Brazil, Chili, and other parts of South America; in the Mauritius, and shnilar warn, islands and countries. In northern and mid-Europe it is very abun- dant. It has been for ages used by the peasantry of Scan- dinavia, Scotland, and other countries of northern Europe to yield a brownish or brownish-red dye for thread, yarn' stockings, nightcaps, and similar goods of home manulacture! In Scotland it is one of the most familiar "crottles," and is also^ blown under the name of "Stane-raw," or "Staney rag. Not „^,^ j^ ^^^^ peasantry use it in the way we have mentioned but it would appear, upon the evidence of the Border ballads, that the Border fairies were sometimes ha- bited in tunics dyed with this Lichen. "Like the feld-elfln of the Saxons, the usual dress of the fairies is green; though on the moors they have been sometimes observed in heath- brown, or m weeds dyed with Stone-raw or Lichen " (Min strelsy of the Scottish Borders, vol. ii. p. 310.) In Shet land this Lichen, in common with the dye prepared from it, IS called "Scrottyie;" it is there found common on argiUa- ■ ■nw 200 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. ceous, but rarely ou magnesiaii, rocks, aiitl is always collected ill August or autumn, because at this period richest iu co- louring matter. The Norwegian and Swedish peasantry use it to dye their home-made garments, sometimes adding Par- mella parietina, or alder-bark. In Scandinavia it appears always to have been reckoned most honourable for the inha- bitants to weave their own cloths, — to make and dye their own vestments. The primitive customs of our own ances- tors in this retjpect have been almost completely dissipated by the introduction of steam, and the progress, hand in hand, of science and art. This Lichen was once used iu medicine as an astringent; by the ancients it appears to have enjoyed a celebrity as a sovereign remedy for epilepsy and the plague ; and even Hippocrates is said to have pre- scribed it in the diseases of women. The variety omphaloiles yields readily to boiling water a deep brown, and, ou ammoniacal maceration, a reddish- brown colouring matter, which has also been much used by the peasantry of various countries of northern Europe in the dyeing of woollen fabrics. It is the '' Alaforel-laf " of the Swedish and Norwegian peasant, the " black crottle '' of the Scotch Highlander, and the '' kenkerig" of the Welsh moun- taineer. In Ireland it was prepared for use as a dye by \ tAHMELIA. 201 Steeping (he Lichen i„ stale urine, adding a little salt, and subse.,uently giving the n.ass consisteney and a ball-form by .mxing w,th lin,e. Pennant afllnns that it lbrn,ed an impor- ant artiele of commoroe in Scotland in 1772, .selling at 1*. to 1,. M. ,,er stone; and Dr. Walker lauds its red dye as of j.ecul.ar permanence, ur.injured by exposure, and un- a ecte by acids, alkalis, or alcohol,-" a'. est singulr property as he truly observes (were it true), "as there is Im "' tT ""/'"" '"""" "'"""^"' •'^ "--^ P--f"l agent. Ihese statements are unquestionably either exag- gerated or unfounded. ^ 10. Pamelia cons.eusa {coH.^pergo, to besprinkle). Thai- lus membrunaceous-cartilaginous, greenish-yellow or straw- coloured polished, frequently blaek-punctate or sorediife- rous,-below brownish and blaek-fibrillose ; primary lacinia, smuate-rotundate-lobate, secondary linear-lacinulate (deve- loped frequently from or upon the primary). Apothecia chestnut-coloured, frequc.tly confluent or crowded, some- times abortive. (E. B. 2097.) A comparatively common species, growing on walls and rocks especially quartzose, in lowland and highland districts • It IS frequently abundantly fertile. Nowhere have we found It so plentiful, and its fructification in such perfection, as * 'i m 4m ■ ■ iw *- « '» i f iiii PAKMEUA. 2or posed of five or six oblong cellules in apposition by their extremities, simple, rarely furcate. The thee* in the youns state are somewhat linear or narrow, but when full of mature spores are broadly obovate, presenting irregular bulgings corresponding to the individual spores. The thecie and pa- raphyses, with the exception of the terminal cell, along with the hypothecial tissue, are coloured blue by iodine The spores are somewhat small, oval, colourless, simple, almost solid excavated at their ends into two globular cavities fnll of yellowish protoplasm ; these nuclear masses are frequently united by a narrow line of the same material running in the long axes of the spores. The thickened wall appears to consist of cellulose, and to be caused by a deposit on the interior of the epispore; it is not coloured by iodine alone, but. If sulphuric acid be subsequently added, a light blue colour is developed. The terminal nuclei were erroneously described by Schleiden as terminal caps, the remnants of a hardened mucilaginous coating of the exterior of the spore They are the most prominent features of the spore, and are frequently distinct when the spore-wall is scarcely visible Hence a theca full of nearly ripe spores often appears as if studded over with a series of small yellow buttons. In germinating the germ-filaments proceed from one or both I 208 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. ends of the spore,— from the endospores or membrane of the cavities which contain the nuclear masses ; they are usually dilated at their origin, but almost immediately bifurcate, elongate, and ramify. In proportion as this filament grows the protoplasm of the spore decreases, while its cavity in- creases, the deposits of the epispore gradually disappearing, like the albumen of a cotyledon, for the nourishment of the young germ. Other spores having a small supply of pro- toplasm also possess a thick epispore, whose thickened de- posits are absorbed in proportion to the growth of the germ- filament; while on the other hand it frequently happens that spores rich in protoplasm have very thin walls, as in Lecanora pallescenSy var. parella. The spermogones of P. pariefma are small tubercles scattered or grouped towards the periphery of the thallus; their sterigmata are short, ra- mose, very irregular filaments, composed of delicate cubical cellules, which afterwards become nearly solid from thicken- ing deposit on the interior of their walls. The spermatia are small and straight, and mixed with an abundant mucilage ; they are developed laterally from the sterigmata, or from the upper and outer surface of their constituent cellules. Chemical analysis has detected in this Lichen yellow and red colouring matters,— the former being parietinic or chr^- PARMELIA. 209 sophanic acid, wliicli i«? c.^^^. ^f +i i nal rhubarb ; ev 1 Z 1 *'"."°'.°"""^ "^"^ "^ ^m. -gar, gu,„ s::^^:'rf'''^^'^^"''"*^ro,, '"atter, gallic acid and ^'''^^''«>«. «« resiu, biUer steari;efciroi, „?""''" f"^^^^' °"'- "^-dcs wax, *^'~bK^ the ^riit r :: :f t -•- gam>c plants, which consist generally of n 7 ''"'"• bonale of lime Its v.ll„, ° ^ "^ piwsphate or car- dantl, emploL V tt ' """" ''"' "^^^^ "bun- northern Eurone Z f ''"""''^ '" '"™"^ -""'^es of u J.urope for dyeing woo len goods Ti,» i , i^ Johnston of Berwielf in i,; • . • ^ "^^ 'ate Dr. em Borders ' Tntt; / / .""""^ '^"'^"^^^ 'he East- it at Easter; k TZ^:^ ''T "^"'^ ^''''''-" -"-' ici= • ayeing their Pasque eee-s S,. i » i 1815 It was commended as a substit„!f f '^ "^ cinchona bark in intermittent feve'td t , '^"'""^ "" other diseases been emnin,. i ''"^ "' ""any This Lichen ocT:: TS^^r ^ Jf^ ^ found in South America and oti f "'^°"'' "'"^ '^ 210 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. I with in the shops of the London herbalists, being probably kept chiefly for the purposes of the bird-stuifer. "^ 15. Parmelia elegans {elegans, handsome) . Thallus ver- milion or orange-red, membranaceous-cartilaginous, smooth on both sides, white below, sometimes granulose above, stel- late or radiose; lacinise torulose, linear, lacinulate, somewhat discrete, convex. Apothecium of similar colour to thallus. (E. B. 2181, var. orbicularis) Not uncommon on rocks and stones in lowland as well as subalpine or alpine districts. It occurs on the granitoid rocks of the summits of some of the highest mountains. On Orizabo, it was found at an elevation of 14,850 feet ; by Agassiz it was seen on the summit of the Jungfrau ; and on other lofty mountains it constitutes the last form of vege- tation, attaining a greater height sometimes than even Led- dea geographica. It occurs also in the Arctic regions. It sometimes resembles, on superficial examination, small and reddish varieties of the preceding species. *^^ Thallus squamulose ; squamules imhricate-lohate. 16. Parhelia hypnorum. Thallus dull-greenish, be- * For references to the chemistry of P. parietina see Rochleder and Heldt Annalen der Chem. und Pharra., 1843 : Herberger, Buchner's Kepertorium! 1834 : Schlossberger, Pharm. Journal, 1848. ^•" SiiliiiMiiiiijiix^n bably sver- looth stel- what illus. well itoid ains. feet; and ^ege- Leci- It and be- [eldt, rium. PARHELIA. 211 coming brown when dry,— below whif« crenate^freeatperipherv. ^""\''^''''' «quamules lobate- thecia large r!SZ ""'"^ ^'^^^^^^ ^P- nulose. ' "''^^^^■^^-"'- --g- thick, at length gra- . ^^^^^coramon in various parts of the Hi^hlan.1. ^ngon moss and heather, and'also on the gr^un^' ^^^^" ^ hi. i. Dorsetshire, ^^ZJ^::^;^^^ one inch in diameter, or Ling a ^,'7?.^'"^ ''""'* Lichens found i„ diiiereTplt nf A "r^"*-^""''" "-«« Vs 'Vegetable K^ 1 T Wh ^ 'T " ^'"'- --tobe^jj^indZtr::!;:?:-: t Third edition. 1863, p. 60 c. '' 212 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHEN3. M r ■i *mmmmmmmmimm glomerate thaUus, or to be formed of a scries of super- imposed, but confused, layers of tlialline tissue. Many of the specimens are irregularly fissured on the surface, the fissures apparently passing into an obsolete central cavity, which has probably been the base of attachment of the plant to the twigs of trees. This attachment has probably been very loose ; the Lichen has been detached by the wind, and from rolling along the surface of the ground, from a peculiar curling in or involution of the foliaceous thallus, as well as from repeated growths of secondary thalli upon the parent thailus, the present form has been apparently produced. It is contrary to all analogy to suppose that this Lichen has been free or non-adherent from birth ; at the same time it is evident that it has grown and increased in size subsequent to the period of its detachment from its base of support. While this is a rare instance of a plant growing vigorously after all connection with its base of support has been severed. It illustrates, in a most conclusive manner, the fact that the nutrition of Lichens is often wholly independent of soil, and it also exhibits the influence of epithalline growths, of the multiplication of secondary thalli, in modifying the form of Lichens. It would appear however that we are not rigidly bound down to the necessity of believing that fhis Lichen PARMELIA. 213 ment. or alst " C;r ""T "'""^' ""^ ^«"^'- to fl,P „ ; testimony of travellers, in rc-ard to tlie occurrence of erratic Lichens lnvin„ . f adherent thalks, has hitherto been reeZd ^^ " T' * suspicion; it is no^howe. :::: if,;r^^^^ fc of this erratic Parhelia in Britain ' "" "" of I: rrtiirn't"" ■•"^""^-^^ ""^' ■■- *"^ ^-^-^ cannot be 1: ^^^^^^^^^ *V"^ ^'^"' "^'""^^ mate it most closely to 5 ™//v """''^^ "P'''''^'- 1„. ;= 1 ;■ ■ i ^ P-P^>lcheda, var. <.«,;«. TJi^ thai b.tn>g a few scattered, punctiform, white soredia cart.W «ous.membranaeeo„s,-beW brownish, with br ll £ laonire vary ,n size and mode of division are verv 7 ' »>uch curled and twisted at margin, ZZZ T T'? aned and rounded at their apices! ' "" ^"'''^■ The genus Parmelia includes wmp nf +1, i Parmchas have been popularly denominated r'-aeaf 2U POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. Lichens" or "Shicld-edge Lichens/' in allusion to the ap. pearance or resemblances of their thallus or apothecia. Nat. Ord. YII. LECANOREACEM lam. Char. Thallus criistaceous, effigurate or uniform. Jpo- ^W;« scutellate, sessile, superficial: thalamium concave or flattish, frequently becoming tumid, varying in colour. Genus T. LECANORA, AcL Gen. Char Thalamium always naked, normally immarginate, flat or um,d. (Name from X..^^, a dish or platter, in allusion to the form of the apothecium.) * Thallus squamulose ; central squamules crowded into an areolate crust. 1. Lecanora crassa {crassvs, thick or fertile). Thallus greenish-grey, usually white.pruinose,--below black, white at circumference ; peripheral squamules subradiose-plicate, incised-lobate, rounded and crenate. Apothecium appressed brick.coloured; margin tumid, at length evanescent. (E. b! 1893, var. caspitosa.) There are several varieties, depending on the form and arrangement of the central and peripheral squamules, the LECANOBA. 215 prumose or non-pruinose nature of their surface or mnrrin, and he,r varying colour. Not uncommon on rocks and boulders, especially if thinly covered with earth, in lowland regions, as on Arthur's Seat, and roadsides round Edinburgh • some forms occur in roek-fissnres on Highland mountaL: rac spermogones may be detected under the lens scattered here and there on the older squamules, either in the form of minute, pale-brown tubercles, entire or cracked, or of minute excavations with irregular margins; they arc im- mcrsed, globular or irregular, and their cavity is divided mto many anfractuosities. The spermatia are linear, strongly curved mto an arc. ° " ** TAallu at circumference Hellate-radiose, in centre rimose-areolate. 2. Lecanoua mororum {murm, a wall). Thallus yellow or vermdion-coloured, sometimes white-pruinose ; peripheral acm.^ narrow mcised-lobate, convex ; centre of thallus areo- late-verrucose, often granulate-pulverulent. Apotheeium orange-coloured,— margin paler. Comparatively common in many lowland and subalpine localities, on walls, rocks, stones, bricks, tiles, and mortar- some forms are montane or alpine. It frequently bears some resemblance, on superficial examination, to forms of :%. 216 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. Parmeha parietina, P, elegans, and Lecidea aurantiaca. The L. muronm of E. B. (2157) is 8chrBrer's L. callopisma, which has broadish and flat peripheral lacini^. ^^ Thalhis uniform. a. Ajjothecia black or brown. 3. Lecanora atra (ater, black). Thallus glaucous or whitish, cartilaginous, usually becoming granulose-verrucose: hypothallus black. Apothecium very black (at all stages of its development), naked, frequently tumid; margin entire or crenulate. The thallus or apothecia sometimes sorediiferous or variolarioid : the latter vary greatly in size and number (E. B. 940, var. vulgaris). A very common species, growing on trees, rocks, and walls in lowland and subalpine regions. In the neighbour- hood of Perth it is abundant on old roadside-walls. Corti- colous forms frequently resemble a following species, L. sub^ fnsca, whose apothecia frequently become black ; but they are distinguished therefrom by their apothecia being very black ab initio. Its spores are oval, of medium size, colour- less, double-walled; they vary in size in specimens from dif- ferent habitats. The young spores frequently contain a cen- tral globular cellule, surrounded by coarse granular matter; these disappear as the spores arrive at maturity, their con' ^» J LECANORA. 217 f I™ f ! \7T"'°"-'- ^'' ^P^^og^nes occur in the form of mmute black tubercles, round which the cortical fssue appears raised or torn ; on section of the white me- dullary tissue they appear as greyish spots. The spermatia are very numerous, straight, and of extreme tenuity, resem- blmg masses of needles. 4 L,CA,oRA SUBFOSCA («,«, somewhat, /««„, brown). Thai us whitish, somewhat cartilaginous, smoothish or gra. ..ulate-verrucose; hypothallus white. Apothecinm brownish, frequently becoming blackish, sometimes greyish-pruinose: There are many varieties, or corticolous, saxicolous, and mus- c,co lous forms, depending on the varying characters both of the hallus and apothecia. The thallus is sometimes rimulose- areola e, papillose or contiguous, and of a yellowish or green- ish colour; it may be sorediiferous, or may degenerate into a pulverulent crust, becoming one of the Leprarias of old writers The apothecia may be crowded or scattered, large or small, of various shades of brown and black, concave, flattened or tumid, naked or pruinose, with a thin or tumid entire or flexuose, crenulate margin : or they may become abortive and sorediiferous (E. B. 450, var. leucoj>u). One of the commonest Lichens, growing on trees, dead wood, pahngs, rocks and stones in lowland regions, almost 218 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. r» If everywhere ; it is abundant in woods and on roadside trees and walls. Some varieties are peculiar to certain trees or rocks ; for instance, var. pinaslri, a non-granulose, leprose, yellowish or greenish form, grows on the bark of the Pirns sylvestris, the "Scotch fir r and var. nrenulata, which has small, flattened, subpruinose apothecia, with a tumid crenu- late margin, grows chiefly on calcareous stones. A curious form, having a papillose-ramulose thallus, covers in patches decayed heather or moss in some parts of the Highlands : this was one of the Isidiums of old writers (Isidium ocu~ latum, E. B. 1833), a genus which is now found to con- sist chiefly of isidioid, sterile and abortive forms of various species of Lecanora, — as L. pallescenSy L. rimosa, and L. subfusca. In some young thalli we have observed, under the microscope, abundance of octahedral crystals, probably of oxalate of lime; but as in the case of ucicular crystals in the young thallus of Parmelia parietina, we have not been able to satisfy ourselves that these do not really belong to the bark on which the Lichens grow. The spores of L. subfusca are small, oval or ellipsoid, colourless, simple or double-walled, and are in the mature state full of homo- geneous oil. They germinate in the same way as those of Parmelia parieiiiia. The spermogones may be observed ] mmm mmm^mm> : l.KviilitJi rW-r.t Brooks hup J I-ECANORA. h'X'e no free cavity. The 7 ""'""^' "'"ost black • theJ f -d e.w: th?;:!r--«^'>,ve,;i^f """^d- This and the preceT ""■''^^"°"'' l'"ear and fPh'-eal range, oocur„rSe'AT'" ''^^^ ^ ^d*' Sel ^-ica, and other forei^^ttr «« -^-, in So'nth - -hitish or greyish Cbri:!""' 'T'^P^'^)- Tha,. b^rcnlose-rngose. A;othelr , r"'''''''"''S'""°»Ma. Panose; «arg,„ tun^d ;reX 't'^'^^^"' -»'"- -Pecally when saxicoious -on I ," '''"^"^""^ -'A-oM, °-^ white, friaUe. and re'ai;. t" t° "' '^ ""«' *-*-- branaceons, especially on trees' L ' ' '°"^'^'"" "«■»- variety, var. jjarella, a I I 220 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. nmose, areolate-verrucose form, which is both saxicolous and corticolous in its habitat, with a rugose, wl^-te-pruinose apo- thecmm, is the Lecanoraparella of older authors (E. B. 727). Its specific name is said to be derived from its having been for ages known in France as the "Perelle d'Auvergne," on account of its yielding, on ammoniacal maceration, a fine orchill, called the -Orseille d'Auvergne." This pigment was prepared chiefly at St. Flour and Limoges, and the Lichen was collected by the peasantry of Auvergne, Limousin, Lan- guedoc, Provence, Lyons, and other districts of southern France, Manufacturers distinguished two varieties, white and grey, depending chiefly on the maturity and purity of the plant, the latter being preferred. The operation of ma- ceration or preparation extended over ten or twelve days, and consisted essentially in the steeping of the Lichen' ground into a pulp, in stale urine,— the addition of lime, and sometimes alkalies,— and the moulding of the mass into pa- rallelopipeds or small cakes, like those of litmus. Under the name of -Light Crottle " it has been much used by the Scotch Highlanders to yield an orange or reddish dye for woollen goods; and, as the common "Crab\^-eye Lichen,'' it appears to have been gathered in the north of England according to Withering, for the London orchill-maker. We LECANORA. 221 fereit liab tats,-mant,me, lowland, and alpine -to vield goo q„ah.es of orchiU; eortieolous varieL 1. L 1 White Crottle, ,s,d.oid saxieolous forms have been used by the peasantry of this and other countries, in the pTep^ t.on of a ^d or crimson dye. As a general rul, the Xw ascolonfac. The spores ofvar.^««a are large, oval double llfitr^^ being delicate, transparfn and c I ." g anuiar and ojy, sometimes having a faint yellow tinge The wo coats are usually more or less closely united r ut mg the use of reagents to dissociate and render them d 2 " A er the escape of its contents, the spore appears! ate pelucd or hyaline vesicle, frequently corm^ed oTplitte t2jT,':'T "'"^°" f-quentl/containsa C; c n r 1, globular cell, surrounded by granular matter, mixS with a considerable amount of oil-globules Tl,. ;«« of these spores is peculiar. wLnttdis:;:?^^^^^^^^ the theca their outer coat is transparent, but it foon be comes opaline, a change probably due to ^^^^^ 222 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. its two layers. Gradually, from all points of their surface, whitish filaments are developed, radiating in every direction ; they ramify towards their extremities, and by the interlacing of their ramifications, form a hypothallus. These filaments are almost solid, and proceed from the epispore alone, which, along with its bristly coating, may easily be rubbed from the endospore by gentle friction between glass. As the fila- ments become developed, the granular and oily contents of the spore are converted into an emulsion, and then gradually disappear. The spore itself meanwhile undergoes no appre- ciable change, but it probably serves as the nucleus of the first cellular layers of the future thallus. The spermogones of this variety are difficult of discovery, from their opening on the surface of the thallus by an almost invisible pore ; they are to be looked for by repeated sections of the white medullary tissue, in which they appear as yellowish spots. They are ovoid and pluricellular (divided into sinuous cavi- ties or compartments) ; their sterigmata are linear and simple, or slightly ramose ; their spermatia acrogenous. The variety Upsaliensis, which has a membranaceous-ver- ruculose thallus, is a peculiar form growing on decayed grass, moss, or heather, on various Highland mountains. 6. Lecanora tartarea. Thallus white-glaucescent, LEOANOiU. 223 membranaceou..cartiIagmous or tartareous, areolate-tubercu- L^^rrrst'^ "'"^" *"'"''^' ''--'g thin, often A common montane and alpine species, growing on boul- tarns The thallns zs frequently sterile, sorcdiiferous or .drnd ; ,t IS nsually thick, friable, and meal,, its tnbercles varying ,n s..e, bnt always densely aggregated. The apo- heca are generally large, often confluent, and very irregular m form, havmg usually flexuose, thick, incurved m4nB ; they may be concave or flattened. It appears to prefer gra- nitoid rocks and exposed situations. We have found it in a stenle state, along with other subalpine or alpine species on large micaceous boulders on the hills, at a slight eleva- t|on above the sea, around Perth. It is to be presumed that the Lichens have been developed subsequently to the removal of the boulders from their origin-probably the Dun- keld Highlands, fifteen miles off-to their present resting places; hence this example would tend to indicate that the Mture the rocky habitat has frequently more to do than chmate *ith the growth of some montane or alpine species. A variety grows sometimes on trees in alpine woods; and a 224 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. peculiar form, s^x.frhjlda, having a loose granulose thallus, grows on decayed mos3, grass, or heather, on some of the Highland mountains. (E. B. 1879.) In the latter, as well as in the similar muscicolous form of L, palleat.^s, the thallus sends out papillae, or spinuliferous branches. The thecse of L. tartarea are large, but indistinct and uni- spored ; the spores, in appearance, resemble those of the pre- ceding species, but are larger. This species yields a beauti- ful orchill, and, under the name of "Swedish" or "Tartare- ous Moss," is largely imported from Norway and Sweden by the London orchill-maker. Isidioid varieties or forms, in which the thalline tubercles are hypertrophied, appear to be richest in colorific matter. l>om this Lichen Cudbear was at one time largely manufactured in Scotland, and Litmus m Holland. When Cudbear-making flourished in Glasgow and Leith, the "Cudbear Lichen," so-called, was largely collected in the western Highlands and islands by the poor peasantry, who were thus able to earn in 1807, according to Hooker, fourteen shillings a week. In Derbyshire and the rocky parts of Cumberland and Westmoreland it was also at one time collected by the peasantry, probably for the London market ; they sold it to the manufacturer at a penny a pound, and were able usually to gather twenty to thirty pounds a day. lus. LECANORA. 225 revive Ji,. ouT iiff'T f "" " ^'"'"'""^ ^"='-' " ^ conferred r,tlti?: 'tt' " ^"'" '""" ■"'•^''' '- century also b^ ^^^^^^^ "":•; ''"^ -""" «'« '-' Wf- kelp-iheri„r ^ ! ^ '"'°*" ^""^^ "^ e,„olu,„ent- pea.niorva:J:r;:r preparation of domestic dves T S , IT .T™ '" '^' nufacture Cudbear b, ™ae Itnl tl ' " """' '""■ putrid urine for some wrks !l^^ '"'""''''^'' ^'^'-" *" when the renuisi^eTurl =" '""" '^'^''' "' ^""' "''d in. t,.e past:;:: itTuirr? ' °':'"^"' ^''™- and suspending it iu ba^s to drv m T ""' ^'""^' it is po« dered/and the p: • r ^LicTe T tr '" '' '''''' a little alum. This Jheu Tl^^^^f^^^ T) ■nany parts of the Highlands. In She land | f m>n.U prepared therefrom, it is oj^ S:?"', '"^ --"Har, su.,osed tha;:;,;:::^^:^^ Q l> I I 226 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. rangiferina, Pelttgera canina, or Marchantia polymorpha is sufficient to spoil it for dyeing purposes. The Swedes pre- pare from it a red dye, which they call " Boettelet," and the Welsh peasantry use it in a similar way. This and the pre- ceding species are widely distributed over the world, grow- ing in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. c. Apothecia yellow. 7. Lecanora varia (from varius, changeable). Thallus greenish-yellow, becoming ochroleucous, cartilaginous, ru- gose-granulose ; hypothallus white. Apothecia innate or sessile, yellowish -flesh-coloured, becoming sometimes brown- ish or blackish, with a thin, erect entire margin, which some- times becomes flexuose or crenulate, pulverulent, or covered by the thalamium. (E.B. 1549, var. maculiformis ; E. B. 2547, var. aitewa.) A common and, as its name implies, a protean species, growing on trees, palings, and dead wood in lowland dis- tricts ; some of its varieties, of which there are many, are montane or alpine. It was found by Saussure, Agassiz, and others, on the summits of the Alps. It is frequently abun- dant on the fences of fields and on roadsides. The thallus sometimes becomes pulverulent. The apothecia may be con- cave, flattened, tumid, or convex, minute or large, black and abortive ; its spores resemble those of L, subfusca. LECANORA. 227 d. Apothecia red. 8. Lecanora BcnuA [ruber, red). Tliallus whitish, Icprose or subcart,Iagi„ous, verruculose or granulate-pulverulent. Apothecm from flesh-eoloured becoming blood-red, concave • margin tumid, inflexed, creimlate. An elegant species, not very common on trees in some parts of the Highlands, as about Ben Lawers, Perthshire 9. Lecanora H^matomma. Thallus pale ochroleucous or whitish, tartareous-farinose. Apothecia innate, at length sessile, crimson or blood-red. Not uncommon as a coating of rocks in many localities, lowl nd and subalpine. It is somewhat frequent in th neighbourhood of Edinburgh, as on Arthur's Seat and North Berwicklaw ; around Perth it occurs on the hills above Kin- fauns, and it mcrusts the rocks about the Falls of Moness to such an extent, that Burns alludes to it when he sings in his ' Birks of Aberfeldy,' ^ " The hoary cliffs ascend like wa's " 10. Leca^iu ventosa. Thallus pale greenish-yellow, tartareous verrucose-areolate and pulvinate. Apothecia ap! pressed blood-red or brownLsh-red, resting on the thalline warts, frequently irregular in form; margin thin or thiTk w«»a5a«&«^ re ' 1 ; I ? : ! . 228 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. Comparatively common on rocks and boulders, especially granitoid, in many parts of the Highlands, but a somewhat rare saxicolous species in lowland districts. Its spores, in the specimens we have examined, are unlike those of the preceding species, bein^ fusiform, bulging in the centre, tri- septate, and colourless, or somewhat intermediate in general characters between those of Peltigera and Sticta, An alco- holic solution of a Norwegian specimen gave a rich green reaction with ammonia, a reaction which we found in no other Lichen whose coloritic capabilities we have examined. This species occurs in the Antarctic regions. North America, Australia, and in several other parts of the world. Two foreign species of this genus, Lecanora esculenta and affinisy are of great interest, from having repeatedly, under extraordinary circumstances, served as the food of large numbers of men and cattle, in various countries lying be- tween Algeria and Tartary. They are said at various times and in divers places to have appeared suddenly, covering with a layer, sometimes from three to six inches thick, large tracts of cr untry ; and the inhabitants, beheving their origin to have been from heaven, have designated them a species of manna, and have imitated their flocks, in times of scarcity of food, by eating them. Some writers, speculating on their nature, have gone so far as to assert their identity with the ^x4- LECANORA. 239 m.nna m.raculou.ly supplied to the children of I.rael while journeying in the wilderness. Several "rains of manna," con- sisting o one or other of these Lichens, have been described by travel lers as occurring in Persia and neighbouring coun- tnes. The manna ,s usually fonr.d in the form of small lumps, from the size of a pi.'s head to that of a pea or r .""'' ^'"'''^ ^^« g'^>'i-'I' or whitish, hard, irregular in form, .nodorous, and insipid. Individual plants weigh from a few grams to about a couple of scruples when dry; the thallns bears no evidence of hav.ng, „t any period of its growth been attached to a base of support. And, .singuh.rly enough analysis has failed to discover in it starch, toough It has detected no less than 66 per cent, of oxalate of lime m some specimens; hence it has proved deleterious to sheep feedmg on it m Algeria, and has only been used by man in extreme need. This Lichen.n,anna has fallen in the form of rain or has been found sud.lenly covering tracts of coun- try m Persia, the steppes of Tartary, the countries about the Altai and Caucasus, near Sebastopol and other parts of the Crimea, on Ararat, near Damascus, in Algeria, and in the African Sahara. As an illustration of the circumstances under winch this manna-rain is said to fall, Anchercloi states that in 1829, during a war between llussia and Persia, a large tract of country round a town on the south-west shore ■-*- I I IIHW \' \ 230 POPULAR HISTOPY OF LICHENS. of the Caspian, whose inhabitants were in a state of famine, was suddenly covered by a Lichen which fell from heaven. The sheep were noticed to eat it with avidity ; the idea im- mediately occurred to the famishing inhabitants that this substance might prove equally agreeable or nutritious to themselves, and accordingly it was converted into bread. A substance eaten by the Kirghiz Tartars under the name of "Earth-bread" would appear to be a different Lichen, inasmuch as it occurs as a crustaceous coating of the soil, cracking and separating in fragments when the ground be- comes dry.''^ Genus II. URCEOLARIA, AcA. Gen. Char. Thallus uniform, usually greyish or whitish, some- times rusty-coloured (by the absorption of peroxide of iron from the soil). Thalaraium always naked, raarginate, concave orflat- tish, black or reddish, somewhat separate from the margin of its exciple. (Name from nrceohis, a little water-pitcher, in allusion to the form of the apotheoium.) 1. Urceolaria cinerea {cinereuSj of an ash colour). Thallus tartareous, smoothish, greyish or whitish rimose- * E\ersmann, lu Lichenem esculentem Pallasii : Wright, on L. esculenta, in American Journal of Science, 1847 : Walpers, ou L. esculenta, in Bota- nische Zeitung, Ang. 25, 1851 : Berkeley, in Gardeners' Chronicle, 1849, p. 611, or Lindley's 'Vegetable Kingdom,' 3rd ed. 1853, p. 50c. k \ ^ mmy ... . .H..T UHCEOLARIA. 281 areolate; hypothallus black. Apothecia at. first seated in thalhne areola, patellate and scutellate, black, naked, or greyish-pruinose. There are many varieties in which'the apothecia are isolated or crowded, irregular in form, with a thick, flexuose, or unequal margin. Not uncommon on rocks and stones of various kinds in lowland and subalpine districts; it is frequently the cause of the grey colour or crust of rocks and cliffs. Its spores, m the specimens we have examined, resemble those of Phy- ma ciliaris or Parmelia stellaris, but are smaller than either. 2. UiiCEOLARU scEuposA (scruposus, rugged). Thallua tartareous-farinose, whitish, greyish, or lead-coloured, areo- late-verrucose or granulose, sometimes dissolving into a pulverulent mass; hypothallus white. Apothecia immersed, --younger concave, margin contracted or connivent, rugose • older flattened, patellate or scutellate, black, greyish-pruinose,' the margm sometimes obsolete. TE. B. 1732, var. vulgaris; 266, var. hryophyta ; 1954, var. diacapsis.) A comparatively frequent species in lowland and subal- pme districts, incrusting rocks, stones, dead wood, tree- trunks, the ground or moss. Saxicolous forms are some- times isidioid ; muscicolous varieties, like similar forms of Lecanora paliescens and tartarea, differ most from the others It 11 ff I 232 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. in appearance. Tlie young thallus often contains such an amount of oxalate of lime as to be quite gritty between glass slides ; and under the microscope this salt may be detected in the form of its characteristic octahedral crystals. Its thecse are long, slender, and hnear; its spores comparatively large and very distinct. The latter are broadlv oval or some- what oblong, frequently with an irregular wavy or bulgino- margin, depending upon their cellular contents, which con- sist of a number of rounded cubical cellules, varying in size, arranged usually in six to ten horizontal rows, and sometimes in a distinctly dolible longitudinal series ; they are thus of the class of spores termed cellular or muriform. When-, young they are pale-yellow, but when mature they become dark-olive or blackish or brownish-green. The spermogones are scattered over the thallus, and sometimes niched in the exciple of the apothecia; they are difficult of discovery, from the pale colour of the ostiole. They are oval or globular ; their usually simple cavity is lined with straight sterigmata, and almost loaded with spermatia, which are linear, straight, and thicker than those of most Lichens. 3. Urceolauia calcarea {cala^, hme). Thallus tarta- reous-farinose, whitish rimulose-areolate, often effigurate at circumference; hypothallus white. Apothecia immersed. ■■'/■!" T-, ^■I'sv WKti-hlitL 1 h i *ii i wi. . >i.« . .^" I. UECEOIjIMA. 333 flathsh, black,-younger greyish-pruinose, then naked, with a thm, at length discrete, entire, proper margin; thalline border somewhat prominent, entire or rugosa-crenate. The thallus IS sometimes continuous or very shghtly rimulose; the areote discrete, and the apothecia isolated or crowded and punctiform. (E. B. 8:>0, var. concreta. subvar. „,^ui puncta.) Not uncommon on rocks and stones, especially calcareous ones (hence Its name), in lowland and subalpine districts, as on the Sdunan rocks of the Malvern Hills. In some loeali- tiesit IS so peculiar to limestone rocks, that it might almost be cons>,^red diagnostic. I„ Wales, Shetland, 'and other parts ot Britain, it has been used by the peasantry to yield a scarlet dye. We have found several of the Ureeolari;s to resemble the tartareous Xecanoras in their colorific proper- ties, yielding like them fine qualities of orchill. The Le can^a tartarea, as formerly collected in the Western High- lands for Cadbear-making, was frequently mixed with this species."^ * For observa;Jons on the minute anatomy of Urceolaria. vide Dr Schneh ardt m Botamsche Zeitung,' March 2nd, 1855, ' Zur Kenntniss der Gat tungen Urceolaria und Lecidea.' ^enntniss der Gat- 234 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. [i I I Nat. Ord. VIII. LECIBEACEjE. Fam. Char. Thallus crustaceous. ApoUiecium patellate, orbi- cular, concave, flat or tumid, solid. Genus I. GYALECTA, Ach, Gen. Char. Thallus uniform. Apotheciura urceolate, immargi- nate, at first closed and nucleiform, afterwards variously dehis- cent, the excipular border being elevated, discrete, coloured. (Named from yuoAo's, concave, in allusion to the form of the apothecia.) 1. Gyalecta cupularis [cupaj a cup). Thallus reddish- grey, becoming greyish-green when dry, leprose. Apothecia superficial, concave, radiate-dehiscent, brick or flesh-co- loured ; margin in younger contracted-rugose, whitish-sub- pulverulent. (E. B. 739.) On stones and rocks, especially of a calcareous and arena- ceous nature, and also sometimes on ground in various low- land and subalpine districts. Its thin thallus moulds itself accurately to the surface of the stones on which it grows. The spermogones may be recognized as small, somewhat spherical tubercles, with a broadened base, seated on and scarcely in the thallus ; they are of a pale rose-colour, have a dense thick capsule, and are of a horny consistence ; the 1 / LECIDEA. 235 interior is divided into labyrinthine cavities. The steri£,raata are very slender; the spermatia of great tenuity, and straight. Genus II. LECIDEA, ^e/5. rai?bl,!k"fl\ Jk""" "'""""'■"'^ "' """'"™- ^P""'-- g»o- tull . ■ """■^'"'"'' ♦''''''""'""' *'^^q""'% becoming tum,d and covering margin of exciple, which is generally carbo naccous and very black. Tissue on which thala^ium real col monly also carbonaceous, sometimes differently coloured. (Name IpoThec^O ' "'''' '"'' '^'"' '*'' " '^""" '" "^ '""" »f "■« A large and important genus, including most of the small crustaceous lichens of our rocks and »aIls,-those speces which are generally the initial agents in the disin- tegration ot our mountains and in the formatiou of ve<.e- table soil. Many species appear destitute of a thallus, the dissocmted elements of which however may be found sunk m, or incorporated with, the surface of the rock or tree on which they grow; some sink their apothecia deeply in the hardest rock.'^ ♦ For minute anatomy of species of Zecidea, vide Dr. Schuchardt in Botapische Zeitung,' March 2, 1855. ^"-nucnarat, m 236 POPULAU HISTORY OF LICHENS. * Thallus sqnamnlose ; sqvamnles often aggregated into a variously plicate crust, a. Sqnamules solitary or imhr'icate. 1. Lecidea decipiens. Thallus brick-coloured, below oiid at margins white; squamules orbicular or sinuate-lobate, wavy, discrete or aggregate. Apothecia black within and without, globose, marginal. As the plant becomes old the thallus and apothecia sometimes become white. On heathy or gravelly soil in different parts of Scotland and England ; not very common. Its spermogones are not abundant, but are easily recognized, when they are present, on the centre of the squamules, by their minute stellate pores. They are immersed, globular, divided interiorly into several plicate sinuses; their sterigmata are linear, very slender and crowded ; their spermatia numerous and straight. b. Squamules aggregated into a gyrose or rugose-jplaited crust. 2. Lecidea c^eruleo-nigricans [carulens, blue or green, and nigricans, blackish). Thallus blackish-green, often whit- ish or greyish-pruinose, cartilaginous ; squamules aggregated into a bullate or rugose-plicate crust. Apothecia black with- out, white within, naked ; margin prominent, often flexuose. The thallus usually sends upwards erectish, stem-like, ramose LECIDEj), 237 s uamules, inflated above, fibrillose and yellowish below. ll.e apothecm are among the largest found in the genua Leoulea, and are generally tat, rarely tumid. (E. B. II39 ) On ground, reeks, and in roek-flssures, on various High- land mountains, but not common. o.Squamule, affffreffalecl into a radio^e.pUcate crml hoary). Thallus glaucous, greyish or whitish; peripheral squamules sinuate-laeiniate, margins rotundate-lobate; centre rugose often becoming pulverulent. Apothecia black within and wjhout; younger greyish-pruinose, sometimes cro-„ed by tha lus._I„d.vidual specimens generally have a diameter of half an mch or an inch, but the plants are frequently c nfluent, forming large, irregular patches. Apotheeia 1 very rare. (E. B. 582.) • Common on trees and stones in lowland regions; it is abundan ,a the woods and on roadside walls in the neigh- bourhood of Perth, almost always iu a sorediiferous or pul- verulent and never in a fertile, state. Its spermogones re- semle those of some Pannelias; they are distinguished on the thallus as small black points or cones, and are immersed have an oval hgure, a very narrow ostiole, and a simple cavity. The sterigmata are almost solid, very narrow, articulated 'mm ( i I. 233 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. irregular and ramose ; the spermatia straight, and very nu- merous. This species is made the type of a new genus by some recent authors, — the genus Buellia of De Notaris, the Biplotomma of Flotow. ^* Thallus distinguished hy a persistent^ hlacJcy delicately Jibrillose hypothalluSy and by coloured areola, which are sometimes aggregated into a rimose-areolate crust, hounded by a black margin. 4. Lecidea oeographica (7//, the earth, and ypaland hills, as on the Fentla.uls, near M n- UM and 0,: Ben Lon.ond. It attains the .umnu of th Alp, h vn,s been found by Saussure on the top of Mont Blanc nd by Agassi, at a he.ght of V^,850 feet on the Uull. Uke var.ous Urceolar.as and Gyalectas >t some- 2 has an oehrey colour, derived from the peroxide of iron in the substance on winch it grows. b.T/mllu^l<'pro^^.3r«nulo«e or pulverulent 6 Lecidea PU1.CTATA ( j,«».<«», a priek or point), ihal- lus glaucous or ash-grey, leprose or cartilaginous, sometimes 1 lose-areolate and rugulose. Apotheeia black, ses.^e, flat, with prominent tliin margins, rarely convex, and im- aarginate. ^^ ,.,„„, ^„,,ies iu lowland and sub- A verv common corticolous species , „ ^ ■, alpTne dstricts: it grows most frequently on the fir tribe, on le oak, beech, and other trees, and on the wooden fence of fields. On dead wood it sometimes occurs in a degenerate form In one of its commonest varieties, var. ^.rasemih<^ W is thin, equal, and bounded by the black hypothallus or effuse ; the apotheeia arc largish, flat or convex. In lECIDEA. 24] another variety, punctiformu, whose favonrif. i. i,-. • quentlythe Seotch fir the '"' 7°""'^ ''«'»*'" i^ fc- apothecia flat or conv 'x t. I ° "''^ """' «'"• 'he 1851 and 2699)^^ "'""'' ""'' P°'"'-'>k- 0^- B. than thoseof pLI 1' °'' ""l^""^' '"-'"^""'-. '-ger appearance the spores of 7wL. T e pl'2T which they are developed generallv .nnT ^""^^^""^ fr""" amount of oil-globules ^ " ' considerable 7. Lecidea sangoinama (,««^«,v ..^ sanouen blonde Ihallus glaucous or whitish o^r^, i ^^• granules or globules . 7 f ^' /'P™'''' '"'^"^d «■& gated into atar^Jjll r'lt"' ir'™^^ »«^- fluent, naked, beco Jg otex U 7 • "'' "'''^^ ""»■ blood-red stratum (easify r^ ..ItfTe aTo^f •°" .^ A common corticolous and saxicolnl *'"'P'"^^'^'"'»)- as well as subalpine distric " It T 7 '^""'^ " '"''^'""'' ceding species, from wh h ^ o htt ""f " "" •''^- ^i^g^hed by the aubi^irXZ '"S '^ '■^■ tapering and horn-hke extremities, pale yellow BOB ■V ll. 242 POPULAR HISTORY Oi.' LICHENS. 1 1 V^nvmcf fiuelv ffranular or transparent con- Z:tZ'^T:^^^^^^^ to t.oseof P.—. Jut atmore irregular in form ; this irregubrity is usually due rtridhesiL of abortive ^po-, ^^^^ 7 ct oToTe ^i ^i,of r^f Picrlit «^T)ores m each theca only one or t: XX'a n:Sla become fertUe. The steri. raSi/e spores of Licheus are ^^^^^^^^2"^^^^ M^ in size or colour from fertile mature cells ; but ttiey wii ™irb found partially or wholly deficient in graru^ar STy protoplasm, which is essential to their germination, b ApotAeoi" varimdy coloured, mthn whUe. t Apothecia variegate. 1 1 I-ECIDEA. 243 lou.ed, instead of black ^ ""^ ''^S variously co- tt Apothecia red. ."r/r^r. tr •-"• --" -2: An elegant species, common on tf,^ fl beech, in lowland and subalpine woodf it' " "'"^*'"'^^ those of the following sDecie, h7 ^'^ ^P^e^esemble whitish, leprose, cove dSJ""^"' ''"''''"'^- ^^'^""^ -e or Jh.ooIo„e 1 r^^:^^^^^^ ^-»'- ^ '"Pothecia dicellate, flat, marginate ! ,, ? " '"^^^ ^'«'^% Pe- ien|thtnmid;ndr;:::-i^:~jMw^^^^^^^ Its apothecia are amonE^ L 1 !' "' g™vel.pits. or aggregate. The Diant i/„ T , P'' '*"'' "o^ded ^»i " l HiT— » w » " ' ^? ' !-■ •mm '■II « '■' ■ ' ,.. ' . ""^;'-' "''^ '^°^iigtii s . «' £ " » '*wi wi ■aNVBB<^>W< 1{ h i \ lit 1 ij I ia 24,4, POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. long, slender, linear, eight-spored ; the spores are of medium size, ellipsoid or fusiform, uniseptate, pale-yellow. In the young state of the spore there are sometimes several septa at Irregular intervals, or none are visible, the cell being simple. 11 Lecidea fbrroginea (ferruffo, iron-rust). Thallus whitish or greyish, leprose, covered with granules or warts of similar colour; apothecia rusty-red, sessile, flat, margmate, at length convex and immarginate. A common corticolous and saxicolous spee.es; in the neighbourhood of Perth it occurs on the beeeh and other forest-trces, and on micaceous stones in old roadside walls. In the commonest form the apothecia are largish, widi a thick, entire or flexuose margin, sometimes crowned by the thallus. The spores are almost identical with those ot Par- melia parietina. The spermogones are not very trequent ; they are isolated or gronped, obtuse, dark reddish-browu tubercles, whose internal tissue is white, and very solid ; their cavity branches into several sinuses. The sterigmata consist of almost solid cellules, and are sometimes ramose; the spermatia are of great tenuity. c. Apothecia t/ellmo. 12 LECiDEALUTEA(;«fo»*,paleycUow). Thallus greyish, green, leprose ; apothecia yellow, thi-ly margined, sessile, flat. (E. B. 1263.) GRAPHIDEACE^. 245 thallus white Aooihl" ' ^ °' '"rt^eous; hypo. evanescent. The aoothl . ''""' '* ^"'"etimes convex, with a^ore or L "''•'' """"' " """«'' «»* - Comparativelv col ! '™""""* ""'^^''• eareou., arenaceous, and .rr^^toir '"r.T"''"^ '''•'■ in subalpine regions. ^"""""'''-'» l<"^l^nd, more rarely Nat.Ord.IX. GRAPHIDEACEJl* ran,.. Char. Apollu^cia oblong or Jirelhte TV ; • connivent or veiled, oblon.. „,L, , ^''"'""""W ft first P-peror thalline e cipT o"' hot ?m "''' '""™""-^ '>"'■"« » in allusion to tl,e reseSanee o ,he H '"■" ^''"*'' «"""g' quentiy irregulaHy stellate or ^.a "t"'^?'"'' "™ ^'■^- or written characters. For th. ,1 ""' ""eroglyphic, popularly designated "Lette LieCs "7.%"" f"^'''^'^ "^ • B.BUOGRAPHV -r • .. Senpture-worts.") '^e -Ann,,, „f n„^„„, Hi?,,"™;*^;^'"' n' l"^, ''"''''' ""l"'*". "■ 1 « apiic;. etc., m the ' Jo„™al de Physique,' isi.s. UQ POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. A peculiar, common, and extensively diffused family, at- taining its maximum development in the Tropics, and de- creasing in numerical distribution towards the Poles ; in Lapland only one species exists. Their habitat is usually the smooth bark of forest-trees, but some species are saxico- lous. Trom their minuteness and protean character they are a difacult family to study ; but Leighton has lately done much towards the deciphering of these hieroglyphics of Na- ture,— as Layard and EawHnson have discovered the signi- fication of the graven characters on the stones of Nineveh, —and has produced a valuable monograph, which is the basis of the characters of the genera and species as here given.^ The Graphidea generally appear destitute of a thai- his. The lirellse may frequently be said to constitute the plant ; but the dissociated elements of the thallus may usually be discovered expanded in the tissue of the bark on which it grows. The spores of the species and genera vary greatly in character ; but in general they may be characterized as elongated, narrow and polycellular or polyseptate. They are frequently linear, fusiform, oblong or clavate, margined, containing rounded or irregular cellules, which are some- • We do not however express an unqualified approval of Leighton's classi- fication; for we cannot help thinking that he has divided, or split up, the Graphidece to an unnecessary extent. 247 Genus I. OPEGIUPHA, ^.^. ".iu,..: „hio b is Sir:"'''"', "': '"^^ "-" '-- "^ "■« ■ proper „„rgi,, Th"«u "e"uL " ''' '"'™=" " P™"""''-*. fi-om '. "f great teunit,. •^ n f I |' ^ ' *" ' y "$^'^':*!'*''??2 LL^5r! ' S B 5;i!iM aapm mmm lA, 248 POPULAU HISTOKY OF LICHENS. 2. Opeorapha uupestris {rupes, a rock). Lirelire oblong or ovate, deformed, short, obtuse, variously branched, wider at one extremity; theca3 eight-spored ; spores clavate, rounded at each end, triseptate, pale yellow. (E. B. 2345.) • On calcareous and arenaceous rocks and stones in various parts of Britain. •^* Corticolons species. 3. Opegrapha vakia. Tlmllus pulverulent, white; lirellse prominent, sessile, round, oblong, elliptic, or elongated and attenuated at each end. Thalamium canaliculate or dilated in the middle, or plane and convex ; proper margins promi- nent, inflexed, sometimes subevanescent ; thecse eight-spored, irregularly obovate or obovate-fusiform, five-septate; the central cell larger, hyaline, pale yellow. (E. B. 1890, var. notha; 2280, var. tigrina.) A common species on the oak, beech, elm, and other trees in our forests. Its name implies its changeable character : there are several varieties or states, depending on alterations in the character of the lirellse. Its spermogones are some- what similar to those of 0. saxatilis. 4. Opegrapha atra. Thallus very thin, forming smooth, pale yellow or whitish ocellate patches; lirellee densely crowded towards the centre of the patch, sessile,^ depressed, Hi..t., mu 06 oblong id, wider clavate, . 2345.) n various ;e ; lirellae ^ated and or dilated ns promi- tit-spored, tate ; the L890, var. )ther trees character : alterations are sorae- ig smooth, 86 densely depressed, ' ''Trirtrt ivmg»ttB ' 'iW» i iiHmi i ii.nu-n i , ii m i iin OMUBAPHA. 249 lying in all directions or subparallel, linear, generally simnle or confluent, flexuose. Thala™ium narrow unifor J' Z -arg,„s thick elevated, wav,. Thee, eight.po I' 'I septate, pale yellow. (E. B. 1753.) A common species on the smooth barks of the ash oak l;t. ?, germinating, the germ-filaments generally proceed from the terminal contained cellnles of tl!. ,po f and t ereafter the central ones sometimes send forth sS delicate tubular processes. effuse cartilaginous-membranaeeous, cracked and scaly green,.h.wh,te ; lirelte prominent, sessile, variable in si^ei: shorter ones roundish or oblong, longer ones slender Jnd mllr T '"' "' ^"""* " ^^^^^- Thalam.um nmaeform, uniform; proper margins thick, very round and nflexed. Spores fus.form, five-septate, pale yellow. (E. B. loll, var. vulgata.) ^ Common on the fir, ash, birch, oak, elm, apple, holly and other trees >n our woods and on our roadsides _,,.. II I ,r r »«TCSM«l«WMap«pi fill III 250 rOPULAll HISTOllY OF LICIIKNS. Gonuslf. G\i\V\US,AcL Gen. Char. Apothccia lirellate, immersed, rerithccium cnrbo- imeeous, covering only sides and not base of thalamium, vvlueh is canaliculate, liaving a proper margin and an accessory thalline margin. Tliallns crustaeeous or membranaceous. (Name from y/ju^ts, a design or sketeli.) 1. GiiAVHis S(^RirTA {scrijjl/fs, written). Thallus thin, mombraiiaceous, continuous, even; lirellie emergent, slen- der, contracted here and there, extremities acuminate ; pro- per margin thin, elevated, wavy, and crisped; thalline mar- gin membranaceous. Thalamium rimaiform, naked. Spores oblong or oval, margined, each containing eight to ten hori- zontal rows of subrotund, margined, yellow cellules. A common species, growing on the smooth barks of vari- ous forest and roadside trees, as the oak, ash, elm, bin^h, and hazel. The two following species are also connnon in simi- lar habitats, and closely resemble it in general characters. 2. GiJ APHIS T^uLVKRULENTA has a subtartareous, rugulose thallus. Lirelhx} subsessile, broadish, extremities cusi)idate ; proper margin thick, uniform ; thalline margin elevated, tu- mid : thalamium broadly canaliculate, pruhiose. (E. B. 1754.) llYMKNODRCrON. 251 3- OnAi'iifs .sKtu-KNUNA t;,..ii • «'>"e vvi.lH. tl.r«uLH,ou/ ; """"'"""^' "'"'"'''^ "f "'"S"""l> «xtromiti(;..< „|,(.,„,. . ,i,.,r v--.-ova., .,.,.,,;; :;;:"i;;;;:f ;f'^---.^ Genu., 1,1. IiVM..;NOJ>„x;rON,y.v./. }»-oim- ,m,vgU, ,-,„.| „„ „„.„„,,„.„ '"•I''"'"-'. l'"vi.,K „ very slonder ««r««., fitted to rceeive in „l ,"'"'''■ " ""^'"'"■""••. ""d theciura.) ' ' """""" '" tlio structure of tl,o peri- '- turtareou, pnlverulent/ Z , t^? V"f ''''""- SO-. Tha,u,.„.„ p..::,;,:;: ' ::;;;r xr'"?' ^''- "">rg...cd, rounded at ends ear, ' '"""''' ;=;r'-"'- -*'-■*" irits,* " ■'■''^^^^^^w^^^wWIw^'^'^' ^^mm. gyy - junmiiBuw mm 252 POPULAR HISTOEY OP LICHENS. On the beech in lowland forests in various parts of Eng- land ; not very common. Genus IV. CHIOGRAPHA, Leiff/it. Gen. Char. Apothecium lirellate or subdisciform, sessile. Pe- rithecium carbonaceous, surrounding the sides and base of a plane, broad thalamium, which has a proper, and an accessory, thalline margin. Thallus membranaceous. (Name from x^^v, snow, and ypari, writing, in allusion to the white, powdery, thalline margin.) 1. CiiiOGRAPHA Lyellii. Thallus smooth, wavy, deter- minate ; lirellse prominent, oblong or linear-oblong, simple, curved ; proper margin narrow, prominent ; thalline margin elevated, white, pulverulent. Thalamium plane, broad, prui- nose. Spores linear, margined, rounded at ends, each con- taining about seven or eight transversely oval, margined cellules. (E. B. 1876.) On the oak in the New Forest, Hampshire, and other parts of England. Genus V. AULACOGRAPHA, In^/d. Gen. Char. Apothecium lirellate, subimmersed, prominent. Perithecium carbonaceous, dimidiate, palmatifid, the base naked. LECANACTIS. furrowed, and an .~tmTT "• ''T'"' '-"^-f-dinally ceous. (Name from aZl a "r 'w f"'" ""' ""'"''^''"'"'■ of the proper margin.) ' '" ''"''^'»» '» '^e structure -^>e, Obion, 0. .inearX;!? r:;r ; S ^'""^-;' proper mamin tlnVV f -j '"'i^'^' straight or curved : thin!»e™b™a : 'ZtOT' ^'"'^"^ "-^*" transversely oval, margined cellule., • th ''""" largesUndmosthandsLesportobef T """"^ '"^^ (E. B. 181 2.) P '' '° ''^ ^"""d >° the family. Genus VI. LECANACTIS, &.^»,. PeritLil^rt Jr en^;: ^"^^^^^'^-' — ed. -0-. having a proper .aSrh ""'"'" "''"'' °f™' P^'" - regard to its fruetitieation, t'o the'grs SlT "' '"'''"^• ^mmmmmmm. tmrng^t POPULAR HISTOUY OP LICHENS. white ; lirella) oblong or linear-oblong, rounded at each end, simple, curved ; proper margin stout, elevated, wavy ; tha- Inmium flat, dilated, pruinose. Spores fusiform, seven- sep- tate, pale yellow. (E. B. 809.) On old oaks, and on oak timber long exposed to the weather, in various parts of England. It closely resembles in jreneral appearance the corticolous forms of Lecklea albo- afra, var. cortlcola, from whicli however its spores will dis- tinguish it. Some authors regard many of the GrajMdea as deformed Lecldeas, and assert that in temperate climates Opcgrapha frequently reverts to its normal type Lecidea. % \ I Genus VII. PLATYGRAMMA, Idglit. Gen. Char. Apotheciura lircllate, subsimple or radiate. Peri- thecium none ; tlialaniium free, plane, open, naked, without any margin. Thallus crustaceous. (Name from TrXarv's, broad, and ypdfifJLa, a letter.) 1. Platygramma IIuTCiiiNSiiE. Thallus minutely cracked ; lirellie immersed iu elevated thalline verruca3, ob- long or elongated, simple or branched, straight or flexuose; thalamium plane, dilated, naked. Spores fusiform, five to seven-septate, pale yellow. it AETHONU. n , 255 Un sliady rocks near the erour„l ;„ „ • J»nd and Mand; not comZ" ~'^'"''' ""^"S' Genus VIII. AKTIIONIA ././, Oen. Char. Apotl.eemm r„,„„li,l, or diffn , ses.„le. covnml wit!, a subeartih ?"''' '™'''l. """natcly dered,Waek. rough. Tl,„l,u cut^l^^ "" "^"'•'■^ P'»'-. "ot l^r- fro... S^e^, or p,;pe,,, itfu "'"'''''''•»''-»"- (Name ttecia (hence called ^^IT;*"!'"'''''^' "' """^ion to the ap„. thallus.) ''^' '^•'^'^"''''".g spots sprinkled over the 1. Abthonia astooidea („Vpo^, a starl Th ,. ... membranaceous, smooth, scaly white ^""f "^ *•""' olive, limited jardelia, innate 7'/ f' "'^""'^oiou'-ed or iM^miumbWist; ^tH r r^ -nded at ends, trisite' ^'.^T '"''''''■ Common on the smooth bark of forest: rees 2. ArthONIA SwART7rAMA A i „ Common on the smooth bark of ^lip « i, i , trees. ^ °^ ^^^ »«h and other forest- J mm i in iiiii>*w ti > « iM i»n iwi % ] . Mi i .«81rt l| 256 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. i^ I i ! Genus IX. CONIOCAKPON, DC, Oen. Char. Apotliccimu (ati anhilla) approsscd, votiitulatc-de- forracd or elongate, scssilis eovered with a sul)eartilaj2;inoiis mem- brane, which ultimately breaks up into a line powder ; perithe- cium none. Thalamium plane, depressed, not bordered, pruinose. Thallus erustaceous. (Name from koi/is, dust, and Ka/)7r(Js, fruit ; the pidvernU'scence of the apotheciu being the only respect in which it dilfers from the preceding genus.) 1. CoNiocARPON ciNNABARiNUM (ciwiahans, vermdion). Thallus tiliny, thin, greyish, determinate ; ardellaj clustered, shapeless, solid. Tliulamiuni lurid and i)rninose, or pow- dery, and of a bright vermilion colour. Spores obovate- clavate, rounded at ends, four-septate, upper cell largest, pale red. (E. B. 981, 2151.) Somewhat connnon on the smooth bark of various trees, as the oak, ash, and hazel. Nat. Ord. X. CALICIACEJ^J. Fam. Char. Thallus erustaceous, normally sending upwards vertical solid stalks. Apothec'mm capitate, floccose-pulverulent, either seated on a carbonaceous, turbinate, proper exciple or tixcd directly on extremity of stalk. CAUCIUM, 257 •I'lG Species of i] ' I' '^'"^■1' -'Pporr. ,1,. b,,,,,,, j • '""■'" "'■ ''->-'■'"= italic "'« «P»th..ei I„ ;: ,,'"■■ '""^■'"'''' ""»' «•''-!, cove. 8 maa mtmrnivin" n mn in m ii 258 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. it has been supposed that they attain maturity externally to the theca, or are what have been denominated "naked spores." Tt is probable however that this phenomenon is more apparent than real. The thecrc are narrow, linear, and very delicate. In progress of tlie growth of the spores they fre(piently become so closely incorporated with their contents as to be inseparable and indistinguisliable therefrom ; in rare cases however they arc found containing a linear scries of mature spores. The spores of the Calicia are among the smallest of Lichen-spores ; they are either simple or bilo- cular and usually dark-coloured. Several species of this family, from their great resemblance, were once classed under the genera Mucor and Tric/iia of the I'ungi. * Apothecia (tlialammm) hlaclc. t Apothecia sessile or suhst'ipitate. 1. Caltcium TURBiNATUM^(/^7^;'i6?w, the toy called a top). Apothecium concave or flat ; base stipitiforra ; exciple pyri- form or turbinate, externally shining; margin thick, inflexed, paler. Spores small, spherical, simple. (E. B. 2520.) Always parasitic on Pertusaria communis, and common in «ome lowland woods. Its spermogones are to be looked for with the lens, on the thallus of P. communis, in the form of small black spots scattered among the apothecia. They are CALIC/UM. 259 covered with n f,.„ ?--. The stong,,.,. are I^ ! I''""" r""" >^'-'' '^ :':" » - "'-h curved ],^e t 'e ' ? •^""'"^- ''''^ ^"- extreme tenuity, ami acrogenous ''''''"^'' "^^u^oa. of dehquesceut granules A , ^'^"""''' « »«'V-groy -p'-urbi;::-a,4^:r:;; "ir^: "-' - '-■<'; »re several varieties, dene.ul," ', " ^'"''^' '"''''■•'^- l'''ore ^7"' "f the .ipe/wii:,: r, ::'';^ 7 «'" "'-''- a,.d ""-e's longer and liIifo„„ • «„ n, ' f ''"' ^'^""S' '" ="=« of the thallua; an.l o^t f ^"'' "^ ^^'"'"'"^ »»d ''•h.-eh in some is g obT ' ?" ^""" "^ «'" ''l'"theeium -™es protruded to sue H, e /"r""" ""^ *'""--- «>!' fi-tion the nppearanee f a, r " '" ^'^ '" «'« fr«eti. '-«-• 2462, var.^^^:;/'^'"'^""^^^'^^'-'- ^^O^, var. «.. 0H.V.OCKP,U..M (from ;^,<,,,^ g„,,^ ^^^ "^''**-^««t^^ vmmM' m»vm nrn'mmmmmfrnmitfim- I POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. ,e6aX4, tl'e he»d). Thallus white, leprose, covered with ctron.yellow granules, which are frequently aggregated into a vcrrucose crust. Stipes slender, often elongated b ack, frequently of a greenish tinge ; exciple turbinate, black, in young st-.te yellowish- or greenish-pruinose ; spores simple. There are several varieties, depending chiefly on the length and thickness of the stipes, and on the size and the arrange- ment of the thaUine granules. On the rough bark of trees, and on decayed wood in low- land forests. Genus II. CONIOCYBE, ^a. Gen. Char. Apothecium spherical, stipit»te having no prope': exciple. (Name probably from K.iv«. dust. i« allusion to the pul- verulescent apothecium.) 1 CoNiocvBE lUBFURACEA. Thallus sulphur-yellow, le- urose-pulverulent. Apothecia pale brown, stipes black, both at first sulphureous-pulvernlent.-There are several varieties depending on the character of the stipe., which are most freauently elongated and filiform. On the bark and roots of trees, on ground and on rocks in shady damp parts of lowland and subalpine woods; not common. STEREOCACLON. 261 ^ Nat.Ord.Xr. CLADONTACE^ -»:,: i of £r::rr " '"■'™'"'^"-- -<«"." .-p -W. turbinate or ^.Zl^TtZ^TX '''""■ ^"^^^^ proper exeiple, or having „ ^.^/^ ^^ '"?'""«. destitute of a from aa'&,. a branch or hv,W 'f ™.™*- P^ame probably of the vertical thallus.) ^ " ''"'■ '" »""''»■' to the form Genual. STEEEOCAULON, &;,,,^ or .•-2lvl';r,::--^-""-o.- stipes .lid, .„p, WUK wart-lilce, grlulo o; c a2,r'"' '^ "''"' ""--^ P''«loid. immarginate, havinJTn ^'"'^"''- ^P^'h^cia ce- ^permogones in this i^enus in L v ^"'"''"■g^"^'''- The C««,:«. Those of f , ^ "■ '■''"'"'''« "'o«^ of form of sn,al w„ ;::ft "' '" '^ '""''^^ ^-' '» ">« ;^-- The .errt:::;-;^: - 'V^ linear. ^""^ °^ siightlj curved and .^,\. III 1? '■' h 1 «l 2C2 popui.au history of licukns. ^ Minor forms ; alijK'S somnohal f^huj)le ; thallm persltitent. 1 Steukocaxilon QiusiiUiLiAKK {qukiiM^, Hie sinnllest twi"9 of shrubs). TUallus ciuspitoso, floccosc-pulvcrulcnt, pale>.rugi..oso; stipes llacci.l, slender, grn.mlutc-puiverule.d ubove, .leuudate below, siu.ple or divided. Apotbec.a lateral. crowded. , Avery minute, delicate form, growing on ilic ground and on damp sliady rocks in the vicinity of waterfalls. Near Perth it occurs in the Den of lialthayock and m various other glens or ravines among the Sidlaw Hills. It is more familiar under its old name, S, nannm. ** Major forms ; thallas snbevanescent ; stipes very ramose. 2 Stebeocaui-on paschalk. Stipes crespitose, somewhat strong, compressed and smooth, covered with granulate and crena. -., conglomerate s.iuamules. Apothecia mostly termi- nal, flat, often aggregated. ,,.,., A very common saxicolous siMjcies in highland districts, growing usually in large, dense tufts. It is widely distri- buted over the world, occurring in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, on the Himalayas, in South America, and other foreign countries. It has been observed to be the first plant B^:OMYC£S. 263 which grows on the hare volcaniV 1... r .r Tsfl..-.. r voi(,ufiic Java of Vesuvius nrwl It is probable theaforo U,at it t," ''""^ '■''"" diners ■■„ its stipos bci,!!, d" T ' ' ""'" ""^'■'^ ^ -^""'a* i^t occurs in thp Atif....,*- Genus II. BJitJMYCES, Per, Gen. Char. Thnllus tartareoiis S,;. ,■ ', cort,cal layer, simple or di de I T '"'""'^ "' » «tipe. (Na.e fro.,. "^J, 'r^^ ri:d IT" "'"'"\"^™"-l <>" "ts resemblance t. v,l„sM, '^ ^f ''^,;'" '""''■7'"> f™™ same structural re^fmM " '" ?"""' '"'•'"■^ the t,ucs to opkcerophuiou.) 'westtsMBil ''^^'**'*^**«S(^»* 264 POPULAU HISTORY OF LICHENS. :i>^-«^v' 1. BiEOMYCES ROSEUS (rosetis, rose-coloured). Tballus white, lei)rose-tartareous, verrucose. Stipes terete, somewhat short, of simihir colour to thaUus. Apothecia rose- or flesh- coloured. ■**■ Not uncoramon on argillaceous soils on hill-heaths. The thallus sometimes becomes isidioid, — the stipes sterile, and ventricose at the apex. Its thecse are long, linear, and slender; its spores fusiform, elongated, simple, and pale yellow. Genus III. CLADONTA, if///. Gen. Char. Thallus microphylline, sending up vertical, hollow stalks (podetia), some of them turbinate or tubseform, and termi- nating in a funnel or cup-shaped dilatation {scyphus) ; others cylin- drieal, simple or ramose, the extremities subulate or bearing the apothecia. Apothecia orbicular, submarginate ; becoming at length inflated, cephaloid, immarginate ; empty, seated normally on the margins of the scyphi or on the extremities of the cylin- drical podetia. Proper exciple minute, ventricose, becoming con- cealed by the protuberant, reflexed thalamium.f One of the most polymorphous and protean of Lichen- * For minute anatomy vide Kiittliuger in ' Botanische Zeitung,' 1845, pp. 577-584. t For minute anatomy vide ' Botanische Zeitung,' March 23, 1855. K.'trXIX, Thallus omewhat or flesh- hs. The ^rile, and lear, and and pale al, hollow md terini- liers cylin- 3aring the oininof at I normally the cyiin- mnig con- l Lichen- :/ 1845, pp. 1855. rtr-inks linp "r-'fmmmsma^ m>. „i«iam t mr pi •1 1 1 1 CLADONIA. 265 genera, and one especially liable to puzzle the student in the determination of species. The surface of the podetium is sometimes covered with a green, granulose powder (gonidia), with irregular, wart- like granules, or with horizontal squa- mules ; it is frequently lacunose, or it may have a carious, eroded, or cancellated appearance. Sometimes the podetium is divided superiorly into a number of irregular, short ra- mules, which may be fertile or sterile. The scyphi are usually closed by a membrane or diaphragm. The margin is entire or variously divided and toothed ; sometimes it sends up a number of little stalks or ramules which serve as pe- dicles for the fructification. The apothecia are sometimes seated on the diaphragm, on the margin of the scyphi, directly or on its pedicle-like prolongations, rarely on the thalline squamules, or on the curvatures of the podetium ; they may be solitary or aggregate, separate or symphycar- peous. From possessing a vertical as well as a horizontal, a secondary as well as a primary, thallus, the Cladonias rank among the highest typical forms of Lichens. The podetium may be regarded as a modification by involution of the simple thalline foliole or squamule. A similar modification of the leaf frequently takes place in the Phanerogamia, as for in- stance in the pitcher of the so-called Pitcher-plant. This 'f-mmmn.., lis; I tl ■ 1 . r 266 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. analogy renders the fistulose podetium, in the opinion of some authors, of superior rank or value in classification to the solid branched stipe of SkreocaulorL and Spharophoron, The thecse and paraphyses in this genus are very small and indistinct. The spores vary Httle in different species, except in size ; they are usually very minute, — among the smallest of licheu-spores, — ellipsoid, oval, or oblong, simple and colour- less or very pale yellow. The spermatia also are similar throughout the species. The colour of the apothecia is generally scarlet or brownish, in both cases depending, ac- cording to chemists, on the oxidation, or other reactions and metamorphoses, of the colorific principle termed Usnic acid, in combination with bases. When dry, the podetia are often very friable, crumbling into dust by the slightest pressure ; but moisture immediately renders them again quite flaccid. In their rudimentary or abortive state the Cladonice often present the characters which we have described under the genus Leprar'm!*' ■^ TarUnate podetia sci/pliiferous ; cylindrical ones entire (or imperforate) at axils of ramules. t Apothecia scarlet. 1. Cladonia EXTENSA {cxtendo, to dilate). Podetia at * Hampe ou the Cladoniasof the Ilartz, in the Annales dcs Sc. Nat., vol. ix. CLADONIA. 267 A very common and very oretfv ^r^.nic. f. It . .ore familiar under .ts old na.es, C. ^ generally spring from the diaphragm of the scyphi Its 11 •nogones resemble those of C. aUcornu and T T in their internal structure • but ~ '""^,^- ""-^S^*""* --.;. the, are not „„,.; "t;^ t^^^ rm; hey are seated o„ the u>argins of the scy^ TP "tI! T,".","" '"'^ "'■"'' "'J' '»•'>">«'' play Through the long bright hour, of t],. , Thtv fi,„l ,1, , ''"'"""raM the summer day; i'«^yh» a" tlie varieties of tl.e nreeedi,,. , • "^ apLjIlous. '' *"" "'*">'* ^1%'I'% farinose a„d It varies mucli ill si/f. i • ^0- inches in Britai^ Xj "f "'""'." '""'^ «'- three or '^ - -'neti.es straw.; Wed or ocl:,'?'' ""' *^"«"' ^ "mose, or the terminal rimnll ""''""^""^'-Md loosely and crowded. ""^'^ ^'''^ '"'y ^^mose, entangled, '-ts;::rd:Ed:rr'''"^-^''^^^^^^ 0" Jnilsof minor ele at on ^ ^ ^r*'"»" °" ''"^ S^o""'!. ■■' ■■' ^''-dant. CrabbetXit Trl';^^'"' '"' ^"-"^-^''.^ " Ornnn r ,"™° "''^ """" """ """'"» "U ^e hill » and demulcent. It is 'l ?''"'""' as a nutrient « tracts of conntr; :,.;:' ':'^"*' ^■"-^^ - Lapland t-'ve inches. The W Z'"' '" ^ ''^'="'^' "' - *<> "'^ and only pastures of the T '"'"""' ''' ""= ^-ou- ---;--^ay .he snow bHr t™^^^^^ mmm 274 POPULAU HISTORY OF LICHENS. -i^ ill ' in I'' iaStV mi. {( 1 browse on the Lichen.^ It is also frequently collected like hay as fodder for cattle during winter, and for the reindeer on journeys. Parry in the narrative of his Fourth Voyage mentions his officers collecting supplies of this Lichen as provender for the reindeer, which he used in the capacity of horses ; he adds, it "required a great deal of picking" to se- parate it from the moss among which it usually grows. The daily quantity of cleaned " Reindeer Moss " — as it is popu- larly denominated — necessary for each animal on a journey he estimates at four pounds ; but, he remarks, it can easily remain for five or six days w^ithout food. To prepare it as fodder for cattle, in some northern countries, hot water is poured over it ; it is then mixed with strawy and a little salt sprinkled over the mixture. Cattle so fed are said to produce delicious milk and butter, while their flesh become^ fat and sweet. Bucke, in his ' Harmonies of Nature,' speaks of small cows, by feedmg on this Lichen, whose milk be- comes wholly cream. The stag, deer, roebuck, and other wild animals also feed on it abundantly during winter. But it is not only serviceable as food to the lower animals, — man himself is frequently compelled to use it in times of scarcity. It is sometimes powdered, mixed with flour, and * Fide Linneeus, 'Flora Lapponica,' p. 332. f^LADO.VIA. '"' --dnto bread, or' kI ,i ; .„ " '" a commendatory wnv f! ! u 'u ''"' '^'^"^' "f ^'''t" it at one time Imed; ^ " "f " '" " ""'-"-' Po«-ders and perfumes Thn '"""" "'S^*^''-" >•" '-'">- walla consist of a a L T 7 '"'"''»' '"K „,,„,e %- of iilamentorX'"";::":'':^''^ r '"'^"' "^ '- horn,, and win'tisl, and nsis! of ?> '''" " ''"''' filaments closely united. Tl, 'l, 1 ' • ""'"^*' P'"""*^' »d is composed of a somclt ! 'T" '' """''■ "'"»-' -'-d, ramose, interlaer/tm , t ?';"' "' ^''"""-^ w>th groups of gonidia. so sc tred. " '"" ""' "'"- a pale green colour Is sn! ° """""Unicafe only 0^ the nodding ext:„^t^2~-^«J'-^.-^l.ap.ee; -«ally grouped, two to five f ' „'„ '''"^ "^ "-.form tub-shaped ^o^ij ^!^i:::;'''''^^'<'^^^^ ^ ^permatia are cylindrical, curved 'f T"^" ^''^'> water exhibit a vivid Brownr ^ """'"'"' ^"'1 « **** P ,7 /• ^ronnian movement. ^Pm^^ci, the nipple). Podetia .^^' r IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) (c ^ 1.0 I.I ^ mil 2.0 Ui u IL25 ill 1.4 — 6" 18 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 87il-4S03 o t/j ^ 276 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. glabrous, glaucous or straw-coloured, extremities brownish ; at first papillar, theu clavate or cylindrical, at length when fertile fastigiate-ramose. Thallus microphylline. Apothecia reddish-brown, mostly symphycarpeous. It is an alpine and subalpine species growing on heaths on some of our High- land mountains, as Ben-mac-dhui ; but it is rare in this country. It most generally occurs in an abnormal state, having short, vesicular, ventricose or gibbous podetia, bear- ing abortive apothecia. This species was formerly made the basis of a separate genus, Pi/cnothelia, Nat. Ord. XII. COZLUMACUM Genus I. COLLEMA, Hill. Gen. Char. Thallus foliaceous or filamentous ; when moist flaccid, turgesccnt or pulpose-gelatinous (from the gluey matter which it contains abundantly) ; when dry membranaceous, coria- ceous or coriaceous-cartilaginous. Apothecium discoid, scutellate or patellseform, sessile, rarely stipitate, brownish. (Name from KoAAa, gluten or gelatine ; in allusion to the property possessed by the thallus of swelling into a gelatinous mass in water. Hence the Collemas are popularly designated the " Gelatinous" or " Jelly-Lichens.") IH COLLEMA. 277 « -™e species, it appear, to b l!:?^"'""^'^'^ '"'' '7«tem does not exhibit th. " ■^"^"""^; Their vegetative dWnet layers o tis ,e 5 1 "^ '''^"'""^ ^"'^ *'>'«« and „odi£ wh !;: " r "™ ^^"^™"^ -"f-d of other LiehensTl r7aT ^ *" ''' "^''"""^ «-- — r„ or beaded::;: ~X\h ^""'^•^■"^ ■n hnear series of minute glob lar eel -L. ^Tv""'^ narrow, branching t„bes In m ' """^ °^ -^^'x^ate, ^titutes the bulk It the halb, 7 "^"''^ *'"^ "''^"^ ^o"- frequently arranged in rS IT '^ ^reen globules, i"ipers'ed aZ he'::,^';::"? '° ^^^'^ ""'-' ^^ 0' in some species by chTol L d 1 T"'"" *'""'''- ^ of the thallus In a l^ , '^ ^ '°'™'^ '" *''« ""^'age I" ''f'^'^ there ,s a cortical layer eomposedtf mmmm 278 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. polyhedral cellules intimately united ; in others there is no distinct epidermic layer, the plant consisting wholly of the filaments, tubes, and green granules above mentioned. In the latter case, the structure of the thallus so closely resem- bles that of the common Nostoc, that the Collemas and Nos- toc have frequently been classed together, either among the Algse or Lichens, according to different views on their mor- phology."^ But Nostoc consists wholly of moniliform fila- ments embedded in a mucilaginous basis, never possessing the continuous tubes described as occurring in the Collemas. In rudimentary Collemas the individual cells or articulations of the moniliform filaments develope tubes which ramify and become interlaced, as in the hypothallus of other Lichens, The thallus varies considerably in ordinary physical charac- ters. In some species it is very thin, and when moistened becomes pellucid or somewhat diaphanous, having a uniform and beautiful dark-green colour ; in this case the thallus * For observations on the relation of Collema to Nostoc and on the deve- lopment and minute anatomy of various species of Collema, vide ' Botauische Zeituug,' July 24, 1854 ; Julius Sachs, January 5, 1855 : also Bernhardi, ' 11- lustratio Lichenum Gelatinosorum,' in Schrader's ' Journal fiir die Botanik,' vol. i, 1799 : Cassiui and Duchesne, 'Bulletin de la Soc, Philomath,' 1817, or 'Journal de Physique,' 1817: Fe'e, 'Mem. de la Soc. du Mus. d'Hist. Nat. de Strasbourg,' vol. ii. 1835. ■MiMite COLLEMA. 279 resembles the frond of manv nhu here the clilorophvll 1 1.^ ^^^^^^^^P^rmous seaweeds, and ^iia^c. uiner Lollemas have a tlmii^o ^ i ,, cartilaginous consistence, m e re jmi "^ '""""^ "'• typical Lichen-thallus in sZ „ 71"" "™'" " thallus is naked • in oth "'''"7- ^^ ^"m" species the , Papu.es or vLles, w:!! nlf.;!"^ ^^f^ s/trs;:'^ *^^-■•^- ^-^ ^-«- oTCor llie apothecmm is usually develob^d in « Ij, ii- evanescent, or it is coverp,! hv tK .i i ^ ' PeUucid, flattened »n^ tt, / thalamwn,, which becomes nauenea and then convex (patellieforml T„ . f exciple has been described in wh T ^ ^ P"?"' patellate. ' ^'""'^ '"'^ ** apothecium is * nallu,filamentom; apothecia patell*' '« green. Lacil eln. " ' "'"'''' '"""'"^' »''-''-''- I.ac.n.« elongate, narrow, radiate, imbricate-lobate • II 284 M POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. margins crisped; extremities cut. Apotliecia superficial and marginal, largish, brown. The laciniie may be concave or canaliculate ; they are sometimes lacerate-pinnatifid or their margin is entire. On rocks or stones in various parts of the Highlands. Its spermogones are immersed, but indicate their presence by small dark points on the surface of the thallus (as ob- served in Y^v.jacoba>folium, which is distinguished by lace- rate-pinnatifid lacinise) ; but they are apt to be confounded with a parasitic Spharia, whose perithecia are sometimes similarly immersed. The paraphyses of the same variety adhere intimately by their apices, which are much dilated ; this is also noticed in other species of Collema. 7. Collema Burgesii. Thallus laciniate-lobate, loosely adnate, lead-coloured, smoothish,— below slightly tomentose. Lobes imbricate, minutely dentate-lacerate. Apothecia de- pressed, concave, large, brown, with an elevated lacerate- dentate or foliose margin. (E. B. 300.) So named from having been first discovered bv Dr. Bur- gess on the hazel and birch in Dumfriesshire. It occurs on trees in various parts of the Highlands, as about Loch Lo- mond, Inverary, and Glencoe. Its spores resemble those of Urceolaria scruposa ; the contained cellules are arranged in COLLEMA. 285 "7 '"'"■ "■':" ^•""'■^""^■^ "PI'oar divid,.d „U i„t„ two ver- ca .„e. Monilifona ,ila,ne„U, of which the bulk of t Uu//., JoUceou,, v,ken drj, coriaceous-caHilugi. tale, rareh/ pakllale. 8 CoLLKMA PucATiLE {plica, a fold or plait). Thailus blaek.h.green, laciniate. orbicular, lacini. unduiatcpli t" On rocks i,i some parts of the Highlands. The genus LicMna is classed hy some Lichenolo-ists among the mie„u.e.. We allude to it here merely fo he purpose of claiming, as a true Lichen, a genus which ha, ioug been a truant among the ranks of the AW. As a .ea wee ,t has been described in a companion'volume (D t Landsborough's 'Popular History of British Seaweeds,' 2nd s structural characters, which justify its separation from J^ Alga, and reception among the Lichens. The two i^ritish speces. Z.p^ffm^a and Z. vonfnu are more or less Sv"" th "" r r;'' "•=''• ^--^'^borough confesses frankly these two bttle plants are introduced as interlo 286 POPULAH HISTORY OF LICHENS. ^^i I'n pers, without any regard to system." Dr. Greville, a very high autliority, includes them in his ' Algaj Britannic^/ but expressly states, "in regard to habit, the lic/iinre touch closely on the boundary of the Lichens." Harvey, in his classic work on British xVlgae, however, excludes this genus, thereby distinctly implying his belief that it does not pro- perly pertain to the Algte. In the structure of the thallus, as well as in the characters of the apothecia and spermo- gones, the Zic/dnre are decidedly lichenoid. In the charac- ters of their apothecia and contents they resemble the genera Calicium and Spharophoron. The fructification is angiocar- pous; the spores are glued to each other in linear series, and assume their mature form only after dissociation and escape from the thecge, but they do not accumulate on the surface of the thalamium as in these genera. The spermogones in L. pygmcBa occur immediately below the spherical apothecia which terminate the thalline ramules ; their ostioles are ea«:iy recognized, and their cavity is pluricellular. The spermatia are very minute and numerous, ovoid, and generated acro- genously from irregular cylindrical sterigmata. In L. con- Jmis the spermogones are small ovoid bodies, seated on the extremities of the thalline ramuscules, and frequently im- planted upon the apothecia themselves. The spermatia are SPH.EROPHOROX. gg^ sligh% more elongated and narrow than those of X. «,,. Section II. ANGIOCARPI. . ^" *" •'?;'='■'=' '«^'<'"gi%' to this section the apothecium .s closed and globose, perforated b, a pore or irreinlnri h.sc,ng, sess, e or innate, having a thalline or proper excip e (pent ecnm), and a nncleiform thala.ium, IhL is ft! quently pale-coloured or whitish, and waxy or gelatinous. Nat. Crd. XIII. SPHJSROPHORACEJS, Fries. Fam. Char. Thallm vertical shriililw j tr ■ . &.TO&formM „f j-i . . ^"™''"y- ^potliecia terminal, ■c^ai'fe to med of dilated extremity of thalline ramules closed at length n-regularly lacerate-dehUcent. Tkalar^iu^^^lZt cl nng or separating with the thee.. (Na,ne from ^l^Zk -hpo,, n. allusion to their fe«„-„^ a eMerical fructification ) Genus I. SPH.SROPHOEON, Ack Gen. Oar. Thallus having a crustaceous-cartilnginous cortical *Montagne, Memoir on Z2V^m«,iQ AnnalesdesSp TVoi o^ • and in the ' Hist. Nat. des CanaHes ' of "^r We b is/o • '".'^^^^'^f l" ^. : Bee.., o„ ..;«„.: L,!r r.r;;;i t:- ^ui 'f Bruxelles, vol. vii. 1840. ^^**^''- *^^ 288 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. it H Vi :i , layer, ff-eyish, becoming brown ; internally solid, white, stupose Apothecium spherical, the bluish-black spores accumulating on the surface of the thalamium as a soot-like powder.* Thalamiura internally floccose-cartilaginous. 1. Sph^:rophorox coralloides. Thallus brownish, waxy, smoothish, terete or somewhat compressed ; ultimate ramules having an obtuse, but not swollen, apex. Apothecia erect, globose ; margin often inflexed. Spores roundish or oblong. The thallus is either loosely and irregularly branched or It IS c^spitoae, fastigiate, and dichotomously branched. (E. B. 115, var. lamm.) Common on rocks in Highland districts. The blackish or indigo-coloured dust which covers the thalamium is found to consist, under the microscope, of the spores, mixed with a quantity of blackish or bluish-black granular cUhris, Leighton describes the spores as hyaline and double-walled, and ascribes their black colour and irregular granulated form to their contents, which are blackish or bluish-black granules, and which, when they escape, adhere to the exte- rior of the mother-cell. Tulasne speaks of the epispore as * For observations on the structure of the Apothecia, vide CamiUe Mon- /] I 1 SPH^KOPHOUON. S89 black and tuberculated, while the endospore is pale but eir: tt: ''^"t "' ™^"°' ^--'■^^ - rectness of this v,ew. I„ structure and development the When full of nearly npe spores the theca is a very beauti- M object under the microscope, resembl.ng a row of bluish, black beads supported on a narrow, tapering pedicle. The jrmogones are similar in position and s 'ucture to thol th following species, but are seldom seen. The geor phical range of this and the following species is very Jd " oecurnng on rocks in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, and Imost throughout temperate and tropical countries, i vanous exceptions or irregularities in local distribution ^ttrl^Tn™"'" '°^^'^'^^^^^ (comprint, to press to- S ni . ^'^'*' ^"^'^'^' '"^""S « ~hat rigid oral-hke character, compressed, irregularly branched, flbri^! apex Apoheca obhquely placed, flattened or discoid es- pecially ,n old state, often with a reilexed margin. Ll round. (E.B. 114.) ^ ^ "'^ Also somewhat common on the ground and on rocks in alpme districts. Its spermogones occur towards th etermT -tions of the most delicate ramules; under the llTe; u 290 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. appear as small, black, superficial perithecia, pierced by a mnute pore The spermatia are linear, of great tenuL, straigh and very numerous. This species is much rarer m trucfcfication than the preceding. Nat. Ord.XIV. mBOCARfACBJE, Fries wholly thalhne, sometimes modified; a«&«„„ deliquescer Genus I. BNDOCAEPON, 5-^j>licaluM. which is c«.spitose and imbri cate-lobate, with ascending lobes. (E B 593 ) Common in lowland and subalpine districts, on moist rocks :„ the neaghbourhood of waterfalls or river, or whS are frequently covered by water. We have fo^nd it by the s,de of the Tay, on boulders frequently covered by the nyer when flooded, and on the craggy southern fa'eo Kmnoull Hdl, near Perth. When under water it has a deep ohve-colour. It sometimes attains a diameter of sele Mull. Its spores are ellipsoid, double-waUed (margined) pale. Its spermogones are immersed, and in icate e ; presence by crcular, brown, flattened or centrally depress d pots towards the periphery of the thallus. They are ostio ate; they exceed in depth the thickness of the thallus aid hereby produce on its under surface, as the apothecia 2 do, a papulose roughness; and they con.sist of a^e" ent anT ™- 1"^" '''-■ ^''•^ ^'-^-'^ - artiuS and ramose ; the spermatia straight Mallus ^uamulo,e, adherent hy whole surface. 2. E.Ni,ocAKfoN Smakagi^clum „«.) Var. S,„opwum is remarkable for its brick-red colour which IS probably due tc peroxide of iron taken up from' the soil. (E. B. 1776.) Lnder the lens may be discovered ENDOCABPOK. 293 a series of depressed, brownish points, which are the con- tracted mouths of ureeolate, immersed apothecia. The thecie and paraphrases are chiefly developed from the base of the eav,ty. The latter are of capillary tenuity, straight, almost simple and embedded in an abundant mucilage; the most central ones are united at the summit, which reaches that of the apothecia, and has a reddish-brown colour. Hence the occlusion of the apothecium is less perfect than in a typical species of the genus Endoearpon,-^, K ^iniatum. in which the paraphyses are developed perpendicularly to the walls and convergently to the centre of the cavity, and are colour- less throughout. Its spermogones are denoted by blackish points similar to, but smaller than, tho.e which mark the onflce the apothecia. Their cavity is sinuous ; their ste- T* ™ '" ""^ '™^'''"' ^^'^ ^P^'^^tia straight. mik, .quamulose or tarUreom ; apores very large. 3. Endocarpon sokediatcm. Thallus a single squamule closely a nate by delicate rhizi„» ; margins greyish-pulveru! Jent. ThecK two-spored. Spores linear-oblong, obtusely (ii. B. 2612.) The only habitat mentioned by Leighton is E.t tingdean CHffs, Sussex; and by Hooker, mud walls at Inetford, Norfolk. B 294 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. Genus II. SAGEDTA, Fries. Gen. Char. Thallus subcrustaceous ; apotbecia immersed, globose, becoming attenuated at the apex into a narrowr neck opening by a dilated ostiole on the surface of the thallus * (Name probably from j .. ^"^ ^'""^ of their use J a feb f '• " ^"'"'' '^^° *" ^°''»'^''«on use as a febrifuge in intermittents. Under the mf croscope we have found large quantities of octahedral erTs %^w. of older writeTruirso^rrrr: •: r ^• W .eruposa. Braconnot found 29 per cent of r ." "' combination with 18 of lime in r ,^ °' " """^ of P „„ ■ " '^^ f'V'iea. The thecip 01 ^. communis are very lapo-P „„,l „, , 298 POPULAR HISTOEY OF LICHENS. ¥ 'A }\ f gated. They acquire a beautiful blue colour under the action of iodine, and, when empty, they become variously bent jnd twisted. The spores are the largest to be found in British Lichens ; when isolated on a slip of glass they may almost be distinguished by the naked eye. They are ellipsoid or oval, elongate, unilocular, thick-walled. The epispore is very thick, especially towards its extremities, where it gives way during germination, allowing the protrusion of the bulging endospore ; it is transparent, and consists of several layers of unequal thickness and density. It is moreover coated ex- ternally with a thick envelope of granular mucilage, which frequently gives it a roughened appearance ; and this coat- ing is apt to be mistaken for a true episporic layer. The endospore contains a quantity of granular matter of a yel- lowish or greenish tint, mixed frequently with large and nu- merous oil-globules. Between the epispore and endospore there is a considerable hyaline margin. The paraphyses are linear and of great length ; along with the thecse they are embedded in an abundant mucilage which swells greatly in water. The spermogones are diffcult of discovery, and oc- cur as scattered, minute, black punctuations ; they are im- mersed, have a simple, narrow, 'sinuous cavity, and a pale- coloured envelope, which cannot readily be distinguished THEtOTKEMA. 299 from the surrounding tissues. The sterigmat. are slender and straight filaments; the spermatia straight and acumi- nate at the extremities. In addition to the ordinary struc- nral elements, the cavity of the spermogones contains a loose network of long ramose filaments embedded in a trans- parent mucilage. Genus V. THELOTBEMA, ^e^. Gen. Char. Thallus crustaceous-cartilaginous. Apothecia ver- ruciform; exciple thalline, at first closed; thalamium deeply sunk, ulUmately collapsed, depressed, rigid, enveloped in a Z Crete, membranaceous, lacerate-dehiscent, interior exciple. (Name from e^X,, a war, and ^a, a perforation, in alluLn to the form of the npothecium.) 1. Thelotbema IEPABINI.M (Xe^d^, a limpet). Thallus membranaceous-cartilaginous, whitish, effuse. Exterior ex ciple of apothecium superficial, truncate-conical, with an en tire marg,n,-internal one vaulted, with a lacerated margin enclosing a blackish, at first grcyish-pruinose thalamiunj apothecia at length becoming urceolate-scutelliform. Spores large, fusiform, pale yellow, cellular. (E. B. 678.) On the bark of trees in lowland and subalpin'e districts • not very common. Its theca3 are large and two or three- j ' 1 i) 300 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. spored ; its spores resemble those of some Graphideaj and Urceolarias. The enclosed cellules in this and other cellu- lar or muriform spores, are regarded by some authors as nu- cleiform hollows or cavities in a solid spore, which are occu- pied by a transparent, oily or granular protoplasm. The apothecia, on superficial examination, may be confounded with those of the genus Urceolaria. 2. Thelotrema exanthematicum. Thallus leprose, grey- ish or ochry; external exciple immersed by its base in the rock, plano-convex, protuberant, at first closed, becoming centrally radiate-fissured, and at length open,— internal ex- ciple waxy, with a connivent margin, enclosing a yellow, discoid thalamium. Spores linear-oblong or lanceolate, ta- pering at ends, three-septate, pale yellow; their surface roughened by fine, distant points. (E. B. 1184.) On calcareous rocks in lowland and subalpine districts, but rare ; a very pretty but minute species. The apothecia bear some resemblance to those of the genus Gyalecta, Nat. Ord. XV. VERRUCARIACE^, Fries. Fam. Char. Thallus crustaceous. Apothecium rounded, fre- SEGESTRELLA. 301 quent y hemispheneal or glol.ose, its base more or less immersed m thallus. Pentheclum (proper exciple) closed, generally carbo- naceous, ostiolate, never necked. Thalamium gelatinous, sub- hyalhne, diffluent. The members of this family from their appearance are called 'Wartworts' (verruca, a wart), and are besprinkled over the surface of rocks or the bark of trees as small, black or dark-coloured, globular warts.^ Genus I. SEGESTEELLA, i^m*. Gen Char. Perithecium solitary, waxy-membranaceous, co- lourea (reddish or brownish) ; ostiole simple, subpapiUate. 1. SEGESTRELLA THELosTOMA. Thallus subtartarcous, pale greyish-brown, contiguous, effuse. Apothecia larcxish reddish-brown, apex alone projecting from the conical, thai' hne tubercles. Spores ellipsoid, margined, pale yellow. (E B. 2153.) ^ ^ ' On quartzose shady rocks in lowland and subalpine re- gions, but rare : a somewhat anomalous and doubtfully dis- tinct genus and species. ; Duby, Botanicoa Gall., vol. ii. : Flotow, Bot. Zeitung, vol. viii., 1850 : Florke, Magaz. f. d. Neuest. Eutdeck. iu d. Naturk., 1807. 302 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. Genus II. VERRUCAllIA, Pers. Gen. Char. Perithecia solitary, horny-carbonaceous, black i ostiole simple, papilKncform or perforated. ^ Corticolous species. t Perithecium entire. \. Verrucaria nitida (niteo, to look bright or shining). Thallus numbranaceous-cartilaginous, contiguous, determi- nate, olive-coloured, shining. Apothecia largish, but vary- ing in size ; base innate in hernispherico-concoid, tlialline tu- bercles ; ostioles papillate, at length pertuse. Spores ellip- soid or oblong, somewhat large, three-septate, reddish-brown; each loculament contains a peculiar rhomboid cellule, which gives the spores a very peculiar appearance. (E. B. 2607.) On the smooth bark of various forest-trees, as the beech and ash, in lowland districts. Its sperm ogones are mar- ginal, situated along or parallel to tho black sinuous lines which denote the boundaries of each individual thallus ; they are depressed, blackish, and about the size of the ostioles of the apothecia. The sterigmata are linear, short, and iiearlv as slender as the spermatia, which are linear, curved, and very numerous. ft Perithecium dimidiate. 2. Yerrucaria epidermidis {epidermis j the cuticle or VBRHUCARIA. 303 bark of a trc,.). TImlk,., l,.pr,«... wliitish or groyi,!,, very tlnn, con(,g„„us, elluse. Apotl.ccia .,nall, ,.lli,,tio.co„oi,l plano-doprosscd, sprea.ling at the base; ostioles papillate' entire or pertuse. Spores of me.liu,,, sfe,, so,„ewl,at rese.n' (Hi. U. 1M48, var. analepta,) On the bark of the oak, bireh, and other forest-trces in owland regions. The thallus is so thin as to appear absent, the pentheem seeming to rise direetlj from the bark, upon «i».eh the plant grows. The biloeular spores appear formed of two oboval cellules in apposition at their broadest ex tremihes. The epispore seems to be for some time eoated M'lth a transparent mucus, which disappears as the spore reaches maturity. The black, poiut-liko sper„,„gones are scattered among the apothecia; tlicir spcrmatia resembl.. those of VertHsaria oommuuU. In most Verrucarias the spermogones are abundant, and rese.oble in appearance the perithecia, from which they are distinguished by their inferior me. In some Verrucarias, and various other Lichens, sper- matm and spores have been observed to occur within the same receptacle. 3. VjiRRucAiiiA CKMMATA {gemmo, to bud). Thallus somewhat thick. Apothecia conical, large, innate at base ; !' r 304 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. ostioles papillate, at length pertuse. Spores broadly oblong, uniseptate, pale. (E. B. 2617.) On the trunks of old forest-trees in lowland regions. Its somewhat thick, whitish, continuous thallus appears to con- tain a distinct gonidic layer, a circumstance very unusual among the Yerrucarias, whose vegetative system is more generally represented by loosely interwoven filaments and scattered gonidia innate in the bark on which they are deve- loped. Its thecse are long and linear, and its spores ar- ranged in a single, linear series, as in Calicium and Sphcero- j)horon. The spermogones are black, scattered, and promi- nent, the sterigmata delicate ; and the spermatia acrogenous, and of great tenuity. ^^ Saxicolous species. t Perithecium entire. 4. Verrucaria muealis. Thallus tartareous-farinose, whitish or greyish, effuse, evanescent. Apothecia subglo- bose, minute, immersed, becoming emergent, pruinose, then naked; osiioles papillate, pertuse. Spores linear- oblong, uni- septate, cellular, greenish- yellow. (E. B. 2G47.) On calcareous stones and on the mortar of walls, but not common. VERIIUCAIIIA. 305 ft Perithecium dimidiate. § Perithecium incurved at base. ^ Inner tunic {or exciple) black. 5. Yerrucaiiia trachona {rpaxv,, rougli). An Irish species (from Kerry), liaving fusiform, three-septate, pale yellow spores. ITIT Inner tunic pale, not black. 6. Veekucaha Bokrem. A species growing generally on calcareous stones, having krge, broadly oblong, uni- septate, granulate, pale spores. (E. B. 2791.) So named in honour of Mr. Borrer of Henfleld, Sussex, one of the most distmgmshed British Lichenologists. §§ Peritliecium neither incurved nor spreading at tlebaae. IT Inner tunic Hack. 7. VEiinuCAMA UMBMNA. ThaUus thin, uniform very mmutely cracked, at first olive, becoming dark umber-co- loured or blackish, forming ink-like stains on stones (es- pecially granitic) about fresh-water lakes and streams. Apo- thecia numerous, minute, crowded, prominent, conoid, S-'t T.7l'"' ''"°"'^- ^P"^^ ""^'""S' "^^Si-^d, pale. (-tj. i3. 1499.) Its habit resembles that of V. maura, a maritime and very common species. X IP1P<**, if I . ll i ( ;) i"' I! 306 POPULAU HISTORY OF LICHENS. ^^ Liner tunic pale. 8. Yerrucaria mutabilis [mutahiUs, changeable). Thal- lus umber-coloured. Apothecia minute, scattered, nume- rous, round, sometimes shining. Spores oblong, pale, small. (E.B. 1712.) Sometimes forms orbicular, or dendritic-effigurate patches on stones in shady places. §§§ Fenthecium spreading at base. ^ Inner tunic black. 9. Yerkucaria MAURA {Ma2irus, a Moor). Thallus thick, dark reddish-black, coarsely cracked, smooth, shining, papil- lose, effuse. Apothecia scattered, largish, hemispherical, wholly immersed, thalline papillae which cover them marked by a large, distinct pore. Spores oblong, double-walled, pale. (E. B. 2456.) Common on rocks and cliffs on various parts of the east coast of Scotland, as about Dunbar. %^ Inner tunic pale. 10. Verrucaria margacea. Thallus greyish-brown or greenish, contiguous or slightly rimulose, forming orbicular, determinate maculse, or effuse. Apothecia partially project- ing from small, conical, thalline papilla3 ; expanded base of perithecium visible through the thin thallus (tliis base re- PYRENOTHEA. 807 arts of the mains as a black ring in old state.-prominent part of apo- thecia falling away). Spores linear, rounded at the ends three-septate, brown. (E. B. 2768.) *^* Terncoloiis species. 11. Verrucaiiia epig^a (6V/, upon, and r^, the earth) Thallus filmy or leprose, pale greenish. Apothecia sphcri- cal, small, half-immersed ; ostiole pertuse. Spores irregularly obovate, hyaline. (E.B. 1681.) On argillaceous soil in lowland woods.— Its apothecia somewhat resemble those of the genus Sagedia. Nat. Ord. XVI. LIMBORIACEM, Fries, lam. Char, Thallus crustaceous. Apotheoium round ; peri- thecmm carbonaceous, closed, variously dehiscent. Thalamium waxy, becoming rigid. Genus I. PYRENOTHEA, i^n^j. Gen, Char. Thalamium globular, becoming protruded from the exciple, falling to pieces ; perithecium becoming explanate and empty Spores free (not contained in thecal), agglutinated, becommg disunited or dissolving on the application of moisture and frequently issuing from the perithecial pore in a continuous stream or cloud (as in the Fungi).* * Von Flotow, in ' Botamsche Zeitung,' 1850 : Berkeley and Broome, ■ 308 ■ J ill I ill ml POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. 1. Pyrenotiiea leucocepiiala (Xev/co^, white, and kc- (fiaXrj, the head). Thallus glaucous or whitish, leprose, warted witli tubercles of the same colour or whiter ; exciple w hitish-pulverulent ; thalamiurn covered with a pale brick- coloured dust, at length naked. Spores innumerable, irregu- lar, gibbous, linear-oblong, pale yellow. (E. B. 2642.) . On fir and other trees in lowland woods. Its spermo- gones are prominent, black, obtuse, at first whitish-pulve- rulent ; the spermatia are numerous, straight, and linear. The fructification is rare. Genus II. STEIGULA, i^>i>5. Gen. Char. Thallus generally developed below the epidermis of coriaceous perennial leaves, ou which the plant is parasitic. Perithecia subglobose, collapsing, opening at length by a pore or fissure. Thalamiurn gelatinous, becoming rigid, black, and cracking on exposure. 1. Strigula Babingtonii. a species growing on the leaves of the Box and Laurel in various parts of England,-— having subcymbiform, three-septate spores. Named after ' Hooker's Joum. of Bot. and Kew Garden Miscellany,' vol. iii., 1851 : Tu- lasne, * Comptes reudus de I'Acad. dea Sc.,' March 31, 1851. STIUGULA, 300 lite, and /ce- isli, leprose, ilLi"; excipic I pale brick- able, irregu- 2642.) Its spermo- litisli-pulve- and linear. the Rev. Churelull Babington, of Cambridge, a gentleman who has done mueli to elucidate the Lichenology of Britain and other countries. (E. B. 2957.) We are doubtful of the propriety of admitting the Na- tural Order Lzmboriacea among the Lichens : the characters of the fructification are very anomalous, but appear more fungoid than lichenoid. The deliquescent thalamium, the naked spores, and their mode of ejectment from the peri- thecium m the genus P^reuothea, are quite exceptional among Lichens, although common among Fungi.^ he epidermis is parasitic. :.h by a pore , black, and ing on the England, — Famed after ii., 1851 : Tu- Before closing our description of typical British specie, we would briefly allude to several genera of very minute or microscopic, athalline, parasitic Lichens,-some of which are interesting from their possessing pycnides and stylospores m addition to the reproductive organs common to other Licliens,--and which have recently been fully described for the first time by Tulasne. Some of them have long been fa- * Tulasne 'Note sur I'Appareil Reproducteur dans lea Lichens et les Champignons,' Ann. des Sc. Nat., 3rd series, vol. xv. SI '1 310 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. miliar to Lichcnologists— under the name of CejjJialodia or other designations—as bhick tubercles, warts, or points on the thallus, or as black, deformed states of the ajiothecia, of various common Licliens, and especially of foliaceous species ; but they have generally been regarded as abortive apothecia, or as parasitic fungi. In illustration, we may cite the black-punctate conditions of the thallus of Varmelia consjwrsa (var. abortiva of Schocrer), Parmelia saa^atiUs (var. j)arasitica of Schrcrcr), and Stlcta fidlginosa (var. abortiva of SchcTrer), and the black, deformed state of the apothecia of 8ticta 2mlmonana (var. plcnrocarpa of Scheerer) . " Lichenes in aliis parasitici norraaliter nulli genuini/' says Tries ; a much too sweeping assertion, as has been satisfactorily proved by the recent researches of Continental Lichcnologists. We know that many Fungi are parasitic on plants belonging to the same natural family ; and there is good ground for the prediction that, when the more minute and hitherto little studied Lichens arc thoroughly investigated by the aid of the microscope, we shall find the same phenomenon occur- ring among the Lichens, though perhaps not to the same extent. The presence of stylospores in two of the genera — Abrothallus and Scukila — has been regarded by some authors as a justification for placing them among the Fungi; PK.f nv, 'ephalodia or Df points on e apotliccia, f foliaceous as abortive 3n, we may of Parmelia xat'dh (var. . abortiva of apothecia of " Lichenes ^s Tries; a orily proved ogists. We elonging to und for tlie :lierto little the aid of jnon occur- the same the genera i by some the Fungi; iMJini.i»»v dijJti-j l£nc«rit BroolcR '■mm' ABROTHALLUS. 311 but Tulasne regard, tl.em as truly lichenoid from their struc ture consistence, duration, and tl,e amyloid nature of some of their tissues, the parenchyma or reproductive organs of the Fungi never striking a blue colour with tincture of .odine. It cannot be denied however th-,t the existence of these reproductive bodies approximates the genera in ques- ion most closely to certain sections of the Fungi; and we have here another interesting illustration of the affinities between the Lichens and cognate Cryptogamic families. The parasUic genera to which we refer are Ahroaallu,, Scutula, CelAum, and nacopm. We mention them here not because they are Angiocarpous Lichens, the reverse being the case, but because they have not yet found an ap- propriate resting-place in classification. Genus L ABROTHALLUS, i)iV>'*.* e<^». Pfar Apotheeia burst through the thallus of the lichen rdlvtt • 7 "" ^^"^ ■' "' '''' "^l"-"'^' afterwards a! neially pulvnuform or globose-capitate, blackish, glabrous or fL uraceous sessile, becoming free at the circumference, but having no annuhform margm or distinct exciple. Thec» elavate, eight , 'n^lJ'"^'"^- ^'""- '''"" "'"'•' *«''■ delle Sc. di Torino, 2nd «=rics vol .-■/. s^as^^ • »Jmm'*mMx.. i- il 312 POPULAR HISTORY OP LICHENS. spored, thick-walled. Paraphyses thickened and coalescing at apex. Spores ovate-oblong, or elliptic and obtuse at ends, or lanceolate, of a sooty-brown colour, bilocular, rarely simple • lo- culi unequal. Spermogones unknown. Pycnides utriform, im- mersed, simple, formed of a membrane at first pale and thickish, and having a black ostiole. Sterigmata very short or almost ab- sent. Stylospores obovate and simple. (Name from dl3p6s, thin or delicate; an inappropriate designation, seeing that the genus is aihallme. Tulasne suggests the word Fhymatopm as a pre- ferable generic term j from e pycnides nnd apothecia of A Sman are very apt to be mistaken for different states of he same fructification. These pycnides are further liable to be confounded with A. o.ysnorus, which frequently grows along .uth A. SmUMi on P. sa^atUis, and whose puncKform apotheeja resemble those of some Verrucarias. A. o.„sporn. has deplana e, immersed, scarcely prominent npothec^ with pale, lanceolate, unilocular spores. We have met with it mterm.xed with A. SmitUi, on Craigie Hill, Perth 2_Ab,,othalh;s Welwitzsohii (named in honour of M. Welwitzsch, an accomplished Portuguese botanist). Apo- thecu. green-pulverulent, girt by a raised ring of the cut.L of the thallus, on which they are parasitic. Spores ovate, bilocular, thick, black. In general character this species resembles the preceding. It IS the var. alortiva of Slida fuliginosa according to Sch^rer Specimens parasitic on S.^iffinosa, from rocks. New Cut Meadfort, Torquay, Devonshire, are contained in Leighton s Lich. Brit. Exsicc. (No. 191, fasc. VI.) It was found by Welwitzsch on PeUiffera .yhatioa on the Serra de Cmtra mountains, Portugal; and it constitutes the cephalo- dm which sometimes occur on the thallus of Btida limbata. 316 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. Genus IT. SCUTULA, Tul. Gen. Char. Apothecia superficial on the thallus of various fo- liaceous lichens, scutiform or discoid, and iramarginate. Thec^ clavate, G-S-spored. Spores ovate-oblong, obtuse p^ ■ : \. ^iirui^le, pale, full of homogeneous oil. Spermogones globost minute^ superficial, with a simple cavity. Spermatia linear, very slender,' short, curved, generated acrogenously from simple, oblong-acute sterigmata. Pycnides globose, superficial, somewhat deplanate at apex, unilocular, thick-walled. Sterigmata short and simple. Stylospores oblong-cylindrical, obtuse at ends, curved, simple or rarely uniseptate. (Name from scutula, a little saucer, in allu- sion to the form of the apothecia.) Only one species is described by Tulasne, viz.— 1. ScuTULA Wallrothii (named in honour of M. Wallroth, a celebrated German cryptogamist). Apothecia small, disciform, flattish. Spores unilocular, ovate or ellip. soid, pale. Spermogones superficial, very minute, globose. Spermatia linear, curved, very delicate. Pycnides in form and site are similar to the spermogones ; in structure they resemble those of the genus Ahrothallus, Sterigmata linear- conical, simple. Stylospores oblong, straight or slightly curved, simple, rarely bilocular. Tulasne mentions its occurring on various specimens of Peltigera canina from Germany and France. CELIDIUM. 317 )ecimens of Genus III. CELIDIUM, Tul. ces confluent. Thee» clavate, fou;^:;^;^^ C simple or locular, ovate and oblong pale ^ZT , f unilocula, generally seated in thet^t t of trS^ t"' confluent apoih^cia ) ""' "^^^'='"«' °' 1. C.LiBn,M STicTA.„M. Maculee orbicular, black, con- nnous, frequently excavated in centre. Spores oblon.. elhpfc q„adr.locular. Spermogones globose and minutt aggregated and sometimes confluent, on the macuiror n' be apo hec:a of the Lichen on which the species is paas t c Spermatia very slender and straight acco ding to Sch^erer, and it constitutes the black, fungous abortive condition of the apothecia in that spedes. 7. have seen fine specimens of this state of the fructification of anrarTT" "" ^"'"^'^'" '"°°^^' ™^ '' ^^es not appear to be very uncommon in Britain. The spores of the 318 POPULAR HISTORY OF LICHENS. parasitic Celidimn, it will be observRcl, are very distinct from those of 8. puhno7iana, which are lanceolate, acute at both ends, and usually bilocular. C. Stldarum also constitutes a deformed state of the apothecia of Stlda scroUculata in some parts of Scotland ; and it is the Lecanora parasitica of some Continental authors. Genus IV. PHACOPSIS, Tul. Gen, Chat. Apothecia innate-adnate, at first concealed by thallus, afterwards naked or covered by a lacerated veil, black, effuse, constituting deformed maculae or warts. Thecse obovate, thick, six- to eight-spored. Spores oblong, few-septate, and pale. Spermogones commonly immersed in centre of apothecia. Sper- matia slender, straight, short. Pycnides unknown. Parasitic on various fohaceous, fruticulose, and crustaceous lichens in West- ern Europe. (Name from aKos, a ncems, and oi/^is, like, in allu- sion to the black, fungiform maculae or warts.) 1. Phacopsis varia. Spores oblong, obtuse at ends, quadrilocular, and pale. Spermogones, when present gene- rally immersed in centre of maculae, often absent. Sper- matia straight and slender. — Tulasne mentions its occur- rence on Parmelia parietina, both on its thallus and on the margin and disc of the apothecia. 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Lichens, in Linn. Trans Flora. Holsatio) : Weiss, Planta. Cryptog. Flora. Gotting.-2. General and n^nuteAnatornymysiolo^ etc. :-.A,.r,K lehrbuch der Bota^^: : B ' schoff, Haudbuchder Botanischen Terminologie. Worterbuch der beschreiben- den Botamk and Lehrbuch der Botanik : Berniz, Ephemerides des Curieux de ]a Nature : Cassel, Lehrb. der Naturl. Pflanzenordn., 1817 : Dutrochet, Mem pour servu. a I'H.t. Anatomique et Physiologique des Vegetaux, etc. : De Can-' doUe, Organographie Vegetale, and Theorie Elementaire de Botanique • Dic- ^nnaare des lermes de Botanique, par Lecoq et JuiUet : Diet. Classiq. d'llist. N t 1826, art. Lichens, by Fee : Diet, des Sciences Nat. of Levrault, 1823 art. Lichens, by Leman : Diet. Encyclop. Methodiq. Botaniq., 1789 art Li-' Chens, by Lamarck : Nouvelle Diet. d'Hist. Nat., by Deterville, v. xvH 1817 ar . Licheus, by Bosc : Kutzing, Phycologia Generalis, and Papers in ' Linn^ea ' vol. vui 1833 or Ann. des Sc. Nat., 1834, ser. 2. vol. ii. : Kieser, Grundzii.; der Anatomic der Pflanzen : Kollreuter, Das entdeckte Geheimniss der Cryp. togamiee : Kuuth, Handbuch der Botanik : Harting, Beitrage zur Entwicke- 330 POPULAR HISTOttY OF LICHENS. : II 'I lung,gcscl„ehto Jcr Pfla,«c„ : II„r„,ch-ch, i„ Novn Act. Acad. Nat. Cur vol x.lart S : Huch, ,„ Jahresber. dcs Naturwis,. Vcrc;nc, in Ildlc 18-H), 1850 ■ Level »,„ Ann. des Sc. Not., s.r. 3, vol. w., 18.51 : Link. Elemenla Phil„; oph, Botan. : Montagnc, Crjptogamic Botany, in Voyage an PSlc Snd ct dan, Oooan,c snr ks Corvette. PAstrolabe et la Zelie „endant les ann&a 1837 a 18-10, Aperv,, Jlorpho ogiqne de la Famille des Lichens. Papers in GniUem. A> cli. de Hot. vol. „., Ann. des Se. Nat., ser. 2, vols, xvi., ,viii li, and ,i and m Botan. Zeitung dnring 1845, 181!), 1851. and 1852 , Meyen,' Manzeu W,s sense!,. Botamk : Payer, Botaniqne Cryptog.„n,„e, 1850: Payen. Mem snr les Dcvel„„pen,ents des Vegetau. : Ray Soeiety's Pnblieations, Reports Tn Botany, 1845, 1846, 1849, Sprengel, System. Ve,et., 1827. An Lit znr zenk., vol. ,1620 : Sanderson, art. on Vegetable Reprodnetion in Todd's Cv- cU>p^d,aof Anatomy and Physiology, Part 45, 1855 : Sehknhr, Botanisehes Handbneh : Tnlasnc, Papers in Ann. des Se. Nat., vol. „. ser. 3. Bnll de Soc PhUo^ath., 1850. L'lnstitnt, 1850, Co.nptes Rendns. Mar. 24 and 3 18 1 or Ann. of Nat. History, Ang., 1861, Unger, Grnndz. der Anat gungdcrPflanzenTeratologie._3. Uu-s. Che,nUtrii, ^..-flLn^r Voval au. Ind. Orient., Part II., Cryptog. Botany, B™des, Ar^^hW d'r A "„ e k T',"' M V "• ', ""''■ ^'""-"'"S'". 3ra ed. 1737 , Nees ab Es n- bk. Plants Med,e,nalcs : Gnibonrt, Hist, Naturelle des Drognes Simples de 1 Aead. R„y. to Seienees, 1716 , Leneh, Traila eomplet de Matieres W r tV ^™"7' '""" "''■™"'' *' »'-°«"«- Martin. Hist. Western Islands : Pomet. Hist, of Drngs. Engl, ed., 1712 , P„is Phar maeo „g,a , Pharmaeop. d'Ansbonrg de Zwelser ,°Phar;acentieal T Wb 6, 1847: Pharmaeenfeal Jonrnal, vol. iv.. v., viii. : Sikins. Disserta io de L,eaene emereo-terreslre, Frankfort, 1762: Smithson, on the Colouring BIBLIOGRAPHY. cjgl Matter of 8ome Vegetablea. in Philosoph. Trnrs 1818 • n. t •, t furth, 1778 : M.-ni sur le Tw-Lon v ^ , ' *^'' ^'^'i^'ic Islandico, Kr- -Archive, g6„6r. dc M«d scr 1 H r t' ''T'^^''^'"""' MUniut.o«: Flora: Phytologist, July 18 I ml p .r^''"'^''' = ^"''*°"' ^'^^'""^1 Pritzel, Thesaurus Literatura) Botanies. ^ ^/*^^^//««..«. .- INDEX 10 THa NATURAL ORDERS. GENERA, AND SPECIES. (Synonyms are printed in Italic*.) Page Abrothallus .... 102,311 o^y^poma 315 Smithii gjo Welwitzschii 315 Alectoria {vide Cornicularia). Augiocarpi . . .117,120,287 Arthonia 955 astroidea 255 Swartziana 255 Aukcographa £52 elegans 353 Baeomyces . . 61,104,116,263 roseus ..... Biatora {vide Lecidea). Borrera ciliaris {vide Physcia). 2U Bon-era tenella {vide Parmelia stellaris). Buellia . . Page 238 Caliciaceae 053 Calicium . 61,62,102,109,257 chrysocephalum . . . .259 nigrum var. curtum pusillum . sessile {vide C 259 259 269 turbi- natum). spheerocephalum . 259 tigillare 357 turbinatum 0,53 Candelaria vulgaris .... 206 INDEX. Page Celidinm 317 Stictarum 317 Cenomyce {vide Cladonia). Cetrariacea; 150 Cetraria . . 61, 72, 97, 109, 150 acnleata ..... 105,159 cucuUata 160 glauca 150 - var. fallax . . . .151 Islandica . 81, 82, 83, 84, 91, 92, 105, 153 juniperina 151 var. pinastri . .151 nivalL. 152 sepincola . . . . . , 153 Chiodecton .295 albidum £95 Chiographa 252 I^yellii . 252 Gladoniaceee 261 Cladonia 36, 37, 43, 47, 58, 61, 63, 68, 72, 84, 97, 102, 104, 105, 109, 110, 264 alcicornis 269 bellidiflora . . . . . .268 cervicornis 27O cocci/era {vide C. extensa). comucopioides {vide C. ex- tensa). deformis ........ 268 Cladonia extensa furcata . gracilis . Papillaria pyxidata . raDgiferii;.n squamosa Page 266 • • • . . ''^>^^% ^bi,^b5. AgeofLichens, individual, 52; geologic 53 "Alaforel-laf" of Scandinavia, 200. Algse, aflSnity of Lichens to, (vide Affinity). Alkalies, colouring matters tests for, 91. Altitudinal range of Lichens, 100. Alps, Lichens growing on the, 100, 101, 210, 226, 240, 263 ^ilpme speces, 13, 103, 105, 129, 151, 152, 154, 160 I72 173 174 17« 178, 204, 210, 223, 226, 238, 239, 268, 276 280 ' ^' ^^' 332 TNDKX. American species. 30, 97, 123, 125, 134, 151, 153, 155, 1G4, 168, 169. 170, 187, 191, 196, 199, 209, 219, 228, 262, 269. Ammoiiia, peculiar reaction on colorific principles, 228. Ammoniacal maceration in developing dyes, use of, 86. '• Amorgos," " purple of," 86. \ Amylaceous matters, chemistry of, 80, 81, 156. Analysis, chemical, of ash of Lichens, 51, 137; of Cetraria Islandica, 155, 156 } of Parmelia parietina, 208 j of Phi/scia prunastri, 148 ; of Roc- clla tincioria, 137. Anato ny, microscopic, of vegetative system, 39 ; of reproductive system, 64. Ancients, Lichen-dyes known to, 21. Andes, Lichens growing on the, 101, 144, 199, 239, 263. Angiocarpous fructification, 60, 63, 277, 282, 286, 287. " Angola Orchella-weed," 134. Animalcules, Lichens supposed to he metamorphosed into, 23. Anodynes, i.se of Lichens as, 126. Antarctic species, 97, 99, 100, 124, 143, 154, 162, 164, 169, 184, 187, 196, 199, 219, 226, 228, 239, 262, 263, 267, 268, 271, 289. Antediluvian species, 53. Anthelmintics, use as, 83, 164. Antiscorbutics, use as, 158. Apothecia, abortive or deformed states of, 62, 132, 201, 206, 217, 219, 226, 254, 255, 256, 276, 297, 310, 317 ; colour of, 63, 109, 266, 268 • con' fluent or symphycarpeous, 61, 240, 265, 276; development of, 62, 63, 279 ; form of, 61, 279 ; classiacations based on characters of, 26 ; position of, on thallus, 62; reaction of iodine on, 113; sorediiferous degeneration of, 297 ; structure of, 60 ; veiled, 62, 131, 163, 171. AphthsB, use in, 164. Apparatus necessary for collecting and preserving Lichens, 3, 107, 109, 110. Aquatic species, 291. Arctic species, 96, 97, 99, 124, 128, 129, 153, 154, 162, 164, 170, 174 199, 209, 226, 239, 262, 268, 269, 271, 289. 1, 164, 168, 169, 333 ctive system, 64. INDEX. Arctic travellers, use of Lichens as food to, 5 175 Ardellte, 255, 256 •-"> », i/&. ^z^xri^^r "'"'"« °- ''*■ "^' ''*■ «»'• Ash, chemical analysis of (vide Analysis) "Ash-coloured Ground Liverwort " 165 Astringents, use as, 83, 84, 93, 158, 183, 200, 209 Athallme species, 46, 235, 246, 303, 309 ' Author, experiments by, on dyeing properties, 88, 135. Baking, use of, in, 80, 145, 148. "Barbary Orchella-weed," 134. Basalt, Lichens growing on, 103. Bases of support, 50. Bayrhoffer, speculations of, 281. "Beard-moss," 123. Beer-making, use of Lichens in, 93 183 Bibliography, general, 3], 76, 93, 105 119 qiQ » ■ ,, that appended to the vari;us hap L ) 40 88 I2TT i°t'"^''^' ^° 146, 159, 168, 181, 209, 210 2n 230 if. o-l'o ' ^^^' ^^^' ^^^' 269,270,274, 278 281 287 9«« on. 'o ' ^^^' ^^^' ^^7, 264,266, Biology of a Liehen 32!'50 ' '' ''' '''' '''' '''' '''> ''^' BWstuffer use of Lichens to the, 123, 210, 275 Birks of Aberfcldy," Lichens coating cliffs at the, 227 ";::S»;;t^:^r^'-'^-'-3:209,297. "Boettelet" of Sweden, 226. Borrer, description of British species, 29. Brazihan species, 30, 97, 199. ar^ mm 334 INDEX. Bread, use of Lichens in making, 145, 148, 157, 275. Brewing, use of Lichens in, 93, 183. Brown dyes {vide Dyes). Brownian movemei^ of spores, 71, 292; of spermatia, 73. Broth, use of Lichens as ingredients in, 157, 275. Calcareous rocks or soils, Lichens growing on, 103, 104» 233, 300, 305. Calico-printing, use in, 81, 142, 148. Canadian hunters, use of Lichens as food hy, 174, *' Canary Orchella-weed," 134. "Canary Rock-moss," 190. Candles, use in dyeing, 206. "Cape Orchella-weed," 134. Capillary thallus, 203. Capitate apothecium, 256, 263. Capitulate apothecium, 61. Carbonaceous exciple, 173, 235, 247, 256, 257, 294, 301, 307. Cartikginous thallus, 276, 290. Catarrhs, use in, 126. Cattle, use of Lichens as fodder to {vide Fodder). x Cell-elements of vegetative and reproductive systems, 38, 39, 40, 45, 64, 166, 172. Cellulose, 40, 81, 207. Cell- wall, chemical nature of, 40, 65. Cell-contents, 81. Central apothecia, 62. Cephalodia, 310, 314, 315. Cephaloid apothecia, 261, 264. Cetrarates, alkaline, influence of, in producing colour changes in thallus, 155 ; reactions of, with iron, 155. Cetraric acid, 84, 155. INDEX. 335 39, 40, 45, 64, in thallus, 155 ; Cjemistry of Lichens (t,eV/^ AnaJvsia Colnrifi. • •, t''r8),51,52,137.155. ^'"'^P"°<^'Pl^«.««^Colomiugmat. Chemical characters of Lichen-tissues 112 • ,•>.« • i aminatiou of Lichen-tissues 112 "^ "'«'"*'' ""'' °^' ^« «■ Chilblains, use of Lichens as application to, 142. Cbhanspecae8,30,97,123,108,199. "Chmlc-wort," 24? Cilmbowo, Lichen, gr„wi„g „„, ioi_ 123^ l/iirysophanic acid, 208. Ciliated apothecia, 149, 159 ; snores 292 ■ ih.)i i .. , Cinchona-barks, Lichens cha^cSc o, i 2 L ' '!''' '''' '''' medicine, 145, 209. ' '^'"' ^' substitutes for, in Classification, ancient and modern systems of 18 11 K • • , and artificial systems, 25, 116 ' Pnnciples of natural Climate, efi'ect of, on growth of thallus 5S • pff»nf f .. 65, 98, 99. ' ^^ ' ^^''^ °^> 0" distribution of species, Collection ofLichens, rules for, 3, 107, 109. Cotrifi? '"""' ^^-'J-i'lual and aggregate labours of 15 evolution of, 86! tsls t,1; reltreZ^IJ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ «^ quantity and value of, 56, 136. ''^ circumstances on Colouring matters, chemistry of. 84 91 • ppnnnr»- t v seat of, in thallus, 47 /brown » Dv" ?' "'"°"^ °'' ''' '' '' {vide Dyes). ^ "^^ ^^''^' ^"'•P'e (^^«^^ Dyes); yellow Confluent apothec.a (W«fe Apothecia) Coral islands. Lichens growing on, 80. Coralloides, 24. Coriaceous thallus, 35, 276, 283. r I I tf ^ I 111 336 INDEX. "Corlc," or "Korkir," of the Scotch Highlands, 225. Corrosion of rocks, 33, ^0, 78. Cortical tissue of th.dus, structure of, 39, 143, 153, 162, 166, 176, 206, 263, 275, 277, 281. 288. Corticolous species, 101, 104, 110, 246, 248, 257, 302. Cosmopolite species, 97, 141, 273. " Crab's-eyc Lichen," 220. "Crottles," "black;" 200, " brown," 184; "dark," 197; "light," 220; "white," 221 ; "stone," 191 ; botanical sources of, 90; economical ap- plications of, 90, 199 ; mode of manufacture of, 86, 200, 225 ; value of, 201, 224; crottle-gathering in Scotland, 89, 90, 199. Crustaceous species, 80, 88; crustaceous thallus, 33, 214, 247, 256, 290, 295, 300, 307. Crystals, acicular, in thallus, 209 ; octohedral, 218, 232, 297. Cudbear, botanical sources of, 89, 174, 224, 233 ; mode of manufacture of, 86, 225 ; Cudbear-Lichen, 224 ; gathering of, in Scotland, 225. Cultivation of Lichens, 108. Cutaneous eruptions, use in, 126. Cymose fructification, 272. Cyphcllffi, 42, 171, 185, 191. Decortication of the thallus, 121, 125, 265. Demulcents, use as, 83, 129, 137, MS, 153, 156, 183, 269, 273. Dendritic hypothallus, 45 ; thallus, 306. Development of apothecia {vide Apothecia) ; thallus {vide Thallus) ; theca {vide Thecse) ; spermatia {vide Spermatia); spores {vide Spores). Detonating mixtures, ingredients in, 126. Diagnosis of Cinchona barks by Lichens growing thereon, 102. Diffluent thalamium {vide Thalamium). Dillenius, classification of, 24. Dimidiate peritheciura, 60, 252, 302, 305. INDEX. 337 J2, 166, 176, 206, DioDcious species, 280. Disc or sucker, adhesion of thallus by means of Sn Disintegration of rocks. 33, 50 78 ' Dried specimens of Lidiens Jt> J n - • Dropsy, use in, 126. ' ^ "''"'"'°«^' ^^l. Dyeing properties of British nn^ f« • i-^e. f.o„ „„„,e „„, '^iTir": rr'" ""■ «'■ "»■ 90 1 new commercial lields forexVort of As ^' ' °°"«'»«l»ture of. .rtt'? ■"■ '"^ '"'»™ "> Sc L; tf i '^;r'' "« ^ ""-='» »' J83. 197, 190, 200, 204 ; „ra„,e lTf° o«. ' ' ^"""'- ^^' 1™. 179, 128 148, 145, 177, 1 79, 199 of sjf 20« ,^0^1. ^""°'^° « -""') purple orviolC, 84, 179; jeZ^liTuTdV''' ^™' l?" Dyspeptic, „,c of Lichc„.jelly io, 157 ' ""' "^' "^' 191.800,208,209. "Eartt-bread," 230. feoaomy of Nat„re, use of lichens i„ 77 Ecoaom,cal applications of Lichens 77 i • - . dne. 83 ; in miacellaneons arts' 92 "^ ' '^ ''^''"^' «* • '•" "edi- i^dible species, 142, I97, Effigurate thallus, 35, 235, 306 Effuse thallus, 35, 249, 299, 301, 306 %s, use of Lichens in dyeing, 209. ' Jimetics, use as, 165. Emollients, use as, I37 Endospore structure of," 69, 195, 208, 221 298 EWemic diseases of Wer animals, u e in I83 Epilepsy, use in, 200. ' * Epirrheology, 54, 98. Epispore, structure of 69 2n« ooi ono 298, 300, 303. ' ' "'' '''' '«»^ »»«"«' o(, 09, 172, 207, 389, tf?*-' IMMMMHiiM 838 INDEX. 1* 1 Epithalline growths, 56, 212. Equivocal generation of Lichens, 22. Erose thaUus, 180. Erratic species, 51, 211, 228. Evernic acid, 84. Examination of Lichen-tissues, rules for. 111. Exciple, colour of, 64 ; proper, 61, 235, 257, 264, 279, 287, 301, 305 ; thai- line, 60, 279, 290, 296, 299, 300. Experiments on dyeing properties of Lichens, 88, 135. Exogenous growth of thallus,, 56; exogenous structure of Phanerogamia, re- semblances to, 124. \ "Fahln-laf " of Scandinavia, 203. Fairy -rings, 56. Fairies, use of Lichen-dyes by the, 199. Farinose thallus and apothecia, 42, 193, 272. Fastigiate thallus, 139, 288. Fatty matters iu the Lichen-thallus, 92, 155, 209. Female disorders, use in, 126, 200. Filaments, medullary, 39, 143, 304 ; moniliform, 277. Filamentous species, 109 ; filamentous thallus, 37, 121, 279. Fixurte, 36, 39, 47, 161, 166, 171. Florentine Orchill, 137. Foliaceous species, 109; foliaceous thallus, 35, 150, 181, 276, 290. Foliicolous species, 102, 308. Fodder for animals, use as, 82, 125, 153, 157, 158, 228, 263, 274. Food to man, use as, 51, 80, 228, 274. Formation of soil, use in, '78, 235. Fossil Lichens, 53. Franldin, use of Lichens as food to, 175. Fries, classification of, 27. INDEX. Froudose thaUus, 35. Fruticulose specie"? ino jf ±' . rumaric acid, 91, Isj ™'°'' *''»"°»' 3«- "1, 272, 287 Fungi, affluity to faVi'^ Ai,5„-, , Galjc acid, 84, 155, 209 Geographical distribution o/jS'"'''? ""'""^' 276. »9. 219. 2«, 2 ,773 ; ^L ' '''; "'- "'' !«•'. m ,67 !-« Geological age of Lichens, 53 G^ination Of the spo. („■*«,„,,. Gliadine, 209 G;*oseapoth;eia,287.290.294.301. Glomeruli, 44, 188. Gonidia, structure, 40 46 1Q9 o-r« o Gonidiclayerofthallus 39 fn\ ''^^'''^^ functions of 41 58 Granitoid rocks T.nh. ' ««»in.het:,tfr;8r9r,™-'°^-='''^- %roseapothecia, 173. fpSfm - ' *C^55w*'*^4.W.'- r*^;-.,<*..--V^'«'k -■■'■.•■■ fl I I: * 340 INDEX. Habitat, nature of. 55, 101, 108, 212, 223 ; geological nature of, 103 ; i)liy. sical nature of, 101 ; influence of, in producing varieties, 53, 105. Hair-powders, use in the manufacture of, 92, 126, 142, 145, 275. "Hazel-rag," or "Hazel-crottle," 184. Herbaria, or fasciculi, of dried Lichens, consultation of, 29, 121. Herbarium, preparation of specimens for the, 109. Hedwig, speculations regarding reproduction, 24. Hepaticaj, affinity to (zJiflf^ Affinity). Highlands, native dyes of the Scotch {vide Orchill). Highlanders, Cudbear-Lichen gathering by the, 225. Himalayas, Lichens growing on the, 97, 101, 141, 145, 147, 184, 185, 190, 191, 197, 239, 262. Hoffmann's natural system of classification, 27. Hooping-cough, use in, 125, 267, 269. Hops, substitute for, in beer, 183. Horizontal thallus, 33, 265. *' Horsetail Lichen," 127. Hydrophobia, supposed specifics for, 168. Hypothallus, form, 44, 71, 216, 217, 222, 226, 231, 238, 245, 278 ; struc ture and development, 44 ; duration, 45 ; metamorphoses of, 47. Hypothecium, structure, 64 ; function, 68 ; reaction of iodine on, 113. Hypoxyla (Fungi), affinity of certain sections of Lichens to the, 312. "Iceland Moss," 82, 83, 154. Icelanders, use of Lichens as food by, 157, 158, 159, 174. " Idle-moss," 123. Imbricated thallus, 35. Immersed apothecia, 235, 293, 294, 301, 306. Indian species, 123, 133, 135, 141, 168, 190. Inflated'thallus, 123, 196. Innate apothecia, 62. INDEX. 341 3, 147, 184, 185, I'Jd, Innumerable spores, 292 308 Inorganic constituents of'thallus {vide Analysis) luterceUdar substance, 40 81 ^"^^ysis). Intermittent fevers, use in,' 209, 267 297 Inuline, 80. >*"/, ^J/. Invalids, use ofLichen.jelly to. 157, 183 odme, reactions of, on tissues, 66, 111 isO 207 Iron, peroxide of, in thaUus 49 52 pVn o.n . rsiclioid degeneration of thalhl 4^57!'^ ;f''' '^^• gg^ tnallus, 43, 57, 202, 218, 219, 221, 223, 224, 204 It^igsohn, discovery of spermogones by, I45. Jaundice, reputed specifics in, 152 .ey species yielding a, 83, 156, 175, 183 •leUy-Lichens," 276. "Kenkerig" of Wales, 200 "Korkalett" of Shetland, 225. Laciniffi, thalline, 35. Lakes, 86. Lateral apothecia, 02. Lava Lichens growing on, 78, 263. J^eat-Lichens," 213. Lecanoric acid, 84. %hton,,esearchcsof,30,ll7,120,245 246 ^ens, use of pocket, in examining sp cies 111 I'epi-ose thallus, 34 206 218 9ia iZ L "Letter-Lichens," 245 ' ''^' '''' '^^' ^07. Levantine Orchclla-weeds, I37 "I-ichen," origin of name, 24.' U'2 INDEX. " Licheues exsiccati," or fasciculi of dried specimens, 29, 121. " Liciieu-hair," 127 ; licheu-starch, 80. Lichenoides, 24. Lichenology, history of rise and progress of, 18 ; advantages of knowledge of, 7, 8 ; incentives to study of, 11, 15, Lichestcaric acid, 155. Light, effect of, on growth of thallus, 48. " Lima Orchella-weeds," 134. Lime, carbonate of, in thallus, 33, 209 ; phosphate, 156, 209 ; oxalate, 33, 137. 218, 229, 232, 297 ; tartrate, 137. Limited distribution of certain species, 100, 164, 184. Lindsay, Mr. Wallace, analyses of the ash of Lichens, 51, 148, 156. Linnseus, classification of, 24. Lirellfe, or lirellate apothecia, 61, 245. Litmus, characters of, 85 ; adulterations of, 85 ; manufacture of, 85, 86, 224. Living specimens, importance of examining, 107- Lobes, thalline, 35. Lowland species, 104. <' Lungs of Oak," or " Tree Lungwort," 183. " Madagascar Orchella-weed," 134. " Madeira Orchella-weed," 136. Manna, 82, 213, 229 ; Mannite, 82. Marginal apothecia, 62. Maritime species, 11, 104, 132, 142, 306. Maximum development of the thallus, 96. Medicinal properties, 83. Medullary tissue of thallus, 39, 162, 163, 166, 192, 277, 281. Membranaceous thallus, 35, 253, 276. Microscope, use of, in examination of tissues, 18, 21, 65, 111 ; directions for purchase of, 59. INDEX. 343 Qtages of knowledge ), 111 ; directions for Microscopic species, 309. Mineralogical character o'f habitat, 103. Mogador Orchella-weed," I34 Moisture, effects of, on growth ofthaUus, 48. 55 71 205 Monoecious species, 281 Mortar of walls. Lichens growing on, 304. ^ Moss, term as applied to Lichens, 38, 123 Moss Canary Rock," 190 ; " Common yellow v.all " 209 " T 1 , „ "Necklace," 125j "Norway Rook" -.t^T n ^' ^^^^and," 154; ^^ dish/'224; ''Tartireous^L ^^^^^^^^^^ ''^ ' "Swe-' Mosses (Lichens) used in dyeing 9i ' Velutous or Velvet,"! 74. Mougeot and Ncstlcr's 'Lichenes' Exsiccati,' 121 154 M Jlage m thallus or apothecia, 279, 293 29 ' ' ma, Lichens growing on, 104 269 Muscicolous species, 102, 222, 224, 231, 242 281 ' Muscus arborei sen querni," 125 ' Museums, collections of Lichens and Lichen-dyes in Scotch, 88. Naked spores (vide Spores). Natural system of classification, 27 Necked apothecia, 294. "Necklace Moss," 125. New Holland species, 97 123 Nomenclature of British Lichens, 116 Norwegian species, 154, I74 177 Nomegians, use of Lichens by the, 200 Nostoc, affinity of Lichens to, 278 Nova Zambia, Lichens of, 101 ■ i mm; m><* \ 'm :\ -' _ ■;> ■' ...i .- y msBmsm a 344 INDEX. Nutricuts, use as, 82, 83, 129, 153, 156, 175, 183, 273. Nutrient principles, chemistry of, 80; applications of, 82, 83. Oils in the thallua, 92, 209. Oil-globules in protoplasm of spores, 69, 241, 298, 300 ; of thectc, 67. Orcellic acid, 84. " Orchella-wecds," 90, 134 ; botanical sources of, 135 ; geographical sources of, 134; commercial value, 136 ; economical applications, 86, 136 ; pro- posed substitutes for, 89 ; new fields of export of, 135. Orchill, ancient and modern history of, 85 ; botanical sources of, 89, 135 ; chemistry of, 84, 86 ; economical applications of, 86 ; mode of manufac- turp of, 85, 86, 220 ; origiv) v^ name of, 131 ; commercial value of, 136 ; from native Lichens, 149, 173, 177, 179, 190, 221, 224, 233. Orizabo, Lichens growing on, 174, 210, 269. " Orn-massa " of Scandinavia, 223. " OrseiUe d'Auvergne," 220. Ostiole, 60, 287, 290, 294, 295, 296, 301, 306. Oxalate of lime {vide Lime). Oxalic acid, 91, 29?. Packing, use of, in, 93. Paint, black. Lichens yielding a, 177. Paper-making, use in, 93, 126, 142, 158. Papillie, thalline, 306. Papillate apothecium, 173 ; papillate podetia, 275. Papulose thallus, 279, 291. Paramaleic acid, 91. Paraphyses, colour, 64 ; structure and form, 64, 284, 293, 298 ; functions., 65 ; reaction of iodine on, 113. Parasitic species, 258, 308, 309. Parchment-making, use in, 93, 142. INDEX. ; of thecse, 67. 93, 298 ; functions, Parietinic acid, 91, 208. Patellate apothecia, 61, 132 264 Peaty soils. Lichens growing on, 104. Pedicellate apothecia, 62. Peltate apothecia, 61, 121, 161 Pendulous thaJIus, 122, 12?, 147 " Perelle d'Auvergne," 220 ' Perfumery, use in, 92, 126,' 149, r75 rerithecium, 60 63 2«7 qm or - ^ «et..« uiJ: Sit ;,r,„^»^. ''' ■ -- "f «^. Pioneers of vegetation, use „,, 78 "' *"' ay3.eo.ehe™cal characters of the tiss.es, lU rathisis, use in, 137, 159 • '^'• Hague, reputed speeifles for the. 200 Podetium, moiThology of, 87, 201, 264 266 9K F^-souous^o e,,ies, ai.eged, ISI.'./s '//o^' '''• po^t^SaS^rttrsr ''■°°' f "^• ■'Poudre de Chvpre," 92 ' ^ '" ""■ °'^'"''™» («* Analysis) s:=d::c:r:-^^^^^^^^^ Propagos, or buds, reproduction by 25 '" reproduction, 22. Protoplasm of spores 147 907 ono l\. 194, 257. ' ' ^' '''' '''' ^^1' 242, 298, 300 ; of thee, 67, 70 Prumose thallus or apothecia 42 17^ loo «, Pulverulent thallus, 34, 247 "Pulvisantilyssus,»or''Pm;is contra rabiem "83 ir« p . ■ ramem, 83, 168 ; Pulvis Cyprius, 92. 345 346 INDEX. Puu'^tate conditioa of thallus {vide Thallus). Punctiform apothecia, 241, 295. Purgative properties, 83, 156, 158, 164, 175. Purple dyes {vide Dyes) ; Purple of Amorgos, 86. Pustulate thallus, 176. Pycnides, 75, 309, 312. Quartz rocks, Lichens growing on, 103, 239, 301. Quinine, bitter principles of Lichens substitutes for, 145, 209. "Rags,"or "Raw," 184. Rains of Manna, 229. Reagei^ts, chemical, use of, in examination of tissues, 111. " Red Cup Moss," 267. Red dyes {vide Dyes). Red discoloration of thallus (wfl?0 Thallus). "Reindeer Moss," 82, 96, 272. Reindeer, use of Lichens as food by the, 128, 263, 273. Reproductive system, primary, 67 ; secondary, 40, 57 ; speculations regarding, 25, 74. Resin in the thallus, 137, 209. Rhaphidian crystals in thallus, 209. Rhizinse, 36, 39, 293. Rhubarb, colouring matters, resembling those of Lichens, 209. "Rock Hair," 127. " Rock Tripe," 174. Rootlets, analogues of, in Lichens, 36. Saccate apothecia, 172. Salts, mineral, contained in thallus, 51. Sandstone, Lichens growing on {vide Arenaceous). INDEX. culations regarding, "Scrottyie" of Shetland, 199. Scurvy, use in, 158 ScuteIlateapotliecium,6],181,27a ^Jcyphi, 2C4. ' . • Seasons, effects on growth of thallus 55 Secondary and tertiary thaUus, 37 Septa of medullary fUaments, 39 45- of n« . ^ 167. 244, 246, 282, 302 ' '' ^'"'^^y^'^' ^-> 113; of spores, 147 aessile apothecia, 62 Silica in the thallus, 52 Social Lichens, 273 ^ °' '^"'^ ^^'' ^O^. Soil-producers, Lichens as, 4 78 21^ Sodium, chloride of, in man';!^^^^^^^^^^^ Soredia, 41, 140, 187, 196, 297 ^• Sowerby's ' English Botany 29 122 '' '''' '''' '''' Species, characters of British 121 • Specific virtues, reputed, in med e LT""' ''^'""^*^'°^ °^' ^^• Spermatia, affinity to antherozoids 7V 73. 167, 316 ; development 73 wT ".^ ^^""^^^^^^ ^^ '' ^^-^ reaction of iodine on, 113. ' ^'^"etions, 75 ; movements, 73, 275 ; 347 iOMiiilBi 348 INDEX. Spcrmogoncs, analogues, 73 ; colour, 'i'Z ; density of, 73 ; form nnd struc- ture, 71, 72, 275, 209, ;503 ; original discovery of, 145 ; period of de- velopment, 73 ; position in relation to other parts of reproi.uctive sys- tem, 72 ; mucilage of, 72. Spontaneous generation of Lichens, 22. Spores, agglutinated, 70, 257, 286, 289; abortive, 170, 242; arrangement in thccrc, 70, 289, 304 ; cellular or muriform, 08, 170, 232, 284, 293, 300; colour of, 69; contents, 69, 216, 221, 302; coatings of {vide Epispore) ; compound and simple, 68, 246 ; development of, 67, 70, 140, 147, 166, 286, 303; dissemination of, 70, 78; expulsion from thecie, 67, 70, 71, 30b; germination of, 44, 70, 172, 195, 207, 208, 221, 249; form, 68, 232, 239, 246, 258, 266, 288, 298, 302; size, 68, 293, 298 ; number, 67, 292, 308 ; structure, 68, 221 ; proto- plasm of (vide Protoplasm); naked or extiathecal, 70, 258, 307 ; the nuclei of, 207; movements of, 71, 292; reaction of iodine on, 113; typical (for study), 146, 172, 298 ; unilocular and polylocular, 68, 246, 303; uniseptate and polysepti .;e, 68, 147, 246. Spore-sac, 66 ; reaction of iodine on, 112; spore-wall, 69. Squamulose state of apothecia, 43, 145, 193, 284; squamulose state of thai- lus, 261, 262, 265, 271; squamulose thaUus, 35, 214, 236, 291, 294. " Stane-raw," or " Staney-rag," 199. 15. rchy matters in thallus, 80, 81, 112, 156, 175, 183, 209, 263, 267, 269. Steariue, 209. " Sten-laf" of Scandinavia, 197. Sterigmata of spermatia, 72 ; of stylospores, 75, 312. Sterility, causes of, 55. Stipes, 37, 256, 257, 261, 262, 266. Stipitate apothecia, 61, 257, 261. '' Stone crottle," 191. Stylospores, 75, 309, 312. Sugar and saccharine principles, 81, 155, 209. .-^K,-:-. ■— -- \r :m--i^H JMHJflrai.iRUfcifl27'-jJtr - 1-f* ■' l^%-- "' ,'J-'Si^"f ■-■' INDEX. 349 19, 203, 207, 209. Sulphuric an,], U8C of. in mmination of tissues 65 111 ua on. Swedes, use of Lichens by the 131 15o U'TV.^'} ' ^^ Switzeriaud. Lichens of, 100, 149 152 1 '' ^'' '''' '''' '^^^' ^^O. Symphycarpeous apothecia {vide Apothecia) * Synonymy, confusinir state of 280 S.="ps,s of Na.„,,„ o.ao., a^d Geaen. of BHtish Liohe,,, ,19. TaiDiic acid, 84. Tanning, use in, 93, 158, 183 Tartareous thallus, 33, 319, 221, 222, 239, 263 295 lemperati.re of atmosphere efTccts nP n« .V . rature of soils, ditto, lot ''""'' "' *'"""^' ^ ^' '^ ■' ^empe. Terminal apothecia, 62, 287. Terrestrial n( u-ishment of thallus, 50. Tern olous species, 101, ;04, 148, 307 Thalaraium, colour, 63 ; form fiO pqo ^ . deformed states of, 41, 56, WO. 14 J ufm'lu . ' f "' '" 148 , ero=„, ,80, 265 ; fastigiate. 139 276 >8'8 ' "*'' ''"'"'' fo™,32,892, deHop„,c„1, 4^ ; g2 :!f ,''''"' '\< '«<"^> of. W ; form, 41, 63 ; squamose, 813 ■ red diZ r tT' "' '^''^^ "' m 272. 202, lu . „o„.adhe: t : tfTl llf o" '"' "«' «=«»• secondary, 265 : ),. -izoatal or prinnrv 7b^ ■'h 211 22V , vertical or phy..o«s,.177,17.. 201; p.p,-,S:', ^ '"""°'*^"»- -Opoly- lliecM, rhemical characters, 66 contents 67 '• , disappearance. 67 ; form. 65, 20 29 VZ '""™'' "''' '*«' ^^'^ ' reaction of iodine on, 66, 112 207 2Q« ' ™: ' ' ™P'«™ of. 67; 397 ; nnispored, 176. 242! ' '' '"""'^ <'"' »""«■ 1«. 172. i 350 INDEX. Ibectc and paraphyses, disaggregation of, by mineral acids, 114 ; by boiling the apothecium, 114. Theories regarding the reproductive function, 26. "Time-stains" (vernacular name), 4. Tonics, use as, 83, 153, 156, 183. Tournefort, classification of, 23. " Tournesol," 137. "Tonsch," 179. "Tree Hair," 137 ; "Tree Lungwort," 183 ; " Trcc-moss," 123. Trees, Lichens not destructive to, 102. " Tripe de Roche," 82, 96, 174. Tropical species, 96, 98, 133, 184, 246, 296. Tubular tissue of medullary layer of thallus, reaction of iodine on, 114. Tulasnc, researches of, 23, 28, 310. Typical British species, description of, 17, 117, 121. " Ulf-mossa" of Scandinavia, 131. Umbilicatcd thallus, 36, 173, 290. Uniform thallus, 35, 235, 239, 305. Upholstery, use of, in, 93. Urceolate apothecia, 230, 234, 243, 299. Usnea, 24. Usnic acid, 266. Varieties of species, causes of, 54, 98, 124. Variolarioid state of apothecia, 216 ; of thallus, 57, 216, 221, 2i)7. Vegetable soil, use in creating, 78. Vegetative system of Lichens, 32. Veiled apothecia, 131, 296. Ventricose podetia, 276. Verrucseform apothecia, 61, 295, 296, 299, 301. , 114 ; by boiling INDEX. Vertical thallus, 36. Vitality of lichens. 64. Vulpiuic acid, yi. ;;Wag.laf" of Scandinavia, 205. Worts thalhne. 43. 57. 1^4, 296. 308 Wartworts," 301. Wax in thallus. 137, 155, 20y. VVeaviPg, use in, 93, 158. "Weeds, Orchella,"90 134 Ifellow dyes (vide Dyes). Zonate thaUus, 56, 296, Zones ofaltitudinal range, 100. 351 (( ijiiTr"--' «i 352 CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS. Page 14, line 17. For "Although it is liable to separate, as its age increases, in annular masses, and it is habited by Graphidecs and Lecidece, while it is seldom or never the habitat of the Ramalinas, TJsneas, PhysciaSj or Cornicularias, which constitute the familiar ' beard ' or ' moss ' of aged trees," read " being seldom habited, to any extent, by the Ramalinas, Usneas, Physcias, and Cornicularias, which constitute the familiar * bea.'d ' or * moss ' of aged trees." Page 1;00, line 10. For " Spharopkoron australe,^' read " Evernia Magel- lanica." Page 105, line C. For " Peltigera venosa,^' read " Verrucaria Hookeri." Page 161, line 11. Jfier " kidneys," add " and 6ix6s, like, in allusion to the form of the apothecia." Page 188, line 15. For "probably irom. parma, a round buckler, in allusion to the form of the apothecium," read " from irdp/xri, a round buckler, and el\(w, to enclose, in allusion to the thalamium being girt by a dis- tinct border." Page 213, line 14. For " P.pu] hella, var. OJEsia," read "P. saxatilis, var. ^^ucochroa." Specimens from Melbury HiU. near Shaftesbury, Dorset- shire (sub nom. P. saxatilis^ var. concentrica), may be examined in Leigh- ton's 'Lich. Brit. Exsicc' fasc. 8, no. 232 (1856). Page 214, line 9. For " \eKdv7i, a dish or platter," read " k^K(kviov, a small shield, and Uipc, form." Page 231, line 18. For " bryophyta" read " bryophila" Page 235, line 9. For "\(k6s, a dish," read " Aexis, a small shield." Page 257, line 4. For " probably from caliu,; a goblet," read " from koKIikiov, a little cup." Page 268, line 8. For " bellus, beautiful," read " bellis, the daisy." I as its age increases, nd Lecidece, while it [Jsiieas, PhyscifASj or ' or ' moss ' of aged by the Ramalinas, titute the familiar 1 " Evernia Magel- 'icaria Ilookeri." ccj in allusion to the buckler, in allusion XT}, a round buckler, being girt by a dis- [ " P. sau-atilis, var. Shaftesbury, Porset- '. examined in Leigh- " KeKoiviov, a small small shield." blet," read "from , the daisy."