IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // // >.<^^!^ .V^ r/, V, Kiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET ViEBSTER.N.Y. 14S80 (716)872-4503 .^^J' A. if ...w CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historlques Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bibliographiques The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below. D D D D V u u Coloured covers/ Couverture de couleur I I Covers damaged/ Couverture endommagde Covers restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaurde et/ou pelliculde I I Cover title missing/ Le titre de couverture manque Fyj Coloured maps/ Cartes gdographiques en couleur Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/ Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) I I Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur Bound with other material/ Relid avec d'autres documents Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion along interior margin/ Lareliure serr6e peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distortion le long de la marge int^rieure Blank leaves added during restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajout^es lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte, mais, lorsque cela 6tait possible, ces pages n'ont pas dtd filmdes. Additional comments:/ Commentaires suppldmentaires; L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilleur exemplaire qu'il lui a dt6 possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exemplaire qui sont peut-6tre uniques du point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la mdthode normale de filmage sont indiquds ci-dessous. □ Coloured pages/ Pages de couleur □ Pages damaged/ Pages endommagdes n Pages restored and/or laminated/ Pages restaur^es et/ou pelliculdes Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ Pages ddcolor^es, tachetdes ou piqu6es Pages detached/ Pages d^tach^es Showthrough/ Transparence Quality of print varies/ Qualit^ indgale de I'impression Includes supplementary material/ Comprend du matdriel supplementaire Only edition available/ Seule Edition disponible Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages totalement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure, etc., ont 6t6 filmdes h nouveau de faqon d obtenir la meilleure image possible. D D D D ( rhis item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est film^ au taux de reduction indiqud ci-dessous 10X 14X 18X 22X 26X 30X / 12X . 16X aox 24X 28X 32X The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto Library L'exempiaire film6 fut reprodult grace i la g6n6rosit6 de: Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto Library The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition and legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. Les images suivantes ont iti reproduites avec le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et de la nettet^ de l'exempiaire film^, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All other original copies are filmed beginning on the first page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impression. Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en papier est imprimie sont film6s en commencant par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la derniire page qui comporte una empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second plat, salon le cas. Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont film^s en commenpant par la premidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la dernidre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol — ► (meaning "CON- TINUED "), or the symbol V (meaning "END'), whichever applies. Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbols —^- signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbols V signifie "FIN". Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre filmds d des taux de reduction diff^rents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour etre reproduit en un seul cliche, il est film6 d partir de Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m^thode. 1 2 3 32X 1 2 9 4 5 6 Gc ^ ^ i^/3&lMpgraphical, H R A AND PRESENT STATE OF THE SEVERAL KINGDOMS OF THE WORLD, CONTAINING I. The Figurer, Motions, and Diftances of the Planets, according to the New- tonian Syftem and the lateft Obfer- vations. II. A general View of the Earth con- fidered as a Planet ; with feveral ufc- tul Geographical Definitions and Pro- l)Iems. III. The grand Divifions of the Globe into Land and Water, Continents and Illands. IV. The Situation and Extent of Em- pires, Kingdoms, State?, Provinces, and Colonies. V. Their Climates Air^ Soil, vegetable Produftions, Metals, Minerals, na- tural Curiofities, Seas, Rivers, Bays, vr. The Birds and Bcafts peculiar to each Country. VII. Obfervations on the Changes that have been any where obfc-rved upon the Face of Nature fince the moft early Periods of Hiftory. VIII. The Hiftory and Origin of Na- tions; their Forms of Government, Religion, Laws, Revenues, Taxes, naval and military Strength. IX. The Genius,- Manners, Cuftoms. and Habits of the People. X. Their Language, Learning.Arts, Sci- ences, Manufadures, and Commerce, XI. The chief Cities, Structures, Ruins, and artificial Curiofities. XII. The Longitude, Latitude, Bear- ings and Diftances of principal Placei from London, ;;^> Capes, Promontories, and Lakes TO WHICH ARE ADDED, I. A Geographical Index, with the Names of Places alphabeti- cally arranged. II. A Chronological Table of remarkable Events from the Creation to the prefent Time. III. A Table of the Coins of all Nations, and their Value in English Monet. By WILLIAM GUTHRIE, Efq. ILLUSTRATED WITH A NEW AND COR{^ECT SET OF LARGE MAPS^ Engraved by Mr. K ITCH IN, Geographer. A NEW EDITION, improved and enlarged; The Astronomical Part by James Ffrguson, 1?. R. S. VOLUME 1. L O N D O N^ l*nntcd for J. Knox; and fold by E. and C. Dilly, irt the Poultry J and G. Robinson, Pater Nofter Row. M DCC LXXVI. ■'- •^■ '% tt ttOfpr'xy'A Soir Gufltrir a -new Grogr aphicalGcannnaT SanOiPoU fl f. i 1 % I . ■» • i , t - » - 1, i. /f" THE « n PREFACE. TO a man fincerely intercfted in the welfare of fociety and of his country, it miiit be particu- larly agreeable to reflect on the rapid progrefs, and general diffufion of learning and civility, whicli, within the prefent age, have taken place in Great-Bri- tain. Whatever may be the cafe in fome other king^ doms of Europe, we, in this ifland, may boaft of our fuperiority to thofe illiberal prejudices, which not only cramp the genius, but four the temper of man, and diiTiurb all the agreeable intercourfe of fociety. Among us, learning is no longer confined within the fchools of the philofophers, or the courts of the great j but, like all the greatefl advantages which heaven has bellowed on mankind, it is become as univerfU as it is ufeful. This general diffufion of knowledge is one cfTe^l of that happy confticution of government, which, towards the clofe of the laft century, was confirmed > us, and which conftitutes the peculiar glory of this nation. In other countries, the great body of the people poflefs little wealth, have little power, and confequently meet with little refped ; in Great-Britain the people are opulent,- have great in- fluence, and claim, of courfe, a proper fharc of attention. To their improvement, therefore, men of letters have late* ly directed their ftudies ^ as tiie great body of the people, no lefs than the dignified, the learned^ or the wealthy few, have an acknowledged title to be amufed and inftru6led. Books have been diverted of the terms qf the fchools, reduced from that fize which fuited only the purfes of the rich, and the avocations of the ftudious ; and adapted to perfons of more ordinary fortunes, whofc attachment to other purfuits admitted of little leifure ; :' A z for IV i V r R E F A c f:. for thofc of knowledge. It is t ) books of this kind, more than to the works of our Bacons, our I^ockt'-., and our Newtons, that the gcncrarty ot our countrynu-n ov/ethut fupcrior improveir.cnr, which dillinguilhcs thent from tlie lower ranks of !ncn in all other countries. To promote and advance this iin})rovcmcnt, is the princi- pal dcri,;2;n of our |)ref.nt undcr;akin[v. No llibjcc^l ap- pears more intereltiiij.^ than that we jjavc ciiolen, and none feems capable of bi'ing handled in a Uianncr that may renJc^r it more f>;eiierally ufeful. I'he knowk-dnije of tiie world, and of its inhabitants, thou^^h not the fublimen; pur]l:it of mankind, it mull be ;.lljv/ed, is th.it v.iuih moll nearly intereJls them, and to which their ablHiics are bell ad;i])tcd. And Books of Gei.'.graphy, which delcribe the ficuatic^n, extent, li.iT, and produdtlons oi' kinr;;doms-, the geniur,, manners, re- ligion, government, commerce, fciences, antl arts of all the in!iabitants upon c-rth, promile the bell aliillance for attaining this knowledge. The Compendium cf Geography, we nov/ offer to the public, dilTers in many particulars from other books on tiiut iubjccl. Kelides exliibiting an eafy, dillindl, and fyflematic account of the rlieory and pracbice of what may be called Natural Geograpliv, the Author has at- tempted to render the following performance, an inltruc- tive, though con.pendious detail of the general hillory of the world. I'he char^'cler of nations depends on a fuccelllonof a great many clrcumllances which recipro- cally afred each other. There is a nearer connexion between the learning, the commerce, the government, ^cc. of a fcate, than mcAi people feem to apprehend. In a v/ork of this kind, whicii p.etends to include moral, or political, as well as natural geography, no one of thofe objefts fliould pals unnoticed. The omif- fion of any one of them would, in reality, deprive us of a branch of knowledge, not only interefting in itfelf, but which is abfolutely neceiLry for enabling us to form an adequate P R E F A C K. -. V Q'Jcquntf ami comprelicnfive nonoii of the fubjccl in jre- ncral. Wchavc tlioiiglit it nccclVary, thcrdbre, to add a new article to this work, which cofnprchcnds the hidory and nrolcnt itate of learniiiir, in the firvcral countries we defcribe, with the charadlers of iuch perfons as have been moll eminent in the various departments of let- ter:; and philolbphy. This fubjecl will, on a li'.tlc re- flexion, appear altogether rcquifite, when v/e con- fider the powerful influence of learnlnnr upon tlie man- ners, government, and general character of nations. 'I'hefe ol))eds, indeed, till of late, feldom found a place in geographical performances •, and, even where they have been introduced, are by no means handled in an enter- taining or inftrudive manner. Neither is this to be al- togetiier imputed to the fault of geographical writers. The greater part of travellers, adting folely under the in- fluence of avarice, the paflion whicii firft induced rhem to quit their native land, were at little pains, and were indeed ill-qualified to colled fuch materials as are pro- per for gratifying our curiofity, with regard to thefe par- ticulars. The geograplier then, who could only employ the materials put into his hands, was not enabled to give us any important infjrmation upon fuch fubjects. In the courfe of the prefent century, however, men have begun to travel from different motives. A thirll for knowledge, as well as for gold, has led many into dif- tant lands. Thefe they have explored with a philcfophic attention-, and by laying open the internal fprings of a6tion, by which the inhabitants of different regions are adluated, exhibit to us a natural and flriking picliire of human manners, under the various ftages of barbarity and refinement. Without manifeit impropriety, v/e could not but avail ourfelvcs of their labours, by means of which, we have been enabled to give a more copious, and a more perfed detail of what is called Political Geography, than has hitherto appeared. . , As 1^ vi PREFACE In confklcring the prcfent ftatc of nations, few cit^* cumllanccs arc of more importance than their mutual intercourfe. This is chiefly brought about by commerce, the prime mover in the oeconomy of modern dates, and of wliich therefore we have never loft fight in the pre- lent undertaking. We are fenfible that a reader could not examine tlie prefcnt (late of nations with mucli entertainment or inilruf^ion, unlefs he was alfo made acquainted with their fituarion during the preceding ages, and of the vari- ous revolutions and events, by the operation of which they have afllimed their prcfent form and appearance. This conftitutcs the hiftorical part of our Work i a department which we have endeavoured to execute in a mannerenfirc- ly new. Inllead of fatiguing the reader with a dry detail of news-paper occurrences, occurrences no way conneded with one another, or with the general plan of the whole^ we have mentioned only fuch fads as are interefting, either in themil'lves, or from their relation to objeds of im* portance. Inftead of a meagre index of incoherent in-* cident?, we have drawn up a regular and connected epitome of the hiftory of each country, fuch an epi- tome as may be read with equal pleafure and advantage^ and which may be confidered as a proper introdudliorl to more copious accounts. Having, through the whole of the V/ork, mentioned the antient names of countries, and in treating of their particular hiltory fometimes carried our refearciies beyond the limits of modern times, we have thought it neceflary, for the fatisfadion of fuch readers as are un- acquainted with claflical learning, to begin our hiitorical Introduction with the remote ages of antiquity- By in- Icrting an account of the antient world in a book of geography, we afford an opportunity to tlie reader, of comparing together not only the manners, government, and arts of different nations, as they now appear, but iiitiial nerce, dates, eprc- PREFACE. vH a's they fubfifted in antient ages -, which exhibiting a general map, as it were, of tlie hittory of mankind, renders our work more complete than any geographical trcatife extant. In the execution of our defign, we have all along en- dcavcLired to obferve order and perfpicuity. Elegance we have facrificed to brevity. Happy to catch the leading features which dillinguifh the characters of na- tions, and by a few ftrokcs to hit ofl', though not com- pletely to finifli, the pidlure of mankind in antient and modern times. What has enabled us to comprife (o many fubjcCls within the narrow bounds of thi'^. work, is the omif- fion of many immaterial circumllances, v/hich ate record- ed in other performances of the fame kind, and of all thofe fabulous accounts or defcriptions which, to the difgrace of the human underilanding, fwell the works of geographers; though the falfity of them, both from their own nature and the concurring teftimony of the mofl enlightened and beft-infonncd travellers and hifto- rians, be long fmce detected. As to particular parts of the work, we have been more or lefs diffufe, according to their importance to U3 as men, and as fubjedls of Great-Britain. Our own country, in both refpedls, deferved the greateft Ihare of our attention. Great-Britain, though fhe cannot boaft of a more luxuriant foil or happier climate than many other countries, has advantages of another and fuperior kind, which make her the delight, the envy, and the miftrefs of the world : thefe are, the equity of her laws, the freedom of her political conftitution, and the moderation of her religious lyllem. With regard to the Britilh empire we have therefore been fmgularly copious. , Next to Great-Britain, we have been moft particular upon the other dates of Europe ; and always in propor- tion as they prefent us with the larged field for ufeful A 4 refie- vious particulars, no doubt, muft efcape our notice. But if our general plan ive good, and tlie outlines nnd chief figures fetched with truth znd judgment, the candour of the k^irncd, wc Jiope, will excufe imperfections wiiich are ui^avoidabk in a work of this extenfive kind. We cannot, without exceeding die bounds of a Preface, ipSiii upon the other parts of our plan. TIic Maps.^ which are bcw, and correded with care, will, we hope, afford fatisfattion. The fcience and the exad divifions and ex- tent of countries, for want of geometrical furveys, are far from being well afcertained. This confideration has induced us to adopt the moll unexceptiGriablc of Tern- pieman's Tables ^, which, if they give not the exat^teii account, afford at kaO: a general idea of this fubie6ri which is all indeed we can attain, until the geographical fcience arrives at greater perfc(^tion. They are, JDefides, recomn^ended by their brevity, and the making ufe of " them has enabled us to introduce fome fubjeds ipore necefiary in this undertaking than the minute divifions of countries, whofe boundaries and Ctuations we are yet little acquainted with. Thus ':, i ■! IK St PREFACE. Thus far the original Preface, with rcfpedt to the dc- fign and general plan of the work, which a few months ago made its firft appearance in one very large o6lavo volume, clofely but diftindly printed. Tho* the book was chiefly intended for fchools, and the more uninformed part of mankind, we have the pleafure to find, by the rapidity of its falc, and the univerfal approbation it has met with, that it has at- tracted the notice of thofe who are beft able to judge of the execution, and, contrary to the general fate of mo- dern publications, has already found a place in the libraries of the learned. One advantage it certainly poflefles, which few hif- torical productions can boall of— Throughout the whole, the Author feems to have diverted himfclf of political, religious, and national prejudices-, and where he difco- vers any biafs, it is always in favour of civil and religious liberty. The fmallnefs of the type of the firft edition, tho' extremely proper for fchools, and young people, has however prevented many, who are more advanced in life, from becoming purchafers. It was therefore judged necefiary to give the public an edition on a larger type, and confequently in two volumes, which enables us to accommodate every clafs of readers. The prefent edition likewife appears with feveral other advantages. The fcientific part of the work has been correded and improved throughout by James Ferguson, F. R. S. The hiflorical and mifcella- neous parts have gone through the hands of fome gen- tlemen of diftinguifhed abilities, and the different arti- cles, or heads, are more methodically arranged. The fame attention has been given to tlie maps, which are newly engraved at a very confiderable expence by the firft artift in this kingdom, who, being chiefly em- ployed in executing the lateft furveys, has availed himfclf of many new difcoveries, and is thereby enabled to enrich this Work with the moft corred Atlas hitherto publiflied. I) «Nw «rtr=i~: INTRODUCTION. PART I. ^ Of Astronomical Geography. SECT. I. THE fcience of Geography cannot be compleatly un- dcrftood without confidi ring the earth as a planet, of as a body moving round another at a confiderablc dif- tance from it. But the fcience which treats of the planets, and other heavenly bodies, is called Aftronomy. Hence the nccefllty of beginning this work with an account of aftrono- my, or of the heavenly bodies. Of thefe, the moft confpi- cuous is that glorious luminary the Sun, the fountain of light and heat to the feveral planets which move round it, ai.d which, together with the fun, compofewhat aftronomcrs have called the Solar Syflem. The way, of path, in which the planets move rouna the fun, is called their Orbit ; and it is now fully proved by aflronomers, that there are fx planets which move round the fun, each in its own orbit. The names of thefe, according to their nearncfs to the center, or middle point of the fun, are as follow : Mercury, Venus, thft Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The two fuPi, becaufe they move within the orbit of the earth (being nearer tiie fun) are called inferior planets, or, perhaps more properly, inte- rior or inner planets ; the tlircc laft, moving without the orbit of the earth, are called fupcrior, or, perhaps more properly, exterior or outer planets. If we can form a notion of the manner in which any one of thefe planets, fuppofe our earth, moves round the fun, we can eafi I y conceive the manner in which all the reft do it. We fiiall only therefore particu- larly confider the motion of the earth, or planet on which we live, leaving that of the others to be collcdled from a table, which we fliall fet down v/ith fuch explications as may render it intelligible to the meaneft capacity. The earth, upon which we live, was long confidered as one large cxtcnfive plane. 'I'he heavens, above it, in which the fun, moon, and ftars appeared to move daily from caft to v/eft, were conceived to be at no great diftance from it, and to hs only defigncd for the ufe or ornament of our earth : feveral reafons, however, occurred, which rendered this opinion im- probable y it h jiiedlcfs to mention them, becaufe wc have novr n INTRODUCTION. now a fufficient proof of the figure of tlie earth, from ih^ voyages of many navigators who have actually failed round it } as from that of Magellan's fhip, which was the firlt that fur- rounded the globe, failing eall from a port in Europe in 1519^ and returning to the fiime, after a voyage of 1124 clays, with- out apparently altering his direclion, any more than a ily would appear to do in moving around a ball of wax. The roundnefs of the carthbeing thoroughly ellablifhcd, proves the way for the difcovery of its motion. For while it was con- fidcred as a plane, mankind had an obfcure notion of its being fupported, like a fcaffolding on pillars, though they could not tell what fupported thcfe. But the figuie of a globe is much better adapted to motion. This is confirmed by confi- dering, that if the earth did not move round the fun, .not only the fun, but all the ftars and planets muft move round the earth. Now, as philofophcrs, by reckonings founded on the fureft obfcrva:ions, have been able to guefs pretty nearly at thediftanccs of the heavenly bodies from the earth, and from each other, juft as every body that knows the firft elements of mathematics can meafure the height of a flccple, or any cbjckSl placed on it j it appeared, that if we conceived the heavenly bodies to move rf)und the earth, we muft fuppofe them endowed with a motion or velocity fo iinmcnfe as to exceed all conception : whereas all the appearances in nature may be as well explained by imagining the earth to move round the fun in the fpace of a year, and to turn on its own axis once in the 24 hours. To form a conception of thcfe two motions of the earth, we may imagine a ball moving on a billiard-table or bowl- ing-green : the ball proceeds forwards upon the green or ta- ble, not by Aiding along like a plane upon wood, or a fiate upon ice, but by turnijig round its own axis, which is aa ■imaginary line drawn through the centre or middle of the ball, and ending on its furfacc in two points called its poles, X^onceiving the matter then in this way, and that the earth. In the fpace of 24 hours, moves from weft to eaft, the inha- bitants on the furface of it, like men on the deck of a fliip, *vho are infcnfible of their own motion, and think that the banks move from them in a contrary dircdtion, will conceive that the fun and ftars mo\'e from eaft to weft in the fame time cf 24 hours, in which they, aloiig v/ith the e;\'(.h, move fro.'n weft to eaih This dtiilv or diurnal motion of ihc earth bei'i';! once clearly conceived, will enable us ealily to form a notioa of its annual or yearly motion round the fun. For as that luminary fecms to have a daily motion round our e trth, which is jeally Ciccafioncd by the d,iily motion of the earth lound its axis* i^\&^. introduction:* 13 1i5{Is, fo in the courfc of a year, he feems to have an annual motion in the heavens, and to rife and fet in different points of them, which is really occafioncd by the daily motion of the earth in its orbit or path round the fun, which it compleats in the time of a year. Now as to the firft of thefe motions Xve ov/e the difference of day and night, fo to the fecond we {ire indebted for the difference in the length of the days ani flights, and in the fcafons of the j^ear. This much being faid with regard to the motion of the tarth, which the finalleft reflection may lead us to apply to the other planets, we muft obferve, before exhibiting our ta- ble, that befide the fix planets already mentioned, which move round the fun, there are other ten bodies which move lound three of thcfe, in the fame manner as they do round the fun ; and of thcfe our earth has one, called the moon j Jupi- ter has four, and Saturn has five : thcfe are all called moons, from their agreeing with our moon, which was firft attended to ; and fomerimes they arc called fecondary planets, becaufe they feem to be attendants of the Earth, Jupiter and Saturn, jibout which they move, and which are called primary. There are but two obfcrvationsmore ncceffaryfor underftand- in? the following table. They are thcfe : we have already faid that the annual niotion of the earth occafioncd the diverfity of feafons, But this would not happen, were the axis of the earth exactly parallel, or in a line with the axis of its orbit ; becaufe then the fame parts of the earth would be turned to- v/ards the fun in every diurnal revolution ; which would de- prive mankind of the grateful viciflxtude of the feafons, arifing from the difference in length of the days and nights. This therefore is not the cafe — the axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of the earth's orbit, which we may conceive by fuppofin ■ a fpindle put through a ball, with one end of it touching the ground ; if we move the ball direcStly forwards, while one end of the fpindle continues to touch the ground, and the other points towards fome quarter of the heavens, we mav form a notion of the inclination of the earth's axis to its orbit, from the inclination of the fpindl^ to the ground. The fame obfervation applies to fome of the other planets, as may be feen from the table. The only thing that now remains, is to confider what is meant by the mean dillances of the planets from the fun. In order to under- ftanu which, we muft learn that the orbit, or path v/hich $ •planet dcfcribcs, were it to be marked out, would not be quite round or circular, but in the Ihape of a figure called an cllipfe, which, though refcmbling a circle, is Ipnger than broad. I r a U INTRODUCTION. broad. Hence the fame planet is not always at the flime ciiftance from the fun, and the mean diftance of it is that which is exadly betwixt its greattit and Jealt diftance. Here follows the table. A TABLE of the Diameters, Periods, S:c, of the fcveral Planets in the Solar Syilcm. Names rf the Sv.n Mi'icury ''eiius Earth Afoon Mars Jupner Saturn ooo.occ 3,coo 7>97c 2,180 Meandiflance from the fun js detcrniin'td iVom oLllrva- '.ions of the tijnf:t c.{ Vt mis in lyfii. 95,173,000 Annual periods rou'id tile fun. ditto. 5,400. 1 4 ^.o •4,148 94,cco 494,990,976 78,000] 907,956,130 y. d. h. o S7 23 O 224 17 I 321 17 II 314 18 22 167 6 Diurnal rota*ii>n on its axis. m, knowi ; 11 n 24 8 o I or, 29 12 44 o 24 4c o 9 56 unknown. o S 3 F". 9- • o 109,699 80,295 60,24- 22,290 55.-«7 29,083 22,I0i •as 3 o o' nown ,Si8 unk 43 1,042 , 91 556 25,920 unknown i? r -1 3 inkn. 75° 0, 13" 29 a" 10' 0° p o" c' unkn. 1- The reader having oVtained an idea of the folar fyfteni from this table, and the previous obfervations necefl'ary for underftanding it, muft next turn his rcllcdlion to wh.it arc called the fixed ftars, which comprehend the luminaries above our heads that have not been explained. The fixed ftars arc diftinguifhed by the naked rye from tlic planets, by being lefs bright and luminous, and by continually exhibiting that ap- pearance which we call the twinkling of the ftars. This arifes from their being fo extremely Imall, that the intcrpofi- tion of the leaft body, of which there are many conftantly floating in the air, deprives us of the fight of them ; when the interpofed body changes its place, we again fee the ftar, and this fucccflion being perpetual, occafions the twinkling. But a more remarkable property of the fixed ftars, and that from which they have obtained their name, is their never changing their fituation, with regard to each other, as the planets, from what we have already faid, muft evidently be always changing theirs. The ftars which are neareft to us fccm largeft, and arc therefore called of the firft magnitude. Thofc of the fecond magnitude appear lefs, being at a greater diftance j and fo proceeding on to the fixth magnitude, which include all the fixed ftars which are vifiblc without a te- lefcope. As to their number, though in a clear winter's night without mopnfiiine they feem to be innumerable, which •■■j? vays at the Came ince of it is that i\ diftance. Here kc. of the fcvcral n. INTRODUCTION. 15 kin a, 2! >3 to '-' S 3 c 3 0* p ° 3 rt ■-•• kT. cr • >^ ?;• a • 3 3.S18 8" 0' 79,699 unknown unkn. >o,295 43 7S° 3 0,24- 1,042 , 23° 29 12,290 9z a" 10' 553-^7 556 0° p' 29,085 25,920 o** c' Z2,I0i unknown unkn. )f the folar fyftem W^ :ions neceflary for ^ ctSlIon to wh.it arc Jfl le luminaries above ^? rhe fixed ftars arc %m incts, by being lefs xhibiting that ap- r the flars. This that the intcrpofi- i many conftantly Df them J when the 1 fee the flar, and le twinkling. But ars, and that from leir never changing :r, as the planets, 'idejitly be always leareft to us fccm nagnitude. Thpfe eing at a greater; magnitude, which blc without a te- :lear winter's night lumerable, which is is owing to their ftrong fparkling, and our looking at them in a confufed manner, yet when the whole firmament is di- vided, as it has been done by the antients, into figns and con- ftellations, the number that can be feen at a time by the bare eye, is not above a thoufand. Since the introdudhon of te- lefcopes indeed, the number of the fixed ftars has been juftly confidered as immenfe ; bccaufe the greater pcrftftion we ar- rive at in our glafles, the more ftars always appear to us. Mr. Flamftead, royal aftronomer at Greenwich, has given us a catalogue of about 3000 ftars, which is the moft coinpleat that has hitherto appeared. The immenfe diftance of the fixed ftars from our earth, and one another, is of all confiderations the moft proper for raifing our ideas of the works of God. For notwithftanding the great extent of the earth's orbit or path (which is at leaft 162 millions of miles in diameter) round the fun, the diftance of a fixed ftar is not fenfibly af- fected by it J lb that the ftar does not appear to be any nearer us when the earth is in that part of its orbit neareft the ftar, than it feemed to be when the earth was at the moft dif- tant part of its orbit, or 162 millions of miles further re- moved from the fame ftar. The ftar neareft us, and confe- quently the biggeft in appearance, is the dog-ftar, or Si- rius. Modern difcoveries make it probable that each of thcfa fixed ftars is a fun, having worlds revolving round it, as our fun has the earth and other planets revolving round him. Now the dog-ftar appears 27,000 times lefs than the fun, and ay the diftance of the ftars muft be greater in proportion as they feem lefs, mathematicians have computed the diftance of Si- lius from us to be two billions and two hundred thoufand millions of miles. The motion of light therefore, which though fo quick as to be commonly thought inftantaneous, takes up more time in travelling from the ftars to us, than we do in making n Weft-India voyage, A found would not arrive "to us from thence in 50,000 years ; which, next to light, is confidered as the quickeft body we are acquainted with. And a cannon ball flying at the rate of 480 miles an hour, would not reach us in 700,000 years. The ftars, being at fuch immenfe diftances from the fun, cannot poflibly receive from him fo ftrong a light as they feem to have j nor any brightnefs fufficient to make them vi- fible to us. For the fun's rays muft be fo fcattercd and dif- fipated before they reach fuch remote objecSts, that they caa never be tranfmitted back to our eyes, fo as to render thefe objeas vifible by reflexion. The ftars therefore fhine with Jtheir own native and unborrowed luftre, as the fun doesj and fiijce each partici|lar ftar, a^ well as the fun, is confined to a ^ pa^ticuliy: .X. f^ INTR'ODUCTIOI^^, I particular portion of fpacc, it is plain that the l^ars arc of the fame nature with the fun. It is no ways probable that t?ic Aimtghtj-, who aJwayg a^s with infinite wifcloni and docs notliiiiir in viiin, Hioul-i create (o rU ii fit for fo Jes, many nnportant pitr- and pliLcc them at fuch diUiinccs from one another, ■without proper objesSls near enough to be bciicfued by thci.'.- inffucnccs. Whoever imagines they v/crc created onlv to give a faint jilimmciijig light to tl^* inhabitants of this globe, muik have a very iifpcrHcial k.nowjedge of aftronoiny *, and a mtan opinion of the Divine Wifdotn : fuicc, by an infinitely Icf; exertion of creating; (xnver, the Deivv ch>uKI have given our earth much n ore light by one fi2v.!;Ie additional m«»n, Inftead then of one c, i/jiit feience difcovcrs to us fuch an inconceivable inn:-! her of funs, fyilems, and worlds, difpcrfcd through boundlcis fpacc, that if our fun, with all the planets, moons, and comets belonging; to it, were annihilated, they would be no more mifit'd, by an tyc that could take in the whole creation, than a |^iain of faiui from the fca-lhorc. The fpacc il-icj' {vjflefs being; compara- tively fo fmrdl, thr.t it would fcavcc be a fenfible blank in the wnlvcrfe, althouj^h Satun->, the cutcrn-ifjlt of our planets, re- volves about the fun in ai> orbit of 4884 millions <)f miles in circumference, and fome of our comets make cxcurlluns up- wards of ten thoufand millions of miles hevond Saturn^s orbit ; and yet, at that amazing diftancc, they are nicomparably nearer to the fun than to any of the dars; as is evident from their keeping clear of the attracting power of all the iiars, and rc- turninsi periodicallv bv virtue of the Sun's attraction. From what we know of oar ov/n {y'lcm, it may be rea-. fonably concluded that all the reft are with equal wifdoni contrived, fituatcd, and provided v/ith accommodations for rational inhabitants. For akhoiitrh there is almoft an infinite variety in the parts of tl;c creation which we have opportu- nities of examining, yet there is a general analogy running through and connccling ail the pr.rts into one fcheme, one dcfign, one whole ! Since the fixed ftars arc prodigious fphercs of fire, like our fun, and at inconceivable ditfances from one another, as well as from us, it is reafonablc to conclude they are made for the fame purpofcs that the fan is j each to beitow light, heat^ and i ! * EfpcciaDy fincc many more flais i-L<;u;rc the rfTiftance of a good tclcfcopc tft Und them out, th;in jri; vKiMe withnut th.it inftrument, n.id therefore ii.ftcid C^ giving light {0 thi; worldj they ca:i only bu fi.cp by a lew .'.ftronomerj.. , m liars arc of the r, who alv/aya n vain, HioulJ iuiportaijt pur- n one another, nested by their icd oiilv to crlve tills glt'bc, mu'ii ''*'', and a mtLaii I infinite J V ^^ii \ave given our in the isnivcnc, -•icnce dircovcrs , fyrf.cin.5, aiKJ iiat if our fun, iclongiiig; to it, ^vd^ by an tyc n i^iain of faiui hcing; compara- ble blank in ihc >iir phiucts, jc- ions of miles in cxcurituns wp- 1 Saturn^s orbit ; I rnparably nearer ident from their ic iiars, and rc- raction. it ir.ay be rea-. I equal wifdoiii mmodations for moft an infinite : have opportu- malogy running ■nc fcheme, one of fire, like our mother, as well y are made for tow light, heat, and f a good tclcf'copc tft ! therefore ir.flci(d of r.omeri,. I N T R O D U C T I O I^. if tnd vegetation on a certain number of inhabited planets, kept by gravitation within the fphere of its activity. What an aiiguft ! what an amazing conception, if human imagination can conceive it, does this give of the works o£ the Creator! Thoufands of thoufands of funs, multiplied without end, and ranged all around us, at immcnfe diftanccs from each other, attended by ten thoufand times ten thoufand worlds, all in rapid motion, yet calm, regular, and harmo- nious, invariably keeping the paths prefcribcd them ; and thcfe worlds peopled with myriads of intelligent beings, formed for cndlcfs progreffion in perfedion and felicity. If fo much power, wifdom, goodncfs, and magnificence h difplaycd in the material creation, which is the leafl confi- dcrable part of the univerfe, how great, how wife, how good muft HE be, who made and governs the whole ! The firft people who paid much attention to the fixed Itars^ were the fliepherds in the beautiful plains of Egypt and Baby- lon ; who, partly from amufcmcnt, and partly with a viev/ to di- rc6t them in their travelling during the night, obfervcd the fitu- ation of thefe celeftial bodies. Endowed with a lively fancy, they divided the ftars into different companies or conflcllations, each of which they fuppofed to reprefent the image of fo:ne animal, or other tcrref^iial objecf:. The peafants in our own country do the fame thing, for they diftinguifh that great northern con- ftellation which philofophers call the Urla Major, by the name of the plough, thj figure of which it certainly may re-, prefent with a very little help from the fancy. But the con- jftellations in general have prefcrved the names which were given them bythe antients ; an I they arc reckoned 21 northern, and 12 fouthern : but the moderns have incrcafed the num- ber of the northern to 34, and of the fouthern to 31.. Be- Jide thcfe there are the 12 iigns or conftellations in the Zodiac, as it is called from a Greek word fignifying an animal, be- caufc each of thefe 12 reprefent fome animal. This is a great; circle which divides the heavens into two equal parts, of which we fhall fpcak hereafter. In the nican time, we (hall conclude this fection with an account of the rife, progrefs, and revo- lutions in affroncniy. Mankind niuPc have made a very confidcrable improvement in oblcrving the motions of the heavenly bodies, before they could fo far dii'cngage themfeh'cs from the prejulices of fcnfe and popular opinion, as co believe that the earth upon which we live was not fixed and immoveable. We hnd accoj-dingly, that Thales, the Milefian, who, about 600 years before Chrift, firil taught aftronomy in Europe, had gone fo far in this fubjcland, a bold and origi- nal genius, adopted the Pythagorean, or true fyftem of the uni- verfe ; and publifhed it to the world in 1530. This doftrine had been fo long in obfcurltv, that the rcftorcr of it was confi- dered as the inv^entor ; and the fyftem obtained the name of the Copernican philofophy, though only revived by that great man. Europe, however, was ftill immcrfcd in fenfe and igno- rance ; and the general ideas of the world were not able to keep pace with thofe of a refined philofophy. This occafioned Copernicus to have few abetters, but manv opponents. Tycho Brache, in particular, a noble Dane, fcnfible of the defeats of the Ptolemaic fyftem, but unwilling to acknowledge the motion of the earth, endeavoured to eftablifti a new fvftem of his ov/n, which was fti-l more perplexed and embarrafil'd than that of Ptolemy. It allows a monthly motion to the moon round the earth, as the center of its orbit j and it ni»kes the ily unJcr- lagoras, a hales, and motion of nceive an n thought )tion, and oflible, in heavenly ^ oppoftte ever made nt world. g able to pt the one em. This )her, w^ho with the the earth and that he prima- nament of Tium mo- leaven of ound the ftated or as obliged epicycles, ^Item was ers, who 3 time of sntury. and origi- f the uni- 5 dodlrine vas confi- ,me of the reat man. ,nd igno- )t able to (ccafioned Tycho le defedts- ledjre the fyltem of aficd than the moon liukes the fun '*-,t ¥ " "». ■m ■*^^. M INTRODUCTION. 19 fun to be the center of the orbits of Mn cury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The (un, however, with all the pla- nets, is fuppofccl to be wh. ''d round fffP earth in a year, and even once in the twenty-four hours. This fy (km however, ab- furd as it was, met with its advocates. Longomontnnus and others, fo far refined upon it, as to admit the diurnal motion of the earth, though they infilled that it had no annual motion. About this time, after a darknefs of a great many ages, the firft dawi\ of learning and talte began to appear in Europe. Learned men in different countries began to t iiltivate aftro- nomy. (lalileo, a Florentine, about the year ibio, intro- duced the ufe of telefcopes, which difcovered new arguments in fupport of the motion of the earth, and confirmed the old ones. The fury and bigotry of the clergy indeed had almoft checked this flourifliing bud : Galileo was obliged to renounce the Copernican fyftem, as a damnable herefy. The happy re- formation in religion, however, placed the one half ofEuropi? beyond the reach of the papal thunder. It taught mankind that the fcriptures were not given forexplainijig fyfUnns of na- tural pi ilofophy, but for a much nobler purpole, to make us jult, virtuous, and humane : that inltead of oppofing the word , of God, which in fpeaking of natural things fults itftlf to the I prejudices of weak mortals, we employed our faculties in a : manner highly agreeable to God himfelf, in tracing the nature jof his works, which the more they are confidered, afi^ord u& [the greater reafon to admire his glorious attributes of power, wifdom, and goodnefs. From this time, therefore, noble difcoveries were made in all the branches of aftronomy. The motions of the heavenly bodies were not only clearly [explained, but the general law of nature, according to which, rthey moved, was difcovered and illuftrated by the immortal iNewton. This law is called Gravity, or Attradlion, and is Ithe fame by which any body falls to the ground, when difen- .gaged from what fupported it. It has been demonftrated, that this fame law which keeps the fea in its channel, and the various bodies which cover the furfacc of this earth from fly- ing off into the air, operates throughout the univerfe, keeps the planets in their orbits, and prcfervcs the whole fabric ©f lature from confufion and diforder. SECT. II. ' ' ' Of the Doarine of the Sphere." * 'AVING, in the foregoing Seaion, treated of the unl- . verfe in general, in which the earth has been confidered is a planet, we now proceed to the Doarine of the Sphere, ■vhicii ought always to be premifed befois that of the globe B 2 OS 1 I CO INTRODUCTION; or earth, as we fliall fee in the next Scdion. In handling this fubjedt, wc Ihall conikler the earth r.s. at relt, and the heavenly bodies, as performing their revolutions around it. This me- thod cannot lead the reader into any miftakc, llnce we have previoufly explained the true fyftom of the univcife, from which it ajjpcars that it is the rtW motion of the earth, whicli occafions the apparent motion of the heavenly bodies. It is befidcs attendca with this advantage, th it it pcifcdtly agrees with the information of our fenfts, which al-.vays lead us to conceive the mutter in this way. The- imagination therefore is not put on the llretch ; ihe idja is eafy anc familiar, and in delivering the elements ol fcience, this objcd caniiol be too much attended to. N. B. In order mor;; clearly u ccnpre- hend what follows, the reader may occarionaIi\ turn bis eye to the figure of the artificial fphcre, on the oppoliLo p:tgc. The anticnts obfcrved that all the ilars tur^ied (in appear- ance) round the earth, from cad: to weft, m > .■.cnt-, -four hours : that the circles, which they defcribed in tSioi-' revo- lutions, were parallel to each other, but not of the lame mag- nitude ; thofe pairing over the middle of the earth, b:'i ig the largeft of all, while the reft diminilh^d in proportion t.. their diftance from it. They alfo obferved that there v/ere two points in the heavens, v/hich aKvays prcferved the fame fituation. Thefe pnints they termed celeftial poles, bccaufe the jMeavens fecmed to turn round them. In order to imitate thefe nK)tions, they invented what is called the Artificial Sphere, throut h the center of which they drew a wire or iron rod, called an Axis, whofc extremities were fixed to the immoveable points called Poles. They farther obferved, tha": on the aoth of March, and 23d of September, the circle defcribed by the fun, was at an equal diltancc from both of the poles. This circle, there- fore, mull divide the earth into tv/o equal parts, and on this account was called the Equator or Equaller. It was alfo called the Equino6lial Line, bccaufe the fun, when moving in it, makes the days and nights of equal Icngt'i all ever the world. Having alfo obferved that from rhc 2 lit of June', to the 22d of Dcccmiber, the fun advanced everyday towards a certain point, and having arrived there, returned tovards tiiat from whence he fct out from 2?.d of Dc-ceir her, to the 21^ of June ; they fixed thefe points which they called Sulllices, becaufc the (diretS motion of the fun was ftoppcd at th^ii' ; and ix-mcxnted the bounds of the fun's motion, by two circles, vvh.ch they named Tropicks, becaufe the fun no fooncr arrivd th-;e '■hzn. he turned back. Aihonomers obfervin •• the mot' a *.' '.he fun, found its quantity, at a mean rate, 10 be nearly a d':o;ice (or the 36cth part) of a great circle in the henvens, every J2^ hourt. This ^rvat cucle is called the Ev^liptic, ai;d it puues M«iiftWllii#*M*^Bq|ggJw INTRODUCTION. 2f pafles throui^h certain conl^ellations, diftinguifhed by the names of animals, in a zone called the Zodiac. It touches the tropic of Cancer on one fide, and that of Capricorn on the other, and cuts the equator obliquely. To cxprels this motion they fuppofed two points in the heavens, equally di- llant from, and parallel to this circle, which they called the Poles of the Zodiac, which, turning with the heavens, by means of their axis, defcribe the two polar circles. In the arti- ficial fphcre, the equinoaial, the two tropics, and two polar circles, are cut at right angles, by two other circles called Co- lures, which ferve to^mark the points of the folfticcs, equinoxes, and poles of the zodiac. The ancients alfo obfeived that, when the fun was in any point of his courfe, all the people inhabiting directly north and fouth, as far as the poles, have noon at the f une time. This gave occafion to imagine a circle pafling through the poles of the world, which they called a Meridian, and which is iminoveable in the artificial fpherc, as well as the horizon j which is another circle reprcfcnting the bounds betwixt the two hcmifpheres, or half fphcrcs, vizs. that which is above it, and that which ia below it. ^^ .vens, cvrj SECT. III. The Doctrine of the Glob e naturally follows that of the S P H E R H. BY the Doclrine of the Globe is meant the repr.^fentation of the difterent places and countries, on the face of the earth, upon an artificial globe or ball. Now the manner in which geographers have rcprefcnted the fitualion of one place upon this earth with regard to another, or with regard to the earth in general, has been by transferring the circles of the fphere to the artificial globe ; and this is the only method they could employ. This will be abundantly obvious from an ex- ample. After that circle in the heavens, which is called the equator, was known to aftronomers, there was nothing more cafy than to transfer it to the earth, by which the fituation of places was detcrinined, according as they lay on one fide of the equator or another. The fame may be oblerved of the other circles of the fphcre above-meiiwioncd. The reader having obtained an idea of the principle upon which the Doctrine of the Globe \§ foiiiu!-. J, muy proceett ro ccnliJcr this docStrinc itfelf, or in other words, the dcfcription of our earth, as re- prefented by the artificial globe. Figure of the ear th.J Though in fpeaking of the cnrtii, along with the other planets, it was fu{Hcientl;o conudvr if B 3 '.. a* ti INTRODUCTION. I as a fpherical or globular body : yet it has been difcovered, that this is not its true figure, and that the earth, though nearly a fphcre or ball, is not perfectly fo. This matter occa- fioned great difpute between the philofophers of the laft age, among whom Sir Ifaac Newton and Caflini, a French aftrono- mer, were the heads of two different parties. Sir Ifaac demon- ftrated from mechanical principles, that the earth was an oblate fphere, or that it was flatted at the poles or north and fouth points, and jutted out towards the equator ; fo that a line drawn through the center of the earth, and pafling thro* the poles, which is called a Diameter, would not be fo long as a line drawn thro' the fame center, and pafling thro' the eafl: and weft points. The French philofophcr aflerted quite the contrary. But the matter was put to a trial by the French king in 1736, who fent out a company of philofophers towards the jiorth pole, and likewife towards mc equator, in order to meafure a degree, or the ihrce hundred and fixtieth part of a great circle in thcfc difi-'ercnt parts j and from their report, the opinion of Sir Ifaac Newton was confirmtd beyond difpute. Since that time, therefore, the earth has always been confidered as more flat towards the poles, tlian towards the equator. The reafon of this figure may be cafily undctftood, if the reader fully comprehends what wc formerly obfcrv^d, with regard to the earth's motion. For if we fix a ball of chiy on a I'pindle, and whirl it round, we Ihall find that it will jut out or project towards the middle, and flatten towards the poles. Now this 5s exactly the cafe, with regard to our earth, only that its axis, rcprcfented by the fpindle, is imaginary. But though the earth be not perfetitly fpiicrical, the difierence from that figure is fo fmall, that it may be rcprcfented by a globe or ball, without any icnfible error. Circumference and diameter of the earth.] In the general tabic we have CAhibittd, page 14, the diameter of the G:lobe is 'j-ivcn, accorclini'- to the belt obfervations : fo that its circumference is 25,038 Englim miles. This circumference is conceived, for the convcn'cncy of meafuring, to be divided 5nto three hundred and fixty parts or d^^grees, each degr e con- tainii-ig fixty geographical iiules, or fixty-nine Englifli miles and an half. 7 iiefe degrees are in the fame manner conceived to be divided eat h into fixty minutes. Axis and poles of the earth.] The Axis of the Earth is that inia2;inary line palling through its center, on "which it is fupnokd to turn round once in twenry-four hoiTs. The ext erne points of this line are called the Poles of the Earth ; one in the north, and the other in the fouth, wh.ch are exactly und r the two points of the heavens called the North and South Poles, The knowledge of thcfc poks is INTRODUCTION. 2a is of great ufc to the geographer, in determining the diftanc? and fituation of places ; for the poles mark, as it were, the ends of the earth, which is divided in the middle by the equa- tor ; fo that the nearer one approaches to the poles, the farther he removes from the equator, and contrariwife, in removing from the poles you approach the equator. Circles of the globe.] Thefe are commonly divided into the greater and lefler. A great circle is that whofe plane pafles through the center of the earth, and divides it into two equal parts or hemifpheres. A Icflcr circle is that which^ being parallel to a greater, cannot pafs through the center of the earth, nor divide it into two equal parts. The greater circles are fix in number, the lefier only four. Eqttator.] The firft great circle we fliall fpeak of is the Equator, which we have had occafion to hint at already. It is called fometimes the Equinodtial, the rcafon of which we have explained; and by navigators it is alfo called the Line, becaufc, according to their rude notion^-, they believed it to be a great Line drawn upon the fca from eaft to weft, dividing the earth into the northern and fouthern hemifpheres, and which they were actually to pafs in failing from the one into the other. The poles of this circle arc the fame with thofe of the world. It pafles through the caft and weft points of the world, and, as has been already mentioned, divides it into the northern and fouthern hemifpheres. It is divided into threq hundred and fixty degrees, the ufe of which will foon appear. Horizon.] This great circle is reprefentcd by a broad cir- cular piece of wood, cncompafTing the globe, and dividing it into the upper and lower hemifpheres. Geographers very properly diftinguifli the horizon into the fenfible and rational. 'J'he firft may be conceived to be made by any great plane on the furface of tiie fca, which fccms to divide the heavens into two hemifpheres, the one above, the other below the level of the earth. This circle determines the rifing or fetting of the fun and ftars, in any particular place ; for when they begin to appear above the eaftcrn edge, we fay they rife, and when they go beneath the weftern, we fay they are fet. It appears then that each place has its own fenfible horizon. The other horizon, called the rational, encompafles the globe, exactly In the middle. Its poles (that i^ two points in Its axis, each ninety degrees diftant from its plane, as thofc of all circles are) are called the Zenith and Nadir; the firft exadjly above our heads, and the other dirc^Iy under our feet. The broad wooden circle, which rcprefents it on the globe, has feveral circles drawn upon it : of thefe the innermoft is that exhi- biting the number of degrees of the twelve figns of the Zodiac (of which hereafter) viz, thirty to each fign. Next to this ^4 you ^4 INTRODUCTION, you have the names of thcfe figns. Next to this the days of the month according to the old ftile, and then according to the new ftile, Bcfides thefe there is a circle, rcprclenting the thirty-two rhumbs, or points of the mariner's compafs. Tht life of all thefe will be explained afterwards. Meridian.] This circle is reprcfented by the brafs ring» on which the globe hangs and turns. It is divided into three hundred and fixty degrees, and cuts the equator at right angles j fo that counting from the equator each way to the poles of the world, it contains four times ninety degrees, and divides the earth into the eaftcrn and weftcrn hcmifpheres. This circle is called the meridian, bccaufe when the fun comes to thefouth part of it, it is then meridies or midday, and then the Sun has its greatcft altitude for that day, which is therefore called its meridian altitude. Now as the fun is never in it? meridian altitude, at two places eaft or weft of one another, at the fame time, each of thefe places muft have its own meridian. There; are commonly marked on the globe twenty-four meridians, one through every fifteen degrees of the equator. Zodiac] The Zodiac is a broad circle, which cuts the equator obliquely ; in which the twelve figns above-mentioned are reprefented. In the middle of this circle is fuppofed ano- ther called the Ecliptick, from which the fun never deviates in his annual courfe, and in which he advances thirty degrees every month. The twelve figns are, I. 2. 3- 4- 5- 6. Aries - Taurus « Gemini u Cancer as ' Leo a — Virgo iU March April May June July Au 23 23 24 30 30 30 30 3© 30 30 30 Niimta oi countries ana rcrriuritable places tituated I in pvtTv rlimnte nort 1 of the F.ijuat r. I. V> .tr.,n the firlt V-1. male lie tue Uom unil .Sil.er Coaft in Africa; Malacca, in the Eaft-lndies ; Cayenne and .Surinam, in Terra Firma, .S. Amer. II. Here lie Ahyllinia, in Africa; Slam, Madrafs, aiid I'oiidicherry, in the Eaft-lndies ; Straits of Daricii, between N. and S. America; Tobago, Gra- nailer, St. Vincent, and BarbaJocs, in the W. InJ. III. Contains Mecca, in Arabia ; Bombay, part of Bengal, in the Eaft-lndies; Canton, in China; Mexico, Cay of Campeachy, in N. America ; |amaira, Hifpaniola, St. Chriftophers, Antego, Martinico, and Guadalupe, in the Weft-Indies. IV. I'-eypfj ^"'i lliii Canary Iflands, in Africa; Delly, capital of the Mogul Empire, in Afia ; Culph of Mexico, and Eaft Florida, in N. Ame- rica ; the Havanna, in the Weft-Indies. V. Gibraltar, in Spain; part of the Mediterranean fea ; the Barbary coaft, in Africa; Jerufalcm ; Ifp;han, capital of Perfia; Nankin, in China; Cdlii'iirnia, New Mexico, Weft Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas, in N. America. VI. Lilbon, in Portugal; Madrid in Spain; Mi- norca, Sardinia, and part of Greece, in the Me- diterranean ; Afia Minor ; part of the Cafpian Sea; Samarkand, in Great Tartary ; Pckin, in China; Corea and Japan; Willi amftjurgh, in Virginia; Maryland, and Philadelphia, in N. America. VII. Northern provinces of >pain; f.uthern ditto of France; Turin, Genoa, and Rome, in Italy; Conftantinople, and the Black Sea, in Turkey; the Cafpian Sea, and part of Tartary; New York, Bofton in New England, N.America. VllI Paris, Vienna, cap. f Germany; New-Scot- land, Newfoundland, and Canada, in N. Amer. IX. Loi-.don, Flanders, Prague, Drefden ; Cracow, in Poland; fouthcrn provinces of Ruflia ; part of Tartary ; north part of Newfoundland. X. Dublin, York, Holland, Hanover, and Tartary; Labrador, and New South-Wales, in N. Amer. XI. Edinburgh, Copenhagen, Mofcow,cap.of Ruffia. XII. South part of Hudfon's Bay, in N. Anieriea. XIII. Orkney Iflcs, Stcckholm, capital of Sweden. XIV. Bergen, in Norway ; Pcterftiurg, in Ruflia. XV. Hudfon's ftraits, N. America. XVI. Siberia, and the fouth part of W. Greenland. XVII. Drunthjim, in Norway. XVIII. Part of Finland, in Ruflia. XIX. Archangel, on the White Sea, Ruflia. XX. Hcda, in Iceland. XXI. Northern parts of Ruflia and Siberia. XXII. New North V/alcs, in N. America. XXIII. Davis's ftraits, in ditto, XXIV. Samoieda. 1 Month XXV. South part of Lapland, 2 Monthr, XXVI. Weft-Greenland. 3 Months XXVII. Zcmbla Auftralis. 4 Months XX VIII. Zembla Borealis. 5 Month.', XXIX. Spitzbergen or Eafl: Greenland. 6 Month; kxX. Unknown. a» INTRODUCTION. i < The diftance of places from the equator, or what is called their Latitude, is eafily meafurcd on the globe, by means of the meridian above dcfcribed. For we have only to bring the place, whofe latitude vvc would know, to the meridian, where the degree of latitude is marked, and will be cxaiStly over the place. Now this is the manner alluded to, by which the dif- tance of places from the equator, is moft properly diftin- guifhed ; but it could not be adopted, until the figure and circumference of the earth were known, after v.'hich it was eafy to determine the number of miles in each 360th part or degree of this circumference, and confeqiienily know the lati- tude of places. As latitude is reckoned from the equator towards the poles, it is either northern or fouthern, and the fiearer the poles the greater the latitude ; and no place can have more than 90 degrees of latitude, becaufe the poles, where they terminate, are at that dillance from the equator. Parallels of latitude.] Through every degree of la- titude, or more properly through every piuticniar place on the tarth, geographers fuppofe a circle to be drawn, which they call a parallel of latitude. The interfe£tion of this circle, v/ith the meridian of any place, fhews the true fituation of that place. Longitude.] The longitude of a place is its fituatiort with regard to its meridian, and confequently reckoned towards the eaft or weft ; in reckoning the longitude there is no parti- cular fpot from which we ought to fet out preferably to ano- ther, but for the advantage of a general rule, the meridian of Ferro, the moft wefterly of the Canary IflanJa, was confi- dered as the firft meridian in moft of the globeis and maps, and the longitude of places was reckoned to be fo many degrees. taft or weft of the meridian of Ferro. Thefe degrees are marked on the equator. No place can have more than 180 degrees of longitude, becaufe the circumference of the globe being 360 degrees, no place can be moved from another above half that diftance ; but many foreign geographers very impro- perly reckon the longitude quite round the globe. The de- grees of longitude are not equal like thofe of latitude, but diminifli in proportion as the meridians incline, or their dif- tance contrails in approaching the pole. Hence in 60 de- grees of latitude, a degree of longitude is but half the quan- tity of a degree on the equator, and fo of the reft. The num- ber of miles contained in a degree of longitude, in each pa- rallel of latitude, are fet down in the following^table. m^ oth part or |ow the Jati- the equator |rn, and the place caxi oits, where or. egree of la- lace on the vhich they circle, v/ith ion of that ts fituatioii ed towards s no parti- 'ly to ano- icridian of iV'i'i confi- 'naps, and ly degrees -grees are than 180 the globe her above '■y impro- Tlie dc- ■ude, but their dif- 1 60 de- introduction: «9 he quan- henum- -ach pa- e. iS.I:.:J :k :l f mi A B t SHEWING The Number of Miles contained in a Degree of Longitude, in each Parallel of Latitude from the Equator. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 H 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 2H 10 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 5« 5« 58 5« 58 57 57 57 56 56 56 55 55 54 54 54 53 53 29 52 3Q I 51 C\J O 1-1 o 96 94 92 86 77 67 56 40 20 08 89 68 46 22 00 60 30 04 73 38 PO 63 23 81 33 00 44 00 48 96 Ui 4-1 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 4b 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 to 45 44 43 43 42 41 41 40 39 38 37 37 36 35 34 33 32 3^ 30 o '^ O <*H I 1-1 o 51 50 50 49 49 48 47 47 46 46 I 00 43 88 32 74 15 54 92 28 62 V*m »i mn! iiMMM^ I 28 95 88 16 43 68 00 15 36 57 73 00 18 26 41 55 67 79 90 30 00 ---»-:r'— \5 ' ' up '*ieiw 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 CO 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 13 12 II 10 99 "08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 c3 o Oh rS M O 04 17 24 ^2 36 41 45 48 51 52 54 55 54 53 52 51 5° . 48 45 ,42 ^38 35 32 28 23 18 14 09 05 00 30 introduction; ' Longitude and latitude found.] To fi/iJ the LoiU gitudc and Latitude of any place, thcaforc, we need only brinf^ that place to the brazen meridian, and wc fliall iind the degree of longitude marked on tlic equator, and the degree of latitude on the meridian. So that to find the difFercnce between the latitude or longitude of two places, wc have only to compare the degrees of either, thus found, with one ano- ther, and the redudtion of thcfc degrees into miles, according to the table above given, and remembering that every degree of longitude at the equat')r, and every degree of latitude all over the globe, is equal to 60 geographic miles, or 691-Englifli, we (hall be able exadtly to determine the diftance between any places on the globe. Distance of places measured.] The Diftance of Places which lie in an oblique direction, i. c. neither dirctStly fouth, north, eaft, or welt, from one another, may He mca- fured in a readier way, by extending the compafles fiom the one to the other, and then applying thcin to the equator. For inftance, extend thccompaiies from Guinea in Africa, to Bra- zil in America, and then apply them to the ecjuator, and you will find the diftance to be 25 degrees, wliich at 60 miles to a degree, makes the diftance 1500 miles. Quadrant of altitude.] In ordc • 10 fupply the place of the compafl'es in this operation, there is commonly a pliant narrow plate of brafs, fcrewed on the brazen meridian, which contains 90 degrees, or one quarter of the circumference of the globe, by means of which the diftanccs and bearings of places are mcafured without the trouble of firft cxlendinf| the compafles between them, and then applying the fame to the equator. This plate is called the (^ladrant of Altitude. Hour circle.] This is a fmall brafs circle tixcd on the brazen meridian, divided into 24 hours, and having an index moveable round the axis of the globe. PROBLEMS PERFORMED LY THE GLOBE. pROB. I. 7 Cr'HE (Uamcte)- of an artifidal globe being given ^ J -* to find its furf ace in fqucirc, and its folidiiy in tuhic meafttre. Multiply the diameter by the circumference, which is a great circle dividing the globe into two equal parts, and the product will give the firft : then multiply the faid produdl by one fixth of the diameter, . and the produ(5l of that will give the fecond. After the fame manner we may find the furface and folidity of the natural globe, as alfo the v/holc body of the atmofphere furrouuding the fame, prgvidwd it be always and 2 every INTRODUCTION. i» tvcry where of the fame height ; for having found the perpen- dicular height thereof, by that common experiment of the afcent of Mercury at the foot and top of a mountain, double the faid height, and add the fame to the diameter of the earth; then multiply the whole, as a new diameter by its proper cir- cumference, and from the produd fubtra«it the folidity of the earth, it w"ill leave that of the atmofphcre. Prob. 2. To rcil'ify the globe. The globe being fet upon a true plane, raife the pole accord- ing to the given latitude; thai fix the quadrant of altitude ia the zenith, and if there be any mariner's compafs upon the pcdeftal, let the globe be fo fituaie, as that the brazen meridian may ihuid due fouth and north, according to the two extre- mities of the needle, allowing their variation. Prob. 3. To find the longitude and latitude of any place. For this, fee the preceding page. Prob. 4. The longitude and latitude of any place Icing given^ io find that place on the globe. Bring the degree of longitude to the brazen meridian ; reckon upon the fame meridian the degree of latitude, whether fouth or north, and make a mark with chalk where the reckoning endsj the point cxadlly under the chalk is the place defired. Prob. 5. The latitude of any place being given^ to find all ihofe places that have the fame latitude. The globe being redlified (r?) according to tlie latitude of the given place, and that place being («) Prob. 2. brought to the brazen meridian, make a mark exadUy above the fame, and turning the globe round, all thofe places pafling under the faid mark have the fame latitude with the given place, Prob. 6. To find the Sun's place in the Ecliptic at any time. The month and day being given, look for the fame upon the wooden horizon; and over-againft the day you will find the particular fign and degree in which the Sun is at that time, which fign and degree being noted in the ecliptic, the fame is the Sun's place, or nearly, at the time defired. '^ •^,:./ Prob. 7. The month and day being given, as alfo the parti- cular time of that day, to find thofc places of the globe to which the Sun is in the meridian at that particular time. The pole being elevated according to the latitude of the given place, brijii^ the fiiid place to the brazen meridian, and letting .'.Si'' i ^t INTRODUCTION. letting the index of the horary circle at the hour of tlic day, m the given place, turn the globe till the index points at the upper figure of XII. which done, fix the globe in that fitua- tion, and obferve what places arc exactly under the upper hemifphere of the brazen meridian, for thofe «;^ the place* dcnred. Prob. 8. To knoiv the length of the da^ and night in any placs §f the earth at any time. Elevate the pole [a) according to the latitude (a) Prob. 2. of the given pU;cc ; find the Sun's place in the (A) Prob. 6. ecliptic (/') at that time, which being brought to the call fide of the horizon, fct the index of the horary circle at noon, or the upper figure XII. and turning the globe about till the aforcfaid place of tlv' ccliptio touch the weltern fide of the horizon, look, upon the horary circle, and whcrcfoever the index pointcth, reckon the num- ber of hours between the fame and the upper figure of 12, for that is the length of the day, the complement whereof to 24 hours is the length of the night. Prob. 9. To knoiu zvhat a clock it is hy the globe in any part §f the world, and at any time, provided you know the hour of thi ttay where you are at the fame time. Bring the place in which you arc to the bra- (f) Prob. 3. zcn meridian, the pole being railed (f) accord- ing to the latitude thereof, and fct the index of the horary circle to the hour of the day at that time. Then bring the defired place to the brazen meridian, and the index will point out the prefcnt hour at that place wherever it is. Prob. 10. A place being given in the Torrid. T^one, to find thofe tivo days of the year in which the Sun Jljall he vertical to the fame. Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and ma-k v/hat degree of latitude is exadlly above it. Move the globe routid, and obferve the two points of the ecliptic that paf» through the faid degree of latitude. Search upon the wooden horizon (or by proper tables of the Sun's annual motion) on what days he pafleth through the aforcfaid points of the eclip- tic, for thofe are the days required in which the Sun is ver- tical to the given place. Prob. ii. The month and day being given, to find by the globe thofe places of the North Frigid Zonej when thg Sun bcgin- n^t^ INTftODUCTION. 33 mth then to Jhinf ton/fantfy without fitting ; as alfo thop places of the South Fri'^id Zone, vjhere he then begins to be totally abfent. The day gwen, (which muft always be one of thofe cither between the vernal equinox and the fummer folftice, or be- tween the autumnal equinox and winter folftice) find {a) the Sun's place in the ecliptic, and [a) Prob. 6, marking the fame, bring it to the brazen meri- dian, and reckon the like number of degrees from the north pole towards the equator, as there is between the equator and the Sun's place in the ecliptic, fetting a mark with chalk where the reckoning ends. This done, turn the globe round, and all the places paffine under the faid chalk are thofe in which the Sun begins to mine conftantly without fetting upon the given day. For folution of the latter part of the problem, fet ofF the fame di (lance from the fouth pole upon the brazen meridian towards the equator, as was formerly fet off from the north; then marking with chalk, and turning the globe round, all places pafling under the mark are thofe where the Sun begins his total difappcarance from the given day. ^ Prob. ii. A place being given in the North Frig' d Zone, ta find by the globe what number of days the Sun doth conjlantly Jhitu upon the faid place, and what days he is ahfent, as alfo thefirfi and, lajl day of his appearance^ Bring the given place to the brazen meri- dian, and obferving its latitude [b) elevate [b) Prob. 2, the globe accordingly j coun: the fame num- ber of degrees upon the meridian from each fide of the equator as the place is diftant from the pole j and making marlc" where the reckonings end, turn the globe, and carefully obferve what Jtwo degrees of the ecliptic pafs exactly under the two pouits marked in the meridian j firft for the northern arch of the circle, namely that comprehended between the two dfegrees [remarked, being reduced to time, will give the nymber of (days that the Sun doth conftantly fhine above the horizon of the given place; and theoppofite arch of the faid circle will in [like manner give the number of days in which he is totally I abfent, and alfo wjll point out which days thofe are. And in the interval he will rife and fet. .. Prob. i 3. The month and day being given, to find thofe placis Ion the globe, to which the Sun, when on the meridian, fiall be ] vertical on that day* . Vol. t Thfi r n I i •J4 INTRODUCTION, The Sun's place in the ecliptic being [a) (n) pROB. 6. found, bring the fame to the brazen meridian, in which make a fmall mark v/ith chalk, exactly "bbovc the Sun*s place. Which done, turn the globe, and thcfe places which have the Sun vertical in the meridian, will fucceflively pafs under the faid mark. pROB. 14. 7'he month and day being given^ to find upon ivhat point of the compafs the Sun then rifeth andfettetb in any place. Elevate the pole according to the latitude of thcdcfired place, and finding the Sun's place in the ecLptic at the given time, bring the fame to the eaftern fide of the horizon, and you may there clearly fee the point of the compafs upon which he then rifeth. By turning the globe about till his place coincide with the wcftern fide of the horizon, you may alfo fee upon the faid circle the exaft point of his fetting. Prob. 15. To know by the globe the length of the longejl and "Jhortejl days and nights in any part of the ivorld. Elevate the pole according to the latitude of the given place, and bring the firft degree of Cancer, if in the northern, or Ca- pricorn if in the fouthern hemifphere, to the eafl fide of the horizon ; and fetting the index of the horary circle at noon, turn the elobe about till the fi^-n of Cancer touch the weftern fide of the horizon, and then obfcrve upon the horary circle the number of hours between the index and the upper figure of XII. reckoning them according to the motion of the index, for that is the length of the longell day, the complement whereof is the extent of the fliorteft night. As for the fliorteft day and longeft night, they arc only the reverfe of the former. Prob. 16. T e hour of the day being given in any place^ to fr.d thofe places cf the earth luhcre it is either noon or midnight y or any other particular hour at the fame time. ■ Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and fet the index of the horary circle r,t the hour of the day in that place. Then turn about the globe till the index point at the upper figure of XII. and obfcrve what places are exactly under the upper fcmicircle of the brazen meridian, for in them it is midday at the time given. Which done, turn the globe about till the index point at the lower figure of XII. and what places arc then in the lower fcmicircle of the meridian, in them it is jnidnight at the given time. After the fame manner we may jiinj tliofc plages that have any other particular hour at the ' • time f V I' I i I iptic being («} razen meridian, h chalk, exactly the globe, and : meridian, will '0 find upon tvhat ' in any place. :hc defined place, the given time, II, and you may which he then ce coincide with tc upon the faid f the kngejl and ' the given place, northern, or Ca- ; eafl fide of the circle at noon, )uch the weftcrn the horary circle the upper figure ion of the index, the complement ,s for the fliorteft ■fe of the former. n in any place, to on or midnighty or lian, and fet the lay in that place, ►int at the upper xa<^tly under the 3r in them it is n the globe about and what places an, in them it is manner we may :ular hgur at the tinic INTRO DtTCTIOK. ■^ I % |?r time given, by moving the globe till the index point at the hour defired, and obferving the places that are then under thd brazen meridian. Prob. 17. The day and hour being given, to find by the globe that particular place of the earth to which the Sun is vertical at that very time. The Sun's place in the ecliptic (a) being {a) Prob. 6« found and brought to the bra/.en meridian, make a mark above the fame with chalk j then (/>) find thofe places of the earth in whofe [b) Prob. i6, meridian the Sun is at that inftant, and bring them to the brazen meridian ; which done,obferve narrowly that individual part of the earth which falls exaiflly under the fore* faid mark in the brazen meridian ; for that is the particular place to which the Sun is vertical at that very time. Prob. 18. The day and hour at ajiy place being given, to find all thofe places where the Sun is then rifing, or fetting^ or on the 7neridian j confcquently^ all thofe places which are eyilightened at that ii/ne, ajid thofe which are in the dark. This problem cannot be folved by any globe fitted up in thtf common way, with the hour circle fixed upon the brafs meri-^ dian ; unlefs the Sun be on or near fome of the tropics on the given day. But by a globe fitted up according to Mr. Jofepli Harris's invention, where the hour-circle lies on the furfaee of the globe, below the meridian, it may be folved for any day in the year, according to his method j which is as follows. Having found the place to which the Sun is vertical at th? given hour, if the place be in the northern hemifphcre, elevate the north pole as many degrees above the horizon, as are equal to the latitude of that place ; if the place be in the foutheni hemifphere, elevate the fouth pole accordingly ; and bring the faid place to the brazen meridian. Then, all thofe places which are in the wefl:ern femicircle of the horizon, have the Sun rifing to them at that time ; and thofe in the eaftern femi- circle have it fetdn^ : to thofe under the upper femicircle of the brafs meridian, it is noon ; and to thofe under the lower femicircle, it is midnight. All thofe places which are above the horizon, are enlightened by the Sun, and have the Su.i jiift as many degrees above them, as tiicy themfelves arc above the horizon ; and this height may be known, by fixing the quadrant of altitude on the brazen meridian over the place to which the Sun is vertical j and then, laying it gver any other C 2 place. in-iriiwniMiiiiii j,iaa 36 INTRODUCTION^ place, obferve what number of degrees on the quadrant are intercepted between the faid place and the horizon. In all thofe places that are 18 degrees below the weftern femicircle of the horizon, the morning twilight is juft beginning j in all thofe places that are 1 8 degrees below the caftern femicircle of the horizon, the evening twilight is ending ; and all thofs places that are lower than 18 degrees, have dark, night. If any place be brought to the upper femicircle of the bra- zen meridian, and the hour index be fet to the upper XII or noon, and then the globe be turned round eaftward on its axis ; when the place comes to the weftern femicircle of the horizon, the index will fhew the time of fun-rifmg at that place ; and when the fame place comes to the eaftern femi- circle of the horizon, the index will (hew the time of fun-fet. To thofe places which do not go under the horizon, the fun fets not on that day : and to thofe which do not conic, above it, the Sun does not rife. Prob. 19. The month and day being given, with the place of the Moon In the zodiac and her true latitude^ to find thereby the exa£2 hour when Jhe Jball rife and fet, together with her fouthing^ §r coming to the meridian of the place. The Moon's place in the zodiac may be found readily enough at any time by an ordinary almanac ; and her latitude, which is her diftance from the ecliptic, by applying the femi- circle of pofition to her place in the zodkc. For («)Prob. 2. the folution of the problem («), elevate the pole according to the latitude of the given place, and the Sun's place in the ecliptic at that time (^) PROB. 6. being (/») found and marked with chalk, as alfo the Moon's place at the fame time, bring the Sun*^s place to the brazen meridian, and fet the index of the horary circle at noon, then turn the globe till the Moon's place fuccefllvely meet with the eaftern and weftern fide of the horizon, as alfo the brazen meridian, and the index will point at thofe various times the particular hours of her rifing, fet- ting and (buthing. pROB. 20. Two places being given an the globe, to find the true dljlance between them. Lay the graduated edge of the quadrant of altitude over both the places, and the number of degrees intercepted be- tween them will be their true diftance from each other, reck- oning every degree to be 69! Englifti miles. Prob. 21. A place being glvni on the globe, and Its true diftance from afecond place^ to find thereby all other places of tht earth that are of the fame dljlance from the given place* INTRODUCTION. 37 Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and elevate the pole according to the latitude of the faid place ; then fix the quadrant of altitude in the zenith, and reckon, upon the iaid quadrant, the given diftance between the firft and fecond place, provided the Came be under 90 degrees, otherwife you muft ufe the femicircle of pofition, and making a mark where the reckoning ends, and moving the faid quadrant or femi- circle quite round upon the furface of the globe, all places pafling under that mark, are thofe defired. GEOGRAPHICAL OBSERVATIONS. 1. The latitude of any place is equal to the elevation of the pole above the horizon of that place, and the elevation of the equator is equal to the complement of the latitude, that is, to what the latitude w;:nts of 90 degrees. 2. Thofe places which lie on the equator, have no latitude, it being there that the latitude begins ; and thofe places which lie on the firft meridian have no longitude, it being there that the longitude begins. Confequently, that particular place of the earth where the firft meridian interfeds the equator, has neither longitude nor latitude. 3. All places of the earth do equally enjoy the benefit of the fun, in refpcd of time, and are equally deprived of 4. All places upr I the equator have their days and nights equally long, that is, 12 hours each, at all times of the year. For although the fun declines alternately, from the equator towards the north and towards the fouth, yet, as the horizon of the equator cuts all the parallels of latitude and declination in halves, tbe fun muft always continue above the horizon for one half a diurnal revolution about the earth, and for the other half below it. . ' ' 5. In all places of the earth between the equator and poles, the days and nights are equally long, viz. 12 hours each, when the fun Is in the equinodlial : for, in all elevations of the pole, fliort of 90 degrees (which is the greateft) one half of the equator or equinodial will be above the horizon, and the other half below it. 6. The days and nights are never of an equal length at any place between the equator and polar circles, but when the fun enters the figns v Aries and ^ Libra. For in every other P^" .. Z!'^ ecliptic, the circle of the fun's daily motion is divided mto two unequal parts by the horizon. , 7- The nearer that any place is to the equator, the lefs is, the difference between the length of the days and nights in that place ; and the more remote, the contrary. The circjes Which the fuij defcnbcs in the heaven every 24 hours ^ 3 being ss INTRODUCTION. »* being cut more ner.rly equal in the former cafe, and more un^ equally in the latter. 8. In all places lying upon any given parallel of latitude, however long or fhort the day and nij^^ht be at any one of thcfe places, at any time of the year, it is then of the fame length at all the reft; for in turning the globe round its axis (v/hen rectified according to the fun's declination) all thefe places will Jceep equally long above or below the horizon. 9. Hie fun is vertical twice a year to every place between the tropics ; to thofc under the tropics, once a year, but never any where elfc. For, there can be no place between the tro-. pics, but that there will be two points in the ecliptic, whofe declination from the equator is equal to the latitude of that place ; and but one point of the ecliptic which has a decli- nation equal to the latitude of places on the tropic which that point of the ecliptic touches ; and as the fun never goes with- out the tropics, he can never be vertical to any place that lies without them. 10. In all places lying exaftly under the polar circles, the fun, when he is in the neareft tropic, continues 24 hours, above the horizon without fetting ; becaufe no part of that tropic is below their horizon. And when the fun is in the fartheft tropic, he is for the fame length of time without rifing ; becaufe no part of that tropic is above their horizon. I^ut, at all other times of the year, he rifes and fets there, as in other places i becaufe all the circles that can be dra^yn parallel to. the equator, between the tropics, are more or lefs cut by the horizon, as they are farther from, or nearer to, that tropic which is all above the horizon : and when the fun is not in either of the tropics, his diurnal courfc muft be in one or other I3f thefe circles. J I. To all places in the northern hemifphere, from the equator to the polar circle, the longcft day and fhorteft night js when the fun is in the northern tropic j and the fhorteft day .and longeft night is when the fun is in the fouthern tropic ; ^ecaufe no circle of the fun's daily motion is fo much above the horizon, and fb little below it, as the northern tropic ; and none fo little above it, and fo much below it, as the Southern. In the fouthern hemifphere, the contrary. J 2. In all places between the polar ciiclcs and poles, the •JFun appears for fome number of days (or rather diurnal revolu- tions) without fetting; and at the oppofitc time of the year without rifing ; befcaufe fome part of the ecliptic never fcts in the former, cafe, and as much of the oppofite part never rifes ^n the latter. And the nearer unto, or the more remote from the pole, thefe places are, the longer or fliorter is the fun's f^tjtiii'uing prcfence or abfence. P and more un^ re, as in other INTRODUCTION. ^i 13. If a Ihip fets out from any port, and fails round the earth e^ftward to the fame port again, let her take what tin>e j(he will to do it in, the people in that (hip, in reckoning their time, will gain one complcat day at their return, or count on^ day more than thcfe who refide at the fame port ; bec-uifc, \>y going contrary to the fua's diurnal motion, and being forwarder <2very evening than they were in the morning, their horizon will get fo much the fooner aboye the fetting fun, than if they had kept for a whole day at any particular place. And thus, by cutting off a part proportior.able to their own motion, from the length of every day, they will gain acompleat day of that? fort at their return ; without gaining one moment of abfolute time more than is elapfed during their courfe, to the people at the port. If they fail weftward they will reckon one day lef? than the people do who refide at the (liid port, becaufe by gra-r dually following the apparent diurnal motion of the fun, they will icccp him each particular day fo much longer above their horizon, as anfwers to that day's courfe ; and by that means, they cut oiF a whole day in reckoning, at thqir return, with- out lofing one moment of abfolute time. Hence, if two (hips (liould fot out at the fame time from any pont, and fail round the globe, one eallward and the other weft- ward, fo as to meet at the fame poit on any day whatever ^ they will differ two days in reckoning their time, at their re- turn. If they fail twice round the earth, they will differ four «lays i if thiic?, then fix, ^^c, ... . •-.•v*) OF THE NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE EARTH.. T'' H 5) conflituent parts of the Earth are two, the land and water. The parts of the land are continents, iflands^ pcninfulas, jfthmus's, promontories, capes, coafts, mount tains, &c. This land is divided into two great continent?^ (befides the iflands) viz. the eaftern and weftcrn continent. The eaftern is fubdivided into three parts, viz. Europe, on the north-weft J Afia, on the north-caft ; and Africa, (whicl^ is joined to Afia by the ifthmus of Suez, 60 miles over) oi> the fouth. The weftern continent confifts of No th and'Squth America, joined by the ifthmus of Daiien, 60 or 70 mil?? broad. A continent Is a large portion of land, containing feverat countries or kingdoms, without any entire feparatipn of its parts by water, as Europe. An iHand is a fmallcr part of land, quite furrounded by water, as Grcat^Britain. A peninfula is a tradt of land every where furrounded by water, except at one narrow neck, by which it joins the neighbouring continent ^ as the Morea in Greece : and that neck of land which fo C 4 joins 'A^ INTRODUCTION. t joins it, is called an ifthmus ; as the ifthmus of Suez, which joins Africa to Afia j the ifthmus of Daricn, which joins North and South America. A promontory is a hill, or point of land, ftretching itfelf into the fea, the end of which is called a capej as the cape of Good-Hope. A coaft or fhore is that part of a country which borders on the fea-fide. Moun- tains, vallies, woods, defcrts, plains, &c. need no defcription. The moft remarkable are taken notice of, and defcribed in the body of this work. The parts of the water are oceans, feas, lakes, ftraits, gulphs, bays, or creeks, rivers, &c. The waters are divided into three extenfive oceans (befides lefTer fcas, which are only branches of thefe) viz. the Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Indian Ocean. The Atlantic or Weftern Ocean, divides the caftern and weftern continents, and is 3000 miles «vidc. The Pacific, divides America from Afia, and is io»ooo miles over. The Indian Ocean lies between the Eaft Indies and Africa, being 3000 miles wide. The ocean is a great and fpacious colleilion of water, with- out any entire feparation of its parts by land ; as the Atlantic Ocean. The fea is a fmaller colledtion of water, which com- municates with the ocean, confined by the land j as the Medi-r terranean and the Red Sea. A lake is a large colledlion of water, entirely furrounded by land ; as the lake of Geneva, and the lakes in Canada. A ftrait is a narrow part of the fea, xeftrained or lying between two fhores, and opening a paflage out of one fea into another j as the ftrait of Gibraltar, or that of Magellan. This is fometimes called a found j as the ftrait into the Baltic. A gulph is a part of the fea running up into the land, and furrounded by it, except at the paflage where- by it is communicated with the fea or ocean. If a gulph be very large, it is called an inland fea j as the Medi- terranean : if it do not go far into the land, it is called a bay ; as the Bay of Bifcay : if it be very fmall, a creek, haven, ftation, or road for Ihips ; as Mil ford Haven. Rivers, canals, brooks, &c, need no defcription, for thefe lefler divifions of water, like thofe of land, are to be met with in moft coun- tries, and every one has a clear idea of what is meant by them. But in order to ftrengthen the remembrance of the great parts of Jand and water we have defcribed, it may be proper to obfefve, rdcmbles. HB The Seas '■■ The Eun Afia Afri , Ani( Pcif Ron / Run Chir Cre; Turl Prcf. '1 « 1 L <^ — INTRODUCTION, 41 refemblcs a ftrait, which unites one fea to another. To this defcription of the divifions of the earth, rather than add an enumeration of the various parts of land and water, which cor- rcfpond to them, and which the reader will find in the body of the work, we fhall fubjoin a table, exhibiting the fuperficial content of the whole globe in fquare miles, fixty to a degree, and alfo of the feas and unknown parts, the habitable earth, the four quarters or continents ; likewife of the great empires and principal iflands, which fhall be placed as they are fubor- dinate to one another in magnitude. >.-..; ..^ rbe Globe — Seas and u;iknown Parts — The Habitable World » — Europe .. i . » —— . Afia — Africa — ■■ ■ . America — — Pcrfian Empire under Darius Roman Emp. in jts utmoft height Ruffian — Chinefe ■ ■ ■ — . Great Mogul — — . Turkifh ■ . Prefent Perfian .- ■ Square Miles. "Borneo JVIadagafcar Sumatra Japan Great Britain Celebes Manila IccKind Torr.1 del Mindinao Cuba Java z z ucgo i99>S'2,595 160,522,026 38,990,569 4,456,065 10,768,823 9,654,807 14,110,874' 1,650,000 1,610,000 3> 30 31485 1,749,00c 1,116,000 960,057 800,000 228,000 168,000 129,000 1 1 8,000 72,926 68,400 58,500 46,000 42*075 59,200 38,400 Iflands. Hil'paniula Newfoundland Ceylon — Ireland •— Formofa — Anian Gilolo — Sicily — Timor — Sardinia — Cyprus — Jamaica — Flores — Ceram — Briton «— Socatra Candia — Porto Rico — Corfica — /Seland — -' Majorca • St. Jago — Negropont - TenerifF . Gotland —- Madeira ■ St. Michael Square Mil(;s. 36,000 3S>500 27,730 27.457 17,000 11,900 10,400 94«o 7800 6600 6300 6vioo 6000 5400 40C0 360c 3220 3200 2520 1935 1400 1400 1300 1272 1000 950 97,0 Iflands. Skye Lewis Funen Vvica Minorca Rhodes Cephalonia — Amboyna — — Orkney Pomona Scio Marti nice — Lemnos Corfu Providence — Man — Bornholm Wight Malta — flarbadoes Zant Antigua ■ St.Chriftopher'; ■>t. Helena — Guernfey ■ i Jerfey Bermudas — — Rhode — Squ. Mis. 900 880 76S 625 520 480 420 400 3*4 300 260 220 194 168 160 160 150 150 140 120 100 80 80 50 43 40 36 WiNJ.s AND TIDES.] Wc Cannot finifli the doarine of the earth, without confidering Winds and Tides, from which the changes that happen on its furface principally arife. Wind''.] The earth on which we live is every wh^re fur- rounded by a fine invifible fluid, which extends to feveral miles above jts furface, and is called Air. It is found by experiments. • The numlcr of inhabitants computed 1 r at prefent to be in the knr;wn world at a f S medium, taken from the bfft calculations. C i jire itbwi 953TOimt.a$, J t Europe containSi Afia — — .. Africa — — America — — 153 Millions 500 ISO ISO To^ 953 Millions mt K. ?1 '42 INTRODUCTION. experiments, that a fmall quantity of air is capable of being expanded, fo as to fill a very large (pace, or to be coinprcfled into a much fmaller compafs than it occupied before. The general caufe of the expanfion of air i^ heat, the general caufe of its comprefTion is cold. Hence if any part of the air or atmofphcre receive a greater degree of cold or heat than it had before, its parts v/ill be put in motion, and expanded or com- prclled. But when air is put in motion, we call it wind in -general; and a breeze, gulc, or ftorm, according to the ijuicknd's or vt-Iocity of that motion. Winds therefore, which are con.mojily confiJcrcd as things extremely variable and un- certain, depend on a general caufe, and ail with more or lefs uniformity in pro:inal feat oF man- kind, and who had the bert opportunities to avail thcmi'clves of the knowledge which their great ancefror was pofieficd of, early formed themfeives into regular focicties, and made confi- derable improvements in the arts which are moft fubfervient to human life. Agriculture^ppcars to ha\e been known in the firft: ages of the world. Noah cultivated the vine ; in the time of Jacob, the fio-.tree and the almond were well known in the land of Canaan ; and the inftruments of hufbandry, long be- fore the difcovery of them in Greece, are often mentioned ia the facred vv'ritings. It is hardly to be fuppofed that the an- tient cities, both in Afia and Egypt, whofe foundation as we have already mentioned, afcends to the remoteft antiquity, could have been built, unlels the culture of the ground had been prad:ifed at that time. Nations who live by hunting or pafturage only, lead a wandering lite, and leklom fix their re- fidcnce in cities. Commerce naturally follows agriculture j and though wc cannot trace the fteps by which it was intro- duced among the antient nations, we may, from detached paf- iages in facred writ, afcertain the progrefs which had been made in it during the patriarchal times. We knov/, from the hiftory of civil fociety, that the commercial intercourfe between men muft b^r pretty confiderable, before the metals come to be confidered as the medium of trade ; and yet this was the cafe even in the days of Abraham. It appears, however, from the relations which eftablifli this fact, that the ufc of money had not been of an antient date ; it had no mark to afcertain its weight or finenefs : and in a contrae made from the lironology, was t \hh Jacob. He '. of the caravans we reflect that the luxuries than the conclude, that the f and particularly d refinement ; for d\ arts have made ully to diftinguifh 'i/f by land, or inland y fca -J which laft and flower in its 1 left to their own uediluvian Icnow- jable they fhould 3 foon as we find ho fettled on the the world among commerce ; they i Hcrbrew toneuc afterw.irds known habiting a barren :tcr their fituation ir capital objedt ; they pafs for th€ At the time of ntion ; their ma- his laft words to us in a ma.ter of y this time navi- gated i N T ii o D u c f 1 o rf . '^j gated the coafts of Greece, and carried off the daughter of Inachus. The arts of agricu'tui-e, comnffci?, and navigation, fuppofe* the knowledge of feveral others ; aftronoiiy, for inftance, of a knowledge of the fituation and revolutions of the heavenly bodies, is ncceffary both to agriculture .nd navigation ; tliat of working metals, to comtr.irrcs ; and to of othjr am. In fad, we find that before the death of Jacob, feveral nations were fo well acquainted with the revolut.ons of the moon, as to meafure by them the duration of their year. It had been aii Univerfai Cuftom among all the nations uf untlquity, as wsil as the Jewsi to divide time into the poition of a week, or kvcii days : this undoubtedly arofe "rem tin: trad i don with ng-^rd to the origin of the world. It was natuial Tcr tiiof^ natiori.- who led A paftoral life, or who lived under a fcrene iky, to cnf,Tve that the various appearances of the moon w re onipleaccd nearly in four weeks : hence the divifion of a month. Thofe peo;tle again who lived by agriculture, and w'ho had got among the^i the divifion of the month, would naturally remark, that t\v ■ . 'f thefe brought back the fame temperature of the air^ or rl.; lame feafons : hence the origin of what is called the lunar yearj which has every where taken place in the infancy tof fcience. This, together with the obk*rvatio!i of the fixed ftarsj which, as we learn from the book of Job, muft have been vefy antient, naturally paved the way for the difcovcry of the folar year, which at that time would be thought an im- hienfe improvement in ailronomy. But with regard to thofe branches of knowledge which we have mentioned, it is to be temembered that they were peculiar to the Egj'ptiahs and a fevv nations of Afia. Europe offers a frightful fpc^table during this period. Who could believe that the Greeks, who in later ages became the patterns of politenefs and every elegant art, were defcended from a favage race of mvn, traverfing the wdods and ivilds, inhabiting the rocks arid caveins, a wretched prey to wild animalsi arid fometimcs to one another. Thisj however^ is no more than what was to be expe£led. Tne defcendants of Noahj who removed at a great uiflancc from the plains of Bcnnaar^ loft all connedtion with rhe civiliP.'d p:irt of mankind. Their pofterity became ftiil more ignomnt ; and the human mind Was at length funk into an abyfs of mifery and wie chcdncfs. We might naturally expe^ thatj from the death of Jacob, and as we advance forward in time, the hiftory of the great empires of Egypt and Affyria would emerge from their ob- fcUrity : this, however, is far from being the cafe j we only get a glimpfe of them, arid tiiey.difappe.ir intirely for many ages. After the reign of Ninius", who iucceeded Ninus in the Alfyrian throne, we find an aftonifliing blank in ""' D 2 " the li 760. 3582. 52 INTRODUCTION. the hiftory of this empire for no Icfs than eight hundred years*. The filence of antient hiftory on this fubjeft is commonly at- tributed to the foftncfs and effeminacy of the fucceflbrs of Ninus, whofe lives afforded no events worthy of narration* Wars and commotions arc the groat themes of the hiftorian, while the gentle and happy reigns of a wife prince pafs unob- ferved and unrecorded. Sefoftris, a prince of wonder- *2**' ful abilities, is fuppofed about this time to have mounted the throne of Egypt. By his afliduity and attention, the civil and military eftablifhments of the Egyptians received very con- fiderable improvements. Egypt, in the time of Sefoftris and his immediate fucceflbrs, was in all probability the moft power-^ ful kingdom upon earth, and according to the beft calculation is fuppofed to have contained twcnty-fevcn millions of in- habitants. But antient hiftory often excites, without grati- fying our curiofity ; for from the reign of Sefoftris to that of Boccharis, we know not even the names of the inter- mediate princes. If we judge, however, from collateral cir- cumftances, the country muft ftill have continued in a very flourifiiing condition, for Egypt continued to pour forth her colonies into diftant nations. Athens, that feat of learning; and politenefs, that fchool for all who afpirc after wil- dom, owes its foundation to Cccrops, who landed in Greece, with an Egyptian colony, and endeavoured to civilife the rousrh manners of the original inhabitants. From the inftitutions which Cecrops eftabliflicd among the Athenians, it is eafy to infer in whr.t fituations they muft have lived before his arrival. The laws of marriage, which few nations are fo bar- barous as to be altogether unacquainted with, were not known in Greece. Mankind, like the beafts of the field, were pro- pagated by accidental rencounters, and without all knowledge of thofe to whom -they owed their generation. Cranaus, who fucceeded Cecrops in the kingdom of Attica, pur- fued the fame beneficial plan, and endeavoured, by wife infti- tutions, to bridle the keen paffions of a rude people. Whilft thefe princes ufcd their endeavours for civilifing this corner of Greece, the other kingdoms, into which this country, by the natural boundaries of rocks, mountains, and rivers, is divided, and which had been already peopled by colonies from Egypt and the Eaft, began to aflume fonie appearance of form J and regularity. "J'his engaged Aiiiphiction, oneofthofc uncommon ger.iudes who appear in the world for the benefit of the ac;e in which thcv live and the admiration of poftenty, to think of fome expedient by which he might unite in one plan of politicks the fe\'cral independent kingdoms of Greece, aiid thereby deliver them from thofc inleftiiie divifions whick •earancc of form INTRODUCTION. 53 which mufl render them a prey to one another, or to the firft enemy who might think proper to invade them. Thefe re- flexions he communicated to the kings or leaders of the different territories, and by his eloquence and addrefs engaged twelve cities to unite together for their mutual prefervat:on. Two deputies from each of thefe cities ailembled twice a year at Thermopylae, and formed what, after the name of its founder, was called the Amphidionic Council. In this aflembly, whatever related to the general intcreft of the confederacy was difcuiled and finally determined. Amphiction likewife, fen- fible that thofe political conncvStions are the mofl lading which are ftrcngthcncd by religion, committed to the Amphi»Slions the care of the temple at Delphi, and of the riches which, from the dedications of thofe wiio confulted the oracle, had been amalVcd in it. This aflembly, conitituted on fuch folid foundations, was the great fpring of action in Greece, while that country prefcrved its indc;pendence ; and by the union which it infpired among the Greeks, enabled them to defend their liberties againft all the force of the Pcrfian empire. Confidering the circumilances of the age in which it was inftituted, the Amphictionic council is perhaps the moft re- markable political eftablidiment wliich e\er tof)k place among mankind. The Greek ftatcs, who formerly had no conne£lioii with one another, except by mutual inroads and hoftilities, foon began to a6l with concert, and to undertake diftant expe- ditions for the general intercll of the community. The firft of thefe was the obfcure expedition of the Argonauts, in which all Greece appears to have been concerned. The ©bjecSt of the Argonaut.s was to open tiic commerce of the Eu- xine Sea, and to ellabliih c lonies in the adjacent country of Colchis. The fliip Argo, which wa'j the admiral of the fleet, is the only one particularly taken notice of; though we learn from Homer, -md other aiiticnt writers, that fevcral fail were em- ployed in this expedition. The fleer of the Argonauts was, from the ignorance of thofe who condudted it, long tofled about upon ditferent coails. The rocks, at fome diftancc from the mouth of tiie Kuxlne fca, occafioned great labour ; they fent fonvard a light veficl, wliicli palll-d through, but re- turned with the lofs of her rudder. This is cxprefled in the fabulous language of antiquity, by their fending out a bird which returned with the lofs of its t:n'!, and may give us an idea of the allegorical obfcurity in which the other events of this expedition are involved. The fleet, however, at length arrived at vEon, the capital of Colchis, after performing a voyage, which, confidering the mean condition of the naval iirt during this age, was not lefs confiderablc than the circum- D 3 navigation ^4 INTRODUCTION. i;avigation of' the world bv our modern difcovcrers, Frorn this expedition, to that a^aipft Troy, which was undcrtakeij 3.j3 to recover t'le t"a;r He!i la, a queen of Sparta, who had been carried oft by Pans, fon of the Trojan king, the Greeks mult have inade a uondtrfitl piogrefs in power and opvilencc : I'o Ids than tvs'clve hundred veiiels were employed in rjis voy;'.gc, e-ich of which, at a medium, contained up- wards of a hundred men. Thife veriel.^, however, were but half decked; and ii does rot appear ihat iron entered at all into their conltrudlion. if v/e add to thele circumftances, that the Gre- ks had not the ufe of the faw, an inllryment fo necefTary to the carpenter, a modern nmll form bi^t a mean notion of the flrength or elegance of this fleet. H;:.ving thus considered the Hate of Grce.e as a whole, le| Vs examine the circumffances of the partici.dar countries into which it was divided. This is of great importance to our pre- fcnt un^'crtaking, becaufe it is in this country only that wc fan tnice the origin and progrefs pf government, arts, and manners, which comppfc fo great a part of our prefent work. There appears originally to have been a very reminkable re- 5260, ^^•'nblancc between the political fituarion of the different kingdoms of Greece. 7'hey were gcverncQ each by a king, or rather a chieftain, who was their leader in time of war, their judge in time of peace, i^nd who prefided in the ad- itiiniftration of their religious ceremonies. This prince, how- ever, was far from being abfolutc. In each fociety there were a number of other leaders, whofe jnfluenoe over their particular clans or tribes was not lefs confilerable than that of the king pver his immediate followers. Tbeic captains were oftvn at war with one another, and fometimes with their foveieign. Such a fituation was in all rcfpet^s extremely unfavoura^ble : ^ach particular ftate was in mi.iiature what the whole country had been before the time of Amphiclion. They required the hand of another delicate painter to fhade the oppofite coIou:s, and to enable them to produce one powerful eifetSl, The hiftory of Athens affords us an example of the T.anner it\ which thefe ftates, which, for want of union, were wealc -iid infignificant, became, by being cemented together, im- portant and powerful. Th?feus, kingof Atnra, had acquired 1257. * flouri/hing reputation by his exploits of valour and ability. Hi- faw the inconven'encifs to which his coun- try, from b-ing divided into twelve diftriols, was expofcd, an(J he conceived that by means of the influence whiph hi? perfonaj f:hara6ler, united to the roval authority with which he was in- yefted, had univer/nllv piocured him, he might be able to re- fpove ^hpm. For this purpofe he endeavoured to maintain, an4 evei^ if 1, were weaJc INTRODUCTION. 5S even to encreafc his popularity among the peafants and artifans : he detached, as much as pofTible, the difFcrent tribes from the leaders who commanded them : he abolifhcd the court* which had been eftablifticd in different parts of Attica, and ap- pointed one council-hall common to all the Athenians. The- feus, however, did not truft folely to the force of political regulations. He called to his aid all the power of religious prejudices ; by eftablifliing common rites of religion to be per- formed in Athens, and by inviting thither ftrangers from all quarters, by the profpedl of protection and privileges, he raifcd this city from an inconfiderable village to a powerful metropolis. 'I'hc fplcndor of Athens and Thefeus now totally cclipfed that of the other villages and their particular leaders. All the power of the ftate Wivs united in one c;ty, and under one fovercign. The petty chieftains, who hud formerly occa- fioned fo much confufion, by being diverted of all influence and confideration, became humble and fubmiffive ; and Attica remained under the peaceable government of a monarch. This is a rude fkctch of the origin of the firft monarchy, of which we have a diftin6t account, and may, without much variation, be applied to the other Hates of Greece. This country, however, was not deftined to continue long under the government of kings. A new influence arofe, which in a iliort time proved too powerful both for the king and the nobles. Thefeus had divided the Athenians into three dfftindl clafles ; the nobles, the artifans, and the hufbandinen. In order to abridge the exorbit^mt power of the nobles, he had beftowcd many privileges on the two other ranks of jjerfons. This plan of politicks was followed by his fucceflfors ; and the Jowcr ranks of the Athenians, partly from the countenance of their fovereign, and partly from the progrefs of arts and manufactures, which gave them an opportunity of acquiring property, became confiderable and independent. Thefe circumftances were attended with a remarkable effetSt. Upon the death of Codrus, a prince of preat merit, the Athe- nians, become weary of the regal authority, under pretence of finding no one worthy of filling the throne of that monarch, who had devoted himfelf to death for the fafety of his people, abolifhed the regal power, and proclaimed that none but Ju- piter fliould be king of Athens. This revolution in favour of liberty was fo much the more remarkable, as it happened almoil: at the fame time that the Jews became unwilling 11 *^ *^ 1070. to remam under the government of the true God, and defired a mortal fovereign, that they mi^ht be like unto other nations. The government of Thebes, another of the Grecian ftates, much about the fame time, affumcd the republican form. D 4 Near 55 mi . I INTRODUCTION. Near a century before thcTrojan war, Cadmus, withacolony from Phenicia, had founded this city, which from that time had been governed by kings. But the lafl- fovcrcign being overcome in finglc combat, by a neighbouring prince, the Thebans aboliflicd the regal power. Till the days, however, of Pelopidas andEparninondas, a period of fcvcn hundred years, the Thebans performed nothing worthy of the rcpublicart fpirit. Other cities of Greece, after the examples of Thebes and Athens, erected thcmfclvcs into republics. But the revo- lutions of Athens and Sparta, two rival ftates, which by means of the fuperiority they acquired, gave the tone to the manners, genius, and politicks of the Greeks, defcrvc our principal attention. Wc have fccn a tender fhoot of liberty fpring up in the city of Athens, upon the deceafe of Codrus, its laft fovcreign. This fhoot gradually improved into a vigorous plant ; and it cannot but be plcafant to obferve its progrefs. The Athenians, by abolilhing the name of king, did not in- tirely fubvert the legal authority : they cftablifhed a perpetual ^^gg magiftratc, who, under the name of Archon, was in- vefted with almoft the fame rights which their kings had enjoyed. The Athenians, however, in time, became fenfible that the archonic office was too lively an image of royalty for a free ftate. After it had continued therefore three hundred and thirty-one years in the family of Codrus, they^endcavoured to lefTen its dignity, not by abridging its power, but by fliort- ening its duration. The firft period afligned for the con- tinuance of the archonfliip in the fame hands, was three years. But the defire of the Athenians for a more perfect fyllem of freedom than had hitherto been cftablifhed, increafcd , in proportion to the liberty they enjoyed. They again ( called out for a frefh redu(Stion of the power of their archons; and it was at length determined that nine annual magiftratcs fhould be appointed for this office. Thefc magi- flrates were not only chofen by the people, but accountable to them for their condutit at the expiration of their ollice. Thefe alterations were too violent not to be attended with fome dan- gerous confcqucnccs. The Athenians, intoxicated with their freedom, broke out into the moft unruly and licentious beha- viour. No written laws had been as yet enabled in Athens, and it was impoflible that the antient cuiloms of the realm, which were naturally fuppofed to he in part abolilhcd, by the fuc- ceffive changes in the government, lliould fufficicntly reftrain the tumultuary fpirits of the Athenians, in the firft flutter of their independance. This engaged the wifer part of the ftate, ivho began to prefer any fyftcm of government to their prefent anarchy and confufion, to caft their eyes on Diacoj a man of ^1} *t s, with a colony from that time fovcrcign bein* ng prince, the days, however, 1 hundred years, the republican iplos of Thebes Kut the rcvo- which by means to the manners, : our principal berty fpring up Codrui, its laft Into a vigorous ve its progrefs. ng, did not in- hed a perj etua[ irchon, was in- their kings had became fcnfible i;e of royalty for e three hundred ley^ endeavoured •, but by fliort- d for the con- ids, was three a more perfect iflied, increafcd 1. They again power of their at nine annual Thefc niagi- : accountable to • oliice. Thefe with fome dan- rated with their iccntious bcha- in Athens, and c realm, which ed, by the fuc- iciently reftraiii : firfl 'flutter of art of the ftatc, to their prefenc facoj a man of tk . t ■- INTRODUCTION. 57 a^i audere but virtuous difpofition, as the fittcft pcrfon for com- pofmg a fyllcm of law, to bridle the furious and unruly man- ners of their countrymen. Draco undertook the office, but executed it with fo much rigour, that in the words of an ajicicnt hiftorian, *' His laws were written with blood, and not with ink." Death was the indifcriminate punifhment of every ofttMice, and the laws of Draco were found to be a reme- dy worfe than the difeafe. Allairs again returned into con- fufion and diforder, and remained io till the time of ^^^^ Solon. The gentle manners, difintcrcftcd virtue, and wifdom more than human, by which this (age was diftin- guiilicd, pointed him out as the only character adapted to the molt important of all olHces, the giving lav/s to a free people. Solon, though this employment was aligned him by the una- nimous voice of his country, long deliberated whether he fliould undertake it. At length, however, the motives of public utility overcame all conliderations of private eafe, fafc- ty, and reputation, and determined him to enter on an ocean pregnant with a thouiand dangers. The firft ftep of his legif- lation was to abolUh all the laws of Draco, except thofe re- lating to murder. The punifhment of this crime could not be too great ; but to confider other offences as equally cri- minal, war. to confound all notions of right and wrong, and to render the law inel}ectual, by means of its feverity. Solon next proceeded to new model the political law ; and his efta- bliflimcnts on this head, remained among the Athenians, while they preferred their libt'rtiLii. He feems to have fet out with this principle, that a perfect republic, In which each citi- zen /hould have an equal political importance, was a fyllem of government, beautiful indeed in theory, but not reducible into practice. He divided the citizens therefore into four clafles, according to the wealth which thev pofleiVed, and the pooreft clafs he rendered altogether uncapable of any public office. They had a voice however in the general council of the nation, in which all matters of principal concern were determined in gthe laft refort. But left this aflembly, which was compofed [of all the citizens, ihould in the words of Wutarch, like a (hip ;wiih too many fails, be expoled to the guft of folly, tumult, ?nd diforder, he provided for its fafety by the two anchors of th3 Senate and Areopagus. The firil of thefe aourts confifted cf four hundred pcrfons, a hundred out of each tribe of the Athenians, who prepared all important bills that came before the aflembly of the people ; the fccond, though but a court of juftice, gained a prodigious afcendant in the republic, by the wifdom and gr;;vity oi" its members, who were not chofen, j/iit after the frriiteft fcrutiuy, and tnoft lerious deliberation. Such ! priirr 1072. 5» INTRODUCTION. • Such was the fyftem of government eftabliflied by Solon, which, the nearer we examine it, will afford the more matter for our admiration. Upon the fame plan moft of the other antient republicks were eftabliflied. To infift on all of them, therefore, would neither be entertaining nor inftriidtivc. But the government of Sparta, or Lacedcmon, had fomething in it fo peculiar, that the great lines of it at Icaft ought not to be omitted even in a delineation of this fort. Sp rta, like the other ttatcs of Greece, was originally divided into a number of petty principalities, of which each was under the jurif- ^nd obferve the events which hap- pened in thofe great empires, of which we have fo long loft fight. We have already mentioned in what obfcurity the hiftory of Egypt is involved, until the reign of Bac- charis. From this period, to the difTolution of their goveinmcnt, the Egyptians arc more celebrated for the wif-^ dom 76* liflied by Solon, the more matter aft of the other on all of them, idrndtivc. But id fomcthing in ought not to be Sp rta, like the into a number under the jiirif- length, the two ng poireiTion of yahy ; and what ircdt line, con- irs. The Spar. It fingular form time of Lycur- of policy dcvifej bed, in comprc- md in general in t requifite for the ed from that of lents, in having )ugh their power cs and rcftrainis, ;onftitution arol'e I at leaft as much th this view, all irtainment, every ;ncy to foften the bed. They were lie tables on the the utmoft reve- ranks capable tn painful cxercifes, 1, rather than 4 t of which none In order to fee t under one point of the globe, W9 /ents which hap- have fo long loft n what obfcurlty the reign of Bac- ffolution of their rated for the wif-^ dom INTRODUCTION. 59 liom of their laws, and political inftitutions, than for the power of their anus. Several of thcfc fccm to have been dic- tated by the truer fpirit of civil wifdqm, and were admirably calculated for preierving order and good government in an ex- tenfive kingdom. The great empire of Aflyria likewife, which had fo long d I fappcared, becomes again an object of attention, and affc'.vls rhc tirft inftance we meet with in hiftory, of a kin-'doin which fell rounder by its own weight, and the efFe- miivite Ww-akjvfs of its fovereigns. Sardanapulus, the ^g^^ Jaft emperor cf A lyria, neglecting the adminiftration pf affairs, and iliutting himfelf up in nis palace with his women and eunucns, fell into contempt with his fubjeas. The gover- nors of his provinces;, to whom, like a weak and indolent prince, he had entirely committed the command of his armies, did not fail to hiy hold of this opportunity of raifing their own fortune on the ruins of tlicir mailer's pov/er. Arbaces, gover- nor of Mv.i :i, and B^lefis, governor of Babylon, confpire Iga'nfl- thfir fovc.cign, fet fire to his capital, and divide be- fjfween them ^'s extc.ifive uomin'ons. IneL- two kingdoms, ifometimes united under one prince, and fometimes governed sach '-iv a partxuLir f')vereign, mainiained the chief fway in [Afia, til Cyrj; the Great kduced this quarter of the ^^g^ Uvorld uiui.r the Perfian yoke. The manners of this [pcojile as brave, hardy, and independent, as well as the go- iVernment nf Cyrus, in all its various departments, are ele- Igantlv dcfcri'i^cd by Xenoplion, a Qrecian philofopher and Jhiftorian. It is not neccffary, however, that we fliould enter Lpn the fme detail upon this fubjccSl, as with regard to the [affairs of tlie (jrecks. We have, in modern times, fufficient examples of monarchicjl government; but how few are our jrcpublics ? But the .-era qT C^rus is in one refpeil extremely Remarkable, becaufe with it th;: hillory of the great nations of mtiquity, which has hitherto engaged our attention, maybe Ijfuppofed to llniOi. Let us coniid-r then the genius of the lAiTviians, B.ibylonians, and Egyptians, in arts and fciences, IfinJ if poHiblc difcoyer whi't progrefs they had made in thofe icquiremcnts, which are moft fuufervient to the interefts of Tociety. The tafte fpr the great and magnificent, feems to have been Uhe prevailing character of thefe nations j and they principally [difplayed it in their works of architedure. There are no ve- jitiges, how<"ver, now remaining, which confirm the teftimony of ancient writers, with regard to the great works, which adorned Babylon and Nineveh : neither is it clearly determined |n what year they were begun or finifhed. There are three pyramids ftill remaining in Egypt, at fom^ leagues diftance from 1 ml m iff '^ INTRODUCTIO N. from Cairo, which arc fuppofcd to have been the buryinj •jilaccs of the aiiticiit Egyptian Icings. The largeft is five "IiundrcJ feet in height, aiul two thoufaiid fix hundred and forty broad each way at bottom. It was a fiipcrftition among this people, derived from the earlieft times, that even after -overnmcnt h:id created and confirmed. Sparta remained under the influence cfLycurgus's infUtutions : Athens had jult recovered from the tyranny ot the Fihlhatidje, a family who had trampled on the laws of oolon, an I ufurped the fupremc power. Such was their fituation, when the luit of univerfal empire, which nev< r fails to torment the brcalt of tyrants, led Darius to fend forth his numerous armies into Circece. liutthe Perfians were no lonivr thofe invincible foldicrs, who under Cyrus had conquered Alia. Th.ir minds were enervated by lu.\ury and fervitudc. Athenii, on the contrary, teemed v. th great men, whofe ninds were nobly animated by the late recovery of their freedom. Miltiades, in the plains of Marathon, with ten thoufand Athenians, overcame the Perfiun army of a hundred tiioufand foot, and ten thoufand cavalry. His countiymen, Themiitocles and Ariftiides, the fult celebrated for his abilities, the fecond for his virtue, gained the next honours to the general. It does not, however, fall within our plan to mention the events of this war, which, as the nobleft monuments of virtue over force, of courage over numbers, of liberty over fcrvitude, Je- fcrve to be read at length in antient writers. Xerxes, the fon of Darius, came in perfon into Greece, with two million one hundrc 1 thoufand men, and being every where defeated by fca and land, efcaped to Afia in a fifliing boat. Such was the fpirit of the Greeks, fo well did they know that " wanting virtue, life is pain and *' woe, that wanting liberty, even virtue mourns, and looks *' around for ha}:>piiicfs in vain." Though the Perfian , war concluded glorioufiy for the Greeks, it is, in a ^ great meafure, to this war, that the fubfcquent misfortunes of that nation arc to be attributed. It was not the battks ia which they fuftered the lofs of fo many brave men, but thofe in which they acquired an immcnfity of Perfian gold j it was not their enduring fo many harulhips in the courlc of the war, but their conne,ition with the Perfians, after the conclufion of it, which fubverted the Grecian eitabliilmKnts, and ruined the moft virtuous confederacy that ever exited upon earth. The Greeks became haughty after their vidtories : delivered from the common enemy, they began to quarrel with one another : their quarrels were fomented by Perfian gold, of which they had acquired cnout^h to make thtm defirous" of more. Hence pro. ceeded €i tNTRODtrctioN. cceded the famous Peloponnefian war, in which t\ii *3'' Athenians and Lacedemonians adted as principals, and drew after them the other ftates of Greece. They continued to weaken themfelvcs by thefe inteftine divifions, till Philip^ king of Maccdon, (a country till his time little known, but which, by the aftive and crafty genius of this prince, became important and powerful) rendered himfelf the abfolute mailer g of Greece, by the battle of Cheronjea; But this conqueft is one of the firft we meet in hiftory, which did not de- pend on the event of a battle. Philip had laid his fchcmes (o deep, and by bribery^ promifes and intrigues^ gained over fuch a number of confiderable perfonS in the feveral ftates of Greece to his intcreft, that another day would have put in his {»ofleflion what Cheronasa had denied him. The Greeks had oft that virtue, which was the bafis of their confederacy. Their popular governments fcrved only to give a fan<5tion to their licentioufnefs and corruption. The principal oratorSj in moft of their ftates, were bribed into the fervice of Philip ; and all the eloquence of a Dcmofthenes, aflifted by truth and virtue, was unequal to the mean, but more fcdu«5iive arts of his opponents, who, by flattering the people, ufed the fureft method of winning their affections. Philip had propofed to extend the boundaries of his empire beyond the narrow limits of Greece. But he did not long furvive the battle of Cheronsea. Upon his deceafe, his fon Alexander was chofen general againft the Pcrfuins^ by all the Grecian ftates, except the Athenians and Th -bans. Thefe made 9 feeble effort for expiring liberty. But they were obliged to yield to fuperior force. Secure o.i the fide of Greece, Alexander fct out on his Perrt.m expedition, at the head of thirty thoufand foot, and five thouiand horfe. The fuccefs of this army in conquering the whole force of Darius, in three pitched battles, in ovcrrunnin:!; and fub- duing not only the countric:* ti^cn known lo .he Gie^'ks, but many parts of India, the very names of which had never reached an European car, has been defcrib.d by miiny authors both anticnt and modern, and conftitutes a fuij^uiar part of thei ^, hiftory of the world. Soon after this rapid career oi* victory and fuccefs, Alexander died at Babylon. His c?.pt insj afier facrificing all his family to their ambitio:i, (iividec! ainong them his dominions. This eivcs rife to a number of ;vras and events, too complicated for our prcfent purpofe, and even too uninicrefting. After confidcring therefore the ftatc of arts and fcicnces in Greece, we flial; pit's over to the Ron':.n affairs^ where the hiftorical deduction is more Ample, and aU'o more impoitant. 3 Th« I, fu: INTRODUCTIOK. Cj The bare names of illuftrious men, who flourifhed in Greece, from the time of Cyrus to that of Alexander, would fill a large volume. During this period, all the arts were carried to the higheft pitch of perfeaion ; and the improvements we have hitherto mentioned, were but the dawnings of this glorious day. Though the eaftern nations had raifed magnificent and ftup'endous llruaures, the Greeks were the firft people in the world, who in their works of architeaure^ added beauty to magnificence, and elegance to grandeur. The temples of Jupiter Olympus, and theEphefian Diana, are the firft monu- ments of good tufte. They were ereded by the Grecian colo-» iiics, who fettled in Afia Minor, before the reign of ^^ Cyrus. Phidias, the Athenian, is the firft Iculptor vvhofe works have been immortal. Zeuxis Parrhafius and Timantheus, during fhe fame age, firft diftovered the power of the pencil, and all the magic of painting. Compofitiun, in all its various branches, reached a degree of perfeaion in the Greek lanp-uage, of which a modern reader can hardly form an idea. ""After Homer, the tragic poets y^fchylus, So- phocles, and Euripides, were the firft confiderablc improvers of poetry. Herodotus gave fimplicity and elegance to pro- faic writin.!;. Ifocrates gave it cadence and harmony, but it was left to Thucydides and Demofthenes, to difcover the full force of the Greek tongue. It was not however in the finer arts alone that the Greeks excelled. Every fpecies of philo-* fophy was cultivated among them with the utir.oft fuccefs. Not to mention the divine Socrates, whofe charaaer has hr.d the honour to be compared with that of the great founder of our religion ; his three difciples, Plato, Ariftotle, and Xeno- phon, may for ftrength of realoning, juftnefs of fentimcnt, and propriety of exprcflion, be put on a fooling with the writers of any age or country. Experience, indeed, in a long coiufc of vcars, has taught us many fccrets in nature, with. which thefc philolbphers were unacquainted, and which no Ihcngth of genius could divine. But whatever fome vain em- pirics in learning may pretend, the moft learned and ingenious men, both in France and in England, have acknowledged the fuperirrity of the Greek piiilolbphers, and have reckoned themiblves happy in catching tiieir turn of thinking, and man- ner of cxpreflion. But the Greeks were not Icfs diftin2;uifhed for their aaive than for their fpeculative talents. It would be endlefs to recount the names of their famous ftatcfmen and warriors, and it is impofUble to mention a few without doing injuftice to a greater number. War was firlt reduced into a fcicnce by the Greeks. Their foldiers fought from an afiec- tiyu to their country, and an arJor for glory, and not from a dread 1 -n WMm <4 INTRODUCTION. dread of their fuperiors. We have lecn theeftect of this m?!!-. tary virtue in their wars againll the Perfians : the caufc of i* was the wife laws which Amphidtion, Solon, and Lycurgusy had eftablifhed in Greece. But we mull now leave this na- tion, whofe hiftory, both civil and philofophical, is as impor- tant, as their territory was inconfiderablc, and turn our at- tention to the Roman affairs, which are Hill more intcreiting,* both on their own account, and from the relation iii which they ftand to thofe of modern Europe. The character of Romulus, the founder of the Roman ftate, when we view him as the leader of a few lawlefs and wandering banditti, is an objedt of extreme infignificancc^ But when we confider him as the founder of an empire as extenfive as the world, and whofe progrcfs and decline have occafioned the two grcatclt revolutions, that ever happened in Europe, wc cannot help being intcreited in his conduft. His difpofition was extremely martial ; and the political ftate of Italy, divided into a number of fmail, but independent dilhicts, afforded a noble field for the diiplay of military talent';. Romulus was continually embroiled with one or other of his neighbours, and war was the only employ- ment by which he and his companions cxpedted iKJt only to aggrandize themfclvcs, but even to fuljfiff. In the conduct of his wars with the neighbouring people, wc may obferve the fame maxims by which the Romans afterwards became malteis of the world. Inftcad of dcftroying the nations he had fub- je6ted, he united them to the Roman Itate, whereby Rome acquired a new acceffion of Itrcngth from everv war flic undertook, and became powerful and populous from that very circumflarce which ruins and depopulates other kingdoms. If the enemies, with which he contended, had, by means of the art or arms they employed, any confiderabie advantage, Romulus immediately adopted that practice, or the ufe of that weapon, and improved the military fyrtem of the Romans, by the united experience of all their enemies. We have an example of both thele maxims, by means of which the Roman Itatc arrived at fuch a pitch of grandeur, in the war with the Sabincs. Romulus having conquered that na- tion, not only united them to the Romans, but finding their buckler preferable to the Roman, inllantly threw afide the latter, and made ufe of the Sabine buckler in fighting againll other ftates. Romulus, though principally attached to war, did ii(;>t altogether negleit the civil policy of his infant kingdom. He inllituted what was called the Senate, a court originally compofed of a hundred perions, diftinguiflied for their wifdom and experience. He cnacled laws for the adminiftiation of jultiwc. 4(-' 1^^: of this rnTlI- e caufc of i* d Lycurgus,' nve this iia- is as iinpor- :urn our at- ; intcreltino;,' on in which ider of the : leader of a t of extreme e founder of progrcfs and ns, that ever irelted in his al ; and the )f fmall, but Lhc difplay of broiled with only cmploy- d not only to he conducl of y obfcrve the :cumc maltcis ; he had i'ub- hcrcby Rome vcrv war flic us fiom that oulates other itcnded, had, Y confiderable acticc, or the f}ik-iTi of the neniies. We ans of which mdcur, in the crcd that na- finding their rew afide the ;ihtin'2; ajrainll ed to war, did fant kingdom, iurt originally • tiicir wifdom liniftration of jultite, INTRODUCTION; 6$ juftlce, arid for bridling the fierce and unruly pafllons of his Vollowers : and after a long reign fpent in promoting the civil vr military interefts of his country, was, according to the befl cpnjc.ean in Africa, fome time before Rorae, by a colony of I'henicians, and, according to the pr.icticc of their mother country, they had cultivatedl commerce an.d naval greatncfs. Carthage, in rhi.s defign, had proved wonderfully fuccefsfuK She now conimandcd both fidps of the M<;ditcrrane;in. Befides Vol, L E that €6 INTRODUCTION. ■>' *' that of Africa, which fhc almoft entirely poficflcd, fhc had extended herfdf on the Spanifli fiile, through the ftreights. Thus miftrefs of the fca, and of commence, flie had fcizcd on the iflands of Corfica and Sardinia. Sicily had difficulty to defend itfclf ; and the Romans were too nearly threatened not g to take up arms. Hence a fucceffion of hoflilities be- tween thcfe rival ftatcs, known in hiftory by the name of Punic wars, in which the Carthaginians, with all their vrealth and power, were an unequal match for the Romans. Carthage was a powerful republic, when Rome was a truckling ftate ; but (he was now become corrupt and effeminate, while Rome was in the vigour of her political conftitution. Car- thage employed mercenaries to carry on her wars ; Rome, as vc have already mentioned, was compofed of foldiers. The Jirft war with Carthage taught the Romans the art of fighting 4)n the fea, with which they had been hitherto unacquainted, A. Carthaginian veflel was wrecked on their ccai\ j they ufed g^ it for a model, in three months fitted out a fleet, and the conful Duilius, who fought their firft naval battle, was ridlorious. It is not to our purpofe to mention all the tranf- a6lions of thefe wars. The behaviour of Regulus, the Ro- man general, may give us an idea of the fpirit which then animated this people. Jking taken prifoncr in Africa, he is ient back on his parole to negotiate a change of prifoners. He maintains in the fenatc, the propriety of tJiat law, which ^,, cut off from thofe who fullered then'.l'ehes to be tiiken, all hopes of being i'ix\xd^ and returns to a cer- tain death. Neither was Carthage, thou'jh corrupted, deficient in great men. Of all the enemies tlie Romans ever had to contend with, Hannibal the Carthaginian, was the moil inflexible and dangerous. His father H;uniicar had iiiihibed an extreme ha- tred againll the Romans, and having fettled the inteftine trou- bles of his country, he took an early opportunity to infpire his fon, though hut nine \cnrs old, with his own fcnt'ments. For this purpofe lie ordered a r(>Iemn facrihce to be ofi-'ered to Jupiter, and leadiiig his fon to the altar, afked him whether he was willing to attend him in his expedition againft the Kom.ans ; the i:oura^>eous bov, not only confentcd to go, but 't:onjured hi;; fatiier by the gt-ds prefcnt, to form him to vic- tory, and teach him the art of conqueriiig. I'hat I will joy- fully do, leplied Hamilcar, and with all the care of a father who loves you, if you will fwcar upon the altars, to be an I eternal enemy to the Romnns. Haniiibal readily complied, I and the folemnity of the ceremony, and the facrednefs of the eath, nikdc fucii wi i«ip;dUva upon bis miiid, as nothing aftcrWiuJf J INTRODUCTION. 67 afterwards could ever efflicc. Being appointed general ^^^^ at twenty-five years of age, he croflcs the Ebro, the Py- renees, and the Alps, and in a moment falls down upon Italy. The lofs of four battles threatens the fall of Rome. Sicily fides with the conqueror. Hicronymus, king of ^^^ iJyracufe, declares againft the Romans, and almoft all Italy abandons them. In this extremity Rome owed its pre- i'crvation to three great men. Fabius Maximus, dcfpifiiig po- pular clamour, and the military ardour of his countrymen, de- clines coming to an cngagemejit. The ftrcngth of Rome has time to recover. Marcellus raifes the fiege of Nola, takes Syracufe, and revives the drooping fpirits of his troops. The Romans admired the character of thefc great men, but faw fomethijig more divine in the young Scipio. The fucccfs of this young hero confumed the popular opinion, that he was of divine extraiStion, and held converfcwith the gods. At the age of four and twenty, he flies into Spain, where Loth his father and uncle had loft their lives, attacks New Carthage, and carries it at the firll aflault. Upon his arrival in Africa, kings liibmit to him, Carthage trembles in her turn, and fees her armies defeated. Haujiibal, fixtcen years, victorious, is in vain called home to defend his coun- try. Carthage is rendered tributary, gives hoftagcs, and engages never to enter upon a war, but with the confent of the Roman people. After the conqucft of Carthaire, Rome liad inconfiderable wars but great victories ; before this time its wars were great, and its vii'tories inconfidcrable. At this time the world was divided, as it were, into two parts ; in tha one fought the Romans and Carthaginians ; the other was agitated by thofe quarrels which had lafted fince the death of Alexander the Great. Their fcene of adion was Greece, Egypt, and the Eaft. The ftates of Greece had once more dilengaged themfelves from a foreign yoke. They were di- vided into three confederacies, the Etolians, Acheans, and Beotians ; each of thefe was an aflbciation of free cities, which had aflemblies and magiftrates in common. Of them all the Etolians were the moft confiderable. The kings of Maccdoii nuiintained that fuperiority, which, in ancient times, when the balance of power was little attended to, a great prince naturally poflcfled over his lefs powerful neighbours. Philip, the prefcnt monarch, liad rendered himiclf odious to the Greeks, by fome unpopular and tyrannical fteps ; the Eto- lians were molt irritated ; anil hearing the fame of the Roman arms, called them into Greece, and overcame Philip by tiieir alTiftance. The vic'tory, however, chiefly redounded to the advantage of the Roniaus. The Macedonian garrifons were E 2 obliged 68 INTRODUCTION.. oblisjcd to evacuate Greece ; the cities were all declared free- but Philip became a tributary to the Romans, and the llatcj of Greece became their dependants. The Etolians, difco- vering their firft error, endeavoured to remedy it by another ftill more dangerous to themfelves, and more advantageous to the Romans. As they had called the Romans into Greece to •defend them againft Philip, they now called in Antiochus, king of Syria, to defend them againft the Romans. The* famous Hannibal too had recourfe to the fanif* prince,lfend ivho was at this time the moft powerful moivirch in the Eaflr, and the fucccllbr to the dominions of Alexander in Afia. But Antiochus did not follow his advice fo much, as that of the Etolians ; for inftead of renewing the war in Italy, where Hannibal, from experience, judged the Romans to be moft vulnerable, he landed in Greece with a fmall body of troops, and being overcome without difficulty, fled over into Afia. In this war the Romans made ufe of Philip, for conquering An- tiochus, as they had before done of the Etolians for conqiicring Philip. They now purfue Antiochus, the laft object of their 182. '■efentment, into Afia, and havinj; vanquifhed him by fea and land, compel him to fubmit to an iniamous treaty. In thefe conquefts the Romans ftill allowed the ancient inhabitants to pofTefs their territory ; they did not even change the forih of government ; the conquered nations bpcamc the allies of the Roman people, which however, under a fpeciouj name, concealed the moft fervilc of all conditions, and in- ferred, that they iliould fubmit to whatever was required of them. When we refledl on thcfe eafy conqv.efts, we have reafon to be aftoniftied at the refiftancc which ihe Romans met with from a barbarous prince, Mi:hrIJat^s king of Pon- tus. This monarch however had great refources. His king- dom, bordering on the inacceffible mountains of Caucafus, abounded in a race of men, whofe minus were not enervated by pleafure, and whofe bodies were firm and vigorous. The different ftates of Greece and Afia, who now began to feel the weight of their yoke, but had not fpirit to ftiakc it off, were tranfported at finding a prince, who dared to fhciv himfelf an enemy to the Romans, and chf^arfully Cnbmitted to his protedtion. Mithridates, however, WiK com pel led to yitid to the fuperior ftar of the Romans. VanquiflKvl fucceiJivcly €?. by Sylla and LucuUus, he was at length fubdin 1 Ky Pompey, and ftrippcd of his dominioi.s atui of his i^fe. In Africa the Roman arms met with equal fuccefs. Marius, jQ in conquering Jugurtha, made all fecuie in that qu/rur. Even the barbarous nations beyond the Alps, b i;aii to feel the weight of the Roman arma, Gallia Narboncniis 'jd been I declared free ; and the llatci itolians, difco- it by another uivantageous to into Greece to in Antiochus, Romans. The* nif- prince,lfend :h in the Eaft, |: in Afia. But | as that of the n Italy, where '/ nns to be moft body of troops, r into Afia. In ;- onqucring An- for conquering t obje(!:l of therr fhed him by fea amous treaty, cd the ancient t^id not even i nations became unJer a fpeciuus iitions, and in- ivas required of ^v!efts, we liavc ich the Romans •*'■ fs king of Pon- i ' ces. His king- t,^ IS of Caucafus, e not enervated igorous. vho now beean [pint to (hake it .> o dared to ihcvv 4. 1 illy Atbniitted to !|J ■' m pel led to vittd * 1k\1 CucceiJivcJy .•' [Tth fubdin : by J. and of his i.fe. ^ "■■' ccefs. Marius, in that qu.-.n jr. Alps, b' !;aii to 'Jarbonenlis 'jd \ bccu I- INTRODUCTION. 69 III. 102. been reduced into a province. The Cimbri, Teutones, and othi-T northern nations of Europe, broke into this part of the empire. 'I'he fame Marius, whofe name was fo terrible in Africa, made the north of Europe to tremble. 'I'he Barbarians retired to their wilds and defcrts, lefs formidable than the Roman legions. But while Rome con- quered the world, there fubfiited an internal war within her walls. This war had fubfifted from the firft periods of the government. Rome, after the expulfion of her kings, en- joyed but a nominal liberty. The dcfcendents of the fenators, who were diftinguiflied by the name of Patricians, were in- verted with fo many odious privileges, that the people felt their dependancc, and becan.e determined to fhake it off. A thoufand difputes on this fubjcdl arofe betwixt them and the Patricians, which always terminated in favour of liberty. Thefc difputes, however, while the Romans preferved their virtue, were not attended with any dangerous confequencea. The Patricians, who loved their country, chearfully parted with fome of their privileges to fatisfy the people ; and the people, on the other hand, though they obtained laws, by which they might be admitted to enjoy the firft offices of the /late, and though they had the power of nomination, always named Patricians. But when the Romans, by the conqueft of foreign nations, became acquainted with all their luxuries and refinements ; when they became tainted with the effeminacy and corruption of the callern courts, and fported with every thing juft and honourable, in order to obtain them, the ftate, torn by the faiSrions between its members, and without virtue on either fide, to keep it together, became a prey to its own children. Hence the bloody feditions of the Gracchi, which paved the way for an inextinguifhable hatred between the no- bles and commons, and made it eafy for any turbulent dema-» gogue, to put them in adion againft each other. The love of iheir country was now no more than a fpecious name j the bet- ter fort weic too wcaltliy and effeminate to fubmit to thg rigours of military difcipline, and the foldiers, compofed of the dregsof therepiiMic, were no longer citizens. They knew none but their commander ; undf:r his banner they fought and conquered and plundered, and for him they were ready to die. He might comniand them to embrue their hands in the blood of their country. They who knew no coun- try but the camp, and no authority but that of their general, were eve: ready to obey him, The multiplicity of the Ro, man conquefts, however, which required their keeping on foor feveral armies at the lame time, retarded the fubverhon of the republic. Thefc ■milk'i were fo many cjiecks upon each other. E 3 Haa 70 INTRODUCTION. 43 Hiid it not been for the foldicrs of Sylla, Rome woulJ have furrcndcrcd its liberty to the army of Marius. • Julius Coefar at length appears. By fubduing the Gauls, g he n;ained his country the mod ufcfulconquelt it ever made* Pompey, his only rival, is overcome in the plains of Phar- ^^ falia. Cfcfar \ iclorious appears in a moment all over the world, in'Egvpt, in Alia, in Mauritania, in Spain, in Gaul, and in Britain : conqueror on all lides, he is ac- knowledged mafler at Rome, and in the whole empire. Bru- tus and Ca/Tius think to give Rome her liberty, by flabbing him iji the fcnate lioufe. But they only fub- JC(5^ her to tyrants, who, without his clemency or abilities, were not inferior in ambition. The republic falls into the ,^^ hands of Mark Anthony ; young C;rf.:r Oclavianus, nephew to Julius Cafar, wrcfts it from him by the fca- iight at Adtium ; there is no Brutus nor Callius, to put aii end to his life. The friends of liberty have killed thcmfelvcs m defpair, and Odlavius, under the name of Auguftus, and title of emperor, remains the ujidifturbed maflcr of the empire. During thefe civil commc tions, the Romans Hill prefcrved the glory of their arms among diflant nations, and while it was unVnown who fliould be mafter at Rome, the Romans were tvithout difpute the mafters of the world ; their military difci- pline and valour abolilhed all the remains of the Carthaginian, the Perfian, the Greek, the Aflyrian, and Macedonian glory, and they were now only a name. No fooner therefore was Oitavius cftablifhed on the throne, than embalTadors from all quarters of the known world, crowd to make their fubmifllons. JEthiopia fucs for peace, the Parthians, who had been a moft formidable enemy, court his friendfliip, the Indies feek hisal- 24, liance, Pannonia acl^nowledges him, Germany dreads 3<. him, and the Wcfer receives his laws. Vic fcourgc of Cjody the ijr/h-oyer of riiitt'ons^ are the dreadful epithets by wiiich they dill'nfiuifil the moft noted of the barbarous leaders. Conflantino, who was emperor about the beginning of the fourth century, and who had embr.\ced Chridianity, cliangcd the feat of empire from Rome to Conftantinople. This oc-. cafioiied a prodigious alt.:rat:on. The weflern and eaflcrii provinces were feparated from each other, and governed by dil-Vcrcnt fovercigns. The withdrawing the Roman legions from the Rhine and the Danube to the eafl, tiuvvv down the wcfteni barriers of the empire, and laid it open to the invaders, Rome (now known by the name of the Wellcrn Empire, in contradiilinction to Conftantinople, which, from its fitua- tion, was called the Eaflern Empire) weakened by thisdivifion, becomes a prey to the barbarous nations. Its antient glory, vainly deemed immortal, iscflaced, and Adoaces, a Barbarian chieftain, fits down on tl.c throne of the C^-fars. Thefc ir- iuptions into the empire, were gradual and fuccefiive. The immcnfe fabric of the Roman empire was the work of many aL7-'.'i, and feveral centuries were employed in dcmolilhing it. 'Ihe autieiit difciplinp pi the Romuns, in military affairs. 74 INTRODUCTION. was (o efficacious, that the remains of It tlefLCDdcil to their fucccflojs, and muft [i;ivc proved an over-match for all their cnciiiies, had it not been for the vices of their emperors, and the uiiivcrral corruption oi' manners arnonr;; the people. Sa- tiated with the luxuries of tlv* known world, liic emperors were Tit a Uii's to fmd new provocatives. The nioii diliant rc^^ions tverc explored, the ingenuity of mankind was c^ercifed, and the tribute of provinces expended upon one f.vour tedifli.Thc tyranny, and the univerfal depravation of manners that pre- vailed unde. the emperors, en- as tiny are callul Cclars, could only be cquallL. by the barbarity of thofe nntions, who ovcr- •came them. ■ TiAvaido il.c clofc (,r tl.e i;/.:!- r^-nttiry, the Saxons, a Oer- inan nation, were maflers of the fouth^rn, .... . ♦ dopondant", annexed the fame condition to the grant. Hut though this fvllem feemed to be adniirably calculated for dc- firice againd a foreign enemy, it degenerated into a fyftem of Ol fli M)reinon The ufurpation of the nobles became unbounded and into- lerable, 'liiey reduced the ^Mcat body ».! rcHtjious Ubwt)-, lowciclickfi of Uicic GoUuc iijdliuiions arc pti-ui.ubluatlijis d.iy. 7^ INTRODUCTION. ill H \ : :, !, Chriftian powers of Europe vviih a view to drive the Turks from Jcruf'alcm, opened a communication between Europe and the Eaft. Conftantinople was the general place of ren- dezvous for the Chrillian arniios, in their way t» Palcfline or on their return from thence. Though the object of thcfe cx- jicditions was conqueft and not commerce, and though the illuc of them proved unfortunate, th..ir commercial eft'etSt:> were both bencHcial and permanent. Soon after the ciofe of the holy war, the mariners compafs \vas invented, which frcilitated the communication between remote nations, and brought them nearer to each other. 'Ihe Italian ffatcs, particularly thofc of Venice and Genoa, began to eftablifh a regular commerce with the Eaft, and the ports of Egypt, and drew from thence all the rich production:; of India. Thcfe commodities they difpofed of to great advan- tage among the other nations of Europe, who began to ac- quire fome tafte of elegance, unknown to their prcdcceliorE, or defpifed by them. During tlie 12th and 13th centuries, the comnicrce of Europe was aimoll: in the hands of the Ita- lians, more commo.dy known in thofe ages by the name of Lombards. Companies or focieties of Lombard merchants fettled in every different kingdom ; they became the carrieis, the manufidhircrs, and the bankers of Euroiu-. One of tlicfc com- panies fculed in London; hence the nanic of Loir.bard Street. While the Italians in the fouth of Europe cultivated trade witii fuch induftry and fuccefi, the connnercial fpirit av/akcned in the North towards the niiddle of the thirteenth century. As the Danes, Swedes, and other nations around the Haltic, were at that time extrtnulv barbarous, and infelted that fea with their piraties, this obliged the cities of I^ubec and Ham- burgh, fo; n after they had began to open fome trade with the Italians, to enter into a league of mutual di fence. They de- rived fuch advantages from this union, tliat other towns acceded to their confederacy ; and, in a fliort time, eighty of the moft confidorable cities, feattered through thofe valt coun- tries of Cjermany and Flanders which ftretch from the bottom of the Baltic to Cologne on tliC Rhine, j(jined in an alliance, called the Hanfeatic League ; v/hich became fo formidable, that its allianc • was ccurted, and its enmity was dreaded by the greateft monarchs. 'I'he members of this poweriul aflo- fiation formed the firft fyflcmatic plan of commerce known in the middle ages, and condu(£led it by common laws enaif^ed in their general afl'emblies. 'J'hey fupplitd the reft of Europe with naval ft ores j and pitched on different towns, the moft eminent of v/hich was Bruges, in Flanders, where they cfta- bliflied ftapl:?, in which their commerce was regularly carried 5 o:u m INTRODUCTION. n en. Thither the Lombards brought the produ<5tions of India» totrcthcr with the manutadturcs of Italy, and exchanged them for the more bulky, but not lefs ufeful commodities of the North. As Bruges became the center of communication between the Lombards and Hanfeatic merchants, the Flemings traded with both in that city to fuch extent as well as advantage, as fpiritcd among them a general habit of induftry, which long rendered Flanders and the adjacent provinces the moft opu- lent, the moft populous, and heft cultivated countries in Europe. Struck with the flourifliing ftate of thefe provinces, of which he difcovcrcd the true caufc, Edward III. of England, endeavoured to excite a fpirit of induftry among his own fub- je6ls, who, blind to the advantages of their fituation, and ignorant of the fource froin which opulence was dcftined to flow into their country, totally negletStcd commerce, and did not even attempt thole manufactures, the materials of which they furnifticd to foreigners. By alluring Fleniifli artifans to fettle in his dominions, as well as by many wife laws for the encouragement and regulation of trade, he gave a beginning to the woollen manufactures of England j and firft turned the active and enterprizing genius of his people towards thofe arts which have railed the Englifli to the firft rank arnong ton\- mcrcial nations. The Chrii^ian prince?, after their great lofles in the cru» fades, endeavoured to cultivate the friendfliip of the great khans of 'I'artary, whole fame in arms had reached the moft remote coi ners of Etirone and Afia, that they might be fome check upon the I'urks, who had been fuch enemies to the Chriftian name ; and who, from a contemptible handful of w ndcrcrs, 1j. ving occafionally in the armies of contcndin'^ princes, had hcj^uu to extend their rv.vages over the fnuljt countries of Afia. The Chriftian embaHics were managed chiefly by nnonks, a wandering i^ulelnon of men, who, impelled by -/cal. and undaiMUed by difticulties and itants of two worldi were intereftcd. In this voyage he had a tlioufi.nd diuicultlcs to cont^'ud with, and his failure, always dil'contcnte.l, beuan t«.; inlid upon his return, thrcatcmn;;'^, in cafe of refuial, to throw him overboard ; but the tirmiuis of the cf)nn-nander, and the dif- covery of land, after a pallage of 3^ dau^ put ;:n en 1 to the commotion. From tlie a|)pearan(.(:of the natives, he f)und to his furpri/,r, that tin's cnild not be tlie Indies lie w;'.s ui quclt of, and whigli he fgun difct^vcitd l>^ be; a jicw world ; of which 2 tlie INTRODUCTION. 79 the reader will find a more circumftantial account in that part of the following work which treats of America. Europe now bc2;an to emerge out of that ilarlcnefs into which ihc had been funic fincc the iubvcrfion of the Roman empire, Thcfc difcoveries, from which fuch wealth was deftined to flow to the commercial nations of Europe, were fuccceded by others of unfpeakabic benefit to mankind. The invention of printing, the revival of learning, arts, and fcienccs ; and,^ laftly, the happy reformation in religion, all diftinguifli the 15th and 1 6th century as the firll a;ra of modern hiftory. *' It was in thcfe ages that the powers of Europe were formed intc» one great political fyllem, in which each took a ilation, wherein it has fince remained, with Icfs viuriation than could have been cxpeded, after tlic fliocks occufioncd by fo many internal re- volutions, and fo many foreign wars, of which wc have given fome account in rhc hiltory of each particiihir flate in the fol- lowing fheet.'^. 'I lie great events which happened then have: not hitherto fpcnr their force. The political principles and maxims then eitabliflicd, ftill continue to operate ; and the jdeas concerning the balance of power then introduced, or ren- dered general, Hill influence the councils of European iiations." From all which it fecms extremely cerf.'in, that the con- rurrencc of fo many rival priiiccs will always prevent any one of them from gaining the empire over Europe. Hut it is no lei's certain, that in contending for it, they muli weaken their own force, and may at length render tht.njfeive.i uncapable of defejiding even their jult polleiliotis. The par- tial conquefts they may make are extremely illufive; inltead. of promoting, they rather oppofe their defigns ; the more any kingdom is extended, it becomes thi' weaker, and great projects have not beeji fo often executed bv ilow reiterated efforts, as in the courl'c of a few years, and fometimes bv a fniglc expedition. A prince may form a deliberate plan of dc- Itroying the rights of his fubjeits ; he may proceed by rtow de- grees in the execution of it, and if he die before it is com- pleated, his fucceffor may purfue the fame rteps, and avaii himfelf of what was done before him. liut external conquefh cannot be concealed ; they generally occafion more fear than, hurt, and arealmolt always lefs folid than brilliant. Hence the alarms they excite, the confederacies they give occafion to, by which the prince, who, by misfortune, has been a conqueror, is commonly reduced to the lait extremities. This d(Ktrine, however contrary to the prejudices of a powerful and victorious nation, i.^ ojie of the bed elhibliftied in the fciencc of politicks. It is confirmed by examples both ancient and modem. The itutes of (Jiccce, in particular, delivered t'lvm the terror of the So INTRODUCTION. i:^: m the Perfian invafions, exhibit the fame truth in a grp: * vmctf. of lights. There was not one of the moft confiderable of thcfe little focieties, but in its turn imb;bed the frenzy of con- queft, and in its turn too was reduced by this frenzy to the; utmoft mifcry and diftrefs *. The modern examples are fo well known, that it is almoft unneceifary to mention them. Vv'ho does not know that the houfe of Auftria excited the terror of all Europe, before it excited the pity of Orc-at Rri- tain ! Had that family never been the objed^ of fear, the cu. prefs queen would never have become the objetSt of compaf- ilon. France affords an example no lefs ftriking. The nerves of that kingdom were drained fo far beyond their ftrength^ by an ambitious monarch, that it is impoflible they (hould ac- quire their natural tone in the courfe of this century. The. debility of their late effort^;, prove the greatnefs of the evil, and the inefRcacy of any remedy which is not flow and gradual. Great Britain is at prefent that kinn;dom in Kuropc^ which enjoys the grcatcft profperity and glory. She cu:/ht to be the more attentive therefore to preferve fo brilliant an ex- iftencc. The fpirit of conqueil neither fuits with her phyfi- cal fituation, nor with her political conftitution. Every at- tempt to extend her dominion, muft be attended with tv/o in- fallible confequcnces. The firlt, to alarm her neighbours ; thir if'econd, to augment her armies. We have faid enough to fhtw the danger of the one; the other well defcrves to be ti.iccd thro* all its cfte«5ls. The tncreafe of taxes, the decay of manuf.ic- tures, that fpccies of commerce which alone is not [-.iccaiious, are objects which need only to be hinted at. — But ilie aug- mentation of armies muft, in fonic future period, be atteiuiec! with a confequcnce of another kind, that is, the cftahlifhment of abfolute monarchy in Great-Britain. The futher our conquefts are removed from home, this danger bef'omes the greater. Britifti fubjc. Is of confideraiion or property will, in time, grow weary of tranfporting themfelves into climates i'corched by heat, or frozen by cold. Our fjicign armies aiuft, of courfe, be compofed of men, who, having no m«ral tie to attach them to their native country, will (ocjn, by living in a diftant clime, lofe all natural aftlxtion for the laud in •which they were born. This confequence feiins to tfcapu fome of our raoJ ;rn ftatefmen, guided more perhaps by fen- tlment than by rcafon, and who, by fpeeches extrenuly feduiSUve to human pride or ambition, would inadveitentijf lead this country into a courfe of public meafurci. that natu- rally tends lO defpotifm. • The reader who would fee this ful'ieA fully illuftiitJd, m;;y look tt Jfocrites' OraUoi\ on the I'mcc ; ore of tlu- moi! flriihcd nv JcL ol aiilicnt do- %itcn^.e j and whLkh kontMiDi a r; h titnd ot j>oUuul kiH>\^lv^tar ;md ambiofia j they had a particular plea- 3. furcj •ik|: !, •e. flattered their introduction; ^ furc in fmelling the ftcam of the facrlficcs, and they made love with a ferocity unlcnown in northern climates. The rites by which they were worfhippcd, naturally rcfulted from their chara(5ler. It muft be obfcrved, however, that the religion of the ancients was not much conneftcd cither with ihcir private behaviour, or with their political arrangement-;. If we ex- cept a few fanatical focicties, whofc principles do not fall within our plan, the greater part of mankind were extremely tolerant in their principles. They had their own gods who watched over t'\em ; their neighbours, they imagined, alfo had theirs j and ihere was room enough in the univerfe for both to live together in good fcllowfhip, without interfering or jofMing with one another. The introduction of Chriflianity, by inculcating the unity of God, by nnnouncing the purity of his chara(5ter, by ex- plaining the fervice he required of men, produced a total al- teration on their religious fentimcnts and belief. But this is not the place for handling this fublime fubjedl. It is fufficient to obfervc here, that a religion, which was founded on the unity of the Deity, which admitted of no afl'ociation with falfc gods, muft citncr be altogether dcftroyed, or become the prevailing belief of mankind. 'I'hc latter was the cafe. Chriltianity made its way among the civilized part of man- kind, by the fublimity of its dodhincs and precepts; and before it was fupportcd by the arm of power, fuftained itfelf by the voice of wifdom. The management of whatever related to the chrrch, being naturally conferred on thofc who had cfiabliftied it, firft oc- cafioncd the elevation of the clergy, and afterwards of the bifhop of Rome, over all the mcnihers of the Chriftian world. It is impoflible to defcribe within our narrow limits all the concomitant caufcs, fomc of which were extremely delicate, by which this fpccics of univerfal monarchy was eftablifhed. The bifhops of Rome, by being removed from the controul of the Roman emperors, then rcfiding in Conftantinoplc; by borrowing, with little variation, the religious ceremonies and rites eftabliflicd among the heathen world, anil otherwife work- ing on the credulous minds of Barbarians, by whom that em- pire began to be difmembered ; and by availing themfelves of every circumftance which Fortune threw in their way, flowiy created the fabric of their power, at firlt an objed of vene- ration, and afterwards of terror, to all temporal princes. The caufes of its happy difTolution are more palpable, and operated with greater activity. The moft efficacious was the rapid improvement of arts, government and commerce, which after F 2 piany §4 INTRODUCTION. many aces of barbarity, made its way into Europe. The fcan* daloiis lives of thofe who called thcmrdvcs the minifters of Jefus Chrift, their ignorance and tyranny, the defire natural to fovercigns of delivering thcmftlves from a foreign yoke, the opportunity of applying to national ohjeits, tiie inimcnfe wealth which had been diverted to the Ibrvice of the church in every kingdom of Europe, confpired with the ardour of the firft reformers, and hauened the progrcfs of reformation. The ab- furd mummeries eflabliiliL'd by the Romifti clergy in order to elevate their power, and augment their riches, were hap- pily turned into ridicule by men of lettii.s, who, on that account, deferve to be held iji evcrlarting efteem, as they contributed, in a very eminent degree, to that aftonifhing event, fo favourable to the civil as well as to the religious liberties of mankind. ^ \Vc fliall now proceed to the main part of our work, be- ginning with Europe. very fiift be- IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^ 1.0 I.I 1^121 12.5 ISO * Hi. 2.2 1^ £ lit ■ 11.25 flll 1.4 III 1.6 V] vl / 7 Photographic Sciences Corporation :i>^ \ ^V \\ [v ^ ■^ 6^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716)872-4503 Is o^ . Mi ^ r "'* ^ -J^' [ 85 ] E U R a P E. EUROPE, though the leaft extenfive quarter of the globe, is in many refpe<5ls that which moft deferves our attention. It is in Europe that the human mind has made the greateft progrefs towards its improvement ; and where the arts, whether of utility or ornament, the fciences both mi- litary and civil, have been carried to the greateft height and perfeftion. If we except the earlieft ages of the world, it is in Europe we find the greateft variety of character, govern- ment and manners, and from whence we draw the greateft' number of fafts and memorials either for our enterta,inment or inftruftion. Geography difcovers to us two circunjilances with regard ta Europe, which perhaps have had a corifiderable tendency in, giving it the fuperiority over the reft of the world. Firft, the happy temperature of its climate, no part of it lying within the torrid zone ; and fecondly, the great variety of its fur- face. The eft'edt of a moderate climate, both on plants an(l animals, is well known from experience. The immenfe num- ber of mountains, rivers, feas, &c. which divide the difterent countries of Europe from one another, is likewife extremely commodious for its inhabitants.. Thefe natural boundaries check the progrei's of conqueft or defpotifm, which has always been fo rapid in the extenfive plains of Africa and the Eaft j the feas and rivers facilitate the intercourfe and commerce be- tween different nations j and even the barren rocks ami mountains are more favourable for exciting human induftry and invention, than the natural unfolicited luxuriancy of more fertile foils. There is no part of Europe fo diverfified in it? furface, fo interrupted by natural boundaries or divifions, as Greece; we have feen that it was in Greece the human mind began to know and to avail itfelf of its ftrcngth, and that many of the arts fubfervient to utility or pleafure, were in* vented, or at leaft greatly improved. Wh:it Greece there- fore is with regard to Europe, Europe itfelf is with regard to" the reft of the globe. The analogy may even be carried fur- ther, and it is worth while to attend to it. As antient Greece (for we do not fpeak of Greece, at prefent imder the un- natural tyranny of Barbarians) was diftinguifhed above all tjie reft of Europe, for the equity of its laws, and the free- dom of its political ponftitution, fo l^as Europe in general beeii f 3 remarkable -4 ^fil Si** . v'T-i*- ,^-. $6 EUROPE. remarkable for fmaller deviations, at leaft from the laws of nature and equality, than have been admitted in other quar- ters of the world. Though moft of the European govern- ments are monarchical, w^e may difcover, on due examination, that there are a thoufand little fprings, which check the force, and foften the rigour of monarchy in Europe, which do not exift any where elfe. In proportion to the number and force of thefc checks, the monarchies of Europe, fuch as Ruffia, France, Spain and Denmark, differ from one ano- ther. Befides monarchies, in which one man bears the chief fway, there are in Europe, ariftocracies or governments of the nobles, and democracies or governments of the people. Venice is an example of the former j Holland, and fome dates of Italy and Switzerland, afford examples of the latter. There are likewife mixed governments, which cannot be afligned to any one clafs. Great Britain, which partakes of all the three, is the molt Angular inftance of this kind we are acquainted with. The other mixed governments in Europe, are com- pofed only of two of the fimple forms, fuch as Poland, Swe- den, feveral ftates of Italy, &c. all which (hall be explained at length in their proper places. The Chriftian religion is eftablifhed throughout every part of Europe, except Turkey ; but from the various capacities of the human mind, and the different lights in which fpecu- lative opinions are apt to appear, when viewed by perfons of different educations and pafTions, that religion is divided into a number of different fedfs, but which may be comprehended under three general denominations j ift, The Greek church ; ad. Popery ; and 3d, Proteltantifm : which lafl is again divided into Lutheranifm, and Calvinifm, fo called from Luther and Calvin, the two diflinguifhed reformers of the i6th century. The languages of Europe are derived from the fix following. The Greek, Latin, Teutonic or old German, the Celtic, Sclavonic, and Gothic. Grand Divisions of EUROPE. THIS grand divifion of the earth is fituated between the lOth degree weft, and the 65th degree eaft long, from London j and between the 36th and 7 2d degree of north lat. It is bounded on the north, by the Frozen Ocean > on the eaft, by Afia ; on the fouth, by the Mediterranean Sea, which divides it from Africa; and on the weft, by the Atlantic Ocean, which feparates it from America : being 3000 miles long, and 2500 broad, It contains the following kingdoms and ftates. EUROPE. 87 'W XingdomJ. Length. Breadth. Chief City. Dift. & Bearing Diff. o^Time from London, from London. Religions. 1 England Scotland Ireland 360 300 285 300 London 150 Edinburgh 160 Dublin Miles. « * * 400 N, 270 N. W. H. M. • * * 12 aft. 26 aft. Lutherans Calvinifts Luth.Cal.andPap. Norway Denmark ICOO 240 300 180 Bergen Copenhagen 540 N. 500 N. E. 24 bef. 50 bef. Lutherans Lutherans Sweden 800 500 Stackhoim 750 N. E. I 10 bef. Lutherans Ruffia 1500 IICO Pcterlburg 1 140 N. E. 2 4 bef. Greek Chu/ch I'Dlaiid i 700 680 Warfaw 760 E. I 24 bet. Pap. Luth.&Calv. K.ofPru. I Domin. S uncertain Berlin 540 E. 59 bef. Luth. & Calv. Germany 600 500 Vienna 600 E. I 5 bef. Pap. Luth.&Calv. lioheinia ",00 zso Prague 600 E. I 4 l.ef. Papifts Holland 150 100 2C0 Amfterdam 180 E. 'S bfi. Calvinifts Flanders 200 Bruflels 180 S. E. Ifa IJCI. Papifts France 600 700 300 SCO Pans 200 S. £. 9 bef. Papifts Spain 500 Madrid 800 S. 17 alt. Papifts Portugal 100 Li{\wn 85c s. w. 3.S .ift. Papifts Switzerland 260 100 Bern 420 S. E. 2« bet Calvin. & Papifts. | Several 7 Piedmont, Montierrat, Milan, Parma, Modena, Mantua, Venice, Genoa, Tufcany, Sec. fmall ft.ites 5 Turin, Cafal, Milan, Parma, Modena, Mantu.,, Veuici;, Genoa, Floren ce. Popedom 1 240 120 Rome 820 S. E. 52 bef. Paputs Naples 280 120 Naples S70 S. E. I bef. Papifts Hungary JOO 200 Buda 780 S. E. I 17 bei". Papifts Danubian 7 Provinces ^ Lit. Tartary Greece 600 380 4.00 420 24.0 240 C Conltan- i tinoplc CafFa Athens 1320 S. E. 1500 E. 1360 S. E. 1 5S bef. 2 24 bef. I 37 bef. Mahometans, and Greek Church. ..> f;; Exclufive of the Britifh ifles, mentioned above, Europe contains the following principal iflands : Iceland, in the Northern Seas, fubjeft to Denmark. -^ ,'.•► IN THE BALTIC SEA. . • J /:; J Zeeland, Funen, Alfen, Femeren, 7 /. 1 • fv -rv 1 - -■ ' { Laland, Falfter, Mona, Bornholm. | ^"^J^"^ ^° Denmark, -v 2. Gothland, Aland, Rugcn, — fubjeft to Sweden. 3. Ofel, Dagho, — — fubje6t to Ruffia. 4. Ufedom, Wollin, — — fubjeft to Pruflia. IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA. 1. Ivica, fubjeft to Spain. 2. Majorca, ditto. 3. Minorca, fubjeft to Great Britain. 4. Corfica, formerly fubjeft to Genoa, now to France. 5. Sardinia, fubjedl to the king of Sardinia. " 6. Sicily, fubjeft to the king of Naples. 7. Archipelago iflands, fubjeft to Turkey, with the iflandof Candi«', IN THE ADRIATIC AND IONIAN SEA, •I. Liefiena. 2. Corfu. 3. Cepha- 7 ri- « Tr • Ionia. 4. Zant, - *^ _ | fubjeft to Venice. . 5. Leucadia, fubje^ to the Turks. r .►V- [ 88 ] , : DENMARK. „ I Shall, according to my plan, begin this accquiit of hi:? Danifli majefty's dominions with the mod: northerly fitua- tions, and divide them into four parts : ift. Eaft' and Weft Greenland, Iceland, and the iflands in the Atlantic Ocean ; ad. Norway j 3d. Denmark proper i and 4th. his German territories. The dimenfions of thefe countries ;nay be fecn in the following table. - ' ' ,1 .It., .« r w — ... Denmark. Square miles. n u> a. • Chief cities; Jutland, 9,600 155 98 Wyburg, . . Sklwick, 2>JIS 70 63 Slefwick, •S ["Zealand, i>935 60 60 Cop KN HAG EN, S F""en, \, Falfter and -e J Laland, .S ] Femeren, 768 38 32 Odenfee, 7 > aao a? IZ Nikoping, Naxkaw, 50 13 8 Borge, .S i Alfen, 54 15 6 Sonderborge, S Mona, 39 H 5 Stege, S LBornholm, 160 20 12 Rottombv, In the Nor. feas, Iceland, 46,000 435 185 Skalholt,' Norway, 71,400 750 170 Bergen, Danifh Lapland, 28,400 28s 172 Wardhuyj, Weftphalia, Oldenburg, 1260 62 32 Oldenburg, Lower Saxony, Stromar, Total- 1000 52 32 Gluckftat. 163,001 I' 1 |i 1 i;| i vl m mm The reader may perceive, that in the above table no cal- culation is made of the dimenfions of Eaft and Weft Green- land; becaufe, in fadt, they are not yet known, or known very imperfectly : we fhall, however, proceed to give the late^ accounts of chem, and from the beft authorities that have come to our hands. •«. ^AST AND WEST GREENLAND!, ICELAND, AND THE iSLANDS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. >? EAST GREENLAND. ' ^l^" 'Tp H E moft northerly part of his Danifh majefty's domi- •*• nions ; or, a^ others call it, Nevir Greenland, and the country of Spitzbergen, lies between ip and ii deg. E. long^ and 76 and 8q deg. N. lat. Though it Is nov^r claimed by Denmark, it certainly was difcovered by Sir Hugh Willoughby, in 1553 i and is fuppofed to be a continuation of Old Green- land* WEST GREENLAND. 89 UnA. It obtained the name of Spitzbergen, fron\ the height and raggednefs of its rocks. There is a whale-fiihery, chiefly profccuted by the Dutch and fome Britiih veflels, on its coafts. It likewife contains two harbours j one called South Haven, and the other Maurice-Bay ; but the inland parts are unin- liabitcd. WEST GREENLAND. "^'^ "' ' ", LIES between the meridian of London, and 50 deg. W. long, and between 60 and 73 deg. N. lat. Inhabitants.] By the lateft accounts from the mifliona- lies, employed for the converfion of the Greenlanders, their whole number does not amount to above 957 ftated inha- bitants: Mr. Crantz, however, thinks that the roving fouth- landers of Greenland may amount to about 7000. There is a great refemblance between the afpeft, manners, and drefs of rfiofe native's, and the Efquimaux Americans, from whom they naturally differ but little, even after all the pains which the Danifli and German miflionaries have taken to convert and civilize them. They live in huts during their winter, which is incredibly fevere ; but Mr. Crantz, who has given ufi the lateft and beft accounts of this country, fays, that in their longeft fummer days it is (o hot that the inhabitants are obliged to throw ofr their fummer garments. They have no trade, tho* they have a moft improveable fifliery upon their coafts ; but they employ all the year either in fifliing or hunting, in which they are very dextrous. Curiosities.] The taking of Whales in the feas of Green- land, among the fields of ice that have been increafing for ages, is one of the greateft curiofities in nature. Thefe fields^ or pieces of ice, are, frequently, more than a mile in length, and upwards of 1 00 feet in thicknefs ; and when they are put in motion by a ftorm, nothing can be more terrible ; the Dutch had 13 Ihips crulhed to pieces by them in onefeafon. There are fcveral kinds of whales in Greenland ; fome white, and others black. The black fort, the grand bay whale, is in moft efteem, on account of his bulk, and the great quantity of fat or blubber he affords, which turns to oil. His tongue is about 18 f^et long, inclofed in long pieces of what we call whalebone, which are covered with a kind of hair like horfe-hair ; and oa each fide of his tongue are 250 piecas of this whalebone. A» to the bones of his body, they are as hard as an ox's bones, and of no ufe. There are no teeth in his mouth ; and ha in ufually bctvvcm 60 and 80 feet long ; very thick about tho head, but grows Icfs from thence to the tail, When- ^^ '^ 90 1 C -E L A N D. # When the feamen fee a whale fpout, the word is immedi- ately gi /en, /«//, fall, when €very one haftens from tHe fhip to his boat ; fix or eight men being appointed to a boat, and four or five boats ufually belong to one fhip. When they come near the whale, the harpooner ftrlkcs him with his harpoon (a barbed dart) and the monfter finding himfelf wounded, runs fwiftly down into the deep, and would carry the boat along with him, if they did not give him line faft enough ; and to prevent the wood of the boat taking fire by the violent rubbing of the rope on the fide of it, one wets it conltantly with a mop. After the whale has run fome lOO fathoms deep, he is forced to come up for air, when he makes iuch a terrible noife with his fpouting, that fome have com- pared it to the firing of cannon. So foon as he appears on the furface of the water, fome of the harpooners fix another harpoon in him, whereupon he plunges again into the deep; and when he comes up a fecond time, they pierce him with fpears in the vital parts, till he fpouts out ftreams of blood in- ilead of water, beating the waves with his tail and fins, till the fea is all in a foam, the boats continuing to follow him fome leagues, till he has loft his ftrength ; and when he is dying, he turns himfelf upon his back, and is drawn on fliore, or to the (hip, if they be at a diftance from the land. There they cut him in pieces, and by boiling the blubber, extract the oil, if they have conveniencics on fhorc ; othcrwife they barrel up the pieces, and bring them home ; but nothing can fmcll ftronger than thefe fliips do. Every fifti is computed to yield between 60 and ico barrels of oil, of the value of 3 1, or 4I. a barrel. Though the Danes claim this country of Eaft Greenland, where thefe whales are taken, the Dutch have in a manner monopolized this fifhcry. ICELAND. T lES between 63 and 68 dcg. N. lat. and between 10 and -M 26 deg. W. long, from the meridian of London ; extend- ing from caft to weft about 720 miles. Inhabitants.] The inhabitants are fuppofed to be about 80,000 J though it is thought that they were formerly far more numerous, till the country was depopulated by the fmall-pox, and peftilential difeafes. They are fubjed to the crown of Denmark, and conform to the religion and laws of Norway. His Danifh majefty names their governor, called Staffs-ampt- maud J but he appoints a deputy-governor, called Amptmaud, who refides in Iceland, at the king's palace of Reflefted, on a falary of 400 rixdollars ; and he has magiftrates under him, both in civil and fpiritual cafes. The people are naturally hardy. NORWAY. 91 hardy, honeflr, and induftrious. They aqiufe themfelves with chefs and finging. In fome things tlicy difFcr little from the Danes and Norwegians j though they have many cuftoms pecu- liar to themfelves. Trade.] The commerce of this ifland is monopolized by a Danifh company. Its exports confifl of dried iifli, faltcd mut- ton and lamb, beef, butter, tallow, train-oil, coarfe woollen cloth, ftockings, gloves, raw wool, fhcep-fkins, Jamb-fkins, fox-furs of various colours, eider-down, and feathers. Their im- ports confift of timber, fifhing-lincs and hooks, tobacco, bread, horfe-fhoes, brandy, wine, fait, linen, and a little filk j exclu- iive of fome neceflaries and fuperfluitics for the more wci^lthy. ,, Strength and revenue.] As Iceland affords no bait for avarice or ambition, the inhabitants depend entirely upon his Panifh majefty's proLc£lion ; and the revenue he draws from the country, amounts to about 30,000 crowns a year. f. THE FARO ISLANDS. ' ., V SO called from their lying in a clufter, and the inhabitants ferrying from one ifland to another. They are about 24 in number, and lie between 61 and 63 dcg. W. long, fiom London. The fpace of this duller extends about 6a miles in length, and 40 in breadth, to the weftward of Norway ; having Shetland and the Orkneys on the fouth-eaft, and Greenland and Iceland upon the north and north-weft. The trade and income of the inhabitants, who may be abc. j. 3000 or 4000, add little or nothing to the revenues of I)cnmc,rk. NORWAY. ,;'■■'-■■" ' ' Name, boundaries, 7 ^TT^ HE natural fignification of AND EXTENT. J X Norway is, the Northern- way. It is bounded on the fouth by the entrance into the Baltic, called the Scaggcrac, or Categate ; on the weft and north, by the northern ocean ; and on the eaft, it is divided from Sweden by a long ridge of mountains, called at different parts by different names ; as Fillefield, Dofrefield, Rundfield, and Dourfield. The reader may confult the table of dimen- fions in Denmark for its extent ; but it is a country fo little known to the reft of Europe, that it is difficult to fix its dimcnT fions with precifion. ' Climate.]" *The climate of Norway varies according to its extent, and its expofiture towards the fea. At Bergen, the winter is moderate, and the fea is practicable. The caftern parts of Norway are commonly covered with fnow ; and the cold generally fets in about the middle of October, with in- •- • fc tenfe *« N O R W A Y. ; i tcnfe fcverity, to the middle o( April ; the water, being alf that while frozen to a confidcrable thicknefs. In 1719, 7000 Swedes, who were on their march to attack Drontheim, pc- rifhcd in the fnow, on the mountains which feparatc Sweden from Norway ; and their bodies were found in dift'crent po- ftures. But even froft and fnow have their conveniencies, as they facilitate the conveyance of goods by land. As to the more northerly parts of tliis country, called Finmark, the cold is fo intenfe, that they are but little known. At Bergen, the longeft day confifts of about 19 hours, and the (hortcft about fix. In fummer, the inhabitants can read and write at mid- night, by the light of the fky ; and in the moft northerly parts, ftbout midfummer, the fun is continually in view. In thofe parts, however, in the middle of winter, there is only a faint glimmt ring of light at noon, for about an hour and ;a half; owing to the refled^ion of the fun's rays on the mountains. Nature, notwithftanding, has been fo kind to the N'brwegians, that in the midft of their darknefs, the fkyisfo ferene, and the jnocn atKl the aurora borcalis fo bright, that they can carry on their fiflicry, and work :it their fcveral trades in open air. The air is fo pure in fome of the inland parts, that the inha- bitants live fo long as to be tired of life; and caufe thcm- folves to be t!anf-:orted toa lefs falubrious air. Sudden thaws, and fnow-falls, have, l^.owever, fometimcs dreadful eftcj^s, ^nd deftroy whole vlliafi;cs, . Mountains.! Norway is reckoned one of the moft moun- tainous countries in the world ; for it contains a chain of unequal mountains running from fouih to north : to pafs that of Hardanger, a man muit travel about feventy Englifh miles ; and to pafs others, upwards' of fifty. Dofreficld is counted the higheft mountain, perhaps, in Europe. The rivers and cataracts which interfedl thofe dreadful precipices, and are pafTable only by flight tottering wooden bridges, render tra- velling in this country very terrible and dangerous ; though the government is at the expence of providing, at different ftages, houfes accommodated with fire, light, and kitchen furniture. Detached frojn this vafl chain, other immenfc mountains prefent themfelves all over Norv/ay ; fome of thcra, with refervoirs of water on the top; and the whole forming a- moft furprizing landfcape. The activity of the natives, in recovering their fheep and goats, when penned up, through a falfe flep, in one of thofe rocks, is wonderful. The owner diredls himfelf to be lowered down from the top of the moun- tain, fitting on a crofs ftick, tied to the end of a long rope ; and when he arrives at the place where the creature ftands, he, faftens it to the fame cord, and it is drawn up with himfelf^ ThQ 7000 , pc- po- -s, as N O 1> W A Y. 9j The caverns that arc to be met with in thofe mountains, arc more wonderful than thofe, perhaps, in any other part of th« world, though lefs liable to obfervation. One of them, called Dolftcen, was, in 1750, vifitcd by two clergymen; who re- ported, that they proceeded in it till they heard the feadafliing over their heads ; that the pafl'age was as wide and high as an ordinary church, the fides perpendicular, and the roof vaulted : that they defcendcd a flight of natural flairs j but when they arrived at another, they durft not venture to proceed, but returned ; and that they coniumed two candles going and returning. Forests.] The chief wealth of Norway lies in its forefts, which furnifh foreigners with niufls, beams, planks, and boards ; and ferve befide for all domeftic ufes ; particularly the conftru6tion of houfes, bridges, fliips, and for charcoal to the founderies. The chief timber growing here are fir and pine, elm, afh, yew, benreed, (a very curious wood) birch, beech, oak, eel, or alder, juniper, the afpin-tree, the comel, or floe- tree, haicl, elder, and even ebony j (under the mountains of Kolen) lyme and willows. The fums which Norway receives for timber, are very confiderable ; but the induflry of the inha- bitants is greatly aflTifted by the courfe of their rivers, and th« fituation of their lakes ; which affords them not only the con- veniency already mentioned, of floating down their timber, but that of eredting faw-mills, for dividing their large beams into planks and deals. A tenth of all fawcd timber belongs to his Danifh majefty, and forms no inconfiderable part of his revenue. Stones, metals, 7 Norway contains quarries ofexcel- AND MINERALS. J lent marble, as well as many other kinds of ftones ; and the magnet is found in the iron mines. The amianthus, or afbellos, which when its delicate fibres are wove into cloth, are cleaned by the fire, is likewife found here j as are cryftals, granates, amethyfts, agute, thunder- ftones, and eagle-ftones. Gold found in Norway, has been coined into ducats. His Danifii majefty is now working, to great advantage, a filver mine at Koningibcrg ; other filver mines have been found in different parts of the country ; and one of the many filver mafi'es that have been difcovered, weighing 560 pounds, is to be {ctn at the Royal Mufeum at Copen- hagen. The lead, copper, and iron mines, are commoa in this country : one of the copper-mines at Roraas, is thought to be the richeft in Europe. Nor\^ay likewife produces ,q,uick- filver, fulphur, fait, and coal mines ; vitriol, allum, and va- rious kinds of loam j the different manufactures of which bring in a large revenue to the crown. RiVERg { I 94 N O R W A V; ^1^ RiVKRS ANDLAKFS.] Thc rivcTs anil frc(h-watcr lakes in this country, arc well Itockrd with fifli ; and navigable for vcficls of confidjrablo burdc i, Thc niofl: extraordinary cir- cumftancf attending thc lakes is, that fome of them contain floating iflands, formed by the chcfion of roots of trees and Ihrubs ; and tlioiigh torn from the main land, bear herbage and trees. So late as thc year 1702, thc noble family feat of Borge, near Frcdciicftadt, fuddenly funk, with all its towers and battlements, into an abyfs a hundred fathom in depilu; and its fite was inllantly filled with a piece of water, which formed a lake 300 ells iu length, and about half as broad. This melancholy accident, by which 14 people and 200 head of cattle peri i^hcd, was occafioncd by the foundation being un- dermined by thc waters of a river. Uncommon animals, 7 All the animals that are natives FOWLS AND FISHES. 3 of Denmark, arc to be found in Norway, with an addition of many more. The wild beafts peculiar to Norway, arc thc elk, the rcin-dccr, the hares, the rabbit, the bear, the wolf, thc lynx, the fox, the glutton, the leming, the ermine, thc martin and the beaver. The elk is a tall afh-coloured animal, its fliape partaking at once of the horfe and thc flag ; it is harmlefs, and, in the winter, focial ; and their flefh taftcs like venifon. The rein-deer is a fpecies of ftag ; but we fliall have occafion to mention him more particularly afterwards. The hares are fmall j and are faid to live upon mice in the winter time, and to change their colour from brown to white. The Norwegian bears are ftrong and fagacious : they are remarkable for not hurting children j but their other qualities are in common with the reft of their fpecies in northern countries ; nor can we much credit the very extraordinary fpccimens of their fagacity, re- corded by the natives : they are hunted by little dogs ; and fome prefer bear hams to thofc of Weftphalia. The Norwe- gian wolves, though fierce, arc fhy even of a cow or a goat, tinlefs impelled by hunger : the natives are dextrous in dig- ging traps for them, in which they are taken or killed. The lynx, by fome called thc goupes, is fmaller than a wolf, but as dangerous : they are of the cat-kind, and have claws like tygers j they dig under ground, and often undermine fheep- folds, -where they make dreadful havock. The fkin of the fyn* is beautiful and valuable ; as is that of the black fox. White and red foxes are likewife found in Norway, and par- fake of the nature of that wily animal in other countries j they have a particular way of drawing crabs afhore, by dip- ping their tails in the water, which the crab lays hold of. • Thc NORWAY. 95 The glutton, otherwife called thtf erven, or viclfras, re- fembles a turn-fpit dog ; with a long body, thick Icgs^ fharp claws and teeth ; his hir, which is variegated, is fo precious, that he is fhot with blunt arrows, to prcferve the fkin un- hurt : he is bold, and fo ravenous, that it is faid he will de- vour a carcafe larger than himfelf, and unburthens his fto- mach by fijueezing himfelf between two clofe-ftanding trees: when taken, he has been even known to cat ftone and mor- tv. The ermine is a little creature, remarkflble for its Ihy- nefs and cleanlinefs ; and few of our readers need to be told, that their fur forms a principal part even of royal magnifi- cence. There is little difference between the martin and z large brown foreft cat, only its head and fnout are (harper j It is very fierce, and its bite dangerous. I fliall have occafioA to mention the beaver in treating of North America. No coimtry produces a greater variety of birds than Nor- way. The alks build upon rocks ; their numbers often darken the air, and the noife of their wings refembles a ftorm ; their fize is the bignefs of a large duck : they arc an aquatic fowl, and their flcfli is much efteemed. No fewer than 30 different kinds of thruflies refide in Norway ; with various kinds of pigeons, and feveral forti? of beautiful wild ducks. The Nor- wegian cock-of-thc-wood, is of a black or dark-grey colour, his eye refembling that of a pheafant ; and he is faid to be the largeft of all eatable birds. Norway produces two kinds of eagles, the land and the fea; tiie former is fo ftrong, that he has been known to carry off a child of two years old : the fea, or fifh-eagle, is larger than the other ; he fubfifts on aqua- tic food ; and fometimes darts on large fifties with fuch force, that being unable to free his talons from their bodies, he is dragged into the water and drowned. Nature fecms to have adapted thefe aerial inhabitants for the coaft of Norway ; and induftry has produced a fpecies of mankind peculiarly fitted for making them ferviceable to the human race : thefc are the birdmen, or climbers, who are amazingly dexterous in mounting the fteepeft rocks, and bringing away the birds and their eggs : the latter are nu- tritive food, and are fometimes parboiled in vinegar ; the flefti is eaten by the peafants, who generally relifli it ; while the feathers and down form a profitable commodity. Even the dogs of the farmers in the northern diltri6ts, are trained up to be afliftants to thofe bird-men in feizing their prey. The Scandinavian lakes and feas are aftonifhingly fruitful ii\ all fifli that are found on the fea-coafts of Europe, which need not here be enumerated. Some fifties in thofe feas, however, havif their peculiarities. The haac-moeren> is a fpecies of fliark .■^ ■ . , 9« N O R W A Y. ihark ten fathoms in length, and its live yields three czfks of train-oil. The tuello-flynder is an exceflive large turbot, which has been known to cover a man who had fallen over- board, to keep him from rifmg. The feafon for herring-fifhing is announced to the fiftiermen by the fjpouting of water fromth* whales (of which feven different fpecies arc mentioned) in fol- lowino- the herring fhoals. The large wh^le refembles a cod, with . ::iii i .'iE i t-. NORWAY. 97 are .ft of is fo Iba- njouth was large and black, as were the eyes, a white mane hanging from its neck : it floated on the furface of the water, and held its head at leaft two feet out of the fea : between the head and neck were feven or eight folds, which were very thick ; and the length of this fnake was more than a hundred yards, fome fay fathoms. They have a remarkable averfion to the fmell of caftor j for which rpafon, fliip, boat, and bark mailers, provide themfelves with quantities of that drug, to prevent being overfet j the ferpent's olfadlory nerves being remarkably exquifite. The particularities recounted of this animal would be incredible, were they not attefted upon oath, Egede (a very creditable author) fays, that on the 6th day of July, 1734, a large and frightful fea-monfter raifed itfelf Co high out of the water, that its head reached above the main- top-maft of the Ihip ; that it had a long fharp fnout, broad paws, and fpouted water like a whale ; that the body feemed to be covered with fcales j the flcin was uneven and wrinkled, and the lower part was formed like a fnake. The body of this monfter is faid to be as thick as a hogfhead j his (kin is varie- gated like a tortoife-fhell ; and his excrement, which floats upon the furface of the water, is corrofive, and blifters the hands of the feamen if they handle it. I fhould be under great difficulty in mentioning the kraken, or korven, were not its exiftence proved fo ftrongly, as feem to put it out of all doubt. Its bulk is faid to be a mile and a half in circumference ; and when part of it appears above the water, it refembles a number of fmall iflands and fand-banks, on which filhes difport themfelves, and feaweeds grow : upon a farther emergement, a number of pellucid antennae, each about the height, form, and fize of a moderate maft, appear j and by their a6tion and re-adtion he gathers his food, confift- ing of fmall Hfhes. When he finks, which he does gradually, a dangerous fwell of the fea fucceeds, and a kind of whirlpool is naturally formed in the water. In 1680, a young kraken perifhed among the rocks and cliffs of the parifli of AUtahong i and his death was attended by fuch a flench, that the channel where it died was impaflable. Without entering into any ro- mantic theories, we may fafely fay, that the exiftence of this fifli being proved, accounts for many of thofe pha?nomena of floating iflands, and tranfitory appearances in the fea, that have hitherto been held as fabulous by tlie learned, who could have no idea of fuch an animal. The mermen and mer- women, hold their refidence in the Norwegian feas ; but I cannot give credit to all that is related concerning then) by the natives. The merman is about eight ipans long, and, undoubtedly, has as much refemblance as ah Vol. 1. G ap« .V>,.i.< M ft Uk- i . ; ,1 mi ir i- 98 ' NORWAY. ape has to the human fpecics ; a high forehead, little eyes, a fiat nofc, and large mouth, vvithouL chin or cars, characlcrize its head ; its arms are Ihort, but without joints or elbcvvs, and they terminate, in mer.ber-; rcfcmbliag a hum^n hand, but of the paw kind, and the fingers conncdted by a mcm- '^ branc : the parts of generation indicate their fexcs ; though their under part , which remain in the water, terminate lite thofe of fifiics. The females have brcafts, at which they fuckle their young or.es. It would far exceed the bounds allotted to this article, to follow the Norwegian adventurers throu'^h all the diiiercnt defcriptions which they have given us of tiieir fifhes 5 but they are fo well authenticated, that I make fio doubt, a new and very fuiprizing theory of aquatic animals may in time be formed. Curiosities.] ^llo^e of Norway are orJy natural. On the coafl-, latitude 67, ij that dre d,ai vertex, or whirlpool, tailed by navigators, the navel of U;i lla, and by fonie Male- llrom, or Moflcoeftrom. The I'...mi I^^'loHcue, fi^m whence this ftream dcriv. s its name, lie,; bciv/vc-: the muuntain Hc- fleggen in Lofo.l.n, and tlie iilauJ Vei, v;l:*ch .ire about one Icap-ue diifant ; aiid between tlic iflard ind ccafl 0:1 each fide. the ilrcam makes iis wav. iJe.-vveen .Moll'.t d Lofoden, it is near 4C0 fathoms deep j but bci;v.'een ]\j()fi-:;oe aiul Ver, It is fo fliallow, as not to afford parage for a fniall fjiin. When it is food, the Ih'eam runs up the country between Lofoden and Moftcoe with a boKlerous rapidi.\ ; aiid when it is ebb, returns to the fea with a violence and noife, unequalled by the loudcu catara6ts. It is heard at the uiftance of many leagues, and forms a \'ortex or whirlpool of great depth c-.v.d extent ; fo violent, that if a ihip comes near ic, it is ;nimediately drawn iiTefirtib'y into the whirl and tlicrc difippcars ; being abforbed and carried dov/n to the bottom in a niom.ent, where it is dafhed to pieces againfc the locks j and jult at the turn of ebb and flood, when the vv^ater becom.es Jiii! for abcut a quancr of an hour, it rifes again in Icattcred fragments, fcarcely to be knov.'!i for the parts of a fl:;ip. Wlicn it s agitated by a ftorm, it has reached vcflcls at the diitar.ce of more than a Norway mile, where the crews have thought thcmfelvcs in perfeiSt fecurity. Perhaps >'t is hardiy in th.- pov/er of fancy to conceive a fituaiion of more horror, than of being thus driven forward by the fudden violence of an impetuous torrent, to the vortex of a whirlpool, of which the noife and turbulence flUl increaling as it is approached, are an earned; of quick and inevitable de- ll-ru(51:lon ; while the wretched vict-nis, in an agony of defpair and terror, cry out for that help which they know to be im- jjolKble J and k\i before them the dreadful abyfs, in which they c:^i - _:• r ^y ' • ■ :•• ;1 ..\ . S [ eyes, a aclcrize elbcws, I hand, I mem- • thovigh ate I'lK-c ch they bounds venturers given us ,tl hiakc ; animalii raL On Whirlpool, iie Male- [\ whence Ltain He- about one each fide, jfo^lcii. It Vcr, it is ,. When 1 Lofodcii it is ebb, ed by the y leagues, •xtent ; lb cly drawn abforbed /h.re it is in of ebb a quarter rccly to be )y a ftorm, a Norway in perfect o conceive m forward 2 vortex of incrcafnig ivitable dt- of dcfpair to be im- ivhich they have t Tre- nt u all t N O Rr^W A Y; 9$ Aie about to be plunged and dalhed among the rocks at the bot- tom. Even animals which have come too near the vortex, cxprefl'ed the utmolt terror, when thty find the ftr^ an' fiftible. Whales are frequently carried away, and the n^ they feel the force of the water, they ilruggle againft it v/ their mioht, howlino; and bellowinj; in a fr)^h*-ful manner. The like happens frequently to bears, who attempt to fwirn to the ifland to prey upon the (hecp. It is the opinion of Kirch jr, that the P,^Iale{lrom is a f:a vortex, which attracts th^^ fiooa under tlie fljore of Norway, and difchar;i'.s it again in the guiph of Bothnia : hut this opin.on. is now knowji to be erroneous, by th" return o: the fliatt red fragments of whatever happens ta be fucked down i>y it. The large items of firs and pines rife again fo fhivered and fplintcred, that the pieces look as if covered with bril'cles. Th whole phsenomena ;'.re the eftevSls of the violence of the dally ebb and flood, occa oned by the contraction of the rtream in its courfe between the rocks. People, language, religion, 7 The Norwegians are a AND CUSTOMS OF NoRWAV. J middling kind of people, between the fimplicity of the Greenlandors and Icelanders, and the more polifhcd manners of theDanes. Their religion is Lutheran ; and they have bifliops, as thofe of Denmark, without temporal jurifdiftion. Their viceroy, like his mafter, is abfolute ; but v/e may eafily conceive that he makes no bar- barous ufe of his power, bccaufe we know of few or no repre- fentations or ijifurrections of the people againft it. The Norwegiajis in general, are Itrong, robuft, and brave j but quick in refenting real or fuppofed injuries. The womea are handfome and courteous ; and the Norwegian forms, both of living, and enjoying property, are mild, and greatly refem- bling the Saxon ancertors of the prefent Englifli. Every in- • habitant is an artizan, and fupplies his family in all its necef- faries with is own manufactures ; fo that in Norway, there are few, by profeflion, who are hatters, fhoc-makcrs, taylors, tanners, weavers, carpenters, fmiths, and joiners. The loweft Norwegian peafant is an artilt and a gentleman, and even a poet. They often mix with oatmeal the bark of the fir, m^ade into a kind of flower ; and they are reduced to very extraordi- nary flilfts for fupplying the place of bread, or farinaceous food. The manners of the middling Norwegians, form a pro- per fubjeiSl of contemplation even to a philoiopher, as they lead tVat kind of life which we may fay is furniilied with plenty ; but they arc neither fond of luxury, nor dreading penury : this middle llate prolongs their ages furprizingly. Though G 2 their A 100 NORWAY. their drefs is accommodated to their climate, yet, by cuftom,' inftead of guarding againft the inclemency of the weather, they outbrave it ; for they cxpofe themfelvcs to cold, without any coverture upon their breafts or necks. A Norwegian of a hundred years of age, is not accounted paft his labour : and in ^^733* f*^^"* couples were married, and danced before his Danifh majefty at Frcdericfliall, whofe ages, when Joined, exceeded 800 years. The funeral ceremonies of the Norwegians contain veftiges of their former paganifm : they play on the violin at the head of the coffin, and while the corpfe is carried to the church, which is often done in a boat. In fome places the mourners afk the dead perfon why he died ; whether his wife and neighbours were kind to him, and other fuch queftions j frequently kneel- ing down and afking forgivenefs, if ever they had offended the deceafed. Commerce.] We have little to add to this head, different from what ihall be obferved in our account of Denmark. The duties on their exports, moft of which have been already re- counted, amount to about 100,000 rixdollars a year. Strength and revenue.] By the befbcalculations, Nor- way can furnifh out 14,000 excellent feamen, and above 30,000 brave foldiers, for the ufe of their king, without hurting either trade or agriculture. The royal annual revenue from Norway amounts to about 200,000 1. and till his prefent majefty's acceffion, the army, inftead of being expenfive, added con- fiderably to his majefty's income, by the fubfidies it ^brought him in from foreign princes. History.] We muft refer to Denmark likewife for this -'ihead. The antient Norwegians certainly were a very brave and powerful people, and the hardieft feamen in the world. If we are to believe their hiftories, they were no ftrangers to America long before it was difcovered by Columbus. Many cuftoms of their anceftors are yet difcernible in Ireland and the north of Scotland, where they made frequent defcents, and fome fettlements, which are generally confounded with thofc of the Danes. From their being the moft turbulent, they arc become now the moft loyal fubjedls in Europe ; which wc can eafily account for, from the barbarity and tyranny of their kings, when a feparate people. Since the union of Calmar, which united Norway to Denmark, their hiftory, as well as interefts, are the fame with that of Denmark, yr cuftom,' weather, without gian of a : and in )efore his n joined, n veftiges : the head church, Lirners afk eighbours ly kneel- ofFended different •k. The Iready re- r. )ns, Nor- ve 30,000 :ing either [i Norway majefty's Ided con- t .brought I for this ;ry brave rorld. If angers to . Many d and the ents, and nth thofe they arc h wc can ' of their Calmar, I well us DENMARK ProI'er. Extent AND SITUATION. ' •* Miles. Length 2401 u-tween I 8 and 13 Eaft longitude. Breadth 180}°"^^^" I 54 and 58 North latitude. Boundaries and I TT is divided on the north from DIVISIONS. 3 X Norway by the Scaggerac fea, and from Sweden on the Ccift by the Sound ; on the fouth by Germany and, the Baltic ; and the German fea divides it from Great-Britain on the weft. Denmark Proper is divided into two parts ; Jutland, and the iflands at the entrance of the Baltic fea. Mountains, forests, lakes, 7 Jutland confifts chiefly RIVERS, CLIMATE, AND SOIL. \ of barren mountains, but fome corn grows in the vallies. The face of the country pre- fents a number of large forelts ; but there is fcarcely in Den- mark a river navigable to a fhip of burden. Some lakes, which contain delicious fiilies, are found in the inland parts of the country. The climate is more temperate here, on account of the vapours from the furrounding fea, than it is in many more foutherly parts of Europe. Spring and autumn are feafons fcarcely known in Denmark, where winter, and fultry heats during June, July, and Auguft, poflefs the air. The foil is more recommendable for its pafturage, than for its common vegetable productions. The vallies are in general fruitful ; but the foil is fandy in the iflands, and requires plentiful fhowers to raife even a crop of hay. Animals.] Denmark produces an excellent breed of horfes, both for the faddle and carriage ; and numbers of black cattle, fheep, and hogs, befides game j and its fea-coafts are generally well fupplied with fifh. Population, manners 7 By an a£lual numeration, AND customs. j made in 1759, of his Danifh majefty's fubje£ls, in his dominions of D.nmark, Norway, Holftein, the iflands in the Baltic, and the counties of Olden- burg and Delmenhorft, in Weftphalia j they amounted to 2,444,000 fouls, exclufive of the Icelanders and Greenlanders. However difproportioned this number may feem, to the extent of his Danifli majefty's dominions, yet, every thing con- fidered, it is far greater than could have been expedted from the uncultivated ttate of his pofleflions ; and it is more than fufficient for all the purpbfes of commerce. As population generally keeps pace with plenty, efpecially in northern coun- tries, there can be no doubt that the number of his Danifh majefty's fubjefts, in a few years, will be vaftly cncreafed, by G 3 the I ; C II 102 DENMARK. the improvements introduced among them in agriculture and other arts. The nnlile uifpofition of his Danifli majefty for improving his countrv, renders it very difficult to fpeak with any cer- tainty concernin'r the manners and cuftom.s, the police and manufac'jrcs of his dominions. Commerce, undoubtedly, is he reviving; hand in Denmark ; and fince the kings there on have been rendered abfolute, particular titles of honour, fuch as thofe of count and baron, have been introduced into the Icino-dom ; but the adventuring, warlike fpirit, fcems to be loft among their nobility, whofe civil powers are indeed anni- hilated, but they are tyrants over their inferiors ?.i\d tenants, who, as to property, are ftill in a flate of vafialage. It is more than probable, however, that his prefent Danifli majefty will, in that and all other rcfpeiSls, give a new face to the police of his country ; and he has already taken feme efteilual mcafures for that purpofe, by meliorating the ftate of the pcafants j the only fpur to induftry. The Danes, like other northern nations, are given to in- temperance in drinking, and convivial entertainments ; but their nobil ty, v/ho now begin to vifit the other courts of Europe, are refining from their provincial habits and vices. Religion.] The religion is Lutheran ; and the kingdom is divided into fix diocefcs ; one in Zealand, one in Funen, and four in Jutland : thcfc diocefes are governed by bifliops, whofe profcflion is entirely to fupcrintend the other clergy ; nor have they any other mark of pre-eminency than a diftinc- tion of their ecclefiaftical drefs, for they have neither cathe- drals nor ecclefiaftical courts, nor the fmalleft concern with civil affairs : their morals, however, are fo good, that they are irevered by the people. Language and learnln,c.] The language of Den- mark is a dialedt of the Teutonic ; but High Dutch and French are fpoken at court j and the nobil ily have lately made great advances in the Englifh, which is now publickly taught at Copenhagen as a neceflary part of education. A company of Englifh comedians occafionally yifit that capital, where they find tolerable encouragement. The univerfity of Copenhagen is faid now to be encouraged by the government j but the Danes in general make no great figure in literature j though aftronomy and medicine are highly indebted to Tycho Brahe, Borrichius, and the Bartholincs ; jK)t to mention that the Danes begin now to make fome prc- piifing attempts in hiftory, poetry, and the drama. Cities and CHIEF BUILDINGS.] Copenhagen, which is ituate4 on the fine ifland of Zealand, makes a magnificent » J ■ ■ appearance ulture and improving any cer- )o]ice and btedly, is ings there our, fucli 1 into the ms to be Iced anni- 1 tenants. It is more efty will, ; police of mcafures "ants J the ^n to in- nts ; but cou rts of vices. kingdom n Funcn, )' bifliops, :r clergy'; a diflinc- er cathe- :ern with t they are of Dcn- d French ade great taught at npany of here they couraged no great re highly :hoIincs ; )me prc- vhich is gnificcnt pearanc'e Denmark: to^ appearance at a di fiance. It is very ftrong, and defended by four royal callles or forts. It contains ten parifli church'^s, bcfides nine others, belonging to Calvinifts and other per- fuafions, and fome hofpitals. Copenhagen is adorned by fome public and private palaces, as tliov are ciiiled. Its {h'ccts are J 86 m number j and its inhabitants air.ount to ioo,ooo. The houfes in the principal ftreets are built of brick, and thofe in their lanes chiefly of timber. Its univerffty has been already mentioned. But the chief glofy of Copenhagen is its harbour, which admits indec^d of only one fliip to enter at a time, but is capable of containing 500. Several of the ftreets have canals, and quays for fhips to lie clofe to the houfes ; and its naval arfcnal is frUI far to exceed that of V^enicc. 1'i\e fincil palace belonging to his Danifh majefty, lies about 20 Engiifh miles from Copenhagen, and is called Fredericf- burg. It is a moil: ma, efpecially thofc againft imports of foreign manufaCLures, keep immenfe fums in the kingdom. With regard to the external intcrcfts of Denmark, they are certainly bell fccurcd by cultivating a friendfliip with the ma- ritime powers. The prelcnt condition of her navy, renders her fecure by fca from Sweden and RufHa, whofe marine, when united, falls fhort of that of Denmark ; for though the Ruffians maintain a largi? num.ber of fhips, yet they are fo poorly navigated, that RuiTia cannot be confidered as a mari- time power. The exports of Denmark enables her to carry on a very profitable trade with France, Spain, and the Medi- terranean ; and flie is particularly courted by the Mahometan flates, on account of her flilp-building ftores. His prcfent majcfty, like his father and grandfather, makes ftrong efforts for drawing the trade of Hamburgh towards the favourite town of Altcna; but hitherto with little apparent fuccefs. This rivalfhip, however, never can embroil her with any European power, provided his Danifli majefty is fo wife as to make no attempt upon the city of Hamburgh itfelf. " ' The prefent imperial family of Ruffia has indeed many claims Upon Denmark, on account of Holftein j but as her pofreilions were guaranteed by his Britannic majefty, there is but fmall appearance of her being engaged in a war on that account. Were the Swedes to regain their military charatSler, 5 ' . ; . ; • anj ■ k '> -yf io8 DENMARK. and to be commanded by fo entcrprifing and dcfpotic a prince as CharUr. Xil, they probably would endeavour to rcpoflcfs thcniitivt.s, by iirais, of the fine provinces torn from them by Denmark ; but of this there is at piefent very fmall like- lihood 1 and, whatever the rrts of France may attempt, the Danes will always look with a jcdous eye upon every mcafurc taken for abolifliing the prefcnt forms of tiie Swedifli confli- tution. The greateft danger that can ariie to Denmark from a foreign power is, when the Baltic a"? Ca li s h pj.ened more than onee) is fo fro/zn ov. r, Jts to beat not only men, but heavy artill'^ry j in wh.ch c.sfe the Swedes iin\ »^ bcci kiiown to niaicJi over great armies, and to threaten tlic coiujudl of the kiii?i^iIo:n. Rr\ iiNUES.] His Danifh mtjpfl-y's revenues h.r < (Im' j fources : the impofit oiis he lays upon his own f .b,ek iiluc. 114 DENMARK. Chriftlern VI. was born the 29th of January, 1749; an4 married his Britannic majefty's youngell fifter, the princef* Carolina-Matilda. I have already mentioned the many fair profpeds which this prince's reign has already opened for the good of his people j and can only add, from the fpecimens h« has given the public of his virtues, that he bids fair to be the- greateft king that ever filled the throne of Denmark, £ r His Danish Majesty's GERMAN DOMINIONS. THOSE dominions are mentioned in a feparate article chiefly for the fake of order, as the inhabitants differ little or nothing from other Germans ; we fhall therefore be more general in defcribing them. The duchy of Slefwic, V^hich fome fay properly belongs to Denmark, is bounded by Jutland, the Baltic, the duchy of Holftcin, and the v. erman ocean. It is well watered, and produces plenty of corn ; but the capital city of Slcfwic, which ftands upon a fmall arm of the fea, called the Sley, is much decayed both in trade and population. Gottorp Ihnds likewife upon the Sley ; and was once famous for the magnificent palace of its dukes, and for being the refidence of the celebrated aftronomcr Tycho Brahe ; fome of his planetary machines and globes Hill remaining in ©ne of the fummer-houfes of the palace. Holftein belongs partly to Denmark and partly to Ruflia, The capital of the Danifh Holftein is Gluckftadt, a well-built town and fortrefs, in a marlhy fituation, on the right of the Elbe 'y in which is a Lutheran, a Calvinift, a Romilh church, and a Jews fynagogue j and has fome foreign commerce. Keyl is the capital of the Ducal Holftein, and is well built, has a harbour, and neat public edifices. The famous city of Hamburgh lies, in a geographical fenfe, ill Holftein, but is now an imperial, free, and Han featic city, lying on the verge of that part of Holftcin called Stormar : it ^as the fovereignty of a fmall diftridl round it, of about tea miles circuit : it is one of the moft flouriftiing commercial towns in Europe ; and though the kings of Denmark ftill lay claim to certain privileges within its walls, it may be confidered as a«> well-regulated commonwealth. The number of its inhabi- tants are faid to amount to 180,000 ; and it is furnifhed with, a vaft variety of noble edifices, both public and private : itt has two fpacious harbours, formed by the river Elbe, whicK runs through the town, and 84 bridges are thrown over its canals. Hamburgh has the good fortune of having been pecu- liarly fiivouicd in its commerce by Great-Britain^ with whom it [749* ^"^ te princefs many fair led for the cimens h« r to be thC' ^lONS. rate article tants differ lerefore be )f Slefwic, ounded by le C erman corn 'y but lall arm of 1 trade and r ; and was es, and for cho Brahc ; jmaining in y to Ruflla. a well-built right of the lilh church, commerce, s well builty phlcal fenfe, mfeatic city, Stormar : it >f about tea lereial towns :ill lay clain* infidered as a^ • its inhabi- rniflied with i private : it Elbe, which, own over its g been pecu- , with whom. it LAPLAND* 115 It ftill carries on a great trade, The Hamburghers maintain twelve companies of foot, and one troop of dragoons, befides an artillery company* In Weftphalia, the king of Denmark has the counties of Oldenburg and Delmenhorft ; they lie near the fouth fide of the Wefer j their capitals, of the fame name, are both regu- larly fortified : and Oldenburg gave a title to the firft royal anceftor of his prefent Danim majefty. •wit LAPLAND. THE northern fituation of Lapland, and the divifion of its property, require, before I proceed farther, that I treat of it under a diftinft head, and in the fame method that I obferve in other countries. Situation, extent, 7 The whole country of Lapland DIVISION AND NAME. 3 extends, fo far as it is known, from the North Cape in 71 30 N. lat, to the White-Sea, Under the ar loyal and diftinguifhed pcrfonagcs. The Lapland hares grow white in the winter ; and the country produces a large black cat, which attends the natives in hunting. By far the moft remarkable, however, of the Lapland animals, is the rein-deer ; which nature feems to have provided to folace tlic Laplanders for the privation of the other comforts of life. This animal, the moft ufcful per- haps of any in the creation, refembles the flag, only it fome- what droops the head, and the horns project forward, la fummer, the rein-deer provide thcmfelvcs with leaves and grafs, and in the winter they live upon the mo/s already de- 5v fcribcd; Lapland. r their lipa in fome the limbs drifts of round four and then a fmooth ith incoji- eflivc for a nountains, anccs. rm in his mountains Lapland : rivers and nds, fome ved by the nd flowers s is but a eral is ex- ;althy mo- lt nothing abitants. ;s, as well nd worked s are fome ral ftoncs, ible pearls he feas. ft refer to ts of Den- is contents zibclin [aiid :med, that linguifhcd le winter ; Lttends the however, turc fcems rivation of ifeful per- y it fome- ward. In caves and [ready de- fcribed : "7 and fcrlbed : they have a wonderful fagacity at finding it out, and when found, they fcrape away the (how, that covers it, with their feet. The fcantinefs of their fare is inconceivable, as is the length of the journeys which they can perform without any other fupport. I'hey fix the rein-deer to a kind of Hedge, ihapcd like a fmall boat, in which the traveller, well fccuiod from cold, is laced down, with the reins in one hand, and a kind of bludgeon in the other, to keep the carriage clear of ice and fnow. The deer, whofc harnciTing is very fimplc, fcts out, and continues the journey with prodigious i'pecd ; and is io Aifc and tradable, that the driver is at little or no trouble in directing him. At night they look out for their own pro- vender ; and their milk often helps to fupport their matter. Their inftindt in chufing their road and directing ihcir cuurfe, can only be accounted for, by their being well aci]uainted with the country during the fummcr n.onths, when they live in woods. Their flefh is a well-tailed food, whether frelh {)r dried : their fkin forms excellent clouthing both for the bed and the body : their milk and cheefe are nutritive and pleafant j and their inteftiites and tendons fupply their mailers with, thread and cordage. When they run about wild in the fields, they may be fliot at as other game. But it is faid, that if one is killed in a flock, the furvivors will gore and trample him to pieces ; therefore fingle Itragglers are generally pitched upon. Were 1 to recount every circumftance, related by the credulous, of this animal, the whole would appear fabulous. It is fufficient to obferve further, that the number of tame rein-deers pofllfled by a Lajdandcr, forms the chief part of his riches. With all their excellent qualities, however, the rein- deer have their inconveniences. It is difficult in fummcr to keep them from ftragglingj they are fomctimes buried in the fnow; and thcv frequently grov/ reftive, to the great danger of the driver and his carriage. His. furprizing fpeed (for they are faid to run at the rate of 200 miles a day) feems to be owing to his impatience to get rid of his incumbrance. None but a Laplander could bear the un* cafy pofture, when he is confined in one of thofe carriages Or pulkhqs ; or believe that by whiipering the rein-deer \n the car, they know the place of their dellination. But after all thofe abatements, the natives would have diiHculty to fubfifl without their rein-deer, which ferves them for more purpofcs than I have room to mention^ People, customs, and manners.] The language of the Laplanders is barbarous, but it feems radically to have come from Finland. Learning has made no pro^rcfs aniong> them i aud they praclife fuch arts only as fupply thwia with the ,, . H 3 Bie.uis ti8 LAPLAND. means of living. Miflionarics from the chriftianized parts of Scandinavia, introduced among them the Chriftian religion ; but they cannot" be faid even yet to be Chriftians, though they have among them fome religious feminaries, inftitutcd by thr king of Denmark. Upon the whole, the majority of the Laplanders pradtife as grofs fupcrftitions and idolatries, as are to be found among the moft uninftrudlcd pagans ; and fo abfurd, that they fcarccly defcrve to be mentioned, were it not that the number and oddities of their fuperftitions, have induced the northern traders to believe that they are fkilful in magic and divination. For this purpofe their magicians, who are a peculiar fet of men, make ufe of what they call a drum, made of the hollowed trunk of a fir, pine, or birch-tree, one end of which is covered with a fkin j on this they draw, with a kind of red colour, the figures of their own gods, as well as of Jefus Chrift, the apoftles, the fun, moon, ftars, birds, and rivers ; on thefe they place one or two brafs rings, which, when the drum is beaten with a little hammer, dance over the figures ; and according to their progrefs, the forcerer prognofticates. Thofe frantic operations are generally per- formed for gain ; and the northern Ihip-mafters are fuch dupes to the arts of the impoftors, that they often buy from them a magic cord, which contains a number of knots, by opening cf which, according to the magician's direction, they gain what wind they want. This is a very common traffic on the banks of the Red- Sea, and is managed with great addrefs on the part of the forcerer, who keeps up the price of his knotted talifman. The Laplanders ftill retain the worfhip of many of the Teutonic gods, but have among them great remains of the druidical inftitutions. They believe the tranfmigration of the foul ; and have feftivals fet apart for the worfhip of certain genii, called Jeuhles, who they think inhabit the air, and have great power over human adlionsj but being without form or fubflance, they afTign to them neither images nor fliatucs. Lapland is but poorly peopled, owing to the general bar- rennefs of its foil. The whole number of its inhabitants may ;imount to about 6o,ooo. Both men and women are in ge^ neral fhorter by the head than more fouthcrn Europeans. Mau- pertuis meafured a woman, who was fuckling her own child, vrhofe height did not exceed four feet two inches and about a half} they make, however, a more human appearance than the men, who are ill-fliaped and ugly, and their heads too large for their bodies. When a Laplander intends to marry a female, he, or his friends, court her father with brandy ; when, with fome dif- ficulty, he gains admittance to his fair one, he offers her a beavcr*8 t parts of religion ; 3ugh they :d by tho ty of the Uries, as and fo were it pns, have fkilful in ans, who 1 a drum, tree, one ey draw, gods, as Ml, ftars, afs rings, :r, dance z forcerer ally per- ch dupes n them a opening hey gain ic on the drefs on J knotted many of mains of ^ration of •f certain air, and out form atucs. :ral bar- mts may e in ge-i s. Mau- n child, id about ice than eads too , or his >me dif- 5 her a beavcr*8 SWEDEN. ri9 beaver's tong«e, or fome other eatable ; which fhe rejefts be- fore company, but accepts of in private. Cohabitation often precedes marriage; but every admittance to the fair one is purchafed from her father by the lover with a bottle of brandy^ and this prolongs the courtfhipfometimes for three years. The priett of the parifh at laft celebrates the nuptials j but the bride- groom is obliged to ferve his father-in-law for fodr years after. He then carries his wife and her fortune home. Commerce.] Little can be faid of the commerce of the Laplanders. Their exports confift of fifli, rein-deer, fursj baflcets, and toys j with fome dried pikes, and checfes made of rein-deer milk. They receive for thefe, rixdollars, woollen cloths, linen, copper, tin, flour, oil, hides, needles, knives, fpirituous liquors, tobacco, and other neceflaries. Their mines are generally worked by foreigners, and produce no inconfiderable profit. The Laplanders travel in a kind of caravan, with their families, to the Finland and Norway fairs. And the reader may make fome eftimate of the medium of commerce among them, when he is told, that fifty fquirrel flcins, or one fox- ikin, and a pair of Lapland ftioes, produce one rixdollar ; but no computation can be made of the public revenue, the greateft part of which is allotted for the maintenance of the clergy. With regard to the fecurity of their property, few difputes happen j and their judges have no military to enforce their decrees, the people having a remarkable averfion to war ; and fo far as we know, never employed in any army. The Above is the lateft and beft account that has been received of this extraordinary people. As to the other particulars relating to them, they are in common with their neighbourj the Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, and Ruffians. SWEDEN. between C 56 and 69 north latitude. t i< Extent and situation. Miles. Length 800 Breadth 500 o^cwecn ^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ longitude. Boundaries and") fX^HIS country is bounded by the DIVISIONS. 3 J^ Baltic Sea, the Sound, and the Categate, or Scaggerac, on the fouth j by the impaflable moun- tains of Norway, on the weft ; by Danifh or Norwegian Lap- land, on the north j and by Mufcovy on the eaft. It is di* vided into feven provinces : i. Sweden Proper. 2. Goth- land. 3. Livonia. 4. Ingria. (Thofe two provinces belong H 4 aov. tio 5 W R r> F, N. 1 ' now, however, to the Ruirtar.s, liavln^ been conquered by iV'tcf the Great, and ceded by pudciior treaties.) 5. Fin- land. 0. Swcdifh Lapland : and 7. The Swcdifh illands. Grc.it abaLcinents niuit be made for the hikes, and unimproved parts of Sweden; whit, h arc io cxtenlive, that the habitable, p:ut is confnii'd to nanow bounds. The t'ollowing arc the dimcnfions given us of this kin^'idom. ujunii; 1 Sum 1 5r ! :? 1 Sweden. iiulc;;. total. | ,S f« Cni.lt.il Cliks. 7(i,>^2_^l 2?$,7t!;i S- 1 "■' Swid.n i'ropcr iT^g*^" 142 "n S T C K II n T. M N. L. 50 30. E. L. 19 15. Or'tliLmd *~ ^- '•5,07 5 '^51 if,o Cilniir Schoncn — ^^ igCio 7M35 '/7 56 Lundcii Lniil.ind, iiiid } 76,000 420 340 Tornc Uma p'inl.'.nd, nnd \ Abo li. Bnthnia • — 73,000 395 225 Cnjenburg Cothlnnd I. - ^ ICCC So 23 Witty Urland 1. - 560 55 IC B.jrkholra 150,560 Upper 7 ''""icnni.!. P. '.''' 47 24 Stralfund Saxony 5 RuL'cn !• I'^o 24 21 Bergen 1,320 1 The face of Svv'cdon is pretty funilar to thofe of its neigh- bouring countfricsj only it has the advantage of navigable jivers. ^ ' ' . . . Climate and seasons,") The fame may be faid with SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. J rcg.u'd to this article. Sum- mer burli:s from winter J and vegetation is more fpeedy than in ibuthern climates ; for the fun is here fo hot, as fometimcs to fet forcfti or. fire. Stoves and warm furs mitigate the cold iof winter, -vvhich is fo intenfc, that the nofes and extremitlc^i tof the inhabitants are fometinics mortified ; and in fuch cafes, ihc bcft remedy that has been found out, is rubbing the aficcled part with fnovv. The Swedes, fincc the days of Charles XII. "have been at incredible pains to correct the native barrciincfs of their country, by ereJling colleges of agriculture, and jn ifomc places with great fuccefs. The foil is much the fame nvith that of Denmark and fome parts of Norway, generally •very bad, but in fome vallies furprizingly fertile. The Swedes,