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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m^thode. I b/ errata med to lent une pelure, fapon d 1 i 3 32X 1 8 9 4 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA 1« CHARLES E. LAURIAT COMPANY'S 1913 BARGAIN LIST THE GREAT AUTHORITATIVE HISTORY OF THE TWO AMERICAN CONTINENTS. 51. JUSTIN WINSOR'S NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. The original and best edition. Illustrated by a series of over 2500 rare and invaluable maps, charts, fac-similcs, historic views, portraits, autographs, etc., each one of historical value. Complete in eight handsome royal octavo volumes (iii x 7 J inches). Cloth, uncut, new and fresh sets in wooden boxes. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin Co. (1890). Sold to tiie original subscribers at $44.00 per set, net. These sets offered at $18.00 (Weight of the set, packed for shipment, about 50 lbs.) This famous work was written by a corps of eminent Historical scholars and specialists, under the editor- ship of JUSTIN VVINSOR, LL.D., and besides being a most fascinating series of Narratives for general reading, forms a veritable treasury of original sources of information for independent investigation. The eminent His- torian, JOHN FISKE, said of it: "This is one of the most remarkable works of historical scholarship ever produced in the United States. To the student who ivi'''°.s to make a thorough study of American History, it is absolutely indispensable." In its Fi.AN AND Scope this work differs from any other American History. In this connection two i.m- PORTANT F.\CTS should be borne in mind. First: — It is not merely a History of the United States, but of the two American Continents. Second: — It is not the work of one man. The general subject has been carefully subdivided by a committee of experts, and its parti allotted to EMINENT SPECIALISTS, each of whom has contributed a Valu- able Monograph upon the topic assigned. The work of Eminent Historical Scholars. By careful editorial management and the use J. "Edi- torial Notes" these important contributions have been so connected as to form a consecutive and-complete his- ,torical work, of greatf.r authority and more genuine interest than could be secured by any other method. To secure the most comprehensive and thorough treatment of each subject, the chapters, as a rule, have three parts. 1. TIIE HISTORICAL NARRATIVE, a consecutive treatment of the subject in the ordinary method of historical writing. 2. THE CRITICAL ESSA Y, — an opportunity for independent research, — a novel and distinctive feature of the work, in which are set forth the ORIGINAL SOURCES of the preceding narrative — manuscripts, monuments, archa;ological remains, etc. — with accounts of their discovery, their present location, etc., the writers who have become aulTiorities on the several subjects, and, finally a critical statement of existing knowledge and of the conditions, favorable or unfavorable, to a further advance. The value of this method of bringing historical facts within reach of the general reader, and giving him all collateral knowledge necessary for interpreting them correctlv, can hardly be overestimated. No longer wholly dependent upon the author, each reader is by this collation of authorities enabled to form an independent judgment. INENTS. STORY invaltiable ical value. ;, iiew and : at $18.00 r the cditor- eral reading, iminent His- ates. To the tion TWO iM- 5NTS. iivided by a lUted a Valu- use -^' "Edi- :omplete his- ther method. a rule, have nary method id distinctive -manuscripts, ;., the writers lowledge and ;ing historical ■preting them ier is by this A'i6kd(/~^ I i 2t)otigiuaI 2mfrtra KARK AT ; \\;- i KIMCAL 1^ 'in' OF AMF.RICA *' " '•' •' *k'-i^rAli» MASS.UIIliETi.S H's-UKl' AL SOCIIiT. V'l.. I >>f -r , . ! v> C^f U-v;* :.^i- ^^<^■'^f ^.iint. rU^i f \<\ aiJoriBtnal america NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA EDITED By JUSTIN WINSOR LIIIKARIAN OP HARVARIJ UNIVEHSITV CORRESPONDING SECRETARY MASSACHUSETTS HISTORICAL SOCIETY Vol. I BOSTON AND NEW YORK HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY Clje Kibfr0iDe pxas CambrtOgr \j), .r:-^ '- J Copyrttsht. i8>lt>, Bv HOUGHTON, MIKH.IN AND COMPANY. All rights reitrvtii. '^ 4 I 4 To CHARLES WILLIAM ELIOT, LL. D. President ok Harvard Univeksity. DE/i/f Eliot. • Forty years ago, you and /, having ma,ie preparation together, entered college on the uw,c day. 11 V later found dijferent spheres /// ///,- woHd; and you eame bach to Cambridge in due time to assume your high office. Twelve years ago, sought by you, I likaoise came, to discharge a duty under you. you took me away from many cares, and transferred me to the more con- gemal sen'icc of the University. The change has conduced to the progress of those studies in which I hardly remember to have had a lack of interest. So /owe much to you; and it is not, J trust, surprising that J desire to eon- nect, in this work, your name with that of your Obliged friend, CAMnRIDGK, 18S9. ]^(i(kidir^ f CONTENTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. [The ftirtrail of Juslin Winsor. the frontisftece to thii volume, is refrojueej from a fhotografh by Pach brothers in tSSS. I'lie ml oil the title represents a mask, which forms the centre of the Mexicmi Calendar Stone, as eni;raieit in D. Wilson's Prehistoric Alan, i,js;,from a cast now in the Collec- tion of the Hociely of Antiquaries m ScottanJ.] INTRODUCTION. Part I. Americana in Libraries and Bibliographies. The Editor i Illustrations: Portrait of Professor Sbeling, iii; of James Carson Brevoort, x; iA BiHiot/iecti Aniiiin}- SefteHliioiuili::. The collection in 1S23 found a purchaser at $5,000, in Mr. Samuel A. Eliot, who gave it to the College.- The Harvard libra.y, however, as well as .several of the best collections of Amer- icana in the United States, owes more, perhaps, to Obadiah Rich than to any other. This gentleman, a native of lioston, was born in 17S3. He went as consul of the United .States to Valencia in 1815, and there began his study of early Spanish- American history, and undertook the gath- ering of a remarkable collection of books,'' which he threw open generously, with his own kindly assistance, to every investigator who viaited Spain for purpo.ses of study. Here he won the respect of Alexander 11. Everett, then Anieric.m minister to the court of Spain. lie captivated Irving by his helpful nature, who saya of him t EBELING. " Rich was one of the most indefatigable, intelli- gent, and successful bibliographers in Europe. His house at Madrid was a literary wilderness, abounding with curious works and rare editions. I Quincy's Hanard University, ii. 413, 596. It is noteworthy, In view of so rich an accession cominj; from Germany, tliat firahame, the historian of our colonial period, says that in 1S25 he found the Universit) Library at Gcittingen richer in books for his purpose than all the libraries of Britain joined together. i This collccticin is also embraced in the Catalogue of the College Library already referred to, Mr, Warden began the collection of another library, which he used while writing the American part (10 vols.) of the An 1e virificr lies Dates, I'aris, 1826-1844, and which (1,1 iS works) was al'terwaid sold to the ?tate Library at .Mbany for 54,000. Dr. Henry A. Homes, the librarian at .Albany, informs me that when arranged it made twenty-one hundred and twenty-three volumes. Warden's Bibiwtheea Americana, Paris, iS;i, reprintel. Geog., nos. 617, 618 ; Triiljner, Bibliographical Guide, p. xiv. There was a final sale of Mr, Warden's Ixjoks by Horatio Hill, in New York, in 1846. ' This collection was offered to Congress for purchase through Edward Everett in December, 1S37. The printed list, with nearly a hundred entries for manuscripts and three hundred and eighty-nine for printed bmks, covering the years i5or>-i,S2;, was printed as Document 37 of the ist session of the 20th Congress The s.ale was not effected. Rich had been able to gather the books at moderate cost because of the troubled i)ulitical state of the peninsula. Triihner, Bil'liografliical Guide, p. xv. * This portrait of jn>. of the earliest contributors to the bibliography of .Vniencan hist.-ry folbws an en- graving in the Altgemeine geographische Epliemerideu, May, iSoo, p. 3115. Ebeling was Ixirn .Nov. 20, 1741, and died June 30. 1817, and his own contributions to American History were — (a) Amerikanisebe Bibliothek (Zwci Stiickc), Leipzig, 1777. {b) Erdbcscrcibuug uud Gcschichtc von America. Hamburg, i795-iSi''i, in seven vols. ; the author's intei leaved copy, with manuscript notes, is in H—v.-ird College Library. (<:) With Professor llegewisch, Amcricunisches Magazin. Hamburg. 1707. There are other likenesses, — one a large lithograph published at Hamburgh ; the other a small profile b> C. II. Knicp. Both are in the collection of the American .Antiquarian Society. IV NAR lATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. ... He w.is withal a man of great truthfulness and simplicit) uf character, of an aniialj!e unit obliging disposition and strict integrity." Sijn- ilar was the estimation in whie!i he w.is held liy Ticknor, I'rescott, vieor(.'e liancroft, and many others, as AUilione has reco'ded ' In iSjS here- moved to London, where he established himself as a bookseller. From this iieriud, as Ilarnsse - lilly says, it was under his inlUicnce, acting ujioi-. the lovers of books among his compatriots, th it the passion for forming collections of books ex- clusively American grew up.'' In those ilays the cost of books now esteemed rare was trilling compared with the prices demanded at present. Rich had a prescience in his calling, and the beginnings of the great libraries of Colonel Aspinwall, Peter Force, James Leno.x, and John Carter Brown were made under his fostering eye; which waa just as kindly vigilant for Gien- villt, who was then forming out of the income of his sinecure office the great collection which he gave to the British nation in recompense for his support.'' In Lond(ial Lin^iistics,'' which had been undertaken by Mr. Ludewig but had not been carried 'hrough the press, when he died, Dec. 12, 1856^ We owe to a Franco-American citizen the most important bibliograjjhy which we have respecting the first half century of American history; for the Bibliotheca Americana Vetus- tissima only comes dov/n to 1551 in its chrono- logical arrangement. Mr. Hrevoort ■■ very properly characterizes it as "a work which lightens the labors of such as have to investi- gate early .American history."' It was under the hospitable roof of Mr. Bar- low's library in New York that, "having gloated for years over second-hand compilations," Ilar- risse says that he found himself "for the first time within reach of the fountain-heads of his- tory." Here he gathered the materials for hia /\^otes on Columbus, which were, as he says, like " pencil marks varnished > er." These first appeared less perfectly ihan later, in the Ne^v York Commercial Advertiser, under the title of " Columbus in a Nut-shell." Mr. Harrisse had also prepared (four copies only printed) for Mr. Barlow in 1864 the Bibliotheca Barlcnuiana, which is a descriptive catalogue of the rarest books in the Barlow-Aspinwall Collection, touch- ing especially the books on Virginian and New England history between i6o2 and 1680. Mr. Barlow now (1864) sumptuously printed the Notes on Columbus in a volume (ninety-nine copies) for private distribution. For some rea- son not apparent, there were expressions in this admirable treatise which offended sonne ; £4 when, for instance (p. vii), he spoke of beinp debarred the privileges of a much-vaunted pub* lie library, referring to the Astor Library. Simi- lar inadvertences again brought him hostile criticism, when two years later (1.S66) he printed with considerable typographical luxury his Bibliotheca Americana V'ctustisstma, which was published in New York. It embraces some- thing over three hundred entries.' The work is not without errors; and Mr. Henry Stevens, who claims that he was wrongly accused in the book, gave it a bad name in the London Athe- mrum of Oct. 6, 1S66, where an unfortunate slip, in making " Ander Schiffahrt"' a person- age, is unmercifully ridiculed. A committee o£ the Societe de Geographic in Paris, of which M. Ernest Desjardins was spokesman, came to the rescue, and printed a Kaftort sur Us deux ouvra^es de bibliographie Amiricaine de M, Henri Harrisse, Paris, 1867. In this document the claim is unguardedly made that Harrisso's book was the earliest piece of solid erudition which America had produced,— a phrase qualified later as applying to works of Ameiican bibliography only. It was pointed out that while for the period if 1492-1551 Rich had given twenty titles, and Ternaux fifty-eight, Harrisse had enumerated three hundred and eight.' Harrisse prepared, while shut up in Paris during the siege of 1870, his Notes sur la Noti- velle France, a valuable bibliographical essay referred to elsewhere." He later put in shape the material which he had gathered for a supple- mental volume to his Bibliotheca Americana Vctustissima, which he called Additions^'^ and published it in Paris in 1S72. In his intro- duction to this latter volume he shows how thoroughly he has searched the libraries of Europe for new evidences of interest in Americi during the first half century after its discovery. He notes the depredations upon the older libraries which have been made in recent years, since the prices for rare Americana have ruled so high. He finds" that the Biblioteca Colom- 1 Sabin, x. nos. 42,644-42,645. • Sabin, x. 42,643 ; Triibner, Biblio^rafhical Guide, p. xxi. • Historical Magazine, .xii. 145 ; Allibone, ii. p. 1142. The sale of Mr. Ludewig's library (1,380 entries' look place in New York in 1858. • In his Verrazano, p. ;. • Cf. also D'Avezac in his WaltzemiUlcr, p. 4. • Sabin, viii. p. 107 ; Jackson, Bibliog. Ghg., no. 606. The edition was four hundred copies. ' An error traced to the proofreader, it is said in Sabin's Bibliog. of BiHiog., p. Ixxiv. • Stevens noticed this defence by reiterating his charges in a note in his Bibliotheca Historiea, \%^o^ no. 860. ' Vol. IV. p. 366. 1" Sabin, Bibliography 0/ Bibliographies, p. Ixxv. " Grandeur et decadence dg la Cofotnbine, P^ns, iSk%. NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. bini at Seville, af compared with a catalogue of it made by Kcrdinaiid ColumbuH him.scit, has •uffered immense losses. " It is curious to no- tice," he hiially says, " how few of the original books relating to the early history of the New World can be found in the public libraries of Europe. There is not » literary in«'' however rich .ri ancient, which in thi& rould comj irc with three or four privaie libraries in America. The Marciana at Venice is probably the richest. 'I'he Trivulgiana at Milan can boast of several great rarities." For the third contributor to the recent bibli- ography of Americana, we must still turn to an adopted citizen, Joseph Sabin, an Knglishmau by birth. Various publishing enterprises of interest to the historical student are associated with Mr. .Sabin's name, lie published a quarto series of reprints of early American tracts, eleven in number, and an octavo series, seven in number.' He published for several years, beginning in 1869, the Ameriian Bihliof'olist, a record of new books, with literary miscellanies, largely upon Americana. In 1867 he began the publication (five hundred copies) of the most extensive American bibliography yet made, A Diclkmary of books rtlatiiig to America, from its discovery to the [resent time. 'I'he author's death, in 1881,* left the work somewhat more than half done, and it has been continued since his death by his sons.' In the Notas para una hihliogi-^fia tie obras anonimas 1 seuJonimas of Diego IJarros Arana, published at Santiago de Chile in 1S.S2, five hun- dred and seven books on .America (1493-1876), without authors, are traced to their writers. As a second cKiss of contributors to the bibliographical records of America, we must reckon the students who have gathered libraries for use in pursuing their historical studies. Foremost among such, and entitled to b« esteemed a pioneer in the modern spirit of research, is Alexander von Humboldt. He published his Examett antique Je I' histoirt di ta '■•Xrafhit dii nouivau continent,* in five volumes, octween l8j6 and 1839.* " It is," uays Itrevoort," " a );uidc which all must consult. W'th a master hand the au'.hor combines and collates all attainable materials, and draws light from sources which Ae first brings to bear in his exhaustive investigations." Harrisse calls it " the greatest monument ever erected to the early history of this continent." Humboldt's library was bought by Henry .Stevens, who printed in 18O3, in London, a catalogue of it, showing 11,164 entries; but this was not published till 1870. It included a set of the Jixamen critique, with corrections, and the notes for a new sixth volume.' Harrisse, who it is believed contemplated at one time a new edition of this book, alleges that through the remissncbs of the purchaser of the library the world has lost sight of these precious memorials of Humboldt's un|)erfected labors. Stevens, in the London At/iemnim, October, 1866, rebuts the charge." Of the collection of books and manuscripts formed by Col. Peter Force we have no sepa- rate record, apart from their making a por- tion of the general catalogue of the Library of Congress, the Government having bought the collection in 1867." The library which Jarcd Sparks formed during the progress of his historical labors was sold about 1872 to Cornell University, and is now at Ithaca. Mr. Sparks left behind him " imperfect but not unfaithful lists of his books," » 7. y. Cooke Catalogue, no. 2,214; Grisvold Catalogue, nos. 730, 731. The editions were fifty copies on large paper, two hundred on small. It may be worth record that Gowan, a publisher in New Vork, was the earliest (iS.'/i) to instigate a t.iste for large paper copies among American collectors, by printing in that style Furman's edition of Denton's Description of New Kjr/t, after the manner of the English purveyors to book-fancying. ^ See Proceedings of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society, Philadelphia, 18S1, p. 28. » Mr. \Vill)crforce Eaines is the new editor. A list of the caialogues prepared by Mr. Sabin is given in his BiHiografhy of Dibliof^raphies, p. cxxiv, etc. ■• The Gerip.,m translation, Kritische Untersuchungen, was made by J. I. Ideler, Berlin, 1852, in 3 vols It has an index, which the French edition lacks. 6 Sabin, viii. 53<). Tlie edition of Paris, without date, called Histoire de la g'eographie du nouvtau continent, is the same, with a new title and an introduction of four pages, La Cosa's map being omitted. • Vernizano, p. 4. ' In his Cosmos Humboldt gives results, which he says are reached in his unpublished sixth volume of tho Examen critique. 8 The Hnmlx)ldt Library was burned in London in June, 1S65. Neaily all of the catalogues were destroyed at the same time ; but a few large paper copies were saved, which, being perfected with a new title (London, 1S7S), have since been offered by ."^tevens for sale. Portions of the introduction to it are also used in an article oy Stevens on Humljoldt, in the Journal of Sciences and Arts January, 1870. Various of Humboldt's manuscripts on American matters are advertised in Ptargardt's Amerika und Orient,no. 135, p. 3 (Berlin, 1881). 9 Cf. Historical Magazine, vol. ix. no. 335 ; Magazine of American History, vol. ii. pp. 193 azi, 565 J Amcr. Antiq Soc. Proc, April, 18C8. Colonel Force died in January-, i!6S. AMERICANA, IN LIBRARIES AND BIULIOGRAI'HIKS. VJI which, after lome lupervisioii by Dr. Cogswell and others, were put in iihape (or the preis l>y Mr. rharlet A. Cutter of the Boston Athcnseum, and were printed, in 1871, as CaliilOi;iit of the l.ihrary of JitreJ Spiirks. In the appendix was n list of the historical manuscripts, originals and cci|ii(.'s, which are now on deposit in Harvard College Library.' In 1S49 Mr. II. K. S.iioolcraft'' printed, at the expense of the United .States Government, a Bihtio/irafktcxil Oitiili'xuf if httots, etc., in the Indian li»ii;iies of titt UnOtd Statts, — a lUt later reprinted with additions in his IiiJuin Tribti (in 1851), vol. iv.« In 1861 Mr, Kphraini (.ieorgc .Scjuier pnl>< lishcd at New York a monogr.iph on authors ixth volume of the jp. 193 a2i, 5651 1 Mr. .Sparks died March 14, iSM. Tributes were paiil to his menmry by distinguished associates in the Massachusetts Historical .Society {Prxtedingi, ix. 157), ,ind Dr. Oeorge K. KIlis reported to them a full and spprcciative memoir (Proieeilinxi, x. Jii). ( f. iiKo Amer. .hiliij. Soi. Proc, March, 1866; Historical Magatint, May, 1866; llrantz Mayer Iwfore ilie MiiryLind Historical .Society, 1867, etc. * Cf. Hiilorical Magavnt, vol. ix. p. 11;. • The princi|>.il interpreter of the Indian laiiKu.ine-. of tlio liniperate parts of North America has been Dr. J. H.miMionil Trumbull, of Hartford, for whose lalx)r in the bibliography of the subject see a chapter In vol i. of the Memorial Hiilory of Boston. There is also a collection edited by him, of books in and upon the Indian UngMaKes, in the liiintey Catalogue, lii. 133-145. He gave in the Proceeilingi of the American Anti(|uarian .Society, and also separately In 1.S74, a list of books in the Indian lan.^juages, printed at Cambridge and Ilostiin, ifi5)-i7Ji (Field, /m/ian Hidiiogra//i); no. 1,571). Cf. also Ludewig's Literaturt of American Aforiginal Languages, mentioned on an earlier page. It was edited and corrected by William W. Turner. (Cf. I'inart-lirasseur Catalogue, no. 5(15 ; Field, Indian Bibliografhy, no. 959). Icazbaketa published in 18(16, at Mexico, a list of the writers on the languages of America; and Komero made a similar enumeration of those of Mexico, in lS6j, in the Boletin de la Sociedad Mcxicana de Geogra/ia, vol. viii. Dr. Daniel G. Drinton ha: made a good introduction to the literary history of the native Americana In hi'; .Aboriginal American Authors, published by him at Philadelphia in 1883. For his own linguistic con- tributions, see Field, Indian Bibliografhy, no. 1S7, etc. One of tlie earliest enumerations of linguistic titles can be picked out of the li^t which lloturini Benaduci, In 1 746, appended to his Idea de una Hunia hitlaria general de la America septentrional. The must extensive enumeration of the literature of all the North American tongues is doubtless to be tht Billiografhy of North American Linguistics, which is preparing by Mr. James C. Pilling of the Bureau o( Ethnology in Washington, and which will be published in due time by that bureau. A preliminary issue (loo copies) for corrections is called Proofiheets of a Bibliography of tht Indian Languages of North America (pp. xl, 1135). The BiHiotheca Americana of Lcclerc (Paris, 1879) affords many titles to which a preliminary *' Tabla des Divisions " affords an index, and most of them arc grouped under the heading " Linguistique," p. 537, etc. The third volume of H. H. llancroft's Native Races, particularly in its notes, is a necessary aid in this study; and a convenient summary of the whole subject will be found in chapter x. of John T. Short's North Americans of Antiquity. J. C. E. Uuschmann has been an ardent laborer in this field ; the bibliogr ,cs give his printed works (Field's Indian Bibliography, p. 208, etc.), and Stargardt';. Catalogue (no. 135, , 6) shows some of his manuscripts. The Comte Hyacinthe de Charencey has for some years, from time to t, .le, printed various minor monographs on these subjects ; and in 1S83 he collected his views in a volume of Melanges dephUologi* ti dt paleographie Amcricain-.s. The Abb£ Urasseur de Bourbourg, in his Bibliothique Mexico-Guatemalienne (Leclerc, nos. 81, 1,084), has given for Central America a very excellent li^t of the works on the linguistics of the natives, which are all cunt.iincd also In the Catalogue of the PInart-Brasseur sale, which took place in Paris in January and February, 1884. Cf. the paper on Brasseur by Dr. Brinton, in Lippincott's Magazine, vol. i. ; and the enumeration of his numerous writings in Sabln's Dictionary, li. 7,420 ; also Leclerc, Field, and Bancroft. Dr. Felix C. Y. Sobron's Los Idiomas de la America Latina, — Estudios Biografico-bibliograficos, pub- lished a few years since at Madrid, gives, according to Dr. Brinton, extended notices of several rare volumes ; but on the whole the book is neither exhaustive nor very accurate. Julius Platzmann's Verzeichniss einer Auswahl AinerHanischer Grammatikcn, etc. (Leipsic, 1876), is a small but excellent list, with proper note>. These 'jluiographles will show the now numerous works upon tlie aboriginal tongues, their construction and their frul's. There are several important series inieresting to th ; student, which are found in the catalogues. Such are the Bibliothique linguistique Aincricaine, publish :d in seven volumes by Maisonneuve in Paris (Le- clerc, no. 2,674); the Coleccion de linguistica y etnogafta Americanas, or Bibliothique de linguistique et d' Ethnographic Americaines, 1S75, etc., edited by A. L. I'inart; the Library of American Linguistics, in thirteen volumes, edited by Dr. John G. Shea (CI. Brinlcy Catalogue, vol. iii.no. 5,631 ; Field, no. 1,396); Brinton's Library of Aboriginal American Literature, published by Dr. D. G. Brinton in Philadelphia ; and Brasseur de Bourbourg's Collection de documents dans les langues indigines, Paris, 1861-1864, in four volumes (cf. Field, p. 175). The earliest work printed exclusively in a native language was the Catecismo de la Doctrina Cristiana in lengua Timuiquana, published at Mexico in 1617 (cf. Sabln,vol. xiv. no. 58,580; Finotti, p. 14). This is the statement often made ; but Mr. Pilling refers me to references in Icazbalceta's Zumdrraga (vol. i. d. 200J vin NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. who had written in (he language* of Central America, enumcrnling one Imndrcii and ten, with a list of the boulo and inatiuscri|it!i un the hiit^ry, the al>nri|!lncs, and the anti(|uitiea of Central America, Ixirrnwed from other murce* In part. At the n.iIc (if Mr. Squicr':! Iil)rary in 1876, the catalogue ■ of which was made by Mr. Saliin, the entire collection of his manuHcripti fell, as mentioned eUewhere,^ into the hands of Mr. llul)crt Ilciwe llaiuroft of .San KrantiHCo. I'i-olial)ly the largest collection of bo()l ncHS habits of the book trade, in which he had established himself in .San Francisco as early as l8j6.'' lie was at this time twenly-four years old, having been born of New England stock in Uhio in lKj3, and having had already four years residence — since 1852 — in San Francisco as the .igent of an eastern bookseller. It was not till !.%(> that he set seriously to work on his history, and organized a staff of assistants.^ They indexed his library, which was now large (|j,ooo volumes) and was kept on an upper floor of his business quarters, and they classified the references in paper bags.' Ills first idea was to make an encyclopedia of the anti(|uities and his- tory of the I'acitic Coast; and it is on the whole unfortunate that he abandoned the scheme, for his methods were admirably adapted to that end, but of cpicstionable application to a sustained plan of historical treatment. It is the encyclo- pedic (|uality of his work, as the user eliminates what he wishes, which makes and will continue to make the books that pass under his name of the first importance to historical students. In 1875 the first five volumes of t!ie "cries, denominated by themselves T/ie Nalive Kacts oj thi Pihijic States, made their appearance. It was to an c,-;!er editior nf about 1547; and in the same author's Bibliografia Mexicana (p. yi), to one of 1553. Molina's Vocabiilat,. Li) a» early a» wcniy-four year* V EiiBlaiul ilcick hail already fmir in San Francincii i,)k»cller. It was ly to work on his 1( of assislantH.' h was now l.irne on an iii>p<-"' ""'"^ they classified the H first idea was to ,nti(iuilic8 and his- it is on the whole d the scheme, for l;i|ited to that end, on to a sustained It is the cncydo- the user eliminate* I and will continue under his name of cal students, inics of t'.ie series, nit KaliTt Races oj ,,pcarancc. It was . -(2), to one of 1553- fstilian in connection, m ; and Quaritch has ,616 ; Carter-ltrown, 'inart-Brassfitr Cnla- [st edition of Molina's tar (1571). Qnaritch le of the chief of the \ln'0 y comparativo d* ler's own works. pxdusivc of time and 3f his library Is »tUl lis A hritf account of to. [his own business li BihUopolisi, vii. 44 > Vick building (built in crland Monthly and pn free to make public ig of his material has lies not hesitate to call crstanding of the case \looks, and publishen ; ultimately retained '■'•fA clear that a new force had been brought to liear upon historical research, — the force of organ- lied labor from many hands ; and this im|.lied competent administrative direction and un- gruilKcd cxpendiluro of money. The work showed the faults of such a method, in a want of uniform discrimination, anil in that promis- cuous avidity of searcli, which marks rather an eagerness to amass than a judgment to select, and give literary perspective. The book, how- ever, W.1S accepted as extremely useful and promising to the future incpiirer. Despite a certain callowness of manner, the A'//«r /{ikcs was extremely creditable, with comparatively little of the p.itronizing and llippant air which its flattering reception has since begotten in its author or his staff. An uiifamiliarity with the amenities of literary life seems unexpectedly to have been more apparent also in his later work. In April, 1S76, Mr. Lewis 11. Morgan printed In the dVort/i American A'crim; under the title of " Montezuma's Dinner," a paper in which he controverted the views expressed in the Native Races regarding the kind of aboriginal civiliz.v tion belonging to the Mexican and Central American table-lands. A writer of Mr. Mor- gan's reputation commanded respect in all but Mr. Hancroft, who has been unwise enough to charge him with seeking " to gain notoriety by attacking" his (Mr. U.'s) views or supposed views. He dares also to characterize so well- known an authority as "a person going about from one reviewer to another begging condem- nation for my Native A'ares." It was this ungra- cious tone which produced a divided reception for his new venture. This, after an interval of seven years, began to make its appearance in vol. vi. of the " Works," or vol. i. of the History of Central America. 3.^\K^x'm'i in the autumn of 18S3. The changed tone of the new series, its rhetoric, ambitious in parts, but mi.xcd with passages which are often forceful and exact, suggestive of an ill-assorted conjoint produo> tioni the interlarding of classic allusions by some retained reviser who served this purpose for one voliune at least j a certain cheap reason- ing and ranting philosophy, which gives place at times to conce|itions of gr.isp; flippancy and egotism, which induce a patronizing air under the guise ol a constrained adulation of others | a want of knowledge on points where the system of indexing employed by his staff had been dclicient, — these traits served to separate the criticism of students from the ordinary laudation of such as were dazed by the magnitude of the scheme. Two reviews challenging his merits on these grounds ' induced Mr. Bancroft to reply in a tract •" called The Early American ChronicUrs. The manner of this rejoiiuler is more offensive than that of the volume.* which it defends; and with bitter laiigu.agc he charges the reviewers with being "men of Morgan," working in con- cert to prejudice !iis success. liut the controversy of which record is here m.ide is unworthy of the principal parly to it. His important work needs no such adventitious support; and the occasion for it ni'ght have been avoided by ordinary prudence. The extent of the library upon which the work ' is b.ascd, and the full citation of the authorities followed in his notes, and the more gener.il enumeration of them in his preliminary lists, in.ike the work pre-eminent for its bibliographical extent, how- ever insufficient, and at times careless, is the bibliograidiical record.* The library formed by the late Henry C. Murphy of Brooklyn to assist him in his pro- jected history of maritime discovery in America, of which only the chapter on Verrazano* has been printed, was the creation of diligent search for many years, part of which was spent in Holland as minister of the United .States. The earliest record of it is a Cataloi^iie of an Ameri' can library chronologically arranged, which was 1 They appeared in The Nation and in the Nnv York Independent early in 18S1. The first aimed to show that there were siibstanti.il grounds for dissent from Mr. Tlancroft's views regarding tlie Aztec civilization. The second ignored that point in cimfroversy, and merely proposed, as was stated, to test the "bibliographic value'' which Mr. Bancroft liad claimed for his book, and to point out the failures of the index pl.in and the vicarious system as employed by him. 1 Seemingly intended to make part ol one of the later volumes of his series, to be called Essays and Miscellanies. ' With a general title (as following his Native Races) of The History of the Pacific States, we are to have in twenty-eight volumes the history of Central America, Mexico, North Mexico. New Mexico, Arizona, Cali- fornia, Nevada, Utah, Northwest Coast, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, ^^ontana, British Columbia, and Alaska, — to be followed by six volumes of allied subjects, not easily interwoven in the general narrative, making thirty-nine volumes for the entire work. The volumes are now appearing at the rate of three or four a year. ♦ The list which is prefixed to the first volume of the History of California, forming vol. xiii. of his Pacific States scries, is particularly indicative of the rich stores of his library, and greatly eclipses the previous lists of Mr. A. S. Taylor, which appeared in the Sacramento Daily Union, June 25, 1S63. and March 13, 1866. Cf. Ilarrisse, Bihl. Amer. Vet., p. xxxix. A copy of Taylor's pioneer work, with his own corrections, is in Harvard College Library, Mr. Bancroft speaks very ungraciously of it. » See Vol. IV., chap. i. p. 19. ~jf. NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. * I JAMES CARSON RKEVOORT. privately printed in a few copies, about 1850, and showed five hundred and eighty-nino entries between the years 14S0 and 1800.1 There has been no catalogue printed of the iibrary of Mr. James Carson Brevoort, so well known as a historical student and bibliograiihcr, to whom Mr. Sabin dedicated the first volume of his Dictionary. Some of the choicer portions of his collection are understood to have become a pait of the Astor Library, of which Mr. lire- voort was for a few years the superintendent, as well as a trustee.^ The useful and choice collection of Mr. Cliarlcs Deane, of Cambridge, Mass., to which, as the reader will discover, the Editor has often had recourse, has never been catalogued. Mr. Deane has made excellent use of it, as his tracts find papers abundantly show.' A di.stinct class of helpers in the field of Aniericnn bibliography has been those gatherers of libraries who are included under the some- what indefinite term of collectors, — owners of books, but who make no considerable dependence 1 J;ickson, BiH. Ghig., no. (i-tf)-, Mcitzies Cir/fi/tf: ■ .r. nos. 1,459, i,4')0! Wynne's Privale Libraries tf New York, p. 335. Mr. Murpliy died Dec. !, iSS;, agi-d seventy-two; and his collection, then very much enlarged, was sold in March, 1SS4. Its Ci/iilcxite, cdite.' by Mr. John Russell B,utlctt, shows one of the richest lihraries of Americana which h.is been given to pulilic sale in America. It is accompanied by a biograpiv \fai sketch of its collector. Cf. Vol. IV. p. 22. 2 Cf. Wynne's Private Libraries '/ New York, p. \o('. Mr. Brevoort died December 7, 1887. * Cf. .Sabin, v. 2S3 ; Farnham's Private Libraries of Boston. IICA. AMERICANA IN LIBRARIES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES. M CHARLES DEANE. collection of Mr. ge, Mass., to which, the Editor has often en catalogued. Mr. se of it, as his tracts lers in the field of been those gatherers led under the some- lectors, — owners of idcrable dependence le's Private Libraries ection. then very much Ictt, shows one of the mpanied by a biograph' upon them for studies which lead to publica- tion From such, however, in some instances, bibliography has notably gained, — as in the careful liuowledge which Mr. James Leno.x some- times dispensed to scholars either in privately printed issues or in the pages of periodicals. Harrisse in i866 pointed to five Americana libraries in the United Slates as surpassing all of their kind in Europe, — the Carter- lirown. Barlow, Force, Murphy, and Leno.x collections. Of the Harlow, Force (now in the I,ibr.iry of Congress), .and Murphy collections mention has already been made. The Leno.\ Library is no longer private, having been given to a board of trustees by Mr. Lenox previous to his death,' and handsomely housed, by whom it is held for a restricted pub- lic use, when fully catalogued and arranged. Its character, as containing only rare or ur.usual books, will necessarily withdraw it from the use of all but scholars engaged in recondite studies. It is very rich in other directions th.an American history; but in this department the partial access which Harrisse had to it whil? in Mr. Leno.x's house led him to infer that it would hold ihe first rank. The wealth of its alcoves, with their twenty-eight thousand vol- umes, is becoming known gradually in a series of bibliographical monographs, printed as con- tributions to its catalogue, of which six have ■ 7. 1887. > February, iSSo, aged eighty years. His father was Robert I.enox, a Scotchman, who began business in New York in 17S3, and retired in 1S12 with a large fortune, including a farm of thirty acres, worth then about f6|Ooo, and to' nas been undertaken under the direction of Dr. J. Hammond Trumbull," who has prepared the cat- alogue, and who claims — not without warrant — that it embraces '' a greater number of volumes remarkable for their rarity, value, and interest to special collectors and to book-lovers in gen- eral, than \vere ever before brought together in an American sale-room." '" The library of William Menzies, of New York, was sold Ml 1S75, from a catalogue made by Joseph Sabin " The library of Edward A. Crowninshield, of Roston, was catalogued in Bos- ton in 1S59, but withdrawn from public sale, and sold to Henry Stevens, who took a portion of it to London. It w.is not large, — the cata- logue shows less than 1,200 titles, — and was not exclusively American ; but it was rich in 1 The Lenox Library is now under the direction of the distinguished American historical student, Dr. George H. Moore, so long in charge of the New Yoik Historical Society's library. Cf. an account of Dr. Moore by Howard Crosby in the Historical Magazine, vol. xvii. (January, 1S70). The officer in immediate charge of the library is Dr. S. Austin Allibone, well known for his Dictionary ol Authors. s Mr. Bartlett -.vas early m life a dealer in books in New York; and the Americana catalogues of Bartlett and Welford, forty years ago, were among the best of dealers' lists. Jackson's Bilil. Gcog., no. 641. • The field of Americana before if 00 has been so nearly exhausted in its composition, that recent purchases have been made in other departments, particularly of costly books on the fine arts. * Cf. Vol. in. p. 3S0. 6 Because Greenland in the map of the Ptolemy of this year is laid down. The slightest reference to America in books of the sixteenth century have entitled them to admission. 8 The book purports to have been printed in one hundred copies ; but not more than half that number, it is said, have been distributed. Some copies have a title reading, Bibliographkal notices of rare and curious hooks relating to America, frinied in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in the library of the late John Carter Brown, by John Russell Bartlett, ' ?-n Arthur Helps, in referring to the assistance he had got from books sent to him from America, and from this library in particular, says : " As far as I have been able to judge, the American collectors of books are exceedingly liberal and courteous in the use of tnem, and seem really to understand what the object should be ''n forming a •jreat library." Sfanish Conquest, American edition, p. 122. 8 Cf. Amrr. Aiilif. Soc. Proc, October, 1S75. 9 Dr. Trumbull himself h.is been a keen collector of books on American history, particularly in illustratioj) of his special study of aborigmal linguistics ; whi'c his influence has not been unfelt in the forming of the Watkinson Library, and of that of the Connecticut Historical Society, both at Hartford. 1" The first sale — there are to be four — took pLice in March, 1S7S, and illustrated a new device in testa- mentary bequests. Mr. Brinley devised to certain libra; Ics the sum of several thousand dollars each, to be used to their credit for purchases made at the public sale of his books. The result was a competition tha* carried the aggregate of the sales, it is computed, as much beyond the sum which might oth'-Lwise have been obtained, as was the amount devised, — thus impairing in no degree the estate for the heirs, and securing credit for public beg'iests. The scheme has been followed in the sale of the library (the third part of which w.is Americana, largely from the Menzies library) of the late J. J. Cooke, of Providence, with an equivalent appreciation of the prices of the books. It is a question if the interests of the libraries benefited are advanced by snch artificial stimulation of prices, which a factitious competiticm helps to make permanent. It American Biblin/iolisf, vn\. 128; Wynne's Private Libraries 0/ JVeu/ York, p. ^iS. The collection wa3 not exclusively American. his s f CA. AMERICANA, IN LIBRARIES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES. xm rly extended edi- i printed in 1882, irter- Brown Cata- s the most exten- :ana previous to 3 1700, which now :rican catalogues, cd to that of the 1 by Mr. George :c his death '' nas irection of Dr. J. prepared the cat- vithout warrant — imber of volumes alue, and interest ook-lovers in gen- rought together in izies, of New York, atalogue made by y of Edward A. catalogued in Hos- from public sale, vho took a portion large, — the cata- titles, — and was but it was rich in il student, Dr. George ;iiint of Dr. Moore by imediate charge of the sricana catalogues of ckson's Bibl. Glog., , that recent purchases sliglitest reference to half that number, it 0/ rare and curious f the late John Carter im from America, and in collectors of books hat the object should ticularly in illustration in the forming of the a new device in testa- dollars each, to be used ompetition tha' carried jsc have been obtained, nd securing credit for whicli was Americana, ;ut appreciation of tlie inced by such artificial The collection was Bome of the rarest of such books, particularly in regard to the English Colonies.^ The sale of John Allan's collection in New York, in 1S64, was a noteworthy one. Americana, however, were but a portion of the collection.'^ An English-American flavor of far less fineness, but represented in a catalogue showing a very large collection of books and pamphlets,^ was sold in New York in May, 1870, as the property of Mr. E. P. Boon. Mr. Thomas W. Field issued in 1873 An Essay tcnvards an Indian Bihtiography, being a Catalogue 0/ books relating to the American In- diam, in his own library, with a few others which he did not possess, distinguished by an asterisk. Mr. Field added many bibliographical and historical notes, and gave synopses, so that the catalogue is generally useful to the student of Americana, as he did not confine his survey to works dealing exclusively with the aborigines. The library upon which this bibliography was based was sold at public auction in New York, in two parts, in May, 1875 (3,324 titles), accord- ing to a catalogue which is a distinct publication from the Essay.^ The collection of Mr. Almon VV. Griswold was dispersed by printed catalogues in 1876 and 1880, the former containing the American por- tion, rich in many of the rarer books. Of the various private collections elsewhere than in the United States, more or less rich in Americana, mention may be made of the Biblio- theca Mijicana ^ of Augustin Fischer, London, 1869; of the Spanish-American libraries of Gre- gorio Beeche, whose catalogue was printed at Valparaiso in 1S79; and that of Benjamin Vi- cuiia Mackenna, printed at the same place in i86i.« In Leipsic, the catalogue of Serge Sobc^ lewski (1873)7 was particularly helpful in the bibliography of Ptolemy, and in the voyages of De Bry and others. Some of the rarest of Americana were sold in the Sunderland sale* in London in 1881-1SS3; and remarkably rich collections were those of I'inart and Bourbourg,' sold in Paris in 1S83, and that of Dr. J. Court,"* the first \imx. of which was sold in Paris in May, 1S84. The second part had little of interest. Still another distinctive kind of bibliogra- phies is found in the catalogues of the better class of dealers ; and among the best of such is to be placed the various lists printed by Henry Ste- vens, a native of Vermont, who has spent most of his manhood in London. In the dedication to John Carter Brown of \i\^ Schedule 0/ AUtggets (1870), he gives some account of his early bibli- ographical quests." Two years after graduating at Yale, he says, he had passed "at Cambridge, reading passively with legal Story, and actively with historical Sparks, all the while sifting and digesting the treasures of the Harvard Library. For five years previously he had scouted through several States during his vacations, prospecting in out-of-the-way places for historical nuggets, mousing through town libraries and country gar- rets in search of anything old that was histor- ically new for Peter Force and his American Archives. . . . From Vermont to Delaware many an antiquated churn, sequestered hen-coop, and dilai'i'lated flour-barrel had yielded to him rich harvest 1 of old papers, musty books, and golden pamphlets. Finally, in 1845, an irrefragable desire impelled him to visit the Old World, its libraries and book-stalls. Mr. Brown's enlight- ened liberality in those primitive years of his bibliographical pupilage contributed largely to- wards the boiling of his kettle. ... In acquiring con amore these American Historiadores Prim- itivos, he . . . travelled far and near. In this labor of love, this journey of life, his tracks often become your tracks, his labors your works, his « Memoir of Mr. Crowninshield, by Charles Deane, in Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc., xvii. 356. Mr. Stevens is said to have given about $9,500 for the library. It was sold in various parts, the more extensive portion in July, 1S60. Allibone, vol. ii. p. 2,248. 3 This collection — which Mr. Allan is said to have held at 515,000 — brought ?39,ooo at auction after his death. 8 .\nother catalogue rich in pamphlets relating to America is that of Albert G. Greene, New York, 1869. * The Catalogue is more correctly printed than the Essay. Sabin, Bibliog. of Bibliog., p. cxxv. » Bibliothcca Mejicana, a collection of books relating to Mexico, and North and South America ; sold by Puttick & Simpson in London, June, 1S69. (About 3,000 titles.) 8 Jackson, Bibl. Gcog., nos. S44, S45, ' Catalogue de la collection frccieuse de livres anciens et modernes formant la Bibliothique de feu M. Serge Sobolewski (de Afoscou) Leipsic, 1S73. 8 Bibliothcca Sunderlandiana. Sale Catalogue of the Sunderland or Blenheim Library. Five Parts. London, 1881-1S83. (13,858 nos.) 'i Catalogue de livres rares et frecicux, manuserits et iin/rimes, principalement sur PAmirifue et sur let langues du monde entier, composant la bibliothique de Alf house L. Pinart, et comprenant en totalite la biblio' thigue Mcxico-Guatemalienne de M. Pabbe Brasseur de Bourbourg. Paris, 1S83. vili. 248 pp. 8°. l» Catalogue de laprccieuse bibliothique de feu M. le Docteur J. Court, comprenant unc collection unique ie voyageurs et d'historiens relatifs it t'Amcrique. Prcmiire partie. Paris, 1SS4. (458 nos.) It There is an account of his family antecedents, well spiced as his wont is, in the introduction to hij Bibliothcca Historica, 1870. XIV NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. libri your liberi," he adds, in addressing Mr. Brown. In 1848 Mr. Stevens proposed tlie publica- tion, tlirougli the .Smithsonian Institution, of a general Dit'lU\sp-iipliia Amen'caiia, illustrating the sources of early .\nicrican history ; ' but the pro- ject failed, nnil one or more attempts later made . to begin the work also stopped short of a be- ginning. While working .as a literary agent of the Smithsonian Institution and other libraries, in these years, and beginning that systematic selection of Ainerican books, for the liritish Museum and Hodleian, which has made these libraries so nearly, if not (juite, the eipial of any collection of Americana in the United States, he also made the transcriptions and indexes of the documents in the State Paper Office which re- spectively concern the States of New Jersey, Rhode Island, Maryland, and Virginia. These labors are now preserved in the archives of those States/'' Perhaps the earliest of his sale cat- alogues was that of a pseudo "Count Mondi- dier," embracing .Americana, which were sold in London in December, 1851.'* His Ein^lish Li- brary m 1S53 was without any distinctive Amer- ican flavor; but in 1S54 he began, but suspended after two nuinbers, the Aiiurhiin Biblioi^ra/'her (100 copies).-* In 1856 he prepared a C. iv. ; North American Reiiew, July, 1850, p. 205, by George Livermore. 2 .\llibone, ii. 2247-2248. * Sabin, vol. ;.ii. no. 40,961. ' Stevens, Historical Collections, i. 874. It was ostensibly made in preparation for his projected Btbli- Ographia Americana, 6 Historical Collections, vol. i. no. 90; Allibone, vol. ii. p. 2248. ' Allibone, ii. 2248 ; Historical Collections, vol. i. no. S75 ; Bibliotheca Historica (1870}, no. 1,974. ' Allibone, ii. 224S ; Historical Collections, vol. i. no. S78. ' It was first published, less perfectly, in i\i .tmerican Journal of Science, yo\,\ty\\\,'p. 2()C); and of the separate issue seventy-five copies only were printed. Bibliotheca Historica (1S70), no. 1,976. It was also issued as a part of a volume on the proposed Tehuantepec Railway, prepared by his brother, Simon Stevens, and pub lished by the Appletons of New York the same year. Ibid. no. 1,977; Historical Collections, vol, I nos. S94 895 ; Allibone, vol. ii. p. 234S, nos. 17, 18, 19. • Historical Collections, vol. i. no. 897, 10 It is a droll fancy of his to call his book-shop the " Nuggetory ;" to append to his name " G. M. 15.," fot Green Mountain Boy ; and even to jar.ide in a ^inrlar itul.ir fashion his rejection at a London Club, — " Bk bid — Ath.-Cl." AMERICANA, IN LIBRARIES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES. XV photographic copies of titles inserted. Some copies arc found without the essay.' The next year (1S73) he issued a privately printed list of two thousand titles of American "Continuations," as they arc called by librari- ans, or serial publications in progress as taken at the British Museum, quaintly terming the list American books with tails to 'om.'- Finally, in iSSi, he printed Part I. of Stf- vens's Historical Collections, a sale catalogue showing 1,625 titles of books, chiefly Anicticana, and including his Franklin Collection of man- uscripts, which he later privately sold to the United Suites Government, an agent of the Bos- ton Public Library yielding to the nation.' One of the earliest to est.iblish an antiquarian bookshop in the United States was the late Samuel G. Drake, who opened one in Boston in 1S30.* His special field was that of ihe North American Indians ; and the history and antiqui- ties of the aborigines, together with the history of the English Colonies, give a character to his numerous catalogues.'' Mr. Drake died in 1S75, from a cold taken at a sale of the library of Daniel Webster ; and his final collections of books were scattered in two sales in the follow- ing year." William Cowans, of New York, waj anothei of the early dealers in Americana.' The cat- alogues of Bartlett and Welford have already been mentioned. In 1S54, while Garrigue and Chris- tern were acting as agents of Mr. Lenox, they printed Livres Ciirieiix, a list of desiderata sought for by Mr. Lenox, [lertaining to such rari- ties as the letters of Columbus, Cartier, parts of De Bry and Ilulsius, and the Jesuit Relations. This list was circulated widely through Europe, but not twenty out of the 216 titles were ever offered.' About 1856, Charles li. Norton, of New York, began to issue American catalogues ; and in 1S57 he established Norton's Literary Letter, intended to foster interest in the collection of Americana." A little later, Joel Munsell, of Albany, began to issue catalogues ; '" and J. W. Randolph, of Richmond, Virginia, more partic- ularly illustrated the history of the southern parts of the United States." The most impor- tant Americana lists at i>resent issued by Amer- ican dealers are those of Robert Clarke & Co., of Cincinnati, which are admirable specimens of such lists. ''^ In England, the catalogues of Henry Stevens and E. G. Allen have been already mentioned. can Review, July, s projected Bibli- 1 Historical Collections, vol. i. no. 898. 4 Historical Collections, vol. i. no. S99. s The public is largely inflebted to the efforts of Mr. Theodore F. Dwight, the librarian and keeper of the Archives of the Department of St?te at Washington, for the ultimate success of the endeavor to secure these manuscripts to the nation. Mr. Stevens had lately (iSSj) formed a copartnership with his son, Mr. Henry X. .s.tcvens, and had lx*gun a new series of Catalogues, of which No. 1 gives his own publications, and Xo. 2 is a bil)lio','raphy of New Ilampsliiie History. He died in London, February 28, iSSfi. * A'. E, Hist, and Gencal. Reg., 1S63, p. 203. Dr. Homes, of Albany, is confident Joseph Bumsteadwas earlier in Boston than Mr. Drake. The Boston Directory represents him as a printer in iSoo, and as a book- seller after iSiG. 6 His earliest catalogue appeared in 1S42, as of his prival library. Sabin's Bibl. of Bibl., p. xlix. A collection announced for sale in Boston in 1845 was withdrawn after the catalogue was printed, having been sold to the Connecticut Historical Society for S4,ooo. At one time he amassed a large collection of American school-books to illustrate our educational history. They were bought (about four hundred in all) by the British Museum. 6 Cf. Jackson's Bihl. Geog., no. 684, and pp. 185, 199. Also see Vol. III. 361. 1 His catalogues are spiced with annotations signed " Western Meiiorabilia." Sabin (Dictionary, vii. 369) quotes the saying of a rival regarding Gowans's catalogues, that their notes "were distinguished by much origi- nality, some personality, and not a little bad grammar." His shop and its master are drawn in F. B. Perkins's Scrofe, or the Lost Library. A Novel. Mr. Gjwans died in November, 1S70, at sixty-seven, leaving a stock, it is said, of 250,000 bound volumes, besides a pamphlet collection of enormous extent. Mr. W. C. Prime told the stotyof his life, genially, in Harper's Magazine (1872), in an article on "Old Books in New York." Speak- ing of his stock, Mr. Prime says : " There were many more valuable collections in the hands of booksellers, but none so large, and probably none so wholly without arrangement." Mr. Gowans w.as a Scotchman by birth, and came to America in 1S21. After a varied experience on a Mississippi flat-boat, he came to New York, and in 1S27 began life afresh as a bookseller's clerk. Cf. American Bibliofolist, Jahuary, 1S71, p. 5. 8 Harrisse, Bibl. Amer. Vet., p. xxx. • Jackson, Bibl. Gcog., nos. 670-676. "> Jackson, no. 687. See Vol. IV. p. 435. Munsell issued privately, in 1872, a catalogue of the works printed by him. SMn, Bibl. of Bibl., p. cv. Cf. a Biographical Sketch of Joel Munsell, by George R. Howell, with a Genealogy of the Munsell Family, by Frank Munsell. Boston, 1880. This was printed (16 pp.) for the New England Historic Genealogical Society. 11 Jackson, no. 669. U They have been issued in 1869, 1871, 1873, 1876, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1883. Jackson, nos. 705-711. Lesset Btts have been issued in Cincinnati by William Dodge. The chief dealer in Americana in Boston, who issmes catalogues, is, at the present time, Mr. George E. Littlefield. i ,! XVI NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. The leading English dealer at present in the choicer books of Americana, as of all other sub- jects — and it is not too much to say, the leading one of the world — is Mr. Bernard (^uaritch, a Prussian by bi.in, who was born in iSiq, and after some service in the book-trade in his native country came to London in 1842, and entered the service of Henry G. Bohn, under whose instruction, and as a fellow-em- ploye of Lowndes the bibliographer, he laid the foundations of a remarkable bibliographical ac- quaintance. A shi .t service in Paris brought him the friendship of Brunei. Again ( 1S45) he returned to Mr. Bohn's shop; but in April, 1847, he began business in London for him- self. He issued his catalogues at once on a small scale ; but they took their well-known distinctive form in 1S48, which they have re- tained, except during the interval December, 1854,-May, 1864, when, to secure favorable con- sideration in the post-office rates, the serial was called The Museum. It has been his habit, at intervals, to collect his occasional catalogues into volumes, and provide them with an index. The first of these (7,000 entries) was issued in i860. Others have been issued in 1864, 1S68, 1870, 1874, 1877 (this with the preceding con- stituting one work, showing nearly 45,000 entries or 200,000 volumes), and 1880 (describing 28,- 009 books).' In the preface to this last cata- logue he says: "The prices of useful and learned books are in all cases moderate ; the prices of palaeographical and bibliographical curiosities are no doubt in most cases high, that indeed being a natural result of the great rivalry between English, French, and American collectors. ... A ♦'ne copy of any edi.ion of a book is, and oug..t to be, more than twice as costly as any other." ^ While the Quaritch catalogues have been general, they have in- cluded a large share of the rarest Americana, whose titles have been illustrated with bibli* graphical notes characterized by intimate ac- quaintance with the secrets of the more curious lore. The catalogues of John Russell Smith (1849, 1853, 1S65, 1867), and of his successor Alfred Russell Smith (1S71, 1874), are useful aids in this department.'' The Bibliotheca Hispano- Ameruaihi of Triibner, printed in 1870, offered .ibout thirteen hundred items.* Occasional referencj can be usefully made to the lists of George Bumstead, Ellis and White, John Cam- den Hotten, all of London, and to those of William George of Bristol. The latest exten- sive Americana catalogue i;; A cataloj^e of rare and curious books, all of which relate more or less to America^ on sale by F. S. Ellis, London, 1884. It shows three hundred and forty-two titles, in- cluding many of the rarer books, which are held at prices startling even to one accustomed to the rapid rise in the cost of books of this description. Many of them were sold by auction in 1885. In France, since Ternaux, the most impor- tant contribution has come from the house of Maisonneuve et Cie., by whom the Bibliotheca Americana of Charles Leclerc has been succes- sively issued to represent ilieir extraordinary stock. The first edition was printed in 1867 (1,647 entries), the second in 1878^ (2,638 en- tries, with an admirable index), besides a first supplement in 1881 (nos. 2,639-3,029). Mr. Quaritch characterizes it as edited "with ad- mirable skill and knowledge." Less important but useful lists, issued in France, have been those of Hector Bossange, Edwin Tross,' and the current Americana series of Dufosse, which was begun in 1876." In Holland, most admirable work has been done by Frederik Muller, of Amsterdam, and by Mr. Asher, Mr. Tiele, and Mr. Otto Harrasso- witz under his patronage, of which ample ac- ' Another is now in progress. 2 With these canons Mr. Quaritch's prices can be understood. The extent and character of his stock can be inferred from the fact that his purchases at the Perkins sale (1S73) amounted to £11,000; at the Tite sale (1874), £9,500; at the Didot 53165(1878-1879), £11,600 ; and at the Sunderland sales (1883), £32,650, out of a total of £56,851. At the recent sales of the Beckford and Hamilton collections, which produced £86,444, over one half, or £44,105, went to Mr. Quaritch. These figures enable one to understand how, in a sense, Mr. Quar- itch commands the world's market of choice books. A sketch, B. Q., a biographical and bibliographical Frag- ment (iSSo, 25 copies), in the privately printed series of monographs issued to a club in London, of which Mr. Quaritch is president, called "The Sette of Odd Volumes," has supplied the above data. The sketch is by C. W. H. Wyman, and is also reprinted in his Bibliography of Printing, and in the Antiquarian Magazine and Bibliographer, November, 1SS2. One of the club's "opuscula " (no. iii.) ha? an excellent likeness of Mr. Quar- itch prefixed. Cf. also the memoir and portrait in Bigmore and Wyman's Bibliography of Printing, ii. 230. 8 Jackson, nos. 643-649 : Triibner, Bibliographical Guide, p. xix. * Mr. Triibner died in London March 30, 1SS4. Cf. memorial in The Library Chronicle, April, 1S84, p, 43, by W. E. A. Axon ; also a " Nekrolog" by Karl J. Triibner in the Centralblatt fiir Bibliotheksviesen, June, 1884, p. 240. * Cf. notice by Mr. Brevoort in Magazine of American History, iv. 230. * There is a paper on "Edwin Tross et ses publications relatives \ I'Am^rique" in Miscellanies bibli* fraphiques, Paris, 1878, p. 53, giving a list of his imprints which concern America. ' Jackson, nos. 689, 703, 717. AMERICANA, IN LIBRARIES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES. xvii with biblio intimate ac- iiore curious Smith {1849, ;ssor Alfred seful aids in ni Hispano- 1870, offered Occasional I the lists of ;, John Cam- to those of latest extcn- \lo)^e of rare e more or less ,ondon, 1884. ;wo titles, in- hich are held itomed to the s description. 1 in 1S85. most impor- the house of le Bihliotheca been succes- extraordinary nted in 1867 8* (2,638 en- lesides a first -3,029). Mr. ed "with ad- ts, issued in :or Bossange, ericana series 76.' ork has been rdam, and by tto Harrasso- ch ample ac- his stock can the Tite sale 2,6;o, out of a jC86,444, over nse, Mr. Quar- ■aphical Frag- of which Mr. ketch is by C. Magazine and s of Mr. Quar- ng, ii. 230. ', April, 1S84, 'liothekswesen, llanies bibli» counts are given in another place.' MuUer's catalogues were begun in 1850, but did iiot reach distinctive merit till 1872.'^ Martin Nijhoff, at the Hague, has al.so issued some American cata- logues. In 1S58 Muller sold one of his collections of Americana to Brockhaus, of Leipsic, and the Hibtiotliique Americaine issued by that publisher in 1861, as representing this collection, was com- piled by one of the editors of the Serapeum, Paul Tromel, whom Harrisse characterizes as an "expert bibliographer and trustworthy scholar." The list shows 435 entries by a chro- nological arrangement (1507-1700).' Brockhaus again, in 1S66, issued another American list, showing books since 150S, arranged topically (nos. 7,261-8,611). Mr. Otto Ilarrassowitz, of Leipsic, a pupil of Muller, of Amsterdam, has ais.) entered the field as a jiurveyor of choice Americana. T. O. Weigcl, of Leipsic, issued a catalogue, largely American, in 1877. So well known are the general bibliographies of Watt, Lowndes, Brunet, Gracsse, and others, that it is not necessary to point out their distinc- tive merits. ♦ .Students in this field are familiar with the catalogues of the chief American libra- ries. The library of Harvard College has not issued a catalogue since 1834, though it now prints bulletins of its current accessions. An admirable catalogue of the Boston Athenaeum brings the record of that collection down to 187 1. The numerous catalogues of the Boston Public Li- brary are of much use, especially the distinct volume given to the Prince Collection. The Massachusetts Historic.il Society's library has a catalogue printed in 1859-60. There has been no catalogue of the American Antiquarian Society since 1S37, and the New England Historic Gene- alogical Society has ncv^r printed any; nor has the Congregational Library. The State Library at Boston issued a catalogue in i88o. These li- braries, with the Carter-Brown Libr.-.ry at Provi- dence, which is courteously opened to students properly introduced, probably make Boston within easy distance of a larger proportion of the books illustrating ,\mericau history, than can be reached with equal convenience from any other literary centre. A book on the private li- braries of Boston W.1S compiled by Luther Farii- ham in 1S55; but many of the private collections then existing have since been scattered.'" Gen- eral Horatio Rogers his n\ade a similar record of those in Providence. After the Carter-Brown Collection, the most valuable of these jirivate libraries in New England is probably that of Mr. Charles Deane in Cambridge, of which mention has already been made. The collection of the Rev. Henry 'SX. Dexter, D D., of New Bedford, is probably unexampled in this country for the history of the Congregational mcjvcmeiit, which so largely affected the early history of the Eng- lish Colonies." Two other centres in the United States are of the first importance in this respect. In Wash- ington, with the Library of Congress (of which a general consolidated catalogue is now print- ing), embracing as it does the coll' tion formed by Col Peter Force, and supp lenting the archives of the Government, an investigator of American history is situated extremely favora- bly.' In New York the Astor and Lenox libra- ries, with those of the New York Historical Society and American Geographical Society, give the student great oppoitiinities. The catalogue of the Astor Library was printed in 1S57-66, I Vol. IV. chap. viii. editorial note. There is an account of Muller and his bibliographical work in the Centralblr.tt filr Bibliotheksviesen, November, 1S84. i Jack: on, nos. 650-654; TrUbner, Bibliographical Guide, p. xix; Sabin, Bibliog. of Bibliog., p. cv ; Petzlioldt, b'bliotheca Bibliographica. * This collec ion was subsequently, with the exception of three lots, bought of Mr. Brockhaus by Henry Stevens. Bibliotkeca Geograpliica, no. 34^. * More or less help will be deriverl from the American po.tion of the Lisle provisoire de bibliographies g'ngraphigiies spccuh-s, par James Jaiktoii, published in 18S1 by the Soci^ti de G^ographie de Paris, — a boo'; of which use has been made in the preceding pages. ' See the chapter on the libraries of Boston in the Memorial History of Boston, vol. iv. « The extent of Dr. De.tter's library is evident from the signs of possession which are so numerously scat- tered through the 7,250 titles tliat conNtitute the exhaustive and very careful bibliography of Congregationalism and the allied phases of religious history, which forms an appendix to his Congregationalism as seen in its Literature, New York, iSS 1. He explains in the Introduction to his volume the wide scope which he intended to give to this list; and to show how poorly off our largest public liuraries in America are in the earliest books illustrating this movement, he says that of the 1,000 earliest titles which he gives, and which bear date between ;5.}6and 1644, he found only 208 in American libraries. His arrangement of titles is chronological, but he has a full name-index. The students of the early English colonies cannot f.iil to find for certain phases of their history much help from Joseph Smith's Descriptive Catalogue of Friends' Books. London, 186; ; his BibHotheca Anti-Quakeriana. 1S73; and his BibHotheca Quakeristica, a bibliography of miscellaneous literature relating to the Friends, of which Part I. was issued in London in 1SS3. ' The private library of George Bancroft is in Washington. It is described as it existed some years ago v^ yi }Wt\t'i Private Libraries of New York. VOL. \. — /> % i I i xviii NAKKATIVi: AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMLRICA. and that of the Historical Society in 1859 No general catalogue of tlic Lenox Library has yet been l>rinted. An account of the private libra- ries of New V'ork was publislicd by Dr. Wynne in i860. The libraries of the chief importance at the present time, iTi respect to Amcricin his- tory, are those 01 Mr. S. L. M. Harlow in New York, and of Mr. James Carson lirevoort in Urooklyn. Mr. Charles II. Kalbtleisch of New York has a small collection, but it ei.ibraces some of the rarest books. The New York State Library at Albany is the chief of the libraries of its class, and its principal charactc-istic pertains to American history. The other chief American cities are of much less importance as centres for historical research. The Philadelphia Lib-ary and the collection of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania are hardly of distinctive value, except in regard to the his tory of that State. In Haltimore the library of the I'eabody Institute, of which the t'lrst volume of an excellent catalogue has been printed, and that of the Maryland Historical Society are scarcely suflicient for exhaustive rese.irch. The private library of Mr. H II. Bancroft consti- tutes the only important resource of ihe Pacific States;' and the most important collection in Canada is that represented by the catalogue of the Library of Parliament, which was printed in '858. This enumeration is intended only to in- dicate the chief pl.'ces for ease of general investigation in American history. Other lo- calities are rich in local helps, and accounts of such will be found elsewhere in the present History.'^ 1 A book on the private libraries of San Francisco by Apponyi was issued in 1878. * An account of the libraries of the various historical societies in the United States is given in the Publk Libraries of the United States, issued by the Bureau of Education at Washington in 1876. d to the his lie library o( first volume printed, and Society are circh. The criift coiisli- 'f the Pacific collection in catalogue of >s printed in only to in- of general Other lo- nd accounts 1 the present INTRODUCTION. By thi Editor. in the Publk Paht II. THE EARLY DESCRIPTIONS OF AMERICA AND COLLECTIVE ACCOUNTS OF THE EARLY VOYAGES THERETO. OF the earliest collection uf voy.iges of which we have any mention we possess only a defective copy, which is in the Biblio- teca Marciana, and is called Ubntto de tu/la la iiavipizione del Ri di Sfai^mi ddle hole e ter- rati HHcnhimcnle scopcrti stampato per VcrcclUse. It was published at Venice in 1504,' and is said to contain the first three voyages of Columbus. This account, together with the narrative of Cabral's voyage printed at Rome and Milan, and an original — at present unknown — of Vespucius' third voy.agc, were embodied, with other matter, in the Paesi mn\imeHtc r,-trm\iti et ii(n\i moiido da Alherico I'espKtio Florciitiiio intitulato, published at Vicentia in 1507,- and again possibly at Vicentia in 150S, — though the evidence is wanting to support the state- ment, — but certainly at Milan in that year 1 The title is quoted differently by different autliorlties. Ilarrisse, Bihl. Amcr. Vet , nn. 32, and Additions, no. 16; his Chriitophe Colomh, i. 89; Humboldt, Examen critique, Iv. d; ; Sabin, Dictionary of Books relatint; to America, x. 327 ; D'Avezac, VVallzemiillcr, p. 79 ; \'arnliagen, Noiivelles Rccherches, p. 17; Irvini;'s Columbus, app. i.x. '■i See Vol. IV. p. 12. The editorship is in dispute, — whether Zorzi or Montalboddo. The better opinion seems to Iw that Humboldt erred in assigning it to Zorzi rather th.in to Montallx>ddo. Cf. Ilumlxiklt, Examen critique; lirunet, v. 115;, 11 58: .Sabin, Dictionary, vol. xii. no. 50,050; D'Avez.ic, Waltzemiillcr, p. 80; Graesse, Tresor : Harrlssc, Bibl, Amcr. Vet., nos. 48, 109, .app. p. 4(19, and Additions, no. 26 ; Bulletin de la Socii-te de Gconraphie, October, 1857, p. 312; Santarem's I'cspucius, Eng. tr., p. 73; Irving's Columbus, ajip. XXX. ; Navarrete, Opiisc'dos, i. loi ; Ilarrisse, Christoplie Coloml, i. 89. There are copies of this 1507 edition In the Lenox and Carter-Crown libraries, and in the Cirenvillc Library ; and one In the Hcckford sale, 1SS2 (no. iSfi), brought .£270. Cf. also Murphy Catalogue, no. 2,612 •, and Catalogue de la frccicuse bihlio- tlicque de feu M. le Doclcur jf. Court (Paris, 18S4), no. 262. The Paesi novamcnte retrovati is shown In the chapter ou the Cortereals in Vol. IV. to be of Importance in elucidating the somewhat obscure story of ihat p■ the editor, ICrnesto do Canto, and jirinted separately at Ponta Dclgarda (S. Miguel) in an editi(,n of one hundred copies, under the title of Os Corte-Neaes, memoria historica acc^mpanhada de mu.tos dociivienlos ineditos. Do Canto refers (p. 34) to other monographs on the Portuguese discoveries In .America as follows : Sobastiao Francisco Mendo Trigoso, — Ensaio sobre os Deseobrimentos e Commcrcio dos Portiigiiezes em as Terras Septentrionaes da America, presented to the Llslmn .Xcademy (1813), and iniblished in their Afcmorias da Littcratura, viii. 305 Jiiaquim Jose Gonjalves de Mattos Correa, — Acerca da prioridade das Descoberlas feitas pclos portugiiczes nas castas orieniaes da America do norte, which was printed in Annaes maritimos e Coloniaes, Lisbon, i .S4 1 , pp. 269-423. Luciano Cordciro, — De la part prise par les Portiigais dans le dicoinerte de TAmerique. Lisbon, iS-C. This was a communication m.ade to the Congris des Amdricanistes in 1S75. Cf. \'ol. IV. p. 15. XX NAKKATIVi: AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. (1508).' 'I'litrc wiTc lalcr cditimis in I5r2,'^ 'S'/i'' 'S19* (imblisliid at Milan), and 15^1." Thirc arc also (lerinan,'* Low Cierman,^ Latin," and KrcMcli " translatiiins. While this Zor/.i-MiMitalliixldo compilation was nourishing, an Italian hchdlar, dmniLilcd in Spain, was reciirding, largely at first hand, the v.iritd reports of the voyages which were then opening a new existence to the world. This was I'eter Martyr, of whom llarrissc '" cites an early and quaint sketch from llernamh) Alonso de llerrcra's Dis['uliUio lukcniis ArhU'kli'z (1517)." The general historians have always made due acknowledjjment of his service to them.'- Harrissc could find no c.idence of Martyr's First Decade having l)ecn printed at Seville as early as 1500, as is sometimes stated ; but it has been held that a translation of it, — though nu copy is now known, — made by Angelo Trigvi- ano into Italian was the /.ilnritu J,' tiitta la Hir(^tzi(ini' ilet A'i i/i Spiix'iiii, already men- tionetl." The earliest un(|Ueslioned edition was that of 1511, whiih was printed at Seville with the title /.ixaliii Iiahyti|iies in the Lcnux, Carter-lirown, Harvard CcilleKc, and Cincinnati ruhlic lilirarics. 'I'lio lleckford copy brcinnht, in 1.SS2, X7S. (Juaritch offered a C(i|.y in iS.S^ for .(.'45. At the I'oticr s.ile, m 1870 (nil. 1,7111), a copy brought 2,015 franc*! 'he same had hrounht i8y francs n iS.(.) at the .Nodier sale. Livrcs fayis iii venlf fuHiqiie 1,000 frniiis ct - tract w.is reprinted in the Nreus orHs (Basle, T532), and was appended to the Antwerp edition (1536) of lirocard's Desiriflio terra- samtce (Harrissc, BiH. Amer. Vet., no. 21S ; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 117). It is also in the Novas orHs of Rotterdam, 1596 (Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 505). 5 There arc copies in the Harvard College, Lenox, and Carter-Brown libraries. It is very rare ; a fair copy was priced in London, in iSSi, at .£62. Cf. Brunet, i. 293 ; Carter-Brown Catalogue, vol. i. no. 94 ; Sabin 1. icjS ; Harrisse, Bibl. Amer. Vet., no. 154 ; Murphy, no. 1,607 ; Court, no. 14. xxU NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. VSi^L^ DE NVPER SVB D» CAROLO RE PER/ tfs (nfulis, fimulq; incobrum moribus, R. Petri Marry/ ris, Enchiridion, Domi/ nacMargaritXjDiui Max.Casf.fiUac diutum* BASILEAE* ANNO M^ D. XXU THK i;akly uksckii'TIons or a.mkkica. xxui tH Umft ilu roy Dfspiii;Ht h'trmhl &• Ehzahilk 1,1 ftmmt, fiiul (•remitn-mtnt til lalin f;ir /'iern Miirtyr v Saliin.'' In 1555 Kicliard IMcii's Ptwiiiis (/ //'<■ .\W.v H^i>riit, or ll'ett Indui, a|)- peared in lil.iek-ktter at London. It is inailc up in larno part from Martyr,' and was the basis (if Kiihard Willes' edition of Kden in 1577, which iiuluded the first four decades, and an aliri<' iiisiitis arc also included in a composite folio published at llasic in \^i, containing .ilso llen^oni aiul I.evinus, all in (ierinan."' The entire ei|;lit deiades, in Latin, which had not been iirinlcil togcilur since the llasic edition of 1 530, weri' piibli-ilRil in I'.iris in 15.S7 under the editing of Kicliard ILiklnyt, with the title; l)e orhi mno I'ciri Marlyrit Ani;/(rii .)/ii/io/,iii,>i.ti<, /■ro/oHo/.irij, tt Ciiro/i i/iiiiifi si'iiii/orii DitiiJt'S oi/i', i/iii!;inli Irm/'oriim o/'uriiiifioHi; tl vtilissimis aiiiiotiilionihiis liiiis- lr,il,c, siifii/iii iiilori rtsliliittC, liihort ft iiiJinlriit Kichttriii IfiUhyti Oxoiiiitisis Anxli. AJililiit tst in Tsiim Uttoris iiiiiirntiK lotiiis o/'tris iiulcx, I'arisiis, apud (ivillelnivm Avvray, 151S7. With its " V. (i." map, it is exceedingly rare." I Tlu' Ixjiik is very rare. There is a copy in Harvard Collexe Library. A copy was priced in Lniiddti at .t/i ; but (Jiiaritcli Imlds the llcckford copy (no. 2,275), in fine binilini,', at X14S, llarrisse (BiH. Aiiur. <'■/., no. ifi;) errs In his Uescriplinn. Cf. Ilrnnet, i 204; .SolxjUwski, no. ■l,'if>7 ; Sabiii, 1. nio; Iliitli, p. yjo ; Stevens, Hisloriiol Cotlciliuns, \. 4S ; Carter-Drown, vol. i. no. 90 ; .Murphy, no. y.ooi ; Court, no. 1 24. 'i KIcharcl Helen's copy of tliis Ixiok, witli his annotations, apparently used in niakini{ his translation of 15;;, was sold in the Urinley sale, no. 40, havinK been earlier in the Judj{e Davis sale in 1S47 (no. 1,152), The first of t' c .Stevens copies, in his sale of 1S70 (nos. 75, t,2j4), is now in .Mr. Deane's library. There are also copies in the Force ( Library of ConKress), Carter-Urown ( C'i(/i(/i;i,'»i', vol. i. no. 101), and Ticknor (t'liAi- /iii;;(i', p. 14) ciillections, anil in llarvaril College Library. Cf. Sabin, i. ; .Stevens's Xiixafis, .t'l \\s. (u/.; Tcrnaux, no. 47; Ilarrissc, /W'/. Auur. l\t., no. 176; Muller (1.S7"), no. 2,031 1 t.^ourt, no. 15 ; Murphy, no. 1, 60S; Lcclerc (i.*<7S), no. 35 (So francs); yuaritch, no. ii,f)2S (Xj loj. ; again, X5 jx.) ; Sunderland, vol, iv. no. S,!;^ (t.'5o). I'riced in (ierinany at 60 and 100 marks. 8 Kanuisio's name docs not appear, but l)'Avc/;ie thinks his editorship is prolxible ; cf. BulUiin ; .Murphy, no. 1,61 1. "' (iraesse, i. 130; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 344; Stevens (1S70), no. 1,235. " The Sunderland copy (vol. iv. no .^,179), with the map, brought .£24 ; a French catalogue advertised one with the map for 250 francs. Without the map it is worth about S25. See further in Vol 111. p. 42 ; also .Mur- phy, no. i,f)i2 ; Cooke, no. 1,643; Court, no. 17. ll.ikluyt's text was used by Lok in making an ICnglish ver- sion (he .iilopted, however, Eden's text of the first three decades), which was printed as De Xovo Orbt : or, lite Historic 0/ the West hiiiies. Uibliogr.aphers differ .about the editions. One without date is held by some to have been printed in 1597 (White-Kennett ; Field, /«(//aH BiNiograptiy, nt\ 1,013; Menzies, no. 1,333, 535! Huth, p. 923); but others consider it the sheets of the 1612 edition with a new title (see Vol. III. p. 47, Field, no. 1,014; Stevens, 1870, no. 1,236; Ilarrisse, Nolcs on Coliiml'us, p. 10; O'Callasluin, no. 1,481 ; Murphy, no. i,6i2»; Carter-Brown, vol. i. nos. 129, 130). There are copies of this 1612 edition in the llosttes |6). Barter-Brown, Lenox, lis often wanting; the ;f. Harri'sc, no. 17' i I Court, no. 240. The ill it. Cf. Harrisse r.ext appeared in a German translation at Stras- burg in 1534, which was made by Michal Herr, /)/»• Xc-i' U'clt. It has no map, gives more from Martyr than the other edition, and substitutes a preface by Herr for that of Grynoeus.' The original Latin was reproduced at liasle again in 1537, with 1536 in the colophon.^ In 1555 another edition was printed at Hasle, enlarged upon the 1537 edition by the insertion of the second and third of the Cortes letters and some accounts of efforts in converting the Indians.' Those portions relating to .America e.vclusively were reprinted in the Latin at Rotterdam in Sebastian Miinster, who was born in 14S9, was fortv-three years old when his map of the world — which is preserved in the Paris (1532) edition of the Nmiis orbis — appeared. This is the first time that Miinster significantly comes before us as a describer of the geography of the New World. Again in 1540 and 1542 he was as- sociated with the editions of Ptolemy i.ssued at B.islc in those years.'' It is, however, upon bis Cos>iio^r'i|Wlinil|IHIII|l|lllfl||l||l!nilliniiMlini|i|)IMirlinii'ieii'l'ni"|iiiMi||i|l|i|ll!l||il iiii"'i|iiiilii|i;iiili"ii:ni:i' viirnnif. '■• ■ I, ..M. 'Ditnenjfus terras ct Jtrmmf Jydera fcotflf , €depam JHehrtros J€iJ(ortcofip Lihros , !SljC.S =^ »• ■ • . u: il.: .11 Ar vo Ve ICA. THE EARLY DESCRIPTIONS OF AMERICA. xxvu SEBASTIANVS MVNSTERVS CofmogxapluiS' jsi P '^ 1 1 r 75^^ 1 ■:i|;in'i()r, t'. . .■..I'l' SatSngiutfueratfontesmibitrddere/ancl^ Saiierejidmuttdi meiuuat hifioriam. U. D. HI. MUNSTER. and was confined . The last of the I162S.8 The earliest I77, Cntalogue; Sabin, JMunich. \iiiF Riiiiriid . — 1550. folios of maps. Har- 1vol. xii. no. i;i,i87: \is, no. 179) says the MuUer [Books on undoubted Latin text' appeared at Basle in by Manuel Deutsch, which were given in the 1550, with the same series of new views, etc., German edition of that date.'' With nothing Aincrha, 1S72, no. 1,020; 1S77, no. 2,203) cites a copy, with twenty-six maps ; also Sabin (vol. xii. no. 51,388). — I,;*!. Cited by Sabin, vol. xii. no. 53,389. — 1561. B.isle. Cf. Kosenth.-il, Crr/d/cyw*^ (1884), no. 53. — 1564. Uasle. Cf. Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,390; Carter-Brown Catalogue, i. 598. It has fourteen maps, the List beini; tif the Now World. — 15(19. 1574, 157S. Basle. All are cited by Ebert and Harrisse, who Rive them twenty- six maps, and s,ay th.at the cuts are poor impressions. — 1574, 157S, 1588. Undated; but cited by Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,391-51,393. — 1592, 1598. In these editions the twenty-six maps and the woodcuts are 1 Fac-simile of a cut in Reusner's Icones (Str.asburg, 1590), p. 171. ' The Athenie Rauric. 1 The title of the 1554 edition as shown in the copy in the Boston Public Library reads as follows : Cosmo \ !^ra^hine \ iinincrsdlis Lit', VI, in j quilnis iitxta certioris Jidei stri^toriim j t^tu/itiontm lUscril'itntiir^ | Omnium luMtabilis orMs fartiiim situs, fro- \friitg' doles. \ h'egionum Topogruphiac effigies. \ Ternr ingenin, quilnis sit ut lam diffcrentes &> ua I rias specie res, &'animatiis, ijr" inanimalas, feral. \ .Inimaliunt pcregrinorum nalurtc b' pictunr. j NoHliorum ciuitatum icones if descripliones. | Regnorum initia, nure- menlaiflrtjns/iiliones. \ Kegum is' prineipum genealogitF. ( Ilem omnium t^en.iutn mores, leges, religio.tnu- \ talioncs: alq' mcmorMinim in hune usque an- \ num 1554. geslarum rerum Historia. \ Autorc Sebasl. Mun- slero. The same edition is in the Harvard College Library; but the title varies, and reads thus: Cosmo \ graphite | uniuersalis Lib. VI. in \ quibus, iuxta cerlioris fidci scriplorum \ Iradilionem describunlur, \ Omniu habilabilis orbis parliu situs, profriirq' doles. | Regionum Topographies effigies. | Terr,r ingenia, quibus sit ut tatn dijferentes if unrias \ specie res, if animalas if inauitnatns, feral, \ Animalium peregrin norum natur.r i-' piiturn,\o\. i. no. 194; Sabin, voi. xii. no. 51,380 51,381. The account of .America is on pages 1,099-1,113. These editions have been bought of late years for abfmt ?4 ; but Rosenthal (Munich, 18S4) prices a copy of 1552 at 130 marks, and one of 1554 at 150 m.arks. 2 Sabin, vol. xii, no. 51,382; Muller, Books on America (1872), p. 11. 8 Some copies h.ive nineteen maps, others twenty-two in all. Cf. Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 291; S,ibin, vol. xii. no. 51,383. S.ime passages displeasing to the Catholics are said to have been omitted in this edition. It is woi'-i .bout S12 or S15. * Supplement, col. 1,129; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 3m397. 6 That of li.asle, 1556, h.as on i)p. 1,353-1,374, " Des nouvellcs ilsles; comment, quand et par qui elles ont est6 trouvees," wit'.; a map and fourteen woodcuts. It is usually priced at about S20 ; the copies are commonly worn (S.ibin, vol. xii. no. 51,398). The same publisher, Henry Pierre, reissued it (without date) in 156S, with twelve folding woodcut maps, the fust of which pertains to America (Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 271 ; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,399). In 1575 a new French edition, with the cuts reduced, was issued in three volumes, folio, edited by Belleforest .and others; it gives 101 p.iges to America. Cf. lirunet, col. 1,945; Supplement, Sunderland, no. 8,722 (£18 loj.); Porquet (1S84), no. 1 (150 francs), col. 1,129; Stevens (1870). p. 12 S.abin, vol. xii. no. 51.400. •J Cf. Vol. III. of the present History, pp. 200, 201, " Weigcl (1877), p. y6; Sabin, vol. xii. no. 51,401. 8 Supplement, col. 1,120. Cf. also Weigel (1877), p. 96 ; Carter-Brown, vol. ii. no. 1,132 ; Sabin, vol. xii. nos. 51,402-51,403. Terzo volume delle navigalioni et viaggi, etc., Venice, 1 556. His name is, Latinized, Ramusius. 1" Harrisse, A'otes on Columbus, p. 4^,. A list of the Contents is given in the Carler-Bro7vn Catalogue (vol. i. p. 181), and in I.eclerc (no. 484), where a set (1554, 1583, '.565) is priced at 250 francs. Of interest in connection with the pie-ent History, there are in the first volume of Kamusio the voyages of Da Gaina, \'es- pucins, and Magellan, .as well as matter of interest in connection with Cabot (see Vol. III. p. 24) ; in the second volume (1559), the tr.avels of Marco Polo, the voyage of the Zeni and of Cibot. The first edition of the first volume was published in 1^50; K.amusio's name docs not appear. A second edition came out in 1554. Cf Murphy Catalogue, \Mi,. 2,096-2,098; Cooke, no. 2,117. ICA. THE EARLY DESCRIPTIONS OF AMERICA. XXIX ling the engraved s ; and finally, in ding to lininet," if voyages nf tlie Ramusii), whose ibly in 1553, and usively to Ame"-- ;)\vtver, little rc- by Peter Martyr to Fracastoro.''' these early voy- jiisiderate editor, in nar\'ard College ica is shown in the 394-5 • '."'IS • — ''"4i and are considered li. Sabin, vol. xii. i as follows : Cosmo III ilcSi-ril'iiitlur, I -ic fjfigifs. I Tirnr fcrat. I Antiiuiintin orum initiii, iiuii- iegcs, rt'i'i^io^ iitu- | tiilorc St bast. Xfiiii- ads thus : Cosmo | on dcscribiinliir, \ s. I Tcr>,r iiigenia, 4nimalium fcrt'i^ri- tti/iti, iittri-inciita &> egitiii i^/riiui/'itin Henriilnm Petri, \ s, ai.d has his aiUo- ide-editions " which i. no. 194; Sabin, ins have been bought rks, and one of 1554 i. no. 2t)i; Sabin, itted in this edition. et par qui dies ont opies are commonly date) in ijfiS, with i. no. 271 ; Sabin, three volumes, folio, 94 5 ; Supplcnuni, ifi-j, (150 francs), 32 ; Sabin, vol. xii. Kamusius. er-Bi-owii Catalogue ncs. Of interest in of Da Gama, ^'es- 24 ) ; in the second edition of the first e out in 1554. Cf who at this time was ripe in knowledge and experience, for he w.as ^ve!l beyond si.\ly,' and he had given his nK'.turcr years to historical and geograjihical study. lie had at one time maintained a school for topograph- ical studies in his own house. Oviedo tells us of the assistance Kamusio was to him in his work. I,ocke has praised his labors with- out stint.- Monardes, one of the distin- guished .Spanish physicians of this time, was busy seeking for the sim- phs and curatives of the New World plants, as the adventurers to Xew Spain brought them back. The original issue of his work was the Dos I.ihros, publishetl at Seville in 1565, treating "of all things brought from our West Indies which arc used in medicine, and of the Be- zaar Stone, and the herb Lscuer- 9onera." This book is become rare, and is priced as high as 200 francs and /'o-'' The "segunda parte " is sometimes found separately with the date 1571 ; but in 1574 a third part w.is printed with the other two, — making the complete work, Uistoria mcJicinal dc nucstras Indias, — and these were again issued in 1580.^ An Italian version, by Annibale Bri- ganti, appeared at Venice in 1575 and 1 5S9,'' and a French, with Du Jardin, in 1602.'' There were three English editions printed under the title of yoyfiitl Ai-wcs ontof the nave foiinde world, luherein is declared the rare and singular virtues of di- rerse and sundry J/erbes, Trees, Oyles, Plantes, and Stones, ly Doetor Monardus of Sevill, Eng- lished by fohn Frampton, which first appeared in 1577, and was rcjirinted in 15.S0, with addi- tions from Monardes' other tracts, and again in The Spanish historians of affairs in Mexico, Peru, and I'lorida are grouped in the /fispani- MONARDES. earum re. um scrifitores, published at Frankfort in 1579-15^11, in three volumes." Of Richard Ilakluyt and his several collections, — the Divers Voyages of 15S2, the Principctll A'avigations of t Horn in 14S5-14S6; died in 1557. There is an alleged portrait of Ramusio in the new edition of II zia:;^io di Giovan Let, 'c, etc. (Venice, 1S57), the only volume of it iniblished. The portrait of him by Paul Veronese in the lial' of the Great Council was burned in 1557 ; and Cicogna (Bibliotcia Vcncziana, ii. 310) says that the likeness now in the Sala dello Scudo is imaj^inary. - Cf. also Canuis, Memoirc sur De Bry, p. 8j Humboldt, Examcn critiijiie ; Hallani, Literature 0) F.iir,p,- : llarrisse, Bil'l. Amer, Vet., no. 304; lirunet, vol. iv. cul. iioo; Carter-Iirown, vol. i, no. 105; Clarke's .Miiritime Discovery, p. x, where Tirabi, I'oj. III. I'oH Stiuietts Brazii. In Latin, 1592, 1605, 1630; in German, 1593 (twice). IV. Benzoni's Nnu World. In Latin, 1594 (twice), 1644; in German, 1594, 1613. V. Coniimmtioiiof Benzoni. In Latin, 1595 (twice); in Cieini.Tn, two editions withuut date, probably 1595 and 1013. VI. Cotitittitiit ion 0/ Benzoni {Pent), In Latin, 1596, 1597, 1617; in German, 1597, 1619. VII. Srltniidel's Brazil. In Latin, 1399, i6jj ; in Germ. Ill, is-;;, i'..)o, 1617. VIII. I>r,ike, Candish, and Ralegh, In Latin, 1599 (twice), 1(115 ; in Gcrm.in, 159.J, 1614. IX. Atostii, etc. In Latin, I'xia, 1633; in German, probably ifjoi ; '' addii iinemum," i6oa ; and again entire after 1620. X. t'esfiucius, lliunor, and John Smith. In Lalin, 1619 (twice); i' .ierni.in, irnS. XI. Sihoitten and Spilbergen. In Latin, 1619, — ap- pendix, 1620; ill (iernian, 1^19, — appendix, i6jo. XII. ilerrera. In Latin, 1624; in (jerman, 1623. XIII. Miscellaneous^— ' Ciibot^ etc. In Latin, i'i34; in German, the first seven sections in 1627 (sometimes 1628); ar.d sections 8-13 in 1630. Elenchus: ifistorta Americir sive Novus orbis, 1634 (three issues). This is a table of the Contents to the edition which Mcrian was selling in 1634 under a collective title. The foregoing enumeration tnakes no recog- nition of the almost innumerable varieties caused by combination, which sometimes i)ass for new editions. Some of the editions of the same date are usually called "counterfeits;" and there are doubts, even, if some of those here named really deserve recognition as distinct editions.'' 1 The earliest description of a set of De Dry of any bibliographical moment is that of the Abbd de Rothelin, Observations ct details siir la collection dcs voyaf;es, etc. (Paris, 1742), pp. 44 (Carter-Brown, viil. i, no. 473), which is reprinted in Lenglet du Fresnoy's Mctliode four itudier la geographic (1768), i. 324. Gabriel Martin, in his catalogue of the library of M. Cisternay du F;iy, had somewhat earlier announced that collector's triumph in calling a set in his caialogue (no. 2,825) "exeinplutn omni genereperfectiini," when his c. 408). The Rothelin copy, then esteemed the best known, brought, in 1746, 750 francs. At a later day, with additions secured under belter knowle.ige, it again changed hands at 2, 551 iii 4,'Vf CA. THE EAKLY DESCRIl'TIONS OF AMERICA. XXXllI in, 1549. i'i]5 { in 'h. In Latin, I59<) 163,1 ; in (ierni.An, I ; and a^ain entire Smith. In Latin, I Latin, 1619, — ap- inilix, i6jo, I) Germai], 1633. In Latin, ift34 ! in 1637 (sometimes f iVovus orbis, i'>34 >ntents totlie edition r a collective title. makes no rccog- ; varieties catiscd les pass for new of the same (late ; " and there are ere named really editions.* It of the AbW de arter-Brown, vol. i. >/;/> (1768), i. 324. ier announced that :rfectum," when his did in the varieties instriiclive (vol. i. d been by his prede- ire with manuscript vis ct fetils voyages ttion of Camus was ted in Paris in i S 3'> ttheilunRen liber die now owned in New nations. The copy cfore he left it, with ;lett (Carter-Brown in the Amcrkan et, in his Alaiiiiel the German texts. red by Charles A. s accompanied by a and seventy parts) itry through Muller set went into the 29;) in 1SS3. Cf. The sale took es of a satisfactory , forming varieties ' ' perhaps no two / Collections, vol. i. lesses, — the Right )x, — who all went The collector will no. 396 (also erman texts ; that While there is distinctive merit in De Hry's collection, which caused it to have a due effect in its day on the progress ol geograjihical knowledge,' it must lie conf''ssed that a certain iiicrelricioiis reputation has become attached to the work as the test of a collector's assi- duity, and of his su|)ply of ntoney, ([uite dis- proportioned to tlie relative use of the collection in these days to a sttident. This artificial a|)- preciation has no doubt been largely due to the engravings, which form so attractive a fea- ture in the series, ami which, while they in many cases are the honest rendering of genuine sketches, arc certainly in not a few the merest fancy of some designer.* There are several publications of the Dc llrys sometimes found grouped with the Fi>}m,'cs a.; a part, though not properly so, of the series. .Such are I.as Casas' A'arratio ni;io/itim InJi- ctiiiim ; the voyages of the " Silberne Welt," by Arlhus von Dantzig, and of Olivier van Noort ;■' the Jiiiiim ct iir/iis Amsletodamcnsium historia of I'untanus, with its Dutch voyages to the north ; and the Xaiigations aux Indes par les Ifolldllllois.* Another of De Hry's editors, (Jasper Kus, publisheil in 16S0 his IVcstuniiJ-Ost hidUclicr Liistf^iirt, which is a summary of the sources of American history.'' There are various abridgments of De liry. The earliest is Ziegler's America, Frankfort, l6l^,'' which is m.ide up from the first nine parts of the Germati Grands Vova);es. The llistoria antifiodtim, odcr A'cwc Welt (1631), is the first twelve parts comlensed by Johaiin Ludwig Gottfried, otherwise kmnvn as Johaim riiilli|>pe Abelin, who was, in Merian's day, a co-laborer on the Voyai;es. He uses a large number of the plates from the larger work.' The chief rival collection of De liry is that of Hulsius, which is described elsewhere." Collections now became numerotis. Conrad Low's Meer odcr Scehancn /Inch was i)tiblished at Cologne in 159S.' The Dutch Collection of Voyages, issued by Cornelius Claesz, appeared in uniform style between 1598 and 1O03, but it never had a collective title. It gives the vovages of Cavendish and Drake.'" It was well into the next cetuury ( 1C13) when Furchas began his publications, of which there )1. , from Brunet, and known, brought, in ged hands at 2,^31 francs, and once more, in 1S55 (described in the Bidletin dii bihliophile, 1855, pp. 38-41), Mr. Lenox bought it for 12,000 fnncs ; .ind in 1873 ^'i"' Lenox also bought the best .Sobolewski copy (fifty-five voluines) for 5,050 thalers. With these .tnd other parts, procured elsewhere, this library is supposed to lead all others in the facili- ties for a I )e liry bibliography. Fair copies of the Grands voyages in Latin, in first or second editions, are usually sold for about .tioo, and for Iwth voyages for ^.'150, and sometimes .t'200. Muller, in tSp, held the fourteen parts, in German, of t! j Grands voyages, at 1,000 florins. I'"ragmentary sets are frei|uently in the Catalogues, but bring proportionately much less prices. In unusually full sets the appreciation of value is rapid with every additional part. Most large American libraries have sets of more or less completeness. Besides those in the Carterlirown (which took thirty years to make, besides a duplicate set from the Sobo- lewski sale) and Lenox libraries, there .ire others in the lioston f'ublic, Harvard College, Astor, .and Lung Island Historical Society libraries, — all of fair proportions, and not unfrerjuently in duplicate and complemenial sets. The copy of the (ire.tt Voyages, in Latin (all first editions), in tlie Murphy Library (Catalogue, no. 379), was gathered for Mr. Murphy by Obadiali Rich. The .Murphy Library also contained the German text in first editions. In 1SS4 yuaritch offered the fine set from the Hamilton Library (twenty-five parts), "presumed to be quite perfect," for ^^670. The Earl of Crawford and Calcarres is aljout publishing his bibliography of Ue Ury. 1 There are somewhat diverse views on this jioint expressed by Brtinet and m the Grenville Catalogue. 2 Reference has been made elsewhere (Vol. III. pp. 123, 164) to sketches, now preseived as a part of the Grenville copy of De liry in the liritish Museutn, which seem to have been the (jriginals from which Ue Bry cnijraved the jiictures in Harlot's l'iri;inia, etc. These were drawn by Wyth, or White. A collection of twenty-four plates of such, from De Bry, were published in New York in 1S41 {/'ield's Indian Bibliography, no. 1,701 ). Cf. Amer. Antiq. Sac. Proc, Oct. 20, 1S66, for other of De Bry's drawings in the British Museum. De Bry's engravings have been since copied by Picard in his Ceremonies et coiitumes religiciises ties f-enples i.lolatres (Amsterdam, 1 723), and by others. Exception is taken to the fidelity of 1 >e Bry's engravings in the parts on Columbus ; cf. Navarrcte, French translation, i. 320. ' Carter-Brown, vol. i. nos. 453, 454, 45;. ^ Rich (1S32), £5 5J. Cf. P. A. Tide's Mimoirc bibliographique sur les journanx des navigateurs Neerlaiidais rcimf rimes dans les collections de De Bry et de Hnlsius, Amsterdam, 1S67. ' Stevens (t.S7o), no. 668 ; Sabin, vi. 211. 6 Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 456 ; vol. ii. no. 19S ; Muller (1S75), p. 389. ' Carter-Brown, vol. i. nos. 457, 458; vol. ii. nos. 373, 791. There was a second edition in 16;;. Cf. Muller (1S72), no. 636; Sabin, vol. i. no. 50; ill. 59; Hiith, ii. 612. Abelin also edited the first four volumes (covering 161 7-1643) of the Thcatrum Etirofenm (Frankfort, 1635), etc., which pertains incidentally to American affairs (Muller, 1872, no. 1,314). Fitzer's Orientalische Indien (162S) and Arthus's Historia India oriental:- (1608) are abridgments of the SnuiU Voyages. 8 Vol. IV. p. 442. » Sabin, vol. x. no. 42,192 ; Carter-Brown, vol. i. no. 530. 10 Muller (187a), no. 1,867. VUL. I. — c I 1 4 i'l' •I' .«' ) M w XXX IV NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. 13 an account elsewhere' Ilicronynius Mcgi- tier's Stl>UiUrio lunhtntiquiis was published at Leipsic in l6lj. In a single voluni>; it gave the Zeni and later accounts of the North, be- sides narratives ptrtaininH to New France and Virginia.- The J,lie(l in I Intch with a collective title. It includes, notwithstanding the title, Cavendish, lir.dic, and Kalcigh. Another Dutch folio, Ilercknians' /^it /.,t-:;ieit lof, etc. (.Amsterdam, 1631), does not include any .Amer- ican voyages.* Tl'.e celebrated Dutch collection, edited by Isaac Comnielin, at Amsterdam, and known as the />'<:;'/« en Voorti;ani;h van de Oost- fndisc/iv Com/nj^'nu; would seem originally to have includei, among its voyages to the lutst and North,'' those of Kaleigli and Cavendish ; but they were later omitted.'' The collection of Thevenot was issued in 1663; but this has been described elsewhere." The collection usually cited as l).ipi)er's was printed at .\insterdam, I(')6y-I7::9, in folio (thirteen volumes). It has no collective title, but among the volumes are two touching America, — the /}isc/ir./-'ini,v of Montanus," and Nienhof's Brasiliaansche Zee-en Lantieize? A small collection, Reciieii tie divers zvya^'es fails en Africa el en I'Ameriijne}'^ was i)ul>lished in I'aris by Hilhiine in 1674. It includes lilome's Jamaica, Laborde on tiie Caribs, etc. .Some of the later American voyages were alsn printed in the second edition uf .1 Swedish A'eesadwi, printed at Wysnig/borg in 1674, 1675," The Italian collection, // i'c///o f* f^anle, was printed at I'arma in l6 Vii- in 1691-169J, in 'I'.f ( I.oiulcin, 1694) lan's Straits, and 'h\tion of r(i)'iii,vs (Icr the name of its earliest form >lunies; l>iit was tditional volumes 744, — these last, / l^'in'di^vs, being le library of the ued complete in ry discourse by iome other of its n'rc de la iiavij;a- divine, had com- 1702 which was ; from it in being voyages, instead ris wrote the In- liable how much t was revised and John Campbell, garded as a sup- 5 reprinted in two Sobolewski's copy condition, wliich is through Magellan's \U (Miiller, 1S73, abin, iv. ;,i;, v*"')- he Oost-/iii/isc/it n, with some aildi- mie separate issues :e part of a second hich, though not a tier doorliicliligste uiibus, Vespucius, a German trans- in Paris in 1683 ngen des Norden 3ns. ll's description ol ither. volumes, folio, with continuations to date, in 17114.' The well-known Dutch collection [Voyiigitii) of Vander Aa was printed at I,eyden in 1706, 1-07. It gives voyages to all parts of the world made between IJ46 and 161)5. Me l)orrows from llcrrera, Atosia, Turchas, l)c liry, anil all avail- able sources, and illuminates the whole with about five hundred maps and plates. In its original form it made twenty-eight, sometimes thirtv, volumes of small size, in black-letter, and eight volumes in folio, 1)oth editions being issued at the same time and from the same type. In this larger form the voyages are arranged by nations; and it was the unsold copies of this edition which, witli a new general title, consti- tutes the edition of 1727. In the smaller form the arrangement is chronological. In the folio edition the voy.iges to Spanish America pre- vious to 1540 constitute .'olumes three and four ; while the Knglish voyages, to 1696, arc in vol- umes five and si.x.'^ In 1707 I)n Perier's Ilistoirc tmiversi-lU dcs voyages had not so wide a scope as its itle in- dicated, being confined to the early .Spanish voyages to America;' the proposed subsequent volumes not having been printed. An English translation, under Du Perier's name, was issued in London in 1708;^ but when reissued in 171 1, with a different title, it credited the authorship to the .Vbbe Hellegarde.'' In 1711, also, Capt;iin , John Stevens published in London his Xciv Colleitioii of I'oyages ; but Lawson's Carolina and Cicza's Peru were the only American sec- tions." In 1715 the French collection known as liernard's Meniiil de voiai;es an A'oid, was begun at .\msterdam. A i)retty wide interpre- tation is given to the restricted designation of the title, and vriyagcs to California, Louisiana, the Upper Mississippi (Hennepin), Virginia, and Georgia arc iiuluded.' Daiuel Co.\e, in 1741, united in one volume // ColU\lion of I'oy- axes, three of which he had already printed separately, including Captain Janies's to the Northwest. A single volume of a collection called /'//(' Aiiierk.in 'I'ravellcr appeared in Lunilon iu I74J-'' 'Ihe collection known as Asltey's I'oyages was published in London in four volumes in 1745-1747; the editor was John Green, whose name is sometimes attached to the work. It gives the travels of Marco Polo, but has noth- ing of the early voyages to America,' — tliese being intended for later volumes, were never printed. These four volumes were translated, with some errors and omissions, into French, and C(j-istilu'e the first nine volumes of the Abbe I'revost's Ilistoire gJr-huiU des Toyai,'ei, begun in Paris in 1746, and completed, in twenty quarto volumes, in 1789.'" An octavo edition was printed (1741^1770) in seventy-five vol- umes." It was agaiit reprinted at the Hague in twentv-five voliunes quarto (1747-17S0), with considerable revision, following the original Eng- lish, and with (ireen's assistance; besides show- ing some additions. The Dutch editor was P. de I londt, who also issued an edition in I )ulch in twenty-one volumes (piarto, — including, how- ever, oidy the first seventeen volumes of his French edition, thus omitting those chiefiy con- cerning .Xnierica.'- A small collection of little moment, A A'e-.u Universal Colleetion of Voyages, appeared in London in 1755." De lirosses' Ifis- toirc des navigations aux te-^s aiistrales depiiis 1501 (Paris, 1756), two volumes quarto, covers Vespucius, Magellan, Drake, and Cavendish.'* 1 Cartcr-Iirown, vol. iii. no. 1,400 ; Sabin, viii. 92 ; Muller (1S72), no. t.qoi. 2 II II. Bancroft, Central America, ii. 745, who errs somewhat in his statements; ^furphy Catalogue, no. 1,074 ; Carter-Iirown, vol. iii. no. SS, with full t.ible of contents. The best description is in Muller (1S72), no. 1,887. Allhoui;h Vander Aa says, in the tide of the folio e lition, that it is based on the Gottfriedt-Abelin NcTi'e Well, this new collection is at least four times as extensive. 8 Carter-lirown, vol. iii. no. 96. < Carter-Brown, iii. iio. ' Carter-Brown, iii. 150. 8 The publication began in numbers in 1708, and some copies are dated 1710 (Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 158). • Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 208, in ten vols., 1715-1718. H. II. Bincroft (Central America, ii. 749), cites an edition (1715-1727) in nine vols. Muller (1870, no. 2,021) cites an edition, ten vols., 1731-1738. 8 Sabin, vol. i. no. 1,250. » Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 792; H. H. Bancroft, Centt... I America, ii. 747. w Volumes xii. to xv. are given to America ; the later volumes were compiled by Querlon and De Leyre. " Different sets vary in the number of volumes. 12 Muller (1872), nos. 1,895-1,900; Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 831; H. H. Bancroft, Central America, ii. 746. k German translation appeared at Leipsic in 1747 in twenty-one volumes. " II II. Bancroft, Central America, ii. 750. n Muller (1872), nos. 1.980, 1,981. There was a German translation, with enlargements, by J. C. Adelung, Halle, 1767; an English translation is also cited. A similar range was taken in Alexander Dalrymple's Historical Collection of Voyages in the South Pacific Ocean (London, 1770), of which there was a French transiition in 1774 (Carter-Brown, vol. iii. no. 1,730). The most imporUnt contribution in English on this V xxxvi NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. IS t •'I if!' Several English collections appeared in ilic next (cw years; atnonn which arc '/'/u- l\\-I7'ii ), twenty vols. l6m(), — of which seven volumes arc on Amer- ican voyages, coniiiilid from the larger collec- tions,' — and A Curious Ci'lltulion of Travtts (London, 1761) is in eight volumes, three of which are (levotc;cs, Trtncls, iiiid Di<- co7rriis (London, l7hcd .It I'ralo in 18.(0-1845, in fi\c \n|umes; it ill! hides the .N'avarretc collection on Colum- but, Xeres on Pizarro, and other of the .Spanish narratives.' The l.i^t volume of a collection in twelve volumes published in I'aris, A'ii«jy//t' WA* liot/iit/ue lies ti'viixes, is also given to America. The Hakluyt Society in London began its valuable series ot publications in 1S47, and has admirably kept up its work to the present time, having issued its vnlnmcs gener.dly under s.iti«- factory editing. Its publii .itions are not sold outside of its mend)ership, except at second hand* Under the editing of Jos^ I-'errer dc Couto and Jose March y l.aborcs, and with the royal patrol\agc, a Ilistoriii Je la manna real I^sf-aiiola was published in .Madrid, in two volumes, 1849 and 1854. It relates the early voyages."' fid- ouard t'harton's l'i'yiij;eiirs aiieieiis et nnuiernes was published in four vcdiunes in Paris, 1S55- 1857 j and it passed »iii)se(iiiently to a new edition." A summarized account of the Portuguese and Spanish discoveries, from Prince Henry to Pi/.irro, was published in (lermaii by Theodor Vugel, and also in ICnglish in 1877. A A'i/ Ilanard UniiLrsity. AS Columbus, in August, 149S, ran into tlie mouth of the Orinoco, he little thought that before him lay, silent but irrefutable, the proof of the futility of his long-cherished hopes. His gratification at the complete- ness of his success, in that God had permitted the accomplishment of all his predictions, to the confusion of those who had opposed and derided him, never left him ; even in the fever which overtook him on the last voy- age his strong faith cried to him, "Why dost thou falter in thy trust in God .' He gave thee India ! " In this belief he died. The conviction that Hayti was Cipangu, that Cuba was Cathay, did not long outlive its author ; the discovery of the Pacific soon made it clear that a new world and another sea lay between the landfall of Columbus and the goal of his endeavors. The truth, when revealed and accepted, was a surprise more profound to the learned than even the error it displaced. The possibility of a short pas- sage westward to Cathay was important to merchants and adventurers, startling to courtiers and ecclesiastics, but to men of classical learning it was only a corroboration of the teaching of the ancients. That a barrier to such ])assage should be detected in the very spot where the outskirts of Asia had been imagined, was unexpected and unwelcome. The treasures of Mexico and Peru could not satisfy the demand for the products of the I'^ast ; Cortes gave himself, in his later years, to the search for a strait which might yet make good the anticipations of the earlier discoverers. The new interpretation, if economically disappointing, had yet an interest of its own. Whence came the human population of the unveiled continent .' How had its existence escaped the wisdom of Greece and Rome .' Had it done so .' Clearly, since the whole human race had been renewed through Noah, the VOL. I, — I [1 . ! r '! I !l 2 NARKATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. red men of America must have dcsccndecl from the patriarch ; in some way, at some time, the New World had been discovered and jjopulated from the Old. Hr 1 knowledge of this event lapsed from the minds of men before their memories were committed to writing, cr did reminiscences exist in ancient litenitnres, overlooked, or misunderstood by modern ignorance .' Scholars were not wanting, nor has their line since wholly failed, who freely devoted their ingenuity to the solution of these questions, but with a suc- cess so diverse in its results, that the inquiry is still pertinent, especially since the jjursuit, even though on the main point* it end in reservation of judgment, enables us to understand from what source and by what channels the inspiration came which iield Columbus so steadily to his westward course. Although the elder civilizations of As.syria and Egypt boasted a cultiva- tion of astronomy long anterior to the heroic age of Greece, their cosmo- graphical ideas appear to have been rude and untleveloped, so that wiiatever the Greeks borrowed thence was of small xmportance compared with what they themselves ascertained. While it may be doubted if decisive testi- mony can be e.xtorted horn the earliest Grecian literature, represented chiefly by the Homeric and Hesiodic poems, it is probable that the people among whom that literature grew up had not gone, in their conception of the universe, beyond simple acceptance of the direct evidence of their senses. The earth they looked upon as a plane, stretching away from the ^-Egean Sea, the focus of their knowledge, and ever less distinctly known, imtil it ended in an horizon of pure ignorance, girdled by the deep-flowing current of the river Oceanus. Beyond Oceanus even fancy began to fail : there was the realm of dust and darkness, the home of the powerless spirits of the dead ; there, too. the hemisphere of heaven joined its brother hemi- sphere of Tartarus.^ This c;)nception of the earth was not confined to Ho- meric times, but remained the common belief throughout the course of Grecian history, underlying and outlasting many of the speculations of the philosophers. That growing intellectual activity which was signalized by a notable de- velopment of trade and colonization in the eighth century, in the seventh awoke to insciousness in a series of attempts to formulate the conditions of existence. The philosophy of nature thus originated, wherein the testi- mony of nature in her own behalf was little sought or understood, began with the assumption of a flat earth, variously shaped, and as variously sup- ported. To whom belongs the honor of first propounding the theory of the spherical form of the earth cannot be known. It was taught by the Italian Pythagoreans of the sixth century, and was probably one of the doctrines ' The plane earth cut the cosmic sphere like a diaphragm, shutting the light from Tartarus. avTnp vntpQiv (Hcsiod, Theog. T^T.) Impend the roots of cirth and barren sea." (/'//(• rfiiidiits i^f Kesiod the Astrfran, etc., translated by C. A. Ehon, 2(1 ed. Londnn, 1S15.) Critics differ as to the age of the vivid descrip- tion of Tartarus in the Thcogony. I' I I \'f L RICA. GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANCIENTS. ; in some way, Lilated from the 5 of men before ccnces exist in em ignorance ? ilcd, who freely but with a suc- inent, especially 1 rescrxation of y' what channels J his westward aasted a ciiltiva- ce, their cosmo- jo that whatever pared with what f decisive testi- ire, represented that the people ■ir conception of idence of their ; away from the istinctly known, the deep-flowing y began to fail : powerless spirits ts brother hemi- confined to Ho- the course of iculations of the by a notable de- in the seventh the conditions lerein the testi- erstood, began s variously sup- le theory of the by the Italian if the doctrines niul .il)ove u\ barrcTi se.T." ra-iiH, etc., translated by is.so of the vivid dcscrip- )goiiy. of I'ythagoras himself, as it was, a little later, of Tarmenides, the founder of the Eleatics.i In neither ^:ase can there be a claim for scientific discovery. The earth was a sphere because the sphere was the most perfect form ; it was at the centre of the universe because that was the place of honor ; it was motion- less because motion was less dignified than rest. riato, who was familiar with the doctrines of the Pythagoreans, adopted their view of the form of the earth, and did much to popularize it among his countrymen.- To the generation that succeeded him, the sphericity of the earth was a fart as capable of logical demonstration as a geometrical theorem. Aristotle, in his treatise "C. the Heaven," after detailing the views of those philosophers who regardeo the earth as flat, drum-shaped, or cylindrical, gives a formal summary of the grounds which necessitate the assumption of its sphericity, specifying the tendency of all things to seek the centre, the unvarying circularity of the earth's shadow at eclipses of the moon, and the proportionate change in the altitude of stars resulting from changes in the observer's latitude. Aristotle made the doctrine orthodox ; his successors, Eratosthenes, Ilipparchus, and Ptolemy, constituted it an inalienable possession of the race. Greece transmitted it to Rome, Rome impressed it upon barbaric Europe ; taught by Pliny, Hyginus, Manilius, expressed in the works of Cicero, Virgil, Ovid, it passed into the school- books of the Middle Ages, whence, reinforced by Arabian lore, it has come down to us.'* That the belief ever became in antiquity or in the Middle Ages widely spread among the people is improbable ; it did not indeed escape oppo- sition among the educated ; writers even of the Augustan age sometimes appear in doubt.* 1 I'vtliagnr.is has left no writings ; Aristotle sptaksonly iif hisschool; Diogenes Laertius in one passage {I'l/ii,; viii. I (Tythag.), 25) quotes an authority to the effect that Pythagoras as- serted the earth to be spherical and inhabited all over, so that there were antipodes, to whom that is 07 cr which to ns is iiiiJcr. As all his dis- cijilcs agreed on the spherical form of the earth while differing as to its position and motion, it is probable that they took the idea of its form from him. I )iogencs Laertius states that Par- mcnides called the earth ronnd (mpo-f^vKr^, viii. 4S), and also that he spoke of it as spherical ((T0oipoei5^, i.\. 3) ; the passages are not, as has been sometimes assumed, contradictory. The emniciation of the doctrine is often attributed to Thales and to Anaximander, 011 the authority of Plutarch, Dc phicilis f'hilosophorum, iii. 10, and OioL^enes Laertius, ii. i, respectively; but the evidence is conflicting (.Simplicius, Ad Aristot., y. 506 ^- ed. Prandis ; Aristot., Z);' C(ji7^, ii. 13 ; Plutarch, Dc /■lac. /•/lil. iii., xv. 9). - i lato, Phacdo, 109. Schaefer is in error when lie asserts (Eiihuictluiig da- Aiiskhlut der Allen iicber Gcstalt tiiid Grosse dvr Erdc, 16) that Plato in the Tititaciis (55, 56) assigns a cubical form to the earth. The question there is not of the shape of the earth, the planet, but of the form of the constituent atoms of the element earth. 3 Terra pilae similis, nullo fulcimine nixa, Aere subjecto tarn grave pendet onus. [Ipsa volubilitas libratum sustinet orbem: Quique premit partes, angulus omnis abest. C unique sit in media rerum rcgione locata, Et tangat nullum ])lusve minusve latus ; Ni convexa foret, parti viciiiior esset. Nee medium tcrram miuulus haberet onus.] Arte Syracosia susjiensus in aere clauso Stat globus, immensi parva hgura poll ; Et quantum a summis, tantum scccssit ah imis Terra. Quod ut fiat, forma rotunda facit. (Ovid, Fasti, vi. 269-2S0.) The bracketed lines are found in but a few MSS. The last lines refer to a globe said to have been constructed by .Archimedes. * Plato makes Socrates say that he took up the works of Anaxagnras, hoping to learn J. VI I )' It' «> i , t;. ^ '' I ' 1 I " I I 4 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. The sphericity of the earth once comprehended, there follow certain corollaries which the Greeks were not slow tu perceive. Plato, indeed, who likened the earth to a ball covered with party-colored strips of leather, gives no estimate of its size, although the description of the world in the Pliacdo seems to imply immense magnitude ; ' but Aristotle states that mathematicians of his day estimated the circumference at 400,000 stadia,"^ and Archimedes puts the common reckoning at somewhat less than 300,000 stadia.'' How these figures were obtained we are not informed. The first measurement of the earth which rests on a known method was that maile about the middle of the third ■ ontury b. c, by Eratosthi es, the librarian at Alexandria, who, by comparing the estimated linear ( stance between Syene, under the tropic, and Alexandria with their angular distance, as deduced from observations on the shadow of the gnomon at Alexandria, concluded that the circumference of the earth was 250,000 or 252,000 stadia.^ This result, owing to an uncertainty as to the e.xact length of the stade used in the computation, cannot be interpreted with confidence but if we assume that it was in truth about twelve per cent, too large, we shall probably not be far out of the way.'' Hipparchus, in many matters whether thu eart'> \v;is round or flat (IViOiito, 46, in different stadia. It is now generally agreed Si,"iiib. i. 176). In riiitarcli's dialogue " On the that these estimates really denote different con- (a,i oppeariiii; iii tlu- orb of the moon" owt oi \\\z ceptions of the size of the earth, but opinions characters is lavish in his ridicule of the sphe- still differ widely as to the length of the stadium ricity of the earth and of the theory of antipo- used by the geographers. The value selected des. See also Lucretius, Do ronim n, and a degree of 129,500'". Xow Stra- bo, in the pass.ige where he says that people commonly estimated eight stadia to the mile, atlds that I'olybius allowed SJ stadia to the mile (Ci:os>-.,\\\. 7, § 4), ;ind in the fragment known as the Table of Julian of As;alon (Hultsch, .I/i/;-('/(;;'. scrif (Dorpfeld, Beiti-iii^e ztir niitiki-n Mt-trologit-, mMiltlu-i'iiitgcii lies di'iitscli •,! Arc/uicolot^. lustitiits zti Ati cii, vii. (18821,2771. ' Strabo, Giv^r., ii. 5, § 7 ; the estimate v( Posi- donius is only quoted hypothetically by ^.itiabo (ii. 2, §2). - Pliny, //«/. /Vdf. ii. 1 12, 1 13. There is appar- ';ntlv some misunderstanding, either on the part of Pliny or his copyists, in the subsequent pro- position to increase this estimate by 12,000 stadia. Schacfer's {l'hitoloi;us, x.wiii. 1S7) read- justment of the te.\t is rather audacious. Pliny's statement that Ilipparchus estimated the cir- cumference at 275,000 stadia does not agree with Strabo (i. 4, S i). ^ The discrepancy is variously explained. Ric- cioli, in his Gcoi^rapliia et /lydrop-ci/'/iia rcfonnata, i66t, first suggested the more commonly re- ceived solution. Posidonius, he thought, having calculated the arc between Rhodes and Alexan- dria at 1-48 of tin; circumference, at first assumed 5,00c stadia as the distance between these places : 5,000 X 48 r= 240,000. Later he adopted a re- vised estimate of the distance (Strabo, ii. ch. v. § 24), 3,750 stadia : 3,750 X 48 = 180,000. Le- tronne (Mem. de r Aead. des /user, et Belle.t-Lel- Ires, vi., 1822) prefers to regard both numbers as merely hypothetical illustrations of the pro- cesses. I lultsch (Grieehisehe u. Romi.u'he Metro- lope', iS''2, p. 63) follows Ereret and fiosselin in regarding,' both numbers as expressing the same value ''n stadia of different length ( Eurbiger, Hiiiidlnieh iter alien Ceox'rn/'/i/e, i. 360, n. 29). The last explanation is barred by the positive statement of Strabo, who can hardiv be thought not to have known what he was talking about : K&v T&v vctOTf'pa))/ 5f avan(T(fi)' !t 1 .* ' i i'- -'S f i' i i 6 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. further bank lay in fable-land. ^ The promulj^^ation of the theory of the sphericity of the earth and the approximate determination of its size drew attention afresh to the problem of the distribution of land and water upon its surface, and materially modified the earlier conception. The increase of j^-eographical knowledge along lines of trade, conquest, and colonization had greatly extcniled the bounds of the known world since Homer's dav, but it was still evitleiit that by far the larger portion of the earth, taking the smallest estimate of its size, was still undiscovered, — a fair field for speculation and fantasy.- We can tmre two schools of thought in respect to the configuration of this unknowL region, both represented in the primitive conception of the earth, and boMi conditioned by a more fundamental postulate. It was a near thought, if the earth was a sphere, to transfer to it the systems of circles which had already been applied to the heavens. The suggestion is attributed to Thales, to Pythagoras, and to Parmenides ; and it is certain that the earth was very early conceived as divided by the polar and solstitial circles into five zones, whereof two only, the temperate in either sphere, so the Greeks believed, were capable of supporting life ; of the others, the polar were uninhabitable from intense cold, as was the torrid from its parching heat. This theory, which excluded from knowledge the whole southern hemisphere and a large portion of the -lorthern, was approved by Aristotle and the Homeric school of geogra ers, and by the minor physicists. As knowledge grew, its truth was doubted. Polybius wrote a monograph, maintaining that the middle portion of the torrid zone had a temperate climate, and his view was adopted by Posidonius and Geminus, if not by Eratosthenes. Marinus and Ptolemy, who knew that commerce was carried on along the east coast of Africa far below the equator, cannot have fallen into the ancient error, but the error long persisted ; it was always in favor with the compilers, and thus perhaps obtained that currency in Rome which enabled it to exert a restrictive and pernicious check upon maritime endeavor deep into the Middle Ages.^ 1 Xenoplianes is to be excepted, if, as "SI. ^^ar- tin supposes, his doctrine of the infinite extent of the earth apjilicd to its extent horizontally as well as downward. - The domain of early Greek geography has not escaped the incursions of unbalanced inves- tigators. The Greeks themselves allowed the Argonauts an ocean voyage: Crates and Strabo did valiant battle for the universal wisdom of Homer ; nor are scholars lacking to-day who will demonstrate that Odysseus had circnmnavigat- ed Africa, floated in the shadow of Tencriffe — Horace to the contrary notwithstanding. — or sought and found the north pole. The evidence is against such vain imaginings. The world of Homer is a narrow world; to him the earth and the /Egean Sea are alike boundless, and in his thought fairy-land could begin west of the Lotos- eaters, and one could there forget the things of this life. There is little doubt that the author of the Odyssey considered Greece an island, and Asia and Africa another, and thought the great ocean eddied around the north of Hellas to a union with the Euxine. ^ Quinque tcnent caelum zonae: quaruni una corusco Semper sole rubens, et torrida semper ab igni; Qtiam circum extremae dextra laevaque tra- huntur Caeruleae glacie concrctae atque imbribus atris; Has niter mediam duae mortalibus aegris Munere concessae divom. (Virgil, Geor^-. i. 233.) The passage appears to be paraphrased from similar lines which are preserved in Achilles Ta- tius (/sag. in Phmiom. Aral. ; Petavius, Uranolog A ,' % I UCA. GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANCIENTS. theory of tlie f its size drew nd water upon Tlie increase id colonization Homer's day, L" earth, taking I fair field for configuration conception of tulate. It was the systems of 'he suggestion nd it is certain the polar and )crate in either ig life ; of the was the torrid Dxn knowledge •lorthern, was ■ers, and by bted. Polybius the torrid zone '^osidonius and who knew that 'ar below the le error long thus perhaps restrictive and e Ages.'^ orget the things of that the author of ece an island, and thought the great rth of Hellas to a >nae : quaruni una la semper ab igni; :xtra laevaque tra- que imbribus atris ; rtaUbus aegris il, Geor^. i. 233.) jmraphrascd from ,0(1 in Achilles Ta- Tetavius, Umnolog L'pon the question of the distribution of land and water, unanimity no longer prevailed. By some it was maintained that there was one ocean, coniiuent over the whole globe, so that the body of known lands, that so-called continent, was in truth an island, and whatever other inhabitable regions might e.xist were in like manner surrounded and so separated by vast expanses of untraversed waves. Such was the view, scarcely more than a survival of the ocean-river of the poets deprived of its further bank by the assumption of the sphericity of the earth, hekl by Aristotle,' Crates of Mallus, Strabo, I'liny, and many others. If this be called the oceanic theory, we may speak of its oppt)site as the continental : according to this view, the existing land so far e.xceeded the water in extent that it formed in triith the continent, holding the seas quite separate within its hollows. The origin of the theory is obscure, even though we recall that Homer's ocean was itself contained. It was strikingly presented by I'lato in the Pliacdo, and is implied in the Atlantis myth ; it may be re- called, too, that Herodotu.s, often depicted as a monster of credulity, had broken the bondage of the ocean-river, because he could not satisfy himself of the existence of the ocean in the east or north ; and while reluctantly admitting that Africa was surrounded by water, considered Gaul to e.x- tenJ indefinitely westward.'-^ Hipparchus revived the doctrine, teaching that Africa divided the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic in the south, so that these seas lay in separate basins. The existence of an equatorial branch of the ocean, a favorite dogma of the other school, was also denied by Polybius, Posidonius, and Geminus.^ The reports of traders and explorers led iNIarinus to a like conclusion ; both he and Ptolemy, misinterpreting their information, believed that the eastern coast of Asia ran south instead of north, and they united it with the eastern trend of Africa, supposing at the same time that the two continents met also in the west* The continental theory, despite its famous disciples, made no headway at Rome, and was consequently hardly kiinwn to the Middle Ages before its falsity was proved by the circum- navigation of Africa.^ p. 153), and by him attributed to the Hcrimsai Eratijsthenes. Sec also TibulUis, Elcg. iv., Ovid, and among the men of science, Aristotle, Mite- oroL, ii. 5, §§ II, 13, 15; Strabo, OV,;;,';-., i. 2, S J4 ; ii. 5, § 3 ; Pliny, Hist. Nat., ii. ch. 6S ; Mela, /'(■ chorographia, \. I ; Cicero, Reptibl., vi. 16; Titsc. Dis/^., i. 28. 1 Aristotle, •V<'/£-(';-i-/.,ii. i,§io; ii. 5, S 15; ^^^ au-lo, ii. 14 ad fin. Letronne, finding the latter passage inconvenient, reversed thf; meaning bv [Exameii critique, ii. 373). Such an emendation is only justifiable by the sternest necessity, and it has been shown by Ruge {Dei- Cliiihiiiey Seleii- kos, Dresden, 1865), and I'rantl (IVerl-e ties Aris- toteles iie/h-rsetzt mni erldutert, lid. ii. ; Die Ilim- vielsi^elhiude, note 61), that neither sense nor consistency requires tlie change. - Herodotus, ii. 23; iii. 115; iv. 36, 40, .15. ' Geminus, IsagOi;e. Polybius's work on this question is lost, and his own expressions as we the arbitrary insertion of a negative (/)/j<-K.f.f/()« have them in his history are mure conservative. dc I'o/'iinoii d'llifl'iirque sur le pri'loiiffement de It is, he says, unknown, whether .\frica is a con- r.ljyique ait slid de I'Eqiiator in Journal des tinent extending toward tlie south, or is sur- SaTcins, 1S31, pp. 476, 545). The theory which rounded by the sea. Po. Wj-/. iii. 38 ; Hanip- hc built upon this reconstructed foundation so ton's translation (London, ij, „ i. 334. impressed Humboldt that he changed his opin- * Ptolemy, Cecxr., vii. 3, 5. ion as to the views of Aristotle on this point ' The circumnavigation of Africa by Phoeni- 1 ' (• 1 : ! 8 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. That portion of Europe, Asia, and Africa known to the ancients, whether ret^arded as an ishind, or as separated from the rest of the world by climatic conditions merely, or by ignorance, formed a distinct concept and was known by a particular name, ry oiKDi'/itVi/. Originally supposed to be circular, it was later thought to be oblong and as having a length more than double its width. Those who believed in its insularity likened its shape to a sling, or to an outspread chlamys or military cloak, and assumed that it lay wholly within the northern hemisphere. In absolute figures, the length of the known workl was placed by Eratosthenes at 77,800 stadia, and by Strabo at 70,000. The latter figure remained the common estimate until Marinus of Tyre, in the second century A. D., receiving direct information from the silk-traders of a caravan route to China, substituted the jiortcntous exaggeration of 90,000 stadia on the parallel of Rhodes, or 225°. Ptolemy, who followed Marinus in many things, shrank from the naivete whereby the Tyrian had interpreted a seven months' caravan journey to represent seven months' travelling in a direct line at the rate of twenty miles a day, and cut down his figures to iSo", or 72,000 stadia.' It appears, therefore, that Strabo considered the known world as occupying not much over one third of the circuit of the temperate zone, while IMarinu.s, who adopted 180,000 stailia as the measure of the earth, claimed a knowledge of two thirds of that zone, and supposed that land extended indefinitely eastward beyond the limit of knowledge. What did the ancients picture to themselves of this unknown portion of the gl()!)e .' The more imaginative found there a home for ancient myth and modern fable ; the geographers, severely practical, excluded it from the scope of their survey ; philosophers and physicists could easily supply irom theory what they did not know as fact. Pythagoras, it is said, had taught that the whole surface of the earth was inhabited. Aristotle de- monstrated that the .southern hemisphere must have its temperate zone, where winds similar to our own prevailed ; his successors elaborated the hint into a systematized nomenclature, whereby the inhabitants of the earth were divided into four classes, according to their location upon the surface of the earth with relation to one another.'-^ ci;iiis at the commaiul of Xcclio, thoiiyh described and accepted l)v Herodotus, can hardly be called an established fact, in spite of all that has been written in its favor. The story, whether true or false, had, like others of its kind, little influence upon the l)elief in the impassable tropic zone, be- cause most of those who accepted it supposed that the continent terminated north of the equator. ' I'tolemy, (/(C;';'., i. 1 1-14. Eratosthenes and Strabo located their first meridian at Cape St. Vincent ; Marinus and Ptolcmv placed it in the Canary group. Sec Vol. II. p. 95. - (leininus, /s,i^-i\'c; ch. 13; .\chilles T.?'ins, /j'lJC'!?''' '" PlucHoin, Arati; Cleomedes, De rirciilis siibtimis, i. 2. The first two are given in the Uraiioloi;ion of Petavius, Lond., Paris, 1630, pp. 56. 155- The classes were always divided on the same principle, and each contained two groups so re- lated that they could apply to one another recip- rocallv the name by which the whole class was designed. These names, however, are not always applied to the same classes by different writers. I. The first class embraced the people who lived in the same half of the same temperate zone ; to them all it was day or night, summer or win- ter, at the same time. They were called ahvoi' KOI by Cleomede.s, but wtploiKoi by .Achilles Ta- tius. 2. The second class included such peoples as lived in the same temperate zone, but were I •I 'I :':L I f '' 1 I ''Si 1 ICA. GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE AN'CIENTS. the ancients, of the world tiiict conccj)! supposed to iii.i; a Icnf^tli larity likened •y cloak, and in absolute itosthenes at remained tlie :;ntury a. v., van i-()Ute to itadia on the uis in many )reted a seven ly in a direct es to I So', or d tile known :he temperate :'asure of the iUpposed that edge. nown portion ancient myth uded it from easily supply is said, had Aristotle de- perate zone, al)orated the tants of the ion upon the Paris, 1630, pp. ided on the same i) gicnips so re- It aiiotlicr rccip- wliole class was r, are not always ifferent writers, people who lived temperate zone ; summer or win- re called aivoi- by Achilles Ta- led such peoples zone, but were This system was furthest developed by the oceanic school. The rival of Eratosthenes, Crates of Mailus (who achieved fame by the coPntruction of a l:irL;e globe), assumed the existence of a southern continent, separated from tiie known world i)y the equatorial ocean ; it is possible that he introduced the idea of providing a distinct residence for each class of earth-dwellers, by postuhuing foiu" island continents, one in eacii quarter of the glolie. l'>atos- thcnes probably tiiought tiiat there were inhabitable regions in the southern hemisphere, and Strabo added that there might be two, or even more, hab- itable earths in the northern temperate zone, especially near the parallel of Rhndes.' CratL's introduced his views at Rome, and the oceanic theory remained a favorite with the R(jman physicists. It was avowed by I'liny, who championed the existence of antipodes against the vulgar disbelief. In the fine episode in the last book of Cicero's Republic, the younger Scipio relates a dream, wherein the elder hero of his name, Scipio Africanus, con- veying him to the lofty heights of the Milky Way, emphasized the futility of fame by showing him upon the earth the regions to which his name could never penetrate : " Thou seest in what few places the earth is inhabited, and tliose how scant ; great deserts lie between them, and they who dwell upon the earth are not only so scattered that naught can spread from one com- munity to another, but so that some live off in an oblique direction from you, .some off toward the side, and some even dwell directly opposite to you."- Mela confines himself to a mention of \.\\Q. Aiitichtlioncs,\\\\o live in the temperate zone in the south, and are cut off from us by the inter- vening torrid zone.'' divided l)y half the circumference of that zone ; so that while they all had summer or' winter at the same time, the one group had day when the other had ni^ht, and vice r\rs,i. These groups could call one another irepi'oi/coi according to Cle- omedus, but avTixBovfs according to Tatius. 3. The tliird cl.iss included those who were divided by the torrid zone, so that part lived in the north- ern temperate zone and part in the southern, but yet so that all were in the same half of their respective zones ; ;'. ^., all were in either the east- ern or western, upper or lower, hemisphere. Day and night were shared by the wliole class at once, but not the seasons, the northern group having summer when the southern had winter, and i;,v r,r.<,i. These groujis could call one another Hvtoikoi. 4. The fourth class comprised die groups which we know as antipodes, dwell- ing with regard to one another in dit'ferent halves of the two temperate zones, so that they had nei- ther seasons nor day or night in common, but stood upon the globe diametrically opposed to one another. All writers agree in calling these groups ai/TiVoSei. The introduction of the word antkhtlunu-s in place of fcriocci was due, appar- ently, to a misunderstanding of the Pythagorean •intuhthoii. This name was properly applied to the imaginary planet invented by tlie early Pv- i'lagoreans to bring the number of the spheres up to ten ; it was located between the earth and the central fire, and had the same period of revo- lution as the earth, from the outer, Grecian, side of which it was never visible. This " ojiposite earth," Gt-f;,-iieri/(; was later confused with the other, western, or lower hemisphere of the earth itself. It was also sometimes appned to the inhabitants of the southern hendsphere, as by Cicero in the Tusnilan Disf-iitii/ioiis (i. 2S), " diua- bus oris distantibus habitabilem et cultum; qua- rum altera quam nos incolimus, Sub axL' posita .itl stelLis septem linrle hnrrifer Aqiiilnni striiUtr gelidas niolitur nives, altera australis, ignota woh'xs,, (/nam vocaiit Giini avrlxOova " Mela has the same usage (i. 4, 5I, as cpioted below. Macrobius, Conmi. in Soiitii. Sri/. lib. ii. 5, uses the nomenclature of Cleomedes. Reinhardt, (pioted in F.ngelmann's Bihliotlura chissicii Gnrrn, under Geminus, I have not been able to see. ' Strabo, i. 4, § C, 7 ; i. 2, § 24. Geminus, /sa- ^ogc; 13. >ruellenhof, Dcnlschc Altcrthiimskuiide, i. 247-254. Berger, GtOi;r. F>\i'^mcnte d. Eratos- thetics, 8, 84. '^ Cicero, RcspnU., vi. 15 . . . sed partim obli- quos, partim transversos, partiin etiam adversos stare vobis. Some MSS. read aversos. See also Tusc. Dis/'., i. 28 ; Acad,, ii. 39. ^ Antichthones alteram [zonam], nos alteram \ i ■ i • I v> :; !■' ,( li ■ 10 NARKATI\'K AND CRITICAL HISTORY OK AMERICA. Indeed, the soiitlicin continent, the other world, as it was called," made a more distinct impression than the possibk' other continents in the northern hemisphere. Hipparchiis thou<(ht that Trapobene mi-ht be a part of this southern world, and the idea that the Xile had its source there was wide, spread : some supposing;- that it flowed beneath the equatorial ocean ; others believing, with Ptolemy, that Alrica was connected with the southern con- M.ACROBIUS.* tinent. The latter doctrine was shattered by the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope ; but the continent was revived when Tierra del Fuego, Aus- tralia, and New Zealand were discovered, and attained gigantic size on the incolimiis. Illiiis situs oli ardorem interceden- tis ]ilagae incognitiis, luiiiis dicendus est. Ilatc ergo al) ortu jiorrecta ad (iccasiim, et quia sic iacft aliriuaiito qiiam iibi latissiiiia est longior, ambitur nmnis occano. Mela, 0)cv., i. 4, 5. lie- cause Nfcla says tliat llie liiiown world is />«/ ///- //<■ lonc!cr than its width, it has been supposed that Ik; was bjtter iiilOrnied thau his conleiuiio- rarius, and attributed soniethint; like its real extent to .Vfrica. Thomassv {Lrs /iijffs ffjo- grapJuiiues, I'aris, 1852, ]). 17) finds in his work a rival system to that of Ptolemv. The discov- ery of America, he thinks, was due to I'tolemy; that of the Cape of flood Hope to Mela. It wa.s the good fortune of Mela that his work was widely read in the Middle .Ages, and had great influence ; but we owe him no new system of geography, since he simply adopted the oceanic theory as represented by Strabo and Crates. That he sliglitly changed the traditional propor- tion between tlie length and breadth of the known world is of small importance. The known world, he states, was surrounded by the ocean, and there is nothing to shew that he sup- posed -ifrica to e.xtend below the equator. In his description of .Vfrica he applies the terms length and breadtli not .is we should, but with contrary usage : ".Africa ab orientis parte Xilo terminata, jielago a ceteris, brevior est quidem quam F.uropa, quia nee usquam Asiae et non totis huius htoribus obtenditur, longior tamen ipsa quam latior, et qua ad tluvium adtingit latis- sima,' etc.. i. 20. (Ed. Parthey, 1867.) ' Mela, i. 54, " .Alter orbis." Cicero, Tusc Disf., i. 2S, " ( )ra .Australis." "I v' From Afacrol'ii Ambrosii Aurelii Thcodosti in Somnium Sci/icnis, Lid. II. (Lugduni, 1560). ■»; ■ ,., ar^ A. geo(;rai'HIcal knowi.kimie of tiii: anciknts. II ed,' made a he northern part of this e was wide- ean ; others uthern con- the Cape of ucgo, Alls- size on the and Crates, tional propor- readth of the )rtance. The oiMuled by the w tliat he sup- equator. In ics the terms ould, but with tis parte Xilo jr est quidem t\s!ae et non onuiur tanien adtingit latis- S67.) Cicero, Tusc li, 1560). maps of the sixteenth and seventecntli centuries ; oiiiy uitiiin the last two centuries has it shrunk to the present limits of the antarctic ice. Tiie oceanic theory, and the doctrine of the Tour Worlds, as it has been termed,' d-rra (j/Kii/ri/i^nj, wan set iorth in the ^^reatest detail in a commen- tary on the Dream of Scipio, written by Macrobius, prob- ably in the fifth century a. d. In the ciiiicussion and repul- sion of the ocean streams he found a sufficient cause for the phenomena of the tides,^ .Such were the theories of the men of science, ])urely speculative, originating,^ in logic, not discovery, and they give no hint of actual knowl- edge re arding those distant 1 II of the MACKOniL'S* aeternn afflatu continui calorls ustus, spatium quod et lato aiiibituet prolixius occupavit, iiimi- ctate fervoris facit inhabitabile victuris. Inter extrcinos vero et mediuni duo niajores ultimis, medio ininores ex utriusquc vicinitatis intempe- rie tcnijierantur. . . . Licet igitur sint hae diiae . . . quas dixiinus teniperatas, mm tanien ani1)ae zonae hominibus nostri generis induhae sunt: sed sola superior, .... incolitur ah onnii, quale scire possmuus, hominum gcnerc, Koniani Grae- civesint, vel barbari cujusque nationis. Ilia vero . . . sola ratione intclligitur, quod proiiter simi- lem tenipcriem similiter incolatur, sed a quibus, ne(|uc licuit unquaui nobis nee licebit cognoscere : intcrjecta enini torrida utrique hominum gcneri commerciutn ad se denegat commeandi . . . Nee dubimn est, nostrum quoquc septeutrionem [ven- tum] ad illos qui australi adjacent, pro]>ter earn- dem rationcm calidum pcrvenire, ct austrum cor- poribus eoruni gcmino aurae suae rigorc blandiri. I'.adem rraio nos non pcrmittit ambigere quiii per illam quoque supcrficiem terr.ie quae ad nos habetur inferior, integer zonarum ambitus quae hie temperatae sunt, eodcin ductu temperatus autem alter snbjectus aqniloni, quern incolitis, h.ibeatur ; at(|ne ideo illic quoque eaedem duae cerne quam tenui vos parte contingat. Omnis zonae a se distantes similiter incolantnr. . . . enim terra, qu-ie colitur a vobis, .angusta ver- N.amsi nobis vivendifacultas est in hac terrarum ticibus, lateribus latior, parva quaedam insula parte quam colimus, quia, calcantes humuin, est. . . ." (Cicero.) . . . Nam et septentriona- caelum suspicimus super verticem, quia sol no- lis et australis cxtremitas perpetua obriguerunt bis et oritur et occidit, ipn'a circumfuso fruimiu- pruina. . . . Ilorum uterque habitationis impa- aere cujus spiramus haustu, cur non et illic tiens est. . . . Medius cinguhis et idco maximus, aliquos vivere crcdamus ubi eadem semper in • From .-h'». ThcodosU AfacroMi Offrn {\.\}^f\s!. 1774). de ( larke, Atlaiilis, in the Transactions Royal Ilistoritiil Society, London, New Series, vol. iii. ; Reiuaud, Relations f 1^ »'■ 1 V" I i; ■J, i: !:; regions with which they deal. From them we turn to examine the literature of tile ima^jiiiation, lnr t;e()^ia' phy, by rij{lit the handmaid of history, is easily perverted to tlie service of myth. Tile e.xpandiii;; horizmi of tlie Grcei, in- terjectio ardentis sctpiestrat: et illi a nobis sep- teiitrionalis extremilatis rigore removentur. Kt quia non est una omnium at'tinis continuatio, sed interjectae sunt solitndines e.\ calore vel frigorc mutuum negantibus commcatum, lias terrae partes (pi.ie a qiiattunr liominum generibus incohintur, maculas habitationum vocavit. . . . f). Is eiiim qucm solum oceanum plures opi- nantur, de finibns ab illo originali refusis, secun- dum ex necessitate ambitum fecit. Ceterum prior ejus corona per zonani terrae calidam me.-.t, supcriora terrarum et inferiora cingens, tle.xum circi equinoctialis imitata. .Xb oriente vero duos .sinu.s refundit, unum ad cxtreniitatem septentri- onis, ad auslralis alterum : rursii.squu ab occi- dente duo pariter enascuntur sinus, cpii uscpie ad ambas, quas supra diximus, extremitates refusi occurrunt ab oriente demissis ; et, dum vi summa et impetii immaniore misceiitur, invicenHpie se feriunt, ex ipsa aqnarum collisione nascitur ilia fainosa oceani accessio pariter et recessio. . . . Ceterum verior, ut ita dicam, ejus alveus tenet zonam perustam ; et tarn ipse qui equinocti.ileni, (|uam sinus ex eo nati cpii horizontem ciriulum ambitu su.ae llexionis imitantur, omnem terrain (|u.adrilidam ilividunt, et singulas, ut supra dixi- mus, habitationes insulas laciunt . . . bin.is in siqieriore atque infeiiore terrae superlicie in- sulas. . . . ' Mr. Ciladstone (Homey ami the Ilomeiic ai;c, vol. iii.) transposes these Homeric localities to the cast, and a few (lerman writers agree with him. President Warrtn { True key to luuient eosniolox'ies, etc., lioston, iSSj) will have it that ( >gvgia is neither more nor less than the north pole. Neither of these views is likely to dis- place the one now orthodox. Mr. Gladstone is so much troubled by Odysseus's course on leav- ing Ogvgia that he cannot hide a suspicion of corruption in the text. President Warren should remember that Ogygia apparently enjoyed the common succession of day and night. In Ho- meric thought the western sea extended north ward and eastward until it joined the Euxine \ -'^ * -After Santarem's Atlas, as a ''mappemonde tiree d'lin manuscrit de Macrobe du Xime slide." I .. A. {;i:o(;kaphical knovvlkulu )I the ancients. 13 L' literature I'nr Kco^jia- iiulinaid of r\erti.'(l Id rizon of the edf^eil witli 1 was the I lyjierbo- asts of Ho- lit.' wniulcr- south, Tan- less Hthio- west lack ■ roMiauce. inj,' isle of 1 ; luTo the lavel of the earth's ex- empt from tcm scpleiitri- squu .lb occi- , ((ui iis(iiie ad init.ites lufiisi liim vi snmnia nvicfni(|in.' se c luiscitur ilia recL'ssio. . . . alveus tenet iiinncti.ilem, in ciruihnn nincm Itriiini lit sujira dixi- liinas in upui'licic in- llomciic i the CJreeks said was of foreign origin, — and tuXtva as jiruliahlv >puriiiii>. Cnmos appears on the south of it they placed the sea of the to have been originally a rha-nician deity, and dead, which held the islar.d homes of the de- his westward wandering played an inijiortant parted. .As in the Odyssey, it was a jilace given part in their mythology. We shall find further over to dust and darkness, and the doors of it traces of this divinity in the west, were strongly barred; no living being save a '• Pindar, 0/i'w/., ii. 66-S5, Palev's tran'iln'ion, god or a chosen hero might come there. Schra- London, 1S6.S, ]). 12. See also Kuripides, He- der, Xiuiien tf. Meerc in d. Assyrischcn Inschrif- leihi, 1677. /(•;; [AHiiindl. d. k. Akad. d. Il'iss. zii Bolin, 6 .■l.:,schylus, in the Pronutlu-us bound, intro. 1S77, p. 169). ]erem\as, Dit- />\i6y/o>iis,/i-Assyri- duced the Gorgon islands in his epitome of the Si^en roislellutigen vom Lehcn luu/i dim Tode wanderings of lo, and certainly seems to speak i^^ y 14 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. ii 1 ' ! '( • ; 1 /.i 1 ' > ' . J. II! ir 1 ' \ » with Hercules is well known. In the traditionary twelve labors the Greek hero is confused with his prototype the Tyriiu Melkarth, and those labors which deal with the west were doubtless borrowed from the cult which the Greeks had found established at Gades when trade first led them thither. In the tenth labor it is the western isle ICrytheia, which Hercules visits in the golden cup wherein Helios was wont to make his nocturnal ocean voyage, and from which he returns with the oxen of the giant Gcryon. Even more famous was the search for the apples of the Hes- perides, which constituted the eleventh labor. This golden fruit, the wed- ding gift produced by Gaa for Hera, the prudent goddess, doubtful of the security of Olympus, gave in charge to the Hesperian maids, whose island garden lay at earth's furthest bounds, near where the mysterious Atlas, their father or their uncle, wise in the secrets of the sea, watched over the pillars which pn jiped the sky, or himself bore the burden of the heavenly vault. The poets delighted to depict these isles with their shrill-singing nym'Mis, in the same glowing words which they applied to the Isles of the Blessed. " Oh that I, like a bird, might fly from care over the Adriatic waves!" cries the chorus in the Crowned Hippolytus, "Or to tlie famed Hesperian plains, Whose rich trees bloom with gold, To join tlie uriet'-attuned .strains Mv winged [irogress hold : Beyond whose sliores no passage gave The ruler of the purple wave ; " But Atlas stands, his stately height The awf nil boundary of the skies : There fountains of Ambrosia rise, Wat'ring the seat of Jove : her stores Luxuriant there the rich soil pours All, which the sense of gods delights." ^ When these names first became attached to some of the Atlantic islands is uncertain. Diodorus Siculus does not apply either term to the island discovered by the Carthaginians, and described by him in phrases appli- cable to both. The two islands described by sriiiors to Scrtorius about 80 li. c. were depicted in colors which reminded Plutarch Oi the Isles of the Blessed, and it is certain that toward the close of the republic the name Tnsulac Fortunatac was gi»en to certain 01 the Atlantic islands, including the Canaries. In the time of Juba, king of Numidia, we seem to distinguish at least three groups, the Iiisuhw Fortunatac, the Pnrpuranac, and the Hespcridcs, but be3'ond the fact that the first name still designated some of the Canaries identification is uncertain ; some have thought that different groups among the Canaries were known by separate names, while others of them as in the ca.st ; the passage is, however, ' Kiiripides, Hippolytus, 742-751; Potter's 'mourfect, an ' its interpretation has overtasked translation, i. j). 356, .Sec also Hesiod, Tlu-og^ uic ._ * 'nr. nentators. 215, 517-519 GEOCKAl'HICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANCIENTS. 15 the Greek lose labors cult which : led them 1 Hercules nocturnal the giant the Hes- t, the wed- tful of the lose island ous Atlas, d over the : heavenly rill-singing sles of the le Adriatic tic islands the island ises appli- about 80 Ics of the the name uding the istinguish and the d some of different ile others ;i ; Potter'3 siod, T/iivi,'., hold that one or both of the Madeira and Cape de Verde groups were known.' The Canaries were soon lost out of knowledge again, but the ' Fappy or Fortunate Islands continued to be an enticing mirage through- out the Middle Ages, and play a part in many legends, as in that of St. Brandan, and in many jioems.''^ Iksicie these ancient, widespread, popular myths, embodying the uni- versal longing for a happier life, we find a group of stories of more recent date, of known authorship and well-marked literary origin, which treat of western islands and a western continent. The group comiirises, it is hardly necessary to say, the tale of Atlantis, related by Plato ; the fable of the land of the Meropes, by Theopompus; and the description of the Satur nian continent attributed to I'lutarch. The story of Atlantis, by its own interest and the skill of its author, has made by far the deepest impression. Plato, having given in the Republic a picture of the iileal political organization, the state, sketched in the Ti- ni ' m if I i\' .>■ 1; I ,v K \) t extended their sway over many islands and over a portion of the great con- tinent ; even Libya up to the gates of Egypt, and Europe as far as Tyrrhe- nia, submitted to their sway. Ever harder they pressed upon the other nations of the iV')it Christophc Cotomb (Paris, 1S69). 241, 331,421 ; vii. 21). See also, in his ^//((/c' J'i/r - Athuitis : //h- ,iiit,;/i7ii7iiiii -i.h>r/,/, Sew York, iSS:. I t-ll COIllilli'llt )■ , New York, i canity -icyra^ ' /^^ti^i^^it/' «&- ^eh^ j^i?£^yigifz^c^. ji:^:a^i7Z^ /&frS^t- ^/i!^yi/ti/» TRACES OI- ATLANTIS. Section of a map Riven in Bricfe iibcr Amerika aiis ilcm Italieniscltcn des Hn. Grafcn Caih' Cnrli 'ibersetzt, Drifter T/ici! {C,n^, 17S;), where it is called an " Auszui; aiis denen K.irten welche der Pariser Akademie der Wissensclialten (1737, 1752) von dem Herrn von liuache iibergeben worden sind " VOL. . . — 2 I J>l % ft' .:i> % i.l h i II' "il ' '/( ATLANTIS INSULA ^ iV ' :pi " : f. fl! i'" ',1 I ' r { > I » ; i. I The annexed cut is an extract from Sanson's map of America, showing views respecting the new world as constituting the Island of Atlantis. It is called : Atlantis insula h Nicolao Sanson, antijuitati rcstituta ; nunc dcmum majori forma dclineata, et in decern rcgna juxta decern Kcptuni Jilios distributa. Prctterea insula:, nostrceq. continentis regioncs quibus imferavere Atlantic! reges ; aut quas armis tentaverc. ex tonatibus geographicis Gulielmi .Sanson, Xicolai filii (Amstelodami apud Petrum Mortier). L'ricoechea in the Mafotcca Colombiana puts this map under i6oo, and speaks of a second edition in idSS, which i..ust be an error. Nicholas Sanson was born in t6oo, his son \Villi.im died in 1703. Heside the undated Amsterdam print quoted above, Harvard College Library possesses a copy in which the words Xovus orbis fotius Altera Kntinent sive are prefixed tn the title, while the date MDCLXViiii is inserted a.(teT Jilii. This copy was published by Le S. Robert at Paris in 1741. \ K \mn *mM i^^^** >» . I the new world as bitifa/i rcstituta ; \buta. Prtrterea %nis tentavcrc, ex Uricoechea in Is, which i..iist be llated Amsterdam \bis fotius Altera This copy was CARTE CONJECTURALE DE L'ATLANTIDE. From a map in Bory de St. Vincent's Essais siir les isles Fortunees, Paris [1803]. A map in Anas- tasius Kircher's .\futidiis SuHcrraneiis (Amsterdam, 167S), i. S2, sliows Atlantis as a large island midway between the pillars of Hercules and America. I *., i' f |i /I ! 1 i''^ ; i 'I •^ ;; "^^^--^ ^ ^ • -'^t-l I /^ '^■^"^. ~^^-x l*^m\ CONTnUK CHART OF THE BOTTOM OF THE ATLANTIC. Sketched from the coli>iccl map of the United States Hydrographic office, as given in .Alexander Agassiz's Three Cruises of the /?/(7/{y (Cambridge. iSsS), voh i. The outhne of the continents is shown by an im- broken Hne. The 500 fathom shore line is a broken one ( ). The 2,000 fathom sliore line is made by a dash and dot ( . . . ). The large areas in mid-ocean enclo.sed by this line, have this or lesser depths. Of the small areas marked by this line, the depth of 2.000 fathoms or less is within the.se areas in all cases except as respects the small areas on the latitude of Newfoimdland. where the Larger areas of 2,000 fathoms' depth border on the small areas of greater depth. Depths varying from i,;oo to 1,000 fathoms are shown by horizontal lines ; from i.ooo to 500 by perpendicidar lines: and the crossed lines show tlic shallowest spots in mid-ocean of 500 fathoms or less. The areas of greatest depth (over 3,500 fathoms) are marked with crosses. ■I j I > . >" •i'j GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE hN'CIENTS. 21 which Solon had actually brought from Egypt, and which was in all csscn. tials true. Corroboration of the existence of such an island in the Atlantic is found, according to these writers, in the physical conformation of the Atlantic basin, and in marked resemblances between the flora, fauna, civilization, and language of the old and new worlds, which demand for tlieir explanation the prehistoric existence of just such a bridge as Atlantis would have supplied. The Atlantic islands are the loftiest peaks and plateaus of the submerged island. In the widely spread deluge myths Mr. Donnelly finds strong confirmation of the final cataclysm ; he places in Atlantis that primitive culture which M. Bailly sought in the highlands of Asia, and President Warren refers to the north pole. Space fails for a proper exam- ination of the matter, but these ingenious arguments remain somewhat top- heavy when all is said. The argument from ethnological resemblances is of all argument's the weakest in the hands of advocates. It is of value only when wielded by men of judicial temperament, who can weigh difference against likeness, and allow for the narrow range of nature's moulds. The existence of the ocean plateaus revealed by the soundings of the " Dolphin " and the "Challenger" proves nothing as to their having been once raised above the waves ; the most of the Atlantic islands are sharply cut off from them. Even granting the prehistoric migration of plants and animals be- tween America and Europe, as we grant it between America and ^Vsia, it does not follow that it took place across the mid-ocean, and it would still be a long step from the botanic "bridge" and elevated "ridge" to the island empire of Placo. In short, the conservative view advocated by Lon- ginus, that the story was designed by Plato as a literary ornament and a philosophic illustration, is no less probable to-day than when it was sug- gested in the schools of Alexandria. Atlantis is a literary myth, belonging with Utopia, the Ncxo Atlantis, and the Orbis alter et idem of Bishop Hall. ri Of the same type is a narrative which has come down indirectly, among the flotsam and jetsam of classic literature : it is a fragment from a lost work by Theopompus of Chios, a historian of the fourth century n. c, found in the Varia Historia of Aelian, a compiler of the third century a. n.^ The story is told by the satyr Silenus to Midas, king of Phrygia, and is, as few commentators have refrained from remarking, worthy the ears of its audi- tor.'- "Selenus tolde Midas of certaine Islands, named Europa, Asia, and Libia, which the Ocean Sea circumscribeth and compasseth round about. And that without this worlde there is a continent or percell of dry lande, which in greatnesse (as hee reported) was infinite and unmeasurable, that it nourished and maintained, by the benifite of the greene medowes and pas- ' 'X\\&o^^om\^., Fi\7gnienUi, etl. Wieters, 1S29, Roman, ami Jelivcrcl in En<;lish by k\hx?A\m\\ no. 76, p. 72. Gcographi Graec. mino>rs, etl. Mueller, i. 289. Aeliaiii, Far. Ilist., iii. iS. The extracts in the te.xt ,-ire taken from " .•/ K,xistre cf J/ysfoi-ies, y Aclianus, a F.[lcming]." London, 1576, fol. 36. - We owe this (niip to Tertiillian (he at least is the earliest writer to whom I can trace it) : "L't Silenus penes aures Midae blattit. af'lai sane ,^ramiioyil>us fahulis (/Ji> /•ai/io, cap. 2). •■/, 22 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. ; 1 ! i h: i 1 Y^ f 'i ' 1 ' \h '< '' ? Ih I ' i' ,1 1 turo plots, sundrye bigge and mii^hty beastcs ; that the men which inhabite the same cHmats, exceede the stature of us twise, and yet the length of there life is not equale to ours." Many other wonders he related of the two cities, Machimus, the warlike, and Euseues, the city of peace, and how the inhabitants of the former once made an attack upon Europe, and came first upon the Hyperboreans ; but learning that they were esteemed the most holy of the dwellers in that island, they " had them in contempte, de- testing and abhorring them as naughty people, of preposterous properties, and damnable behauiour, and for that cause interrupted their progresse, supposing it an enterprise of little worthinesse or rather none at al, to tra- uaile into sucha countrey. ' The concluding passage relating to the strange country inhabited ' :hc IVIeropes, from whose name later writers have called the contint. ^ .i:r«. ■ n, bears only indirectly upon the subject, as characterizing the w. e n;irriri'--.\i Without admitting the harsh i'.ugment of Aelian, who brands Theopom- pus as a " coyner of lyes and a forger of fond fables," it is clear that we are dealing here with literature, not with history, and that the identification of the land of the IVIeropes, or, as Strabo calls it, Meropis, with Atlantis or with America is arbitrary and valueless.* i' I' 1 " Furthermore he tolde one thing among all others, meriting admiration, that certain men called Meropes dwelt in many cittyes there about, and that in the borders adiacent to their coun- trey, was a perilous place named Anostus, that is to say, wythout retourne, being a gaping gulfe or bottomles pit, for the ground is as it were cleft and rent in sonder, in so much that it open- eth like to the mouth of insatiable hell, y' it is neither perfectly lightsome, nor absolutely dark- some, but tha'. the ayer hangeth ouer it, being tempered with a certaine kinde of clowdy rednes, that a couple of floodes set their recourse that way, the one oi' pleasure the other of sorow, and that about each of them growe plantes answear- able in quantity and bignes to a great plaine tree. The trees whicn spring by yo flood of sorow yeldeth fruite of o.ie nature, qualitie, and opera- tion. For if any man taste thereof, a streame of teares floweth from his eyes, as out of a con- duite pipe, or sluse in a running riuer, yea, such effect foUoweth immediately after the eating of the same, that the whole race of their life is turned into a tragical lamen'ation, in so much that weeping and wayling kniiteth their carkeses depriued of vitall mouing, in a winding sheete, and maketh them gobbettes for the greedy graue to swallow and deuoure. The othjr trees which prosper vpon the bankes of the floode of pleas- ure, beare fruite cleane contrary to the former, for whosoeuer tasteth thireof, he is presently weined from the pappes of his auncient appetites and inueterate desire?, cS: if he were linked in lone to any in time past, b^- is fettered in the forgetfulnes of them, so that al remembrance is quite abolished, by litle and litle he recouereth the yeres of his youth, reasuming vnto him by degrees, the times & seasons, long since, spent and gone. For, the frowardnes and crookednes of old age being first shaken of, the amiablenes and louelynesse of youth beginneth to budde, in so much as they put on y" estate of stripjilings, then become boyes, then change to children, then reenter into infancie, & at length death maketh a finall end of all." Compare the story told by Mela (iii. lo) .ibout the Fortunate Isles: "Una singular! duorum fontium ingenio ma.xime insignis: alterum qui gustavere risu solvuntur, ita adfectis remedium est ex altero bibere." It should be noted that the country described by Theopompus is called by him simply " The Great Continent." - .Strabo, vii. 3, §6. Perizonius makes this pas- sage in Aelian the peg for a long note on ancient knowledge of America, in which he brings to- gether the most important passages bearing on the subject. He remarks : " NuUus tamen du- bito, quin Veteres aliquid crediderint vel scive- rent, sed quasi per nebulam et caliginem, de America, partim ex antiqua traditione ab Aegyp- tiis vel Carthaginiensibus accepta, partim ex ratiocinatione de forma et situ orbis terrarum, unde colligebant, superesse in hoc orbe etiam alias terras praeter Asiam, Africam, & Euro- pam." In my opinion their assumed knowl- edge was based entirely on ratiocination, and was not real knowledge at all ; but Periionius well expresses the other view. GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANCIENTS. 23 The same remark applies to the account of the great Saturnian continent that closes the curious and interesting dialogue " On the Face appearing in the Orb of the Moon," attributed to Plutarch, and printed with his Morals : " ' An isle, Ogygia, lies in Ocean's arms,' " says the narrator, " about five days' sail west from Britain ; and before it are three others, of equal distance from one another, and also from that, bearing northwest, where the sun sets in summer. In one of these the barbarians feign that Saturn is detained in prison by Zeus." The adjacent sea is termed the Saturnian, and the continent by which the great sea is circularly environed is distant from Ogygia about five thousand stadia, but from the other islands not so far. A bay of this continent, in the latitude of the Caspian Sea, is inhab- ited by Greeks. These, who had been visited by Heracles, and revived by his followers, esteemed themselves inhabitants of the firm land, calling all others islanders, as dwelling in land encompassed by the sea. Every thirty years these people send forth certain of their numljcr ho minister to the imprisoned Saturn for thirty years. One of the men t!. is s- t forth, at the end of his service, paid a visit to the great island, as tb'^y ca .,. \ Europe. From him the narrator learned many things about the su.t; ot men after death, which he unfolds at length, the conclusion being that the souls of men ultimately arrive at the moon, wherein lie the Elysi; Fields of Ho- mer. "And you, O Lamprias," he adds, " may take 'ny relation in such part as you please." After which hint there is, I thii but little doubt as to the way in which it should be taken by us.* That Plato, Theopompus, and Plutarch, covering a range of nearly five centuries, should each have made use of the conception of a continent be- yond the Atlantic, is noteworthy ; but it is more naturally accounted for by supposing that all three had in mind the continental hypothesis of land dis- tribution, than by assuming for them an acquaintance with the great west- ern island, America. From this point of view, the result of our search into the geographical knowledge and mythical tales of the ancients is purely negative. We find, indeed, well-developed theories of physical geography, one of which accords remarkably well with the truth ; but we also find that these theories rest solely on logical deductions from the mathematical doc- trine of the sphere, and on an aesthetic satisfaction with symmetry and analogy. This conclusion could be invalidated were it shown that explora- tion had already revealed the secrets of the west, and we must now consider this branch of the subject. The history of maritime discovery begins among the Phoenicians. The civilization of Egypt, as self-centred as that of China, accepted only the commerce that was brought to its gates ; but the men of Sidon and Tyre, with their keen devotion to material interests, their almost modern ingenuity, had early appropriated the carrying trade of the east and the west. As they looked adventurously seaward from their narrow domain, ' Man Cronitim was the name given to a portion of the northern ocean. Forbiger, Handbuch, ii. 3, note 9. 24 NAKKAIUE AND CRITICAL HISIOKY OF AMERICA. mr. M i- . I .' v.:ir ' i 1 ii t) f\ 1 ,'l„ M :;,» tlie dim outline of Cyprus IjCckoiKiI tlicm down a lonj; lane of island sta- tions to tlic rich shores of Spain. ICven tiieir religion betrayed their bent : 1^1 and Cronos, their oldest deities, were wanderers, and vanished in the west ; on their traces Melkarth led a motley swarm of colonists to the At- lantic. These le.i;ends, filtering through Cyprus, Crete, or Rhodes, or borne by rash adventurers from distant Gades, appeared anew in (Jrecian mythol- ogy, the deeds of Melkarth mingling with the labors of Hercules. \Vc do not know when the Pha-nicians first reached the Atlantic, nor what were the limits of their ocean voyages. Gades, the present Cadiz, just outsiile the Straits of Gibraltar, was founded a few years before i lOO ii. c, but not, it is probable, without previous knowledge of the commercial importance of the location. There were numerous other settlements along the adjacent coast, and the gold, silver, and tin of these distant regions grew familiar in the markets of lOgypt, Mesopotamia, and India. The trade with Tartessus, the K\ Doratlo of antiquity, gave the Phoenician merchant vessels a name among the Jews, as well in the tenth century, when Solomon shared the adventures of Hiram, as in the si.vth, when I'^zekiel depicted the glories of Tyrian commerce. The I'hcenician seamanship was wide-famed ; their ves- ."x'ls were unmatched in speed, ' and their furniture and discipline excited the outspoken admiration of Xenophon. Beside the large Tarshish ships, they possessed light merchant vessels and ships of war, providf^d with both sails and oars, and these, somewhat akin to steamships in their indepen- dence of wind, were well adapted for e.xploration. Thus urged and thus provided, it is improbable that the Phiiino>\'s, ed. Mueller (I'aris, 1S55), i. pp. 1-14. Cf. also I'roirgom., jjp. .wiii, .\.\iii. Our only notion of the date of the e.\pedition is derivetl from I'liny, I/ist. Xiit.y V. i. § 7, who says ; " Fucre ct Ilannonis Carthaginieusium ducis comnicutarii, fuiiiiis rebus JioreiUissiiiiis explorare ambitum Africae jussi." All that is known of Himilko is derived from the statement of I'liny, Hist. A'at., ii. 67, that he was sent at about the same time as Hanno to explore the distant regions of Kurope ; and from the poems of .\vienus, who wrote in the fourth century, and professed to give, in the 0>\i Maritimtu many extracts from the writings of Himilko. The description of the ditticullies of navigation in the Atlantic is best known. In his Deutsche Altiitliumskuinle (lierlin, 1S70), i. pp. 73-210, .Muellenhof has de- vt)ted especial attention to an analysis of this record. •' I'liny, Ifist. i\'al.,\\. 3(1, 37; Mela, iii. 100, etc. ; Soliiuis, 23, 56 [ed. Mommsen, p. 117, 230] ; Ptolemy, Geoi^r., iv. 6 ; Rapport sur uiie mission scienlitiquc i/,iiis !\irc/ii/'il CiUiiiricuiic, jiar M. le (locteur \'erneau ; 1S77. \n Aiclii-\s dcs Mis- sions Siioiili/iiiito el Li/teruires, 3'' serie, torn. xiii. pp. 569, etc. The presence of Semites is indi- cated in Gran Canaria, Fcrro, I 'alma, and the inscriptions agree in character with those found in Numidia by C",en. Faidherbc. In Gomeraand Teneriffe, where the Guanche stock is purest, there have been no inscriptions found. Dr. Verneau believes that the Guanches arc not de- scended from Atlantes or .•\mericans, but from the Quaternary men of Cro-magnon on the Vezere ; he found, hov—ver, traces fif an un- known brachycephaUc race in Gomera. 7 a6 NARRATIVi; AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. I li"( followed, for we find Pindar and his successors referring to the Pillars as tlie limit of iuivi;;;ition. In 600 u. c, Massilia was founded, and soon became a rival of Cartha-^e in the western Mediterranean. In the fourth century wc have evidence of an attempt to search out the secrets of the ocean after the manner of Hanno and Himilko. In that century, I'ytlieas made his famous voyage to tlie laiuis of tin and amber, discovering the still mysterious Thule ; while at the same time his countryman ICuthy- menes sailed soutiuvard to the Senegal. With these exceptions we hear of no Grecian or Roman e.vplorations in the Av'antic, and meet with no indication that they were aware of any other lands '.^cyoml the sea than the I-'ortunate Isles or the Hesperides of the early poets ' About 80 1). c, Sertorius, being for a time driven frt m Spain by the forces of Sulla, fell in, when on an expedition to Haetic^ with certain sailors who had just returned from the "Atlantic islands," which they 1 |> I < It' :i( i'i 'It, ill! ii , ' . . ' In the second century, A. D., Taiisanias {Desc. Graec, i. 23) was told by Kiipliemus, a Carian, that once, on a voyage to Italy, li lad been driven to the sea outside {it tV l{ai Di\aa- aav], where people no longer sailed, and where he tell in with many desert islands, some inhab- ited by wild men, red-haired, and with tails, whom the sailors called Sa'yr.s. Nothin); more is known of these islands. '£{(11 has here been ren- dered simply "distant"; but even in this sense it could hardly apply in the time of Pausanias to any region but the Atlantic. It is more proba- ble that the ])hrase means " outside the columns." In the first century 11. c, some men of an un- known race were cast by the sea on the German coast. There is nothing to show that these men were American Indians ; but since that has been sometimes assumed, the matter should not be passed over here. The event is mentioned by Mela {Di- Chorof;r., iii. 5, § 8), and by Pliny (Hist. A'lit., ii. 67); the castaways were forwarded to the proconsul, Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer (11. c. 62), by the king of the tribe within whose terri- tory they were found. Pliny calls the tribe the Sutvi ; the reading in Mela is very uncertain. Parthey has Botorum, the older editors Baeto- rum, or Boiorum. The Romans took them for inhabitants of India, who had been carried around the north of Europe ; modern writers have seen in them Africans, Celts, Lapps, or Caribs. A careful study of the whole subject, with references to the literature, will be found in an article by F. Schiern : Uit enii^ic ethiw- ^iif'/iii/ue di t'antiquitf, contributed to the Me- moirs of the Royal Society of Northern Antiqua- ries, New Series, 1878-83, pp. 245-2S8. In the Louvre is an antique bronze which has been thought to represent one of the Indians of Mela, and also to be a good rejjroduction of the features of the North American Indian (Long- perier, A'otice Jes brontes antiques, etc., du Musie dii Louvre, Paris, 1S6S, p. 143), but the supposi- tion is purely arbitrary. Such an event as an involuntary voyage from the West Indies to the shores of I'lurope is not an impossibility, nor is the case cited by Mela and Pliny the only one of the kind which we find recorded. Goniara (/fist. i;iu. de lus />idias,y) says some savages were thrown upofi the tier- man coast in the reign of Frederic Harbarossa (1152-1190), and Aeneas Silvius (I'ius II.) prob- ably refers to the same event when he quotes a certain Otho as relating the capture on the coast of Clermany, in the time of the German empe- rors, of an Indian ship and Indian traders (mer- catores). The identity of Otho is uncertain. Otto of Freisingen (t 1158) is probably meant, but the passage does not appear in his works that have been preserved (Aeneas Silvius, //is- toria itriim, ii. 8, first edition, Venice, 1477). The most curious story, however, is that related by Cardinal Bembo in his history of Venice (first published 1551), and quoted by Horn (De orix. A»ur., 14), (iarcia (iv. 29), and others. It de- serves, however, record here. "A French ship while cruising in the ocean not far from liritain picked up a little boat made of split oziers '..id covered with bark taken whole fron* .iie tree; in it were seven men of moderate height, rather dark complexion, broad and open faces, marked with a violet scar. They had a garment of fish- skin with spots of divers shades, and wore a headgear of painted straw, interwoven with seven things like ears, as it were (coronam e culmo pictam septem quasi auriculis intextam). They ate raw flesh, and drank blood as we wine. Their speech could not be understood. Six of them died ; one, a youth, was brought alive to Roano (so the Italian; the Latin has Aulercos), where the king was" (Louis XII.). Bembo, Rerum Venettirum Hist. vii. year, 1508. [Opere, Venice^ 1729. >• «88.] GE(JGRAI'IIICAL KNOWLEUCK OF THi: ANClEN IS. 27 described as two in number, distant 10,000 stadia irum Africa, and enjoy- in;; a wonderful climate. The account in I'lutarch is quite consistent with a previous knowledge of the islands, even on the part of Sertorius. He this as it may, the glowing praises of the eye-witnesses so impressed him that only the unwillingness of his followers prevented his taking refuge there. Within the next few years, the Canaries, at least, became well known as the Fortuitatae Iiisiilae ; hut when Horace, in the dark days of civil war, urged his countrymen to seek a new home across the waves, it was apparently the islands of Sertorius that he hail in mind, regarding them as unknown to other peoples.' As we trace the increasing volume and e.xtent of commerce from the days of Tyre and Carthage and Alexandria to its fullest development under the empire, and remember that as the drafts of luxury-loving Rome upon the products of the cast, even of China and farther India, increased, the true knowledge of the form of the earth, and the underestimate of the breadth of the western ocean, became more witiely known, the question mevitably suggests itself. Why did not the enterprise which had long since utilized the monsoons of the Indian Ocean for direct passage to and from India essay the jias.sage of the Atlantic .' The inquiry gains force as we re- call that the possibility of such a route to India had been long ago asserted. Aristotle suggested, if he did not express it ; Eratosthenes stated plainly that were it not for the extent of the Atlantic it would be possible to sail from Spain to India along the same parallel;- and Strabo could object nothing but the chance of there being another island-continent or two in the way — an objection unknown to Columbus. Seneca, the philosopher, iterating insistence upon the smallness of the earth and the pettiness of its affairs compared with the higher interests of the soul, exclaims ; " The earth, which you so anxiously divide by fire and sword into kingdoms, is a point, a mere point, in the universe. . . . How far is it from the utmost shores of Spain to those of India .' But very few days' sail with a favoring wind." 3 \\ \ .' * No5 manet Oce.inus c'lrcumvagus ; arva, beata PeLiimis .irva, divilcs ct insulas, Rfdclit ubi C!ererem tcHus inarata quotannis Et inputata floret usque vinea. Non hue Argoo cnntendit remitie pinus, Neque tnpudica Colchis intulit pedem ; Kon hue SidoHii tonerunt tornua nautatt Laborios, nee cohors I'lixei. Juppitti t pi.ie seerevil Htora genti, Ut inquu).. -ii acre lempvis aiirenm ; Acre, dehiT, ferro duravit saecula, quorum Piis seeunda, vate me, datur fusja. (Horace, Efodt, xvi.) Virgil, in the well-known lines in the prophecy of Anchises — Super et Garamantes et Indos Proferet inperium : iacet extra sidera tellus, Extra anni golisque vias, ubi caelifer Atlas Axem humero lorquet atellis ardentibus aptum — i/Sntid, vi. 795.) had Africa rather than the west in mind, accord- ing to the commentators. It is possible that the islands described to Sertorius were Madeira and Pi^rto Santo, but the distance was much overestimated in this case. ■-' " He [Eratosthenes] says that if the extent of the Atlantic Ocean were not an obstacle, we might easily pass by sea from Iberia to India, still keeping in the same parallel, the remaining portion of which parallel . . . occupies more than a third of the whole circle. . . . Kut it is quite possiTjle that in the temperate zone there may be two or even more habitable earths \oU Kovixivas], especially near the circle of latitude which is drawn through Athens and the Atlantic ocean." (Strabo, GeiXr., i. 4, § 6.) ^ Seneca, Xaturaliiim Quaest. Piarfatio. The I I ,; i.'i -J i ;v^' 28 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. 1 'II ' vr^' ' ''■ \i J'^' :' t 'I ■ 1.' i <'l' I I ' Holdini; these views of the possibility of the voyage, it is improbable thiit the size of their ships and the lack of the copipass coukl have 'ong prevented the ancients from putting them in practice had their interest so demantled.' Their interest in the matter was, however, purely speculative, since, under the unity ami power of the Roman empire, which succeeded to and absorbed the commercial supremacy of the Phoenicians, international competition in trade did not exist, nor were tne routes of trade subject to effective hostile interruption. The two causes, therefore, which worked powerfully to induce the voyages of Da Gama and Columbus, after the rise of individual states had given scope to national jealousy and pride, and after the fall of Constantinople had placed the last natural gateway of the eastern trade in the hands of Arab infidels, were non-e.xistent under the older civilization. It is certain, too, that the ancients had a vivid horror of the western ocean. In the Odyssey, the western Mediterranean even is full of peril. With knowledge of the ocean, the Greeks received tales of " Gor',ons and Chimeras dire," and the ver)' poets who sing the beauties of the Elysian or Hesperian isles dwell on ihe danger of the surround- ing sea. I3eyoud Gades, declared Pindar, no man, 1 .nvevcr brave, could jjass ; only a god might voyage those waters. The same idea recurs in the reports of travellers and the writings of men of science, but here it is the storms, or more often the lack of wind, the viscid water or vast shoals, that check and ap]ia!l the mariner. Aristotle thought that beyond the columns the sea was shallow and becalmed. Plato utilized the common idea of the mud-banks and shoal water of the Atlantic in accounting for the '!''sa]:)pearance of Atlantis. Scylax reported the ocean not navigable bcvond Cerne in the south, and Pytheas heard that beyond Thule sea and air became confounded. Even Tacitus believed that there was a peculiar resistance in the wateis of the northern ocean. - Whether the Greeks owed this dread to the Phoenicians, and whether the latter shared the feeling, or simulated and encoura;;ed it for the purpose of concealing their iirofitable adventures beyond the Straits, is doubtful. In two cases, at least, it is possible to trace statements of this nature to Punic passage is certainly striking, but those who, like - .\ristotle, Meti'orohx-, ii. i, § 14 ; I'lato, 7"/- liaron Zacli, l)ase upon it (lie conclusion that iii.ieiif; Scylax Caryantlensis, /'(■'7//«,r, i ij. t^j American voyagers were common in the clays of Kf'pi/Tjs 5f i^irou to fWwfii'a ouKfTi ('or! irAoira 8ia Seneca overestimate its force. Tt is certainly PpaxvTTjTa BaKarTijf ko.) irriKhv xai iii>, 45, i, //;'r;V(i/<;, .\. A gloss to America been known, he would not have used Suidas a])plies the name Atlantic to all innavi- the illustration. gable seas. Pausanias, i. ch. 3, § 6, says it con- ' Smaller vessels even than were then afloat tained str.ange sea-l)easts. and was not navigable have crossed the .\tlantic, and the passage from in its more ilistant parts. A long list of refer- the Canaries is hardly more difficult than the ences to similar passages is given by Ukert, Indian navigation. The Pacific islanders make Grof^r. der Griecheit u. Komer, ii. i, p. 59. See vovag'.'S of davs' durauon by the stars alone to also Herger, Wissenschoftliche Gcas^rupliie, i. p. go.als infinitely smaller than the broadside of 27, note 3, and Grote, }/ist. of Greece, iii. ch. iS, .•\sia,to which the ancients would have supposed notiis. themselves addressed. GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE AN'CIENTS. 29 sources, and antiquity a,Lj;rcL'd in giving tlie Phoenicians credit for discour- aging rivalry by every art.' To an age avers? to investigation tor its own sake, ignorant of scientific curiosity, and unimpclled by economic pressure, tales like these might seem decisive against an attempt to sail westward to India. Rome could thor- oughly appreciate the imaginative mingling of science and legend which vivified the famous prophecy of the pcx't Seneca : \'enietu annis .saeculii scris Ouibus Oceanus vincula rfnim Laxet, et iiigens ixitcljit tt-llus Tethysque novos llL■tc^'ct orbcs Nee sit terris ultima Tlnile.''' But even were it overlooked that the i)rophecy suited better the reve- lation of an unknown continent, such as the theory of Crates and Cicero placed between luirope and Asia, than the discovery of the eastern coast of India, mariners and merchants might be pardoned if they set the deterrent opinions collected by the elder Seneca above the livelier fancies of his son.'' The scanty records of navigation and discovery in the western waters confirm the conclusions drawn from the visions of the poets and the theo- ries of the philosophers. No evidence from the classic writers justifies the assumption that the ancients communicated with America. If they guessed at the possibility of such a continent, it was only as we to-day imagine an antarctic continent or an open polar sea. Evidence from ethnological com- ' De Mi)\il>. Aiisiiill., 136. The I'liaiiicians are said to have discovered beyond Gades e.\- teiisive shoals aboiiiuling in fish. Qii.ie Hiniilcti Puenus meiisibus vi.\ quatuor, Ut ipse semet re probasse retulit Elnvi;.;.lnlem, pos-.e tr.insniitti adscrit : Sic nulla late tlabra prfuiuliim ter;.;a diniitti maris, Parviique aquaruni vix supirtexi solum ; Obire semper hue et luic pnnti fcras, Navi^ia lenta et languicle repentia Intern.itare belUias. (Avienus, Ora M,iritimn, 115-130.) Hunc usus olim dixit Oceamim vi-tus, Alteripi« dixit nins .Atjanticiim mare I.nniio t'xpiicatur i;iir::es lui).is ambitu, Fiiviuciturqae latere pridixe vagn. I'lerumqvie porro tenue lenditnr sahim, Vl vix arenas subiacentes occnial. Kxsiiperat auteni i;iiri;itcm flicus frequens, Alqne impeditur acstus hie uliijine : Vis belhiarum pelaijiis i^inne internatat, Mnitnsqne terror ex feris liabitat frela, Haec 'ilitn Hiir.ilcos Pnemis Oceant) super Speciasse 'emel < t prnbasse retulit : Haec nos. ab iniis Punicnruni aima il)us Prnlata Vhiro tempore, ediditnus tibi. ^llud. 402-415.) Whether Avienus had immediate knowledge of these I'unic sources is quite unknown. - Seneca, Mtdea, 376-3S0. ^ In the first book of his Siauoriic, AL An- nacus Seneca collected a number of examples illustrative of the manner in which several of the famous orators and rhetoricians of his time had handled the subject, Dcliherat Alcxaiuicr, ail Octiiiiiim iiiiTi!^'-,'/, which appears to have been one of a number of stock sulqects for use in rhetorical traininj;. This collection thus gives a good view of the prevalent views about the ocean, and certainly tells strongly against the idea that the western passage was then known or |)rac- tised. " Fertilcs in C)ceano jaccre terras, ultra- qne Occanum riirsus alia littora, alium nasci orbem, . . . fiicitc is/ii Jiiii^iiiititr ; quia Octaiius navi«iiyi non /-of est . . . confiisa Ui.\ alta caligine, et interceptus tencbrisdies, ipstim veros grave et devitim mare, <■* aut ntiUa, aut ignota sidera. Ita est, -Alexander, rciuni natiira; /•ost omiiiii Ocea- ti'is, post Ociiiniim nihil. . . . Immensum, et hu- manae intentatum '-xperientiae pelagus, totius orbis vincidum, terr; ruinque custodia. inagitata remigio vastitas. . . Kabianus . . . divisit enim ilhim [quaestioii'-ii] sic, ut primuni negaret .illas in Oceano, aut trans Oceap'.:;'i. esse term, habi- tabiles : deinde si essent, pcrveni.i tninen ad il- las non posse. Hie difticultatem ignoli maris, naturam non patientcm navigationis." I 30 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. parisons is of course admissible, but those who are best fitted to handle such evidence best know its dangers ; hitherto its use has brought little but discredit to the cause in which it was invoked. I I I ! I.- .1 H i'' Ill ; 1. The geographical doctrines which antiquity bequeathed to the Middle Ages were briefly these : that the earth was a sphere with a circumference of 252,000 or 180,000 stadia; that only the temperate zoiics were inhabita- ble, and the northern alone known to be inhabited ; that of the sontheni, owing to the impassable heats of the torrid zone, it could not be discovered whether it were inhabited, (;r whether, indeed, land existed there ; and that fn nipi^n xoi-iakiAnu THE RECTANGULAR EARTH.* of the northern, it was unknown whether the intervention of another con- tinent, or only the shoals and unknown horrors of the ocean, prevented a westward passage from Europe to Asia. The legatee preserved, but did not improve his inheritance. It has been supposed that the early Middle Ages, under the influence of barbarism and Christianity, ignored the sphe- ricity of the earth, deliberately returning to the assumption of a plane sur- face, either wheel-shaped or rectangular. That knowledge dwindled after the fall of the empire, that the early church included the learning as well as the religion of the pagans in its ban, is undeniable ; but on this point truth prevailed. It was preserved by many school-books, in many jjopular * Sketched in the Bollettino delta Societh !;cot;rafica italiana (Roma. 1SS2), p. 540, from the original in (he Hiblioteca Medicca l-aurenziana in Klorence. The representation of this sketch of the earth by Cosmas Indicopleustes more commonly met with is from the engraving in the i"'.i*ion of Cosmas in Montfaucon's Cotlfctio nova fatrum, Paris, 1706. The article by Marinelli whidi cot 'c .,'^etch given here has also appeared separately In a German translation (Die ErJkunde bei den t .nvdlern, Leipzig, 1S84). The sontinental land bevond the ocean should be noticed. I'.' , GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANCIENTS. 31 (Sep compilations from classic authors, and was accepted by many ecclesiastics. St. Augustine did not deny the sphericity of the earth. It was assumed by Isidor of Seville, and taught by Bede.' The schoolmen buttressed the doctrine by the authority of Aristotle and the living science which the Arabs built upon the Almagest. Gerbert, Albert the Great, Roger Bacon, Dante, were as familiar with the idea of the earth-globe as were Hipparchus and Ptolemy. The knowledge of it came to Columbus not as an inspiration or an invention, but by long, unbroken descent from its unknown Grecian, or pre-Grecian, discoverer. As to the distribution of land and water, the oceanic theory of Crates, as expounded by Macrobius, prevailed in the west, although the existence of antipodes fell a victim to the union, in the ecclesiastic mind, of the heatiien theory of an impassable torrid zone with the Christian teaching of the de- scent of all men from Adam.^ The disc(n-eries made by the ancients in the ocean, of the Canaries and other islands known to them, were speedily for- gotten, while their geographic myths were superseded by a ranker growth. The Saturnian continent, Meropis, Atlantis, the Fortunate Isles, the Hes- perides, were relegated to the dusty realm of classical learning; but the Atlantic was not barren of their like. Mediaeval maps swarmed with fabu- lous island.-,, and wild stories of adventurous voyages divided the attention with tales of love and war. Antillia was the largest, and perhaps the most famous, of these islands ; it was situated in longitude 330° east, and near the latitude of Lisbon, so that Toscanelli regarded it as much facilitating the plan of Columbus. Well known, too, was Bra^ir, or Brazil, having its proper position west and north of Ireland, but often met with elsewhere ; both this island and Antillia afterward gave names to portions of the new continent.^ Antillia, otherwise called the Island of Seven Cities, was discovered and settled by an archbishop and six bishops of Spain, who fled into the ocean after the vict ay of the Moors, in 714, over Roderick; it is even reported to have been rediscovered in 1447.* Mayda, Danmar, ]\Ian Satanaxio, Isla Verde, and others of these islands, of which but little is known beside the names, appear for the first time upon the maps of the fourteenth and fif- teenth centuries, but their origin is quite unknown. It might be thought that they were derived from confused traditions of their classical prede- A' ' Virgil, bishop of .S.-ilzburg, was accused be- fore Pope Xacharias by St. Boniface of teaching the doctrine of antipodes; for this, and not for hisbelief in the sphericity of the earth (as I read), he was threatened Ijy the Tope with expulsion from the church. The authority for this story is a letter from the Tope to Boniface. See Mari- nelli, Z//V Eri/kiiihlc hei ih-n Kirchowiilcyii, p. 42. ' Cosmas, as will be seen in the cut, adhered to the continental theor\', placing Paradise on the continent in the east. Paradise was more commonly pKiced in an island east of Asia. ■' It has been suggested by M. Beauvois that Labrador may in the same way derive its name from litis Labrada, or the Island of Labraid, which figures in an ancient Celtic romance. The conjecture has only the phonetic resemblance to recommend it. Beauvois, VElysh trausallnn- tique {Rei'iie Jc rHistoire des Relii^'oits, vii. ( 1SS3 1, p. 291, n. 3). ♦ Gaffarel, P., Les isles fantastiquts de P Allan- tique an moyen dge, 3. >• 32 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. i t' ■? ^V .■( I !ff cjjsors, wit!; vhich ihoy have been iclLMitificd, l)ut modern tolk-lore has shown tb it such fancies sprinj; up spontaneously in every coaimunity. To dream of a distant spot where joy is untroubled and rest unbroken by grief or toil is a natural and inaiienaijle bent of the human mind. Those happy islands which abound in the romances of the heathen Celts, Mag Mell, Field of Delight, Flath Inis, Isle of the Heroes, the Avallon of the Arthur cycle, were but a more exuberant forth-putting of the same soil that produced the J!;iysian Fiekls of Homer or the terrestrial paradise of the Hebrews. The later growth is not born of the seed of the earlier, though somewhat affected by alien grafts, as in the case of the famous island of St. Brandan, where there is a curious commingling of Celtic, Greek, and Christian traditions. It is dangerous, indeed, to speak of earlier or later in reference to such myths ; one grouji was written before the others, but it is quite possible that the earthly paradise of the Celt is as old as those of the i\Iediteiranean peoples. The idea of a phantom or vanishing is- land, too, is very old, — as old, doubtless, as the fact of fog-banks and mirage, — and it is well exemplified in those mysterious visions which en- ticed the sailors y the Aleu- tian Islands is converted into the question whether primitive people could have success- fully croN>ed an interval from Asia of t jo milei to reach the island Miedna, 126 more to Ueh- ring's Island, and then :J5 to Attn, the western- most of the Aleutian Isl.iiids, or nearly 500 miles in all, and to have crossed in such numliers as to affect the peopling of the new continent. There are some, like Winchell, who see no difticulty in the case.' There are no authenticated relics, it is believed, to prove the Tartar occupancy of the northwest ol America.'' That there have been occasional eslrays upon the coasts of Itritish Columbia, Oregon, and California, by the drifting thither of Chinese and Japanese junks, is certainly to be believed ; but the argu- ment against their crews peopling the country is usually based upon the probable absence of women in them, — an argument that certainlv does not invalidate the belief in an infusion of Asiatic blood in a previous race.* The easterly passage which has elicited most interest is one alleged to have been made by some lluddhist priests to a country called Ku- sang, and in proof of it there is cited the narra- tive of one tluei-Shin, who li reported to have returned to China in A. I). 49<> Keilde much in the story that is ridiculous and impossible, there are certain features which have led some commentators to believe that the coast of Mex- ico was intended, and that the Mexican maguey plant was the tree fusang, after which the country is said to have been called. The story was first brought to the attention uf I'iuropcanH in 17OI, when l)e Guignes ])ublished his p.iper on the subject in the 2Sth volume (pp. 505-.'<)) of the Academy of Inscriptions.'' It seems to have attracted little attention till J. II. von Klaproth, in iSji, discredited the American th'.'ory in his " Kecherches sur It p.iys de Koii- sang," published in the XoitTilln Amuilis Jts l'oytti;ii (3(1 ser., vol. xxi ), accniiipanicd by a chart. In 1834 there appeared ai I'aris a French translation, Aitiiatts il,\i tmptitui s ilii Jiipon (Nifoii diii itsi raH),\o which (vol. iv.) Klap- roth appended an " Aper^u de I'histoire mylho- logique du Japon," in which he returned to the subject, and convinced Humboldt at least,'' that the country visited was Japan, ami nut .Mexico, though he coidd but see striking analogies, as he thought, in the Mexican myths and customs to those of the Chinese." In l84i,Karl Friedrich Neumaini, in the Zcit- I. '.»' \ \\ \ riaks. C'f. also Ibul., July, 1SS4. Dall and Pinart pronounce against any affinity of tongues in the Contribu- tions to Miner. ^M«i'/i)i'>' (Washington), 1. 97. Cf. .^hurt, A'r. .liner, of Antiq., 494; I.eland's Fusang, ch. 10. ' Hehring's .^traits, first oiwned. as Wallace says, in (|uaternary times, are 45 miles across, and are often frozen in winter, .'^nuth of them is an island where a tribe of Kskimiis live, and tlay keep constant conmiunication with the main of Asia. 50 miles distant, and witli .\merica, uo miles away. Robertson solved the difli- cultv by this route. Cf. Contributions to Amer. E'hnology (1S7;), i. 93-<>S; Warden's Recherdies; Maury, in Kerue des deux .Xfondes, Ap. 15, i.'i,.'^ ; I'eschel's A'(Ues of Men, p. 401 ; 1". von llellwald in Smithsonian Refort, i.Siir,; Short, p. 510; liancroft, A'(i//rt' A'irei,'ee, oit raffirmative est pi-oHvee (I'aris, 1844); and in 1S47 he published Nonvelles freuves que le pays dn Fousang est r Aineriiinei- The controversy as between De Guignes and Klaproth was shared, in 1802, by Gustave d'Eichthal, taking the Frenchman's side, in the Ke7'ne Archeologiqiie (vol. ii.), and finally in his Etudes snr les orii^iiies Boiiddhiijues de la eivili- salion Anihicaine (Paris, i865).'' In 1S70, K. Hretschneider, in his " Fusang, or who discovered .\merica .' " in the Chinese A\- eorder and Missionary yournal (Foochow, Oct., 1S70), contended that the whole story was the fabrication of a lying priest.^ In io75 there was new activity in discussing the question. Two French writers of consider- able repute in such studies attracted attention : the one, Lucien Adam, in the Congres des Ame- ricanistes at Nancy (Coinpte Hendu, i. 145) ; and the other, Leon de Kosny, entered the discus- sions at the same session (Ibid. i. p. 131 )fi The most conspicuous study for the English reader was Charles Godfrey Leiand's Eusang, or The discnery of Ameriea by Chinese Buddhist priests in the fifth century (London, 1S75).'' The Marquis d'llerveyde Saint Denis pub- lished in the Aetes de la Soc. d'' Ethnographie (l86g), vol. vi., and later in the Comptes Kendus of the French .Xcademy of Inscriptions, a Me- vioire siir le pays eonnu des anciens Chinois sous le Horn de Eou-sang, et sur quelques doeuments iiiMits pour se/-Z'ir <} I'identifer, which was afterwards publisl-.ed separately in Paris, 1876, in which he assented to the .American theory. The student of thi; subject need hardly go, how- ever, beyond E. 1'. Vining's An int^lorioiis Co- lumbus: or, Evidenee that Ihiuii Shdn and a party of Buddhist monks from Afghanistan dis- cozvred Ameriea in the fifth eentury A. D. ( New York, 1SS5), since the compiler has made it a repository of all the essential contributions to the question from De Guignes down. He gives the geographical reasons for believing Fusang to be Mexico (ch. 20), comparing the original description of Fusang with the early accounts of aboriginal Mexico, and rehearsing the tradi- tions, as is claimed, of the liuddhists still found early Chinese historian of the seventh century, Li Van Tcheou, and Klaproth's version is Englished in Ban- croft's Xat. Races, V. 31-36. Klaproth s memoir is also translated in \'ining, ch. 3. Some have more s|)eciti- cally pointed to Saghalien, an island at the north end of the Japan Sea. Brooks says there is a district of Corea c.illed Fiis.ing {Seience, viii. 402). Brasseur says the great Chinese encyclop.tdia describes Fusang as Iving east of Jap.in. and he thinks the descriptions correspond to the Cibola of Castafieda. 1 Again •.\itli a conmientarv ni '/"/(s C(1h/;h<-«/«/ .l/.ij,'. (New York, vol. i.). Subjected to the revision of Xcumann. it is reproduced in I.eland's Fusang (Lond., 1S75). Cf. Vining, ch. 6, who gives also (ch. 10) the account in Slian-Hai-king as translated by C. XL Williams in Mag. Ar„ir. Hist., April. 1883. - The pamphlets are transbted in \'ining, ch. 4 and 5. Paravcy held to the Mexican theory, and he at least convinced Oomcncch (Seven years' residence in the great deserts of No. Amcr., Lond., 1S60). Paravey published several pamiihlets on subjects allied to this. His .Mcmoirc sur I'origiiic japonaise, arabe ci basque de la ci-eilisalion des peuples du plateau de Bogota tfapris les travau.v de I/umbotdt et Siebold ( Paris, 1835) is a treatise on the origin of the Muyscas or Chibchas. Jomard, in his Les An/if uites Amerieaines au point de -cue des proirrh de la geographic (Paris. 1.S17) in the Bull, de la Soc. Gcog.. had questioned the .Asiatic aftiliations, and Paravev replied in a Refutation de V opinion imise par Joniard que les peuples de I'Amirique noni Jamais en aucun rapport avec ccux de I' Asie (Paris, 1S41)), originally in the Annates de philosophic Chreticnne (May, 1S40). •• .Also in the Rev. Archeologique (vols. x.. xi.), and epitomized in Leland. Cf. also Dr. \. Godron on the Buddhist mission to .America in Annates des royages (Paris, 1S64), vol. iv., and an opposing view by \'ivien de St. Martin in L' .4nnce giographiquc (1S65), iii. p. 253, who was in turn controverted by Brasseur in his Monuments .Anciens dn Afcxique. * This paper is reprinted in Leland. ■'■' Cf. also his I'arietcs Orientates, 1S72 : and his " L'Anifrique. etait-elle connue des Chinois i I'^poque du deluge ? '■ in the .Ircbivcs de la .Soc. .'Imer. de France, n. s.. iii. IQi. « S. \V. Williams, in the Journal of the .American Oriental Soc. (vol, xi.). in controverting the views of Leland. was inclined to find Fusang in the Loo-choo Islands. This paper was printed separately as Notices tf Fusang and other countries lying east of China in the Pacijic ocean ( New Haven, 1881 ). i I ■111 I, .' i I, PRE-COLUMBIAN EXPLORATIONS. 8l by the Spaniards pervading the memories of the t!ie relations of the Malays to the inhabitants natives, and at last (ch. 37) summarizing all the of the Oceanic Islands anil the capacity of early grounds of his belief.' man to traverse long distances by water.* K. B. Tylor has pointed out the Asiatic rela- The con-.ideration of the Polynesian route as tions of the Polynesians in the Ji>ui luil of tlw a possible avenue for peopling America involves Atithropoloj^inii Just., xi. 401. Pickering, in the 1 A good de.ll of labor has been bestowed to prove this identity of Fiisang with Mexico. It is held to be found in the myths and legends of the two puople by Cliarency in his Mytlic dc Vntun, ctmle stir Ics origincs asialiijiifs lie la civiliutlton {iiiuricaiiic (Alen^on, iS;i), drawn from ihe Actes Je la Soc. /■Iiiliilogii/iic (vol. ii.) ; and he has enforced similar views in the A'cvuc iles (jiitstions hhtoriqucs (vi. 2S3), ami in liis DJcmsc/iiJ et QuettaUoliuall. L'/ihtoirc ligcndalre de la Noiivcllc-Eifagiie riiffroiliieJcla source iiulo-ctiroflctine (Alenjon, 1S74). Humboldt thought it strange, considering other atfinities, —as for instance in tlie Mexican calendars, — that he could lind no Mexican use of phallic symbols ; but liancroft says they exist. Cf. Xative Races, iii. 501; also see v. 40, 232; lirasseurs Quatre Lcttres, p. 202; and jolin ( .inipbull's paper on the traditions of Mexico and Peru as establishing such connections, in the Com/le A'oidii. d'ngres ilcs Amir. (Nancy, 1S75), i. 34S. Dr. Ilamy saw in a monument found at Copan an inscription wliicli he thought was tlie 'I'aekai of the Chinese, the symbol of the essence of all tilings (Bull, de la Hoc. de Cog., i.SSo, and Journal of the Aiit/irofological Institute, xvi. 242, with a cut of the stone). Dall controverts this point (Science, viii. 402). Others have dwelt on the linguistic resemblances. H. S. Barton in his Xcw Fiews pressed this side of the question. Tlie presence of a monosyllabic tongue like the Otomi in the midst of the imlysyllabic languages of Mexico has been tliought strongly to indicate a survival. Cf. .Manuel Najeia's Disertacion sobre la lengua Othomi, Mexico, 1S45, and in Amer. fhilos. Soc. Trans., n. s.,v. ; Ampere's Promenade en Amerigue, ii. 301; I'rescott's ,1/(A»Vo, iii. 396; Warden's Rechcrches (in Dupaix), p. 123; I.atliam's Races of Men, \a%\ Bancroft's Nat. Races, iii. 737 ; v. 39, with references. Others find Sanskrit roots in the Mexican. E. B. Tylor has indicated the Asiatic origin of certain Mexican games {Journal of tlie Antlirofol. Inst., xxiv.). Ornaments of jade found in Nicaragua, while the stone is thought to Ije n.atlve only in .\sia. is another indica- tion, and they are more distinctively Asiatic than the jade ornaments found in .Alaska (Reabody Mus. Re- ports, xvlll. 414 ; XX. 54S ; Proe. .Mass. Hist. Soc., Jan., 18S6). On tlie general question of the .\slatlc origin of the Mexicans see Dupalx's Antii/uitis .llc.xicaines. with included papers by Lenoir, Warden, and Farcy ; the Refort on a railroad route from the Mississippi. i.'S;3-54 (Washington); Whipple's and other AV/or/j on the Indian tribes ; John Kussell liartlett's Personal Xarra- tiie (1S54): lirasseur's Ropul Vuli, p. xxxix ; Viollet le Due's belief in a "yellow race" building tlie Mexican and Central .American monuments, in Charnay's Riiines Amcricaines, and Cliarnays traces of the Buddhists in the Popular Science Monthly, July, 1S79, p. 432 ; Le I'longeon's belief in the connection of the Maya and Asiatic races in Amcr. Antiq. Soc. Proc, Apr. 30, 1S79, p. 113; and some papers on the ancient Mexicans and their origin by the .Abb^ Jollbois, Col. Parmentler, and M. Eniile Ciuimet. which, prepared for the Soc. de G^og. de Lyon, were published separately as De I'origine des Anciens Pcuplcs du Mcxique (Lyon, 1S75). A few other incidental discussions of the Fusang question are these: R. II. Major in Select Letters of Columbus (1847) ; J. T. Short in The Galaxy (1S75) and in his No. .Imericans of .tntii/iiity; Nadaillac in his L'Amcriijiie prehistorigue, 544 ; Gay's Pop. Hist. U. S. calls the story vague and improvable. In [periodicals we find; Gentleman's Mag., 1869, p. 333 (reprinted in Hist. Mag., Sept.. iSlio, xvi. 221), and iS 70, repro- duced in Chinese Recorder, May, 1S70; Nathan Brown in Amer. Philolog. Mag., .Aug., 1S69; W'm. Speer in Princeton Rev., xxv. S3 ; Penn Monthly, vi. 603 ; Mag. Amer. Hist., Apr., 1SS3, p. 291 ; A'otes and Queries, ill. 58, 78; iv. 19; Notes and Queries in China and Japan, Apr., May, 1S69; ["eb., 1S70. Chas. W. Brooks maintained on the other hand (Proe. California Acad. Sciences, 1S76 ; cf. Bancrofts A'ative Races, v. 511, that the Chinese were emigrants from America. There is a map of the supposed Chinese route to America in the Congris des Americanistes (Nancy, 1S75), vol. i. ; and Winchell, Pre-Adamites. gives a chart showing different lines of approach from Asia. Stephen Powers (Overland Monthly, .Apr., 1S72, and California .Acad. Sciences, 187.;) treats the California Indians as descendants of the Chinese. — a view he modifies in thi Contrih. to ,lmer. Ethnology, vol. iii., on " Tribes of California." It is claimed that Chinese coin of the fifteenth century have lieen found in mounds on Vancouver's Island. Cf. G. P. Thurston In .lAif. .Imcr. Hist., xili. p. 437. The principal lists of authorities are those in Vining (Pip), and Watson's in Anderson's Amer- ica not discovered by Columbus. 2 From Faster Island to the Galapagos is 2,000 miles, thence to South .America Cioo more. On such long migrations by water see Waitz, Introduction to Anthropology. ICng, transl., p. 202. On early modes of navigation see Col. .A. Lane Fox in the Journal Anthropologi,al Inst. ( 1S75), iv. 399. Otto Caspar! gives a map of post-tertiary times in his Urgeschichte der Menschheit (Leipzig, 1S73), vol. I., In which land Is made to stretch from the Marquesas Islands nearly to South America; while large patches of land lie between .Asia and Mexico, to render migration practicable. Andrew Murray, in his Geographical Distribution 0/ .Mammals VOL. I. — 6 I,; ! lit I n if J,' I i. 4 82 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. ethnological chart accompanying the reports of the Wilkes Expedition, makes the original people of Chili and Peru to be Malay, and he connects the Californians with the Polynesians.' The earliest elaboration of this theory was in John Dunmore Lang's Vu'zti of the origin and migrations of the Polynesian nations, demonstrat- ing their ancient discovery and progressive set- tlement of the continent of America (London, 1834; 2d ed., Sydney, 1877). Francis A. Allen has advanced similar views at the meetings of the Congres des Aniericanistes at Luxembourg and at Copenhagen.- The Mongol theory of the occupation of Peru, which John Ranking so enthusiastically pressed in his Historical researches oh the conquest of Peru, Mexico, Bogota, Xatchez, and Talomeco, in the thirteenth century, by the Mongols, accom- panied with elephants ; and the local agreement of history and tradition, -with the remains of elephants and maslodoiites found in the new Ti'ivA/ [etc.] (London, 1S27), implies that in the thirteenth century the Mongol emperor Kublai Khan sent a tleet against Japan, which, being scattered in a storm, finally in part reached the coasts of Peru, where the son of Kublai Khan became the first Inca.^ The book hardly takes rank as a sensible contribution to ethnology, and Prescott says of it that it embodies " many curious details of Oriental history and manners in support of a whimsical theory." < B. Irel.and the Great, or White Man's Land. — The claims of the Irish to have pre- ceded the Norse in Iceland, and to have discov- ered America, rest on an Icelandic saga, which represents that in the tenth century Are Marson, driven off his course by a gale, found a land which became known a; Huitramannaland, or white man's land, or otherwise as Irland it Mi- kla.5 This region was supposed by the colonists of Vinland to lie farther south, which Rafn •■ in- terprets as being along the Carolina coast,' and others have put it elsewhere, as Keauvois in Canada above the Great Lakes ; and still others see no more in it than the pressing of some storm-driven vessel to the Azores ^ or some other Atlantic island. The story is also coupled, from another source, with the romance of lijarni Asbrandson, who sailed away from Iceland and from a woman he loved, because the husband and relatives of the woman made it desirable that iil (London. 1S66), is almos* compelled to adviiit ('p. 25) that as complete a circuit of land formerly crossed the southern temperate regions as now does the northern ; and Daniel Wilson, Prehistoric Man. liolds much the same opinion. The connection of the flora of Polynesia and South America is discussed by J. D. Hooker in the Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of the Erebus and Terror, iSs')-43, and in his Flora of Tasmania. Cf. Anier. Journal of Science and Arts, Mar., May, 1S54 ; Jan., May, i860. 1 Paces of Men. 2 Compte Rendu, 1S77, p. 79; 1S83, p. 246; the latter being called "Polynesian Antiquities, a link be- tween the ancient civilizations of .Asia and .America." Further discussions of the Polynesian migrations will be found as follows: .A. W. Bradford's Amer. Antii/iiities (N. V., 1S41); Gallatin (An:. Eth. Sac. Trans., i. 176) disputed any common linguistic traces, while Bradford thought he found such ; Lesson and Martinet's Les Polynesiens, tear originc, Iciirs migrations, Icur langage ; Wilson's Prehistoric Man,W. 344; Jules Garnier's "Les migrations polynesiennes" in Bull, de la Soc. de Gcog. de Paris, Jan., June, 1870; G. d'Eichthal's " Etudes sur I'histoire primitive dcs races oceaniennes et Americaines " in Mem. de la Soc. Eth- nologiquc (vol. ii.) ; Marcoy's Travels in South America; C. Staniland Wake's Chapters on Man, p, 200; a " Rapport de la Polyndsie et I'.Am^rique " in the Mimoircs dc la Soc. Ethnologique, it. 223 ; A. de Ouatre- fages de Breau's Les Polynesiens et leurs migrations (Paris, 1S66), from the Revue des deux Mondes, Feb., 1S64 ; O. V. Peschel in Ausland, 1864, p. 34S ; W. IL Dall in Bureau of Ethnology Reft., 1S81-S2, p. 147. Allen's paper, already referred to, gives references. 3 Bancroft, AV. A'rtffj-, v. 44, with references, p. 48, epitomizes the story. Cf. Short, 151. There was a tradition of giants landing on the shore (^L^rkham's Cieza de Leon, p. 190). Cf. Forster's Voyages, 43. ■• .A belief in the .Asiatic connection has taken some curious forms. Montesinos in his Mcmorias Peruana! held Peru to be the Ophir of Solomon. Cf. Gotfriedus Wegner's /)« A'az'/fa/zoKij 5o/owo«5i, and he remarks on their lighter complexion as indicating a pos- sible descent from these traditionary white men. ^ Kichiird liroughton's .I/i'Hri.t/;V<'« liritatmictim (London, 1655), pp. 131, 1S7. 5 A Memoir on the European Colonization of America in ante-liistoric times was contributed to the Pro- ceedings of the -American Ethnological Society in iSji, to wliich E. G. Squier added some notes, the original paper being by Dr. C. X. A. Zestermann of Leipzig. The aim was to prove, by the similarity of remains, the connection of the peoples who built the mounds of the Ohio Valley with the early peoples of northwestern Europe, a Caucasian race, which he would identify with the settlers of Irland it Mikla, and with the coming of the white-bearded men spoken of in .Mexican traditions, who established a civilization which an inundating populatl(jn from Asia subsequently buried from sight. This European immigration he places at least 1.200 years before Christ. Squier's comments are that the monumental resemblances referred to indicate simil.ir conditions • istianismc en Amerique avant Van /ooo, accompanied by a map. in whidi he makes Irland it Mikl corresixmd to the provinces of Ontario and Ouebec. .Vg.-.in. in the session at Luxembourg in 1S77, lie endeavored to connect the Irish colony with the narrative of the seaman in the Zeno accounts, 'n a paper which he called Les Colonies Et/rofeennes du Markland et de I'Escociland an xiv. Sil'cle, cl les -ccstigcs qui en subsisthent Jusqu'aux xvv' et xvii" Siicles, and in which he identifies the Estotiland of the Frislanda mariner. .M. lieauvois again, at the Copenhagen meeting of the same body, read a paper on Les A'elations p! ' columbieniics des Gaels avec le Mexique (Copenhagen, 1SS3. p. 74), in which he elicited olijcctions from M. Lucien .Adam. Beauvois belongs to that class of enthusiasts somewhat numerous in these studies of pre- Columbian discoveries, who have haunted these Congresses cf .Americanists, and who see overmuch. Otlier references to tliese Irish claims are to be found in haing's //eimsiringla, i. 1S6; Beamish's Discovery of America (London, 1S41); Gravier's Dccouverte de I'Amerique, p. 123, 137, and his Les Xormands sur la route, 'tc., ch. i ; Gaffarel's Etudes sur la rapforts de I'Amerique, pp. 201, 214 ; Brasseur's introd. to his Poful Vuli : De Costa's Pre-Columbian Discovery, pp. xviii, xlix. Hi ; Humboldt's Cosmos {Un\\n),i\, 6oy; Kask in A/ass. Hist. Soc. Proc, xviii. 21 ; Journal London Gcog. Soc, viii. 125 ; Gay's Pop. Hist. U. S., i. 53 ; and K. Wilhelmi's Island, Hvitramannaland, Gr'onland und Vinland. oder Der Norrm'dnner Leben auf ^Island und Gr'onland und deren Fahrten nach Ameritca schon iiber ^00 Jahre -or Columbus (Heidelberg, 1S42). 6 The account in the Landnimabcik is briefly rehearsed in ch. S of C. W. Paijkuirs Summer in fcelanj (London, 1S6S). There are various editions, of which the best is called that of Copenhagen, 1S43, The fslendingabdk, a sort of epitome of a lost historical narrative, ir considered an introduction to the Landnamabik. Much of the early story will be found in Latin in the Islemkir AnnAler, sive Annales Islandici ab anno Cliristi 80s ad anno 14S0 (Copenhagen, 1S47) ; in the Scripta historica Islandorum de rebus veterum Borealium, pub- lished by the Koyal Soc. of Northern Antiquaries at Copenhagen, 182.^-4(1 ; and in Jacobus Langebek's Scrip- tores Kerum Danicarum medii «m' (Copenhagen, 1772-1S78, — the ninth volume being a recently added index). I 84 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. landic histor)', constitute the material out of which is made up the history of Iceland, in the days when it was sending its adventurous spirits to Greenland and probably to the American main.' Resi)ccting the body of the sagas, Laing {/Ai.'usirin^'/ii, i. 23I says: "It does not ap- |)ear that any saga manuscript now existing has been written before the fourteenth century, how- ever old the saga itself may be. It is known that in the twelfth century, Axe Krode, Sxmund and others began to take the sagas out of the traditionary state and tix them in writing ; but iione of the original .skins appear to have come down to our time, but only some of the numer- ous copies of them." Laing (p. 24) also in- stances numerous sagas known to have e.xisted, but they are not now recognized ; - and he gives us (p. 30) the substance of what is known re- specting the writers and transcribers of this earlv saga literature. It is held that by tl-.u 'eginning of the thirteenth century the sa,i',as of t u discov- eries and settlements had all been put in writing, and thus the history, as it e.xists, of media;val Iceland is, as Burton says (C'llima TJiul,\ i. 237), more complete than that of any European coun- try.'' Among the secondary writers, using either at first or second hand the earlv MS. sources, the following may be mentioned : — One of the earliest brought to the attention of the Englisli public was .7 Comfciidious Hist, ofllu- Goths, Swedes ami Vdnduls, ,iiid otiur ttorthon powers (London, 1050 and 1 658), translated in an abridged form from the Latin of Olaus Maj.nus, which had been for more than a hundred years the leading comprehensive authority on the northern nations. The Sveuriius //isto>/iiiuii ks Historie i ffedeiiold (Co^einhagii(\, 1S54-55); K. 1 .A cf-nvcnicnt survey of this early literature is in clriptcr i of the History of tlic Literature of the Scan- dinavian Xorth. f>om the most ancient times to the frescnt. by Frederick Winket Horn, revised by the author, ami translated by Rasmus D. Anderson (Chicago. 1SS4). Tlie text is accompanied by useful biblio- graphical details. Cf. I!. F. Do Costa m Journal Amer. Gcog. Soc. (iSSo), xii. 1511. - Saxo Graniniaticus acknowledsjes his deiiendencc on the Icelandic sagas, and is thought to have used some which liad not been yet put into writing. 3 liaring-Goiild in his Iceland, its Scenes and Sagas (London, 1S63) gives in his App. D a list of tliirty- five published sagas, sixty-six local histories, twelve ecclesiastical annals, and sixty-nine Norse annals. Cf. the eclectic list in Laing's Heimskri)i:;la. i. 17. Konrad Maurcr has ■ '.\ m an elabu: ite essay on tliis earlv literature in his ( 'eber die Ausdriicke: allno-di- sclic. altnorwegische und isldndiscln y»-ni//<- Ol'inich, il'""';). wliicli originally appeared in the Aihandlungen of the liavarian Academy. G. P. Marsh translated P. E. Miiller's " Origin, progress, and decline of Icelandic historical literature " in Tlie American lulcctic (N. V., 1S41, — vols. i.. ii.). In 17.S1, I.indbloni printed at Paris a French translation of Hisliop Troll's Lettres sur I'Islande, which contained a catalogue of books on Iceland and an enumeration of the Icelandic sagas. (Cf. Pinkerton's I'lvncii. vol. i ) Chmxir.nc'?, Bibliografliy of the Polar Regions, p. fi;. has a section "n Iceland. .■^olb^rg's list ) give what Max MUller (C/ii/'S from a Gerniiin IVorks/io/', ii. 191) calls "a vigorous and lively sketch of primitive northern life;" and are well supple- mented by Sabine Baring-Gould's /ee/iin,/, its scenes and sagas (London, 1S63 and later), and Richard E. IJurton's Ultima Tliide, wit/i an his- torical intrudnetion (London, 1S75).''' D. Greenland and its Ruins. — The sagas still serve us for the colonization of Greenland, and of particular use is that of Eric the Red." The earliest to use these sources in the historic spirit was Torfa:us in his Historia Cronlandiic Aiiliquu: (171 5).' TH natural successor of 1 Maiircr had Inn',' bjcii a studort of Icelandic lore, and his IsldndisJtc Vollissagcn dcr Gegenu-arl gcsam- melt iiml verdciit'.lit (Leipzi',', kS:>o) is yreatly illustrativf ui the early nurtli. Cnybeare \l>lacc of Iceland in the History of Eiirofcan Institutions, prelace) says ; ■■ To any one writing; on Iceland the elaburalu works of the learned Maiirer altord at once a help and difficulty : a help in so lar as they shed the fullest liylit upon the siibi;-cts: a difficulty in that their painstaking completeness has hroiiglit together well-nigli every- thin;; that can be said.'' - What is known as the Kristni Saga gives an account of this chanijc. C.'f. Eugene lieauvois, Origincs et fondation dii plus aneicn cveelie du noirccati nioiidc. Lc diocisc de dardtis en Greenland, qSb-iiib (Paris, 1S7S), an extract from the Memoircs de la Soe. dflistoire, etc., de licauiic ; C. A. V. Conybcare's Place of Iceland in the history of European institutions (1S7;); Maurer's Beitriige zur Reehtsgcschichte des germanischcn Xordens ; Wheaton's Northmen ; W'orsaae's Danes and Nor7fcgiat! < in England, p. j-ja ; Jacob Rudolph Keyser's Private Life of the Old Northmen, as translated by M. K. ISarnard (London, 1S6S), and his A'(V/c-/i'« of the Northmen, nf, translated by B. Pennock (N. V., 1.S54); Quarterly Pciiew, ]s.maTy, 1S62 ; and references in McClintock and Strong's Cyclofadia, under Iceland. 8 Such aie tlie Swedish work of \. M. Strinhold, known in the flernian of E. F. Frisch as WiHiigziige, Staats-ccrfassiing unit Sitten der alien Scandiiiaver (Ha uburg, 1S39-41). A summarized statement of life in Iceland in the early days is held to be well made out in Mans 0. H. HilcU'brand's l.ifvct \d Island under Sagotiden (Stockholm, 18(17), and in .-V. E. Holmbeig's Nordbon under Hcdiiatidcn (Stockholm). J. .-X. Worsaae published his Vorgcschichte des Nordeiis at Hamburg in 1S7.S. It was improved in a Danish edition in iSSo, and from this H. F. Morland i^impson made the Prehistory of the North. I'asci on eonlcmforary materials (London, I'Sr,), with a nienioir of Worsaae (d. iS.S,). the fore- most scholar in this nortliern lore. * This book is recognized as one of the best commentaries and most informing books on Icelandic history, and this writer's introduction to (Jiidbrand \'ig(usson's Icelandic-English Dictionary (3 vols., Cambridge, Eng., iS'ii), 1870, 1S74) is of scholarly importance. 6 The millennial celebration of the settlement of Iceland in 1S74 gave occasion to a variety of books and papers, mor, or less suggestive of the early days, like Samuel Kneeland's W;«f>/c(7« in Iceland (Boston. iS;6) ; but ihe enumeration of this essentially descriptive literature need not he undertaken here. " Anti^/uitates .■Imericanif. pp. 1-76, with an account of the Greenland MSS. (p. 255). Miiller's Sagen- biHiothek. .\rngrimur Jdnsson's Oronlandia (Iceland, 16SS). .\ fac-simile of the title is in the Carter-Drown Catalogue, ii,, no, 1350. .A translation by Kev. J. Sephton is in the Proc. Lit. and Philos. Soc. of Liverpool, vol. xxxiv. 1S3, and separately, Liverpool, tSSo. There is a pa|)er in the Jahrcsbcriclit der geografhischcn Ocscllschaft in Miinchen fiir riSj (Munich, 1SS6), p. 71, by Oskar IJrenner. on "Gronland im Mittelaltei nach einer altnorwegischen Quelle." Some of the earliest references are : Christoplierson Claus' Den Grolandsi-e Chronica (Copenhagen, ii'ioS), noticed in the Carter-Pro-on Catalogue, ii., no. 64. Gerald de \'eer's True and perfect description of three voyages speaks in its title [Carter-Broxon, ii. 38) of " tlie coimtrie lying under Ss degrees, which is thought to be Greenland, where never man had been l^t'ore." .Vntoine de la Sale wrote between 143S and 1447 a curious book, printed in 1527 as La Saladc. in which he refers to Iceland and Greenland ((ironnellont), where white bears abound (Harrisse. Bib. Am. Vet., no. 140). ' This book is now rare. Dufosse prices it at 50 francs; F. S. Ellis. London, 1SS4, at £5.5.0. Before Torfaeiis, probably the best known book was Isaac de la Peyrire's Relation du Groenland (Paris, 1O47), It \ ii 1 i .( 1 I ] h\ lip ' I'. : 86 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. Torfaeus and the book upor which later writers mostly tlepeiid is David Crantz's tlistorit- von Gronlitiiti, i)tthaltc)iU Jw Hisc/ireibiini; cus LiDiihs iiiiii ihr Himvohucr, iusbcsoiuli'n die GcsihicJitfii di-r liortigcn Mission. Nc'bst Fortsetzntii; ( Barby, 1765-70, 3 vols.). An Enj^lish tra"slation ap- peared in London in 1767, and again, though in an abridged form with some changes, in lS;o.' Crantz says of his own historic aims, referring to Torfa;us and to the accounts given by the Eskimos of the east coast, that he has tried to investigate " where the savage inliabitants came from, and how the ancient Norwegian inhabi- tants came to be so totally extirpated," while at the same time he looks upon the history of the Moravian missions as his chiefest theme. The principal source for the identification of the ruins of Greenland is the work compiled by Rafn and Finn .Magiiuscn, Ciiiiil iiijs Ilistoriske Mindcsmicrkii;- with original texts and Danish versions. Useful summaries and observations will be found in the paper by K. Steensirup on " Uld Scandinavian ruins in .South Greenland " in the Comptc A'citJii, Con^^iis des Amiruanistis (Copenhagen, iSSj, p. loS), and in one on " Les Voyages des Danois au tJreenland In the same (p. 19O). Steenstrup's paper is accompanied by photographs and cuts, and a map marking the site of the ruins, 'i'he latest account of them is by Lieut. Holm in the McddiUiscr om Gron- land (Copenhagen, 1SS3), vol. vi. Other views and plans showing the arrangement of their dwellings and the curious circular ruins," which seems to have usually been near their churches, are shown in the Uaron NordenskjiJld's Den iindr,! dicksonska i-xpcditioncn tilt Grontiind, dcss inrc isoken och dess ostkust, iit/ord ar i88j (Stock- f I f RUINS OF THE CHURCH AT K.^TORTOK.* '!| { n U is one ol the earliest books to give an account of the Eskimos. It was again printed in 1674 in Recueil de I'oyin^ts dii Nord. A Dutch edition at Amsterdam in i6;S (A'ainvkciirif;c BcscliriJ-iiigk van Groentajid) was considerably enlarged with other matter, and this edition was the basis of the German version published at Nuremberg. 1679. Peyrere's description will be found in EngK.h in a volume published by the Hakluyt Society in 1855, where it is accompanied by two maps of the early part of the seventeenth century. Cf. Carter- Brown, ii., no. 1 192, note; Sabin. x. p. 70. 1 Pilling {Eskimo Bihiiog.. p. 20) gives the most careful account of editions. Cf. -Sabin, v. 66. A Dutch translation at Haarlem in 1767 was provided with better and larger maps than the original issue; and this version was again brought out with a changed title in 1786. There was a Swedish ed. at Stockholm in 1769, and a reprint of the original German at Leipzig in 1 770. and it is included in the Bibliothek der neuesten Reisebcsclircihungcn (Frankfort. 1779-1707). vol. xx. Cf. Carter-Brown, ii., nos. 1443. 1576, 1577. 1671, 172S. 2 This constitutes in 3 vols, a sort of supplement to the Antii/iiitates Americana. Cf. Dublin Reziew, xxvii. 3; ; Bulletin de la Soc. de Gtog. de Paris, 3d ser.. vol. vi., and a synopsis of the Mindesmcckcr in The Sacristy, Feb. i. 1S71 (London). 3 The principal ruin is that of a church, and it will be found represented in the Antiquitafes Americana, and again by Nordenskjold, Steenstrup. J. T. Smith {Discovery of America, etc.), Horsford ; and, not to name more, in Hayes's Land of Desolation (and in the French version in Tour du Monde, xxvi,). Id >■ 'ter a cut in Nordenskjold's Den Andra Dicksonska Expeditionen till GrUnland, p. 369, following on« ./Ur Meddelelser em Crdnlartd. PRE-COLUMBIAN EXPLORATIONS. 87 holm, 1885), the result of the ripest study and closest contact. We need also to scan the narratives of Hans Kgede and Graah. I'arry found in 18^4, on an Island on the lialtic coast, a runic stont, com- memorating the occupancy of the spot in 1135 (AntiquiUitcs Americana ; ^[allet's iVort/u-ni A/i/ii/iii/us,..:4S); and in 1830 and 1S31 other runes were Ttound on old gravestones (K'nk's DiUiish Grccnhmd, app. v. ; Laing's Hcims- kiiiii;la, i. 151), These last are in the Museum at Copenhagen. Most of these imperishable relics have been found in the district of Julianes- haab.l E. The Vinland Voyages. — What Leif and Karlsefne 1 new they experienced, and what the sagas tell us they underwentf must have just the difference between a crisp narrative of per- sonal adventure and the oft-repeated and em- bellished story of a fireside narrator, since the traditions of the Norse voyages were not put in the shape of records till about two centuries had elapsed, and we have no earlier manuscript of such a record than one made nearly two hun- dred years later still. It is indeed claimed that the transmission by tradition in tho.>e days was a difterent matter in respect to constancy and e.\- actness from what it has been known to be in later times ; but the assumption lacks proof and militates against well-known and inevitable pro- cesses of the human n\ind. In regard to the credibility of the sagas, the northern writers recognize the change which came over the oral traditionary chronicles when the romancing spirit was introduced from the more southern countries, at a time while the copies of the sagas which we now have were making, after having been for so long a time orally handed down ; but they are not so suc- cessful in making plain what influence this im- ported spirit had on particular sagas, which we Mo.^((^4*^i^^''o^^^'^y'^a^^^ a%8. ^Sta^tr-b^^^MO*- c/f^«n'^if4-Bff-^4-*eJ^t^*aA ^^SU,Malt^!tf^Aialfr*um^. t^^^^^. SAGA MANUSCRIPT.* 2 Rafn in his Americas arctiske landcs Ga/nie Geografhie efter de Xordiste Oldskrifter (Copenhagen, 1S45) gives the seals of some of the Greenland bishops, various plans of the different ruins, a view of the Katortok church with its surroundings, engraving of the different runic inscriptions, and a map of the Julianehaab district. • This is a portion of one of the plates in the Antiqriitates Americana, given by Rafn to Charles Sumner, with a key in manuscript by Rafn himself. His signature is from a copy of his Memoiri given by him to Edward Everett, and now in Harvard College library. il(i .1 'I'i: i ' 88 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AiMKKICA. are asked to receive as historical records. They seem sometimes to forget that it is not necessary to have culture, heroes, ami iuiixwsible occur- rences to ciMintitute a myth. A lilcnding of his- tory and myth prompts Horn to say " that some of the sagas were doubtless originally based on facts, but the telling and re-telling have changed them iiilo pure myths." The unsympathetic stranger sees this in stories that the patriotic Scandinavians are over-an.xious to make appear as genuine chronicles.' It is certainly unfortu- nate that the period of recording the older sagas coinciiles mainly with the age of this southern romancing intlueiice.- It is a some- what anomalous condition when long-transmitted oral stories are assigned to history, and certain other written ones of the age of the recorded sagas are rclegateBurtil XJal. i. p. xiii). ■■• Kink i Danish Giccii/anJ. p. 5) .says of the sa?as thnt " they exist only in a franmentary condition, .ind bearllie !,'eneral char.icter of popular tracs more or less fitted for the task, they are evidently of very varving aitthoritv." The Scan- dinavian authorities class tlie sat;as as mythical histories, as those relating to Icelandic history (subdivided into general, family, personal, ecclesiastical), and as the lives of rulers. * .Anderson's translation. Lit. of the ScanJ. A'orth, p. 81. '• I.aing {Heimstring!n.\. 2;,) says: " .\rne Magnussen was the greatest antiquary who never wrote: his judgments and opinions are known from notes, selections, and correspondence, and are of great authority at this day in the saga literature. Torf.Tus consulted him in his researches." • .After a cit in N'orden^kjold's F.xf-cd. till GrdiilanJ, p. 171, following the Meddel. om Grdnland, vi. 98. i I'KE-COLU.MIUAN LXl'LORATIONS. 80 1831,' enumerates eight of the early iiiaiui- scripts which mention Vinland and the voyages; hut R.ifn, in iS-,;, counteil eiglucen siicli nianu- stripts.'-' \Vc know little or notliing about the recorders or date of any 01 these co|)ies, except- ing the Hiimskiiiii;lii;^ nor how long they had existed orally. Some of them were doubtless put into writing soon after the time when such recording was introduced, and this date is some- times put as early as v. I). 1 120, and sometimes as lale as the middle or even end of that cen- tury. Me.mwhile, .\dam of I'rfjmen, in the latter part of the eleventh century (.\. D. 1073), prepared his Histori,t F.ccli'siaslica, an account of the spread ol (, hrinlianity in the north, in which he .-ays he was told by the Danish king that his subjiiis had found a country to the west, called \V inland.* A reference is also sup- posed to be maile in the Hiitoria Efilcsiaslini of Ordericus Vitalis, written about the middle (say A I). I r40) of the twelfth century. Hut it w.is not until somewhere benveen A. I). 13S5 and 1400 that the oldest Icelandic manuscript wIulIi exists, touching the voyages, was compiled, — the so-called Coti,x FUitvyt:ii.us!' thou-h how much earlier copies of it were made is not Invirons of Julianehaal) THE OSTERBYGD Eastern Settlement T^ Reference: J± Norse ruins or traces of tkem ' Miiss. Hist. Sac. Proc, xviii. 20. - Oswald Moosmiillei's Fiiroflicr in Amerika vor Columbus { Kegensburg, i8;9, p. 4) enumerates the manuscripts in the royal library in Copenhagen. 8 .\. E. Wollheim's Die Xat. lit. dcr ScanJinavicr (Berlin, 1875-77), p. 47. Turner's Aitglo Saxons, Ixiok iv. ch. I. Mallet's A'o. .-/«/;,/. (1S47). yr.,. ■• Cf. G. H. I'ertz, .Monumcnta Girni,!iii,r hisforica. iS4''>, vol. vii. cap. 347. Of die different manuscripts, some call Vinland a " res^io " and others an ■■ insula." ■> Oiscovered In the seventeenth century in a monastery on an island close by the Icelandic coast, and now Note. — The above is a reproduction of a corner map in fie map of Datiisfi G nr 11 /u 11 1/ g'wen in Kink's book of that name. Tlie sea in the southwest corner of the cut is nut shadeil ; but shading is given to the interior ice held on the northern and northeastern pa^t of the map. Kink gives a similar map of the Wester- bv-d. ' pyt ■*ii^- V- ■^.»*<':MJiK^ — ■ n k ' 1 I 90 NARKATIVi: AND CKITICAL HlSTOKV Ol AMERICA. known. It is in this m.inuscri|)t lli.it we find tlie saga of Olaf I'lynnvcsson,' wliLTuin the voyagts o( Lcif l^ricson ,iic (lcscril)cil, and it is only l)y a comparison of clrcumstancis detailed here anil in other Svi);as lliat the year A. 1). 1000 has huen approximately determined as the date.- In this same todex we find the sa^;a of l'>it the Kcd, one uf the chief narratives depended upon by the advocates of the Norse discovery, and In Kask's judgment it "appears to be somewhat fabulous, written long after the event, and takei\ from tradition." " 'I'he other i)rincipal saga is that of Thorfimi Karlsffiie, which with some tlilferences and with the same lack of authenticity, goes over the ground covered by that uf li^ric the Red.'* .1 II »: Hi !( I In the royal library in Copcnl',ap;cn. Cf. Laing's introduction to his edition of the Hcimskiingh, vol. L p. 157. Horn says of this codex : '■ The book was written tow.irds the end of the fourteenth century by two Icelandic priests, and contains in strange confusion and wholly without criticism a large number of sagas, poems, and stories. No other manuscript confuses things on so vast a scale.'' Anderson's translation of Horn's /.;'.' 0/ the ScaitJhi. Xorllt. p. '10. Cf. I'latcyjarbak. Eit Snmling af Norskc h'oiige-Sagacr tncJ iitilskuille iiihiihf forticllhigi-i- I'ui llegircJilicJcr i og L\icnfor A'orge sain/ Aiiiiakr (Christiania, iSfio) ; and Vigfusson's and I'nijer'seditionof iSftS, also at Christiania. The test English account of the Coifix J'^a/oy- ensis is by (Judbrand \'i!,'fiisson in the preface to his Icelandic Sagas, published under direction of the Master of the Kolls, London, 1SS7, vol. i. p. xxv. 1 For texts, see C. C. Kafn's edition of A'oiig Olaf Tryggresons Saga (Copenhagen, iSzfi), and Munch's edition of Kong Olaf Trygg-cesou's Saga (Christiania. 1S53). Cf. also P. .\. Munch's Norgcs Konge-Sagacr of Snrirri Sturleson, Sturla 'I'hordsson. etc. (Christiania. iS-;. I17S ; A. it says is in these words : " I.eif also found Vin- 12.(1), purporting lo l)e a history of the Norse land the Ijood." ' kings down to a. d. i 177, is the most entitled to Saxo Grammaticus (d. about i JoSJ in his ///*• HISTORIA VINLAN DLEANTIQyj^ feu Partis Amcncas Septentrionalisi Nominis ratio recenfetur, fitus terras ex dierumbrii- inaliumfpatioexpenditur,foli Jferci- litas & incolarum barbaries,pcr- egrinorum temporarius incolatus Sc ge^ vicinarum, terrarum no- nina & fades ex Antiqvitatibus Islandicis inluam produda exponuntur per THORMODUM TORFMJM Renim KorvegicarumHifloriograph um Regiu m. Ex Typography Regi«MajeftAUmvafit»l7o;» Impenfit AutkorU. 1837). Versions or abstracts, more or less full, of all or if some of them are given by Beamish, in his Discof- ery of America by the Northmen (London, 1S41), who:; text is reprinted by Slafter. in his Voyages of the Northmen (Boston, iS;;). J. Elliot Cabot, in tlie ^fass. Quart. Rcziew, March, 1S49. copied in part in Higginson's .4««r. £.v//u«rj. Blackwell, in his supplementary chapters to Mallet's Northern A ntiquities (London, Uohn's library). B. F. De Costa, in his Pre-Columbian Discoiery of America (Albany, 1S6S). Eben Norton Horsford, in his X>iscovery of America by Norsemen (Boston, iSSS). Beauvois, in his Dicou- rertes des Scandinavcs en Amlrique 1 Paris, i8;sell, of liremei), discusses the .\dam of liremen storv in another Latin essay, still later." About 1750, I'ieter Kalm, a Swede, brought tlie matter to the attention of Or. Franklin, as tlie latter remembered twenty-live vears later, tvlien he wrote to Samuel Mather that "the cir- cumstances gave the account a great appearance of authenticity."' In 1755, I'aul Henri Mallet (17JO-1S07), in his llislouc ,U- Ihiniumari, de- termines the localities to be Labrador and Newfoundland." In 1769, Gerhard Schcining, in his Noii;,-i A'ix''S ///j/cr/i, established the scene in America. Robertson, in I777,brietly mentions the voyages in his //isf. 0/ Amiriiii (note xvii.), and, refer- ring to the accounts given by I'eringskiold, calls them rude and coufu.sed, and says that it is impossible to identify the landfalls, though he thinks Newfoundland may have been the scene of Vinland. This is also the belief of J. K. Forster in his Gcsiliichle dcy J:iilil(Si), thinks they went as far south as Carolina. I'ontoppidan's llislory of \oi;ot\y was inaiidy followed by Or. Jeremy Helkr.ap in his Americiin Jiioi;)-ii/'liy (Itoston, 1794), who recogui/!es "circumstances to confirm and none to disprove the relations." In 179J, .Munoz, in his I/istoriii del A'lioTO MiiiiJo, put Vinland in Greenland. In 1796 there was a brief account bum the Coi/t-x I'liiloyciisis, wliich particular .MS. was unknown to Toifa'us. When I-iing printed his edition (if Ihe //i'ii>iskri)ij;/ii, T/ic Siit A7«;'.t ii/' .X'lTTciiv ( London, 1S44), he translited these eii;ht chajitt'rs In liis appendix (Vol. Hi. 344K Laini; (//ivwj/-»-/«<,'''i'. i. 2;) says: "Snorro Stiuleson has done for tliu history of the Northmen what I.ivy did for the lli^tory ol the Kcjinans," — a rather questionable tribute to the verity of tlie saija l\ist His account is followed by Malte Brun in his Precis tie In Geographic (i. 105). Cf. also Aiiiinlcs Jes Voyages (Paris, iSioi, x. 50. and his Geographic Univcrsellc (Paris, 1S41). Pinkerton, in his Voyages (Lon- don, 1S14I, vol. xvii., also followed Torfreus. " L J. Wahlstedt's Iter in Americam (L'psala, ir^;!, Cf. Briiiley Catal., i. 59. '■' Ol'ser-oatio historiea ad Frisonum navigatione foriiiila in Americam see. xi. facta (Magdeburg, 1741). " Franklin's Works, Philad., iSoo. vol. vi. ; Sparks's ed.. viii. fio. " This is die book which furnished the text in an English dress (London, 1770) known as Northern Anti- fiiitics.und a part of his account is given in the American .\fnsciim (Phibd., 17S9). In the Edinburgh edition of iSoo it is called : Northern antiquities : or a description of the manners, customs, religion and laws, oj the ancient Danes, including those of our .Saxon ancestors. With a translation of the Edda and other f'icces, from the ancient Icelandic tongue. Translated from " V introduction h Vhistolre de Danncmarc^ i5-v.,'' par Mons. .Mallet. With additional notes hy the English translator [Bishop Percy'], and Goranson's Latin version of the Edda. In 2 vols. The chapters defining the locatitjns are (jmitted, and others subst'i- tuted. in the reprint of the Northern .-tntiquitics in Holm's library. '■' There are French and English versions. l'Ri:-COLU.MlllAN EXI'LOKA'IION.S. 93 In I'rilMLir* Disfiiliitio hisliiuit in (/ii.i (/iiifnliit- iilriim jil,r,-s Amii uiim iu'Viinil limit: II. SiL'iintriini piililinliL'd at l.iiiul, in iSol, a short ilis^>L'rtatliiii, /Ji Aiiuiini A'.":v,j,';.t iiii/,' titiifi'i-ii Cohimhi luiilii, lliiiKiiL-r lie la Kicliardeiiu, ii\ lii» liibliolliiiiii,- i'iiiVii\utlc dts l\'Viii;i's (I'arls, iScS), givts u sliort account, and cites some of the aillhoritifs. .Some of the earlier American histories of this century, like Wdliaiiison's A'"/// C>iroti)i,i, took advantage o! the recitals of Torfains and Mallet. i;iieMe/!cr Henderson's Kisiilcncc in Liliiiiii (l8i4-r5)' |irc>ente(l the evidence anew. Harrow, in his /.y.^V-' ''' '''■■ ^>''ti<-' A'ixi:'iis (London, iMih), places Vinland In Labrador or Newlouiidlaml j hut J. W. Miinlton, in his Uii.wifiri,s iiiiii Triivcts in Xi'ith Aiinrici (London, iSjij), regards the saga- is an author- ity ; but he doubts the assignini; of Vinland to America. In iSjo, \V. I). Codley, in his /fis- fi'ir of Afiiiiliiiii' iiiij /iilaiiil Distirvcry^ thour;ht it impossible to shake the authenticity of the sagas. While Henry Wheaton was the miniver of the United States at Copenhagen, and having access to the collections of that city, he pre- pared his History of t/n- A'iv7//wfH, wnich was ]iublished in London and I'hiladclphi,' in 1S31.* The high character of the man gave unusual force to his opinions, and his epitome of the »agus in his second chapter contributed much to increase the interest in the Northmen story. lie was the first who much itnpresseil the .New Kngland .intiipiaries with the view that Vinl.ind »houl(l be looked for in New linglund; and a Krench version by I'aul (iuillot, issued in Paris in I.S44, is stated to have been " revue et augnieii. tee par I'auteur, avec cartes, inscriptions, et al- phabet runiiiue.''" The opinions of Wheaton, hcjwever, had no effect upon the leading histu- ri.m of the L'nited States, nor have any su|ise- cpient developments caused any ch.i.ige in the opinion of liancrolt, first advanced in iS;i, in the opening volume of his Uiiilcd Stiilis, where he dismissed the sagas as "mythological in form and obscure in meaning ; ancient yet not contemporary.'' lie adds that "the intrepid mariners who colonized (ireeidand could easily have extenfled their voyage to Labrador; but no clear hist.. Oct.. 1.S33, avoided the question of the Norse dis. covery. (Cf. his Sf'anish Pn/^irs, \ii\. il., and ICice's Essays from the Xo. Am. J\'iv.) C. Robinscyn, in his DisKnrrics in tlie West ich. 1), bfjrrows from Wheaton. •' Octavo ed., i. pp. 5, fi. ' Orig. cd., Hi. 313; last revision, ii. 132. * This society, Kongelige Nordiske Oldskrift-Sclskab. since 1S3;, has been issuing works and periodicals illustrating all departments of .Scandinavian archaology (cf. Webb, in Mass. Hist. Soe. Proc, viii. i"), and lias gathered cabinets and inuseunis, sections of which are devoted to American subjects. C. C. Kafn's Cabi- net d'antiqnitis Ainericaines h Co/>en/iaf;iie (Copcnliaijen, iS;.''); Journal of the Royal Geografliieal Soeiety, xiv. 316; Slafter's introd. to his l'oyai;es of the Xort/nnen. " Mass. Hist. Soc.Proe.,\'m. Si ; Am. Antiij. Soc. Proc. April, i.Sr,; ; A'. E. Hist. Geneal. Retr-, 1865, p. 273 ; Today, ii. \y(i. '■" Professor Willard Fiske has paid particular attention to the early forms of the Danish in the Icelandic literature. In iSS; the Hritish Museum issued a Cata/oQ-ue of the books /■rinted in Iceland from A. D. /,!7? to liSo in the library of the British Museum. In iSS'i Mr. Fisko privately printed at Florence RiHio'^raph- teal Xotices, i.: Books printed in Iceland, tjyS-rSff, a suf-flement to the British Museum Catalogue, i if ' 11' ^ ir' i r ; .^: 94 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. 'V ' four.der of the Royal Society of Northern An- tiquaries; aiul much of tlie value of its long series of publications is clue to his active and unllagging interest.' The summit of his Amer- ican interest, however, was reached in the great folio Aiifiipiitiitif .Imtrucinir,- in which he for the first time i)ut the mass of original Norse docu- ments before the student, and with a larger accu- mulation of prools than had ever been adduced before, he commented on the na i Uives and came to conclusions respecting traces of their occr.pancy to which few will adhere to-day. The effect of Katn's volume, however, was marked, and we see it in the numerous presen- tations of the subject which followed ; and every writer since has been greatly indebted to him. Alexander von Humboldt in Ins Exanuii Cri- tique (I'aris, 1S37) gave a synopsis of the sagas, and believed the scene of the discoveries to be between Newfoundland and New York ; and in i 11!: i' I k m r whtch enumerates 130 titles witli full bibliographical detail -ml an index. He refers also to the principal bibliugraphical authorities. I.aing's introduction to the Hei»istriiii;!it gives a survey. 1 Cf. list of their sever.il issues in Scucklcr's Cutiil. of Scii-iit. Scriiils, nos. ("'40, 654, and the Rafn bibliog- raphy in ."^abin, xvi. nos. i>;,40o-O7,4Sr). In addition to its Danish publications, the chief of which interesting to the American archaeologist being the Aiiti^iiurisl- Tii/sskyitt (1S45-1S04), bometimes known as tlie l\',-iie Arc/uoloi;iijiie et Biillitiii. tlie society, under il'i more familiar name of Soci^t6 Koyale des .Vntiipiaires do Nord, has issued its Mintoins, the lirst series running from i,S;h to iSoo, in 4 vols., and the second beginning in 1S66. These contain numerous papers involving tlie discussion of the Northmen voyages, including a con- densed narrative by Rain. " Memoiie sur la dccouveite de r.Vmeriipie au lo^' sitcle," which was enlarged and frequently issued separately in I'Yen h ioul other languages (iS;,,'^-iS43), and is sometimes found in Englisli as a Sufflcmcut to tlw .Intiiiuiltttts .1.'. riraitir, and was issued in New York O^.r^) as Amcrim discovcycJ in llic tenth eeitliiry. In this form (.'ii. :>•.>. Hist. Sue. Proe., viii. 1S7) it was widely used here and in Kurope to call .ittentiun tti Rafn's folio, . ^/i^i: He .\rio Maris til!" De I'l.'.nt lireidvikensium athleta ; De Gudleivo Gudlcegi filio ; Kxccrpta ex annalibus Islandorum; Die nn" i.i.," 'jpx-nkuulirum in locis P,crealibus; Excerpta e geographies scriptis vcteriim Islandorum; Carmen I'.vroicum. in quo' inlaiidia' mentio tit; Adanii liremensis Kelatio de Yin- landia : Descriptio qworunulam m< uimen'orum Europa'orum. qu.e in oris Griinlandia' ocidentalibus repcrta et deti'cta sunt: Descriptio vetii-,ti mr, ,ume'Ui in regione ' ■ sachusetts reperti ; Descriptio vetustorum quorundam monumentorum in Rliode Isl.iml — Annotatio.ie. %-ographica- : Islandia et CJriinlandia ; Inilagatio Arctoarum .\meric.-c regionum. — bulagatio tin .''.iloini .Americ.x' reg':'num. — .Addenda et emendanda.— Indexes. The larger works are in Icelandic. Danish, and Latin. Cf. also his Antiquites Amirieautes ifafris les monuments liistoriqiics les fslandais et des aneiens Seandinares (Copenhagen. 1S45). An abstract of the evidence is given in 1\\q Journal of the Koyat Geo- grafhieal Society {sm. inland it is upon this that II. II. Hancroft depends in his A'«//j'f Raecs(s. 10(1). Cf. also /W/. V. 115-116; and his Gv/^ -•/)«(•»■/. v:. i. 74. I-. Diissieux in his /,« (/;-(!«(/j Faits de I' Uistoire de la Geograf-hie (Paris, 1882; vol. i. 147, 16;) follows liafn and Malto-ISrun. So does Hrasseur de Dour- bourg in his Hist, de .Vations Ci:i/isees,\. i.S; and Hachiller y Morales in h\=, Antigiiedades .Anterieanas (Havana, 1S45I. Great efforts were made by Rafn and liis friends to get reviews of his folio in .American periodicals ; and he relied in this matter upon Dr. Webb and otlicrs. with whom he had been in correspondence in working up his geographical details (.1/(7 t.t. Hist. Soc. Proe.. ii. Q7. 107: viii. iSo. etc.), and so late as 1852 he drafted in English a new synopsis of the evidence, and sent it over for distribution in the United .'States (Ihid. ii. 500 ; Xnt' Jersev Hist. Soe. Proe.. vi. ; X. F. Hist. Geneal. Peg.. iSs.l, p. 1 -,). So far as weight of character went, there was a plentv of it in his reviewers: Edward Everett in the .\'o. Amer. Rev.. Jan., 1S3S; Alexander • Opposite is a section of Rafn's map in the Antiqnitates Awerieanrr. giving his identification of the Norse localities. This and the other map by Rafn is reproduced in his Cal'inet d\Antiquites Americaines (Copen- hagen. lS;S). The map in the atlas of St. Martin's Hist, de la Geograf'hie does not track them below New- foundland. The map in J. T. Smith's Xorthmen in .\'ew Ent;land (Hoston. iS^o) shows eleven voyages to .America from Scandinavia. A. n. Sfii-uS;. Cf. map in Wilhelmi's Island, etc. (Heidelberg, 1842). .'ond reason in an indiscriminate denunciation of tlie Genoese. The latter writer, in her Icelandic Discoverers of America (Boston, iSSS), rambles over the subject in a jejune way, and easily falls into errors, wliile she pursues her miiin purpose of exposing what she fancies to be a deep-laid scheme of the Pope and the Catholic Church to conceal the merits of the Northmen ai; I to capture the sympathies of .Americans in honoring the memory of Columbus in 1892. It is simply a reactionary craze from the overdone raptures of the scliool of Roselly de Lorgues and the other advocates of the canonization of Columbus, in Catholic Europe. - '1 his book is for the sagas the basis of the most useful book on the subject, Edmund Farwell Slafter's Voyages of f lie Xorthmen to America. Including extracts frotu Icelandic Sagas relating to Western voyages by .Xortbmeti in the loth and nth centuries in an F.uglish translation by Xathanicl Ludlow Beamish ; uith a synopsis of the historical evidence and the ofinion of professor Rafn as to the f laces visited by the Scandinavians on the co'ast of America. With an introduction (Boston, 1S77), published by the Prince Society. Slafter's opinion is that the narratives are " true in their general outlines and important features." 3 Island, Huitramannaland, Gronland und f^/'n/irHrf (Heidelberg. 1S42). < Die Entdeckung von Amerika durch die Islander im zchnten und eilften Jahrhnndert (Braun- schweig, 1S44). Cf. E. G. Squier's Discovery of America by the Xorthmen, a critical review of the works of Hermes. Rafn and Beamish ( 1 S49). * Cf. his paper in the Quebec Lit. and Hist. Soc. Trans., 1865. PRE-COLUMBIAN EXPLORATIONS. 97 :11 Slafter's 1 1 'e stern it-! LiiiUo'u* ■ic-s visift'd led by tlie important Ai>u'n',/iu\ — frit!;mcitts dc Sa!;ns /s/iiiii/,ii.us Iradiuls j-our la /•ri-mieri' fois i-n /r,iii(ais ( I'aris, 1S59) — an extract from the /\\viii- Un,iil,i/i' i7 Aiiu'riiiiiiii- (vol. ii.).' Professor Daniel Wilson, of Toronto, has dis- cussed the subject at different times, and with tliese conclusions: " With all reasonable doubts as to the accuracy of details, ihere is the strong- est probability in favor of the authenticity of the American \'inland. . . . The data are the mere va;4ue allusions of a traveller's tale, and it is indeed the most unsatisfactory feature of the sa,t;as that the later the voyages the nujre con- fused and inconsistent their narratives become in every point of detail." - Dr. 1). V. De Costa's first book on the snbjei "" was his J'ii-Ci>/iim/'iiiii />i.fort\ de I'Aineriijne et de I'ancien Continent a- ant CoUnih (Paris, 1869), entered more |)articularly into the evidence of the com- merce of Vinland and its relations to lunope. (laliriel Gravier, another French author, was rather too credulous in his Deconverte de l' Ante- riiliie par les norniands an X" Steele ( Paris, 1S74), when he a>sumed willi as much contidence as Rafn ever did everything that the most anient advocate hail sought to prove."* There were two American writers soon to fol- low, hardly less intemperate. These were Aaron Goodrich, in A J/islory of the Character and Achie-'ements of the so-called Christopher Colnm- l'Us{'S. V , 1S74), who took the full complement of Rafn's belief with no hesitancy; and Rasmus 1>. .\nderson in his America not diseoTcred l>y Co- ///w/'/M- (Chicago, i.'-v4; improved, 1S77 ; again with Watson's bibliography, I.S,S3),'' in which even the Skekion in Armor is made to play a part. Excluding such vagaries, the book is not without use as displaying the excessive views en- tertained in some quartets on the subject. The author is, we believe, a Scandinavian, and shows the tendency of his race to a facility rather than felicity in accepting evidence on this subject. The narratives were first detailed among our leading general histories when the Pof^nlar History of the United States of Brvant and C.ay apjieared in 1S76. The claims were jircsented decidedly, and in the main in the directions in- dicated by Rafn ; but the wildest pretensions of that antiquary were considerately dismissed. 1 Ikaiiviiis also made at a later period oilier contributions to the siibiect : l.a deriiiers vestii.'es da Chris- tianisme prcchcs du X' an X/l' si^cles dans Ic Mark-land ct le Crondc-lrlandc. les forte-croix dc la Gasf-csie ct dc I'Arcadie d'aris, 1S7;) which appeared ori:,'inally in the Aiinales de l-hilosof-liic Chrlticnucs. Apr.. 1S77; and Les Colonics cnr.ifcenncs du Marl-land el dc I'Escociland au Xll' siccle et les -ecs/ixes ijui en sul'sislircnt jusquaux XVh et Xl'll' sit-cle ([.nxenibourg, 1S7S), belni; taken from \.\\\. i.) places it on the coast of L.abrador. Horsford (p. 66) at some length admits no question that it must have been between 41' and 43= north. Cf. Laing's Heimstringla, i. 173; Palfrey's New England, \. 55; De Costa's Fre-Columbian Disc., p. 33; Weise's Discoveries of .America, 31 ; and particularly \"igfiisson in his English-Icelandic Dictionary under " Eykt." 9 " The discovery of .America,'' s.ays \^3.\ni!,{Heimsl:ring'a, i. 154), " rests entirely upon documentary evidence which cannot, as in the case of Greenland, be substantiatet. by anything to be discovered in .Vmerica." I.aing and many of the commentators, by some strange process of reasoning, have determined that the proof of these MS. records being written before Cc'.umbus' visit to Iceland in 1477 is sufficient to establish the priority of discovery for the Northmen, as if it was nothing in the case that the sagas may or may not be good history ; and nothing that it was the opinion entertained in Europe at that time that Greenland and the mor. distant lands were not a new continent, but a proloni'ation of Europe by the north. It is curious, too, to observe diat, treating of events after 1492, Laing is quite w.tling to believe in any saga being " filled up and new invented," but is quite unwilling to believe anythmg of th; kind as respects those written anterior to 1492 ; and yet he goc on to prove conclusively that tbi Flatoyensis Codex is full of fable, ,;s when the saga man makes the eider-duck lay eggs where during thr same weeks the grapes ripen and intoxicate when fresh, and the wheat forms in the ear! I.aing nevertheles? rests his case on the Flatoyensis Codex in its most general scope, and calls poets, but not antiquaries, those vhj attempt to make any additional evidence out of imaginary runes or the identification of places. R S .1 ll i '1/ P Ik I : ■" ICO NAKRATIVE ANU CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. f.irlher apruc tli.iii to place Vinland anywhere 'I'he eurliL^t to gcj so far an tu e.stabli^li to a from (irceiihuid to Africa.' certainty- tlie sites of the sagas was Rafn, who 1 It must be remembered that tliis divergence was not so wide to tlie Xorthmcn as it seems to iis. With them the Atlantic was sonietinies held to be a great basin that was enclasped from nortlnvestern Eunjpe by a prolongation of Scandinavia into (ircenland, Helhiland, and Markland. and it was a question if the mure distant region of \'inland did not belong rather to tlie corresponding prolongation of .\frica on the south. L'f. I)e Costa. I'lC-Coliimhinti Disc. loS ; Hist. Mti:;.. xiii. 4I1. - lie wrote; " Here for the first time will be found indicated llie precise spot where the ancient Nortlimeri held their intercourse.'' The committee of the Mass. Hist. Soc. objected to this extreme confidence. Pri> ceeilini;s, ii. 97, 107. 500. 305. NoTF.. — The above map is a f.u-simile of one of C.C. Rafn's maps. Cf. the maps in .'^mith, Heamish Ciravier, .Slafter, Preble's .biur. I'liig. etc. ;»• ~^ tt M * t M' **; M' S ^ \ " 'TT' tV'wtl 1 -' c. /J ^ji».r-' 1 «j: .fr/T I' **"■ 5«lt,N>Sl«.\' i I'.e.uiilsli I)If,ir]'r)N KOCK.» • Koimxlnctic.n ). NiiTK. — The opposite plate is reduced from one in the Antiq. Amcricanct. They show the difficulty, even before later weathering, of different |»rsons in discerning the same things on the rock, and in discriminating be- tween fissures and incisions. Col. Garrick Mallery (4fh A'e/t. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 250) asserts that the inscription h,as been '' so manipulated that it i^ difficult now to determine the original details." The drawings represented are enumerated in the text. Later ones are numerous. Rafn also gives that of Dr. Baylies and Mr. Gooding in 1700. and that made for the Rhode Island Hist. Society in 1S30. The last has perhaps been more commonly copied than the others. Photographs of late years are conmion ; but almost invariably the photographer has chalked what he deems to be tlie design. — in this they do not agree, of course, — in order to make his picture cleaier. I think Schoolcraft in making his daguerreotype was the first to do this. The most careful drawing made of late years is that by I'rofessor Seager of the Naval Academy, under the direc- tion of Commodore Blake; and there is in the Cabinet of the American Antiquarian .Society a MS. essay on the rock, written at Blake's request by Chaplain Chas. R. Hale of the U. S. Navy. Haven disputes Blake's statement that a change in the river's bed more nearly submerges the rock .at high tide than was formerly the case. Cf. Am, .Antiq. Soc Proc, Oct., 1S64, p. 41, where a history of the rock is given ; and in Wilson's Prehistoric Man, ii. 03. <( Miller's INSCRIPTION ON DIGHTON ROCK. (See p. 102.) •I mi] n ^ 1 ) III 104 NAKRATU'E AND CRniCAL lll.sroRV o. AMliKICA. 'I'liu most f.imi)U> ot ;ill tlusc allt j^ccl iiK'ino- rials' is llic I )ii;lilciii Km k, lyiii^; in lliu liilu uii tlic side of r.uiiUDii kivLi, ill tlif town of Hcrkc- ky, in MassacliiisLtts.- Dr. l)c Costa tliiiil\ the Davenpcirt Acad, of Natural Sciences. - 'i'liu stone witli its iiLscriptiun early attracted attenticMi, Init lianfuith's drawinj,' (it ii.So is the earliest known. Cdttdii .Mallier, in a iledicalury epistle to .-^ir lleiiiy .\shiirst, preli.\ed to his WoikIii/iiJ WoiH-s 0/ C ■/ iommiinonitett (llnsiuii, Kx/o), nave a cut ot a part of the iiiscriptiuu ; and he coinnninicated an account with a drawing of the inscription to the Koyal Society in 17IJ, which appears in Wmv J'/iilosofliiml Truiis- action J. Dr. Isaac Orceiiwood sent anoiher draft to the Society ' tiquaries in London in 1730, and their Traiismtions \n t'}2 has this of Greenwood. In I7()S l'rolesi„ .Stephen Sewall of CainhridKe made a copy of the natural size, which was sent in 1774 by I'rofessor James Winthrop to the Koy.il Society. Ur. Stiles says that Sewall sent it to (icbelin, of the Trench Acidcniy, whose nienihcrs judged them to be funic characters. Stiles himself, in 17S;, in an election sermon delivered at llartfoid, spoke of "the visit by the I'lueniciaiis, who char,;;ed the DiKliton Kock and other rocks in N'arrai;ansett Hay with funic inscriptions reniaiiiinj< to this day, which last I myself liave repeatedly seen and taken oil at lartje." tf. ■Jhornton's I'lilfit t>f tlu- kcn'iutioii, p. 410. The .■/>v/;,f»/,'.i,'/i( (London, viii. tor i7So)i;a\e various drawings, with a paper by the Kev. .Micli.iel Lort and some notes by Cliarhs X'allaiicey, in which the oiiinion was expressed that the iiisciiptioii w.is the work of a people from Siberi.i. driven south by hordes of Tartars. I'rolessor \\ iiithrop in 17S.S l.lhd the marks, as he nnderstooil them, with printer's ink, and in this way took an actual impression of the iiisc.iptii 11. His copy was engraved in the MiinoUs of tlu- Aiiuihtui Adulcmy of Arts iiiul Sdcitccs (vol. ii. for 1703). It was this copy by Winthrop which Wasliiunton in i7,S(j saw at Canibrid,i;e, when he proiiouiiced the inscription as similar to those made by the liulians, which he had been accustomed to see in the western country diiriiii! his life as a surveyor. Cf. IlclH-iuiJ' I'lt/'crs, Muss. //i.t.) ; Ilrintcm's Mylhf cf the .\\w IK.'/'/i/, p. lo; Tylor's liaiiy /fion'5 Prehistoric .\fan. .\. K. Grote l.lmer. .Vatnralist. .Apr., 1S77) holds them to be the survivors of tlie pal.io- lithic man. <> E. lieauvois' l.es Shroelini;s, .liieetres des Esqninianx i l',aris, 1S79) ; H. T. DeCosta in /'•>/. Seienee Monthly, Nov., 1SS4 ; .A. S. Packard on their former ranvje southward, in the Ameriean Xatnralist, xix. 471, 553, and his paper on the Eskimos of Labrador, in Af-f'leton's Journal, Dec. 0. 1S7: (reprinted in lieach's Indian Miseellany, .\lbany, 1S771. Humboldt holds them to have Ix'en driven across .America to Europe (I'invs of Xature, Fiohn's ed., 123). Ethnologists are not wholly agreed as to the course of their migrations. The material for the ethnological study of the Eskimos must be looked for in the narratives of the .Arctic voyagers, like Scoresby, Parry, Ross, O'Keilly, Kane.C. F. Hall, and the rest: in the accounts by the mission- arifcs like Egede, Crantz. and others ; by students of ethnology, like Lubbock (Pre'iisf. Times, ch. 14) ; I'richard {Researches, v. 367) : Waltz (.Imeriianer. I. 300) ; the .Abb6 Morillot (,\/ytholo!;ie et l:'!;eniles des Esquimaux dn Grocnland In K\\<:Aetes de la Soe. Philolo.;ique{]'M\>, 1S7;), vol. iv.) ; Morgan (Systems 0/ Consanguinity. < ( , If < i I / ' 106 NAKRATIVi; AND CRITICAL HISIORY OF AMERICA. That the climate of the Atlantic coast of the Unitud States iiul the Hritinh provliite.s »;« •uch a.i was favorable to the pteseiit Arelit dwellers is lielil to he shown liy such evidences as tusks of the walrus found in phosphate Imds in South (.'arolina. Kude implements found in the interulacial Jersey drilt have heeii held by C. C. Abbott to have been associated witli a people of the l'!skimo stock, and some have Holed that pai.eolithic iinplunients found in I'enn^ylvania closely resemble the work of the modern Kskimo* (.//«,;■. A)ili,/ii,ii laii, i. 10).' Dall remarks upon implements of Innuit origin being found four hundred miles south of the present ranne of the Kskiinos uf the northwest toast ( CoiiliiimlioHs III .Iniii-. El/inoloxv, i. p. i>S). CharleMiix s.iys that l.skinios were occ;utionally Seen in Newfoundland in the beniniung of the last century; and ethnohi^ists reco^ni/e today the same stock in the Kskinios of Labrador and Greenland. The best authority on the I'.skimos is generally held to l)u Ilinrich Rink, and he contends that- they formerly occiipieed. till Gronland. p. 121. I'Rt-COLL'.MIllAN EaI'LCJKATIONS. 107 vieivn.i ('. K. Markli.ini, who (littus their Hr^t appLaranci) hi (irvcnlaiul in i.].t9< coiiIvikIh, 011 thu iithur haiul, tliat Ihuy cuiiil' from the wt'st (Sihciia) ahiiiK the polar rugioii.i (WraiiKull I. ami), and drove out thu Nor«u sutllersi in (irtxii- land- Ihc most aclivL' of ihc later slndcnis o' the llskiiiios ii l>r. Kran/ Itoas, now of .\e, \'ork, who has diHcint^cd their trihal lionndarics. ' F. 'I'm l.il>,r (IKH.NI.ANI) t'ljLilMIS. — After inlercour'^e with thu colonics in (irccnland ceased, and delinllu tradition in li eland had died out, and when the question of thu re-discovery should arise, it was natural that attention should first be turned to that coast of Green- land which lay o|>|)osite Iceland as thu likelier sites of the lost colonies, and in this way we find all the settlements placed in thu maps of the sixteenth century. The Archbishop l>ik Wal- keiidorf, of l.und, in the early part of that cen- tury had failed to persuade the Uaiiish govern- ment 111 send an expedition. King Frederick II was induced, however, to send one in ij'j'S; hut it accomplished nothing; and again in 1579 he put another in command of an I'!nglishman, Jacob Allday, but the ice preventetl his landing. A Danish navigator was more successful in 1581; but the coast opposite Iceland yielded as yet no traces of the Norse settlers. Krobislicr's discovery of the west coast seems to have failed of eCOKnilion among the Danes; but tliey with th' ruat of Kurope did not esca|)e noting the lm> pi.rlance of the explorations of John Davis lit ' 5.S5-,S(i, through the strait.s which bear his name. It niuv becmie the belief that the west settle- ment must be beyond (ape lartvvell. In KXJJ, ( li istian IV of Denmark sent a new expe- dition under (iodske I.indenow; but there was a Scotchman in coumiand of one of the three ship.-, and Jacob Hall, who had probably served under Davis, went as the lleet pilot. lie guided the vessels through Davis's Straits. Hut it was rather the |)urpose of I.indenow to find a north- West passage than to disci)\er a lost colony j and such was mainly the object which impelled him again in 1606, and inspired Karsten Kikard- sen in 1607. Now and for some years to come we have thu records of voyages made by the whalers to this region, and we read their narra- tives in I'urchas and in such collections of voy. ages as those of Harris and t'hurchill.* They yield us, however, little or no help in the prob- lem We are discu.ssing. In 1670 and 1671 ('hris- tian V sent expeditions with the express purpose of iliscovering the lost colonies; but Otto A.\- tlsen, who commanded, never retcrned from his second voyage, and we have no account of his lirst. The mission of the priest Ilans ICgede gave thu first real glimmer of llght.^ He was the geografhisch und stathlin/i heschrichen (Stuttgart, iSi^ioi. 'Ilie English reader has access to his Tata and Triulithns of llie Eskimo, translated liy Kink liijuielf. and edited by Dr. Kolxjrt lirdwn (London, 1S75) ; to Danish llniiiliiiiil, its fcoflc aiitl its /■roiliicls, ed. by Dr. Dnnvii (l.cmdon, i.'i7;). Kink says of this work tliiit in its ICnijIisli dress it must Ix; considered a new book, lie also piililislied T/ie f.skiuii tritts ; their liisliil'iition (iiitl chiinii/i'ris/its, csfCiUiUy in rtgant to lii)i);iiai;e. 1 1 'ilh a comfaratire 7o< iihuljry (Co- penhagen, etc., 1SS7). lie also considered their dialects as divultjini; the relatiunsliip ol trilx.'s in Xhc Journal of the .lnthr,i^o/oi;iiii/ /iistitii/t'iw. 2ji|) ; aiul in the same journal (l.'i'Z. p. 104) lie lias written of their descent. Kink al>o furnished to the Coiii/'le Ktiulii, ('oiixi-^s i/i s .hiiiricctiiistis. a pajier on the traditions iif (oeenhind (.Nancy. i,S;;. ii. iSi), and {l.uxeiiilKiiUK, 1877, ii. 327) another on " I. 'habitat primitlf q--;2, S1-S2. Cf. also II. II. liancroft's Xative h'aces, iii. 574, and I.ucien .Adam's " Kn quoi la lanijiie Esquimaiide. defffcrc-t-ellc grammaticalement des autres langues de r.\nieri(|iie du Nord' '' in the Comftc Rendu, (.'ongrts des Amir. (Copenhagen), p. 317. .\nton von Ktzel's Gr'onland, geogra/hisch und statistisch beschriebcn aits Diinischen Quellschrtftcn (Stuttgart, 1S60) goes cursorily over the early history, and descriljes the Eskimos. Cf. I". Schwatka in Amer. Magazine, .\ug., 1S.S.S. ■• There is an easy way of tracing these accounts in Joel k. .Mien's List of Works and Paf^rs relating to the mammalian orders of Cetc and Sirenia, extracted from the Bulletin of Hayden's U. S. C'eol. and Geog. Survey (Washington, i,S.S2). It is necessary to bear in mind that .Spitzbergen is often called (ireenland in these accounts. •> His book, Det gainle Grdnlands nye Perluslration. etc.. was first published at Copenhagen in 1720. Pilling (Ribliog. of the Eskimo lant;uage, p. 26) was able to find only a single copy of this book, that in the liritish Museum. Muller (Books on America, .Amsterdam, 1S72, no. 64,S) descrilies acopy. This first edition escaped the notice of J. A. Allen, whose list is very carefully prepared inos. 217, 220, 226, 230, 235). There ml »i ii r' \ iirr I' SI l|i ' (' .11 I \ lOS NAKKATIVl-: AM) CKITICAI. IlISTl^KV OK A.MliKICA. earliest to ilfscriliL- tin.' niins ami relics nhserv- and allcr atti'inpts in lliat year ami in 17.S7 ilx- al'lc iin tlu.' wi.>t (.oii-i, lull h.; cdntiniicd to re- eltoit was aliandoneil. llcinricli IVtcr von Kg- garil lliu east sellleuienls as belon.nin.L; to the i;ers, in his (>//. (//i'«/i(//,/.( 6'.iV,;Yj|';',A .>,,;/,/■■ A',//;'. east Kia.it, ami so plaeed them on ihe map. .vv;;/'/,v/ (1792), and {\hr .//.■ -,,',1/11 c /..(v' ''''•'" Anderson ( I lainbmi;, 17101 went so l.ir as to ,i!tiii O.i,iiihiTi>k /.ilt 1; ," .i «s.pi'=>:ui(nii'f I'y j^iiiioii^iiiintT, imiu J?rap ciut'3 tanpft Wv 00 Q\M at fuT, faafoni 55))a"/ Mi tc\ fMm s^'c- \m CP5r0\)ct tiDt trtti^Saattci) an^re 5\"aabrr'(!2ti)ffiX' otcf i:all^l■t5 ^atunlllCl■ CO ijirobysjijctms J5uil^tlTl•ilIglT, ■Sorfittlct nf HANS EGEDE. ^crbdiMisConaittiBi C .ciiliiiiO. ■Wf ^3O«(£9JJ3?tOJ0?, 174'- trvfi (oil 31-M (^|)(i|1cpV ^Mt l'ir.ir\ copy.] Mt- were t^^^ ''n'rin.Tii editions nf til ti' till- l',:i,'ir./u nil Cita.'.-. nli;;ill;ll I'nmicil' the ll.iok, loilllkicirt. JO, and Hanibii.fi. I7^o, acconliiii; I., u..- . w .< ' ■!•' ,i 'I . ,1,11. -^u I Ml. -t-i"^. '■ (7). but I'illinL; uive^ nnlv tlie .irst. 'I'lie 172(1 edition .vas eiil.Liu;*-'! ill till.' ( "|)L.|ih.e.;eii editittn nt 17)1. which li.i^ .1 111. ip. " ( irntil.iiidi.i .\nti([ua." showing t'le east cnloiiy and west cnl, inv. ri'spcctively. east and uest i.f Cipc I'.nevvell. This edition is the basis cf the various transhi- tioM- : III I irnnan. C'upenlin:;fii. 174.'. ii'-iii^ the ]ilates of the 17.(1 ed. ; llcrlin. I7fil. In Dutch, Ilelft. 174^1. In I'rench. Cnpenhanen. i7i\;. in I'.ii^lisli. I.ondr>u. 171;; alisli.ictod in the I'lillosofh. TihiimiiHoi:! h'l'uil S,>-. ( 1744). xlii. no. 47 ; and a^'aiii. I .'iidoii . i.^i.S). uiili ;\n historical introductinn based lui 'Idrfa'us and I. a I'evrere. Crantz epitomi/es I-.i^ede's career in ( ireenl.iiid. The bihlionraphy in ."^abin's />/, //'■•hi/cv fvi. ::2.r 1 S.elc. 1 crnifounds tlie (ireeidand i"i •nal (1 77'i- 7.^) "f Hans F.fiede's '4randMin, Hans F.^cdo Saaliyn (li. 1740; ,1. 1.S171. with the work of the i;raiidlather. Thi^ ioiirn.d is of importance as iv^.inls the I'"-.kiiiins ;ind the missions anionn them. There is an l'".m;lisli version: th\,ii- hnhl : i'\fy,uts t'rimi ,1 / 'iiiiiii! /'i// in /770 /.> itT'1' /'ir/ixfi/ mi iiitrihliufioii : illin. /v i/hii/ 0/ thtrii liviil. /•}■ a. Fric\. I'riiiiil. frr.ii) ///<• (!niiiiiii f/'V //. /?. f.loyd} {London, i.SiSl. The map follows tli.Tt c f the s(ni of Hans, I'nnl l'"i;rde, whose Xtwfiyit/ifi-n :-nn (iri>ii/tjn,/ iins riurm Ttit:;ehuclic '-'in /i;\\/i''/ /\ufl /•\,v/i ■ i oenhancn, 7ip) must also be kept distinct. Pillinjj's liililiog. of the Eskimo Iangui7i;e affords the n.'St ;;uiile. I'RE-COLUAIlilAX liXI'LOKATI 0\S. 109 oiMiiloiis, and Saabye still bcliuvcd it |)o.ssil)le to leacli the ca.-t coast. Smiiu jfars later (iS^iS-jl) W. A. (iiaali nuult;, liv urilcr i)f tliu king of Dunmark, a tlioroiigh cxamin itioii of tlic cast coast, and in his i'ui/,i- si\',i.u:< A'l-i'j,- III OsthysU'ii nf GtoiiLiiid (Copcii- liajicn, 1S32)' hf was generally tliminlil to eslal)- lisli the great iniprohaliilily of any traces position was that the land visited lay near the. Gulf of Mexico. Richard llakluyt, in his /'riihipa/l A'avi,i;alhlab- lished through Coluinbii^." The linguislic evidences were not brought into prominence till after one .Morgan Jones had fallen among the Tuscar .\n I'^iiiilish translation hv Mac(liiiii4.ill was piiljli.-hetl in I.iindim in iS;; (I'illing, )>. ;S ; rickl. no. im,!. \ I'rench versicm of (iraali's nitriKliictidn with niitus l)y .M. de la Kiitiucttc was published in i.S;;. Cl J,'!iriial h'liya/ ('tfi's;. S,ii.,\. 2^y. .After (iraah's piiblicaticin Kafn placed the ( )steibvgden on the we^t dia-t in his map. (iraah's report (i.S^o) is in French in the /lull. ,tc la Si>c. dc Gioy;. ili- I'aris, iSjo. '- On the present scant, if not absence uf, piipiilaticpn on the cast coast of (ireenland. see I. I). Whitney'^ Cliiiia/ic C/iaiii;cs of lairr i;eit/o:;hal limes {.l/iis. of Coin/-, /.inil, Mriii., vii. p. v >. Canil)ri(li;e. iS.Sii. ■' The changes in opinion respecting the sites of the colonies and the successive eNjiloMlions are tnllowi-d ill the r.)/«//t- h'eiii/ii. Coiii;res iles .hnerieaiiistcs by Steenstriip (p. l!^)and by \'aldeinar-Sclniiidt. -Mir le- Xoya^es dis D.inois au ( inieiiland " (105. 205, with references). L'f. on these lost colonies and tlie se.ucli [•■\- them Wesliniiisler A'cr/Vjc. .Txvii. iy)\ llaifers Moiitlily. xliv. 6; (l)y I. I. Mayes) ; /./^/■iiieutt's .I/,;;., .\iig.. |S,-S; Aiiier. Cliureli Rev., xxi. y^\ and in the general histories. La Leyreic (Hutch tiansl.. .XiiisUr- d.iiii. i')7,S) ; Ciantz 1 ICiih. transl., i;f>7, p. 2;j): Lgede (Kng. cd., iSi.S. Iiitrod.) ; and Kink's Dani.-ii Creeii- laiiJ. cli. 1. •( The original of I larilsen's account has disap|.eaied. but Rafii puts it in Latin, translatiiu; froinaneailv copy round in the h'aioe Islands (,.liili,/iiilales Amhieaiia . \>. yoo). I'luchas tjives it in Knglisb, from a copy which had beIoin;ed to Hudson, bcinn translated from a Hutch version which ILidsoi. ha., bor.iwed. Ihe Uiitcli being rendered by liaient/ from a (iennan version. Major ai>o prints it in l',>yai;es of the ?.eiii. He reco:;ni/.cs in bardsen's " (iunnbiorn's Skerries" the island wliicli is inarked in Kuysch's map (150;) as blown U]i in \y~.(-i (see \ ol. 111. p. 01. ■'■' ll.ikluyt, howtvi I. prints some ]iertiuent versos by Meriditli. a Wcl-h bard, in 1.177, '■' .\liii/-/iy Calal.. no. i^.Sij; Sabin. x. p. 7,21 : Cail,i-/ir«irii Catitl. for eds. of i;.S^, 1097, 1702, 177^. iSii, IS;-', etc. ■ In the seventeenth century there were a variety of symptoms of the English eagerness to yd the claims of M.idoc substantiated, as in Sir Richard Hawkins's ()/",c:ii//<);;.r (llakluyt Soc,. i,S.,7), and janus llowi'lls /•'ai/ti/iar Letters (London, ii.|;). Itelknap (.Imer. /lio:.'.. 1-Q4. i. p. j.S) takes this view of llakhiyfs purpose ; but I'inkerton, Foyayes. 1.S12, xii, 1 57, thinks such a clian;e an aspersion. The subject was mentioned with some par'iciilarity or incidentally by I'lnchas, .\bbott (/iiiei De.<,ri/li,iii. London, 1I120, ifi;4, 1077), Smith (/'/;•• f:iiiia). and I"ax [A'ort/i-]Vest /ui.x). Sir Tlionias IkMbert in his Relation of some Traraile into .Ifriia ami .hia I London, td}^) tracks M:uloc to Nnvloimdland, and he also found Cymric words in Mexico, which assureil him ,n his .search for further jiroofs (liolm's Lo-iiules. p. io4 The Welsh Indians, or a collection of fafers resfecting a feofle whose ancestors emigrated from 1 1 'ales to .-Uiierica with Prince Madoc, and who are now said to inhabit a beautiful country on the west side oj the Mississifpi (London, 179;). lie finds these conditions in the Padoucas. Goodson, Straits of Anian (Portsmouth, 1793), p. 71, makes Padoucahs out of " Madogwys " I • .After .1 cut in The Mirror of Literature, etc. (London, 1823), vol. i. p. i77,showinc; a vessel then recently exhumed in Kent, and supposed to be of the time of Edward I, or the thirteenth century. I'he vessel was sixtv-four feet long. PRE-COLUMBIAN EXl'LO RATIONS. I II i poem Afiidoc, though he refrained from publish- ing it for some years. If one may judge from his introductory note, Southey held to the his- torical basis of the narrative. Meanwhile, re- ports were published of this and the other tribes being found speaking Welsh.' In iSi6, Henry Kerr printed at Elizabethtown, New Jersey, his Travi/s throiti^li the Western interior of t/ie United States, lSoS-16, 'nit/i some iueount of a tribe -(.i/iose customs are similar to tiiose of t/ie aiieient Welsh. In 1S24, Vates and Moulton (State of New York) went over the ground rather fully, but without conviction. Hugh Murray ( 'I'ra-'els in North Ameriea, London, iS.'9) believes the Welsh went to Spain. In 1S34, the different sides of the case were dis- cussed by Farcy and Warden in Duiiaix's An- tiquites Mexieaines. Some years later the publi- cation of (Jeorge Catlin - probably cave more conviction than had been before fen," arising from his statements of positive linguistic corre- spondences in the language of the so-called White ^ Mandans ■• on the Missouri River, the similarity of their boats to the old Welsh cora- cles, and other parallelisms of custom. He be- lieved that Madoc landed at Florida, or perhaps passed up the Mississippi River. His conclusions were a reinforcement of those reached bv Wil- liams.' The opinion reached by Major in his edition of Co'^mhus" Letters (London, 1S47) that the Welsh discovery was quite possible, while it was by no means probable, is with little doubt the view most generally accepted tfi-day; while the most that can be made out of the claim is pvescnt.d with the latest survey in 11. F. Bowen's Ameriea Jiseovered by the Welsh in iiyo A. D. (Philad., 1876). He gathers up, as helping his proposition, such widely scattered evidences as the Lake Superior copper mines and the Xcwport tower, both of which he ap- projjriates ; and while following the discoverers from Xew England south and west, he does not hesitate to point out the resemblance of the Ohio Valley mounds" to those depicted in Pen- nant's Tour of Wales ; and he even is at no loss for proofs among the relics of the Aztecs." H. TiiK Zknm .\nd thkir Map. — Some thing has been said elsewhere (Vol. HI. p. 100) of the influence of the Zeni narrative and its map, in confusing Frobisher in his voyages. The map was reproduced in the Ptolemy of 1 561, with an account of the adventures of the brothers, but it was so far altered as to dissever Greenland from Norway, of which the Zeni map had made it but an extension.'-' The story got further currency in Rarnusio (1574, vol. ii.), Ortelius (1575), Hakluyt (1600, vol. iii.), Megiscr's Septentrio Novautiquus ( 1613), Purchas (1625), Pontanus' Rerum Daniearum (1631), Luke Fo.\'s North-West I-'ox (1633), and in De Laet's A'otce (1644), who, as well as Ilor- nius, De Ori:^inibus Americanis (1644), tliinks the story suspicious. It was repeated by Mon- tanus in 1671, and by Capel, Vorslellum^en a'es Nordeii, in 1676. Some of the features of the map had likewise become pretty constant in the attendant cartogra|)hical records. Put from the close of the seventeenth century for about a hundred years, the story was for the most part ignored, and it was not till 17S4 that the interest in it was revived by the jjublications of Forster '" 1 Chambers' Journal, vi. 411, mentioning the Asyuaws. - Letter on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the Xo. Amcr. Indians (\. V., 1S42). 3 He convinced, for instance, Fontaine in his I/oxu the World was Peopled, p. 14;!. ■• On the variety of complexion among the Indians, see Short's Xo. Atncr. of Antiq.,'^. 1S9; McCuUoh's Researches; Haven, Archaol. U.S.,j,'&; Morton in Schoolcraft, ii. 320; Ethnolog. Journal, London, July, 1S4S: .\pp. 1S49, commenting on Morton. 5 Pilling, Bibliog. of Siouan languages (Washington, 1SS7, p. 4S), enumerates tlie authorities on tlie Mantlan t(]ngue. The tribe is now extinct. Cf. 'Slorffm's, Systems of Consanguinity, \i. iSi. ."^ee also Smithsonian Report, 1SS5, Part ii. pj). So, 271, 349, 440. Kuxtcjn in Life in the Far West (N. v., iS4(i) found Welsli traces in the speech of tlie Mowquas, and .-^. \'. McMastor in Smithsonian A'ep/., 1S65, heard W'elsli sounds ar. ing the Navajos. " Filson in his Kcnluchc has also pcjinted out this possibility. 8 The bibliography of tiie subject can be followed in Watson's list, already referred to, and in that in the.-J/«i-r. Bibliopolist. Feb., 1S69. A few additional references may help complete tliese lists : Stephens's Literature of the Cyiiiry, ch. 2 ; the .Vbbe Doniencch's Sc-.en Years in the Great Desert of America ; Tytlcr's Progress of Disco-eery : MoosmiiUer's Eunpiierin Amerika ror Columbus ( Kctjensburg, 1S79. cli. 21) ; Gafiarel's Rapport etc., p. 2ri: .-Inalylical Mag., ii. 400; Atlantic .Monthly, xxxvii. 305 ; Xo. .\m. /vVr. (by E. E. Hale), Ixxxv. 305 ; .-Xntiquary, iv. 65 ; Southern Presbyterian Rev.. Jan., .\pril, 1S7S; Notes and Queries, index. '•' " . Ptolemy map is reproduced in firavier's Les .\ormands sur la route, etc., 6th part, ch. i ; and in >' ., ienskidld's .Studicn und Porschungen < Leipzig, 1S05). p. 25. The I'tolemy of x:.r>2 has the same plate. 1" J. R. Forstcr's Disco-eeries in the .Vorttiern Regions. His confidence was shared by Eijsers (1704) in his True Site of Old Past Greenland (Kiel), who doubts, however, if the descriptions of Er.totiland apply to America. It was held to be a confirmation of the chart that both tlie east and west Greenland colonies were en the side t f Davis's Straits. a! r. f 1 :„) ■/(( r i| 1 1: NAKRATIVE AND CKIJ ICAL JllSTOKY OF A.MLKICA. and liuache,' who each expressud tlitir btliff in thi; story. A more im|)ortant in<|iiiry in bchah' ut the narrative took place at Venice in iSo.S, when Cardinal Ziiria republished the map in an essay, aiiil niarUed out the track of the Zeni on a uiodern chart. - In iSio, M.ilte brun accorded his behef in the verity of the narrative, and wa.s inclined to believe that the Latin books found in Kstutiland were carried there by coloni.sts from Hreen- '.and.'' A reactionary view was taken by liiddle in his Sifiiist/ciii Oi/v/, in 1S31, who believed the publication of 155S a fraud; but the most efl'.-C- tive denial of its authenticity came a few years later in sinulry essays by /Calulmann.^ The story i;ot a stro.iL; advocate, after iteaiiy forty years of comparative rest, when R. II. .Major, of the map department of the liriiisli Museum, gave it an English dress and aniie.xed a commentary, all of whicli was published by the llakhiyt Society in 1S73. In this critic's view, the good parts of the map are of the four- teenth century, gathered on the spot, >vhile the RICi;.\RD H. M.\JOR.» 1 Biuiclie reprndiiced the m.ip. ,ind read in !;S4, before the .-\cadeniy of Inscriptions in I'aris, hi.s Mciiioiri sur la /'r/i/iiiii/. wliich was printi I by tlie .\c.idemv in 1 ;S,-. p. 450. - Disscytnzii'iic hiforno ai rinxf;i e !anish rad Maurer to be harilly removed from a fraud- archivist Frederik Ki-arup published (1S7S) a ulent coiiipihitio]\ of other existing material, sceptical paper in the G'.v^ '.(//...<■ Tttinkn/I (ii. iJ ^ii li.\U(,iN .XdKllilN.-KjlH.li.- 1 Majnr also, in Iiis paper {h'oya! Gi-oi;. Soi. Joiinuil, i8;;,) on " The Site of the I.nst Colony of Greenland detemiined, anil the pre-Columbian discoveries of .\nierica confirmed, from fourteenth century documents,'' used tlie /eno account and map in connection with Ivan Hardsen's Sailing Directions in placini; the missing colony near Cape rarewell. Major epitomized his views on the question in Miiss. Hist. Soi. I'loc, Oct.. |S;4. Sir II. C. Kawlinson commented on Major's views in liis address Iwfore the Koyal Geog. Society (Joiiiiuil, \^~X. p. clxxxvii). Stevens (A/'/. Cieoi^yn/liua, no. 3104) said: ''If the map l)e genuine, the mosl of its geography is false, while a part of it is remarkably accurate." - / i'/rt!,'A'' 1' ''" (arlii dci Fratclli Zeiia I . iieziiuii (Florence. i.S;S), ami a Stmlio Sccoiido (Estratio dull. Arcliivio Slorico Italiano) in 1SS5. • [From a recent photograph. VOL. I. — 8 There is another engraved I'keness in the second volume of his \'ci^a\ 114 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. "45 The most exhaustive examination, how- i) 1 I I ^'1 I 'I ,1 I u^' ! !■! i 'I l! I 1^ i ever, has come from a practical navigator, the Haroii A. K. N'ordenskjoUl, who in working up the results of his own Arctic explorations was easily led into the intricacies of the Zeno con- troversy. The results which he reaches are that the Zeni narratives are substantially true ; that there was no published material in 155S which could have furnished so nearly an accurate ac- count of the actual condition of those northern waters ; that the ma)) which Zahrtmann saw in the University library at Copenhagen, and which he represented to be an original from which the young Zeno of 155S made his pre- tended original, was in reality nothing but the Donis map in the Ptolemy of 1482, while the Ze- no map is much more like the map of the north made by Claudius Clavis in 1427, which was discovered by Nordenskjold in a codex of Ptol- emy at Nancy.^ Since Xordenskjcild advanced his views there have been two other examinations : the one by Professor Japetus Steenstrup of Copenhagen,' and the other by the secretary of the Danish Cleographical Society, Professor Ed. I'.rslef, who offered some new illustrations in his A'j^ Oplys- tiiiigcr om Brocdrciic Zcnis Rejscr (Copenhagen, iS8;).< Among those who accept the narratives there is no general agreement in identifying the prin- cipal geographical points of the Zeno map. The main dispute is upon Krislanda, the island where the Zeni were wrecked. That it was Iceland has been maintained by Admiral Irmingcr,^ anil Steenstrup (who finds, however, the text not to agree with the map), while the map accompany- ing the SititH hioi^yafui e bibliosytifici svtla storia delta geografia in Itidia (Rome, iSSj) traces the route of the Zeni from Iceland to Greenland, under 70° of latitude. On the other hand, Major has contended for the P'arbe islands, arguing that while the en- graved Zeno map shows a single large island, it might have been an archipelago in the original, with outlines run together by the obscurities of its dilapidation, and that the Faroes by their preserved names and by their position correspond best with the Frislanda of the Zeni." Major's views have been adopted by most later writers, perhaps, and a similar identification had earlier been made by I-elewel," Kohl,'* and others. The identification of Estotiland involves the question if the returned fisherman of the nar- rative ever reached America. It is not uncom- mon for even believers in the story to deny that Estotiland and Drogeo were America. That they were parts of the \ew World was, ' " Zcnicrnes Rejse til Norden ct Tolkning Forsoeg." with a fac-siniile of the Zeni map. - Norileiiskjiild's Om lo-'iU/ciiin Ziiiiis irsor och d itldsta kartor ofiicr Norden was iniblished at Stockholm in 1SS3, as an aiUlicss 7i'n lant^'uagc) touching their origination, and his Vindication of the planters (Lontlon, 1660). What seems to l...ve been a sort of supplement, covering, however, in part, the same ground, ap- peared as Vindiciic Jud(Ccorum,or a true account of the Je-a's, being more accurately illustrated than heretofore, which includes what is called " The de los Ame> -oinos de Manasseh Ben Is- learned conjectures of Rev. Mr. John Kliot " (32 rael, published at .Vmstcrdam in Kijo." It was in the same year (1650) that the question re- ceived the first public discussion in English in Thomas Thorowgood's feioes in America,, or, Probabilities that //<■ Americans are of that Race. With the remorall of some contrary reasonings, and earnest desires for ejfeetuall endeaz'onrs to mi he them Christian (London, 1650).* Tiiorow- good was answered by Sir Hamon L'Estrange pp.). Some of the leading Xew England divines, like .Mayhew and Mather,^' espoused the cause with similar faith. Roger Williams also was of the same opinion. William I'enn is said to have held like views. The belief may be said to have been general, and had not died out in Xew England when Samuel Sewall, in 1697, published his rhccnomena i/uicdam Apocalypticaad aspectnvi Novi Orbis ConfignrataS^ 1 Dudley, Arcano del Mare, pi. Hi, places Estotiland between Davis and Hudson's Straits; but Torfa'us doubts if it Is Labrador, as is " commonly believed.'' Lafitau {Maars des Sauvages) puts it north of Hudson Bay. Forster calls it Newfoundland. Beauvois {Lcs colonies Iuir,pccnes da Markland ct dc l' Escociland) makes it include Maine, New lirunswick, and part of Lower Canada. These are the chief varieties of belief. .Steenslrup is of those who do not recognize .Vmerica at all. Ilornius, among the older writers, thought that .■Scotland or .Shetland was more likely to have been the fisherman's strange country, ."^antarem {Hist, dc la Carlografhic, iii. 141) points out an island, " Y Stotlandia," in the B.altic, as shown on the map of fiiovanni Leardo (144S) at Venice. In P. B, Watson's liibliog. of Pre-Columbian Disccneries of America there is the fullest but not a complete list (m^the subject, and from this and other sources a few further references may be added ; Belknap's .Imer. Biography ; Humboldt's E.vanien Critique, ii. 120; .Xsher's Henry Hudson, p. clxiv ; Gravier's £>t'(i)//jr;-/<^ de r.-lmeriipic, 1S3 ; Gaffarel's Etude siir I'Amcrique avant Colomb, p. 261, and in the Rc-eue de Gcog., vii., tJct., Nov., iSSo, with the Zeno map as changed by Ortelius ; De Costa's Northmen in .Maine ; Weise's Dis- coveries of .bnerica, p. 44 ; Goodrich's C«/H«(ii«.f,' Peschel's Gcsch. dcs Zeilallers der Entdecknngcn (1S58), and Kuge's work of the same title; Guido Cora's I prccursori di Cristofro Colombo (Rome, i,SS6), taken from the Bolleltino delta soc. gcog. ilaliana, Dec, iS.S; ; Gay's Pop. Hist. U. S. n. 761 ; Foster's Prehistoric Races ; Stiidi biog. c bibliog. soc. gcog. ital., 2d ed., 1SS2, p. 117 ; P. O. Moosmiiller's Enropdcr in Amerika rcr Columbus, ch. 24 ; Das Ausland, Oct. 11, Dec. 27, 1SS6 ; A'ature, .xxviii. p. 14. Geo. E. Emery, Lynn, ^L•lss., issued in 1S77 a series of maps, making Islandia to be Spitzbergen, with the East Bygd of the .Northmen at its southern end; Frisland, Iceland; and Estotiland, Newfoundland. 2 Sabin, x., no. 42,675. •' There are editions with annotations by Robert Ingram, at Colchester, Eng., 1702; and by Santiago Perez Juncpiera, at Madrid, iSSi. Theoph. .'spizelius' Elcr-atio relationis .]lonte:inianrr de re/criis in Ame- rica tribubns Israelilicis (Basle, iCiOi) is a criticism (Leclerc, 547; Field, 147.",). One Montcsinos had professed to have found a colony of Jews in Peru, and had satisfied Manasseh Ben Israel of his truthfulness. * Cf. collations in .Stevens's Nuggets, p. 72S, and his Hist. Coll., ii. no. 53S ; lirinley, iii. no. 54c)-; ; Field, no. 1551, who cites a new edition in \(^^2,cAWei Digitus Dei : new discovcrycs, with some arguments to prove that the Jctvs (a nation) a people . . . inhabit now in America . . . with the history of Ant : Montcsinos attested by Mannassch Ben Israeli. .A divine, John Dury, had urged Thorowgood to publish, and had before this, in printing some of the accounts of the work of Eliot and others among the New England Indians, announced his belief in the theory. 5 Cotton JIather (^Magnolia, iii. part 2) tells how Eliot traced the resemblances to the Jews in the New England Indians. " 2d cd., 1727. Cf. Sibley's Harvard Graduates, ii. p. 361 ; Carter-Brown, iii. 401. srI il' 116 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. >. I h After the middle uf tlie last century we begin to And new sij^ns of the belief. Churles liealty, in his Joiirmil of a two moiit/is' lour "lOH/i ,1 view oj f'roiiioliii'^ rclii^iou amoii.; l/iijroiilhr iiiluihi- taiits of I'citiisyht.iiiii (l.ontl., 1 70S), tinils traces of ihc lost tiilies among tlit- Delawares, and re- peats a slury of the Indians loii^ ayo selling the same sacred l)ook to the whites witli wliicli the missionaries i.i the end aimed t 1 m ikc them ac- tjU tinted (icrardde |lra!im .iiid kicliarti I'eters, b )th l.miili.ir witli tlie .Soutliern Indians, fonnil grijund.i for accepting the belief. 'I'he most elaborate statement drawn from this re;;ion is that of j.imes Adair, wlio f.r forty )va's had been a trader am ^ng the ''■^tith-irn !:.dians. Jonathait ICdwards in \-]''-!f d c in the Hebrew some analogies to , - . itivt , I'ch.- ( harlcs Crawford in 1799 undt ■ .t. Isoc. in 1S19. 3 Essay upon the propagation of the Gospel, in which there are facts to prote that many of the iiulians in America are descended from the Ten 7"r;V'<-,c (I'hilad.. 1709; 2d ed., iSci). * A .'^tar in the West, or an attempt to discover the long lost Ten Trihes of Israel Ci'rentnn. X. J.. 1S16). 6 Tiew of the h'elireii'S. er the tribe of Luael in America (I'oultney. \'t.. 1S2;). '■' .-l view of the Imer. Indians, shewing them to be the descendants of the Ten Tribes (f Israel (Lend., ' Discourse on the rcidences of the Amcr. Indians being the descendants of the lost tribes of Israel (N. Y., i.S-;7i. It is reprinted in Mary.itt's Diary in America, vol. ii. 6 ///St. of the Wya.-dotte Mission (Cincinnati. I.S^o) ; Thomson's Ohio Billiog., 409. .Manners, i~v. of tiic X. Amer. Indians (J.ond., 1S41). Cf. Smithsonian Kept.. 1SS5, ii. 532. '" Mainly in vol. vii. ; bui see vi. 232, etc. Cf. Short. 143, 460, and liancrolt, Xat. Races (v. 26), with an epitome of Kingslxirough's arguments (v. ^^\. Mrs. Ilarbara .\nne Simon in lier Hope of Israel (Lond.. 1S29) advocated the theory on biblical grounds ; but later she made the most of Kingsborough's amassment of points ii\ her Ten Tribes of Israel historically identitied with the aborigines of the Western Hemisphere (London. iSvi). " The recognition of the thcor;- in the iMornion hihie is well known. liancroft (v. 97) epitomizes its recital, following I'lertrand's .Mimoires. Ihere is a repetition of the rid arguments in a sermon, Increase of the King- dom of Christ I.N'. V.. 1S31 '. by the Indian William .\pes ; and in An Address by J. Madison Drown (Jack- son. Miss., iSf)o). Sciior Mclgar point; out resemblances lietween tlie Maya and the Hebrew in tlie ISol. Soe. Af'x. Geog., iii. Even the Wester'-, mounds have been m-ide to yield Hebrew inscriptions ((Songres des Amcr., Nancy, ii. 192). Many of the general trcat'ses on the origin of the .Americans have set fortli the opposing arguments, flarcia did it fairly in hi, Origen de los Indios (i''i07; ed. by Harcia. 1720'. and Bancroft iv. 7.S-.S4 1 has con- densed his treatment. Hrasscur iHist. Xat. Civ., i. 17) rejects the theory of the ten tribes; b.it is not inclined to abandon a l>elief 1:1 Fonie scattered traces. Short (pp. 135, 144) epitomizes the claims. Gaffarcl covers them in his Etude snr les rapports de lAmerii/ue (p. S7I with references, and these last are enlarged in Ban croft's Nat. Races, v. 95-97. V ' ^ ii PRE-COLUMBIAN EXPLORATIONS. 117 D ;6) Rit/iiis of Stockholm traces rcsem- Caiibs has had some special advocates.' I'ttur Uances in tliu sliulls of the (luanches and the Caribs {Smi//isoiii,in /'./A, l>S59, p. 2fi(J). I.e I'|iingL-i)ii liiuls the sandals of (lie statue t:hac- niool, iliscovuiud by him in \'ncatan, to resemble those of the ( Blanches (Salisbnry's /..• /'/.'«.,'. i';< in i'lutifiiii, 57). The .\trican ami even K^yini.m origin of the Martyr, and (irotius following him, contended for the people ot Yucatan being Kthiopian Christians. Stories of blackamoors being foniul by the early Spaniards are not without corrobo- ration.'- The correspondence of the .\lrican and South .American thira has been brought into rucinisilion as conlirmatory.'' ' Varnhaijen's /.'(irixiiw loiiidiiUiiiic Jcs AmhUmns I'lifis-CaraH'cs d ilcs aiuhiis Kgyftieiis, iiuliqiue friiuifdhimiit far la fhiMoxii comfarh-: tnurs (/'iiiif aiuifiiiic misnilion en Anuri.jin; iii:;isi,>ii ,/ii Biesit fur Us I'lifis (X'lenne, 1X761. I.abat's Xoincnii l'iiy,ij,v ,iiix isks tic I' Amhiqiic d'aris, 1722), vol. ii. ch. i\. Sieur cle la Horde's Kdation dc ioriginc, niaiirs, couliiims. tie. ,lis Caraihs 1 1'aris, 17(14). Kulx-'rl- %(m\ America. James Kennedy's Prolnil'lc origin of the Amcr. linluins^iKith fartictiiar reference to that of the Ciiritis (Lond., 1S34I, i,r Journal of the Ethnolot;. Soc. ivol. jv.>. Lon.lon Oeoj;. Journal, iii. 290. •- Cf. I'eter Martyr, Torquem.ida. and later writers, like I.a Ferdiise, McCulloh, Haven (p. 4,Si, Gallarel (Kafforl. 204), J. I'ercz in Rev. Orieiilale et Amer., viil., .\ii. ; liancrcift, .\'at. A'aies, iii. 458. Urinton (//f>n .-Monso v., and bianco assisted him. The exact date is in disptUe; but all acree to place it between [457 and i4''>o. .-X copy was ni ide on vellum in isoi, which is now in the P.ritish Mnseum. Our cut follows (.ne corner of the reproduction in ."santarem's Atlas. \ photoKraphic fac-simile has been issued in Venice by Oniiania, and St. Martin (Atlas, p. viil follows this fac-simile. Ruse {Gesehichte iles Zeitalters tier Eutdeckiinf^t-m gives a modernized and more lettible repro- duction. There are other drawings in Zurla's Fra .Mauro : Vincent's Comtuercf and XaT'tt^atirft of the Attcicnts (1707, iSo7>: Lelowel's JAmvh .(4./.''f (pi. xxxiii). Cf. Stiid't delta Soc. Geograjia /talia {iHS2), ii. 76, for references. h' V j 1 1 ) ' ■ I 'i I ' Ii8 NAKKATIVK AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. uriilur it the " 'lliile " ' of the anck-nts. which he makes a different island from " Mandia," placed in proper relatione to liis l.ii^jer (ireenl.ind. A few years later, or perhaps about the same time, and before 1471, the earliest engraved map which showi (irierdai.d is that of Nicolas Dunis, in the Ulni edition of I'tolemv in I4,S2. It will he seen from the little •ketch which is annexed that the same doubling of Greenland !:> adhered to.v! With the usual perversion put ertm^ta CLAUDIUS CLAVUS, 1427. ' Rafn gives a large map of Iceland with ihe namus of A. D. rocx). Oil the errors of early and late maps of Iceland see HarinK-riould's I'ltiimt Thiile, i, 255. On the vnryinj; application of the name Thule, Thyie. etc, to die northern regions or to particular pans of them, see R. F. Burton's Vltiniti Thule, a Sunttuer in htland (London, 1^75), ch. I. Bunbury (Hist. Anc. OeHf.- . ii. 527) holds that the Thule of Marinus of T>Te and of Ptolemy was the Shet- lands, Cf. James Wallace's Descri/'liou 0/ the Orkney islantix (i6,>3, — new ed., 1SS7, by John Small) for an essay on "the Thule of the Ancients." 2 There are other reproductions of the nuip in full, in Nordenskjijld's I'effa^ i. 51 ; in his Brmiernu ^enos, and in his ,SVw(//f«, p. 31. Cf. also the present History, II., p. 28, for other bibliographical detail ; Hassler, Biichdruch ergeschichte Ulm^s; D'Avezac's WnltzemlilUr, 23; W'il- ■•^sw PKK-COLUMIIIAN LXI'LOUATIONS. 119 upon the Norse stories, Iceland i» made tn lie iliie \ve»t nl (irfiiiLind, tlimmli nnl Oiown in tlic prewnt slti'tcli. At a d.ite nut niiicli later, say 14SC), it is iii|i|mim'(1 tlu- I. .inn kIuIju, dated in I4',i, wan actually made, or at least It is shuwn that m some parts the knowledge wa> rather ul the earlier date, and here we liuvu "GruUn- dia," a ainall island uff the Norway cuast.> 1 '' ".t^* ~ii^ w ^^ w ".Ife ff . -. limvs, as seen by the annexed extract, a lonH narrow peninsula, running southwest from the nortliern verge of Europe. A sketch of the whole mail is given elsewhere.'- berforce K.imes's Bibliofcraphy 0/ Pto/emy, separ.itely, ' Cf r>'A\.v.ic in .S«//, A /,i .9,.,'. * (7/,>ir. xx. 417. and in S.ibin's ■/J/i/Zownry ; and Winsor's Bibliog. of 2 .See Vol. II. p, 41. Tlii-re i.s another skeich in Nor. Ptolemy'' s Geojcrd/iliy. denskjbld's Studien, etc. , p. 33, which is reduced from > ?^',i h ii • '):' i 'i \ 120 NAKKATIVK AND CKITICAL HISTORY OF AMKRICA. Thll seems to liavc Iktm the prevailing nntidii nf \>li;it aiul where (ireeiil.ind was at tho time of Cdlumbus' voynxi'. ^ii'l it Cdiihl liavc carried ni> siKiiilicaiice lli>ratiiiiis ci( the Nurse hail luiiiiil tli« Asiatic main, wliicli lie !.tarti>(l In (iiscmer. Ilnw far this ndtum was ileparteil Inmi by Ildiaiiii in his (jlnlie of 141JJ ilepends iipun tlie interpretatinn to be niven to a Kruupdf islanils, niirthwcst nf Iceland and nnrtheast of Asia, upon tlie larner nf wlilcli he writes ainonit its mmnitains, " Hi man wcisc \'iilker." l As this sketch ipf the cartiinraphical deM-lnpineiit ((oes tin, it will be seen hiiw shiw tho map-makers were tn perceive the real si^tiilicance dl the Norse discoveries, and how ruliiclaiit they were to connect th.ni with tho discoveries that lollurteil ill the train of Colmnbiis, thoiiijh occasiiiii.illy there is one who i-, pi,?,se>.ied with a M'Ht of prevision, 1 lie Canlini) ni.ip ol 1 joj - dues not settle the (piestion, for a point lyiii({ northeast of the I'l r- tUKiiese discoveries in tlie Neulouiulland reijion only seems to i)j the sniithcni eNtremity of dreenlalid. Wliat was appaieiitly .1 ttorkiii.- I'drtiigucsc chart of 150J ((i'iisi>s pretty clearly the relations of tireenland to Labrador.'* FRA MAURO, 1459. I.clewel (pi. 4 !|, in a ni.ip made tn sIkiw the I'ortiii,'iiese views at this time,'' which he represents bycomblnins and rcconcilini; the I'tolemy maps nf i;ii and 151;,, still p'aces the ■■Clmnland" peninsula in the northwest of I'.nrnpe, and if his deductions are correct, the I'ortiiguesc had as yet reached no clear concei>tion that the Labratltpr coasts upon which tliey fished bore any close propinciiiity to those which the Norse had colnnized. Kuysch, in 150S, made a bold stroke by |inttini,' "(irnenlant" down as a peninsula of Northeastern Asia, thus tryinij to reconcile the discoveries of Columbus with the northern saKas/' This view was far from accept- able. Sylvaniis, in the I'tolemy of 151 1, made •' Knuroncland" a small protuberance on the north shore of Scandinavia, and east of Iceland, evidently choosinij between the twn theories instead of accepting both, as fae-siniili' liiven in J,,,,e de I,.icercla's /Cra/iiif t/i>s I'ini^^t'ns dii Doutny I.ivin,;itinir n.issalxni, isr,;"!. Tlie present ex- tract is from SaiiMriMi!. pi. 50. t'f. O. I'eschel in Am. iaiiti, Feb. 13, 1S57, and liis posthumous AbhandluHgen, i. 3n. r See references in \'()I. II. p. 105. » See Vol. II. p. loS. ■■> Sec /K.t/, Vnl. IV. p j^l and Kohl's Discovery oj ,l/.i/«i', p. i;4. Cf. Winsor's BiHiog. of Plolemy, fub anno 151 1. * He Iinlds that the 1513 Piok-niy map was drawn in 1501-1, an'I was enjT.ivcd before Dec. 10, isoi " See Vol. II. p. 115. V II ■tic I TAnri.A RKniONl'M ST-PTEXTRin\AT.IUM, i^fi?. I f i.i" *f? 1 .5 i K [,,'* 'i 1 I I '!'H ] Mlt i 1 22 iNARRATIVK AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. was common, in i.^iKjrance of tlieir complemental relations.l WaldseLMuiillcr, in the I'tolumy of 15 13, in his '• Orljis typus universalis,'' reverted to and adopted tlie delineation of llenricus Martelliis in 141^0.- In 1 j2o. Apian, in the map in Camer's Ho/hiiis, tool; tlie view of sylvamis, while still another representation was given by Laurentiiis I'risius in 152J, m an edition of Ptolemy,3 in which "Gionland" becomes a la./: ^ Ci I 6(> \ C} X^f-^^^^'^ \ l)l)\l.-, l^.Sj. island on tlie Norw.ay coast, ir. one map called •• ( irhis l>piis Universalis." while in another map, '■ Tabula nova Norbegia; et (Jottia-," the " Knijronelant " jieninsula is a broad region, stretchinj,' from Northwestern Kurope.-i This I'toleniy was again issued in i525.re|X!ating these two methods of showing Greenland already given, and adding a third,-'' that of the long narrow Kuropuan peninsula, already familiar in earlier maps — the varietv of choice indicating the prevalent cartograjihica! inde,.ision on the point. IIENRICrS M.VRTEr.r.rS. i4,So-oo. J Winsor's Hi7h'i\i:^. of rtolmiy^ sub anno 151!. ' See Vol, II. p. III. Wiiisnr's Ptolemy, sub atuin iSij. Reisch, in 1515, seems to have been of the fame opinion. Cf. the bibliiigraphy .' ReiKch's Mayg-trita Philosof'hia in Sabin's PntioHnry^ vnl. xvi., and 5e]iaralely, prpp.ired In' Wilberforce K.imes. Reisch's map is (liven /■f-.r/", V..1, 1 1, p, 1 14. Ai'other sk'-tch of this map, with an examination of the question, where the name "Zoatia Mela,'' applied on it to .America, came from, is given by Frank W'lesi-r in the /.vitschri/t fitr Wissftisch. Oi'<'x:t\i' phic fCarlsruhe), vol. v., a sight of which I owe to the author, who l)elieves WaldseeniiilltT made the ruap. ' The map is given, /oj/, Vol, II. 175. Cf. also Nor. denskiiild, Studieti, j). 53. * t'f. Winsor's BiHicg. 0/ PtoUniy, sub anno 1522 " Winsor's Bibliog. 0/ Ptokmy^ sub aimo 1525. This I'RE-COLUMBIAX KXPLORATIOiNS. 123 Knlil, in his collection of maps,! copies frnm what he calls the Atlas of Frisius, 1525, still another map which apparently shows the southern extremity of Greenland, with '■ Terra Laboratoris," an island just west ^ ^ hTr"! OI.AUS MAr,xuP, mo* map is no. 40, " Gronlandis et Russia;," Lf, Wii-en v Noorden OosI Tarlorye (170^), vol. ii. ' \Vinsnr*s Kohf CofW-tioH. no. 102. ' Si'e N'dtk, p. I 25. ( Ii, ; -//i'/-. Ivifu! u. *w^ ^^ i v^ LIA. 3^ /^i'' i ^ I'KE-COLLMlilAX EXPLORATIONS. I2S of it, .mil .sciutlnvcst (if tli.it a bit of coast iiiurkeil •■ '1 urr.i Nov.i Coiiterati," wliicli may pass for Xuwfouiul- lanil and the disccAerics of L'ortcreal. Thoiiif, tlie Kngllslini m, in the map wliich lie sent fn>m ."Seville : i 15^;,' sccins to conlorin to the view wliicli m.iUe Greenland a KurojKan peninsula, whicli may alsr have been the jpinion ol (Jrontius l''in;eus in 15,^1. - A novel feature attaches to an .\tlas, of about this date. pr:served at Turin, in. which an elongated (Greenland is made to stretch northerly.'' In 1532 we have the map in /iei;ler's Hilitnuliii, which more nearly resemble? the earliest map of all, that of Claudius Clavtis. than any otl'.er.' 1 he 133S cordiform map of Mercator makes it a peninsula of an arctic region connected with ."•candinavia."' '1 his map is known to me only t.irou^h a fac-simile of the copy given in the (rivi;ni,i,i of l.alre;i. iniblished at Rome about 1560, with which i am lavored by Nordeiiskjold in advance of its publicat.on m h.s .l,'/ .\I.\(.NL'>' lU.-'JoKIA, i; ' (uvci\/>ost, V..' III. |,. 17. 2 GivLMi/(«/, \"nl. in. p, I,. ^ J'jhr''. tffs rercius/Hr Erdkumie hi Dp-rsii,-ti [iy;o\ tab. vii, A similar f.'ature is in the map tU-scribed 1)V ?l- scli-'l lu ihi /i/irrx/>enWtf d,-s I'frciuJi/iir ErilkutiM' in I.t'i/'z\^(\'<-j\). It is also to he ses;; in the Konioni map of alwmt 1540 fj;iven in Vnl. H. p. 44M, and in the map which M ijor assi;;ns to liaptista A^nese, and whirh was puhh-hcd in I'arisin 1S75 as a /Vr////,i7 tie C/utrh'i Quint. (Cf. Vol. 11, p. 44^.) * Thore is a fac-simile of ZieRler*s map in Vr»l. II. 4-1.^; also in Goidsmid's ud. of Hakluyt (Kdinl)., i^'*'?), and in Nordtnsk;i":'d's /V^.^. i. 5^. •' Tilt: .nap (1551) f Gemma Frisius in Apian is much the same. '■ In the n.'.sle ed. of the fUsforia tie Gentium. (.7. Xor- (hnskiiild's I'ef^n, vol. i., who r.ys 1' it the r ip oritiii.ally a)im-ared 111 Mai;nus's Auxlft^uui^ und l'''rk/arutti^ tier Xi-iu-u Mitt-f>en von den A Iten Go 'tenrcicli { Venice, \ =v /' i and IS diffi'ient from the map ..Iiich appeared in the inter- mediate edition of 1555 at Rome, a part of which is also an- r.exed. Norn TO Map os p. ):■(. — Thi= fac-simile accnnipanies a paper appearing in the I'idcvskabxieiskahs Forluiniiitii^cr Ci^sri, lu). \-\ and separately as Die iichte karte des ('>/'tus M.tt^^ntis vmn i.ihre /f;0* nach dent cir/w/Ai*' der Miinchi-ner StiuUslnNiofhck f ("hristiani.i, issr.). hi this Dr. Bieiiner traces the history of the f;reat m.Tp of Archbishop (Hans Magnus, pointing out how Nordcnskjiild is in error in supposini; the map of 1567, which that scholar j;ives, w.is hut a ,1 I ;.! ]' I \: 126 NARRA'-IVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. frasuiout is lierewiih also ,iven in fac-similc, says thai it embcidies tlie views of the northern ),^ngr.iiihers in ,-(.; iratin authentidity is that there had been nothing drawn and pul> lished up to that tinv. which could have cuniluced, without other aid, to so accurate an outline of firccnlard as it gives. In an age when drafts of maps freely circulated cjver Eiiri>pc, from cartographer to Ciirtogni]iher, in Ct BORDOXE'S SCANniNAVIA, I547.» 1 The same is clone in the Ptolemy of 1 54'^ (Venice). Tliere is a fac-simile in NordL-nskjoltl's S/tufirtt. ji. 3;. s See Vol. IV. p. H4, ^ We find ii in the Nancy globe A about 1540 fs-^c Vol. IV. p. Si); in the Merc.ltor gore's of 1541 (Vol. II. p. 177); *nd in the Rusrelli map of 1 544 (A*ol. Il.p. 4^1}, where Oreenlaiul (Giotlandia^ is sinij^ly a ujck connectine Kurope with America; antl in Ga^tal ".i " C'.^rta Marina." in t)ie Italian Ptolemy of 154.S, where it is a protuberancv.- .'ii a similar neck (see Vol. II. 435 ; IV. 43; and NordenskjiWd's Sfiiif it'll, 4;). The Rotz map oi 1542 seems to lie based on the same material used by Mercator in his gores, but he adds a new confusion in calling Greenland the '' Cost of Labrador." Cf. Winsor's A\'/i/ M,t/'s, no, 104. The " (".rutiandia " of the Vopellio map of 1556 is also contitni- ons with I.abradf.r (see Vol. II.43O; IV. c^j). ' See Vol. IV. pp. 42, S2. reproduction of the original editiun of 15VJ, w'hich was not known to modern students till Rrenner found it in the library ill Ai'inich, in March, i^S(>. and which proves to he twehe times larger than that of 1 5(7. Brenner adds the long Latin .iddress, " Olaus (ii.tL.t- benigno lectori salutem,'' with annotations. The map is entitled "Carta Marif.a ft descriptio septentrionalium errarii.,1 ac miral)iiiuni rerum in eis contentarum diligentissime elaborata, Anno Dni, i53f wliich had been engi.i. d. With these allowances the map does not seem to be very except! inal in anv feature. It is connected with northwestern Europe in just the manner ..pptrtainin); to sevci.d of tiie earlier maps. Its shape is no i;reat improvement on the map of 1467, found at Warsaw. There was then ZENO MAI'. (AV,/«ertc .A rtiche ( Vev.ice, 1 ^.^5; ). — not to name others. % I ;' I. r i :,(i I M 1!^ /» ^ iiU I 128 NAUKATUE AND CRITICAL IlISTOKY OF AMERICA. :HIi rii'i-EMr alteration (1561, etc.) OF THE ZKNO MAP. k^. 1 1 l'Ki:-C()LlMI!IA.N KXI'LOKATIONS. 129 I O no sucii constancy in tlic placiii-^ ui niidMra i>I;in(ls in maps, to inlcidict the random location of other ishmds at thf cartographer's will, without distiirl)inK wh.it at that day would have been tluumetl geographical proba* bilitij>, and there was ail tiie necessary warranty in existing maps tor the most wiltully tlepicted archipelago. *| he early i'ortucjuese charts, not to name others, gave sutticient warrant lor land wiicre Kstotiland and Drogeo appear. Mention has already been made of the chan.i;es in this map, which tlie editors of the I'tolc-my of 15(11 made in st.vcrin^ (ireenland from Kiirope,when they reengraved it. I The same edition contained a map of "J^chon- landia." in which it seems to be doubtful if tiie land whicli stands for (ireenland does, or does not, connect witli the >camlinavian main.- 1 hat (ireenland was an island seems now to have become the prevalent opinion, and it was enforcud by tiie maps of Mercator (i^'iy and r'3S7), Ortelins U?"'^* '575)''i»fl (.i.dheus (15^*5). which placed it lyin^ mainly east and west between the Scandinavian north and the Labrador coast, which it was now the fasl-.ioii to call ICslotiland. In its shape it closely resembled the /eni outline, Anntiier fuatnreof thoL- maps was the placin.^ i>i another but smaller island west of "Groeidant." winch was called "(irocland," and wliich seems to be simply a reduplication of the larger island by some geugrapiiical confusion,*' which once started was easily seized upon to help till out the arctic spaces.^ SEPTENTKIOXAT.ES RErJIONES* It was just at this time (i;7o) that the oldest maps which display the getjgraphical notions of the saga men were drawn, though not brought to light for many years. We no';' ^wo such of this time, and one of a date near forty years later. One marked " J (Vol. 11. 451 ; IV. o?'. in the Porcac- chi map of i(;72(Vol. II. 06,45:1: IV. ./o. and In that of Johannus Marlines of i.^yS, the features are too indcfmile for remiinition. Lelewel (1. pi. 7) gives a Spanish mappe- monde of 157.1. • Fr'-im Thtatri orbis Tcrriirutii Ench 'riJ.oii,/>cr !''hillipnm GaUfTum^ et per Hut^oftew FttT'i'/tnift { Antwerp, 15*5). VOL. I. —9 i : I^'l ' I, •' !•! 130 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. that both represent the views jirevailinK in tlie north in i:-o, it is liard to resist the conclusion that Vinland was nortli even of Davis' Straits, nr at least lield to be so at tliat time. The second map, tliat of Steph.miiis, is reproduced herewith, dating back to tl\e same period (ijro); but the third, by (iudbrandus Torlacius. was made in lUoft, and is sketched in Kohl's Disicnrry of Maine (p. 109). It gives better shape to "(ironlandia" than in either of the others. It is not necessary to follow the course of the Cireenland cartography farther with any minuteness. As the sixteenth century ended we have leading maps by llakluyt in 15S; and 151)1) (see Vol. III. 42), and Pe Dry in ijO^) (Vol. IV. i)■ ^^r^^iJ^'y^f^ SIGURD STEPHANIL'S, 1570* 1 In fac-simile in Nordenskjold's I'l ga^ i. 247. 2 Vol. Ill p. 08. * Reproduced from the Sa^i^a Time of J. '/tilford Vicary (Ldiidon, iSf*7\ after the map as given in the publicauun of the geographical society at Copenliagen, i8*.5-Sh, and it is suppos'ul to have been drafted upon the narraiive of the ^.agas. Key : " W. This is where the English ha' e come and has a name for barrenness, either fron) sun or cold. B This is near where Vineland lirs, wliich from lis abundance f>f useful ihi-igs. or ironi the laid's fruitfuluess, is calltd Good. Our countrymen (Icelanders) have thought that to the south it ends \;ith the wild sea and tliat a sound or fjord separates it from America. C, This land is called Riiseland or land of th.- giants, as they have horns and are called Skrickfinna (Fins that frighten). D. This is more to the east, and the people are called KloJiuna (Fins with claws) on account nf their large nails. E, This is Jf)tunheimer, or the home of the misshapen giant?. F. Mere is thdught to be a fjnrd, i>x sound, leading to R\issia. G. A rocky laud often relerred to in histories. //. What island that is I do not know, unless it be the island that a Venetian found, and the C.ermans call Fricsland." It will be nbserved under the B of the Key, the Xorse nf 1570 d'd not identify the Vinland of 1000 with the Anieiica of later discoveries. This map is much the same, but differs somewhat in detail, from the one called of Slephanius, as produced in Kohl's Discovery of MxiinCy p. 107, professedly after a copy given in Torfxus' Grotiiatidia .-l n/i(/uii (ijod). Torf:cus quotes Theodorus Torlacius^ the Icelandic historian, as saying that Stephauiu.'s appears to have drawn his map from ancient Ice- lanilic records. The other maps given by Torfreus are : by rlishop Ciudbrand Thorlakssen (i6o^i>: b>' Jtnas Gudmund (1640) ; by Theodor Thortakssen ( ((>V>1, and by Torfa.'Us himself. Ci. other cojiies of the map of Ste]>hanins in Ma'te- Brnn's Atitinles ties l't\vai:eSt\W\-^t:'s Discoveries of America^ p. zi\ Geog. Tidskri/iy viii. 123, and in Horsford's Disc, of America by Northmen., p, 37. \ il .,T PRE-COLUMIJIAN EXPLORATIONS. 131 rfcrc (1647), though his map was better knnwn.^ Even as lute as 17J7. llirin.inn Moll could not identify his "Greenland" with " GrucnUnd." In 1741, we lave the map of Hani Kyude in his " Grtinland," repeated in Aiiieiicii of - .11. .1 1 1'^-^ a . /T • ""''■■ 1 A paper by H. Rink in the Geo^rufisk Tidskrift (vjii. T.^g) eiuirled *' OstKronlaiuleme i deres Forhold till Vest- griinliinderne og de ovritje KsUimostammer," is acconipa- nied by drafts ..f the iii.ipo[ G. Tliolacius if'o''. and cf Th. Thorlacius, iW'S-/.f,, — the latter placiiiR Kast Byt:d on the east coast near the Rou;h end. K. J. V. Steenstrup, on Osterbypden in Geog, Tidskriff^v\\v 123, pivos fac-»imilcs of maps of Jovis Caroltis in 1^34 ; of Hendrick D'lnckt-r in I'Or). Sketches of maps by Juliannes Meyc-i it) i'';;?, and by Hendiick ItnntkiT in i'')''6, are also given in ihe Gi'osrrttjisk TUskri/t, viii. {1SS3), pi. 5. i \ Note. —The annexed map is a reduced fac-simile of the map in the Efie* ^etninger om Gr'dnlaud uddra^m a/ en Jouftial hoiden/ra 77?/ tii' ry^S, by PanI Kcede fropenha(i'-'n, r7'<()V Panl ERede. son of Hans, was born in 170S, and remained in Greenland till 1740. He was made Itishop f f Greenland in 1770, and died in 17^9. The above book gives a portrait. There is another fac-simile of the map in >'ordciishjii!d'^ Exped. till GrlUihind, p. 234. r ki f!> V V 1/1 >| l>^ 132 NAkKATIVi; AND CKITICAI. IIISTOKY ()!■ AMLKICA. Lile (.ilitiiiiH, .iriil tliu old cli.'liiii;aticin ut tlif cast auit after Torf.ius wait still rt'tainccl in tlif 1788 map o( i'aiil K^c(lu. III tliu map lit 1115 •„ made by De la MarliiiiLTC, wIkp was wudish navinatm- ha-> "I recent years pM'\<'d fur the first time that Cireiiilaiid has nil such ci iinectiun. It yet reniaiiis tn be |iruved lliat there is nn coiinectiun tu the north with at least the group of islands that are the arctic uutlycrs uf the American continent. SlPT UNTNroN EHIQVIL B H ta me ■ ' Fhulams. OCEAX DEl^CALEvdHIKH. I a 1 ■ ■ B H H p m t i ti p ■ H 11 H ji ■■ ! ■-1 ri n |j I' n a. w f .i li n n fft ilin fpiB»ia*-p«««B 510 3ij -,:^ M.' ^ 1^ s-' }■> V >fnu GREENLAND* * I'oyiit^t's tii-s Piiis Sr/'tt'titrio)tnii.Y, — a vcn- popular book. • Extracted from the " Carte de Graiiland" ii\ Isa ic de la Peyrert's Rfl,itio}i dii GrotnUnJ (Paris, 1647). CI. Win- sor's Kcht Maf^St no. 123. \ . \ I'll i . 'i ^ CHAPTER III. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMHRICA. I!V JISTIN WINSOk. THE traditions of the migrations of the Chichimecs, Coliiuas, and Na- inias," says Max Miillcr,' "are no better than the (Ircek traditions abf)Ut I'elasL,Mans, /Eolians, and lonians, ami it would be a mere waste of time to construct out of sucli dements a systematic liistory, only to be destroyed ac;ain, sooner or later, by some Niebuhr, Grote, or Lewis." "It is yet too early," says Bandelier,''^ "to establish a definite chronology, running farther back from the Conquest than two centuries,'' and even within that period but very few dates have been satisfactorily fixed." Such are the conditions of the story which it is the purpose of this chap- ter to tell. We have, to begin with, as in other history, the recognition of a race of giants, convenient to hang legends on, and accounted on all hands to have been occupants of the country in the dimmest past, so that there is nothing l)ack of them. Who they were, whence they came, and what stands for their descendants after we get down to what in this jirc-Spanish history we rather presumptuously call historic ground, is far from clear. If wc had the easy faith of the native historian Ixtiilxochitl, we shoukl believe that these gigantic Ouinames, or Ouinametin, were for the most part swallowed up in a great convulsion of nature, and it was those who escaped which the Olmecs and Tlascalans encountered in entering the country.^ If all this means anything, which may well be doubted, it is as likely as not that these giants were the folhnvers of a denii-god, Votan,''' who came from over-sea to ' Chif's from ,i Ciinian Workshop, i. 327. ' Arcliirological Tour, p. 202. ' The earliest fixed date for the founding of Tenochtitlan (Mexico city) is 1325. l!ra.s- seur tells us that Carlos de Sigiienza y GonRora made the first chronological table of ancient .Mexican dates, which was used by Boturini, and was improved by Leon y Gama, — the same which Uustamante has inserted in his edition of Gomara. (\?\\?cCm[Amer. Ethnol. Soc. Trans. ,\.) gave a composite table of events by dates be- lore the Conquest, which is followed in Brantz .Mayer's Mexico as it was, i. 97. Ed. Madier dc Montjau, in his Chrouotos^ie hih-oi;lyphico-f'hoiie- tiijiii- i/i's f!ois Astcqucs de tjj;2 i /j^^, takes issue with Ramirez on some points. ' Bancroft (v. 199) gives references to those writers who have discussed this (piestion of gi- ants. Bandelier's references are more in detail (Ari/i. Tour, p. 201 ). .Short (p. 233) borrows largely the list in I'.ancroft. The enumeration includes nearly all the old writers. Acosta finds confirmation in bones of incredible largeness, often found in his dav, and then supposed to be human. Modern zoologists say they were those of the Mastodon. Howarth, Mammoth and the Flood, 297. '" .See Xatiz'e AWes, ii. 117 ; v. 24, 27. iSi IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) & A /.. Ki 1.0 I.I £ 1^ Hi 2.0 L25 i 1.4 12.2 1^ 1.6 V] <^ /a v: *V.!V^' ?>' '^ > / /A Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEDSTER.N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^ ■^' ^o 1 ' i i '', • I I. i 1 '-, '*i Ii [ ) !H NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. Aiuerica,* found it peopled, established a government in Xibalba, — if such a place ever existed, — with the germs of Maya if not of other civilizations, whence, by migrations during succeeding times, the Votanites spread north and occupied the Mexican plateau, where they became degenerate, doubt- less, if they deserved the extinction which we are told was in store for them. But they had an alleged chronicler for their early days, the writer of the Hook of Votan, written either by the hero himself or by one of his descendants, — eight or nine generations in the range of authorship mak- ing little difference apparently. That this narrative was known to Fran- cisco NuAez de la Vega'^ would seem to imply that somebody at that time had turned it into readable script out of the unreadable hieroglyphics, while the disgui-ses of the Spanish tongue, perhaps, as Bancroft" suggests, may have saved it from the iconoclastic zeal of the priests. When, later, Ramon de Ordoi^ez had the document, — perhaps the identical manuscript, — it con- sisted of a few folios of quarto paper, and was written in Roman script in the Tzendal tongue, and was inspected by Cabrera, who tells us something of its purpt)rt in his Tcatro cntico Americano, while Ramon himself was at the same time using it in his Historia del Cielo y de la Tierra. It was from a later copy of this last essay, the first copy being unknown, that the Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg got his knowledge of what Ramon had derived from the Votan narrative, and which Brasseur has given us in several of his books.* That there was a primitive empire — Votanic, if you please — seems to some minds confirmed by other evidences than the story of Votan ; and out of this empire — to adopt a European nomenclature — have come, as such believers say, after its downfall somewhere near the Christian era, and by divergence, the great stocks of people called Maya, Quiche, and Nahua, inhabiting later, and respectively, Yucatan, Guatemala, and Mex- ico. This is the view, if we accept the theory which Bancroft has prom- inently advocated, that the migrations of the Nahuas were from the south northward,"' and that this was the period of the divergence, eighteen cen- turies ago or mere, of the great civilizing stocks of Mexico and of Central America." We fail to find so early a contact Oi these two races, if, on the other iinnd, we accept the old theory that the migrations which established ' .SoiiK'ii xs it is said they came from the Antilles, or beyond, easterly, and that an off- shoot of the same people appeareii to the early Ficnch ex])lorers as the Natchez Indians. We have, of course, offered to ns a choice of theories in the belief that the Maya civilization came from the westward by the island route from Asia. This misty history is nothing without alternatives, and there are a plenty of writers who dogmatize about them. - Constiliidoues iliocesanas del obispado de Chi- appas (Rome, 1702). * Kat. Kiiifs, V. 160. < Hist. Millions Civiiist'fs, i. 37, 1 50, etc. Pj- pul Viih, introd., sec. v. Hancroft relates the Votan myth, with references, in Xat. Kaas, iii. 450. lirasseur identifies the Votanites with the Colhuas, as the builders of I'alenque, the found- ers of Xibalba, and thinks a branch of them wandered south to Peru. There are some sto- ries of even pre-Votan days, under Igh and Imox. Cf. II. De Charency's "Myth d'Imos," in the Aiiiiales de philosophic Chri'lietiiie, 1872- 73, and references in liancroft, v. 164, 231. 5 XiUive Races, ii. 121, etc. 6 liancroft (v. 236) points to Rradford, Squier, Tylor, Viollet-le-Duc, Bartlett, and MUUer, with Brasseur in a qualified way, as in the main agree- ing in this early disjointing of the Nahua stock, by which the Maya was formed through sepa- ration from the older race. r ^1 ■■, 1! MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. '35 the Toltec and Aztec powers were from the north southward,^ through three several lines, as is sometimes held, one on each side of the Rocky Mountains, with a third following the coast. In this way such advocates trace the course of the Olmecs, who encountered the giants, and later of the Toltecs. That the Votanic peoples or some other ancient tribes were then a dis- tinct source of civilization, and that Palenque may even be Xibalba, or the Nachan, which Votan founded, is a belief that some archaeologists find the evidence of in certain radical differences in the Maya tongues and in the Maya ruins.^ In the Quiche traditions, as preserved in the Popnl Vnh, and in the Annals of the Cakcldqucls, we likewise go back into mistiness and into the inevitable myths which give the modern comparative mythologists so much comfort and enlightenment; but Bancroft ^ and the rest get from all this nebulousness, as was gotten from the Maya traditions, that there was a great power at Xibalba,* — if in Central America anywhere that place may have been, — which was overcome^ when from Tulai.*^ went out migrating chiefs, who founded the Quiche-Cakchiquel peoples of Guatemala, while others, the Yaqui, — very likely only traders, — went to Mexico, and still others went to Yucatan, thus accounting for the subsequent great centres of aboriginal power — if we accept this view. As respects the traditions of the more northern races, there is the same choice of belief and alternative demonstration. The Olmecs, the earliest Nahua comers, are sometimes spoken of as sailing from Florida and land- ing on the coast at what is now Panuco, whence they travelled to Guate- mala," and finally settled in Tamoanchan, and offered their sacrifices farther north at Teotihuacan.^ This is very likely the Votan legend suited to the more northern region, and if so, it serves to show, unless we discard the whole theory, how the Votanic people had scattered. The other principal source of our suppositions — for we can hardly call it knowledge — of these times is the Codex Chimalpdpoca, of which there is elsewhere an account,^ * Enforced, for instance, by one of the best of the later Mexican writers, Orozco y Berra, in his Gi(>i;rii/i,i dc las Itiii^uiis y Carta Ethnografica de Mlxito (Me-xico, 1S65). - Tylor, Aiia/iuac, 189, and his Early Hist. Mankind, i^^. Orozco y Beri-a, <7('()^., 124. Ban- croft, V. 169, note. The word Maya was first heard by Columbus in his fourth voyage, 1503-4. We sometimes find it written Mayab. It is usual to class the people of Yucatan, and even the Quiche-Cakchiquclsof Guatemala and those of Nicaragua, under the comprehensive term of Maya, as distinct from the Nahua people farther north. * ATat. Races, v. 186. * Brinton, with his view of myths, speaks of the attempt of the Abbe Brasseur to make Xi- balba an ancient kingdom, with Palenque as its capital, as utterly unsupported and wildly hypo- thetical {^fyt/ls, 251). ^ Perhaps by Gucumatz (who is identified by some with Quetzalcoatl), leading the Tzequiles, who are said to have appeared from somewhere during one of Votan's absences, and to have grown into 1 ower among the Chanes, or Votan's people, till iney made Tulan, where they lived, too powerful for the Votanites. Bancroft (v. 187) holds this view against Brasseur. " Perhaps Ococingo, or Copan, as Bancroft conjectures (v. 187). ' As Sahagun calls it, meaning, as Bancroft suggests, Tabasco. ' Short (p. 248) points out that the linguistic researches of Orozco y Berra ( Geop-afia de las Leni^ias de Mixico, 1-76) seem to confirm this. »'Seep. 158. 1 il ( > I -1 ; i ti! V ; I' k •■ f ','1 '.■ ' > i j; V ^1 1^; l! ti : i\^ I I i'' '-I •i ; V 136 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. and froiii it we can derive much the same impressions, if we are disposed to sustain a preconceived notion. The periods and succession of the races whose annals make up the his- tory of what we now call Me.\ico, prior to the coming of the Spaniards, are confu.sed and debatable. Whether under the name of Chichimecs we are to understand a distinct people, or a varied and conglomerate mass of people, which, in a generic way, we might call barbarians, is a question open to discussion.' There is no lack of names- to be applied to the tribes and bands which, according to all accounts, occupied the Mexican territory pre- vious to the sixth century. Some of them were very likely Nahua fore- runners'^ of the subsequent great influx of that race, like the Olmecs and Xicalancas, and may have been the people "from the direction of Florida," of whom mention has been made Others, as some say, were eddies of those populous waves which, coming by the north from Asia, overflowed the Rocky Mountains, and became the builders of mounds and the iater peoples of the Mississippi Valley,* passed down the trend of the Rocky Mountains, and built cliff-houses and pueblos, or streamed into the table-land of Mex- ico. This is all conjecture, perhaps delusion, but may be as good a suppo- sition as any, if we agree to the northern theory, as Nadaillac" does, but not so tenable, if, with the contrary Bancroft,'' we hold rather that they came from the south. We can turn from one to the other of these theorists and agree with both, as they cite their evidences. On the whole, a double com- pliance is better than dogmatism. It is one thing to lose one's way in this labyrinth of belief, and another to lose one's head. ' Kirk says (Prcscott'.s Ahxico): "Confusion arises from the name of Chichiinec, originally that of a sintjle tribe, antl sub.sequently of its many offshoots, being also used to designate suc- cessive hordes of whatever race." Some have seen in the Waiknas of the Mosquito Coast, and in the Caribs gcnefally, descendant? of these Chi- chimecs who have kept to their old social level. The Caribs, on other authority, came originally from the stock of the Tupis and Cuaranis, who occupied the region south of the .\mazon, and in Columbus's time they were scattered in Da- rien and Honduras, along the n.irthern regions of South .America, and in some of the .\ntilles (\'on Martius, Bt-itidi^i- ziir Ethnof;raf . .1 ' ''. 'u f'" 138 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. respects the Aztec or Mexican. When, by settlement after settlement, each mij;ratory people pushed farther south, they finally reached Central Mexico. This sequence of immij^ration seems to be agreed upon, but as to where their cradle was and as to what direction their line of progress took, there is a diversity of opinion as widely separated as the north is from the south. The northern position and the southern direction is all but universally accepted among the early Spanish writers ' and their followers,* while it is claimed by others that the traditions as preserved point to the south as the starting-point. Cabrera took this view. Brasseur sought to recon- cile conflicting tradition and Spanish statement by carrying the line of migration from the south with a northerly sweep, so that in the end Ana- huac would be entered from the north, with which theory Bancroft ^ is inclined to agree. Aztlan, as well as Huehue-Tlapallan, by those who support the northern theory, has been placed anywhere from the Califor- nia peninsula* within a radius that sweeps through Wisconsin and strikes the Atlantic at Florida.^ 1 liancroft, v. 217. - Torqucmad.i, Uuturini, Humboldt, Brasseur, Charuay, Short, etc. * A'lit. Jiiicfs (v. 222). * In lupportoi the California location, Busch- mann, in his Ucbcr die Spurcn der Aztckischen Sprachc iin nordlichcn Mexico uiid h'ohcrcn Ante- rikaiiifchiii Nordiii (Berlin, 1S54), finds traces of the Mexican tongue in those of the recent Cali- fornia Indians. Linguistic resemblances to the Aztec, even so far north as Xootka, have been tra< ed, but later philologists deny the inferences of relationship drawn from such similarity (Ban- croft, iii. p. 612). The linguistic confusion in aboriginal California is so great that there is a wide field for tr '.ing likenesses (fbid. iii. 635). In the Californ a Slate Mininf; liureiiu. Bulletin 110. I (Sacramento, 1S88), Winslow Anderson gives a description of some desiccated human remains found in a sealed cave, which are sup- posed to be Aztec. There are slight resem- blances 'o the Aztec in the Shoshone group of languages (Bancroft, iii. 660), and the same au- thor arranges all that has been said to connect the Mexican tongue with those of New Mexico and ni.ighboring regions (iii. 664). Buschmann, who has given i..articular attention to tracing the Aztec conne'-ti'-iis at the north, finds nothing to warrant anything more than casual admixtures with other stocks [Pie f.autve>aiideniiiQ Azteki- seller iltirter, Berlin, 1855, and Die Sptiren der Aztekisehen Sprncheu, Berlin, 1859). See Short (p. 4.S7) for a summary. 6 Bancroft (v. 305) cites the diverse views; si does Shoit to some extent (pp. 246, 25S, etc). Cf. Brinton's Address on " Where was Aztlan .'" p. 6 ; Short, 4S6, 490 ; Xadaillac, 284 ; Wilson's Prehistoric Afan, i. 327. Brinton (Myths 0/ the JVe^o World, etc., 89; Amer. Hero. Myths, 92) holds that Aztlan is a Dame wholly of mythical purport, which it would be vain to seek on the terrestrial globe. This cradle region of the Nahuas sometimes appears as the Seven Caves (Chicomoztoc), and Duran places them "in Teoculuacan, otherwise called Aztlan, a country toward the north and con- nected with Florida." The Seven Caves were explained by Sahagun as a valley, by Clavigero as a city, by Schoolcraft and others as simply seven boats in which the first comers came from Asia; Brasseur makes them and Aztlan the s.tme ; others find them to be the seven cities of Cibola, — so enumerates Brinton (Myths, 227), who thinks that the seven divisions of the Na- huas sprung from the belief in the Seven Caves, and had in reality no existence. Gallatin has followed out the series of migra- tions in the Amer. Ethnol. Soe. Trans., i. 162. Dawson, Fossil Men (ch. 3), gives his compre- hensive views of the main directions of these early migrations. Brasseur follows the Nahuas (Pof
    as. If there was not such confusion respecting the old geog- rai'.hy, these iiames might decide the question. ■^ Writers usually place the beginnings of cred- ible history at about this period. Brasseur and the class of writers who are easily lifted on their im.igination talk about traces of a settled gov- ernment being discernible at periods which they place a thousand years before Christ. ' References in Bancroft, v. 247, with Bras- seur for the main dependence, in his use of the Codex Ckimalf'bpoca and the Afcmorial de Col- huncan. ' \ "II i u !r i % 1 {r^ 1 1 i I 140 N.VKKATIVi: AND CRITICAL HISTORY ol' AMERICA. Then we read of a power si)rin,i;in).j up at Tezcuco, and of various othir events, which ha|)pened or did not happen, according; as you beUcve this or the other chronicle. The run of manj* of the stories of course produces the inevital)le and beautiful daughter, and the bold jjrincess, who control many an event. Then there is a lea;;ue of Colluiacan, Otompan, and Tolian. Suddenly appears tiie great king (JuetzalcoatI, — tliough it may be we con- found liim with the divinity of that name; and with him, to ])erpkx mat- ters, comes his sworn enemy Ihiemac. Quetzalcoatl's devoted .abors to make his people give up human .sacrifice -.rrayed the priesthood against him, until at last he fell before the intrigues that made Huemac succeed in Tolian, and that dr<.,e his luckless rival to Cholula, where iie reigned anew. Huemac followed him and drove him farther; but in doing so he gave his enemies in Tolian a chance to ])ut another on th*^ throne. Then came a season of peace and development, when Tolian grew splendid. Colhuacan flourished in political power, and Teotihuacan ' and Cholula were the religious shrines of the people. But at last the end was near. The closing century of the Toltec power was a frightful one for broil, pestilence, and famine among the people, amours and revenge in the great chieftain's household, revolt am aig the vassals; with sorcery rampant and the gods angry ; with volcanoes belcUng, summers like a furnace, and winters like the pole ; with the dreaded omon of a rabbit, horned like a deer, confronting the ruler, while rebel forces threatened the capital. There was also civil itiife within the gates, phallic worship and debauchery, — all preceding an inundation of Chichimecan hordes. Thus the power that had flourished for several hundred years fell, — seemingly in the latter half of the eleventh century.^ The remnant that was left of the desolated people went hither and thither, till the fragments were absorbed in the conquerors, or migrated to distant regions south.^ Whether the temi Toltec signified a nation, or only denoted a dynasty, is a question for tie archxologists to determine. The general opinion heretofore has been that they were a distinct race, of the Nahua stock, how- ever, and that they came from the north. The story which has been thus far told of their history is the narrative of Ixtiilxochitl, and is repeated by Veytia, Clavigero, Prescott, Hrasseur de Bourbourg, Orozco y Berra, ' Ch.irnay (Kng. trans., ch. S and t,) calls it a the greater niiml)er piol)al)ly spread over the rival city of Tula or Tolian, rebuilt 1)/ the Chi- region of Central .Xmerica and the neighboriiig chimecs on "he ruins of a Toltec city. isles, and the traveller now speculates on the '■^ If one wants the details of all this, he can majestic ruins of Mitla and Palenque as possi- read it in Veytia, lirasscur {Xat. CiTi/ist'es and Mv the work of this extraordinary people " P^ileiiijui, ch. viii.), and Hancroft, the latter giv- Kirk, as I'rescott's editor, refers to the labors ing references (v. 28:;). pf Orozco y Kerra (Geoi^aflii de /as Lrn^iias df ' It is frequently stated that there was a seg- JA'tViV, 122), followed by Tylor, Anchiiac, xi'f)) rcgated migration to Central . America. Bancroft as establishing the more recent view that this (v. t68, 2S5), who collates the authorities, finds southern architecture, " though of a far highei nothing of the kind implied. He thinks the grade, was long anterior to the Toltec domin mass remained in .Xnihuac. The old view as ion." expressed by Prescott (i. 14) was that "much W \ ; ii:i MliXICO ANO CKNTRAL AMERICA. 141 Nadaillac, and the later compiler,. Sahaj;un seems to have been the first to make a distinct use of tlie nan:c Toltcc, and Ciiaicncy in his paper on Xil'iilba finds evidence that the 'I'oltecs constituted two chfferent nii;;ra- tioiis, the one of a race that was strai^dit-headed, whicli came from the northwest, and tiie other of a flat-headed people, wiiich came from Florida. Hrinton, on the contrary, finds no warrant cither for this dual mi^Tation, or indeeil for consitleriny the Tollccs to be other than a section of tl.j same race, tliat we know later as Aztecs or Me.vieans. This swee; nig denial of tiieir ethnical indepcndeice iiad been forestalled by (iallat.n;' but no one before Hrinton had made it a distinct issue, thou;.;ii some writers before and since have verged on his views.'^ Others, like Charnay, have answered Hrinton's ar^'uments, and defeni ed the older views.^ Han- delier's views connect them with tht; Maya rather than with the Nahua stock,'' if, as he tliinks may be the case, they were the people who landed at Piinuco and settled at Tamoancban, the N'otanites, as they are sometimes called. He traces l)ack to Herrera and Torcjuemada the identification for tiie first time of ti;e 'i'oltecs with these people." Handelicr's conclusions, however, are that "ali we can j;ather about ther.. with safety is, that they were a sedentary Indian stock, which at some remote period settled in Cen- tral Mexico," and that " nothing certam is known of their langiia;;c." ^ ' .liHtr. Elltiio. Sen: Tniiis,, i. ' Haiicroft (v. 287) says: " It is probable that lliL- ii.imc 'I'oltcc, a title of clistiiiction rather tliaii a national name, was never applied at all to the common |)eople." ^ liriiiton's main stat^•ment is in his ll'tie t.'iv '/'i'ffiYS iiH historic iintiohi/ity ? Ktuul bij'ore the Aiiiiiican P/iilosofhiail Socuty, Si/t. 2, tSSy (I'hila., 1SS7); piil>lished also in their /'>•(>(■<•<-." 1 Short (page 255) points out that Bancroft unadvisedly looks upon these Chiehimecs as of Nahua stock, according to the common belief, '^hort thinks that Pimentel (I.eni^uas indii^enoi (/, ,)/Ar/io, published in 1S62) has conclusively shiwn that the Chiehimecs did not originally spetk the Nahua tongue, but subsequently adopted it. Short (page 256) thinks, after col- lating the evidence, that it is impossible to de- termine whence or how they came to Anahuac. '^ liancroft, v. 292, gives the different views. Cf. Kirk in Prescott, i. 16. ' These events are usually one thing or another, according to the original source which you accept, as Bancroft shows (v. 303). The story of the text is as good as any, and is in the main borne out by the other narratives. * Bancroft, v. 308. Cf., on the arrival of the Mexicans in the valley, Handelier (Pcabody .Miis. Reports, ii. 398) and his references. ' Prescott, i., introduction ch. 6, tells the story of their golden age. ► > Si \\\ MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. MS ^■^ '^^^ \^* wk •• ^Vv.v-^c .^.Vi^^f wt'^-,:^ ^V^ CLAVIGERO'S MEXICO.* (Ed. of 1780, vol. iH.) • Cf. the map in I.ucien Biart's C^r^'^ t t»'^*i ''A^ Its .^ Jn); ./ifj' TZAPO nlu mitA« It'll 'T'" " m wUtfu L_A t Tiftmi H.I, "V Amim _ , OSIA ]L IMPERO M£SSIC^^ ihictamowiitah DIMICHUACAN«<1 iTfbfV*- irinoHflt «nilo ■LS %J "tnm illi j'torii Miua jfcl,'(uii« A^AilE PACIFICO aril ii)alition, when he died in 1440, and Ids nephew, Montezuma the soldier, and first of the name,' sueceeded him. This prince soon had on his hands another war with Chalco, and with the aid of his confederates he finally humbled its presumptuous people. So, with or without pretence, the wars and concpicsts went on, if fur no other reasons, to obtain prisoners for .sacrifice'' They were diversi- fied at times, particularly in 1449, by contests with the powers of nature, when the rising waters of the lake threatened to drown their cities, and when, one evil being cured, others in the shajie of famine and plague suc- ceeded. ' Kor details of the period of the Chichimec .iscendincy, see Uancroft (v. th. 5-7), Brasseur (Ntil. Civil, ii.), and the authorities plentifully cited ill Uancroft. - On the nature of the Mexican confederacy see llandelier (l\alhhly Afiis. l\',-f>orts, ii. 416). He enumerates the authorities upon the point that no one of the allied tribes e.xerc'sed any powers over the others heyond the exclusive military direction of the Mexicans proiK-r {Pt-a- kh/v Afus. /',/(i>7j, ii. 550). Orozco y Herra {G'tvxriijiii, etc.) claims that there was a tendency to assimilate the conquered people to the Mexi- can conditions, liandelicr claims that " no at- tempt, either direct or implied, was made to assimilate or incorporate them." He urges that nowhere on the march to Mexico did Cortes fall in with Mexican rulers of sulijected tribes. It does not seem to be clear in all cases whether it was before or after the confederation was formed, or whether it was by the Mexicans or Tezcucans that Tecpancca, Xochimilca, Cuillahuac, Chalco, Acolhuacan.and Quauhnahuac, were conquered. Cf. liandclier in /Viifioi/v Afiit. A'f/or/s, ii. 691, As to the tributari s, see ////(/. 695. ' Cf. Itrasseur's A'a/ions Ci7>, ii. .(57, on Tez- cuco in its p.almy days. * Sometimes written Mochtheuzema, Mokte- zema. The Aztec Montezuma must not, as is contended, be confounded with the hero-^jod of the Xew Mexicans. Cf. Uancroft, iii. 77, 171 ; lirinton's .1/i'Mr, iqo; Schoolcraft's /« impletion of the great Mexican temple of Huitzilopochtli. This did not save him from assassina- tion, and his brother Ahuitzotl in i486 succeeded, and to him fell the lot of dedicating that great temple. He conducted fresh wars vigorously enough to be able within a year, if we may bc-lieve the native records, to secure sixty or seventy thousand captives for the sacrificial stone, so essen- tial a part of all such dedicatory exercises. It would be tedious to cnumer- ote all the succeeding conquests, though var.nl by some defeats, like that which they experienced in the Tehuantepec region. Some differences grew up, too, between the Mexican chieftain and Nezahualpilli, notwithstanding or because of the virtues of the latter, among which doubtless, acconling to the prevailing standard, we must count his taking at once three IMexican princesses for wives, and his keeping a harem of over two thousand women, if we may believe his descendant, the historian Ixtlil.xochitl. His justice as an arbitrary monarch is mentioned as exemplary, and his putting to death a guilty son is recounted as proof of it. Ahuitzotl had not as many virtues, or perhaps he had not a descendant to record them so effectively; but when he died in 1503, what there was he- roic in his nature was commemorated in his likeness sculptured with others of his line on the cliff of Chapultepcc.' To him succeeded that Monte- zuma, son of Axayacatl, with whom later this ancient history vanishes. When he came to power, the Aztec name was never significant of more lordly power, though the confederates had already had some reminders that conquest near home was easier than conquest far away. The policy of the ' As to these carvings, which have not yet srx'a //is f. (ft' A frxiio {Mexico, 1S62). See pictures wholly disappeared, see Pi\ihoi1y Miis. Keports, of Montezuma II. in Vol. II. 361, 363, and that ii. 677, 67S. There is a series of alleced por- in Ranking, p. 313. traits of the Mexic?T kings in Carbajal-Espino- >;. li MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 149 last Aztec ruler was far from popular, and while he propitiated the higher ranks, he estranged the people. The hopes of the disaffected within and without Anahuac were now centred in the Tlascalans, whose territory lay easterly towards the Gulf of Mexico, and who had thus far not felt the bur- den of Aztec oppression. Notwithstanding that their natural allies, the Cho- lulans, turned against the Tlascalans, the Aztec armies never succeeded in humbling them, as they did the Mistecs and the occupants of the region towards the Pacific. Eclipses, earthquakes, and famine soon succeeded one another, and the forebodings grew numerous. Hardly anything happened but the omens of disaster ^ were seen in it, and superstition began to do its work of enervation, while a breach between Montezuma and the Tezcucan chief was a bad augury. In this condition of things the Mexican king tried to buoy his hopes by further conquests ; but wiilespread as these invasions were, Michoacan lO the west, and Tlascala to the east, always kept their independence. The Zapotecs in Oajaca ha/ p. 190). Krinton does not seem to recog- •v u ISO NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. :> i < '* ^ \ • • T' !? i;;.' Ill \i ■.i ii:; his quick perception of the opportunity which presented itself of combining and leading the enemies of Montezuma.^ Among what are usually reckoned the civilized nations of middle Amer- ica, there are two considerable centres of a dim history that have little relation with the story which has been thus far followed. One of these is that of the people of what we now call Guatemala, and the other that of Yucatan. The political society which existed in Guatemala had nothing of the known duration assigned to the more northern people, at least not in essential data ; but we know of it simply as a very meagre and perplexing chronology running for the most part back two or three centuries only. Whether the beginnings of what we suppose we know of these people have anything to do with any Toltec migration southward is what archaeologists dispute about, and the philologists seem to have the best of the argument in the proof that the tongue of these southern peoples is more like Maya than Nahua. It is claimed that the architectural remains of Guatemala in- dicate a departure from the Maya stock and some alliance with a foreign stock ; and that this alien influence was Nahuan seems probable enough when we consider certain similarities in myth and tradition of the Nahuas and the Quiches. But we have not much even of tradition and myth of the early days, except what we may read in the Popiil Vitli, where we may make out of it what we can, or even what we please,- with some mysterious connection with Votan and Xibalba. Among the mythical traditions of this mythical period, there are the inevitable migration stories, beginning with the Quiches and ending with the coming of the Cakchiquels, but no one knows to a surety when. The new-comers found Maya-speaking peo- ple, anil called them mem or memes (stutterers), because they spoke the Maya so differently from themselves. It was in the twelfth or thirteenth century that we get the first traces of any historical kind of the Quiches and of their rivals the Cakchiquels. Of their early rulers we have the customary diversities and inconsistencies in what purports to be their story, and it is difficult to say whether this or the other or some other tribe revolted, conquered, or were l)eaten, as we read the annals of this constant warfare. We meet something tangible, how- ever, when we learn that Montezuma sent a messenger, who informed the nize the view held by m.itiy that the Montezuma of the Aztecs was quite a different beini^ from the demigod of the Pueblas of New Mexico. > It is not easy to reconcile the conflicting statements of the native historians resiiccting the course of events during the Aztec suprem- acy, such is the mutual jealousy of the Mexican and Tezcucan writers. Brasseur has satisfied himself of the authenticity of a certain sequence and character of events (Xations Civilisles], and Ba.icroft simply follows him (v. 401). Veytia is occupied more with the Tezcucans than with the Aitecs. The condensed sketch here given fol- lows the main lines of the collated records. We find good pictures of the later history of Mex- ico and Tlascala, before the Spaniards came, in Prescott (i. book 2d, ch. vi., and book 3d, ch. ii.). Bancroft (v. ch. 10) with his narrative and references helps us out with the somewhat mo- notonous details of all the districts of Mexico which were outside the dominance of the Mexi- can valley, as of Cholula, Tlascala, Michoacan, and Oajaca, with the Miztecs and Zapotecs, in. habiting this last province. 2 Bancroft (v. 543-5S3)- Li- "^ MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. ISI Quiches of the presence of the Spaniards in his capital, which set them astir to be prepared in their turn. LAMERIQDE CENTRALE dressccponr VintcUigence du Coinmentaire DULIVRESACRE. par 1861. ii OcaJadalednMoidMl 4 £«&(''' MAP IX BRASSEUR'S POPUL VUII. It is in the beginning of the sixteenth century that we encounter the rivalries of three prominent peoples in this Guatemala country, and these • U :\ yi '52 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. were the Quiches, the Cakchiquels, and the Zutigils ; and of these the Qui- ches, with their main seat at Utatlan, were the most powerful, though not so much so but the Caiitioiis CiviUsct-s (i., ii.),with the Perez m.muscript, and Landa"s Relacioii, are the sufficient source of the Vucalan history. Pan- crofi's last chapter of his fifth volume summa- rizes it. '^ Sec Vol. II. p. 402. * See Vol. II. p. 397. * Central America, ii. 452. * See Vol. II. p. 414. ' See Vol. II. p. 343. ' See Vol. II. p. 412 » See Vol. II. p. 417. Cf. i. 50; I'ancroft iAnl. A'aies, mizes the information nn the laws and courts of Prescott's Mexiro, ii. ch. 14 1 epito- the Nahua; K.andelier (Peahody A/us. Re/ ! ' I I ; < i ,,^^'f ;si,^ 154 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. time traversed tlie country, obscrvin}; the Iiic'ian customs.* We find other descriptions of tlie aboriginal customs liy tlic missionary Uidacus Valades, in liis Khctorka Chn..- tiana, of v.hicii tlie f'iurth part relates to Mexico." lirasseur says that \'alades wr.s weli MS. OF BERNAL DIAZ.» 1 See Vol. II. p. 346. friars who on May 13, 1524, landed in Mexico to '^ It is much wc owe to the twelve Franciscan convert and defend the natives. It is -om their • Fac-simile of the betjinnini; of Capitulo I,X.\IV. of liis Hhtoria Vcrdadera, following a plate in the fourth volunij of J. M. u^ MKXICO AND CKNIkAL AMKKICA. 155 infoMiied iind appreciative of the people which he so kindly depicled.' Dy tlie beginning III' the seventeenth century we tnid in Herrera's Historia tlie most c()n)i)reliensive of the ' istorical surveys, in wiiieh lie sumnuirizes the earlier writers, if not always exactly,' H.indelier {I'cabotly Mus. /i'(//j'., ii. 387; says of the ancient history of Mexico that "it appears as if the twelfth century was tlie limit of definite tradition. What lies beyond it is va^^ue and uncertain, remnants of tradition bein^; interminj,de(l with leijeiuls and mytho- logical fancies." lie cites some of the leading writers as mainly starling' in their stories respectively as follows : llrasseur, n. c. 955 ; Clavigero, a. d. 596 ; Veytia, A. d. (^^ ; Ixt- lilxochitl, A. D. 503. Handelier views all these dates as too mytliicid for historical inves- tijjatioiis, and tinds no earlier fixed date than the fouiidin;; of Tenoclititlan (Mexico) in A. U. 1325. " What lies beyond the twelfth century can occasionally be reiulered of v.due for eili iolo;;ical purjioses, but it admits of no detinite historical use." iiancroft (v. 3fjo) speaks of the sources of disaijreement in the final century of the native annals, from the constant tendency of such writers as Ixtlilxochitl, Tezozomoc, Chimal]>ain, and Camargo, to laud their own pt 'le and defamn their rivals. In the latter part of the sixteenth century the viceroy of Mexico, iJon -Martin I'.nriquez, set on foot some measures to gather the relics and traditions of the native Mexicans. Under this incentive it fell to luan de Tobar, a Jesuit, and to Diego Duran, a Dominican, to be early associated witli the resuscitation of the ancient history of the country. To Father Tobar (or Tovar) we owe what is known as the Codex Ramire::, which in the edition of the Cnl/iica J/e.vim»u''hy Hernando de .Mva'.ulo Tezozomoc, issued in Mex- ico (iS7,S), with annotations by Orozco y lierra, is called a Rchicion del orii^vn de l<>s liidios que Iiabitan esta imera EspaTia sri^un siis historias (Jos(5 M. \'igil, editor). It is an im- portant source of our knowledge of the ancient history of Mexico, as authoritatively inter- preted by the y\ztec priests, from their ])icture-writings, at the bidding of Ramirez de Fu- cnlcal, Hisliop of Cuenca. This ecclesiastic carried tlie document with him to Spain, where in Madrid it is still preserved. It was used by Herrera. Chavero and ISrinton recognize its rcprrsentative value.* To Father Duran we are indebted for an equally ardent advocacy of the riijhts of the natives in his Historia de las Iiidias de Xueva-EspaTia y islas de Tierra-Finne (1579- 81 ), which was edited in part (1867), as stated elsewhere^ by Josd F. Ramirez, and after an interval comjileted (18S0) by I'rof, Gumesindo Mendoza, of the Museo Nacional, — the perfected '.'ork making two volumes of text and an atlas of plates. Both from Tobar and from Luran some of the contemporary writers gathered largely their material." writings tliat we must draw a large part of our //;>/. Soe. Proc, November, 1879, used a ]5ortion knowledge respecting tliu Indian cli.iracttT, con- of the MS. as iiriiited by Sir Thomas l'hillipi)s dition, and history. These Christian apostles (Aiiur. Aiitii/. Soc. Pioc.,i. Wi,) under the title were Martin dc Valencia, Francisco de Soto, of I/istoria t/e los Ytiilios Mexhiiiips, {•or yuan Martin de Corufia, Juan Xiiares, ,\ntonio de dc Tinar ; Ciira et im^ciisis Dili T/ioiim Phil- Ciudad Kodrigo, Toribio de lienavtnte, Garcia /'//J, Bart, (privately printed at Middle Mill, de Cisneros, I.uis do Fucnsalida, Juan de Ribas, 1.S60. See S<;uicr Catalixiu; no. 1417). The Francisco Ximenez, Andres de Cordoba, Juan document is transl.ited by Henry Phillipps, Jr., de Palos. in the Proc. Atiur. P/rlosop/iical Soc. [VhWad.), From the Historia of Las Casas, particularly xxi. 616. from that part of it called Afiolo^'i'tica historia, '" Vol. II. p. 419. Brasseur de Eourbourg's wc can also derive some help. (Cf. Vol. II. p. Pi!'/. Afox.-Gtiat., p. 59. He used a MS. copy 340) in the Force collection. ' Brasseur, Pi/i. Mtx.-Cuiit., ^. 147; Leclerc, " This is true of Acosta and Davila Padilla. p- i()8. The bibliography of Acosta has been given else- - Herrera is furthermore the source of much where (Vol. II. p. 420). His books v., vi., and th.at we read in later works concerning the native vii. cover the ancient history of the country, religion and habits of life. See Vol. II. p. 67. He used the MSS. of Duran (Br.isseur, Bihl. ^ Cf. Vol. II. p. 418. Mex.-Guat., p. 2), and his correspondence with ■• .liiales dfl Mhs,-o A'acional, iii. 4, 120; Brin- Tobar, preserved in the Lenox library, has been ton's Am. Hero .^'ylJis, 7S. Bandelier, in X. Y. edited by Icazbalceta in his J^oti Fray Ziimar- \ < I f. I ( '' i '! f the ancient history ;4iven to lis l(\ any of the early Sp.mish wi iters. The hook, Imwever, is a (irovokiii;; one, from tlie want of i)lan, its clirono- iduical confusion, and tlie ;;eneral lack of a critical spirit^ perv.ulin;; it, It is usually held that the earliest ainassineiit ol native record-, fur historical purposes, alter the Compiest, was th.tt made by l.\tlilxocliill of the .irthives of his Tezcucai. line, \\hi:h he used in his writings in a way that has not satislied some later investigators. Chaniav says that in his own studies he follows \'eytia by preference; but I'rcsiott finds beneath the hi;;h colors of the pictures of IxtlilxochitI nut a little to be commended, liandelier," on the other li.ind, e.xpresses a distrust when he s.i\s of l.\tlil.\0( hill that "he is always a very suspicious authority, not becau-ie he is more confused than any other In- dian writer, but because he wrote for an interested object, and with a view of sustaining tribal cl.iims in the eves of the Spanish f^overmiieiit." ♦ .Xmoni; the maiuisiripts which seem to h,i\e beloni^ed to IxtlilxochitI w.is tlie one known in our day under the desit^nation given to it by Itrasseur de Ilourl)ourg, Codex Sahamin given in V(jI. 1 1, p. 415. J. I'. Kaniirez ciiiiipletcs the l)il)li()^;r.i|)liy tand- ing of old men and their traditions, Ixtlilxijchill has not the firmest ground to walk on. .\ubiii thinks tliat Ixtlilxochitl's confusion and contr.a- dictions ari>e from his want of patience in study- ing his documents; and some part of it niav doubtless have arisen from his habit, as Hrasseur says {Aiiii,iUs de J'/iHo.s,tf/ii,' Chi;'lieiiiit, May, 1S55, p. 329), of altering his authorities to mag- nify the glories of his gene-ilogic line. Max Miiller [Chif-s fyoiH a Geim,in \V,n-ksli,,'aries, he assumed to be but the record of Kcolonical changes.'' A similar use wa.s made by him of anollur MS., sometimes c.dlcd a Memnri.il de t ullui.icaii, and which he named tlie C't/i/t'.r (/■('//(//(/ after tile director of the Musco Nacional in .Mexico." llrasseur says, in the AniuiUs ifi' I'ltitosopitie C/tn'litinu; that the Chimnlpopihti MS. is dated in I53«, but in his Hist. Xitl. Civ., i. p. Ixxix, he s.ays that it was written in 15^3 and isr'j, by a wrilir of (2"'>"htillan, and not by Ixtlilxochiil, as was Ihoujjht by I'ichardo, who with Gama |iosscsscd (opies Liter owned by .\uliin. The copy used by lirasseur was, as he sajs, made from the .MS. in the Hoturini collection,* where it was called His- toiiii tic loi l;inal, now preserved in the Museo .Nacional de Mexico. It is not all legible, and that institution has pulilislied only the lieltir preserved and earlier parts of it, tlioui;h Aubin's copies are said to contain the full text. This edition, which is called Aiia/es tie Cuait/ititlitn, is accompanied by two Spanish versions, the early one made for llrasseur, and a new one executed by Mcndoza and Soils, and it is begun in X\w .-l iiales ilct .Mu-u-o Xadoiuil for lS;()(vol. i.).« The next after Ixtlilxochitl to become conspicuous as a collector, was Si^iienza y Gonjfora (1). 1645), and it was while he was the chief keeper of such records' that the Italian traveller Giovanni I'rancesco Gemelli Carreri examined them, and m.ade some reci;: 1 of th'' •.* A more important student insjiectcd the collection, which was later gathered in tiie College of San I'edro and San I'ablo, and this was Cl.ivii;cro,° who mani- fested a particular interest in the picture-writing of the .Mexicans,'" and has given us a useful account of the antecedent historians." 1 Aitiiahs de Philaophie Chrllicniu; May, 1855, p. 3:6. •^ In his Quiitre T.ettr,-s, p. i^, he calls it the sacred book of the Toltccs. "("est le Livre divin hii-mSme, c'est le Teoamoxtli." ' Br.isscnr's I.itl'cs <> M. /<■ due de Wiliny, I.ittrc scconde. * CitiUox'O, pp. 17, 18. ' lir.isseiir, flil'l. .Ve.r. Gii.it.. p. 47 ; Piiiart- Brasseur Ciitiil., no. 237. • It has been announced that Handelier is engaged in a new translation of The Ainutls of Qunnhlitltvt for lirinton's Al'orit^nal Literature series. Cf. Bancroft, iii. 57, r)3, .ind in vol. v., where he endeavors to patch together llrasseur's fragments of it. Short, \t. 241. " Ilnmboldt says that Sigiienza inherited Ixt- lilxochitl's collection ; .and that it was preserved in the College of .San I'edro till 1750. ' Giro del moiiL'canie interi'sted in tlie aiitic|uitieH of tlic lountry, and Hpcnt i-i>{ht yean roNinji alxiut tlie (oiinliy |iitliin>j up nianiistri|)ts and piclnifs, and -.I'lkiii); inv.iin tor some one to e\pl.iiti llicir iiieriinl\ pliics. Some .iclinn on iiis part incurring tl)e dl.spleasure uf tlie ptiblic au- tlioritie.s, he waa arrested, hiH collection ' taken from him, and he was sent to .S|)ain. On the voy- am' an Kn;;li^li cruiser captured the vessel in which he was, and he tluis lost whatever he chanced to have with him." What lie left hehind remained in tlie possession of tlie government, and became the spoil of damp, revolutionists, and curiosity-seekers. Oiue anaiii in Spain, lioturini sou(j;lit redress of the Council of the Indies, and was sustained by it in his petition; but neither he nor his heirs succeeded in recovering' his collection. He also prepared a book settin;,' forth how he proposed, by the .lid of these old manuscripts and pictures, to re- suscitate the f()rj;otten history of the Mexic.ins. The book* is a jumble of notions ; but appended to it was what jjivcs It its chief value, a "Cat.ilogo del Musco hisliVico Indiano," which tells us what the collection was. While it w.is thus denied to its collector, Mariano \eytia,' who had sympathized with lioturini in .M.idrid, had jiossession, for a while at least, of a part of it, and made use of it in his Historia Antij^iiii tie Afi'JiiO, but it is denied, as usually stated, that the authorities upon his death (1778) ])rcvented the publi- cation of his book. The student was deprived of Veytia's results till his MS. was al)ly edited, with notes and an appendix, by C. !•'. Ortej;a (.Mexico, I.S36)." Another, who was ciinnecteil at a later day with the Hoturini collection, and who was a more accurate writer than X'eytia, was .Antonio i\r Leon y Cama, born in Mexico in 1735. His Dvscripiion hislorica y Cronolfii^ica ile Lis Dos Piedras (Mexico, 1^32)' was occasioned by the finding;, in 1790,0! the {;reat .Mexican Calendar Stone and other sculptures in the Square of .Mexico. This work brought to bear Gaina's great learning to the interpretation of these relics, and to an exposition of the a.strononiy and mythology of the ancient .Mexicans, in a way that secured the commendation of Humboldt.' ci..\v1(;eR().' omission of the most perplcxinp .nnd contradic- tory points, than to deep research or new dis- coveries." 1 See Vol. II. p. 418. Urasseur de Hour- bnurg's Hist. Jt's N.itions Civitist'cs, p. xxxii. Clavinero had described it. ■^ He had collected nearly 500 Mexican paint- ings in all. Aubin (.\'('//(Vj, etc., p. Ji) says that lioturini nearly exhausted the field in his searches, and with the collection of Sigiien/a he secured .all those cited by Ixtlilxochitl and the most of those concealed by the Indians, — of which mention is made by Torquemada, ,Saha- gun, Valadfs, Zurita, and others ; and that the researches of liustaniante, Cubas, Gondra, and others, up to 1851, had not been .able to add much of importance towhat Botiirini possessed. ■* This portion of his collection has not been traced. The f.act is indeed denied. * /'//'. .-//«. />/., calls Veytia's the best history of the ancient period yet (1866) written. " A second ed. (Mexico, 1S33) w:is augmented with notes and a life of the author, by Carlos Maria de Hustamante; Kield, /;/V/i//(>i,'., no. 909; Itrasseur's ffi/>l. Aft-x.-dimt., p. 6S. ' Prescott, i. 133. Gama and others collected another class of hieroglyphics, of less importance. i A After a lithograph in Ciimplido's Mexican edition of Prescott's Mexico, vol. iii. ^il ' I g( ( Vi t6o NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMKRICA. During these years of uncertainty respecting the ISoturini collection, a certain hold upon it seems to have lieen siiared successively by I'ichardo and Sanchez, by which in the end some part came to t'-e Museo Xacional, in Mexico.' It was also the subject of law- suits, which finally resulted in the dispersion of what was left by public auction, at a time when Humboldt was passing through Mexico, and some of its treasures were secured by him and jjlaced in the Berlin Museum. Others passed hither and thither (a few to Kings- borough i, but not in a way to obscure their paths, so that when, in 1830, Aubin was sent io Mexi'-o by the French government, he was able to secure a considerable portion of :hem, as the result of searciies during the next ten years. It was with the purpose, some lis m H si I •''■ill ! lit 1; ■ ] <-: • » ' .•. ) Uk[ i 1 \v.: LORENZO BOTURINI.* but still interesting as illii«tratin,c; lecal and ad- ministrative processes used in l.-itcr times, in the relations of the Spaniards with the natives ; and still others embracinp; Christian prayers, cate- chisms, etc., employed by the missionaries in the religious instruction (Aubin, A'oticL\ etc., 21). Humboldt (vol. xiii., pi. \t. 141) gives "a law- suit in hieroglyphics." There was published (100 copies) at Madrid, in 1878, Piiituia iicl GohcruaJoy, Alcaldes y Rei;i- dotes de Mi-xiiO, Codicc en i:i-ri\^'lijJcos Mexicinii's y en leiiffiri Coslcllaihi y Azlecii, Exislcittc en In Bihliotei'ii del Excmo Sefior J)iii/iii- de Osiiriii, — a legal record of the later .'^panish courts affect- ing the natives. ' Humboldt describes these collections which he knew at the beginning of the century, speaking of Jose Antonio Pichardo's as the finest. • .After a lithograph in Cumplicli)'s Mexican edition of Prescott's Mexico. There is an etched portrait in the Archives de la Soc. Amcricairie de France^ nottvcUc scrie, i.. which is accompanied by an essay on this " r^rc dc r.\m6ricanisme," and ''les sources au.\ quelles il a piiise son precis d'histoire Americaine," by L^on Caluin. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. l6t years later, of assisting in the elucidation and publication of Auijin's collection that the Socidtd Amdricaine de France was established. The collection of historical records, as i, May, iSS.^ (vol. vi.); and the more comprehensive enumeration in the in- troduction to Domeiiecli's .1/aniiscrit ficto^^ra- phique. Orozco y Herra, in the introduction to his Geografta de las Leiifiuas y Carta Ktnoffrdjiea (Mexico, 1S64), speaks of the assistance he ob- tained from the collections of Ramirez J of Icazbalceta. 1 See Vol. II. p. 41S. 2 See Vol. II. p. 418. Bandelier calls thi3 French version " utterly unreliable." • [After a photograph kindly furnished by himself at the editor's request. — Ed.] f|v :4 f : -t- 'I il ■''hi . P'i ' I! 164 NARRATIVE AM) CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMKKICA. MS. by a Cacique of Quialniiztlan, j'uan \'entura Zapata y Mcndoza, which brings the Cnhtica de la muy noble y real Ciudad dc Tlaxcallan from tlie earliest times down to 1689 ; but it is not now known. Torquemada and others cite twp native Tezcucan writers, — Juan Hautista Pomar, whose Relacion de las Antii^iiedades de los Indios'^ treats of the manners of his ancestors, and Antonio Pimentel, whose Relacioiies are well known. The MS. Crdnica Mexicana of Anton Muflon Chimaljjain (b. 1579), tracing the annals from the eleventh century, is or was among the Aubin .MSS.' There was collected before 1536, under the orders of Bishop Zumdrraga, a number of aboriginal tales and traditions, which under the title of Historia de los Mexkanos por siis Pinturas was printed by Icazbalceta, who owns the MS., in the Aiiales del Museo iXacional (ii. no. 2)? As regards Yucatan, lirasseur* speaks of the scantiness of the historical material, and Brinton^ does not know a single case where a Maya author has written in the Spanish tongue, as the Aztecs did, under Spanish influence. We owe more to Dr. Daniel Gar- rison Brinton than to any one else for the elucidation of the native records, and he had" had the advantage of the collection of Yucatan MSS. formed by Dr. C. H. ISerendt," which, after that gentleman's death, passed into Brinton's hands. After the destruction of the ant lent records by Landa, considerable efforts were made throughout Yucatan, in a sort of reactionary spirit, to recall the lingering recollections of what these manuscripts contained. The grouping of such recovered material became known as Chilan Balam.' It is from local collections of this kind that Brinton selected the narratives which he has published as The Maya Chronicles^ being the first volume of his Library of Aboriginal American Literature. The original texts ^ are accompanied by an English translation. One of the books, the Chilan Balani of Mani, had been earlier printed by Stephens, in his y'ucataK.^ The only early Spanish chronicle is Bishop Landa's /^ela- tion des (hoses de Yucatan,'^'' which follows not an original, but a copy of the bishop's text, written, as Brasseur thinks, thirty years after Landa's death, or .ibout 1610, and which Brasseu: first brought to the world's attention when he 1 i.blished his edition, with both Spanish and French texts, at Paris, in 1864. The MS. seems to have been incom- 1 This is Beristain's title. Torquemada, Ve- tancurt, and SigUenza cite it .is Mcmorias his- tSricas ; Brasseur, Bib. Mexico-Guat., p. 122. - Cf. " Les Annales Me.xicaines," by Remi Simeon in the Archives dc hi Soc. Amer. de France, n. s., vol. ii. ' It is cited by Chavero as Codex Ziivitirraga. < Hist. Nat. Civ., ii. 577. ^ Almriginal Amer. Aitt/tors, p. 29. Cf. Ban- delier's Bibliof;raphy of Yucatan in Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc, n. s., vol. ;. p. 82. Cf. the references in Brasseur, Hist. Nat. Civ., and in Bancroft, iVat. Races, v. " Cf. Mem. of Berendt,hy Brinton (Worcester, 1SS4). ' Cf. Brinton on the M.SS.in the languages of Cent. America, in Amer. four, of .Science, xcvii. 222 ; and his Boolis of Ciiilan Balam, llic fro- fhetic nnd historical records of the Mayas of Yucatan (Philad., 1SS2), reprinted frim the Penn Afoathly, March, 1.S82. Cf. also Ine Transac- tions of the Philad. A'umismatic and Antiqua- rian Soc. 8 This is in the alphabet adopted by the early missionaries. The volume contains the " Books of Chilan Balam," written "not later than 1595," and also the " Chac Xulub Chen," written by a Maya chief, \akuk I'ech, in 1562, to recount the story of the Spanish conquest of Yucatan. 9 This was in 1843, when Stephens made his English translation from Pio Perez's Spanish version, Antigua Chronologia Yucateca ; and from Stephens's text, Brasseur gave it a French rendering in his edition of Landa. (Cf. also his Nat. Civilisles, ii. p. 2.) Perez, who in Stephens's opinion (Yucatan, ii. 117) was the best Mava scholar in that country, made notes, which Valen tini publislied in his " Katunesof Maya History," in the Pro. of the Amer. Antiq. Soc, Oct., 1879 (Worcesi?'-, 1880), but they h.id earlier been printed jp Carrillo's Hist, y Geog. de Yucatan (Merida, iSSi). Bancroft {Xat. Paces, v. 624) reprints Sfphens's text with not»?s from Bras- seur. The books of Chilan Balam were used both by Cogolludoand I.izana ; and Brasseur printed some of them in the Mission Scieutifiquc au Mexique. They are described in Carrillo's Di- sertacion sobre la historia de leiigua Maya J i'u- eateca (Merida, 1S70). 1" Brasseur, Bib. Mex.-Guat., p. 30. See Vol. H. p. 429. The Spanish title is Pelacioii de lai Cosas dc Yucatan. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 165 plete, and was perhaps inaccurately copied at the time. At this date (1864I Brasseur had become an enthusiast for his theory of the personification of tlie forces of nature in the old recitals, and there was some distrust how far his zeal had affected his text ; and more- over he had not published the entire text, but had omitted about one sixth. Bras eur's method of editing became apparent when, in 1884, at .Madrid, Juan de Dios de la Rada y Delgado published literally the whole Spanish text, as an appendix to the Spanish transla- tion of Rosny's essay on the hieratic writing. The Spanish editor pointed out some but not all the differences between his text and Urasseur's, — a scrutiny which Brinton has perfected in his Critical Nunarks on tlie Editions of LanMs rK/7//«^j (Philad., 1887).* PROFESSOR DANIEL G. liRlNTON. Landa gives extracts from a work by Bernardo Lizana, relating to Yucatan, of which it is difficult to get other information.- The earliest published historical nnrrative was Cogolludo's Historia de J WaMaw (.Madrid, 168S).' Stephens, in his study of the subject, 1 From the Proc. of the Amcr. P/iilos. Sec, xxiv. ^ Cf. Bandelier in Am. Antiij. Soc. Proc, n. s., vol. i. p. 88. ' The second edition was called I.os lirs S/\'- los de III Dontinacion Espanola cii Yucatan (Cani- peche and Merida, 2 vols., 1843, 1S45). It was edited unsatisfactorily by Jiisto Sierra. Cf. Vol. II. p. 429; Brasseiir, Bih. Afix.-Guat., p. 47. This, like Juan de Villagutierre Soto-Mayor's Historia de la Conquista dc la Provincia de d Ilza, rcduccion, y pro^ressos dc la de fl Lacandon, y otras naciones de Indios Sarharos, de la media- cion de cl Reyno de Gautimala, a las Provincial de Yucatan, en la America Septentrional (Madrid, 1701), (which, says Bandelier, is of importance for that part of Yucatan which has remained un- explored), has mostly to do with the Indians under the Spanish rule, but the books are not devoid of usefulness in the study of the early tribes. Of the modern comments on the Yucatan an- cient history, those of Brasseur in his Nations Civilisies are more to be trusted than his in- troduction to his edition of Landa, which needs to be taken with due recognition of his later ) !i f% i p. ' ^1' ,'!r^ !i^t : r Hi! ' 1 66 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. speaks of it as "voluminous, confused, and ill-digested,'' and says "it might almost be called a history of the Franciscan friars, to which order CogoUudo belonged." ' The D"*ive sources of the aboriginal history of Guatemala, and of what is sometimes called the Quichd-Cakchiquel Empire, are not abunciaiit,'' but the most important are the Popul Vuh, a traditional book of the Quichds, and the Memorial dc Tecpan-Atitlan. The Popul Villi was discovered in tiic library of the university at Guatemala, probably not far from 1700,* by Francisco Ximenez, a missionary in a mountain village of the country. Ximenez did not find the original Quichd book, but a copy of it, made after it was lost, and later than the Conquest, which we may infer was reproduced from memory to replace the lost te.xt, and in this way it may have received some admixture of Christian thought.* It was this sort of a text that Ximenez turned into Spanish ; and this version, with the copy of the Quiclid, which Ximenez also made, is what has come down to us. Karl Scherzer, a German traveller* in the country, found Ximenez' work, which had seemingly passed into the university library on the suppression of the monasteries, and which, as he supposes, had not been printed because o* some disagreeable things in it about the Spanish treatment of the natives. Scherzer edited the MS., which was published as Las Historias del Origcn de los Indios de Esta Provincia de Guatemala ' (Vienna, 1857). IJiasseur, who had seen the Ximenez MSS. in 1855, considered the Spanish version untrustworthy, and so with the aid of some natives he gave it a French rendering, and republished it a few years later as Popol Vuh. Le Livre sacri et les Mythes de Vantiquiti anu'ricahie, avcc les livres lu'roi'ques et historiques des Quichds. Ouvrage original des iiidighies de Guatemala, texte Quiche et trad, franqaise en regard, accompagtUe de notes philologiques et d'un commentaire sur la inythologie et les migrations des peuples anciens de I'AmMque, etc., composi sur des documents originaux et inc'difs (Paris, 1861). Brasseur's introduction bears the special title ; Dissertation sur les mythes de Vantiquiti Amiricaine sur la prohabilitd des Communications existant anciennement d'un Continent d Pautre, et sur les migrations des peuples indightes de P Amdrique, — in which he took occasion to elucidate his theory of cataclysms and Atlantis. He speaks of his annota- tions as the results of his observations among the Quiches and of his prolonged studies. He calls the Popul Vuh rather a national than a sacred book," and thinks it the original in v.igaries ; and Brinton has studied their history at some length in the introduction to his Maya Chronicles. The first volume of Eligio Ancona's Hist, de Yucatan covers the early period. See Vol. II. p. 429. Urinton calls it "disappoint- ingly superficial." There is much that is popu- larly retrospective in the various and not always stable contributions of Dr. Le Plongeon and his wife. The last of Mrs. Le Plongeon's pa- purs is one on "The Mayas, their customs, laws, religion," in the Mag. Amcr. Hist., Aug., 1S87. Bancroft's second volume groups the ne- cessary references to every phase of Maya his- tory Cf. Charnay, English translation, ch. 15; and Geronimo Castillo's Diccionario HislSrico, bio^rti/ico y monumental de Yucatan (Merida, 1866). Of Crescendo Carrillo and his Historia Antigua de Yucatan (Merida, 18S1), lirinton savs : " I know of no other Vucalecan who has equal enthusiasm or so just an estimate of the antiquarian riches of his native land" {Amcr. Hero MylAs, 147). B,istian summarizes the his- tory of Yucatan and Guatemala in the second volume of his Cultiirldnder des alien Avierika. 1 Yucatan, ii. 79. ' See C. H. Berendt on the hist. docs, of Gua- temala in Smithsonian Report, 1876. There is a partial bibliography of Guatemala in W. T. Brigham's Guatemala the land of the Quetzal (N. Y., 1887), and another by Bandelier in the Am. Antiq. Sac. Proc, n. s., vol. i. p. loi. The references in Brasseur's Hist. Nations Civilisks, and in Bancroft's Native Races, vol. v., will be a ready means for collating the early sources. 8 Scherzer and Brasseur are somewhat at vari- ance here. * " There are some coincidences between the Old Testament and the Quiche MS. which are certainly startling." Miiller's Chips, i. 328. " Wanderuiigen durch die mittel - Amerihani- schen Freistaaten (Braunschweig, 1857 — an Eng- lish translation, London, 1857). " Leclerc, no. 1305. " II. M. Bancroft, Nat. Races, ii. 1 15; iii., ch. 2, and V. 170, 547, gives a convenient condensa- tion of the book, and says that Midler miscon- ceivcs in some parts of his summary, and that Baldwin in his Ancient America, p. 191, follows Miiller. He\^9., Spanish Co«jfK«/, iv. App., give» a brief synopsis, — the first one done in English. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 167 some part of the " Livre divin des Tolteques," the Teo-Amoxtli.' Brinton avers that neitlier Ximenez nor IJrasseur has adequately translated the Quichd text,'' and sees no reason to think that the matter has been in any way influenced by the Spanish contact, emanating indeed long before that event; and he has based some studies upon it." In this opinion Bandelier is at variance, at least as regards the first portion, for he believes it to have been writieii after the Conquest and under Christian influences.* Brasseur in some of his other writings has further discussed the matter.' The Memorial of Tecpan - Atitlan, to use Brasseur's title, is an incomplete MS.," found ill 1844 by Juan Gavarrete in rearranging the MSS. of the convent of San Fran- cisco, of Guatemala, and it was by Gavarrete that a Sjianish version of Brasseur's ren- dering was printed in 1873 in the Bolt-tin tie la Sociedad econdmica dc Guatemala (nos. 29-43). This translation by Brasseur, ma:le in 1S56, was never printed Ijy him, but, pass- ing into Pinart's hands with Brasseur's collections,' it was entrusted by that collector to Dr. Brinton, who selected the parts of interest (46 out of 96 i)p.),and included it as vol. vi. in his Library of Aboriginal American Literature, under the title of The annals of the Cakchiquels. The original text, -with a translation, notes, and introduction (Philadel- phia, 1885). Brinton disagrees with Brasseur in placing the date of its beginning towards the open- ing of the eleventh century, and puts it rather at about A. n. 1380. Brasseur says he received the original from Gavarrete, and it would seem to have been a copy made be- tween 1620 and 1650, though it bears internal evidence of having been written by one who was of adult age at the time of the Conquest. Brinton's introduction discusses the ethnological position of the Cakchiquels, who he thinks had been separated from the Mayas for a long period. The next in importance of the Guatemalan books is the work of Francisco Antonio de Fuentes y Guzman, Historia de Guatemala, 6 Rccordncidn florida escrita el siglo xvii., que publica par primera vez con notas i ilustraciones f. Zaragoza (Madrid, 1882-83), being vols. I and 2 of the Biblioteca de los americanistas. The original MS., dated 1690, is in the archives of the city of Guatemala. Owing to a tendent; of the author to laud the 1 Max Muller dissents from this. Chips, i. 336. Muller reminds us, if we are suspicious of the disjointed manner of what has come down to uj as the Popid V'uh, that " consecutive his- tory is altogether a modern idea, of which few only of the ancient nations had any conception. If we had the exact words of the Popul Vuh, we should probably find no more histoiy there than we find in the Quichd MS. as it now stands." ^ Cf. Aborig. Amer. Authors, p. 33. * The names of the gods in the Kichi Myths of Cei.tral Arperica (Philad., 1881), from the Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. Me gives his reasons (p. 4) for the spelling Kichi. * Cf. Am. Aiiliq. Soc. Proc, n. s., vol. i. 109 ; and his paper, "On the Sources of the Aborig- inal Hist, of Spanish America," in the Am. Asso. Adv. Sci. Proc, xxvii. 328 (Aug., 1878). In the Peabody Miis. Eleventh Report, p. 391, he says of it that " it appears to be for the first chapters an evident fabrication, or at least ac- commodation of Indian mythology to Christian notions, — a pious fraud; but the bulk is an equally evident collection of original traditions of the Indians of Guatemala, and as such the most valuable work for the aboriginal history and ethnology of Central America." ' Hist. Nat. Civ., i. 47 . S 'il existe des sources de thistoire primitive du Mixique dans les monu- ments l^yptiens et de I' histoire primitive de Fancien moiide dans les monuments Amdricaiits ? (1864), which is an extract from his Lainid's Relation. Cf. Bollaert, in the Royal Soc. of Lit. Trans., 1863. Brasseui (Bili.Mcx-Guat.,Y>.Al; I'inart, no. 231) also speaks of another Quiche docu- ment, of which his MS. copy is entitled Titulo de los Seiiores de Totonicapan, escrito en lengua Quichi, el ano de 1^J4, y traducido al Castellano et am de i8j4,por el Padre Dionisio Josl Chonay, indigeiia, which tells the story of the Quiche race somewhat differendy from the Popul Vuh. ' See Vol. II. p. 419. ' It stands in Brasseur's Bib. Mex.-Guat., p. 13, as Memorial de Tecpan-Atittan (Sohla), his- toire des deux families royales du royaume des Cakchiquels d'lximche ou CuatSmala, -idigi en lausfiie Cakchii/uile par le prince Don Francisco Ernaiitez Araiia-Xahita, des rots Ahposotziles, where Brasseur speaks of it as analogous to the Popul Vuh, but with numerous and remarkable variations. The MS. remained in the keeping of Xahila till 1562, when Francisco Gebuta Queh received it and continued it (Pinart Cata' logue, no. 3s). 1. '1 r ^! 168 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. If. I it I i't m ■ natives, modern historians have looked with some suspicion on his authority, and have pointed out inconsistencies and suspected errors.' Of a later writer, Kamon de Ordofiez (died about 1840), we iiavc only the rough draught of a Historia de la creacion del Cielo y delalierra, conjorme . Afcx.-Guat., 113) had a copy of tliis draught (made in 1.S4S-49). Tlie original fair copy was sent to Madrid for the jjress, and it is suspected that the Council for the Indies sujjpressed it in 1805. Ramon cites a manuscript I/ist. de la J'rov. e San Viicnte de CItiappas y Goathemala, which is i)erhaps the same as the Cnhii'ea de la Prov. de Chiapas y iiiiatemala, of which the seventh book is in the Museo Nacional {Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc, n. s., i. 97; Brasseur, Bib. Mex.-Guat., •57). The work of Antonio de Remesal is sometimes cited as Historia general de las Indias occidentales, y particular de la gobernacion de Chiapas y Guatemala, and sometimes as Historia de la proviiicia de San Vicente de Chyapa y Guatemala (Madrid, 16:9, 1620J.* Bandelier (Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc, i. 95) has indicated the leading sources of the his- tory of Chiapas, so closelv associated witii Guatemala. To round tlie study of the abo- riginal period of this I'acitic region, we may find something in Alvarado's letters on the Conquest;'' in Las Casas for the interior parts, and in Alonso de Zm'n:Cs Pelacion, 1560,* as respects the Quichd tribes, which is the source of much in Herrera." For Oajaca (Oa- xaca, Guaxaca) the special source is Francisco de Hurgoa's Ceognijica descripcion de la parte septentrional del Polo Artico de la America, etc. (Mexico, 1674), in two quarto vol- umes, — or at least it is generally so regarded. Bandelier, who traces tlie works on Oajaca (Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc, n. s., i. 115), says there is a book of a modern writer, Juan U. Carriedo, which follows Burgoa largely. Brasseur (Z?;A Mex.-Guat , p. 33) speaks of Burgoa as the only source which remains of the native history of Oajaca. He says it is a very rare book, even in .Mexico. He largely depends upon its full details in some parts of his Xations Civilisees (iii. livre 9). Alonso de la Rea's Crdnica de Mechoacan (Mexico, 1648) and Basalenque's Cronica de San .Itigiistin de .Mechoacan (Mexico, 1673) '^•'e books which Brinton complains he could find in no lihiary in the United States. 1 See Vol. II. 419; Bancroft, Nat. A'aces, v. 564 ; Bandelier in Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc, i. 105. Bandelier (Peabody Miis. Rcpts., ii. 391) says that it is now acknowledged that the Rccordudon Jlorida of Fuentes y Guzman is "full of ex.ig- gerations and misst.iteriients." Brasseur [Bib. iWivv.-f/Wrt/., pp. 65, S7),in speaking of Fuentes' A'oticia historica dc' los indios dc Gudtemuli (of which manuscript he had a copy), says that he had access to a great number of native docu- ments, but profited little by them, either because he could not read them, or his tr.mslaiois de- ceived him. Brasseur adds that Fuentes' account of the Quiche rulers is " un mauvais roman qui n'a pas le sens commun." This last is a manu- script used by Dnmir.go Juarros in his Compen- dio de III hi.'toriit dc la ciudad de Gualnnala (Guatemala, 1808-1S18, in two vols. — becoTe rare), but reprinted in the Museo Gualiinallcco, 1S57. The English translation, by John Kaily, a merchant living in Guatemala, was published as a Slicieiit Mexicmis, read before the London Kthnolog. Soc, and printed in [848 in the Edinb. New Philoso/'/i. .1/^'., vol. xlvi. His first considerable contribution was his Trav- els ill Cent. America, particularly in Nicara,i;iia, with a description of its abort i^inal monuments (London and N. Y., 1852-53). He supple- mented this by some popular papers in Harper's .)/./^., 1854, 1855. (Of. I/ist. Mai:., iv.65; Put- nam's Mag., xii. 5.49 ) A year or two later he communicated papers on " Les Indiens Guatu- sos du Nicaragua," and " Les indiens Xicaques du Honduras," to the A'ouvelles Annates des Voyages (1856, 1858), and "A Visit to the Gua- jiquero Indians " to Harper's Mag., 1859. In 1S60, .Squier projected the publication of a Col- lection of documents, hut only a letter (157O) of P.ilacio was jirinted (Icazbalceta, lUbl. Mcx., i. p. 326). He had intended to make the scries more correct and with fewer omissions than Ter- nanx had allowed himself. His material, then the result of ten years' gathering, h.id been largely secured through the instrumcntalily of liiickingham Smith. (See Vol. II. p. vii.) '' " .Art of war and mode of warfare of the .An- cient Mexicans" (I'eabody Afns. Kept., no. x.). " I )islriliiition and tenure of lands, : \d the cus- toms with respect to inheritance among the an- cient Mexicans" (Ibid. no. xi). " Special organizations and mode of govern- ment of the ancient Mexicans" (Ibid. no. xii.). These papers reveal much thorough study of the earlier Writers on the general condition of the ancient people of Mexico, and the student finds much help in their full references. It was this manifestation of his learning that led to his appointment by the Archasological Institute, — the fruit of his labor in their behalf appearing in his Keport of an Arclueological Tour in Mex- ico, tSSi, which constitutes the second volume (18S4) of the Papers of that body. In his third section he enlarges upon the condition of Mex- ico at the time of the Conquest. His explora- tions covered the region from Tampico to Mex- ico city. ' Library of Aboriginal American Literature, (Philadelphia.) 8 James II. McCulloh, an officer of the U. S. army, published Researches on America (Bait., 1816), expanded later into Researches, philosophi- cal and antiquarian, concerning the original His- tory of America (Baltimore, 1S29). His fifth and sixth parts concern the " Institutions of the Mex- i ■ (= ftj 1 , 1 ' 1 f;> 1 1' ., .1 173 NAURATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. Ill ' ' : i| 1 1' I ! .* During the American Civil War, when there were hopes of some permanence for French Intlucnic in Mtxii n. tlie I'reiicli j;()vcrnmcnt m.i\ Mi:XIC(J ANU LENTKAL AMKKICA. 171 Later he ),'avc liim^L-lf to tliu study of thu Nahua toni^ue, under the guidance o( FauHtino C'hiinal|jiipoca Galicia, a descendant of a lirother ut Munte/uma, then a [jroftssor in the colle^^e of San Gregorio. In 1851 lie was ready to print at Mexico, in French and Spaa* ish, his Lettres (lour servir d'' introduction ik Vliistoire primitii'tdcs ancitnius nations civi- iisi'i-s du Mi'xi(jue, addressed ((Jcti)i)er, 1850) to the Uuc de Valiiiy, in wiiieh he sl.'xicaines." ' It was tins Ijrocliurc wliicii introduced hitn to the attention of Squier and Aubin, and from the latter, durin|r his residence in I'aris (1851-54), he received great assistance. Pressed in his cirtumstances, he was olili^ed at this litne to eke out his living by popular writing, which helped also to enalile him to pui)lish liis successive works.'' To comjilete his Central American studies, he Went again to America in 1S54, and in Washington he saw for the lirst time the texts of Las Casas and Duran, in the collection of I'eter Force, who h.ul got copies from Madrid. He has given us' an account of his successful search for old m.inuscri|)ts in Central Amer- ica. Finally, as the result of all these studies, he published his most important work,— Histoire des nations civilist'es du Ah'xique ct de CAmilrique cent rale durant Us siicles an- tc'ricurs i\ C. Colombo I'crite sur des docs, origin, et entiercment ini'dits, puish aux ancicnncs arcltives des indi^i'nes {I'.n'is, i857-5.S).'» This was tlie first orderly and extensive effort to combine out of all available material, native and Spaniel), a divisionary and consecutive history of ante-Columbian times in these regions, to w aich he added from the native sources a new account of the conquest by the Spaniarcis. His purpose to separate the historic from the mythical may incite criticism, but his vi-nvs are tiie result of more labor and more knowledge than any one before him had brought to the subject.' In his later publications there is less reason to be satistied with his results, and lirinton" even thinks that "he had a weakness to throw designedly considerable obscurity about his authorities and the sources of his knowledge." His fellow-students almost invariably yield iiraise to his successful research and to his great learning, surpassing perhaps that of any of them, but they are one and all chary of adopting his later theories.'' These were expressed at length in his Quatre lettres sur le Mexique. Exposition du systhnc liic'rot^lyphique mexi- cain. La fin de IWge dc pierre. £poque glaciaire temporaire. Commencement de PAge de bronze. Origines de la civilisation et des religions de rantiquiti. D''aprh le Teo- > He says the work is very rare. A copy .Sahagun, Remesal, Gomara (in Barcia), Loren- given by him is in Harvard College library, zana's Cortes, Bernal Diaz, Vetancurt's Te,ilro Jii/>. Mex.Guat., p. 26. •^ His Palinqui, at a later d.-iy, was published by the French government {Qii,if/Y Litlifs,itviiitt- fropos). ^ Introduction of his Hist. Xor. Ainer. Authors, 57. Tome IV. vi. et 851 pp. Conqu^te du Mexique, ' Cf. Baiidelier, Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc., n. s., du Michoacan et du Guatimala, etc. Etablisse- i. 93; Field, no. 176; H. H. Bancroft's Nat. ment des Espagnols et fondalion de rEi;tise cat/to- Races, ii. 116, 780; v. 126, 153,236,241, — who liqiie. Ruine de ridolAtrie, declin et abaissement says of Brasseur that " he rejects nothing, and de la race indit;ine,jusqu'ii la fin du xri' siicle. transforms everythinp; into historic fact ; " but In his introduction (p. Ixxiv) Brasseur gives a Bancroft looks to Brasseur for the main drift of list of the manuscript and printed books on his chapter on pre-Toltec history. Cf. Brinton's which he has mainly depended, the chief of Myths of the New World, ^. ^\. which are: Burgoa, Cogolludo, Torquemada, l/f 17a NAKK.VriVt: AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMI.RICA. I I :' ; 1.1 x \ M ! I ill t't Amoxl'i [etc.] (I'aris, i8f)H), wliercin he accounted a.s mere synilxili^oi what he hail earlier eluciil.itcil as histiii'icai recDnls, and connected the recital of the CuiUx Lliinmlpopocii with the Mtiiry ot Atlantic*, makin); tliat lust land tiie original seat of all dldworld and new-world civdi/atiori, and tinding in that sacred liiHtory uf Colhuacan and Mexico li.e secret evi- dence of a mi;;hty cataclysm that sunk tiie continent front Honduras (sidi;f(|uenll\ wiili Yucatan elevated) to perhaps the Canaries.' Two ye.irs later, in Ids elucidaiioii of tlie MS. / nuino (lH(,<>-70!, tiiis same ihemy governed all his study, llrassenr w.is (|uite aware of the loss of estim.iiion whieli followed upon his erratic chan^'e of ojiinion, as the introduction to his lUtil. Mcx.-Ciuatiiitiiiienni: shows. No other French writer, however has so associated his name with the history uf these early peoples,' In Mexico itself the earliest general narr.iiive was not cast in the usual histnrii.d li>rn) but in the guise of .1 dialogue, held ni^ht after night, between a .Spani.ird and an Indian, the ancient histoiy of the umiitry was recounted. The author, Jose|)h Joaquin Granados y Galve/, published it in 177S, a.s Tatdcs Aiiu'ricanas : ^ohicrno geiitil y latdlico : breve y ptirticular Hoticiii de toda la histofia Jndidiiii: sHii'sow lasos nolalilts,y tosas i[i;>ii>mdiis, dculc III eiitrada de la Gran uitcion iultcca A esta tiena de Aitahuac, luisia los prisiitta tUmpos.'' The most comprehensive grouping of historical material is in the Dkcionario Uiiiven.il de liistoria v di-' CiVOi^rafin (.Mexico. 1853-5^)),^ of which .Manuel Orozco y lierra was one of the chief collaborators. This List author has in two other W(.rks added very much to our knowledge of the racial and ancient history of the indigenous peoples. These are his Geoi^iufiix de las Iciii^uas y Carta Etiiot^rdfica dc JA'.ivVo (Mexico, 1864),* ,id his His- toria aiitij^ua y de la Conqnista de Mi'xico (Mexico, iSSo, in four volumes)." I'erhaps the most important of all the .Mexican | ubiications is Manuel Larraiiizar's l-lstudios sohie la historia de Aiiieina, sits riiiiias y (iiilii;iUdades,ioiiipa>adas lOii lo iiiAs notable del oiro Contiiiente (.Mexico, 1875-187S, in five volumes). In German the most important of recent books is Hermann Strcbel's Alt-Mexu<^ (Ham- burg, 1SS51; but Waltz's Amerikaiiei{\'!^()\, vol. ii.) has a section on the Mexicans. Adolph liastian's " Ziir (leschichte des .Mten Mexico " is contained in the second volume of his CiHliiiliinder des Allen America (lierlin, 1S78), in which he considers the subject of 'Juet- zalcoatl. the religious ceremonial, administrative and social life, as well as the different stocks of the native tribes. ' H.incroft, A'.;/. A'i;(V.r, v. 176; I'akhvin, /4«<'. America. - Reference may be made to J I, T. Moke's Ilistoirc tics pciipUs Aiiiiriiiiini ( Unixelles, '1847) ; Michel Chevalier's " Dii Mexi(|ue avant et pen- dant la Ciintpicte," in the Rnmedetdeux Mondes, 1S45, and his Le Mexii/iie niieieii et nunleriit (I'aris, iS6j); ant' some parts of the Marquis de Nadaillac's L\tiiurii;iie /•rihiftorii/iii- (I'aris, 1SS3). A recent popular summary, without ref- erences, of the condition and history of ancient Mexico, is Lucien liiart's /.f.< AztiqiieSy liistoirc, maiirs, lOHliimes (Paris, 18S5I, of which there is an English translation. The Aztecs, their /lis- torv, etc., translated by J. I.. 0,-irnier (Chicago, 1SS7). •' Leclerc, nn 1147; Field, no. fi^o; Sepiitr, no. 427; Sabin vii. 28,255; liandelier \n Am. Aiitiq. Soc. Proc, n. s., i. 116. It lias never yet l>Len reprinted. The early date, as well as its •iritv, have contributed to give it, perhaps, un- due reputation. It is worth irom £^ to £^. • T.eclerc, no. it 19. .See Vol. II. p. 415. ^ I.eclerc, no. 2079; Urasseur, Bih. Mex.-Citin/., p. 113. " For the Historia de Afexico of Carbajal Es pinosa, see Vol. H. p. 428. Cf. Alfred Cha vero's Mexico d travis de / 'r Siglos. m ^m MEXICO AND CENTKAL AMLKICA. ^7i NOTES. 1. Ikk AuTiiomTiEs on the acxALLinCivitizATiuN OK Ancient MEXtrn and Adjacent Lands, AND TIIK InI>.KIHKI ATloN Of kl'C H A I TIIOKl 11 K». 1 HK ancient Kocallcd civilization wliich the Spaniards fttund in Mixico and Central America in tlie ftitliject o. Ill icl) cuntroVLT^ty : in tlio tirnt place as re^ardn it» origin, wlietlivr indiijonnuit, ur allied in and derivcil imm ttiu civili/.iliiin!! (it tlic (lid Wnrld : and iii the !vecond place an rcKard^ its citaracter, utietlter it \\a% finnH-tliinij more than a kind nf ^rotrTKiue l)ailMriMni, or of a nature that nuken even the Spaninlt culture, wliich !tU|i|ilanted it, itilcriur in some respects by cnnipari'ton.' The iirht of thune problems, as rc^fardit Its mi^in, i^ cr its cliaracter. it is pmpuM'd here to follow tlie liittnry nt upinionb. in a l)(iok published at Seville in i>io, Martin I'ernandez d'l'.ncisoS .Siiimtttf j^toi^riif'hia t^itf trtttitUt- toJas ias fartiJa% y f^rovin^tit^ dtl mundo: rn ("/'tJiii ift' /tit /fti/tiH,' the I.urn])c\in reader is NUppoM-d to hare received tlie earliest hints of the dej;roc of civilization —if it he su termed of which the succeeding' >pani»h writi-rs niad^- so much. A brief ^tentence was thus the shadowy bri^iiinin'^ of the storie«* of ^rantleur and ma^* nl.Keiice'* whicl' we find later in Cortes, Ikrnal Diaz, Cas Casas. 1 drquemada, Salia^tin, Kamusiu, donura. (tvijdo, Zurita, le/ozoinoc, and IxtlilxochitI, and which is repeated (iften with accumulatirit; ettuct m Ato>ia, Ilerrer.1, I.oren/ana, Solis, Clavi^ero, anil their successors.* llandejier'^ points out liow Kobertson. in his view* ot Mexican civilization as in "the infancy of civil lile,"*' really upi-ncd the view for the first lime of the exai;* aerated and uncritical estimates of the older writers, which Morgan has carried in our day to tlie highest pitch, and, as it would seem, without sulticient recoj^nitioti of some of tlie contrary evidence. It has I'lUally been held that the creation anmni; the Mexicans about thirty years after the fuuiidim; of Mex- ico of a chief-(if-men ( I lacatecuhtli) instituted a feudal monarchy Ilaiulelier,' speaking of the application of feiid.d terms by the old writers to Mexican institutions, says: " What in their tirst procesr^ of thinkim; was merely a comparative, became very soon a positive tcrminoU)j^y for the purpose of describing institutions to which this foreign terminotoKy never was adapted." He instances that the .so-called "kin:;" of these early writers was a transl.ition of the native term, which in fact only meant "one of those who spoke : " that is, a prominent member of the council.'* Ilandelicr traces the beifinnim; of the feudal idc.is as a K^aft upon the native systems, in the oldest document issued by Kuropeans on Mexican soil, when Cortes {May 20, 1 5 10) con- ferred land on his allies, the chiefs of .\xapuscr» and Tcpeyahuaico, and for tlie first time made their offices hereditary. It is Handelicr's opinion that " the j;rantees har. Ilrlntdn siiys: "Throui'houl the tnmineiit there is tint .t single auduntic instance of a |)ast(>ra[ tribe, not one of an animal rni'^ed for its milk, nor for the transportation of persons, and very few for their liish. It was essentially a hunting race." {Myths 0/ the XtW li'orid, 21.) He adds: "The one niollifyinjj ele- ment was agriculture, Miltstitulin^ a sedentary for a w.mder- ini; iil'e, snpplyinn a lixed dependence for an uncertain con- tinuency." •J See Vol. 11. p. 98. ^ It w.iA two years earlier, in 1517, that Hernandez de C'lrdi'va had first noticed the ruins of the Yucatan coast, tli(ni:.;h Cdhnnbus, in 1503, near Yucatan lia writer," says Handelier (/VrtAix/r ^f^^s. Repts. ii. 674), *'has been more prolific in plcmres of pomp, regal wealth and magnificence, thin liernal Diaz. Most of the later writers h.ivi' placed uiuhie reliance on his statements absuniin^; that the truthfulness rif his own individual feelings was the result of cool observaticni. Any one who has read attJiitively his Mhnoirt will become convinced that he is in fact one of the most unreliable eye-witnesses, so far as general principles are concerned. . , . Cortes had personal and political motives to magnify and embellish the picture. If his statements fall far below those of his troopers in thrilling and highly-colored details, there is every reason to bLMiL've that they are the more trustworthy. ... In the de- scriptions by Cnrtcs we find, on the whole, nothing btit a barbarous display common to other Indian celebrations of a similar character." Pandelier's further comment is {Ibid. ii. 307) : '* A feudal empir.' at Tezcuco was an invention of the chroniclers, w ho had a direct interest, or tliought tct have fine, in advancing the claims nf the Texcuean tribe to an original supremacy." IJandelicr again {Ibid. \\. 3^5) points out the early state- ments of the conquerors, and of their ann.ilists, which have prompted the inference of a feudal condition of society: but he refers to IxtlilxiKhitl as " the chief ori^inainr of the feudal view; " and from him Tor(|uetnada draws hi^ inspi- ration. Wilson {Prehist. .l/i«, i, 2^i\ he Pauw's Rechfrc/ws phi/osophigut's sur h-s Atn^ricahies^ that it is "a very injudicious book, which by its extravagance anlaco*5 Imw the derogattiry view, a^ opposed to the viewu of I'rescott, were expressed by R. A. Wilson in his A'nv Couijucsi 0/ Mexico^ in assuming that all tlie conquerors said was baseless fabrication, the European Montezuma becoming a petty Indian chief, and tlie great city of Mexico a collection of hovels in an everglade, — the ruins of the country being accounted for by supposing them the relics of an ancient Phcunician civilization, which had b.;en stamped out by the inroads of barbarians, whose equally barbarious descendants the Spaniards were in turn to over- come. It cannot be said that such iconoclastic opinions obtained any marked acceptance; but it was apparent that the notion of the exaggeration of the Spanish accounts was becoming sensibly fixed in the world's opinion. We see tliis reaction in a far less excessive way in Daniel Wilson's Prehistoric Man (i. 325, etc.), and he was struck, among other things, with the utter obliteration of the arcliitcctural traces of the conquered race in tlie city of Mexico itself.' When, in 1S75, Hubert II. llani:roft published the second volume of his Native Races^ he confessed *' that much concerning the Aztec civiliza'Ion had been greatly exaggerated by the old Spanish writers, and for obvious reasons ; " but he contended that the stories of their magniticeuce must in the main be accejited, becuise of the unanimity of witnesses, notwithstanding their copying from one another, and because of the evidence of the ruins.-'' He strikes his key-note in his chapter on the '* Ciovermnent of the Xahua Nations," in speaking of it as " monarchical and nearly absolute ; '' i* but it was perhaps in his chapter on *V.e '* Palaces and llouseliolds of the Nahua Kings," where he fortifies his statement by numerous references, tiiat he carried his descriptions to the extent that allied his opinions to those who most unhesitatingly accepted the old stories. i** The most serious arraignment of these long-accepted views w.is by Lewis II. Morgan, who speaks of them as having "caught the imagination and overcome the critical judgment of Prescott, ravaged the spriglitly brain of Brasseur de Hourbourg, and carried up in a whirlwind our author at the GtiKlcn Gate." U Morgan's studies had been primarily among the Iroquois, and by analogy he iiad applied his reasoning to the aboriginal conditions of Mexico and Central America, thus degrading their so-called civilization to the level of the Indian tribal organization, as it was understood in the Nortii.i- Morgan's confidence in its deductions was perfect, and he was not very gracious in alhi.ling to the views of his opponents. lie looked upon ** the fabric of Aztec romance as the most deadly encumbrance upon American ethnology." l^ The Spanish chroniclers, as he ctmtcnded, " inaugurated American aboriginal history upon a misconception of Indian life, wiiich has remained * rcabody ^fus. /^f/>ts. ii, 435. - Introd. to Conquest of Mexico. See Vol. II. p, 426. In the Appendix to his third volume, Prescott, relying mainly on the works of Hupaix aiul Waldeck, arrived at conclusions as respects the origin of the Mexican civiliza- tion, and its analogies with the Old World, which accord with those of Stephens, whose work had not appear^^ at the time when Prescott wrote. "* Houses and If ouse Life^ p. 222. * Bancroft (li. 92) says: "What is known of the Aztecs has furnished material for nine tenths of all that has been written on the American civilized nations in general." ^ Anahuac,^ or Mexico and the Mexicans, Ancient and Modern (London, 1S61). Tylor enlarges upon what he considers the evidences of immense populations ; and re- •pectinR some of their arts he adds, from inspection of spec- imens ot their handicraft, that " the Spanish conquerors were not romancinj; in the wnnderhii stories they told of the skill of the native Roldsmiths." On the other hand* Mnriian {HoMses and House Li/e^ 223) thinks the figures of population grossly exaggerated. « Vol. II. p. 427 ' When we consider that Rome, Constantinoplef and Je- rusalem, in spite of rapine, siege and fire, stil! retain numer- ous traces of their earliest times, and that not a vestipe of the Aztec capital rnmains to us except its site, we must assume, in Wilson's opinion {Prehistoric Many i. 330* that its edifices and causeways must have been for the most ^art more slight and fragile than the descriptions of the conquerors implied. Morgan instances as a proof of the flimsy character of their masonry, that Cortes in seventeen days levelled three fourths of the city of Mexico. Hut, adds Wilson, *' so far as an indigenou;? American civilization is concerned, no doubt can be entertained, and there is little room for questioning, that among races who had carried civ- ilization so far, there existed the capacity for its further de- velopment, independently of all borrowed aid'* (p. 336). The Baron Nordenskjilld informs me that there is in the library at Upsala a MS. map of Mexico by Santa Cruz (d. 15:2) which contains numerous ethnographical details, not to be found in printed maps of that day. ^ Native Races^ ii. 159. *• Ibid. ii. 133. ^•^ Bancroft has recently epitomized his views afresh Jn the Amer. Antiquarian^ Jan., 188S. " Bancroft wrote in San Francisco, it will be remem- bered " It was for Bandelier, in his " Social organization and mode of government of the ancient Mexicans" {Peabody Mus. Repts. ii. 557), to demonstrate the proposition that tribal society based, accordint* to Morgan, upon kin, and not political society, which rests upon territory and prop- erty, must he looked for amonj; the ancient Mexicans. •2 Morgan's Houses^ etc., 221;. Bandelier [Peahody Mus. Refit. y vol. ii. 114) si>eaks nf the views advanced by Morgan in his "Montezuma's Dinner," as "a bold stroke for the establishment of American ethnology on a new basis.'' It must be remembered that Bandelier was Morgan's pupil. iiM ,1 li-.V MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 175 II substantially unquestioned till recently." i He charges upon ignorance of the structure and principles of Indian society, the perversion of all the writers,- from Cortes to Bancroft, who, as he snys, unable to comprehend its peculiarities, invoked the imagination to supply whatever was necessary to till out the picture.-' The actual condition to which the Indians of Spanish America had reached was, according to his schedule, the upper status of barbarism, between which and tlie beginning of civilization he reckoned an entire ethnical period. " In the art of government they had not been able to rise above gentile institutions and establish political society. This tact,"' Morgan continues, "demonstrates the impossibility of privileged classes and of potentates, under theii institutions, witli power to enforce the labor of the people for the erection of palaces for iheir use, and explains the absence of such structures."-* This is the essence of the variance of the two schools of interpretation of the Aztec and Maya life. The reader of Hancroft will lind, on the other hand, due recognition of an imperial system, with its monarch and nobles and classes of slaves, and innumerable palaces, of which we see to-day the ruins. The studies of Han- deher are appealed to by Morgan as substantiating his view.-'' Mrs. Zelia Nuttall {Proc. Am. Assoc, Aiiv.Sci.^ Aug., iSS()) claims to be able to sliow that the true interpretation of the Uorgian and other codices points in part at least to details of a communal life. The special issues whicli for a tost Morgan takes with IJancrt)ft are in regard to the character of the house in which Montezuma livetl. and of the dinner which is represented by nernal Diaz and the rest as the daily bancpiet of an imperial potentate. Morgan's criticism is in liis Houses and House Life of the Amcrhan Abo- rfi^iiu's (Washington, iSSi).*^ The basis of this book liad been intended for a tifth Tart of his Aueient Society^ but was not used in tliat publicati{in. He i>rinted tlio material, however, in papers on ''.Montezuma's Din- ner"' (A'u. ./;/;. AVt'., .\p. iS;()), " Mouses of the Moundbuilders '' {//fit/., July, 1S70), and "Study of tlie Houses and House Life of the Indian 'Ix'xhc.?," {Are/nco/. /nst. of Amer. Pud/.). These papers amalgamated now make tiie work called //ou.ws- and //ouse Life' Morgan argues tliat a communal mode of living accords with the usages of aboriginal hospitality, as well as with their tenure of lands/** and with the large buildings, wliich others call palaces, and nc calls joint tenement houses. He instances, as evidence of the size of such houses, that at Cnolula four hundred Spaniards and one thousand allied Indians f(nind lodging in such a house ; and he points to Stephens's dcscriptitm Of similar com- munal establishments which iic found in our day near Uxmal.^ He holds that the inference of comnuinal living from such data as tliese is sutticient to warrant a belief in it, although none of the early Sj)anish writers mention such comnumism as existing; while they actually describe a communal feast in what is known as Montezuma's dinner ; i" and wliile the plans of tlie large buildings now seen in ruins arc exactly in accord with tlie demands of separate families united in joint occupancy. In such groups, he holds, tliere is usually one build- ing devoted to tlie purpose of a Tecpan, or otticial house of the tribe.n Under the pressure to labor, which the M J /hd. 221. 2 Morgan s.iys of his predecessors, *' they 'earned noth- ing and knew noihin.n" of Indian society. » /did. 22 t. * In this he of course assumes that the ruins in Spanish America are of communal edifices. * Bandelior*s p.\pers are in the second volume of the He- forts ofttie /^eabody Afuseuin at t'ainbridpe. He contends in his " Art of Warfare anumg the Ancient Mexicans," that he has shown the non-existence of a niilitar>' despotism, and proved their noverument to be " a military demorracyi orijiinallv based upon communism in living.*' A similar understanding pervades his other essay *' On the social or- ganiz.ition and mode of government of the ancient Mexi- cans.** Mort;an and Handelier profess great admiration for each other, — Morgan citing his friend as "our most emi- nent scholar in Spanish American history " {//onses^ etc., 84), and Handelier expresses his deep feeling of gratitude, etc. {Afxtitpofoii;. Vour^ 32). Tills affeciiitnate relation has very likely done something in unifyinR their intellectual sympathies. The Ancient Society ^ or researches in the /ines of human progress front savagery throng/i barbarism to civilization (N. Y. 1S77), of Morpan is reflected very pal- pably in these papers of Bandelier. The accounts of the war of the conquest, as detailed in Pancroh's J/c.r/(-(>(voI. i.), and the views of their war customs {Xative Races^ ii. ch. 13), contrasted with Kandelier's ideas, — who fi- ;.s in Parknian*s books '* the natural parallelism between the fnr.iys of the Iroquois and the so-called conquests of the Mexican confederacy*' {Archieoi. Tcur, ^^2), and who re- duces th'-' battle of Otnmha to an affair like that of Custer and the Sionx {Art of IVarfare), — give ns Jn the military a;uiuity and laws of descent are in the Smith- sonian Contributions, xvii., the Stniihsonian Afisc. Coll. ii., Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. Trans, vii., and Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. /Voc.y 1S57. ' Morgan in this, his last work, condenses in his first chapter those which were numbered i to 4 in Ids Ancient Society^ and in succeeding sections he discusses the laws of hospitality, communism, usages of land and fotnl, and the houses of the northern tribes, of those of New Mexico, San Juan kiver, the moundbuilders, the Aztecs, and those in Yucatan and Central America. Among these he finds three distinct ethnical stages, as shown in the northern Indian, higher in the sedentary tribes of New Mexico, and highest among those of Mexico and Central America. S. F. Ha- ven comtnemorated Morgan's death in the Am. A Htiq, Soc» /^roc.y Apr., 1S80. * Cf. Bandelier on " the tenure of lands " in Peabody A/us. Rcpts. {1H78), no. xi., and B.incroft in Xat. Races, ii. ch. 6, p. 22^. * Bandelier {/""eabody A/us. Repts. ii. 391) points out that when Martin Ursi'ia captured TayasAl on Lake Petin, the last pueblo inhabited by Afaya Indians, he found *'all the inhabitants living brutally together, an entire relationship together in one single house," and Bandelier refers further to Morgan's Ancient Society, Part 2, p. 181. *•* Bandelier {f^eabody Afus. Repts. ii. 673) accepts the views of ^!organ, calling it "a rude clannish feast," given by the official household of the tribe as a part of its daily duties and obligations. " On the character of the Tecpan (council house, or offi- cial house) of the Mexicans, which the early writers trans- \i 176 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. I k L 1' Spaniards inflicted on their occupants, tiiese communal dwellers were driven, to escape sucli servitude, into the lorest, and thus tlicir liouscs fell into decay. Morgan's views attracted the adhesion of not a few archa'olo «ists, like Bandelier and Dawson ; but in liancroft, as contravening the spirit of his Native Races, they begat ♦eelings tiiat substituted disdain for convincing arguments.^ The less passionate controversialists point out. with more effect, how hazardous it is, in coming to conclusions on the quality of the Nahua, Maya, or Ouichd conditions of life, to ignore such evidences as those of the hieroglyphics, tlie calendars, the architecture and carvings, ^the literature and the industries, as evincing quite another kind, rather than degree, of progress, from that ol the northern Indians. - II. Iiim.lO(;iis. ii. 40G, 671, etc.), with his refer- ences. Morgan holds that Stephens is largely responsible for the prevalence of erroneous notions rejiardinj; the Mayas, by reason of using the words ** palaces " and "jirtat cities'* for defining what were really the pueblos of these southern Indians. Bancroft (ii. 84), referring to the ruins, say-: They have *' the highest value as confirming the truth of the reports made by Spanish writers, very many, or per- haps most, of whose statements respecting the wonderful phenomena of the New World, without this incontroverti- ble mattTJil proof, would find few believers among the skeptical students of the present day.*' Bancroft had little prescience respecting what the communal theorists were goinp to say of these ruins. * Cf. Bancroft's Cent. America^ i. 317. Sir J. William Dawson, in his Fossd Men (p. S3), contends that Morj^an has proved his point, and he calls the ruins of Spanish America "coinmunisiic barracks'* (p. 50). Hlgiiinsnn, in the first chapter nf his Lart^er History, which is a very excellent, condensed popular statement of the new views which Mor- gan inaugurated, says of him very truly, that he lacked niod- er:ition, and that there is '* something ahuost exasperating in the posiiiveness with wliich he sometimes assumes as jjroved that which is only probable." - I'.ancnift in his footnotes (vol. ii.) embodies the best bibliouraphy of this ancient civilization. Cf. Wilson's Pre' historic JAi«. i. ch. 14; C. Hermann Berendt's "Centres nf ancient civilization and their geoi^raphical distribution,*' an Address before the Afne>-. Oeo^. Soc. (N. Y. i8;0); I)raper's htteUectual Develof^vienl of Purope \ Brasseiir's /lA, Trotifio ; HuTnlJokV's Cosinos ( Knplish transl. ii. 674); Michel Chevalier in the Revue de deux Afondes, Mar. -July, 1*^45. embraced later in his Dn Afexitfue avattt et pendant hi ConqitMe i Paris, 1S45); Itrantz Mayer's Mexico as it was; The Ga/axy, March, 1S76; Scri6ner^s Mag. v. 724; Overland Monthly^ xiv. 468 ; De Charency's Hist, dn Ci- vilisation du Mexique {Kevue des Questions Itistorigues)^ vi. 2^3 ; Dabry de Thiersant's Origine des indiens du Xou- veait JAjWi/t- (Paris, 1883); Peschel's Races 0/ Men. 441 ; Nadalllac's Les pretniers homtnes et les temps prihistO' riques, ii, ch. g, etc. 3 For the bibii()graphy of his works see Brunet, Sabin, Field, etc. The octavo edition of his I'ues has 19 of the 69 plates which constitute the Atiiis of the large edition See the chapter on Peru for further detail. * John Lloyd Stephens, Incidents 0/ travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan, Lond. and N. Y. 1841 — variou* later eds., that of London, 1854, being "revised from the latest Amer. ed.^ with additions by Frederick Catherwood."' Stephens started on this expedition in 1S39, and he was armed with credentials from President Van Buren. He travelled 3000 miles, and visited eight ruined cities, as shown by his route given on the map in vol. i. Cf. references in Allibone, ii. p. 2240 ; Poole's In- dex, p. 212; his Incidents of Travel in Yucatan will be mentioned later. Frederick Catherwood's Vieivs of Ancient Monuments in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucata/t (Lond. 1844) has a brief text (pp. 24) and 25 lithographed plates. Some of the original drawings used in making these plates were included in the Squier Catalogue, p. 229. (Sabin's Diet. iii. no. 11520.) Captain Lindesay Brine, in his paper on the *' Kuined Cities of Central America " (yournal Roy. Geog. Soc. 1872, p. 354: Proc. xvii. 67), testifies to the accuracy of Stephens and Catherwood. These new devel- ojiments furnished the material for numerous pur\'eyors to the popular mind, some of them of the slightest value, like Asaliel Davis, whose Antiquities of Central America, with some slipht changes of title, and with the parade of new editions, were common enough between 1840 and 1S50. Ill: P-. MEXICO AN'U CENTRAL AMERICA. 177 caines: Mil la, Palengue, Itamal, Chichen-ltza. Uxinal, recucillies el pholografhiccs far Desire Charnay, avcc iin Texte par M. ViolUt Ic Due. (Paris, iSIjj.) Cliarnay contributed to tliis joint publication, beside the photographs, a paper called '• I.e Mexique, 1S5S-61, — souvenirs et impressions de Voyage.'' The Ar- chitect Viollet le Due gives us in the same book an essay by an active, well-equipped, and ingenious mind, but his speculations about the origin of this Southern civilization and its remains are rather curious than con- vincing.' The public began to learn better what Charnay's full and hearty confidence in his own sweeping assertions was. when he again entered the field in a series of papers on the ruins of Central .\merica which he contributed ,- (t THE PYK.\MID OF CHOLUL.\.» (1879-81) to tlie Xorth American Revinv (vols, cxxxi.-cxxxiii.), and which for the most part reached the public newly dressed in some of the papers contributed by L. P. Gratacap to the Amrriean Antiquarian;^ and in a paper by F. .A. Ober on "The Ancient Cities of .\merica." in the A,'ier. Geos^. Soc. BiiUctin. Mar., iSSS. Charnay took moulds of various sculptures found among the ruins, which were placed in the Trocadero Museum in Paris.3 What Charn.iy communicated in English to the Xo. Amcr. Review appeared in better shape in French in the Tour dii Monde (1SS6-S7), and in a still riper condition in his latest work, Les aiuiens ■''illes Ju A^ouvean Monde: voyages d'exflorafions au Mexique et dans I'Amerique Centrale, rSjy-tSSi. Ouvrage eontenant 214 gravurcs et iq cartes on plans. (Paris, 1885.)^ 1 Viollet le Due, in liis H istoire de t habitation knitMine def>uis les temfis prehistoriques (Paris, 1S75). I1.-1S given a chapter (no. xxii.) to the " Nahuas and Toltecs."' Views more or less str.died, comprehensive, and restricted are given in V..^^ry\^nnui>lica Mejicatta^ 1829-1834 (Paris, 1839), is the best, while the engravings given by tTimboIdt (pi. xxiii.) and others are more or less erroneous. Cf. other cuts in Carbajal's yi/i^_r;V^, i. 528 ; Bustamante's Mafia,, ts de la Alameda {Mexico, 1835-36); Short's No, Atner. of Antiq. oban.) For elucidations of the Mexican astronomical and calendar system see Acosta, vi. cap. 2; Granados y Galvez's Tardes Americana^ (1778) ; Humboldt's essay in connection with pi. xxiii. of his Atlas; Prescott*s Mexico, i. 117; Bollaert in Memoirs read before the Anthropol. Soc. of London, i. 210; E. G. Squier's Some new discoveries respecting the dates on tlte great calendar stone of tlte ancient Mexicans^ ivith observations on the Mexican cycle of fifty-two years^ in the American Journal of Science and Arts, 2d ser., March, 1849, pp. 153-157 ; Abbe J. Pipan's Astronomie^Chronologle ei rites des M^xicaines in the Archives de la Soc. A$ner. de France (11. ser. i.); Brasseur's Nat. Civ., Hi. livre ii. ; Bancroft's Nat. Races, ii. ch. 16; Short, ch. 9, with ref., p. 445 ; Cyrus Thomas in Powell's Kept. Ethn. Bureau, iii. 7. Cf. Erinton's Abor. Amer. Autltors, p. 3S ; Brasseur's "Chronologic historique des M^xlcaines" in the Actes de la Soc, d^ Eihnographie (1872), vol. vi. ; Wilson's Prehistoric Man, I. 355, for the Toltecs as the source of astronomical ideas, with which compare Bancroft, v. 192; the Bulletin de la Soc. royale Beige de G^og., Sept., Ocv., 1S86; and Bandelier in the Peabody Mus, Repts.., ii. 572, for a comparison of calendars. Wilson in his Prehistoric Man (i. 246) says: " By the unaided results of native science, the dwellers on the Mexican plateau had effected an adjustment of civil to solar time so nearly correct thrt when the Spaniards landed on their coast, their own reckoning, according to the unreformed Julian calendar, was really eleven days in error, compared with that of the barbarian nation whose civilization they so speedily effaced,** See what Wilson {Prehistoric Man, i. 333) says of the native veneration for this calendar stone, when it was exhumed. Mrs. NuttalU/^r^r. Am. Asso. Adv. Sci., Aug., i886)claims to be able to show that this monolith is really a stone which stood in the Mexican market-place, and was used in regulating the stated market-days. ' 1 l8o NARRATIVE AND CKITiCAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. i It', '',■1 ; >; > ' II I A i:\'ii' ,J?! I \4 1 !■ Li.r coatl, which in H.uul.l.j.'s opinion was a ditterunt structure from this more famous inound, while other writers , pronwiiiiCL' it the .-liriiu itsuh ot (Ju^'t/alcoatl.^ \\c have reference to a Cholula mound in some of the earliest writers. liernal Diaz counted the slejjs on its side.- Mutolinia saw it within ten years ut tlie Conciuest, when it was overiirtnvn and much ruined. Saliagiin says it was built for defensive purposes. Kojas. in his AU/tuion i/c Choiula, i5Si,caIlsit a fortress, and says the Spaniards levelled its convex top to plant there a cross, where later, in 1594, they built a chapel. Turquemada, 'ollowini; Motolinfa and the later Mendieta, says it was never tinislied, and was decayed in his time, thouj^ii he traced the different levels, its interest as a relic thus dates almost from the beginnings of the modern liistory of tlic roi,non. Hoturini mentions its four terraces. Clavigero, in 1744, -■ 'e up its sideson horseback, impelled by curiosity, and found it hard work even then to look upon it as other than a natural hill.^ Tlie earliest of the critical accounts of it. however, is Huiubnldl's, made from exaniinaf (lis in 1S03. when much more than now of its orii^inal construction was observable, and his account is the one from which most travellers have drawn, — the result of close scrutiny in his U \l and of considerable license in his plate, in whicli he aimed at somethini; like a restoration.-* The latest cniical examination is in Bandelier's '• Studies about Cholula and its vicinity," makini; part iii. of his Ari/iiToio^Ual Tour hi Mexno in tSSi.'* Wliat arc called the finest luins in Mexico are those of Xochicalco. seventy-live miles southwest of the capit.d, consisting of a mound of live terraces supported by masonry, with a walled area on the summit. Of late years a coniheUl surrounils what is left of the pyramidal siruciure, which was its downing edifice, and which up to the middle of the last century had live receding' stories, thouiih only one now appears. It owes its destruction to the nuLils which tlie jiroprietors of the ne".i;hl)orin,i,' sir^ar-works lu.ve had lor its stones. 'Jiic earliest account 01 the ruins apjieared in the *• Ocscrijicion (ir'" ) de los antiqiied.ides de Xochicalco" of Jos^ Antonio Alzate y Ramirez, in the Gairtas tic Lifi-ra/tt ra (yicKicn, 1790-94, in 3 vols.; reprinted Puebla, i.Sj;i,in4 vols.), accompanied by plates, which were attain used in Pietio Marquez's /)ue Antichi Monumcuti tic Arthi- ti'ttura Mcsshana (Horn, 1804),'^ with an Italian version oJ .Al/ate, fi-.m which the IVench translation in * Haiuleli^T's itk-a (p. 254") is that as the Iiulians never repair a ruin, they abandoned this remaining mound after its (li>;ister, ami iransplantcd the worship (if Queizaicoatl to the new niound, siiice destroyed, while th-* old shrine w.is in time given to the new cult of the K.iin-^od. - .As liaiicrofl thinks; but Har.:l';!ier says tliat ii was not of this mound, but of the temple wliich >tood where the inoili.'rn convent stands, that tliis count was made. Arch. Tour, 242. ■■' Storia Ant. del Messico^ ii. ^3. * / Vrt'j, i. 96 : pi. iii., or pi. vii. viii. in foHo ed. ; Essai polit,,2y). The later observers are: Duiiaix (W////1;. Mex.f and in Ringsborounh, v. ziS; with iv. pi. viii.). Bancroft remark-i on the totally different nspceis of Castaneda's two drawings. Nehel, in his I'iaje pintoresco y Arqueolojko sobre la republka Mt'juaua^ iS2>-.i4 (Paris, 1^3.*, folio), gave a description and a large colored drawing. Of the other visitors whose accounts add sometliing to our knowl- edge, Bancroft (iv. 471) notes the following : J. K. Poinsett, Xotcs on Mexico (Lfindon, 1SJ5). W. H. lUillock, Six Moftl/is in J/ex/iO {Linnl., 1S25). H. G. Ward, Mexico in i%3y iLond., iSj^), Mark iSeaufoy, Mex. Illustrations (Lond., iSjS), with cuts. Charles Jos. I.atrobe, A'.'iw/'/t?j in .l/c'.r/t(' (I.ond.. rS^f.) Brant/. M.iyer, Mexico as it was (X. v., iS54) ; Mexico^ Aztec, etc. (Hartford^ i>5;,); and in Schoolcraft, Ind. Tribes, \\. 5S2. Waddy Thompson, KviOi'l 0/ Mexico (N. Y., 1847). E. B. lyXor, Amihuac (Lond., lii(ii), p. 274, A. S. Kvans, Our Sister Ke/ublic (H.niford. 18,0). Summaries later than Bancroft's will be founl iu Short, p. ^Ci.,, and Nadaillac, p. 350. Bancroft adds (iv. 471-2) a lutig list of sccitiul-liand describers. •' It is illustrated \iith a uiap of tlie district of Clioln'a (p. 15'^), a detailed plan of the pyramid or mound (Humboldt is responsible for the former term) as it stands amid mads and tields (p. 23^), and a fac-simile of an old map of the pueblo nf Lholllla (15J1). Bam '• speaks of the conservative tendenries of the native \. ition of this region, giving a report that old native idrk are still preserved and worshipped In caves, to which he could not inu.'ce the Indians to conduct him (p. IS*")); and that when he went to see the Mapa de Cuauht- lintzinco, or some native pictures of the i'')th century, rep- resenting the Conquest, an;l of the hlghe-^t iniportance for its history, he was jealously allowed but one glance at them, and could not net another (Arc/iiBol. Tour, p. 123). He adds: "The diffienlty atiendlug the consultation of any documents in the hands of Indians is universal, and results from their superstitious regard for writings on paper. The hulk of the people watch with the utmost jealous\ dver their old pajiers . . . They have a fear lest the power \ested in an original may be transferred to a copy '" (pp. 155-6). Pinart, no. 590. XoTR. — The opposite view of the court of the Museum is from Charnay. p. 57. He says: "The Museum cannot be ciUed rich, in so far that there is nothing remarkable in what the visitor is a^^owed to see." The vases, which had so much deceived Charnay, earlier, as to cause him to make casts of them for the Paris Museum, he at a later day pro- nounced forgeries; and be says th.it they, with many others which are seen in public and private museums, were nian- tif.Rtured at Tlaiiloco, a Mexican suburb, between 1820 and iSzS. See Holmes on the trade in Mexican spurious relics in Sciemr^ I'^HG. The reclining statue in the foreground is balanced by one similar to it at an opposite part of the court-yard. One is the Chac-mool, as Le Plongenn called it, unearthed by him at Chiehen-Itza, and appropriated by the Mexican government ; the other was discovered at TIaxeala. The round stone in the centre is the sacrificial stone dug up in the great square in Mexico, of which an enlarged view is given on another page. The museum is described in Bancroft, iv. 554 ; i:i Mayer's Mexico as it was, etc., and his Mexico, Aztec, etc. ; Fossey's Mexitfue. On Le Plongeon's discovery of the Chac-mool see Awer. Antiq. Soc, Proc>, Apr., 1877 ; Oct., 1S78, and new series, i. 2?o; Nadaiilac, Fnp. tr., 346; Short, 400; L-* Plongeon*s Sacred Mysteries, 88, and his paper in tb" Atner. G^O'^. Soc. yournal,\x. 142 (i«--). Hamy calls it the ToUec Rod Tlaloc, the nm-god ; and Chamav agrees with him, giving (ppi 366-7) cuts of his and of the one found at T'axcala. li "tl'i i!) 111 U 1 hi! f(!: ■;• I i : I! \ i \ \h } •■) \\y 182 NAKKATlVr: AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF A.MKRICA. Pupaix was maile. Alzatc furnishcil the basis nf the accmint in llunibulilt's K«>-Htf (Zacatecas, 1S30, — also in Museo MexicanOy i. 185, 1843). The plan in Nebel's I'iaje (copied in Bancroft, iv. 5^2) was made for Governor Garcia, by Berghes, a German eniiineer, in iS^.who at the time was accompanied by J. I'.urkart {A ufeuthalt nnd Reisen in Mexico^ Stuttgart, 1*^36), who gives a plan of fewer details. Bancroft (iv. 57*^) thinks Nebel's views of the ruins the only ones ever published, and he enumerates various second-hand writers (iv. 579). Cf. Fegeux, " Les mines de ia Quemada,"' in Ll.c Revue d* Ethnoloffie.,\. ii<). The noticeable fentur'-j of thest ■ »- ins are their massivencs«; and heiirht of v., ills, their absence of decoration and carved idols, and t^e lack of pottery nnd the smaller relics Their history, notwithstanding much search, is a blank. • After a photograph in Bandelier's Archcsological Tour^ p. 68. He thinks it was interdec to be a bearer of a torch, and has no symbolical meaning. I t. Hi 184 NANKAlIVi: AND CRITICAL HISTOKY OK AMKRICA. I; B ^U hr\ ll !:i: I I '.I ■\i' dl 4 lyi' PlAICXSll Uancroft (iv. cli. ;) lias givun a separate chapter ti) llic antif|uitiis ( ( (i.ii:n.a (( i.ix.it.i) ainl (iiicrrcrn, r.s tlia lllll^.t ■.iiMtlicrii iif rtli.it lie terms tlii> N.iliii.i pfii|ili', iialudin^ and Ijlii),' Kcslcily <'t tlio Islliiniis ol I i'liii,iiit(.'|>i'C, ami lio »|>cak> el it as ,1 iiyinti l)iit litlk' kiinwn to ttaviUcrs, excrpt as tluy pass tlirmiKli a part of it lyitiK oii the cipmim-ti.ial rnutc Iriiiu Atapulcii to llic capital city ni Mi'xito. llaii- crolt's siiinniary, with his rL( 'I'he earliest of tliC modern explorers were l.nis Martin, a Mexican arcliitcct, and Colonel dc la I.aLjiiiia, who examined the ruins in i.So:; ; and It was from Martin and his drawinijs that Humboldt drew the inl'onnation with which, in iSio, he first engaged the attention of the ijen- eral public upon Mitla, in his I'liis dis Con/i/lins. Dupaix's visit was in iStd. The architect Kduard I.. Milhlenpfordt, in his I ',-i\sii,/i eiiier gitrciicii S<:>iil(hriiiii; ilcr RcfuHik Mi-jlco (Hannover, i,S44, in 2 vols,)^ says that he inai;y. witli a s/-L\-inl iioliic of / A'./riH in 4'> ^"d Short fp. ;i''>i^have epit* omizfd resuhs, .itul Lnii-s H. Avnv; irives srime l^ofcs on Mitia in the Amer. Atitirj. Soc. Proc., \pri!> 1*^2, p. "^2 , H.incrnft riv. 301) enumerrxtcs v.irlnus stcond-hnnd (k'scrip- tioiis. * t do not iindtTStnnd Pnndclipr's statement (p. 277^ thnt it i"^ taken frcirn Uancrnft'^ plan, which it only rf-^i.-mbles m n pcneral way. ^ Bancroft classifies their arthlttctural peculiarities (iv. pp. 2''7-279). 'if • After a nhoto'^raph in Rnndelier's Arrh,rn^'C!'<^^ Tour, p (<■;. See on another papc. cut of the cfurt-yard of the MuiMiin, wliere this slon" is preservd. Cf. HiimhoUlt, pi. xxi. : I'andelier in Amer. Antiq., iS;''; llancroft, iv. !oi) ; St -vens's Flint Chif>Sy 311, Th-re is a discussion of the stone in < V07.C0 y Herra's EI Cuaukxkalli de Tizoc, in the Aut/cs del I'fuaeo Xaciouah 1. no. i : ii. no. i. On the sacrificial stone of San Juan Tentihnncan, see parer by Amo« W. Hutler in the Auwr. Anth}.. v-i. 14^- A rut in Clavi-ero fii 1 shows how the stone wns used in sacrifices; the encrr-'v- iui; has been often conied. In Mrs. Xutt all's vit-w this stone simply records the periodical tribute days iAm. Ai^'. Adv. Set. Proc.t Aug. i<ib>i'rved the ruins In C'ur CHARXAV.* T^^^. p. ifiz. Hrn--eur, beside his /f/sf. .Viif. C/r., ii. Miirur.ni iffoiises and House Life, p. 2(>':) thinks it sh(nvs 20, h.TS snnuthinti in hi*; intintluctinii to his R^I.itiou Ie fact ; but luiremoved. * Also in the B')'iii;f Hitl. 0;. 1,;,) spent eiijlit days there in May, 1S35. and .Stephens ijives hnii the credit of being the earliest describer to attract attention, .--tephens's (irst visit in 1840 was hasty (Cfiil. Amcr., ii. 413), but on his seccjnd visit (1S4-') he took with him Waldeck's I'oyii^c, and liis RUINF.n TEMPI.K .XT rXMAI..* description and the drawing's of Cathcrwood were made with the advantage of h.ivinc; these earlier drawinc;5 to compare. .Stephens (Yuintnii, i. 2()-) says that their plans and dra\vin'.;s differ materially from Waldeck's; but Hancroft. who compares the two, says that .'■tephens exaggerated the differences, which are not material, except in a few plates (.'Stephens's Vucalan, i. iC>3; ii. 264 — ch. 24, 35). .About the same time Norman and Friederichsthal made their visits. Bancroft (iv. 150) refers to the lesser narratives of Carillo (1CS45), and another, recorded in the Kcgistyo Yucatcco(i. 273, 361), with Carl Dartholom.vus Heller (.\pril, 1S47) in his Rtist'ii in Afexito (Leipzig, 1.S53). Cliarnay's Riiincs (p. t,(>2), and his Anciins Villes (ch. 10. 20V record visits in 1S5S and later. Hrasseur reported upon I'xmal in 1S6; in the .•/)v7;/7'« (/£' /ti Com. Srieiifi/ii/Ke , 213. Cf. Annates de r/i/tos. Cltrt^tietive. xi. • From Histoire de VHabitation Humaine, par VioUet-te-Duc (Paris, tS-c). There is a restoration of the Palenqui palace — so called — in Armin's Das heutige Mexico (copied in Short, 342, and Bancroft, iv. 323) I I \k^- i MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 193 are s-iperior to those in Kingsljorough and in Kio ; and are indeed improved in the encrravin^ over Castafieda*s drawings. The book as a wliole is one of the most important on I^ilunqiie whicii we have. 'J"ho investiga- tions were made on liis third expedition (1S07-S). A tablet taken from the ruins by liini is in the Alusco Nacinnal, and r. cast of it is tigurcd 'n the Xumis, ami Antii^. Soc. of Phi lad. Prac^ Dec. 4, 18^4. During the twenty-five years next followlnt; Diipaix. we Iind two correspondents of the French and English Gco:^rapIiical Societies supplying their publicatit)ns witli occasiunal accounts ol tlieir observations among tlic ruins. One of them, Dr. F. Corroy.i was then living at Tabasco ; the other, Col. Juan Gallindo,^ was resident in the country as an administrative otficer. } ' SCULPTURES, TEMPLE OF THE CROSS, PALEXQUE.* » Buli. de la Soc. de Geog. de Paris^ ix. (182S) 198. Du- paix, i. 2d div. 76. * " Palenque et autres lieux circonvolsins,*' in Dupaix, i 2d div. 67 (in English in Literary Gazette, London, 1831, no. 769, and in Loud. Gi-o^- Sin: younial, iii. 60"). Cf. Bull, de la Soc de G^og. de Pnris^ 1S32. He is over, enthusiastic, as Bandelier thinks (W;«t?r. Ani. Soc. Proc.^ n. s., i. p. lu). • These slabs, six feet high, were taken from Palenqu^, and when Stephens saw them they were in private liniuU at San Domingo, near by, but later they were placed in the church front in the same town, and here Charnay took impres- sions of them, from which they were engraved in The A ncient Cities^ etc., p. 217, and copied thence In the above cuts. This same type of head Is couaidered by Rosny th^ Aztec bead of Palenque {Doc. hrits de la Antiq, After., 7:1), and as Deionging to the superior classe; . In order to secure the convex curve of the nose and forehead an ornament was some- limes added, as show 1 in a head nf the second tablet at Paleiu-^ue, and in the photograph of a bas-relief, preserved in ihe Museo Archeogico ;.t Madrid, given by Rosny (vol, 3), and Iiypothetically called by him a statue of Cuculkan. This ornament is not infrtquently seen in other images of this regiini. Bandelier [Penhody Miis. Refits.,, ii. 126). speaking of the tablet of the Cross of Palenqu^, says: *' These t-iblets and figures show m dress 1 wc\\ a striking analogy of what ve know of the militar\' accoutrements of the Mexicans, that it is a strong approach to idenrity.*' vo:.. I.— 13 T m fiif ' . f ' 1 1 194 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. Frederic de Waldeck, the artist who some years before had familiarized himself with tlie character of the ruins in tlic preparation of the engravings for Kio's work, was employed in 1S32-34. He was now consid- erably over sixty years of age, and under the pay of a committee, which had raised a subscription, in which the Mexican government shared. He made the most thorough examination of i'alcnqu^ which has yet been made. Waldeck was a skilful artist, and his drawings are exquisite ; but he was not free from a tendency to improve or restore, where the conditions gave a hint, and so as we have them in the final publication they have not been accepted as wholly trustworthy. He made more than .!oo drawings, and either the originals or cojiies — Stephens says " copies," the originals being confiscated — were taken to Kuropc. Waldeck announced his book in I'aris, and the public had already had a taste of his not very sober views in some communications which he had sent in Aug. and Nov., 1S32, to the Soci6t^ de G^ographie de I'aris. I-ong years of delay fol- lowed, and Waldeck had lived to be over ninety, when the Trendi government bought his collection 1 (in 1S60), and made preparations for its publication. Out of the 18S drawings thus secured, 56 were selected and were PLAN OF COPAN (RUINS AND VILLAGE).* admirably engraved, and only that portion of Waldcck's text was preserved which was purely descriptive, and not all of that. Selection was made of Rrasseur de Hoiirbourg, who at that time had never visited the ruins.S to furnish some introductory matter. This he prepared in an /l7'««/-/;-(i/«, recapitulating the progress of such studies ; and this was followed by an httroduclion arix Riihics de Palenqnc, narrating the course of explorations up to that time ; a section also published separately as RechcrcUcs siir Ics Ruiiies de Pahiique et stir les oriffines de la civilisation du Mixique (V-xtKy iSS'i). and finally Waldcck's own Description ucs Ruincs, followed by the plates, most of which relate to Palencpi^. Thus composed, a large volume was pub- lished under the general title of Monuments anciens du Mcxique Palenqnc et autrcs ruincs de I'nncicnne civilisation du Mcxique. Collection de vues [etc.'], cartes et flans dessines d'afrh nature et relcvh far M. de XValdeck. Tcxtc rcdigc far M. Brasseur de Bou-hourg. (Paris, 1864-1866.)* While Waldeck's results were still unpublished the ruins of P.ilenqu^ were brought most effectively to the attention of the English reader in the Tra-rls in Central America (vol. ii. ch. 17) of Stephens, which was illustrated by the drawings of Catherwood.< since famous. These better cover the field, and are more exact than those of Dupaix. Bancroft refers to an anonymous account in the Registro Yucateco (i. 31S). One of the most intelligent of the later travellers is .Arthur Morelet. who privately printed his Voyage dans PAmcrique Central, Cuba et le Yucatan, which includes an .iccount of a fortnight's stay at Palenqu6. His results would be difficult of access * The report by Ancrand, which induced this purchase. Is in the work as published. • He had described them in his Hist. .Vat. Civ., i. ch. 3. * The book usually sells for about i/;««eur calls it mendacious. Colcinel (ialindo. in visiting the ruins in 1S36, confounded them with the Copan of the C(mciuest." The ruins also came under the scrutiny of Stephens in 1830. and they were described by him, and drawn by Catherwood. for the first time with any full- ness and care, in their respective works." f:- Jrt:A«rf. \'i Embankmtnl, PLAX OF THE RUINS UT QL'IKIGIA.* The bird and 5erii<-'"t — the Ust shnwii btjiter in Cliarnay's photograph than in Stephens's cut — is {.Myths^ ii';) simply a rebus o£ the air-j;od, the ruler of the winds. Brinton Mj-s that Waldt'ck, in a paper on the tablet in the Revue Ai>h'riciine (11. Oij), came to a similar conclusicn. Souii.r iXi.aragua.^ \\. 337) si^eaks of the common eiror of mis- taking the tree of life of the Mexicans for tliu Christian symbol. Cf. Powell's Second Re/>t.^ Bur. of EthuoL, p. 20S ; the Fourth Re/>i-, p. 25::, where discredit is thrown upon Gabriel de Mortillet's Le Sig;tie tie la cross avaiit le Christ lanisme (ParU, ^'^'■^•)\ Jolys Man before Afetiiis, 330; and Charnny's I.es Anciens J'lHes {or Eng. trnnsl. p. 85^. Cf. for various applications the references in Ban- croft*s index (v p. ^71). ' Both were a!ikc> and one was broken in two. There are engravintis in Waldeck. pi. 25; Stephens, ii. 344, 34); Squier's -WcdrrtC"". '^S^'i ii- 337'' Bancroft, iv. 337. - These have been the subject of an elaborate folio, thoiiirht, however, to he of questionable value, Die Steiti- hiidiverke von Co/>an und Quirigua^ anf^euoimnen von Ifeinricii Meye ; historisch erliiutert und beschrieben von Dr. Jidius Schmidt (Berlin, I'^S^'^, of which there is an English translation, Tlie stone sculptures 0/ Co/>iht and Quiri^id; translated f'-om the German by A. D. Savage (New York. 1S83). It pives twenty plates, Catherwnod's platfs. and the cuts in Stephens, with reproductions in ac- c*»Rsible bf»oks (Bancroft, iv ch. 3; Powell's First Ref't. Bur. Fthn. 224; Ruge's Gesch des Zeitalters: A titer. An- tignart'an^ viii. 204-6), will serve, however, all purposes. Always associated with Copan, and perhaps even older, if the lower relief of the carvings can ix'ar that interpretation, are the nuns near the villagv of Quirigu^, in Guatemala, and ■* Squier says: " There are various reasons for beiieving that both Copan and Quirigua antedate Olosin^o and Pa- lenque, precisely as the latter antedate the ruins of Quiche, (. hichen-Itza, and Uxnial, and that all of them were the wiiikof the same people, or of nations of the same race, dating from a high antiquity, and in blood and language precisely the same that was found in occupation of the coun- try by the Spaniards." * Named apparently from a neighboring village, f' Ref. in Bancroft, iv. 79. " This account can be found !.i Pacheco's Col. Doc, inid. . vi. 37, in Spanish; in Ternaux's Coll. (1S40), imperfect, and in the Xottv. Annates des I'oya^^es^ 1843, v. xcvii. p. 18, in French; in Squier's Cent. America, 24.?, and in his ed. of i'alacio (X. V. 1S60), in English ; and in Alexander von Fiantzius's San Salvador und Hondttras itn Jahre 1576, wivh notes by the translator and by C. H. Berendt " Stephens, Cent* Am., i. 131, 144; Warden, 71 ; A'oit- velles Annales des I'oyag^es, xxxv. 329; Bancroft, iv. S2 ; Bull, de la Soc- de G^og. de Paris, 1836, v. 267; Short, 56, 82, — not to name others. * His account is in \\\q Amer. Antig. Soc. Trans. ,\\.\ Bull. Soc de Gfoi;:. 1S35: Dupaix, a snmmarj-, i. div. 2, p. 73; Bradford's Wwrr. Ww/*/./ . in part. Galindo's draw- ings are unknown. Stephens calls his account •' unsatisfac- tory and imperfect.'' •* Central America, \. ch. 5-7: J'ietvs of Anc. Mts. It is Stephens's account which has furnished the basis of those given by Bancroft (iv. ch. 3); Baldwin, p. iii : Short, 356; * FrniM Meye and Schmidt's Stone Scul/>tures of Copdn and Quirf^td (N. Y., 1883). I B- MEXICO AM) CENTRAL AMERICA. 197 known by that name, Cathcrwood first brought them into notice ; i but the visit of Karl Scherzcr in 1S54 pro- duced tlic most extensive account ut them which we have, in liis hm Bcsuch bci Utn Nutncn von Qutrij^uA (Wien, i855).a The principal explorers of Nicaragua have been Ephraim George ?^quier, in his Xicaratjuay^ and Frederick lioyle. in liis AV(/t* luross a dutiutnt (I.und. iSdS),-* antl their results, as well as the scattered data of otliers,* are best epitonii/ed in Itancruit (iv, ch. 2), who gives other references to second*hand descriptions ip. 29), Since Uancrolt's survey therij have been a few important contributions.'* III. Bibliographical Notej on the Picture-Writinc. of the NAiiifAS and Mayas. In considering the method-' of record and communication used by these peoples, we must keep in mind the two distinct systems of the Aztecs and the Mayas;" and further, particularly as regards the former, we must not forget that some of tliese writings were made after the Concpiest, and were influenced in some degree by Spanish associations. Of tliis last class were land titles and cateciiisms, for tlic native system obtained for some time as a useful method witli the conquerors lor recording tlie transmission of lands and lielping the instruction by the priests.'^ It is usual in tracing the development of a hieroglyphic system to advance from a purely Hgurative one — in which pictures of objects are used — through a symbolic phase; in which such pictures are interpreted con- ventionally instead of realistically. It was to tiiis last stage that the Aztecs liad advanced ; but they mingled the two methods, and apparently varied in the order of reading, whether by lines or columns, forwards, up- wards, or l}ackwards. The difticulty of understanding them is further increased by the s^ime object holding different meanings in different connections, and still more by the pcrscmal element, or writer's style, as we should call it. which was impressed on his choice of objects and emblems.'-' Tliis rendered interpretation by no means easy to the aborigines themselves, and we have statements that when native documents were r ed Nadaill.nc, si'^, and all others. liancroft in his hibling, note (iv. pp. 7t>-^i), which has been a>llat*;d with my own notes, mentions others of less importance, particularly the report of Center and Hardcastle to the Amer. Kthiiol. Soc. in 1S60 and is/>2, and the photographs made by Kllerley, which Hra.sseur [//ist. Xat. Ci\'. i. <;6; ii. 4*3; Piilenque^ 8, 17) found to confirm the drawings and descriptions of Catherwood and Stephens. Stephens {Ci'tU. Am., i. 13,0 made a plan of the ruins re- produced in .1 nna/es ties Voyages {1^41, p. 57), which is the basis of that given by Bancroft (iv. S5). Dr. Julius Schmi'lt, who was a member of the Scpiier expedition in 1S52-53, furnished the historical and descriptive text to a work which in the English translation by A. D. Savage is known as Stone Sculptures of Copdn ami Quirit^iui^ tirini'u by Heinrkh Meye {N. Y., 18S3). What Stephens calls the Copan iduls and altars are considered by Morgan {Houses ami House Life, 257), following the analogy of the customs of the northern Indians, to be the grave-posts and graves of Ct)pan chiefs. Bancroft {iv. ch. 3) covers the other niinsof Honduras and San Salvador; and Squier has a paper on those of Tenampua in the A''. 1'. Hist. Soc. i^roc, i'<53. * .Stephens's Central Amer tea, ii. ch. 7; and Xouveiles Annaies ties I'oyages^ vol. Ixxxviii. 376, derived from Cath- erwood. ^ Other travellers who have visited ihem are John Baily, Central America (Lond. 1S50); A. P. Maudsley, Explo- rations in Guatemala (Lond. 1S83), witli map and plans of ruins, in the Proc. Roy. Geog, Soc. p. 185; W. T. Brig- ham's Guatemala (N. Y., 18S6). Ijancroft (iv. ioo), a portion (pp. 303-362) referring to the modern Indian occu- pants. Squier was helped by his (ffficial station as U S. charg^ d'affiiires ; and the archaeological objects brought away by him are now in tlie Xational Museum at Washing- ton. He published separate papers in the Amer. Ethnol, Soc. Trans, ii. ; Smitltsonian Ann. Rept. v. (1850); Har^ Pt-r^s Monthly, y. and xi. Cf. list in Pilling, nos. 3717, etc. * His explorations were in 1S65-66. He carried off what he could to the British Museum. ^ Like Bedforu Pim and IJerthold Seemann*s Dotting^ on the Roadside in Panama, Xicaragua, and Mosquito (Lond., iS(n)- *"' J. F. Bransford's " Arch.xological Researches in Nica- ragua," in the Smithsonian Contrib. (Washington, 1S81). Karl Bovallius's X icaraguan Antiquities, with plates (Stockholm, 1886), published by ihc Swedish Society of An- thropology and Geography, figures various statues and other relics found by the author in Nicaragua, and lie ?ays that his drawings are in some instances more exact than those given by .Squier before the days of photography. In his introduction he describes the different Indian stocks of Nicaragua, and disagrees with Squier. He gives a useful map of Nicaragua and Casta Rica. ' It is only of late years that they have been kept apart, for the elder writers like Kingsborough, Stephens, and Brantz Mayer, confounded them. ^ The F.ather Alonzo Ponce, who travelled throuch Yu- catan in 1586, is the only writer, according to Brintnn {Books of Chilan Balam, p. 5^ who tells us di>itinctly that the early missionaries made use of alxiriginal characters in giving re'icinus instruction 10 the Vi?y\\\Q^{Relacion Breve y I 'erdadera). '-' Leon y Gama tells us that color as well as form seems to have been representative. i)« >'< l',i I!' ■ / ; i , 1 ► ) 1 ^, » •! ,1 ■!• It' l * !)! u\ !* ' V ''' J: 'J 1; i ^;. li << j ' ifp'if' fos NARRATIVE AND CKITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. til tliem it rpqiiirfil .onictime* loni; cnnsiiltations to reach a CDninum iinderstandiny.' 'I'lie additional step by wliicli (il)jects stand for sounds, thi; A /tecs seuni not to liave taken, except in the names iif persons and places, in which they understood the modern chiltl's art of the rebus, where sucli syniljol more or less clearly stands for a syllable, and the represent.ition was usually of conventionalized forms, somewhat like the art of the Kuropean herald. Thus the .\7.tec system was what Daniel Wilscjn- calls '• the pictorial suggestion of associated ideas." ■! 'I'he phonetic scale, if not comprehended in the Aztec system, made an essential part of ' bAyVtL. C^OtA'vU^l. U> Cf^ i-** C* ^ »»■ t -dj ,^,*— Ct v^ t^^o r . tiJi*i cCt, fvk cv^r^tUiLui • ^emfC» bv****^ff>-^ n^^*-- y*^ c*^ '^'^^ ■'~^^^'>'^*'*^ f/?!^^^ 'T:;i:..^\r ^«,»i*4^«^*-^^tt»w,«.ji^ .-^^w* p*^.^ «.^*w«. 6l^ U*T^ *%V«.«4JWwf*<<-*»«. CWt-Ct. J(h. /«*«;*,,>*, [■St i_ » • t/ ocitiA T Ua {>^ .»*\*vij-A*T^ ,^ Y*- -^ -wM-^ |»MfM. -»,^wi*. «feJ(T»r FAC-SIMII.E OF A PART OF I.ANDA'S MS.» ' See references on the .iccepled difficulties in Xatne Races, ii. 551. Mrs. Nuttall cl.iimsto have observed cerui.i complernentnl siu'iis in the Mexicin pr.Tphic systLni, " wliich rentiers a misinterpretation of tlie Naliuatl picture-writings impossible " Ltiii. Assn. A,fv. .S\-i,-iH);J'roc., xxxv. (Aug., :SS6t; /'rij/'iufv .Uns. l\ipers, i. App. 2 Vrrhist. .'^!au, ii. 57, f)4, for his views. 3 Uancroft. .Withe A'mes, ii. ch. 17 (pp. 542, 55=) Rives a pood description of the Aztec system, with numerous references; but on this system, and on the hieroglyphic element in general, see Gomara ; Bernal Diaz ; Mfitolinfa in Icazbalceta's CoUvitioii, i. iSfi, 209 i Ternaux's Coi'- kclw'i, X. 250; Kingsborongh, vi. 87; viii. 190; ix. 201, 233, 2S7, 325; .Acosta, lib. vi. cap. 7; Sahagiin, i. p. iv. ; Torquemada, i. 29, 30, 31., 149. 253'i "• 263, 544 i Las Casas's !! ist, ApohgHica ; Piu'clias's /V/<'-r/w('j, iii. 1069; iv. 1135; Clavigero, ii. 1S7; Robertson's A/iteruit; IJotu- rini's /(/ra, pp. 5, 77, S7, 96, 112, 116; Humboldt's I'liirs, i. 177, 192 ; Yeytia, i. 6, 250; Gallatin in A/n. Etlut. Soc. Trans, i. 126, 165 ; Prescolfs Mexico, i. ch. 4 ; lirasseur's Xat. Civ., i. pp. XV, xvii; Domenech's Manuserit fiicto- gra/ihique, introd. ; Mendoza, in the Boletin Soc, Mix, * After a fac-simile in the A rehires de !a Soc. A mfr. tie France, nouv. ser., ii. 34. (Cf. pi. xix. of Rosuy's Essai sur le dhhiirrement, ctcl It is a copy, not the original, of I.anda's text, but a nearly contemporary one (made thirty years after I.anda's death\ and the only one known. Note to oim'ositf. Cut. — This representation of Yucatan liieroglyphics is a reduction of pi. i. in Li!on de Rosny's Essai sur le lihhi/J'remeHt de r/criture hifrali>;i(rde rAmfriqiie Centrale, Paris, 1876. Cf. Hancroft, iv. 92 ; Short, 405, \i I I ; :oo NAKKAilVlC AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF A.MLRICA, ' 1 ' f ' 1 - 1 I'' . ■I ^.1 1 ' ■ i I I I !■- M the M.iya ltlorr)i{lvpliic», und this was the K^i'-it (h'^tinctive feature of the latter, at wr learn from the early (lciicrii)liuii!t,i and Inuu the alphabet which Landa ha^ prrHerviMl fur ii nr books of the Mayan that their writing Is preserved to un, but iti tlie inKriptionn ot their carved architectitia) remains.^ When the AbM Urasseiir de MourbourK found, in iS(n, in the hbrary of the Koyal Acadenty of Ilistorv at Madrid, the MS. of t.anda'n AVAft/o//, anK his interpretatictn to the public when the Kniperor Napoleon Ml. or- dered that codex to be printeil in the sumptuous manner of the imperial press." Ihe efforts of Urasseur met Ui'fff.t -!''• ed. i. S<)6; Madiur de Mdiitj-iu'ii Chrunohf^ie hUroglyf>hho-f^hoH\'tic ties roii Azthpwn^tU 1^23 A /J-v, with aiiimrcKluttion ''sin I'Ktriturf Mcxic.dne ;'* I.uhbotk's Prehhtoric Tinu's^ %-:'i^ and his Origin of CivilhatiiyH, cli. 3\ K. II TyUir's /Ci-stiiri/tts info the Eitrly Hist, oj Mankind^ M(>; Short's Xo. Auier. o/ A nt/'f/., ch. S; Mii|. ler's C/ii/>St i. 317; The Abbe Juka I'ipart in Compte- retniii^ i'oHgri-s U«s Aiti^r. 1S77, ii. 341.; Is.inc Tiiylor'a AifihttlH'ts; Foster's Pnhistorh' Kans^ 312; N.ulaillnc, 37O, not tn cite others. Ilandt-lit-r has dlscussL-d the Mex- ican paintings in his paper *' On the sonrcfs for nhorlginal history of Spanish America " in -■/"/. Asso. Aih>. Siit-ine, Proc, xxvii. (1S7M). Ste also J'eahody Mus. Ke/'oyts, ii. 6}i ; and r)ro/co y lierrn's " Codice Mendc/ino" in the Aitalcs del Maseo .\'aiion. This last writer has been thought to let his enthusiasm — not to say dngmalism — turn his bead, under which imputation he is not ctmtenl, naturally ( //-/(/, p. 2H2). 3 *' Landa*s alphabet a Spanish fabrication/' appeared in the A mer. Antiq. Soc. Froc , April, 18S0, In this, Phi- lipp J. j. Valentini interprets ali that the old writers say fif the anciciil writings to mean that they were pittori.d and not I)h(meiic; and that Landa's purpose was todevist- a vehicle which seemed familiar to the n,-.li\eB, through which he covild cmiununicate religious instruniou. His views have been controverted by I.eon de Rosny {Doc. Ecrits de la Anti<;. .1 uii^r. ]\ t)i) : and Briuton (Ahiyi Chronicles, bx)^ calls them an entire misconception of Landa's purpose. * ,-);//. Antiq- Soc. Froc, n. s,, i. 751. '■• Troano MS., p. viii " Relation, Brasseur's ed., section xli. ' This is given in the Archives de la Soc. A lu/r. de France, ii. pi iv. ; in Brasseur's ed. of Landa: in Ban- croft's Xaf. Races, ii. 779; in Short, 425 ; Rosny (£"5.^,?/ sur le dh'hiff. etc., pi. xiii.) gives a " Tableau des carac- teres phonetique Mayas d'apr^s Diego de Landa et Bras- seur de Bourbourg." " Manuscrit Troano Etudes sur le syst^me graphitjue et la langue des Mayas (Paris, 1S69-70) -- the first volume containing a fac-simile of the Codex in seventy plaies, with Brasseur's explications and partial interpret;;tion. In the second volume there is a translation of G.'briel de Paint Bonavenlnre's Graunnaire Maya, a " Chrestoma- thie" of Maya extracts, ami a Maya lexicon of more than lo.oon words. Brasscur I'ubli'-hed at the same lime ( iv^( cy| in the Mhnoires de la Soc. d^ F.thnoi^raphic a Lettre a M. L^on de Rosny sur la dhouverte dc documents relatijs a la tice in the Fcrlianillungcn der Xaturforschendeu Gesell- schaft (vi. -jic) ?.\ Basle, found at Tikal, in Gnitemala. sf)me haute antiquile am^ricaine, et snr le dhhiffrement et t fragments rif sculptured panels of wood, h-jaring hiero- terprHation de Chriture phonetique et figurative de la plyphics as well as deslcrns, which he succeeded in prrrlias- latigur Maya ( Paris, i8f>n). He explained his application ing, and they were finally deposited in iS7r, in the Ethno- li Landa's alphabet in the introduction to the .1/^. Troano^ '^A Mi:.\li O AND CKNTKAL AMERICA. 301 ♦.( »itli lijiclly ^1 liKn of approval. I.enn >li.> Konny criticit«(l him,< .iml Dr. Drinlmi found In hii reiulti nothing to cumincml.'' No unv li.i» u)i|irii,ii.lieil the i{iii"|i. 101-115I of American palecjKraphy up to that time. Hi^ L'tntirftitalitiH i/r( iiinhiii Itxlti A/iiyiis made part of the first volume i.f the Arcliris ilc la Soi, Amcri. mine lie /•Vi/»;.r (new ^erie•.). ilis c!ilef work, making the second volume of the same, is his lifuii siir le ili- cliilfiemeiit ile l'i\ritiire hiernliqiie ,le /'.hiiirii/ite Cell- Itiil (\',\r\*, i.S;!^!), and it is tlic most thnroui;h examina- tion of the proljlem yet m.ide.'' The last part (4tli) was pnhlished in 1.S7S, and a Spanish trpiislation appeared in rSSi. Ilollaert, who had paid some .ittenlion to the " "<(?E ■■■""'""■ ■" ' ^ r _ -^nv ' 7/viv ^.11 : ' I.' lai In i later in an " K.xaminaliun of the Central .\merican hiero- Klyphs hy the recently discovered Maya alphabet." * Urin- ton ' calls his conclusions fanciful, and I.e I'lontjeon claims that the inscription in .Stephens, which Ilollaert worked upon, is in.iccurately given, and that Itollacrt's re- sults were nonsense.* Ilyacinthe de L'harcncy's efforts have hardly been more successful. tlioui;h he attempted the use of I.anda's alphabet with soniethinn like scientific care, lie examined a small part of the inscription of the I'alenqu^ tablet of the Cross in his F.tsai dt ilechiffreiiieiil il'iin frngiiieiit iriiistiiftiaii fiileii,jiieriie:' Dr. Ilrinton translated Charency's results, and. addinc; I.anda's alphabet, published his Aiirieiil fhtmelic alphabet 1/ i'limtiiii (N. V., 1S70). a small tract.'" Ills continued studies were manifest in the introduction on " The graphic system and the ancient records of the Mayas " to Cyrus Thomas's Maiiiifcrifl TruiiinM In this paper Dr. ISrinton traces the history of the attempts which have thus far been made in solvini; this perplexinj; problem.'- I'he latest application of the scientific spirit is that of the astronomer K. S. Ilolden, Will. Ilollaert, who had paid some attention to the pa- /i' ^^\^^ ~\l\t ^^^V 't'^ leoi(r.ipliy of .\iiierica,' was one of tlie earliest in Kn({- (-^"^jft'^^ltC ""il '* ' T'j' land to examine Ilrasseiir's work on I.anda, which he did ' tl/ "j -^^-^^^jo LfejuT /it"~^ 5 in a memoir read before the .Vnthropoloijical Societv," and y^^ 7'^^^?^^^^^*^'**^^* PAKENOUfe HIEROGLVPHICS* i. p. 36. Itrassfur lad-r confesstc! he bad b.',i:nn ?t\ the wrmij; end of the MS. (/>//'. .^/t',r.-sny's studies by De la Rada in the Conipte-rendii of tlie Copenhagen session (p. 355) of the t'ontrres des Anierica- nistes. Rosny's Documents hrits de PanHqnil^ A mi'-ricaine (Paris, 1S82), from the M^moires de la SociHe d^Ethno- f;raf>hit (iS8i\ covers his researches in Spain and Portuiral for material illustrative of the pre-Columbian historv of America. Cf. also his " Les sources de Thistoire ant^ cohimbienne dii nnuveau monde," in the Afe moires de hx Si'c. d'' Ethno^raf^hie { S77>. For ihe titles in full of Ros- n\'*s liniiui-^tic studies, see PillinK's /V(V>/*-i^/v/.T, p. f/t^. * Antkro/'oi. Review^ May, 1N64; Metnoirs 0/ the An- thropol. Soc, i. ■'■ Memoirs, etc., ii. J9S. " AFemoirs, etc., 1*^70, iii. 2S8 ; Trans. Anthrop. lust. Gt, Britain. ' I nt rod. to Cyrus Thomas's j1 AS". Troano. ■* Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc.^n. s., i. 250. ■ Actes de /a Soc. f-hilologique, March, i?'7o. Cf. Eevut de Phiio!offie^\. 380 : Recherchessur /,• Codex Troano^ Paris, i^^/f'}; Actes, etc., March, 1S7S ; I'aldwin's Anc.Americuy A pp. '" Cf. Sah'ns Amer. BiMiof>oUsty ii. 143- " Contributions to X, A, EthnoU^y, /^i^veiPs Surrey^ vol. V. Cf also his Phonetic elements in the graphic sys- tem of the .'^tifvas and Mexicans in the A mer. A ntiquarian (Nov.. iH'ii'O. and separately (("hicaco, iS%), and his Iko- noutic method of t'honetic u*riting (Phila.. i^'SM. Thomas in The A mer. Auiit^uarian (March, 18S6) points nit the course of his own studies in this direction. " Cf. Short, p. 435. Dr. Harrison Allen in 1S75, in the * After a cut in Wilson's Prehistoric J^fan, ii. p. (yji Tablet c f the Cross. It is also given in Hancroft fiv. 355). and others. It is from the i ■; 2Q2 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. tfii-'-l M : ,t wlio sought to eliminate the probabilities of recurrent signs by the usual mathematical methods of resolving systems of modern ciplier.' There are few examples of the aboriginal ideographic writings left to us. Their fewness is usually charged totlie destruction which was publicly made of them under the domination of the Church in the years following LEON DE ROSNY.* n Amrr. Phihsophia! Society^ s 'I'm >t sections, tiiarle an anal- ysis nf Laiula's alplial)et and tlie iiuhlishcd Cddiccs. Ran, in his }'*nienque Tnhlct of the U. S. Xat. Museum {ch. 5), examines what had het-n done np to 1S79. In the same year Dr, Carl Schultz - Sellack wrote on "Die Amerika- nischeti Glitter der vier Wehiiejienden mid ilire Tenipel in Palen(HK'," tnucluTit; also the question of inter]iretatinn(Z!'//- schrift fur FJhuolo^ie^ vol. xi."! ; and in i^'^o T)r. Fiirste- niann examined the matter in his introducticMi to his repro- duction of the iJresden O. .ex. • Studies in Central A vicricau /iiciure-writitig- {Vi?i^\\' inL:ton, iSSi\ extracted from tlie First Report of the Bu- reau of Ethuoloi^y. His muthinl is epiiomized in The Cett- tury^ Dec, 1S81. He linds Stephens's drawiujis the most trustworthy of all, Wiildcck's lieini; hcaut-ful, but tliev cm- body " singrlir liberties.'" His exnminatifui was cnnt'ini'd to the 1500 separate liieroj;IypIis in Stephens's Central America. Some of f^oIden's conchisions are worth not- ing: **The Maya manuscripts do not possess to me the same interest as th"? stones, and I think it may lie certainly said that all of them are younger than tlie Palenqut! tablets, at ' far younger than the inscriptions at Copan." " I dis- trust the n t'.ods of Brasseur and others who start from the misleadni!.i and i nlucky alphabet banded down by Landa," by forming variants, which are made '^ to satisfy the necessities of tbe interpreter in carrying out some pf c^-.iceived idea." He finds a rigid adherence to the stand- ard form of a cha-acter prevailing ihnfuglumt the same in- scription. At P.i enqu"' 'he inscriinions read as an Knglish inscription would read, beginning at the left and pioceeding line by line dov.nward. "The system employed at Pa- lenque and Copan was the same in its general character, and almost identical even in details.'' He deciphers three proper names : " all of them have been pure piclnre-wnl- ing. excejit in so far as their rebus character may make them in a sense phonetie." Referring to Valentini's Lamia Alphabet a Spanish Fabrication, be agrees in that critic's conditions. *' While my own,*' he adds, '" were reached by a study of the stones and In the course of a general ex.Tuiination, I)r. Valentini has addressed himself siicces-^fully to the solution of asiu'clal problem.*' Holden thinks his own solution of the three proper names points of departure for subsequent deci|iherers. The Maya meth- 0(1 was " pure picture-writing. At (.'ojian this is found in After a photo-irravure in l.es Documents Merits de Pan t iif u 1 1/ America ine iVnr'i'. 'iS:). d*Ethnhie {1SS7), xiii. p. 71- ("f. cut in Mem. de la Soc. ( '>t MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 203 the Conqucst.l The alleged agents In this demolition were Bishop Landa, in 1562, at Mani, in Yucatan.^ and Bishop ZiiMi.1riaga at Tlatelalco, or, as sonic say, at Tezcuco, in Mexico.'' I'eter Martyr-' has told us something of the records as he saw them, and we know also from him, and fronr their subscciuent discovery in European collections, th; t some examples of them were early taken to the Old World. We have further knowledge of them from Las Casas and from Lai\da himself.'' There have been efforts made of late years by lozbalceta and Canon CarrlUj to mitigate the severity of judgment, particularly as respects Zunirirraga.' 'J'hc hrst, and Indeed the only attempt that has been made to bring together for mutual i'lustraticjn all that was known of these manuscripts which escaped the lire,' was in tlie great work of the \'iscouiit Kiugsborough (b. 1795, d. 1837). It was while, as Edward King, he was a student at Oxford that this nobleman's passion for Mexican antitiuities was first roused by seeing an original .\/tec pictograph, describetl by I'urchas (/-'/Vi.^r/wt'j, vol. ill. I, and jircsurved in the Hodleian. In the studies to which this led he was assisted by some special scholars, including Obadiah Kich, who searched f(jr him in ."^pam in iSjo and 1S32, and who alter Kingsbor- ongh's death obtained a large part of the manuscript C(jllections which that nobleman had amassed (Catalogue of the Salcy Dublin, 1S421. Many of the KIngsborough manuscripts passed into the collection of Sir Thomas riiillipps (Catalogue, no. 404), but the corresi)ondence pertaining to Kingsborough's life-work seems to have disappeared. I'l.illipps had been one of the main encouragers of KIngsborough In his undertaking.* Kings- borough, who had spent tjo.ooo on his undertaking, had a b'.isiness dispute with the merchants who furnished the printing-paper, and he was by them thrown Into jail as a debtor, and died m confinement.''' Kingsboiough's great work, the most sumptuous yet besttiwetl upon Mexican arclueology, was published between iS^oand 1S4S, there being an Interval of seventeen years between the seventh and eighth volumes. The original mtention seems to have embraced ten volumes, lor the final section of the ninth volume Is signa- tured as for a tenth.'" The work Is called: Aiithpiities 0/ Mexieo: eomfrising faesiiiiiles of Ancient Mexi- can Paintings and Hieroglyphics, frese)"i'ei/ in the Noyai I.tbfaries of Paris, Berlin, and Dresden ; in the hnferial Library of I'ienna ; in 'he Vatican Library; in the Porgian Mitsciiin at Koine; in the Library of the Institute of Pologna : and in the Bodleian Library at Oxford ; together with the Monuments of Xcw Sfain, by M. Dufaix ; illustrated by many valuable inedited MSS. With the theory maintained by KIngs- borough througliout the work, that the Jews were the first coloui/^ers of the country, we have nothing to do here ; but as the earliest aiul as yet the largest repository of hieroglyphic material, the book needs to be examined. The compiler states where he found his MSS., but he gives nothing of their history, though something more Is now known of their descent. Peter Martyr speaks of the number of Mexican MSS. which lad in his day been taken to Spain, and I'rescott remarks it as strange tliat not a single one given by KIngsborough was found in that country. There are, however, some to be seen there now." Comparisons which have been made of Kingsborough's plates show that they are not Inexact; but they almost necessarily lack the validity that the modern photograjihic processes give to fac-similes. Kingsborough's first volume opens with a facsimile of what is usually called the Codex Mendoza. preserved In the liodleian. It Is, however, a contemporary copy on European paper of an original now lost, which was .sent by the Viceroy Mendoza to Charles V. Another copy made part of the Boturini collection, and from this Lorenzana '- engraved that portion of it which consists of tribute-rolls. The story told of the fate of the orig- its earliest state ; at I'alenque it wa.s already higtiiy conven- ticnalizetl." > See relerences in Hancroft's Xat. Races, ii. 576. * Cogulludo's Hist, de Yucatan, 3d ed., i. 604. ' Prescott, i. 104, and references. • Dec. iv., lib. 8. ^ Hrasseur de liourbourg's Troano MS., i. 9. C'f. on the vX/tec books Kirk's Prescott, i. 103; Itrinlon's .Myths, 10; his Aborig Anier. Authors, 1;; and on the Mc'xican paper, Vak-mini in Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc, 2(1 s., i. 5S. " C'f. lea/.balceta's Don Fray Juan de /umarraga, pri- mer Obispo y Arzobispo de Mexico (ljjt)-^i). Ksluilio biografico y bibligra/ico. Con un aphid ice de docuuieittos iii^ditos (i raros (yie\\co, iSSi). A part of s work was also printed separately (fifty copit's) under ' title of De la destriiccion de antigiiedades m^xicaiias atribuida a los misioiieros en gentral, y particularmeute al lUmo. Sr. D. Fr. Jiiau de Zumarraga, primer Obispo y Arzobispode .l/i'.r/.'i/ (Mexico, iSSi). In this he exhausts pntty much all lliat li.is been said on the subject by the Iiishop himself, hy Pedro de Gante, Motolinia, Sali.iniin, Duran, Acosta, Davila Padill.n, Herrera, Torquemada, Ixtlilxochid, Rob- ertson, Clavigcro, Humboldt, liustamante, Ternaux, Pres- cotl, Alanian.etc. llrasscnrf.V.i/. O?'//., ii. 4')5ay5of I..liida that we must vit forRet that he was oftener the ni;enl of the council for the Indies tlian of the Church. Helps (iii. 374} is inclined to be charitable towards a man in a skeptical age, so intensely believinR as Zuin.-irra^'a was Sah.igun relates that earlier than Zuni,irr,lga, the fourth ruler of Ills race, Itzcohuatl, had caused a laree destruction of native writings, in order to remove souvenirs of the na- tional luuiiiliation. ' Humboldt was one of ilie earliest to describe Gome of these manuscripts in connection with his Atlas, pi. xiii. " Cf. Catal. fl/the I'hillipps Coll., no. 404. All original colored copy of the Antiquities of Mexico, given by Kines- borough to Philllpps, was offered of late years by Quarltch MJi^o-f,\on\ it was published at / 1 75. The usual colored copies sell now for about Ci'^-C'" \ the uncolored for .about Ci°-LK. It is usually staled that two copies were printed on vellum (Hritish Museum, ISodleian), and ten on large paper, which were given to crowned heads, except one, whicli was given to Ob.idiah Rich. Sqiiier, in the I.oudon Atheiitrum, I>ee. 13, \'^--<-> (Allibone, p. 1033), drew atten- tion to ttie omission of the last signature of the Hist. Chi- chimeca in vr)l. ix. " Rich, Kibl. Amer. Nova, ii. 231; Geut/eiiiau's Mag., May, 1S37, which varies In some particulars. Cf. for other details Sabiu's Pictiouitry, ix. 4'<5: De Rosnv in the Rt'7', Orient et .Imlr., xii. 3S;. K. .\. Wilson (.Veiv Conquest cf Mexico, p. 6'<) gives the violent skeptical view of the material. ^" Sabin, tx., no. 37.S00 *' Leon de Rosny(A>t-. hrits del* Antiq. Am^r., p. 71) speaks of those in the Miiseo Arch.-poldglco at Madrid. '- Hist. Xueva Fspofit. reserved between glass to jircvent handling, and both sides can be examined. Some progress has been made, it is professed, in deci- phering its meaning, and it is supposed to contain '• records of a mythic, historic, and ritualistic character." '- .\nother script in Kingsborough, perhaps a Tezcucan MS., though having some Maya aftinities, is the Fcjcfvary CoJcx, then preserved in Hungary, and lately owned by Mayer, of I.iverpool.i^ Three other Maya manuscripts have been brought to light since Kingsborough's day, to say nothing of three others said to be in private hands, and not described. n Of these, the Codex Troano has been the subject of much study. It is the property of a Madrid gentleman. Don Juan Tro y Ortolano, and the title given to the manuscript has been somewhat fantastically formed from his name by the Abbe Etieiine Charles Brasseur lix. Hi- ' Piescolt, i. lo'). He thinks ihat a copy niemloned in Spinelo's Lectures on the Elements of Hieroglyphics, and then in tlie Escurial, may perhaps be the original. Huin- bnldi call^ it a copy. - Humboldt pl.icetl some tribute-rolls in the Berlin lihrarv, and pave an account of them. See his pi. xxxvi. " t'f. references in Bancroft's Xative Races, ii. 539. The " F.xp'icacion " of the MS. is given in Kingsborough's vol- luiie v , and an " interpretation '* ir. vol. vi. ' Kingsliorougli's " explicacion " and " explanation " are given in his vols. v. and vi. Rosny has given an " explica- tion avec notes par Brasseur de Bourbourg '' in his A r- chiz'e^ paleoi^raphiques (Paris, 1S70-71), p. 190, with an atlas of plates. Cf. references in Bancroft, il. 5^0; and in another place (iii. lot ) this same writer cautions the reader against the translation in Kingsborough, and says that it has every error that can vitiate a translation. Humboldt thinks his own plates, Iv. and Ivi., of the codex carefully made. ■' Prescott savs (i. loS) of this that it bears evident marks o^ recent origin, when " t)ie hieroglyphics were read with the eye of faith rather than of reason." Cf. Bancroft, Nat. K'urSf ii. 527. " Portions of It are also reproduced in the Arcliives tie In Soc. Am^r. de France : ir. Rosny's Essai sur le ilcchiffrc' vtenf de PKcriHire I'ieratique; and in Powell's Third Re/it. Bur. 0/ Ethnology, p. 56. Cf. also Humboldt's At- las, pi. xiii. ; and H. M. Williams's translation of his A »es, '■ '■'-■'■ ' It is known to have been given in i'i6e by the Marquis de Caspi by Count Valerio Zani. There is a copy in the niMseum ol Cardinal Borgia at Veletri. " Known let Iiave been given in 1677 by the Duke of Saxe- F.isenach to the Kmperor Leopold. .Some parts are repro- duced in Robertson's America, I^nd . 1-77, ii. 4«2. ^ Humboldt, I'ues des Cordillh-es, ji. 80; pi. 15, 27, 37; Prescott, i. lorj. There is a single leaf of it reproduced in Powed's Third Re/'t. Bur. 0/ Kth , p. ^3. '" Cf his Denk-ourdigkeiten der Dresdener Bibliothek (■7441, P- 4- '■ Stephens {Central America, ii. 342, 453; ]'ncatan,il. 202, 453) was in the same way at a loss respecting the con- ditions of the knowledge of such things in hi- time. t.'f. also Orozco y Berra, Geografta de las Lengnas de Mexico, p. lOI. '2 Die Mayahatidschri/t der kdniglichen djfeutlichen Bibliothek zn Dresden ; herausgegeben ,'on E. Eorsteniaun {Leipzig, iS^). Oidy thirt}' copies were offered ft)r sale at two liundred marks. There i- a copy in Harvard C"ilege lihrarv. Parts of the mamisciiiit are fouinl figured in liif- ferent pidjiications: Humlioldl's / ncs des Cordillires, li. ar)"^, and pi. 16 and 45: Wuitka'a Gesch. \. 22, 23 (Leipzig, iS;2); Archives de la Soc, Anii-r. de France, v\,s ,vo\. i. and ii. ; Sihestre's Paliographit Vni-jerselle ; Rosny's Les Ecritiires /iguratives et hiero- glyphiqiics des /■eiiples anciens et inodernes (Paris, iSOo, pi. V. 1, and in \\ii Essai sur le dhhiffremcnt,K\c.; Ruge, Zeitnlter der Entdeckungen, p. 559. Cf. also Le Noir in Antiquitls Mfxicaines, ii. introd. ; Fi'irstemann's sep. irate monographs, Der Maya a/ ; w it I ii ^ ' !fl: ..• 1', I? ill ' « '• / } ( 1 Jp ' V, (! ji V - < ;• 1 -. ; \' < 1 'fini: 206 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. CODEX COKTESIANUS* • From a fac-siniile in the A rchives lic iii SjcUf^ A iiUritaiftf de France, nmtv. ser. , ii. 30. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 207 dc nourbniirg, who was instrumental in its recognition about 1865 or 1866, and who edited a sumptuous two- volume folio edition with chromo-llthographic plates. ' »;•/' ^ i» • ^^^^ mr^^Ff^^^ '<' 1- Wliile L^on de Rosnywas preparing his Essai sur te dcchitjrcmciit dc I'Ecriturc hicraiiqiie (1S76), a Maya manuscript was offered to the Uibliothiicpie Imperiale in I'aris and declined, be- cause the price demandetl was too high. I'hoto- graphic copies of two of its leaves had been sub- mitted, and one of these is given by Kosny in the Essai (pi. .xi.). The Spanish government finally bouglit the MS., which, because it was supposed to have once belonged to Cortes, is now known as the Codex Cortainiiiis. Kosny afterwards saw it and studied it in the Museo .\rclieoldgico at Madrid, as he makes known in his Doc. Eirits dc la Aittii]. Amir., p. rq, wliere he points out the complementary character of one of its leaves with another of tlie -MS. Troanii, showing tlicm to l)clong together, and gives pliotngr.iplis of tlic two (pi. v. vi.), as well as of other leaves ^pl. S and 0). The part of this codex of a calendar character (Tableau des liacab) is re]iroduced fi ■ Kosny's plate by Cyrus Thomas - in an essay in the Third Report of the Bureau of Elhti.>loi;\\ together witli an attempted restoration of the plate, which is obscure in parts. Finally a small edition (S5 copies) of the entire M.S. was published at Paris in 1SS3.3 The last of the Maya MSS. recently brought to light is sometimes cited as the Codex Pcrczi- aiius, because thr paper in which it was wrapped, when recognized in 1S59 by Kosny,'' bore the name " I'erez " ; and sometimes designated as Codex Mexicaniis, or Manuscrit Vucatecpie No. 2, of the National Library at I'aris. It was a few years later published as Manuserit dit Mixicain No. i dc la lii/'liotliii/uc Imph-uiJe, fhotographic par ordre dc S. E. .1/. Duri,v, ministrc dc t instruction puHiquc (I'aris, 1864, in folio, 50 copies). The original is a fragment of eleven leaves, and Urasseur'' speaks of it as the most beautiful of all the MSS. in execution, but the one which has suffered the most from time and usage.o CODEX PEREZIAXL'S* * It constitutes vol. ii. and iii. of the series. Mission scieniijique ait Mexique ei dans VAmh'ique Ceutraie. Ouvras^es publics par ordre de f Empcreur ei parlessoins du Ministrg de t Instruction publiqnc (Paris, iS^S-zo), imder the distinctive title ; Linguis lue, Manus- crit Troano. Etudes sur le systhne t^raphiqtu et la langue des Miiyas^ par Brasseur de Hourbour^ [ iS6«)-7o). Rosny, who cutiipared Brasst^ur's edition with the orig- inal, was satisfied witli its exactness, exc-.'pt in the nuinber- inj; of the leaves; and lirasseur (/>//-/. Mex.-Guat.^ '^70 confessed that in Ids interpret.ition he had rtad the MS. backwards. The work was reissued in Paris in I'^'jz, i»Itli- out the plates, under the fdllowing title- Dictiomuiire^ Grammaire et Chrestomathie dc ia langue maya,, prhedcs d'une Hude sur Ics systbme ffraphique des indij^htes du Vucafan (M^.tique) (Paris, 1872). Brasseur's Rapport, address^ h son Excellence M. Duruy^ included in the work, nives brietly the abl)e's exposition of the MS. Priifessnr Cyrus Thomas and Dr. D. G. Printon, having printed some expositions in the American Xatu- ralisi (vol. xv.) united in an essay makint; vol. v. of the Con- tributions to North A mercan Ethnolot^y {Powell's survey) under the title : A Study of the Manuscript Tro/ino by Cyrus Thomas, with an introduction by D G. lirinton (Washington, 1882), which gives fac-similes of some of the plates. Thomas calls it a kind of religious calendar, giving dates of religious festivals through a long jieriod, intermixed with illustrations of the habits and employments of the people, their houses, dress, utensils. He calls the charac- ters in a measure phonetic, and not syllabic. Cf. Rosny in the Archives de la Soc, Am, de France^ n. s., ii. 28; his Essai sur le dhhiffrement^ etc. ( 1876) ; Powell's Third Rept. Bur. 0/ Eth., xvi. ; Pancroft's Xai. Races, u. 774 ; and Printon's .\otes on the Codex 'Troano and J/ayr Chronoloi^y {Sahm, 18S1). = Cf. Science, iii. 45^. ^ Codex Cortes ianus. Manuscrit hieratique des an- ^rens Indiens de i'A tnh'igue centrale conserve au Mus^e arch^olo^'inue de Madrid. Thotographie et public pour la premiere Jois^ ai'ec une introduction^ et un vocabulaire de Vecriture hieratique yucateque par L^on de Rosny { l*aris, 1S83). At the end is a list of works by De Rosny on Amer- ican archaeology and paleography. * Atrkives de la Soc. Am.de France, n. s., ii. 25. T' Bib. Mex.-Guat., p. 05. ^ Cf. Rosnv in Archives paUographiques (Paris, 1869- 71). pi 117, etc. ; and his Essai sur le dichijffrement, etc., pi. viii., xvi. * (Ine of the leav* nf a MS. \o. ?, in ih* P.ibli'iih'.que Nationale, Paris, following the fac-slmile (pi. 124) in L^on de Ro><; y\ Archives p u'^oi^r.if'hiques i^7a\->. i*^f)j>. Vk ( iB! f; 1 If u I! (i JJ \\ 1^! ' I I I .1: ' I ! i ■ 1 . 1 i 1 1 1 w. ; 1 1 ■>' t I HP I 11- \ W i .! ''; ijjir h I 1 I* ■ 1 1 I ! r'l j 1 Note. — This Viicalan bas-relief follows a plinionnh In' K.imiv (iS'^o\ rt;pvo(UiC'-'d in the M^m. de la Soc. ifEthno- graphic^ no. 3 (Paris, iSSj). 111?', Sll %t^R *ll 1:1 CHAPTER IV. THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. BY CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, C. B. THE civilization of the Incas of Peru is the most important, because it is the highest, phase in the development of progress among the American races. It represents the combined efforts, during long periods, of several peoples who eventually became welded into one nation. The especial interest attaching to the study of this civilization consists in the fact that it was self-developed, and that, so far as can be ascertained, it received no aid and no impulse from foreign contact. It is necessary, however, to bear in mind that the empire of the Incas, in its final development, was formed of several nations which had, during long periods, worked out their destinies apart from each other ; and that one, at least, appears to have been entirely distinct from the Incas in race and language.' These facts must be carefully borne in mind in pursuing inquiries relating to the history of Inca civilization. It is also essential that the nature and value of the evidence on which conclusions must be based should be understood and carefully weighed. This evidence is of several kinds. Besides the testimony of Spanish writers who witnessed the conquest of Peru, or who lived a generation afterwards, there is the evidence derived from a study of the characteristics of descendants of the Inca peo- ple, of their languages and literature, and of their architectural and other remains. These various kinds of evidence must be compared, their respec- tive values must be considered, and thus alone, in our time, can the nearest approximation to the truth be reached. The testimony of writers in the si.Kteenth century, who had the advantage of being able to see the workings of Inca institutions, to examine the out- come of their civilization in all its branches, and to converse with the Incas themselves respecting the history and the traditions of their people, is the most important evidence. Much of this testimony has been preserved, but unfortunately a great deal is lost. The sack of Cadiz by the Earl of Essex, in 1595, was the occasion of the loss of Bias Valera's priceless work.'^ Other valuable writings have been left in manuscript, and have been n^.is'aid ' [Mr. Markham made a special study of this views of Marcoy in Travels in SoulS America, Ir. point in the J our nal of the Roy. Geoi;.Soc. (1S71), by Rich, London, 1S75 — Kn.] xli. p. 281, collating its authorities. Cf. the - Except those portions which Gnrcilasso de la Vega has embodied in his Commirihiru-s. VOL. I. — 14 \ Hi i 11 A II" M 2IO NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. ii'U u'y;'\ :i !| I I ■I •vi*' I I ' ' If '!!■'■ I ; ' , * hi :ii '! ■'11 t f I through neglect and carelessness. Authors are mentioned, or even quoted, whose books have disappeared. The contemplation of the fallen Inca empire excited the curiosity and interest of a great number of intelligent MAP IN BRASSEUR'S FOPUL VUH. \ I! 5' A>it4vM ift^ltnirvrt ted, nca ont 10 EARLY SPANISH MAP OF PERU* * [From the Paris (1774) edition of Zarate. The development of Peruvian cartography under the Spanish explorations is traced in a note in Vol. II. p. 509; but the best map for the student is a map of the empire of the Incas, showing all except the provinces of Quito and Chili, with the routes of the successive Inca con- querors marked on it, given in the Journal of the Roy. Geog. Soc. (1S72), vol. xlii. p. 513, compiled by Mr. Trelawny Saunders to illustrate Mr. Markham's paper of the previous year, on the empire of the Incas. The map was republished by the Hakluyt Society in 18S0. The map of Wiener in his Pcrou et Bolivie is also a good one. Cf. Squier's map in his Peru. — Ed.] 1 ■ '■:ri 1 1 ! 'I M 4< ! , '■; t'i: li 212 NAKKATIVK AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMLRICA. men among the Spanish conquerors. Many wrote narratives of what they saw and heard. A few studied the languaj^e and traditions of the people with close attention. And these authors were not conrtned to the clerical and legal professions ; they included several of the soldier-conquerors them- selves.' The nature of tiie country and climate was a potent agent in forming the ciiaracter of the people, and in enabling them to make advances in civiliza- tion. In the dense forests of the Amazonian valleys, in the boundless prairies and savannas, we only meet with wandering tribes of hunters and fishers. It is on the lofty plateau.x of the Andes, where extensive tracts of land are adapted for tillage, or in the comparatively temperate valleys of the western coast, that we find nations advanced in civilization.'' The region comprised in the empire of the Incas during; its greatest extension is bounded on the east by the forest-covered Amazonian plains, on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and its length along the line of the Cor- dilleras was upwards of 1,500 miles, from 2^ N. to 20° S. This vast tract comprises every temperature and every variety of physical feature. The in- habitants of the plains and valleys of the Andes enjoyed a temperate and generally bracing climate, and their energies wer: called forth by the physi- cal difficulties which had to be overcome through their skill and hardihood. Such a region was suited for the gradual development of a vigorous race, capable of reaching to a high state of culture. Thj different valleys and plateaux are separated by lofty mountain chains or by profound gorges, so that the inhabitants would, in the earliest period of their history, make their own slow progress in comparative isolation, and would have little intercom- munication. When at last they were brought together as one people, and thus combined their efforts in forming one system, it is likely that such a union would have a tendency to be of long duration, owing to the great difficulties which must have been overcome in its creation. On the other hand, if, in course of time, disintegration once began, it might last long, and great efforts would be required to build up another united empire. The evidence seems to point to the recurrence of these processes more than once, in the course of ages, and to their commencement in a very remote antiquity. One strong piece of evidence pointing to the great length of time during which the Inca nations had been a settled and partially civilized race, is to be found in the plants that had been brought under cultivation, and in the animals that had been domesticated. Maize is unknown in a wild state,* ' It is, of course, necessary to consider tlie ^ [For special study, see Paz Soldaii's Gi-og>-a- weight to be attached to the statements of differ- fh del Peru ; Menendez' Afintiti/ de Geogiafia ent authors; but the most convenient method del Peru; and Wiener's I.' Empire des Incas, of placing the subject before the reader will be ch. i. — Ed.] to deal in the present chapter with general con- ' " Jusqu'i present on n'a pas retrouve le ma'is, elusions, and to discuss the comparative merits d'une m.iniere certaine, a I'tftat sauvage " (De of the authorities in the Critical Essay on the Q.^ssiiLoWtfiGlogriil-hie hotatiiiiiieraisotiuee,\).<)^\). sources ot information. \l THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. aij and many centuries must have eliipsecl before the Peruvians could have pro- diiced luiiiiv-'roiis cultivated varieties, and have brouj;ht the plant to such a high state of perfection. The peculiar edible roots, called oca and aracacha, al.so exist only as cultivated plants. There is no wild variety of the cltiri' moya, and the Peruvian spe- cies of the cotton plant is known only under cultiva- tion.' The potato is foun 1 wild in Chile, and probably in Peru, as a very insignificant tuber. But the Peruvians, after cultivating it for centu- ries, increased its size and produced a great number of edible varieties.^ Another proof of the great antiquity of Peruvian civilization is to be found in the llama and al- paca, which are domesticated animals, with individuals varying in color: the one a beast of burden yield- ing coarse wool, and the other bearing a thick fleece of the softest silken fibres. Their prototypes are the wild huanaco and vicuna, of uniform color, and untameable. Many centuries must have elapsed before the wild creatures of the Andean solitudes, with the habits of chamois, could have been converted into the Peruvian sheep which cannot exist apart from men.* These considerations point to so vast a period during which the existing race had dwelt in the Peruvian Andes, that any speculation respecting its origin would necessarily be futile in the present state of our knowledge.* The weight of tradition indicates the south as the quarter whence the people came whose descendants built the edifices at Tiahuanacu. LL.\MAS.« ' I'e Ciiulolle, p. 9.S3. - There is a wild variety in Me.vico, the size of a nut, and attempts have been made to in- crease its size under cultivation during many years, without any result. This seems to show that a great length of time must have elapsed before tlie ancient I'eruvians could have brought the cultivation of the jiotato to such a high state of i)erfection as they undoubtedly did. ■' .Some years ago a priest named Cabrera, the cura of a village called Macusaui, in the province of Caravaya, succeeded in breeding a cross be- tween the wild vicuna and the tame alpaca. He had a flock of these l)eautiful animals, wliich yielded long, silken, while wool ; but they re- quired extreme care, and died out when the sus- taining hand of Cabrera was no longer available. There is also a cross between a llama and an alpaca, called i^itariso, as large as the llama, but with much more wool. The guanaco and llama have also been known to form a cross ; but there is no instance of a cross between the two wild varieties, — the guanaco and vicufia. The ex- tremely artiticial life of the alpaca, which renders that curious and valuable animal so absolutely dependent on the ministrations of its human master, and the complete domestication of the llama, certainly indicate the lapse of many cen- turies before such a change could have been effected. ■• [Cf. remarks of Daniel Wilson in his Prehis' toric Mail, i. 243. — Eri.| • [One of the cuts wliicli did service in the .Antwerp edition nf Cieza de Leon. Cf. Bollaert on the llama, alpaca, huanaco, and vicuna species in the Sforthts; Revic-.c, Feb., 1S63; the cuts in Squier, pp. 246, 250; Dr. Van Tschiidi, in t'le '/.eitschr'if. fiir Et/inologie, 1SS5. — Ed.] J % M \\ it' [ ; ! I i : ' ! f! I i \l ' i (1,1 .1 214 NAkKATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OK AMKKICA. The most ancient remains of a primitive people in the IVruvian Andes consist ol Hide civinlcchs, or buri.dpkicvs, wiiicli arc met witii in various localities. Don Modesto Basaiire has described some i)y the roadside, in the descent from Umal)amlKi to Charasaiii, in Holivia. Tiiese cromlechs are formed of four threat slabs of slate, each slab beinj; about five feet high, four or five in width, and more than an inch tliick. The four slabs are perfectly shaped and worked so as to tit into each other at the corners. A fifth slab is placed over them, and over the whole a pyramid of clay and rough stones i 'i -i i ^^ il Xa ^•■' v:_:"| &>► DETAILS AT TIAIIUANACU.* is piled. These cromlechs are the early memorials of a race which was suc- ceeded by the people who constructed the cyclopean edifices of the Andean plateaux. For there is reason to believe that a powerful empire had existed in Peru centuries before the rise of the Inca dynasty. Cyclopean ruins, quite for- eign to the genius of Inca architecture, point to this conclusion. The wide area over which they are found is an indication that the government which caused them to be built ruled over an extensive empire, while their cyclo- pean character is a proof that their projectors had an almost unlimited sup- ply of labor. Religious myths and dynastic traditions throw some doubtful light on that remote past, which has left its silent memorials in the huge stones of Tiahuanacu, Sacsahuaman, and Ollantay, and in the altar of Con- cacha. • Key : — A, Lid or cover of some aperture, of stone, with two handles neatly undercut. B, A window of trachyte, of careful workmanship, in one piece. C, lildck of masonry with carving. D, E, Two views of a corner-piece to some stone conduit, carefully ornamented with projecting lines. F, G, H, I, Other pieces of cut masonry lying about. ..♦■it •s IS II ri-' Tin: INCA CIVILIZATION IN PEKU. 2'5 The most interesting ruins in Peru arc those c/f the paliice or temple near the village of Tiahuanacu,' on the southern side .if I.ak Titieaca. They CARVINGS AT TIAHUANACU.* BAS-RELIEFS AT TIAHUANACU.f ' The name is of later date. One story is speed w.is compared with that of the "A«n;;(7fo." that, ^vhcn an Inca was encamped there, a mes- The Inca said, "Tia" (sit or rest), " O ! hua- senger reached him with unusual celerity, whose naco." • Key: — A, Portion of the ornament wliich runs along the base of the rows of figures on the monolithic doorway. B, Prostrate idol lying on its face near the ruins; about g feet long. t Key ;— A, A winged human figure with the crowned head of a condor, from the central row on the mono- lithic doorw.ay. B, A winged human figure with human head crowned, from the upper row on the monolithic doorway. [There are well-executed cuts of these sculptures in Kuge's Geschichte ties ZeitalUrs der EnlJeciungen, pp.430, 431. Cf. Squier's Peru, p. 292. — Eu.] 11 1 \ I I II! I, ' ■■) • I I ' ; ^'M^u > 4 I; , ' H m ''1 1 i^l' i'» It II ■tjl 1 I- II ill" I! <.' t FRAGMENTS AT TIAIIUANACU* Ki;vrcK.-E (II-- THE doorway at tiahuanacu. t • Varinu'i cnrknislv carved stones fnnnd scattered alinnt tlic ruins. + [Cf. view in -Stiiiier's ferti, p. 2,S(), with other particulars uf the ruins, p. 2;6, etc. En.] K-. I *£+, '^ *>- THE INCA C1\II.1ZATI().\ IN PERU. 217 are 12,930 feet above the level of the sea, and 130 above that of the lake, which is about twelve miles off. They consist of a quailranj^ular space, en- tered by the famous monolithic doorway, and surrounded by large stones standing on end ; an ! of a hill or mound encircled by remains of a wall, consisting of enormous blocks of stone. The whole covers an area about 400 yards long by 350 broad. There is a lesser temple, about a quarter of IMAGE AT TIAIIL'ANACL'.* a mile distant, containing stones 36 feet long bv 7, and 2C) by 16, with recesses in them which have been comjiared to seats of judgment. The weight of the two great stones has been estimated at from 140 to 200 tons each, and the distance of the quarries whence they could have been brought is from 15 to 40 miles. The monolithic portal is one b'ock of hard trachvtic rock, now deejily • [This IS an cnbri;c(l (liawin;; of the bas-i-flicf shown m the iiictiire of the broken doorway fp. 21S). Cf. the cuts in the .irticle on the ruins of 'liahiiiinacu in tlie Ri-.ne d'Arcliiteifiire ifcf Travniix /-itHic!. vol. xxiv. : in Ch. Wiener's I.'Empiic tics Iiukis. pi. iii. ; in D'Oriji^ny's Athis to liis L' Hoiiimc .hithiuihi ; and in Squier's Peru, p. 2of.— Ku.] I A [\i i'ii . FH Ml' 1 ■ ,1 ; IJki / ii' . fii' f' l:i 2l8 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMKRICA. sunk in the ground. Its height above ground is y ft. 2 in., width 13 fl. <; in., thickness i ft. 6 in., and the opening is 4 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 9 in. The outer side is ornamented by accurately cut niches and rectangular mouldings. The whole of the inner side, from a line level with the upper lintel of the door- way to the top, is a mass of sculpture, which speaks to us, in difficult riddles, alas ! of the cistoms and art-culture, of the beliefs and traditions, of an ancient and lost civilization. In the centre there is "■ figure carved in high relief, in an oblong com- partment, 2 ft. 2 in. long by i ft. 6 in.* Squier describes this figure as LKUKK.N .MO.NOLITH UOORW.AY AT TI.\HU.\NACL".* angularly but boldly cut. The head is surrounded by rays, each terminat- ing in a circle or the bead of an animal. The breast is adorned with two serpents united by a square band. Another band, divided into ornamented compartments, passes round the neck, and the ends are brought down to the girdle, from which hang si.x human heads. Human heads also hang from the elbows, and the hands clasp sceptres which terminate in the heads of condors. The legs are cut off near the girdle, and below there are a series of frieze-like ornaments, each ending with a condor's head. On either side of this central sculpture there are t'-ree tiers of figures, 16 in 1 Hasadre's measurement is 32 inches by 21. • [An enl.irgc-.l drawing of the iniaije over the .ircli 'v ai../ther cut. This same ruin is well repre- sented in Ruge's Gesch. dcs Zfilalters tier Entdeckui.^. ., and not so well in Wiener's Perm el Bolivie, p. 419. Cf. .Squier's Peru, p. 288. — Kd.] THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 219 each tier, or 48 in all, each in a kneeling posture, and facing towards the large central figure. I*^ach figure is in a square, the sides uf which measure eig! t inches. All are winged, and hold sceptres ending in condors' heads ; !nit while those in the upper and lower tiers have crowned human heads, tliose in the central tier have the heads of condors. There is a profusion of orna- '( i TIAIir.\.\.\CL" RI>10KEU.» ment on all these figures, consisting of heads of birds and fishes. An orna- mental frieze runs along the base of the lowest tier of figures, consisting of an elaborate pattern of angular lines ending in condors' heads, with larger human heads surrounded by rays, in the intervals of the pattern. Cieza de J. con and Alcobasa^ mention tliat, besides this sculpture over the doorway, there v/ere richly carved statues at Tiahuanacu, whicli have since been de- stroyed, and many cylindrical pillars with capitals. The head of one statue, with a peculiar head-dress, which is 3 ft. 6 in. long, still lies liy the roadside. The masonry of the ruins is admirably worked, according to the testi- mony of all visitors. Squier says : " The stone itself is a dark and exceed- ingly hard trachyte. It is faced with a precision that no skill can excel. Its lines are perfectly drawn, and its right angles turned with an accuracy that the most careful geometer could not surpass. I do not believe there exists a better piece of stone-cutting, the material considered, on this or the other continent." It is desirable to describe these ruins, and especially the sculpture over ' Quoted bv r.arcila.sso de la Vega, Pte. I. lib. III. cap. I. h ;^ll' * After a drawing; given in T/ie Temf-U of the Aiules by Kicliard Inwards i London, 1SS4). i I ■ .'ll y:n 220 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. the moiiolithic doorway, with some minuteness, because, with th ■ probiti"^ exception of the cromlechs, they are the most ancient, aiid, withoivc a ly excejition, the most interesting that have been met with in Peru. There is nothing elsewhere that at all resembles the sculpture on the monolitliic doorway at Tiahuanacu.^ The central figure, with rows of kneeling wor- shippers on either side, all covered with symbolic designs, represents, it may be conjectured, either the sovereign and his vassals, or, more piobab'y, the Deit)', with representatives of all the nations bowing down befcjre him. The sculpture and the most ancient traditions should throw light upon each other. Further north there are other examples of prehistoric cyclopcan remains. Such is the great wall, with its ••stone of 12 corners," in the Calle del Tri- unfo at Cuzco. Such is tlie famous fortress of Cuzco, on the Sacsahuaman I I r '"1 ss^^^r i ' I 1' 1 ! : I %, RlI.N.S UK SACSAIILAMAN.* I Till. Such, too, are portions of the ruins at Ollantay-tampu. Still farther north there arc cvclopean ruins at Concaclia, at fluinaque, and at Huaraz. Tiahuanacu is interesting because it is possible that the elaborate charac- ter of its symbolic sculpture may throw glimmerings of light on remote 1 I'asptlre mentions a carved stniie brnucht nam. A copy of it is in possession of Suiior frr.i'i the department of .Anraclis, in Tern, which Rainmndi. had "omc rusemlihmccs to the >tnnes at 'I'i.aluia- * [AfteraciUin \ , i , without comparison, rhe grandest monument of an ancient civilization in the New World. Like the Pyramids aiul the Coliseum, it is imperishable. It consists of a fortified work 600 yards in length, built of gigantic stones, in three lines, forming walls supporting terraces and parapets arranged in salient and retiring angles. This work defends the only assailable side ot a position which is impregnable, owing to the .steepness of the ascent in all other directions. The outer wall averages a height of 26 feet. Then there is a terrace 16 yards across, whence the second wall rises to iS feet. The second terrace is si.x yards across, and the third wall averages a height of 12 feet. The total height of the fortification is 56 feet. The stones are of blue limestone, of enormous size and irregular in shape, but fitted into each other with rare precision. One of the stones is 27 feet high by 14, and stones 15 feet high by 12 are common throughout the work. At Ollantay-tampu the ruins a'-e of various styles, but the later works are raised on ancient cyclopean foundations ' There are six porphyry slabs 12 feet high by 6 or 7 ; stone beams 15 and 20 feet long; stairs and recesses hewn out of the solid rock. Here, as at Tiahuanacu, there were, according to Cieza de Leon,'-^ men and animals carved on the stones, but they have disappeared. The same style of architecture, though only in fragments, is met with further north. East of the river Apurimac, and not far from the town of Abancay, there are three groups of ancient monuments in a deep valley surrounded by lofty spurs of the Andes. There is a great cyclopean wall, a series of seats or thrones of various forms hewn out of the solid stone, and a huge block carved on five sides, called the Ruini-liuasi. The northern face <^l this monolith is cut into the form of a staircase ; on the east there are two enor- mous seats separated by thick partitions, and on the south there is a sort of lookout place, with a seat. Collecting channels traverse the block, :iid join trenches or grooves lealing to two deep excavations on the wester. , de. On this western side there is also a series of steps, apparently f'^r Wji fall of a cascade of water connected with the sacrificial rites. Mo] :.,<. gives a curious account of the water sacrifices of the Incas.^ The Rumi-hii is' seems to have been the centre of a great sanctuary, and I0 have been u.seii as vx\ altar. Its surface is carvel with animals amid ' a labyrinth of cavities : 'id partition ridges. Its length is 20 feet by 14 bn-ad, and 12 feet higl_. Hero we have, no doubt, a sacrificial altar of the ancient people, ou which the blood of animals and libations of chicha flowed in torrents.'* Spanish writers received statements from the Indians that one or other of these cyclo])('an ruins was built by some particular Inca. Garcilasso de la Vega even names the architects of the Cuzco fortress. But it is clear from the evidence of the most careful investigators, such as Cieza de Leon, ' [Cf. plans and views in Squier's Peru, ch. * The name of the place where the'^L" remains 24 — Kn ] are situated is Concacha, from the Qiiirhua word '^ Cap. 94. " Ciiniiu/uiy" — the act of holding down a vi.-- " See page 238. tim for sacrifice ; literally, " to take by the neck '" Ml M 222 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. ■i,'>i , Ah that there was no real knowledge of their origin, and that memory of the builders was either quite lost, or preserved in vague, uncertain traditions. The most ancient myth p(jints to the region of Lake Titicaca as tlie scene of the creative operations of a Deity, or miracle-working Lord.' This Deity is said to have created the sun, moon, and stars, or to have caused them to rise out of Lake Titicaca. He also created men of stone at Tiahua- nacu, or of clay ; making them pass under the earth, and appear again out of caves, tree-trunks, rocks, or fountains in the different provinces which were to be peopled by their descendants. But this seems to be a later attempt to reconcile the ancient Titicaca myth with the local worship of natural ob- jects as ancestors or founders of their race, among the numerous subjugated tribes ; as well as to account for the colos.sal statues of unknown origin at Tiahuanacu. There are variations of the story, but there is general con- currence in the main points : that the Deity created the heavenly bodies and the human race, and that the ancient people, or their rulers, were called Pinia. Tradition also seems to point to regions south of the lake as the quarter whence the first settlers came who worked out the earliest civiliza- tion.- We may, in accordance with all the indications that are left to us, connect the great god Ilia Ticsi with the central figure of the Tiahuanacu sculpture, and the kneeling -.-.orshiiipers with the rulers of all the nations and tribes which had been subjugated by the Hatiin-riina^'' — the great men who had Pirua for their king, and who originally came from the distant south. The Piruas governed a vast empire, erected imperishable cyclo- pean edifices, and developed a complicated civilization, which is dimly indi- cated to us by the numerous symbolical sculptures on the monolith. They ' T'li- names of this god were Con-Itla-Tici- Uiraciwhij, and he was tlic PacluiyLichachic, or Teacher of the World. Pacha is " time," or " place ; " .also " the universe." " Yachachic^' a teacher, from "Yar/im /liiii" " I teach." Conh said to signify the creatin.; Heity {,Petatizos,Giir- Some authors gave tlie meaning of UiracocJia to be "foam of the sea:" from Uira (I/iiira), "grease," or "foam," and Cocha, "ocean," "sea," "lake." Clarcilasso de la Vega jiointed out the error. In compound words of a nomi- native and genitive, the genitive is invariably cia). According to Clomara, Con was a creative jilaced fust in Quichua; so that the meaning deity who i.u.ie from the north, aftt;r\vards ex- would be "a sea of grease," not "grease of the ])elled I)y I'achacaniac, and a modern authority sea." I Icikl he concludes that t'/VjriW/i/ is not (Lopc7, p. 235) suggests that Con represented a compound word, but simply a name, the der'.- thc "cult of the setting sun," because Ciinti vation of which he does not attempt to explain, means the west. Tiii means a founder or foun- lilas V.aU^ra says that it means " the will and dafion, a.l Ilia is liglit, from /Hani, " I shine : " power of Clod ; " not that this is the signification "Tiie Origin of Light" (Afonlcsinos. Anonv- of the word, but that such were the godlike attri- mous 'Jisiiit. Lopez suggests "Afi" an evil omen, butes of the being who was known by it. Acosta — the r.Ioon God) ; or, according to one author- says that to /"/<.« Ciracoiha they assigned the !;y, "Lijht Fternal" (T/ic anonymous y.siiit). chief power and command over all things. The V'ifu is a cor. uption cf Pirua, which is said by anonymous Jesuit tells us that /lla Tiosi was the some authoritu s to be the name of the first set- original name, and that Uiracocha was added tier, or the four.der of a dynasty; and by others later. to mean .1 "di-io^tory " a "place of abode;" Of these names, ///(z T/ca appears to have been hence a "dvellii.' cr "abider." Cocha means the most ancient, "ocean,"' "abyss, "profundity," "space." Ui- - Cieza de Leon and Salcamayhua. racocha. " the Dweller in Space." So that the ' Montesinos calls the ancient people, who whole would signify "God: the Creator of were peaceful and industrious, [falu-rtina, or Liuht : " the Dweller in Space: the Teacher "Great men." .See also Matienza (MS. Brit of the World." Mus.l. ( \ I I m THE IN'CA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 223 also, in a long course of years, brought wild plants under cultivation, and domesticated the animals of the lofty Andean plateau. But it is remarkable that the shores of Lake Titicaca, which are almost treeless, and where corn will not ripen, should have been chosen as the centre of this most ancient civilization. Yet the ruins of Tiahuanacu conclusively establish the fact that the capital of the I'iruas was on the loftiest site ever selected for the seat of a great empire. The Amautas, or learned men of the later Inca period, preserved the names of sovereigns of the I'irua ilynasty, commencing with Pirua Alanco, and continuing for sixty-five generations. Lopez conjectures that there was a change of dynasty after the eighteenth Pirua king, because hitherto Montesinos, who has recorded the list, had always called each successor so/i and heir, but after the eighteenth only heir. Hence he thinks that a new dynasty of Amautas, or kings of the learned caste, succeeded the I'iruas. The only deeds recorded of this long line of kings are their success in repelling invasions and their alterations of the calendar. At length there appears to have been a general disruption of the empire: Cuzco was nearly deserted, rebel leaders rose up in all directions, the various tribes became independent, and the chief who claimed to be the representative of the old dynasties was reduced to a small territory to the south of Cuzco, in the valley of the Vilcamayu, and was called " King of Tampu Tocco." Thiy state of disintegration is said to have continued for twenty-eight genera- tions, at the end of which time a new empire began to be consolidated un- der the Incas, which inherited the civilization and traditions of the ancient dynasties, and succeeded to their power and dominion. It was long believed that the lists of kings of the earlier dynasties rested solely on the authority of Montesinos, and they consequently received little credit. But recent research has brought to light the work of another writer, who studied before Montesinos, and who incidentally refers to two of the sovereigns in his lists.* This furnishes independent evidence that the catalogues of early kings had been preserved orally or by means of quif^its, and that they were in existence when the .Spaniards conquered Peru ; thus giving weight to the testimony of Montesinos. The second myth of the Peruvians refers to the origin of the Incas, who derived their descent from the kings of Tampu Tocco, and had their original home at Paccari-tampu, in the valley of the Vilcamayu, south of Cuzco. It is, therefore, an ancestral myth. It is related that four brothers, with their four sisters, issued forth from ajjertures {Tocco) in a cave at Paccari-tampu, a name which means "the abode of dawn." Tl'^ brothers were called Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Uchu, and Ayar bauca, names to which the Incas, in the time of Garcilasso de la Vega, gave a fanciful meaning.^ One 1 The anonymous yestiit, p. 178. A work re- - Cachi ("s.ilt") was tlie Inc.-i's instruction in ferred to by Oliva as having been written by rational life, I'chii ("pepper") was tlie delif^ht lilas Valera also mentions some of the early the people derived from this teaching, and Sauca kings by name. (See Saldamando, Jesuitas del ("joy") means the hpppiness afterwards expe- Peru, p. 22.) rienced. m ^ 224 NARRATIVE AND CKITlCAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. ^^\ I '\ of the brothers showed extraordinary prowess in hurling a stone from a sling. The others became jealous, and, persuailing Ayur Auca, the expert slingsman, to return into the cave, they blocked the entrance with rocks. Ayar Uchu was converted into a stone idol, on the summit of a hill near Cuzco, called Huanacauri. Manc(j then advanced to Cuzco with his young- est brother, and found that the place was occupied by a chief named Alca- viza and his people. Here Manco established the seat of his government, and the Alcaviza tribe appears to have submitted to him, and to have lived side by side with the Incas for some generations. The Huanacauri hill was considered the most sacred place in Peru ; while the Tainpii-tocco, or cave at Paccari-tampu, was, through the piety of descendants, faced with a masonry wall, having three windows lined with plates of gold. There is a third myth which seems to connect the ancient tradition of Titicaca with the ancestral myth of the Incas. It is said that long after the creation by the Deity, a great and beneficent being appeared at Tiahua- nacu, who divided the world among four kings ; IManco Ccapac, Colla, To- cay ^ or Tocapo,^ and Pinahua.''' The names Tuapaca,* y\rnauan,'' Tonapa,'"' and Tarapaca'^ occur in connection with this being, while some authorities tell us that hij name was unknown. Betanzos says that he went from Titi- caca to Cuzco, where he set up a chief named Alcaviza, and that he ad- vanced through the country until he disapi)eared over the sea at Puerto \'iejo. It is also related that the people of Canas attacked him, but were converted by a miracle, and that they built a great temple, with an image, at Cacha, in honor of this being, or of his god Ilia Ticsi Uiracocha. This temple now forms a ruin which in its structure and arrangement is unique in Peru, and therefore deserves special attention. The ruins of the temple of Cacha are in the valley of the Vilca-mayu, south of Cuzco. They were described by GarciLsso de la Vega, and have i^°en visited and carefully examined by Squier. The main temple was 330 feet long by 87 broad, with wrought-stone walls and a steep pitched roof. A high wall extended longitudinally through the centre of the structure, consisting of a wrought-stone foundation, 8 feet high antl 5.^ feet thick on the level of the ground, supporting an adobe superstructure, the whole being 40 feet high. This wall was pierced by 12 lofty doorways, 14 feet high. But midway there are sockets for the reception of beams, showing the existence of a second story, as described by Garcilasso. Between the trans- verse and outer walls then; were two series of pillars, 12 on each side, built like the transverse wall, with 8 feet of wrought stone, and completed to a height of 22 feet with adobes. These pillars app^'ar to have sujiported the second floor, where, according to Garcilasso, there was a shrine containing the statue of Uiracocha. At right angles to the temple, Squier discovered the remains of a series of supplemental edifices surrounding courts, and built upon a terrace 260 yards long. ' G. de la Vega. * Molina, p. 7. « Pirua? * Cieza de Leon ; Herrera. ' Salcamayhua THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN I'EKU. 22S The peculiarities of the temple of Cacha consist in the use of rows of columns to support a second floor, and in the groat height of the walls. In these respects it is unique, and if similar edifices ever existed, tiicy aj/jjcar t ) have been destroyed previous to the rise of the Inca empire. The Cacha temple belongs neither to the cyclopean period of the Piruas nor to the Inca style of architecture. Connected with the strange myth of the wan- dering prophet of Viracocha, it stands by it.self, as (;nc of those unsohed pioblems whicii await future investigation. The statue in the shrine on the upper story is liescribed by Cieza de Leon, who saw it. Both the Titicaca and the Cacha myths have, in later times, been con- nected and more or less amalgamated with the ancestral myth of the Incas. Thus Garcilasso de la Vega makes Manco Ccapac come direct from Titi- caca ; while Molina refers to him as one of the beings created there, who went down through the earth and came up at I'accari-tampu. Salcamayhua makes the being Tonapa, of the Cacha myth, arrive at Apu Tampu, or Pac- cari-tampu, and leave a sacred sceptre there, called tiipac yanri, for Manco Ccapac. These are later interpolations, made with the object of connecting the family myth of the Incas witli more ancient traditi(jns. Tiie wise men of the Inca .system, through the care of Spanish writers of the time of the concpiest, have handed down these three traditions and the catalogue of kings. The Titicaca myth tells us of the Deity worshipped by the builders of Tiahuanacu, and the story of the creation. The Cacha myth has refer- enc. to some great reformer of very ancient times. The Paccari-tampu myth records the origin of the Inca dynasty. Although they are overlaid with fables and miraculous occurrences, the main facts touching the orig- inal home of Manco Ccapac and his march to Cuzco are probabh' historical. The catalogue of kings given by Montesinos, allowing an average of twenty years for each, would place the commencement of the Pirua dynasty in about 470 li. c. ; in the days when the Greeks, under Cimon, were defeat- ing the Persians, and nearly a century after the death of Sakya Muni in India. This early empire flourished for about 1,200 years, and the disrup- tion took place in 830 A. n., in the days of King Egbert. The disintegra- tion continued for 500 years, and the rise of the Incas under Manco was probably coeval with the days of St. Louis and Henry III of England.' By that time the country had been broken up into separate tribes for 500 years, and the work of reunion, so splendidly achieved by the Incas, was most arduous. At the same time, the ancient civilization of the Piruas was partially inherited by the various peoples whose ancestors composed their empire ; so that the Inca civilization was a revival rather than a creation. The various tribes and nations of the Andes, separated from each other by uninhabited wildernesses and lofty mountain chains, were clearly of the same origin, speaking dialects of the same language. Since the fall of the ' Was Valcra allows a period of 600 years for its ri.se to be con temporary with Henry II of the existence of the Inca dynasty, which throws England. But twelve generations, allowing its origin back to the days of Alfred the (".real, twenty-five years for each, would only occudv Garcilasso allows 400 yeari, which would make 300 years VOL. I. — 15 h Ti 226 NARRATIVK AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. Piriuis they had led an independent existence. Some had formed powerful lonfcik'iatioiis, others were isolated in their valKys. Ikit it was only through niucli hard fij,ditin^' and by consummate statesiiianshii) that the one small Inca lineage established, in a jieriod of less than three centuries, im|)erial dominion over the rest. It will be well, in this place, to take a brief survey of the different nations which were to form the empire of the Incas, and of their territories. The central Andean rej^ion, whiili was the home of the imjierial race of Incas, extends from the water-parting between the sources of the Ucayali and the basin of Lake Titicaca to the river Apurimac. It incliules wild mountain fastnesses, wide expanses of upland, grassy slo|)es, lofty valleys such as that in whieh the city of Cuzco is built, and fertile ravines, with the most lovely scenery. The inhabitants composed four tribes ; that of the Incas in the valley of the Vilcamayu, of the (Juichuas in the secluded ra- vines of the Apurimac tributaries, and those of the Canas and Cauchis in the mountains bordering on the Titicaca basin. These people average a height of 5 ft. 4 in., and are strongly built. The nose is invariably aquiline, the mouth rather large ; the eyes black or deep brown, bright, and generally deep .set, with Img fine lashes. The hair is abundant and long, fine, and of a deep black-brown. The men have no beards. The skin is very smooth and soft, and of a light coppery-brown color, the neck thick, and the slmul- ders broad, with great depth of chest. The legs are well formed, feet and hands very small. The Incas have the build and physique of mountaineers. To the south of this cradle of the Inca race extended the region of the Collas ' and allied tribes, including the whole basin of Lake Titicaca, which is 12,000 feet above the level of the sea. The Collas dwelt in stone huts, tended their flocks of llamas, and raised crops of ocas, quinoas, and pota- toes. They were divided into several tribes, and were engaged in constant feuds, their arms being slings and ayllos, or bolas. The Collas are remark- able for great length of body compared with the thigh and leg, and they are the only people whose thighs are shorter than their legs. Their build fits them for excellence in mountain climbing and pedestrianism, and for the exercise of extraordinary endurance.- The homes of the Collas were around the seat of ancient civilization at Ti.ahuanacu. A remarkable race, apart from the Incas and Collas, of darker complexion and more savage habits, dwelt and still dwell among the vast beds of reeds in the southwestern angle of Lake Titicaca. They are called Urus, and are probably descendants of an aboriginal people who occupied the Titicaca basin before the arrival of the Hatun-runas from the south. The Urus spoke a distinct language, called Pnquina, specimens of which have been * Erroneously called Ayniarns liv the Span- .in Indian messenger, named Alejo Vilca, from iards. The name, wliieh reallv belongs to a I'lino to Tacna, a distance of 84 Icigiics, who did branch of the Qiiichua tribe, was first misap- it in 62 hours, his only sustenance being .i little plied to the Colla language bv the Jesuits at dried maize and coca, — over four miles an fiuur Juli, and afterwards to the whole Colla race. for 252 miles. ■^ Don Modesto Basadre tells us that he sent SI THE INCA LiVII.IZAriON IN I'EKU. 227 .ayali preserved by Bishop Ore.* The ancestors of the Urus may have been the cromlech builders, driven into the fastnesses of the lake when tlieir country was occupied by the more powerful invaders, who erected the imperishable monuments at Tiahuanacu. These Urus arc now lake-dwellers. Their homes consist of larjje canoes, made of the touj^h reeds which cover the shal- low parts of the lake, and they live on fish, and on quinua and potatoes, which they obtain by barter. North of Cuzco there were several allied tribes, resembling the Incas in physique and hin^niage, in a similar staj^e of civilization, and their rivals in power. Heyond the Apurimac, and inhabiting the valleys of the Andes thence to the Mantaro, was the important nation of the Chancas ; and still further north and west, in the valley of the Xauxa, was the Huanca nation. Af^ricultural people and shepherds, forming aylliis, or tribes of the Chancas and Ihiancas, occupied the ravines of the maritime cordillcra, and extended their settlements into several valleys of the seacoast, between the Rimac and Nasca. These coast people of Inca race, known as Chinchas, held their own a_u;ainst an entirely different nation, of distinct ori^dn and lai'- guai;e, who occupied the northern coast valleys from the Rimac to Payta, and also the great valley of Huarca (the motlern Cailete), where they had Chiucha enemies both to the north and south of them. These people were called Yitmas by their Inca conquerors. Their own name was Chimu, and the language spoken by them was called Mocliica. But this question relat- ing to the early inhabitants of the coast valleys of Peru, their origin and civilization, is the most difficult in ancient Peruvian history, and will require separate cousiilcration.^ North of the Huanca nation, along the basin of the Maraflon, there were tribes which were known to the Incas by their head-dresses. These were the Conchucus, Ifnamachucus, and Huacrachucus.^ Still further north, in the region of the equator, was the powerful nation of Ouitus. All these nations of the Peruvian Andes appear to have once formed part of the mighty prehistoric empire of the Pirhuas, and to have retained much of the civilization of their ancestors during the subsequent centuries of separate existence and isolation. This probably accounts for the ease with which the Incas established their system of religion and government throughout their new empire, after the conquests were completed. The subjugated nations spoke dialects of the same languai^e, and inherited many of the usages and ideas of their conquerors. For the same reason they were pretty equally matched as foes, and the Incas secured the mastery only by dint of desperate fighting and great political sagacity. But finally they did establish their superiority, and founded a second great empire in Peru The history of the rise and progress of Inca power, as recorded by native ' Fr.iy I.udovico Geronimo de Ore, a native cum translationihus in /iitx'iias prmiticiarum Pe- of Guamanga, in Peru, was the author of Ritualc ruanorum, published at Naples in 1607. sen Manuiile ac brert'tn formam administrav.di '^ Cf. Note I, following this chapter. 'iacramcnia juxta ordinem S. Juclcsid Rotnanir, ' Chucn means a head-dress ; ffiiaman, z. {sX- con ; Huacra, a horn. \ ; i,i \\\ \ ^ •iu V^. ^a; ^^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 ^ fii 12.2 £ Si US 1.8 1.4 III 1.6 A" O VI Va % ^> y ^f^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. M580 (716) 872-4503 ^ s^ ,\ \\ % .V \ 6^ '^ '% y. /. k \ \ ;\ % A r i \ ( 1 f: '. ;i f 11 ' : , 1 1 ■ ) » ■ '1 ! 1 i 1 i 1 . , I: ■it 1 I 1 ! I" i 1 1 t !j 1 22S NAKKAIIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY UF AMERICA. INCA MANCO CCAPAC* historians in their quipus, and retailed to us by Spanish writers, is, on the w'.iole, coherent and intelligible. Many blunders were inevitable in conveying the information from the mouths of natives to the Spanish in- quirers, who understood the language imperfectly, and whose objects often were to reach foregone conclusions. But certain broad historical facts are brought out by a comparison of the different authorities, the succession of the last ten sovereigns is deter- mined by a nearly complete consen- sus of evidence, and we can now re- late the general features of the rise of Inca ascendency in Peru with a certain amount of confidence. The Inca people were divided into small ayllns, or lineages, when Manco Ccapac advanced down the valley of the Vilcamayu, from Paccari-tampu, and forced the aylln of Alcaviza and the ayllu of Antasayac to submit to his sway. He formed the nu- cleus of his power at Cuzco, the land of these conquered aylliis, and from this point his descendants slowly extended their dominion. The chiefs of the surrounding ayllus, called Sinchi (literally, "strong"), either submitted willingly to the Incas, or were subjugated. Sinchi Rocca, the son, and Lloque Yupanqui, the grand- son, of Manco, filled up a swamp on the site of the present cathedral of Cuzco, planned out the INCA YUPANQUI. t • [After a cut In Marcoy's South America, i. 210 (also in Toiir du Monde, 1S63, p. 261), purporting to be drawn from a copy of the taffeta roll containing the pedigree of the Incas, which, in evidence of their claims, was sent by their descendants to the Spanish king in 1603. This geneah)gical record contained the likenesses of the successive Incas and their wives, and the original is said to have disappeared. Mr. Markham supposes this roll to have been the original of the portraits given in Herrera (see cut on p. 267 of the present volume) ; but they are not the same, if Marcoy's cuts are trustworthy. A set of likenesses appeared in Ulloa's Relacion HistSrica (Madrid, 1748), iv. 604 ; and these were the originals of the series copied in the Gentleman's Mag.. 1751-1752, and thence are copied those in Ranking. These do not correspond with those given by Marcoy. See (•ost. Vol. II., for a note on different series rf portraits, and in the same volume, pp. 515, 516, are portraits of Atahualpa. A portrait of Manco Inca. killeu 1546, is given in A. de Beauchamps Histoire de la Conqiilte (fii Pirou (Paris. 180S). — F.t).] t [After a cut in Marcoy, i. 214. — En.] |,ri^ *o* THE I.NCA CIVILIZATION IN I'KKU. 339 city,* and their reigns were mainly occupied in consolidating the small kingdom founded by their predecessor. Mayta Ccapac, the fourth Inca, was also occupied in consolidating his power round Cuzco ; but his son, Ccapac Yupanqui, subdued the Quichuas to the westward, and extended his sway as far as the pass of VilcaOota, overlooking the Collao, or basin of Lake Titi- caca. Inca Rocca, the next sovereign, made few conquests, devoting his attention to the foundation of schools, the organization of festivals and ad- ministrative government, and to the construction of public works. His son, named Yahuar-huaccac, appears to have been unfortunate. One authority says that he was surprised and killed, and all agree that his reign was dis- astrous. For seven generations the power and the admirable internal polity of the Incarial government had been gradually organized and consolidated within a limited area. The suc- ceeding sovereigns were great conquerors, and their empire was rapidly extended to the vast area which it had reached when the Spaniards first appeared on the scene. The son of Yahuar-huaccac as- sumed the name of the Deity, and called him.self Uira'jK'ba.^ Intervening in a war between the two principal chiefs of the Collas, named Cari and Zapafia, Uira- cocha defeated them in detail, and annexed the whole basin of Lake Titicaca to his dominions. He also conquered the lovely valley of Yucay, on the lower course of the Vilcamayu, whither he retired to end his days. The eldest son of Uira-cocha, named Urco, was incompetent or unworthy, and was either obliged to abdicate^ in favor of his brother Yupanqui, the favorite hero of Inca history, or was slain.* It was a moment when the rising empire needed the services of hef ablest sons. She was about to engage in a death-struggle with a neighbof cuzco.* ' [Ramusio's plan of Cuzco is given in Vol. II. p. 554, with references (p. 556) to other plans and descriptions ; to which may be added ai archatological examination by Wiener, in the Bull, de la Soc. tic Ghg. tie Paris, Oct., 1879, ^nd in his Pfrou ct Bolivie, with an enlarged plan of the town, showing the regions of different archi- tecture ; accounts in Marcoy's Voyage h tracers CAmhique du Slid (Paris, 1S69; or Eng. transl. i. 174), and in Nadaillac's L' Amhiqiie prihislo- fiqiie, and by Squier in his /'cm, and in his Re- marques siir !;i Gfoi^raphie du Peroii, p. 20. — l;d.] 2 It is related by Ketanzos that one day this Inca appeared before his people with a very joy- ful countenance. When they asked him the cause of his joy, he replied that Uira-cocha I'a- chayachachic had spoken to him in a dream that night. Then all the people rose up and saluted him as Viracocha Inca, which is as much as *o say — " King and God." From that time he was so called. Garcilasso gives a different version of the same tradition, in which he confuses Vira- cocha with his son. ' Cieza de I.eon, ii. 13CS-44. < Salcamayhua, 91. • [One ot .he cuts which did ser\'ice in the Antwerp editions of Cieza de Leon. There are various views in Squiei's /Vr«, pp. 427-445. — El).] , ■ I* ( 1 ; I J ' 330 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. II hi I «■ H as powerful and as civilized as herself. The kingdom of the Chancas, com- mencing on the banks of the Apurimac, extended far to the east and north, including many of the richest valleys of the Andes. Their warlike king, Uscavilca, had already subdued the (Juichuas, who dwelt in the upper val- leys of the Apurimac tril)utaries to the southward, and was advancing on Cuzco, when Yupanqui pushed aside the imbecile Urco, and seized the helm. WARRIORS OF THE INCA PERIOD.* The fate of the Incas was hanging on a thread. The story is one of t rill- ing interest as told in the pages of Betanzos, but all authorities dwell more or less on this famous Chanca war. The decisive battle was fought outside the Huaca-puncu, the sacred gate of Cuzco. The result was long doubtful. Suddenly, as the shades of evening were closing over the Yahuar-panipa, — "the field of blood," — a fresh army fell upon the right flank of the Chanca host, and the Incas won a great victory. So unexpected was this onslaught that the very stones on the mountain sides were believed to have been turned into men. It was the armed array of the insurgent Ouichuas who had come by forced marches to the help of their old masters. The mem- ory of this great struggle was fresh in men's minds when the Spaniards arrived, and as the new conquerors passed over the battlefield, on their way to Cuzco, they saw the stuffed skins of the vanquished Chancas set up as memorials by the roadside. The subjugation of the Chr^cas, with their allies the Huancas, led to a vast extension of the Inca empire, which now reached to the shores of the Pacific ; and the last years of Yupanqui were pas.sed in the conquest of the alien coast nation, ruled over by a sovereign known as the Chimu. Thus the reign of the Inca Yupanqui marks a great epoch. He beat down all rivals, and converted the Cuzco kingdom into a vast empire. He received the name of Pachacutec, or " he who changes the world," a name which, according to Montcsinos, had on eight previous occasions been conferred upon sovereigns of the more ancient dynasties. Tupac Inca Yujianqui, the son and successor of Pachacutec, completed * [After a cut given by Ruge, and showing figures from an old Peruvian painting. — Ed.] I! ! THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 331 the subjugation of the coast valleys, extended his conquests beyond Quito on the north and to Chile as far as the river Maule in the south, besides penetrating far intc the eastern forests. Huayna Ccapac, the son of Tupac Inca Yupanqui, completed and consoli- dated the conquests of his father. He traversed the valleys of the coast, penetrated to the southern limit of Chile, and fought a memorable battle on the banks of the "lake of blood" (Yahuar-cocha), near the northern frontier of Quito. After a long reign,* the last years of which were passed in Quito, Huayna Ccapac died in November, 1525. His eldest legitimate son, named Huascar, succeeded him at Cuzco. But Atahualpa, his father's favorite, was at Quito with the most experienced generals. Haughty mes- sages passed between the brothers, which were followed by war. Huascar's armies were defeated in detail, and eventually the generals of Atahualpa took the legitimate hiea prisoner, entered Cuzco, and massacred the family and adherents of Huascar.^ The successful asi)irant to the throne was on his way to Cuzco, in the wake of his generals, when he encountered I'izarro and the Spanish invaders at Caxamarca. This war of succession would not, it is probable, have led to any revolutionary change in the general policy of the empire. Atahualpa would have established his power and continued to rule, just as Jiis ancestor Pachacutec did, after the dethronement of his brother Urco.^ The succession of the Incas from Manco Ccapac to Atahualpa was evi- dently well known to the Amautas, or learned men of the empire, and was recorded in their quipiis with precision, together with less certain materials iespecting the more ancient dynasties. Many blunders were committed by the Spanish inquirers in putting down the historical information received from the Amautas, but on the whole there is general concurrence among lem.* Practically the Spanish authorities agree, and it is clear that the 1 Idas Valera says 42, Balboa 33, years. - [The ruins of .Vtahualpa's palace are figured in Wiener's Pirou et Bolivie, and in C;te. de Ga- briac's PromiiinJe d tracers r Amirique dii Slid (Paris, 1S68), p. 196. — Ed.] * The meanings of the names of these Incas are significant. Manco and Rocca appear to be proper names without any clear etymology. The rest refer to mental attributes, or else to some personal peculiarity. .Sinchi means " strong." Lloque is " left-handed." Yupanqui is the sec- ond person of the future tense of a verb, and signifies " you will count." Garcilasso interprets it as one who will count as wise, virtuous, and powerful. Ccapac is rich ; that is, rich in all virtues and attributes of a prince. Mayta is an adverb, " where ; " and Salcamayhua says that the constant cry and prayer of this Inca was, "Where art thou, O God.>" because he was constantly seeking his Creator. Yahuar-huaccac means "weeping blood," probably ii. allusion to some malady from which he suffered. Pa- chacutec has already been explained. Tupac is a word signifying royal splendor, and Huayna means "youth." Huascar is "a chain," in allu- sion to a golden chain said to have been made in his honor, and held by the dancers at the fes- tival of his birth. The meaning of Atahualpa has been much disputed. Iliialfa certainly means any large game fowl. Hualf'ani is to create. Atau is " chance," or " the fortune of war." Garcilasso, who is always opposed to der- ivations, maintains that Atahualpa was a proper name without special meaning, and that Hu.ilpa, as a word for a fowl, is derived from it, because the boys in the streets, when imitating cock- crowing, used the word Atahualpa. But Hu- alpa formed part of the name of many scions of the Inca family long before the time of Ata- hualpa. ♦ All authorities agree that Manco Ccapac was the first Inca, although Montesinos places him far back at the head of the Pirhua dynasty, and all agree respecting the second, Sinchi i. 1,1't A ,1 I' I '■ P '. ;'^ r I \ v\ , : » t ' ),' ^3^ NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. I I I Jfi'i ! ' native annalists possessed a sinyle record, while the apparent discrepancies are due to blunders of the Spanish transcribers. The twelve Incas from Manco Ccapac to Huascar may be received as historical personages who.se deeds were had in memory at the time o£ the Spanish invasion, and were narrated to those among the conquerors who souglit for information from the Amauta.s. A. I). 1240 — Manco Ccapac. 1260 — Sinchi Rocca. 12S0 — Lloque \'upanqui. 1300 — Mayta Ccapac. 1320 — Ccapac Yupanqui, 1340 — Inca Rocca. 1 360 — Yahuar-huaccac. 1380 — Uira-cocha. 1400 — Pachacutec Yupanqui. 1440 — Tupac Yupanqui. 1480 — Huayna Ccapac. 1 523 — Inti Cusi Hualpa, or Huascar. The religion of the Incas consisted in the worship of the supreme being of the earlier dynasties, the Ilia Ticsi Uira-cocha of the Pirhuas. This sim- ple faith was ovcrlaici by a vast mass of supcrstitior., represented by the cult of ancestors and the cult of natural objects. To this was superadded the belief in the ideals or souls of all animated things, which ruled and guided them, and to which men might pray for help. The e.xact nature of this belief in ideals, as it presented itself to the people themselves, is not at all clear. It prevailed among the uneducated. Probably it was the idea to which dreams give rise, — the idea of a double nature, of a tangible anu a phantom being, the latter mysterious and powerful, and to be propitiated. The belief in this double being was extended to all animated nature, for even the crops had their spiritual doubles, which it was necessary to wor- ship and propitiate. But the religion of the Incas and of learned men, or Amautas, was a wor- ship of the Supreme Cause of all things, the ancient God of the Titicaca myth, combined with veneration for the sun ' as the ancestor of the reign- ing dynasty, for the other heavenly bodies, and for the malqui, or remains of their forefathers. This feeling of veneration for the sun, closely con- nected with the beneficent work of the venerated object as displayed in Rocca. Lloque Yupanqui, with various spell- ings, has the unanimous vote of all authorities except Acosta, who calls him " laguarhuarque." But Acosta's list is incomplete. Respecting Mayta Ccapac and Ccapac Yupanqui, all are agreed except Betanzos, who transposes them by an evident slip of memory. Touching Inca Rocca all are agreed, though Montesir.js has Sinchi for Inca, and all agree as to Vahuar-hu- accac. It is true that Cieza de !^eon and Her- reracall him Inca Yupanqui, but tl is is explained by Salcamayhua when he gives the full name, — Yahuar-huaccac Inca Yupanqui AH agree as to Uira-cocha. .\s to his sucessor, Hetanzos, Cieza de Leon, Fernandez, Herrera, Salcamay- hua, and Balboa mention the short reign of the deposed U rco. Cieza de Leon and Betanzos give Yupanqui as the name of Urco's brother; all other authorities have Pachacutec. The discrep- ancy is explained by his names having been Yupanqui Pachacutec. This also accounts for Garcilasso de la Vega and Santillan having made Pachacutec and Yupanqui into two Incas, father and son. Betanzos also interpolates a Vamque Yupanqui. All are agreed with regard to Tupac Inca Yupanqui, Huayna Ccapac, Hu- ascar, and Atahualpa. [There is another compar- ison of the different lists in Wiener, L'Empirt des Iiuas, p. 53. — Ed.] ' [See an early cut of this sun-worship in Vol. II p. 551. -Ed.] THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN I'ERU. 233 the course of the seasons, led to the growth of an elaborate ritual and to the celebration of periodical festivals. The weight of evidence is decisively in the direction of a belief on the part of the Incas that a Supreme Being existed, which the sun must obey, as well as all other parts of the universe. This subordination of the sun to the Creator of all things was inculcated by successive incas. Molina says, "They did not know the sun as their Creator, but as created by the Crea- tor." Salcamayhua tells us how the Inca Mayta Ccapac taught that the sun and moon were made for the service of men, and that the chief of the Col- las, addressing the Inca Uira-coch^, exclaimed, " Thou, O powerful lord of Cuzco, dost worship the teacher of the universe, while I, the chief of the Collas, worship the Sun." The evidence on the subject of the religion of the Incas, collected by the Viceroy Toledo, showed that they worshipped the Creator of all things, though they also venerated the sun ; and Monte- sinos mentions an edict of the Inca Pachacutec, promulgated with the object of enforcing the worship of the Supreme God above all other deities. The spjech of Tupac Inca Yupanqui, showing that the sun was not God, but was obeying laws ordained by God, is recorded by Acosta, Bias Valera, and Balboa, and was evidently deeply impressed on the minds of their Inca in- formers. This Inca compared the sun to a tethered beast, which always makes the sime round ; or to a dart, which goes where it is sent, and not where it wishes. The prayers from the Inca ritual, given by Molina, are addressed to the god Ticsi Uiracocha ■ the Sun, Moon, and Thunder being occasionally invoked in conjunction with the principal deity. The worship of this creating God, the Dweller in Space, the Teacher and Ruler of the Universe, was, then, the religion of the Incas which had been inherited from their distant ancestry of the cyclopean age. Around this primitive cult had grown up a supplemental worship of creature? created by the Deity, such as the heavenly bodies, and of objects supposed to repre sent the first ancestors of ayllus, or tribes, as well as of the prototypes of things on whom man's welfare depended, such as flocks and animals of the chase, fruit and corn. It has been asserted that the Deity, the Uira-cocha himself, did not generally receive worship, and that there was only one tem- ple in honor of God throughout the empire, at a place called Pachacamac, on the coast. But this is clearly a mistake. The great temple at Cuzco, with its gorgeous display of riches, was called the "Ccuri-cancha Pacha- yachachicpa huasin," which means "the place of gold, the abode of the Teacher of the Universe." An elliptical plate of gold was fixed on the wall to represent the Deity, flanked on either side by metal representations of his creatures, the Sun and Moon. The chief festival in the middle of the year, called Ccapac Raymi, was instituted in honor of the supreme Creator, and when, from time to time, his worship began to be neglected by the peo- ple, who were apt to run after the numerous local deities, it was again and again enforced by their more enlightened rulers. There were Ccuri-canchas ^ ;!' I r I ;f , :< W«}' .| ':i. ■'■'■ni 234 NAKRATIVK AND CRITICAL IIISTOKY UF AMl.KICA. ^'^W^\ L ! H L »xu \^ ak (» <* *t. k >« i 236 NAKKATIVi: AM) CKITICAI. HISTORY OK AMERICA. M } In-en brought into undue prominence through being mentioned by Sjianish nritcrs. Religious ceremonials were closely connected with the daily life ot tlie people, and especii'.liy with the course of the seasons and the succession of miinths, as they affictcd the operations of agriculture. It was important to fix the equinoxes and solstices, and astronomical knowledge was a part of the priestly office. There were names for many of the stars ; their motions were watched as well as tho.se of the sun and moon ; and though a record of the extent of the astronomical knowledge of the Incas has not been pre- served, it is certain that they watched the time of the solstices and equi- noxes with great care, and that they di.stinguished between the lunar and solar years. I'illars were erected to determine the time of the .solstices, eight on the east and eight on the west side of Cuzco, in double rows, fnur and four, two low between two higher ones, twenty feet apart. 'I'hey were called Siudiua, from sma, a ridge or furrow, the alternate light and shade between the ])illars ajipearing like furrows. A stone column in the centre of a level platform, called fnti-htiatann, was used to ascertain the time of the equinoxes. A line was drawn across the platform from east to west, and watch was kept to observe when the shadow of the pillar was on this line from sunrise to sunset, and there was no shadow at noon. The principal /i/fi-///ttita//(i.'WMi in the square before the great temple at Cuzco; but there are several others in different parts of Peru. The most perfect of these observatories is at Pis.sac, in the valley of Vilcamayu.' There is another at Ollantay-tampu, a fourth near Abancay, and a fifth at Sillustani in the Collao. There is reason to believe that the Incas used a zodiac with twelve signs, corresponding with the months of their solar year. The gold plates whicli they wore on their breasts were stamped with features representing the sun, surrounded by a border of what are probably either zodiacal signs or signs for the months. Whether the ecliptic, or /luataiia, was thus divided or not, it is certain thn«: the sun's motion was observed with great care, and that the calendar was thus fixed with some approach to accuracy.^ The year, or Huata, was divided into twelve Qiiilla, or moon revolutions, and these were .made to correspond with the solar year by adding five days, which were div'dcd among the twelve months. A further correction was made every fourth year. Solar observations were taken and recorded every month. The year commenced on the 22d of June, with the winter solstice, and there were four great festivals at the occurrence of the solstices and equi- noxes. 3 ' A very interesting account of it, with a all the others, is the one adopted by the first sketrh, is given l>y Sqiiicr, p. 524. ^ Huatana means a halter, from huataiii, to a3 follows : — Council of Lima, and given by Calancha. It is seize ; hence the tying up or encircling of the sun. ' Authorities differ respecting the names of the months, and probably some months had more than one name. But the most accur.ite list, and that which is most in a'^reement with 1. Yntip Kdvmi (22 Jiine-22 July), Festival of the Winter Solstice, or Kaymi. 2. Chahuarquiz (22 JuIy-22 Aug.), Season of ploughing. 3. Yapa-quiz (22 Aug.-22 Sept.), Season of sowing. TMK INC A CIVILlZAllUN IN PEKU. ''i? The celebrations of the si>lur year and of the seasons, in their bearini^s on a;;ricultiire, were identical with the chief reiinimis (ibservanccs. The kaymi, or festival of the winter solstice, in the first month, when ti>c K^an- aries were tilled after harvest, was established in special honor of the Sun. Surifices of llamas and lambs, and of the first-fruits ol the earth, were offered up to the ima;;es of the Supreme Hein^, of the Sun, and of Thun- der, which were |)laced in the open space in front of the j;reat temple ; as well as to the //««(•<;, or stone representin;; the brother of Manco Ccapac, on the hill of lluanacauri. There was also a procession of the jiriests and peo- ple as far as the pass of Vilcartota, leading into the basin of I.akc Titicaca, sacrifices beinj; offered up at various spots on the road. The .sacrifices were accompanied by prayers, and concluded with son;;s, called liuaylliiht, and dancin;^. Then followed the plou<.;hinf; month, when it is said that the Inca himself opened the season by plouj;hing a furrow with a t;ol(len plough in the field behind the Colcampata palace, on the height above Cuzco. The question here arises whether human sacrifices were offend up, in the Inca ritual. This has been stated by Molina, Cieza Je Leon, Montesinos, ]{alboa, Ondegardo, and Acosta, and indignantly denied by Garcilasso de la Vega. Cieza de I.eon admits that there were occasional human sacrifices, but add., that their numbers and the frequency of such offerings have been grossly exaggerated by the Spaniards. If the sacrifices had been offered under the idea of atonement or expiation, it might well be expected that human sacrifices would be included. Under such ideas, men offered up what they valued most, just as Abraham was prepared to sacrifice his son, as Jej^htbah dedicated his daughter as a burnt-offering to Jehovah, and as the king of Moab sacrificed his eldest son to Chemosh.^ liut, except in the Situa, when the idea was to efface sins bv washing, the sacrifices of the Incas were offerings of thanksgiving, not of expiation or atonement. The mis- take of the five writers who supposed that the Incas offered human sacrifices was duo to their ignorance of the language.* The perpetration of human 4. Ccoyii Ritymi (22 Scpt.-22 Oct.), Festival of ISttar.zos, Molin.i, Montesinos, Fernandez, and the Spring Kquinox. Situa. Ramos. Acosta also gives an incomplete list. 5. Uma Raymi (22 Oct.-22 Nov.), Season of ' Judnes xii. 39; 2 Kings iii. 27. brewing. - Tlie sacrifices were called runa, yuyac, and 6. Ayamarca (22 Nov.-22 Dec), Commemo- /iimliwi. The Spaniards thought that runa and ration of the dead. yiiyiu .signified men, and hiiahuii children. This was not tlic case wlicn speaking of sacrificial 7. Ccapac Raymi (22 Dec.-22 Jan.), Festival victims. A'h«(J was applied to a male sacrifice, of the Summer Solstice. Ilitaraca. hwiliiia to the lambs, and yuyac signified an 8. Camay (22 Jan.-22 Feb.), Season of exer- adult or full-grown animal. The sacrificial ani- cises. mals were also called after the names of those 9. Hatun-poccoy {22 Fcb.-22 March), Season who offered them, which was another cause of of ripening. • erroneous assumptions by Spanish writers. There was a law strictly prohibiting human sac- 10. Pacha-poccoy (22 March-22 April). Festival ^jfices among the conquered tribes; and the of Autumn Equinox. Mosoc A'iiia. statement thn» servants were sacrificed at the 11. A-rihua (22 April-22 May), Beginning of obsequies of their masters is disproved by the harvest. iaci, mentioned bv the anonvmous Jesuit, that 12. Aymuray (2?. May-22 June), Harvesting in none of the burial-places opened by the Span- •"""'li- iards in search of treasure were anv human The other authorities for the Inca months are bones found, exce;it those of the buried lord himself. f! i n ' ■ «'' 'i'- i; i> ,1, 1^ I 1 % :;*» '.T I %> i i'Mi ( i i I • ' 1. '^■^ 23« NARRATIVK AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. sacrifice was opposed to the religious ideas of the ancient Peruvians, and formed no part of their ceremonial worship. Their ritual was almost exchi- sively devoted to thanks^jivin^ and rcjoicin^'.s over the beneficence of their Deity. The notion of expiation formed no part of their creed, while the destruction involved in such a system was opposed to their economic and carefully re^julated civil polity.' The second ;,'re;it festival, called Situa, was celebrated at the vernal cquU nox. This was the commencement of the rainy season, when sickness pre- vailed, and the object of the ceremony was to pray to the Creator to drive diseases and evils from the land. In the centre of the great square of Cuzco a body of four hundred warriors was assembled, fully armed for war. One hundred faced towards the Chiiu ha-suyu road, one hundred faced towards Anti-suyu, one hundred towards Colla-suyu, and one hundred towards Cunti- suyu, — the four ^rcat divisions of the empire. The Inca and the hi^h. priest, with their attendants, then came from the temple, and shouted, " Go forth all evils!" On the instant the warriors ran at great speed towards the four quarters, shouting the same .sentence as they went, until they each came to another party, which took up the cry, and the last parties reached the banks of great rivers, the Apurimac or Vilcamayu, where they bathed and washed their arms. The rivers were sujjposed to carry the evils away to the ocean. As the warriors ran through the streets of Cuzco, all the people came to their doors, shaking their clothes, and shouting, " Let the evils be gone !" In the evening they all bathed ; then they lighted great torches of straw, called paiunrcn, antl, marching in procession out of the city, they threw them into the rivers, believing that thus nocturnal evils were banished. At night, each family partook of a su|)per consisting of pudding made of 1 Prcscott (I. p. 98, note) .icceptcd the st.ite- ment that human sacrifices were offered by the Inca.s, because six authorities, Sarmiento, Cieza de Leon, Montesinos, I!.-ilboa, (IndeRardo, and Acosta — outnumbered the single authority on the other side, Garcilasso de la Vega, who, more- over, was believed to be prejudiced owing to his relationship to the Incas. Sarmiento and Cieza de Leon are one and the same, so that the number of authorities for human sacrifices is reduced to five. Cieza de Leon, Montesinos, and Balboa adopted the belief that human sacrifices were offered up, through a misunderstanding of the words yuyac and hiiiihiia. Acosta had little or no acquaintance with the language, as is proved by the numerous linguistic blunders in his work. (Indegardo wrote at a time when he scarcely knew the language, and had no interpreters ; for it was in 1554, when he was judge at Cuzco. At that time all the annalists and old men had fled into the forests, because of the insurrection of Francisco Hernandez Giron. The authorities who deny the practice are nu- merous and important. These are Francisco de Chaves, one of the best and most able of the orifjmal conquerors; Juan de Oliva; the Licen. tiatc .Alvarez; Fray Marcos Jofre; the Licen- tiate Falcon, in his .■If'oloi^ia pro InJis ; Melchior Hernandez, in his dictionary, under the words luirpay and liuahua ; the anonymous Jesuit in his most valuable narrative; and Garcilasso de la Vega. These eight authorities outweigh the five quoted by Prescott, both as regards number and importance. So that the evidence against human sacrifices is conclusive. The Qui/its, as the anonymous Jesuit tells us, also prove that there was a law prohibiting human sacrifices. The assertion that 200 children and i,ocx5 men were sacrificed at the coronation of Huayua Cca- pac was made ; but these " hunhuiis " were not children of men, but young lambs, which are called children; and the "yuyac" vmA" runa" were not men, but adult llamas. [Mr. Markham has elsewhere collated the authorities on this point (Koyal Commentaries, i. 139). Cf. Bol- laert's Antiq. Researches,^. 124; and Alphonse Castaing on " Lcs FStes, Offrandes et Sacrifices dans I'Antiquite Peruvienne," in the Archives dt la SocUti Amiricaine de France, «i. s., iii. 239.— Ed.] THli INCA CIVILIZATION IN I'EKU. 239 coarsely ground maize, called stincii, whit h was also smeared over their faces aiul the lintels of their doorways, then wuslied off und thrown into the rivers with the cry, " May we be free from sickness, and may no maladies enter mir houses ! " The /iiuicns and nin/tfiiis were also bathed at the feast of Situa. In the following days all the mnlquis were paraded, and there were sacrifices, with feasting and dancing. A stone fountain, plated with gold, stood in the great square <»f Cuzco, and the Inca, on this and other solemn festivals, poured cliiclta into it from a golden vase, which was con. ducted l)y subterranean pipes to the temple. The third great festival at the summer solstice, called lluamcu, was the occasion on which the youths of the empire were udniitted to a rank equiv- alent to kn-ghthood, after passing through a severe ordeal. The Inca and his court were assembled in front of the temple. Thither the youths were conducted by their relations, with heatis closely shorn, and attired in shirts of fine yellow wool edged with black, and white mantles fastened round their necks by woollen cords with red tassels. They made their reverences to the Inca, offered up prayers, and each presented a llama for sacrifice,' Proceeding thence to the hill of Iluanacauri, where the venerated hiiaca to Ayar Uclui was erected, they there received huanis, or breeches made of aloe fibres, from the priest. This completed their manly attire, and they returned home to prepare for the ordeal. A few days afterwards they were assembled in the great square, receivetl a spear, called ytinri, and iixntas or sandals, and were severely whipped to prove their endurance. The young candidates were then sent forth to pass the night in a desert about a league from Cuzco. Ne.\t day they had to run a race. At the farther end of the course young girls were stationed, called f}nsta-ca//i-S(i/>n,'^ with jars of chi- cha, who cried, "Come quickly, youths, for we are waiting! " but the course was a long one, and many fell before they reached the goal. They also had to rival each other in assaults and feats of arms. Finally their ears were bored, and they received ear-jjieces of gold and other marks of distinction from the Inca. The last ceremony was that of bathing in the fountain called Calli-puquio. About eight hundred youths annually passed through this ordeal, and became adult warriors, at Cuzco, and similar ceremonies were performed in all the provinces of the empire. In the month following on the summer solstice, there was a curious reli- gious ceremony known as the water sacrifice. The cinders and ashes of all the numerous sacrifices throughout the year were preserved. Dams were constructed across the rivers which flow through Cuzco, in order that the water might rush down with great force when they were taken away. Prayers and .sacrifices were offered up, and then a little after sunset all the a.shes were thrown into the rivers and the dams were removed. Then the burnt-sacrifices were hurried down with the stream, closely followed by ' The sacrificial llamas bore the names of the languaRe, assumed that the youths themselves youths who presented them. Hence the Span- were the victims. (See duU, p. 237.) ish writer';, \v!fh little or no knowledge of the '■' AVr/i/, princess ; cr7///, valorous ; sapa, alone, unrivalled. ■I .1 r II H '= ■I 1,1 240 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. i'r 1 li^^..' '.\n \ M ■ n i^iiH crowds of people on either bank, with blazing torches, as far as the bridge at Ollantay-tumpu. There two bags of coca were offered up by being hurled into the river, and thence the sacrifices were allowed to flow onwards to the sea. This curious ceremony seems to have been intended not only as a thank-offering to the Deity, but as an acknowledgment of his omnipres- ence. As the offerings flowed with the stream, they knew not whither, yet went to Him, so his pervading spirit was everywhere, alike in parts un- known as in the visible world of the Incas. A sacred fire was kept alive throughout the year by the virgins of the sun, and the ceremony of its annual renewal at the autumnal equinox was the fourth great festival, called Mosoc-itiua, or the "new fire." Fire was produced by collecting the sun's rays on a burnished metal mirror, and the ceremony was the occasion of prayers and sacrifices. The year ended with the rejoicing of the harvest months, accompanied by songs, dances, and other festivities. Besides the periodical festivals, there were also religious observances which entered into the life of each family. Every household had one or more lans, called Coiiopa, representing maize, fruit, a llama, or other object on which its welfare depended. The belief in divination and soothsaying, the practice of fasting followed by confession, and worship of the family malqiii, all gave employment to the priesthood. The comp'cated religious ceremonies connected with the periodical fes- tivals, the dai.y worship, and the requirements of private families gave rise to the growth of a very numerous caste of priests and divinei:. The pope of this hierarchy, the chief pontiff, was called Uillac Umu, words meaning "The head which gives counsel," he who repeats to the people the utter- ances of the Deity. He was the most learned and virtuous of the priestly caste, always a member of the reigning family, and ne.xt in rank to the Inca. The Villcas, equivalent to the bishops of a Christian hierarchy, were the chief priests in the provinces, and during the greatest e.xtension of the em- pire they numbered ten. The ordinary ministers of religion were divided into sacrificers, worshippers and confessors, diviners, and recluses.^ It was 1 Of the first class were the Tarpuiitav, or sacrificing priests, and the Nacac, who cut up the victims and provided the offerings, whether hiirpay or l)loody sacrifices, haspay or bloodless sacrifices of flesh, or cocuy, oblations of com, fruit, or coca. Molina mentions a custom called Ccapac-coiha or Cacha-huacu, being the distribu- tion of sacrifices. An enormous tribute came to Cuzco annually for sacrificial purposes, and was thence distributed by the Inca, for the worship of every huaca in the empire. The different sac- rifices were sent from Cuzco in all directions for delivery to the priests of the numerous htia- ais. The ministering priests were called Htiacap VilliU when they had charge of a special idol, Huaciip Kimachi or Hualuc when they received utterances from a deitv while in a state of ec- static frenzy called utirayay, and Ychurichiic when they received confessions and ministered in private families. The soothsayers were a very numerous class. The Hamurpa examined the entrails of sacrifices, and divined by the flight of birds. 'I'he Llayca, Ai/iacuc, fftiatuc, and Uira-piricnc were soothsayers of various grades. Tlie Socyac divined by maize heaps, the Pacchaciic by the foet of a large hairy sjjider, the Uaychuncn by odds and evens. The recluses were not only Aclla-cuna, or virgins congregated in temples under the charge of matrons called Mama-cunn. There were also hermits who med- itated in solitary places, and appear to have been under a rule, with an abbot called Tiicricac, and younger men serving a novitiate called Huamac. These Huancaquilti, or hermits, took vows of THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN THRU. 241 indeed inevitable that, with a complicated ritual and a gorgeous ceremonial worship, a jiopulous class of priests and their assistants, of numerous grades and calling hould come into existence.' But the intellectual movement and vigor of the Incas were not confined to the priesthood. The Amautas or learned men, the poets and reciters of history, the musical and dramatic composers, the Ouipu-camayoc, or record- ers and accountants, were not necessariiy, nor inileed generally, of the priestly caste. It is probable that the Amautas, or men of learning, formed a separate caste devoted to the cultivation of 'itcrature and the extension of the language. Our knowledge of their progress and of the character of their traditions and poetic culture is very limited, owing to the destruction of records and the loss of oral testimony. The language has been preserved, and that will tell us much ; but only a few literary compositions have been saved from the wreck of the Inca empire. Quichua was the name given to the general language of the Incas by Friar Domingo de San Tomas, the first Spaniard who studied it grammatically, possibly owing to his having acquired it from people belonging to the Ouichua tribe. The name con- tinued to be used, and has been generally adopted.^ Garcilasso de la Vega speaks of a separate court language of the Incas, but the eleven words he gives as belonging to it are ordinary Quichua words, and I concur with Her- vas and William von Humboldt in the conclusion that this court language chastity (///«), obedience (//««/<•«/), poverty («j- aiitiy), and penance (villul/iry). ' [The general works on the Inca civilization necessarily touch these points of their religious customs, and Mr. Markham's volume on the AVto and Latus of the Incas is a prime source of information. Hawk's translation of Rivero and Von Tschudi (p. 151) gives references; but spe- cial mention maybe made of Muller's Geschichte der Amerikanischen U>relif;ioncn ; Castaing's L(s System e religieux dans !'Antii/uil<' f'eruvi- enne, in the Archives de la Sac. AmJi: dc France, n. s., iii. 86, 145; Tylor's Primitive Culture; "BrmKovt'^ Myths of the Ne7u World; and Albert Reville's Lectures on the origin and grojvth of religion as illustrated by the native religious of Afcxiro and Peru. Deliz.red at Oxford and London, in April and Afay, 1SS4. Translated hy rhilif H. Wicksteed (London, 18S4. Hibbart lectures). — Kr).| ■^ The Quichua language was spoken over a vast area of the Andean region of South America. The dialects only differ slightly, and even the language of the Collas, called by the Spaniards Aymara, is identical as regards the grammatical structure, while a clear majority of the words are the same. The general language of Peru belongs to that American -nun of languages which has been called ac:<;lutinative by William VOL. I. - 16 von Humboldt. These languages form new words by a process of junction which is much more developed in them than in any of the forms of speech 'n the Old World. They also have e.vclusive and inclusive plurals, and transitional forms of the verb combined with pronominal suffixes which are peculi.ir to them. \\\ these respects the Quichua is purely an American Ian- guage, and in spite of the resemblances in the sounds of some words, which have been dil'- gcntl / collected by Lopez (I.es Races Aryenu. - du Plrou, par Vicente F. Lopez, Paris, 1S71) and Ellis ( Per :via Scylhica, by Robert Ellis, B. D., London, 1S75), no connection, either as regards grammar or vocabulary, has been satisfactorily established between the speech of the Incas and any language of the Old World. Quichua is a noble language, with a most extensive vo- cabulary, rich in forms of the plural number, which argue a very clear conception of the idea of pluralitv ; rich in verbal conjugations ; rich in the power of forming compound nouns ; rich in varied expressions to denote abstract ideas ; rich in words for relationships which are wanting in the Old World idioms ; and rich, above all, in synonyms : so that it was an etficient vehicle wherewith to clothe the thoughts and ideas of a people advanced in civilization. I ! \ \\\ \ i ' m ')' ( ! M 243 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. 'Jl ') I !!' ,;'«o ■>' I i I "■■ / ; lU'.l \ '1 1 « ■ of Garcilasso had no real existence.' It is not mentioned by any other authority. It was the custom for the Yaravecs or Bards to recite the deeds of former Incas on public occasions, and these rhythmical narratives were orally pre- served and handed down by the learned men. Cieza de Leon tells us that " by this plan, from the mouths of one generation the succeeding one was taught, and they could relate what took place five hundred years ago as if only ten years had passed. This was the order that was taken to prevent the great events of the empire from falling into oblivion." These historical recitations and songs must have formed the most important part of Inca literature. One specimen of imaginative poetry has been preserved by Bias Valero, in which the thunder, followed by rain, is likened to a brother break- ing his sister's pitcher ; just as in the Scandinavian mythology the legend which is the original source of our nursery rhyme of Jack and Jill employs the same imageiy. Pastoral duties are embodied in some o<" the later Qui- chuan dramatic literature, and numerous love songs and yaravics, or ele- gies, have been handed down orally, or [reserved in old manuscripts. The dances were numerous and complicated, and the Incas had many musical instruments.^ Dramatic repre.sentations, both of a tragic and comic char- acter, were performed before the Inca court. The statement of Garcilasso de la Vega to this effect is supported by the independent evidence of Cieza de Leon and of Salcamayhua, and is placed beyond a doubt by the sentence of the judge, Arechc, in 1781, who prohibited the celebration of the.se dra- mas by the Indians. Father Ite.l also speaks of the " Ouichua dramas transmitted to this day (1790) by an unbroken tradition." But only one such drama has been handed down to our own time. It is entitled Ollan- tay, and records an historical event of the time of Yupanqui Pachacutec. In its present form, as regards division into scenes and stage directions, it shows later Spanish manipulation. The question of its antiquity has been much discussed ; but the final result is that Quichua scholars believe most of its dialogues and speeches and all the songs to be remnants of the Inca period. The system of record by the use of qtcipus, or knots, was primarily a method of numeration and of keeping accounts To cords of various col- ors smaller lines were attached in the form of frino;e, on which there were knots in an almost infinite variety of combination. The Quipii-camayoc, or accountant, could by this means keep records under numerous heads, and preserve the accounts of the empire. The quifiis represented a far better system of keeping accounts than the exchequer tallies which were used in England for the same purpose as late as the early part of the present cen- tury. But the question of the extent to which historical events could be » Garcil.isso, Com. Rtal., i. lib. i. cap. 24, and wooden flute, and the pirv.tii, of bone. They lib. vii. cap. I. also had a stringed instrument called tinya, for 2> ong several kinds of flutes were the accompanying their songs, a drum, and trumpet! chavt ,, made of cane, the pinaillu, a small of several kinds, one made from a sea-shell. THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PKRU. 243 recorded by this system of knots is a difficult one. We have the direct assertions of Montcsinos, Salcamayhua, the anonymous Jesuit, Bias Valera, and others, that not only narratives, but songs, were preserved by means of the qiiipus. Von Tschudi believed that by dint of the uninterrupted studies of experts during several genera- tions, the power of expression became developed more and more, and that eventually the art of the Quipii - cautayoc reached a high state of perfec- tion. It may reasonably be assumed that with some help from oral commentary, codes of laws, historical events, and even poems were preserved in the qiiipHs. It was through this substitute for writing that Montesinos and the anony- mous Jesuit received their lists of ancient dynasties, and Bias Valera distinctly says that the poem he has preserved was taken from quipiis. Still it must have been rather a sys- tem of mnemonics than of com- plete record. Molina tells us that the events in Ae reigns of all the Incas, as well as early traditions, were represented by paintings on boards, in a temple near Cuzco, called Poqiien cancha. The diviners used certain incantations to cure the sick, but the healing art among the Incas was really in the hands of learned men. Those Ainau' tds who devoted themselves to the study of medicine had, as Acosta bears testimony, a knowledge of the properties of many plants. The febrifuge virtues of the precious quinquina were, it is true, unknown, or only locally known. But the Amautas used plants with tonic properties for curing * [Following ,1 sketch in Rivero and Tschudi, as reproduced by Helps. It shows a quipu found in an ancient cemetery near Pachacamac. There are other cuts in Wiener's Pcrou ct Bolivic,\i. '--\ Tylor's Early Hist. MankmJ, 15(1; Kingsborough's Afexico, vol. iv. ; Silvestre's Universal Palitography ; and L^on de Rosny's Ecriliircs Jigiirafives, Paris, 1S70. Cf. Acosta, vi. cap. 8, and other early authorities men- tioned in Prescott (Kirk's ed. i. 12;) ; Markham's Cieza, 21)1 ; D. Wilson's Prehistoric Afnn, ii. ch. 18 ; Fourth Reft. Bureau of Ethnology (Washington), p. 79; Bollaert's description in .\temoirs read before the An. throfological Society of London, \. 1S8, and iii. 351; A. Basti,in's CulturlHnder dcs alten America, iii. 7^ Brasseur de Bourbourg's AfS. Troano, i. 18 ; Stevens's Flint Chips, 465 ; T. P. Thompson's " Knot Kecordi of Peru " in Westminster Rriew, xi. 228 ; but in the separate print called History of the Quifos, or Peruvian Knot-records, as given by the early Sfanish Historians, ivith a Description of a supposed Specimen, assigned to Al. Strong by Leclerc, No. 2413. The description in Frezier's Voyage to the South Sea (1717) is one of the earliest among Europeans. Leclerc, No. 2412, mentions a Letter a apologetica (Napoli, 1750), pertaining to the quipus, but seems uncertain as to its value. — En.] THE QUIPU-S.* • r iM *n ^ f 1 ■^^!! it;! ) 1 » ' I, !)'{/ I I 1 \\ ^ 244 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. fevers ; and they were provided with these and other drugs by an itinerant caste, called Calahuayas or Charisanis, who went into the forests to pro- cure them. The descendants of these itinerant doctors still wander over South America, selling drugs.' The discovery of a skull in a cemetery at Yucay, which exhibits clear evidence of a case of trepan- ning before death, proves the marvellous advances n^.ade by the Incas in surgical science. The sovereign was the centre of all civilization and all knowl- edge. All literary culture, all the religious ceremonial which had grown up with the extension of the empire, had the Inca for their centre, as well as all the military operations and all laws connected with civil administra- tion. Originally but the Sinc/ii, or chief of a small ayllii, the greatness of successive Incas grew with the extension of their power, until at last they were looked upon almost as deities by their subjects. The greatest lords entered their presence in a stooping position and with a small burden on their backs. The im- perial family rapidly increased. Each Inca left behind him numerous younger sons, whose descendants formed an ayllti, so that the later sov- ereigns were surrounded by a numerous following of their own kindred, from among whom able public servants were selected. The sovereign was INCA SKULL.* 1 Was Valera wrote upon the subject of Inca mentaries of Garcilasso do la Vega. An inter- drugs, and I have given a list of those usually esting account of the Calahuaya doctors is given found in the bags of the itinerant Calahuaya by Don Modesto Basadre in his Riqnezas Peru- doctors, in a foot-note at page 1S6 in vol. i. of anas, p. 17 (Lima, 1884). my translation of the first part of the Royal Com- • [.After the plate in the Contrib. to N. Am. Ethnology, vol. v. ^Powell's survey, 1882), showing the tre- phined skull brought from Peru by Squier, in the Army Med. Museum, Washington. Squier in his Peru, p. 457, gives another cut, with comments of Broca and others in the appendi.\. Cf. in the same volume a paper on " Prehistoric Trephining and Cr,-inial Amulets," by R. Fletcher, and a paper on " Trephining in the ^^o- lithic Period." in the Journal 0/ fie Ant/iro/ological /nstitiite, Nov., 1887. Cf. on Peruvian skulls Rudolf Virchow, in the third volume of the Necrof'olis of Ancon ; T. J. Hutchinson in the Journal of the Anthropo- logical Institute, iii. 311; iv. 2 ; Busk and Davis in Ibid. iii. 86, 94 ; Wilson's Prehistoric Man, ii. ch. 20 ; C C. Blake, in Transactions £thnolog. Soc, n. a., 11, There are two collections of Peruvian skulls in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge, Mass., — one presented by Squier, the other secured by the Haasler Expedition. (Cf Reforts VII. and IX. of the museum.) Wiener (L'Emfire des Incas, p. 81) cites a long list of write.'s on the artificial deforming of the skull. — En.] THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 245 the " SiJpallan Inca" the sole and sovereign lord, and with good reason he was called Huacchacnyac, or friend of the poor. Enormous wealth was sent to Cuzco as tribute from all parts of the em- pire, for the service of the court and of the temples. The special insignia of the sovereign were the llautti, or crimson fringe round the forehead, the wing feathers (black and white) of the alcamari, an Andean vulture, on the head, forming together thesiintu paucaroT sacred head-dress ; the kuaman cliatupi, or mace, and the ccapac-yanri, or sceptre. His dress consisted of shirts of cotton, tunics of dyed cotton in patterns, with borders of small gold and silver plates or feathers, and mantles of fine vicufla wool woven and dyed. The Incas, as represented in the pictures at Cuzco.i painted soon I).. RUINS AT CHUCUITO* after the conquest, wore golden breastplates suspended round their necks, with the image of the sun stamped upon them ;2 and the Ccoya, or queen, wore a large golden topn, or pin, with figures engraved on the head, which secured her lliclla, or mantle. All the utensils of the palace were of gold ; and so exclusively was that precious metal used in the service of the court and the temple that a garden outside the Ccuri-cancha was planted with models of leaves, fruit, and stalks made of pure gold.^ 1 In the church of Santa Anna. ^ [See pictures of Atahualpa in Vol. II. pp. 515, 516. For a colored pLite of "Lyou.x d'or peruviens," emblems of royalty, see Arc/iivcs de la Soc. Amir, de France, n. s., i. pi. v. — Ed.] ' The truth of this use of gold by the Incas does not depend on the glowing descriptions of Garcilasso de la Vega. A golden breastplate and topu, a golden leaf with a long stalk, four .•pecimens of golden fruit, and a girdle of gold were found near Cuzco in 1852, and sent to the late General Echenique, then President of Peru. The present writer had .in opportunity of inspect- ing and makin careful copies of them. His drawings of the breastplate and lofu were litho- graphed for Bollaert's Antiquarian Researches in Peru, p. 146. The breastplate was 5 3-10 inches in diameter, and had four narrow slits for sus- pending it rc' 1 the neck. The golden leaf w.is) 12 7-10 inchto long, including the stem; breadth of the base of the leaf, 3 :-io inches. The mod- els of fruit were 3 inches in diameter, and the girdle iS 1-4 inches long. • [.\fter a drawing in Squier"s Primera/ Afoniimenfs of Peru, p. i;, showing a wall of hewn stones, with an entrance. The enclosed rect.mgle is fi; feet nn each side. — ''a type of an advanced class of megalithic monuments by no means uncommon in the highlands of Pern." Of. Squier's Peru, p. 354. — Ed] K i >i ! f > ',1 ! I^P M^l I ( I 246 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL IIISTORV OF AMEMCA. The architecture of a people is one of the most important tests of their civilization, and in this art the Incas had made astonishing progress. When their ancestor first arrived at Cuzco he had before him the cyclopean labors of a former dynasty on the heights of the Sacsahuaman. Two mountain streams flowed from either side of that hill and united in the plain, often overflowing their banks and forming swamps. The Ii.cas drained the ground, confined the torrents between masonry walls, and erected edifices in the reclaimed space, which will remain as monuments of their skill and taste for all time. Here rose the famous city of Cuzco. I..\KE TITICACA.* Two styles are discernible in Inca architecture. The earliest is an imi- tation of the cyclopean works of their ancestors on a smaller scale. The walls were built with polygonal-shaped stones with rough surfaces, but the stones were much reduced in size. Rows of doorways with slanting sides * fAfer i' ctit in Ruije's Gesi:!>. des Zeiftil. ier Entdeckungen. Squier explored the lake with Raimond in 1864-^):, and bears testimony to the general accuracy of the survey by J. B. Pentland, British consul in Bo- livia (1827-^' :'"H jS-57>, published by the British admiralty ; but Squier points out some defects of his suri-ey in his Kcmarques sur la Gio!;. du Peroii, p. 14, and m Journal Amer. Geog. Son., iii. There is another view in Wiener's Pcrou ft Boiivie, p. 441. Cf. Markham's Cieza de Leon,yio\ Marcoy's Voyage; Baldwin's An- cient America. 22.S ; and Philippson's Geseli. des neii. '/,eit., i. 240. Squier in his Peru (pp. joS-tyo) Drives various views, plans of the ruins, and a map of the lake. — Ed.] u THE INCA CniLIZATION IN PEKU. 247 their When labors .in tain often "ound, n the taste 1 imi- The t the sides aimond I in Bo- siin-ey er view n's An- 1) trives and monolithic lintels adorn the faqades ; while recesses for htwcixs, shaped liiie the doorways, occur in the interior walls. Part of the palace called the vJollcampata, at the foot of the Cuzco fortress, the buildings which were added to the cyclopean work at Ollantay tampu, the older portion of the Ccuri-cancha temple at Cuzco, the palaces at Chinchero and Rimac-tampu, are in this earlier style. The later style is seen mainly at Cuzco, where the stones are laid in regular courses. No one has described this superb masonry better than Squier.^ No cement or mortar of any kind was used, the edifices depending entirely on the accuracy of their stone-fitting for their stability. The palaces and temples were built round a court-yard, and a hail of vast dimensions, large enough for ceremonies on an extensive scale, was included in the plan of most of the edifices. These halls were 300 paces long by 50 to 60 broad. The dimensions of the Ccuri-cancha temple were 296 feet by 52, and the southwest end was apsidal. Serpents are carved in relief on some of the stones and lintels of the Cuzco palaces. Hence the pal- ace of Huayna Ccapac is called Amaru-cancha.^ At Hatun-colla, near Lake Titicjca, there are two sandstone pillars, probably of Inca origin, which are very richly carved. They are covered with figures of serpents, lizards, and frogs, and with elaborate geometrical patterns. The h-'ight of the walls of the Cuzco edifices was from 35 to 40 feet, and the roofs were thatched. One specimen of the admirable thatching of the Incas is still preserved at Azangaro. There are many ruins through- out Peru both in the earlier and later styles ; some of them, such as those at Vilcashuaman and Huanuco el viejo, being of great interest. The Inca palace on the island in Lake Titicaca is a rec- tangular two-storied edifice, with lake titicaca.* numerous rooms having ceilings formed of flat overlapping stones, laid with great regularity. With its esplanade, beautiful terraced gardens, baths, and fountains, this Titicaca palace must have been intended for the enjoy- ment of beautiful scenery in comparative seclusion, like the now destroyed palace at Yucay, in the valley of the Vilcamayu. 1 "The stones arc of v.-iriou-s .sizes in different structures, ranging in length from one to eight feet, and in thickness from si.\ inches to two feet. The larger stones are generally ?X the bottom, each course diminishing in thickness towards til- top of the wall, thus giving a very pleasing ctfect of graduation. The joints are of a precis- ion unknown in our architecture, and not rivalled in the remains of ancient art in Europe. The statement of the old writers, that the accuracy with which the stones of some structures were fitted together was such that it was impossible to introduce the thinnest knife-blade or finest needle between them, may be ' ken as strictly true. The world has nothing to show in the wav of stone cutting and fitting to surpass the skill and accuracy displayed in the Inca structures o£ Cuzco." ^ Place of serpents. t\ • [One of the cuts which did service in the Antwerp editions of Cieza de Leon. — Ed.] \ \ \ } INl;h'" y,a !!(! I J'.|1 34S NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OK AMERICA. An example of the improvement of architecture after Inca subjugation is showi' in the curious burial-places, or cliulpas, of the Coliao, in the basin of Lske Titicaca. The earliest, as seen at Acora near the lake, closely restm- blo ihe rude cromlechs of Hrittany. Nextj roughly built square towers are m;^t with, with vaults inside. Lastly, the cliulpas at Sillustani are wtil- built circular towers, about 40 feet high and 16 feet in diameter at the base, i.AC OE TmCACA OU CHUCUITO Ediclk d* 0,042'^T70K^ MAP OK TITICACA, WITH WIENERS ROUTE. widening as they rise. A cornice runs round each tower, about three fourths of the distance from the base to the summit. The stones are admi- rably cut and ritted in nearly even courses, like the walls at Cuzco. The interior circular vaults, which contained the bodies, were aiched with over- lapping stones, and a similar dome formed the roof of thf towers. The architectural excellence reached by the Incas, their advances in the other arts and in literature, and the imperial magnificence of their court and religious worship, imply the exist^^nce of an orderly and well-regulated ad- THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 249 miiiistrative system. An examination ot their social polity will not disap. point even high expectations. The Inca, though despotic in theory, was PRIMEV.VL TOMB, ACORA.* bound by the complicated code of rules and customs which had gradually developed itself during the reigns of his ancestors. In his own extensive RUINS AT QUELLENATA.t family, composed of Auqui' and Atauchi,^ Palla^ and Nusta,* to the num- ber of many hundreds.^ and in the Curacas® and Apu-curacas^ of the con- quered tribes, he had a host of able public servants to govern provinces, enter the priesthood, or command armies. The empire was marked out into four great divisions, corresponding with the four cardinal points of a compass placed at Cuzco. To the north was ' An unmarried prince of the blood royal ; : nobleman. Father, in the Colla dialect. ^ A married prince of the blood roval. 8 A married princess ; a lady of noble family. * An unmarried princess. ^ At the conquest there were S94> Ijut a great number had been killed in the previous civil war. 8 Chiefs. ' Principal chiefs. • [.\fter a sketch in Squier's Pn'mtfal Afoniimeiifs of Peru, Salem, 1S70. He considers it an example of some of the oldest of human monuments, and is inclined to believe these chulpas, or burial monuments, to have been built by the ancestors of the Peruvians of the conquest in their earliest Jevelopment. — El).] t- [Reduced from a sketch in Squier's Primnnl Monuments of Peru, p 7. They are situated in Bolivia, northeast of Lake Titicaca, and the cut shows a hill-fortress (pucura) and the round, flaring-top burial tower« (chulpas). Cf. cut in Wiener's Pcrou el B'^liiie, p ^38.— Ed.1 I 1^ 'S i 1.1 250 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OK A.MKKICA. Chinchay-suyii, to the cast Anti-suyii, to the west Cunti-suyu, and to the 'J m "; I m\ wvm RUINS AT ESCOMA, BOLIVIA.* south Colla-suyu. The whole empire was called Ttahuantin-suyu, or the £i£5s50^'^Aa/53 SILLUSTANI, PERU.t four united provinces. Each great province was governed by an Inca vice- roy, whose title was Ccapac, or Tuctiyricoc} The latter word means " He ' Balboa, Montesinos, Santillana. • [After a cut in Squier's Primeval Monuments of Peru, p. 9, — a square two-storied burial tower (chulpa) with hill-fortress (pucura) in the distance, situated east of Lake Titicaca. Cf. Squier's Peru, p. 37'!. — En.] t [Sun-circles (Intihuatana, where the sun is tied up), after a cut in Squier's Primeval Monuments of PcrUy p. 15. The nearer circle is 90 feet; the farther, which has a grooved outlying platform, is 150 feet in diam» ter. Cf. plan and views in Squier's Peru, ch. 20. — Ed.] the THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN I'LRU. 251 who sees all." Garcilussu ilcscribes the office as merely that of an ins|)ector, whose duty it was to visit the province and report, l-'nder the viceroy were the native Cnrocas, who governed the aylliis, or lineages. I'iach ayllu was divided into sections of ten families, untler an officer called Cliunca (10) ctwuiyii. Ten ; paying tribute. 9. Chaupi-.-ii cii, "Klderly." Light service. .Age 50 .0 60. 10. yz/rwr ;7,«, and each cultivator received a flow of water in accordance with the requirements of his land. The manuring of crops was also carefully attended to.' The result of all this intelli^^ent labor was fully commensurate with the thought and skill expended. The Incas produced the finest potato crops the world has ever seen. The white tnaize of Cuzcu has never been approached in size or in yield. Coca, now so highly prized, is a product peculiar to Inca agriculture, and its cultivation required e.xtreme care, espe- cially in the picking and drying processes. Ajv, or Chile pepper, furnished a new condiment to the Old World. Peruvian cotton is excelled only by Sea Island and l-'gyptian in length of fibre, and for strength and length of fibre combined is without an equal. Quinua, oca, aracacha, and several fruits are also peculiar to Peruvian agriculture.^ The vast flocks of llamas'^ and aljiacas supplied meat for the people, dried chai-qni f1:RU. ^55 caught in the Pacific, three hundred miles away, on the previous day. Store- houses, with arms, clothing, and provisions for the soldiers, were also built at intervals along the roads, so that an army could be concentrated at any point without previous preparation. Closely connected with the facilities for communication, which were so admirably established by the Incas, was the system of moving colonies from one part of the empire to another. The evils of minute subdivision were thus avoided, political objects were often secured, and the comfort of the people was increased by the exchange of products. The colonists were called mitiuiacs. For example, the people of the Collao, round Lake Titi- caca, lived in a region where corn would not ripen, and if confined to the products of their native land they must have suljsistetl solely on potatoes, quinua, and llama flesh. Ikit the Incas established colonies from their vil- lages in the coast valleys of Tacna and Moquegua, and in the forests to the eastward. There was constant intercourse, and while the mother country supplied chiiuHS or preserved potatoes, cliarqtii or dried meat, and wool to the colonists, there came back in return, corn and fruits and cotton cloth from the coast, and the beloved coca from the forests. Military colonies were also established on the frontiers, and the armies of the Incas, in their marches and extensive travels, promoted the circulation of knowledge, while this service also gave employment to the surplus agri- cultural population. Soldiers were brought from all parts of the empire, and each tribe or ayllii was distinguished by its arms, but more especially by its head-dress. The Inca wore the crimson llantu, or fringe ; the ApH, or general, wore a yellow llaittn. One tribe wore a puma's head ; the Canaris were adorned with the feathers of macaws, the Huacrachucus with the horns of deer, the Pocras and Huamanchucus with a falcon's wing feath- ers. The arms of the Incas and Chancas consisted of a copjier axe, called chaiiipi ; a lance pointed with bronze, called cliuqni ; and a pole with a bronze or stone head in the shape of a six-pointed star, used as a club, called mucdiia. The Collas and Quichuas came with slings and bohis, the Antis with bows and arrows. Defensive armor consisted of a liualcauca or shield, the timacliucu or head-dress, and sometimes a breastplate. The perfect order prevailing in civil life was part of the same system which enforced strict discipline in the army ; and ultimately the Inca troops were irresistible against any enemy that could bring an opposing force into the field. Only when the Incas fought against each other, as in the last civil war, could the result be long doubtful. The artificers engaged in the numerous arts and on public works subsisted on the government share of the produce. The artists who fashionetl the stones of the Sillustani towers or of the Cuzco temple with scientific accu- racy before they were fixed in their places, were wholly devoted to their art. Food and clothing had to be provided ^ >r them, and for the miners, weavers, and potters. Gold was obtained by the Incas in immense quanti- ties by washing the sands of the rivers which flowed through the forest- i|V| ii; K ■X\ if (. ■ ' \ Ii ■r y ji^ *^ - ,r I 256 NAKRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. covered province of Caravaya. Silver was extracted from the ore by means of blasting-furnaces called huayia ; for, aUli()u;j,h quicksilver was known !■! ! J PERUVIAN METAL WOKKEKS.* and used as a coloring material, its properties for refining silver do not ap- pear to have been discovered. Copper was abundant in the Collao and in m PERUVIAN POTTERY, t Oiarcas, and tin wns found in the hills on the east side of Lake Titicaca, which enabled the Peruvians to nse bronze very extensively.^ Lead was ' \ bronze instrument found at Sorata had Humboldt gave the composition of a bronze the following composition, according to an anal- instrument found at Vilcabamba as follows : — ysis by David Forbes : — Copper S8.05 Copper 94 Tin 11.43 Tin _6 Iron 36 ,00 Silver 17 100.00 • [Reproduction of a cut in Bcnzonl's Historic del hf«nJo Xiimti (nfi;). Cf. D. Wilson's Prehistoric Man. i. ch. 9, on the Peruvian met,-iIworkcrs. — Er] t [The tripod in this group is from P.in,-inia, the others are Peruvian. This cut follows an engraving in Wilson's Prehistoric Afnn, ii. 41. There are numerous cuts in Wiener, p. 589, etc. Cf. Stevens's Flint Chif'S. p 271. — E'v] ■^w THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 257 II;' Jv also known to them. Skilful workers in metals fashioned the va.scs and other utensils for the use of the Inca and of the temples, forged the arms of the soldiers and the implements of husbandry, and stamped or chased the ceremonial breastplates, topus, girdles, and chains. The bronze and copper warlike instruments, which were star-shaped and used as clubs, fixed at the ends of staves, were cast in moulds. One of these club-heads, now in the Cambridge collection, has six rays, broad and flat, and terminating in rounded points. Each ray represents a human head, the face on one sur- f.ice and the hair and back of the head on the other. This specimen was undoubtedly cast in a mould. " It is," says Professor Putnam, "a good illus- tration of the knowledge which the ancient Peruvians had of the methods of working metals and of the difficult art of casting copper." ^ Spinning, weaving, and dyeing were arts which were sources of employ- ment to a great number of people, owing to the quantity and variety of the fa'-srics for which there was a demand. There were rich dresses interwo\en witii gold or made of gold thread ; fine woollen mantles, or tunics, ornamented with borders of small square gold and silver plates; colored cotton cloths worked in complicated patterns ; and fabrics of aloe fibre and sheeps' sinews for breeches. Coarser cloths of llama wool were also made in vast quantities. But the potter's art was perhaps the one which exercised the inventive fac- ulties of the Peruvian artist to the great- est extent. The silver and gold uten- sils, with the exception of a very few cups and vases, have nearly all been melted down. But specimens of pot- tery, found buried with the dead in great profusion, are abundant. They are to be seen in every museum, and at Berlin and Madrid the collections are very large.^ Varied as are the forms to be found in the pottery of the Incas, and elegant as are many of the designs, it must be acknowledged that they are inferior in these respects to the specimens of the plastic art of the Chimu and other people of the Peruvian coast. The Incas, however, displayed a considerable pi- . of fancy in their PERUVIAN DRINKING VESSEL.* ■I I i t ' Fifteenth Report of the Trustees of the Pea- and De la Rada's I.es "ases Phiniens dii Musk body Museum of Ethn'ology, vol. iii. 2, p. 140 ArchMoi^ii/ue de Madrid, in the Compte Kendu (Cambridge, 1882). (p. 236) of the Copenhagen meeting of the Con- - [Cf. the plates in the Xecropolis of Ancoii, gris des Aniericanistes. — Ed.] • [After a cut in Wilson's Prehistoric Man, ii. 45 ; shewing a cup of the Beckford collection, an indivicluality in the head, at once suggestive of portraiture" — Ed.] vol .1—17 ' There is 358 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. H ^ Ih designs. Many of the vases were moulded into forms to represent animals, fruit, and corn, and were used as conopas, or household gods. Others took the shape of human heads or feet, or were made double or quad- ruple, with a single neck branching from below. Some were for interment with the malquis, others for household use.^ Professor Wilson, who carefully exam- ined several collections of ancient Peruvian pottery, formed a high opinion of their merit. " Some of the specimens," he wrote, "are purposely grotesque, and by no means devoid of true comic fancy ; while, in the greater number, the end- less variety of combinations of animate and inanimate forms, ingeniously rendered subservient to the require- ments of utility, exhibit fer- tility of thought in the de- signer, and a lively percep- tive faculty in those for whom he wrought." ^ There is a great deal more to learn respecting this mar- vellous Inca civilization. Recent publications have, UNFINISHED CLOTH FOUND AT PACHACAMAC* Withm the laSt fcW ycarS, thrown fresh and unex- pected light upon it. There may be more information still undiscovered or M'l 1 It is believe 1 that some of the heads on the vases were intended as likenesses. One espe- cially, in a collection at Cuzco, is intended, ac- cording to native tradition, for a portrait of Rumi-fiaui, a character in the drama of OUantay. * Prehistoric Afaii, i. p. i lo. A great number of specimens of Peruvian pottery are given in the works of Castelnau, Wiener, Squier, and in the atlas of the Aiitigiiedades Peruanas. [Cf. also Marcoy's Voyage ; Mintoires dc la Sc. des Antiquaires du Nord (two plates); J. E. Price in the Anthropological yoiirnal, iii. lOO, and many of the books of Peruvian travel. — Ed.] • TAfter a cut in Wiener, Perou tt Bolivie, p. 65. — En.] THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 259 inedited. As yet we can understand the wonderful story only imperfectly, and see '.t by doubtful lights. Respecting some questions, even of the first importance, we are still able only to make guesses and weigh probabilities. Yet, though there is much that is uncertain as regards historical and other points, we have before us the clear general outlines of a very extraordinary picture. In no other part of America had civilization attained to such a height among indigenous races. In no other part of the world has the administration of a purely socialistic government been attempted. The Incas not only made the attempt, but succeeded. CRITICAL ESSAY ON THE SOURCES OF INFORMATION. The student of Inca civilization will first seek for information from those Spanish writers who lived during or immediately after the Spanish conquest. They were able to converse with na- tives who actually flourished before the disrup- tion of the Inca empire, and who saw the work- ing of the Inca system before the destruction and ruin had well commenced. He will next turn to those laborious inquirers and commen- tators who, although not living so near the time, were able to collect traditions and other infor- mation from natives who had carefully preserved all that had been handed down by their fathers.' These two classes include the writers of the six- teenth and seventeenth centuries. The authors who have occupied themselves with the Quichua language and the literature of the Incas have produced works a knowledge of which is essen- tial to an adequate study >f the subject.'- Lastly, a consideration of the publications of modem travellers and scholars, who throw light on the writings of early chroniclers, or describe the pres- ent appearance of ancient remains, will show the existing position of a survey still far from complete, and the interest and charm of which invite further investigation and research. Foremost in the first class of writers on Peru is Pedro de Cieza de Leon. A general account of his works will be found elsewhere,' and the present notice will therefore be comined to an estimate of the labors of this author, so far as they relate to Inca history and civilization. Cieza de Leon conceived the desire to write an account of the strange things that were to be seen in the New World, at an early period of his service as a soldier. " Neither fatigue," he tells us, " nor the ruggedness of the country, nor the mountains and rivers, nor intolerable hunger and suffering, have ever been sufhcient to obstruct my two duties, namely, writing and following my flag and my captain without fault." He finished the First I'art of his chronicle in September, 1550, when he was thirty-two ye • t age. It is mainly a geogra|)hical descrip.. .. of the coun- try, containing many pieces of information, such as the account of the Inca roads and bridges, which are of great value. Hut it is to the Second Part that we owe much of our knowledge of Inca civilization. From ii.cidental notices we learn how diligently young Cieza de Leon stu..'.ied the history and government of the Incas, after he had written his picturesque description of the country in his First Part. He often asked the Indians what they knew of their condition before the Incas became their lords. He inquired into the traditions of the people from the chiefs of the villages. In 1550 he went to Cuzco with the express purpose of collecting information, and conferred diligently with one of the surviving de scendants of the Inca Iluayna Ccapac. Cieza de Leon's plan, for the second part of his work, was first to review the system of government of the Incas, and then to narrate the events of the reign of each sovereign. He spared no pains to obtain the best and mrst authentic information, and his sympathy with the conquered people, and generous appreciation of their many good and noble qualities, give a special charm to his nar- rative. He bears striking evidence to the his- torical faculty possessed by the learned men at the court of the Incas. After saying that on the death of a sovereign the chroniclers related the events of his reign ta his successor, he adds: " They could well do this, for there were among ' [The narratives of the Spanish conquest necessarily throw much light, sometimes more th.in incidentally, upon the earlier history of the region. These sources are characteri:!ed in the critical essay appended to chapter viii. of Vol. II., and embrace bibliographical accounts of Herrera, Gomara. Oviedo, Andagoya, Xeres, Fernandez, Oliva, not to name others of less moment. — En.] 5 See Note II. following this essay. • Vol. II. p. 573. i' ^i.- z6o NARRATIVE AND CRIITCAL HISTORY OF AMKRICA. ¥ ! I ft t^ ■^1 them some men with (jood memories, sound judgments, and subtle genius, and lull of rcasc.i- iii'; power, as wc con bear witness who have heard tliem even in these our days." Cieza de I.eon is certainly one of the most important authorities oi\ Iiica history and civilization, whether we con- sider his peculiar advantages, his diligence and ability, or his character as a conscientious his- torian. Juan Jose de lietanzos, like Cieza de Leon, w:n one of the soldiers of the con<|uest. He married a dau;;hter of .\tahualpa, and became a citizen at Cuzco, where he devoted his time to the study of Quicluia. lie was appointed otlicial interjjreter to tlie .Vudience anti to suc- cessive \iceii))s, and he wrote a Doctriiui and two vocabularies which are now lost. In i5j-{ he was appointed by the viceroy Marquis of Canete, to treat witn the Inca .Sayri Tupac,' wlu had taken refuge in the fastness of Vilcabamba ; and by the Governor I.ope Garcia de Castro, to conduct a similar negotiation with Titu Cusi Yupanqui, the brother of Sayri Tupac. He was successful in both missions. He wrote his most valuable work, the Siima r Narracion Je los Jiitiis, which was finished in the vear 1551, by order of the Viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza, but its publication was prevented by the death of the viceroy. It remained in manuscrii)t, and its existence was first made known by the Do- minican monk Gregorio Garcia in 1607, whose own work will be referred to presently. Garcia said that the history of lietanzos relating to the origin, descent, succession, and wars of the Incas was in his po"iSession, and had been of great use to him. Leon Pinelo and Antonio also gave brief notices of the manuscript, but it is only twice cited by Prescott. The great historian probably obtained a copy of a manuscript in the Kscurial, through Obadin.h Rich. This manu- script is bound up with the .second part of Cieza de Leon. It is not, however, the whole work which Garcia appears to have possessed, but only the first eighteen chapters, and the last in- complete. Such as it is, it was edited and printed for the Biblioteca Hispa)w-Ultranutiina, by Don MArcos Jimenez de la Espada, in iSSo.'' The work of lietanzos diffei . from that of Cieza de Leon, because while the latter displays a diligence and discretion in collecting informa- tion which give it great weight .is an authority, the former is imbued with the very .spirit of the natives. The narrative of the preparation of young Yupanqui for the death-struggle with the Chancas is life-like in its picturesque vigor, lietanzos has portrayed native feeling and char- acter as no other Spaniard has, or probably could have done. Married to an Inca princess, anil intimately conversant with *he language, this most scholarly of the conquerors is only second to Cieza de Leon as an authority. The date of his death is unknown. lietanzos antl Cieza de Leon, with I'cdro I'i- zarro, are the writers among the conquerors whose works have been preserved. Hut these three martial scholars by no means stand alone .imong their comrades as authors. .Several other companions of I'izarro wrote narratives, which unfortunately have been lost.^ It is indeed sur- prising that the desire to record some account of the native civilization they had discovered should have been so prevalent among the conquerors. The fact scarcely justifies the term "rude sol- diery," which is so often apjjlied to the discov- erers of I'eru. The works of the soldier conquerors are cer- tainly not less valuable than those of the law- yers and priests who followed on their heels. Yet these latter treat the subject from somewhat different points of view, and thus furnish sujiplc- mental information. The works of four lawyers of the era of the conquest have been preserved, and those of another are lost. Of tliese, the writings of the Licentiate I'olo de Ondegardo are undoubtedly the most important. This learned jurist accompanied the president. La Gasca, in his campaign against Gonzalo Pizarro, having arrived in Peru a few years previously, and he subsequently occupied the post of corregidor at Cuzco. Serving under the Viceroy Don Fran- 1 Cf. Vol. II. p. 546. " Siima y narration dc los hicas, que los Indies llamaron Capaccuna que fiicron senoresde la ciudad del Cuzco y de todo lo a clla sulycto. Puhlicala M. Jimenez de la Espada (Madrid, iSSo). 8 We learn from Leon I'Inelo that one of the famous band of adventurers who crossed the line drawn by Pizarro on the sands of Gallo was an author (Antonio, ii. ^145). But the Relaeion de la tierra que descubrid Don Francisco Pizarro, by Diego de Truxdio, remained in manuscript and is lost to us. Francisco de Chaves, one of the most respected of the companions of Pizarro, who strove to save the life of Atahualpa, and was an intimate friend of the Inca's brother, was also an author. Chaves is honorably distinguished for Ills moderation and humanity. He lost his own life in defending the staircase against the assassins of Pizarro. He \ the ICarl of Essex in 1596, and IMas Valera*himself died shortly afterwards. The fragments thit were rescued fell into the li.iuds of tJarcilasso de la Vena, who translated them into .Spanisli, and printed tlieni "i his Comiili'iilarUs. It is to lilas Valera lliat we owe tile preservation of two si)e- cimens of Inca poetry and an estimate of Inca chronology, lie has also recorded the tradi- iionul sayings of several Inca sovereigns, and among his fragments there are very intercs'ing chapters on the religion, the laws and ordinances, and the language of the Incas, and on the vege- table products and medicinal drugs of Peru. The.se fragments are evidence that lilas Valera was an elegant scholar, a keen ob.server, and thoroughly master of his subject. They enhance the feeling of regret at tlie irreparable loss that we have sustained by the destruction of the rest of his work. Ne.xt to 15'.as Valera, the most important au- thority on Inca civilization, am.ong the .'spanish priests who were in IVru during the si.xteenih century, is undoubtedly Christoval de Molina. He was chaplain to the hospital for natives at Cuzco, and his work was written between 1570 and 1 5S4, the ])eriod embraced by the episcopate of Dr. Sebastian de Artaun, to whom it is ded- icated. Molina gives minute and detailed ac- counts of the ceremonies performed at all the religious festivals throughout the year, with the pravers used by the priests on each occasion. Out of the fourteen prayers preserved by Molina, four are addressed to the Supreme Being, two to the sun, the rest to these and other deities com- bined. Ilis mastery of the Quichup language, his intimacy with the native chiefs and learned men, and his long residence at Cuzco give Mo- lina a verv high place as an authority on Inca civilization. His work has remained in manu- script,' but it has been translated into ICnglish and printed for the llakluyt Society.- Molina, in his dedicatory address to I'ishop Artaun, mention.; a previous narrative which h . had submitted, on the origin, history, and gov- ernment of the Incas. Fortunately this account was preserved by Miguel Cavello Halboa, an au- thor who wrote at Quito between 1576 and I 5S6. Balboa, a soldier who had taken orders late in life, went out to .\merica in 1 566, and settled at Quito, where he devoted himself to the prepar.a- tion and writing of a work which he entitled Miscilliiiiiii Austral. It is in three parts ; but only the thirrinted at Lima, and also compiled a code of ordinances for mines with a view to lessening disputes, which was otticially approved. Returning to the capital, he lived for several years at Lima as chaplain of one of the smaller churches, and devoted all his energies to the preparation of a history of I'eru. Making Lima his headquarters, the indefatigable student undertook excursions into all parts of the country, wherever he heard of learned na- tives to be consulted, of historical documents to be copied, or of information to be found. He travelled over 1,500 leagues, from Quito to I'o- tosi. In 1639 he was employed to write an account of the famous Auto de Ke which was celebrated at Lima in that year. His two great historical works are entitled .\ffmoriai Aniiguas HistonaliS till Pi-rii, and Aiiiilfs J Memoriiis JVim;is itel Pcru.^ Kroin Lima .Montesinos pro- ceeded to Quito as " Visitador (ieneral," with very full powers conferred by the bishop. The work of .Montesinos remained in manu- script until it was translated into French by .\L Ternaux Compans in 1.S40, with the title Mi- moires //isliu. In 1SS2 the Spanish text was very ably edited by Dim Marcos Jimenei! de la Lspada.'' .Montesinos gives the history of several dynasties which jire- ceded the rise of the Incas, enumerating upwards of a hundred sovereigns. He professes to have acquired a knowledge of the ancient records through the interpretations of the quipus, com- municated to him by learned natives. It was long supposed that the accounts of these earlier sovereigns received no corroboration from any other authority. This furnished legitimate grounds for discrediting Montesinos. I!ut a narrative, as old or older than that of the licen- tiate, has recently been brought to light, in whic'i at least two of the ancient sovereigns in the lists of .Montesinos are incidentally referred to. This circumstance alters the aspect of the question, and places the Memoiitis .liil.qiiiis del J\ri4 in a higher position as an authority; for it proves that the very ancient traditions which Montesi- nos professed to have received from the natives had previously been communicated to one other independent inquirer at least. This independent inquirer Is an author whose valuable work has recently been edited bv Don Marcos Jimenez de la lOspad.i.'i His narr.ativc is anonymous, but internal evidence establishes the fact that he was a Josuit, and probably one of the first who arrived in Peru in 1568, although he appears to have wriiten his work many years 1 .\costa was the chief source whence the civilized world of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, beyond the limits of Spain, derived a knowledge of Peruvian civili/.ition. Purcli.is, in hU Pi/i,'rii>i,iffi- (ed. of ifia-;, lib. V. p. S61); vi. p. 931), quotes largely from tlic learned Jesuit, and an abstract of his work is Riven in Har- ris's l'oyai;cs (lih. i. cap. xiii. pp. 75i-;i|<)). He is mucli relied upon as an authority by Robertson, and is quoted 19 times in Prescott's Conquest of Pcru,i\\w-, taking the fourth place as an authority with regard to that work, since Garcilasso is quoted 89 times, Cicza de I. eon 45, Ondegardo 41, .Xcosta i<). 2 Of whose parentage a ple.asing story is told. lie w.is a native of Truxillo. of French parents, his father being a metal-founder. When he was a small boy his father said to him. ".'^tudy, little Charles, studv 1 and this bell that I am founding shall be rung for you when you are the bishop." (" Kstudiar, Carlete. estndiar 1 que con esta campana te han de rcpicar cuando seas obispo.") Dr. Corni rose to be a prelate of great virtue and erudition, and an eloquent preacher. .At last he became liishop of Truxillo in 1620, and when he heard the chimes which were rung on his approach to the city, he said. '• That bell which excels all the others was founded by my father.'' (•• Aquella campana que sobresale entre las demas le fundio mi padre.") '^ Piifi-les I'arios dc Indias. MS. Brit. Mus. ■• This last work is devoted to the Spanish conquest. '•> In the scries entitled Coleccion dc librae Esfaiioles raros 6 curiosos, torn xvi. (Madrid, iS,S2.) [The orig- inal manuscript is in the library of the Real .Xcademia de Historia at Madrid. Brasseur de Bourhourg had a cojjy {Phiari Catalogue, No. 638; BiH. .\fex. Guat., p. 103), which appeared also in the Del Monte sale (N. v., June, iS8S, — Catalogue, hi. no. 554). Cf. the present History, II. pp. 570, 577. — En.] o Relacion de las costumbres antiquas de los naturalcs del Peru. Aninima. The original is among the manuscript in the National Library at Madrid. It was published as part of a volume entitled Tres Relactones de Antigiiedades Peruanas. Publicalas el Ministerio de Fomento (.Madrid, 1S79). ■(i iifi ' ssl' 11 'I (■ ''![ ^ 'f >( 'i • S ) 4 1 i' lb i .'1 1 . ' 1 i " 1 I •J I f y i \ 2fi4 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY oF AMERICA. iifturward!). The anonymous Jesuit supplies in- f()rni;iti()n respectinn worl v Dr. Francisco de Avila, iboS : translated and edited by Clements A". Markham (Haklnyt Society, 1872). [There w.is a copy of the Spanish MS. in the E. G. Sqiiier sale, 1S76, no. 726. — Ed.] - Trntado dc las idolatrias de los Indies del Peru. This work is mentioned by Leon Pinelo as " una cbra grande y de miicha erudicion,'' but it was i.ever printed. 3 Contra idolatriam, MS. ■• Extirpacion de la idolatria del Peru, for el Padre Pablo Joseph de Arria:;a (Lima, 1621, pp. 137). ■' [See \dl. U. p. 570. The Historia Pcrvana ordinis Ercmitarum S. P. Augustini libri octodecim (1651- ji) is mainly a transLition of C'alancha. Cf. Sabin, nos. S7<'io, 0870. — En.] ' Historia de Copacahana y dc su milat^rosa imagen, escrita por el K. P. Fray Atonso Ramos Gavilan (1620). The work of Ramos was reprinted from an incomplete copy at La Paz in 1S60, and edited by Fr. Raf.iel Sans. " Oric •« de los Indios del Xurco Mundo (ifio7\ and in Barcia (1720). 8 .\fonarguia de los Incas del Peru. .Antonio says of this work, " Tertium quod promiserat adhuc latct nenipe.'' ^ Historia general del Peru, orii;en y desccndencia de los Incas. pueblos y ciudades, for P. Fr. Martin de Miirua (iCxS). [Cf. Markham's Cieza's Travels, Second Part, p. 12. — En.] THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 36$ the century immediately ricceeding the conquest, of the three ditferent profession'!, — soldiers lawyers, and priests, — have now been passed in review. Atlentlnii must next be given to the native writers who followeil in the wake of Bla.s Valera. First among these is the Inca {;,ircilasso de laVi'^a, an author whose name Is probably better known to the guneial reader than that of any other who has written on the same subject, .\mong llie Spanish Luncpier- ors who arrived in I'eru in 1 534 was (iarti- lassu lie la Vej^a, a cavalier of very noble lineage,' who settled at Cu^co, anil was mar- riedtoan Inca princess naniedl'himpa t)cllo, niece of the Inca I luayna Ccapac. Their son, the future historian, was born at Cuico in 15J9, and his earliest recollections were con- nected with the stirring events of the civil war between Gonzalo I'i/arro and the presi- dent I. a Ciasca, in I5.(S. Ills niotlier died soon afterwards, probably in 1550, and his f.illicr married again. The boy was much in the society of his mollier's kindred, and he often heard them talk over the times of the Incas, and repeat their historical traditions. Nor was his education neglected ; for the good Canon Juan de Cuellarread Latin with the half-caste sons of the citizens of Cuzco for nearly two years, amidst all the turmoil of the civil wars. As he grew up, he was em- ployed by his father to visit his estates, and he travelled over most parts of Peru. The elder (iarcilasso de la Vega died in 1560, and the young orphan resolved to seek his fortune in the land of his fathers. On his arrival in Spain he received patronage and kindness from his pa- ternal relatives, became a captain in the army of Philip 1 1, and when he retired, late in life, he took up his abode in lodgings at Cordova, and devoted himself to literary pursuits. Mis first production was a translation from the Italian of "The Dialogues of Love," and in 1591 he com- pleted his narrative of the expedition of Mer- nando de Soto to Florida.'^ As years rolled on, the Inca began to think more and more of the land of his birth. The memory of his boyish days, of the long evening chats with his Inca relations, came back to him in his old age. He was as proud of his maternal descent from the mighty potentates of Peru as of the old Castilian connection on his father's side. It would seem that the appearance of several books on the subject of his native land finally incbhcd him to undertake a work in which, while recording its own rrmniisicnces and the informaliini he might collect, he could also com- HOUSE IN CUZCO IN WHICH GARCILASSO WAS BOKN.» ment on the statements of other authors. Hence the title of Cpnimenliiries which he gave to his work. liesides the fragments of the writings of lilas Valera, which enrich the pages of Garci- lasso, the Inca quotes from Acosta, from Go- mara, from Zarate, and from the First Part of Cieza de Leon.s He was fortunate in getting possession of the chapters of lilas Valera rescued from the sack of Cadiz. He also wrote to all his surviving schoolfellows for assistance, and received many traditions and detailed replies on other subjects from them. Thus Alcob.asa for- warded an account of the ruins at Tiahuanacu, and another friend sent him the measurements of the great fortress at Cuzco. The Inca Garcilasso de la Vega is, without doubt, the first authority on the civilization of his ancestors ; but it is necessary to consider his qualifications and the exact value of his evidence. He had lived in Peru until his twentieth year; Quichua was his native language, and he had 1 He was a cousin of the poet of the same name, and of the dukes of Feria. 2 See Vol. II. pp. 290, 575. 3 The Commentarios Rcales (Part I.) of Gardlassos de la V'cga contain 2t quotations from Bias Valera, 30 from Cieza de Leon (first part), 27 from Acosta, 11 from Gomara, 9 from Zarate, 3 from the Reftublica de las India: OccideniaUs of Fray Geronimo Roman, 2 from Fernandez, 4 from the Inca's schoolfellow Alcobasa, and I from Juan Botero Benes. • [After a cut in Marcoy, i. 219. Cf. Squier's Peru, p. 449. — Ed.] Ml J-J 366 NARRATIVL ANIJ CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMKRICA. ) » IV'k ' I ■A ■ t ■) 1 : 'i n coimlantly hoard tliu tradition!) t Ikit wliLii liu bL'ijaii to wnic lie had been iiipa- lun^ uiiuu^h to acLuinplLih lii.i iiiumI churislicd ratfd from l\\v>u Msnd.nuinn fur u|i\vaid)i of wish, and to cuniplutc thu wcirii at wliich hu hud thirty VL'ars. lie received iiiaterial.H Irom Peru, steadily and lovingly labored tor ao many years). «nal>lin){ him to Lumportc a connected historical Another Indian author wrote an account of narrative, which is not, however, verj' reliable, the anticiuities ol I'eru, at a time when tile ^rand- The true value o( his work is derived from hi:: children of tlioHu who witnessed the coiupiest own reminiscences, aroused by reading the books by the Spaniards were living. Unlike (iarci- wlilcli are tlie subjects ol his Commentary, and lasso, this author never left llie land of his birth, frniii his correspondence with friends in I'eru. but he was not of Inca lineage. |)on Juande Ills nicinory was excellent, as is ofien proved Santacru/. rachaciili \ anicpii .Sakaniavluia was when he coireits the mistakes of Acosia and a native o( the CoUao, .iiul des( ended frnm a others with liillideiice, and is invariably right, family of local chiefs. His work is entitled AV- lie was not credulous, having regard li> the age /ihimi y order of the Viceroy iJon Francisco cle Toledo, and forwarded to the council of the Indies. They consist of twenty documents, forming a large volume, and pre- ced'.'d l)y an introductory letter. The viceroy's object was to establish the fact that the Incas had originally been usurpers, in forcibly acquir- ing authority over the different jirovinces of the empire, and dispossessing the native chiefs. His inference was, that, as usurpers, they were right- fully dethroned by the Spaniards. He failed to see that such an argument was equally fatal to a Spanish claim, based on anything but the sword. Nevertheless, the traditions collected with this oliject, not only from the Incas ,it Cuzco, but also from the chiefs of several provinces, are very important and interesting.- The Viceroy Toledo also sent home four cloths on which the pedigree of the Incas was represented. The figures of the successive sov- ereigns were depicted, with medallions of their wives, and their respective lineages. The events of each reign were recorded on the borders, the traditions of Paccari-tampu, and of the creation by Uiracocha, occupying the first cloth. It is probable that the Inca portraits given by Her- rera were copied from those on the cloths sent home by the vicero). The head-dresses in Her- rera are very like that of the high-priest in the A\-/iicii'ii of the anony.nous Jesuit. A map seems to have accompanied the pedigree, which was drawn under the superintendence of the distin- guished sailor and cosmographcr, Don Pedro Sarmiento de Ganiboa.' Much curious information respecting the laws and customs of the Incas and the beliefs of the people is to be found in ordinances and decree of the Spanish authorities, both civil and eccle- siastical. These ordinances arc contained in the Ori/eiianztis del Perils of the Licentiate Tomas de liallesteros, in the J'oHtica Imiuiiia of Ju.in de .Solorzano (Madrid, 1649),* in the Coiudinm Limeiisc of .Acosta, and in the Constitn, tones Syiiih/iiles of Dr. Lobo Guerrero, .Vrchbisho;) of Lima, printed in that city in 1614, and again m '754- The kingdom of Quito received attention from several early writers, but most of their manu- scripts are lost to us. Quito was fortunate, how- ever, in finding a later historian to devote himself to the work of chronicling the story of his native land. Juan de Velasco was a native of Rio- bamba. He resided for forty years in the king- dom of Quito as a Jesuit priest, he taught and preached in the native language of the people, and he diligently studied all the works on the subject that were accessible to him. He spent si.x years in travelling over the country, twenty vears in collecting books and manuscripts ; and when the Jesuits were banished he took refuge in Italy, where he wrote his I/isloria del Rciiio i/e Qiiilo. Velasco used several authorities which are now lost. One of these was the Concpiisl.i de la Prmnncia del Quito, by Fray Marco de Xiza, a companion of Pizarro. Another was the llistoria de las giierriis civites del Inca Ata- hiialpa, by Jacinto Collahuaso. He also refers to the Aiilii^iiediides del Peru by liravo de Sara- via. As a native of Quito, Velasco is a strong partisan of .Vtahualpa; and he is the only histo- rian who gives an account of the traditions re- specting the early kings of Quito. The work was completed in 1789, brought from Europe, and printed at Quito in 1S44, and M. Ternaux Compans brought out a French edition in 1S40.' 1 fCf. bibliog. of Herrera in Vol. II. pp. 67, 68. — Ed.] - lii/oniinchnes acerca del S^aorio y Gobierno dc los Ingas hcchas, for maiidado de Don Francisco de Toledo I'irey del Peru ( 1570-72). Edited by Don Marcos Jimenez de la Espada, in the Colcccion de libros Esfaiiolcs raros 6 curiosos, Tonio xvi. (Madrid, 1SS2). 3 We first hear of Sarmiento in a memorial dated at Cuzco on March 4, 1572, in which he says that he was the author of a history of the Incas, now lost. We further gather tliat, owing to having found out from tin- records of the Incas that Tupac Inca Vupanqui discovered two islands in the South Sea, called Ahuachumfi and Xinacliuinfi, Sarmiento sailed on an expedition to discover them at some time previous to 1564. Halboa also mentions the tradition of the discovery of these itlands by Tupac Vupanqui. Sarmiento seems to have discovered isKinds which he believed to be those of the Inca. and in I5')7 he volunteered to command the expedition dispatched by Lope de Castro, then governor of Peru, to discover the Terra Australis. Hut Castro gave the command to his own relation, Mandana. We learn, however, from the memorial of Sarmiento, that he accompanied the expedition, and that the first land was discovered through shaping a course in accordance with his advice. Sarmiento submitted a full report of this first voyage of Mandana, which is now lost, to the Viceroy Toledo. In 1579, Sarmiento was sent to explore the .Straits of Magellan. In 1586, on his way to Spain, he was captured by an English ship belonging to Kaleigh, and was entertained hospitably by Sir Walter at Durham House until his ransom was collected. From the Spanish captive his host obtained much informa- tion respecting Peru and its Incas. He could have no higher authority. One of the journals of the survey of Magellan Straits by Sarmiento was published at .Madrid in 1768: Viage al estrecho de Magellanes : for el Cafitan Pedro Sarmiento de Gamioa, en los aiios liyq y isSo. See Vol. II. p. 616. * [Cf. Vol. II. p. 571.] ' llistoria del Reino de Quito, en la America Meridional, escrita for el Presbitcro Dun Juan de Velasco }\ THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 269 Recent authors have written introductory es- says on I'cruvian civilization to precede the story of the Spanish conquest, have described the ruins in various parts of the country after per- sonal inspection, or have devoted their labors to editing the early authorities, or to bringing pre- viously unknown nianuscrii)ts to light, and thus widening and strengthening the foundation on w!iich future histories may ho raised. Uobertson's excellent view of the story of the Incas in his History oj America ' was for many years the sole source of information on the sub- ject for the general English public ; but since 1848 it has been superseded by I'rescott^ charm- ing narrative contained in the opening book of his Ci'iii/iust of I\rur The knowledi,e of the liresent generation on the subject of the Incas is derived almost entirely from Prescott, and, so far as it goes, there can be no better authority. Hut much has come to light snice his time. I'rescott's narrative, occupying 159 pages, is founded on the works of Garcilasso de la Vefja, who is the authority most frequently cited by him, Cieza de Leon, Ondegardo, and Acosia.-' Helps, in the chapter of his Sfaiiish Coiu/iirst on Inca civilization, which covers fortv-five pages, \VILL1.\M ROBERTSON.* nativo ite Mismo Reino, ano de tySq. A Spanish edition, Quito. Imfrenta del GoUerno, 1844, 3 Tomos, was printed from the manuscript, Histoire dii Royaume de Quito, for Don Juan de Velasco (incdite.) vol. ix. Voyiif^es. &-c., far //. Ternaux Comfans (Paris, 1S40). This version, however, covers only a part ot the work, of which the second volume only relates to the ancient history. [Cf. Vol. 11. p. 5;6. — En ] 1 [Cf. Vol. II. p. 578. — Ed-I 2 [Cf. Vol. II. p. 577 ; '■ bin's Dietionary, xv. p. 439. The opinions of Prescott can be got at through Poole's Index, p. 993. H. H. Bancroft, Chronicles, 25, gives a characteristic estimate (.! I'rescott's archio- logical labors. Prescott's catalogue of his own library, with his annotations, is in the Boston Public I-ibrary. no. 6334.27.-- Ed.] n Prescott quotes these four authorities 249 times, and all other early writers known to him (Herrera, Zara'.e, Betanzos, Balboa, Montesinos, Pedro Pizarro, Fernandez, Gomara, Levinus .ApoUonius, Velasco, and the MS, "Declaracion de la Audiencia") 82 times. • [After a print in the European Mag. (i8o2), vol. xli. — Ed.] ' .=t |:i \\ I < IN' U I' . :'/ 2-JO NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. , S ':- U^ only cited two early authorities not used by Pres- cott,' and his sketch is much more superficial than that of his predecessor.'' The publication of tlie Aiilii;uedadcs Pcruanas by Don Mariano KcUiardo cle Kivero (the di- rector of tlie National Museum at Lima) and Juan Diego de 'I'schudi at Vienna, in 1851, marked an important turning-point in the pro- gress of investigation. One of the authors was himself a Peruvian, and from that time some of the best educated natives of the country have given their attention to its early history. The Antigiiedades for the first time gives due promi- nence to an estimate of the language and litera- ture of the Incas, and to descriptions of ruins throughout Peru. The work is accompanied by a large atlas of engravings ; but it contains grave inaccuracies, and the map of Pachacamac is a serious blemish to the work.' The Aiitii;iicdades were followed by the Annals of Ciizco,* and in 1S60 the Ancient History of Peru, by Don Sebas- tian I.orente, was published at Lima.^ In a se- ries of essays in the Rn'ista Peruana^' Lorente gave the results of many years of further study of the subject, which appear to have been the concluding 1 ibors of a useful life. When he died, in November, 1S84, Sebastian I.orente had been engaged for upwards of forty years in the instruction of the Peruvian youth at Lima and in other useful labors. A curious genealogical work on the Incarial family was published at Paris in 1850, by Dr. Justo Sahuaraura Inca, a canon of the cathedral of Cuzco, but it is of no historical value.' Several scholars, both in Europe and America, have published the results of their studies relat- ing to the problems of Inca history. Ernest Desjardins has written on the state of Peru be- fore the Spanish conquest,' J. G. Miiller on the religious beliefs of the people," and Waitz on Peruvian anthropology.''' The writings of Dr. Urinton, of Philadelphia, also contain valuable reflections and useful information respecting the mythology and native literature of Peru.'i Mr, BoUaert had been interested in Peruvian re- searches during the greater part of his lifetime (b. 1807 ; d. 1876), and had visited several prov- inces of Peru, especially Tarapaca. He accu- mulated many notes. His work, at first sight, appears to be merely a confused mass of jottings, and certainly there is an absence of method and arrangement ; but closer examination will lead to the discovery of many facts which are not to be met with elsewhere.'^ A critical study of early authorities and a knowledge of the Quichua language are two es- sential qualifications for a writer on Inca civili- zation. But it is almost equally important that he should have access to intelligent and accurate descriptions of the remains of ancient edifices and public works throughout Peru. For this he is dependent on travellers, and it must be con- fessed that no descriptions at all meeting the requirements were in existence before thi! open- ing of the ])resent century. Humboldt was the first traveller in South America who pursued his antiquarian researches on a scientific basis. His works are models for all future travellers. It 1 Calancha and a MS. letter of Valverde. He also refers several times to the Antigiicdadcs Peruanas of Tschudi and Kivero. 2 Spanish Conquest in America, vol. iii. book xiii. chap. 3, pp. 46S to 513. [Cf. Vol. II. p. 578. — Ed.] 3 It was tr.anslated into English as Peruvian Antiquities, hy Dr. Francis L. Hawkes, of New York, in 1853. [The English translation retained the woodcuts, but omitted the atlas. Cf. Field, Ind. Bibliog., no. 1306 ; Sabin, xvli. p. 319. There is a French edition, Antiquitcs Pernviennes (Paris, 1S59). Dr. Tschudi later published Reiscn durch Siid Amerika, in five vols. (Leipzig, 1866-69), which was translated into English as Travels in Peru, /SJS-/S42, and published in New York and London. — Ed.] * Los Anales del Cuzco, for Dr. Mesa (Cuzco, 2 vols.). 6 Historia Antigua del Peru, for Sebastian Lorente (Lima, 1S60). 8 Historia de la civiinacion Peruana, Kevista de Lima (Lima, 1880). ' Recuerdos de la Mowirquia Peruana, 6 Bosquejo de la historia de los Incas, for Dr. Justo Sahua- raura Inca, Canonigo en la Catcdral de Cuzco (Paris, 1S50). 8 Le Pcrou avant la coiiqucte esfagnole, d'afris les frincifaux historiens originaux et quelques docu- ments incdits sur les antiquitcs de ce fays (Paris, 1S5S). 9 Geschiclite der Amerikantschen Urreligioncn, von /. (7. .Wilier (Basel, 1867). W Anfhrofologie der Naturvdlkcr.voii Dr. Tlicodor IVaitz {^ \o\i,.) Leipzig, 1864. 11 Myths of the New World, a treatise on the symbolism and mythology of the Red Race of America, by Daniel G. Drinton, M. D. (New York, 1S6S). Aboriginal American authors and their froductions, esfe- daily those in the native languages, by Daniel G. Brinton, AL D. (Philadelphia, 1883). [Brinton's writ- ings, however, in the main illustrate the antiquities north of Panama.] 13 A'tlifuarian, ethnological and other researches in New Granada. Equador, Peru, and Chile; with obsenations on the Pre-lncarial, Incarial, and other monuments of Peruvian nations, by William Bollaert, F. R. G. S. (London, 1S60). [BoUaert's minor and periodical contributions, mainly embodied in his final work^ are numerous; Contributions to an introduction to the Anthrofology of the New World. Ancient Peruvian grafhic Records (tr. in Archives dc la Soc. Amer. de France, n. s., i). Observations on the history of tht Incas (in the Transactions Ethnological Soc, 1854). — En.] THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 271 is to Humboldt,^ and his predecessors the Ul- loas,'^ that we owe graphic descriptions of Inca ruins in the kingdom of Quito and in northern Peru as far as Caxamarca. French travellers have contributed three works of importance to the same department of research. M. Alcide D'Orbigny examined and described the ruins of Tiahuanacu with great care.^ M. Kran9ois de Castelnau was the leader of a scientific expedi- tion sent out by the French government, and his work contains descriptions of ruins illustrated by plates.* The work of M. Wiener is more complete, and is intended to be exhaustive. He was also employed by the French government on an archajological and ethnographic mission to Peru, from 1S75 to 1S77, and he has per- formed his task with diligence and ability, while no cost seems to have been spared in the pro- duction of his work.* The maps and illustra- tions are numerous and well e.xecuted, and M. Wiener visited nearly every part of Peru where archaeological remains are to be met with. There is only one fault to be found with the praise- worthy and elaborate works of D'Orbigny and Wiener. The authors are too apt to adopt the- ories on insufficient grounds, and to confuse their otherwise admirable descriptions with im- aginative speculations. An example of this kind has been pointed out by the Peruvian scholar Dr. Villar, with reference to M. Wiener's erro- neous ideas respecting CulU Je I'eaii ou de la fltiU, It le dim Quo/Difi M. Wiener is the only modern traveller who has visited and described the interesting ruins of Vilcas-huaman. The present writer has published two books recording his travels in Peru. In the first he described the fortress of Hervay, the ancient irrigation channels at Nasca on the Peruvian coast, and the ruins at and around Cuzco, in- cluding Ollantay-tampu.' In the second there are descriptions of the cliulpas at Sillustani in the Collao, and of the Inca roof over the Suntur- huasi at Azangaro.* The work of K. G. Squier is, on the whole, the most valuable result of antiquarian researches in Peru that has ever been presented to the pub- 1 Viies Jcs Cordillircs, oil Afomimens des PeufUs indigines de I'Amiriqiie (Paris, i8io; in 8vo, 1S16), called in the English transhition, Researches concerning the institutions and monuments of the ancient inhab- itants of America, with descriptions and views of some of the most striking scenes in the Cordilleras. Transl. into English by Helen Maria Williams (London, 1S14). Voyage aux Regions equinoxialcs du Noiivcau Continent fait en iTq()-iSo4, ai'ec deux Atlas, 3 vols. 4to (Paris, iS 14-25 ; and Svo, 13 vols., 1816-31), called in the English translation. Personal narrative of travels to the equinoctial regions of America, lygq-iSo^, by A. von Humboldt [and A. Bonfland] : translated and edited by Thomasina Ross (Lond., 1S52) ; and in ear- lier versions by II. M. Williams (London, 181S-1S29). [Humboldt's later summarized expressions are found in his Ansichten der jVatur (.Stuttgart, 1S49; English tr., Aspects of Nature, by Mrs. Sabine. London and Philad., 1S49; and Views of Nature, by E. C. Ott^, London, 1850). Current views of Humboldt's .Vmerican studies can be tracked through Poole's Index, p. 613. — En.] 2 Antonio Ulloa's Mimoires philosofhiques, historiques, physiques, coneernant le dccouverte de I'Ame- rique (Paris, 17S7). Voyage historique de I'Amcrique Mcridionale, fait far ordre du Roy d'Esfagne; ouvragc qui contient une histoire des Yncas du Pcrou, e.' des observations astronomiques et physiques, faites four determiner la figure et la grandeur de la terre i.Vmsterdam, 1732). Or in the English translation. Voyage to South America by Don Jorge Juan and Don Antonio de Ulloa, 2 vols. Svo (London, 175S, 1772; fifth ed. 1S07). [.\nother of the savans in this scientific expedition was Charles M. La Condamine. and we have his observations in his Journal du Voyage fait h V Equateur (1751), and in a paper on the Peruvian monuments in the Mcmoires of the Berlin .Academy (1746). Other early observers deserving brief mention are Pedro de Madriga, whose account is appended to .\dmiral Jacques d'Heremite's Journael van de Nas- sausche Vlool (Amsterdam, 1652), and Amed^eFrangois Frezier's Voyage to the South Sea (London, 1717). — Eu.] 8 V Homme Amcricain considcre sous ses Rapports Physiologiques et Moraux (Paris, 1S39). [He gives a large ethnological map of South .\merica. His book is separately printed from Voyages dans rAmerigue Mcridionale (9 vols.) — Ed.] * Expedition dans les parties centrales de PAmcrique de Sud, executle par ordre du Gouvernement Fran- ((lis pendant les annees 184s h 184^. Troisiime fartie, Antiquitcs des Incas (4to, Paris, 1854). ' Perou et Bolivie, Rccit de voyage suivi d'itudes archiologiques et ethnographiques et de notes sur I'ccri- iure et les langues des populations Indiennes. Ouvrage eontcnant plus de i/oo gravures, sy cartes et tS plans, par Charles H'/V«<:r (Paris, iSSo). [Wiener earlier published two monographs: Notice sur le com- munisme des Incas (Paris, 1874) ; Essai sur les institutions politiques, religieuses, economiques et sociales de t Empire des Incas (Paris, 1S74). — En.] 6 Uiracocha, por Leonardo Villar (Lima, 1887). ' Cuzco and Lima (London, 1S56). 8 Travels in Peru and India while superintending the collection of ehinehona plants and seeds in South America, and their introduction into India ^London, 1802). [Cf. Field's Indian Bibliog. for notes on Mr. Markham's book. He epitomizes the accounts of Peruvian antiquities in his Peru (London, 1880), of the " Foreign Countries Series." Cf. Vol. II. p. 578. — Ed.] I 272 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. :i 1} 'i lie' Mr. Squier had .special qualifications for the task. He had already been engaged on similar work in Nicaragua, and he was well versed in the history o£ his subject. He visited nearly all the ruins of importance in the country, constructed plana, and took numerous jihoto- graphs. Avoiding theoretical disquisitiunr^. he gives -..ost accurate descriptions of the architec- tural remains, which aie invaluable to the stu- dent. His style is agreeable and interesting, while it inspires confidence in the reader; and his admirable book is in all respects thoroughly workmanlike.- 'lialuianacu is minutely described by D'Or- ■*!^ •) .' CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM.* 1 Psru, Incidents of travel and exploration in the land of the Incas (N'. Y. 1877: London, 1877). [Squier was sent to Peru on a diplomatic mission by the United States government in 1863, and this service rendered, he gave two years to exploring the antiquities of the country. His Peru embodies various separate studies, which he had previously contributed to the Journal of the American Geographical Society (vol. iii. 1S70-71) ; the American Naturalist (vol. iv. 1S70) ; Harper's Afontlily (vols, vii., xxxvi., xxxvii.). He contributed " Quelques remarques sur la g^ographie et les monuments du P^rou " to the Bulletin de la Socictc de gcogra- phie de Paris, Jr^n., 1868. A list of Squier's publications is appended to the Sale Catalogue o! his Library (N. Y., 1S76), which contains a list of his MS.S., most of which, it is believed, passed into the collection of H. H. Bancroft. Mr. Squier's closing years were obscured by infirmity ; he died in iSSS. — Ed.] 2 [Among the recent travellers, mention may be made of a few of various interests : Edmund Temple's Travels in Peru (Lond., 1S30) ; Thomas Sutcliffe's Sixteen Years in Chili and Peru (Lond., 1841) ; S. S. Hill's Travels in Peru and Mexico iLond., 1S60) ; Thos. J. Hutchinson's Two Years in Peru (with pa-^ers on prehistoric anthropology in the Anthropological Journal, iv. 43S, and "Some Fallacies about the Incas," In the Proc. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Liverpool, 1S73-74, p. 121) ; Marcoy's Voyage, first in the Tour du Monde, 1S63-64, and then separately in French, and again in English; E. Pertuiset's Le Trisor des Incas (Paris, 1S77); and Comte d'Ursel's Siid-Amirique, 2d ed. (Paris, 1870^ F. Hassaurek, in his Four Years among Spanish Americans (N. Y., 1867), epitomizes in his ch. xvi. the history of Quito. — Ed.] • [After a photograph kindly furnished by himself at the editor's request. — Ed.] THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 273 D'Or- bigny, Wiener, and Squier, and the famous ruins have also been the objects of special attention from other investigators. Mr. Helsby of Liver- pool took careful photographs of the monolithic doorway in 1857, which were engraved and pub- lished, with a descriptive article by Mr. BoUaert.^ Don Modesto Uasadre has also written an ac- count of the ruins, with measurements.^ But the most complete monograph on Tiahuanacu is by Mr. Inwards, who surveyed the ground, photographed all the ruins, made enlarged draw- ings of the sculptures on the monolithic door- way, and even attempted an ideal restoration of the palace. In the letter-press, Mr. Inwards quotes from the only authorities who give any account of Tiahuanacu, and on this particular point his monograph entitles him to be consid- ered as the highest modern authority.' Another special investigation of equal int> it, ind even greater completeness, is represented by the superb work on the burial-ground of .^n- con, being the results of excavations made on the spot by Wilhelm Reiss and Alphonso Stu- bel. . The researches of these painstaking and talented antiqu".ries have thrown a flood of light on the social habits and daily life of the civilized people of the Peruvian coast.* The great work of Don Antonio Raimondi on Peru is still incomplete. The learned Italian has already devoted thirty-eight years to the study of the natural history of his adopted coun- try, and the results of his prolonged scientific labors are now gradually being given to the pub- lic. The plan of this exhaustive monograph is a division into six parts, devoted to the geogra- phy, geology, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and ethnology of Peru. The geographical division will contain a description of the principal ancient monuments and their ruins, while the ethnology will include a treatise on the ancient races, their origin and civilization. But as yet only three volumes have been published. The first is en- titled Parte J'relimiiiar, describin'- the plan of the work and the extent of the author's travels throughout the country. The second and third volumes comprise a history of the progress of geographical discovery in Peru since the con- quest by Pizarro. The completion of this great work, undertaken under the auspices of the gov- ernment of Peru, has been long delayed.'' The labors of explorers are supplemented by the editorial work of scholars, who bring to light the precious relics of early authorities, hitherto buried in scarcely accessible old volumes or in manuscript. First in the ranks of these laborers in the cause of knowledge, as regards ancient Peruvian history, stands the name of M. Ternaux Compans. He has furnished to the student carefully edited French ef'lcions of the narrative of Xeres, of the history if Peru by Balboa, of the MJmoircs Hisloriqu.s of Montesinos, and of the history- of Quito by Vela co." 1 Intellectual Observer, May, 1863 (London). 2 Riquczas Pcruanas (Lima, 1884). 8 The temple of the Andes, by Richards Inwards (London, 1884). [Mr. Markha n lia5 also had occasion to speak of these ruins in annotating his edition of Cieza de Leon, p. 374. There is a ori- ately printed book by L. Angrand, Antiquitcs Americaines : lettres sur les antiquitis de Tiaguanaco, et Vorigine presumable de la plus ancienne civilisation du Haut-Peroii (Paris, 1866). — Ed.] * This superb work was issued at Berlin and London with German and English texts. The English title reads, Peruvian Antiqun.''s: the Necropolis of A neon in Peru. A contribution to our i-nowledge of the cul- ture and industries of the empire of the Incas. Being the results of excavations made on the spot. Trans- lated by A. H. Keane. With the aid of the general administration nf the royal museums of Berlin (Berlin, 18S0-87) ; in three folio volumes, with 119 colored and plain plates. The divisions are: !. The Necropolis and its graves. 2. Garments and textiles. 3. Ornaments, utensils, earthenware ; evolution of ornamentation, with treatises by L. Wittmack on the plants found in the graves; R. Virchow on the human remains, and A. Neh- ring on the animals. [A few of the plates are reproduced in black and white in Ruge's Geschichte des Zeit- alters der Entdeckungen. The authors represent that the graveyard of .Ancon, an obscure place lying near the coast, nortli of Lima, was probably the burial-place of a poor people ; but its obscurity has saved it to us while important places have been ransacked and destroyed. The reader will be struck with the richness of the woven materials, which are so strikingly figured in the plates. On this point Stiibel published in Dresden in iSSS, as a part of the Festschrift of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the '• \'erein fiir Erdkunde." a paper Veber altperu. anische Gewebemuster und ihnen analoge Or namente der altklassischen K'unst (Dresden. 1SS8). Some ot the plates in the larger work impress one with the great variety of ornamenting skill. The collection formed by John H. Blake from an ancient cemetery on the bay of Chacota, now in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge, Mass., is described in the Reports of that institution, xi. 195, 277. Reference may also be made to li M. Wright's Description of the collection of gold ornrments from the "huacas," or graves of some aboriginal races of the northwestern provinces of South America, belonging to Lady Brassey (London, iSS;). — El .] 5 Antonio Raimondi. El Peru. Tomo I. Parte Preliminar, 4I0. pp. 44f {Uma, 1%-;^). Tomo II. His- toria de la Geografia del Pent, 4to,pp. 4ys (Lima, 1876). Tomo III. Historia de la Geografia del Peru, 4to,pp. bit (Lima, 1S80). ' Voyages, Relations et Memoires Originaux pour servir h VHistoire de la Decouverte de l.-lm 'rique. 20 vols, in 10, 8vo (Paris, 1837-41). See Vol. II , introd. p. vi. vol.. I. —18 h fr tl 274 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. The present writer has translated into English and edited the works of Cieza de Leon, Garci- lasso de la Vega, Molina, Salcamayhua, Avila, Xeres, Andagoya, and one of the reports of On- degardo, and has edited the old translation of Acosta. Dr. M. Gonzalez de la Rosa, an accomplis' 1 I'cruvian scholar, brought to light and edited, in career of literary usefulness is by no means ended. Although so much has been accomplished in the field of Peruvian research, yet n\uch remains to be done, both by explorers and in the study. The Quichua chapters of the work of Avila, containing curious myths and legends, remain untranslated and in manuscript. A satisfactory «(M 'i mXrCOS JIMENEZ DE LA ESPADA.* 1879, the curious Historia de Lima of Father liernabe Cobo. It was published in successive numbers of the RiTi'sta Piruaiui, at Lima. Hut m this department students are mos'. in- debted to the learned Spanish editor, Don Mar- cos Jimenez de la Espada ; for he has placed within our reach the works of important author- ities, which were previouslv not only inacces- sible, but unknown. He has edited the second part of Cieza de Leon, the anonymous Jesuit, Montesinos, Santillana, the reports to the Vice- roy Toledo, the Suma y Narracion of Retanzos, and the War of Quito, by Cieza de Leon. More- over, there is every reason to hope that his te.xt of the OUantay drama, after collation of all accessible manuscripts, has not yet been se- cured. Numerous precious manuscripts have yet to be unearthed in Spain. Songs of the times of the Incas exist in Peru, which should be collected and edited. There are scientific excavations to be undertaken, and secluded dis- tricts to be explored. The Vunca grammar of Carrera requires expert comparative study, and comparison with the Eten dialect. Remnants of archaic langu.iges, such as the Puquina of the Urus, must be investigated. When all this, and much more, has been added to existing means of knowledge, the labors of pioneers will ap- • [After a photograph, kindly furnished by himself, at the editor's requeit. — Ed.] ( > THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 75 proach completion. Then the time will have arrived for the preparatiun uf a history uf an- cient Peruvian civilization which will be worthy of the subject.' ' [Amonir less important or more general later writers on this ancicpt civilization may be mentioned: Charles Labarthe's La Civitisntion piruviciiuc avant tarrivie ties Esfagnols (Archives de la Soc. Amir, de /^njHii;, n. s.| i.), and liis paper (rum tha An una ire Ethnografhiiiue, on the '• Uociimunts in^dits sur I'em- pire des Incas " (Paris, iS6i ) ; Kiidulf Kalb's Das Land dcr Inca in seiner Bedenliing fiir die Urgeseliie/ite der Sfrachc und Schrift (Leipzig, 1SS31; Lieut. G. .M. Gilliss, in jchuolcraft's Ind. Tribes, v. 057; Ur. .Ma- ccdo's comparison of the inca and Aztec civilizations in the Proc. of the Xuinism, and Aniiq, Soc. ( I'liilad. 1SS3); VicomteTh.de Uussifere's Le Pcroii (I'aris, iSfij); beside chapters in such - Mipreliensivc works as those of Nadaillac, Kuge, li.ildwin, Wilson (Prehistoric Man), and the papers of Ca> ing and others in the Archives de la Soc. Amir, de France, and an occasional paper in the Journals of tl ;\merican and other geographical and ethnological societies. Current English comment is reached through Poole's index, pp. 627, 992. — Eu.] NOTES. I. .Ancient People of the Peruvian Coast. — There was a civilized people on the coast of Peru, but not occupying the whole coast, which was distinctly different, both as regards race and language, from the Incas and their cognate tribes. This coast nation was called Chiinii, and their language .\/ochi<.a.^ The numerous valleys on the I'eruvian coa.it. separated by sandy deserts of varying widtli, re<|uired only careful irrigation to render them capable of sustainmg a large pupulatiun. The aboriginal inhabitants were probably a diminutive race of fishermen. Driven southwards by invaders, they eventually sought refuge in -Arica and Tar.apaca. D'Orbigny described their descendants as a gentle, hospitable race of lishermen, never exceeding five feet in height, with flat noses, fishing in boats of inHated sealskins, and sleeping in huts of sealskin on heaps of dried seaweed. They are called Changos. liollaert mentions that they buried their dead lengthways, liodies found in this unusual posture near Canete form a slight link connecting the Chan- gos to the south with the early aboriginal race of the n»>io northern valleys. The Chimu people drove out the aborigines and occupied the valleys of the coast from Payta nearly to Lima, forming distinct communities, each under a chief more or less independent. The Chimu himself ruled over the five valleys of Parmunca, Hualli, Huanapu, .Santa, and Chimu. where the city of Truxillo now stands. The total difference of their language from Quichua m.akes it clear that the Chlmus did not come from the Andes or from the (Juito country. The only other alternative is that they arrived from the sea. Balboa, indeed, gives a detailed account of the statements made by the coast Indians of Lambayeque, at the time of the conquest. They declared that a great fleet arrived on the coast some generations earlier, com- manded by a chief named Noymlap, who had with him a green-stone idol, and that he founded a dynasty of chiefs. The Chimu and his subjects, let their origin be what it may, had certainly made coiisidersble advances in civilization. The vast palaces of the Chimu near the seashore, with a surrounding city, and great mounds or artificial hills, are astonishing even in their decay. The princip.-il hall of the palace was loo feet long by 52. The walls are covered with an intiicate and v ,iy effective series of arabesques on stucco, worked in relief. .\ neighboring l.all, with walls stuccoed in color, is entered by passages and skirted by openings leading to small rooms seven feet square, which may have been used as dormitories. A long corridor leads from tlic bick of the arabesque hall to some recesses where gold and silver vessels have been found. At a short distance from this palace there is a sepidchral mound where many relics have been discovered. The bodies were wraiiped in cloths woven in ornamental figures and patterns of different colors. On some of the cloths plates of silver were sewn, and they were edged with borders of feathers, the silver plates being occasionally cut in the shapes of fishes and birc";. Among the ruins of the city there are great rectangular areas enclosed by massive walls, containing buildings, courts, streets, and reservoirs for water.'^ The largest is about a mile south of the palace, and is 550 yards long by 400. The outer wall is about 30 feet high and 10 feet thick at the base, with sides inclining towards each other. Some of the interior walls are highly ornamented in stuccoed patterns ; and in ' [Humboldt ( Views cf Nature, 235) points out that the name Chimborazo is probably a relic of this earlier tongue. -Ed] • [Wiener, Pirou et Bolivie, p. qS, gives a plan of the neigh' rhood of Truxillo, showing the position *' du Gran Chimj,'* and an enlarged plan of the ruins. — Ed.] Hi \\ 'W < '% fl -.'/ ^-i^*' 776 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. ■! . 1 I li . i v '; « h H ''f 'li one part there is an ediKce containing 45 chambers or cells, which is supposed to liave been a prison. The enclosure also contained a reservoir 450 feet hmg by 195, and 60 feet deep. The dry climate favored the adornment of outer walls by color, and those of the Chiniu palaces were cov- ered with very tasteful sculpt ircd i)attcrn;i. l"i ,ures of colored birds and animals are said to have been painted on the walls of temples and palaces. Silver and ^old ornaments and utensils, mantles richly embroi- dered, robes of feathers, cotton cloths of tine texture, and vases of an infinite variety of curious designs, are found in the tombs. Cieza de I.eon gives us a momentary glimpse at the life of the Chinui chiefs. Each ruler of a valley, he tells us, had a great house with adobe pillars, and doorways hung with matting, built on extensive terraces. He adds that the chiefs dressed in cotton sliirts and long mantles, and were fond of drinking-bouts, dancing and singing. '1 he walls of their houses were painted witli bright colored patterns and figures. iSuch places, rising out of the groves of fruit-trees, with the Andes bounding the view in one direction and the ocean in the other, must have been suitable abodes ior joy and feasting. Around them were the fertile valleys, peopled by industrious cultivators, and carefully Irrigated. Their irrigation works were indeed stupendous. " In the valley of Nepeiia the reservoir is three fourths of a mile long by more than half a mile broad, and con- sists of a massive dam of stone So feet thick at the base, carried across a gorge between two rocky hills. It was supplied by two canals at different elevations ; one starting fourteen miles up the valley, and the other from springs five miles distant."! The custom prevalent among the Chimus of depositing with their dead all objects of daily use, as well as ornaments and garments worn by thtm during life, has enabled us to gain a further insight into the social history of this interesting people. The re- searches of Keuss and .Stiibel at the necropolis of .-\n- con, near Lima, have been most important. .Numer- ous garments, interwoven with work of a decorative character, cloths of many colors and complicated patterns, implements used in spinning and sewing, work-baskets of plaited grass, balls of thread, tinger- rings, wooden and clay toys, are found with the mum- mies. The spindles are richly carved and painted, and attached to them are terra cotta cylinders aglow with ornamental colorings which were used as wheels. Fine earthenware vases of varied patterns, and wooden or clay dishes, also occur. Turning to the language of the coast people, we find that no Mochica dictionary was ever made ; but there is a grammar and a short list of words by Carrera. and the Lord's prayer in Mochica, by Bishop Or^. 'I'he granmiar was composed by a priest who had settled at Truxillo, near the ruins of the Chimu palace, and who was a great-grandson of one of the first Spanish conquerors. It was published at Lima in 1644. At that time the Mochica language was spoken in the valleys of Truxillo. Chicania, Chocope, Sana, Lambayeque, Chidayo, Huacabaniba. Olmos, and Motupb. When the Mcrciirio Pcruaito- was published in 179'i. this language is said to have en- tirely disappeared. Father Carrera tells us that the Mochica was so very difficult that he was the only Spaniard who had ever been able to learn it. The words bear no resemblance whatever to Quichua. SECTION OF A .MUMMY-CA.SE FROM ANCON • ""'='''" ^^"^ ""''^'^ different declensions, Quichua only one. Mochica has no transitive verbs, and no exclusive and inclusive plurals, which are among the chief characteristics of Quichua. The Mochica conju- • Squier, 210. » [There are two or three Peruvian periodicals of some importance for their archiological papers. The Mercurio Peruana de Historin, Liler„tu-n y Noticias fuHicas que da a luz la Sociedad Academica de Amantes de Lima (Lima, i79"-'795)i appeared in twelve volumes. It is often defective, and the Spmish government finally interdicted it. as it was considered revolutionary in principle. It was ed- ited at one time by the Pere Cisneros. There is a set ia Harvard College library. The Revista Peruana (Lima) has been the channel of some important archsological contributions. Others ap- peared in the Museo Erudite, o los Tiemfiosy las Cosiutn- ires (Cuzco, 1837, etc.) — Eo.] * [After a cut given by Ruge, following a plate in The h'ecropolis of Ancon. Wiener (p. 44) gives a section of one of the Ancon tombs. See a cut in Squier's Peru, p. 73. — Ed.] The THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN I'KKU. 277 K^tions are formed in quite a different way from those in the fjnichua lanKiia»:e. The Mochlca system of numerals apjiears to liave been very complete. With the lanKUUKe, the people have now almost if not entirely (lisai)pearc(l. Tossibly the people of Ktcn, houtli of I.anibayecpic, who still speak a peculiar lanKuajjc, may be descendants of the Chlnius. The Chinm dominion extended probably from Tumbez, in the extreme north of the Peruvian cout, to Ancon, north of Lima. The Cliimus also had a strong colony in the valley of lluarcu, now called Cafiete. Hut the valleys of the Kimac, of Lurin, Chilca, and Mala, north of C'anete ; and those of Chincha, Yea, and Nasca, south of C'ai^ete; were not Chinui territory. The names of places in those valleys are all Quichua, as well as the names of their chiefs, as rccor.led by Ciarcilasso dc la Vejja an«« m /'^rw fLondon, if 731, vnl. i. p. 113. The Peruvi.in mummies are almost invariably simply desiccated. Only the royal personages were enbalmed (Markham's Cvai ' n I .r 278 NAKKATIVL: and CKIiICAL IIISIOKY OK AMKklCA. may be Rleancd from incdited Spanish manuscripts. The subject is a most interesting on^, and it h by no nu\uis cxli,iU!>tud. II. 'I'm- Oiii liu.V I.ANC.UAnR AMI I.lTKKATt'RK. — Nil real proijri'SH can be ni.i(lu in tlic Work of eliici- datinK thr .incient history of I'crii, .iiul in iiiii.ivullInK tlie intercMtini; but still unsolved i|uc»liun» relating to j|i. ^1 ,1 I i . IV !f It ' TAPESTRY FROM THE GRAVE:, OF ANCON.* the origin and development of Inca civilization, without a knowledge of the native language. The subject has accordingly received the close attention of laborious students from a very early period, and the present essay would be incomplete without appending an enumeration of the Quichua grammars and vocabularies, and of works relating to Inca literature. Fray Domingo de San Tomas, a Dominican monk, was the first author who composed a grammar and vocabulary of the language of the Incas. He gave it the name of Quichua, probably because he had studied * [After a cut in Ru£;e*s Gescfikhte d^s Zeitalters lier Entdechmgen., p. 429, following the colored plate in ///..' Xfcrty polls of Ancon. Wiener reproduces in black and white many of the Ancon specimens. — F.n.] \' THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 279 with niembcrs of that tribe, who were »f pure Inca race, and whose territory Mes to the westward of Ciiicu, The name han since been generally adopted for the lan){iia||{e of the I'cruvian t'inpire.> Dit'ijode Torres Kubio wa?< U)rn in 1 547, in a villaKC lucar Toledo, became a JeMiit at the age of nineteen, and went out to Peru in 1577. lie studied the native languages with great diligence, and cotnpuHvil grammars and voc.djiilarics. ilis grammar and vocabulary of (Juichua lirst appeared at Saville in 1001, and pa>''t'd through four editions.'^ A long resilience: in C■|lU(lui^«ca enabled him to actpiire the Ayniara language, and in Itii6 he publiNlied a short grammar and vocabulary of Ayniara. In Ku; lie aKo publi>lic'd a grammar of the (iuarani language. 'Torres Kiibio was rector of tlie college at I'utosi lor a short time, but his principal l.ibors were cminucted with niissi(uiary work at Chuijuisaca. lie died in that city at the great age of ninety-one, on the I ;th of .Vpril, iiijS. Juan do Figueredo, whose (Jhinchaysuyu vocabulary is bound up wit'i later editions of Torres Kiibio, was born at lluancavehca in 1O48, of hpanish parents, and after a lung and useful missionary life he died at Lima in 1734. The most voluminous gtaniniatical work on the language uf the Incas had for its author the Jesuit Diego Ci.uuales llolguin. This learned missionary was the scion of a ilistinguislied family in lOstremadura, and w.is befriended in his youth by his relation, Don Juan de (Ibando, President of the Council uf the Indies. .Alter graduating at Alcald de llenares he became a meiiiber of the .Society of Jesus in 15'iS, and went out to I'eru In 15S1. lie resided for several years in the Jesuit college at Juli. near the banks of Lake Titicaca, where the fathers had established a printing-press, and here he studied the (Juichua language, lie was en- trusted with important missions to (Juito and Chili, and was nominated interpreter by the \'iccruy T oledo. His later years were passed in I'araguay, and when he died at the age of sixty-si.\, in i6iS, he was rector of the college at .Asuncion. His Ouichua dic'ijnary was published at Lima in 15X6, and a second edition ap- peared in 1607,'' the same year in which the giammar lirst saw the liglit.< The (Juichua grammar of llolguin is the most complete and elaboi.ite that has been written, and his dictionary is also the best in every respect. While llolguin was studiously preparing these valuable works on the (Juichua language in the college at Juli. a coller.g'.!i' was laboring with eiiual zeal and assiduity at the dialect spoken by the people of the Collao, 'o which the Jesuits gave the name of .\ymara. I.iulovico flertonio was an Italian, a native of the marches of A'lcona. Arriving in I'eru in 15.S1, he resided at Juli for many years, studying the .\yniara language, until, attacked by gout, he was sent to Lima, where he died at the age of seventy-three, in 1625. His Ayniara grammar was first |niblished at Koine in I'loj,'' but a very much improved second edition," and a large dic- tionary of .Aymara,' were products of the Jesuit press at Juli in 1612. Uertonio also wrote a catechism and a life of Christ in .Aymara, which were printed at Juli. A vocabulary of (juichua by l'"ray Juan .Martinez, was printed at Lima in 1604, and another in 1614. Four (Juichua grammars followed during the seventeenth century. That of Alonso de Huerta was jiublished at Lima in 1616; the grammar of the Franciscan Diego de Olmos appeared in I'l','; Don Juan Koxo .Mexia y Ocon, a native of C'uzco, and professor of (Juichua at the University of Lima, published his giammar in 1C14S ; and the grammar of i^stevan ."^ancho de Melgar saw the light in i6<)i.* Leon I'iiielo also mentions a (Juichua grammar by Juan de Vega. The anonyn- us Jesuit refers to a (Juichua dictionary by Melchior I'ernandeE, which is lost to us. In 1644 Don Fernando de la Carrera, the Cura of Reque, near Chidayo, published his grammar of the Vunca language, at Lima. This is the language which was once spoken in the valleys of the Peruvian coast by the ' Granimatica o A rte de la Utt^m general tie tot Indios de lot Reynos del FerUy Huevaiue nte compuesta for el Atut'ttro Fray D( mittgo de S. Thomas de la ordfti de S. J)omin,i;;o, Morudor en los dichos reynos. I»iprisst> en I 'al/adtilid fior Francisco Fernandez de Cordova^ rj6o. Lexicon 6 I 'ocahtlario de la lengua general del Peru^ llamada Quichita (ValladollH, 1560). The prammar and vocabulary are usually bound up tf)f;ether. [The two were priced respectively by Leclerc, in 1878, at 2,500 and 600 francs. — Ku. ) The grammar and vocabulary of San Tomas were re- printed at Lima in 15% by Antonio Ricar.'.o. In the list given by Ri\ 1 ro and Von Tschudi ( A nliglledades Pernanas, p. 99)1 die p- nter Ricardo is entered as the author of this Luna edition of San Tomas. ' Grammatica y t'ocabulario en la lengua general del Peru llamada Quic/tna for Diego de Torres Rnhio S. S. (Seville, 1603). [This orif;ina1 edition is of great rarity. (Juaritch, in 1885, asked ^£20 for a defective copy. — Ed.] .■V second edition was printed at Lima in 1619; and a third in 1700. To this third edition a vocabulary was added of the Chinchaysuyu dialect, by Juan de Figueredo. A fourth edition was published at Lima in 1754, also containing the Chinchaysuyu vocabulary, which is spoken in the north of rem. [For this i7!;4 edition see Leclerc, no. 2409. It is Morth about {$50. — Ed.] ' Vocahulario de la Lengua general de todo el Peru llamada lengua Quichua d del tnca. En la ciudad de los Reyes, 1586. Seconti edition printed by Francisco del Cant<», 1A07 (2 vols. 4to). [Leclerc (no. 2401), in 1879, priced this ed. at 2,000 francs; Quaritch, a defective cojiy, ;£2I.-El..] * Gramattcay Arte nueva de la lengua general de todo el Peru llamada lens^ua Quichua o Lettffua del hica par Diego Gonzales Holi^uin de la Coiu/>af}ia de Jesus, natural de Cateres fw^resso f*« la Ciudad de los Reyes del Peru^ por Francisco del CantOf /t)07. [Leclerc, 1879, nn. 2402, 500 francs. — Ed.] A second edition was published at Lima in 1S42. * Arte y gramatica muv copiosa de la lengiui -ytnarii con tnuc/tos y vnriados modns de hablar ( Roma, 1601). * Arte de la lengua Aymani con una selva de /rases en la misma lengua y su declaracion en romance. Impresso en la casa de la Compafiia de Jesus de Jul/ en la proi'ln- cia de Chucuyto. Por Francisco del Canto^ ibi2. pp. .14S. ' I'ocahulario de la lengua Ayniara, Juli /6/J, Spanish and Ayniara, pp. 430, Aymara and Spanish, pp. 1^7^. [Priced by Quantch in iS'^5 at /60; by Leclerc in 1879 at 2,000 francs. — En] * A rta de 1 1 lengua general JeT ynt^a llamada Quechhua (Lima, i6gi). Leclerc, 1S79. 250 francs. 'W I I' ' ^^ I ; '-I 28o NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OK AMERICA. • M I ■ ,4 ', i i! '■ii I !) civilized penpte whone ruler wai the gr;ind Chlmu. Now the UnKuage ii* extinct, ur ftpuken only by a fi« Jndiuns in thi* to.mt vill.im.* of lilcn. I he wurk o( Carrera i» thrri'lure inipnrtanl, a>. wit.i thu cxceptinn of a spctinieii ut the lanKuagt- prcscrvt-d by Itii^hop Ur*, it i% the only btiok In wliicli tlic student tan now oljtain any hnKuistic knuwleiluc ut tlie lost tivili/atinn. The Vunca Kraninur was reprinted in numbers in the h'tvistit iit Lima of iSNo and (oUowing years.' 1 here was a prolessnnaj chair for the study of (Julchua in tlie University of San Mircos at Lima, und the /an^uaMe was cultivated, durin)< tlic two centuries alter the cnuipiest, a^ well by educated natives as by many Spam-.h ecclesiastics. 1 he sermons of Dr. Don Fernando de Avendaflo have aheady been referred to.' I»r. I.unarejo, of Cu/co. was another famous Ouichuan preaciier. and the fon/tsioniinos and catechisms in tlie lanj{ua«e were very numerous, liishop I.uuis (ieroninio tite. ol (luaniaiiKa, in his ritualistic manual, Kives the Lords prayer ami commandments, not only in yuichua and .\ymaia, but ,iNo in the Pj(|uina lanKuai;o ipoken by the Lruson l.ake I i.icaca, and in the Vunca lan^uane ol the coast, which he calls .Mochica." A very curious bo(jk was publi^heil at Lima in 1602. which, aiuonj; other things, treats of the (Juithua lanj;ua>;e and of the derivations of names of places. The author. Don Diego D'Avaltis y l-'igueroa, ap|.ears to have been a native of La I'a/. He was possessed of sprJKhtly wit, was well read, and a close observer of nature. We gather from his Misuiaftfii Austrul^ the names of birds and animals, and of tishes in Lake I iti- caca, as well as the opinions of the author on the cause of the absence of rain on the Peruvian coast, on thfl lacustrine system of the Collao, and on other interesting points of physical geography.'' In modern times the language of the incas has received attention from students of Teruviah history. The Joint authors, Dr. \on Tschudi and Don Mariano Eduardo de Kivero, in their work entitled Antii^iUiiiuUs /'fr//4. and a few years previously a more complete and elaborate Work had seen the light at Sucr«-. the capital of Itolivia. This was the granunar and dictionary by Lather Ilonorio Mossi. of I'otosi, a large volume containing thorough and excellent workJ Lastly a (Juichua gram- iiar by Jos^' Ditmisio Anchorcna was published at Lima in iS;^.'* The curious publication of Don Jos6 I'ernandez Nodal in 1S74 is not so much a grammar of the (Juichua Kinguage as a heterogeneous collection of notes on all sorts of subjects, and can scarcely take a place among eerious works. The author was a native of Arequipa, of good family, but he was carried away by enthusiasm #ind allowed his imagination to run riot.'-' The gospel of St. Luke, with Ayniara and Spanish in parallel columns, was translated from the vulgate by Don Vicente I'azos-kanki.a graduate of the L'niversity of Cu/co, and published in London in 1829 ; if* and more recently a Quichua version of the gospel of St. j()hn, translated by Mr. Spilsbury, an English missi(tnary, (las appeared at Ilucnos Ayres.*l These publications and others of the same kind have a tendency to preserve 4he purity of the language, and are therefore welcome to the student of Incarial history. Quichua has been the subject of detailed comparative study by more than one modern philologist of emi- nence. The discussion of the (Juichua roots by the learned Dr. Vicente Fidel Lojjez is a most valuable Addition to the literature of the subject ; while the historical section of his work is a great aid to a critical con- sideration of Montesinos and other early auth(trities. Whatever may be thought of his theoretical opinions, ' A rte de la lengtta ) 'utif^a He hs vatUs del Obhpado de TruxiUo^ con un catt/esiouario. y todos ias OTnciones cris- tinnas y otras casax, A utor cl h'neficuxdo Don Fermindo de la Carrera Cura y I'icario de San Martin de Reque en el corregimiento de C'liclayo (Lima. i^>44). This work is extremely rare. Only three copies are known to exist, one in the library at Madrid, one in the British Museum, which belonpfd to ^L Ttrnaux Conipans, and one in possession of Dr. Villar, in I't-ru. A copy was made for William von Humboldt from the British Museum copy, which is now in the library at Berlin. The Arte de '-t leui^na Yun^^a was reprinted in numbers nf the Reviata de Lima in 1880, imder the editorial super- vision of Dr. Gonzalt.*/ de la Rosa. * Sermones de los uiisterios de nuestra Santa Ft cnio^ lieu, en leng^ua Castellana^y la general del Inca, Impugn name los errores particulares que los Indios han tenido, par el Doctor Don Fernando de A vendafio^ tt4^. Rivero and Von Tschudi give some extracts from these sermcms in the Atitig^edades Peruanas^ p. lofi. * Rituale sen Manua'e Peruauum j'uxta ordtnetn Sam/iT Rotiiaua' Fcclesite, per R. P. F. Ludovicum Hieronytnum Oremni (Neapoli, 1^07). * Carter-Hrown, ii. 7. " Primera parte de la tniscrlartea austral de Don Diepo D^A.alosy Figueroa en varias cologuias, inter locutores Dilia y Cilrna, con la de/ensa de Damas. Jtn/>reso en Lima por Antonio Ricardo^afio tboS. « Die k'echuaSprache^l. i Sprachlehre, II.; ft'drter* buck, von J. 7. I'on PscAudi {Wieu, 1853). ' Gramatica y Diccionario de la lengua general d$ Perti^ llamada cotnuntnuente Quicku4it por el R. P. Fr. Honorio Mossi, Misiomro Apostolico del colejio de propa- ganda fide de la ciudad de Potosi {Sucre, i>5'/ (An earlier iiratuatica y Ensayo was published nl Sucre in 1857, Leclerc says it has become very rare. — Ed. J " Gratnatica Quichua o del idioma del Imperio de los Incas^por yost Dionisio Anchorena (Lima, \'>^T4,). " FJementos de Gratnatica Quichua 6 idioma de lot Yncas por el Dr. Jost FernandtM Nodal. The book wat printed in England in 1M74. *" El Evangelio de yesu Christo segun San Lucas en Ayinara y Espaftol, traductdo de la vulgata Latin al Aymard por Don I'icente Pazos-kanki^ Doctor de la Universidad del Cuzco e Individuo de la Sociedad I/is' torica de Xeuva I*(»rA (Ixjndres, 1829). *' Apunchis Santa Yoancama Ehuangeliun^ Quichua cayri Ynca siminpi quillkcasca. El Santo Evangel w de Nuestro Sefkor Jesu-Christo segun San Juan, traducido dfl original a la lengua Quichua odel )'nca ; por el Rev J. II. Gyhbon Spilsbury, Bttenos A ires, 1880. y a ftw .tiun of it.iiii IJL lIlC THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 3Sl iiul of tlic con-iideratinna by which he maintain! thrm, there can be nn doubt that Dr. Lopti hat rendered nio«t important nervicc to all ntudcnt* ii( I'eriivian liittnry.' The Ihcoretical identification uf (Juichuan rooti witli those of Turanian and Iberian lani{uaKc<, as it hat been elaborated by Mr. Ellin, Is alto not without Its ute, (|iiite apart fri>in the truth or otherwise (jf an> linKuistic theory.'^ Kditorial laburt connected with the publication uf the text and of trantlations of the Inca drama of Ollantay have recently conduced, in an eminent di'Kree, to the scholarly study of (Juichua, while they have sensibly contributed to a better knowl- edge of the subject. Von Tschudi was the first to publish the text of (lllantay. In the second part of his Ktchint Sfritche, having tjiven extracts from the drama in the chapter on the (Juichua lanKua^e in the Aiitigiifilitilis ffriKinm, .After a hjni; interval he broinjht out a revised text with a parallel (iernian translation,'' from his former manuscript, coll.ited with another bearinx the date of l.a I'a.', 17,15. The drama, in the exact form that it existed when represented lie- fore the Incas, Is of course Inst to us. It was handed down by tradi- tion until It was arranged for repu'sentation, divided into scenes, and supplieil with sta({c directions in ."'ipaiiish times, .'•everal manuscripts were prcserves des Incas tra- ditit et comment^ par Gavino Paeheco Zegarra (Paris, :87s), jip. clxxiv and 2(35. ' O tntay. Esiudio sobre el drama Quichua, por BartolomS Mitres pubticadu en la Xueva Revista de Bue* tios Ayres (1881). ' Poesia Dramaiica de los Incas. Ollantay, por Cle- tnente K. Markham traducido del Ingles por Adolfo F. Oli^tares, y segitido de una carta critica del Dr. Don Vicente Fidel Lopez (Buenos Ayres, 188^). ■,, I CHAPTER V. THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA IN CONTACT WITH THE FRENCH AND ENGLISH. BY GEORGE E. ELLIS, D. D., LL. D. President of the Massachitsctts Historical Society. THE relations into which the first l-^uropeans entered with the abo- rigines in North America were very largely influenced, if not wholly decided, by the relations which they found to exist among the tribes on their arrival here. Those relations were fiercely hostile. The new-comers in every instance and in every crisis found their opportunity and their immunity in the feud> existing among tribes already in conflict with each other. This state of things, while it gave the whites enemies, also fur- nished them with allies. So far as the whites could learn in their earliest inquiries, internecine strife had been waging here among the natives from an indefinite past. Starting, then, from this hostile relation between the native tribes of the northerly parts of the continent, we may trace the development of our subject through five periods : — 1. The first period, a very brief one, is marked by the presence of a single European nationality here, the French, for whom, under stringency of circumstance that he might be in friendly alliance with one tribe, Cham- plain was compelled to espouse its existing feud with other tribes. 2. The next period opens with the appearance and sharp rivalry here of a second European nationality, the English, the hereditary foe of the French, transferring hither their inherited animosities, amid which the Indians were ground as between two mill-stones. 3. Upon the extinction of French dominion on the continent by the English, the former red allies of the French, with secret prompting and help from the dispossessed j^arty, were stirred with fresh animosities against the victors. 4. Yet again the open hostilities of contending Indian tribes were largely turned to account, to their own harm, in their respective alliances with the English colonies or with the mother-country in the War of Independence. 5. The closing period is that which is still in progress as covering the relations with them of the United States government. The old hostilities between those tribes have been steadily of less account in affecting their r ! 284 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. l> ' I 'M i i '' '''f|. ,f ■ : 11)11 f\ i\ i; 1 ; :•'■> later fortunes ; and our government has not found it essential or expedient to aggravate its own severity against its Indian subjects, or " wards," by availing itself of the feud;; between them. The same antagonisms which had kept the Indian tribes in hostility with each nther prevented their effective alliance among themselves against the whites, and also embarrassed the English and French rivals, who sought to engage them on their respective sides. Many attempts were made by master chiefs among the savages, from the first intrusion of the Europeans, to organize combinations, or what we call " conspiracies," of formerly con- tending tribes against the common foe. The first of them, formidable though limited in its consequences, was made in Virginia in 1622. Only two of these schemes proved otherwise than wholly abortive. That of King Philip in New England, in 1675, was effective enough to show what havoc such a combination might work. That of I'ontiac, in 1763, was vastly more formidable, and '.vas thwarted only by a resistance which engaged at several widely severed points all the warlike resources of the English. But the inherent difficulties, both of combining the Indian tribes among themselves, and of engaging some of them in alliance on either side with the French and the I'^nglish contestants, were vastly increased by the seeds of sharp dissension .sown among them through the rivalries in trade and temptations offered in the fluctuating prices of peltries. Even the long- standing league of the Five Nations was ruptured by the resolute English agent Johnson. He succeeded so far as to secure a promise of neutrality from some of them, and a promise of friendly help from one of them. There were some in each of the tribes falling not one whit behind the sharpest of the whites in skilled sagacity and calculation, who were swift to mark and to interpret the changes in the balance of fortune, as one or the other of the parties of their common enemies made a successful stroke for ascendency. The facilities for allia'-ice with one or another native tribe against its enemies made for the Europeans a vast difference in the results of their warfare with the aborigines. One might venture positively to assert that the occupancy of this continent by luiropcans would have been indefinitely deferred and delayed had all its native tribes, in amity with each other, or willing for the occasion to arrest their feuds, made a bold and united front to resist the first intrusion upon their common domains. Certainly the full truth of this assertion might be illustrated as applicable to many incidents and crises in the first feeble and struggling fortunes of our original colonists in various exposed and inhospitable places. In many cases absolute starvation was averted only by the generous hospitality of the Indians. Taking into view the circumstances under which, from the first, tentative efforts were made for a permanent occupancy by the whites on our whole coast from Nova Scotia to Florida, and along the lakes and great western valleys, we must admit that their fortunes had more of peril than of promise. While, of course, we must refer their success and security y I THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 285 in large measure to the forbearance, tolerance, and real kindliness of the natives, yet it was well proved that as soon as the jealousy of these natives was stirred at any threatened encroachment, only their own feuds disabled them from any united opposition, and gave to one or another tribe the alter- native of fighting the white intruders or of an alliance with them against their neighbor enemies. The whi)lc series of the successive encroachments of Europeans on this continent is a continuous illustration of the success- ful turning to their own account of the strife of Indians against Indians. And when two rival European nationalities opened their two centuries of warfare for dominion on this continent, each party at once availed itself of red allies ready to renew or prolong their own previous hostilities. The Frenc < Huguenots in Florida and the Spaniards who massacred them had each of them allies among the tribes which were in mutual hos- tility. Chamjilain was grievously perplexed by the pressure, to which none the less he yielded, that if he would be in amity with the Hurons he must espouse their deadly enmity with the Iroquois. Even the poor remnants of the tribe with which the Pilgrims of Plymouth made their treaty of peace, which lasted for fifty years, were the vanquished and tributary representa- tives of a broken people. A sharp war and a more deadly plague had made that colony a possibility. And so it conies to pass that, if we attempt to define at any period dur- ing the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the conflicts between the sav- ages and Europeans on this continent, we have to look for the explanation of any special change in the relations of the Indian tribes to the varying interests and collisions of the different foreign nationalities in rivalry here. The hostilities between the French and the English were chronic and continuous. Frenchman's Bay, at Mt. Desert, preserves the memorial of the first collision, when Argall, from Virginia, broke up the attempted settlement of Saussaye.' As to the later developments of the antagonism, resulting in the extinction of French possession here, we are to refer them in about equal measure to two main causes, — the jealousy of the home governments, and the keen rivalry of the respective colonists for the lucra- tive spoils of the fur trade. The profit of traffic may be regarded as furnishing the prompting for strife on this side of the water, while the passion for territorial conquest engaged the intrigues and the armies of foreign courts in the stakes of wilderness warfare. In tracing the course of such warfare we must take into our view two very effective agencies, which introduced important modifications in the methods and results of that warfare. In its progress these two agencies became more and more chargeable with very serious consequences. The first of these is the change induced in the warfare of the Indians by their possession of, leading steadily to a dependence upon, the white man's firearms and supplies. The second is the usage, which the Indians soon learned to be profitable, of reserving their white prisoners for ransom, instead of subject- ing them to death or torture. 1 See Vol. IV. p. 141. ' I ,!, 286 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. i) ■i ! i} \i M I ll When we read of some of the earliest so-called " deeds " by which the English colonists obtained from the sachems wide spaces of territory on the consideration of a few tools, hatchets, kettles, or yards of cloth, we naturally regard the transaction as simply illustrating the white man's rapacity and cunning in tricking the simplicity of the savage. But we may be sure that in many such cases the Indian secured what was to him a full equivalent for that with which he parted. For, as the whites soon learned by experience, the savages supposed that in such transactions they were not alien-'Hng the absolute ov.-nership of their lands, but only covenanting for the n^iit of joint occupancy wit '^^he English. And then the coveted tools or implements obtained by theni represented a value and a use not measurable by any reach of wild territory. A metal kettle, a spear, a knife, a hatchet, transformed the whole life of a savage. A blanket was to him a whole wardrobe. When he came to be the possessor of firearms and ammunition, having before regarded himself the eqinl of the white man, he at once became his superior. We shall see how t ;; rivalry between the French and the English for traffic with the Indians, the enterprise of traders in pushing into the wilderness with packhorses, the establishment of truck- ing houses, the facility with which the natives could obtain coveted goods from either party, and the occasional failure of supplies in the contingen- cies of warfare, were on many occasions the turning-points in the fights in the wilderness, and in the shifting of savage partisanship from one side to the other, as the fickle allies found their own interests at stake. It was in 1609, when Chaniplain invaded the Iroquois country, on the lake that bears his name, that the astounded savages first saw the flash and marked the deadly effect of his arquebuse. But the shock soon spent itself. The weapon was found to be a terrestrial one, made and put to service by a man. The Dutch on the Hudson very soon supplied the Mohawks with this effective instrument for prosecuting the fur trade. The French began the general traffic with the Indians near the St. Lawrence, in metal vessels, knives, hatchets, awls, cotton and woollen goods, blankets, and that most coveted of all the white man's stores, the maddening "fire-water." But farther north and west for full two hundred yeari, from 1670 quite down to our own time, annual cargoes of these commodities were imported through Hudson Bay by the chartered company, and had been distributed by its agents among those who paid for them in peltries, in such abundance that the savages became really dependent upon them, and gradually confo'-med their habits to the use of them. Of course, in their raids upon English out- posts, the spoils of war in the shape of such supplies added rapacity to their ferocity. It was with a proud flourish that Indian warriors, enriched by the plunder on the field of Braddock's disastrous defeat, strutted before the walls of Fort Ducinesne, arrayed in the laced bats, sashes, uniform, and gorgets of British officers. When Celoron was sent, in 1 749, by the governor of Canada, to take pos- session of interior posts along the Alleghanies, he found at each of the THE RED INDiAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 287 Indian villages, as at Logstown, a chief centre, from a single to a dozen English traders, well supplied with goods for a brisk peltry traffic. He required the chiefs, on the threat of the loss of his favor, to expel them and to forbid their return. Hut the Indians insisted that they needed the goods. Some of these traders were worthless reprobates, mostly Scotch-Irish, from the frontiers of Pennsylvania. When Christopher Gist was sent, the next year, by the Ohio Land Company, to follow Ccloron and to thwart his schemes, he complained strongly of these demoralized and demoralizing traders. In the evidence given before the British House of Commons on the several occasions when the monopoly and the mode of business of the Hudson Bay Company were under question, the extent *"i which the natives had come t'^ depend upon European supplies was very strongly brought into notice. It was urged that some of the tribes had actually, by disuse, lost their skill in their old weapons. It was even affirmed that in some of the tribes multitudes had died by freezing and starvation, because their recent supplies had failed them. This dependence of the natives upon the resources of civilization, observable from the opening of their intercourse with the whites, has been steadily strengthening for two hundred years, till now it has become an absolute and heavy exaction upon uur national treasury. The custom which soon came in, to soften the atrocities of Indian warfare by the holding of white prisoners for ransom, was grafted upon an earlier usage among the natives of adopting prisoners or captives. There was a formal ceremonial in such cases, and after its performance those who would ot'^erwise have been victims were treated with all kindness. The return of a war-party to its own village was attended with widely different mani- festations according to the fortune which had befallen it. If it consisted only of a baffled and flying remnani that had failed in its hazardous enter- prise, its coming was announced, and received by the old men, women, and youths in the village with howls and lamentations. If, however, it had been successful, as proved by rich plunder, reeking scalp-locks, and prisoners, some runners were sent in advance to announce its approach. Then began a series of orgies, in which the old squaws were the most demonstra- tive and hideous. While the scalp-locks were displayed and counted, the well-guarded prisoners were exultingly escorted by their captors, the squaws gathering around them with taunts and petty tormentings. The woful fate which was waiting these prisoners was foreshadowed in prolonged rehearsals for its final horrors. One by one they were forced to run the gauntlet from goal to goal, between lines of yelping fiends, under blows aiid missiles, stones, sticks, and tomahawks, while efforts were made to trip them in their course, that they might be pounded in their helplessness when maddened with pain. Any exhibition of weakness or dread did but in- tensify the malignant frenzy cf their tormentors. Those who lived through this ordeal, which was intended to be but a preliminary in the barbaric Itj. i ! i 288 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. I I I' t ^i ' '11' ■ : 1 ' '.■•\«'v Iff : 1 \. I'; N f(i li:f •• :l entertainment, and to stop short of the actual extinction of life, were afterwarils, by deliberate preparations made in full view of the prisoners, subjected to all the ingenuities of rage and cruelty which untamed savage fiondishness could devise. The hero who bore the trial without flinching, singing his song of defiance, and in his turn mocking his tormentors because they failed to break his spirit, was most likely to find mercy in a finisliing stroke dealt by a magnanimous foe. Anything like an alleviation of these diead revenges of savage warfare being unallowable, there was open one way of complete relief in the usage of adoption, just referred to. This, however, was never available to the prisoner from his own first motion or prompting. He was wholly passive in the matter. Jt came solely from the inclination of any one in the village, a warrior or a squaw who, having recently lost a relative, or one whose ser- vice was necessary, might select a prisoner from the group as desirable to supply a place that was vacant. There would seem to have been a large liberty allowed in the exercise of this privilege, especially for those who were mourning for a relative lost in the encounter in which the prisoner was taken. Sometimes the merest caprice might prompt the selection. Scarcely, except in the rare case of some proud captive who would haughtily scorn to avail himself of a seeming afifinity with the tribe of a hated or abject enemy, would the offered privilege of adoption be refused. For, in any case, an ultimate escape from an enforced durance might be looked to. Of course those who were thus adopted were mostly the young and vigorous. The little children were not especially favored in the process, — except, as soon to be noted, the children (.,i the whites. The ceremonial for adoption was traditional. Beginning generally with somewhat rough and intimidating treatment, the captive was for a while left in suspense as to his fate. When at length the intent of the arbiter of his life was made known to him, the method pursued has been very frequently described to us in detail by the whites who were the subjects of it' The candidate was plunged and thoroughly soused in a stream to rinse out his white blood ; the hair of his head, saving the scalp-lock, was plucked out; and after some mouthings and incantations, completing the initiation, all winning blandish- ments, arts, and appliances were engaged to secure the confidence of the adopted captive, and to .draw from him some responsive sign of affection. He was arrayed in the choicer articles of forest finery, and nestled in the family lodge. The father, the squaw, or the patron, in whatever relation, to whom he henceforward belonged, spared no effort to engage and comfort him. Watchful eyes, of course, jealously (guarded any restless motions ' .\ ifiost graphic and picturesque account of the ceremonies attending the process of adop- tion is given in the A'ari-otivc of the Cii/>lh'ity cj Col. Jiimes Smith. He was talien prisoner, in May, 1751;, 1)V two r)^li"'.ire Indians, and carried to Fort Duquesne. lie describes the metho.'.s of the men and the women in an I::dia:i t^wn by whicli he was adopted as one of the Caugh- ncwajos. He shared the life and rovings of the tribe till 1760, when he got back to his home ; accompanied Bouquet as a guide ; was colonel of a regiment in our Revolutionary War, and artcrnards a member of the Kentucky legiS' lature. Here certnit-ly vaj n varied career. THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 289 looking towards an escape. The final aim was to secure a fully nationalized and acclimated new member of a tribe, ready to share all its fortunes in pjace and war. Naturally there were differences in this whole process and its results, as they concerned these attempted affiliations between the members of Indian tribes and in the adoption of white captives.' In their early conflicts with the whites, the Indians generally practised an indiscriminate slaughter. There were a few exceptions to the rule in King Philip's war.- In the raids of the French, with their Indian allies, upon the English settlements, prisoners taken on either side came gradually to have the same status as in civilized warfare, and to be held for exchange. This, however, would proceed upon the supposition that both parties had prison- ers. lUit before there was anything like equality in this matter, the cap- tives were for the most part such as had been seized from among the whites in inroads upon their settlements, not in the open field of warfare. A mid- night assault upon some frontier cabins, or upon the lodge of some lonely settler, left the savages to choose between a complete massacre or upon a selection of some of their victims for leading away with them to their own haunts, if not too cumbersome or dangerous for the wilderness journey. It soon came to be understood among the raiding parties of Indians in alliance with the French in Canada that white captives had a ransom value. Contributions were often gathered up in neighborhoods that had been ' Governor Colden says that when he first " For the Indian Sagamores, and people that went among the Mohawks he was adopted by them. The name given to him was " Cayender- ogue," which was borne by an old sachem, a notable warrior. He writes : " I thought no more of it at that time than as an artifice to draw a belly-full of strong liquor from me for himself and his companions. Hut when, about ten or twelve years after, my business led me among them," he was recognized by the name, and it served him in good stead. [Hist, of Five Xats., 3d ed., i p II.) The savages always took the liberty of assigning names of their own, either general or individual, to the Europeans with whom they had intercourse. The goyernor of Canada, for the time being, was called " Onon- tio"; of New York, "Corlear"; of Virginia, "Assarigoa"; of Pennsylvania, " Onas," etc. At a council of the .Si.\ Xations with the gov- ernors of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Maryland, held at Lancaster in June, 1744, it came under notice that the governor of Maryland had as yet no appellation assigned him by the natives. Much formality was used in providing one for I'.im. It was tried by lot as to which of the tribes should have the honor of naming him. The lot fell to the Cayugas, one of whose chiefs, after solemn deliberation, assigned the name " Tocarryhogan." (Colden, ii. p. 8g.) "^ From Archives of Massachusetts, vol. Ixviii. P- '93:- VOL. 1. — 19 are in warre against us. " Inteligence is Come to us that you haue some English (especially weoinen and children) in Captivity among you. Wee haue therefore sent this messenger, offering to redeeme them either for payment in goods or wompom ; or by ex- change of prisoners. Wee desire your answer by this our messinger, what price you demand for euery man woman and child, or if you will exchainge for Indians : if you haue any among you that can write your Answer to this our mes- suage, we desire it in writting, and to that end haue sent paper, pen and Incke by the mes- senger. If you lett our messenger haue free accesse to you and freedome of a safe returne : Wee are willing to doe the like by any messenger of yours. Prouided he come vnarmed and Carry a white flagi; Vpon a Staffe vissible to be seene : which we calle a flagg of truce : and is used by Civil nations in time of warre when any messin- gers are sent in a way of treaty: which wee haue done by our messenger. " Boston 31th of March 1676 past by the Council E. R. S. & was signed "In testimony whereof I haue set to my hand & Seal. F. L. Gov." (From A'. E. Hist, and Gen. Register, Jan'y^ 1885, pp. 79. 80.) VI :,' <•■ tl. 290 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. . ) raided, and in the meeting-houses of New England on Sundays, for redeem, ing such captives as were known to be in Canada. And, curiously enough, Judge Sewall in his journal records appeals for charity in the same form for the redemption of captives in the hands of our own savages, and for the ransom of our seamen and traders who were kept in durance by Afri- can corsairs. In the raids of desolation on either side of the Alleghanies and along the sources of the Susquehannah and the Ohio, from the outbreak of the French and Indian war, down to and even after the crushing of Pontiac's conspiracy, while more than a thousand cabins of the borderers were burned and their inmates mostly slaughtered, several hundred captives were borne off by the Indians and distributed among their villages. The ultimate fate of these captives always hung in dread uncertainty. If a panic arose among the lodges in apprehension of an onset from a war party of the whites, the captives might be massacred. But the force of circumstances and the urgency of interested motives steadily made it an object for their captors to retain their prisoners unharmed, and even to make captivity tol- erable to them. The alternative of death or life to them generally depended upon whether they might escape or be released by an avenging party with- out compensation, or could be held for redemption through a ransom. The knowledge that the Indians retained such captives of course became a very effective motive in inducing their relatives in the settlements to gather par- ties of neighbors for following the victims into the forest depths. Temporary truces also, when made by victorious parties of the whites, were conditioned upon the surrender of all their surviving countrymen who were supposed to be in duress. The savages pra. tised all their artifices and subterfuges in concealing some of their prisoners, alleging that they had been carried deeper into the country by new masters, or by positively denying all knowledge of their whereabouts. But the persistency and threats of those who had learned how to deal with these red diplomates, with a few resolute strokes generally brought about their surrender. When Bouquet had secured pos- session of Fort Duquesne with his army of 1,500 men, he stoutly followed up his success beyond the Ohio to the Indian settlements near the Muskin- gum, and with his sturdy pluck and strong force he overawed the represen- tatives of the neighboring tribes which he had summoned to meet him. He insisted, as the first condition of a truce, upon the delivery of all the white prisoners secluded among them, not only without the payment of any ransom, but upon their being brought in with a protecting escort and with means of sustenance. Of course there was always ignorance or doubt as to the number of captives in any particular place, and as to the hands into which any individual known or supposed to be in durance might have fallen. The word of an Indian on these points was worthless unless backed by other testimony. A stimulating of the tongue into unguarded speech by a dram of rum might in bome cases serve the purpose of the rack or the thumb-screw in more civilized cross-examinations. An uncertainty of THE RED INDIAN Ol' NORTH AMERICA. 291 course always hung over the survival or the whereabouts of individuals or members of a family whose bodies had not been found on the scene of an Indian frontier mid. Bouquet was accompanied by friends and relatives of supposed survivors held in captivity as the spoils of some massacre, and these might be depended upon to circumvent the falsehoods and cunning of the captors, and to insist upon their giving up their prizes. The persistency and the plain evidence of resolved purpose manifested by Uouquet finally compelled from the representatives of the tribes in council a pledge to sur- render all the prisoners in their hands, and messengers were sent out to gather and bring them in, though with some plausible excuses for delay, and the grudging return of only a part of them. But those who were given up became the best witnesses as to the deception practised by the cunning culprits in holding back others. Only after repeated exposures of falsehood by those so grudgingly surrendered, asserting of their own knowl- edge that there were others held in durance, whom they might even know by name, was there brought about a full deliverance, saving that, whether truly or falsely, in the case of a few individuals demanded the ex- cuse was alleged that they belonged to some chief or trib, absent at a dis- tance on a hunt, and so not to be reached by a summons. Bouquet was also absolute in his demand for all such white captives, young or old, as were alleged to have been adopted or married among the tribes. His firmly insisting upon this, and the compliance with it in many cases, led to some scenic manifestations in the wilderness, of a highly dramatic character, full of the matter of romance in their revelations of the working of human nature under novel and strange conditions. Such manifestations often attended similar scenes in the ransom or forced surrender of whites who had been in captivity among the Indians. But in this special instance of Bouquet's resolute course with the Ohio tribes, numbers, variety, pictur esqueness in those manifestations, gave to the bringing in and the recep- tion of captives features and incidents which strongly engage alike the sympathies and antipathies of human nature. Some of those brought into Bouquet's camp, who had once at least been whites, came with full as much reluctance on their part as that which was felt by those who gave them up. Indeed, several of them could be secured only by being bound and guarded. Approximation in all degrees to the manners and habits of Indian life and to all the qualities of Indian nature had been realized by Europeans from the first contact of the races on this continent. Of course the in- stances were numerous and very decisive in which this approximation was completed, and resulted in a substitution of all the ways and habits of sav- agery for those of civilization. Many of those who were forced back into Bouquet's camp clung to their Indian friends, and repelled all the manifes- tations of joy and affection of their own nearest kin by blood. They posi- tively refused to return to the settlements. They had been won by prefer- ence to the fascinations and license of a life in the wilderness. This preference was by no means inexplicable, even for some full-grown men and ' 1. I ' '^ .,( < li \ V'\ 292 NAkKATlVL AM) CRITICAL HISTORY UF AMKRICA. women who had been reared in the white settlements. Lite in scattered cabins on tlie frontiers had more ])oints of rt.scnil)iance than of difference in iiard conditions and privations, when compared with savage Hfe in tiie woods. Such society as these scattered cabins afforded was rude and rou^h, all experiences were precarious, daily drudgery was severe, the soli- tary homes were gloomy, and only exceptional cases of early domestic and mental training alleviated the stern exigencies of the condition of the first generation of the settlers. For women and children esjjecially, the out- look and the rou of life were dismal enough. As for the men, the more they conformed themselves in many respects to the actual habits and re- sources of the Indians in the training of their instincts, in their garb, their food, tlieir adaptation of themselves to the ways and resources of nature, the easier was their lot. Many women, likewise made ca])tives by the savages, in some cases of mature age, and having looked forward to the usual lot of marriage, found an Indian to be preferable, or at all events tolerable, as a husband. Children who preserved but a faint remembrance of home and parents very readily adopted savage tastes, and testified by their shrieks and struggles their unwillingness to part from their red friends. Specimens from each of these classes were the most marked and demon- strative among the groups brought in to Bouquet from Indian lodges, being in number more than two hundred. Doubtless, however, the majority of them had hatl enough of the experiences of savage life to make a return to the settlements a welcome release. Such persons thenceforward consti- tuted a useful class as interpreters, mediators, and messengers between the contending parties. Their knowledge of Indian character, superstitions, limitations, weak and strong points, impulsive excitability, stratagems, and adaptability to circumstance proved on many emergent occasions of good account. Such of these returned captives as had had the rudiments of an education, and were trustworthy as narrators, have made valuable contribu- tions to local history. Among many such intelligent and trustworthy reporters was Col. James Smith, captured on the borders of Pennsylvania in 1755, when eighteen years of age, and kept in captivity five years. Another was John McCul- lough, taken at about the same time and from the near neighborhood, when eight years old. He was retained eight years, and, being a quick-witted and observing youth, he kept his eyes and ears open to all that he could learn. From such sources we derive the most authentic information we possess of that transition period in the condition and fortunes of many of our aborigi- nal tribes when the intrusion of Europeans upon them with their tempting goods and their rival schemes, which equally tended to dispossess them of their heritage, introduced among them so many novel complications. Some of the narratives of the whites, who, under the conditions just referred to, lived for years and were assimilated with the Indians, present us occasion- ally by no means unattractive pictures of the ordinary tenor of life among them. In the brief intervals of peace, and in some favored recesses where ^ i THE RKU INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 293 game abounded and the changing seasons brought round festivals, plays, and scenes of jollity, there were even fascinations to delij;ht one of simple tastes, who could enjoy the aspects of nature, share the easy tramp over mossy trails, content himself with the viands of the wilderness, employ the long hours of laziness in easy handiwork, delight in basking beneath the soft hazes of the Indian summer, or listening to the traditional lore of the winter wigwam. The forests very soon began to be the shelter and the roving haunts of a crew of renegades and outlaws from the settlements, who assimilated at all points with the savages, and often used what re- mained to them of the knowledge and arts of civilization for ingenious purposes of mischief. It has always proved a vastly more easy and rapid process for white men to fall back into barbarism than for an Indian to con- form himself to civilization. Wildlife brought out all reversionary tenden- cies, and revived primitive qualities and instincts. It gave those who shared it a full opportunity to becnnu- oblivious of all fastidious tastes and of all the squeamishness of over-delicacy. The promiscuous contents of the camp-kettle, with its deposits and incrustations from previous banquets, were partaken of with a zestful appetite. The circumstances of warfare in the woods quickened all the faculties of watchfulness, made even the natu- ral coward brave, imparted endurance, and multiplied all the ingenuities of resource and stratagem. There is something that surpasses the merely marvellous in the feats of sturdy and persevering scouts, escaped captives, remnants of a butchery, messengers sent to carry intelligence in supreme peril, and lonely wayfarers treading the haunted forests, r)r creeping stealth- ily through ambushed defiles, penetrating marshes, using the sky and their woodcraft for guidance, fording or swimming choked or icy streams, climb- ing high tree-tops for a wider survey from the closed woods and thickets, subsisting on roots and berries and moss, and yielding to the exhaustion of nature only when all perils were passed and the refuge was reached. Alike on the march of armies and in the siege of some little forest strong- hold surrounded by yelping savages, it was necessary from time to time to send out a single plucky hero to carry or to obtain intelligence. When such a messenger was not designated by the commander, and the extremity of the emergency left the dismal honor to a volunteer, such was never found to be lacking. It confounds all calculations of the law of chances to learn how, even in the majority of such dire enterprises as are on record, for- tune favored the brave. Narratives there are which for ages to come will gather all the exciting elements of tragedy and romance, and occasionally even of comedy, as, set down in the language of the woods, without the constraints of art or grammar, they make us for the moment companions of some imperilled man or woman who borrowed of the bear, the deer, the fox, or the beaver, their several instincts and stratagems for outwitting pursuit and clinging to dear life. Rare, it may be, but still well authenti- cated, are cases of victims with a strong tenacity of vitality, who, left as dead, mutilated and scalped, reasserted themselves when the foe had gone, ' 1 |i| III M ,! il ? ' ^m if ' ^0 ■^ 294 NAKRATIVK AND CKITICAL HISTORY OK AMKRICA. ' i found their way l)ack to tlicir Iiomcs, and, after such reconstruction as the art of the time would allow, enjoyed a l<»ng life afterwards. The conditions attending the entrance of ICuropean war-parties, with their necessary su]>plies, into the depths of the wilderness were of the most severe and exacting character. 'I'hey involved ecpially the outlay of toil and an exposure to perils requiring; the most watchful vigilancL Well- worn trails made by the natives, and always sufficiently travelled fo keep them open, had long been in use for such purposes as were needed in prim- itive conditions. Ihesc were very narrow, neccssitatini; that progress should be made through them singly, in " Indian file." At portages or car- rying-places, burdens were borne on the back from one watercourse to anotlicr, round a rajiiil or across an elevation. Some of these trails are even now traceable in the oldest settled portions of the country, where the woods have never been wholly cleared. I'art of that which was availed of by the whites two hundred and fifty years ago between Plymouth and Bos- ton, and otliers in untilled portions of the Old Colony, are clearly discern- ible. Tlie thickets and undergrowths came close to the borders of these trails, and the overhanging branches of the trees were found a grievous annoyance when the earliest traders with pack-horses traversed them. In a large part of our present national domain and in Canada, it may safely be said that nineteen twentieths of all movement from place to place was made by the savages by the watercourses of lake and stream, and the same was done by the Europeans till they brought into use horses first, and then carts. These were first put to service by the traders from the I'^nglish set- tlements on the frontiers of Pennsylvania and Virginia. The pack-horses, heavily laden, trained to their rough service for rocky and marshy grounds, as well as for the thick and stifling depths of the forest, and able to sub- sist on very poor forage, carried goods most prized by the natives, and gen- erally in inverse ratio to their real worth. They returned to the settle- ments from the Indian villages with a burden of precious furs, the traffickers mutually finding their account in their respective shares in barter ami profit. These traders with their pack-horses were for a long time the pioneers of the actual .settlers. The methods and results of their traffic, trifling as they may seem to be, had the two leading consequences of critical importance : first, they made the Indians acquainted with and dependent upon the white man's goods, and then they provoked and embittered the rival competi- tion l)ctwccn the French and the English for the considerable profits. \\'hat we now call a military road was first undertaken on a serious scale in the advance of the disastrous expedition of General Braddock, in 1755, over the Alleghanies to the forks of the Ohio. The incumbrances with which he burdened himself might wisely have been greatly reduced in kind and in amount. But the exigencies of the service in which he was engaged were but poorly apprehended by him. As in the case of the even more disastrous campaign of General Burgoyne, twenty-two years later, (1777) though his route was mainly by water, the camp was lavishly supplied with T)!E RLIJ INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 395 appliances of In ciiry and sensuality. Hraddock's way for his cattle, carts, ami artillery wrs slowly and poorly prepared by pioneers in advance, level- linn tree. sti''ienin}; marshy places, reniovin^; rocks and bushes, and then leaving hu^', smTips in the devious track to rack the wagons and torment thi' draught ;ininials. It is not without surprise that we read of the |)resencc of domestic catt.'c tar off in the extreme outposts of single persevering set- tlers. Hut when, on the first extensive military expeditions for building a fort of> the shore of a lake, at river forks, or to command a portage, we find mention of cannon and heavy ammunition, we marvel at the perseverance involved in their transportation. The casks of liquor, of I-rench brandy and of New England rum, which generally, without stint, formed a part of the stores of each military enterprise, furnished in themselves a mo- tive spirit which facilitated their trans|)ort. Flour and bread could, with many risks from stream and weather, be carried in sacks. Hut pork and beef in pickle, the mainstay in garrisons which could not venture out to hunt or fish, recpiired to be packed in wood. After all the persevering toil engaged in this transportation, the dire necessities of warfare under these stern conditions often compelled the destruction of the stores, every article of which had tasked the strained mu.scles and sinews of the hard-worked campaigners. When it was found necessary to evacuate a forest post, the stockade was set on fire, the magazine was exploded, the cannon spiked, the powder thrown into the water, and everything that could not be carried off in a hasty retreat was, if possible, rendered useless as booty. As the French and ICnglish military movements steadily extended over a wider territory and at more numerous jjoints, with increased forces, the waste and havoc caused by disasters on either side involved an enormous destruction of the materials of war. Vessels constructed with incredible labor on the lakes, anvils, cordage, iron, and artillery having been gathered for their building and arming by perilous ocean voyages and by transit ilirough inner waters and portages, and thousands of bateaux for Lakes Champlain and George, now lie sunken in the depths, most of them destroyed by those in whose service they were to be employed. The " Griffin," the first vessel on Lake Erie, built by La Salle in 1679, disappeared on her secr)nd voyage, and lies beneath the waters still. After Braddock's defeat, when the fugitive rem- nant of his army had reached Dunbar's camp, a hundred and fifty wagons were burned, and fifty thousand pounds of powder were emptied into a creek, after the incredible toil by which they had been drawn over the mountains and morasses. There were many occasions and many reasons which prompted the Europeans to weigh the gain or loss which resulted to them from the em- ployment of Indian allies, who were always an incalculable clement in any enterprise. They could never be depended upon for constancy or persist- ency. A bold stroke, followed, if successful, with butchery, and a rush to the covert of the woods if a failure, was the sum of their strategy. They had a quick eye in watching the turning fortunes and the probable issue of ill I, m !|, .1 296 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. 4' -> ,0 V > I; ' . \ ' . i ' !!■■ *M a venture, and they acte.l accordingly. They were wholly disinclined for any protracted siege oj-erations. In the weary months of the investment of Detroit, the only enterprise of the sort engaged in by large bodies of savages acting in concert, we find a single exceptional case of their uniform impatience of such prolonged strategy. And even in that case there were intervals when the imperilled and starving garrison had breathing-spells fur recuperation. Charges and counter-charges, pleas and criminatfons of every kind, plausible, false, or sincere, are found in the journals and reports of English and French ofificers, prompted by accusations and vinilications of either party, called out by the atrocities and butcheries wrought by their savage allies in many of the conflicts of the French and Indian war. In vain did the commanders of the white forces on either side promise that their red allies should be restrained from plunder and barbarity against the defeated party. It was an attempt to bridle a storm. From the written opinions expressed by various civil and military officials during all our In- dian wars one might gather a list of judgments, always emphatically worded, as to the qualities of the red men as allies. Governor Dinwiddle, writing in May 28, 1756, to General Abercrombie, on his arrival here to hold the chief command till the coming of Lord Loudon, expresses himself thus : " I think we have secured the Si.x Nations to the Northward to our Interest who, I suppose, will join your Forces. They are a very awkward, dirty sett of People, yet absolutely necessary to attack the Enemy's Indians in their way of fighting and scowering the Woods before an Army. I am per- swaded they will appear a despicable sett of People to his Lordship and you, but they will expect to be taken particular Notice of, and now and then .some few Presents. I fear General Braddock despised them too much, which probably was of Disservice to him, and I really think without some of them any engagement in the Woods would prove fatal, and if strongly attached to our Interest they are able in their way to do more than three Times their Number. They are naturally inclined to Drink. It will be a prudent .Stepp to restrain them with Moderation, and by some of your Subalterns to shew them Respect.' ^ Baron Dieskau, in 1755, had abun- dant reason for expressing himself about his savage auxiliaries in this fash- ion : " They drive us crazy from • norning to night. One needs the patience of an angel to get on with these devils, and yet one must always force '■'imself to seem pleased with them."^ It would seem as if the native tribes, when Europeans first secured a lodgment, were beguiled by a fancy which in most cases was very rudely dispelled. This fancy was that the new-comers might abide here with- out displacing them. The natives in giving deeds of lands, as has been said, had apparently no idea that they had made an absolute surrender of territory. They seem to have imagined that something like a joint occu- ' A'///7.v Paptis, ii. p. 4:16. - Quoted in I'.nrkm.iii's Montcahn ami Wolft\ i. p. 297. i;i **»fl« THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 297 pancy was possible, each of the parties being at liberty to follow his own ways and interests without molesting the other. So the Indians did uot move off to a distance, but frequented their old haunts, hoping ' > derive advantage from the neighborhood of the white man. King Philip in 1675 discerned and acutely defined the utter impracticability of any such joint occupancy. He indicated the root of the impending ruin to his own race, and he found a justification of the conspiracy which he instigated in point- ing to the white man's clearings and fences, and to tlie impossibility of joining planting with hunting, and domestic cattle with wild game. The history of the Hudson Bay Company and that of the enterprises con- ducted by the French for more than a century, when set in contrast with the steady development of colonization by English settlers and by the people of the United States succeeding to them, brings out in full force the different relations into which the aborigines have alvva)s been brought by the presence of Europeans among them, either as traders or possessors of territory. The Hudson Bay Company for exactly two centuries, from 1670 to 1870, held a charter for the monopoly of trade with the Indians here over an immense extent of territory, and in the later portion of that period held an especial grant for exclusive trade over an even more extended region, further north and west. The company made only such a very limited occu- pancy of the country, at small and widely distant posts, as was necessary for its trucking purposes and the exchange of European goods for pel- tries. During that whole period, allowing for rare casualties, not a single act of hostility occurred between the traders and the natives. A large number of different tribes, often at bitter feud with each other, were all kept in amity with the official residents of the company, and each party probably found as much satisfaction in the two sides of a bargain as is usual in such transactions. Deposits of goods were securely gathered in some post far off in the depths of the wilderness, under the care of two or three young apprentices of the company, and here bands of Indians at the proper season came for barter. Previous to the operations of this com- pany, beginning as early as 1620, large numbers of Frenchmen, singly or in parties, ventured deep into the wilderness in company with savage bands, for purposes of adventure or traffic, and very rarely did any of them meet a mishao or fail to find a welcome. Such adventurers in fact became in most ca?- ■ Indians in their manner of life. Nor did the jealousy of the savages manifest itself in a way not readily appeased when they found the French priests planting mission stations and truck-houses. In no case did the French intruders ask, as did the English colonists, for deeds of ter- ritory. It was understood that they held simply by sufferance, and with a view to mutual advantage for both parties, with no purpose of overreach- ing. The relations thus established between the I'rench and the natives continued down till even after the extinction of the territorial claims of France. And when, just before the opening of the great French and In- dian hostilities with the English colonists, the French had manifested their \ ! li; ^lli tih ^ if f i i 'P * 1 1 ■J' i fl! 298 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. purpose to get a foothold on the heritage of the savages by pushing a line of strongly fortified posts along their lakes and rivers, the apprehensions of the savages were craftily relieved by the plea that these securities were designed only to prevent the encroachment of the "i^nglish. A peaceful traffic with the Indians, like that of the Hudson Bay Company and the French, had been from the first but a subordinate object of the Eng- lish colonists. These last, while for a period they confined themselves to the seaboard, supjilemented their agricultural enterprise by the fishery and by a very profitable commerce. As soon as they began to penetrate into the interior they took with them their families and herds, made fixed habita- tions, put up their fences and dammed the streams. Instead of fraterniz- ing with the Indians, they warned them off as nuisances. We must also take into view the fact that this steadily advancing settlement of the In- dian country directly provoked and encouraged the resolute though baffled opposition of the savages. They could match forces with these scattered pioneers, even if, as was generally the case, a few families united in con- structing a palisadoed and fortified stronghold to which they might gather for refuge. If a body of courageous men had advanced together well pre- pared for common defence, it is certain the warfare would not have been so desultory as it proved to be. All the wiles of the Indians in conduct- ing their hostilities gave them a great advantage. They thought that the whites might be dislodged effectually from further trespasses if once and again they were visited by sharp penalties for their rash intrusion. It was plain that they were long in coming to a full apprehension of the pluck of their invaders, of their recuperative energies, and of the reserved forces which were behind them. From the irregular base line of the coast the English advanced into the interior, not by direct parallel lines, but rather by successive semicircles of steadily extending radii. The advances from the middle colonies of Pennsylvania and Virginia marked the farthest reaches in this curvature. The French, in the mean while, aimed from the start for occupying the interior. The period which we have here under review is one through which the savages, for the most part, were but subordinate agents, the principals be- ing the French and the English. .So far as the diplomatic faculties of the savages enabled them to hold in view the conditions of the strife, there were doubtless occasions in which they thought they held what among civilized nations is called the balance of pjwer. Nor would it have been strange if, at times, their chiefs had imagined that, though it might be impossible for them again to hold possession of their old domains free from the intrusion of the white man, they might have power to decide which of the two na- tionalities should be favored above the other. In that case the French doubtless would have been the favored party. We have, however, to take into view the vast disproportion between the numbers, if not of the re- sources, of these two foreign nationalities, when the struggle between them THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 299 earnestly began. In 1688 there were about eleven thousand of the French in America, and nearly twenty times as many English. The French were unified under the control of their home government. Its resources were at their call : its army and navy, its arsenals and treasury, its monarch and ministers, might be supposed to be serviceable and engaged for making its mastery on this continent secure. The English, however, were only nomi- nally, and as regards some of the colonies even reluctantly and but trucu- lently, under the control of their home government. It had been the jealous policy of the New England colonists, from their first planting, to isolate themselves from the mother-country, and to make self-dependence the basis of independence. Their circumstances had thrown them on their own resources, and made them feel that as their foreign superiors could know very little of their emergencies, it was not wise or even right in them to interpose in their affairs. Indeed, it is evident that all the British colonists felt themselves equal, without advice or help from abroad, to take care of themselves, if they had to contend only against the savages. But when the savages had behind them the power of the French mon- arch, it was of necessity that the English should receive a reinforce- ment from their own countrymen. In the altercations with the British ministry which followed very soon after the close of the F'rench and In- dian war, a keenly argued question came under debate as to the claim which the mother-country had upon the gratitude of her colonists for com- ing to their rescue when threatened with ruin from their red and white enemies. And the answer to this question was judged to depend upon whether, in sending hither her fleets and armies, Britain had in view an ex- tension of her transatlantic domains or the protection of her imperilled sub- jects. At any rate, there were jealousies, cross-purposes, and an entire lack of harmony between the direct representatives of English military power and the cooperating measures of the colonial government. Never, under any stress of circumstances, was England willing to raise even the most serviceable of the officers of the provincial forces to the rank cf regulars in her own army. The youthful Washington, whose sagacity and prowess had proved themselves in field and council where British officers were so humiliated, had to remain content with the rank of a provincial colonel. Nor did the provincial legislatures act in concert either with each other, or with the advice and appeals of their royal governors in raising men, money or supplies for combined military operations against common enemies. Each of the colonies thought it sufficient to provide for itself. Each was even dilatory and backward when its own special peril was urgent. These embarrassments of the English did very much to compensate the French for their great inferiority in numerical strength. We are again to remind ourselves of the fact that the French, alike from their temperament and their policy, were always vastly more congenial and influential with the savages. The French in Canada from the first adopted the policy of alliance with ! 1 fil ''! I < - II 300 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. ii t ■ .0 \'l i 'j'l Iff' ¥* ■I HI I i i native tribes. Though their warfare with the English was hardly intermit- tent, there were several occasions when it was specially active. Beginning with the first invasion of the Iroquois territory by Champlain, in 1609, already mentioned, under the plea of espousing the side of his friends and allies, the Hurons and Algonquins, other like enterprises were later pur- sued. Courcelles, in 1666, made a wild and unsuccessful inroad upon the Iroquois. Tracy made a more effective one in the same year. De la Barre in 1084, Denonville in 1687, and Frontcnac in 1693 and 1696, re- peated these onsets. The last of these invasions of what is now Central New York was intended to effect the complete e.\haustion of the Indian confederacy. Its havoc was indeed well-nigh crushing, but there was a tenacity and a recuperative power in that confederacy of savages which yielded only to a like desolating blow inflicted by Sullivan, under orders from Washington, in our Revolutionary War. This formidable league of the Five Nations, when first known to Euro- peans, claimed to have obtained by conquest the whole country from the lakes to the Carolinas, and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. France, as against other Europeans, though not against the Indians, claimed the same territory. Great Britain claimed the valley of the Ohio and its tribu- taries, first against the French as being merely the longitudinal extension of the line of sea-coast discovered by English navigators, and then through cessions from and treaties with the Five Nations. The first of these treaties v/as that made at Lancaster, Fa., in June, 1744. But the Indians afterwards complained that they had been overreached, and had not in- tended to cede any territory west of the Alleghanies. Here, of course, with three parties in contention, there was basis enough for struggles in which the prize, all considerations of natural justice being e.xcluded, was to be won only by superior power. Neither of the rivals and intruders from across the ocean dealt with the Indians as if even they had any absolute right to territory from which they claimed to have driven off former pos- sessors. So the Indian prerogative was recognized by the French and the English as available only on either side for backing up some rival claim of the one or the other nation ; though when the mother-countries were at peace in Europe, their subjects here by no means felt bound even to a show of truce, and they were always most ready to avail themselves of a declaration of war at home to make their wilderness campaigns. It is curious to note that in all the negotiations between the Indians and Euro- peans, including those of our own government, the only landed right recog- nized as belonging to the savages was that of giving up territory. The prior right of ownership by the tenure of possession was regarded as invali- dated both by the manner in which it had been acquired and by a lack to make a good use of it. It was in the closing years of the seventeenth century and in those open- ing the eighteenth that the military and the priestly representatives of France in Canada resolutely advised and undertook tlie measures which .1 THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 301 promised to give them a secure and extended possession of the whole north of the continent, excepting only the strip on the Atlantic seaboard then firmly held by the English colonists. Even this excepted region of terri- tory was by no means, however, regarded as positively irreclaimable, and military enterprises were often planned with the aim of a complete extinc- tion of English possession. The French in their earliest explorations, in penetrating the country to the west and to the south, had been keenly observant in marking the strategic points on lake and river for strongholds which should give them the advantage of single positions and secure a chain of posts for easy and safe communications. Their leading object vvas to gain an ascendency over the native tribes ; and as they could not expect easily and at once to get the mastery over them all, policy dictated such a skilful turning to account of their feuds among themselves as would secure strong alliances of interest and friendship with the more powerful ones. Th." French did vastly more than the English to encourage the passions of the savages for war and to train them in military skill and arti- fice, leaving them for the most part unchecked in the indulgence of their ferocity. It is true that the Dutch and the English had the start in supply- ing the savages with firearms, under the excuse that they were needed by the natives for the most effective support of the rapidly increasing trade in peltries. But the French were not slow to follow the example, as it pre- sented to them a matter of necessity. And through the long and bloody struggle between the two European nationalities with their red allies, it may be safely affirmed that the frontier warfare of the English colonists was waged against savages armed as well as led on by the French. Two objects, generally harmonious and mutually helpful of each other, inspired the activity of the French in taking possession successively of posts in the interior of the continent. The first of these was the establish- ment of mission stations for the conversion of the savages. The other object of these wilderness posts was to secure the lucrative gains of the fur trade from an ever-extending interior. Though, as was just said, these two objects might generally be harmoniously pursued, it was not always found easy or possib z to keep them in amity, or to prevent sharp collisions be- tween them. There was a vigorous rivalry in the fur trade between the members of an associated company, with a government monopoly for the traffic, and very keenly enterprising individuals who pursued it, with but little success in concealing their doings, in defiance of the monopolists. The burden of the official correspondence between the authorities in Canada and those at the French cou: l related to the irregularities and abuses of this traffic. Incident to these was a lively plying of the temptations of that other traffic which poured into the wilderness floods of French brandy. The taste of this fiery stimulant once roused in a savage could rarely after- wards be appeased. The English colonists soon gained an advantage in this traffic in their manufacture of cheap rum. It is easy to see how this rivalry between monopolists and individuals in the fur trade, aided by the (r ii. rf\ ^ i If '" i a ?) S h h." h ; ¥ i , 11. > i' ' « 303 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. Stimulant for which the Indian was most craving, would impair the spirit- ual labors of the priests at their wild stations. Nor were there lacking instances in which the priests themselves were charged with sharing not only the gains of the fur trade, but also those of the brandy traffic, either in the interests of the monopolists or of individuals. The earliest extended operations of the French fur trade with the Indians were carried on by the northerly route to Lake Huron by the Ottawa River, The French had little to apprehend from English interference by this diffi- cult route with its many portages. But it soon became of vital necessity to the French to take and hold strong points on the line of the Great Lakes. These were on the narrow streams which made the junctions between them. So a fort was to be planted at Niagara, between Ontario and Erie ; another at Detroit, between Erie and Huron ; another at Michilimackinac, between Michigan and Huron ; another at the fall of the waters of Superior into Huron ; and Fort St. Joseph, near the head of Lake Michigan, facili- tated communication with the Illinois and the Miami tribes ; the Ojibwas, Ottawas, Wyandots, and Pottawattomies having their settlements around the westernmost of the lakes, the Sioux being still beyond. South of Lake Erie, in the region afterwards known as the Northwest Territory, between the Alleghanies, the Ohio, and the Mississippi, were the Delawares, the Shawanees, and the Mingoes. It is to be kept in view that this terri- tory, though formally ceded by France to England in the treaty of 1762-63, had previously been claimed by the English colonists as rightfully belong- ing to their monarch, it being merely the undefined extension of the sea- coast held by virtue of the discovery of the Cabots. The fifth volume of the M^moircs published by Margry gives us the ori- ginal documents, dating 16S3-1695, relating to the first project for opening a chain of posts to hold control of, and to facilitate communication between, Canada and the west and south of the continent. The project was soon made to extend its purpose to the Gulf of Mexico. The incursions of the Iroquois and the attempted invasions of the English, with a consequent drawing off of trade from the French, had obliged the Marquis Denonville to abandon some of the posts that had been established. In spite of the opposition of Champigny, Frontenac vigorously urged measures for the re- possession and strengthening of these posts. The Jesuits were earnest in pressing the measure upon the governors of Canada. In pushing on the enterprise, the French had sharp experience of the intense hostility of the inner tribes who were to be encountered, and who were to be first con- ciliated. The French followed a policy quite unlike that of the English in the method of their negotiations for the occupancy of land. The colonists of the latter aimed to secure by treaty and purchase the absolute fee and ownership of a given region. They intended to hold it generally for cul- tivation, and they expected the Indians then claiming it to vacate it. The French beguiled the Indians by asserting that they had no intention either of purchasing or forcibly occupying, as if it were their own, any spot where '< I THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 303 pint- king not ither they estabUshed a stronghold, a trucking or a mission station. They pro- fessed to hold only by sufferance, and that, too, simply for the security and benefit of the natives, in furnishing them with a better religion than their own and with the white man's goods. The Iroquois, finding the hunting and trapping of game for the English so profitable on their own territory, were bent on extending their field. They hoped, by penetrating to Michili- mackinac, to make themselves the agents or medium for the trade with the tribes near it, so that they could control the whole southern traffic. So they had declared war against the Illinois, the Miamis, the Ottawas, and the Hurons. It was of vital importance to the French to keep firm hold of Lakes Ontario and Erie, and to guard their connections. The Iroquois were always the threatening obstacle. It was affirmed that they had become so debauched by strong drink that their squaws could not nourish their few children, and that they had availed themselves of an adoption of those taken from their enemies. As they obtained their firearms with compara- tive cheapness from the English on the Hudson and Mohawk, they used them with vigor against the inner tribes with their primitive weapons, and were soon to find them of service against the English on the frontiers of Virginia. So keenly did the English press their trade as to cause a waver- ing of the loyalty of those Indian tribes who had been the first and the fast friends of the French. Thus it was but natural that the Iroquois should be acute enough to oppose the building of a French stronghold at any of the selected posts. In 1699,1 La Mothe Cadillac proposed to assemble their red allies, then much dispersed, and principally the Ottawas, at Detroit, and there to con- struct both a fort and a village. At the bottom of this purpose, and of the opposition to it, was a contention between rival parties in the traffic. The favorers and the opponents of the design made their respective representa- tions to the French court. De Callieres objected to the plan because of the proximity of the hostile Iroquois, who would prefer to turn all the trade to the English, and his preference was to reestablish the old posts. The real issue to be faced was whether the Indians now, and ultimately, were to be made subjects of the English or of the French monarch. Cadillac combated the objections of Callieres, and succeeded in effecting his design at Detroit. The extension of the traffic was constantly bringing into the field tribes heretofore too remote for free intercourse. In each such case it depended upon various contingencies to decide whether the French or the English would find friends or foes in these new parties, and the alternative would generally rest, temporarily at least, upon which party was most accessible and most profitable for trade. It would hardly be worth the while for an historian, unless dealing with the special theme of the rivalries involved in the fur trade as deciding with which party of the whites one or another tribe came into amity, to attempt to trace the conditions and consequences of such diplomacy in inconstant negotiators. » Margry, V. 135-250. , ■> ' ^ i t'li fi' 304 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. The En^^lish began the scries of attempts to bind the Five, afterwards the Six, Nations into amity or neutrality by treaty in 1674. These treaties were wearisome in their formalities, generally unsatisfactory in their terms of assurance, and so subject to caprice and the changes of fortune as to need confirmation and renewal, as suspicion or alleged treachery on either side made them practically worthless. There were two ends to be gained by these treaties of the English with the confederated tribes. The one was to avert hostilities from the English and to secure them privileges of tran- sit for trade. The other object, not always avowed, but implied as a n.:.ti!ral consequent of the first, was to alienate the tribes from the French, jnd if possil)le to keep them in a state of local or general conflict. Each spfc. ' ."ation of these treaties was to be emphasized by the exchange of a v"ampi,m belt. Then a largess of presents, always including rum, was the final ra;;'"' ation. These goods were of considerable cost to the English, but always seemed a niggard gift to the Indians, as there were so many to share in them. The first of this series of treaties was that made in 1674, at Albany, by Col. Henry Coursey, in behalf of the colonists of Virginia. It was of little more service than as it initiated the parties into the method of such pro- ceedings. In the middle of July, 1684, Lord Howard, governor of Virginia, sum- moned a council of the sachems of the Five Nations to Albany. He was attended by two of his council and by Governor Dongan of New York, and some of the magistrates of Albany. Howard charged upon the sav- ages the butcheries and plunderings which they had committed seven years previous in Virginia and Maryland, " belonging to the great king of Eng- land." He told the sachems that the English had intended at once to avenge those outrages, but through the advice of Sir lidmund Andros, then governor-general of the country, had sent peaceful messengers to them. The sachems had proved perfidious to the pledges they then gave, and the governor, after threatening them, demanded from them conditions of future amity. After their usual fashion of shifting responsibility and professions of regret and future fidelity, the sachems renewed their cove- nants. Under the prompting of Governor Dongan they asked that the Duke of York's arms should be placed on the Mohawk castles, as a protec- tion against their enemies, the French. Doubtless the Indians, in desiring, or perhaps only assenting to, the affixing of these English insignia to their strongholds, might have had in view only the effect of them in warning off the I'Vench. They certainly did not realize that their English guests would ever afterwards, as they did, regard this concession of the tribes as an avowal of allegiance to the king of Great Britain, and as adopting for themselves the relation of subjects of a foreign monarch. The experience gained by many previous attempts to secure the fidelity of the tribes, thenceforward known as the Six Nations by the incorporation into the confederacy of the remnant of the Tuscaroras, was put to service THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 30s in three succeeding councils for treaty-makinj;, held respectively at Phila- lielphia in 1743, in Lancaster, Pa., in 1744,' and at Albany in 1746.'' Much allowance is doubtless to be made in the conduct of the earlier treaties for the lack of competent and faithful interpreters in counci.' nade up of representatives of several tril)es, with different languages a a idioms. Interpreters have by no means always proved trustworthy, ven when qualified for their office.'* The difficulty was early experienced of putting into our simple mother-tongue the real substance of an Indian harangue, which was embarrassed and expanded by images and flowers of native rhetoric, wrought from the structure of their symbolic language, but adding nothing to the terms or import of the address. It was observed that often an interpreter, anxious only to state the gist of the matter in hand, would render in a single I-.nglish sentence an elaborately ornate speech of an orator that had extended through many minutes in its utterance. The orator might naturally mistrust w' her full justice had been done to his plea or argument. There is by w nic s a unanimity in the opinions or the judgments of those of equal 'ntelli, ice, who have reported to us the harangues of Indians in councils, as to the qualities of their eloquence or rhetoric. The entire lack of terms for the expression of abstract ideas compelled them to draw their illu rations from natural objects and rela- tions. Signs and gestures m 'de up a large part of the significance of a discourse. Doubtless the ca ; were frequent in which the representation of a tribe in a council was made through so few of its members that there might be reasonable grounds for objection on the part of a majority to the terms of any covenant or treaty that had been made by a chief or an ora- tor. Of one very convenient and plausible subterfuge, or honest plea, — whichever in any given case it might have been, — our native tribes have always been skilful in availing themselves. The assumption was that the elder, the graver, wiser representatives of a tribe were those who appeared on its behalf at a council. When circumstances afterwards led the whites to complain of a breach of the conditions agreed on, the blame was always laid by the chiefs on their " young men," whom they had been unable to restrain. During the long term of intermittent warfare of the French and English on this continent, with native tribes respectively for their foes or allies, the l.il" ' liy the treaty at Lancaster, the Indians cov- enanted to cede to the English, for goods of the money value of /'400, the lands between the .M- leghanies and the Ohio. [See our Vol. V. 566. -ED.] - These treaties are fully presented, with all the harangues, by Coldcn, vol. ii. •' The most capable and intelligent interpreter employed by the English for a long period, and who served at the councils for negotiating the most important treaties of this time, was Con- ad Weiser. He came with his family from \ OL. I. — 20 Germany in 17 10, and settled at Schoharie, N. Y. His al)ility and integrity won him the confidence alike of the Indians and the ICnglish. In the Collt'c/ions of the Historiial Society of Penn- sylvania, vol. i. pp. 1-34, are autobiographical, person.il, and narrative papers and jouri\als by this remarkable man, equally characterized by the boldest sjiirit of adventure and by an ardent piety. Me gives in full his journal of his mis- sion from the governments of Pennsylvania and Virginia to negotiate with the Six Nations in 1737. [See Vol. V. 566. — En.] 3o6 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMLRICA. m : i il! U '< V ,f' ^ conditions of the conflict, as before hinted, were in general but slightly affected by the alternative of peace or war as existing at any time between their sovereigns and people .;i Europe. Some of the fiercest episodes of the struggle on this soil took place during the intervals of truce, armistice, and temporary treaty settlements between the leading powers in the old world. When, in the treaties closing a series of campaigns, the settlement in the articles of peace included a restoration of the territory which had been obtained by either party by conquest, no permanent result was really secured. These restitutions were always subject to reclamation. Valuable and strategic points of territory merely changed hands for the time being ; Acadia, for example, being seven times tossed as a shuttlecock between the parties to the settlement. The trial had to be renewed and repeated till the decision was of such a sort as to give promise of finality. The prize contended for here was really the mastery of the whole continent, though the largeness of the stake was not appreciated till the closing years of the struggle. Indeed, the breadth and compass of the field were then un- known quantities. Those closing years of stratagem and carnage in our for- ests correspond to what is known in history as the " Seven Years' War" in Europe, in which France, as a contestant, was worsted in the other quarters of the globe, as in this. Clive broke her power in India, as the generals of Britain discomfited her here. The P'rench, in 1758, held a profitable mer- cantile settlement on five hundred miles of coast in Africa, between Cape Blanco and the river Gambia. It is one of the curious contrarieties in the workings of the same avowed principles under different conditions, that just at the time that the pacific policy of the Pennsylvania Quakers forbade their offering aid to their countrymen under the bloody work go- ing on upon their frontiers, an eminent English Quaker merchant, Thomas Gumming, framed the successful scheme of conquest over this French settlement in Africa.^ The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, seemed to promise a breathing- time in the strife between the French and English here. In fact, however, so far from there being even a smouldering of the embers on our soil, that date marks the kindling of the conflagration which, continuing to blaze for fifteen years onward, comprehended all the decisive campaigns. The earliest of these were ominous and disheartening to the English, but they closed with the fullness of triumph. We must trace with conciseness the more prominent acts and incidents in which the natives, with the French and English, protracted and closed the strife. When Europeans entered upon the region now known as Pennsylvania, though its well-watered and fertile territory and its abounding game would seem to have well adapted it to the uses of savage life, it does not appear that it was populously occupied. The Delawares, which had held it at an earlier period, had, previously to the coming of the whites, been subjugated by the more warlike tribes of the Five Nations, or Iroquois. Some of the ' Mahon's England, ch. 35, and Smollett's England, Book iii. ch. 9. i E THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 307 vanquished had passed to the south or west, to be merged in other bands of the natives. Such of them as remaineii in their old haunts wore humiliated by their masters, despised as " women," and denied the privileges of war- riors. While the Five Nations were thus potent in the upper portion of Pennsylvania, around the sources of the Susquehanna, its southern region was held by the Shawanees. The first purchase near the upper re^aon made by Europeans of the natives was by a colony of Swedes, under Gov- ernor John Priiitz, in 1643. This colony was subdued, thouj;h allowed to remain on its lands, by the Dutch, in 1655. In 1664, the I-^nglish took possession of all Pennsylvania, and of everything that had i)een held by the Dutch. Penn founded his province in 1682, by grant from Charles II, and in the next year made his much-lauded treaty of peace and purchase with the Indians for lands west and north of his city. The attractions of the province, and the easy opening of its privileges to others than the Friends, drew to it a rapid and enterprising immigration. In 1729 there came in, principally from the north of Ireland, 6,207 settlers. In 1750 there arrived 4,317 Germans and 1,000 English. The population of the province in 1769 was estimated at 250,000. The Irish settlers were mostly Presbyterians, the Germans largely Moravians. It soon appeared, espe- cially when the ravages of the Indians on the frontiers were most exasper- ating and disastrous, that there were elements of bitter discord between these secondary parties in the province and the P'riends who represented the proprietary right. And this suggests a brief reference to the fact that, as a very effective agent entering into the imbittered conflicts of the time and scene, we are to take into the account some strong religious animosities. The entailed passions and hates of the peoples of the old world, as Catholics and Protestants, and even of sects among the latter, were transferred here to inflame the rage of combatants in wilderness warfare. ^ The zeal and heroic fidelity of the French priests in making a Christian from a baptized and untamed savage had realized, under rude yet easy conditions, a degree of success. In and near the mission stations, groups of the natives had been trained to gather around the cross, and to engage with more or less re- sponse in the holy rites. Some of them could repeat, after a fashion, the Pater Nostcr, the Ave Maria, and the Creed. Some had substituted a crucifix or a consecrated medal for their old pagan charm, to be worn on the breast. When about to go forth on the war-path, their priests would give them shrift and benediction. But, as has been said, it was no part or purpose of this work of christianizing savages to impair their qualities as warriors, to dull their knives or tomahawks, to quench their thirst for blood, or to restrain the fiercest atrocities and barbarities of the fight or the vic- tory. On the well-known experience that fresh converts are always the ' Governor Dinwiddie, in urging the assembly and mild Government of a I'rotestant King for of Virginia, in 1756, to active war measures, the Arbitrary Kxactions and heavy Oppressions warned them of the alternative of "giving up of a Popish Tyrant." (Dinwiddit Papers, ii. p. your Liberty for Slavery, the purest Religion for 515.) the grossest Idolatry and Superstition, the legal i '( '/ If: 308 NAKKA'IIVE ANIJ CKIIICAL IIISTOKY OF AMI.KICA. ) I i most ardoi'.t liatcrs of heresy, these savaj^t; neophytes were initiated into some of the mysteries of tiio doctrinal strife l)etwcen the creed of their priests and the abominated intulelity and impiety of the English Protes- tants. Some of the savages were by no means slow to learn the lesson. Mr. I'arkman's brilliant and grai)hic pages afford us abonnding illustrations of the part which priestly instructions and intkience had in adtling to savage ferocity the simulation of religious hate for heresy. With whatever degree of understanding or appreciation of the duty as it quickened the courage or the ferocity of the savage, there were many scenes and occasions in which the vv'arrior added the charge of heretic to that of enemy, when he dealt his blow.' Almost as violent and exasi)erating were the animosities engendered between the disciples of different Protestant fellowships. The Quakers, backed by proprietary rights, by the prestige of an original peace policy and friendly negotiations with the Indians, and for the most part secure and unharmed in the centralized homes of Philadelphia and its neighborhood, imagined that they might refuse all participation in the bloody work enact- ing on their frontiers. The adventurous settlers on the borders were largely Presbyterians. The course of non-interference by the Quakers, who con- trolled the legislature, seemed to those who were bearing the brunt ol savage warfare monstrously selfish and inhuman. There was a fatuity in this course which had to be abandoned. When a mob of survivors from the ravaged fields and cabins of the frontiers, bringing in cartloads of the bones gathered from the ashes of their burned dwellings, thus enforced their remonstrances against the peace policy of the legislature, the Quakers were compelled to yield, and to furnish the supplies of war.^ Hut sectarian hatred hardly ever reached an intenser glow than that exhibited between the Pennsylvania Quakers and Presbyterians. Meanwhile, the mild and kindly missionary efforts of the Moravians, in the same neighborhood, were cruelly baffled. Their aim was exactly the opposite of that which guided the Jesuit priests. They sought first to make their converts human beings, planters of the soil, taught in various handicrafts, and weaned from the taste of war and blood. When the frontier war was at its wildest pitch of havoc and fury, the Moravian settlements, which had reached a stage giving such promise of success as to satisfy the gentle and earnest spirit of the missionaries who had planted them, were made to bear the brunt of the rage of all the jwrties engaged in the deadly turmoil. The natives timidly nestling in their 1 In Mr. P.irkman's A/oii/td/ni dini Wolfe; i. one point, — that of maintaining the right, and p. 65 and on, is a lively account of the busy even obligation, of defensive warfare. A letter of zea! of Father I'iquet in making and putting to very cogent argument to this effect was addressed service savage converts of the sort described in by him to the Society of Friends in 1741, remon- the te.\t. [See Vol. V. yj\. — Ed.] strating with them for their op])osition in the * The excellent James Logan, who came over legislature to means for defending the colon)', as secretary to William Penn, and who always Collections of Historl.Soc. of Pemis.,'\.^.2f>- [See claimed to be a consistent member of the Society Vob V. p. 243. — Ed.] of Friends, took an exception to a position on ^ * IllE KID INDIAN OK NORTH AMERICA. 309 sottlemonts were regarded as an emasculated finck nf nurslings, mean and cowardly, lacking equally the manhood of the savage and the pride and capacity of the civilized man. Worse than this, their pretended desire to preserve a neutrality and to have no part in the broil was made the ground of a suspicion, at once acted upon as if fully warranted, that they wen- really spies, offering secret information and even covert help as guides and prompters in the work of desolation among the scattered cabins of the whites. So a maddened spirit of distrust, inflamed by false rumors and direct charges of complicity, brougiit upon the Moravian settlers the hate and fury of the leading parties in the conflict.' It is noteworthy that the most furious havoc of savage warfare should have been wreaked on the frontiers of I'ennsylvania, the une of all the I^nglish colonies in AuKuica whose boast was, and is, that tiiere alone tlie entrance of civilized men upon the domains of barbarism was marked and initiated by the Christian policy of peace and righteousness. Penn and his representa- tives claimed that they liad twice jiaid the purchase price of the lands cov- ered by the proprietary ciiartcr to the Indian occupants of them, — once to the Delawares residing upon them, and again to the Iroquois who held them by conquest. The famous "Walking I'urchase," whether a fair or a fraudulent transaction, was intended to follow the original policy of the founder of the province.'-' In the inroads made upon the English settlements by Frontenac and his red allies, New York and New I"2ngland furnished the victims. The nvddlc rolonies, so far as then undertaken, escaped the fray. Trouble began for them in 17 16, when the French acted ui)on their resolve to occupy the valley of the Ohio. The Ohio Land Company was formed in 1748 to advance settlements beyond the Alleghanies, and surveys were made as far as Louisville. This enterprise roused anew the Indians and the French. The latter redoubled their zeal in 1753 and onward, south of Lake Erie and on the branches of the Ohio. The English found that their delay and dilatoriness in measures for fortifying the frontiers had given the French an advantage which was to be recovered only with increased cost and enterprise. In an earlier movement, had the English engaged their efforts when it was first proposed to them, they might have lessened, at least, their sub.sequent discomfiture. Governor Spotswood, of Virginia, in 1720 had urged on the Hritish government the erection of a chain of posts be- yond the Alleghanies, from the lakes to the Mississippi. But his urgency had been ineffectual. The governor reported that there were then " Seven Tributary Tribes " in Virginia, being seven hundred in number, with two ' It was but .1 repetition of the passions and labors of the .Xpostle Eliot. The occasion of jealousies of the colonists of Massachusetts, as this dispersion and severe watch over the Indian maddened by the devastation inflicted upon converts was a jealousy that they had been them in King Philip's war, when they them- warmed in the bosom of a weak pity merely selves broke up the settlements, then under for a deadlv use •^' their f.angs. hopefnlpromise,of" Praying Indians," at Natick " [See Vol. V o. — Kd.1 and other villages, the fruits of the devoted ,i| I ji.N; J I 1 ■i 310 NARRATIVE AXD CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. M' M »i a' vn I'."' > pi I t|i> ;l i 'lj> huiulred and fifty fighting-men, all of whom were peaceful. His only trouble was from the Tuscaroras on the borders of Carolina.' The erection of Fort Duquesne may be regarded as opening the decisive struggle between the French and the English in America, which reached its height in 1755, and centred around the imperfect chain of stockades and blockhouses on the line of the frontiers then reached by the English pioneers. About the middle of the eighteenth century the number of French sub- jects in America, including Acadia, Canada, and Louisiana, was estimated at about eighty thousand. The subjects of England were estimated at about twelve hundred thousand. But, as before remarked, this vast dis- parity of numbers by no means represented an equal difference in the effectiveness of the two nationalities in the conduct of military movements The French were centralized in command. They had unity of p'lrpose and in action. In most cases they held actual defensive positions at points which the English had to r^ach by difficult approaches ; and mure than all, till it became evident that Fr nee was to lose the game, the French re- ceived much the larger share of aid from the Indians. Pennsylvania and Virginia were embarrassed in any attempt for united defensive operations on the frontiers by their own rival claims to the Ohio Valley. The F.ng- lish, however, welcomed the first signs of vacillation in the savages. When Ccloron, in 1749, had sent messengers to the Indi.ns beyond the AUegha- nics to prepare fur the measures he was about to take to secure a firm foot- hold there, he reported that the natives were "devoted entirely to the English." This mighr have seemed true of the Delawares and Shawanees, though soon afterwards these were found to be in the interest of the French. In fact, all the tubes, except the Five Nations, may be regarded as more or less available for French service up to the final extinction of their power on the continent. Indeed, as we shall see, the mischievous enmity of the natives against the English was never more vengeful than when it was goaded on by secret French agency after France had by treaty yielded her claims on this soil. Nor could even the presumed neu- trality of the Five Nations be relied upon by the English, as there were reasons for believing that many among them acted as spies and conveyed intelligence. Till after the year 1754 so effective had been the activity of the French in planting their strongholds and winning over the savages that there was not a single English post west of the Alleghanies. At the same critical stage of this European rivalry in military operations, the greed for the profits of the fur trade was at its highest pitch. The beaver.s, as well as the red men, should be regarded as essential parties to the struggle between the French and the English. The latter had cut very deep into the trade which had formerly accrued wholly to the French at Oswego, Toronto, and Niagara. 1 Spotswood Papers, published by the Virginia Historical Society, are followed in our Vol. V. — t"D.] [The events of this period THE KEU INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 311 only Up to the year 1720 there had come to be established a mercantile usage which had proved to be very prejudicial to the English, alike in their Indian iradc and in their influence over the Indians. The French had been allowed to import goods into New York to be used for their Indian trade. Of course this proved a very profitable business, as it facilitated tlieir operations and was constantly extending over a wider reach their friendly relations with the farther tribes. Trade with Europe and the West Indies and Canada could be maintained only by single voyages in a year, through the perilous navigation of the St. Lawrence. With the Eng- lish ports on the Atlantic, voyages could be made twice or thrice a year. A few merchants in New York, having a monopoly of supplying goods to tae French in Canada, with their principals in lingland, had found their business very profitable. Goods of prime value, especially "'strouds," a kind of coarse woollen cloth highly prized by the Indians, were r:;ade in and exported from England much more cheaply than from France. The mischief of this method of trade being realized, an act was passed by the Assembly in New York, in 1720, which prohibited the selling of Indian goods to the French under severe penalties, in order to the encourage- ment of trade in general, and to the e.xtension of the influence of the Eng- lish over the Indians to counterbalance that of the French. Some mer- chants in London, just referred to, petitioned the king against the ratifica- tion of this act. By order in council the king referred the petition to the Lords of Trade and Plantations. A hearing, with testimonies, followed, in which those interested in the monopoly made many statements, ignorant or false, as to the geography of the country, and the method and effects of the advantage put into the hands of the French. But the remonstrants failed to prevent the restricting measure. From that time New York vastly extended its trade and intercourse with the tribes near and distant, greatly to the injury of the French.^ The first white man's dwelling in Ohio was that of the Moravian mis- sionary, Christian Frederic Post.^ He was a sagacious and able man, and ha.l acquired great influence over the Indians, which he used in conciliatory ways, winning their respect and confidence by the boldness with which he ventured to trust himself in their villages and lodges, as if he were under some .nagical protection. He went on his first journey to the Ohio in 1758, by request of the government of Pennsylvania, on a mission to the Delawares, Shawanees, and Mingoes. These had once been friendly to the English, but having been won over by the French, the object was to re- gain their confidence. The tribes had at this time come to understand, in a thoroughly practical way, that they were restricted to certain limited con- ditions so far as they were parties to the fierce rivalry between the Euro- ' The official papers are given in full by Col- trade of New York increased fivefold in twelve den, who adds a very able memorial of his own, years. in favor of the act, addressed to Governor Hur- '^ [See Vol. V. 5J0, 575. ^ Ed.] net, in 1724. It was estimated that the Indian i\^U ■''*W^ h i i ; v\i:^^u^f\ 312 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. ih I ft, I 1 peans. The issue was no longer an open one as to their being able to reclaim their territory for their own uses by driving off all these pale-faced trespassers. It was for them merely tf) choose whether they would hence- forward have the French or the English for neighbors, and, if it must be so, for masters. Nor were they left with freedcm or power to make a de- liberate choice. But Post certaii^ly stretched a point when he told the Indians tliat the luiglish did not wish to occupy their lands, but only to drive off the French. As Governor Spotswood, in the interest of Virginia, had attempted, in 1716, to break the French line of occupation by promoting settlements in the west. Governor Keith, of Pennsylvania, followed with a similar effort in 1719. Both efforts could be only temporarily withstood, and if baffled at one point were renewed at another. The I']nglisli always showed a tenacity in clinging to an advance once made, and were inclined to change it only for a further advance. Though Fort Duquesne was blown up when abandoned by the French, with the hope of rendering it useless to the English, the post was too commanding a one to be neglected. After it had been taken by General Forbes in November, 175^^, and had been strongly reconstructed by General Stanwix, though it was then two hun- dred miles distant from the nearest settlement, the possession of it was to a great extent tlie deciding fact of the advancing struggle. Colonel Arm- strong had taken the Indian town of Kittanning in 1756. The treaty negotiations between English and French diplomatcs at a foreign court, in 1763, which covenanted for the .surrender of all territory east of the Mississippi and of all the fortified posts on lake ai d river to Great Britain, was but a contract on paper, which was very long in finding its full ratification among the parties alone interested in the result here. There were still three of these parties : the Indians ; the French, who were in possession of the strongholds in the north and west ; and tlie Ihiglish colonists, supported by what was left of the British military forces, skeleton regiments and invalided soldiers, who were to availthemselves of their ac- quired domain. During the bloody and direful war which had thus been closed, the Indians had come to regard themselves as holding the balance of power between the French and the I'jiglish. Often did the abler sav- age warriors express alike their wonder and their rage that those foreign intruders should choose these wild regions for the trial of their fighting powers. "Why do you not settle your fierce quarrels in your own land, or at least upon the sea, instead of involving us and our forests in your rivalry ? " was the question to the officers and the file of the European forces. Though the natives soon came to realize that they would be the losers, whichever of the two foreign parties should prevail, their prefer- ences were doubtless on the side of the French ; and by force of circum- stances easily explicable, ' ^hr. English power, imperial and provincial, had obtained the mastci , ..; the territory, the sympathies and aid of the natives went with the British during the rebellion of the colonics But ^ #1 t THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 313 before this result was reached England won its ascendency at a heavy sacrifice of men antl money, in a scries of campaigns under many different generals. The general peace between England, France, and Spain, secured by the treaty of 1763, and involving the cession of all American territory east of the Mississippi by France to 15ritain, was naturally e.xpcctcd to bring a close to savage warfare against tlie colonists. The result was quite the contrary, inasmuch as the sharpest and most desolating havoc was wrought by that foe after the English were nominally left alone to meet the encounter. The explanation of this fact was that the French, though by covenant withdrawn from the field, were, hardly even with a pretence of secrecy, perpetuating and even extending their influence over their former wild allies in eml^arrassing and thwarting all the schemes of the lOnglish for turning their conquests to account. General Amherst was left in command here with only enfeebled fragments of regirients and with slender ranks of provincials. The military duty of the hour was for the conquerors to take formal possession of all the outposts still held by French garrisons, announcing to those in command the absolute conditions of the treaty, and to substitute the English for the French colors, hence- forward to wave over them. This humiliating necessity was in itself grievous enough, as it forced u]ion the commanders of posts which had imt then been reached by the war in Canada, a condition against which no remonstrance would avail. But beyond that, it furnished the occasion for the most formidable savage conspiracy ever formed on this crntinent, looking to the complete extinction of the luiglish settlements here. The French in those extreme western posts had been most successful in secur- ing the attachment of the neighboring Indian tribes, and found strong sympathizers among them in their discomfiture. At the same time those tribes had the most bitter hostility towards the English with whom they had come in contact. They complained that the luiglish treated them with contempt and haughtiness, being niggard of their presents and sharp in their trade. They regardei each advanced English settlement on their lands, if only that of a solitary trader, as the germ of a permanent colony. Under these circumstances, the French still holding the posts, waiting only the exasperating summons to yield them up, found the temptation strong and easy of indulgence to inflame their recent allies, and now their sympa- thizing friends, among the tribes, with an imbittercd rage against their new masters. Artifice and deception were availed of to reinforce the passions of savage breasts. The ]'>ench sought to relieve the astrauided consterna- tion of their red friends on finding that they were compelled to yield the field to the subjects of the Flnglish monarch, by beguihng them with the fancy that the concession was but a temporary one, very soon to be set aside by a new turn in the wheel of ff)rtune. Their French father had only fallen asleep while his English enemies had been impudently trespass- ing upon the lands of his red children. He would soon rouse himself to avenge the insult, and would reclaim what he had thus lost. Indeed, on the r It i- ( tL '^#: / '■m-' */. \ I 3H NARRATIVE AND CRITICAI HISTOXY Of AiuCRICA. principle that the size and ornamentinsjs ol a Hr^ involval no additional wron;^ in the telling it, the Indians were informed that a French army was even then preparing to ascend the Mississippi with full force, before which the English would be crushed. There was then in the tribe of Ottawas, settled near Detroit, a master spirit, who, as a man and as a chief, was the most sagaciou.^, eloquent, bold, and every way gifted of his race that has ever risen before the white man on this continent to contest in the hopeless struggle of barbarism with civiUzation. That Pontiac was crafty, unscrupulous, relentless, finding a revel in havoc and carnage, might disqualify him for the noblest epithets which the white man bestows on the virtues of a military hero. But he had the virtues of a savage, all of them, and in their highest lange of nature and of facdty. He was a stern philosopher and moralist also, of the type engendered by free forest life, unsophisticated and trained in the school of the wilderness. He knew well the attractions of civilization. He weighed and compared them, as they presented themselves before his eyes in full contrast with savagery, in the European and in the Indian, and in those dubious specimens of humanity in which the line of distinction was blurred by the Indianized white man, the " Christian " convert, and the halt-breed. Deliberately and, we may say, inteliigontly, he preferred fo> his own people the state of savagery. Intelligently, because he gave grounds for his preference, which, from his point of view and experience, had weight in themselves, and cannot be denied something more than plausibility even in the judgment of civilized men, for idealists like Rousseau and the Abbe Raynal have pleaded for them. Pontiac was older in native sagacity and shrewdness than in years. He had evidei.ee enough that his race had suffered only harm from intercourse with the whites. The manners and temptaticns of civiMzation had affected them only by demoralizing influ- ences. All the .' •■■^nts of life in the white man struck at what was nob est in the n,.vi^ if the Indian, — his virility, his self-respect, his proud and sufficing indcijendence, his content with his former surroundings and range of life. With an earnest eloquence Pontiac, in the lodges and at the couiicil fires of his people, whether of his own immediate tribe or of representative warriors of other tribes, set before them the demonstration that security and happiness, if not peace, depended for them on their renouncing all reliance upon the white man's ways and goods, and revert- ing with a stern stoicism to the former conditions of their lot. He told his responsive listeners that the Great Spirit, in pouring the wide salt waters between the two races of his children, meant to divide them and to keep them forever apart, giving to each of them a country which was their own, where they were free to live after their own method. The different tinting of their skin indicated a variance which testified to a rooted diver- gence of nature. For his red children the Great Spirit had provided the forest, the meadow, the lake, and the river, with fish and game for food and clothing. The canoe, the moccasin, the snow-shoe, the stone axe, the ^^:i-: ■*V)i|n ! ; u H (. CRITICAL ESSAY 0.\ THE SOURCES OF INFOR.MATiO.\.» By Dr. F'.'is anil the Editor. 0\ some few hisloric.il subjects we have vol- umes so felicitously constructed as to com- bine all that is most desirable in original mate- rials with a judicious digest of them. Of such a character is Francis rarkman's Friincc ami Eii:;liiU(l in JVoriii Aimrica, A Serhs of Histori- cal Narratives. So abundant, authentic, ami in- telligently gathered are his citations from and ref- erences tc the journals, letters, official reports, and documents, often in the very words of the actors, that, through the writer's luminous pages, we are, for all substantial purposes, made to read and listen to their own narrations. Indeed, we are even more favored than that. .So com])re- hensive have been his researches, and so full and many-sided are the materi.als which he has digested for us, that we have all the benefit of an attendance or a trial in a court or a debate in the forum, where by testimony and cross-ex- amination different witnesses are made to verify or rectify their separate assertions. The oflicial representatives of France, military and civil, on this continent, like their superiors and patrons at home, were by no means all of one mind. They had their conflicting interests to serve. They made their reports to those to whom they were responsible or sought to influence, and so colored them by their selfishness or riv;;'iy. These communications, gathered from w-djiy scattered repositories, are for the first tunc ' The biblioijraphy of the suhjcct i< nowhere exhaustively done. The Proof-sheets of Pilling as a tent.i'ivc effort, and his Inter divisionary sections, devoted to the Eskimo, Siouan, and other stocks, though primavily framed for their lin;;uistic beariin;. are the chief help ; and these guides can be supplemented by Field's Itu .in Bil>liixrafliy. the reference-* fur anonymous books in ."^abin's Dictionary (ix. p. Xr,), and sections in n.anv catal'i-.;ues of public .ind pri-.;ite libraries, like the I'.rinlcy (iii. 5.1|;2 etc.). d('vr>ted wholly or in part to Ameri- cana, and the foot-notes and authorities given in I'arknian, H. H. liancroft, and many others. THE RED INDIAN UF NORTH AMERICA. 317 , J. brought together and made to confront each other in Mr. I'arknian's pages. Allowing lor a gap covering the first half of the eighteenth century, which is yet to be filled, Mr. Parknian's series of volumes deals with the whole period of the enterprise of France in the new world to its Cession of all territory east of the Mississippi to (jreat lirilain. His marvellously faithful and skilful reproduction of the scenic features of the continent, in its wild slate, bears a tit relation to his elaborate study of its red denizens. His wide and arduous exploration in the tracks of the first pioneers, and his easy social relations with the modern representatives of the aborigi- nal stock, put him back into the scenes and companionship of those whose schemes and achievements he was to trace historically. After identifying localities and lines of exploration here, he followed up in foreign arcliives the mis- sives written in these forests, and the official and conhdential communications of the military and civic functionaries of France, revealing the joint or conflicting schemes and jealousies of intrigue or selfishness of priests, traders, mo- nopolists, and adventurers. The panorama that is unrolled and spread before us is full and complete, lacking nothing of reality in nature or humanity, in color, variety, or action. The volumes rehearse in a continuous narrative the course of French enterprise here, the motives, immediate and ultimate, which were had in view, the progress in realizing them, the obstacles and resistance encountered, and the tragic failure.^ The references in I'arkman show that he depends more upon F'rench than upon English sources, and indeed he seems to give the chief credit for his drawing of the early Indian life and character to the A'clntioiis of the French and Italian Jesuits,- during their missionary work in New France. We must class with these records of the Jesmts, though not equalling them in value, the volumes of Ch.'iniplain, Sagard, Creuxius, lioucher,'' and the later I.alitau and Charlevoi.x. I'arkman* tells us that no other of these early books is so satisfactory as l.ahtau's iMa-iiis lits Siiiivdxvs (1724) ; and Charlevoix gave similar te-.timony regarding his predecessor." For original material on the French sitle we have nothing to surpass in interest the A/emoiris <7 (i\'S4. Transcribed from original manuscripts in the Bodleian Library and the British Museum. With historical illustrations and an introduction by G. D. Scull (lloston, 1885), a publication of the Prince Society. 10 yoyages, 2d ed., London, 1724. H See Vol. IV. p. 299, It ■•. '855).^ It' servii.!! iistilutcd the Gdh- icc; but Frunch.* ■I rs, the William 1 iIr- In. f liy fair ci- hiispi- even in \^l.'-■ 1 1 is tier and in ton- ftarlc.->s e tribes, interest. azarilou3 their of- qiialities h huban ;, and by , and to li rather St of the THE K1;D INDIAN OF NOKTH AMKKICA. 319 Carver,' not to name others; the later onfs, like I'rinz Maximilian;'- the experiences of various army officers on the frontiers, like Randolph li. Marcy'' and J. H. Fry,* — all such books fill in the picture in some of its details. '1 he early life in the Ohio Valley was par- ticulaily conducive to such auxiliary helps in this studv, and we owe more of this kind of illustration to Joseph I >oddridKe •< than to any other. lie was a physician and a missionary of the I'rotestant Fpiscopal Church, and in both his professions a man highly esteemed. lie was born in Maryland in 1769, and in his fourth year removed with his family to the western border of the line between I'cnnsylvania and Virginia. AVilh abundant opportunities in his youth of familiarity with the ru'.lest experiences of front- ier life near hostile Indians, he was a keen ob- server, a skilful narrator, and a diligent gatherer- >ip of historical and traditional lore from the hardy and well-scarred pion 'irs. He had re- ceived a good academic ami medical educationi and was a keen student of nature as well as of humanity. His pages give us most vivid pic- tures of life under the stern and perilous condi- tions; not, however, without their fascinations, of forest haunts, of rude and .scattered cabins, of domestic and social relations, of the resources of the heroic whites, and of the qualities of In- dian warfare in the desperate struggle with the invaders.* Another early writer in this field was Dr. S. P, Hildreth of Ohio, who published his t'loiiecr //islory (Cincinnati, 184X1 while some of the pioneers of the Northwest were still living, and the papers of some of them, like Col. (ieorge Morgan, could be put to service." Dr. Hildreth, in his Iiioi;>(if>/iiiiil and Histoi iiat Mi nioii < of till- fuily J'loiiitr St'tllti-s 0/ Ohio (Cincinnati, 1852), included a .Memoir of Isaac Williams, who at the age of eighteen began a course of seivite and adventure in the Indian country, which was continued till its close at the age of eighty-four. When eighteen years of age he was emjiloyed by the government of I'eiinsylva' nia, being already a trained hunter, as a spy and ranger among the Indians. lie served in this capacity in Uraddock's campaign, and was a guard for the first convoy of provisions, on pack- horses, to Fort Duquesne, after its surrender to (leneral Forbes in 1758. He wa.i one of the first settlers on the Muskingum, after the peace made there with the Indians, in [765, by liou- quet. His subsequent life was one of daring and heroic adventure on the frontiers.^ Passing to the more general works, the ear- liest treatment of the North American Indians, of more than local scope, was the work o£ James Adair, first published in 1775, a section of whose map, showing the position of the In- dian tribes within the present United Shites at j[ N ' I ' ' 1 In 1766-68. 2 Kcise in das Innere Nord Amcritas (Coblenz, 1S41); also in an English translation (London). 8 Border Reminiscences (N. V., 1S72). ^ Army Sacrifices. 5 Notes of the settlement and Iiulicn wars of the western parts of Virginia and Pennsylvania, 1763-1783. See Vol. V. p. 5S1. 8 The question has often been discussed as to the origin of the title of " Indian summer,'' as applied to a beautiful portion of our autumnal season. Dr. Doddridge gives us an explanation of its oiiKinal significance, or, at least, of an association with it, which would make a feeling of dread rather tlian of romance its most striking suggestion. He says that to a backwoodsman the term in its original import would cause a chill of horror. The explanation is as follows : The white settlers on the frontiers found no peace from Indian alarms and onsets save in the winter. From spring to the early part of the autumn, the settlers, cooped up in the forts, or ever at watch in their fields, had no security or comfort. The approach of winter was hailed as a jubilee in cibin and farm, with bustle and hilarity. But after the first set-in of winter aspects came a longer or shorter interval of warm, smoky, hazy weather, which would tempt the Indians — as if a brief return of sunmier — to renew their incursions on the frontiers. The season, then, was an " Indian summer" only for blood and miscliief. So the spell of warm open weather, of melting snows, in the latter part of February — a premature spring — was a period of dread for the frontiersmen. It was called the " pawwawing days,'' as the Indians were then holding tl>eir incantations and councils for rehearsing for their spring war-parties. "' Cf. further on Hildreth and his books our Vol. VII. p. 536. * There are notices of otlier books of this kind in Vols. V. and VII. of the present History. Particularly, may be mentioned Joseph I'ritt's Mirror of Olden Time (Chambersburg, \',a.. 1848; 2d ed., .'\bingdon, V'a., 184';), in which the most interesting portions are the personal narratives of such captives to the Indians as Col. James Smith, Jcilm M'Cullough, and others, the full credibility of which is vouched for by those who knew them as neightxirs and associates. This class of narratives by men who for years, willingly or unwill- ingly, afiiliated with their wild captors make very intelligible to us the fact that the whites are much more readily Indianized than are Indians led to conform to the ways of civilization. Cf. .Vrchibald Loudon's Selec- tion of some of the mast interesting narratives, of outrages, committed by the Indians, in their wars ^l■ith the white people. Also, an account of their manners, customs, traditions, etc. (Carlisle, 180S-11; Harris- burg, iSSS). > •• ■ I > ; |4l i I ! i Ml f i '^ !• i I, til' j 1 Hi !' [i I' 1: |:;f^f'j(tl' ■ I H ! !,! 1 1 .'I I • Mi i I. >i! : I 320 NAKRATIVL AND lKITILAL Hl.ilORV OK AMERICA. that time, is given elsewhere.' This llntoyy of the Aiiiiiiiiiii Jii:/iiiiis was later incliult;il by KiiigsljDrough in Antn/Hilus 0/ M,xuo (vol. viii. Loiul Jii, i.S.|.S).- At just aliout the s.ime time ('777)i l^f. Kiil't-'rtsoii, in in-. Aithrit.i (book iv.), Hiivu ayiucral survey, which probably rup- rescnls the level of tliu best Kuropean knowl- e(li;u at that time. It was not till well into llie present century tliat much etlort was made lu ,uininari/e the scattered Uncwledge of explorers like Lewis and Clarke and of venturesome tr.ivellers. In 1819, we find where we might not expect it about as good an atlcnijU to make a survey of the subject as was then attainable, in Ii2ekiel Sanford's J/iiliiry 0/ the Uiiitid States he/ore the ReVi'ln- tioii, — a book, however, w hich was pretty roundly coiidemned for itsgeiuial inaccuracy by Nathan Hale in the North .liiieiutiii Keview. The iiext year the Kev. Jedediah .Morse made // report to the seeretary of ■auir, on /iniian njf'airs, conipris- iiit^' 1; narnithv of u tour in /i'jo, for aseerl,iin- ini^' the aetiia! stole of the Jndiiin tril'Cs in our country (New Haven, 1.S22), which is about the beginning of systematized knowledge, though the subject in its scientific aspects was too new for well-studied proportions. The t!ef'i>rt, how- ever, attracted attention and instigated other students. l)e Toccpieville, in 1S35, took the In- dian problem within his range. '^ Albert Galla- tin primed, the next year, in the second voluine of the Arehicolox'ia /hneruiina ((,'ambridge, iSjb), his Syno/'sis of the Imiiiin Trihes within the United States east of the Roeky Mountains ; and though his inain purpose was to explain the lin- guistic difl'erenccs, his introduction is still a val- uable summary of the knowledge then existing. There were at this time two well-directed efforts in progress to catch the features and life of the I mil ins as preserving their aboriginal traits. IJttwetn I.S3.S and lS4.i Thomas I,. .\Ic- Kenney ami James Mall publislied at I'liiladel- f)hia, in three volumes folio, their History of thi Indian trihes of A'orth .Interna, 'with /•iiX'a/'hiea/ sketches of tlie {'. Y., I.S41), in two volmncs. The book Went through various editions in this country and in London/' It was but the forerunner of various oilier books illustrative of his experience among the tribes ; but it remains the most important." The sufti- cieiit summary of ,ill that latlin did to elucidate the Indian character and life will be found in Thomas Uonaldson's O'eori^v Callings Indian Gallery in the U. S. Nat. Museum, with memoirs and statistics, being part v. of tlie Smithsonian Report for 18S5." The great work of Schoolcraft has lieen else- where described in the present volume.'* The agencies for accpiiring and disseminating knowledge respecting the condition, past and present, of the red race have bc< n and are much the same as those which im|)rove the study of the archaeological aspects of their history ; such publications as the I'ransaetions of the Amer- iean Elhnolo,^ieal Society (1845-1.^.(8); the AV- porls of the governmi'ntal geological surveys, and those upon transcontinental raihv;iy routes; those upon national boundaries ; those of the 1 Vol. VII. p. 44S. As types of successive ranges of anthropologicil studies see Ilappel's Thesaurus Exoticorum (WAmhuxii, 16S.S) ; .Stuart and Kuy\ier\ Dc Mciisch zoo als hij roo-iomt (.Vmsterdani, 1S02), »ol. vi., and the better known Researches of I'riclard (vul. v.). 2 .See Vol. V. r,S. 8 See Vul. VII. 264. * The original paintings for the pLites are now in the Peabody Museum (A' liilliog. Siouan languages {\^%-;), p. i;. Cf, rield, p. I)',; Sabin, iii. p. 436. ■ The volume contains three interesting portraits of Catlin and reiniprcssinns of his drawings as originally published. " Kor diversity of opinions respecting it see Allibone's Dictionary. The modern scierti'ic historian and ethnologist think in ccmjunciion in giving it a low rank compared with what such a book shcidd Ije. The fullest account of the bibliography of this and of Schoolcraft's other books is in I'illing'.s I'rcvf-shcets. What- ever credit may accrue to Schoolcraft is kept out of sight in the title-page of a condensation of thf book, which has some interspersed additions from other sources, all ol which are obscurely included, so that the authorship of them is uncertain. The book is called The Indian Tribes of the United States, edited by F. S.Drake (Fhilad., i.S,S4).in 2 vols. There is another conglomerate .and useful book, edited by W. \V. lieach. The Indian Mis.ellany ; papers on the history, aiitiiiuities [etc.] of the American aborigines (.Mbany, 1S77), which is i) collection of magazine, review, and newspaiier articles by various writers, usually of good character. UIK RKI) INDIAN OF NORTH AMKKICA. 321 Srnith.Honian Iiistitutinn, with its larger Coitli i- billions, and of late years the Ki-f^otts of Ihi Hiiriitii of Etli>ioloi;y ; the reports of such iiisti- tiitions as the Tcabody Museum of Artha-ohiny ; ami those of the Iiulian agenls of the Keiliral HoviTumetil, of chief importaiit'e amonj,' whitli is Miss Alire C Fletcher's /ii.iiiiii fCi/iuiilion ■iiul ChiliziUioii, published by the liureau of I'.diic.itinn (Washiuntou, iSS.S). To these nm^t be adiled the great mass of current periodical literature reai lied through /'ooh's Imlix, at\d the action and papers of the government, not always easily discoverable, through I'oore's Di ■ Siiif'tivt Cdtiiloi^iie. The maps of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries arc, in addition to tl e reports of traders, misHionarius, anil adventurers, the means which ive have c)f placing the territories of the many Indian tribes which, since the contact of Kuro- peans, have been found in North America ; but the abiding-places of the tribes have been far from permanei\t. Many of these early tnaps are given in other volumes of the jiresent History.' (leographers like Ilulchins and military men like Hou<|uet f(jund it incumbent on them to study this (|uestiim.'^ lienjamin Smith llarton surveved the tield in 1797; but the earliest of special ma]) seems to have been that compiled by Albert (lallatin, who endeavored to place the tribes of the Atlantic slope as they were in 1600, and those beyond the Alleghaiiies as they were in 1800. The map in the Ameriiiiii Ciizi'tlecr (London, 1762) gives some information,'' and that of Adair in 1775 is reproduced elsewhere.* In 183J, Catlin endeavored to givi a geographical position to all tho tribes in the United States on a m .|i, given in his great work and reproduced in \.\\& Smitlisoiiiiiii Keporf, \inri v. (1885). In 1840 compiled maps were given on a small scale in (ieorge Ilancroft's third voliune of his UnitfU Stalls, and another in Marryat's Travcts, vol. ii. The government has from time to time published maps showing the Indian occupation of territory, and the present reservations are sIkjwu on map* in Uonaldson's riihlic DoniiiinMvS in the Siiiilh- so'iiii/i A'l/'orl, part v. (1SS5).'' The migrations and chaiacterislics of the F-*- kitnos have already been discussed,'' and the journals of the Arctic explorers will vield light upon their later conditions. We fii\d those of the Hudson I'.ay regioit depicted in all the books relating t^i the life of the t'oinp^'ny's factors.' The licothnks of Newfoundland, which are thought to have become extinct in 1828," are described in Hatton and Harvey's Mtifoiiiid' liiiiil ; by T. O. IS. l.loyd in the Joiirihil of t/ie Aiillii-opolo);init Inslitiile (London), 187.), p. 21 ; 1875, p. 221 ; by A. S. Gatschet in the .ln/.r- idiii P/iiloso/'/iiiiil So,i<-ly's Tr 'iisaclions (I'hilad., 1885-86, vols, .\.\ii. x.xiii.) ; i..\>. in the NiiHlccnlh Ciii/iiiy, Dec, 18SS. I.ec' re j in his Xoinclle Ki'lolion tic hi Giisfhic (I'aris, |6( i) gives us at» account of the natives on the western side of the gulf." The Micmacs of Nova Scotia are considered in Lescarboi and the later histories and in the documentary collections of that colony; and tiS they played a part in the French wars, the range of that military history covers some material concerning them.'" For the aborigines of Canada, we easily revert to the older writers, like C'hamplain, Sagard, Creuxius, IJoucher, Leclercq, Lalitau; the \\ :A 1.0 I.I 11.25 Hi lit |2.5 IS IS 1.4 1.6 V] ^ Photographic ^Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) 872-4503 iV n>^ N> -4^^ ^\ 'PkV «; >^^ ■^"^ fe ^ ^^ \^o 32: NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMKRICA. h'<' I •' it naul (ch. 7, 8), Garneau (21! book), \nA Warbiir- ton's CiiHi/iii'st of Caiiiii/ii (th. (>, 7, S). The AliL'iiaki, which lay t)ut\Vf(;ii Ihf northeastern SLttlcmcnts of the Kni;hsh and the French, are specially treated by liac(|iievillL- (vol. iv.), in the Miihif //it/.Siv. ('<'//<•.//("/>, vijj. vi., and in Man- fault's llisli'irc iliS A/'tii.d-K ltS(i6).' The rich descriptive littraiure of the early days of New I'.nglaMd K'ves us much help in un- derstanding the aboriginal life. We begin with John Smith, and come down through a long series of writers like Governor llradford and Edward Winslow for I'lynioulh ; Gorges, .Mor- ton, Winthrop, Iliggin.ion, Dudley, Johnson, Wood, I.echford, and Roger Williams for other parts. These arc all characterized in another place.' The authorities on the early wars with the I'eqnots and with Philip, the accounts of Daniel C.ookin, who knew them so well,^ and chance visits like those of Rawson and Dan- forth,^ furnish the concomitants needful to the recital. The story of the laiiors oi l-'.liot, May- hew, and others in urging the conversion of the natives is based upon another large range of material, in which much that is merely e.xhorta- tive does not wholly conceal the material for the historian.'' Here too the chief actors in this work help us In their records. We have letters of I'.liol, and we have the tracts which he was instrumental in pidilishing." There is also a let- ter of Increase Mather to I.eusden on the Indian missions (16SS).'' Gookin tells us of the suffer- ings of i\\v. Christian Indians during the war nf 1675," •""' '"-' (i'^es also reports of the speeches of the Indian converts.'-" The Mavhcws of Mar- tha's Vineyard, Thomas, Matthew, and l!.\peri- encc, have left us records ecpiallv useful.'" The principal student of the literature, mainly religious, produced in the tongue of the natives, has been Dr. James Hammond Trumbull, of Hartford, and he has given us the leading ac- counts of its creation and influence." It was this ])ropagandist movement that led lileazer Wheelock into establishing (1754) an Indian Charity School at Lebanon, Connecticut, which finally removed to Hanover, in New Hampshire, and became (1769) Dartmouth College.'- The New England tribes have produced a considerable local illustrative literature. The Kennebecs and I'enobscots in Maine are no- ticed in the histories of that State, and in many of the local monographs.'-' For New Hamp- shire, beside the state histories, '< the I'emige- wassets are described in Wm. Little's ll'iirrvn ■I ■' 4 1 i' ; i> in the Kmic Citiin.finiiie (x. flofi) ; D. Wilson on the Iliirnn-Irnquois of Canada in A'0,1-. Soc. Cuiinifn, Proc. (iS,S^. vnl. ii.), and references, /jj/, Vol. IV. p. 307. W. II. Withrow has a pa|X'r on the last of the lluruns in tlic Ciiiiiii/i(i)i .\l,mthly (ii, ^oi|). ' .Ml (if these hooks are further characterized in Vols. IV. and V. Cf. also J. Caniplx.'ll in the Qiul>i< Lit. and /list. Sih-. Traits.. iSSi, and Wm. Clint in //';6). a Vol. III. « " Hist. Coll. of the Indians of N. E." in Mass Hist. Soc. Coll., i. * Noycs' ;V<-7(' Bn^'laiiil's Duly, lioston, ifigS. fi Cf. Neal's New EnglanJ, i, ch. 0; Conn. Evang. Afag., ii., iii., iv. ; Amcr. Q. Reg., iv. ; Sabbath at Home, Apr.-July, iSfiS. 6 Cf. his letters in .Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc, Nov., 1S79; N. E. Hist. Gen. Reg., July, 1SS2; Birch's /.;/<• 0/ Robert Boyle : ond the lives of Eliot. For the Eliot tracts see our \'ol. III. p. y.,-~,. Marvin's reprint of Eliot's Brief Xarralion {\<^-o) h::s a list of writers on the subject. Cf. Martin Moore on ''"lim and his Converts in tlie .liiier. Quart. Reg., Feb., 1X4^, reprinted in Beach's Imtian .Miscellany, p. 405; Itlllis's Red Man and White .Man in .\'o. .tinerica ; Jacob's Praying Indians ; and Bigelow's Xalici. ' .'-^abin, x. p. 101. 8 .'1 rc/nrologia .-twer.. ii. 'J Cf. John Ciillics /list. Coll. rclatinglo remarkable periods of the success of the Gosfel (OlasRow, T7;4V •» Success of the gnsfel among the Indians of .Martha's Vineyard {\hc)^). Conquests and Triumfhs of f7r«i-^ (T^of)), wliicii is reprinted in part in Mather's Magnalia. Indian Converts of .Martha^ s Vineyard (17271, and Experience, its author, appended to one of his discourses a " .State of the Indians, 161)4-1720." 'I Origin and early ftogress of Indian missions in A'civ England, with a list of books in the Indian language frinted at Cambridge and Boston. i0j!-f;3i (Worcester, 1S74, or Amer. Antij. Soc. Proc, Oct., 187;,) ; a paper on the Indian tongue and its literature in the I\fem. Hist. Boston, i. 4(15. 12 Wheelock has given us .4 brief narrative of the Indian Charity .School (London, 17(16; 2d ed., 1767), and a scries of tracts portray its later progress. Cf. McChire and Parish's Memoir of Wheelock. Samson Occiim and Brant were his pupils. Also see Miss Fle'cher's Report, p. 94, and S, C. B,artlett in The Granite Monthly (i.S.SS). p. 277. IS See Vol. III. p. -564. There is a bibliography of the Indians in Maine in the Hist. Afag., March. 1870. p. 164. Cf. Hanson's Gardiner, etc. ; the histories of Norridgewock by Hanson and .-Mien ; Sabine in the Chris tian Examiner. iS;7 ; and .Mass Hist. Soc. Coll., vols, iii., ix. On the M.iinc missions, see fost. Vol. IV 300; and R. II. Shorw-ood in the Catholic World, xxii. 656, l-t Sec Vol. HI. p. 367. 1 t'\ i* li! A. 'e have letters wliich he was re is also a let- \ on the Indian s of the suffer- ring the war «if )f the speeches avhews of Mar- \v, ami I%.\peri- iisefiil.'" eratiire, mainly of the natives, I Tniml)ull, of the leading ac- ence." It was lat led I'.leazer '54) an Indian necliciit, which lew Ilampshire, oUej^e.'- ve produced a iteratiire. The Maine are no- te, and in many :)r New llami)- ,,'■' the Teniiyc- Little's ll'iinvn ,-. Ciiiun/a. /'roc. of Die llnnms in 1 tlie Qii,/'i\- Lit. K. Ailv. Sii. Proc. iv.; Sabbath at nirch's /.;>■<• of reprint of Kli(>t's his Converts in Kcd Afaii and OlasRow, 1754V !«;«//// ww/,;)! Refort. \^'^y; and William J. Miller's A'otes concernini^ the W'amf-atioai^ tribe of Indians, it'ith some account of a rock fictiire on the shore of .Mount llo/^c Hay, in Bristol^ R. I. (Proviilenc, i.SSo). * Potter's F.irly Hist, of .Wirratianselt ; R. I. Hist. Coll.. viii. ; Hen y lull's Memoir in A'. /. Ilisl. Mai;., .Vpril, 1SS6; Isher I'arsons on the Nyantics in Hist. .Mai;., Feb., iSf,;. <> Theo. Dwight's Connecticut, ch. 5-7 ; Trumbidls Connecticut, ch. 5. (> ; Ellis' Life of Cafl. .Ma8. •> Further modern portiaitures can be found in Dwight's Travels: Barry's Massachusetts : Felt's /•',,/,/. ///■(/. A''. F.. (p. 27<)); .Samuel F.liot on the •' Early relations with the Indians" in the volume of the .Mass. Hist. Soc. Lectures : /acliariah .Mien on The conditions of life, habits, and customs of the naliie Indians of .-tmerica, and their treatment by the jirst settlers. .-In address before the Rho5. Palfrey (Xe7v England, iv. 40) warns the student that Colden must be used with caution, and that he needs to be corrected by Charlevoix. » See Vol. V. 618. Iroquois THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 3^5 and ^tmral ethnohi^y (Albany, 1847), a book not valued overmuch.' Hetler work was done by J. V. II. Clark in what is in effect a nood history of the Confed- eracy, in his 0>io)iiitii;a (Syracuse, 1849). The scries of biographies l)y \V. L. Stone, of .Sir William Johnson, liranl, and Red Jacket, form a continuous history for a century (1735-1838).^ The most carefully studied work of all has been that cf Lewis H. Morgan in his Ldigue of llic /ny/«('/j (i,S5i ), a book of which I'arkman says {Jesuits, p. li\; that 't commands a place far in advance of all others, and he adds, " T hough often differing widely from Mr. Mf>rgan's conclu- sions, I cannot bear too emphatic testimony to ihc value of his researches."'' The latest scholarly treatment of the Iroquois history is bv Horatio Hale in the introduction to Tht- Iroquois Book of AV/.'j (I'hilad., 1SS3), which gives the forms of commemoration on the death of a chief and upon the choice of a successor.* Moving south, the material grows somewhat scant. There is little distinctive about the New Jersey tribes.' For the Delawares and the Lenni Lenape, the main source is the native bark record, which as Walam-t )lum was given by S(|uier in his Historical and Mytholo/^init Traditions of llic Algoui/uins!^ as translated by Ralinesque," while a new translation is given in 1). G. r.rinton's Lciidfi and l/uir U/;cnds ; ;oith Ihc comfhtc text and symli 'Is 0/ the II a/am Olum, a //<7(i trans' ition, and an iiuiuiry into its autheii- //(•//>' (Philadelphia, 1SS5I, making a volume of his Library of at,. but the full outcome of all his views on the Indian character and life can only be studieii ' v (ollowins him through his liter .Ineient .'Society, his Systems of Consanguinity and .Ifini'y, and his //'uses and //ouselife of the American Atiorii;i)ies. Cf. Filling's Proof-sheets for a consT^ ctus of his works. Morgan's early studies on th'e Iroquois sensibly affected his judgment in his latt: t.tatment of all other North .American tribes. * Ilale has also contributed to the .\tai;. Amcr. Hist., 18.';, xiii. 131, a paper on "Chief George 11. M. Johnson, his life and work among the Si.\ Nations;' and to the Amer. Antiquarian, 1SS5, vii. 7, one on " The Iroquois 5.acrifice of the white dog." A few other references on ti. uois follow : Drake's Boot of the Indians, book v. ; D. ."^herman in .lA/.c- West, //ist., i. ^67; \V. W. Beauch.imp in Amer. Antiquarian (Nov., iSSd), viii. tjS; D. fJray on the last Indian cou .cil in the (jenesce Country, in Scri/nier's .Ma);., xxv. 33S ; Penna. A/ai;.. i. 103, 310 ; ii. 407. For the Schaghticoke tribe, see //ist. .Ma^., June, 1870; and for those of the Susquehanna Valley. Miner's ll'^r> minff and Stone's il'yominff. E. M. Kuttenbcr's /ndian Tribcj of the //udson /\'i:er (.Albany, 1S72) is an important book. Miss Fletcher's Kefort includes a paper on the N. V. Indi.ins, by F. li. Hough. ■'' X. Jersey //if. Soe. /'roe., vol. iv. 6 There is a sketch of this singular character in Brinton's Lenafe, ch. 7. " Also Amer. H'hii; /ievinv, Feb., 1849 ; and in Beach's /ndian Miscellany. * We may also note; D. li. Itrunner's Indians of Berks county. Pa.: beini^a summary of all the tan- i;iHe records of the aborigines of Berts County (Reading. Pa., 1S81). and W. J. Buck's " l.appawinzo and I ishcohan chiefs of the Lenni t.en.ape" in the Penna. Mai;, of //ist., July, 1SS3, p. 215. The early writers to elucidate the condition of tne Delawares soon after the white contact are Vanderdonck, Cimpaniiis, Gabriel rhom.as, and later there is something of value in Peter Kalni's Tra-.els. The early authorities on Pennsylvania need also to be consulted, as well as the Penna. Archi-ces, and the Collections of the Penna. Hist. See, and its Bulletin, whose tirst number has Ettwein's Traditions and lanfuat^e of the Indians. Of considerable historical value is Charles Thomson's /inquiry (see Vol. V. 1:7;). and the relations of the Quakers to the tribes are surveyed in an Account of the Conduct of the Society of Friends toivards the Indian Tribes (Lond., 1844) ; but other references will be found fost. Vol. V. 5S2, including others on the Moravian missions, the literature of wliich is of much importance in this study. Cf. Chas. lieM\\ fournal of a lu a months' tour (London, 176S), the works of Ileckewelder and Loskiel, and Schweinitz's Zeisberger. Cf. Miss Fletcher's Report, p. 78. " Vol. III., under Virginia and Maryland. Cf. //ist. Mag., March, 1857. '" For instance, the Relaiio itineris in Marylandiam. U See Vol. III. '- The latest summary is in Miss Fletcher's Rcfort, ch. 2 and 3. " F. K;iis$ee (down to 176S), Menja- min llawkiiis's Sk,lih of l/u- Cinl- Country (1799) and Jeffreys' lr,utli Dominion in Amo)- $01. .iiinton, in /X;i' A'tilioiiiil Lixi-m/ of the Cliata-.Mns-ko-kie Irihos (in the ///.(/. /I/,/;'., Feb., 1S70), printed a translation of " What ChekiUi the head chief of the npper and lower Creeks said in a talk held at Savannah in 1735," ^^''''^'i he derived from a (ierman version preserved in Ilerrn riiilif'/^ Coori; Fiiciloriihs von l\itk Diii- rium Ton seinor A'eisf n,ic/i Gioixun im Jiilii- lyji (Ilalle, T7-tl).'' This legend is taken by .\lbert S. Catschet, in his Mij;iiilion /..;;'<■«(/ 0/ ///<■ Ciii'k Indiiins, with a /inx'nistic, hisloyii, itn,i cth- iioxiiif'hii- inlroi/iittion (I'liilad., 1.SS4), as a cen- tre round which to group the ethnography of the whole gulf watershed of the .Southern .States, wherein he has carefully analyzed the legend and its language, and in this way there is formed what is perhaps the best survey we have of the southern Indians. This we may supplement by Pickett's Ala- Ihima. Col. C. C. Jones, Jr., has given us a sketch (iStkS) III Tomo-chi-clii, the chief who welcomed < >glethorpe.'' C. C. Koyce has given us glimpses of the rela- tions of the Cherokees and the whites in the Fifth A'tfort, liiiiiiiii of Ethnology. A recent book is G. E. I-'oster's Si-Qmi- Viih, the Amerinin Ciulmiis iiiiil moilcrn Mosos. A liiox'i;i/. 225. '1 here is a somewhat curious presentation of the Cherokee mind in the address of I)e\vi lirown in the .Mass. Hist. Hoe. Proc, xii. 30. » The histories ni the Creek w.-if give some material. See \'ol. VII. and Harrison's Life of John Howard Payne, cli. 4. Cf. I'oole's Index, p. 314. '■> Cf. I'oolc's Index. 10 See Vol. \TI. 11 Cf. Claiborne's Mississiffi, \. : Brinton in Hist. Stag., 2d ser., vol. i. p. lO ; and E. L. Bertlioud's Natchez Indians ((ioUlcn. i.SSfi). a panipliiet. I'i \'ol. V. p. 6S. Cf. also an abridijed memoir of the missions in Louisiana by Father Francis Watrin, Jesuit. \y(-n-ioloi;y, First Ki/-i>rl.* Vi. ( lale's LYp'!' JZ/.w-uv//; (< hicano, 1S67) gives lis a condensed summary of the tribes of that region, and .Miss Fletcher's h'fport will help us for all this territory. Use can be also made of Caleb Atwater's InJiniis (////<■ Nort/iWi-.tl, or a Tour to PriiirU lioi;raf'hv of the Sioiiiiii Ati)/,i,'/iiix''i's {{S!>y) affords the readiest key to the mass of books about the Siou.\ or Daco- tah stocks from the time of Hennepin and the early adventurers in the Missouri \'alley. The travellers Carver and Catlin are of importance here. Mrs. Kastman's Diuotah, o. lifeonJU-i^i'iids ofthi- Sioux (1S49) is an e.xcellent book that has not yet lost its value; and the same can l)e said of Francis I'arknian's Co/i/oniia aiiil t/w Ortgou Tioil (N. v., [S49), which shows that histo- rian's earliest experience of the wild camp life. Miss Alice C. Fletcher is the latest investigator of their present life.' Of the Crows >ve have some occasional accounts like Mrs. NLargaret }. Carrington's Ahsuriiha.* On the Modocs we have J. Miller's Lifi anioiif; tho Modocs (London, ''^73)- J- f'- I'orsey has given us a paper on the Omaha sociology in the Third A\/unbar in the /JAu'. Anur. llist. (vols, iv., v., viii., i.\.) The Ojibways have had two native historians, — Oeo. Copway's 7'riii/itioihil lli\t. of tlw OJi/'-.oiiy A\itioii (London, 1.S50), and I'eter Jones' J/ist. of the Ojilmay In- diiiiis, toith .(/<■< /i»/ iifriihe to thiir coiwcrsion le Christiatiity (London, 1861). The Miitiusot-.i J/ist. Soc. C'o//ottious (vol. V.) contain other his- torical accounts by \Vm. \V. Warren and by Fdw. I), .\eill, — the latter touching their con- nection with the fur-traders. .Miss Fletcher's A'l/ort (iS.SS) will supplement all these accounts of the aborigines of this region. Our best knowledge of the sc/uthwestcrn In- dians, the .Apaches, Navajos, L'tes, Comanchcs, and the rest, comes from such government ol>- servers as Emory in his A/i/it,iry A'lioniiiiissiittiY ; Marcy's Exf'loratioii of the Ked Ki^er in iSj2 ; J. 11. Simpson in his Txpedilion into the A'ttvnjo Country (1.S56) ; and V.. 11. Kuffner's Keeoiiiiois- siiiiie in the Ute Country (1.S74). The fullest references are given in Hancroft's Native A'aees,'^ with a map. We may still find in Bancroft's A'<;//rv A!S). 9 These may be supplemented by I.cthenian's account of the Navajos in the Smithsonian Rept.. 1S55, p. 2S0 ; and books of adventures, like Ruxton's Life in the Far West ; Punipelly's Across America and Asia ; U. C. norr in Overland .\fonthly, .\\>r., 1S71 (also in Beach's Indian Miscellany) ; James Hobbs' Wild life in the far West (Hartford, 1875), — not to name others, and a large mass of periodical literature to he reached for the Knelish portion through Poole's index. Cf. Miss Fletcher's Report (iSSS). "' A Journal, kept at Nootka Sound, by John R. Jewitt, one of the suniving crew of the ship Boston, of , , I 338 NAKKATIVK AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMKKICA. /' !l I -i >l these northwestern trihes was that of Horatio Half ill the vohime (vi.) on elhnofjraphv, of the Wilkes' Ciiiltii S/iiffs l:x(y Dr. A'. ,. (New York, 1SS6), and in the first volume of the Con- Irihiitions to Xorth Amer. Ethnotof;v (I'oweH's Survey), in papers by George Ciibbs on the tribes of \Va..hin({toi\ and Oref^on, and by \V. II. D.-1II on those of .Maska.' For the tribes of California, Bancroft's flrst volume is still the useful general account ; but the Federal government have published several contributions ot scientific importance : that of Stephen I'owers in the Contributions to Xo. Amer Ethnotof^' (vol. iii., iS77);» the ethnological volume (vii.) of Wheeler's Survey, edited by Putnam; and papers in the Smithionian /Re- ports, 1863-64, and in Miss Fletcher's Report, l888.« This survey would not t)e complete without some indication of the topical variety in the con- sideration of the native peoples, but we have space only to mention the kinds of speci-'l treat- ment, shown hi accounts of their government and society, their intcllcclual character, and of some of their customs and amusements.* Their industries, their linguistics, .nd their myths have been considerci with wider relations in the ap- pendi.\es of the present volume. -g^A— <£. & ^^. ^tkfkM^ ) ; (I •■ I. '; ! Bosfoit, John Salter, eonininnifer, vho tvas massacred on nd of A/arch, iSc;. /nterspersed u-Uh so.'ie o,ii>unt of the natives, tlieir manners anil customs (liostcn, 1S07), Another atcriiint has been piibllslied «itli the title, " .\ narrative of the adventures and sufferings of J. K. Jcwitt," compiled from Jewitt's " Oral relations," by Richard .Msnp ; and Dnother alteration and abridgment by .S. G. Goodrich bis been published with the title, " The captive of Nootl-a." Cf. Sabin, I'illinK, iMcld, etc. Cf. also Hist. Mag., Mar., 18*^)3. The French h.ilf-brecds of the Northwest .ire described by V. llavard in the Smithsonian Rept., iS7<). ' Pall's .'l/asi-a and its Resources (UosU.n, 1S70), with its list of books, is of use in this particular field. Cf. .ilso M-ss Fletcher's Report iiSSS). ch. K, and 20. ■- Mis map is reproduced i,. I'etcrii'ann's Cicog. Atitthcilungen. xxv. pi. 13. " The jieriodical literature can be reached dirough Poole's Index ; pariicularly to be mentioned, however, are the Atlantic Monthly, .\pr., 1S75; by J. V. Urowne in /farper's Mag., Aug., iSf>i, repeated in Beach's jnd. .Miscellany. For the missionary aspects ^ee such books as (Jeroninio Boscana's C/;/'>;/c<7;/«olithic implements in the valley of the Delaware. To quote the language of an eminent European man of science, " This gentleman appears to stand in a somewhat similar relation to this great question in America as did l?oucher de Perthes in luirope." " The ojMnion of the majority of American geologists upon this point is cleaiiy indicated in a very recent article by Mr. W. J. I\Ic(]ee, of ' Till- Xorlli .-Irn'riiaiis of A>ili(/I4ily,hy ]o\\T\ ' T/w .tiifiiiiii/y of Man in America, hs Al- T. Sh'>rt, p. 1^0. frcd K. Wallace in Ninittcnth Cintiny (N'ovem- '■* Ibid. p. 127. bcr, 1SS7), vol. xxii. p. 673. Tin: iMi,;i, m P:>piiliir Si icnce Monthly (\()veml)i.r, iSSS), p. 23. • Side and edge view, of ii.itur.il m/.c. Fnmi tlie /\aboJy Miiuiim Kcf'trts, vol. ii. p. 33. I ■< '. V 1: J 1 I 7, ]l iS9 NARRATIVi: AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. hh I |U i > i i \l i -i I period, that they can be regarded as really paliculithic' At thai epuch which iniiiieiiiately preceded the present period, certain rivers flowed with a vohinie of water much greater than now, owing to the melting of the thick ice-caj) once covcriiij^' large portions of the northern hemisphere, which was accompanied by a climate of great humidity. Vast quantities of gravels were washed down from the debris of the great terminal moraine of this ice-sheet, and were accumulated in beds of great tliickness, exteniling in some instances as high as two hundred feet up the slopes of the river val- leys. In such dci)()sits, side by siilc with the rude products of human in- dustry we have thus described, and deposited by the same natural forces, are found the fossil remains of several species of animals, which have subsequently either become e.xtinct, like the mammoth and the tichorhine rhinoceros, or, driven southwards by the encroaching ice, have since its disai)pearance migrated to arctic regions, like the musk-sheep and the rein- deer, or to the higher Alpine slopes, like the marmot. .Such a discovery cstablishe.4 the fact that man must have been living as the contemporary of these extinct animals, and this is the only proof of his antiquity that is at present universally accepted. There has been much discussion among geologists in regard to both the duration and the conditions of the glacial period, but it is now the settled opinion that there have been two distinct times of glacial action, separateil by a long interval of warmer climate, as is proved by the occur- rence of intercalated fossiliferous beds ; this was followed by the final retreat of the glacier.^ The great terminal moraine stretching across the United States from Cape Cod to Dakota, and thence northward to the foot of the Rocky Mountains, marks the limit of the ice invasion in the second glacial epoch. South of this, e.xtending in its farthest boundary as low as the 38th degree of latitude, is a deposit which thins out as we go west and northwest, and which is called the drift-area. The drift gradu- ates into a peculirir mud deposit, for which the name of "loess" has been adopted from the geologists of Europe, by whom it was given to a thick alluvial straiom of fine sand and loam, of glacial origin. This attenuated drift represents the first glacial invasion. From Massachusetts as far as northern New Jersey, and in some other places, the deposits of the two epochs seem to coalesce.'^ ' Sometimes the gravels in which such imple- ments were originally deposited have disap- peared through denud.ation or other natural causes, leaving the implements on the surface. Hut the outside of such specimens always shows traces of decomposition, indicating their high antiquity. Other examples of implements of like shape, found on the surface in places where there has been no glacial drift, may be p.ilaeo- lithic, but their form is no sufficient proof of this, since they may equally well have been the work of the Indians, who are known to have fashioned similar objects. ' nir Great I,e Af;e and its relation to the an- tiquity of Man, by James Gcikie, p. 416. ' An Inventory of our Glacial Drift, by T. C. Chamberlin in the Profeedini^s of Anieriran As- sociation for Advancement of Siienti; vol. xxxv. p. 196. A general map of this great moraine and others representing portions of it on a large scale will be found in his " Preliminary Paper on the terminal moraine of the second glacial pe- riod," in the Third Annual Report of the U. X Geological Surzry, hy J. \V. Powell (Washing- ton, 1883). haC c|)()(.li ved with a the thick which was (if gravels ne of this eiuling in river val- human in- ral forces, hich have tichorhine ; since its 1 the rciii- discovcry nporary of that is at d to both i now the ial action, the occiir- thc final icross the ird to the on in the boundary as we go rift gradu- has been a thick ttenuated as far as the two on to the an- 416. ///, by T. C. meriiiin As- , vol. XXXV. eat moraine it on a large an- Paper on 1 glacial pe- ■>f the U. S. (Washing- to THE I'RKHISTORIC ARCH.^OLOtlY OF NORTH A.MKRICA. 333 The interval of time that separated the two glacial periods can be best imagined by considering the gre.it erosions that have taken place in the valleys of the Missouri and of the upper Ohio. "Glacial river deposits of the earlier epoch form the capping of fragmentary terraces that stand 250 to 300 feet above the present rivers;" while those of the second epoch stretch down through a trough excavated to that depth by the river through these earlier deposits and the rock below.* As to the probable time that has elapsed since the close of the glacial period, the tendency of recent speculation is to restrict the vast extent that was at lirst suggested for it to a period of from twenty thousand to thirty thousand years. The most conservative view maintains that it need not have been more than ten thousand years, or even less.'^ This lowest estimate, however, er.n only be regarded as fixing a minimum point, and an antiquity vastly greater than this must be assigned to man, as of necessity he must have been in existence long before the final events occurred in order to have left his implements buried in the beds of debris which they occasioned. In April, 1873, Dr. C. C. Abbott, who was already well known as an investigator of the antiquities of the Indian races, which he believed had passed from " a pakcolithic to a neolithic condition " while occupying the Atlantic seaboard, published an article on the "Occurrence of implements in the river-drift at Trenton, New Jersey."^ In this he described and figured three rude implements, which he had found buried at a depth as great in one instance as sixteen feet in the gravels of a bluff overlooking the Delaware River. He argued that these must be of greater antiquity than relics found on the surface, from the fact of their occurring in place in undisturbed deposits ; that they could not have reached such a depth by any natural means ; and that they must be of human origin, and not accidental forma- tions, because as many as three had been discovered of a like character. His conclusion is that they are "true drift implementi, fashioned and used by a people far antedating the people who subsequently occu])ied this same territory." After two years of further research he returned to the subject, publishing in the same journal, in June, 1876, an account of the discovery of seven similar objects near the same locality. Of these he said : " My studies of these palrcolithic specimens and of their positions in the gravel-beds and overlying soil have led me to conclude that not long after the close of the last glacial epoch man appeared in the valley of the Delaware."* Most of these specimens were deposited by Di. Abbott in the Pcabody Museum of American Archasology and Ethnology at Cambridge, Massa- chusetts ; and the curator of that institution. Professor Frederick VV. ■:1 I ' Chamberlin, Proc. Amer. Assoc., ubi sup., p. 199. '•' The place of Niagara Falls in geological history, by G. K. Gilbert, of the U. S. Govt. Surv., in the Proc. Amer. Assoc., Ibid. p. 223 ; Geology of Minnesota [final report], by N. H. Winchell and Warren L'pham, vol. i. p. 337 (St Paul, iSSS). ' The American Naturalist, vol. vii. p. 204. •* ll-tii. vol. X p. 329. 334 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. I ' , " V Putnam, in September, 1876, visited the locali'iy in company with Dr. Abbott. Together they succeeded in finding two examples /'« f/nci: Having been commissioned to continue his investigations. Dr. Abbott presented to the trustees, in November of the same year, a detailed report 0>i titc Discovery of Supposed Palico/it/iic Implements from the Glacial Drift in tlie Valley of the Deui'u'arc River, near Trenton, Xew ycrsey} In this, three of the most characteristic specimens were figured, which had been submitted to Mr. M. IC. Wadsworth of Cambridge, to determine their lithological character He pronounced them to be made of argillite, and declared that the chipping upon them covilu not be attributed to any natural cause, and that the weathering of their surfaces indicated their very great antiquity. Tiie question " how and when these implements came to be in the gravel " is discussed by Dr. Abbott at some length. He argued that the same forces which spread the beds of gravel over the wide area now covered carried tnem also; and he predicted that they will be met with wherever such gravels occur in other parts of the State. 1 le specially dwells upon the circumstances that the implements were found in umlisturbed portions of the freshly exposed surface of the bluff, ?.m\ not in the mass of talus accumulated at its base, into which they might have fallen from the surface ; and that they have been found at great depths, "varying from five to over twenty feet below the overlying soil." Me also insisted upon the markeil difference between their pniiearance and the materials of which they are ashioned and the customai/ relics of the Indians. The conditions under which the gravel-beds were accumulated are then studied in connec- tion with a report upon them by Professor N. S. Shaler, which concludes, from the absence of stratification and of pebbles marked with glacial scratches, that they were " formed in the sea near the foot of the retreating ice-sheet, wiien the sub-glacial rivers were pouring out the vast quantities of water and wasie that clearly were released during the breaking up of the great ice-time." This view reganls the deposits as of glacial origin, and as laid down during that period, but considers that they were subsequently modified in their arrangement by the action of water. In such gravel-beds there have also been found rolleil fragments of reindeer-horns, and skulls of the walrus, as well as the relics of man. Dr. Abbott accordingly drew the conclusion that " man dwelt at the foot of the glacier, or at least wandered over the open sea, during the accumulation of this mass of gravel ; " that he was contemporary of these arctic animals; and that this early race was driven southward by the encroaching ice, leaving its rude implements behind. Thus it will be seen that Dr. Abbott no longer considers man in this country as belonging to post-glacial, but to interglacial times. Continuing his investigations, in the following year Dr. Abbott gave a much more elaborate account of his work and its results, in which he ' Tc'tith Attiitiiil Ki-f-ort of the Trustees of the PeabeJy Museum of Amerktin Archaology and Ethnology, vol. ii. p. 30. :a. y with Dr. s in place, jx. Abbott liled report ///(• Glacial ■■id yc/itj.^ which had rminc their "giUite, and ted to any 1 their very ts came to He argued wide area e met with ially dwells '.ndisturbcd he mass of from the I from five upon the of which conditions in connec- concludes, ith glacial retreating quantities up of the :in, and as )sequently ravel-beds i skulls of drew the wandered el ; " that ' race was iplements s man in tt gave a which he hctolcgy and THE I'KliHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY OV NORTH AMERICA. 335 announced his discovery of some sixty additional specimens.' To the objection that had been raiseil, that these supposed implements might have been produced by the action of frost, he replied that a single fractured surface mi^dit have originated in t . way or from an accidental blow ; but when we hud up.)n the same object from twenty to forty planes of cleavage, all equally weathered (which shows that the fragments were all detached at or about liie .same time), it is impossible not to recognize in this the result of intentional action. Four such implements are describeil and figured, of shapes much more specialized than those previously iniblished, and resembling very closely objects which luiropean archaeologists style stone axes of "the Chellean type," whose artificial origin cannot be doubted. Tiiic iKKNToN c;k.\vi:i. lu.rri-.* As some geologists were still inclined to insist upon the post-glacial character of the debris in which the implements were found, Dr. Abbott, admitting that the great termin.al moraine of the northern ice-sheci; docs not approach nearer than forty miles to the bluff at Trenton, nevertheless insists that the character of the deposits there much more resembles a mass of material accumulated in the sea at the foot of the glacier than it does beds that have been subjected to the modifying arrangement of water. He finds an explanation of this condition of things in a prolonga- tion of the !;lacier down the valley of the Delaware as far as Trenton, at a time when tiie lower portions of the State had suffered a considerable ' Second report on the p.nlxolithic imple- Del.iw.Tre River, near Trenton, \ew Jersey, niciits from the glaci.il drift, in the v.nllcv of the Ibid. p. 225. • Frnni a phiitoRraph kindly fiirnislicd l)y Professor I". W. Piitn.im, showing the Del.iwarc and its bluff of gr.ivcl, where many of tlie rude implements have Ijeen found. 'M k n vl ' w I I 'i 336 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. li> n 1' / I 1 .;) depression, and before the retreat of the ice-sheet. But besides the comparatively unmodified material of the bluff, in which the greater portion of the palaeolithic implements has been found, there also occur limited areas of stratified drift, such as are to be seen in railway cuttings near Trenton, in which similar implements are also occasionally found. These, however, present a more worn appearance than the others. But it will be found that these tracts of clearly stratified material are so very limited in extent that they seem to imply some peculiar local condition of the glacier. This position is illustrated by certain remarkable effects once witnessed after a very severe rainfall, by which two palaeolithic implements were brought into immediate contact with ordinary Indian relics such as are common on the surface. This leads to an e.xamination of the question of the origin of this surface soil, and a discussion of the problem how true palaeolithic implements sometimes occur in it. This soil is known to be a purely sedimentary deposit, consisting almost exclusively of sand, or of such finely comminuted gravels as would readily be transported by rapid currents of water. But imbedded in it and making a part of it are numerous huge boulders, too heavy to be moved by water. Dr. Abbott accounted for their presence from their having been dropped by ice-rafts, while the process of deposition of the soil was going on. The same sort of agency could not have put in place both the soil and the boulders contained in it, and the same force which transported the latter may equally well have brought along such implements as occur in the beds of clearly stratified origin. The wearing effect upon these of gravels swep*- along by post- glacial floods will account for that worn appearance which sometimes almost disguises their artificial origin. In conclusion Dr. Abbott attempted to determine what was the early race which preceded the Indians in the occupation of this continent. From the peculiar nature and qualities of palaeolithic implements he argues that they are adapted to the needs of a people "living in a country of vastly different character, and with a different fauna," from the densely wooded regions of the Atlantic sea-board, where the red man found his home. The physical conditions of the glacial time^i much more nearly re- sembled those now prevailing in the extreme north. Accordingly he finds the descendants of the early race in the Eskimos of North America, driven northwards after contact with the invading Indian race. In this he is fol- lowing the opinion of Professor William Boyd Dawkins, who considers that people to be of the same blood as the palaeolithic cave-dwellers of southern France, and that of Mr. Dall and Dr. Rink, who believed that they once occupied this continent as far south as New Jersey. In confirmation of this view he asserts that the Eskimos "until recently used stone imple- ments of the rudest patterns." But unfortunately for this theory the im- plements of the Eskimos bear no greater resemblance to palaeolithic implements than do those of any other people in the later stone age ; and i.ii THE PREHISTORIC ARCH/EOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 337 subsequent discoveries of human crania in the Trenton gravels have led Dr. Abbott to question its soundness.^ These discoveries of Dr. Abbott are not liable to the imputation of pos- sible errors of observation or record, as would be the case if they rested upon the testimony of a single person only. As has been already stated, in September, 1876, Professor Putnam was present at the finding in place of two palaeolithic implements, and in all has taken five with his own hands from the gravel at various depths.^ Mr. Lucien Carr also visited the locality in company with Professor J. D. Whitney, in September, 1878, and found several in place.^ Since then Professors Shalcr, Dawkins, Wright, Lewis, and others, including the writer, have all succeeded in finding specimens either in place or in the talus along the face of the bluff, from which they had washed out from freshly exposed surfaces of the gravel.* The whole number thus far discovered by Dr. Abbott amounts to about four hundred specimens.^ Meanwhile, the problem of the conditions under which the Trenton gravels had been accumulated was made the subject of careful study by other competent geologists, besides Professor Shaler, to whose opinion reference has already been made. In October, 1877, the late Thomas Belt, F. G. S., visited the locality, and shortly afterwards pub- lished an account of Dr. Abbott's discoveries, illustrated by several geo- logical sections of the gravel. His conclusion is, " that after the land-ice retired, or whilst it was retiring, and before the coast wa.' submerged to such a depth as to permit the flotation of icebergs from the north, the upper pebble-beds containing the stone implements were formed." " The geologists cf the New Jersey Survey had already recognized the distinction between the drift gravels of Trenton and the earlier yellow marine gravels which cover the lower part of the State. But it was the late Professor Henry Carvill Lewis, of Philadelphia, who first accurately described the character and limits of the Trenton gravels.' This he had carefully mapped before he was informed of Dr. Abbott's discoveries, and it has been found (with only one possible very recent exception) that the imple- ments occur solely in these newer gravels of the glacial period. Professor Lewis's matured conclusions in regard to the geological character and the age of the Trenton gravel cliff are thus expressed : " The presence of large boulders in the bluff at Trenton, and the extent and depth of the 1 A complete account of Dr. Abbott's investi- gations will be found in iiis Primitive Industry, chap. 32 (Palaeolithic Implements); Tenth aun. rep. of Peabody Afuseum, vol. ii. p. 30; Elet'enth Do., Ibid. p. 225 ; Proceedings of Boston Society of A'atural History, vol. xxi. p. 124; vol. xxiii. p. 424 ; Proe. of Amer. Assoc, for Adv. of Sci- ence, vol. xxxvii. * Proceedings of Bos/on Society of Natural His- tory, vol. xxi. p. 148. ' Twelfth annual report of Peabody Museum, vol. ii. p. 489. VOL. I. — 22 * Proceedings of Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., Ibid, p. 132. ' Popular Science Monthly, January, 18S9, p. 411. * On the discovery of stone implements in the glacial drift of North America, in the Quart. Journ. of Science (London, January, 187S), vol. XV. p. 68. ' The Trenton gravel and its relation to the antiquity of man, in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1880, p. 296. ¥' 338 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. !'' I 11 1 ■^ , I gravel at this place, have led to the supposition that there was here the extremity of a glacial moraine. Yet the absence of ' till ' and of scratched boulders, the al)sence of glacial striae upon the rocks of the valley, and the stratified character of the gravel, all point to water action alone as the agent of deposition. The depth of the gravel and the presence of the bluff at this point are e.xplained by the peculiar position that Trenton occu- pies relatively to the river, ... in a position where naturally the largest amount of a river gravel would be deposited, and where its best exposures would be exhibited. . . . Any drift material which the flooded river swept down its channel would here, upon meeting tide-water, be in great part deposited. B nilders which had been rolled down the inclined floor of the upper valley would here stop in their course, and all be heaped up with the coarser gravel in the more slowly flowing water, except such as cakes of floating ice could carry oceanward. . . . Having heaped up a mass of detri- tus in the old river channel as an obstruction at the mouth of the gorge, the river, so soon as its volume diminished, would immediately begin wear- ing away a new channel for itself down to ocean level. This would be readily accomplished through the loose material, and would be stopped only when rock was reached. ... It has been thought that to account for the high bank at Trenton an elevation of the land must have occurred. . . . An increase in the volume of the river will explain all the facts. The accompanying diagram will render this more clear. til I' SI I U" i'- |!({' Section of bluff two miles soutli of Trenton, New Jersey, a /5, Trenton gravel; Implements — *, fine gray sand (boulder) ; i, coarse sandy gravel ; c, red gravel ; (/, yellow gravel (pre-glacial) ; e, plastic clay (Wealden) ; /, fine yellow sand (Hastings f) ; ^-.gneiss ; /;, alluvial mud ; /, Delaware River.* " The Trenton gravel, now confined to the sandy flat borders of the river, corresponds to the ' intervale ' of New England rivers, . . . and exhibits a topography peculiar to a true river gravel. Frequently instead of form- ing a flat plain it forms higher ground close to the present river channel than it does near its ancient bank. Moreover, not only does the ground thus slope downward on retreating from the river, but the boulders become smaller and less abundant. Both of these facts are in accordance with the facts of river deposits. In time of flood the rapidly flowing water in the main channel, bearing detritus, is checked by the more quiet waters at • From a cut in Primitive Industry, p. 535. t . here the scratched alley, and alone as ce of the iton occu- le largest exposures /er swept jreat part lor of the ) with the cakes of iS of detri- the gorge, ;gin wear- would be ipped only int for the rred. . . . icts. The iplements — a, c, plastic clay the river, exhibits of form- r channel ground rs become with the :er in the waters at THE PREHISTORIC ARCH.COLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 359 the side of the river, and is forced to deposit its gravel and boulders as a kind of bank. . . . Having shown that the Trenton gravel is a true river gravel of comparatively recent age, it remains to point out the relation it bears to the glacial epoch. . . . Two hypotheses only can be applied to the Trenton gravel. It is either /('^/-glacial, or it belongs to the very last por- tion of the glacial period. The view held by the late Thomas Iklt can no longer be maintained, . . . He fails to recognize any distinction between the gravels. As we have seen, the Trenton gravel is truly post-glacial. It only remains to define more strictly the meaning of that term. There is evidence to support both of these hypotheses." ' After discussing them both at considerable length, he concludes as fol- lows : " A second glacial period in Europe, known as the ' Reindeer Period,' has long been recognized. It appears to have followed that in which the clays were deposited and the terraces formed, and may therefore corre- spond with the period of the Trenton gravel. If there have been two glacial epochs in this country, the Trenton gravel cannot be earlier than the close of the later one. If there has been but one, traces of the glacier must have continued into comparatively recent times, or Inng after the period of submergence. The Trenton gravel, whether made by long-continued floods which followed a first or second glacial epoch, — whether separated from all true glacial action or the result of the glacier's final melting, — is truly a post-glacial deposit, but still a phenomenon of essentially glacial times, — times more nearly related to the Great Ice Age than to the present." He then goes on to consider the bearings of the age of this gravel upon the question of the antiquity of man. " When we find that the Trenton gravel contains implements of human workmanship so placed with refer- ence to it that it is evident that at or soon after the time of its deposition man had appeared on its borders, and when the question of the antiquity of man in America is thus before us, we are tempted to inquire still further into the age of the deposit under discussion. It has been clearly shown by several competent archaeologists that the implements that have been found are a constituent part of the gravel, and not intrusive objects. It was of peculiar interest to find that it has been only within the limits of the Trenton gravel, precisely traced out by the writer, that Dr. Abbott, Professor ¥. W. Putnam, Mr. Lucien Carr, and others, have discovered these implements in situ. ... At the localities on the Pennsylvania Rail- road, where extensive exposures of these gravels have been made, the de- posit is undoubtedly undisturbed. No implements could have come into this gravel except at a time when the river flowed upon it, and when the" might have sunk through the loose and shifting material. All the evidence points to the conclusion that at the time of the Trenton gravel flood man . . . lived upon the banks of the ancient Delaware, and lost his stone im- plements in the shifting sands and gravel of the bed of that stream. . . The actual age of the Trenton gravel, and the consequent date to which ' Primitive Industry, p. 533 it seq. U |i « J r \ V' I ^' 11 I » J I ' I ill ^ , , . 340 NARRAT.'VE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. the antiquity of man on the Delaware should be assigned, is a question which geological data alone are insufficient to solve. The only clew, and that a most unsatisfactory one, is afforded by calculations based upon the amount of erosion. This, like all geological considerations, is relative rather than absolute, yet several calculations have been made, which, based cither upon the rate of erosion of river channels or the rate of accumula- tion of sediment, have attempted to fi.x the date of the close of the glacial epoch. By assuming that the Trenton gravel was deposited immediately after the close of this epoch, an account of such calculations may be of interest. If the Trenton gravel is /<7i7- glacial in the widest acceptation of the term, a yet later date must be assigned to it." After going carefully through them all, he concludes : " Thus we find that if any reliance is to be placed upon such calculations, even if we assume that the Trenton gravel is of glacial age, it is not necessary to make it more than ten thousand years old. The time necessary for the Delaware to cut through the gravel down to the rock is by no means great. When it is noted that the gravel cliff at Trenton was made by a side wear- ing away at a ban!:, and when it is remembered that the erosive power of the Delaware River was formerly greatt;r than at present, it will be conceded that the presence of the cliff at Trenton will not necessarily infer its high antiquity ; nor in the character of the gravel is there a.-v evidence that the time of its deposition need have been long. It may be that, as investiga- tions are carried further, it will result not so much in proving man of very great antiquity as in showing how much more recent than usually supposed was the final disappearance of the glacier." Professor Lewis's studies of the great terminal moraine of the northern ice-sheet were still lurther prosecuted in conjunction with Professor George Frederick Wright, of Oberlin, Ohio, whose labors have been of the highest importance in shedding light upon the question of the antiquity of man in America.^ Together they traced the southern boundary of the glacial re- gion across the State of Pennsylvania, and subsequently Professor Wright has continued his researches through the States of Ohio, Ii.diana, and Kentucky, as far as the Mississippi River and even beyond. He has found that glacial floods similar to those of the Delaware valley have deposited similar beds of drift gravel in the valleys of all the southerly flowing rivers, and he has called attention to the importance of searching in them for palaeolithic implements. As early as March, 1883, he predicted that traces of early man would be found in the extensive terraces and gravel deposits of the southern portion of Ohio,^ This prediction was speedily fulfilled, and upon November 4, 1885, Professor Putnam reported to the Boston Society of Natural History that Dr. C. L. Metz, of Midisonville, Ohio, had found in the gravels of the valley of the Little Miami River, at that place, III 1 The bibliofjraphy of Professor Wright's publications upon this subject will be found in Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., vol. xxiii. p. 427. * Science, vol. i. i). 271. question clew, and upon the i relative ch, based iccumula- le glacial mediately lay be of )tation of 5 we find :en if we :essary to ■y for the ms great, side .vear- power of conceded r its high ; that the investiga- in of very supposed northern Dr George le highest man in acial re- )r Wright iana, and has found deposited ng rivers, them for lat traces deposits fulfilled, : Boston Dhio, had lat place, und in Proc. )f THE PREHISTORIC ARCHi€OLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 34' eight feet below the surface, a rude implement made of black flint, of about the same size and shape as one of the same material found by Dr. Abbott in the Trenton gravels. This was followed by the announcement from Dr. Metz that he had discovered another specimen (a chipped pebble) in the gravels at Loveland, li the same valley, at a depth of nearly thirty feet from the surface. Professor Wright has visited both localities, and given a detailed description of them, illustrated by a map. He finds that the deposit at Madisonville clearly belongs to the glacial-terrace epoch, and is underlain by " till," while in that at Loveland it is known that the bones of the mastodon have been discovered. He closes his account with these words : " In the light of the exposition just given, these implements will at once be recognized as among the most important archaeological discov- eries yet made in America, ranking on a par with those of Dr. Abbott at Trenton, New Jersey. They show that in Ohio, as well as on the Atlantic coast, man was an inhabitant before the close of the glacial period."' Further confirmation of these predictions was received at the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Cleveland, Ohio, in August, 1888, when Mr. Hilborne T. Cresson reported his dis- covery of a large flint implement in the glacial gravels of Jackson County, Indiana, as well as of two chipped implements made of argiilite, which he had found in place at a depth of several feet in the ancient terrace of the Delaware River, in Claymont, Newcastle County, Delaware.* This discovery of Mr. Cresson's has assumed a great geological impor- tance, and it is thus reported by him: "Toward midday of July 13, 1887, while lying upon the edge of the railroad cut, sketching the boulder line, my eye chanced to notice a piece of steel-gray substance, strongly relieved in the sunlight against the red-colored gravel, just above where it joined the lower grayish-red portion. It seemed to me like argiilite, and being firmly imbedded in the gravel was decidedly interesting. Descending the steep bank as rapidly as possible, the specimen was secured. . . . Upon examining my specimen I found that it was unquestionably a chipped imple- ment. There is no doubt about its being firmly imbedded in the gravel, for the delay I made in extricating it with my pocket-knife nearly caused me the unpleasant position of being covered by several tons of gravel. . . . Having duly reported my find to Professor Putnam, I began, at his request, a thorough examination of the locality, and on May 25, 1888, the year following, discovered another implement four feet below the surface, at a place about one eighth of a mile from the first discovery. . . . The geo- logical formation in which the implement was found seems to be a reddish gravel mixed with schist." ^ Professor Wright thus comments upon these discoveries and their geo- ' Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. ffist., vol. xxiii. ?• 435- * Proc. Amer. Assoc, for Adv. of Science, vol. xxxvii. ' Early Man in the Delaware Valley, in the Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., vol. xxiv. I , III I ll'l \i{ * 5 ^* 343 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. i )'• , ) I: I :; ! logical situation : " The discovery cf palaeolithic implements, as described by Mr. Cresson, near Claymont, Del., unfolds a new chapter in the history of man in America. It was my privilege in November last to visit the spot with him, and to spend ^ day e.Kamining the various features of the locality. . . . The cut in the Baltimore and Ohio railroad in which this implement was found is about one mile and a ha)f west of the Delaware River, and about one hundred and fifty feet above it. The riv(.r is here quite broad. Indeed, it has ceased to be a river, and is already merging into Delaware Bay ; the New Jersey shore being about three miles distant from the Dela- ware side. The ascent from the bay at Claymont to the locality under con- sideration is by three or four well-marked benches. These probably are not terraces in the strict sense of the word, but shelves marking different periods of erosion when the land stood at these several levels, but now thinly covered with old river deposits. Upon reaching the locality of Mr. Cresson's recent discovery, we find a well-marked superficial water deposit containing pebbles and small boulders up to two or three feet in diameter, and resting unconformably upon other deposits, different in character, and in some places directly upon the decompo.s'sd schists which characterize the locality. This is without question the Philadelphia Red Gravel and Brick Clay of Lewis. The implement submitted to us was found near the bot- tom of this upper deposit, and eight feet below the surface. ... As Mr. Cresson was on the ground when the implement was uncovered, and took it out with his own hands, there would seem to be no reasonable doubt that it was originally a part of the deposit ; for Mr. Cresson is no novice in these matters, but has had unusual opportunities, both in this country and in the old world, to study the localities where similar discoveries i»^ve heretofore been made. The absorbing question concerning the age oi ihis deposit is therefore forced upon our attention as archaeologists. . . . The determina- tion of the age of these particular deposits at Claymont involves a dis- cussion of the whole question of the Ice Age in North Amerira, and i spe- cially that of the duality of the glacial epoch. At a meeting of this society on January 19, 1881, I discussed the age of the Trenton i,ravel, in which Dr. Abbott has found so many palaeoliths, and was led also incidentally at the same time to discuss the relative age of what Professor Lewis called the Philadelphia Red Gravel. I had at that time recently ma^ j repeated trips to Trenton, and with Professor Lewis had been over considerable portions of the Delaware valley for the express purpo.se of determining these questions. The conclusions to which we — that is, Professor Lewis and myself — came were thus expressed in the paper above referred to {Prvc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., vol. xxi. pp. 137-145), namely, that the Philadelphia Brick Clay and Red Gravel (which are essentially one formation) marked the period when the ice had its greatest extension, and when there was a considerable depression of the land in that vicinity ; perhaps, however, less than a hun- dred feet in the neighborhood of the moraine, though increasing towards the northwest. During this period of greatest extension and depression, ^11 ■: described ic history t the spot e locaUty. mplement iiver, and ite broad. Delaware the Dela- :nder con- bably are ; different but now ity of Mr. er deposit diameter, acter, and :terize the md IJrick r the bot- . As Mr. , and took ioubt that ;e in these and in the leretofore deposit is letermina- ves a dis- and t spe- lls society , in which entally at called the ated trips lortions of questions, f — came 7n Soc. of rick Clay le period isiderabie an a hun- towards jpression, THE PREHISTORIC ARCH-'EOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 343 the Philadeiohia Red Gravel and Brick Clay were deposited by the ice-laden floods which annually poured down the valley in the summer seasons. As the icfc retreated towards the headwateru of the valley, the period was marked also by a reelevation of the land to about its present height, when the later deposits of gravel at Trenton took place. Dr. Abbott's dis- coveries at Trenton prove the presence of man on the continent at that stage of the glacial epoch. Mr. Cresson's discoveries prove the presence of man at a far earlier stage. How much earlier, will depend upon our in- terpretation of the general facts bearing on the question of the duality of the glacial epc ch. " Mr. McGee, of the United States Geological Survey, has recently pub- lished the results of ext'-.^sive investigations carried on by him respecting the superficial deposits ot che iVtlantic coast. {SQi^Ainer. your, of Science, vol. XXXV., 1888.) He finds that on all the rivers south of the Delaware there are deposits corresponding in character to what Professor Lewis had denominated Philadelphia Red Gravel and Brick Clay. . . . P>om the ex- tent to which this deposit is developed at Washington, in the District of Columbia, Mr. McGee prefers to designate it the Columbia formation. But the period is regarded by him as identical with that of the Philadelphia Red Gravel and Br'ck Clay, which Professor Lewis had attributed to the period of maximum glacial development on the Atlantic coast. " It is observable that the boulders in this Columbia formation belong, so far as we know, in every case, to the valleys in which they are now found. ... It is observable also that it is not necessary in any case to suppose that these deposits were the direct result of glacial ice. Mr. McGee does not suppose that glaciers extended down these valleys to any great distance. Indeed, so far as we are aware, there is no evidence of even local glaciers in the Alleghany Mountains south of Harrisburg. But it is easy to see that an incidenta' .esult of the glacial period was a great increase of ice and snow in the headwaters of all these streams, so as to add greatly to the extent of the deposits in which floating ice is concerned. And this Columbia formation is, as we understand it, supposed by Mr. McGee to be the result of this incidental effect of the glacial period in increasing the accumulations of snow and ice along the headwaters of all the streams that rise in the Alleghanies. In this we are probably agreed. But Mr. McGee differs from the interpretation of the facts given by Professor Lewis and myself, in that he postulates, largely, however, on the basis of facts outside of this region, two distinct glacial epochs, and attributes the Columbia for- mation to the first epoch, which he believes to be from three to ten times as remote as the period in which the Trenton gravels were deposited. If, there- fore. Dr. Abbott's implements are, as from the lowest estimate would seem to be the case, from ten thousand to fifteen thousand years old, the imple- ments discovered by Mr. Cresson in the Baltimore and Ohio cut at Clay- mont, which is certainly in Mr. McGee's Columbia formation, would be from thirty thousand to one hundred and fifty thousand years old. UKr>. W 344 NARKATIVe AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. u •l » I. i >n : ( I 1 ) ) I I 'I ; ! " But as I review the evidence which has come to my knowledge since writing the paper in 1881, I do not yet see the necessity of making so complete a separation between the glacial epochs as Mr. McGee and others feel compelled to do. Hut, on the other h;ind the unity of the epoch (with, however, a marked period of ameliorat imate accom|)anied by ex- tensive recession o' the ice, anrl tollowcv. L.^ u subsequent re-advancc over a portion of the territory) seems more and more evident. All the facts rhich Mr. Mcdec adduces from the eastern side of the Alleghanies com- port, apparently, as reatlily with the idea of one glacial period as with that of two. . . . Until further examination of the district with these sugges- tions in view, or until a more specific statement of facts than we find in Mr. McGee's papers, it would therefore seem unnecessary to postulate' a distinct glacial period to account for the Columbia formation. . . . Hut no matter which view prevails, whether that of two distinct glacial epochs, or of one prolonged epoch with a mild period intervening, the Columbia de- posits at Claymont, in which these dis'overies of Mr. Cresson have been mad'j, long antedate (perhaps by many thousand years) the deposits at Trenton, N. J., at Loveland and Madison, Ohio, at Little Falls, Minn and at Medora, Ind. . . . Those all belong to the later portion of the glacial period, while these at Claymont belong to the earlier portion of that period, if they are not to be classed, according to Mr. McGee, as belonging to an entirely distinct epoch."' The objects discovered by both Dr. Metz and Mr. Cresson have been deposited in the Peabody Museum a«" Cambridge, and their artificial char- acter cannot be disputed. At nearly the same date at which Dr. Abbott published the account of his discoveries, Col. Charles C. Jones, of Augusta, Georgia, recorded the finding of "some rudely-chipped, triangular-shaped implements in Nacoo- chee valley under circumstances which seemingly assign to them very re- mote antiquity. In material, manner of construction, and in general ap- pearance, so nearly do they resemble some of the rough, so-called flint hatchets belonging to the drift type, as described by M. Boucher de Per- thes, that they might very readily be mistaken the one for the other."'* They were met with in the course of mining operations, in which a cutting had been made through the soil and the underlying sands, gravels, and boulders down to the bed-rock. Resting upon this, at a depth of some nine feet from the surface, were the three implements described. But it is plain that this deposit can scarcely be regarded as a true glacial drift, since the great terminal moraine lies more than four hundred miles away to the north, and the region where it occurs does not fall within the drift area. It must be of local origin, and few geologists would be willing to admit the * The Age of the Phil.idelphia Red Gravel, North American Review for January, 1874 (vol. Proc. Boston Soc, of Xat. Hist., vol. xxiv. cxviii. p. 70), on "The Antiquity of the North 2 Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 293. American Indians," he traces that race back to The preface of this volume is dated " New palaeolithic times. York, April 10, 1873." I" an article in the !/ ?.i f »> THE PREHISTORIC ARCH^EOLOCY OF NORTH AMERICA. 345 existence of local glaciers in the Alk't;hanies so far to the south during the gl-cial pcriiul. C'oiiscciucntly these objects do not fall within our definition of true palxulithic impk-incnts. The same thing may be said in a less degree of the implements discov- ered by C. M. Wallace, in 1876, in the gravels and clays of the valley of the James River' A different character attaches to certain objects discovered in 1877 by Professor N. H. VVinchell, at Little Falls, Minnesota, in the valley of the Mississippi River.* These consisted mainly of pieces of chipped white quartz, perfectly sharp, although occurring in a water-worn dejiosit, and they were found to extend over quite a large area. Their artificial char- acter has been vouched for by Professor Putnam, ami among them were a few rude "'mplements which arc well represented in an accompanying plate. A geological section given in the report shows that they occur in the terrace some si.xty feet above the l)aii!\ nf the river, and were found to extend about four feet below the surface. In the words of Professor Winchell : "The interest that centres in these cliips . . . involves the question of the age of man and his work in the Mississippi Valley. . . . The chipping race . . . preceded the spreading of the material of the plain, and must have been preglacial, since the plain was spread out by that flood stage of the Missis- sippi River that existed during the prevalence of the ice-period, or resulted from the dissolution of the glacial winter. . . . The wonderful abundance of these chips indicates an astonishing amount of work done, as if there had been a great manufactory in the neighborhood, or an enormous lapse of time for its performance." This discovery of Professor VVinchell was followed up by researches prosecuted in 1879 in the vicinity of Little Falls by Mis. /. E. Babbit, of that place.^ She discovered a similar stratum of chippe. quartz in the ancient terrace, of a mile or more in width, about forty rods to the east of the river, and elevated some twenty-five feet above it. This had been brought to light by the wearing of a wagon track, leading down a natural drainage channel, which had cut through the quartz stratum down to a level below it. The result of her prolonged investigations showed that " the stratum of quartz chips lay at a level some twelve or fifteen feet lower than the plane of the terrace top."* While the quartz chips discovered by Pro- fessor Winchell were contained in the upper surface of the terrace plain, 1 Flint imf'lctnents from the stratified drift ' the vicinity ,J k\ \i \ t\ \: 346 NARRATIVK AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMKRICA. f' n i i ; t 1 1« these were strictly confined to a lower level, and cannot be synchronous with them. I'hcy must be older "by at least the lapse of time required for the deposition of the twelve or fifteen feet of modified drift forming the upper part of tiie terrace plain above tiie quartz-beariuj; stratum." This conclusion is abundantly contirnietl by Mr. Warren Upham, of the U. S. Gcolot^ical Survey, in his study of "The recession of the ice sheet in Minnesota in its relation to the gravel deposits overlying the quartz im- plcnjcnts found by Miss Habbit at Little I'alls, Minnesota." ' The great ice-sheet of the latest glacial epoch at its maximum extension pushed out vast lobes of ice, one of which crossed western and central Minnesota and extended into Iowa. Different stages of its retreat are marked by eleven distinct marginal moraines, and this deposit of modified drift at Little Falls Mr. Upham believes occurred in the interval between the formation of the eighth and the ninth. " It is," he says, " upon the till, or direct deposit of the ice, and forms a surface over which the ice never re-advanced." An examination of the terraces and plains of the Mississippi Valley from St. Paul to twenty-five miles above Little Falls shows them to be similar in composition and origin to the terraces of modified drift in the river valleys of New Lngland. In his judgment, "the rude implements and fragments of quartz discovered at Little Falls were overspread by the glacial flood- plain of the Mississippi River, while most of the northern half of Minne- sota was still covered by the ice. ... It may be that the chief cause leading men to occujiy this locality so soon after it was uncovered from the ice was the!'- discov"ry of the quartz veins in the slafe there, . . . afford- ing suitable material foi making sharp-edged stone implements of the best quality. Quartz veins are absent, or very rare and unsuitable for this, in all the rock outcrops of the south half of Minnesota, that had become un- covered from the ice, as well as of the whole Mississippi basin southward, and this was the first spot accessible whence quartz for implement-making could be obtained." According to this view the upper deposit at Little Falls would appear to be more recent than those laid down by the immediate wasting of the great terminal moraine at Trenton and in Ohio ; but the occupation of the spot by man upon the lower terrace may well have been at a much earlier time. Many of the objects discovered by Miss Babbitt have been placed in the Peabody Museum, and as their artificial character has been questioned, the writer wishes to repeat his opinion, formed upon the study of numerous specimens that have been submitted to him, but not the same as those I'pon which Professor Putnam based his similar conclusions, that they are un- doubtedly of human origin. Implements of palaeolithic form have been discovered in several other localities, but as none of them have been found /« place, in undisturbed gravel-beds, either those v/hich have been derived from the terminal ' Prac. 0/ Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., vol. xxiii. p. 436. ill ichronous required t forming im. im, of the ice sheet juartz im- rhe great iisheil out lesota and by eleven .ittle Falls ion of the deposit of :ed." An y from St. similar in ver valleys fragments icial flood- of Minne- hief cause /ered from . . . afford- )l the best ;or this, in )ecome un- southward, ;nt-making appear to ng of the upation of at a much iced in the tioned, the numerous those upon ey are un- 'eral other ndisturbed terminal THE J'RLmsiUKIC ARlH.lOLOGY OK NORTH AMERICA. 347 moraine of the second extension of the great northern Ice-sheet, or those which are included within the drift urea, they cannot be consiidered us {)roved to be true paheolithic implements, although it is highly probable that many of them are such.* We have now to consider the claim to high antiquity of objects which have been discovered in .several places in certain deposits, equally regarded as of glacial origin, which occur in the central and western portions of the United .States. These are tiie so-called " lacustrine deposits," which are believed to iiave had their origin from the former presence of vast lakes, now either extinct or represented by comparatively small bodies of water. The largest of such lakes occupied a great depression which once e.\isted betwein the Rocky Mountains and the chain of the Sierra Nevada during the quaternary period. The existing lakes represent the lowest part of two basins, into which this depression was divided ; of these, the western one, represented by certain smaller lakes, has received the name of Lake Lahon- tan. This never had any communication with the sea, and its deposits consequently register the greater or less amount of rain and snow during the period of its existence. To the eastern the name of Lake Honneville has been given, and it is at present represented by the Great Salt Lake in Utah. This formerly had an outlet through the valley of the Columbia River. These lakes are believed to have been produced by the melting of local glaciers existing during the quaternary times in the above-named mountains ; and similar consequences seem to have followed from the like presence of ancient glaciers in the Wahsatch and Uintah mountains, where no lake now exists. In the ancient deposits of such an immense fresh-water lake, derived from the melting of glaciers in the last-mentioned mountains, which once existed in southern Wyoming, Professor Joseph Leidy first reported, in 1872, the discovery near Fort Bridger of "mingled implements of the rudest construction, together with a few of the highest finish. . . . Some of the specimens are as sharp and fresh in appearance as if they had been but recently broken from the parent block. Others are worn and have their sharpness removed, and are so deeply altered in color as to look exceedingly ancient."^ The plates accompanying the report show that some of these objects are of palaeolithic form, but as no further information is given in regard to the conditions under which they were discovered, we cannot pro- nounce them to be really paloeolithic. ' In iS77,by Professor S. S. Ilaldenian on an island in the Susquehanna River, in Lancaster Co., Penn. (Ktn\-nth h'l-fi. Penbody Mus., vol. ii. p. 255). In 1878, by A. F. Berlin in the Schuyl- kill Valley, at Reading, Penn. {American Anti- ipiaruiii, vol. i. p. 10). In 1879, by Dr. W. J. Hoffman in the valley of the Potomac, near Washington {American Naturalist, vol. xiii. p. loS). Subsequently by others in the same vicin- ity, reported by S. V. Proudfit in T/ie American Ant/irofolixist, vol. i. \t. 337. liy David Dodge at Wakefield, Mass., and by Mr. Frazerat Marsh- field, Mass. {Proc. of Boston Soc. of jVat. I/ist., vol. xxi. pp. 123 and 450). liy the writer, in sev- eral localities in New Kngland {/hid. p. 3S2). ^ Sixth annual report of the U. .9. Gcotoi^ical Surrey of the Territories, by F. V. Hayden (iS:3J, p.65.'. I I I » i i ! ■' 348 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. f. if' ' J I It l\ In 1874, Dr. Samuel Aughey made known the existence in Nebraska of " hundreds of miles of similar lacustrine deposits, almost level or gently rolling." 1 To these the name of " loess " has also been given, as well as to the mud deposits derived from the northern drift. Aughey states that these beds are perfectly homogeneous throughout, and of almost uniform color, ranging in thickness from five to one hundred and fifty feet. Gener- ally they lie above a true drift formation derived from glaciers in the Black Hills, and represent "the final retreat of the glaciers, and that era of de- pression of the surface of the State when the greater part of it constituted a great fresh-water lake, into which the Missouri, the Platte, and the Re- publican rivers poured their waters." The Missouri and its tributaries, flowing for more than one thousand miles through these deposits, gradu- ally filled up this great lake with sediment. The rising of the land by degrees converted the lake-bottom into marshes, through which the rivers began to cut new channels, and to form the bluffs which now bound them. "The Missouri, during the closing centuries of the lacustrine age, must have been from five to thirty miles in breadth, forming a stream which for size and majesty rivalled the Amazon." Many remains of mastodons and elephants are found in this so-called loess, as well as those of the animals now living in that region, together with the fresh-water and land shells peculiar to it. In it Aughey has also discovered an arrow-point and a spear-head, of which he gives well-executed figures. Both are excellent examples of those well-chipped implements which arc regarded as typical of the Neolithic age or the age of polished stone, and are absolutely differ- ent from the palaeolithic implements of which we have hitherto spoken. They were both found in railroad cuttings on the Iowa side of the Missouri River, and within three miles of it. The first lay at a depth of fifteen feet below the top of the deposit. Of the second he says it was " twenty feet below the top of the loess, and at least six inches from the edge of the cut, so that it could not have slid into that place. . . . Thirteen inches above the point where it was found, and within three inches of being on a line with it, in undisturbed loess, there was a lumbar vertebra of an elephant." ^ This intermingling in these deposits of the bones of extinct and living animals appears to have been brought about by the shifting of the beds of the vast rivers he has described, which have been flowing for ages through the slight and easily moved material. It seems to be analogous to what has taken place in recent times in the valley of the Mississippi and in its delta. The finding, therefore, of arrow-heads of recent Indian type, even in place under twenty feet of loess and below a fossil elephant-bone, cannot be considered as affording any stronger proof of the antiquity of man than the oft-cited instances of the discovery of basket-work and pottery under- neath similar fossils at Petit Anse Island in Louisiana, or of pottery and mastodon-bones on the banks of the Ashley River in South Carolina. No such discovery can be considered of consequence as bearing upon the question of palaeolithic man. ' Ibid. (1874), p. 247. - IHd. p. ;5.t. f t ' 11 11 ebraska of or gently ; well as to states that St uniform t. Gener- I the Black era of de- :onstituted id the Re- tributaries, iits, gradu- le land by I the rivers aind them, age, must which for todons and he animals land shells oint and a e excellent 1 as typical itely differ- ■to spoken, e Missouri fifteen feet wenty feet of the cut, :hes above on a line ilephant." ^ and living le beds of s through us to what and in its 36, even in ne, cannot man than ery under- ottery and )lina. No upon the THE PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 349 The late Thomas Belt wrote to Professor Putnam, in 1878, that he had discovered "a small human skull in an undisturbed loess in a railway cutting about two miles from Denver (Colorado). All the plains arc covered with a drift deposit of granitic and quartzose pcbl^les overlaid by a sandy and calcareous loam closely resembling the diluvial clay and the loess of Europe. It was in the upper part of the drift series tliat I found the skull. Just the tip of it was visible in the cutting about three and one half feet below the surface."^ Not long after this Mr. Belt died, and we are without further information in regard to the locality. It would seem, however, that the loess in which the skull occurred belongs to the latest in the lacustrine series, and consequently docs not imply any very great antiquity for it. In 1882 Mr. \V. J. McGee, of the U. S. Geological Survey, obtained from the upper lacustral clays of the basin of the ancient Lake Lahontan, where they are exposed in the walls of Walker River Canon, a spear-head, made of obsidian, beautifully chipped, and perfectly resembling those found OBSIDIAN SPEAR-HEAD.* on the surface throughout the southwest. " It was discovered projecting point outwards from a vertical scarp of lacustral clays twenty-five feet below the top of the section, at a locality where there were no signs of recent disturbance."^ This is said to have been "associated in such a manner with the bones of an elephant or mastodon as to leave no doubt of their having been buried at approximately the same time." But we are a^so told that these lakes are of very recent date, and that they have " left the very latest of all the complete geological records to be observed in the Great Basin." ^ The fossil shells obtained from these deposits all belong to living species ; while the mammalian remains, which have been found in only very limited numbers, and all, with a single exception, in the upper beds, "are the same as occur elsewhere in tertiary or quaternary strata." Mr. McGee says : " If the obsidian implement . . . was really in situ (as all appearances indicated), it must have been dropped in a shallow and ^ Eleventh Report of Ptabtniy Museum, p. 257. Russell, being Moiiog. N(i. xi. U. S. Geo!. Sun: • Geologkiil History of Lake Lahontan, a qua- under J. \V. Powell, p. 247 (Washington, tSSj), ternary lake of northxvestern NtvaJa, by I. C. ^ Ibid. \i. 269. H ;; II \< ] 1 •\ 1 • Found in the I..ihontan sediments, - U, S. Geological Survey, p. 247. -from a cut in Russell's Lake Lahontan, monograph xi. of Powell's ji I 'I II » , I I lii 350 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. M ■ ; IF I II >l ! ii quiet bay of the saline and alkaline Lake Lahontan, and gradually buried beneath its fine mechanical deposits and chemical precipitates." ^ In Mr. Russell's opinion, this single implement, although supported by no other finds of a similar character, is sufficient lo prove that "man inhabited this continent during the last great rise of the former lake." But if this last great rise occurred in recent times, the presence of the bones of tertiary mammals in the upper beds shows that great natural forces must have been in operation at that time to have washed these out of their original place of deposit. The principal organic remains found, we are told, are those of living shells, and the intermingling of these with the bones of tertiary mammals could scarcely have taken place in " shallow and quiet bays." To the writer this discovery seems rather to prove that an Indian spear-head was in some manner washed down and buried in the clays of the Walker River Cafion than that man was the contemporary there of the tertiary or quaternary mammalia. This faiily seems to be a case where, in the language of Dr. Brinton, " Archaeology may at times correct Geology." ^ It is almost paralleled by the discovery made by Mr. P. A. Scott, in Kansas, of a broken knife or lance-head, measuring in its present condition two inches and one eighth in length. Sir Daniel Wilson, who reports it, says : "The spot where the discovery was made is in the Blue Range of the Rocky Mountains, in an alluvial bottom, and distant several hundred feet from a small stream called Clear Creek. A shaft was sunk, passing through four feet of rich, black soil, and below this through upward of ten feet of gravel, reddish clay, and rounded quartz. Here the flint was found. . . . The actual object corresponds more to the small and slighter productions of the modern Indian tool -maker than to the rude and massive drift imple- ment." But this most careful and conscientious observer goes on to remark, " Under any circumstances it would be rash to build up compre- hensive theories on a solitary case like this."^ If the discovery by Mr. McGee of this spear-head be insisted upon as establishing that man inhabited this continent during the last great rise of the lake, it would be easier to believe that that event occurred in recent and not in quaternary times, than to admit that the distinction between palaeolithic and neolithic implements, established by so many discoveries in this country and in Europe, is thereby utterly overthrown. The only alternative left is to believe tha'. neolithic man was the contem- porary of the tertiary mammals. To this conclusion we arc asked to come by Professor Josiah D. Whitney, on account of I'ne discovery of the remains of man and of his works in the auriferous gravels of Californi.i. The famous "Calaveras skull" is figured upon another page of this volume. ! ft I. I. 1. 1 I !' ' Pof. Scieiirc- Monthly, November, iS88, p. 27. ' Smithsonian Re/'ort, 1862, p. 297, where it is - \n\c\e'm X\\e /i:oni'!^rii/i )l > {I ; '•■* \ be held to be the true explanation of its use, either is more likely to be a characteristic of the Indian race than of primitive man. But the objects whose presence in the gravels is most repeatedly spoken of are stone mortars, which Professor W^hitney supposes were "used by the race inhabiting this region in prehistoric times ... for providing food." One of these is stated to have been " found standing upright, and the pestle was in it, in its proper place, apparently just as it had been left by the owner." It was taken out of a shaft, according to the testimony, twelve feet underneath undisturbed strata. This was certainly a very marvellous thing to have happened if all the objects found in the gravels are supposed to have been brought there by the action of floods of water. But it is a very simple matter, if the supposition of Mr. Southall be correct, who thinks that " these mortars have been left in these positions by the ancient inhabitants in their search ior gohi."^ The Spaniards found gold in abundance in ]Me.\ico, and the locality from which it came is believed by Mr. Southall to be indicated by a discovery made in 1849 by some gold- diggers at one of the mountain diggings called Murphy's, in the region in which Professor Whitney's discoveries have taken place. In examining a high barren district of mountain, they were surprised to come upon the abandoned site of an ancient mine. At the bottom of a shaft two hundred and ten feet deep a human skeleton was found, with an altar for worship and other evidences of ancient labor by the aborigines.^ Mr. Southall believes that these morfars were used " for crushing the cemented gravel of the auriferous beds." Some corroboration is afforded for this suggestion by the fact that stone mortars of a like character are found in the ancient gold mines, worked by the early Egyptian monarchs, in the Gebel AUakee Mountains near the Red Sea, which were used in pulverizing the gold- bearing quartz. As to the authenticity of the " Calaveras skull," " Great contest followed and much learned dust." The probabilities seem in favor of its being a genuine human fossil, and the question recurs as to its character and the presumable age of the deposits from which it came. The latest geologist who has studied the locality, so far as the writer is aware, says of these deposits : " E\ en before visiting California I had sf.spected these old river gravels might be contemporaneous with the glacial epoch, and I still think this possible. This area was not glaciated, and these old gravels, hundreds of feet in thickness, may very well represent that great interval of time occupied in other regions by the glacial periods."^ In discussing this nuestion from the point of view of the character of the fossil animal remains contained in the gravels, we must I i * ne Epoch of the Mammoth and the Appari- tion of Man upon the Earth, by James C. Southall, p. 399 (Philadelphia, 1878). 2 Schoolcraft's Ttidian Tribes of the United States, vol. i. p. loi (Philadelphia, 1851). « S. B. J. Skertchly in the Journal Anthrop. Inst., vol. xvii. p. 335 (Jan. 10, 1888). 'I .' m ;ly to be a dly spoken " used by ding food." t, and the een left by testimony, nly a very the gravels s of water, be correct, ions by the found gold believed by some gold- le region in jxaniining a e upon the wo hundred for worship Ir. Southall ;ntcd gravel 3 suggestion the ancient :bel Allakee g the gold- ssil, and the le deposits locality, so ore visiting mporaneous ea was not , may very ions by the view of the s, we must 0/ the United 1851). \irnal Anthrop. 88). THE PREHISTORIC ARCH.1^.0L0GY OF NORTH AMERICA. 353 continually bear in mind what Professor E. D. Cope says of the Mcsozok and Ccenosoic of North America : " The fauna; of those periods have not yet been discriminated. . . . Many questions of the e.xact contemporaneity of these different beds are as yet unsettled."' Professor Cope has previously pointed out how marked a difference there is between the quaternary fauna of North America and that of Europe; we have no Hippopotamus or Rhinoceros Tichorinus, nnd they no Megatherium, Megalonyx, and other species. Under the varying conditions of animal existence thus implied, ti) acsail established ideas upon the sequence in man's development, or to maintain that he has had a long career on the Pacific slope of our continent before he had made his appearance in Western Europe, seems to the writer to be an attempt to explain '^ ignotiim per ignottns." What is really to be understood by the assumption that man existed in tertiary times .' So profound a palceontologist as Professor William Boyd Dawkins thinks " it is impossible to believe that man should have been an exception to the law of change. In the Pliocene age we cannot expect to find traces of man upon the earth. The living placental mammals had only then begun to appear, and seeing that the higher animals have invariably appeared in the rocks according to their place in the zoological scale, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, placental mammals, it is hardly reasonable to suppose that the highest of all should then have been upon the earth." ^ When, therefore, some of the geologists of our country support Professor Whit- ney's claim that these discoveries of human fossils have actually proved man's existence in the Pliocene period, by arguments mainly based upon the effects of erosion and the immense periods of time which these imply, or favor his inference from the animal fossils contained in these deposits that there has been " a total change in the fauna and flora of the region," and that "the fauna of the gravel deposits if almost exclusively made up of extinct species," we may well insist, with Dawkins, that the human remains should not be regarded as standing upon a different basis from those of the horse, since both occur under similar conditions. Dr. Leidy repo»'ts the finding of remains of four different species of fossil Equns. But among them " we may note the skull of a mustang, identical with that of Mexico and California, which could not have been buried in the gravels of Sierra County before the time of the Spanish Conquest, when the living race of horses was introduced." Professor Jeffries Wyman says of the Calaveras skull: "Any conclusions based upon a single skull are liable to prove erro- neous, unless we have suflficient grounds for the belief that such a skull is a representative one of the race to which it belongs. . . . We have no suf- ficient reason for assuming in the present instance that the skull is a repre- sentative one. . . . The skull presents no signs of having belonged to an inferior race. In its breadth it agrees with the other crania from Califor- nia, except those of the Diggers, but surpasses them in the other particulars f (I I 1 The American Naturalist, vol. xxi. p. (1S87). 459 2 Early Man in America, in the North Amer' lean A'eviev.i, Oct., 1883, p. 340. ' 4 VOL. I. — 23 c-y 354 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. k !"i li. l< lU-^ I it' I I A I in which comparisons have been made." * As, therefore, what appear to be the skulls of a California Indian and that jf a Mexican mustang have been found to occur in the same deposits, this circumstance, instead of proving that man was an inhabitant of pliocene America, would seem to the writer to imply either that these deposits are comparatively recent, or that the fossi! bones found in them are so commingled that arguments based upon purely palneontological considerations can be regarded as entitled to very little weight. But althougl some American palaeontologists are iiaclined to argue that these deposits belong to the Pliocene, on account of the character of the vertebrate fossils found in tliem, it must not be forgotten that geologists generally prefer to refer them to the Pleistocene. They believe that even the superimposition of lava beds upon the gravels does not establish a very \iigh antiquity for them, and question whether the time that has elapsed since the outflow of the lava, as meosured by the amount of erosion that has taken place in the gravels, is to be regarded as much greater than can prop- erly be assigned to the Pleistocene period elsewhere. Professor Whitney himself admits the difficulty of distinguishing whether "deposits have been accumulated in the place where we find them previous to the cessation of the period of volcanic activity. The gravels which have not been protected by a capping of basalt, or only thinly or not at all covered by erupted ma. terials, may in some places have been overlain by recent deposits in such a way that the line between volcanic and post-volcanic cannot be distinctly drawn. ... It must not unfrequently have happened that fossils have been washed out of the less coherent detrital beds belonging to the volcanic series, carried far from their original resting-place, and deposited in such a position that they seem to belong to the present epoch."'* In one of the reports of Fiyden's survey can be seen a plate representing "Modern Lake Deposits capped with Basalt." ^ There is sufficient ground for be- lieving that the volcanic activity of the regions of the Sierras has continued down to very recent times, geologically speaking, and that there is no such great difference of age between the lava-cappings and the other beds as Professor Whitney supposes. Hayden thinks "the main portion of the volcanic material of the West has been thrown out at a comparatively modern date."* Undoubtedly the amount of erosion that has taken place in these river gravels implies a great lapse of time, but so do the other facts of physical geography which have been employed as chronometers by which to measure the time since the close of the quaternary period. To carry this erosion back to the tertiary times, and to assign man his place in the world then on that ground, in face of the arguments to the contrary drawn from archreology, palaeontology, and geology, in view of the essential weak- ness of the testimony upon which the arguments in its favor are based, 1 T/ie Auriferous Gravels, e*C., p. 273. - Ibid. p. 242. * Sixth annua! report of the U. S. Geol. Surv of the Territories, p. 29. * Ibid, p 44. v\ THE PREHISTORIC ARCH/EOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 355 would seem to b. a most hazardous assumption. It is only equalled by the statement that " the discoveries made in Europe, which have already ob- tained general credence, carry man close to the verge of the tertiary ; if not, indeed, a little the other side of the line." ' In the writer's opinion, this is the belief of only a small number of the most extreme evolutionists in Europe, while the great body of cautious and critical observers think that it has not been proved, and a few are willing to hold their judgment in suspense. Professor Whitney's conclusions, however, are supported by Mr. Wallace in the article quoted at the beginning of this chapter, in his character as an evolutionist of the most advanced school. He says : " Believing that the whole bearing of the comparative anatomy of man and of the anthropoid apes, together with the absence of indications of any essential change in his structure during the quaternary period, lead to the conclusion that he must have existed, as man, in pliocene times, and that the intermediate forms connecting him with the higher apes probably lived during the early pliocene or the miocene period, it is urged that all such discoveries . . . are in themselves probable and such as we have a right to expect." '^ In such a frame of mind it is very easy for him to wave aside every objection raised by the archaeologist to the character of the evidence brought forward to sustain the alleged discoveries. To the objection that the objects ac- companying the human remains, for which such a great antiquity is claimed, are too similar to those of comparatively recent times, he has ready an- swer : " The same may be said of the most ancient bow and spear-heads and those made by modern Indians. The use of the articles has in both cases been continuous, and the objects themselves are so necessary and so comparatively simple that there is no room for any great modification of form." The writer can only state here that no archaeologist holds this opinion, and will refer for a detailed statement of his reasons for the con- trary view to an article by him upon The Bozu and Arrow unknown to PalceolJthic Man? It is not easy to believe that so vast a difference in age can be attributed to the deposits upon the opposite sides of the chain of the Sierra Nevada, as would follow if we are to hold that the auriferous gravels belong to the tertiary, while the Lahontan deposits belong to the quaternary period. Far more reasonable does it seem to suppose that they both fall within the two divisions into which we have seen that the pleistocene has been divided. To the writer it appears, from what study he has made of the evidences alleged of man's existence in North America in early times, that proof is wanting that he made his appearance here earlier than in interglacial times. Dr. Abbott's discoveries seem to be worthy of all the importance which has been assigned to them, and the more so from the fact that they are in m I M U. S. Geol. Surv 1 77/1? Auriferous Grm>els, etc., p. 281. ' The Antiquity of Man in North America, p. 679. « Proc. of Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., vol. xxiii p. 269. i!i i ■i ■ p 1 !•/' ] ■I . ( if \ .' •!fi > '■:*. 356 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. • ;' ii i li- I, i: i } \t I. accord with similar discoveries made in the Old World. The evidence adduced appears to be altogether too fragmentary and strained to warrant the conclusion that has been drawn that there is no proper correlation between the geological calendars of the two hemispheres. Uesides the numerous palaeolithic implements which the Trenton gravels have yielded, there have been found in them three human crania, more or less complete, and portions of others.' Professor Putnam is inclined to the opinion that these may be veritable remains of the makers of the palccolithic implements. But it is difficult to conceive how such fragile objects as human skulls, in this period and at this locality, could have survived the destructive forces to which they must have been subjected. We must recollect that the bones of man are very seldom met with in the river gravels of the Old World, and such crania as are accepted as belonging to these deposits are dolichocephalic, and not, like these, brachycephalic.'"' The circumstances under which these three have been found are not reported with sufficient detail to enable us to account satis- factorily for their presence, nor can we admit that the fact that they "are not of the Delaware Indian type" affords any adequate criterion for our judgment. It is well established that " in America we find extreme '^ rachycephaly, as well among the prehistoric as among the historic peoples from British America to Patagonia. At the same time, dolichocephaly is found, besides among the Eskimos, throughout the American Indian tribes from north to south ; but it cannot be considered an American craniologic characteristic." ^ The various forms of skulls, moreover, are found to be so intermingled that they have been compared to " what might be looked for in a collection made from the potter's field of London or New York." * The problem is still further complicated by the widespread custom among the American tribes of altering the natural shape of the skull, sometimes by flattening it, sometimes by making it as round as possible.'' Taking all these matters into consideration, we are compelled to regard craniology by itself as an insufficient guide. We have now passed in review such evidences of man's early existence in North America as seem to be sufficiently substantiated by satisfactory proof, and have intentionally left out of consideration many former exam- ples, which v/ere accustomed to be cited before the science of prehistoric archaeology had formulated her laws and established her general conclu- sions, as well as some more recent ones in which the evidence seems to be weak. It only remains for the writer to express his own conclusions on the question. But first let him draw attention to the state of public opinion V II 1 Reports of Ptabody Museum, vol. iii. pp. 177, 408 ; iv. p. 35. 2 Early Man in Britain, by W. Boyd Daw- kins, p. 167. ' Dr. H. Ten Kate in Science, vol. xii. p. 228 (November 9, 1888). ♦ JVotes on the Crania of the N. E. Indians, by Lucien Carr, p. 9 (Anniversary Memoirs of Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.), 1880. * The Standard Natural History, ed. by J. S. Kingsley, vol. vi. p. 143. \S ii ' CA. THE PREHISTORIC ARCH/EOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 357 he evidence 1 to warrant : correlation nton gravels :rania, more 1 is inclined akers of the such fragile could have n subjected, met with in ire accepted , like these, e have been :count satis- :t that they criterion for ind extreme toric peoples hocephaly is ndian tribes n craniologic lund to be so pe looked for few York."* torn among sometimes Taking all raniology by y existence satisfactory jrmer exam- prehistoric eral conclu- seems to be ions on the blic opinion A''. E. Indians, zry Memoirs of >ry, ed. by J. S. upon this subject as it is well expressed by an English writer : "The evi- dence for the existence of pala'olithic man in Aincrica has been more fiercely contested even than in Europe, and the problem there is certainly more complicated. In Europe wc can test the age of the remains not merely by their actual character, but also by the presence or absence of associated domestic animals. In America this test is absent, for there were virtually no domestic animals save the dog known to the pre-liuropean inhabitants. We are therefore remitted to less direct evidence, namely, the provenance of the remains from beds of distinctly Pleistocene age, the fabric of the remains, and their association with animals, we have reason to believe, become extinct at the termination of that period." ' As an example of the spirit in which this " fierce contest " is waged in America, it will be sufficient to quote a few passages from a work by one of her most eminent men of science. Me is speaking of "what seems to be a village site in Europe, of far greater antiquity than the Swiss lake- villages, and which may be a veritable ' Palajolithic ' antediluvian town. It occurs at Solutre, near Macon, in eastern France, and has given rise to much discussion and controversy, as described by Messrs. De Ferry and Arcelin. ... It destroys utterly the pretension that the men of the mam- moth age were an inferior race, or ruder than their successors in the later stone age. . . . Lastly, many of the flint weapons of Solutre are of the paKieolithic type characteristic of the river gravels, . . . while other imple- ments and weapons are as well worked as those of the later stone age. Thus this singular deposit connects these two so-called ages, and fuses them into one."'^ The only comment the writer will make upon this state- ment is to say that he has twice visited the station at Solutre in company with M. Arcelin ; that he has examined the collection of the late M. De Ferry at his house ; and that he has before him the work which is sup- posed to be quoted from,^ and he accordingly feels warranted in asserting with confidence that not one " flint implement of the palaeolithic type char- acteristic of the river gravels " was ever found at Solutre. A note ap- pended to Sir J. W. Dawson's rash statement adds : " Recent discoveries by M. Prunicres, in caves at Beaumes Chaudes, seem to show that the older cave-men were in contact with more advanced tribes, as arrow-heads of the so-called neolithic type are found sticking in their bones, or asso- ciated with them. This would form another evidence of the little value to be attached to the distinction of the two ages of stone." The writer has already indicated his conviction that palaeolithic man had not advanced sufficiently to invent the bow and arrow, and he wishes to add here that " arrow-heads of the so-called neolithic type " continued to be ordinary weapons employed during the Age of Bronze. He is only surprised that ' The Mammoth and the Flood, by Henry H. ' Le Maconnais Prihistorique, . . . ouvrage Howorth, p. 316 (London, 1887). posthume par H.De Ferry . . . avec notes et cet, * Fossil Men and their modern Representatives, far A. Arcelin, MScon, 1870. by T- W. Dawson, p. 106 et seq. (London, 1880). I 1 > \ *r if ' (ii i( ; '\ ! I: '■% l.'l •i /I t .( I, /^ 'i r ( t ?> i i\\i i I ] .1 (i. i.'ii 36o NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. I w I !;! vial mud tliat has accumulated upon the meadows skirtinj; the Delaware River, that are liable to be ovcrHowcd dccasioiially by the tide, l-rom this circumstance, in additirm to their shape, Dr. Abbott has conjectured that they were used as tishspcars.' "This deposit of mud is of a deep blue- black color, stiff in consistency, and almost wholly free from pebbles. It is composed of decomposed vegetable matter and a larjje percentage of very fine sand. It varies in depth from four to twenty feet, and rests on an old gravel of an origin antedating tlic river gravels that contain palaolithic implements. This mud is the geological formation next succeeding the pahfolithic implement-jjearing gravels. ... A careful survey of this mud deposit, maile at sc\ xral distant points, leads to the conclusion that its for- mation dates from the exposure of the older gravel ujion which it rests, through the gradual lessening of the bulk of the liver, until it occupied only its present channel. . . . The indications are that the present volume and channel of the river have been essentially as they now are for a very long period ; and the character of the dejiosit is such that its accumulation, if principally from decomposition of vegetable matter, must neces.sarily be very gradual. Since its accumulation to a depth sufficient to sustain *ree growth, forests have grown, decayed, and been replaced by a growin of other timber. While so recent in origin that it seems scarcely to warrant the attention of the geologist, its years of growth are nevertheless to be numbered by centuries, and the traces of man found at all depths through it hint of a distant, shadowy past that is difficult to realize. " The same objection, it may be, will be urged in this instance as in others where the comparative antiquity of man is based upon the depth at which stone implements are found, — that all these traces have been left upon the present surface of the ground, and subsequently have gotten, by unex- plained means, to the various depths at which they now occur. It is, in- deed, difficult to realize how some of these argillite spear-points have finally sunk through a compact peaty mass until they have reached the very base of the deposit. For those who urge that this sinking process explains the occurrence of implements at great depthr,, it remains to demonstrate that the people who made these argillite fish-spears either made only these, or were careful to take no other evidences of their handicraft with thorn when they wandered about these meadows ; for certainly nothing else ap- pears to have shared the fate of sinking deeply into the mud. In fact, the objection mentioned is met in this case, as in that of the palaeolithic imple- ments, that if these fish-spears are of the same age and origin as th(^ ordinary Indian relics of the surface, then all alike should be found at great depths. This, we know, is not the case. Furthermore, the character of the deposit is not that of a loose mud or quicksand, but more like that of peat. It has a close texture, is tough and unyielding to a degree, and offers decided resistance to the sinking of comparatively light objects deeply into it. This is, of course, lessened when the deposit is subject to tidal overflows, and in 1 Primilive Industry, p. 276 et seq. ; : 'If, THK I'KLHlSrOUIC ARCII.KOLOGY OF NOKTIl A.MLKICA. 361 the immediate vicinity of sprinjjs, which, hubhling throii^;h it, have caused a deposit of quicksand. While here an ()!)jict siiii / 11.11 ■, , / 1 s 1< 366 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. the hollow. ... It is evident how admirably the place was adapted to the wants of the early hunters of the Delaware valley, whether it be as a shelter, or as a place of defence against their enemies. . . . Let us look at the layers of earth that filled it, these being intermingled with rude imple- ments, broken bones, and charcoal, indicating that man at times had resorted to the spot. " Layer C [the lowest]. This was composed of schist, resting on the bed- rock of the shelter. A layer of aqueous gravel, of the same type as that underlying Philadelphia, rested on the decomposed schist. The greatest depth of the red gravel layer was four feet two and one fourth inches, measured from the layer of decomposed schist. Least depth of gravel ob- served, one foot three inches. . . . " Layer A [next above]. This was a layer of grayish-white brick clay mixed with yellow clay, similar to that underlying Philadelphia, on top of which was a layer mixed with sand. . . . Stone implements were discovered in this layer. They were but few in number and very rude, exclusively of argillite, and palaeolithic in type. Greatest depth of layer, two feet one and one half inches. No implements of bone were found. . . . " Layer T [next above]. This was of reddish gravel, intermingled with decomposed schist, cinders, and broken bones of animals. Fragments of a human skull were found ... in this layer. A fragment of a human rib was also preserved. The fragments of the skull are covered here and there by dendritic incrustations. Rude spears and implements of argillite were found in this layer. Depth of layer, thirteen to eighteen inches. "Layer D [next above]. Composed of reddish-yellow clay. Depth, two feet three inches. No implements. " Layer M [next above]. In this layer were numerous implements of argillite and some of bone, intermingled with rude implements of quartzite and jasper and fragments of rude pottery, with charcoal. Greatest depth, one foot one and one half inches. Least depth, three inches. " Layer ^ [next above]. Yellow clay. Greatest depth, two feet one and one half inches ; k ist depth, eight inches. No implements. " Layer W [next above]. This contained chipped implements ; those made of jasper and quartzite predominating over those of argillite. In the lowest part of this layer were fragments of rude pottery. In the upper portion of the layer were potsherds decidedly superior in decoration and technique to those from the lower portion. Geological composition of this layer, yellow clay loam. Greatest depth, three feet four inches. Least depth, two and one half inches. " Layer L [top]. This consists of leaf mould seven inches thick, converted into swamp muck by decomposing action of water from springs. No im- plements. . . . No remains of extinct animals were found." ' Professor Putnam thus proceeded to comment upon these discoveries : "We have a series of objects, taken from the several layers of the shelter, 1 "Early Man in the Delaware Valley," in the Proc. Boston Soc. 0/ Nat. I/ist., vol. xxiv. THE PREHISTORIC ARCH/EOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 367 I et one and giving us a chronology of the utmost importance, as each period of occupa- tion of the shelter was followed by a natural deposition, separating the dif- ferent periods of occupation. The stone implements . . . are taken from the lowest layer, indicating the earliest period of occupation of the rock- shelter ; and . . . they correspond in shape and rudeness of execution with those taken from the gravel-bed at Trenton ; and like most of the latter they are all of argillite. The specimens from the second period are of argillite, and while many are chipped into slender points, they are still of very rude forms ; and these in turn correspond with the argillite points found by Dr. Abbott deep down in the black soil, or resting upon the gravel, at Trenton. In the upper layers of the cave we observe . . . the gradual introduction of implements chipped from jasper and quartz, and corresponding in form with those found upon the surface throughout the valley. And as a further indication of this later development, it was only in the upper layers that pottery, bone implements, and ornaments were found ; the three distinct periods of occupation of the Delaware valley are thus distinctly shown ; and this cave-shelter is a perfect exemplification of the results which Dr. Abbott had obtained from a study of the specimens which he has collected upon the surface, deep in the black soil, and in the gravel, at Trenton." From the accumulative force of these various lines of reasoning, the writer thinks that there is a strong probability that here, on the waters of the Delaware, man developed from the palaeolithic to the neolithic stage of culture. But we cannot follow Dr. Abbott in his further conclusion (if, indeed, he still holds to it) that we are to seek the descendants of this primitive population in the Eskimos, driven north after contact with the Indians. We have failed to discover the slightest evidence to sustain this position. The hereditary enmity existing between the Eskimos and the Indians may be equally well explained upon the theory that the former are later comers to this continent, and are therefore hated by the Indian races as intruders. The two races are certainly markedly unlike. In the absence of any evidence tending to show the development of the argillite-using people into the Indian races, with their perfected im- plemen,.s and weapons of the age of polished stone, it seems more reason- able to hold with Professor Dawkins that the earlier and ruder race perished before or were absorbed by a people furnished with a better equipment in the struggle for the "survival of the fittest." The palaeolithic man of the river gravels of Trenton and his argillite-using posterity the writer believes to be completely extinct.' It only remains for the writer to express his regret that he has been pre- vented from setting forth in detail, at the present time, the grounds upon which he has come to other conclusions which were briefly indicated at the beginning of this chapter. He can only repeal here his belief that the 1 Early Man in Britain, p. 173. u ! I i i il M ..I ■ptF 368 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. I« :>' ■ ' ■! "■■'f .ii (■ so-called Indians, with their many divisions into numerous linguistic fam- ilies, were later comers to our shores than the primitive population, whose development he has attempted to trace ; that the so-called " moundbuilders " were the ancestors of tribes found in the occupation of the soil ; and that the Pueblos and the Aztecs were only peoples relatively farther advanced than the others. The writer further thinks that these are propositions capable, if not of being demonstrated, at least of being made to appear in a very high degree probable by means of authorities which will be found amply referred to in other chapters of this volume. ^Sleuy?^/i^, <^^z.^r/?tjey I m n ij'i iN'i \ A s\\\ ; '' t \ [ . ,1 11' ; I 'I .; I :a. iguistic fam- ition, whose ndbuilders " il ; and that er advanced le, if not of high degree jferred to in -^/Ttjey THE PROGRESS OF OPINION RESPECTING THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA. BY THE EDITOR. The literature respecting tlie origin and early condition of the American alwrigines is very extensive : and, as a rule, especially in the earlier period, it is not characterized by much reserve in connecting races by historical analogies.' Few before Dr. Robertson, in discussing the problem, could say ; " I have ventured to inquir« without presuming to decide." The question was om; that allured many of the earlier Spanish writers like Herrera and Torquemada. Among the earlier English discussions is that of \Vm. Bourne in his Bookc called the Treasure for Travel- lers (London, 1578), where a section is given to " The Peopling of America." The most famous of the early discussions of the various theories was that of Gregorio Garcii, a missionary for twenty years in South America, who reviewed the question in his Origen de los Indios de el Nuevo Mundo (Valencia, l6o7).2 He goes over the supposed navigations of the Phoenicians, the identity of Peru with -Solomon's Ophir, and the chances of African, Roman, and Jewish migrations, — only to reject them all, and to favor a coming of Tar- tars and Chinese. Clavlgero thinks his evidences the merest conjectures. E. Urerewood, in his Enquiries touching the diversity of languages and religions (London, 1632, 1635), claimed a Tartar origin. In New England, where many were believers in the Jewish analogies. It Is somewhat amusing to find not long after this the quizzical Thomas Morton, with what seems like mock gravity, finding the aboriginal so irce in "the scattered Trojans, after such time as Brutus departed from Latium."^ The reader, however, is referred to other sections of the present volume for the literature bearing upon the distinct ethnical connections of the early American peoples. The chief '''erary controversy over the question bL'gan in 1642, when Hugo Grotius published his De Origine Gentium Americanarum Dissert alio (Paris and Amsterdam, I642).^ He argued that all North * Waitz, Introd. to Anthropology^ Eng. trans., p. 255, points out the dangers of over^;onfidence in this research. Cf. also J. H. McCuUoh's Researches (ili'f). The best indications of the sources as respects the origin of the Americans can be found in Haven's Archaohgy 0/ the United States {_SniitlisonianContributions.,\\\\.^ 1856); Bancroft's foot-notes to his Nat. Races, v. ch. i ; Short, ch. 3, on the diversity of opinions; Poole's Index, p. 637, and Supplement, p. 274. Cf. Drake's Book of the Indians, ch. 2. Without anticipating the characterization and mention of the essential books later to be indicated, some miscellaneous references may be added without much attempt at classify- ing them. Among English writers; Hyde Clarke's Researches on prehistoric and protohistoric comparative philology, mythology, and archttology in connection with the origin of culture in America (London, 1.S75). Robert Knox's Races fl/.um di])i,:illimiC illiiis qiticstionis (Amsterdam, i').4.()' He conilxited his brother Dutch- man at all points, and contended tliat the Scythian race furnished the pred. niinant population of America. The Spaniards went to the Canaries, and thence some of their vessels drifted to Ilrazil. lie is inclined to accept the story of Madoc's Welshmen, and think it not unlikely that the |ieople of the I'acitic islands may have floated to the western coast of South America, and that mini migrations may have come from other lands, lie supports his views by comparisons of the Irish, Gallic, Icelandic, Huron, Iroquois, and Mexican tongues. To all this Grotius replied in a second Disitr/a/ii>,An(l Dc I.aet again renewed the attack : loaniiisde Laet Aiiluirfiani rcsfonsio ad disserlali'iicm scciindam ihgonis llrolii, de originc fi-iiliiim Americanariim. Cum iiidice ud iitruiiiijuc Hbcilum (.\msterdam, 1044).- De l.aut, not content with Ins own onset, incited anotlier to take part in the controversy, and so (ieorge Horn (llornius) published his L)c Orij;inibus Amcriianis, lilri qiiatiior (Ww^x Comitis, i.e. The Hague, 103:!; again, llemipoli, i.e. llalburstadt, iOik;).!! His view was tlie Scythian one, but he held to later additions from the IMicenicians and Cartliaginians on the .\tlantic side, and from the Chinese on the racilic. For the next fifty years there were a number of writers on the subject, who are barely names to the present generation ; * but towards tlie miiklle if tlie eighteentli century the question was considered in The American Traveller (London, 1741), and by Charlevoix in his Xoinelle J-'raiue (I/44). The author of an Enquiry into the Origin of the Cherokees (Oxiuid, 17O2) makes them the descend.mts of Mesliek, sun of Japliet. In 17^17, however, the question was again brought into the range of a learned and disputatious discussion, reviving all the arguments of Grotius, Dc Laet, and Horn, when V.. Ilailli d'Kiigel published his Essai sur cetle question : Quai.(/ et comment /'.tmeriea al-elle etc feuflcc d'/iommes el d'Animau.t ! (5 vols., .Vmsterdam, 1767, 2d ed., I7()S). He argues for an antediluvian origin.'"' The controversy which now followed was aroused by C. De I'auw's characterization of all American products, man, animals, vegetation, as degraded and inferior to nature in the old world, in an essay which passed through various editions, and was attacked and defended in turn." An Italian, Count Carli, some years later, controverted De I'anw, and using every resource of mythol- ogy, tradition, geology, and astronomy, claimed for the Americans a descent from the Atlantides.' It was not n' \ I, M Curiosa. [Etiitetl by Edmund doIdsiiMdi.] (Edinburj;b, iSSv^S.) No. 12. On the ort^^in of the native races of A merka. To which is added, A treatise oti foreign Ian- giiages and unkno^a'tt islands, by Peter Alhinus. Trans- iated from the Latin. The translation is niifortunnle in its blnnders. Cf. H. W. Hayncs in The Xation^ Mar. 15, iSS«. Grotius was b. is'*^; d. 1645. ' Carter- Mrown, ii. 522, 52.^, 543. ' This book is scarcer than the first (Brinley, iii. 54'4- 15). There is a letter addressed to De Laet, touching Gro- tius, in Claudius Morisotus*s Epistotarian Centuritr dmr, 1656. 2 Brinley, iii 5407-8. In Samuel Sewall's Letter Hook, i. 2S(), is an amusing reference to tlie " vanities of Hor- nius." * Jo. Bapl. Poisson, Aninind^'ersiones ad ea qutE flngo Grotius et Juh. Lahetius de origine gentium Peruviana- rum et Mexicanarum scri/>serunt (Paris, i^m); Rob. Comtajus Nortmanus, De origine gentium A mernanarunt (Amsterdam, 1664), an academic dissertation adopting the Pluenician view; A. Mil, De origine animalium et mi- grationc />o/>uhrum {Otr\t\^, I'^S;); Erasmus P'ranciscus, Lust- und Staatsgarten (Xilrnberg, 166S), witha tliirdpart on the aboriginal inhabitants (Miiller, 1S77, no. 1150); Gott- fried [Godofredus] Wagner, De Originihus A mericanis (Leipzig, \(^(>C}) \ J. P. Victor, Disf>utatio historia de A me- rii'a (Je*a, 1670); E. P. Ljung, Dissertatio de origine gen- tium noz'i orbis ^rimaiSire^inU?, [Sweden] 1676). An essay of 1695 reprinted in the ^/ernoirs, Anthro^. Soc. of Lon- don, i. 365 ; Nic Witsen, Xoord en-Oost Tartarye (2d ed., Amsterdam, 1705), holding to the migmtion from north- eastern Asia. 1 Cf. Alex. Catcott's Treatise on the Deluge (3d ed., enlarged, London, i7(^'S'i, and A. de Ulloa's Xoiicias Ame- r/Wi«rtj (Madrid, 1772, 1792I, for speculations. * Cf. Sabin, xiv. 50,23'*. etc., for editions. The original three vols, appeared in Berlin in 176S, 1769, and 1770, re- spectively. The best edition, with De Pauw's subsequent defence and Perneiiy's attack, was issued at London in three vols, in 1770: — Recherches philosophiques sur les A ni^ricains, ou Me- moires tnteressants />our servir h Vhistoire de I'espece huinaine. Contents: Du cliniat de I'Amerique. — De la complexion alteree (le ses habitants. — De !a decouverte du Nouveau- Monde. — De la variete de I'espece luimaine en Amerique. — Dc la couleur des Americains. — Des antliropophages. — Des Eskimaux; des Patagons. — Des Blafards et des Negres Manes. — De I'Orang-Outang. — Des hermaphro- dites de la Floride. — De la circoncision et de I'inlibulation. — Du genie abruti des Americains. — De quelques usages bizarres, communs aux deux continents. — De I'usage des fl^clies empoisonnees che2 les peuples des deux continents. — De la religion des Americains. — Sur le grand Lama. — Sur les vicissitudes de notre globe. — Sur le Paraguai. — Defenses des recherches sur les Americains. — D. Pernetty. Dissertation sur I'Amerique et les Americains centre les recherches philosophiques de M. de Pauw. There was an edition in French at Berlin in 1770, in 2 vols., and, with Pernetty annexed, in 1774, in 3 vols. The Defenses was printed also at Berlin in 1770. These were all included in De Pauw's GLuvres Philosophiques, pub- lished at Paris "«« ;VV." An English translation by J. Thomson was printed at London, 1795. Daniel Webb pub- lished some selections in English at Bath, 1789, 1705. and at Rociidale, 1806. Pernetty*s Examen was printed at Berlin in 1769. There is another little tractate of this time attributed to Pernetty, De CA mirique ei dts A miri- cains (Berlin, 1771), in whose iuimor De Pauw fares no better; but Rich has a note on the questionable attributing of it to Pernetty, and its real author was probably C de Bonneville (cf. Hoefer). 7 Delie Lettere A inericane {opere, xi.-xiv., Milano, 1784- 94); better known in J. B I^. Villebrune's French transla- tion. Lettres A m^ricainesit vols. ; Paris and Boston, 1787); Sabin, no. 10,912. There is also a German version. ^ • f I |i'. ' ;a. ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA. 37« North ; that the )tius »r»usi'(l an (III .liilwi ifuini 'tout's tt/ii/iiti/ aJ 4 brother Dutch- itioii of Aniurica. He is hiclined to citic islands may come (rom otlicr ois, ami Mexican ; lonnnis de Latt AincricaHaruut, y, and so George /. e. The IlaRue, to later additions acific. nes to the present in /'/;<■ Atiiirhan an liiiijuiry into Japliet. In 1707, ssion. reviviiii; all ur ccllc question : isterd;im, T767, 2d aroused hy C. I)e d and inferior to d and defended in ?sonrce of niythol- ;ides.' It was not isued at London in ■\ in^ricaitiSf ott Mf- ''histoirc tie i'es/ii\f De la complexion iverte du Nouveau- inaine en Anierique, tes antliropophages. ;)es Hlafards et des — Des herniaphro- 1 el de I'Inlibulalion. Dc quelques usages ;s. — De ru5aj;e des des deux continents. le grand Lama. — ur le Paraguai. — ns. — D. I'ernetty. ^ericains centre les uw. Berlin in 1770, in 2 774. in 3 vols. The 1770. These were ^hiloso/*hiqueSf pub- h trnnsl.ilion by J. Daniel Webb pub- ath, 1789, 17(15. ^'"^ tien was printed at ttle tractate of this riipie ei dis A ttUri- De Pauw fares no lionable attributing was probably C. de xiv.. Milano, 1784- j's French transla- s and Boston, 1787); nan version. till after reports had come from the Ohio Valley of the extensive earthworks in that rCRion that the question of the earlier peoples of America attracted much general attention throuijliiuit . America ; and the most con- ipicucjiis spokesman was Trcsldent .stiles of \'ale College, in an address which he delivered before the (ieneral Assembly of Connecticut, in i;.S 1, on the future of the new republic' In this, while arguing for the unity of the American tribes ar I fi>r their atlinity with the Tartars, lie held to tlieu' bein^ in the main the descendants of the Canaanites expelled by Joshua, whether lindiii); their way hither by the Asiatic route and establishin); the northern Sachemdoms, or coming in I'lKcnician ships across the .Atlantic to settle .Mexico and I'eru.'^ Lalitau in 1724 (Maiirs de Sntivnx'S) had contended for a Tartar origin, We have examples of the reason- ing of a missionary in the views of the Moravian Loskicl, and of a learned controversialist in the treatise of Fritsch, in 1794 and 171/1 respectively." The earliest American with a scientihc training to discuss the (picstinn was a professor in the L'niversity of I'ennsylvania, llenj.iiiiin .'^niith llatton, a man who accpiired one of the best reputations in his day among Americans for studies in this and other questions of natural history. His father was an English clergyman settled In .\incrica, and his mother a sister of Daviil Kitteniiouse. It was while he was a student of medicine in Edinburgh that he first approached the subject of the origin of the Americans, in a little treatise on .\inericaii Antitpiities, which he never completed. ^ Ills Pilfers relating lo certain Auiiriiun Antii/iiitiis (Fhilad., 1796) consists of those read to the Amer. I'hilos. Soc, and printed in their 7'rnnsii,tioi:.' (vol. iv.). They were published as the earnest of his later work on .American .Anticpiitics. He argues .igainst De I'auw, and contends that the Americans are descended — at least some of them — from .Asiatic peoples still recognized. The Fafcrs include a letter from Col. Winthrop ."^ar- gent, Sept. S, 1794, describing certain articles found in a mound at Cincinnati, and a letter upon them from Barton to Dr. Priestley. He in the end gave more careful attention to the subject, mainly on its linguistic side, and went farther than any one had gone before him in Ins Xew Views of the Origin of the Tribes and iXalions of America (\}\StiLA., 1707; 2d ed., enlarged, i79S).'i The book attracted much notice, and engaged the attention in some degree of European philologists, .and made Barton at that time the most conspicuous student on these matters in .America. Jefferson was at that time gather- ing material in similar studies, but his collections were finally burned in i,Soi. Barton, in dedicating his treatise to Jefferson, recognized the latter's advance in the same direction. He believed bis own gathering of original MS. material to be at that time more extensive than anv other student had collected in .America. His views had something of the comprehensiveness of his material, and he could not feel that he could point to any one special source of the indigenous population. During the early years of the present century old theories and new were abundant. The powerful intellect and vast knowledge of Alexander von Humboldt were applied to the problem as he found it in Middle .America. He announced some views on the primitive peoples in i,So6, in the Xcue Bcrlinischc Monatsschrifl (vol, XV.) ; but his ripened opinions found record in his Vues de Cordi/lircs ct moniimcns des feiifles indigines de l'Amcri(jue (Paris, 1S16), and the .Asiatic theory got a conservative yet dclinite advocate. Hugh Williamson 6 thought he found tr.aces of the Hindoo in the higher arts of the Mexicans, and marks of the ruder Asiatics in the more northern .American peoples. .A conspicuous litterateur of the day, Samuel L. Mitchell, veered somewhat wildly about in his notions of a ^L^lay, Tartar, and .Scandinavian origin." Mean- while something like organized efforts were making. The .-Xmcrican .Antiquarian .Society was formed in 1S12.8 Silliman began his Journal of Arts and Sciences in 1S19, and both society and periodical proved BENJAMIN SMITH BARTON. * The United States etez'ated to Gtory and Honor. New Haven, 17S3. It is included in J. \V. Thornton's Pulpit of the A mer. Revolution (Boston, i86o). * This Canaanite view, though hardly held with the scope given by Dr. Stiles, had been asserted earlier by Go- mara, De Lery, and Lescarbot. Cf. For. Quart. Kev.f Oct., 1856. * G. H. Loskiel, Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians, traits, from the German hy La Trobe (Lon- don, 1704). Johann Gottlieb Fritsch, DisptUatio historico- geographica in qua quteritur utrutn veteres Atnericam not'crifit nee ne (Cura; Regnilian.T?, 179^,). * Observations on some Parts of Xat. Ffist.,\jOnA., 1787. ^ Pilling, Bibliog. Siouan languages (1S87, p. 4). •^ Hist. Xorth Carolina^ 1811-12. ' Haven, Archieol. U. States, 35. Cf. Mitchell's papers in the Archceologia Americana, \. * There is a fair sample of the conjectural habit of die time in the paper of Moses Fiske, in the first volume of 'he Society's Transactions, 300. IT- NARkATlVK ANO CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. instruments of wider imiiiiry. In the lirst vcilume publislieil l)y the Antitiuarian .Society, Laid) Atwatur, in his treatise un the Western Anticiiiitiea, jjave tlie earliest sustaineil study of the subject, and believed in a general rather than in a particular Asiatic source. I'lie man first to attract attention (or his nroupinK of ascer- tained results, unaided by personal explorations, however, was Dr. Jaiues II. McCulloh, who published his Htsiiinlies on Ameriat at llaltimorc in i.Sili. The book passed to a second edition the next year, but received its liiial shape in the A'ii:/iiiry into t/ic Oiiyin of the .Intiijuilics 0/ America (N, V., i.Sjcj) revived the theory, never quite dormant, of the descent of the Mexicans from the riper peoples of Hindostan and Kgypt ; while the more barbarous red men came of tiie Mongcjl stock. The author ran through the whole range of philology, mythology, and many of the cus(oms (jf the races, in reaching this conclusion. A little book by John Mcintosh, Distoiery of Amcriia ami Orij;in of the A'orth Aincriian Inilians, jniblished in Toronto, i.Sjd, was reissued in N. V. in 1841, and with enlargements in 'S46, Origin of the A'orth .Imeriean /nJians, continued down to 185910 be repeatedly issued, or to have a seeming success by new dates. " »f > ! I' 1 '>. 1' When Columbus, appro.iching the main land of South America, imagined it a large island, he associated it with that belief so long current in the Old World, which placed the cradle of the race in the Indian Dcean, — a belief which in our day has been advocated by Ilaeckel. Caspari and Winchcll, — and imagined he was on the coasts, skirting an interior, where lay the Garden of Kden." No one had then ventured on the belief that the doctrine of Cienesis must be reconciled with any supposed counter-testimony by holding it to be but the record of the Jewish race. Columbus was not long in his grave when Theophrastus I'aracelsus, in 1520, and before the belief in the continuity of North America with Asia was dispelled, and consequently before the c|uestion of how man and animals could have reached the New World was raised, first broached the hcterodo.t view of the plurality of the human race. All the early disputants on the question of the origin of the Amer- ican man looked either across the Atlantic or the I'acilic fcjr the primitive seed ; nor was there any necessary connection between the arguments for an autochthonous American man and a diversity of race, when Fabri- cius, in 1721, published his Dissertalio Critica* on the ojiinions of those who held that different races had been created. From that day the old orthodox interpretation of the record in Genesis found no contestant of mark till the question came up in relation to the American man, it being held quite sufficient to account for the inferiority or other distinguishing characteristics of race by assigning them to the influence of climate and physical causes." The strongest presentation of the case, in considering the American man a distinct product of the American soil, with no connection with the Old World '" except in the case of the Kskimos, was made when S. G. Morton, in 1.S51), printed his Crania Americana, or a eomfarative view of the skulls of various a/roriginal nations of North and South America, of which there was a second edition i;i 1844." Here was a new test, and ajiplied, very likely, in ignorance of the fact that Governor Pownal, in 1766, in Knox's AVk' Collection of X'oyages, had suggested it.''-! Dr. Morton had gathered a collection of near a thousand skulls from all parts of the world, >3 and based his deductions on these, — a process hardly safe, as many of his successors have determined.'* 'n: \ ' Mexico^ Kirk's ed., iii. 375. « ArchaoL 6^. ^., 48. ' Hht. of Tennessee, Nashville, 1823. * Introd. toMa-ihall's Kentucky, 1824; The Anc. Mts, 0/ y. 6r* S. Atnerica, 2d td., 1S38, etc. B A mer. A ntiq, and Discoveries in the H'esi^ J833, which Rafinesque thought largely taken from him. Cf. Haven on these writers, pp. 3'^-4r ; Sabin, xv. f)^, 4S4. * Pilling, Bid/io_t^. Siouan Lz*ii^4ages, pp. 47, 48. ^ Peschel, Races 0/ Men (London, 1876), p. 32. ■ Eng. transl. in Afemoirs, Anthropolof^ical Society of London^ \. 372. * There is a summary' of the progressive conflict on the question of the unity and plurality of races in the introduc- tion to Topinard's W«//(n>/£j^^,v. Cf. Peschel's Races of Man (Eng. transl., N. Y., 1876), p. 6. " The idea in general was not wholly new. Capt. Ber- nard Romans, in his Concise Xat. Hist, of East and West Florida (N. Y., 1776), had expressed the opinion "that God created an original man and woman in this part nf the globe of different species from any in the other parts'* (p. 38). Clavigero, in 17S0, believed that the distinct lin- guistic traits of the Americans jwinted to something like an independent origin. Cf. \V. D. Whitney on the " Bear- ing of Languages on the Unity of Man," in North A mer. Revieiv, cv. 214. " Cf. Jeffries "w'ymau in Xo. Am. Rev.,\'i. '' Cardinal \Vi5en-.in's Lectures, 5'h ed., London, p. 158. 13 Described in Trans. A mer. Ethnol. Soc.^ ii. The col- lection went to the Acad, of Natural Sciences in Philad., and is examined by Dr. J. Austin Meigs in its Proc, 1S60. Cf. Meigs's Catalogue of human crania in the Acad. Nat. Set. (Philad., 1857). " Morton's latest results are given !n a paper, " The phys- ical type of the American Indian," left unfiirished, but completed by John S, Phillips, and printed in Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes^xi, He also printed.,-//! Inquiry into the distinctive characteristics of the Aborigimxl Race of America (Roston, 1842; Philad., 1844); and Some Obser- vations in the Ethnography and A rchao/ogy of the A mer- ican Aborigines (fi. Haven, 1S46, — from the .-i w/^r,_/ jiiiblishcd bin car, but received •inal history of rankeil liinb fur ill examlncM the the Americans. L'ullob's style to :e of Joliti llay- )(in tlic itinerant Jiilin Delutield's .■r quite dormant, ' more barbarous , mytboliiKV, and liilosb, Diiiovcry reissued in N. Y. down to iti39 to I, lie associated it Indian Ocean, — ii^ined lie was on on the belief that it to be but the Isus, in 1320, and ueiilly before the led the heterodox nin of the Amer- ere any necessary race, when Fabri- fferent races had und no contestant icient to account lliiencc of climate t of the American n S.G. Morton, ij^ina! nations of test, and applied, of Voyages, had ts of the world, w ave determined.'^ to something like tney on the " Bear- in North A nier. ed., London^ p. Soc.^\\. The col- jciences in Philad., in its Vroc.y 1S60. nia in the Acad. paper, " The phys- ft unfiifished, but ed in Schoolcraft's / Inquiry into the ori^iruxl Race of and Some Obser- oloi^y of the A mer- rn the A mer* Jour, mer. Rthnol. Soc. 376. It is certainly ANTIQUITY OF LOUIS AGASSIZ.* evident thai skull capacity is no sure measure of intelli- gence, and tlie Indian custom of niis^hapinK the head of- fers some serious obstacles in the study. Cf. Nadaillac, L.*AvUr. prehist-^ 512; L. A. Gosse, Lcs lU/orv. .tions artificiellcs du crrtw^- (Paris, 1S55) ; Daniel W'iUon't "'In- dications of Ancient Customs supi^estcd by certain cranial forms," in Amer. Atiti't^. Soc. Proc. (18/13); Dabry de Thiersant's Origine des itidietis du Nouveau Monde^ p. 12; \V. F. Whitney, on "Anomalies, injuries and dis- eases of the bones of the native races of No. America," xn Peabody Mus. AV//., xviii. 4^4. On the difficulties of the study see Lucien Carr in Ibid. xi. 361 ; Flower in the Journal Anthropological Institute^ May, 18S5; Dawson, Fossil Men^ chap. 7, Further see : Anders Relzius, on •'The Present State of Ethnology in relation to the form of the huni.m skull," in Smithson. Kcpt.^ 1^59; Waltz's Introd. to Anthropology, Eng. transl., pp. 233, 261 ; Carl V()j^l's Lectures on Min(\eci. 2) ; A. Quatrefagus and E. T. Haniy, Crania Kfhica (Paris, 1S73-77J; Ncit and Glid- don, Types 0/ Mankind ; Nadaillac's L*AnUrique pri- Aist.t ch. <), and Lcs premiers honnnes, i. ch. 3. * An anonymous book, The (iencsts of Earth and Man (Edinburgh, 185^), places the ni-gro as the primal stock, and traces out the hijiher races bv variation. 2 Dr. Nott had given ). «ltli his Xo/ki- «f the Tyfti 0/ A/.dUiii,/ (Charleston, iSm-55) I anJ 'Mionu* .Smyth'i fill/) 0/ Hit Human Kiut (■rovnl by Sirifluit, h'iotnii mul S,ifihe (N. \„ 1X50).'' The sclentltic attack on Morton and A((assl<, and the views they represented, wa» an active one, and em- br.iced such writers as Wilson, Latham, ritkerlnij. and (JuatrefaKes.i Tliu same collection of skulls which had furnished Mortmi uiili Ills proofs yielded e.Nactly opposite evidence to Dr. J. A. Miiijs In his OhtiVih !-,» ' ';f I' I Ml i: • * AMI 1.1. i'()>ii.i; iia\t-:n.* t* > Cf. I\L■fl.■rcncL■^ in Ailil)uiic, i. i'.;S; ^'ooh'^s />iif,:v, p. 796. 2 The editor's coll. ibor.it curs were Alfred Maury, Fran- cis P.ilszky, j, AiikLMi Mci^s. J. Luidv, and Louis A.i;.i:;siz Nnit had in liic interval sinct.' his previous book furnished an appendix on the unity or phirality of Races to the English transl. of Gobinuaii's Mnral Diversity of Racei (Philad., 1S5'.). •' Haven gives a summary of the arguments of each (p. <)o, etc). For various views on this side see Southall*s Recent Origin of Man, cli ii. y-, 37, and his Epoch of the Mammoth, ch. 2, where lie allows that the proofs from traditions and customs are not conclusive : f lerirge Palmer's Migration from Shinar : or, the Earliest Links between the Old and A'^c Continents (London, iS;*): Kdward Fontaine's //tMC the U 'orld was reopled ( N. V, . 1 Sy^') ; I )r. Samuel Forrey in Amer. liiNical Repository, July. 1^4^; McClintock and Strong's Cydopadiu^ under " Adam '* ; Henry t""\vles' /\fttatench {"S. \*,, 1^74), — not to name many others. See I\>ole^s Index, 107.^. * Wilson's first criticism was in llie Canadian yoitrnal (1S57) ; then in thf Edinbtoi^h Fhilosophical Journal (Jan., i**^'*); in llic Smithsonian Rept. (1H62), p. 240,00 the " American Cranial Tyiic ; " and in his Prehist. Man (ii. ch. 20). Latham's Xat. Hist, of the Varieties of Man. Charles I'ickering's Races of Men (184S). The orthodox moiifigenism of A. dc Quatrefayes is expressed in his De Cunite de Pesph'e humaine (I'aris, 1864, iS6i. Cf. further, Ret/ius in A rchiT'es des Sciences Naturelles (Cieneve, 1845-52); Col. Chas. Hamilton Smithes AW. Hist, Human Species ( 184S) ; Dawson in Leisure Hour, xxiii. I ' * After a pliotoKraph. A heliotype of a portr.iil by Custer is in the W w/r. .,4«//(7. »?«■. /V(?r., Ap., iS;^ Haven*s Annuol Kef oris, as liljrarian of the Amer. Antiq. boc, furnish a good chronological conspectus of the progress of anthropological discovery. i i^l ■ • III', and I'lii- kiilK »liidi 1 lilt Ohtna- ANTIQUITY OK MAN IN AMERICA. 375 //-'/// ///.'« the CriiHht/ Form^ of the Ameruan Abori^inex HMitlad., iS'i't).! 1 wn of tlit* mnst celebrated of the evfilutlonl^tt reject the mitoclttlionoun view, fur Darwin h Ihsitnt "/ .\/,in and ll.ieckel h //at. t>/ C/ra< tiiiH coiiiilUtir the American man an emigrant froni tlie uiU world, in wlatevvr way thu rac« may havt U4fVelo|H.Hl.'^ Of the leadinK hlnturiaiH of the early American |)e(>p!*'H, |'re*iCott, dealiiiK with thv Mexicans. It tncUn«d to aKreu with lliinilMildtH .irKniiieritt as to their primitive connection witli A^ia." l)s and water-wuiii p.issanrs.' and dt'tides upon snMie transmission hv the I'aLihc rontf Inmi Asia, hut su ifniutc as to make thu Anuikait tribute practically lndii;enoU!t, ?to far as their character Is concerned. MiC DAMKI. \\I1..^UN. LL. ])., F. K. >. E.* 813, and in hU FossrV A/t>t, p. in, who holds the hih)ic:\l accuiint t(i bo *' the mosi Luiuplftc and scienlit'ic . " rivtiiitr's IKtr/^t bi'/ore th- Ih-iu^^e (N. V., 1S73). p, 4^,0. Oi-o. Itancrnft SL-us ni) signs to reverse ihe old judgment respect- ing .1 ^iiiylL- hnni.in race. * He found all three varii'tie«i of skulls in America: the long-headed {(iolichncephaliL), the short-headed {hrachy- cephalic), and the medium {mesocephalic"). He found the long luads tn predominate, except in Peru. Meigs had earlier studied the subject in his Ohservationa on the Form of the Occiput (Philad., \-<(>o). C:f. Husk in Jour. Ati- throp. Inst.i April, 1^73; Wvman, in Feab. A/us. Kep/.^ 1S7,. * H. H. Bancroft, .Va/. Races, v. 120, i^i. gives refer* ences on the autochthonous theory. It is held hv Nadall* lac, Les premiers hommes^ ii. 117; Fred, von Hellwald in Smitht , i"*'/.; Hollnert's " Contrihiuion to m\ Intrnductlon tn the Anihropolo'jv of the New World " in ."ifrnror'rs, Anthri'/>. Sihicty 0/ Londoti, W. 02; F. Mulief, AZ/i^t'ineiue F.:hnoi^ritphie ; and Sininnin, I.^homme A mi'ricain ( Pari-, 1^70). F. W. Putnam {Report in lf'hfe!t'r''s Survey, vii. p. i^) sny^ : "The primitive mce of .\merlca wai ns likely autochthonnus and of Pliocene age as of .Asiatic 4)rigin." The autochthonous view is proli.ibly losing ground. I)all. in ch. 10. appended to the Knglish translation of Nadaillac's Prehistoric Avierica^ sum« up the prevailing arguments against it. Cf. also Iiahry de Tliiersant's Origitie des Indiem du Nouveau Monde ^ ch. i. 3 Cf. also Prescott's Essays, 224. * This view has necessarily been abandoned in his later ediliims. Cf. orig. ed.,iii. 30;: and final revision, ii. 13a • From a photograph kindly furnished, on request, by Professor Wilson's family. wi 14 i / \\ \\ :r, ■> V ill I iH',-^!! li '<:> I 376 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. In 1S43 another compiler of existing evidence appeared in Alexander \V. Bradford in his Amcriian Antiquities, or Rcsciiri lies into the origin and hi.toryof the tied Race. His views were new. He con- nects the higlier organized life of middle America with the corresponding culture of Southern .Vsia, the Polynesian islands probably furnishing the avenue of migrations ; while the ruder and more northern peoples of both shores of the I^acilic represent the same stock degraded by northern migrations. In 1S45 the .American Ethnological ."Society began its publications, and in .Mbert (iallatin it had a vigorous helper in unravelling some of these mysteries. A few years later (1S53) the United States government lent its patronage and prestige to the huge conglomerate publication of Schoolcraft, his Indian Tribes of the United States, which leaves the bewildered re.ader in a puz/ling maze, — the inevitable result of a work under- taken beyond the ambitious po . . 's of an untrained mind. The work is not without value if the user of it has more systematic knowledge than its compiler, to select, discard, and .arrange, and if he can weigh the impor- tance of the separate papers.' In 1S56 Samuel 1". Haven, the librarian and guiding spirit of the -American .Vntiqu.arian Society, summed up, as it had never Ix'en done before, Inr ct)mpreiiensiven';ss, and with a striking prescience, the progress and results of studies in this lield, in liis Arehitology of the United States (Smithsonian Contridii/ions. viii., Washington, 1S56). In iSji Professor Daniel Wilson, in his Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, first brought into use the desii;na- tion " prehistoric" as expressing " tlie whole period disclosed to us by means of arch.ToIogical evidence, as distinguished from what is known tlinuigh written records; and in this sense tlie term was speedily adopted by ilie arclix'ulugists of Lurope."- Eleve.i years later he published his Prehistoric Man: Researches into the 1 \ EDWARD B. TYLOR* ' Haven at the end of his second chapter tries to place Schoolcraft, and he does better than one would expect, at that day. For Schoolcraft's special notes on Antiquities see his vol. i. p. 44; ii. S^j ; iii, 73; iv. 111; v. S5, 657. Fo,- bibliography see PilHnp, Sabin, Field, etc. ' Again he says: " Man may be assumed to be prehis- toric wherever his chrnniclinns of himself are undesigned, and his history is wholly recoverable by induction. The term has, strictly speaking, no chronological significance; but in its relative application corresponds to other arch^o- logical, in contradistinction to geological periods.'' Of America he says: *' A continent where man may be studied under circumstances which seem to furnish the best guar- antee of his independent development." Dawkins \Cavt huntittt^, \r^f,) says: " For that series of events which ex- tends from the borders of history back to the remote age, After a photograph. his American new. He con- them Asia, the orthern peoples had a vigorous overnment lent f Tribes of the if a work iinder- le user of it has eigh the inipor- nciety, summed e progress and 'ributions. viii., ise the designa- :al evidence, as >eedily adopted •arches into the d significance; other archxo- periods.'" Of may be studied the best guar- Dawkins [Caz'e cnts whicli ex- he remote age, ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA. 377 origin of civilization in the old and new world.'^ The book unfortunately is not well fortified with references, but it is the result of lent; study, partly in tlie field, and written with a commendable reserve of judgment. It is in the main concerned with the western lieniisphere, which he assumes with little hesitation *' began its human period subsequent to that of the old worlj;ist, I have .ulnpted the term /rt'A/V/'cr/i-." The (livisidiis tif prehisioric time now most commonly cm- plt'ved are : For the olde-t, tlie I'.il.L-oIithic age, as Lubbock fuNt termed it, which, with a shadowy termination, has an unknown beginnini;, ct.)Verin_' in irUerval geologically of vast extent. It is tlie primitive stone age, the epoch of flint-chippers; and but a single positive vestige of any com- munity of living is known to arclufologists : the village of Soiiitre, in Eastern France, being held by some to be asso- ciated wit!i man "n this earlier stage of his development. This stone perio,. is s()metimLS divided in Europe into an earlier and later period, rtpreseuiing respectively tlie men of the river drift and of the caves. In the tirst period, tailed sometimes that of the race of Canstadt, and by Mor- tillet the Chellean period, we have, as is claimed, a savage hunter race, represented by the Xeandjrtlial skull ; and because in two jaw-bones discovered the genial tubercle is undeveloped, a school of archx-ologi-ts contend that the race was speechless (Horatio Hale's "Origin of Lan- guage,'' in Am, Asso. Adv. Sci. Froc^ xxxv., Cambri '-:e, i^^So; and separate, p. 31). This theory, however, sllmis to rest on a misconception. Cf. Topinard on tlie jaw-bone from the Naulette cave in the Kt'vitc d'A>ithro/>oio,;ic, 3d ser. i., p. 422 v*SS6). It Is held that the ethnical relations of this race are unknown, and it is not palpably connected with the race of the later period, the race of the caves, which arch.cologists, like Carl V'ogt, Lartet, and Christy, call the cave-bear epoch, as its evidences are found in the cave deposits of EnropL-. This cave race is represented by the Cromagnon skidl, and, as 1 Hawkins holds, is perpetuated to-day by the Eskimo, and was very likely also represented in the Guanches of the Canary Islands. tJuatfLfages calls it the race of Cro- magnon; and the vanishingof it into the Neolithic pettple is obscure. It is claimed by some, but the evidence is (jues- tionable, that the development of ilie muscles of speech make this race the first to speak, and that thus man, as a S[ieaking being, is probably not ten thousand years old. The interval before the shaped and polished stone imple- ments were used m.iy have been long in some jilaces, and the gradation may have been confused in others ; and it is indeed sometimes saul tliai the one and the other condition exist in savage regions at the present day, as many archa;- (tlogists hold lliat they have always existed, side by side, though this proposition is also denied. Indeed, it is a question if the terms of the archii-ologist, signifying ages or epochs, have any time value, being rather char.icterisiics of stages of development than of passing time. Those who find the ruder implements to stand for a peoiile living with the cave-bear find, as they ctmtend, a shorter-headed race proiiucing these finer stone implements, and call it the Reindeer ejioch. One of Lubbock's terms, the Neolithic age, has gained larger acceptance as a designati(Mi for this period since 1865, when he introduced it. With these polished stones we first find signs of domcitic animals and of the practice of agriculture. Any considerable col- lection of these stone implements and ornaments will ] re- sent to the oljserver great varieties, but with steady types, of such implements as axes, cells, hammers, knives, drills, scrapers, mortars and pestles, pitted sttmes, plummets, sink- ers, spear-points, arrow-heads, daggers, pipes, gorgets, — not to name others. FROM DAWSON'S FOSSIL MEN.* On the American stone age, see Nadaillac, Les pre-- miers hotnmes, p. 37; L. P. Clratacap in Amer. Afitiquw rittUf iv, ; and \V. J. McGee, in J'op. Sci. Monthly, Nov,, 18S8, for condensed views ; but the student will prefer the more enlarged views of Kau, Abbott and others. ' Cambridge, Eng., 1862; revised, 1S65 ; and largely rewritten, London, 1876. Cf. his " Prc-Ar>'an American Man," in the Roy. Soc. Cauadti /"r^wj., i., 2d sect., 35, and his " Unwritten History'' in Smithsonian Rtpt.{i'^(^2). » London, 1865, 1^70; N. Y., 1878. 3 Tylor speaks of K\emm*s A l/g-fMoine Culturg^fschich/e der Menschheit and his AU^ettteifte CuHur^vissenschaft as containing "invaluable collections of f.ict5 bearing on the history of civilization." • A front view of a Hochelagan skull, surrounded by the outline, on a larger scale, of the Cromagnon skull. ■ T \. ^ \ ll'l ! I f » |i.| ^.: i. «W^iMi6epv<'=9^^wsa 0/ 78 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. •* .- 3 I. I \li had done; and it is remarked that while thus classifying, he has not been lured into pronounced theory, which future accession of material might serve to modify or change. He shortly afterwards touched a phase of the sulie^t whicli he had not develoiied in his biok in a paper on "Traces of the Karly Mental Condition of .Mai.," i and illustrated the methods he was pursuing in another on " 'I'lie Condition of Prehistoric Races as inferred from observations of modern tribes." 2 The ])ostiilate of which he has been a distinguished e.xpounder, that luan has progressed from barbarism to civilization, was a main deduction to be drawn from his ne.xt sustained work. Primi/ht Cii.'/iiie : researiltcs into the Jcvfli>f>mcnt of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, iiiut ciistom^^ Tlie chief points of this further study of the thought, Ijelief, art, and custom of the primitive man had been advanced tent.atively in various other paixMs Ix'side those already mentioned,^ and in this new work he further acknowledges his oblig.ations to .\dolf liastian's Moisch in ilcr Gcuhithtc and Theodor Waltz's Anthrofologic Jcr Xatiirvolkcr.'' lie still pursued liis plan of collecting wide and minute evidence from the writers on ethnography and kindred sciences, and from historians, travellers, and missionaries, as his foot-notes abundantly testify. \)\ \ u THEODOK WAIT/.* Tliese studies of Professor Tylor abundantly qualified him to give a condensed exposition of the science of anthntpolngy. w!,- h he had done so niucli to place witliin the range of scientific studies, by a priniaiy search f >r facts and law-^ ; and having contributed the article on that subject to the ninth edition of the liiuyclofcrJia Brifannica.hc published in iSSi his .-itt/Ziro/o/oj^y : an Introiiiiction to the siuUy of inan and civilization (London and X. V., iSSi and iSSS). He maps out the new science, which has now received of late years so many nt-w students in the scientific metiujd. without references, but with the authority of a teaclier. trac- ing what man has Ix^en and is under the differences of sex, race, beliefs, habits, and society.*' Again, at the * Royai hist, of Gt, Brit. Proc.^ reprinted in Smith- sonian Rcpt., 1^6;. 2 Intertiat. Cou^. Prehist. Archtvol. Trans. ^ iS6S. ^ I.ondmi, 1S71 ; ^d ed., 1^741 somewhat amplified; Boston, 1S74: N. v., 1R77. * See jiref.nce to Primitive Culture^ ist ed. '"' VoU. iii. and iv. of this treatise (I.cipzi!::, 1S62-64) are given to " Die Arnerikaner." and are provided with a list of books on the subject, and ethnnlopical maps of N(irth and South America. Urinton {Myths^ p. 40) thinks it tlie best work yet written on the American Indians, though he thinks that Waitz errs on the religious aspects. Waltz has fully discussed the question of climate as affecting the development of people, and this is included with full rt-fer- ences in that part of his great work which in the English translation is called an Intrmfuction to Anthropotot^y. Wallace and other observers contend that the direct efficacy of physical conditions is overrated, and that climate is hut one of the many factors. F. H. Cushing discusses the question of habitation as affected by surroundings in the Fourth Ann. Rcf>t. Ihir. of Ethtiol., p. 473. " Cf. Qtiatref apes' Lvs Progres de V Anihropologie (Paris,. 1S6S), and Paul 'I'opinard's Anthropohf;y { Enplish translation, Lond»77)- ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA. 370 Montreal meeting (August, 18S4) of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, he set down in an address the lx)unds of the " American Asix'cts of Anthropology." 1 Closely following upon Tylor in this lield, and gathering Ids material with nmcii tlie same assiduity, and ]ircsenting it with similar beliefs, though with enougii individuality to mark a distinction, was another Kng- lishman, who probably shares with Tylor the leading position in this department of ^tudy. i^ir John Lubbock, in his i^rchistoric Vimcs as illustrated by ancient remains, ami the manners and eusioms of modern saiages^- gathered the evidence which exists of tiie primitive- condition of man, umbnicing some chapters on modern savages so far as they are ignorant of the u.-^e of metals, as tlie best study wi: can follow, to lill out SIR JOHN LUUnOCK.* ' Tiiven in Popular Science .^fonthty, Dec, 1SS4, p. i:;:r; and in the same pL'riodical p. 2''i4, is an acc(mnt and portrait of Tylor. 2 London, N. Y., i^'is". zd ed. snmewliat enlarged, Lond., iS'jg; and later. Part of this work had appeared earlier in the Xafional Hist. Rericv, i'^^i-'m. includini; a paper (ch. 8) on No. Amer. Arch.xoloiry in Jan., iS(>;^, which was re- printed in the Stnithsonian Report for 1S62, and was trans- lated in the Revue Arch^ohs^ique^ i^^'S- This book of l>nhbnck's and Trior's correlative work probably represent the best dealint; with the subject in English; and some such book as Jas. A. Farrer's Primi- tive ManT%ers and Customs fN. Y., i''';*)) will lead up to them with readers It-ss studious. The Kn^lish reader may find '^nme Ci>m)iarative treatments in the KngHsh version oC Wti'w/S /titrifd. to A nt/iro/>o/off-y {\y. 2S.1), etc. ; much that is sim^cstive and in some way supplemental to Tylor and Lubbock in Wilson's Prehistoric Man ; some viijnrous and perhaps sweepiiiR charactcri/atinns in Lesley*s Orit^in and Destiny 0/ Man (cli. 6): and <»thcr aspects in Winchell's Prendamites (ch. ad), Foster's Prehistoric Races 0/ the U. S. (ch. 0). !■"• A. Allen in Conipte Rendu, Centres des Atnh'icanistes, 'S77, vol. i. 71). Humbcildt points out the non-pastnrni character of tlie American tribes (I'ie^vs oj JVature, ii. 42). Helps' Realniah deals with the prehistoric condition of man. After a ph(»to'^raph. N il i1^ ■' i.i 380 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. the picture of races only archrcologically known to us. This study of modern savage life, in arts, marriages, and relationsliips, morals, religion, o.nd laws, is, as he holds, a necessary avenue to the knowledge of a con- dition of the early man, from which by various influences the race has advanced to what is called civilization. His result in this comparative study — not indeed covering all the phases of savage life — he made known in his Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Comlition of Man.^ Wliile referring to Tylor's Early Hist. of Mankind as more nearly like his own than any existing treatise, but showing, as compared with his own book, " tliat no two minds would view the subject in tlie same manner," he instanced previous treatments of certain phases of the subject, like Miiller's Gcschichle dcr Amcrikanischcn Urre'igioncn, J. F. M'Lennan's Primitive Marriagefi and J. J. Uackofen's Das Mutterrccht (s-tuttgart, 1S61) ; and even Lord Karnes' Hii- tory of Man, and Montesquieu's Esprit dcs /.d/j, notwithstanding tlie absence in them of much of the minute knowledge now necessary to the study of the subject. These data, of course, are largely obtained from travel- ' I. ,M ■;. I hri.. "■^Kiwv : .IMSiit-i^'-A. J SIR JOHN WILLIAM DAWsON.* lers and missionaries, and Lubbock complains of their unsatisfactory extent and accuracy. " Travellers," he adds, " find it easier to describe the houses, boats, food, dress, weapons, and implements of savages than to understand their thoughts and feelings.'' The main controversi.il point arising nut of all this study is the one already adverted to, — whether man has advanced from savagery to his present co.idition. or has preserved, with occasional retrogressions, his original elevated ch.iracter ; and this causes the other question, whether the modern s.ivage is the degenerate descendant of the same civil'zed first men. " There is no scientific evidence which would justify us," says Lubbock (Preliist. > London, N. Y., 1S70; 2d ed. ; 3d etl., 1S75 ; 4th cd., 88j, — each with additions and revisions. « Cf. his Sludits in Anc. Hist. He elucidates the early practice of cnpttirine a wife, and controverts Morgan's Ancient Society. Cf. \V. F. Allen in Penn. Monthly, June, 1880. * After a photograph. ' I arts, marriages, ledge of a con- lled civilization, made known in r's Early Hist. d with his own s treatments of F. M'l.ennan's rcl Kanies' His- h of the minute led from travel- Travellers,'' he avages than to liether man has jns, his original ra*e descendant bbock (/>;•«■//«/. ■overts Morgan's Penn. ^Tonihty, ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA. 381 Times, 417), "in asserting that this kind of degradation applies to savages in general."! The most distin- guished advocate of the atiirmative of this |)roposition is Richard Whately, Archbishop of Dublin, both in his Political Economy and in his lecture on the Origin of Civilization (1 85 5), in which he undertook to affirm that no nation, unaided by a superior race, ever succeeded in raising itself ort of savagery, and that nations can become degraded. Lubbock, who, with Tylor, holds the converse of this proposition, answered Whately in ari appendix to his Origin of Civilization, which was originally given as a paper at the Dundee meeting of the Uritish Association.'' 'I'he Duke of Argyle, while not prepared to go to the e.xtent of Whately's views, attacked, in his Primeval Man, Lubbock's argument,' and was in turn reviewed adversely by Lubbock, in a paper read at the Exeter meeting of the same association (1869), which is also included in the appendix of liis Origin of Civilization. Lubbock seems to show, in some instances at least, that the duke did nut pcjsses* himself correctly of some of the views of his opponents. In the researches of Tylor and Lubbock, and of all the others cited above, the American Indian is the source MIGRATIONS.* ' Cf. also his " Early Condition of Man," in British As. Proc, 1867 ; and Lyell's Principles of Geology, nth ed.., ii. 485; Dawkins in No. Amer. Rev., Oct., 1883, p. 34S. ' Danvin took Lubbock's side, Descent of Man, i. 174. Bradford, in his American Anti V\^ \, M:l : ( --..'> fl I. -i' 'J ; / \i ' I : t' I I il I 382 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. of many of their illustrations. Of all writers on this continent, Sir John \Vm. Dawson in his Fossil Men, and Southall in his h'ciciit Origin of Man, are probably the most eminent advocates of the views of Whatcly and Argyle, however modihed, and both have declared it an unfounded assumption that the primitive man was a savage.' Morgan, in his Andcnt Soiiety (N. V., 1S7;), has, on the other hand, sketched the lines of human progress from savagery through barbarism to civilization. One of the defenders of the supjiosed liible limits best equipped by reading, if not in the scientific spirit, has been a \'irginian, Jan'.es C. .Southall, who published a large octavo in iS;,. T/ic A'lccnt Orii;in of Man as ilhtstratvti I'y gi'oltn^y and the modern science of (prehistoric arch-cology (I'hilad., 1S75). 'I'hree years later, — leaving out some irrelevant matters as touching the antiquity of man, condensing his collations of detail, sparing the men of science an attack lor what in his earlier volume he called their fickleness, and some- what veiling his set purpose of sustaining the liible record, — he published a more effective little book. The Efoch of the Mammoth and the Affarition of Man 11 fon Earth (I'hilad., IS;,'!). liarring its essentially controversial character, and waiving judgment on its scientific decisions, it is one of the best condensed accumulations of data which has been made. His belief in the literal worth of the liible narrative is emphatic. He thinks that man, abruptly and fully civilized, appeared in the East, and gave rise to the Egyptian and l3abylonian civilization, while the eslrays that wandered westward arc known to us by their remains, as the early savage denizens of Europe. 'I'o maintam this existence of the hunter-man of Europe within historic times, he rejects the prevailing opinions of the geologists and arclucologists. He reverses the judgment that Lyell expresses (Student's Elements of Geology. Am. ed., 162) of tlie historical period as not affording any appreciable measure for calculating the number of centuries necessary to produce so many extinct animals, to deepen and widen valleys, and to lay so deep stalagmite floors, and says it does. He contends that the stone age is not divided into the earlier and later periods with an interval, bnt that the mingling of the kinds of flints shows but different phases of the same period,^ and that what others call the palaolithic man was in reality the (piaternary man, with conditions not much different from now.'' The time when the ice retreated from the now temperate regicms he holds to have been about 2000 11. c, and he looks to the proofs of the actiim of which traces are left along the North American great lakes, as observed by I'rofessor Ed- mund Andrews •• of Chicago, to confirm his judgment of the Glacial age being from 5,300 to 7,500 years ago.'' He claims that force has not been sufficiently recognized as an element in geologic.d action, and that a great lapse of time was not necessary t(j effect geological changes {Ef. of the M., 194).'' He thinks the present drift of opinion, carrymg back the ajipcarance of man anywhere from 20,000 to 9.000.000 years, a mere fashion. The gravel of the Somnie has been, he holds, a rapid deposit in valleys already formed and not necessarily old. The peat beds were a deposit from the flood that followed the glacial period, and accumu- lated rapidly (/s/. i/M<' .)/., ch. 10). The extinct animals found with the tools of man in the caves simply show that such beasts survived to within historic times, as seems everywhere apjiarent as regards the mastodon when found in .America. The stalagmites of the caves are of unequal growth, and it is an assumjition to give them uniformly great .age. The finely worked flints found among those called pal.-eolithic ; the skilfully free drawings of the cave-men ; the bits of ptjttery discovered with the rude flints, and the great similarity of the implements to those in use to-day among the Eskimos ; tlie finding of Roman coin in the Danish shell heaps and an English one in those of .\merica (Proc. I'hilad. Acad. A'al. Sei., 1S66, p. 291), — are all parts of the argument which satisfies him that the archxologists h.ave been hasty and inconclusive in their deduc- tions. They in turn will dispute both his facts and conclusions." ^ Dawson's Fossil Mett and their modern re/>reseiita- iivcs (Lnmlon, iSSo. iSSiHs " .in atlemrt to illustrate the characters and coiulilions of prehistoric men in Europe by those of the American races.'* A conservative reliance on the biblical record., as long understood, characterizes Daw- son's usual speculations. Cf. his Xatiire and the Bible, his Story of the Earth, his Origin of the World, and his Address as president of the geoloRical sect ion of tlie Amer. .Association in \%^h. He confronts his opponents' views of the Inn?; periods necessary to effect genffr.iphical changes by telling them that in historic times "the Hyr- canian ocean has dried up and Atlantis has cone down.*' ' Dawson (Fossil .1/cw, it') says: " I think th.it .Amer- ican archiolnsists and penlojiists must refuse to accept the distinction of a pal.-rnlithic from a neolithic period until further evidence can he obtained." ' These are very nearly the views of WinchcU in his Preadamites. p. 420. * Cf. his papers in Methodist Quarterly, xxxvi. j'l : xxxvii. 2q. 5 This is also considered important evidence by Dawson, as well as Winchell's estimate, in his jM Report, Minnesota Geol. Srtniey ( i>' survey in John Scoffern's Stray leaves of science and folk lore ( London, 1S70). * Cf. his papers in Leisure Hour, xxiii. 740, 766; xxvi. 54. ^ Current periodical views can be traced in Poole's Index (vols. i. and ii.) under " Man," '• Races," " Prehis- toric," etc. The views of the cosmogonists, running back to the be- ginning of the sixteenth centurv', are followed down to the birth of modern geology in Paulson's The Earth and the Word (Lond., 1858), and cond^.ised in M'Clintock & Strong's Cyclopedia (iii. 795). * \'erse I. In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. / 'erse 2. And the earth was without form and void, etc. " Cf. also J. D. Whitney's Climatic Changes. The i)resent proportion of Kind to water is reckoned as four is to eleven. The ocean's average depth is variously estimated at from eleven to thirteen times that of the average eleva- tion of land above water, or as 11,000 or 13,000 feet is to 1,000 feet. The bulk of water on the globe is computed at thirty-six times the cubic measurement of the land above water {Ibid. 194, 200). '^ For an extended discussion of the Atlantis question, see ante, ch. 1. ' It is enough to indicate the necessary correlation of this subject with the transformation theory of J. V,. A. I^a- marck as enunciated in his Pkilosophie Zoologique (Paris, 1809; again, 1873), which Cuvier opposed ; and wi h the new phase of it in what is called Darwinism, a theory of the survival of the fittest, leading ultimately to man. Lyell {Principles of Geology, nth ed., ii. 495) presents the diverse sides of the question, which is one hardly ger- mane to our present purpose. 1:. J (■ j ■ ■tl 'Ii ' 1 \ \\ ■I .,1 * » i n\.i iil'4' .ii !'. ' : 384 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OK AMERICA. gravels, the bone caves, the peat deposits, the shell heaps, and the Lacustrine villages, for the mounds and other relics of defence, habitation, and worship are very likely not the records of a great antiquity. The whole field is surveyed with more fullness than anywhere else, and with a faith in the geological antiquity of the race, in ^ir Charles I-yell's Geological Evideiues of the Antiquity of Man.'^ With as firm a belief in the integrity of the biblical record, and in its not being impugned by the discoveries or inductions of science, we find a survey in iriouthall's Recent Origin of Man. These two books constitute the extremes of the methods, both lor and against the conservative interpretation of the Hible. The Independent spirit of the scientist is nowhere more confidently expressed than by J. 1'. Lesley (^Man's Oiigin and Destiny, I'hilad., 1868, p. 45), who says : " There is no alliance possible between Jewish theology and modern science. . . . Geologists have won the right to be Christians without first becoming Jews." Southall- interprets this spirit in this wise; "1 do not recollect that the ..^h//V"'V>' "/ .'/'"' ever recognizes that the book of Genesis is in exist- ence ; and yet every one is perfectly conscious that the author has it in mind, and is writing at it all the time."' The entire literature of the scientific interpretation shows that the canons of criticism are not yet secure enough to prevent the widest interpretations and inferences. 'J'he intimations which are supposed to exist in the Bible of a race earlier than Adam have given rise to what is called the theory of the Preadamites, and there is little noteworthy upon it in European literature back of Isaac de I.a I'eyrire'i PrnetiJamitae (I'aris and .Vmsterdam, i(>$i), whose views were put into English in Man before Adam (London, i656).< The advocates of the theory from that day to this arc enumerated in Ale.xander Winchell's I'readamilcs (Chicago, 18S0), and this book is the best known contribution to the subject by an American author. It is his opinion that the aboriginal .American, with the Mongoloids in gen- eral, comes from some descendant of Adam earlier than Noah, and that the black races come from a stock earlier than Adam, whom Cain found when he went out of his native country.5 The investigations of the great antiquity of man in America fall far short in extent of those which have been given to his geological remoteness in Europe ; and yet, should we believe with Winchell that the American man represents the pre-.\damite, while the European man does not, we might reasonably hope to find in America earlier traces of the geological man, if, as Agassiz shows, the greater age of the American continent weighs in the question." The explicit proofs, as advanced by different geologists, to give a great antiquity to the American man, and perhaps in some ways greater than to the European man," may now be briefly considered in detail. Oldest of all m.-iy perhaps be placed the gold-drift of California, with its human remains, and chief among them the Calaveras skull, which is claimed to be of the I'liocene (tertiary) age ; but it must be remembered that Powell and the government geologists call it quaternary. It was in February, 1866, that in a mining shaft in Calaveras County, California, a hundred and thirty feet below the surface, a skull -.vas found imbedded in gravel, which under the name of the Calaveras skull has excited much interest. It was not the first time that human remains had been found in these California gravels, but it was the first discovery that attracted ' London, 1S63, 3 eds., each enlarged; Philad., 1863. In liis fin.il edition Lyell acknowledges his obligations to Lubbock's Prehistoric I\fan and John Evans's Anc. Stone Iniflemenfs. His fin.ll edition is called: The geological evidences of the antiquity of mtin^ with an outline of gla- cial and post'teriiary geology and remarks on the origin of species with special reference to man^s first appearance on the earth. 4th ed., revised (London, 1S73). ' Recent Origin of Man, p. 10. ' Another way of looking at it gives reasons for this omission : " The first chapter of Genesis is not a geological treatise. It is absolutely valueless in geological discussion, and his no value whatever save as representing what the Jews borrowed from the Babylonians, and as preserving for us an early cosmology" (Howorth's Mammoth and the Flood, Lnnd., 18S7, p. ix). Between Lyell and Gabriel de Mortillct f/.rj prfhistorique Antlquiti de V Homme, Paris, 1SS3) nn the one hand and Southall on the other, there are the mnre cautious geologists, like Prestwich, who claim that we must wait before we can think of measuring by years the interval from the earliest men. (Cf. "Theoretical considerations on the drift containing implements," in Roy. Soc. Philos. Trans., 1S62.) « Cf. Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc, Apr., iSji, p. 33. " Winchell's book is an enlargement of an article con- tributed by him to M'CIintock and Strong's Cyclopadia of Biblical Literature, t\c. (vol. viii., 1879), — the editors of which, by their font-notes, showed themselves uneasy under some of hii inferences and conclusions, which do not agree with their conservative views. ^ Louis Agassiz advanced (1S63) this view of the first emergence of land in America, in the Atlantic Monthly, xi. 373 ; also in Geol Sketches, p. i, — mariting the Lau- rentian hills along the Canadian borders of the United States as the primal continent. Cf. Nott and Gliddon's Types of .Mankind, ch. <). Mortillet holds that so late as the early quaternary period Europe was connected with America by a region now represented by the Fariies, Ice- land, and Greenland. Some general references on the antiquity of man in America follow : — Wilson, Prehistoric Man. Short's No. Amer. of Antii,.. ch. J. Nadailhic, Les Premiers Ifommes, ii. ch. 8. Foster, Prehistoric Races of the U. S., and Chicago Acad, of Sciences, Proc, i. (1S69). Joly, Man before Metals, ch. 7. Emil Schmidt, Die dltesten Sfuren des Menschen in Nora Amerika (Hamburg, 18S7). A. R. Wallace in Nineteenth Century (Nov., 1SS7, or Living Age, clxxv. 472). Pop. Science Monthly, Mar., 1877. An epitome in Science, Apr. 3, 1885, of a paper by Dr. Kollmann in the Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic. F. Larkin, Ancient Man in America (N. Y., iSSo). The biblical record restrains Southall in all his estimates of the antiquity of man in America, as shown in his Recent Origin of Man, ch. 36, and Epoch of the .Mapnmoth, ch. 25. ' Hugh Falconer ( Palaontologicat Memoirs, ii. 579) says; "The eariiest date to which man has as yet been traced back in Europe is probably but as yesterday in comparison with the epoch at which he made his appeap ance in more favored regions." 1^ , ,1 :a. r the moundii and ,uity. The whole 1 antiquity of tlie m a Ixlief in tlie ins of science, we s of tlie nietliods, )f tlie scientist is lad., iSdS, p. 45), i. , . . Geologists this spirit in this ;nesis is in exist- t it all the time."' re not yet secure ave given rise to iropean literature 5 put into English is arc enumerated intribution to the ongoloids in gen- me from a stock those which have that the American ly hope to find in merican continent merican man, and detail. and chief among ist be remembered that in a mining .s found imbedded not the first time fery that attracted s view of the first A ttatitic Monthly, marKing the Lau- lers of the United >Iott and Gliildon's holds that so late .vas connected with by the Faroes, Ice- references on the ^Vilson, Prehistoric ch. 2. Nadaillac, r'oster, Prehistoric of Sciences, Proc. , Is, ch. 7. Eniil lenschen in Xord llace in Nineteenth clxxv. 472). Pof>. pitome in Science, n in the Zeitschrift i'tfan in America itrains Southall in nan in America, as 1. 36, and Epoch 0/ Memoirs, ii. 579) n has as yet been lut as yesterday in made his appear- ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA. 3S5 notice. It Wiis not seen in situ by a professional geologist, and a few weeks el.ipvil Ix'fore Professor Josiah Dwight Whitney, tlien state geologist of California, visited the spot, and satislied hiinsLlf that the geological conditions were such as to make it certain that the skull and tlie deposition of the gravel were of the same age. 'I'lie relic subsequently p.xssed into the possession of I'rofessor Whitney, and the annexed cut is repro- duced frrm the careful drawing made of it for the Memoirs of the Museum of Comp, Zoology (Harvard L'niversity), vol. vi. lie had published earlier an account in the Kevue J' Anthrofologie (1S72), p. 7I10.1 This interesting relic is now in Cambridge, co.ited with thin wax for preservation, but this coating inter- feres with any satisfactory photograph. Ihc volume of Memoirs alxjve named is made up of Whitney's Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra XeiaJa of California (iSSo), and at p. ix he says; "There will un- doubtedly be much hesitancy on tlie part of anthropologists and others in accepting the results regarding the TertLiry Age of man, to which our investigations seem so clearly to point.'' lie says tliat those who reject the evidence of the Calaveras skull because it was not seen in situ by a scientific observer forget the evidence of the fossil itself; and he .idds that since 1866 the other evidence for tertiary man has so accumulated tli,it " it would not be materially weakened by dropping that furnished by tlie Calaveras skull itself." What Whitney s.-iys of the history and authenticity of tlie skull will lie found in his pajier on " Human remains and works of art of the gravel series," in IHJ. pp. 25S-2SS. His conclusions are that it shows the existence of man with an extinct fauna and flora, and under geographical and physical conditions ditiering from the present, — in the I'liocene age certainly. 'I'his opinion has obtained tlie support of Marsh and I.e Conte and other eminent geologists. Schmidt {Arehiv fiir Anthropologic) thinks it signifies a pre-glacial man. Winchell (Preadamiles, 428) says It is the best authenticated evidence of Hliocene man yet adduced. CALAVERAS SKULL. (Front ami side virw.) On the contrary, there are some confident doubters. Dawkins (Xo. Am. Rez:, Oct., 1883) thinks that all but a few American geologists have given up the Pliocene man, and tliat the chances of later interments, of ac- cidents, of ancient mines, and the presence of skulls of mustang ponies (introduced by the .'Spaniards) found in the same gravels, throw insuperable doubts. " Neither in the new world nor the old world," he says, " is there any trace of Pliocene man revealed by modern discovery." Southall and all the Bible advocates of course deny the bearing of all such evidence. Dawson (Fossil Men, 345) thinks the arguments of Whitney inconclusive. Nadaillac (VAmcriyue prihistorique, 40, with a cut, and his Les Premiers Hommes, ii. 435^ hesitates to accept the evidence, and enumerates the doubters.- Footprints have been found in a tufa bed, resting on yellow sand, in the neighlxirhood of an extinct vol- cano, Tizcapa, in Nicaragua. One of the prints is shown in the annexed cut, after a represent.ition given by Dr. Urintoninthe Amer. Philosoph. Soc. Proc. (xxiv. 1SS7, p. 437). Above this tufa lied were fourteen distinct strata of deposits before the surface soil was reached. Geologists have placed this yellow sand, bearing shells, from the post-Pliocene to the Eocene. The seventh stratum, going downwards, had remains of the mastodon.'! ' Cf. also Putnam's Report in Wheeler's Survey, 1H79, p. It. 2 Cf. H. H. Hancroft, iv. 703; Short, 125, etc. • Dr. Brintnn concludes that since the region is one of a VOL. I. — 25 rapid deposition of strata, the tracks may not be older than qnaternar\'. The track here ficiured was 0^ inches long; some were to inches. The maxitninn stride w.is iS inches. Cf. Dr Earl Flint in Amer. .-intiquarian {vi. 112), Mar. :i 'I 1 ! M ♦\ \i i ' fl ■' y 386 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OP^ AMKRICA. I it ' t 'i; I) i a Some ancient baskit wi'ik iliscciverL'd at IN'tit Anso Isl.inil, in I.niiKlana. has boi'n I'lKiired \n the CAiitiga AcaJ. 0/ HiieHiCS, Iriinsiulhuu (\. part 2). CI, K. W. Ililyard, in Smillisonian Coiilnlmlhiiis, no. J4S. Foster rather strikingly hkens wliat we know of the liistory of the human lace to tlie apex (jf a pyramid, of which we know neitlier the heixht nor extent of base. Our efforts to trace man back to Ids beyinninK would be like folhjwin^' down the sides (jf tliat pyramid till it reaches a hrm base, we know not where. Many geolo- gists believe in a ureal ice-sheet which at cme time had settled upon the northern parts of America, and covered it down to a line tli.it extends across Pennsylvania, (lliio, and westerly in a nor is he quite ready to aver what it ANCIENT KOUTl'Kl.NT IKO.M NICAKAfiLA. V!i 1884, and (vii. 156) May, 1885; Feabody Mns. Repts., ;8S4, p. 356; 1885, p. 414; Amer, Ant. Soc. Proc.y 1884, p. 92. * Story of the Earth and Man. * The Great he-Age^ and its Relations to the A ntiquity of Man (1S74). ^ Mamftwth and the Flo^d. * "We cannot fix a date* in ihe lilstorical sense, for events which happened outside history, and cannot measure the antiquity of man in terms of years." Hawkins in Xo. Am. Rev., Oct., iSS^, p. .^38. Tylor {EaHy Hist, of Mankind, 197) says: " Oeolopical evidence, thouph capa- ble of showinR the lapse of vast periods of tiine, has scarcely admitted of these periods beini: hrouglit into definite chron- ological terms." Prestwich {On the f^eoL position and af^e ofJlint-i$nph-ment-bearini( beds, London, 1864, — from the Roy. Soc. Phil. Trans.) says: " However we extend our pref^ent chronolopy with respect to the first appearance of men, it is at present unsafe and premature to count by hundreds of thousands of year-^." Sonthall {Recent Origin of Man. ch. .1.1 1 epitomizes the extreme views of the ad- vocat"*^ of el ciatinn in the present temperate zone. h] 1! ANTIQUITY OK MAN IN AMKKICA. 3«7 idy to aver what it all means.' Perhaps, as some thi'drl/t.', this prevailing ice showeil tlie lun^ winter brought about bv the preccs- siun iif the ecjuinoxes, as has lun^j been a tjvurite belict, with the swuig ut ten thuusanU ycati, mure ur Wm, Irum one extreme to the other.''' Others beheve that we must look back 100,000 years, as James Croll* and Lubbock do, or 800,000 and more, ■s I.yell did .it Hrst, and tind the ciuse in the v.iriable eccentricity of the eartli's orl>it, wliich xliall Acrount for all the climatic clian|{e!< since the dawn of what is called the gl.icial epoch, accoinpanyiii); the dcllection of ocean currents, as Croll supposes, or the %ariations in the ('isposilion of sea and land, as I.yell inia(jines,* This great ice-sheet, however extensive, began for some reason to retreat, at a pcricid as remote, according as we accept this or the other estimate, as from ten thousand to a hundred thousand years. That the objects of stone, shaped and polished, which had been observed all over the civiliited world, were celestial in origin seems to have been the prevalent opinion,' when Maliudel in 1723 and even when liuffon in 1778 ventured to assign to them a human origin." In the gravels which were deposited by the melting of this more or less extended ice-sheet, parts of the human frame and the work of human hands have been found, and mark the anterior limit of man s residence on the globe, so far as we can confidently trace it.' Few geologists have any doubt about the existence of human relics in these American i;lacial drifts, however widely they may dilfer about the age of them." It was in the American Nalinnlist (Mar. and .\p., iS?.-) that Dr. C. C. .Abbott made an early communi- •i ' Cf. I.oiiis Agassiz, Gtf<)/«>f/Vri/.S'Ar/(r4ri (1865), p. aio; 2d aeries (iMS6), p. 77. ' J. AdheniLT, Revolutions tie la Mer^ who ndvocatcs this theory, comiL'CtH with it the movement of the apsides, and thinks that it is the consequent great accumulation of ice at the north pole which by its weiglit displaces the centre of itravily; and as the action is tratisfencd from one pole to the other, the periodic oscillatitm of that centre of gravity is thus caused. The theory no doubt borrows something of its force with some minds from the ^;reat law of mutability in nature. That it is a grand tkld for such theorizers as Lorenzo Hurge, his Preghutal Man and the Aryan Raie shows; but authorities like I.yell and Sir John Herschel find no sufficient reason in it for the great ice-sheet which they contend for. C'f. H. Le Hon's Influence ties lots costniques snr la climatologie et la g^ologie (.Uruxeltes, 1H6S). W. U. (lallowa:''s Science and Geology in relation to the Universal Delude (Lond., iHKK) points out what he thinks the necessary effects of such changes of axis. J. D. Whitney {Climatic clianges of later geological times^ Mem. Mns. Comp. ZodL^ vii. 302, 394) disbelieves all these views, and contends that the most eminent astrono- mers and climatologists are opposed to them. ' Of tlie manifold reasons which have been assigned for these great climatic changes (I.,ubb(ick, i^rehistoric Times, 3QI, and Croll, /'/ifWJj/'iciwj, enumerates the principal reasons) there is at least some considerable credence given to the one of which James Croll has been the most prominent advo- cate, and which points to that reduction of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit which in 22,000 years will be diminished from the prest-nt scale to one sixth of it, or to about half a million miles. This change in the eccentricity induces physical changes, which allow a greater or less volume of tropical water to flow north. In this way the once mild climate of Greenland is accounted for (Wallace's island Life). Croll first advanced his views in the Pltiloso/'hical Mag.f Aug., iS(i4; but he did not completely formulate his theory' till in his Climate and time in their geological relations, a theory of secular changes of the earth's climate (N. Y., 1875). It gained the acquiescence of Lyell and others; but a principal objector apiwared in the astron- omer Simon Newcomb (Amer. Jl. of Set, and Arts, April, 1876; Jan., 1*^84; /'hiloso/>h. Mag,, Feb., 1S84). Croll answered in fiemarks (London, 1884), but more fully in a further development of his views in his Disjus- sions on Climate and Cosmology {N, Y., 1886). Whitney*s Climatic C/uinges argues on entirely different grounds. * /Principles of Geology, ch. 10-13, where he gives a secondary place to the arguments of Croll. " Emile Cartailhac's L^Age de pierre dans les souve- nirs et superstitions Populaires (Paris, 1877). * Joly, VHomme artant les mitaux^ or in the English transi,, Man before .Metals, ch. 2. Nadaillac {Les Pre- miers iiommes, \. 127) reproduces Mahudel's cuts. ' Foster, Prehistoric Races, 50, notes some obscure facts which might indicate that man lived back of the glacial times, in the Miocene terli.iry period. These are the discoveries associated with the names of Ucsnoyers and the Abbe bourgeois, and familiar enough to geologist*. They have found little credence. Cf. Lubbock's Prehis- toric Times, ^lo, and \\\% Scientific Lectures, 140; liuch- ner's Man, p. 31 ; Nadaillac's Les J'remiers i/ommcs, u. 425; and L^Homme tertiaire (Faris, i-SSs); Peschel's Races of Men, p. 34; Kdward Clodd in Modern Review^ Jidy, i.SSo; Dawkins' Address, Salford, 1877, p. <; ; Joly, Man before Metals, 177. Quatrefages (Human Species, N Y., 1S79, p. 150) assents to their authenticity. Many of these look to the later tertiary (Pliocene) as the beginning of the human epoch ; but Dawkiiis(AV. Am. AV7'.,cxxxvii. 33S; cf. his Early Man in Pritain, p. ()o), as well as Hux- ley, say that all real knowledge of man goes not back of the (luaternary. Cf. further, Quatrefages, Introd. it C^tude des races Itumaines (Paris, 1887), p. 91 ; and his Nat. Hist. J/,/«(N.Y.,iS74), p. 44. Winchell (McClintock and StrcTiK*s Cychpadia, viii. 491- 2, and in his I^readamites) concisely classes the evidences of tertiary man as " Preglacial remains erroneously supposed human," and *' Human remains erroneously supposed pre- glacial ; " but he confines these conclusions to Europe only, allowing that the American non-Caucasian man might, perhaps, be carried back (p. 402) into the tertiary age. Cf. on the tertian- (Pliocene) man, K. S. Morse in Amer. Xaturalist, x\'m. looi, — an address at the Philad. meeting, Am. Asso. Adv. Science and his earlier paper in the JVo. Amer. Rev.; C. C. Abbott in Kansas City Rev., iii. 413 (also see iv. 84, 32^)); Cortihill Mag., li. 254 (also in /V/. Set. Monthly, xxvii. 103, and Eclectic Mag., civ. 601). Dr. Morton believed that the Kocene man, of the oldest tertiary group, woidd yet be discovered. Agai^siz, in 1M65 (Geol. Sketches, 200), thought the younger n.it- uralisls would live to see sufficient proofs of the tertiary man adduced. S. R. Patlison {Age of Man geologically considered in Present Day Tract, no. /.?, or fonrnal oj Christ, i^liilos. July, 1883) does not believe in the tertiary man, instancing, among other conclusions, that no tr.ice of cereals is found in the tertiary strata, and that these strata show other conditions unfavorable to human life. His conclu'^ions are that man has existed only about 8,000 years, and that it is impossible for geological science at present to confute or disprove it. In his view man appeared in the first stage of the quaternary period, was displaced by floods in the second, and for the third lived and worked on the present surface. • Lyell's Antiquity of Mau, 4th ed., ch. 18. Daniel I 1 w !fy \\ rf 4 5 38S NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMKRICA. •t ' catinn reipcctin^ the diHCovcry of rude human iin|iIcmentH in tlir Kl*^^i>il K''*^vt'U > ut tliv Delaware vulle>, and nincc ttuh tliu Ircntnn i^uveU have ta-cn the siihjt'ct of much iiitt'rL'?%t. ! he rudetu'^ii^ ol the Miiit^ lias le|ieatedly rained doubti at to theli artilicial chaiacter; but WlUun \^l^r( historic .t/n/i, i. aij) fia>!i that it is imt>(»?iKil>le to lind in tlintt broken (or the roati, or in any other accumulation uf rocky d(^bri:t, a Ain^lt' specimen that lookn like the rudest implenteiit ol the dritt. Expcrt» attest the exact correspondence of these 1 renton tout» with tho»ti ol the Kuropean river drift. Abbott hat explained the artificial cleavaKerjt.^ i^74"75- Ri-'ports of progress, etc., in the Veabody Museum Re/nyrts, nos. x. mid xi. (1S7M, 1S79}. Prof. N. S. Slialer accompanies the first of these with some com- ments, in which he says : " If these remains .ire really those of man, they prove the existence of intt'rj;lacial man on this part of our shore." He is understood latterly to have become convinced of thrir naturaUh\racter. J. D. Whit- ney and hucten Carr aijree iis lo their artificial character {Ibid. ■ 4S9). Cf. Abbott on Flint t hips (refuse work) in the I'eab. Mus. Ref*t., xii. 506; W. W. Haynes in Ros- ton Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc, Jan., iSSi ; F. W. Putnam in Peab. Mus. Rept., no. xiv. p. 23 ; Henry Carvell Lewis on The Trenton gravel tinii its relation to the antiquity 0/ man (Phil.id., iSSo); also in the Proceedings of the Academy of Xtitural Sciences of Philiuielphia (1S77- 1870, pp. fto-73; and 1880, p, 3061. Abbott has also regis- tered the discovery of a molar tooth {Peahody Afus. Re/t.^ xvi. 177), ami the under jaw of a man (/bid. xviii. 408, and Mat^riaux, etc., xviii. 334.) On recent discoveries of human skulls in the Trenton pravels, see Peab. Mus. Ref>i. xxii. 35. The subject of the Trenton-gravels man, and of his existonce in the like gravels in Ohio and Minnesota, was discussed at a meeting of the Boston Soc of Nat. Hist., of which there is a report in their Proceedings, vol. xxiii. These papers have been published separately: Paltfolithic wan in eastern and central Xorth America (Cambridge, iSRS). Contents : — Putnam, F. W. Comparison of paleolithic implements. — Abbott, C. C. The antiquity of man in the valley of the Delaware. — Wriijht, G. F. The age of the Ohio grnvel-beds. — Upham, W.irren. The re- cession of the ice-sheet in Minnesota in its relation to the gravel deposits overlying the quartz implements found by Miss Babbitt at Little Falls, Minn. — Discussion and con- cluding remarks, by H. W. Haynes, E. S. Morse, F. W. Putnam. Cf. also Amer. Antiquarian^ Jan., 1888, p. 46; Th. Hell's Disctwery of stone implemtnts in the glacial drift of Xo. Afuerictt (Lond., 1H7S, and Q. Jour, Sci- XV. 63; Hawkins in S'o. Am. Rev., tkt., 1H83, p. 347. * Cf. aUo Peabotiy .Mus. Repts., xix. 4<;a ; Science, vii, 41 ; Boston Soc. Xat. //nt. i*roc.,xx\. 134; Mat^riauXt etc. xviii. 334; l*hilad. Acad. Xat. Sciences, Proc. (i*<8o, p, 30f>). AbboU refers to the contributions of Henry C Lewis of ihe second Oeul. Survey of Puuna. {I'roc. Philad. Acad. X'at. Sciences^ and " The ai)tii(uity and origin of the Trenlon gravels,'* In Abbott's book), and of GcorKe H. Cook in the Annual Reports of the New Jersey stale geologist. Abbott has recently suminarizLil his views on the '* Kvidences of the Antiquity of Man in l.abtern North America," in the Atn. Asio. Adv. Sci. Proc^ xxxvii,, and separately ^Salem, iSS.S). * Figuier, Homme Primitif, hitrod. ^ The references are very numerous; but it is enough lo refer to the general geological treatises: \ c\'^\\ Lectures on Man, nos. <>, 10; Nadaillac's Les l^rem. Hommes,\\. 7; Dawkins in Intelltctual Observer, xii. .im ; and Ed. Lartet, Xouvelles recherches sur la coexistent <■ de Vhommt et ties grands ifutmmif?f\s fossHes, r/put/s cdtitcthisiiques de la tiernierc p^rioiie geologique, in the A unities des Sciences Xaturelles, 4e sdrie, xv. 356. Buffoii first fornm- lated the belief in extinct animals from some mastodon bones and teeth sent to him from the Big Bone Lick in Kentucky, about 1740, and Cuvier first applied the name mastodon, though from the animaPs resemblance to the Siberian mammoth it has sometimes been called by the latter name. There are in reality the fossil remains of both mastodon and mammnlh found in America. On the bones from the Big Bone Lick see Thomson's Bibliog. Ohio, no. 44. " Wilson's Prehist. Man, \. ch. 2 ; Proc. Amer. Acad. Nat. Scitttces, July, 1H59; Amer. fourmil of Sei. and ^r/j, xxxvi. i()9; cix. 335; Pop. Sci. Rev., xiv. 27S; A. H. Worthen*s Geol. Survey, Hlinois ns (il Henry C. iia. (I'roc. I'hihiJ. y ami origin of the nd of George H. Nt'w Jersey stale riled Ins views on 1 in i'..ibtern Nartli I'roc,, jcxxvii., and but it is ennugli to : Vogt's Lectures feiii. ilommei, li. di. 401 ; and Ed. 'sttii> f i/e /'/loiiim* h cariicth-istiquti the A unities ties [Juffnii firsi (orniu- n some mastodon Dig Bone Licli in applied tlie name isemblance to the een called by the fossil remains of Vnierica. On ihe lomson's Bibliog. ■oc. Anitr. Acad, rnat 0/ Sti. and ev. , xiv. 27S ; A. 166), i. .iS i Haven [. H. Howorili's ). 3>9i J- V. Mac- Cincinnati, 18^0). " Mastodon,'" in he found the re- the proofs about \ by stone javelins '•ans.. i. 62, 1857). on Koch*5 word, acter have been ^ntiq... ii'>: Na- \\\ ANTIQUITY OF M.\N IN AMERICA. 3«9 geological evidence \% quite sufficient without rrn<^in. and the dtiljioiiH if Uft Iraudulcnt iJe* piunt IMpe of Iowa.* llie poMtiuns of the Hkclcton , have Ifd many to l)clieve tliat the intervaKince tlio mastodon ceased to roam '\\\ the Mississippi Valley is not netplnxiLally «reat. Mialcr (.-(wrr. Mr/Mrrt/zi/, iv. 162) place* it at a few tlmusand yfars, and t'lere is jnnugh Kxuind tor it pL'rhaps to justily Suutlialt (AVi^/i/ OrigtHf ttCf J51 i £/. of tht' Mammoth, ch. S) i*. claiming; that these animals have lived into historic times. A human skeleton was found sixteen feet buluw the ; urface, near New Orleans — (which is only nine feet above the Gulf nf Mexioi), ami under four successive ^-owths of cypress fnrest«. Us antiquity, however, is (|uestioned.3 Tl c belief in human traces in the calcareou couKlonicrate of I'Moridu seems to liave been based (Haven, p, 87) on a misconception of Count I*ourtal6H' stiUement {.-Imnr. XaturitUst^ ii. -m), thougli it has got credence in many of the leading books on this subject. Cut. Whittlesey has reportetl Mime not very an- cient hearths in tlie Ohio Valley {Am. Ass. Arts ami SiUftn's, /'roc, C/titaj^rOf /A65, Miftini;, vol. xvii. 36S), The testimony of the caves to the early existence of man has never had the importance in America that it has had in Europe. FROM DAWSON'S FOSSIL MEN.* daillac, L* Am^rique fr^historupte ^ s-}). There have been claims also advanced for a stone resembling a hatchet, found with such animals in the nioditied drift of Jersey Co., Illinois, E. L. lierthoud {Acad. Xat. Sci., PhUad, Proc. 1872) has reported on human relics found with extinct ani- mals in Wyoming and t'olorado. Dr. Holmes {Ibid. July, 1859) had described pottery found with the bones of the megatherium. Lyell seems to have hcsit.ited to associate man with the extinct animals in America, when the remains found at Natchez were shown to him in an early visit to America {Antiquity of Man,, 237). Howorth, Mammoth, and the Fiooa\ 317, enumerates the later discoveries, some being found under recent conditions {Il>id. 378), and so recent that the trunk itself has been observed (p. 200). In the earliest instance of the bones Ijeiiii; reported, Dr. Mather, comnuniicating the fact to the Phiiosophical 'Prans. Roy, Soc. (1714), xxix. 6?, says they were found in the Hudson River, and he supposed them the remains of a giant man, while the colored earth nliout the bones repre- sented his rolled body. Cf. Mass. Hist. Soc Coii.^ xii. 363. 1 See on this a later paRC. ' Lyell's /4«//^. 0/ Afan, ^\.\\ cd., 216; Nadaillac's Lfm premiers homines, ii. i.^; Southall's Recent orij^in 0/ man, z\u 30. Vogi {Lectures on Man) accepts the evi- dence. • The outer (tutline is that of the skull found in the cave of Cromagnon, in France, belonging, as Dawson says, p. 189, to one of the oldest human inliabitants of western Europe, as shown in Lartet and Christy's Reliquiae Aqnitanicae. The second outline is that of the Enghis skull; the dotted outline that of the Ne.mderthal skull. The shaded skull is on a smaller scale, but preserving the true outline, and is one of the Hochelaga Indians (site of Montreal ). Cuts of the Knghit and Neanderthal skulls are given in Lubbock's Prehistoric Times., pp. 328, jzg Dawkins {Cave Hunters, 235) thinks the Enghis skull of doubtful age. On the Neanderthal skull see Quatrefages and Hamy, Crania Ethnica {Paris, "873-75), and Dawkins (p. 240). Huxley gives it a great antiquity, and says it is the most ape-like one he ever saw. Quatrefages, Hommes/ossiles, etc. (1884), says it is not below some later men. Southall {F.poch 0/ the Mammoth, 80) says it has the average capacity of the negro, and double that of the gorilla, and doubts its antiquity. I" ill' 1 y m "*!•■ 'n, t-'i :' i* t 1 , 390 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. It was in 1822 that Dr, Buc'. ... ■" ispute, however That the older cave imple- ments and tii..se of the drift may be of equivalent age 8e«ms to be a^jreed upon by some. ' Cf. also Geikie'sGr-tf. Ice Agt ; Lubbock's /'n-A/j/tfri^ Times, ch. 10; Evan'.'s Anc. .'jli>ne Impletnents of Gt. Britain ; Wilson's Prehistoric Annals of Scotland; Nils- son's .Stone Age /': Scandinav a ; p'iguier's World before the Deluge (N. 'V., 1S72), p. 473 ; Joly, .l/(i« before Metals, ch. 3; C^zalis de Fondoiic^'s Les temps prehistoriques dans le iud-est de la France ; Rou' iw's Etude sur les races humaines de la France ; Peschel's Races of Men, introd. The scarcity of human remains in the drift and in the caves is accounted for by Lyell (Student's Elements, N. "v., p. 153) by man's wariness apainst floods as compared with that of beasts ; and by Lubbock ( Prehist. Times, 349) through the vastly greater numbers of the animals in a hunt- ers' age. ■ The present day is nut without a cave people. See London Anthropolog. Rev., April, i86(), and Buchner's Man, Eng. transl., p. 270. • Haven, p. 86. '" Cf. Florentino Atnepluno's La .Antigiiedad del Horn- bre en la Plata (Paris, iSSo), and Howorth's Mammoth and the Flood, 351;, who cites Klee's Le Diluge, p. 326, and enumerates other evidences ni pleistocene man in South America, in connection with extinct animals. A. iomething like a he was not pre- the prehistoric skull, and pub- Licge. lally discovered :]uity of man in ijciilogists. In aroused a new lie founded the in Europe and !'«»/(• antcdilu- ulin Quignon a gravels.5 ant recognition, !ie Neanderthal ; in turning the S luid been. In .takably human, ttcU'tte hiDiiain f his periodical his Cave Hunt- 1, 1S74),' a book ■chistoric Man ; mite in holding ient to convince Orii;iii of Man 'the Mammoth, reat antiquity of |anish naturalist, on witli those of lila (Mexico) are has studied the itions to Knowl- m Reft. (TS87), Kentucky {Ibid. ibitations and as similar explora- jock's Prehistoric npleinenti of Gt. 'Scotland; Nils- r's U'ortd be/ore an before Metnh, ps pr^historiques 's Etude sur lez s Races of Men, 2 drift and iti the t's Etements, N. »ods as compared •hist. Times. 349) uiimals in a hunt- ave people. See ), and Biichnef's •iiedad del Mont' irth's Mammoth r PHuge. p. 326, ene man in South Is. ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA. 391 tions in Arizona (Kansas City Rev., viii. 647) ; E. T. Elliott in Colorado I^Pof. Sci. Mo., Oct., 1879), and Leidy in the Ilartman cave, in Pennsylvania (Philad. Acad. Nat. Sci. Proc, i.SSo, p, 34S). Cf. also llaldeman in the Am. Rhilos. Soc. Trans. (iSSo) xv. 351. Col. Charles Whittlesey has discussed the "Evidences of the antiquity of man in the United States," in describing some cave remains of doubtful age.' \V. H. Dall's On t/ie remains of later prehistoric man obtained from caves in the Catherine archipelago, Alaska territory, and especially from the caves of the Aleutian /j/<;«(/j (Washington, 187^) is included in the Smithsonian contributions to knowledge, xxii. Throughout the world, naturalists have found on streams and on the sea-coast, heaps of the refuse of the daily life of primitive peoples. Beneath the loam which has covered them there are found the shells of e'-'ibic moUusks and other relics of food, implements, ornaments and vessels, of stone, clay, and bone. Some- times it happens that natural superposed accumulations will mark them off in layers, and distinguish the usages of successive periods.- OSCAR PESCHEL.* In the Old World such heaps upon the Danish coast have attracted the most attention under the name of Kjiukkenmoeddinger, or Kitchen-middens, and their teachings have enlivened the recit.ils of nearly all the European archa-'ologists who have sought to picture the condition of these oarlv races. It seems to be the general opinion that in the Old World this shell-heap folk succeeded, if they do not in part constitute the contemporaries of, the men of the caves.' These accumulations are known usually in .\merica as shell heaps, and it is generally characteristic of them that, while they contain pottery and bone implements the stone instruments are far les3 numerous, and * The instances are not r.^re of muminios being found in caves of the Mississippi V.illey ; but there is no evidence adduced of any great age attaching to them. Cf. N. S. Shaler on the aTitiquity of the caverns and c.^.vern life of the OhioValley.in Koston .Soc.Xat. Hist. Mem..\\. 3';5(iS7s); and on desiccated roniains, see the Archceohgia Amer., i. 359; Brinton's Floridian Peninstda, App. ii. On the American :avessee Xadaillac's I,^ A intrigue pr^historique, ch. 1. ' Abbott i Primitive Industry, ch. 30. " I. yell, Antiq. of Man. 4th ed. ch. 2; Lubbock, Pre* hist. Times, ch. 7 ; Nadaillac, Les premiers hommes, \, ch. 5 : Joly, Man before Metah. ch. 4 ; Figuier, World before Deluge (N. Y., i.''72), p. 477. Worsaae, the leading Danish aiuhority, calls them pal.Tolithic relics ; Lubbock places them as early neolithic. Southall, of course, thinks they indicate the rudeness of the people, not their antiquity. {Recent Origin, etc., ch. 12; Epoch of the Mammoth, ch. 5.) * From tht engraving in the 1S77 ed. of his Gesch. des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen. His Abhandlungen zur Erd- und I'dtkcr-Kunde, continuing his contributions to Das A tisland and other periodicals, and edited by J. Lowenberg, was published at Leipzig, in 3 vols, in I.S77-79, the preface containing an account of Peschel*s services in this field. ■ir ii if \ A I \ ti "^i IW i ti ! Ij I ! I .( i I 392 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. generally occur in the upper layers in those of Florida, but they are scattered through all the layers in those of New England. Professor Jeffries Wyman, whose name is in this country particularly associated with shell-heap investigations, cuuld not find ' that any one had in the scientific spirit called attention to the subject in America earlier than Caleb Atwater in the Archccologia Americana (vol. i., 1820), who had observed such deposits on the Muskingum Kiver in Ohio. They had not passed unnoticed, however, by some of the early explorers. Putnam (Essex Inst. Bulletin, xv. 86) notes that J. T. Ducatel observed those on the Chesa- peake in 1834. The earliest more particular mention of the inland mounds seem to have been made ir Prinz Maximilian's Travels in the United States:^ Foster, in his Prehistoric Races of the U. G. (ch. 4, — ,. special survey of the .American heaps), says that Professor Vanuxem was the first to describe the seaside mounds in 1841, in the Proc. Amer. .-Isso. (icologists (i. 22).^ JEFFRIES WYMAN.» * Am. Xittnralist, ii. 597. » Cf. \.yQ\W Secoml Visit. ' All the gener.il treatises nn American archxolojry now cover the subject: Wilson, rrehist. ^ftnt^'\. \i,%\ Nadail- \ac, L^Amh'it^ue /*r^historitfUC, ch. 2; Short, Xo. A titer. Atttiij., 106; Sittithsoitiati Refiorts, 1S64 (Rau), iRffi, 1870 (J. Fowler) ; Bttll. Esse.v hist., iv. (Putnam) : Peabody Aftts. Kc/iorts, i., v., vii. ; Attit-r. Assttc. Adv. Sci. Proc. iSfi7, Flint Chi/is, iq4. For local observations: J. M. Jones in Sttiitltsotiiatl Attn, Report, 18^.3. on those of Nova Scotia. .S. F. H.iird in Xnt. Mtisetiiti /Voc. (1881, 1882), on those of New lirunswick and New Enj;land. For those in Maine see Peabody Mtts. Ret>ortSy xvi., xviii ; Cetttral Ohio Sci. .-Issoc. Proc, i. 70; that at Damariscoiia, in pariicul.ir, is described in the Peahody ."•" -T ports, xx. 5,11, 54'' ; and in the .Maiite Hist. Soc. Col., .. (by P. A. Chadboiirne) 1S75 : /'/(//. Atud. Xat. Sci. Proc. iWift; Pop. Science and vi. 34'). Wyman's studies are in the .4 mfr. A'rt/»rrt//j/, Monthly, X. (Lewis); Lyell's Second I'isit, 1. 252 ; Stevens, Jan., 1S68, and Pen/tody A/ns. Rept., ii. Putnam (Essex * From a photograph taken in 1868, furnished by his family. The portrait in the Peabody ATttsetttn Report, no. viii., represents him somewhat later in life, witlt a beard, lie tbed Sept. 4, 1874. Tlu-rc are accounts of Wyman in the same Report, by Asa Gray, who also made an address on Wyman before the Boston Society of Nat. Hist. (cf. Pop. Scicttce Mottthly. Jan., 1875V with commemorations by O. W. \\^^\m^l•=,( Atlantic Monthly, Nov., 1874, and Mass, Hist. Soc. Proc., xiv. 4), by F. W. Putnam in t!ie Proc. A titer. Acad, with a list of his publications ; by Packard in the Mem Xat. Acad., and B. G. Wilder (Old and .Vc7v, Nov., ,874). ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA. 393 There lias been as yet little found in America from which to develop the evidence of early man from any lake or river dwellings, while so much has been done in Europe.' In some parts of Florida the Indians are /? ShellHeaps yruxrJcut^ ilis sUe* if JndUat Settlements. V j^ii ■> I I t I I , I t I I ■ --ill-. '^ M. SHELL HEAPS ON CAPE COD. Ins/. Su//., XV. 86) says that those at Pine Grove, near Salem, Mass., were examined in 1S40. The map which is annexed of those on Cape Cod, taken from the Swithso- nian Report {I'&'&i^ p. 905), shows the frequency of them in a confined area, as observed ; but the same region doubtless includes many not observed. For those on the New Jersey coast see Cook's Geology of Xew 7f'rj<'^ (Newark, 1 863), and Ran in \\\e Smitftsonian Kf/>ortSy iS6;^, 1864, 1865. The Lockwood collection from the heap at Keyport is in the Peabody Museum {cf. Re fit. ^ xxii. 43X Francis Jordan describes the Revtaius of an Aboriginal Encampment at Rekohoih^ Delaware (Philad., 1880). Klmer R. Reynolds reported on " Precolumbian shell heaps at Newburg, M; viand, and the aboriginal shell heaps of the Potomac and Wicomico rivers" at the Congrh des Am^ricanistes (Copenhajien, iSS^, p. 292). Ji.si'ph Leidy describes those at Cape Henlopen in the /'////. AcaJ. .Vat. Sci., 1866. Those on the Georgia coast, .St. Simon's Island, etc., are pointtd oui in C. C. Jones's Antiquities of the Southern Indians; Smithsonian Refits, ^ 1871 (by D. Rrown) ; in Lyell's Anttq. of Man ^ and in his Second I'isit tofhe U. S. (N. Y., 184-)), i. 252. Th' ,.' ell heaps of Florida have had unusual attention. V" < )nn has indicated the absence of obiects in them, show- .ng Spanish contact. Dr. Printon's first studies of them were in his Motes on the Floridian Peninsula (Philad.* 1859), ch. 6, and acain in the Smithsonian Refiort ii%()b\ p. ■^56. Prof. Wyman's first reports {St. John River) were in The American Naturalist^ Jan., Oct., Nov., 1868. He also described them in the Peabody Afus. Refiort^ i., v., vii., and in his Fresh Water ShelUteafis of the St. John River^ Florida (Salem, 1875), being no. 4 of the Memoirs of the Peal'ody Acad, of Science. There arc other investigations recorded in the Smithsonian Refiorts^ 1877, by S. P. May- berry, on St. John River; iS7f>, by S. T. Walker, on Tampa Hay; also by \. W. Voqclcr in Amer. Xtttura/ist, Jan., 1879; by W. H. Dall in the American Journal 0} Archeeology^ i. 184; and by A. K. Dout;lass in the Anfr. Antiquarian^ vii. 74, 140. On those of Alabama, sc Pea- body Mus Refit., xvi. 1S6, and Smithsonian Refit. y 1877. On those of the great interior valleys, see the Second Ge. ological Refiort of Indiana, and Huniphrfv nrul .Abbott's Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississififii I 'alley. For the California coast, there is tc^timonv in Pancroft's Natiz>e Races, iv. 709-712; Smithsonian Refit., 1S74 (bv P. Schumacher); American Antiquarian, vii. 159: and Journal of the A nthrofiological Institute, v. 489, Schu- macher covers the northwest coast in the Smithsonian Refit., 1S73. Those in Oregon are reported to be destitute of the bones of extinct animals, in the Bull. U. S. Geol. Surrey^ u\. PancroEt, .Vat. Races, Iv. 7:^0, refers to those on Vancouver's Island, W, H. DaU describes those on the Aleutian Islands in the Contributions to Ma. Amer. Eth- nology, i. 41. * This branch of archsolncical science began, T believ?, with the discovery by Sir Wm. R. Wilde of some hrns- trine habitations in a small lake in countv Meath. R. Mon- ro's Ancient Scotch lake ZJw*///«^f (Edinburgh, 1882) has lii 1 \ i If] V !■ II ».t li > h. V \ hi ,1 PUEBLO REGION.* * From a map, " Originalkarte der Urwohnsitze der Azteken unci Verwandten Pueblos in New Mexico, zusammeri' gestellt von O. Loew," in Petermann's Afiiiheihtng-en iiber lukhtige twite Er/orschungen aufdem Gesammtgebiei 'der Geographies xxii. (1876), table xii. The small dotted circles stand for inhabited pueblos; those with a perpendicular line attached are niins ; and when this perpendicular line is crossed it is a Mexicanized pueblo. See the map in Powell's Second Refit. Bur. A-Mwo/, (i88a-Si) p. 31S, which marks the several classes: inliabited, abandoned, ruined pueblos, cavate houses, cliff houses, and tower houses. .Ai "~\ ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA. 395 "3^ exico, zusammen* sammtgebie^ ■ der perpendicular line i map in Powell's d, ruined pueblos, reported to have built houses on piles; and in Snuth America tree-houses and those on platforms arc well known. Mr. llilborne T. Cressun has reported {Pcabody Miis. Kept., .xxii. for iSSS) the discovery of pile ends in the Delaware River, and has shown that two of these river stations are earlier than the third, as is evident from the rude implements of aryiUite found in the two when compared with those discovered in the third, where implements of jasper and quartz and fragments of pottery were associated with those of argiUite. The earliest discoveries of the cliff houses of the Colorado region were made by Lieut. J. H. Simpson, and his descriptions appeared in X^m Journal of a Military Reconnoissance, in 1S49.' No considerable addition was made to our knowledge of the clitt dwellers till in 1S74-75, when special parties of the llayden tieological Survey were sent to explore them (IhiyUciis lieforl, 1S70), whence we got accounts of those of southwestern Colorado by W. H. Holmes, including the cavate-houses and cliff-dwellers of the ^an Juan, the Mancos, and the ruins in the McElmo caiion.- \V. 11. Jackson gives a revised account of his 1S74 expedition in the Bui- Utin of the Survey (vol. ii. no. i), adding thereto an account of his explorations of 1S75. Jackson also gives a chapter on the ruins of the Cliaco canon. il In coming to the class of ruins lying in a few instances just within, but mostly to the north of, the Mexican line, we encounter the I'ueblo race, whose position in the etlinological chart is not cpiite certain, be their con- nection with the Nahuas and Aztecs,'' or with the moundbuilders, — red Indian if they be, — or with the cliff- dwellers, as perhaps is the better opinion. Their connection with savage nation- farther north is not wholly determinable, as Morgan allows, on physical and social grounds, and perhaps not as definitely settled by their architecture as Cushing seems to think.-"* The Spaniard early encountered these ruins,'' and pe ' ps the best summary of the growth of our knowledge of them by successive explorations is in Bancroft's A'at. A'accs, iv. ch. ii.' In the century after the Spanish conquest, we have one of the best accounts in the Memorial of Fray Alonso licnavides, published at Madrid in 1630.S The most famous of the ruins of this region, the Casa Grande of the Gila Valley in Arizona," is g.ithered what is known of tlie remains in Great Britain. There are similar remains in various parts of the continent of Europe; but those revealed by the dry season o! 1853- 54 in the Swiss lakes have attracted the most notice. Dr. Keller described them in Re/orts made to the Arclil- (ili.gic.il Sociciyof Zurich. A. Morloi printed an abstract of Keller's Report in the Smithsonian Report, 1863. In iSfifi, J. E. I,ee arrani-ed Keller's material systematically, and translated it in The Lake Ihuelliiigs of Switzerhnd and other farts of Europe, by Ferdinand A"f//cr (London, iSr)*.), which was reissued, enlarged and brought down to dale, in a second edition in 1S7S. Th" earliest elaborated account -as Prof. Troyon's Habitations laeustres (iSfjo), of which there was a translation in the Smithsonian Re- ports, i'<(So, i7\ Humboldt, Essai foUtique ; Baldwin, /I tic. A iiier- ica. S2; Mayer, il/f-Wfo, ii. sod, and Observations. 15; Pomencch, Deserts, i. 3S1 ; Ross nrnwne, .Afaclie Coun- try, 114; Jametcl in Rev. de GUg., Mar., iS3i; N.id.iil- lac J'rehist. Amfr., 222. Bancrntt groups many of the descriptions, and best collates them. - (Iregg, in his Commerce des Prairies (N. Y., 1844), ex- amined the Pueblo H45. W>7,673 (with ref.) ; Sliort, 28S; Miiilhaustn, Rei'sen in die Eelsenge- birge Nord Amerikas (ii. 196, 402), and his Tagebuch, 283 ; Cozzen'^ Marvellous Country ; Tour du Monde, i. : Harper''s Monthly, Aug., 1S75; J. E. Stevenson's /^uHi and the Zunians (Washington, 1881). Of F. H. Cushiug's recent labors among the Zuni, sep Powell's Second, Third, and Fifin Reports, Bur. of /ethnology. » The Report of Lieut. W. H. Emor)'. directly in charge of the survey (// make surveys pic's report on ceil the United s John Hussell ersonal narra- contribution to well first pub- MoHlhly (Jan., • (Washington, the U. S. Geo- )le and original ■.f (U.S. Army) clcr's Survey)) those made by lis " Historical n the ruins of n, iSSi).n He nicnts, finally i'(//. Arclueol. New Mexico Attc. America^ !i"rt, 2c,2. The 11" ill 1877, and Purvey, I S7S, p. (si'c Nadaillac, :., ch. 7, 8, — of Cibula seen 11 our Viil. II. ■il Ainer, Gcog. ).■ <>'ir.673 (wilh ' die Fflsciige- his TagcbuJi, dii Aionde, i. ; 'veustni's /^iii'ii '■ H. Cushiu^'s Second, Third., ectly in charge 'Kg., 1st seis.), >est 0/ lite one 'nielli. Gen. M. ■m, 1S7.,). Er- "blished some Icxico'' ill the tb. Mils. Re/tt., ?r. Ass. Adv. [e intends as a lorations prior (Fifth Report), He renewed his studies in 1S82 {First Bull. Archeol. hist., Jan., 1883), and thought the ruins showed successive occupiers, and divides them into cave dwellings, cliff bouses, one-story buildings, and those of more than one, with each higher one retreating from the front of the next lower. The most essential sources of information have thus been enumerated, but there is not a little fugiiive and comprehensive treatment of the subject worth the student's attention who follows a course of investiijation.l The literature of the moundbuilders, and of the controversies arising out of the mysterious relics of their life, is commensurtte with the very wide extent of territory covered by their traces.- It was long bdited the Toltecs with building them, whom he considered the descendants of the I • As the century ilraws t. . .. ic,\ ■ d occasional and rather bewildered expression of interest in the Observations on the Ancien: ■' unds b> 'lajor Jonathan \\vxc\.\''\\\\.\k Missions ai Loskiel ; in the New Views oi Dr. Smith liarton; ; i le CaroV : . f William liartram; and in the travels of Volney. In I7i personal contact with the remains to give his views any value (1S25). Warden In his ^^fAcrt/K'J ( 1X27) gave some new plans and rearranged the old descriptions. Ihere was some sober observation in .M'Culloh's Researches (jd ed., 1S29) ; some far from solx'r in Kafinesque (iSjS) ; some com- piled descriptions witli worthless comment in Josiah I'riest's Amcriam Antiquities (.Mlxiny, 1S3S); some- thing like scientific deductions in S. (i. Morton's study of the few niouiHlbuilders' skulls then known, in his Cranea Americana (i.S^c)) ; with an attempt at sumniin).i up in Delafield (iSvi) and Ilradford (1S41). This is about all that had been added to what .\twater did, when K. (i. Squier and IC. II. Davis eclipsed all labors preceding theirs, and lx."gan tlie series of tile Smit/isonian Contrilnitions with their Ancient Muniimcnls of the Mississiffi Valley (W.ashingtoii, 1.S47 and iS4S).l During tlie preceding two years tliey had o|x;ned over two hundred mounds, and explored about a hundred earthwork enclosures, and had gathered a considerable CUL. CHAKLE.S WHlTTLKsEV.- collection of specimens of nioundbuilders' relics.- They had begun their work iiiider the auspices of the American Etiinological .'Society, but tlie cost of the production of the volume exceeded tlie society's resources, and the transfer was made to the Smithsonian Institution. The work took a commanding position at once, and still remains of essential value, though some of the grounds of its authors are not acceptable to present observers; and indeed in his work on the mounds of New York, which the Smithsonian Institution included in tile second volume of their Contribntions, Squier found occasion to alter some of his opinions in his earlier work, or at least to ascrilx' the mounds of that State to the Iroquois. The tliird volume of the same Contributions (1S52) introduces to us one of the ablest of the local invest ig.ators in a pa|»r by Charles Whit- tlesey, of " Descriptions of .\ncient Works in Ohio," — the forerunner of numerous papers wliicli he has given * H.iven, 117. This publication was anticipated by a condensed statement in Sqnier's Ob^ervatiou oti the Abo' rigituil Monuments of the Mississipf^i I'alley, in the second volume of tlie Trans. Amer. F.thnol. .S'oc. (N. Y., 1847), and in his Observations on the C'ses 0/ the t'ifountis of the li'est^ with an attempt at their Classijication (New Haven, 1847). Cf. also Harper's Mag., xx. 737 ; xxi. 20, 165; Aimr. Jour. .S"t*/c;/<-(', Ixi. 305. 2 These went in iSfSj to the Bl.ackmore collect! on in S.ilis- bury, Kng., and are described in Stevens' Flint Chifs. • .\fter a photojiraph kindly furnished by the Hon. C. C Baldwin, of Cleveland, Ohio, who has printed a memorial oi" his friend with a list of his writings in Tract 6-S 0/ the Western Reserve Hist. .'inc. rH I '' 1^ I \\ 400 NAKKATIVE AM) CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. m ■■■[ •Al .? ' ; I ' 1 ^ i' ''^' ).' ih '11 iiPiiiti [/ :i':)i IM ii ; I r r to the public In I'liitiil.ition of tliu niminiU.' Three years hter (1S55), In the seventh volume u( the Ah;;///- Ionian Coitlril'iilii'iis. ;i new tiilcl in the enibluniatlc and animal mounds of the northwest was for tiie tirst time brought to any tonsiderable extent to public atter\tion in tlie pa|)er by Increase A. I.aphani, on tliu " Antiquities •' Wisconsin." I.apliam had made bis explor.1,1 .ns under the auspices of the American Antiquarian Society,'- and his manuscript had been revised Ijy Haven, wlien it was decided to consign it for publication to the Smithsonian Insti- tution. The animal mounds had been indeoil earlier men- tioned, atid the Kreat serpent mound of Ohio had long attracted attention; but it w.-is in the territory now known .is Wisconsin tliat these mounds were found chielly to abound. Long, in i.Sji, speaks of mounds in this region; but the forest coverings seem to have prevented any observer detecting their shapes till Laphani tirst noted this peculiarity in 1S36. In .April, i.SjH, K. C. Taylor was the earliest to ligurc them in the Amrr. Journal of Silence (Silliman's), and aijain Uiey were described by S, Taylor in l/'iil.. 1,^42. I'rof. John I.ocke referred to them in a h\'/ort on the mineral lanth of the United Sialic, made to Congress in 1S44. William ridgcon. who had been a trader amcmg the Indians, published in his Traititions of Dc-coo-dah, and Antiquarian researches : com/rising' extensive ex- ploration, surreys and excavations of the Mound Builders in America ,' the traditions of the last I'rophet of the Elk Nation, rela'ive to their origin and use, and the evidences of an ancient fopulation more numerous than the f resent Aborigines {N. Y., iS;?; again iSj.S) what he pretended was in large part the results of his intercourse with an Indian chief, in volving some theories as to the symbolism of the mounds. The book contained so many palpable perver- sions, not to say undisguised fictions, that the Smithsonian Institution refused to publish it;'' and the book has never gained any credit, though some unguarded writers have unwittingly borrowed from it.'' In the eighth volu no of the Smithsonian Contributions,^' Haven, the librarian of tlie .Amer. Antiq. Soc, summed up the results of ninund exploration as they then stood. The steady and circumspect h.abit of Haven's mind was conspicuous in his treatment of the mounds. It is to him that the later advocates of the Identity of their builders with the race of the red Indians look as the first sensibly to affect public opinion in the matter." He argued against their being a more advanced race (p. 154), and in his Kefori of the .Vm. Antiq. Soc, in 1.S77 (p. 37), he held that it might yet be proved that the moundbuilders and red Indians were one in race, as M'CuUoh had already suggested. .At the time when Haven was first intimating (1S56) that this view might yet become accepted, it was doubtless held to be best established that those who built the mounds were quite another race from those who lived among them when Europeans first knew the country. The fact that the Indians had no tradition of their origin was IilIcI to be .almost conclusive, though it is alleged that the southern Indians in later times retained no recollections of the expedition of De Soto, and Dr. lirinton thinks that it is common for Indian traditions to die out." It is not till recent years that any considerable number of moundbuilder skulls have been known, and from the scant data which the early craniologists had, their opinion seems to have coincided with those in favor of a vanished race.' It was a favorite theory, not yet wholly departed, that they were in some way connected with the more southern peoples, the Pueblo Indians, the Aztecs, or the Peruvians ; either INCREASE A. LAPHAM.* * Cf. Trans. Amer. Asso. Adv. Set., 1S7.1, and a paper •* On the weapons and military character of the race of the mounds" in the Boston Soc, Xat. Hist. Mem,, i. 473 (iSA.,). "^ froceeditigs, Oct. 2,^, 1S52, where are plans of those at Crawfordsville, and of others in the dividing ridge be- tween the Mississippi and the Kickapoo rivers. Cf. Ibid. Oct., 1S76. ^ P. G, Thomson's Btbliog. of Ohio, no. gjj. * As, for instance, Conanl's Footprints of Vanished Races (1879). Cf. T. H. Lewis in the Amer. Journal of Archeology, Jan., iaS6 (ii. 65). » Archirotogy of the U. S. (1856). • M'Culloh in 1S29 h.id come to a similar conclusion, and Oallatin and Schoolcraft have somewhat followed him. ' Hist. Mag., Feb., i8r,6. Cf. Charlevoix. " This was Dr. J. C. Warren's view in 1837, in a paper before the Brit. Asso. Adv. Science, Cf. also Blumen- bach, Morton, Nott, and Gliddon. * Enpraved from a phnintcraph dated 1863, kindly furnished by his friend, Prof. J. D. Whitney. Lapham died in 187J Cf. Anter. Jovrnal of Science, x. 320; xi. 326, 333; Trans. Wise. Acad. Science, iii, 264. \Y I' "( the .Siiiit/i. as for the first xtiMit to public isi' A. I.apham, I.aph;mi had auspices III the his ni.'iiiiiscri|it «as decided to ithsonlan Instl- 'cil earlier men- id of Ohin had in the tcrritiiry ie mounds were iSJi, speaks of coverings sccni detecting their peculiarity in w.is the earliest >iiil of Siicnce lesciibed by S. I.ockc referred "/ lamls of th« 1^4^. William ig the Indians, e-coo-dah, ami extensive ex- of the Moil H J "IS of the last to their origin awson {Fossil MtHy 55) deems thtMnodfiii Puublo Indians to be tlieir represenintivi's. Hrnsseur supp4)ses the Toltecs came from them. (Cf. alsd Short, 41JJ; and S, H. Evans, in Kausas City Rev., March, 1SS2.) John Wells Foster, who had for some years written on the .subje t,; ithercil \\\% resuhs in 'a compor.ite volume, PrehiitorL Races of t' i United States (Chicago, iS;.!, 1S7S, iSSi, etc.), in which he held to the theory ot' their mi;;rating south and deyeloi^ ing into the civilization of Central America, ^f. 1'^ paper in the Trans. Chicago Acad. Xat. Set., vol. {., and his abstract of it in his Mississi/'/>i I'aUcy (1869, p. .J15). J. P. Mac Lean's J/(>7<«(//'////(/4-r.r (Cincinnati, 1S7. takes similar ground. Morgan f/V*«^. Afus, Rcpt.^y \. 552) holds that they cannot be classed with any known Indirn *' stock," and that the "nearest region from which th-'y could have been derived is New Mexico." Wills de Haas takes ex- ception to this view in the Trans. A»thro/>ologicai Soc. of Washington (i^Si). Cf. R. S. Robertson in Comf>te Rcndu^ Congrt's dcs A in^r/canistes (i^jj), x\. 39. 2 Major Powell says, that years r > he reached the con- clusion that the modern Indians mu-^t have raised at least some of the mounloration of the Bureau 0/ Ethnology, also issueti separately. In thi*' it was Slated that ovir .-,000 mmnuls liad been op4'iii'd, and 3S,ooo relics gathered from then); but nothing to affnrd any clue to the language which the muundbuilders spoke. The conclusions reached were : — First, the mounds are as diversified as the Indian tribes are. Second, they yield no signs of a superior race. Third, their builders and the Iiulian-i are the same. Fourth, the accounts of the early European visitors of the Indians found here correspond to the disclosures of the mounds. Fifth, certain kinds of mounds in certain localities are the work of tribes now kriown ; and there are no signs about the mounrV, to connect them with the Pueblo Indians or those farther south. Thoma-., in the /^//.V /ic/(7r/ (i«>ts) described the "Burial Mounds of the northern sections of the U. S.'* He says that the character of the mounds and their contents in- ,' ijiur. of dicate the possibility of dividing the territory they oc- s paper in cupy roughly into eight districts, each with some pronn- * This follows a survev given in Squler's Ser/>ent Sytndo/ CS. Y., !^5t>. p. 1,^7. It is criticised by Putnam in Peabody Museum Reports, xviii. ;^4^, and Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc, Oct., x^'^y. Putnam has recently purchased over sixty acres about the effigy, which is to be held by the trustees of the Pe.ihody Museum as a park {Re/>is., xxi. 14); and his recent explorations show that the projections in the side of tlie hcail (shaded dark in the cut) are not a part of the construction. He also finds two distinct periods of occupation in this region, to the oldest of which he attributes this work {Peab. Mus. Rept. 1S88). W. H. Holmes made a survey in iS% (/|;//cr. Antiquarian, May, 1S87, ix. 141; Science, vlii. 624, Dec. 31, r886). Cf. J. P. MacLean, in Amer. Antiquarian, vii. 44, and his Monndbuilders^ p. 56; Baldwin's Anc. America, 29. T. H. Lewis describes a snake mound in Minnesota (.9r/>«(-(', ix. 393)- On the sequent symbol see R. D. Peet, in Amer. Antiquarian, viii. 197; ix. 13, where he manifests a somewhat omnivorous appetite. VOL. I. — 26 'H I w ' It i I' 1 l^ 403 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. ;-. '.:"■ m (1 ^ Mi M .:' I / Of the opposing theory of a disappeured race, Capt. Heart In reply tu lUrtnn lAmtr^ PAiio/oj;. Asso. Prot^ til.) gave, aH ThomaH thlnk^i, "thv uartlest clcir and dl'^tinct fxprusslon/' Imt S(|uiiT ,\\u\ DaviH may be coiinld- crcd UH first K<^>i>K >t dt'titilte nti-aiiin^ ; and though Sijiiicr docs not seem to have .ictii.illy revoked this judg* ment a» respects the nioundH in the Mississippi v.dley, lie tin.illy reached the concliisinn that tliii-ie in New York were really the work of the lro(|Uois.i I'liis ancient-racc theory, sometimes amoiintiiiK to a belief in their autochthonous cri^h), has impressed the public thnru^h some of the l>est known summaries of Ameti* can antiipiities, like those of Haldwin, Wilson, and >hort,^ and has been ado))ted by men of such reputation as Lyell.** The position taken l)y I'rotc^Hor I'', W. Putnam, the curator of the I'eabodv Miisetmi of Arclurol- ogy at Cumbrid>;e, is much like that taken earlier by Warden in his kdhcrchesy that botl» views are, within tiieir own limitations, correct, and, as I'utnam expresses it, " that many Indian tribes built mounds and earth- works is beyond diuibt ; but that all the mounds and earthworks of North America are by these same tribes, or their immediate ancesttirs, is not thereby proved. ' * I'homas \Fifth Report^ liureait lithnol.) hold) this statement tu be toii vaKue. it is certainly shown in the whole histciry of arch;eoloj;ical study that unonupro- niisin^ demarcations have sooner or later to be abandoned. Mor|b;an finds kees once (Pittipied tlie Appalaihiaii region, and that implements of the white men are f<.and in some of the mounds, brinf^inn them down t() a period since the contact with Kuropeans. The habits of the huihlers of these mounds are, as he affirms, known to correspoud to what we know from historic evidence were the habits of the Cherokees. Thomas has also communicated the views of the Burcu in other ways, ns in the Amer. Aniiqiuiruxn^ \\. <,o\ vii. 65; Mat:, Amer. Hist., May, 1SS4, p. y/.; iSS;, p. i.^; Julyand Sept., i^**^. In those papers, among other points, he maintains thai the defensive enclosures of northern Ohio are due to the Iroqunis-Huron tribes, and he ac- cepts the ''icwnf Peet and Lalham, that the animal mounds are more ancient than the simpler forms. Other investi- gators have adopted, in some dej^ree, this view. Horatio Hale thinks the ("hernkees of Iroquois origin, and that tla-y may have mingled with the moundbuildcrs. (' C. Haldwin holds the AUegheni, Cherokees, and the moundbuildcrs to be the same. Prominent amonR those who have adopted this red- Indian theory are Jiidi^e M. F. Force and laicien Carr. In 1S74 Force published at Cincinnati a paper, which he read before the literary club of that city; and in 1^7; he prepared a paper or the race of the mound-huilders, which appears in French in the Compte Rendu, i\inf!^h i/es At'iiric(tnistesi\9,jy^\. p, i2it, and in Kni;lish, To what Race did the Moundbuildfrs belong (Cincinnati, 1870. He maintainsthat the race, which shows no diflerenccs from the modem Indians, flourished till about 1,000 years apo, and that some of them stiU survived in the Gulf States in the sixteenth century, and that their development was about on the plane of the Pueblos, higher than the Algonquins and lower than the Aztecs. Can's Mounds of the Mississippi VaUey historically considtred makes part of the second volume of Shaler's Kentucky Surrey, and was also issued separately (iHS.O- It is tlie most elaborate collation of the accounts of the early travellers, and of others comiiiK in contact with tlie Indians at an early day, winch h.is yet been made, and hit foot'Ootes are an ample bihlioKraphy of this aspect of the subject. He holds (hat these early records prove that nothing has been found in the meunds which was not described in the early narratives as pertainint; to the In- dians of the early contact. He aints also particularly to show that these early Indians were agriculturists and sun* worslnp|>ers, Hrinton, reviewnij; the paper in the Ameri- can Anti(fuarian (iBS^, p, (.S), holils that Cairgoes too far, and practises the arts of a special pleader. Brlnton's own opinions si em somewhat to have changed. In the Hist. A/aj^'t Feb., 1S6C., p. 35, lie considers the momidbuilders as not advanced beyond the red I ndians ; and in the A merit an Antitjuarian (iSSii, iv. 0. in in(luirin^ into their probable nationality, he thinks they were «n ancient peojile who were driven south and became the moundbuilding Chahla. Other snpporters of the red Indian viev; are Edmund Andrews, in the Wisconsin Acad. 0/ Science, iv. \2U\ P. K. Hoy, in lbid.\'\.\ O. T. Mason, in Science, iii. ^158; Nadaillac, in 1/ A intrigue frfhistorii^ux.' ; K. Schmidt, i:i AViwcf ( Leipzig;), \'\. Si, 163; O. P. Thurston, in Afag. Afner. Hist.y iSSS,, xix. 3/4. * '''his is denied in Fred. Larkin's Anc. Man in Amtr* ica{S.Y.\ « J. T). Haldwin»s Anc. America {'ii. Y., 1871). D. Wilson's /VM/.i7('r/f .U.t«, i. ;'i. 10, etc., who holds that *' the moundbuildcrs were greatly more in advance of the Indian hunter than behind the civdij-rd Mexican; " and he claims that the proof deduced from the Indian type of a head discovered in a m this aspect of ilie ■cords prove Ihat is wliicli was not ainliiK lo the In- Iso particularly 10 culturisis and siiii- ler in the- Anitri- Lair Koes loo f.ir, r. Hrintoir.s own ■d. In llu- l/iil. nioundhuildeis as 1 in \\-ieAmfrii;iH nio ilifir prnbalilc icielil peiijilc who dbiiilding C^halita. flew arc Kdnnind '.ilmt, iv. ijf) J V. Scifiue, iii. 658; ; E. Schniidi, l;i 'hurslon, in Mug. c. Man in Anter- I. Y., ,!i7i). D. ., wlio holds that in advance of the lexican ; " and he Indian type of a ipc (i. 3W1) is due )avis. Short, N<'. the race later in 2, believes in the \d.iir thought the than the modern his investigations arts, xvii., xviii., V"/., XV. ; Amer. ■v., 1870, etc. s of the mound- fouse Life, ch. <> 1^. Amer, Hist,, has advanced in The b.ijls far estlmatinij the age of the mounds is threefold. In tin- first place, there are vcy few found on till' last of tlie river terraces to lie reclaimed Iroiii the stn ,1111. In Ilie s< omd place, the decay of the skektoiii found in tlieiii can lie taken as of soiiiu Indication, It due rcijaid lie li.id to the kind ol earth In which they are buried. Third, the axe of Ireen upon tlieni lias been .iccepted as carrying them back a certain periml, at jenit, thoiiKh this may widely vary, If you assume their growth to be siibsecpient to the abandonment of the mounds, or if, a> Ilrlntiui liohls.t the trees were planted immediately upon the building, 1 he dependence upon countinK the rin^s is by no means a settled opinion as tu all climes ; but in the temjivrate tunc the best authorities place (le|K^er Mississip/ii, or Historical Sketches of the Mound- builders (Chicago, iW>7); .S<,ulhall's Recent Origin of Man. eh. 36; Wm. McAdams's Records of ancient races in the Mississippi valley ; leing an account of some of the pictograpi' sculptured hieroglyphs, symbolic devices, emblems ,, traditions of the prehistoric races of Amer- ica, with J ■•■e sugt^estions as to their origin (St. Louis, 1887); liruli CulturvMker des alien Amerita: J. D. Sherwood, in Stevens's Flint Chips, 341 : E. Pickett's Testimony of th, Rocisltl. Y.). ' Hist. Mag., 1 lb., 1866. ' Cf. Cangrh des Amfr., 1877, i. 31^; C. Thomas in Amer. Antig,, \\\, (^f>\ Warden's ^^c/i/ri-^'j, ch. 4; Bald- win's Anc. America, ch. 2. 3 Cf. Short, p. 15S. * F'orce, To what Race, etc., p. 63. " Cf. Henry (iillnian's "Ancient Men of the (ireat Lakes" in Amer, Assoc, Adv, Sci. (Detroit, 1H75), pp. 2'^7, 317; Boston Nat. H iH, Soc, /'roc, iv. 331 ; Smithso- nian Kept,, 1867, p. 4ij; C. C. Jones's Anti,/. Soutliern Indians ; I'eahfdy .Mus. Repts.f iv., vi., xi. ; Jos. Jones's Ai'orig. Remains of Tennessee; Jeffries Wyman \n.-lm. fournal of Arts, etc, cvii. p. i. ; W.J. Mctiee in ll'id. cxvi. 45S ; and Dr. S, F. Laiidrey on "A moundbuilder's brain" in /'op. .S'cience .Veios {lUtMnii.Ocl,, 18S6, p. 138). " Cf. Holmes's " Objects from the .Moumis " in Powell's ffur. of /^thnol. Repts., iii.; (.'. C. Baldwin's " Uelics of the Moundbuiltlers'' in It'est, Reserve /list. Soc. I'ract, no. 23 (1874}; Foster on their stone and copper implements in Chicago Acad. Science, i. (i«f>.,); objects from the (^hio mounds in Stevens's Flint Chips, 41S; images from them in .Scietice, April 11, 18^4, p. 437. In the inounils of the Little Miami Valley, native gold and meteoric iron have been found for the t'lrst time (I'eaii, Mus. Rept,, xvi. 170). ' See, on such impositions in general, Mac Lean's Mound- luilders, ch. q; C. C". Abbott in /'op. .*ici. Monthly, July, 1SS5, p. 308 ; Wilson's /'rehist. ,)/an, ii. ch. ig ; Putnam in /'ea/: Mus. Repts., xvi. 1X4; Fourth Rept. Bur. /Uhnol. 247. The best known of the disputed relics are the following: The largest moiiiul in the Ohio Valley is that of the Orave Creek, tuelve miles Ijelow Wheeling, which was earliest de- scribed by it.i owner, .\. B. Tomlinson, in 1838. It is sev- enty feet high and one thousand feet in circumference. (Cf. Squier and Davis, Foster, .MacLcan, Olden 'Time,'\. 232; and account by P. P.Cherry — W.idsworth, 1877.) About 1838 a shaft was sunk by Tomlinson into it, and a rotunda constructed in it.^ centre out of an original cavity, as a show- room for relics : and here, as taken from the mound, ap- peared two years later what is known as the t'rave Creek stone, bearing an inscription of inscrutable characters. The supposed relic soon attracted attention. H. R. School- craft pronounced its twenty-two characters such " as were used by the Pelasgi." in bis Observations respecting the Grave creek mound, in II 'estern I 'irginia : the antique inscription discovered in its excaz'ation : ami the connected ezfidence of the occupancy of the Mississippi valley during the mound period, and prior to the disco-.'ery of America by Columbus, which appeared in the Amer. Ethnological I <. • r^ 404 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. There roni.iins in this suivoy of tlu- literature of the mounds in ;iU tlieir varieties, to go over it, fuuilly. in relation to their fieoj^rapl.ical distril)ution : ' — New Knylaml is ahiiosl destitute of these antiquities. Tlie one that lias attracted some attention is what is described as a furtilication in Sanbornton. in New Hampshire, which when found was faced with .stone externally, and tlte walls were six feet thick and breast-iii,i;li. wlien described about one hundred and lifteen years ago. There is a phm of it. with a descriptive account. i)reserved in the library of the American .\ntiq. Society,- and anotlier plan and description in M. T. Runnels's //isi. of Sanbornton (Boston, 1882;, i. ch. 4. ^^qnier also figured it. As wc move westward, tin- mtiunds begin to be nnmerous in the State of New \'itik. and particularly in the western part ot it. Due of the earliest descriptions of them, after that of the missionary Kirkland (about i;S#', is in the '"Journal of the Kev. John laylor while on a mission through the Mohawk and iJlack Kiver Country in 1802," which was tirst printed, with plans of the works examined, in the Documentary Hist. Xcw York (Vol. iii. quarto ed.i. In iSiS DeWitt Clinton published at Albany his Mt-inoir on the Antiquities of ^^i;- CINCINNATI TAlJiJ:'].* Soc. Trans. .^ i. 3'>7 (N. V.. 1S43I. Cf. his Indian Tribes^ iv. iiS, where he thinks it n>.\y l)i' an " intrusive aniitiuity." The French savant Joniard puh.ibhcd a Xotc sur ittie pierre ffra'rew in Ci't/j^ris i/,-s A inrr. (Nancy, i. 215). Other notices arj by MiM>e Schwab in Revue .-i n/iMot^-ii/m; Feb., 1S57 ; Jost- I'erez m.-lrc/i. dt la Soc. Anit-r t/e France {I'^u^), ii. 17.^; and in America in the Atner. PionecryW. 197; Haven's ./ rr//^/-.:)/. I', S.^ 133, and Amer. Antiq. Soe. J'roe., April jo, i'"<(m»PP- i3i 32; Atner, Antiquarian, \. 130: Bancroft'^ Xat. /Ca act^, nns. q (1S72), 33 (1^76)^ 42([S;S), and 44 1 1871,) ) Cf. on this side Short, p. 4K); and Fourth Rept. tinr. Etlinoi.. 2^0. Its authehticity is, however. niaintain«il hv M.icl.can [A found builder.':, Cinn., iS;.!). who stmimari/es the nri;unieiils pro and ecn. What is known as thi> Cincinnati tablet was found on the site of iliat city in 1S41 f ,1 nter. Pioneer, ii. 19O. Sqnier accepted it as j;emiine, and tlKiii^^ht it niii;ht be a prlntini;- stono for diTorating hides \Anier. Ethnol. .Soc. Trans. ^ ii. ; Abnrik^.Mt'i. I1S4-), p. 70). Whittlesey at tirst (lonl)tfrl it (ll'e^t. Res. I/i.st. Tracts^ no. o"), but was later convinced of its ijennineness by Robert Clarke's /'reliixt.tric Remains found on the iite of Cincinnati \\>x\\\\w\s printed, Cinn., lS7^). The so-called IVrlin tahlrt was ffinnd in Tlhio in i*<-''\ S. D. Feet believes it j;enuine [.i/ner, Autiq.. i 7 '> ; vii. 222). On the Rockford tablet, see Shr-l, 44. The Davenport tablets, fiMuul by the Rev. J. Gass 1.1 a mound near Davenport, in Jnii , 1S77, are described in the Davenport Acad. I roc, ii. <)'». i3.J. 221, 340; iii. 155. Cf. further in A nier. -t-^so. Ad7\ .Science Prtu . (April, 1S77). by R.J. Farquharson ; Cont^rh des A rner. (li^r 7 /ti- 15S, wiili cut). The American Antiquarian records the contro versy over its genuineness. In vol. iv. 145, John Campbell proposed a readini: of the inscription. The suspicions are set forth in vii. 373, Feet, in viii. 4^1, inclines to consider it a fraud ; and, p. i>2, there is a defence. Short (pp. 3^-3*)) doubts. In x\\ii Second .-^ nier. Rept. Hur. oj Ethnol., H. W. Henshaw, on " Animal Carvings," attacked its char- acter. (Cf. Fourth Rept., ji. 251.) A reiily by C. E. Fut- natn in vol, iv. of the D ivenport Acad. Rroc, anil issued separately, is called \' indication of the Authenticity of the Eleplutnt pipes and inscribed tahlets in the Mus. of the Davenport Acad. (Davenport, Iowa, 1SS5). Cf. Cyrus Thomas in Science, vi. 5'>4 ; also Feb. 5, ISR6, p. 119. The question of tile elephant jipes is included in the discussion, some denying their ij;ennineness. Cf. also Atner. Antiif, ii. 67: Shr)rt, 531 ; Dr. Max Uhle in Zeitschrifi fUr Eth- noloi^ie., 1SS7, * It has been found ci^nvenient to follow an atlvanciiii; line of geographical succession, but the affiliations of the peoples of the mounds seem to hidicate that those dwelling on bndi sIo(ies an-l in the valleys of the Appalachian ranees should be iirouped tocether. as Thomas combines them in his section on the mounds of the Ajipalachian District. (/•'///// Rept. Bur. Ethnol.) - /'roc, Oct. 21. iS4.(, 11. IV. Pelknap's Xeiv //amp- shire, iii. >^i/; Haven's Ardufol. l^. S., 42. • After a cut in Wilson'-; Frehistoric Man, i, ?74, enprjived from a rnbbinp: takiii from the oriyinaj. Wilson adds: *' Mr Whittlesey has included this tiltlet among his Arch;i?oloi;ical Frauds; hut the result of inquiries made by me has removed from my mind any doubt of its venuineness." Cf other cuts in M. C. Read, ArchiroL of Ohio (iSSS) ; Squier anil D.ivis, ti;.^. 1(5; Short, p. 4,; MacL^an, 107 ; and .SVtV/*/ A'///. Hur. of Ethnol. ^y\\, i,n-34 M V ;a. )vci' it. linally. in ^ittcntiijii is what Licud will I ..tone mliuil and tifiL-en Anicriam Antiq. n. kSS2,i, i. cli. 4. aiticulaily in the Kirkland (about and lllacli Kiver uhii) Hist. A'cw Aiitiquities oj Kev. J. Gass i.i a f dcT.cribed in llic 349; iii. 15s. Cf. ■ot. (April, 1X77), by ('S77. ii- 15S, with ecords Ihf contrn- 45, John Campbell The suspicions are nchncs tti consider . Shi.rl (pp. 3S-,i,)| iir. oJ Ethnol., H. attacked its char- reply by C. E. Put- '. Proc, and issued AiithcntUily of the in tht Mils, of the 1SS5). Cf. Cyrus , 1SS6, p. iiq. The d in the discussiiu (Anl)nrn, iSio'. There is not much cl.se to note for twenty-tive years. In 1.S45, Schoolcraft made to the N. V. Senate his Kefort on the Census 0/ the Iroquois Imlians (Albany and \. V., 184(1, 1S47, 1S4.S), which is better known, perhaps, in the trade edition, Notes on the Iroquois ; or Contribution- to the StatiitiiS, A/'origina/ History, Antiquities and (ii Herat Ethnology of Western AVa' Vori (N. V. 184(1). In 1S50, the Third Kefort of tlie Ke.^ents of the University- of the State of N. V. contains 1". U llonjjh's paper on the earthwork enclosures in the State, with cuts. The .-.anie year (1S50) came the essi:iitial authority on the iNew Vork mounds, E, U. .Sipiier's Aborig- inal Monuments of the State of X. Y., ■oinfrising the results of original surveys ami explorations, with an ;'t'liistrali-ee af/endix (Washington, 1S50), which the next year made p.irt of the second volume of the Smith- soiiian Contribn'ions.- He enumerates in New Vork about 250 defensive structures, beside burial mounds and in his appendix describes those in .\ew Hampshire and some in Pennsylvania.^ Some new explora- tions of the .New Vork UMunds were made in 1851) by T. .Apolenu Cheney, who describes them, giving plans and cuts, in the Thirteenth Kefort of the Kegcnts of the L'niversity.-i It was, liowever. in Ohio th.it the interest in these nmuiuls w.is lirst iiuiled. and that the more tlionnii^h ANCli;.NT WUKKS O.N IllE M LSKI N( il' M,* ' Ii. .\. Robertson, /('//►-«ivv Others are in the Amer. Pioneer, Oct , 1R42, June 1843, and in S. P. Hililreth's Pioneer History, 212 (Jan., 1S43). Whiltlesev made the survey in Squier and Davis (who also give a colored view '1, and it is reduced in Foster. Cf. also Amer. Antiquarian, Jm., iSSo; Jltag I mer. Hist., >SS5, p. 547; Henry A. Sliepard's /^«//V/«//;;i of Ohio (Cinn., iSS,); "H^iXmWkH I.' Amfrique prfhldorique, 105, and I-es prem. Homines, ii. it,. 1", w I \ n M.. ^■•'*m. ill: 1 ( i\m'i \\i ! ! .» ' III 406 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. exploration lias been made.l The earliest pioneers reported upon them. Cutler described tliem in i;;)9 in a or A SECTION or TWEXVE MILEl It/" fit SCIOTO VAL1E"X. f, X*'//tf#/7 M K ' Cnntributions to a bibliofir.ipliv and lists of the Ohio are given in the O/ii'o Centenfiial Re/>t. and in MacLean's mnunds are found as follows; Mrs. Cyrus Tlmma-^'s Momuil'uilders^ pp. 230-23V J- Smucker, in the Atner. " liiblioK. of Karthworks in Ohio" in the Ohio ArchaoK Autiquarian^ vi. 43, dcscri!)es th interest in arclia^olojiy and Hist. (iwa^-i'crA', June, 1^87, et seq. : a lesser list is in the State, and instances the resuUs in the numerous in Thomson's Biblio^^ of Ohio^ p. 385. Lists of tlie works county histories, in the Western Reserve Hist. Soc. pul> • From E. G. Sqnicr's Ahorig-inal Monuments 0/ the Mississif>f>i Valley {"^ Soc. Trans. t W. The letters A, H, C, (*tc. mark the ancient works. EncU mounds are desi^^naied by sninll ('.its. Some of the best maps which we hav ; f;riiu|s of mounds accompany Thomas*s paper in t!ie Fifth A*('//,, Ihir, Ethnol. '7\ 'aken Irom Atner. Ethtw!. shown by broken lines. The -iiuwing the geographical positions of i' ANTIQUITY OF MAX IN AMERICA. 407 lem in i;;,9 in a [P* :WEiVE MILXI Muatiin. "^ fi^iigMtr. Mr ''-^^'i w^ 1 in MacLean's , in tlie Atiifr. in archa'olnpy I tlie numerous ^ist. Soc. pulj- 4i»er. Ethuol. en lines. Tlie al positions of letter to Jeremy Hellies of the I'alUy of the 0/;/'o (Cincinnati, iSjS). .^quier and Davis, of course, brought them witinn their range," and Col. Whittlesey supi)lementcd their work in tlic third vs by Sher- wood. * i'i. no. It, 2-j, 41. ■'■ Some minor references : Whittlesey in Firelattd's Pioiieer (June, ^'^''|^), and in his Fu.C'tn'r /:.TMV.r( Hudson, O.. 1S52). C. H.Mitchener's Ohio A iiiuih (D^yXon, 1S76). Hist. .1/yt.. bur. Ethuol.s cutilends that much of the copix^r found in the mounds was of Kuropean make, and had no relation to any ab<»riginal mining. Wis'-onsin is the central region of what are known as the animal, eltigy. symbolic, or emblematic mounds. Mention has been made elsewhere of the earliest notices of this kind of earthwork. The most extensive examination of them is the Antiqitities of Wisconsin as surveyed and described by /. A. La/ham (Wash- ington, lS;^ ), with a map showing the sites. l' The consideration of tli 'se effigy mounds has given rise to various theories regarding their significance, whether as symbols or to totems. l- It is Thomas's conclusion that * The annexed m.iji of the vicinity of Chiliicuihe will show their abuiulance in a confinecl area. E. U. Andrews on ihose in iIk- .S. K. in i^eabody Miis. Re/>t,y\. MaiLc-an's Moundhuilden (l.inciniiati, i^7m) is of nu uri^in.d value e'icept for I'uilcr County. Squier nn^;5) enibndits results of a long series of surveys. d.Jo.rnai Authro- poloi^^ical Institute^ vii. 132. 2 IJ. Drake's /'/(Vwrf (t/Owi/V/hc// (1S15); Harrison in Ohio Hist. ^ Phdos. Soc.^ i- : Squier and Davis; Ford's Ci>ici>ituit/\ i ch. 2. ^ The best known nf the ancient fnrtirications of this region is that called Fc^it Ancient, ahout 42 miles from Cin- cinnati. It was surveyed hy Prof. I-acke in 1*^43. Cf. L. M. Hosea in (^Hiir/, yourn>if of ScioiceiX'xww.A^'^^'i i^;4)t Putnam in the Atiicr. Archihrf, \\\\. 19; Amer. Auti- guariau, April, 1S7S; Force's Moundbuilders ; Warden's Recherches ', .'-^cjuier and Davis, villi plan reduced in Mac- Lean, p. 21 ; Short, 51 ; and on its present condition, Pcab. Mus. Rept.i xvi. 16S. There is an excellent map of the mounds in the Little Miami Valley, in Dr. C. L ^le;?,'s Prch/siorie Motiuwcvts 0/ the Little Muxvii I'ai/ey. in the Journal tf the Cittcinuati Soc. of Xnt. I/ist., vol. i., Oct., i'^7>'. The explorations of Pntnnm and Met? are recrtrded in the Peab. Mus. Kr/'ts., xvii., xviii. (Marrii.;; .nound), and XX. Cf. Pntnam's lecture in M'lC- Jl'-'xt. History., Jan., iSSS. There are explorations at Madisonvil'e noticed in the Journal of the Ciun. Soc. .Vat. Hist., Apr,, iS'^o. Others in this reeion are recorded m L. P Welch .o.d J. M. Richartlson's }''rehistoric relics found near Wilming- ton (Sparks ninund), and hy F. W. Langdon in the appen- dix of Short. * M. C. Read's Archrland in Ohio Arch. Hist. Quart., i. 265 (Oxford K " Cox in A m. Assoc. Ad?: Sci., ''^-4 'f' '' i" Clarke Co.). "^ West. Res. Hist. Soc. Tracts., no. 41 (f^77) ; and forthe Cu\ i!Kii;a Valley in no. 5 (1S71), botli by Whiltlesey. The woi^s on the Huron River, ti't of Sandusky, were de- scribed, with a plan, by Abraham G. Steiner in Columbian yi//,i,'., Sept., 17"^';, reprinted in FirelitfuCs Pioneer^s\. 71. Cj. W. Hill III Smithsonian Re^t,, 1H7-' ; 1'!. O. Dunning on the Lick Creek nu'u?id in J\ujb. Mus. Re/>i., v. p. 11 ; S. D. I'eet on a double-w.dled enclosure iu Ashtannla Co. in Smithsoniaft Re/t., 1^7'.. Cf. Cornelius Paldwin on ancient burial cists in nordieastern Ohio in West. Pes. Hist. Tracts, no. 56, and Yarrow on numnd-l urials in pjcst Re/>t. liur. Ethnol ^ Ci. Putnam in Bull. Essex Inst.., \\\. ^Nov., 1871^ ai,d Boston Soc. Xat. Hist. Froc. (Feb., 1S72); Foster, p. ' '4< with plan. The Smithsonian Repts. cover notices b\ W. Pid^'eon (1^67), by A. Patton in Knox an '. Lawrence coun- ties (1^73). and by R. S. Robertson (i«74). " Peahody Mus. Reports, xii. 471 (187'i). For Illinms mounds see Thomas iu Fifth Rcpt. Bur. E.'/it.iil.; David- son and Struve's ////wc/i ; K. H.ddwin's /,« 6.r//iila Co. us B.iUiwiii on in West. Res. Vurials in hirst ov., iS7ii. aiai Foster, p. < ^, ni'liccs \i\ W. L.lwrence coun- For Illinois Hwol. ; David- ■ a.il/e Co. (Chi- cXvVi (K.Kvards- Soi .v'.i/. Hist. as. i{i'u'iS6S); tton (iS^J^; liy ilcWli: Iter and Co. (iS74);by . Cochrane on unts in |i, 20.' ; S. II. I' old fni t near h'morials t^f ,i ' some nnnota- Aztlai! i^ re- is sunnnaiized Co/A, iii. 1S7. unds in Craw- shape mounds onsin " (vii.); I. of Science commiitee on ., a iiapcr liy cnemism [flat 1 the Ampr I'm, 215. ,1»" t)ie effigy mounds and the burial mouiiu, of Wisconsin were the worl; of ilie same people yt'ijth Rcpt. Bui, litlinol,\. The existence of what i.-, called an e''-phant or mastodon mound in (irant County has been soi.ietimes taken to point to the age of those e.xtinct anini.ds as that of the erection of the mounds.' I'utnam, referring to the conluied area in whicli these effigy mounds are found, says that the serpent mound, the alligator mound,- and Whittlesey's eihgy inouitd in Ohio, and two bird mounds in tieorgia,;' are the oidy other works in North .\merica to which they are at all comparable. ^ When Lewis and Clark explored the .Missouri Kiver in i.So.|-ii, ihey discovered i lounds in ditterent parts of its valley ; but their statements were not altogether confirmed till the parties of the United .'-tates surveyors traversed the region after the civil war, as is jiarticularly shown in llayden's f»Vo/i._,';V(;/ 6'H;:rj, 0/// AV//., in 1S72. Within the present ."^tate of Missouri the mounds which have attracted most noLice are those near the modern St. I.oiiis.8 In Iowa (Clavton Countyi there is said to be the largest group of etligy mounds west of the Mississippi."' I'lie mounds of Iowa and the neighlxiring region are also discussed by Thomas in the Fiflli h't-/-t. Hiir. Etintol. (). 11. Kelley has rejiorted on the remains of an ancient town in Minnesota." In Kansas there is little noticeable," and there is not much to record in Dacotah.'' L"tah,i" California," and .M piitana.l- We find scant accounts of the mounds in Oregon and Washington in the narr.ative of the Wilkes Kxpli>ring IC.xpedilion and in the earlier story of Lewis and Clark. .Some of the mounds are of doubtful artitici.ilit) .1-^ .\ long the lower portion of the MisMssippi, but not within three hundred miles of its mouth, we find in Louisiana other mound constructions, but not of imusual significance.'^ The first effigy mound, a bear, which was observed south of the Ohio, is near an old earthwork in (ireenup County, Kentucky.'"' 'J'lie mounds of this State early attracted notice.'" Ilishop .Madison '" thought tlieni sepulchral rather than military. In tho Western Review (Dec. i.Skii one was dcscrilx;d near Lexington, kalinesepie added a not very sane account of them to Marshall's History of i\'nttiitl;y,\n 1824, which was also pid)lished separately, and since then all the general histories of Kentucky have given some attention to these antiquities. IS viii. i; ix. (^-j. He also examines the evidence of the vil- lage life of their builders (ix. 10). Cf. his Einbteiiiatic AIoHutis ; and his paper in the // 'iseoir.^iii II ist. Cotl.^ ix. 40. * None of the hones of extinct animals have been found in the nionnds; nor has the buffalo, loni; a ranger of the Mississippi Valley, been identified in the shapes of the mounds. tCf. I'eet or. the identification of animal inoumls in Aiih-r. Aiitiii., vi. 170.) Peet holds they followed the m.tstodnn period {Ibid. ix. 67). The elephant mound, so called, has been often shown in ciitF. (Cf. Smithsonian .Kept., rS77, accompanying n paper by J. Warner, and Pow- ell's Secoml Refit. Bur. of Etii , 153.) Ilenshaw here dis- credits the idea of its heini; imended for an elephant. The evidence of elephant pipes is thought uncertain. Cf. article on nimuid pipes by Harber in W ;«fr. X nturahst , .\pril, ■ S.Sj. - .S'eeond Re/>t. Bur. 0/ Etiinol., p. 150, where Henshaw thinks it may just as well he anything else. Cf. Isaac Snuicker in .-liner. A ntiijiiarion^ vii. 350. ^ Cf. .-Imer. .-intii/., vi. 254. * J'eui: .t/ns. Rept., xvii., and A iner. Antii). .'yoe. Rroe., Oct., 1SS3. IT- points out that the Ohio effigy mounds h ive a foundatiini of stones with clay superposed : the Georgia mounds are mainly of stone ; while the Wiscon- sin iiioinids seem 10 be constructed only of earth. Further references mi the \Visconsin mounds : Sinithso- iiiiin Repts., by v.. E. lireed ( .S72) : by C. K. Dean ( 1S72) ; by Moses Strong (1S76, 1877); by J.'m. DeHart (.S77); and again (i^7i>). .■Vlso : Haven's A reha-ol. U. S., p. lof, : W. H. Canfield's .Stini- Counry ; DeHart in Aiiitr. Aiitiijuarion, .April, ^^^C|\ their military char.icte- in Ibid., J.in., is«i ; also as em- hl.-ms in l>'i,l. tSSj (vi, 7); Nadaillar .tkI other general Hniks. riiere is a map of those near lie'. .it — some are in the college campus— in tlie A meri.an A nliqunrian. iii, Os. ■'' They have Iwen ilcscribfd in th .' Smitliso'iinii Reforts by I'. R. I'eale (iS(,,) ; and in Ainer. Ar.ti,iuari„n. Inly, i--'S, hy S. D. I'eet. Other mounds and relics are de- scribed in 'he Smlth.uminn Repls. (iWi3)bv J. W. Foster; (i-^roWiy A. liarrandt; (i»77l hy W. H. R. I.ykiiis ; and (iS-.lhv O. r. Prondh..^,!: in i'e.ih. Miis. ReMs.. viii.. by I'rntessor Swallow ; in Missouri Hist. Soc. I'lil'l., no. f,, by F. F. Hilder: in Cinn. Quart. Jour. 0/ Sei., Jan., 1S7S, by Dr. S, H, Ileadlee; in the Kansas City Re::.\. 25, 531 I in the St Louis Aeail. 0/ Science (i.SSo) hy W. P. Potter; Mr. A. J. Con.ant has been the most prolific writer in AW,/., April 5, 1876; in W. F. Swiizler's /[islory of .Missouri (St. Louis, i,S7o1, and in C. R. Burns's Com- iitonwealt/t of Missouri (i'!77). Cf. also Poole's Index, p. 858. " T. H. Lewis in Science, v, 131; vi, 453. On other Iowa mounds, see Smithsonian Reft., by J, R Cutts (1S72); by M. W. Monltoi, {^'<^^^. and again (1S70); Annals of lo^va, vi, 121 ; and W, J, McGee in Amer. Journal Science, cxvi. 272, ' Smithsonian Reft., iSfij; and for motinds, 1S70. f'f. L, C, Estes on the antiquities on the banks of .Missouri and Lake Pepin in IHd iSf/.. " Kansas Rev., ii. r.17; Joseph Savage and B. F. Mudge in Kansas .-lead. .Science, vii. ^ Smithsonian Ret>t., by A. J. Comfort (1S71) and by A. Rarrandt (1872); W. Mc.Adams in Amer. Aidiijuariaitf viii. 153. 'I* Amer. Naturalist, x. 410, by E, Palnin ; Bancroft, .Vat. Races, iv, 715, " ,A|)p, to Cdeeson's Hist, of the Catholic Church in California (1^72}, ii., and B.i' Mift's Xat. Races, iv. 605, " P. W, Norris in Smith.wr ni Report, 1870, '•^ Cf, George Gibbs in J-^urnal .1 mer. Geocr. Soc, iv, ; A. W. Chase in ,-/ wfr. Jour. .Sci.. cv\. 2(^', Amer, Archi- tect, xxi, 2.15; and Bancrrift. .Vat. Races, iv, 735. " Cf, S. H, Locket in Smithsonian Reft.[iV.y2), and T, P. Hotchkiss in the same, and a paper in 1S76: Amer. Journal .Science, xlix. 38, by C. G. Forshey, and Ixv. 1S6, b>' .A. Bieelow. '■'' T. H. Lewis, with plan, in .-liner. J0urr.1l Archceol., iii. 37!;; previously noted by Atwater and hy Sqnier and Davis. '» Cf. Filson's Kentucke. '" Amer, Philos. .Soc. Trans., iv.,no, 26, ^* Thomas E, Pickett contributed tlis part (1S71) to Col- lins's Hist. Kentucky (18781,1. 380; ii. 68, (x), 227, 302, 303. 457, 633, 76-,. Pickett's contrihntion was published separately as The testimony of the Mounds (Marysville, 5' M I. ( t {f <> ) ,, % ■ I i a. Mi ' 410 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. In Tennessee we HncI in connection with the earthworks the stone graves, which the explorations of Put- nam, alxnit ten years ago, broiiglit into prominence. • The chief student of the aboriginal mounds in Georgia has been Col. C. C. Jones, Jr., who has been writing on the subject for nearly forty years.- 'I'he mounds in the ^tate of Mississipjii, as including tlie region of the Natclie/ Indians, derive some added interest because of the connection sometimes supposed to exist between them and the race of the mounds.-* The same character- istics of the nu)unds extend into Alabama.-* The nn)unds in Florida attracted tlie early notice of John and William Bartram, and are described Ijy them in their J'niveis, and have bee.i dwelt upon by later writers.5 The seaboard al>ove (iet.rgia has not much of interest.*' Concerning the mounds along the Canadian belt there is hardly more to Ix,* said.' Lubbock clashes the signs of successive periods in North America thus: original barbarism, mounds, garden beds, and then the relapse into barbarism of the red Indian. The agricultural age thus follows that of the mound erection, in his view, tlu)ugh, as Putnam says, there seems t:nough evidence that the constructors of the old earthworks were an agricultural race.^ There is another class of relics wliich, outside the hieroglyphics nf Central America, has as yet had little comjirehensivc study, though the general books on American archaeology enumerate some of the inscrip- tions on rocks, which are so widely scattered througlujut the continent.'** Ky., 1^75). Prof. Shaler, as head fif the GcnloRical Sur- vey (if Kentucky, inclutU-d in its keports Lucicn Carr's treatise <)ii thu nmund^, aht-.tdy nieniioiit-d ; and touches the subject briL-tly iu his Kentucky, p. 45. Cf. also Maj. Joua. Ik-art in Inilay's It'estern Territory ; S. S. Lyon in Smithsonian Ke/>ts., 1S5S, iS;o, and R. Pelcr, in 1871, 1S72; F. W. Putnam in /Boston Soc. Xat. Hist. Proc * xvii. 313 (if^75); and A'.i/Mrc, xiii. 109. ' The aborij;inal rL-tnains of Touues^eL' have successively been mated in John llaywoiurs History 0/ Tennessee' (Nashville, I'^-'.O- by t.icrard Troost in Avar. Ethnol. Soc. Triins. ( 1^45), 1. 335 ; hy J(.-,t;pli [ones in Sniiihsonian Contributions^ xx. ( \%-]U\, ,vho connected those who tr(_cied the works, through llie Natchez, Indians, with the Nahuas. Kdvvard O. Dnnnlng had described some of tlie 'I'eniujssce r"-lics in the Peiy'^ody Mus. Kepts.y iii., iv., and v.; hut Putnam in no. xi. (187S) gave the results of his opening of tlie stone trraves, with his explorations of the sites of the villa,t:es of the people, and de^criljed their Itiiplements, notli- inu of which, is he said, showed contact witli Kuropuans. Cyrus Thomas deem? tlie-^e rem.nns ilie works of the Indian race {.-iiner. Autiij.^ \ii. tz-j ; viil. ir.j). The Smithsonian Kf/'ts. have had various papers tui theTennesseeantiquities; 1. nille (iSC>2); A. K. Oaiiilsen (iS(,3h ,\L C. Kead d^''-;); E. A. Davton, K. O. Dunnini:. K. M. ('.rant, and J. P. Stelle (1M70); Kev. Joshua Hall. A. K. I.,nv, and D, F. Wrichl (i'^74) : and others (in 1S77). I-. J. Dn Pre. in //.ir/rr^s Monthly f Teh , iS'75), ji. 347, reports upon a ten-acre adohe threshinv-iloor, preserved two feet and a half beneath iilar k loam, near Memphis. - Col. Jones's pajji'rs are : ludian Remains in South Georgia, an aififress 1 Savannah, 1^50) : .'I ncient tumnii on ihf Saiuinnah Kii-er; Monutnental Remains of Georgia^ pan i. ('Savannah, i'^''>i'); A nier. Antiq. Soc. Proc, April, i'^'^^o/o^icai Soc.^\\\\.*-)2. Cf. also the early chapters of .,!> /fist, of Georgia. Other writerr : H. C. ^Vi^iams and Geo. Stephenson in Smifhsor R,/'t, (1S70); .■..id \Vm. McKiiiley anrl M. F. 6tephensf'n <■ 72V Cf. A wer. Ethnoi. Soc. Trans., vix.y on Creeks ann Cherokees; a. id nn the great mound in the Etowah Valley. ./"•/•■••. <^i^.-.i {dv,SciA\%'_\s. Thomas {Fifth Rrpt. /■•."*•. Ethuof.) suppo-fs the Etowah mound to be tlie one with a roadwa* descrU'L'-l by Garcilasso di> la Vega as beint; on He Soto' ruutt "i'lion is describes other mounds of this group, cixim- ru' ■ ■ f tlie incised copper plates found in thepi, wliich he holds to he of European make. This forces him lo the conclusion that the larger Miound was built before "Pe Soto's incursirn and the others later; ard as they differ '.m those in Carolina, he deter- mines I'l 'y were not huilt t the ("herokees. •* K.i. S. A. .\cnew in Smithsonian Reports (1S67), and J. W. C. Smuh f 1S74, cf. 1879); Jas. R. Page in St. Louis Acad. Science Trans., iii., and Cinn. Q. Journal 0/ Sci.^ Oct., 1875 ; Haven, p. 51 ; and Edw. Fontaine's How the World ivas peopled, 153. * E. Cornelius in Anier. yourn. Sci.t\. 323; Pickett's Alabama, ch. 3. 5 Schoolcraft, Indian 'Tribes, iii., and in iV. V. Hist, Soc. Troc, iS4^, p. 124. IJrinton's Eloridian Peninsula^ ch. 0. Anter. Antiquarian,\\. 100; ix. 2iy. Smithsonian Reports (.1^74), by A. Mitchell, and 1879. " J. M. Spainhnur on antiquities in North Carolina, in Sntithson- Rept., iS7t ; T. K. Puaie on some near Wash- ington, n. C. (Ibid., 1S72); Schoolcraft, on some in Va.,in A iner. Ethnol. Soc, Trans., i. ; with Squier and Davis, and Teabody Mus. Rept., x., by Lutien Carr. There is a plan of a fort in Virginia in the Amer. Pioneer^ Sejn., iS42,and a paper on the graves in S. W. Virginia in Mag. Amer. Hi.^t., Fel)., 1SS5, p. 1S4. " V K. Guest on those near Pre'^coit, in Smithsonian Rept., .'^;'>. T. C. Wallbridge de>cribes some at the bay of (^uinte in Crt;/(/(j'/W« Journal ^\'^i r>), \. 401^, and Daniel WiUcui for Canada \Ve?t in Ibid., Nov., iSsC. T. H. Lewis on the remains in the valley of the Red River of the North, ill Amer Antiquarian, viii. 3'mj ; and for those in Manitoba papers by A. McCharles in the Amer. Journal of Archteology, iii. 72 (June, iss^i, and by GyiJ-ue Pryce in Manitoba Hist, and Sci. Sc. . Trans., Xo. /.S (i>S4-S5i. J'ancroft's Xttt. Races, iv. 7.P, i.tc., for liriti.->h Columbia. ** Cf. for garden beds Amer. A ntiquarian, i. awd v'li. ; Foster, 155 ; Pela Hubbard's Memorials of a half century 'Detroit). S\i:\\i.:r {bJent uc Ay, .if i) surmises that it was the buffalo coming intcj the Ohio Valley, and affording food without labor, that debased the moundbuilders to hunters. '■' Cf. Col. Whittlesey on rock inscriptions in the United States in West. Res. Hist. Soc. Tract Xo. 42. Col. Gar- rick Mallory's special studies of pictographs are containt.-d in the Hull. V. S. Geological Survey 0/ the territories (1^77). and in the Fourth Rept. Jiur. F.thnol. Wni. Mc- Adams includes those of the Mississippi Valley in his Records of ancient races in the Mississippi J 'alley (St. Louis, 1SS7). Cf. Hist. Jhig., X. 307. Those in Ohio are enumerated in the Final Rept. of the State Hoard of CcH' ie-mial Managers (1^77). by M. C. Read and Col. Whittle- sey. Cf. also the West. Res* Hi.<:t. Soc. Tracts Xos. 12, 42, j;; : the Amer. Asso. Adr. Set. Proc. (:^'s^'' and The Antiquary, ii. 15. Those in the Upper Min lesota Valley are reported on hy T. H. Lewis in the Ame^ Xaturalist, May, 18S6. and July, i8«7. J. R. PartleU in 'lis Personal Xarrafi7'e noted some of those along the Mexican boun- dary, and Froebel (Stu-en }'ears* 'Travel, Lnid., 1S59, p. 510) controverts some of Bartlell's views. Cf. Nadaillac, Les premiers hommes, ii ; J. G. BrufF oti those iu the Sierra Nevada in Smithson Rept., 1872. A. H. Keane ations of Put lids in Georgia Miiounds ill tlie -'St Ix'cause of ianie character- "f Ji)lin and l.itfr writers. 5 Canadian Ix'lt risni, mounds, IS fulldHs that le constructors yet liad little af the inscrip- iRc Ml St. Louis Uuiriutl of Sci. , ailie's Hmu the ■ 3i.); I'ickett's in X. v. }fUt. ■n reuiusulay Smithsoiiiiu til Ciroliiia, in nie near U'asli- sonif in \'a.,in and Davis, and Tlnre is a plan Sqii., 1X41, and n Maff, Auu'r. in Smithsonian onie at the bay 40';, and Daniel . iSs'i. T. H. tcil Kivi-r (if the nd fnr tliost.- in Amcr. Journal ,' *',eijrt;i! liryce •o. iilh,'ofoloi;ieiil Soiiely of I.omlon (vol. i. 335). Its progress in .Vmerica is treated by (I. T. Mason in the Americmt Xatu- rulist (xiv. 34.S ; .xv. OK)). The most approved methods of modern research are explained in Kmil .'-chmidt's Aiithrofologisc/ie Methoden ; Anleitung ziim I'd'hctchtcn iinJ sammcln fiir Laioraloritim unit A'eise (Leipzig, iSS.S). "The methods of arclix'ological investigation are as trustworthy as those of any natural science,'' says Lubbock (Scieiitijic Leitiircs, \y)). Beside the publications of the various Archa'o- higical, Anthnjp(j|ogical, and Ethnological ."societies and Congresses ' of both hemispheres, we find f ir Europe a considerable centre of information in \.\vi MiUerimix pour I'histoirc frimitivc ct itaturelle {{'hiUsofliiqiic) lie I'hommei- and for .\merica in the publications of the .''•mitli.sonian Institution,^ in the Com/tcs rcnitiis of the successive Congresses (jf .Americanistes, and in such periodicals as the American Anli:jiiiiriaii, the ^ImeticiiH Anthropologiil, and the Folk Lore Journal. ^^^vYvtt. MAJOR POWELL. reports upon some in Xorth C.imlina in \\\iii Journal An- thropologiciil Inst, n.nmlon), xii. 2S1. C. C. Junes in liis Southern ImHans (i --',) covers the subject. Some in Kra7.ii are noted in Ibid.^ Apr., X873. ' The first session ot" ilie Internaiional Conpres;; of Pre- liistoric [Antliropoldtiy and] Archarilopy was held at Xeu- chatel, and its proceedings were printed in \\\\i Mater iaux four Vliistoire de Phonitne, The sec<>iid session was at P.iris ; the third at Norwich. Knijlnnd ; the inurth at Copenhasen; and there have been others of later years. Cf. A. de Quatrefaces' Kat'fro^rh de Panthro- /.'.'<'.^/V ( Paris, i'<6'>i), Quatrefages himself is one of the p'ost distinguished nf the French school, and deuTves as ni.'ch as any tn rank as the founder of the present French school nf anthropologists, ("f. liis fh-miues fossiles et hoittmes .r(7W?'(7^(',t ( 1S84), The KiiRlish reader can most easily pet possessed (tf his view, conservative in some re- spects, in Eliza A. Vouman' ...clish version of his most popular hook, Xat. Hist. 0/ A/aniK. Y., 1S75). - Founded in Paris in 1S64 by Clabriel de Mortillet, and edited after v.'-l. v. by Eugene Trutat and Emile C.'artailhac, 2 Cf. C. Rau's /J W/tVri- an anthropoL sublets contrib' uted to the A nnnal Refts. of the Smithson. Inst. , iSbji-iS-^j (Smltlis. Inst., no. 440; Washington, 1SS2). The Smith- son. f\e/-t., iSSo (Wa^liington, iSSi), also contains a bib- liography (f anthropo'opy by O. T. Mason. A consider- able list of bonks is prefixid to Or. Gustav iiruhl's Cultur- v'dlker des alien Aineri/ca, which is a collection of tracts published at different times (1S75-1SS7) at N. Y., Cincin- nati, and St Louis. 4i: xXARRATlVK AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. - l^i^' The broad subject of prehistoric archicoloi;y is ciivereil in a paper by I.iibbock, which is incliidctl in Ins Siiitifj/ic Lfi/iftrs (I.orKl., iJ»7yJ ; ^ in 11. M. Westropps Fnhistotii J'hascSy or Introductory Essays on Pre- historic W;v//(ft'/('_i,'/ (I.t^iul., 1S72) ; in J^tuvcns's hlitit 67///j {1S70) ; by Dr. IlriiUon in tlie Iconographic Encyilof'iViiia^ vol. ii. ; aiul more popularly in Cliarles !•'. Kcary's Dawn of History, an introd. to prehistoric iiudy (N. W, 1S71)), and in Davenport Ad.inis's lUtwath the Surface, or the i'ttderj;roand World. The French have contribiitetl a corresponding literature in Kouis l-'iguier's Lllomme frimitif (Paris, lS;o);- in Zaborowski's I.'hontiuc /■rchistorii/uc (I'aris, iS;.S); and in tlie Mar(iuis de Nad;ullac's Lis pre- miers hommcs et Ics temps prchistoriquts d'aris, iSSi), and liis Maeurs et monuments dcs peiifles prihis- tori./ucs (I'aris. iS.S.Sj, not to mention others/' i lie princii)al compieliensive works citverini; tlie preliistoric period in Nortli America, are J. '1'. Short's Aorth Americans 0/ Antiquity (N. V., iS;(j, and later) ; tlie LAmirique prchistoriquc ut Nadaillac (Paris, iSSj);** Foster's Prehistoric Races of the United States (Chicago, iN/^; dtli ed., 1SS7); and the compact popular Ancient America \ \. V.. 1S71) ot' Jolin 1). Ualdwin. Heside iJancrott's Native JKacvSy there are vari- ous treatises of cuntined nominal scope, but coveiing in some degree the whole North American tield, which are noted in otlier pa.i;es/' The purely ethnological aspects of tlie American side of the subject are summarily surveyed in A. H. Keane's "Ethnology of America," appended to -Stanford'^ Compendium of Geography, Cent. America, etc. (London, 2iled., 1SS2), and there are papers on Ethnographical Collections in the Smithsonian Report (iSlta).*! The great repository of material, however, is in the Contributions to North American Ethnology, being a section of Major Powell's Survey of the Rocky Mountain Rcgions^^\\^ in the Annual Reports oi the Itureau of t)ihnology since 1S70, made under Major Powell'^ directions, and in the Reports of the Reahody Museum,"* ' Ht: liacl surveyed the C()n(lilii)U nf the science in 18A7 in his intntdueli'Mi to NiUson's Stone Age, — rrimitive in- habitants of Scandinavia. Cf. also Smithsonian Report^ 1^02. 3 Kipuier's bonks are nearly all accessible in KiiRlish. His Ihnnitn Ritce and his World Irforc the Dtlui^e cover some parts of the subject, ^ A few minor reiertncos; Dawson's Story of Earth and Man^c\\. h, 15. Foster's /Whistor/c Races of the r. .v., ch. I. 2. Clodd's Childhood of the IP'or/d. ('.ay's /V/. /list, U. S., ch. I. Principal Forbes in the Ediw burc;h Rtvicu% July, i^O;; Oct., 1^70. London (Jnartrr/y Re7' , Apr., 1^:70. C<>ntem/>. A'/T'., xi. Fihliotheca Sacra, Apr., 1S73. Brit, Q. AVr\, Ap., Oct., isr,;(, Lovd. Rev., Jan., iSfK). L.i/'/>inLoft'est of the Herman ones, and in Charles Leclcrc's Bihliotheca Americana (I'aris, iisCi;), niucli improved in his BiHiotheca Americana. His- toire, giografhie. voyages, archeologie et lingiiistiifue ties deu.\ .Imcriques el ties ties Philiffines (Paris. 1.S7.S), with later supplements, constituting the best of the prench catalogues, provitlcd with an excellent index and a linguistic taole, rendered necessary by tlie classilied plan of the list. ' nandelier, in his sevcr.il essays in the 2d volume (,f the Peal'oity Mtisenin Refiorts, speaks of his neplectinp such cnnipilations as Ilancoft's in order to ileal solely with ttio (rri'^inal sources, and the student wil! find the references in his foot-notes of those essays very full indicalinns t\{ what he must follow in the study rif sucli sources. ' Harrisse, liih. Am. I'et. ; Rich, Rt'M. .Vo7ta : Leclerc, nos. 350, 351 ; Pilling, p. xxviii. 3 T'illinc. p. xii. * See Vol II. p. 42(). '■ fit'h. .Me.r. Gttal.. p. 24: Pinart, no. iCi. Cf. Icaz- halceta on " Las bihliotccas de Kuuiara y de Heristnin "' in Metnoritis tie la Acaiiemiti Mexictma, i. 353. '' Vol, II. p. 430. • .Msr, in Kng. tr,Tnsl., ii. 256. 4M NAKRATIVi: A.NO CKl 1 ICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. I'il The lint formed by slmluiits in tills field begins with the BiHiolhi;a AmerU^tna Vetuslissima of ll;irri»se ^New \(irl\, iSiiii ; aildltmns, I'aris, 1S72), ami includes the liihliothi^ue .MixinitiuatcmiiliinHt, f^riccilit dun {iiuf il'ail siir /(-.< i/iii/i'S iimiiiiiiDitt iliins liiiii raf furls uitv lis ilmlis iliniiijuci, it siihir ilii laHrau far onlre alfluxbitiqiie, iles oiivrai;ei i/c /ini; lisfn/iif Ami ricaiiie con/tuns ilans U mliiif tn/iime {\'dt\s, 1S71) iif tile .\hUi llr.issciir de llmirlxiurg, wliii at that time liad been twenty-five years engageil in the stiidieit and travels wliich led ti) the gathering iif his ccilleclion. The library, ahmist entire, was later Joined to that of Alphi nse I.. I'inart, and was incUiiled in the hitter's Ciilalogiie ile ir res nires tt fricieux, maiitisirits et imfrimis (I'aris, r.SS|). In iSoii, Ica/balcela puljliOiud at Mexico his Afuiitt\ /./n» un Citltih'Hi) ilt Ksirilorcs tn l(iif;iias inUifeiius lit Aiiitriiii,^ but of his great hibliogra|ihical work only one volume has as yet ripptarcd : / iboo, can Hiignifias lie itiiltires y olrtts iliislriicioites, frceeiliilo ile una noli,iii mereii ile la inlroilueeiin Ue la im- frenta en Mexico (Mexico, ihSO). Ilandelier has embodied some of tlic results of his study in his " Notes on the Uihliography of Yucatan and Central America, ' in the Amer. Aiiliij. Soe. Proe., n. s., i. pp. S2-118. The dialogues of collections having special reference to aboriginal America are the following : — L'atiil({i;iie de la ISililiolhti/iie de Jose Maria Andrade, 7,000 fiiees ct volumes, ayani raff art au Mexique oil imfrimis dans ce fay: (Leipzig, iSik)).^ liihiiotheea Mejiiaiui : Honks and maniiscrifls almost wholly relalini^ to the history and literature of Xorlli and South .Imeri, a, farliiiilarly Mexico (London, iSinji. This collection was formed by Aiigustin Fischer, chaplain to the l^uipuror Maximilian ; but there were added to the catalogue sonic titles from the col- lection of Ur. C. II. lierendt. Catalogue of the library of /:'. (/. S,/iiicr, edited by Josef h Sabin (\. \'., 1876). Bibliothcia Mexicana, or A Catalo/;iie of the library of the rare bioi'i and imfortant AfSS relalini^ to Mexico and other farts of Sfanish America, formed by the late Senor Don Jou- Fernando A'amirez (Lon- don, 1S80). This catalogue was editud by the AbW Fischer." The most useful guides to the literature of abiuiginal .\merica, however, are some compiled In this country. First, the comprehensive though not yet complete bililiography, Joseph .Cabin's Dictionary of boots relating to America, now being continued since Sabin's deatli. and with much skill, by W ilherforce ICanies. .'Second, the voluminous Proofsheets of a Biblioi;rafhy of the lani;iia,i;es of the North American Indians (Washington, 1SS5), iireparcd by James Constantine rilling, tentatively. In a large quarto volume, distributed only to collab- orators ; and out of which, witli emendations and additions, he is mw publishing special sections of it, of which have already appeared those relating to the Kskimo and Siouan toni,ues. Ills enumeration so much exceeds the range of purely linguistic monographs that the treatises become in effect general bibliographies of aboriginal .\nicrlca. Third. An lissay towards an fndian biblioi;rafhy, beini; a Calaloi^ue of books relatins; to the history, an- tiquiti'-s, lani;iiai;es, eiisfoms. religion, wars, literufnre and origin of the American Indians, in the library of Thos. \V. Field, with biblioc;rafhical and historical notes and synofses of the contents of some of the iiorks least kno-cn (N. V., 1S7;,). The sale of Mr. Field's library took place in New York, May, 1S7;, from a Catalogue not so elaborate, but still of use. These books are not so accurately compiled as to be wholly trust- worthy as final resorts. Finally, the list prefixed to liancrnffs Xatire Races, vol. I., and the references of his foot-notes, throughout his five volumes (condensed often in .'^liort's Xorth Americans of Antiquity), are on the whole the most ser- viceable aids to the general student, but unfortunately the Index of the set is of no use In si'arching for biblio- graphical detail. The reader will remember that the bibliographies of sectional or partial Import In the field of .American archeology are referred to elsewhere In the present volume. • Cf. hnnxon'i Aborig. Amer. Authors, Philad., 1883. ' See 'Vol. n. p. 430. ' Pilling, 1 xxxl. 1\ 'f llurrlsse (■riceiiit Uun 'if itu takUau oliimt (I'arU, in the stiulics iru'il t(i tlKit (if II, I II use rill ct iiiis iiii/ifenas (J (V tOoo, ton ""I i/e / and the antiipiitics of Peru {iv. ch. 14) the treatment is tondensed and without leferences, as occupying a I. eld lx;yond his primary purpose of coscring the I'acilic slo|x; of North .\niericaand the immediately adj.acent regions. Mention is made else- where of llancroft's metliods of compilation, and it may sullice to say that in the hve volumes of his .Witive Races he has drawn and condensed his matter from the writings of about i::oo writers, whose titles he gives in a preliminary list.'- The method of arrani;i'.g the departments of the work is perhaps too far gcograpiii- cal to be always satisfactory to the s|K'cial t..dent,'i and he seems to Ix' aware of it (for instance, i. ch. 2) ; but it may be (juestioned if. while writing with, or engrafting upon, an encyclopa'dic system, what might pass for a continuous narrative, any luore scientific plan wnild havi' Iwen more successful. Itancroft's opinii -is are not always as satisfactory as his material. The student who uses the Xativc Races for its groups and references will accordingly find a complement.al service in ."^ir Daniel Wilson's /Prehistoric A/an (London, 187(1), in which the Ton ato professor conducts his "researches into tli' origin of civilization in the old and the new world, " by primarily treating of the early .American man, as the readiest way of understanding early man in Europe, Ills system is '>o conn ^ t man's development topically in the directions induced by his habits, industries, dwellings, art, records, migrations, and physical characterizations. .Another and older book, in some respects embodying like purposes, and though produced at a time when arch. I Illogical sUidies were much less advanced than at present, is .Alexander W. liradford's American .Anti- quities and researches into the on\'in and history of the red race (N. V., IS4I).^ riie fust section of the book Is strictly a record of results; but in the final po-tion the author indulges more in speculative inquiry. Even in this he has not transcended the bounds of legitimate hypotliesis, though some of his postulates will Iia'dly be accepted nowadays, as when he contends that the red Indians are the degraded descendants of the people who were connected with the so-called civilization of Central America.5 * A school book, M.'ircliis Willson's Anier. History (N. Y. , 1S47), went much f.irthcr than any hook of its class, or even of the iiMial popular histories, in the mutter of .Ameri- can antiiiuities, giving a good many plans and cuts of ruins. * For bibliog. detail regardini; the Xat. Races, see PilU ing's rroof Sheets, p. g. Reviews of the work are noied in roole's /itde.r, p. 956. '^ Cf., for instance, Dall's strictures on the tribes of the N. W. ill Contrib. to Amer. Ethnot., i. p. 8. * Sabin, ii. 723;, ; Field, no. i6(). ^ H.ire mention may be made of a few other bon'.s of a general scope: Jean Benoit Scherer's Recherches histo- riqucset gfoi^raphiques sur le nou-'eau »«(>«ubli^ f'or la Soc. Clog. (Paris, 1S25, ii. 3/^ ; cf. Thipaix, ii.) ; Ira Hill's Antiquities 0/ A mer. i?.r//(7/«/'r/(H.i,cerstown. iS.^i); Louis Fali^s' Etudes hittoriques et philosophiques sur lescivilisa- tiotis europleiiiie, ronuiine, f^recque, des poftttlotioits primi- tives de r .Aliieriqite septentrtonale, Us Chiapas, Polctiqu^ des Nuluias iinc?lres des Tolthjues,ciziilisation i'tii tii^qtie, Zapot^ques, .Mi.rthfues, royoume du Michoacaii, popula- tiotts du Xord-(hiest, du Xord et d' P/Cst, biissin du Mississipi, cii'ilistition Tolthpie, Azt^que, Amerique du centre, reruvieiiiie, doiniiiatioii des lueas, royoume le Quito, Ochim'e (Paris, 1S72-74) ; Frederick L.irkin's .-J ;/- eieiit mail in .America. Including works imuestern A'eiu i'ork, and portions of other states, together with struc- tures in Central .America (New ^'ork, \^^), — a book, however, hardly to be commended bv arch-Tologists : and Charles Francis Keary's Pawn of II istory, an introduc- tion lo prehistoric study CS. Y., 1SS7). The pericxlical literature of a comprehensive sort is not so extensive as treatments of special aspects : but the student will find Poole's lnde.r and Rlice's Catalogue and /ndeJC 0/ the Smithsonian publications serviceable. .%^^0c- IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) fe <> /. ^o fe 1.0 I.I IM u, KL2 i ^ 136 i Its 2.2 lift U£ 12.0 I 11:25 i 1.4 ■7] v) ^> ^> Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. MSSO (716) 872-4503 \ %^ \ :\ '^ V ^ O^ ^. "^^ u. <^ 7. III. BIliLIOGRAI'HICAL NOTKS ON THE INDUSTRIES AND TRADE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. f. I. \ • M :j Sy t/ie Editor. \Virii.!£ wc have a moderate list of works on tlio Keneral subject of prehistoric art and industries,' we lack any compreliensive survey of the subject as respects tlic American continent, and must depend on sectional and local treatment. Humboldt in tlie introduction to liis.///,;j of his Essiii folitiquc \.\':m^, I.S131 was anions the earhest to Kr:.s|) the material which illustrates the origin and first progress of tlie arts in America. The arts of the soutliern regions and western co.i.sts of North America are best foHowed in those portions of the cliai)lers on t!ie Wild 1 ribes, devoted to the subject, which make up the hrst volume of llancroft's Xntnc A'liiii,- and for Mexican and .Maya proiluctions some chapters (eli. 15, 2^1 in the seroiul volume. I'rescnttn treatment of the more advanced peoples (jf this region is scant i.lA-.v/.i'. i.. introd., ch. 5). 'Ihe art in stone of the I'ueblo Indians is beautilully illustrated in I'utnani's portion of Wheelers Kcfort of his survey, and com- p,iris(m may be made with llaydcns Annual h'l^t. (1S7!.) of the L'. .^. (ieol. and (ieofiraphical .'survey. The work of I'utnaju .iiid his collaborators in the archaMilosical volume (vii.) of Wheeler's Snnyy is prob;U)ly the most com|)Iete .k touiit of the implements, ornaments and utensils of any (me jwople (those of Southern California) yet produced ; and its illustrations have not been surpassed. I'assin(> north, we shall get some help Irom K. I,, lierthoud's paper on the " I'rehistoric human art from Wyomim; and Colorado," in his '•Journal of a reconnaissance in Creek Valley. Col.," published by the Colorado .\c.ad. of Nat. Sciences (Pro- icti/iiigs, 1S73. p. 46). In the Pacijic /*<;;/ Komi A'cforts (vol. iii. in 185(1) there is a paper by Thimias Ewbank in " Illustrations of Indian anticpiities and arts." .'». ."». Ilaldeman -as dcscrilwd the relics of human industry found in a rock shelter in southeastern rennsylvaniaiCr.iw//i- fioulii. Cone;. Jcs .Imir.. Luxembourg, ii. ^ro; and Tranuidions Amer.Phllos. So,.. i.S;S). The best of all the more comprehensive monographs is Charles C. .Abbott's Primithf intlustry : or illustrations cf the handmork, in stone, bone ami elay, of the native rates of the Xorthern Atlantie seaboard of Ameriea (Salem, iS.Si ). Morgan's League of the Iroi/nois touches in some measure of the arts of that conlederacy, his earliest study being in the Fifth A'e/ort of the Regents of the State of Xru< Vori: (1.S52). I"or the Canada regions, the .Innnal Reports of the Canadian Institute, appended to the Reports of the Minister of Kducation, (Intario. contain accounts of the discovery of objects of stone, horn, and shell. (.See particul.irly the sessions of i.SS'i—S;.) Dawson in his Fossil men (ch. ')) considers what he accounts the lost arts of the primitive races of North .America. On the other hand. Professor I.eidy found still in use anmng the present .shoshones split pebbles resembling the rudest stone implements of the paheolithic period (C. S. Oeologieal .'inney. lS;2. p. 6;2|. Many arclix-olo'.'ists have remarked on the uniform character of many prehistoric implements, wherever foind. as piecluding their bein,' held as ethnical evidences. Tl:" svstem of quarrying'' for flint best lilted for the tool-maker's art has b;en observed by Wilson (I'rehistoric man. i. dS) both in the old and nev»' world, and in his tliir'l chapter (vol. i.) we have a treatise on the ancient stone-\ .irker's art.* ' k * 1 i> i> It necessary to cnumerati' many titles, hiil refer- ence rniv he nude to tlie summary of preliistnric cmulitions in /ertTi's }nstor::al (ii'veiof>uictit of art. It m.iy I)e worth while to cliiMce at A. O.uix's lUuties f>r^historiques. I/i'u' tiiisfri/' htimahu' : sfs orit^ini-s, si's /'rmi/rrs rssiu's ft ses /^t^i'fttfvs ife/>uis /t's pr^mit rs tr/n/>s jusqn\i n tUltiti^e i Paris, i^.-;}*. I)a\vsn!i*s /u'Sft/ im'fi, rh. 5; folv's J/./;/ h,'fore Afrtn/x ; Nariaillnc's I.fs /^reiim'rx Houtuifs. ii. ch. n; Ilahrv lie Thiervant's ()rii^itir i/i-k /«///*•«? ,/« XortTrttu Af'W.f.' (Paris, 1SS3); anri Hriihl's Ciiiturv.i/h-r alt-Atne- riA-ii\^, ch. 14, ifi. - rf., particularly for Calif'trnia, Putnam's Kt'f>ort in \Vhi-f'1t-r\ Survey. ■' Tlnre i^ siirne question if the earlv Ainei leans ever car- ried nil the heavier parts (tf the qiiarryiiv^ irts, as for huil.-i- ini;*stones. t!f. Moriian's /fouxrs ami ilousr Life, 274. Thev did quarn,* soap-sttx , xii.) and mica (Smithsonian Rf^ort, 1H79, hy W. (.lesner : C. D. Smith in lf>iif. i'^7''>; Dr. lirinton in Proc. Nu$nism. and Afitiif. Soi. t]f rhi/aii., 1S7S, p. |M), That they quarried pi|K'-slone is a!s() well known, and the famous red pipe- stone quarry, lyini; hetween the Missouri and Minnesnta ri'-ers, was under the proteclietn of the (ireat Spirit, ho that trilies at war with one another are said to have buried their hat( lifts as they approached it. Wilson, in the last chapter of the first volume of his Prehistoric tuan, examines this pipe-cirvi'ii: and tells the story of this famous quarry. He refers to the tobacco mortars iif (he Peruvians in which they pround the dry leaf ; and to the pipes of the mounds In which it was smoked. Cf. J. K. Nadaillac's /.rs />i/>es ft /" fa^ar ( P.iri'.. t'O^t,). taken from the Ahteriau.x f>our Vhi^toire primitive tie /'Aowttte iu. for 1S85); and Lucien fie Rosiivon "I.e tabac et ses accessoires parnn le^ Indi- jI'Mus de !'Ameri(pH'.'' in Af-^moires sur C ArcliMogie Am^ricatney iS*i5, of the Soc. d'Kthnoijraphie. * It should Iw remembered that the recoj;nition of the Flint folk as occupyinK a distinct stage of development is ADE OF istries,' we lack nn sectiMnal aii'l S131 was aniciin; America. The portions of the incroft's A'lj/ivi- me. I'rescott's art in stone of iirvey, and com- il .Purvey. The -:'i-,v is |)rol)iibly )se of Southern sl1.1l! get some ilorado," in his . Sciences (Pro- ler by Thomas relics of human '., Luxembourg, ve monographs till/ iprs et Miitt'rittiix />otir H5) ; and Lucien ( parnii It."> indi- r r Ar^'hhilogU phie. cnpnition of the [ development is INDUSTRIES AND TRADE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 417 Treating the subject topically, we find the late Charles Rau making some special studies of the implements used in native agriculture Wn the Sr»it/isonian fitfotts fur iS'j^, 1S6.S, and iS*)^.'^ The agriculture ot the Aztecs and Mayas is treated in Max Stelfcnii Die Landwirtschaft bei din a/tittfttniuftisi/iifi Kulturi'dlkern (Leipzig, i88v." The working of flint or obsidian into arrow-points or cutting implements is a process by pressure that has nut l>een wholly lost. Old workshops, or the chips of them, have bct-p discovered, and they are found In numerous localities (Wilson's /'?r///j/or/V *!/««, i. 75,79; Abljott's Primitive Industry, AT\t\ Putnam in the //;///. Essex Institute), but Powell in his Report of Explorations of the Colorado of the West (1873) does not, iis Wilson says he does, dcscrilje the present ways.* WiUon {Prthistoric Aftin, i. ch. 4 and 7) in an essay on the bone and ivory workers substitutes for the cor- responding words usually employed in classifying stone implements the terms pal;rotechnic and neotechnic, iis indicating periods of prout the tnuling of abundant metal implements in use among the natives, is questioned (IJaldwin's Ancient America, p. ean museums began to gather stone implements they were reputed relics of Celtic art. Treatment of American art necessarily makes part of the works of Squier and Davis; Schoolcraft; YasXtT^^ Prehistoric Races, q\\. h\ Lubbock's Prehistoric Times ; Joly*s A/ttti before Metals. Cf. refer- ences in Poole* i Index under '* Stone Age" and '* Stone Implements." ' L'f. .S. D. Peet in Amer. Atitiquarian, vii. 15. ' Kau is an authority on stone implements. See further his paper on stone implements in the Smithsonian Re/>t., 1S72; one on drilling stone withaut metal in Ibid. 1S6S; and one on cu|>*shaped and other lapidarian sculpture in the CofttributioHs to No. Anier. Ethnology, vol. v. (Pow- ell's Rocky Mountain Surrey, iSSi). These carved, cup- like cavities in rocks are also discussed in Wilson's Pre- historic Man, vol. i. ch. 3, where it is held that they were fiirnied by the f;rinding process in shaping ihe rounded end of tools. H. W. Henshaw in the Atner. four, of Archtf o/ogy Ci. 105) discusses another enigma in the stone relics, cilled sinkers or phimmets. Foster {Prehist, Races, 230) believes they were used as wei);hts to keep the thread taut in weaving. * Cf. also Stevens's Elint Chips, 192, and Chamay, Eng. tr.msl f p. 70. * Cf. (J. Crook " on the Indian method of making arrow- heads" in the Smithsonian Rept., 1S71, and C. C. Jones, Jr., on "the primitive manufacture of spear and arrow- points along the Savannah River " in Ibid. 1879. A paper by Sellers in a later report is of im|X)rtance. Cf. Stevens' P/int Chips, pp. 75-85, and Schumacher in Smithsonian Report, 1873. True (lint was not often, if ever, used in America, hut rather chert or homstone, and quartz, though implements are found of iasper, chalcedony, obsidian, quartzite, and argillite. Cf. Rau on the slock in trade of an aboriKinal VOL. I. — 27 lapidary in Smithsonian Kept. (1S77); and Rosny's "Re- cherches sur les masques, le jade et I'industrie lapidiire chcz les indigenes de I'Amerique " in Arch, de la Soc. A mhr. de Prance, n. s., vol. i. Jade or jadite implements and ornaments have been found in Central America and Mexico, and others resembling them iti northwestern Amer- ica; but it is not yet clear that the unw()rked material, such as is used in the middle America specimens, is found in America in situ. Upon the solution of this last problem will dejKud ihe value of these implements when found in America as bearing upon questions of Asiatic intercourse. Cf. Dr. A. H. Meyer in ihc Atner. Anthropologist {yo\. '\., July, iHSS, p. 231), and V. W. Putnam in the Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc, Jan.t 1SS6, and in the Proc. Amer. Antiq, Society. * Wilson {Prehistoric Man, \. 200) points out that phi- lology confirms it, the word for copper meaning "yellow stone." On the question of their melting metal see letter of Prof. F. W. Putnam in Kansas City Rev. of Science, Dec iSSi ; Wilson (i. 361 1 ; Foster's Prehistoric Races, 293. • Wilson (i. 209. 2^7) thinks the arboreal and other evidences carry the time when these mines were worked b.ick, at latest, to a period correspondinf; to Europe's medi.-evai era. The earliest modern references to copper in this region are in Sagard in 1632 (Haven, p. 127) and in the Jesuit Relation of Allouez in xf^(i(i-(yj. Alexander V\tv\'y {Travels and Adventures in Canada) in i7'^>3 is the earliest English explorer to menlinn it. Wilson holds to the belief that lh»^ present r.ice of red Indians h.id no knowledge of these mining practices, but that they knew simply chance masses or exposed lo It seems to be a tact that while in the use of metals an intermediate sta({e of pure copper, as coming between the use ol Imnc and stone and the use of alloyed metals, was not until comparatively recently sus- pected in (Jreat liritain, the •• peculiar interest attaches to the metallurgy of the new world that there all the earlier stages are clearly detined : the pure native metal wrought by the hammer without the aid of tire; the melted and moulded copper ; the alloyed bronze: and the smelting, soldering, graving, and other [iroccsses resulting from accumulating ex|)erience and matured skill " (Wilson, i. 210). It is in the regions extending from Mexico to I'eru that the art of alloying introduces us ♦ . in .\mcrican bnmze age. Columbus in his fourth voyage found in a vessel wliich had cimie alongside 'on) 'lur-'an crucibles to melt copper, as llerrera tells us ; and Humboldt was among the earliest to discover t< ols alloyed of copper and tin, and many such alloys have since been recognized among I'eruvian bronzes i^'. ilson, i, 2y)). In .Mexico, metallurgic arts were' carried perhaps even farther in casting and engraving, and not only the results but the evidences of their mining places have remained to our day (lUil. i. 24S). It seems evident, however, that experimenting with them had not carried them so near the jwrfect combination for toolmaking (one part tin to nine parts copper) as the bronze people of Kurope had reached, though they fell considerably short of the exact standard |//(./. i. 254). Doubt has sometimes been expressed of Mexican mining for copper, as by Frederick viui llell- w.ald (Com/fc- A'ttii/it, ('•11^'. ih' Amir, mistes, 1S77, i. 51); but Kau indicated the references- to ."^hort ip. 1)4), which forcibly led him to the ccmciusion that the -Mexicans mined copper to turn into tools.'i .Anumg the .M.iyas, .Nadaillac ip. 2001 contends that only cop|x.'r and gold were in use. Ilanci .ft lii. 7401 thinks the use of copper doubtlul, and if used, that it must have been got from the north. He cites the evidences of the use of gold. William II. llohnes iliscusses Tlic use 0/ i^olil iiiiil oilier mctah amnni; the aneient inluilitants of Cluriqui, Isthmus of Darieii (Washington, l,S.S7i. As to iron, that found in the Ohio mounds, only of late years, has been i)roved to bo meteoric iron by Piofessor Putnam (.-/wi-r, , In/if/. .So,. I'roe., .Apr., iSS;,). liancroft (i. 104 1 says iron was in use among the Ilritish Columbian tribes before contact with the whites, but it was probably derived through some indirect means fnjni the whites. Though iron ore abounds in Peru, and the character of the Peruvian stone-cutting would seem to indicate its use, and though there is a native word for it, no iron implements have been founcL^ There is not much recorded of the use of silver. It has been found by Putnam in the nnunds in thin sheets, used as plating for other metals.'' lie has also found native silver in masses, and in one case a small bit of hammered gold. Wilson, in 1870, while regretting the dispersion of the William Bullock collection of pottery, the destruction of that formed by ,'stephens and Catherwood, and the transference to an English museum of most of the .!< li, t !v. ' Of the Lake Siii>ennr mines, the earliest imdliiiunt accnimt we have is in C. T. Jackson's Gcohj^ica/ Report to the i'. S. (iovt^ \^vt\ l>i't '» more extended and con- nected account ai)pcari.-d the next year in the Re/>trt on the Geo/ot:}- of Litke Sii/-erior (Washington, 1S50), by J. W. Foster and J. It. Whitney, which is substantially repnuluced in Foster's /'re/tistor/c Races {1S73), ch. 7. Meanwhile, Col. Cliiirlei Whittlesev had published in vol. \iii. of \\\ti Smithsoniiiu Coutriluttiofts his Attitent Mitt- ir:^' on the shores of Lake Superior 0^'ashini;t(>n, i><6^, with a mapl, which is on the whole the best account, to be supplemented by liis paper in the Memoirs of the lIosKtn Society of Natural History. Jacob Houghtctn supplied a description of the "ancient copper mines of Lake Superior '* t") Swineford*s I/tsfory ami Rex'ie^i' of the mineral resources of Lake 5'«/.r/<>r (Marquette. \'^f<). Cf. also Wwmi/.f (>/"^( /*•«<■(• tl'leveland), i. fc 1^*52; Daw- son's Fossil Men, ''n : I'aUUvin's Ancient America^ 42: Wilson's Prehistoric Man, i. J04 : I>r. Harvey Read in Xhti Dist. Hist.Soc. Report, ii. fi**;^); Joseph Henry in the Smithsonian Reports (i^( ? ( Kacine, 1S86, in H'w- coHSf'n Acad. 0/ Science, iv. 132); J. D. Hutkr's address on " Prehistoric Wisconsin " in the Wisconsin ffist. Coll.^ vol. vii. (see also vol. viii.), witli his " Copper A«e in Wis- consin" in the /'roc. 0/ tlw Amer, Antitfuarian Society, April, 1S77, and liis paper on copiwr tools in the li'isconsin Acad. 0/ Science^'in »;■; ; H. \V. Haynes on " Copper im- plements of America" in Proc. Amer. Autiq. Soc , Oct., 1SS4, p. 335 ; Putnam on the copper objects of North and Stmth America preserved in the Peabody Museum {Reports, XV. Si); Read and Whittlesey in i\\e Final Report, Ohio Hoard Cent. Managers, i^^77f ch. 3; and /Vc/cV Index, p. 300. Reynolds has recently in the Journal 0/ the An- thropol. Soc. (Washington) claimed copper mining for the modern Indians. - (..'lavigent (Philad., Kng. iransl., i. 20) ; Prescoit 1. 13S; Folsom's ed. of Cortes* letters, 412 ; Lockhart*s transl. of IJemal Diaz (Lond., 1.S44, i, 3^1). ^ Cf. on cctpper implements Jrom Mexico: P. J J. Va- lentini's J/i-.r/r./H copper tools: the use 0/ copper ly th,' A.cxicans before the Conquest ; and The Katunesof M.ty 1 history, a chapter in the early history of Central A mrrica. From the German^ by S. Salisbury, /r, (Worcester, i*<''o), from the Amer. Antiq. Soc, Proc, Apr. 30, xS-^u; V. W. Putnam in //»/(/., n. s., ii. 135 (Oct. 21, iSSj) ; Charnav. Eng. transl., p. 701 H. L. Reynolds, Jr., on the " Metal art of ancient Mexico " in Popular Science Monthly.. \\\\;., !*<^7 (vol. xxxi., p. |;io). * Cf. St. J<^hn Vincent Day's Prehistoric use of iron and steel: with olstrrations (London, 1S77). This botfk grew out of papers printed in the /'roc. /^hihsoph. Soc. oj GlasC(*^t>{ 1*^71-71; 1. fi Cf. Dr. Washington Matthews on the " Navaj) silver- smiths "in {he 3d Rept. Bureau of Ethnol. (Washington, iS«3), p. 1^7- H !3 '. CA. INDUSTRIES AND TRADli OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 4^9 cmpcring of metal copper, as coming ivciv recently sus- )rl(l that there all lit the aid of tire; ml other jirocesscs regions extending Columbus in his opper, as llerrera n, and many such lallurijic arts were' evidences of their ipcrinienting with line parts cop|>er) :t standard (//■/,/. Hlerick von Hell- rences ^ to Short 1 tools.'i Among ii. ;4(|i thinks the ; evidences of the I it-Ill iti/ia/'it(tiits unds, only of late , iSS^). Hancroft .•liites, but it was in I'eru, and the I native word fur t has been found und native silver ■. the destruction 1 of most of the onsiti f/isl. Cull., pptr Aj;e in Wis- iqiiarimi SocitUy, in the ll'isumstn i on " Clipper ini- Aiitiq. Soc, Oct , -■cts of North ami luseiim [Krforls, 'ml Keforl, Ohio d Poolers Index, mrnal of the An- ler milling for the ; Prescott i. i^S; khan's transl. of ico: P. J J. V.i- 9/ copper I'v tile Ciitiines 0/ M,iy i 'entritl A inerica, iVnrcester, is^fi), ,10, 1S7,,: K. W. iSSj) ; fharnay. , on ilif " Metal - .'/■i'«M/r.Auj;., rie use of iron 77). This bonk hihsopk. Sot-, oj " Nnva;-) silver- '/. (Washington specimens gathered by Squicrand Davis, lamented that no American collection ' had been yet formed adequate to the rccpiirenients of the students of American archx-ology and ethnology. Since that date, however, the collections in the National Museum (Smithsonian Institution) at Washington and in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge have largely grown; and especially for the tictilc art and work in stone of Spanish North America the Museo Nacional in Mexico has assiinr;d importance. The collection in the possession of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia,- since transferred to the Philadelphia Academy, is also of value for the study of the pottery of middle America. Kau has supplied a leading paper on .American pottery in the Smithsonian Report, 1866; and E. A. Harbcr has touched the subject in papers at the Copenhagen, Luxembourg, and Madrid meetings of the Congrts des Am^ricanistes, and in the Aineritnii Aiititjutiritin ( iii. 70).' \V. 11. Holmes has a paper on the origin and development of form and of orn.ui'ent in ceramic art in the I'oitrlli Hefort, Bureau 0/ Ethnology, p. 437. For local characters there are various monograplis.^ There is no satisfactory evidence that the potter's wheel was known to any .\i.icrican tribe ; but Wilson, in his chapter on ceramic art {I'rehis- toric Mttn, ii. ch. i(>), feels convinced that the early potter employed some sort of mechanical process, giving a revolving motion to his clay. Modelling in clay for other purposes than the making of vessels is also considered in this same seventeenth ch.ipter if Wilson, and the subject runs, as respects masks, ligurines. and general ornamentation, into the wide rr.nge of aboriginal art, which necessarily makes part ol all comprehensive histories of art. W. II. Dall has a paper on Indian masks in the Tliini Report, Burctiu of F.thnoh\^y, p. 7^ The subject is further treated by Wilson in a paper cjn " The artistic faculty in the .iboriginal races,'' in the ProcCi-tliiii;s (iii., jil part. 67, iiy) of the Koyal Society of Canada, and again in a general way by Nadaillac on L'art friliistoriquc en Ainirique (Paris, i^S^l, taken from the Kciiie ties iltii.v Momles, Nov. i, 1S83.* As regards the textile art in preliistoric times, see for a gener.il view W. II. Holmes in the Ameritaii .-liiliquiiriaii, v'ni. Jf"!! ; and the same arcl1aologi.1t has treated the subject on the evidences of the impression of textures as preserved in pottery, in the Thirtl Rept. Bur. of Etliii,4oi;y, p. yiv Cf. Sellers in Pof-uUir Stieiite fournal, and Wyman in I'cal-otly Museum Reports. J. W. Foster first mad; (uS^Si the discovery of relics of textile fabrics of the moundbuildcrs ; but he did not announce his d'' ;overy till ?.X the .\lbany meeting (1S51) of the .American .Association for the .Advance- ment of Scioni.c ^ I'rnnsailions, 1S52, vol. vi. p. 37;). lie tells the story in his Preliislorie Raees, p. 322, and figures the implements, found in the mounus, supposed to be employed in the making their cl.ith with warp ME.XICAN CLAY MASK.» * The chief Kiirnpean collections are in the British Mu- seum, the .S(>, ' Antiquaries ot .Sci.'.land, the Louvre, and at t.'openha.:en, Vienna, lirussels, n,,t to name others; and amon,^ private ones, the Christy and Evans collections in F.nt;laiul and the L'nde in Heidelberg. * Triinstii-tions, n. s., iii. 510. •■ Cf. Lucien de Rosny's" Introduction k une histoire de la ceraniique chez lea itidiens du nouveau monde " in the A rehires de lii Soe. Ain^r. tie Frtiiice, n. s., vol. i., and Stevens' Flint Chips, 241. Further references: Wilson's rrehist. Man, ii. ch. 17; Catiin's .V^ A. Inditins, ch. 16; F. V. Hayden's Contrih. to the Ethnot;, if the Missouri I'lilley, 355; A. Deminin's l/ist. tie Iti C^rtimigne (Paris, i^6S-iS75); Nadaillac's Les premiers f tontines, ?tnA his C A iM^riqtie firehistorique, ch. 4. * For the . lantic coast, paiiers by Abbott {Ainerienn Xtiturtilist, Ap. 72, etc.), later more comprehensively treated in his rriiniti:-e huinstry, ch. 11 ; aiul for the middle Atlantic region, a paper by Francis Jordan, Jr., in the Ainer. I'hilosoph. Soc. I'rttc. (i««H, vol. xxv.) For Florida, Schoolcraft in the Neiu Vorte Hist. Soc. Proc, 1H46, p. 124. For the moiindbuilders, Foster's /VM/j'(ir/(- Races, p. 337, and in Ainer. Niiturtilist, vii. 94 (Feb., 1H73); Nadaillac, ch. 4: and Putnam in Ainer. Ntit., ix. 321* 3031 and Peabody Mus. EeMs., viii. For the Missis- sippi Valley in general, Fdw. Kvers in The Contributions to the archeeology of Missouri ; W. H. Holmes in the Fourth Report tf the Buretiu of Ethnology, an improvement of a paper in the J^roc. of the Davenport Acad, of Sciences, vol. iv. Joseph Jones in the .Smithsonian Contrib., xxii., and Putnam in the Peabody Mus. Repts. , have described the pottery of Tennessee. The Pacific K. R. Repts. yield us somethin.^;; and Putnam {Reports) was the first to describe th? Missouri pottery. J. H. Devereux treats the pottery of -Arkansas in the Smithsonian Rept., 1S72. On the Pu- eblo pottery, see papers of W. H. Holmes and F. H. Cuslv. ing in the Fourth Kept. Bur. of Ethn. (pp. 257, 743); and Jnmc". .Stevenson's illustrated catalogue in the Third Rept.^ p. 511. F. W. Putnam (Ainer. Art Revieu-, Feb., i?^f*i), supplementing his work in vol. vii. of Wheeler's Survey, thinks that the present Pueblo Indians make an inferior ware to their ancestors' productions. The pottery of the cliff-dwellers isdescribetl in Hayden's .4 «««. T. Mason's papers in recent Smithsonian Reports and in the Amer. \aturalist are among the best investigations in this direction. •'' For some special pliascs, see S. RIondel's Recherches sur les biioux des pennies primitifs . . . M^xicains et Pfruviens (Paris, 1876); F. W. Putnam's Convention- i'f !'■: !! \\ ' Alter a cut in Wilson's Prehistoric Man, ii. p. 33, of an example in the collections of the American Philosophical Society, in a totally different style from the usuil Mexican terra-cottas ; and Wilson remarks of it that one will look in vain in it for the Indian physiognomy. Tyler, Aiuihimc, 230, con^iiders it a forgeiy. r i ■ i* 420 NAKRATIVL AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. I'lv \i I \ and woof. Putnam has since made similar discoveries (Peabody Museum Ktforls). The subject is also treci'.ed in the Froceeilings of the Davenport Academy and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Tlic fabrics were ])rcserved by being placed in contact with copper implements. 'I'he Indians of New Mexico were found by the .Spaniards in possession of the art of weaving. Cf. Washing ton .Matthews on the Navajo weavers, in the TliirJ Kept. Bur. of Ellinology, p. J7i,and Uancroft (i. 582), who also records the making of fabrics by the wild tribes of Central America (Ibid, i. 766-67). lie also notes the references to tliu textile manufactures of the Nahuas and Mayas (ii. 484, 752). The richest accumulation of ijrapliic data relative to the fabrics of I'eru is contained in the great work on the Necrofolis of Ancon. (■'eatiier-work was an important industry in some p:irts of the continent. The subject is studied in Ferdi- nand Denis' Arte flunuirUi : Les flumes, leur inlcur el leur emfloi dans Its arts au Mixique, au Perou, au ISresil , 1S75).' Lewis 11. Morgans Houses and /louse-life of the American Aborigines (Washington, 1881) is the com pletest study of the habitations of the early peoples ; but it is written too exclusively in the light of universal communal custom, and this must be borne in mind in using it. The edifices of middle America and Peru have been given a bibliographical a|iparatus in another part of the present volume ; but references may be made to Wilson's Prehistoric Afiin (ii. ch. Hi), \'iollet le Due's Habitations of Man, translated by R. Buck> nail (Uoston, iS?!)), and to Bandeiier's Architological Tour, 2J6, where he quotes as typical the description of a native house in 1585, drawn by Juan Ilautista I'oirir. There is no good comprehensive account of American prehistoric trade. The T-shaped pieces of copper in u.se by the Mexica-is came nearest to currency as we understand it, unless it be the wampum of the North American Indians, and the shell money in use on the I'acihc coast ; but it should be remembered that copper axes and copjier plates served such a purpose with some tribes.'- The Peruvians used weights, but the Mex- icans did not. The latter had, however, a system of measures of length.' The canoe was a great interme- diary in tlie practice of barter.^ The Peruvians alone understood the use of sail.", and the earliest Spanish navigators cm the Pacific were surprised at what tlicy thought were civilized predecessors in those seas when they espied in the distance the large white sails of the Peruvian rafts of burden.'' The chief source of trade In such conditions was barter, and we know how the Mexican travelling merchants got information that was availed of by the Mexican marauders in their invasions. Bandelier" gives us the references on the barter ysteni, the traders, and the currency in that country, and we need to consult Dr. W. liehrnauer's Essai sur It Commerce duns i'ancien Mlxique et en Pirou, in the Archives de la Soc. Amir, dt F,-anct (n. s., vol, i.). All the treatises on the mounds of the Ohio Valley derive illustrations of intertribal traffic from the shells of the coast, the copper of Lake Superior, the mica of the Alleghanies, the obsidian of the Rocky Moun- tains or of Mexico, and the unique figurines which the explorations of the mounds have disclosed. Charles Kail has a paper on this aboriginal trade in North America, published in the Archiv fiirAnthrofologie (linnMn- schweig, i,S;2,vol. iv.), which was republished in English in the Smithsonian Report, 1872, p. 249. liancrott's references under " Commerce " (v. p. 668; will help the student out in various particulars. atism in Ancient American Art (Salem, 1SS7, from the Bull. Essex hist., xviii., for 1886); Mexican masks in Stevens' /'/•-. Chi/>s, ijS; S. D. Pect on " Human {.ices in aborigi al art," in the American A ntii/uarian (May, 1886, or viii. 133): the description of terra.cotia fijjures in Herman Sirebel's Alt-Mexico. A terra-colta vase in the Museo Naclunal is figured in Brasseur's /'a^ul I'uk (.86,'). It is not known that stringed instruments were ever used, notwithstanding the suggestion of the twanging of the bow-string: hut museums often contain specimens of musical pipes used by the aborigines. The opening chai>- terof J. F. Rowbotham's Hist. 0/ Music (London, 1HS5) gives what evidence we have, with references, as to kinds of music rnmmun to the American aborigines, and their fictile wind instruments. Cf. A. J. Hipkins' .Musical in- stru:nents, historic, rare, and unique. The selection, iutrcductiou, and descripti't'C Holes hy A. jl. Hipkins; illustrated by ll'illiam Giib (Edinburgh, 1888); H. T. I'resson on .Aztec music in the Proc. Acad, Nat. Sciences (IMiilad., 1SS3); and Wilson's Prehistoric Man^'n. 37), with t.ie references in P.ancroft's index (v. p. 717). In Nott and C.liddon's Indigenous Races 0/ the Earth (Philad., iHs?) there is a section by Francis Pul: zky on •* Iconogranhic researches on human races and thei art." ' Mr*. Zelia Nuttall's essay on some Mexican 'eather- work preserved in the Irngxrial Museum at Vienna appeared in the Archaol. and Elhnolog. Pafers of the Peabody Museum, vol. i. no. 1 (Cambridge, 1888), and here she dis- cusses the question if this is a standard or head-dress, and holds it to have been a head-dress. The contrary view is taken by F. von Hoclistetter in his Utber Mexicanisch* Reliquien aus der Zeit Montezuma's (Vienna, 1884), who supposes it to have been among the presents sent by Cortes in 1519 to Charles V., in die possession of whose nephew it is known to have been in 150. » Cf. Horatio Hale on Tlie Origin 0/ Primitive Money (N. v., 1886, — from the Popular Science Monthly, xxviii. ji/)) ; W. B. Weedon's Indian Money as a factor in New England CivilizalioH (Haltimore, 1.884, — Johns Hopkins (University Studies); Ashbel Woodward's Wamfum (Al- bany, 1S7S): F.rnst Ingersoll in the A mer. Naturalist (tA^y, 1883); and the cuts of w.nmpum belts in the Second Kept. Bur. Ethnology (pp. 242. "44. J4''i »4S| "S'l 254)- s Cf. D. G. Brinton's The lineal measures of the Semi- civilized nations of Mexico ami Central America. Read before the A merican Philosophical Society, Jan. 2, /Mj (Philadelphia, 1S85). * Wilson's Prehistoric Man, i. ch. 6. » Wilson, i. 158. See post. Vol. IL 508, for an old cut of a raft under sail. • Peabody Mus. Rtpt., a. 602-8. ^' :a. ! subject h aljo he Advancemen: ' 1 (;. Cf. Washing- Jancroft (i. 582), ). lie also notes est accunulatiun s of AncoH. tuiliecl In Kerdi- iijuc, au Pirou, 881) is the com ght of universal nerica and I'eru ferences may be ted by R. Buck, he description of ces of copjier in m of the North ered that copper ts, but the Mex- I great internie- earliest Spanish those seas when source of trade nation that was s on the barter :r's Essai sur U (n. s., vol. i.). from the shells ; Rocky Moun- losed. Charles 'fologie { Braun- 149. Bancroft's Vienna appeared 0/ l/u Peabody nd here she dis* head-dress, and contrary view is r Mexicaniscki enna, 1884), who Is sent by Cortes whose nephew 'rimiiive Monry Monthly^ xxviii, ! /actor in AVw Johns Hopkins Wampum {AI- ^aturaiist (May, le Second Reft. . "54). es 0/ the Semi- merica. Jte,td for an old cut IV. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON AMERICAN LINGUISTICS. /iy the Editor. It cannot be said that the study of American linguistics has advnnred to a position wholly satisfactorj". U is beset with all the dif!iculties belonging to a subject that has not Ijcen embraced in written records for long periods, and it is open to the hazards of articulation and hearing, actmg without entire mutual conlidence. And yet we may not dispute Max Miiller's belief,' that it is the science of language which has given the tirst comprehensive impulse to the study of mankind. Out of the twenty distinct sounds which it is said the voice of man can produce,'^ there have been built up from roots and combinations a great diversity of vocabularies. Comparisons of these, as well as of the methods of forming sentences, have been much used in investigations of ethnical relations. Of these opposing methods, neither is sufficiently strong, it is pnbtible, to Ije pressed without the aid of the other, though the belief of the liureau of Ethnology at Washington, under the influence of Major I'owell, practically discards all tests but the vocabulary, 'n tracing ethnological relations. It is held that this one test of words satisfies, ac to customs, myths, and other ethnological traits, more demands of classifications than any other. Granted that it does, there are (,aestion3yet unsolvableby it ; and many ethnologists hold that there arc still other tests, physio- logical, for instance,' which cannot safely be n.'glectcd in settling such complex questions. The favorite claim of the Dureau is that its officers are studying man as a human being, and not as an animal ; but it is by no means sure that the physical qualities of i.ian arc so disconnected with his mind and soul as to be unnecessary to his interpretation. Even if language be given the chief place in such studies, tho'-e is still the doubt if the vocabulary can in all ways be safely followed to the exclusion of the structure of the language ; and it is not to be forgotten, as Haven recognized thirty years ago, that "one of the , i-c-jtest obstacles to a successful and satisfactory comparison of Indian vocabularies is caused by the capricious and ever-varying orthography applied by writers of different nations.'' This is a chance of error that cannot be eliminated when we have to deal with lists of words made in the jiast, by persons not to be communicated with, in whom both national and personal peculiarities of ear and vocal organs may exist to perplex. A part of the difficulty is of course removed by trained assistants acting in concert, though in different fields ; but the individual sharpness or dulness of ear and purity and obscurity of articulation will still cause diversity of results, — to say nothing of corresponding differences in the persons questioned. There is still the problem, broader thar. all these divisionary tests, whether language is at all a safe test of race, and on this point there is room for different opinions, as is shown in the discussions cf Sayce, Whitney, and others.* " .Any attempt,' says Max .Miiller, "at squaring the classi- fication of races and tongues must necessarily fail." 6 On the other hand, Cieorge Bancroft (Final revision, ii. 90) says that " the aspect of the red men was so uniform that there is no method of grouping them into families but by their languages." It is the wide margin for error, already indicated, that vitiates much that has already been done in phiIologi> cal comparisons, and the over-eager recognition at all times of what is thought to be the word-shunting of " Grimm's Law " has doubtless been responsible for other confusions.' ' dtift, ii. J48. Cf. Oabry de Thiersant's Origin/ des mdiens (Paris, 1S83], p. 187. • It has been a question whether the palxoliihic man talked, and it has been asserted and denied, from the char- acter of certain inferior maxillary bones found in caves, that he had the power of articulate speech. Dr. Brinton has recently, from an examination of (he lowest stocks of lin- guistic utterances now known, endeavored to set forth "a somewhat correct conception of what was the character of the rudimentary utterances of the race.*' Cf. Brinton, Languagt of the Palaolifkic Man, Philadelphia, 1888; Mortillet, La prMistorifue A ntifuilf de P Homme ( Paris, 1883); H. Steinlhal, Der Ursprung der Sprache (Berlin, 1888). Horatio Hale, on " The origin of languages and the antiquity cpf speaking man,'* in the Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc., XXXV. J79, cites the views of some physiologists to show that the pre-glacial man could not talk, because there are only rudimentary signs of the presence of im- portant vocal muscles to be discovered in the most an- cient jaw-lwnes which have been found, Rau inferred that the totally diverse character, as he thought, of the American tongues indicated strongly that the earliest man could not articulate {Conlri/i. to N. A. Elknologys v. 92) For other somewhat wild speculations, see Col. E. Carette't Etude sur les temps antikistoriques. La Langage (Pariff 1878). ' Morgan thought he had found a test in his Systenu of consanguinity and affinity of tke Human Family (Wash" ington, 1871). * fournai Antkropohgicr.1 Inst., v. 216. * Science of Language, i. 326. * For recognition of it in American philology, see B«o« croft, iii. 670, and Short, 47i- J| A f-^ ■!.:] 42; NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. . V, Most of the general pliilnloRical treatises tfiucli more or less intimately llic question of lan"iiaKe as a teil of race.l and all of tiicni ent-.ine in tracing attinities, each with cimtidencc in a niethoil that others with equal assurance may Ixliltle.'' Ihus llancroft.i reHcctinij an opinion lonfj prevalent, says that " piisitivc grammati- cal rul.s carry with them niudi more wei>;ht than mere word likenesses," < while, on the contrary, Dawson' says tlut "grammar is, after all, only the clothing of language. The science consists in its root-words ; and multitulc-.i of roiitworiguii,;,s, %a\e i.ioo diMerent American languages; but an ali)halxtical list given by II. W. Hates in his Ctiihal Ameri, -, W.sl Indus unJ S.oilh Amcrua (London, 1S82. 2ded ) '" affords 1,700 names of such. 'I'he luiniber, of course, depends on how exclusive we arc in group- ing oialects. .'^ciuier. for instance, i'ives only ^oo tongues for both North and .^outh America ; for, a> Nadaillac says, " philology lias no precise definition of what constitutes a language," 'i 1 ^' (/' ' Cf. Waiti, Inirod. to Anthropoiogy (Enj;. transl.), p. 338; Wedgwood, Origin of Language ; Lubbock, Origin 0/ Civilization^ ch. 8; Tylor's Anthropology, ch. U\ Tnpi- x^^T^\ Anthropologie ; J. P. U'f.ley's Man's Origin auif Dt'stiny (wlio considers the test so f.ir a (.lilu e) ; William D. Whitney's " Testimony of language lespecnnK the unity of the human race," ii. \\\^ North American Keview, July, * The "Lerguas y naciones Americanas" forms part of till- first voluaie of Lorenzo HcrvaR*s Catalogo de his /.enguas de las Naciones ConocidtSj y ni • tcion, divi- sion y cluses de istas segnn la diversidad de sas idiotnas y dialectos {^i^K^nA, 1S00-1805, in 6 vols ). which served in some measure Johann Severin Vater, and J. C. AdelunK in their Mithridates, oder Allgemtine Sprachenkunde (Ber- lin, 1S06-17, in 4 vols.) and his Analekten der Sprachen- kunde {\je:\\MA^y 1821). There has more been done so far to map out the ethno- logical fields of middle America than to determine those of the ninre northern parts. Cf. the map in Orozco y Ilerra's (ieogra/ia de las lent^uas tie Mexico (1S64), and thai in V. A. MaUe-rirun*<» paper iii the Compte Rfndn, Cong, des A nt^ricanistes, i '77, ii. 10. The maps in llancroft's Native Races, ii. and v , will serve ordinarj' reader.-,. For the broader northern ficH, see the pai)ers hy L. H. Morgrn and ft irge Oi^bs in the Smithsonian Reports, 1S61, x^^i. The liureau of Klhnoloj y have in preparation such a map, and they mark on it, It is understood, about seventy distinct slocks. (-f. Horatio Hale on ** /ndian migrations as e\idenced by language," in the Amir. Antiquarian, v. 1^, loS (Jan., April, 1SS3), and issued separately, Chicago, 1SS3. Lucien Adam criticised the views of Hall in the Copenhagen Commie Rendu, Cong, des Amfr., lS^^, p. 123. 3 Nat Races, iii. 55S. ♦ Cf. Am. Antiq. Soc. Proc, April, 1879. " Fossil ^ fen, 310. * A prominent feature is the proces<; of uniting words lengthwise, so to s[>eak, which gives a single utteraiice the import of a sentence. Tiiis characteristic of the American languages has been called polvsynthetic, 'ncorporative, hoJcphrastic, agpregative, and agglutinative. H. H. Ban- croft instances the word for letter-postage in Aztec as being ** Amatlacuilolitquitcatlaxtlahuilli," which really signifies by its compttnent parts, " payment received for carrving a patier on which something is witten.'' Cf- Brinton's On folysynthesism and incorporation as characteristic of American languages (Philad., 18S5). ' Hayden says: *' The dialects of :hc western continent, radically united among themselves and radically distin- guished from all otheis, stand in hoary brotherhood by the side of the most ancient vocal systems of the human race." " Morgan, in his Systems of Consanguinity, contends for this linguistic unity, though (m iSf>^.) he admits that " the dialects and stock languages have nut been explored with sufficient thoroughness." " Gallatin says of them: "They bear the impress of ptimitive languages, . . . and attest (he antiquity of the population, — an antiquity the earliest we are peimitled to assume." This was of course written lieftire the geological evidences of the r.ntiquity of man were understood, and the remoteness referred to wa^ a period '.ear the great dis- persion of Babel. *" The appendix of this work las i good general summary of the Ethnography and Philolc,;y of America, by A. H. Keant. " Tie interlinking method of communication between tribes of different languages is what is called sign or gesture language, and the study '>f it shows that in much the sanij forms it is spread over the cinitinent. It has been specially studied by Col. Oarrick Mallery. Cf. his papers in the Amer. Antiquarian,\\. 21S; Proc. Atner. Asso. Adv. Scien.e, Saratoga meeting, iSSo; and at length in the First Annuiil Rept. Bur. of Ft/tnology {ii8i). He note* his sources if information on pp. 395, 401. He had earlier printed under the Bur^;au'8 sanction his introduction to the Study of Sign Langtrnge (Washington, 18S0). The sul)ject is again considered in the Third Rept. of the Bu- reau, p. xxvi. Cf. also W. P. Clark's indian Sign-lan- guage, with Explanatory Notes (Philad., 18S5). Morgan (Systems of Consanguinity, 227) exjiresses the opinion that it has the germinal principle "from which came, first, the pictographs of the northern Indians and of the Aztecs; and. secondly, as its ultimate development, the ideographic and possibly the hieroglyphic language of the Palenque and Copan monuments." In addition to languages and dialects, we have a whole bi dy r.f jargons, a conventional mixture of tongues, ad- duced by continued intercourse of jieoples speaking differ- ent languages. They grew up very early, where the French came in contact with the aborigines, and Father Le Jeune mentions one in 1633 (//;'.?/'. Mag., v. 345). The Chinook jargon, for instance, was, if not invented, at least developed by the Hudson Bay Cor.ipany's servants, out of French, English, and several Indi;,n tongues (whoie share predomi- W I, I BIHLIOCiKAl'HiCAL NOTLIS ON AMERICAN LINGUISTICS. 423 The mnst cnni|irchensive survey of the biblhKr'phy of American lingulntics, exchiihii;{ >hlngtun, iSSji, a tcnutivu isniiv (it tlic llurcuii «l Kthiiui.i){)', .ilrLMily iiivntioned. I'llhiii; .lUo earlier catahitiiieU the liiiKuUlic M>>, in the library iif the lliiriMii nf l;tliiii)li>(Ta|ihi'r .iKu gave a sketch iit the limtury iil ({UtliiTini; hiicIi (.i'llucti<>n». A M'ction of the Hibliothtia Amtriiiiiia of (.'liarlen I.eclerc (I'ariii, \'i^>^) is given to linK>ii!>tic9, ami it affords by Kroupii one of the bent keys to the literature ol the almnginal lanKiUKCs which we yet have, and it has been Mippleniented by additional listH isMiud since by Maiioiinei.ve of I'aris. I.udewijji's Liliraluri of .liniruitn .Ihirixinal l.ii»i;iiiixes,iiilh lulililions by l^'. /'ii's Esk:m« /,iini;uai;(<, V' i<^)' I he libraries of cipllectors of Spanish-American history, .is eininieraird elsewhere,' have usually included much on the linguistic history, "'.I the most inipurtaiit ol the printed lists for .Mi ., 1 and Central America is that of Itrasseur de llourU.urK's liibliotltiijut Mt.xuo-iiiiiitiiiuiliinnt, fri^iiLj J'un <■ /// il'ail iiir Its iliiilts iimiricaiiits ilans lours r if fori s iirtt Its itiidcs iUisuijUts, tt stiivi tin labttiiii, fur iirdrt III flinbi Ill/lit, ilts oiivriii;es Jt liiiiiiiislh/iit iimtrmiiHt lonltiiiis iliiiii It mime voliimt (I'aris, 1X71). This list is re|>eated witli additions in the t'iiliiloi;iie ilt Alfhoint I . I'liuirl tl . . . ilt lirtisseur Jc liouf boiirg iX'AUi, rSSti. I'ield's linlian IJiblioi;riifliy cWitAClvniKs ft.iyw i^i the leading; Ixjoks up to lS;j;but the best source up to .iboiit the s.iiiie date I'or a large p ■^t of .North .\nierica is found in the notes in thai section of llancroft's .\V//;;f A'un', \oi. iii„ given to linguistics.- Ihe si'veral t'.i;«//ij AV»i./«j ot tlie lion- gris des Amcricanistes h.ive sections on the sal le subject, and the second VoU'iiie of the Contribiilions to Xiirlh //»«<■>•;. the U. S. (ieological ."survey {I'owell's), has been kept back lor the com- pletion of the linguistic st idles of the government officials, which will ultimately, under the care of A. .S, (iatschct, compose tli.it belated volume. .Major I'owell, in his conduct of ethnological investigations for the L'nited ."st.itis gover;.inent, has found efficient helpers in James (J. I'illing. J. Owen Oorsey, .'•. K. Kiggs. A. S. (iatscliet, not to name others. I'owell outlined ioine of his .Ton views in an address on the evolution of language before the .Anthropological .'s(';iety of Washington, of which there is an abstract in their I'rani- a(VuMished a Grammar of the Massachusetts /iiiliar /.ij«i,'tt/7i,'* (Cambridge, 1666), which, with notes by I'cter .S. Duixinceau and an in- troduction by John I'ick ring, was printed for the Mass. Hist. .Society in 1S22. as was John Cotton's I'otabu- lary of the Massachusetts /uuian Laiiguai,v (Cambridge, 1.S30I. Koger Williams' A'l,! into the language ol America has been elsewhere rei'cired to.' The Kev. Jonathan Edwards wrote a pajier on the language of the Mohcgan Indians, which, with annotations by Pickering, was printed in the .IAmc. Hi^l. Sot. Coll. in 183;, and is called by ILivcn (Archctol. U. S., 29) the earliest exposition of the radical connection of the Amer- ican languages. Dr. James Hammond Trumbull, the most learned of the students of these eastern languages, has furnished various papers on them in the publications ol the .Amcacan I'hilologicil .V'sociaticm and of the American .Nnticpiarian Society,'' and has summarized the literature of the subject, with references, in the Memorial Hist, of Boston (vol. i.). In the eighteenth century there were several philological recorders among the missionaries. Sebastian Rasle made a Dictionary of the Ab'iake Language, now preserved in M.'<. in Harvard Ci.llegp library, which, edited by John Pickering, was published as 7 volume of the Memoirs of the .\mer. .Xcademy of Arts and Sciences in 1833. .A grammatical sketch of the .Abnakc as outlined in Kasle's Dictionary is given by M. C. O'Urien in the .\fainc Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. ix. The publications of the American Philosophical .'"cKiety in Pliiladelphia have preserved for us the voca'mlaries and grammars of the Pclaware language, collected and a inged by John Heckewelder' and David /loisberger, while the latter Moravian missionary collected a considerable M.S. store of linguistic traces of the Indian tongues, a part of which is now preserved in Har- vard "ollege library.' One of this last collection, an Indian Dictionary ; English. German, /rofuois {the nAi-?s), to facililaie their trade with the natives, and does not contain, at an outside limit, more than 400 or 500 wards. There Is some rcasoi. to believe that the Indian portion of this jargon is oldet, however, than the English contact (11 incrnft, III, 632-3 ; Ciibbs's Chinook Dictionary ; Horatio Hale in Wilkes' i/, S. Explvr. Ex^d.). * Stc the section on " Americana," with a foot-note on linguistic collections. Haven summed up what had been done in this field in 1855 in his Arihaology 0/ the U. S. p. 53. * There is a less extensive survey, Init wider in territory, in Short's Xorth Americans 0/ Antiquity, ch. 10. » Vol. III. p. 355. « See Pillirg's Froof-shrets. ' Duponceau's leport in HeckewelHer. Hist. Ace. 0/ the Indian Nations, iSio, is in the .Mass. Hist. Coll., iSjj. Pickf rinR s.lys that Dupnnceau was the e.iriiest to discover and make known the common characteristics of the Amer- ican tongues. • These are enumerated in the appendix of The Calendar :i I t 4H NARRATIVL AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF A.MKRICA. li \ I) 1 1 1 \Y, Onontlaga), and .-l/yoHfuiH [Ihf Dtlawart) (CambriilKC 1RR7,) hai been carefully edited for the pret* by Kbcii Niirton llorkfnrd. Dr. Joint (i. Shea piihlithvd 4 OiilioHHiiirt /•'riin^iiii-OMOHliigue, iitili itaftis mm manuHnl if the (irlKin of the Indians had for j Ion)* time In-en the subject of discussion, aneeches. lie says that he was inslij^ated to the study by i'allas' l.iiif;iiarum toliui urUt I'lhithilitria comfarativa (I'ctropolis, 178(1, I?.'*!)), and the result was his Nitv I'inv of I lit Origin of the Irihesaml imlions ot Amtriia (I'hilad., i;ij7 ; a^aln, 170N). He sets forth In his introduction his methcHls of study. Charlevoix had sug- gested that the linKulstlc test was the only one In studying the ethnological connections of these peoples; but Il.irton asserted that there were other nianilestatioiis, equally impoitaiit, like the physical asjiecls, the modes of worship, and the myths. He examined forty different Indian languages, and thinks they show a common origin, and that remotely a connection existed between the old and new continents. The most eminent American student '• of this field in the early half of this century was Albert Gallatin. He began his observations in 182;. at the instance of llunilM)ldt. and two years later he took .idvantage ot a representative convocation of Indian tribes, then held In \\ashlngti>n, to continue his studies of their spceih. In 81 trilies brarks AtSS,^ iuucd by the library of Han-ard University. They are also cited with »onie in other de- positorieH by Pilling in his Prvof-shfrts. ' Also in J. H. Schcrer*» Rfchfrchts hixtoriijuts et gfo- grnphiques snr U Souvtau MomU ( Paris, 1777). * We know little of what Jefferson mi^ht have accom- plished, for his manuscripts were burned in iSoi (School- craft's fnd. Trihfs^ ii. },*fA. j*s early as 1S04 the I* S. War Department issued a list of words, for which its agents should ;;et in different tribes the equivalent words, (lal- latin used these rsults. Different lists of test words have been often used s.ncc. OeorKe Gibbs had a list. The Pu- reau of Ethnology has a list. ^ Cf. synopsis in Haven's Archtrol. U. S., p. 65. * For Hale's later views see his Origin of Itinf^tge and antiquity of sneaking man (Cambridge, I'^H'tl, from th» Proc. Amer. Ast. Atfr. Science y xxxv. ; and his Dn'thf^ ment o/" /anguage (Toronto, 1SS8), from the /^roc. Cana- dian fnst.^ 3d ser., vi. * Amonc other workers in the northern philoWv may be named Schoolcraft in \\\^ Indian Trihsi'vx. and iii. 340), who makes no advance upon Gallatin; W. W. Turner in the Smiihsonian Report^ vi. ; R. S. Riggs adds a Dacota bibliocraphy to his Grammar and Dictionary of the Pa- K'lttn iangnage (Wa'hincton, Smiths. Insi., 1S52); George Gibbs in the Smithsonian Repts. for 1S65 and 1870, and as collaborator in other studies, of which record is made in j. A. Stevens* memoir of Gibbs, first printed in the .V. }'. I/ist. Soc, Coii.^ and then in the Smithsonian Refort for 1S73; F. W. Hayden*s Contributions to the tthnography and philology 0/ the Indian tribes 0/ the Missouri I'alley (Philad., 1S63), being vol. xiii. of the Trans. Amer. Philo- sophical Soc. A contemporary of Gallatin, but a man sorely harassed, as others see liim, with eccentriiiiies and unstableness of head, was C. K. Kafinesque, who had nevertheless a certain tendency to acute observation, which prevents his books from becoming wholly worthless. His first publication was an introduction to Marshall's History 0/ Kentucky y which he printed separately as Ancient History ^ or Anntt/s oj Kentucky y tvifh a sur^>ey 0/ the ancitnt monuments oJ North A tnerica , and a tabular view 0/ the principal lan- guages and primitive nations of the whole earth ( Frank- fort, Ky.p 1S34). In this he makes a comparison of (our principal words from fourteen Indian tongues with thirty- four primitive languages of the old world. In i?y> he printed at Philadelphia The A merican Nations., or outlines of their general history y ancient and modern, including the whole history of the earth and mankind in the ti'estern hemisphere; the philosophy of American history : the an^ nals^ traditions, civilization, languages, etc. ^ efall Atner ican tuitions, tribes, empires and states (in two volumes). i i \ "^i^SSS^T^^ DIUI.lOdKAI'HICAL NOTES ON AMKRICAN LIN(;UISTICS. 4-^5 'Ik' prfsK by '< dafiii un ■ !"■ tfrmcil a I' i|iie!itiiin of i\ l.iken more lii.il (inr, with ikk as — not I" the Jews, ml Kuropean s not wholly irld spvcches. comfariitha J ('/ Auurica vtiix had J tonuntfHU ej ■arth ( Frank- rison rf four s with thirly- In iV he ts^croutlittet including tht thi nvstern 0ry ; the dw 0/ all A iner^ o volumes). Urinton of i'lilladelplila. Of Shea's Library of Amtru,in ijHguitlia he has given an account In the Smith- joniiiit h'l'/'t., i.s*'i.i lir. ilrlnton has set forth the pur|)<)liotlii(/Mi Ji tin- ^liiitit/uf it d'cthiiofiriifliii Amiriiiiims (I'arls and San Francisco, iSj^-Nj).' Ihe pnbllshinii house of Malsonneuve et Comp-ignie of i'aris, which has done more than any other business linn to .idvancc these studies, has conducted a ColltclioH linguislKjue Atturiiiiine, of much value ti' .Vmerican philologists. < Other French studies have attracted attention. I'lerre Ktienne l)u|Kinceau published a Mimoirt sur It sysli'ne f;r,iinmrttuiil lics Uiniiins ile ^iiel/iici nation 1 inJitunci Je I' AmrriijutJu AVrndence with the Kev. John lleckewelder res|iecting the American tongues, which is pub- lished in the I'ruiuiHtioiis 0/ t/ie Amer. Pliilosofhiiiil Society l\'h\\., iSiy), and he translated /eisbergcr't Octiiuiire iirammar. The studies of the AbM Jean .\ndr< Cuoq have been upon the Algonquin dialects,* and published mainly \n\\w A, III lie til Soiiiti fliilolot;iijMe (\'At\-i. iV,(k) and later). His monographic Etudts fliiloloxiijucs lur ijiielijiifs tiiiigiics siiiiviixfs dt I' Amirijiit was printed at Mimtreal, i.Sdfi. It was the result of twenty yean' missionary work among t'lc Iroquois and .Mgonquins, anil besides a grammar contains a critical examination of the works of Duponceau ,ind ."Schoolcraft. I.ucien .\dam has been very compreliensive in his rcscarchef, his studies Ijeing collected under the titles of Etudts sur six Imiguts AmirUaints (I'arls, 1878) and BxamtH grammatiiiil iomfure Jc s(izi- lunguis .Imiricaines (I'aris, 1S78).' J. (j Shea, Frtnck Onoiuiata * It embraces; KiKST .SlKIBS: No. Dlitioiuiry, J. (1. ^\i:n^\x\\\\, Stlish or Flttt'lleiid liraninuir. 3. B. Smith, Grammaticat Sketih of the Heve lan- guage. 4. F. Arroyo de la Ciiesta, Grammr.r 0/ the Muixun langtuige. 5. B. Smith, Grniitmnr of the t^ima or Sh-ome lait- guage. (u M . C. Pandosy, Gmminar and Dictionary 0/ tht Viikania lauf^iiage. 7. B. Siij.ir, t'oinhulary of tht language of tht San Antonio Mission. S. F. Arroyo dc la Cuesta, Vocabulary or fhrast-hook of the Mtttsun language. >>. Abb^ Maillard, Grammar of the Micmaqut Uin- gu,\ge. 10. J. Bruyas, ^(i. 7. Antonio Magio, La Letigim de los Indios Baures (Paris, i.' A2<^> NAKKATIVi: AND CKITKAL HISTOUY (JF A.MKKICA. Tli« paper* III tlu' liiiint Hyuclnllia de ClMrencuy have Iwvn In th« firil IniUncv fur tht mii«l pari printed In tliv A'li /(I' c/r l,iH\iiiitliifut,X\\L AnHittii lit I'liilonifhit Cltrilumii. Mii\ \\w M, m'liii i/< / .l,ii,t,mi( i/t L,if». 4nil li.ive wlmlly iierulned tu liu- t>ini(iir« miiiiIi ciI Nrw MexKo : l»it liln |iririi;i|Ml stuilk-^ mu ciilU'i.ti't iiM'it iif Niirtli AnuTk.i from AU^k-i tu tlic Ittlimui, witli i>>nie uf the rcglnnn adjacent on the eait, III- piiiillKliud hii |iapcr> in lli-rllii Iwtween iSjj and \y<\, and many of them In the .1/, <»(..; publUhud hl« |>atwr!i In M|ianl. I1.im* niDiite. I>r. Hriiitoiii I'liulitiK, as he ilaiined, tli.it Adam had been IniiHined iiikhi, printed in the Ainern,tH AHti- ^N \\m\t iMhj), and Adam aii!twered in Ar Ttettsa^ a-t'il H^ Jorf^i d)i /'/(»• Chumrto /,in,^'n,tjcr of Cahfornia (Philad., iM**2); /Vr \'i4inii S/>ritih\t,ttntii of Ari/otia and the neigliboring re* gims (Merlin, 1^77, i**^.l)l it'ortftrzt'hhniss rhws t'i/i- Dut/ritrs (Berlin, I'^Mj); 7'Ar Sht'tininshii Indians of St. Atary's I'lirnh^ I.atiisiiina (Washiiimtm, iS^j); but his mont imiMirtanI cnntribution is the lin^ui^tic, historic, and ethnographic introduction to his A/iji'ritttan Legtnd 0/ the Creek Induins (IMiilad., 18S4), in which he ha» surveyed the whole compass of tlie southeni lndian<(. The extent of Mr. Gatschet's studies will appear fn.m I'illinR's />('(»/*• sheets^ pp. 2S5-29J, 955. ' Contents.'— I. Sur queltpics famille*' de lanjjues du M(5xique. 2, Sur diffi'reni^ idinmes de la NouvclIe-E»- pagne. },. Sur l.i famitle de langues Tapijulapane-Mixe. 4. Sur la faittille de lan^fiie I'irinda-Othomi. 5. Sur Ics Inis plioneliques dans les idiornes de la famille Mame- lluasteque. 6. Sur le prononi iwrsorinel dans les idiomes He la famille Mftya-(,>nirhe. 7. Sur l*etude de la propht?tie en lani;ue Maya d'AbkuiUC hel. S. Sur le systime de nu- meration chcz les peuples He ta famille Maya-Quiche. 9. Sur le di'chiffremcnt des ecritures calculiformes du Mayas. 10, Sur les sijines de numeration en Maya. Pilling {Proof-sheets^ pp. 145-14H, 1/14-906) enumerates many of the separate ptdiliciiinns. ' Ilrintnn has printed The f>hitosophkal grammar of the Attterii.xn languages as set fnrth hy U'iihe/m von Httmboidt^ with a translation of an nnpuHished memoir /'y him on the A ineri<.an rrrfi ( IMnlad , 1HS5 1, The great work of A. von lluml>oldt and llonpland, I'oya/^e au.v r^/Cions f'fuino.viaies du nonx-ean lontiuent 1 Paris, 1S16- 31)1 K>^*^^ some hn)(ui>iii matter in the third volume, ' These are enumerated in the li^t in Hancmfi, I. ; in Kitjld, nos. aoS-ji*4 ; iind in Leclerc, Index ; with more de- tail in PiIling's/V«()/-j/i«'r/'j, pp. 102-110,^94-^/). c'f. also Sabin, iii, nos. 'j.Sii etc. * l)rinlon,who p(t»<(eKses his papers, publi^l1ed a Afenioir of him in the Ant. Anti*/. Soc. /'roc.f f^S^. His publica- tions and MS. collections are given in Pilling*! Proof-sheefs, PP- 73, 71.'^7'r'^?*i. '^ He L:i(es(iii. 725-^6) many opinions ; and quntes Saha- gun as saying that the Apalaches were N.ibuas and spoke the Mexican touKue (//>/oo, in* eludes all that were printed in the native tongue. Itrinlon gives some account of such native authors in his WAt/v (>/<]/ American authors and their frodnctioHS^ especially thasi in the native langtta\'es. A chapter in the history 0/ liter- ature (Philad., i^'^i). Cf. his paper in the Congn'^s des Amir.f Copenhagen, iS'^j, p. 54. Bancroft (iii 7v>ivivei some citations as to its literary value. Itrinton has illuf trat.d this quality in some of his lesser mono^iraphs. .is in his Ancient XahM*xtl Poetry (Philad.. 1HS7); and in his .Study of the Xahnatl langnai^'e * 18S6), in wliich he K'ves ■IH'cimens and enumerates the dictionaries and texts. He says there are more than a hundred authors in it {Amer. A n/ii/uarian. viii. 22). Icazbalceta has collected many Nahua MSS., and his brother-in-law, Irancisco Pimentel, has used them it) liis Ciiadro descri/tivo y tOfnf>ar,ttiva de las l.en^uas indigenas de Af^xico (i86j'). of which there IS a German translation by Isidor Kpstein (N, Y.. i'*77V This is based on a second auRmented etlition (Mexico. ''^74~75\ i" which the tongues of northern Mexico are belter representef'. and a general classification of the Ian* pnaces is added. I'imentel (i. i54)asserts that it is a mit take to suppose that the Chichimecs sjwike Nahua. Cf i:l .'A UIHLIOGKAI'HICAL NUTHS ON AMLKICAN LINGtiSTICS. 4-7 Ihe M.1VA hiiH much the %anto prominencp farthtr ^niith that the Nnhua ti.M In the nortltorly pnrt^ nf the territory ut tlir >iani^h cnn()Uft the rvidenccn that the raily M.t>aK may have* conif U\ way nf thr Wi-^t Inrli*! itIaruU that nt'idorn phih'hi KiHtH Hiiy thr native toriKiH'H of thoni* i!tlan) rt'k'M to the \\s\ i>| ^pokt-n loMKiif«» uixm in raliitms Ctt/.i .// A'« v (/< /-.i^titiit nsr'O an the \n*s\ t-nu- inrr.ition of the earlv >|iani lor it^ htrrar\ \ahit m- must (nii<«iilt snmc of thr authorities like Oro/co y llcrra, mtntiohnl in connettinn with the A/tci. S«|iiirr iniljlishid a Mouo^inifh <\t t\uth<*r% wA' Uit/hf tfnt/ftfs ('/ ///*// i('«/i/f> lAlbany, iS'«i.— 100 ccpieHi. in which hi' imntiun!* no "inch imtlnir«*, anil givet a list of thrir |irinti-d and MS. works. 1 hose who havr used tlu'se native toii^uft fur wriltiii ptodiic* tlon« are named in l.ndewigS l.ittrtiturt if thf Am*r, Al'ont^. /.ttnt;uit_f;r3 ^London. i>3>), and in llrinton'i Ahoriginai AmtrutiH Attthors {\*\\\\^,^ 1883).* a deserve more hiiwevert Itancroft (iii. 7J4) and Short, i^^, 4H0. Pimen- It-i's iiiiiiiidiiM ar< WtfiKhly, and follow in iliit r-.'^iH-cl those of ( >rutc(i y Itcrra. SaluKi'tni iKdiliuchtll ; hut later, Veytia li.ul maintained the rcvern*. laicicn Ailam inehulcs the Nahua In his EtmUi $ur ti.v /iint,'»t-s A tn/rinii»fi (Paris, 1H7S1 Aultin wrote " Snr la lan(£iic Mifxltaiiie et ta philnlnKie Ain^rlcainc" in the Arihit'ft «// /.* StH. Am^r. itr Friiuie, n. s , vol. i. Itras- ftciir cnnln1>uti-d \ariiiu» ariiilfs cm Mrxicnt phihilfi^y to the A'tfitr t)rti'»fii/f tt Atn^rn.tmf. I»r. C. Mtrmann lU>ren(lt formed an A»ii/}/int/ Aif'fuibtt /i^r tht Mfxintn ttNii ifntrtti AmtrtiS. hc- hmKin;* to Jcaibalceta, dalin^ hack to the latter part of the lixteenlh century (i-mmieraled in /V.i/-, .1/«*. AV//i,ii, %\')\. There i» sim»e adverse ciiticism. Per.hel \KaifSo/ MfH, 4lH| thinks the linguistic map of Mexico inOro/eoy Herra's Work the only KOI kI feature in the book, m nee (he author spre-ids nid errnrs anew in cotist'qui-nce of his uiKiccpiaint- ai^i-L- \vith lUisihmann's researches. A serii>s of linguistic monn^rapliic essays (.n the Aztec names of places is em- braced in |)r. Antonio Peilalii*rs Xomirrs Gft>)!r,i/ix.o dt AtexiLO. Cata/ixa ai/afntn <» dt /os Homhrts dt iui^ar f^tr- ttutt itMtts al idioniii " Xiihttati^' tstudto jeroglifit. o dt la matrkula de lot tribntos ilel ii'diit A/tndoctHif {Mt:x\to, 1SS51. In the Arihtrts dt la Soc. Am^r. dt Frauit, n. a., i7<). iii' there is an cssiay l>y .Simiion, " La langue Mexicaine el snn his(oire.'' The afTilia(ion of the Aitec uith the Pueblo stocks is traced by Hancrnft, iii. Mi;;, \% ho follows nut the diversities if those stocks (pp. ft;!, f),Si). If. for various views Mor- Han's Systtttis 0/ Coitsan^uinity^ jf>o; Huschmann's Hit i'olker Hud Spraihtn AV« .U/4-/tt>*j,and First Rtpt, Bur. 0/ Fthtiolof^y, p. xxxi. * Some authorities ^ive fourteen dialects of the Maya* C'f. the table in Bancroft, iii. 5^2, etc.. and the statements in ( larcia y C'ubas, translated by Geo. K. Henderion as The Kt/>uNu 0/ Mt'xko. It is still spoken in the ^^^''ttf^st purity .ibout the Italize, as is commonly said ; but Le Plnn- geon goes somewhat inlaiul and says he found it " in all it^ pristine purity '^ in the nci^hborhond of Lake Peten. Le Plonneon, with that extravapance which has in the end de- prived him of the sympathy and encouraj;ement due to his noteworthy labors, says, "Otie third if this Maya tongue is pure Greek,'* fullowinj; llrasscur in otie of his vaparies, who ihciutclit he found in M.oix. Mav.i voc.diles at U.i^t 7,'m-i that oon* .1 stnknix niemhlance to ihi- l-iuKU-tKe of tloiner. ' The bibliographies will add to thi^ f.iumtrati*in The I'luart Catalot^ut (pp. i^H-irii.t ({jvc- a parrial liM. Only soitte nt the nifirt important monographs upon fiatu^fs of the Maya l.ink:u.it{i- tan It* mentioiiL-d : I atlur Pedro Hi'U trail df .Santa Rosa's Arte dtt idtoma Maya (Mexico, I74'>> was so rare that llr.isst-ur did nxtsiiurt- it, but Le- cli-ri latalouurn it (no. a.js^O. as wtll a-^ the reprint \ Merida. i^Vt> editeil by Jo^^ |). K.-*pinosa. There \> a study >urnal 0/ tht Antrr. fitix -Va ■ (viii 1 12. for 1*47')), which was lait-r is<«ut'd m parati-U a* fit* tnarks on tht irntrts ii'ii»(M Paris, iVvf-7fi), and liter publishc.. sitidiis thf (ireek. Latin, Khgiiih, (ierman, Scandinavian, not to name otla-rs, to have correspoiideiici's with the Maya, and «-nded in deriv- iuR them from th.it lonKue as ihi' priiiiiii\e lanuiiape. (C'f. Short, 4;^.) I>r. Hriniim has a paper on I ht Anrirnt I'houttu Alphabet 0/ )'ucatan (N. \ . I'v-t. and he rrad at the llutfato meetinu (i^Sf )of the Aimr. A:><>oc for the Advancement of Science a p.iprr on tht- photuiic element of the graphic system of the NLiv.is, etc., which is print* d ill the Anitrican Antit/uanan, viii 14;. In the introduc ti'^i) he examines the lanmiajte and literature of the Mayas He pfers to a " Diseriation sobre la historia de la len«ua M.iva o Vuca* teca " by I'rescencio C.irrello y Ancoiin in the A'trista dt Mtrida, i*<7n. Iharencey has printed various special pa* pers, like a Fragment dt ihrtsfi'Mitthu' dt la liinj^'tir- Maya antti/nt (Paris, i**;};) from the A't:ut dt /'hilo/ixit et d'Fthno^raphii\?tw\ a paper read befitre the fopenha^ieti meetiuK id the lonjires des Americanistes (I ompte A'tndii, p AT't). "I>e It formation des mots tn len;:ua Maya." Landa's filiation ^-^ published by Ilras-eur (P.iris, is64li5 of coiirs- a leadiiiii source. Of the (Quiche branch of the Maya we know m(»st from llras'-eur's Topul I 'nh and from his iir.imatii ii dt la ltUi;}ii 0»'<-h^ (Paris. iSf.i). hi the api>ciulix of which he printed tin- fCahinal Achi, a drama in the (Quiche ti.npue. Father 11'. foiiso Jos- Flores. a native of the country, was prof S'or of the ('akchiquel lannua^e in the university of Guatemala in the last cent.iry. and published a Artt dt la Itnt^na inttrnpolitamt dtl A'o'Wi' ( (iXr^/yw*-/ (Guatemala, 17^11, which was unknown to later scholars, till Hra&seur discovered a cr py in iSsf> (Leclerc, no. 3,270). The hiera- ture of the r.ikchiquel d,alect is examined in the introduc tion to Hrinton's Grammar of the Caixhuiutl language 1 * t f:%\ m''^ I » 428 NAKKATIVi: AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. The philoloKV of the South American peoples has not been so well compassed as that of the northern continent. Tliu ciassilied biblioKrapliies show ihe range of it under such heads as Andc (or C'ampa), Ai.iu- canians (C'hilcna), Arrawak, Aymara, Brazil (tic principal work being K. 1'. von Martius's /ltitraj;i iiir BthnografhU iiiul Sfraihcniiiniif Amerika's, tumal Brasiliens, Leipzig, i^S()?), Cliama, Chibcha (or Muysca, Mosca), Cunianagiita, Ualibi, Goajira, (iuarani, Kiriri (Kariri), Lule, Aloxa, I'acz, Quichua, Tehuclhct, Tunocotc, Tupi, etc. (I'hilail., 1SS4), ediied (or the American PhiIoaophic.il So- ciety. t."f. Hrinton'8 htl'.: treatise On tht lanffuii^e and ttltnohf^ic /'tuition of titt .\V«(Vi Indians of Guattmaia (I'hi'.idalphia, iSS^); his .V<>-. (|//a/ A la(;HiIac language of CitMtt inaUt in tile I' roc. A in. rhilosofih. Soc.^ i**87, p. 3(>6; and Ott() St the contrary, that the ■erpcJil was actually worshipped either in Yuc.it an or Mexico." C(. Rrinton*s Myths^ ch. 4; Chas. S. WakcS Serpfnt lyorthi^ (London, 1888); and J. O. Hourke's Sftiikt-dafttf of the Moquis of Aritona . brini^ a nnrrn- tive of a jtmrney from Santa /•>, S'ew ^hwu o, to the vii^ /tig^fs of thf Motjui Indians of Arizotut, ivith a dt\siri/>tioH of the manners and iustows of this peculiar frofle, to tvhiih ix added a brief dissertation upon serpent-tvorship in f^enerai, with an account of the tablet danie of the Pueblo of Santo Dominf^o^ A'rrc Mexico, etc. 'I.ondoHf i«s4y ■' Brinton {Myths^ etc., 141I declares snn-w(vrslii|i, which some investiKators liave made the has" of all primitive reliiiions, to he hut a " short and casv nu-thod with my- thology," and that " no one kfv cm open ,iM tli*- an ana <)f sytnholism." He refers u^ P'OrhiLMiv \l.^lfomnie Am^- ricain), Miiller {A mer. Urrelit^ionen), and Squler (Serpent Symbol) as supporting the opposing view. We mav find like supporter^ of the snn as a criitral idea in Schoolcraft, Tvlor, IlraHsriir. (f. liancroft's A'^ generative pdwcr. Krinton doubts {Myllis, etc., 141)) if anything like phallic worship really existed, apart from a whully unreliijiiius surrender to appetite. .■\nother view wliich Squier maintains is, that aljove all this and pervading all America's religious views there was a sort of rudimentary monotheism.' When we add to this enumeratiim the somewhat callow and wholly unsatisfactory contributions of School- craft in the i^reat work on the Indian Tribes of the Vnilcd States (iSji-jg), wh'ch the U. S. government in a headlong way sanctioned, we have included nearly all that had been done by .Xmerican authors in this field when Bancroft published the third volume of his Native Races. This work c. nstitutes the best mass of ma- terial for the student — who must not confound mythology and religion — to work with, the subject being presented under the successive heads of the origin of myths and of the world, pliysical and animal myths, gods, supernatural beings, worship and tiie future state ; but of course, like all Bancroft's volumes, it must be supplemented by special works pertaining to the more central and easterly parts of the United States, and to the regions south of I'anama. The deficiency, however, is not so much as may be exjwcted when we consider the universality of myths. " Unfortunately," says this author, "the philologic and mythologic ni. rial for such an exhaustive synthe..is of the origin and relations of the .American creeds as Cox has given to tlie world in tho .Xryan legends in his Mytholos;y of the Aryan Nation- (I^ondon, 1S70) is yet far from complete.' In 1SS2 Brinton. after r',vr study, again recast his views jf a leading fe.iture of the subject in his American hero-myths ; a study in the native religions of the western continent (I'hilad., 1SS2), in which he endeavored to present " in a critically correct light some of the fundamental conceptions in tlie native beliefs.'' His pur- pose was to counteract what he held to be an erroneous view in the common practice of considering " Amer- ican hero-gods as if they had been chiefs of tribes at some undetermined epoch," and to show that myths of similar import, found among diiferent peoples, were a " spontaneous production of the mind, and not a reminis- cence of an liistoric event." lie further adds as one of the impediments in the study that he does " not know of a single instance on this continent of .? thorough and intelligent studv of a native religion made by a Protes- tant missionary."'- .After an introductory chapter on the -American i ths, Brinton in this volume takes up successively the consideration of the hero-gods of the .Algonquins and Iroquois, the Aztecs, Mayas, and the (Juichuas of Peru. These mytlis of national heroes, civilizers, and teachers are, as Brinton says, the funda- mental beliefs of a very large number of .An\erican tribes, and on their recognition and interpretation depends the correct imderstanding of most of their mythology and religious life, — and this means, in Hrinton's view, that the stories connected with these heroes h.ive no historic basis.3 The best known of the comprehensive studies by a European writer is J. G. Midler's Geschichic dcr Ameri- kanisclicn I 'rreligioiien (Basle. iS;5 ; again in iSo;). in which he endeavors to work out tlie theory that at the south there is a worship of nature, with a sun-worshin for a centre, contrasted at the north with fetichi^m and a dread of spirits, and these he considers the two fundamental divisions of the Indian worship. B.ancroft finds him a chief dependence at times, but Brinton, charging him wiih quoting in some instances at second-hand, finds him of no autlutrity whatever. ( inc (if the most reputable of the fierman books on kindred subjects is the Anthroj'ologie der Natiirv'olkcr (Leipzig. iSii2-(/i) of Theodor Waitz. lirinton's view of it is that iu> more comprehensive, sound, and critical work on tlie American aborigines has been written : but he considers him astray on the religious phases, and that his views are neither new nor tenable when he endeavors to subject moral science to a realistic philosophy. < I \:' If ^ This rimiMitlieism is denictl by Brinton (.l/rMj of the Ninv H'orU, ; j\ " Of mnnntlu'ism, either r.s displayed in the one person. il definite Ood of the Semitic races, or in the dim pantheistic sense of the Bralimins, there was not a single instance on t!if» American continent/' — the Iroquois " Xcu "* and " H.uvaneu." which, as lirinton says, Iiave le- ceived Morgan and others, heinj; but the Frencli " Dicu " and " Le bnn Dieu " rendered in Indian pronunciation {Myths 0/ the A'f-Tc U'orU, p. ^7,). The aboritjint-s insti- tuted, however, in two instances, the worship of an imma- terial god, one among the Quichtias of Peru and another at Tezcuco (M/Vi'. p. 55). Bandelier l^.'/rr/fffc/. Tour, 1R5), examining the Hint, tie los MKvicatuys fr« (Paris, 1S83) ; and G. Ilriihl's Culturvdlker Alt' .^mw/Artj (Cincinnati, 1R76-78}, ch. 10 and ig. €\ \. THE MYTHS AND RELIGIONS OF AMERICA. 431 y existed, apart religious views Ions of School- government in irs in this field :st mass of ma- ? subject being animal myths, mes, it must be 1 States, and to len we consider ic ni. rial for en to the world mplete.' his Ameiiian he endeavored :ts." liispur- dering " Amer- that myths of 1 not a rcminis- oes " not know de by a I'rotes- ilume takes up ilayas, and the .ni and liancroft tinds It second-hand, y Natiirvolker id, and critical us phases, and icphilosophy.'l temporary pre- and which was ities came. «, as bethinks, he debasement, , of the Indian ew and others lelp him to con- of the opinions IK served long (Amer. Hero- lology involves 1 myths. The ^erciice may be niparie \Vm%, Mt'tt, cli. 9 and 4, 5- <> : J. p. >; and for the '^arfy Hist, oj ii. ; and in a its source and m.'^.de to Joly's ant's Origin! urvdlker Alt- 9- In speaking of the scope of the comprehensive work of II. H. Bancroft we mentioned that beyond the brger part of the j^reat Athapascan st(jck of the northern Indians his treatment did not extend. Such other general works as Iliinlon's Myths I'ft/ie AVji' WorlU, the sections of liis Aiiurinin Hero-Myths on the hero-gods of the Algonquins and Iroquois, and the not wholly satisfactory book of Ellen Ii. Kmerson, Indian myths ; or, Lei;enils, traJitions, ami symbols of the aborigines of Ameriea, eomfared with those of other countries, in- liiiilini; lltndostan, Ei^yft, Persia, Assyria, and China (Boston, iiS.S4), with aid from sudi papers as Major J. \V. Powell's •' Philosophy of the .North .\merican Indians " in the Journal of the Amer. deoj^rafhical Society (vol. viii. p. 251, 1876), and liis " .Mythology of the North .\mcrican Indians " in the First Annual Hept. of the Bureau of Ethnology iiSSi), and K. .M. Uorman's Origin of frimitive superstition among the al'origines of America (Philad., iSSi), must sutiice in a general way to cover those great ethnic stocks of the more easterly part of North .\merica. which comprise the Irociiiuis, centred in New York, and surrounded by the .Mgonquins, west of whom were the Dacotas, and south of whom were the Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws, sometimes classed together as .Vppalachians.' The mythology of the .\ztecs is the richest mine, and Bancroft in liis third volume finds tlie larger part of his space ijiven to the .Mexican religion. Itrintiin (Amer. Hero .Myths, 7:, 7S1, referring to the " llistoria de los Mexicanos por sus Pinturas" of Ramirez de Kuen-leal, as printed in the .Inales del .Miiseo Xacional (\\. p. S'>), says that in some respects it is to be considered the most valuable authority which we pcjssess,'- as taken directly from the sacred books of the .•\ztecs, and as explained by the most competent survivcjrs of the Conquest.^ We nuist also look to Ixtlilxochitl and .Sahagiin as leading sources. Fnmi ."^ahagiin we get the prayers which were addrosed to the chief deity, of various names, but known best, perhaps, as Tezcatlipoca; and these in- vocations are translated tor us in Bancroft ilii. 100. etc ), who supposes that, consciously or unconsciously, Sahagiin has slipped into tliem a certain amount of " sophistication and adaptation to Christian ideas." From the lofty side of Tezcatlipoca's chamcter, Bancroft (iii. cl,. 7) passes to his meaner cliaracteristics as the oppressor of (Juetzalcoatl. The luost salient features of the mythology of the .\ztecs arise from tlie long contest of Tezcatlipoca and (Juetzalcoatl, the story of which modified the religion of their followers, and, as Cliavero claims, greatly affected Brinton {.Mytlts, 210) tracks the Deluge myth among the Indi.ins, .Tud Bancroft gives many instances of it {.V.itirt A*('.(, v., index). Hritutin thinks a paper by Charencey, '* I.e Deluge d'apres les tradilicins indietnies de I'.Amerique (111 N(trd," in the Kei'iie .-i inericiine, a help for its extracts, but complains of its uncritical spirit. We find sufficient data of the aboriginal lielief in the future life both in Bancroft's final chapter (vol, iii. p.irt i.) and in Brimoirs .Myths, ch. <). Brinton delivered an address on the "Journey of the soul,*' which is printed in the Pro- ceedings [].\i\., |SS() uf the Numismatic and .Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia. ^ In studying the mythology of these tril s we must depend mainly on confined monograplis. Mrs. E. .A. .Smith treats the myths nf the Iroquois in the .Second Annual Kept. Bitreou of Ethnology. Charles ( lodfrey Leland has covered The .-Mgouiiuin legends of Xew England; or, myths and folk-lore of the Micmac, Eassamaquoddy , and J\'nolscot triles (Boston, 1SS4). Brinton has a book on /'//(• Lena/ie and their legendsiy\\\].\A., 1SS5) ; and one may refer to the Eife and yonrnals of Da:'id Brainard. S. D. Peet li.is a [lapcr on "The rr^ious beliefs and traditions of die aborigines of North .\nierica" in the Journal of the I'ictoria Institute {h^md-m, iS-^S, vol. xxi. 2Z'i)\ one on "Animal worship and Sun worship in the east ami west com- pared " in the .Imerican Antiquarian, Mar., isSS; and a paper on llie religion of the luoundbuilders in Ibid. vi. jyj. The Dahcotah, or life and legends of tlu- Sioux around Fort SncllingV^. V., iS^ij) of .Mrs. M.iry Eastman has been a .servic aide hoi>k. S. K. Ricgs covers the mythology of the D.lkntas in the Amer. .-I n/iqu.zrian (v. 147^, and in this periodical will be found various studies concerning other tribes. -' Bandelier. Archieol. Tour, I's, calls it the earliest statement of the Xahua mythology. ^ There is more or less of original importance on the Aztec myths in .Alfredo Chavero's " I.i Piedra del Sol," likewise in the Anales (vol. i.V Cf. also the " Ritos .An- tiguos, sacrificios e idolatrias de los indios de la Xueva Espaua," as printed in the Coleccion de doc. ined. para la hist, de Es/>af}a (liii. 300), Bancroft (vol. iii. ch. 6-10), who is the best source for reference, gives also the best conip.issed survey of the en- tire field ; but among writers in English he may be supple meiued b Prescott (i. ch. 3, introd.); Helps in his .Spanish Conquest (vol. ii.) r Tylor's /Primitive Culture; Albert Reville's Lectures on the origin and f;riKi'th of religion its illustrated by the native religions of Mexico and Eeru, translated 1 y P. H. Wicksteed (London, 1SS4, being the Hibbert lecture-, for l^M); on the analogies of the Mexican belief, a condensed statement in Short's iVo. A merica of Antiq., 4^); a popular paper in 'The Galaxy, .May, iS;^. Bandelier intended a fourth paper to be ailtled to the . iree printed in the Eeabody Mus. Refts. (vol. ii. ), namely, one on " The Creeds and Beliefs of the Ancient Mexicans,'* which has never, I think, been printed. .Among the French, we may refer to Temaux-Compans' Essai sur la th/og- nie .Me.vicaine (Paris, 1S40) and the works nf Brasseur. Klemm's Cultur-tieschichte and Midler's Vrreligionen will mainly cover the (•erman views. Of the Mexican writers, it may be worth while to name J. M ^\m\'z:.\x^-^ E-tamenconiparativa entre los signos simbolicos de las Teogonias y Cosmogonias antiguas y los que eccisten en los manttscritos Me.vicanos (Vera Cruz, 1S72I. The readiest description of their priesthood and festival? will be found in Bancroft (ii. 201, 303, with references). Tenochtitlan is said to have bad 2,000 sacred Imildings, an 1 Tor:iueinada says there were Sfj.ooo througlupiit Mexico; while Clavigero says that a niillitui priests i.tteiided upon them. Bancroft (iii. ch. 10) desctibes this service. There is a chance in all this of much exaggeration. The history of linnian sacrifice as a part nf this serA-ice is the subject of disagreement annMig tiie earlier as well as with the later writers. Bancroft (iii. 413, 442) gives some leading references. Cf. Prescott (i. 77) and Nadaillac (p, 206). Las Casas in his general defence of the natives places the number of sacrifices very low. Znni^irraca says there were 20,000 a year. The Aztecs, if not originating the practice, as is disputed by some, certainly made much use of it. \' 432 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. ' VU' |. ; their history.' This struggle, according as tlie interpreters incline, stands for some historic or physical rivalry, or (or one between .St. Thomas and the h^.Mtheii ; - but Urinton explains it on his general principles as one between the powers of Light and Darkness (.Im. Hero Aiytlu, Oj). The main original sources un the character and career of Quetzalcoatl are Motolinfa, Mendieta, Sahagtin, IxtlilxochitI, and I'urquemada, and these are all summarized in Bancroft (iii. ch. ^). It has Ix-en a question with later writers whether there is a foundation of history in the legend ir myth of Quetzalcoatl. Itrintim (Myths of the \cw World, iSo) has perhaps only a few to agree with liiju when he calls that hero-god a " pure creature of the fancy, and all his alleged history nothing but a myth," and he thinks some confusion has arisen from the priests of Quetzalcoatl being called by his name. .'tandelier (Anhttot. Tour) takes issue with Ilrintun in deeming Quetzalcoatl on the whole an historical person, whom IxtlilxochitI connects with the pre-Toltec tribes of Olmcca and Xicalanca, and whom Torque- mada says came in while the 'I'oltecs occupied the country. Handelier thinks it safe to say that Quetzalcoatl began his career in the present state of Hidalgo as a leader of a migration moving southward, with a principal sojourn at C'hulula, introducing arts and a purer worship. This is substantially the view taken by J. G. MUl'er, Prescott, and Wuttke. , \ )l i \ !j ; v., QUETZALCOATL.* Bancroft (iii. 273) finds the Geschichte der Amer. Urreligionen (p. 577) of Miiller to present a more thor- ough examination of the Quetzalcoatl myth than any other,3 but since then it has been studied at length by Bandelier in his Arehaological Tour (p. 170 etc.), and by Brinton in his Amer. Hero Myths, ch. 3.* Illi I ■ I I What Tylor (Primitive Culture, ii. 270) calls " the inexplicable compound, parthenogenetic deity, the hid- eous, gory Huitzilopochtli " (Huitziloputzli, VitziHputzli), the god of war,6 the protector of the Mexicans, was considered by Boturini (A/i'iT, p. 60) as a deified ancient war-chief. Bancroft in his narrative (iii. 289, 294; * AuiiUs del Musco XacioHal, ii. 247; Bancroft, iii. 240, 24''*. - R.indelier thinks Dur.'in the earliest to connect St. Thomas with Queualcnatl. Cf. Bancroft, iii. 456. ^ Miiller agrees with IxtlilxochitI that Quetzalcoatl and Hueniac were one and the s.Tme, and that Ternaux erred in supposing them respectively Olmec and Toltec deities. Cf. Brasseur's PalenqtU, 40, 66. Cf. D. Daly on " Quetzal- coatl, the Mexican Messiah '* in GentlemafCs AIag.,r\. s., xli. 236. • For the later views in general see Clavigero, Tylor, Brasseur {A'ltiarts Civil., i. 253), Prescott (i. hi), Ban- croft (iii. 348, 363 ; V. 24, 200, 255, 2J7), and Short (267, 274)- ' The god Paynal was a sort of deputy war-god. See H. H. Bancroft's Native Races. .^ ' • After a drawnig in Cumplido's Mexican ed. of Prescott*s Mexico, vol. iii. '73-74). Cf. Eng. transl. of Charnay, p. S7. Itnages of him are everywhere (Nadaillat^ •"rifiMllllWillliHn CA. or physical rivalry, il principles as one lendieta, Sahagun, ■gend or myth of witii liini when he a myth," and he hole an historical i. )dcrn scholars are nut l)y any means so much inclined as I.as Casas and the other Catholic fathers were to recuijnize the [lnjjnia ol the 1 riiiity anil other Christian notions, which have been thoujjnt to be traceable in what the Maya people in their aboriginal condition held for faith. Ihu most popular of their deitied heroes were '/.,\m\\A and Ciikulcan, not unlikely the same personaije . ndcr two names, and c|uite likely Ixith are corresiiondences of (Juetzalroatl, We can find various views am! altern.i- tives on this point amonj,' the elder and recent writers, I'he belief in community of attributes derives its stroniiest aid from the alleKid di>appearance of .Juet/.alcoatl in Cioazacoalco just at the epoch when Cukulcan apjieared in Yucatan. The centres of .Maya worship were at Izamal, Chichen-ftza, and the island of Cozuniel. The hero-gods of the .Mayas is the topic of Ilrinton's fourth chapter in his .lintriiuii Hero Myths, with view- of their historical relation;, of course at variance with those of Hancroft. .\s respects the material, he says that ■' most unfnrtuiLitely very meai;re sources of information are open to us. Only fragi.ients of their k'ijends and hints of their history have Ijein s.ived, almost by accident, fmin the gener.d wnck of their civili- h lUti I Ij THE TEMPLE OF MEXICO,* zation,'' The heroes are Itzamn.-S. the leader of the first immisration ironi the east, through the ocean path- ways; and Kukulcan, the conductor of the second from the west. For the first cycle o' rnvths Urintijn refers to I.anda's Rt-Utiini. CogolUulo's Yinnlan, I.as Casas's llistoria .■t/-o/,\t;iliia. involving the reports of the missionary Francisco Hernandez, and to lliero.iimo Roman's Dc lit h'ef-iilu'ua ilr Ins Iiiilias Otiiilcnlales, The Kukulcan legends are considered by I.rinton to he later in date and less natural in character, and Hernandez's Kepori to I.as Casas is the Inst record of them, lirinton's theory of the myths does not allow him to identify the Quetzalco.atl and Kukidcan hero-gods as one and the s:.nie, noi to show that the Aztc; and Maya civilizations had more correspondence than occasional intercourse would produce; but he thinks the similarity of the statue of " Chac Mool,'' unearthed by I.e I'l.mgeon at Chichon-'tza. to another found at Tlaxc.ala compels us to believe that some positive cimnection did exist in parts of the country (Annies ilcl Mil SCO Xacional, i, 270), ' "The Nahua impress." says liancrof; (hi. 400), "noticeable in the languages and customs of Nicaragua, is still more strongly marked in the mythology. Instead of obliterating the older forms ' For further modern tre.Ttment see Sfhiiltz-Sfllark*^ (i. ch. lol; Vovie]V9, f-^irst Re/>ort Bureitu of I-'tfinoh^^y : "Hie .Anierik oiisdiL-n Cii'ilter der vier Wehei-eiMulLMi imtl .or sacrifices, Nadaill.nc {p. 26M : and for festiv.",ls and ihre Tempel in P.Tlennue" m /.citschrift /rir Ethiiohi;ii\ priestly service. Bancroft (ii. 6891. For Yucatan folk- xi. (1S79); Bra5seur*s T-onda^ p, Ix ; Ancona's Yucatan lore, see Kriiiton in /'oM'-Ztfr^ 7"tf«r«rt/ (vol, i. for 1883). • After plate (reduced) in Herrera. I ' I MaWMMPilM CA. lie fathers were to o Lie traceable in person.ngc , ndcr lews am! altcrna- ilnitfs derives its :li when L'ukiilc.iii ml the island of llcia Mollis, wiih tliL niatcriaJ, he aKi.ients (jf their ck (if Iheir civili. THE MYTHS AND RELIGIONS OF AMERICA. 435 tlic ocean path- is lirintiin refers e reports of the 0,iiilciita!es. I character, and s docs not allow !• that the Azte.- : but he thinks nother found at itiy (Aiuiks dil lanRuaKes and the older forms t of Kt/inoht^y ; or festiv.-Is niul r Yucatan folk- il. i. for iSSij). of worship, us it seems in have done In the northern parts of Central Americ.i, it has here and there passed by many of the distinct belicis held by ditferent tribes, and blended with the chief elements of a system which is traced to the .Muyscas in South America.'' The main source of the (Juiche myths and worship is the /',/»/ I'li/i, but liancroft (iii. 474), who follows it, finds it diftic't to make anything comprehensible out of its conlusion of statement. IJut prominent anionh' the deities seem to stand Tepeii or (iucumatz, whom it is the fashion to make the same with Ouetzal- coatl, and Ilurakan or Toliil, who indeed stands on a plane above (Juetzalcoatl. Ilrinton (Myths, ij'i), on tlie contrary, connects Ilurakan with Tlaloc, ami seems to identify Tohil with (Juetzalcoatl. liancroft (iii. 477) says that tradition, name, and attributes connect Tohil .ind Hurakan, and identify them with Tlaloc. TEOVAO.MIQCI.* • The idol dug up in the Pl.Tza in Mexico is here presented, after a cut, following; Ncbel, in Tyler's .*Jwi7//«.rt-, show ing the Mexican goddess of war, or death. Cf. ctit in Aiin'rican Antiqiiiirinfu Jan., 1SS3; Powell's First A'*-//, /^nr. I^t/tti., 2^2: Bancroft, iv. 512, 513, giving the front after Nebt-l, nnd the other views after I.eon y Gama. Handelier (Arc/t. Tour, pi. v) gives a photograph of it as it stands in the courly.ird of the Museo Nacional. Gallatin {Aw. Ethn. Soc, Traus., i, j.^s") describes Teoyaomi(iui as the jiroper cnmpanion of Hultzilopnchtli : "The symbols of her attributes are foimd in the upper part of the statue: but those frnni the w.iist downwards relate to other deilies connected with her or with Huitzilopochtli." Tylor {Aiuthuac, 222^ says: " The antlc|uaries think that the figures in it stand for different personages, and that it is three gods . lluitzilopocblli ttie god of war, Teoyaoiuiqui his wife, and Mictlantecutli the god of hell." L(fon y Gania calls the statue Teoy.ioniiqui, but P.audelier, .■( rcJueol, Tour, d/, ihi. '.;s its proper name is rather Huitzilopochtli. Leon y Gania's description is summarized in liancroft, iii. yy), who cites also what Humboldt ( cs, etc., ii. 153, and his pi. xxix) says, liancroft (iii. 31^7) speaks of it .as " a huge compound staiiie, representing various deities, the most prominent being a certain Teoyaonuqui, who is almost identical with, or at least a connecting link between, the mother goddess " and Mictlantccudi, the god of Mictlan, or Hades. L'f. references in lian- croft, iv. 515. 'I! il Ii ii ■MH 4 "56 NARKATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. Brinton'.s JVames of the goJs in the Kulu myths, a ttumografh on Central American mythology (Philad Am. I'hilds. Si>c., iSSi), is a spcci.il study of a p.irt of the siihjuct. Urintim (Myths, etc., 1X4) considers the best .mthorities on tlie mythology of the Muyscas of thi llogota region to he I'iidr ihit.i's lltstoria ,te las Cmquistas del Niicvn Keyno ,/,■ CranaJa (16(18, fol.owed jy Hum- bold'. In his ('Hfi; und .Sinini's Wilidas historiales de las Conquistas de I'urra I-'irme en el Nuno Ktynod* Granada, i;iven in KingsborouKh, vol. viii. I he niyti ilor M the (Julchuas in I'cnj makes the staple of chap. 5 of Urinton'a Amer, Hero-Myths. Here the correspondint; hero-^od was Viracocha. Hrinton depends mainly on the Kelacion An6nyma de los Coitiimbrcs Aniixuos de los XatiiraUs del I'lru, /oij (Madrid, iX;i^) ; on Christoval de Molina's account of the (abLs and religious custo ns of the Incas, as translated by t. R. Markhain in the llakluyt Society li, '■WO,l ' .ti ANCIENT TEOCALLl, OAXACA, MEXICO.* volume, Narratives of the Rites and Laws of the Yncas (London, 1873); on the Comentarios reales of Garcllasso de la Vega ; on the report made to the viceroy F :icisco de Toledo, in 1571, of the responses to inquiiies made in different parts of the country as to the old Miv fs which appear in the " Informacion d las idolatras de los Incas 6 liidios," printed in the Coteccian de dOiU.u: ■ y of rhiladL'Iphia, v/liose Transiiclions be)^aii in 1700, and made six vulumes to 1S09. A second series w. . liegii 1 in iSiS." What are called the Triiiis(ii!;s began in iSjS. The Amer- ican Academy of Arts and Sciences was instituted at Hoston in 17S0, a part of its object being " to promote and encourage the knowledge of the antiquities of America,'"- and its series of Attiiioirs began in fj^'i? and its Procicdiiii^s in 184(^1. Tlicse societies liave only, as a rule, incidentally, and not olten till of late years, illustrated in their publications the antitpiities (jf the new world; but the American Antiquarian Society was founded in 1S12 at Worcester, Mass., by Isaiah Thimias, with the express purpose of elucidating this depart- ment of American history. It began the Arcl'-tolof^ia AmcrUuiia in 1S20, and some of the volumes are still valuable, though they chieHy stand for the early devehipnient by .\twatcr, (iallatin, and others of study in this direction. In the lirst volume is an account of the origin and design of the society, and this is also set foitli in the memoir of Tliomas prefixed to its reprint of liis History of Priiiliiii; in Aimriia, which is a part of the series. The /'roiira/iitq-s of the society were begun in 184(1, and they liave contained some valuable papers on Central American subjects. The Iloston .Society of .Natural History' published tlie lioslon Jour- nal of Natural History from 1SJ4 to 1863, and in iSo6 began its Memoirs. Col. Whittlesey gave in its lirst volume a paper on the weapons and military character of the race of the mounds, and sulisequcnt volumes ha.e had other papers of an archaeological nature ; but tliey liave formed a small part of its contributions. Its Procccdiiii^s h^ivc of late years contained some of the best studies of pal.xolithic man. The American Ethnological Society, founded by Gallatin (New Vorki, began its exclusive work in a series of Transactions (1845-53, vols, i., ii., and one number of vol. iii.), but it was not of long continuance, though it embraced among its contributors the conspicuous names of (iailatin, Schoolcraft, Catherwood, Squier, Kafn, S. G. Morton, J. R. Hartlett. and others. Its Bulletin was not continued beyond a single volume (iS6o-6i).5 The societv "• .s sus|)ende(l in 1S71. The American .Association for the Advancement of Science began its publications with the Proceedings of its Philadelphia meeting in 1S4S. Questions of archeology formed, however, but a small portion of its inquiries" till the formation of a section on .\nthropology a few years ago. The .American Geographical Society has published a Bulletin ( 1S52-56) ; Journal (or Transactions) (1859), etc., and Proceedings (1862-64). Some of the papers have been of arch^ological interest. • Pirst series .' vol. iv., \V. Sargent on articles from an old grave at Cincinnati, exhumed in 17(14; vol. v., G. Turner on the same; vol. vi., \V. DiuiLar on the Indian sign lan- guage ; J. Madison on remains of fortifications in the west ; B. S. Barton on affinities of Indian words. Neiv series t vol. i., H. H. Brackenridge on Indian populations and tumuli; C. W. Short on an Indian fort near Lexington, Ky. ; vol. iii., D. Zeisbergcr on a Delaware grammar ; vol. iv., J. Heckewelder on Delaware names, etc. ' It celebrated its centennial in iSSo, when an impromptu address was delivered by R. C. Winthrop, which is printed by this society, and is also contained, with a statement of the occasion of it, in his S/ieeches and Addresses, 1S78- 18S6. For a record of the interest in archainlogical studies alxiut 1790, see Reports of the American Philosophical So- ciety, xxii. no. 1 1(). ' First series: vol. i., S. H. Parsons on discoveries in the western country; vol. iii., E. A. Kend.iil and J. Davis on an examination of the much controverted inscription of the lo-called Dighton Rock ; Jl. Stites on an Indian idol. Ne^u series', vol. i.f Rasle's Abenaki dictionary; vol. v., W. Sargent's plan of the Marielt.i mounds, etc. • This society published the original edition of S. G. Morton's Inquiry into the distinctive characteristic of the at'orit^inat raeofA mcrica (ided., Philadelphia, lS44>, which glanctjs at the'r moral and iiitellt'ctual character, tlit-ir habits of interment, their maritime enterprise, and their physical condition. ^ Field's /«(/. Bd^lio^^.t no. i5'>4. " Vol. ii., S. S. Haldeman on linguistic ethnology: voT. iii., J.C. Nott and I.. Agassiz on the unity of the human race ; vol. v., Col. Whittlesey on ancient human remains in Ohio; vol. vi., J. L. Leconte on the California Indians; vol. xi., Whittlesey on ancient mining at Lake Superior; Morgan on Iroquois laws of descent ; D. Wilson on a uni- form type of the American crania; vol. xiii.. Morgan on the bestowing of Indian names ; vol. xvii., Whittlesey on the antiquity of man in America ; W. De Haas on the arch-t- ology of the Mississippi Vallev ; W. H. Dall on the Alaska tribes ; vol. xix., Dall on the Eskimo tongue, etc. \ I n (I ' ?ti! \^ \h 1 1 43d NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMLklCA. The Ar'hrnpolii((lcal Irntitiite nf New VorV printed Iti transactioni in a /iHrw.?/ (one vul. only, 1871-731, I III* .\r(.llU'>llll^l(.,ll hntituti' of AniiTn..! wax founded In Ilo^ton in iS;ii, and lia» i{iven the Urger part of iti intcreit to clarolcal artli.i'oloKy. 1 he tirnt report of lt» executive committee itaid ie»pcctlni{ the field In the newwoild: "The study of American aich.iri|o),'y 'elates, Indreil, to the monuments of a race that never atlalni'd to a hi)(h deifrec of civilisation, and that has lelt no trustworthy records of tonllnuuuit hiitory. . . . I'romwhat it was and what It illd, noti ii'.' <i;ress of cit nidation, .^uch Intert'st as atta' .at which It possesses in common with other early and unde- velo|)t races of mankind." Ap|i« .ns repcjrt was Lewis II, .Morgan's "Houses of the .American AUi Kir>vi< ^^ith suKgeitions lor the exploration of the ruins In New Mexico," etc., — advancing his well- knoivn views of the communal origin of the southern ruins. I'nder the auspices of the Institute, M\. A, K. Ilandelier, a disciple of Morgan, was sent to New Mexico for the study of the I'uehlos.and his exiieriencesare descrilied in the seccmil A'rding by such coniplcmcntal studies the means of compariscm in arcliadlogical results, which can but advance to a higher plane the methods and induction:, of the prehistoric archaology of America. '1 he American I'olk-Lore ."soTicty was founded in Jan., iS,SS, and Ihc Journul of Aiiurican h'olli-Lon was immediately begun, A large s-hare of its papers is likely to cover the popular tales of the .American aborigines. The .Anthropological .Society of Washington is favorably situated to avail itself of the museums and apparatus of the American government, and members of the Geological Survey and Ethnological Ihireau have been among the chief contributors to its Transactions,'^ which in January, iS.SS,were merged in a more gener.al publication. The Anu-riian Antliro/>o!oi;hl. A National Geographic Society was organized in Washington in iSSS. There are numerous local societies throughout the United St.ites whose purpose, more or less, is to cover questions of arch:eological import. Those that existed prior to i.S7ri are enumerated in Scudder'-, Cala!oj;ut of Sdcnlifii: Serials : but it was not easy always to draw the line between historical associations and those verging upon archa'ological methods.' The oldest of the scientific periodicals in the United States to devote sp.ace to questions of anthropology is Silliman's American Journal of Science and .-//7j (iSiS, etc.). The American A'aliiralisl. founded in 1867, also entered the field of arch.Tology and anthropology. The same may be said in some degree of the Tofular » Ahtraets of flu Transactions (■repareJ l;v J. II'. /'oH'c// (WashinjiKin, 1X7,,, etc.). = The stmk-nt will fiiul sonic j;eneral heir, a' !'-■'>*'. 'rom the publicalions of such as these : the Pe.ibody .Ac.ldeniy of Sciem-L- (Salem, Mass.), Mcnioin, i-;'i.), etc. ; Kssex Iii- slilnte (Salem, M;iss.), /Iiilietin, i%i, and /'rocceiliiix's. 1S4S, etc. ; Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, Memoirs, iSin-tO\ Transactions, iSM,, etc. : the I.yceuni of N.itural History, bocoinc in 187^. the New York Academy of Sciences, /4««<oceeiiiiie;s : Wyomins Historical and r.enln-ical Society, ProceeJins;! ami Collections (Wilkes- Inrri-, Pa., 1SS4, etc.); the Cincinnati Society of N.iiur.il History, Journal .ind Proceedings, i":''. Indianapolis Academy of Sciences, Transactions, 1S70, etc. ; Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, Pttlletin. 1870, and Transactions, 1S70; r).iveni>ort (Iowa) .Ai-ademy of Science, Proceedings, iS'7; St. I.oui^ .Acidiiny of Science, Transactions, 1850 ; Kansas Acndemy of Science, Trans- actions, 1872; California Academy of Sciences, Proceed- ings, 1854, etc., and Memoirs, 1868, etc. ; Geographical Society of the I'.icific, its official organ A'djwcj, — not to n,ime others. In liritish .America we may refer to the Natural History Socielv of Montreal, publishing The Canadian Xatitral- ist, 1S57, etc.; the Canadian Insiiime. Proceedings : the Knval Society of Canada. Proceedings ; the Nova Scotia Institute of Natural Science, Proceedings and PransaC' tious, iS',7, — not to mention others; and amnni; period, icals the Canadian Monthly, the Canadian Antit/uarian, and the Canadian Journal. I\i i AKCIl/KOLOCICAL MLSKU.MS AND rilKlUDKALS. 439 ons and those Siiiiiii' .UoHt/ily (1877, etc. I, .s'i/i-«.f (i! |>.i|>erH .ire, unbickil), nl very uneven \.ihie.> The bc»t iir)|anii:ed »iirk ha» been dune in the I uitcd States by the I'cabndy Museum ! Aniirican Arth.e* uliii{y and Kthnulugy, in Cambridge, Mats., and by certain ilepartnicnls nl the Federal guvernmcnt at NVaih- inxtun. 1 he I'calxKJy Museum resulted from a Kitt of ()eori{e I'ealxidy, an American banker living in London, »ho instituted it in iSMi ,is a part ot Harvard I niversily.- Il was fortunate in its first curator. Dr. Jeffries \\ yman, who brought unusual powers of comprehensive scrutiny to its work.'' lie died in ■!^74, and was succecdeil by one of his aud of AKassiz's pupiN, Frederick W. I'utuam, who was also placed in the chair of archxoln^y in the university in iS.So. 1 lie A'l/.'r/j. now twentylwo in number, aiid the new series of Sft\iiil I'tifo i ate among the best records of progress in arcluiolnKKal science. The creation of the Smitlisonian Institution In 1S4I1. under the lx-(|uest of an Englisliman, James Smithson, and the devcjtion of a sum of almut 5|i.ooo a year at that time aiising from that gilt, lirst put the government of the L'nileil Stales in a position " to Increase and diltuse knowleilge among men. " * The second Kifoil of the Kegents in i>4.S ci mains approvals ol a manuscript by K. (i. Squler and K. M. Davis, which haiiiui,iils ,[f tin- Miaiisiffi Valley, tom/rniii^- llie results 0/ extensile otit,'i)iii/ surveys miil evfhiralioiis (Washington, i."<4.S), became the liisl of the Smith- soniiiii t'iiiilri/'iithiiis to A.'iiim'/et/f;e. The subsequent volumes of the series have colitaineil other iiii|>orlaiit treatises in similar lields. Koremost among them may \x named those of .'s(|uier on the .ll>orii;iii,il .\/onii- iiieiits 0/ Xew I'c;-* (Vol. ii., i,S;ii; Col. Whittlesey on The /iiuunt Works in U'lio (vol. lii., 1S5J1; .s, K, Kiggs' Diiiotii (IriiHiiiiiir ,iiut Dictionary (vol. iv., 1S51) ; I. .\. l-apliam's .tnti:jiiilies 0/ ll'isionsin (vol. vii., 1855); S. K l\Aven's .Iri/iiro/ogy of the i'nited States (vol. viii., iSjlj); llrant/ .Mayer's Mexican History and Architology (vol. ix., i.Sj7); Whittlesey on Amient Mining on Lake Sii/erior {^-^\\ \ \\. W. Turner on Indian Thilolcy (1S52) ; .S. S. I. yon on Anti^/uities from Kentucky ( iSyS), and many others. The sections of correspondence and minor papers in these reports soon Iwgnn to include communications about the dcvflopment of archxvjlogical research in various localities. They began to be more orderly arranged under the sub-heading of Kthnology in the A'efort for 1807, and this he.iding was changed to .Vntlnopolugy in the Report for i87(). Charles Kau (d. i.S,X7) h.id been a leading contributor in this department, and no. i,\> of the Smithsonian public.itions was made up of his Articles ■•( Anthropological Suhjects, contributed from rSOj to iSyy (Washington. iS.Sji. Xo. 421 is (ieo. II. Dot -r's /iide\ to Anthropological Articles in the ftiblications of the Smithsonian /hj///;///coi (Washington, 1: in. .\niong the later papers those of O. T. Mason of the .Anthropological Department of the National Museum are conspicuous. The last scries is the h'eforts of the liureau of Ethnology, pl.iced l)y Congress in the charge of the Smith- sonian. The Heforts of the American Historical Association will soon be Iwgun under the same auspices. Major J. W. I'owell, the director of the liureau of Ethnology, said that its purpose was " to organise anthropologic rcscardi in .America." ■'> It published its first report in iS.Si, and this and tlie later reports have had for contents, beside the summary of work constituting the formal report, the following papers : — ' Tlie tendency of general periodicals to questions of this kind is manifest by tlie rL-fereuci-s in I'ool/s Index, under such he.ids .IS .American -Aiuiqiiitifs, .\iitlirnpolocy. Archae- ology, Caves .ind Cave-tlwellers, Kthiuilo'.;y, I.nke Dwell- ings, M.u), .Mounds and MouiuUmil(kTs, Prchisioric Races, etc. ' The history of Us inc.ni ncy and progress can be gathered from the Reports of the Museum, with summa- ries in those numbered i.. xi. ind xix. ' Cf. NValdo i{\\i]iu\snn*s Memorials of the Class t>f/Sjt,J, //arrard College^ p. ^lo, and the contenmorary lril>ules from eminent associates noted in Poolers Index, p. 1434. * The tliTcunientary history, by W. J. khees, of the .Sniitilsonian Institution, forms vtil. xvii. of \\^ Miscellaneous CoU ■lions. Cf. J. Honry on its organization in tlie rrc- eeedmgs of the Amer. Asso, for the Adv. of Science, vol. i. A Catalogue 0/ the /•uHications of the S. /. '.oith an alfha/iiliciil index of articles, by William J. Rhees i, Wash- ington, i8>2), constitutes no. 47^ of its series. The early management of the Smithsonian decided that the "knowledge" of its fiuiiider meant scifiice. and from the start gave not a little attention to arch.Tology as a science. When the Ihireau of Kthnology became a part of the Institution, and its A'('/*('r/( included papers nece--s.irily historical as well as arch.eciln;;ical, the way was prepared for a broader nieatung to the term " knowledee," and as a significant recogiiititin of the allied field of research the present government of the Smithsonian gave hearty con- currence to the act of Congress whlcli in Dec, iSSS, made also the American Historical .Association, which had ex- isted without incorporation since 1SS4, a section of tlie Smithsonian Institution. ■■' Its mound explorations have been conducted by Cvrus Thonus ; those among the Pueblos of the southwest bv James Stevenson (cl. isssi; while Major Fowell himself has cni)Mrcil will) ih.ii anions 'illii-r |M'ii)i1rK and dva(*ntiili-ii. — J C. I'lLi INi>. Cdt.iliiKdt' n( linKuiiiii. nuiiiiiiLri|it« in the lilir^ry. — lllunir.iiioii nl i)ii- nii'tli.Hl nf rt-cnril' inK Indi.in IanKU.iKr«. f mm tlt« ni.uiUHCnpu «( J. O. linrM-y, A. S lialKhcl, aim! S K. Kii;p«. V'lil. n. : K. M. ( iMiiM.. /iii^i liiiiln* — .t/rj. K A Smith. .Myili* nf ilie lriK|iini< — II W Hunvhaw Animal carvin^H Imm iniiiinili i>l ttn- .MiHHi»..i|t)ii V.illcy. — VV. M\itiik\vs. N'.iv.ijii mlvi rMniihn. — \V. H llntMis An in thell III Itir .mill lit Aiii'-iii.inn. — J. nthvknmin. Illll^l^alt■ll liliIhuiii; nf ihi? fnlli-cliniiN ojii.iiiu'il fnnii llu IiiiIlim^ nf Naw Medio aiul Ariinna in i*j') ; — llluiltaied uulnnua ■>( llw tnllctiiiina ubuiiad (nini ihi liidijnn nl New Miiicn in |H«o, Vol. Hi. I C'vai'a Tiidmah. Nnica iin nruin Maya and Mmican manuacripla. — W. (C. ) M. Daii. Dm m.iika, Ulircih, .mil ui-rLiin .ilHiriuin.il Lii?«lnntKt wiili an ini)nlry into the iH'.iniiK of llitir Kt^oKr.iplitcat iliHiriliiiimn. - J. (>. I)iiii> aKV. Diii.ih.i MKiiiliiK\. — Wamiini.tiin Maitiikw>. .N.\v.)jii wf.iviri — W. H Miii.mk^ I'nhl^lnric li'xiila (alirica (if tliu Uniu-d M.iu-H, iliTivi'd Inim iiii)iri'ftHiiinn iiii |Kiiifry; — ItltiHir.ilfd cat.iliiune of a {mrtinn of (he cnlleciiona mada by llic liuriMu of K.ilini.liiuy during ilie luld H.iniiniii i>){ical material, illustrative of prehisturic times, are deposited in the Army .Medical Museum, under the t>iiri{eiin-( icneral's charge. .Major I'owell, while in charge of the (icographical and (ieidoKical Survey of the Kncky Mountain ReKion, liad earlier prepared live volumes of l\iii/ri/'iiliii)i< to F.lliHi'lui;}, all hut the second of which have Iwen liublished. The first volume (i.S;;) contained W. II. Dalls '• Trilx's of the ICxtieme .Northwist ' and George (iil)hs' '• Trilx's of Western Washington and Northwestern Oregon." The third (i.**?"): i^tephen Powers' " Trills of California." The fourth (iS.Sii; Lewis II. Morgan's "Houses and house life of the American .Mxirigines " Ihe lilth (i.'^.Sj) : Ch.irles Kau's " l.apidarian sculpture of the Old World and in /"ncrica," 'x?rt I'letclier's "Prehistoric trephining and cranial Amulets," and Cyrus 'Ihomas on the Troano Manuscript, with an intriiiliiction by I), (i. Ilriiiton. Amimg the Ki/'iois of the geographical .iiul geohigical explorations and surveys west of the looth meridian conducted by Capt. (ieo. M. Wheeler, the seventh volume, Kcfort on ArclKtologiml and Ethnologiail Col- lections from the vicinily of Snnfa Ihirhnm, Culi/orniii, itnil from ruineit fiieblo^ of Arizomi iim/ Xew AfexiiO and ttrtiiin Interior '/"r/At (Washington, i.* I'lnlirr loiiiriliu- '" • iPilrjl Anicr- I' ""I liv ihiiw in ■'111, r |H-i>p|ir« 4nd iii.lh.Hl c>( fl tha JMuni in ceramic KiiMK. Tha ■ I'l Av Mac- iiiM cliilil. in Instllution,! iinii'iit rxpliira- kiilK ami pliys- III, iimlir the iintain Ki'Kiim, icli liavc l)cen rlluMst ' and •''77) : .Stephen use life (if the \\'i>rl(l and In hoiiias (in the lootli meridian litio!,i);ual Col- >n,i iiiiif Xnv )ntains |);i|K'rs iinients, beads, ler ruins, skel- other Western arge of F. V. lin aniiin),' the 'ii/sti /ndiiins Louhiana in mianclies and RcoRraiiliical (lilroai/ from lory's Kefort H. Simpson's i87f'l; J. \. / ami Green :qual work of oodcuts ; and "■.»■, J.ipii.iry, in on Amer- <:an Nalurnl AKCn<+:oLOGlLAL MUStU.MS AND rKKlODlCALS. 441 Htnry K. Schuulcrall, lltilorital ami SlalliUcal lnfarmalhH rtsfttting the kislory, ttHJilhni, tnJ ftiih ft, It ,/ Iht liiiliiin I'nbet of Ike I niltJ .Sl,ilit, (u/Uileit anJ frtfuttil under llie JireilioH of Ike Bureau of Imtiiin .Ijhiiri (I'hilad., lKtory. — l'h)«icai type. — l.anijiiai{e. — Art. — KellKli'n.ind iiivthiiliiK>. — l)eniiinol"K>, iiiaKi',c'c. — .Mediial knowleilKC. — Con- dition and prospects. — Statistics and popnlatiim. — llloKrapliy, — Literature. — I'listtciiiimliian history.^ Kcononiy and statistics. An edition of vols. 1-5 (1X50) i> called Jilhnoloxinil re\iiiri >iii xtfetling Ike A'eJ Men :f .linen,, I, iHfnrmiUion re'fe^lini; Ike history, \:\i. I he sixth volume is In cHect a summary ol the precediiiK five.' .\l a lecent meeting of the American Association for the .Vdvaiueinent of >clcnce, a committee was charged with pr( |i.irinK a memorial to Congress, urKing action to iiisuru the preiervatlun of certain national munu- nients. there is a sumniary of their tiport in .S, /.«.<, xil. p. loi. Of all Kuro|>van countries, the most has lieen done in France, by way of |K'riadlcal system and corporate organizations, to advance the study of .\inetican anlliropidoKy, ethnoliiKV, and arch.Tolo)(y. The Annates del voy(ig,s,de III X'<'X>iitkie it d,' r/iisloirr, liiiiliiils de li'liUs /<« hinf;iies Eurofcennes ; dii rrlnlions origi- na/rs, inedilii,' the publication of »hlch was liegun bv Malte llriin in i,So.S and continued to ifti^, and the Nouiellis .Innnles del /'^ii;'!/, beKun In i.Sio .ind coiitiiiiied with a slinhtly varying title till i,S;o, are nourcea occasionally of much Importance. .\t a later day. ICdouard I.arlet and others have used the Anmiles des Xiin,i< .Wilnrillts as a mediimi for their publication-. We hardly trace here, however, any coiporatc move- ment Ijclore the institution of the .'eration of sonic eminent scholars in these studies, like .\ubin, lluschniann, V. .\. Malte- llrun, .Mibd' llrasseiir de llourbourg, Joniard, Alphoiise I'inart, ( Hitambcrt, l.(;on dc Uosny. W.ildeck, Abb6 Doniciiich. < h.oencey, etc. The active movers were first known as the Comil(S d'.\rch^ologie .Ani^ricalne, and they issued an .•/««//(/;/•(■ (I. S(i!-i); I and one volume, at least, of ./i/cr (i.S'i;), as well as a collection of Miinoiri- U'nan in i.SoS, and has been continued, llie Kencral name of Arikives de la Sotiili- .luiiricaine de France covers its other publications, which more or less coincide with the A'aitt Orientiile el Amiricaine far Lion de h'osny, the lirst scries of which appeared in Paris in 10 vols., in l^i')- (,■■), followed by a second, the first voluni" of which (vol. .\1. of the whole) is called A'nne Ainiricainc, fublii sons les ansfi,es de la SociM d'l'.lhnoiirafliic el du Comile tV Arikcologie Amiricaine, and is at the same time the fourth volume of the Acles dc la Sotiile d' Elknografkie Amiricaine el Oricniale. The whole series is sometimes cited as the Memoires dc la Socicli d' l-.ltinografkic.'' The series, alieady referred to, of the Ar- chives dc la Soc. Amir, de France is made up thus : I'remi6re sfrie : vol, i.. A'eine Orienlale el Amiricaine; ii , Kcviie Amiricaine ; iii. and iv., A'etiie Oricniale el .Imirictinc.'^ I'he nouvelle s6rie has no sub-titles, and the three volumes bear date 1S75, 1S76, 1884. 1 H. P. Vi-K\K^% Descri^live Colli/, (ior'l. /*w^. ,p. sin : Field's Ind. /Hfil/oj^.t no. 1;,;,*; Allibone's Picliouttryt iii. p. i()5J, for references and opposinR criticiams. Some of the cnndemnalinn of the I k is too sweeping, for amid its ignorance, confusion, .mil indiscrimination there is much to be picked nut which is of importance. Cf. Parkmaii's Jesuit!, p. Kxx ; Wilson's I'rckisloric Man, iich. i.j; Itrinlon's .l/i'M.t, p. 40. Cf. on .Schonlcrntl's death (willi a porlrail) Hisloriiol ."dag., April, |Sfn ; Amer. Antiq. Soc. Proc, Ap il, isr.q. K. S. Drake's Indion Trihes of Ike Uiiiled ."Hales (Philad., 1SS4) is, with some additional matter, a re- arrangement of Sch(tolcraf(, the omission to acknowledge which on the tilli-pai-e heinK an uuwnrthv hiblioKraphical dfCeit. Schoolcraft's rivalry of C-o. Catlin and his i|;nor- ing of Catlin's work is rommenlt'd on at some length by rionnlrlson in the .S'mitksonion liisl. Ke/ 442 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA. i \:. 'I'he student of comparative antliropnlnKV will resort to the Multtiiiiix /•our I'liistoire fosithe et fhiloso- fhiqiic (^\\vx {•limit ivc el luUtircllc) Jc I'liomiiuWXw piiblicatinii ot wliicli was lx.'Kun at I'aris in 1X^14 by (jabriel de Mortilk't, an', has been continued by I rutot, Cartailhac. Chautre, and others. This publication has contained abstracts of the proceedings of an annual jjatherinK in I'aris, whose Comftcs rciulii have been l)rinted at lenijtli as of the Cotigrh iiilcriiiitioiitil ,l'aiit/iro/'oli>j;ii: ft d'ari/uoliij^ic friliistoiiqins (iSdj, etc.).' I. eon de Kosny i>ubli.ihed but a single volume of a projected series. Aiihivvs falcoiirafhii/iics dc I' Orient et tie iAmhiijue (I'aris, iS7q-7i>, which contains .some papers on Me.\ican picture-writ uii;. Kosny and others, who had been active in the movement begun by the Comite d'Arch^ologie Aniericaine, were now in- strumental in organizing the periodical gathering in ditterent cities of Europe, which is known as the Con- frh iiiteniiilioiiiil lies .Imhicitnistes. The first session was held at Nancy in 1S75, and its Comfle Rendu was published in two volumes (Nancy and I'aris, iS;l>). The second meeting was at Luxembourg in iiS77 (Comfte h'endii, I'aris, i,S7S, in 2 vols.); the third at Drussels in 1S79 (Coinfle A'endii) ; the fourth at Madrid in iSSi {Coni;reso inteniaeionul de Ameriiiinislns. Ciiiirlii reunion. Madrid. iSSi); the lifth at Copen- hagen (Coni/le A'cHi/;.', Copenhagen, 1S84) ; and otiiers at Chalons-sur-Marne, Turin, and Berlin. The papers are printed iji the language in which they were read. The Ml moires de lii Soeiete d'F.llinogrii//iic (founded in 1S50) began to appear in iSSi.and its third volume (1SS2) is entitled Lcs Donimenls icrils de l' Antiqiiitc Ameriiiiine, eomfle rendu d'line mission seientijique en Esfagne el en /'orenpi/,/,tr Lion de A'osn); mee line earte el ie> /■liDuhes. The fourth volume is I', de Lucy-Fossarieu's /;V/;Hiy/<;//;/c i/f /'Amirii/i/c Antitretiqne {I'aris, iSS.\). In the second volume of a new- series there is an account by V. Devaux of the work in .American ethnology done by I.ucicn de Kosny as a preface to a posthumous work^ of Lucien de Rosny, Les Antilles, etude d'Ethnognifhie et d' .-Ireheotogique Amerieaines (I'aris, 1XS6). Latterly there has been a consolidation of interests among kindred societies under the name of Institution Ethnographique, whose initial Rap^orl annuel siir les reeomfenses el eneouriigemenis deeerni'S en rSSj was published at I'aris in iS,S3. This society now comprises the ^oci^te d'Etlmographie, ^oci^t^ Am^ricaine de France, Ath^nie Oriental, and S^ociete des Etudes Japonaises. i In England, organized efforts for the record of knowledge began with the creation of the Koyal Society, though certain sjjoradic attempts had earlier been known. America was represented among its founders in the younger John \Vinthro|i. and Cotton Mather was a contributor to its transactions, and there has occasion- ally been a paper in its publications of interest to .American archa'ologists.-' The Society of .Antiquaries began to print its ,/n//(ri/i;<,';(i in 1779 and its Proeeedings in 1S4S. and the .American student tinds some vahiablc papers in them. The liritisli .Association for the .Advancement of Science began its Reforts with the meeting of iS^i, and it has had among its divisions a section of anthropology. In iS;o the Koyal Geo- graphical Society Iwgan its /iih;;/.;/ with a preliminary issue (1830-31. in 2 vols.), though its regular series first came out in 1S32. Its Proeeedini;s appeared in 1S55, and both publications are a cimsplcuous source in many ways relating to early American history.'' Closely connected with its interest has been the publication bo^'un under the editing of C. R. Markham. and called successively Ocean /lii;hways (i.S6i)-73. vol. i.-v.), wich an added title of Geografliieal Re-oieu' (1S73-74), and lastly as The Oeogrufliieal Magazine (vol. i.-iii., 1874-7(0. The Ethnological .''ociety published four volumes of a Journal'' between 1S44 and 1S56, and resuming pub- lished two more volumes in iSi«)-7o. Its contento are mainly of interest in comparative study, though there are a few American papers, like D. Forbes's on the Aymara Indians of Peru. This society's Transaclhns was issued in two volumes, iS5<)-f)o; and again in seven volumes. 1801-00. Meanwhile, some gentlemen, not content with the restricted field of the Ethnological Society, founded in Londcm an .Anthropological Society, which began the publication of .Memoirs (1863-O0, in 3 vols.); and in this publication liollaert issued his papers on the population of the new world, on the astronomy of the red man. on .American paleography, on Maya hieroglyphics, on the anthropology of the new world, on Peruvian graphic records. — not to name other papers by different writers. The Transactions and Journal oi the society, as well as the Popular .^fagazine of Anthropology (1866), made part in one form or another of the Antlirofological Rerinv. begun in 1863, and discontinued in 1870, when the Jonrmil 0/ Anlliro/ology suc- ceeded, but ceased the next year. The Proceei/in:;s i\i the society make one volume. 1S73-75, under the title of .Intliro/ologia, and the society also maintained a series of tr.T.islations of foreign treatises, the lirst of which arraiiReinent the exceedingly ilevious devices of duplication of this and alliod i«ihIications. ' .A Rnntr it Antltro/'ologie was begun at Paris, mider the direction of llrftca, in 1S72. A Societe d'AnthropoIo- pic began two series, Hitlletius ami Mhvoires. in iSfo. Mnrtillct coiuUicted i.^TIomuti- from I'^'^^ to iSS-, when he anil his associates in thi*^ wnrk suspended its puhlicatiitn to di'Vfto thcntselves to a Dictiouuaire des Sciences .-inlhro- f'cht^itfio-s and to .1 liihlioth^que Anlhrofiohgique. ^ Rosny died April 23, 1871, 2 Its publications began in i^/'5. Cf. synopsis in Scttd- der's Catologue. pp, 26-27. Cf. C. A. Alexander on the origin and history of the Royal Society, in .Sitiithsenian Reft., iS6j. • Some of the local societies deal to some extent in Amer- ican subjects; c. .c-i the Journ.}! 0/ the Manchester Gti/' grofhi.al Society . liegtui in 1SS5. •'' Not to he confounded svith The Ethnological Journal, \n!. i., iS^s-^,), and vol. ii., 1S54, incomplete; and The Ethnological yournal, i vol,, 1305-60. 1... I. j ii yj^ ii / - CA. •ositive et fliilos(y I'aiis ill i^(^ by This publication rendu liavu been 'Jius (iS()5,ctc.).' i>Jigraphical record of past and current archaeological literature.- It is, however, in the volumes of the Ilakluyt Society's publications, beginning in 1S4;, in the annotated reprint of the early writers on -Vmerican nations and on the European contact with them, that the most signal service has been done in England to the study of the early history of the new world. They are often referred to in the present History. In Germany a Afngaiin fiir die Xaturgeschichte des Menschen was published at Zittau as early as 17SS- 170 1. Wagner published at \'ienna, in 1794-96, two volumes of Beitriige zur /■hiloso/hischen Anthropologic ; and Huynig's I'sychologisches (zugleich Anthro/ologisches) Magazin was published at .Mtenburg in i;i;ii-(i7. The Derliner Akademie der Wissenschaft began its .Ithandlungen in 1S04, but it was not till long after that date that ISuschmann and others used it as a channel of their vievs. Vertuch's Archiv fiir Ethnographic und Linguistih (Weimar, 1S07) only reached a single number. The Zcitschri/t fiir fhysische .ftrj/c, which was published by Nasse, at Leipzig, iSiS-;2. was succeeded by the /.eilschrift fiir die Anthropologic (Leipzig, 1S23-24), and this was followed by a single volume, lahr- biicher fiir Anthropologic (Leipzig, 1S30). Bran's Ethnographisches Archiv was published at Jena from i.SiS to 1S29. It was not till after iSdo that the new interest began to manifest itself, though Fechner's CentralblatI fiir Natunvissenschaflen und Anthropologic was published at Leipzig in i,S53-j;4. Ecker's Archiv fiir .Anthropologic WAf, published at Braunschweig in iS'/)-(jS, which came in 1S70 under the direction of the Deutsche (iesellschaft fiir Anthropologic, Ethnologic und Urgeschiclite. which also began ■a Correspondenzblatt in 1870, and a series, .//4v«/i7«ir \'ersammlung,\\\ 1S73. This is the most inipo.tant of tl'i; cierman societies. Bastian's '/.eilschrift fiir Ethnologic was begun at Berlin in iSiio. and later added a Supplement. The .Vnthropologisclie (iesellschaft of X'ienna began its Milthcilungen in 1.S70; and in 1SS7 the Prahis- torische Commission of the Kais. .Akad. der Wisseiischaften at Vienna printed the lirst number of its Mit- thcilungcn. The V'erein fiir .-Xnlhropologic in Leipzig published but a single number of a Bericht in 1,^71. The Berliner Gesellschaft fiir .Anthropulogie, ICthnologie und Urgeschiclite continued its I'erhanJlungen for 1S71-72 only; and the liottinger .\nthropologisclier \'erein made but a bare beginning (i>S74) of its .!/;?• thcilungcn. The Bericht of the Museum fiir ViJlkerkunde was begun in Leipzig in 1S74. The Miinchener Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologic, Ethnologic und t'rgescliichte began the publication of Beitriige in 187(1. In all these publications there have been pa|«;rs interesting to .American archa:ologists, if only in a compar- ative way, and at times .American subjects have been frequent, especially in later years. The publications of ziKilogical and geographical societies have in some respects been at times of equal interest, but it has not been thought worth while to emiiiierate theni.3 The Kiinigliche Museum at Berlin has a considerable collection of .American auticiuities. which has been fostered by llumboUll and others, and the ethnological department has made suiiie import.mt publications like those relating to .\inerikas Xordwestkiistc.^ Waitz in his .Inlhr.pologie der Xaturv'olkcr (vol. iii. : Die .{mcrikaner, Th. i., Leipzig, 1S62) has enumer- ated the literature of .American anthropology upon which he deiiended. The interest in most of the other European countries is mure remotely American. The Museum of Ethnog- raphy at .St. Petersburg is not witlioul some objects of interest.'' ' Cf. J. R. liarllctt on an Antwerp meeting, in Amer. * The third volume of Bnsti.nn's Ciiltiirtoiider des Allen A ntiq. Soe. Proc\, t'eginning made to »d it was not until e seemed to be a S43-45) *iave done 1 periodical source 46. Museum at Rio de tions mentioned in 'attce^ Nouv. Scr.^ MoHuments dans la iris, 1S80) covers a t year. Sometlring f» rt guide to prehis^ 3iackmore Museum the Amer. Antiq. 'cicanas que ecsisten or Frederuo IVal* :570' See miscel- in Bancroft's Nat [Reference is commonly made but once tea book, if repeatedly mentioned in the text; but other references are made when additional information about the book is conveyed.] Aa, Van der, Voyagien^ xxxv. I Abancay, 23''). Abbot, C. C, associates the rude im- I plcments of Trenton with Eskimos, ' io^», 3(^)6; liis discoveries in the Dela- ; ware gravel.-, cmisidered, 330 et seq. ; ', Implenteuts in the rh'er-dri/t tit ' Trenton, 333; Supposed paltBolithic \ implements from the valley of the \ Delaware, ii\yifi'^\ on the pro-In- [ dian race, 336; importance of his j discoveries, 356; on the origin of 1 Americans, ■\U<)\ on the tertiary man, 3S7; researches in the Trenton grav- j els, 3SS ; linds a molar tooth, 3SS; 1 and a human jaw, 3SS ; Antiq. of '^ Man in the Delaware Valley^ 3SS; , Evidences of the Antiq. of Man ^ 3S8 : on arcniological frauds, 403 ; Primitiz'e Industry^ 358, 416; on Atlantic coast pottery, 419. Abbott, Brief Description^ 109. Abelin, J- P., Theatrutn liuropeum^ xxxiii. See Gottfried, J. L. Abenaki, 3J2. Al)ert, J. W., Examination of New Mexico, 3'/). Acanchenieni, 328. Acaltecs, i<)i. Achilles Tatius, Isagoge, 8. Acoihua, forms a confederacy, 147. Acoibuncan conquered, 147. Aconia, 3')6. Acora, burial-tower at, 24S; cut, 249. Acosta, Jose de, in De Bry, xxxii ; East and U 'est Indies, 45, 262 ; Historia, 155, 2ft 2 ; corresponds with Tobar, 155 ; in Peru, 2''>2 ; Concilium L intense ^ 268 ; Nuevti Granada^ 2S>. Adair, Jas., Anter. Indians, 116, 320, 424; on the lost tribes, 116; on the mounds, 398. Adam, Lucien, on Fousang, 80; op- poses Irish connection with Mexico, 83; on the Eskimo languaRo, 107; on the Quichua, 2S1 ; criticises Ho- ratio Hale, 422; edits the Taensa grammar, 426; I.e Taensa, 426: Etudes sur six languesy 425, 427; L e ngua Ch iq u ita , 425; Exa me n grammatical^ 425. Adam of Bremen on Vinland, 89; Hist, Eccles., So. 94. Adam, a race earlier than, 3S4. Adams, Davenport, Beneath the Sur- face, 412. Adelung, J. C, xxxv, 422. Adhi^mer, Rez'. de la Mer, 3S7. Aelian, I'aria Historia, 21, 40, 43. Aeneas Silvius, 26. /Eschylus, Prometheus Bounds 13. Africa, ancient views of its extension south of the equator, 7, 10; circum* navigated, 7; migrations from, to ' America, 1 16 ; its people in Yucatan, j 370- ) Agassiz, Alex., Cruises of the Blake^ 17. Agassiz, Louis, on the autochthonous American man, 373; portrait, 373 ; j his views attacked, 374; on the ear- liest land above water, 3S4 ; GeoL Sketches, 384. Agatharcides. Geography, 34. Agnese map (1554), 53- Agnew, S. A., 410. Agriculture in pre-Spanish America, 173, 417; in Peru, 252. Ahuitzod, 14S. Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty, 306. .M il).ima, bhell-heaps, 393; mounds, .%:■■,. Alaguilac language, 42S. Alaska, 77; caves, 391 ; Indians, 328. Albany, treaty at (1674), 304; (16S4), 304- Albinus, P., 370. Albornoz, J. de, Lengua Chiapaneca, 425- Albyn, Cornells, Xieuive U'eerelt, xxv. Alcavisa, 224. Alcedo, Ant. de, Bidl. Amer., ii. Alcobasa, 265. Aleutian islands, as a route from Asia, 78; caves, 391 ; shell-heaps, 393. Alexander, C. A., on the Royal Soci- ety, 442. Algonquins, trace of the Northmen among, 99; hero-gods, 430; legends of, 431. Allan, John, his library, xiii. Allard, Latour, 192. Ailday, Jacob, 107. Allen, Chas., Stockbridge Indians^ .123- Allen, Edw. G., iv. Allen, F. A., 379; Polynesian Antiq. ^ 82. Allen, Harrison, 201. Allen, Joel A., (forks on the orders of Cete, etc., 107. Allen, Zachariah, Condition of In- dians, 323. Allibone, S. A., xii. Alligator mound, 409 Allouez, reference to copper mines, Alloys of metals, 418. Aimaraz, R., Memoria, 182. Alpacas, 213, 253. AIsop, Richard, 328. Alzate y Ramirez, J. A., Xochicalco, 180. Amaquemecan, 13*). Amat de San Flllppo, Pietro, Plant- sferio del /4Jb, 56. Amautas, 233, 341. Amogluno, F., La Antigiiedad del Hombre en la Plata, ^,0. America, early descriptions of, xix ; early voyages to. xix ; how far known to the ancients, 1, 15, 22, 2>; held to be Atlantis, 16; to be the land of Meroiies, 22 ; men sup- posed to reach Europe from, 26; early references to, 40; Egyptian visits, 41 ; Pha'uician, 41 ; Tyrian, 41; Carthaginian, 41 ; Asiatic con- nection. 59, 76; Basques in, 75; early visits by drifting vessels, 75; voyage to Fousang, 7S ; maps of routes from Asia, ,Si ; by the Poly- nesian islands, Si; state of culture reached in, 329; origin of man in, 369 ; climate, 370; autochthonous man in, 372; held to be, later than Europe, the home of man, 377 ; stone age in, references, 377 ; ethnological maps, 37S; connections with Asia, 383; earliest land above water. 3S4; geotocical connection with Europe, 384; hibliog. of its aboriginal aspects, 413; comprehensive treatises on the antiquities, 415; arts in, 416. See Africa, Asia, Chinese, Jews, Mad9. 437 ; its publications, 376. American Folk- Lore Society, 43S. American (iazetteer, 321. American Geographical Society, xvii, '*17- American Histoncal Association, 419. A merican fournal of A rchaology, 43S. American fournal of Science and Arts, 43 8. American Xaturalist, 438. American Philosophical Society, their publications, 437. American Tra7'eller[ ■ 1 0, xxxv, 370. Americana, 1 ; bibliograj . s, i ; deal- ers in, xiii. Americanism, ifio. Ammiaiuis Marcellinus, 42. Ampere, Promenade en A merique, 81. AiiAhuac, history of, 139; map of. in Clavigero, in facs., 144; its limits, jSz; map, 182. Anaxagoras, 3. A 446 INDEX. It 1^ \ 7'il h\^ : I. 4'i' hm Anchnren.i, J. D., on ihe Quichu.i ;:raniniar, z'^o. Ancionis, their knowledge of America, I. Aiicon. burials att 2761 373 » cut of imiinniy, 276; (if clotli, 278. AncDii.i, Kli^io, i'lioitiiH, 166. Ande. 428. Anderson, Rasmus H., translates Hum's Z.//. ^Ltifuihi. Xorth, M4 ; America not liiscot'ert'd dy Coium- /uis, (>; ; nil Oighton Rock. 104. Anderson, Winslovv, on human bodies found in California, i.v'^. Andrade, J. M., 170; Cata/offue, 414. Andree, Richard, Ethnog. J\iyaiieien, 105. Antlrews, Edmund H., on i;eoloj;ical evidence from the v;reat lakes, iS2 ; fMi the ( Mii<» mounds, 40?, 407, 40S. Angliara, Johan vim. xxi. AnRrand, I,., on Waldeck, 194; Les AntiquiUs. de Ttasuanaco^ 273. An^uilla island. 496. Animal mounds, 400. Animals, domestic, hardly known tn pre-Spanish America, 173. Animas River, ruins, ,V'^>. AuHalcs niaritiinosy xix. Art naif s ArchiohgiqiieSy 441. Anuah of Science, 41S. Antarctic cuuiincnt, 10. Authropolo^i^iii, 412. Anthi'ipoiu^ical Institute of Great liruani, 44^. Jiyurmil^ ^\i. .■\.nthnip(it{)j;ical Institute of New Vurk, 4_?s. Authropolof^iiiil Review, 442. Anthropological Society of Washing- ton, 4.^^. Anthroiioio^'v and its method, 378, 41 1 ; liist. of, 411. Antichtlu>nes, c>. Antille-i, renmants of Atlantis, 44. Sec AntiUia. An'illia. nland. yx, 4'^: bibliog. 4S ; in Itianco and Pizii^aiiJ maps, 54. Antipodes, ancient views of, 9, 31, 37. Auiiqunrisk ''Wtsskri/f, 04. Antiqniiv ot man. See -^Ian. Antiscll/Thos., 7^. Ant()nii>. Nic, />'//■/. /fis/>. IV. Xotasy vi. Avana. liiNioff. de ohraa anon.y xxiv. Aratus, l^haeuomenay 35. Arancanians, 428. Arcelin, ^57. Arcli.Tological Institute of America, i'.o. 43^. ArchtFo/oiricai Revie^Vy 443. Archer-Hind, Kd. Plato's Timcpiis, Archimedes, his Rlobe, 3. Architecture of Sliddle America, 176, 177; in Peru, 247. Archi^'/i'tr Ft/itiOirriifihie, 444 Ar-'hivo des A{ores^\w. A rchi7'io per PA ttthrof'o/oi^ia, 444. Arctic pefiples. See Kskinios. Ar.'ouipa, 277. Argillite, 417; spear-points, 359; com- monness of the mineral, 3*13. Arponauts. 6. Ari;yle, Onke of, Primeval M-.n, 381. Anca, 27;. Arickarees, 417. Aristotle on the form of the earth, 2 ; Mtteorologia,, 7; De Mirah. Auscui' /ationt'ius, 24; on the Atlantic, aS; his scientitic treatises, 34; his intlu- ence in the West, 17, Arizona, caves in, 3.^1; ruins in, 397; nii'p; 397. Armiii, Heutige Afexico^ 178. Armstrong, Col., 312. Army Medical Museum. 440. Arnitld, tlov., his stone windmill at Newport, 105. Arrawak, 42S. Arriaga, Jose de, 2'^»4 ; Lu Idolatria del Peru, 264. Arrow-heads, art of making, 417. Arroyo de la Cuesta, K., Mutsun lati- jruai^e, 425. Artaun, S. de, 2'>2. Arthur, King, in Iceland. 60. Arthur von iJartzig, xxxiii ; Hist. Ind. orient. , xxxiii. Arts ill -America, .ii^. Arundel de Wardour, Lord, Plato^s A fill fills, 45. Asguaws, 1 1 1. Asner, Uavid, 200. Ashtabula Co., Ohio, mounds, 40**. Asia, emigration u> .America. 59, 76, 32'i, 37".. 3^3 ; similarity of tlora,6o; of pliysical appearance of peoples, 76; migration to Fousang, 7s; maps of routes to America; Si ; supported by Humboldt. 371 ; testimony nf jade, 417) ancient views of its east coast, 7. ^'(r Fousang, Mongols, etc. Aspiuwall, Thomas, his library, iv ; burned, iv ; sold to S. L. M. Bar- low, iv. Assav'goa, 2S.) Astley, / '(»j')2 : Antiquities in the State of < V;/(), ^9^ : ;/ 'yit^'nt^s, 39S ; 'Four to /'rairle tin Chien, 29S. Aubin. his ace. of Iiotnrini's collec- tion of MSS., 159; purchases what was left of it, i''o; aids in establish- inc the Soc, Americaine de France, i^i : describes his own collection, ir>_>: list of his MSS,, i'-.2; Mhn. snr la peinture didactiqui\ ijf^, 200 : Fxamen des anc. pdnturesfi^. de rauc. Mexique, 200; La langue M^xicaine, 427. Aughey, Sanmel, 34S. Autochthonous theory, 375. See Man. Avallon, 32. Avendano, F. de, 280. \ Avendaflo, H. de, 264 ; IHolatrios de lo% hidios, 264. ! Avienus, Ora rnarittma^ 25 ; De- scriptio orbis ternr, s<\ Avila, F. de, 2^4 ; Ids Indian mythol- ogy as translated by Markham, 43*); his chapter on the (Juicluia, 274. Aviles, Estavan, trK(i^(rw«//(i, 16S. Axapusco, 173. Axayacatl, 14S. Axelsen, Otto, 107. Axon, W. E. A., on Triibner, xvi. Aymara Indians, 22^), 42S, 44^; ]aiv guage, 27,,, 42S. Ayme, I.. H., on Mitla, 1S5. Azangaro, 271. Azatlan, Fort, 40S. Azcapuzalco, 140. Azores, known to the Arabs, 47; on the early maps. 4-^ ; statue in, 49. Aztecs, origin of, 13:;; traces of their tonj^ue in the north, 13S; their mi- gration maps, 13S ; their cradle in the north, 137, 13M,* in the s,\ their profiles, i(>^; the curve (tf the nnse helped by an orna- ment, 103 ; their military dress, i(,3 ; picture-writing, i()j {see Hieroglyph- ics); Aubin's studies of it, 200 ; their Ijooks descrilied, 203; their paper, 203 ; music of, 420 : language, 42f'; hero-g(j'f'^^ It 'orkers^ 345 ; (ilacial Alan in Minnesota. 3SS. Habel, dispersion of, 137. Bachiller y Morales, on the North- men, 94. Bachman, John, Unity of the Human Race, 374. Backer, Louis de. Saint Brandan^ 4S; Misc. Fillio.c-, 4^- Backofen, J. J.. Mutterrecht, 380. Bacqueville de la I'otherie, Hist, de PAmerique, 321, 324. Baffin Land, 107. Baguet. M. a., Races prim, des deux A m^riques, 3^9. Bahnson, K., 444. Baily, John tent. A merica^ 197 ; Guatemala^ 16S. Baird, S-. F., on shell-heaps. 392. Bake, J., Fosidonii reliquieF^ 34. Balboa, ^L C, Miscellanea Austral., 262. Baldwin, Cornelius, on burial cists, 40S. Baldwin, C. C, 399; "" the mound- builders, 402; Relics of Mound' builders. 40 v Baldwin. F., La Salle County, III., 4o'<. Baldwin, John P., Anc. Afuertca, 412* 415. Ballesteros, 0>denama5 del Feru^ 2ftS. Bahic Sea, early maps, 11 1. 124, 125, 12^1. 129. Baltimore, libraries, xviii. P.anips. L^homme blanc^ 195. Hancarel, I'oya^^es, xrxvi. Bancroft, Geo., bis library, xvii ; on the Northmen, 93; his map of In- dian tribes, 321; on the origin of Americans, 375 ; believes in the unity of the race, 375. Bancroft, H. H., aids to bibliog. of Indian languages, vii : buys the Pquier MSS., viii, 272; his library* INDEX. 447 I 264 ; Idolairios dc naritima^ 25 j De- rr,r, ^f>. \ liis Indian myihcpl. (1 by M.irkhnm, 43^; Ii'' <^>uicluia, 374. inatenitiia, 16S. on Triibner, xvi. 226, 42S, 44J ; Jan. iMiila, 1S5. ilie Arabs, 47; on 4'* ; statue in, 41). i.VS ; traces of their >nl), 13S; their mj. 3^ ; iheir cradle in "3"^; i» the somh, Mexico, 142; Kan- hcii' dominion, 144 ; leans and Tlatdul- ration formed, 147 ; ilicms, 153; M,i/,/g fir profili-s, u^t,; tlic _■ heljK-d by an orria- military dress, iq^ ; i';7 (see Hieroglvph- ;>tudius of it, 2oo; ^crihud, 203; tht'ir ic of, 420: lanpnape, M,<^>\ alleged mono- mytholofiy, ^3, ; iicsthood and fes. red buildings, 431 ; 435- See "Mexico, of, 304; a mvth. . 138; in the smith. yL.. A tide Ht Quartz iilacial Man in k 137. es, on the Norih- tiify oftheHuuhiH Saint Brattdati. :■, 4^. uttcrrecht, 3S0. I'otherie, //«/. de 324- :es/>riin. des deux . Atncrha^ j^j ; ll-hcaps. 372. rf//t/iiia; 34. rf//tifieti Aifs/ra/., , on burial cists, 1; on the mound- 'c/ns 0/ Mound- alle County ^ ///., nc. A Merit a, 41 2, 'mas del Peruy PS II ». 124, 125, tviii. 7«r, 195. xxvi. Iil)rary, xvii : on his map of In- 3n the origin of beheves in the 71- :1s to biblioff. of vii ; buys the 272 ; his library, viiif IX : hi» Xattve Kaccsy viii, 160, 415,43a; his lists and foot-iH)tc ref- erences, 414, 415; Literary Under^ iakinji^s^ viii; Works, viii ; his Cen- tra/ A tiierica^ ix ; Early A mernan C/ironielerSy ix ; criticised, ix ; Es- says ami Misiellanics, ix ; // ist, 0/ the Pacific States, ix ; //ist. of Cali/orniay\\\ on Mexican history, 150; on Saha^un, 157; on Clavigero, 158; on M.iyn history, i')6; con- denses the /'*'/«/ /*«//, i'i6; on the anc. Mexic.in magniticence, 174; on their warfare, 175; attacks Morgan, 176; his estimate of I'rescotl, 2'hj; on the nKumdbi'ilders, 401 ; on the eeneral sources ot aboriginal Amer- ica, 413: his opinions, 415; on the aboriginal arts, 416; on American myths, 410. BanduliLT, A. (■"., on earlv Mexican chronology, 133, r^j ; on the Toltecs, 141 ; on the Aztec arrival, 143; on the Mexican confederacy, 147 ; on Torquemada, 157; on IxtliLvOchitl, 157; promises an ed. of the Codex C/tiniit//'o/>ocaf is^\ on the /'('/«/ I'u/r, 1(17; Sources of the Aborif:^. h/istoryof Spanish Aiuerica, i'17; ll'arfare of th-' Ancient Mexicans^ i'"h 175; '/enure of lauds, i')j; A/ode of t^orerufiient, if^>t, 175 ; Archieoloffical /'our in Mexico, i<>(), iSo, 1X5: on the Mexican civiliza- tion, 173; Morgan's pupil, 174, 175; his papers on Mexican life, 175; ad- miration for Morgan, 175: on cal- endars, 170; Studies ahoitt Cholula^ iSo: ArchtFolot^. Xotes on Mexico, 1S2 : on Mitla, 1S5 ; on the Mexica*' paintings, 200; on the Pueblo ruins, 30''); Sedentary Indiins of Xe^u Mexico, ;\< id; Ruins of /'ecos, 3/1; his use of sources, 413: /Hblio^. of Yucatan and Cent. America, 414; on American Monotheism, 430 ; on Quetzalco.itl, 432 *, his labors in MexictJ, 438. Baradere, up. IJarber, /list. Coll. Mass,, 104. Barber, K. A. 31)5, 419; Lesanciens pueNos, V)7, Barcia, annotates (larcia, t,(^(). Bardsen, Ivan, his sailing directions, B.irentz, vovage, •i,(\ Baring.C.ould, Sabine, Iceland, '^4, _S,v Barlow, S. L. M., his library, iv, xviil; Roui^/i List, iv ; JUN. /iarlowiana^ v. Barnard, M. R., S5. Barranca, J. S., Ollanta, 2S1. Barrandt, A., .^n^. Barrientos, Luis. /hnt. Cn'stiana, 42$, Barrow, John, / \>ya^es into t/te Polar Rei^'ions, xxxvi, 93. Barry, Win., 4ns. Barter. See Trade, Traffic. Bartlett, John R., edits the ^^uI^Jhy Catalogue, x ; the Carter- Hrown Catalogues, xii ; /Hl'liot,'- Xotices, xii ; drawing of Dighton Rock, 101, 104; Personitl Xarratii e^ \y}, 3*/>; on rock inscriptions, 410. Bartlett, S. C, on Dartmouth College, 322. Bartoli, Essai sur PAtlantidcy 46. B.-irtou, Benj. Smith. A'cry I'ieTVS, 76, 37'- -^'^1 4^4- <;ii the Madoc voyage, 110; his linguistic studies, 424; on the location of Indian tribes. 321; portrait, 371 ; his career, 371 ; A iner. Antif/., 371; 0/'serr\itions, 3.-)'^; thought the mounds built by the Tol- tecs, the descendants of the Danes, 3')*<; nn tlie Ohm mounds, 407 ; on affinities of Indian words, 437. Bartram, John, '/^ravels, 3()S, 410. Bartrani, \Vm., Travels, 3'jS, 410. Basadre, Modesto, 214: Ritptezas Peruanas, 244 ; on Tialuianacu. 273. Basalenque, San Au^ustin de Me- choacan, 168. Basques in America, 74; their lan- guaue, 7t- Hassett, F. S., Legends of t/te Sea, 4''. Bastian, Adolf, on Yucatan, 166 ; Geschichte des Alten Mexico, 17a; Stem Sculpt uren aus iiuatemala, i'j7; />ey A/ensch in der ireschic/ttCy 37S. /:'/;/ Jahr auf Reisen, 43'' 1 '"> the reliyiou ()f I'eru, 436: /.eit- sc/iri/'t fur /Ct/inologie, 443 ; CultuT' liinder, 443, liates, H. W., Ethno^, of America, 7'>: Cent. A/nef., 7'-, 432. Baviies, l-rancis, 104. Beach, \V. W., /ndian Miscellany, 3-*o. Beauil-■;: Ees Colonics I-'.urof'eennesdu A/ar/cltind, 97: I.es SA'rcrlint^^s, 105. Beccario, his map, 4.*. j Becher, H. C. K., />// to Mexico, ' 170. Becker, J. H., 403; Migrations des | Xiihuiis, 1 1<). Beekwith, U". W., 327. Betniann, I.C, //ist. Orbis terrarum, 43- Bede, Pe Xatura Reruniy 37. Beeche, (1., his books, xiii. Behaim on the Seven Cities (island), 4'>: globtt 1,1492). 5S, 120. Behriug's Straits, route by, 77; map of, 77 ; in quaternary times, 7S ; once land, 3^3- Behrnauer, \V., Commerce dans I'an- cien Mexii/ue, 4-'o. Belknap, Jeremy, on the Norso voy- i'ues, 92. Bell, A. W.. 397. Bell J. S.. 1S4. Bel jarde, Abbe, xxxv. Belt. Th., Stone implements, 3S8. Beltran de Santa Rosa, P., Idioma Maya, 427. Beltrami, J. C., Pilgrimage, 369. Beloit. Wise, mounds, 40*^. Bv;lt, Thos., on the Trenton gravels, 337; tinds a skull in C()lorado, 349. Bembo, Cardinal, his history of Venice, zK Benasconi, A., on Palenque, 191. Benavidesj Alonso, Memorial, 395. Bendyshe, T., 41 1. Benes J. B., 2''>5. Benincasa, Andreas, his map (1476), cut. }.(■> : other maps. ;*■>. Beiinet and Wijk. Xederl. Ontde/i- Icitigen, x\xvii : F.eereizen, xxxvii. Ben/oni. Xe'o World, xxxii ; printed with Martyr, xxiii. Bcotliuks, 321. See Newfoundland. Berenuer. I'oyages, xxxvi. I'ereiult. C. H., his Maya collection ho'iglu by Brinton. i''i4; memoir by Brinton, 164: mi Guatemala docs., i6f>; Centres of Anc. Civilization, 176: notes on ("entral America, n/i; his bonks, 414; his linguistic stud- ies, 426: Analytical Alphabet, 426, 427 ; his papers, 42'' : memoir by Brinton, 426; on the Mava tongue, 427 : A ncient Civilizations in Cent, America^ 427. Bergen, 6S, Meruer, H., Eragmente des //ippar- thus. ^4 : dti Erato.\/ltenes, v. 34 J iiesch. der '*'iss. Erdkimde, 30; Geog. aphitf 2S. Beristain de Soui.a, /iihl, f/isp.- Amer., ii, 413. Berlin, A. V., 347. Berlin, Akad. der WisseiiM haft, 443 *, Oesellschafl fiir Anthropoiogie, 443; Kiinigliche Museum, 443. Berlin tablet, 404. Iterlioux, K. K., Les Atlantes, 43. Bernard, I'oiages, xxxv. Berrdiardy, G., Eratost/tenica, 34, Berniggerus. Questiones, 4 in Wy. oming, 3S9 ; Creek I alley, Coloraao, 41'-. Bertonio, L., his Aymara grammar, 279. Bertran. Oiacomo. map, 5S. Berirand, Memoires, 11^1. Betan/os, J. J. de, Poctrina, 2601 Suina y Xarracion de los Incas^ 2f>o. Betoner, Wm (of Worcester), 50. Beughem, C.. /Hid. //ist., i. Bianco, Andreas, Ins map (143M, go, 5.^. 5^' S**! ^ M ; ciit of. 54 ; ( i.j4Sf, 50, 53 ; Carta Nautica, sh \ assists Kra Alauro, 1 17. Biart, Lvicien, Les Azteques, 143, 172; T/te Aztecs, 172. ^ Bibliographies, Americana, i; I.ivres paves I, txx) francs et ou de.i.\us,XK. Biblioteca de los Americanistas, 444 Hibliothhjue linguist ique A m^r. . '. Bi voyage, ^2. Blackamoors found in Central America, 117. Blacken, W. S.. Lost Histories of A merica, 40. 43, Blackmore colU-iiions, 399, 444, Blade, J. !•'., '/Origine des Basques^ Blake, C. C, on Peruvian skulls, 244. Blake, Jolui H., his Peruvian collec- tion, 273. Blenheim Library, xiii. Blome, yamaica. xxxiv. Blondel, S., Rec/ierc/ies,4\r,. Boas, I-'raiiz, on thi' Kskiinos, 107; his papers. 107. Boban, 179. Bodfish, J. P. , on the Northmen voyages, 104 Bodleian Library. Code.v Mendoza, 203. Bnehmer. Ceo. H., Index to Ant hro- pol. A rticles, 439. Bohn, H. C.., xvi. Bolivia, map, 209. Bollaert, Wm,, on the Mexican calen dars, 179; on .Amer. pal.X'ography, 201 ; Cent. A mer. hieroglyphics, 201 ; Antiq. Researches, t~\\\ Anc. Perux'ian graphic records, 270 ; Incas, 270 ; nn Tialuianacu, 273 ; Anthropol. of the X'ew World, 270, 37-1 : his publications, 442. Bollandists, Acta Sanctorum, 4S Boncourt, F., i'*2. Bone-wnrkers, 417. Bonneville. C. de, 370. Boon, K. P., his library, xiii. Bordnne. I'.., his map <)f the .Atlantic islands (1547), 57, 58 ; map of Scan- \ I r warn aBosffisacBs? 448 INDEX. ^' It" dinavia, 114, 126; had access to the ^cno map, 7}. IiorKia, Cardinal, liis nuiscuin, 205. IJory di! M. Vincent, J. li., Lts hies /•'ortun^fs, M, 43 ; map, nj. HosLiin.i, tj.. Chiniffchinich^ 32S. Ho^sanj;i', Hector, xvi. Jto-ton, private lib^a^ic^, x; Public i.djiary, itH catalogues, %\\\ ; as ecu* tre (>f study in American hislDry, xvii ; its libraries, xvii. Pio^ton Athena UM), its laial., xvii. llostoii Society of Natural History, 4.17' llotanical arguments for the connec- tion of Asia and America, .^Sj. Boturini, Iluneduci, books on Indian tnngues, vii ; his colleciinm in Mex- ican history, 151); its vicissitudi^s, 1 5'> ; descrilied i)v Aid)in, ivi; Iiieti de una rtrtrva ///sf.j 159; facs, of title, i'''! ; portraits, inn, I'n ; his catalogue, 150; his collection suffers ill government bands, 162; conten- tious over it, i')2. Boucher de Perthes, his discoveries, j'x* i W ftff//. Cf/tiffufs, ^fjo ; De I homme authiilmHi'n^ y)0 ; Bihl. Boucher de la Richarderie, Bibl. Univ. ties I Viv/^i^cv, ii. Bmidinot, Klias, Star in tfte Wc^t^ I If.. Bnue, A., on the floras of the earth, 44. Bouquet, Col., secures captives from the Indians, joo. Bourgeois, Abbt?, on tertiary man, 3S7. Bnurke, J. G., Snake Dancer 421). Bourne, \Vm., Treasure for rravel- iersyS^^y Bovalllus, K., Xiearat^itan Antiq,^ 197. Bowen, I). F., A merit: a disc entered by tiic U'e/Jt, III. Boyle, Fred. , Kide across a Continerd, 197- . Bracir (island). Seg Brazil. Braddock, tlen., his march, 294, 2fj6. Bradford, A. W., Amer. Afdig.y 376, 4'5- Brahm, Ger. de, ii'j Braincrd, I>avid, his Life, 431. Bran. ICt/inoi^rapiiiseites ^trcAij'^ 443. Bransford, J. F., AfUi7- Brasseur de Bourbourg, Abbe his aids ill linguistics, vii: his wtiiings and career, vii, 170; Coii. de docs, dans ies /anifites .hiier., vii ; his library, xiii; on Egypii.in traces in .Xnier- ica,4i, 167; (ju ihe .\ilamis theory, 44, 172; on Foiisang, So; on the Northmen and their naces, 1^4, .jt) ; on scattered traces of the Jews, iib; on the V'otan myth. 134 '■ on ihe Chi- chimecs, 136: on the N'aliua migra- tions, 13S ; his easy credence, 139: begins ^Iexican hist, at it. c. 935, 155; on .Sahagiin, 157; Lettrcs an due de I'aiiny, 15S; (ui the Toltecs, 1 5S ; .Vatious ciTiiish-s du Mexique^ i5>, 171; chief sources of, 171; uses the Codex Chimai/>o/'oea, 15^; the Codex Gondra, 1 5S : describes Au- bin's collection, \<^2\ his own collec- tion, ^(•>^\ edits Landa''s Kelaliouy 164, i''>5, 200; Mission seientifique au Mexique^ 164, 170; on Yucitan history, d^%\ dlits the Po/>ui I'u/t, 90. i''>^> ; Dissert, sur ies mythes de VAntiq. AnUr.^ ift*"); his theory of cataclysms, if/> ; a Quiche MS.. 1^)7; translates Mem. Tec/>an - A titian, 1(17 : on Oajara, 16S : on Fuentes y Guzman, 16S ; portrait, 170 ; //ist. du ('anada, 170; in .Meviro, 170; Esquisses i histoire, 170: Ruines de Afayafiavy 170; Lettres pour serrir i^ introduction a Vhistoire du Afex- ique, 171; helped by Aubi!i, 171; search for MSS., 171 : Quatre Let- ires, 171; bibliog., 171; his MS. Tronno, 172. 200, jcyt, 207; Chronol. hist, dtrs .i//xicains. 1 71; ; on the ruins of \'ui:.itan, I'^S : at Uxmal, iSi,: furnishes a text to Waldeck's A/cnuments Anc. du Mexique, \')\\ Ruines de Paienqu^, 171, n)4 ; /.<•/- tre ,1 Uon de Kosny, 2(K> ; Landa's alphabet explained, 2<«): futile at- tempts at interijreting the hieroglyph- ics, 201 ; on the I'odex TeHeriauo- Retntusi-t 205 ; .Systetue graphique des Mayasy 207 ; Diet, de la Lani^ue Maya. 207, 427; his Ra^fort m the M.S. Troano, 207; on the Codex /*erezianus^ 207 ; on the origin of Americans, jf'^) ; on the mound- builders, 401; Hii'l. Mex.-iiuat., 172, 411,423; on Mexican philology, 427; finds Greek roots, 427; La /en^ua 0»iche, 427. Brazil (country), rock inscriptions, 411. Brazil (island), 31 ; bibliog,, 4., ; origin of name, ^n : (m recent maps, 53 ; in Bianco and Pizigani maps, 54. Bn''b, 197. Brine, IJndesay, Ruined Cities 0/ Cent. A nter., iy(y. Brinley, Geo., his library', xii. Brinton, I). G. ,A/'or. A nier. Authors^ vii, .(26; on Algonquin legends, u')'. on Aztlan, 13S: considers the Tol. tecs merely a dynasty, 141 ; on the Votanic Empire,'i52 : owns Berendt's collection, i'S4 ; portrait, i'^)5 ; on Dr. Berendt, 164: on (Jentral American MSS., i(^\ : Hooks of Cliilan Balam^ i')4 ; Chac-Xuiui'-C/ien, i'^>4 : on edi- tions of Landa, 105; on the Popul Vuh^ 1^7; Xamcsoft/ieliodsint/ie KicM myths y 167, 436 ; ,■/ nnals o/the Cakc/iiqueis. 167, 435: on the eth- nology of the (."akchiquels, i6t; on Nicaragiian liistory, iCmj; on Bras- seur, 171 ; on Landa's alphabet, 200 ; A nc. Phonetic A I Hiabet of Yucatan , aoi, 427; Grapliic system of the A/ayas, 201 ; Phonetic elements, 20I ; Ikouomic metlwd^ 201 ; on the MS. Troano, 207 ; on Peruvian im'ths and literature, 270; on ihe I fleet of missions on the Indians, 318; " .-\rcha;ology corrects Geolo- gy,'* 3^0; (m Theo. Waltz, 37S: on the Nicaragua footprints, 3S5 ; Flo~ ridian Peninsula, 391, 393 ; on shell h'-'aps, 393 ; opposes Carr's views on t'lie moundbuilders, 402 ; li!s own views, 402 ; A'*':*, of data for the study of prehist. Chronology, 412, 413; Recent European Contribu- tionSy 412; Prehist. A rehtpolois^y^ 412; on the use of niica,4ifi; //«- eal measures of Mexico, ^20 \ Lan- guai^e of tfie palaeolithic man, 421 ; Polysyntheism of Amer. laut^uaces, 422; Amer. Abori,i^. lan_^uaj^eSy 415; Chronicles of the Afayas^ xf>4, 42^; Gue^7ience^ 425, 42S; the Ta- ensa Grannnar, 426; Philos. Gram- mar of the Amer. langytat^es, 42'i; A/emoir of Eerendt^ t(^, 42*1 ; A nc. Xahuat I Poetry, 426; Xahuatl lan- fC^uige, 42ft; Cakchiquel lan^ua^e^ 427; Xinca Indians, 427; Ala^ui* lac uinj^uat^e, 427 ; on the Nicara- gua tongues, 42.S; Alana^ue dialect, 42H ; Lenape and their ie^ends, 325; Xat. legend of the Chata-mus-ko-kee /r/(^fi, 32'< ; (ui the Shawaners. 32ft; (Ml the mental caji.icitv of ihe In- dian, 32S ; A/yths ofthe'Xno II otld, 429; on suii-w()rsliip, 429; on phal- lic worship, 429: American Hero* \ Afyths^ 43n; nn monolheism. 430; Rel/\'ious sentiment, 430; Journey of the Soul, 431; on Quetzalcoall, I Bristol, EnR., sends out expeditions j westward, 75. I Britain, the Island of the Blessed, 15. I British Assr»c. for the Adv. of Science, ■ Reports^ 442. ! British Columbia nuuinds, 410, British Sailor^s /directory, no. Brixham cave, 3*0. Broadhead, (1. C., 40-). Br<»card, Descri^tio, xxi. Brockliaus U'dpzig), Bibl. A m^r., xvii. Brocklehurst, T. U., Afexico To-day, 177* 1^2- i Brodbeck, J., 109. I Bronze Age in America, 41S. i Brooks, C. v., X,^oport A/ill. 105. Bronks, Ch. W., on the emigrations to China, 81. Broughton, Richard, Afonasticon Brit. , S3.' Brown, Dewi, 32''). Brown, I-)., on Georgia shell heaps, 30.1. P.rown, G. S., }'armouth, 102. Brown, John Carier, his library and its cat.ilogues, xii. Brown, J. Madison, on tiie ten lost tribes, 1 16. Brown, Marie A., Icelandic Discov- erers, c/j. Brown, Nathan, Si. I Brown, Dr. Robt., on the Eskimos, I 107. Brown, Thomas J.. 407. Browne, J. M., 32S. Browne, J. Ross, 32S ; Apache Coun- BrufT, J. G., on rock inscriptions, 104, 410. Briihl, Gustav, CulturvUlker, 195, 411, Brunet on T)e Bry, xxxii. Brunn, Bibl. Danica, 40. Brunner, 1>. B., Indians of Berks County^ 325. Branson, Alfred, 408. Bruyas, J., Radices I'erborum Iro- quaorum., 425. Bryce, Geo., on Manitoba mounds, 410. Brynjalfson, G., on Scandin. polar ex- ploratif)ns, 62. ' Buache, Philippe, 20; Antillia^ 49; map of the route to Fousaug, 79; on the Zeni, 112; Sur Erisland, 112. Buchholtz, Die llomerische Realien, Buchner, L., Der Afensch^ 383 ; Alant Buck, W. J., Lappawmzo, 325. Buckland, Dr., Reliq. Diluvianee, 390. Buckland, Miss, 417. Buckle, Hist. Civilization, 41. Buddhist priest in Fousanp, 78. BufTon, Epoques de hi Xat.., 44; on stone implements, 387 ; on bones from the Big Bone Lick, 388. Bull, Henry, ^^^. Bull, Die, and the statue of Leif Enc- son, 98. Bull, Mrs. 01e,on the Northmen, 98. Bulletin Arcli^ologique Fram^ais, 441. Bullock, \Vm., colleciion of pottery, 418. Bullock, W. H., Six mos. in Afexico Bumstead, Geo., xvi. Bumstead, Jos. (Boston), xv. \kihiquel lauf^uagc^ -kee ilic Shawant-fs. 326; t.ipaiitv of -lit.' In- t^of the XrxvH- arid, ^liip, -IJ'); on plial- : A iih-rittin liero' 11 nnuioilifistii, 4^0; '«(•///, 410; Journey 3' ; on QuctzalcoiUl, imls out expeditions 1 of the Blessed, 15. ihc Adv. of Science, nu>utuls, 410. directory y 1 10. 40.). io^ xxi. U., Mexko To-day, KTica, 4tR, '^o/'ort J////, 105. in the emigrations to ■il, Monastiion Brit,^ leorpia shell heaps, riucnth. 102. lur, liis hhrary and i. rn), on the ten lost helatidic Disiov- on the Eskimos, 407. 328; Apache Couh' ck inscriptions, 104, Iturt'olkery 195,411. , xxxii. 'Vd, 40. Indians 0/ Berks 08. :es I'erborum Iro^ Manitoba mounds, I Scandin. polar ex- 20; Aniillia^ 4q; to Kiiusanp, 79 j on tr Frisland, 112. ymerischc Realten^ "ifeftsckj 3S3 ; A/a»f aiviftzo, 325. iq. Dihwian^y 390. 7- ization^ 41. 'ousanp. 7S. ^e ia Nai.y 44; on 3S7; on bones from k, 3«8. tatue of Leif Eric- he Northmen, g8. 'que Fran^ais^ 441. rciion of pottery, r mos. in Mexico iton), XV. Runburv, E. H., Atu. Gtog., 36; on All. :is, 40. Burder, (iiiii., li'elsh Indians, 110. Bureau of Kihnolojjy, Kefiorts, 439. Burge, Lnrenzi), I'regiaciai Man, 387. Burgoa, K. d •, '/V^aT- Deicripdon^ 168. Burkart, J., Keisen in Mexico, 183. Burke, I. , 4'.. Burke, J., at Chiclien-ltza, k^o. Burncy, J.is., (hron. History 0/ Dil^ Cin'fry, xxxvi. Burns, I,', K., Missouri, 409. Burr, R. 1'., 397. Burton, R. K., L'/tifna 77i///.', 84, 85, 118. Bus, land of, 47. Busihmann, J. C. E., Die Spuren der Aztekischen Sprache, ijS; Die Latttveriinderun^ A ztck. H 'drtrr, n^ ; )iis linguistic studies, vii, 425 ; Die Aziekischrn Ortsniitneu, 427 ; Die I'd/ker Xeif-Mrxiros, 427. Bussi^re, Th. de, I.e I'eroii, J75. BustamanttN C. M. tie, edits l.oon y (iarna's Piedras, i$')\ Mafianas ae ia Aiamcda, 179. Butler, Amus W., Mac-i^cial Stone, Butler, J. D., Prehistoric U'i::consin, 40**; on copper implements, 41'* ; Copper Ai^e in Wisconsin, 41S. Butler County, (Jhin, moutuls, 40S. Bulterficld, 'C. \V., ;2') ; on the nininids, 407. Buxton, M/t^ratioHs of the Ancient AL'xicans, |6*;, Byles, Mather, xxviii. Cabot, John, xxviii, xxxl'*; in De Bry, xxxii ; bust of, 56. Cabot, J. Klliot, on the Northmen, 96. Cabot, Sebastian, in Bristol, 50. Cabrera, Kelix, Teatro Crit. Amer., M4. 19' f 433. Cacama, 149. C.-csar, Julius (Englishman), xxiii. Cahokia mound, 40*^. Cakchiquels, in Guatemala, 130: their geog. position, 151; their ethnog. relations, 167; their dialect, 427. Calancha, A. de la, Coronica Mora/i- zaditf etc., 264; Hist. /*ertMntr, etc., 264. Calaveras skull, 351, 352, 384; cut, 3«5- Calaveras County (Lai.) cave, 390. Cilculifnrm characters, 201. Calderon, J. A., on Palenqu^, iqi. Calendar disks, 179; stone of Mexico, ly), 178. California Acad, of Science, 43S. California, gold drift, 3S4; its Indians, 81, 32s ; an island in Sanson's map, 18; alleged tertiary relics, 351 : mounds, 40<)\ the original home 01 the Nahuas, 137, 13S; linguistic confusion in, 13S; pottery, 419; shell heaps, 393. CallfMider, John, Voyages^ xxxvt. Callit^res, 303. Camargo, D. M., Tlaxcalian, 163. Campa, 428. Campanius on the Sagas, 92. Campbell, John, I'oyages, xxxiv. Campb.-Ilj John, 322, .y.9 ; on the linguistic atfiliations with Asia, 77; on traditions of Mexico and Peru, 81 ; on the Davenport tablet, 404. Cimus, .A. G., De Bry, xxxii. Canaanites, ancestors of the Ameri- * cans, 371. Canada, Indians, 32t; their arts, 416; library of Parliam'ni, xviii; mounds, 410. Canadian Antiquarian, 43S, Canadian Institute, 438; Ann. Repts.y 4 if). Canadian yournal, 438. Canadian Monthly, 438. Canadian N'aturaiist, 43S. Canaries, called Ins. Fortuncr, 14, 27, 47; known to the Carthaginians, 25. See Fortunate Islands. Known to INDEX. the Arabs, 47: island seen from, 48; Noticias by Viera y Clavijii, 4S ; in the Bianco ni.ij}, 50, 54 i >» Sanutu's niap, 53; in Puigaui's map, 54; re- lations with America, 116, See GuancheH. Canaii, 226. Candolle, De, Ofog. botaniqut, 313. Canepa map, 58. Cancte, 275. Cant'ield. \V. H., Sauk County, 409. Cannon, C. L., ^.^7. Canoes, 420; drifting, 78. Cansiadt, race of, 377. Cantino map (1501-3), 53, 120. Canto, Kniesio do, Archive des Azores, xix; l)s Corte-Reaes, xix. Cape l.'od,niap of, 100; ancient hearth on, 105 ; map of shell heaps, 393. Cape I'riiice of Wales, 77. Cape de Verde islands known to the ancients, 14, 25. Capel, I'orsteiiungen des Norden, xxxiv, 1 1 1. Capella, Marcianus, De .Wuptiis, etc., C;»radoc, 10 j. Cardiff giant a fraud, 41. Carclloy Ancona C, La iengiui Maya, 4-7- Carette, V..,Les temps antehistoriquest 42 i. Carey, Amer. Museum, no. Cari, 22). I Caribs, origin of, 117; descendants of , the Chicnimecs, 136. j Carignano map (xi\. cent.), 53. Carleton, J. H., 397. ' Carii, Count Carlo, Briefe iiber Ante- ' rika, 20 ; contrnveris DePauw, 370; De/ie Lettere A mer., 43, 44, 370. Carlson, F. F., S4. Carolina, Indians of, 325. See North Carolina. Carolus, J., map of Greenland, 131. Carr, Lucien, 412 ; on the position of Indian women, 328 ; Crania of A'c. Amer. Indians, i$h ; on the study of skulls, 373; on the Trenton im- plements, 337, 3SS ; Mounds of the Mississippi I'ailey, 402 ; on Virginia mounds, 410. Carrasco, C, Ollanta, 281. Carrenza, L., 2S2. Carrera, F. de, Yunca Grammar, 274, 279, 2S0. Carrcri, 0. F. G., Giro del Mondo, 1 38, icS; attacked by Robertson and defended bv Claviger't, 158. Carriedo, J. It., on 'Oajaca, 168 ; Los Palacios antiauos de Mitia, 1S4. Carrillo, Canon (now Bishop), Crescen- cio. his collection of MSS., 163; on Zumarraga, 203 ; }'ucatan, 164, 166; Geog. Maya, 18S; La iangua Maya, 164. Carrington, Margaret J., Absaraka, 327; Cartailhac, 449 E., 411, 443; L'age de pierre, 387. Carter-Brown. See Brown, J. C. Carver, Jona.. on the mounds, 398. Carthaginian discoveries, 14, 25. Casa Blanca, 39^. Casa Grande of tlie Gila Valley, 395, 3^7- Casas Grandes, 395. Caspari, Otto, Ur^eschichte der Menschheit, 81, 383'. Caspi, Marquis de, 205. Cass, Lewis, on Heckewelder, 30S. Casselius, De fuif. fortuitis in A tne- ricam, 75. Cassell, J. P., Ohserratio hist., 93. Cassino, Standard JVat. History^ 34, 412. Castaing, Alphonse, Les fiies dans Pantiq. peruvienne, 238; Syst^tne relig. dans l^antiq. peruvienne, 24T. Castaiieda, drawings of Palenqu^, 191, 192. Castell, America, xxxiv. Caaielnau, F. de. Expedition, 371 ; ot the antiquities of the Incas, 271. Castillo. G., Diet, de Yucatan, iftty. Castillo y C'rozto, E., Yocab. PaH- Castfllano, 435. Cat, Edouard, Dhouvertes Maritimes, xxxvii. Catalan map (1375), 49; *^"*i 55 ('''v. Lent.), 53 ; carta nautica (1487;, 58. Ciicott, A., Ihiuge, 370. Catecismo de ia doctrina Cristiana vii. Catherwood, Frederick, Anc. Mts. in Lent. A mer., 17'i, Catlin, Geo.,nn the Welsh Indians, iii*, tiiuls anal(i;;ies to Hebrew customs in ihe Iiuhiiiis, 1 \i> ; Lifted and su/sidi'd riu ks, 40 ; Life among the Indians, .j'>9; Last Ram/'ics, 3'mj ; Xorth A merican Indians, 3 20 ; btbliog., 320; his Indian (iaiiery, 330 ; lilustrations of the Manners, etc.. 320; portraits, 320; map of the Indian trilies, 321. (.'auchis, 22'). Cavate dwellings, 395. Cave-bear epoch, 377. Cave man, 377, y^: held to beaiwech- less, 377; represented to-day by the Eskimos, 377; drawings of, 3S2, Cavendish, xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvi; in De Bry, xxxii; in Ciaesz, xxxiii. Caves in America, 389. Caxainarca, 231. Cayaron, Chautnont, 321 ; Autoifiogra- phie, 321. Celedon, R., Lengua gocejra, 425. Cellarius, Not it. ori>. antiq., 37, 45. Celoron, 2'-^', 310. Cenecii, 394. Central America, Scandinavians in, 99: map of, by Malte-Brun, 151; notes on the ruins, 176. See Yuca- tan, Guatemala, Nicaragua. Central Ohio Scientific As-oc, 407. Centrail'iatt fiir Bibliothekswesen. xvii. f "eramic art. .S"^^ Pottery, liac-Mool, statue, i>^o, 190,434. *- haca, 224; ruins, 224; described by Sqtiier, 234. Ch.ico Canon, 395, 396. Chadbdurne, P. A., on shell heaps, 3''2- Chahta, 40J. Chalcedony, 417. Chalco conquered, 147. Challenger ridge in the Atlantic, \\. Chalmers, interpreting the geological record, 383. Chama, 42S. Chamberlin, T. C, Our glacial drift, 332. Champlain, his friendship with the Hurnns, 285. Chancas, 210, 227, 230. Chanes, 135. Changos. 275. Chapultepec, Aztecs at, 142 ; sculp* tured likeness on its cliff, 148. Charencey, H. de, J/Miw^^j, vii ; La langue Basque, 75; Mythe de J'o- tan, 81 ; D/cmschid et Quetzalcoh' uatl, %\\ Myth (flmos, 134; Civi- ligation du M^.vique, i;^i; on the Maya hieroglyphics, 195; Fragment tV inscription palenquhns, .'oi; his linguistic studies, 421; ; Melanges, 42'^>, 427: Chrestomathie de la lan- gue Maya, -> * Drx mots en lengua Maya, 427 ; Deluge, 431. Charlevoix, Xou7'. France, ii ; on Amer. linguistics, 424. Charnay. Desire, finds Buddhist traces in Mexico, Si ; on the Toltecs, 141; Cith et R nines Atnir., 176, i!'6, 105; Le M^xique, i7'»; papers in No. Amer. Rev., 177; in Tour du Monde, 177; Les Anc. I'illes, 177, 1 8^1, 195 ; A ucient Cities, : 77 ; in Yucatan, i^/i; [Kirtrait, 187; his route in Yucatan, 188; at Chichea- Itza, r>o: at Palenqu^, 195. !'». VOL. I. ■29 t 450 INDEX. I' 1 I kt M Charton, Ed., TVivif rwr*, Jtxxvii. I Clt.iM-. A. W., 4.^',. I LiMiii-iiHis-ktwkL'L- tribes, 326, Lli.itiiiiiSf ij<>. Lliatilre, 442. Cli.iv.inni;, /^//. /'o/,tr KegiotiSj 7S. LiMvcrn, A., Sahat^i'iH^ 157; AUxico It /n/rVj /A* Am .V/^'/('.v, i;^-, (in the Calendar Slcnif, i75. I'lR'iiey, 'i'. A., 405. OiL'iinoks, fjty. St'e Chinook. Clitrbonneau on Arab geographers, Clierckt'cs, 'riinl>c'rl.i';e ni, Si; /,«. OHiry into the ori^ni^ .^7(<; held to be innuiul - bmlders, 402 ; cnuiicil- hoiisc. 4U2 ; ! mrces (if llieir history, ^2'-; ihcirL-asL' wiili Genrgia, 320. Cherry, i'. 1'., 403. Chert, 417. Chesim-akc Hay, shell heap?, 31J2. Chevalier, Micliel, Du Miwiqiw avtttit et pvnditnt la iSonijut'ti\ 173, 17* ; Le ^Uxique^ 172. Chiapaiieca iaiiKua^e, 425. Chiapas, 431; SiS. coiiccriiinj;, 16S; sources of ils history, lOS; nmp, isS; mills in, Uji. Chibthas, jsj, 42s; their lan^:uai;e, 425; (irigni of, So; position of, jk». Chitatna, 27(1. Chi-Chen, iHr.. Chichiniccs, barbarians or a tribe, 136 ; etynioh>i;y, 1.1''; in Mexico, \\.)\ in- vade Anahiiac, 142 : tlieir stock, 142; a(h>pt the NaJuia tongue, 142; form alh.uices. 14.;; authorities, i-f 7; anc. MS. on, 157; MS. annah", \<^2\ ceneaiogy of their chiefs, 16a; their unt^uage, 42(^1. Chichen-Itza, 434; position of, 151, iSS; Charnay at, 1.S6; I,e Plongeon at, iSC>, i<,o; accounts of, Hio; orna- ments, i',o; statue A Chac-Mool, igo; wall paintings, k/j; hieroglyph- ics at, joo. Cliiclayo, 27^). Chicotno/.tfic, 13*^. Chil, I)r., on Atlantis, 46. Chilca, 277. Chillicothe, m:ip, 406. Chimalpain, iJoniingo, notes on Mexi- can history, I*. 2. Chintalpatn, A. M., Cronka M^x.^ Cl»inibnrazo, 275. Chimus, 237,275; burial habits, 276; character of *he people, 277. Chinantecs, i3f.. Chinchas, 227, 277. Chinese emipralion, 369; in Peru, 82. Sl'C ('"ousiuig. C/tifit'si' Krconier, ^o. Chinook jargon and language, 422, 425. Chippewas, 326. Chiquiniala, i^S. Cl.itpiiia language, 425. Christianity introduced into Green- land, C.2.' CJiristy collection, 444. Chocope, 27'i. Cliolula, temple built by the Olmecs, 137; a slirine, 140; views, 177, 17S; account of, J7S: when built, 17S; dimensions, 17S; arms of, 17^; res- torations, 17S; L'arly mentions, iSo; maps, iSo; communal house at, 175. Chontales, \if^. Chucuito, ruins at, 245, Chumeto language, 426. Chun-l, 11 ; his beginning of Mexican hist., 155; on the sources of Mexican liistory, 13S ; describes tlie material, 15S; belittled by koi)ertson, 15S; poitrait, 15(^1 his bibliog., 413. Clavus, Claudius, his mip, J14, 117; f.ics , I iS, lU). Clay, moulding in, 419; masks of, 419. Claymom, I >el., deposits, 342. Cleomedes, 4. Ckomcdes, J)e suNitnilms circuUst S, ^'^■ Clermont, college of, ii. Cliff-dwellers* pottery, 419; their hoiises, 3()5. Clinute, intiuence on man, 372, 37S ; theories of changes in, 3S7. Clint, W'm., 322. Clinton, De \Vill, on the Northmen ve- (Uains, 102 ; on niounds, ji;S ; Autii}. of' Western N. J'., 414. ^ Clodd, Kdw., 3S7; Childhood 0/ the ivorld, 412- Cloth. See Textile arts. Chiverius, 43 ; Introd. in unit', geog., 40. Coahuila cave, 3o<'. Coate, I!. H., Diseourse^ 369. Ciibn, P., Lima, 274. L'ochrane, J., 40S. Coconies, 15 J. Codex Chinial/>o/>oca, 135; named by Ilrasseur, 15S; ace. of, 15S; copies, 15S ; I/ist. de los A'evnos de Colhmi' can^ 15S; Anales de Cnatthtitlati^ 15H; owned by Aid)in, 162. Codex Cortesianns, 2o'>, 207. Codex Flatoyensis, SS, 92. Codex Gondra, 15^. Codex Mendoza, 203. Codex Afexieanus, 162, 207. Codex Perezianus, 207 : cut, 207. Codex Troano, 205 ; ed. by Urasseur, 207. Cogulludo, Yucathan, 165; Los trcs Siglos en Yueatan^ i'>5. Cohn, Albert, xxxii. Cohuixcas, 13O. Coins, Roman, found in America, 41. Colaeus at daties, 25. Colden. Cadwallader, among the Mo- hawks. 2S1,; /'Vrr Indian Nations, 324: editions, 324: his career, 324. Colhuacan, founded, 139 ; seat of power, 13'); its league, 140. Colhuas, i3f), 139; vassals of the Chi- cluniec;, 142. Colijn, M., journ-tlen, xxxiv. Collahuaso, J., Inca Atahualpa^ 268. Collas, 226. I 4-4 = Congres Inlernat. d'Anthropo'ogie, Col!inf(wood, J. F., 443. Colorado CaiVm, explored by Powell 39"- Colorado caves, 391. Colorado, expetliiiims in, 395. Columbia. Hiver Valley, centre of mi- grations, 381. Culumbus, Christopher, ace. of hi;* \oyages, xix, xxiv, xxxiv, xxxvi ; be* lievccl he found Asia, 1 ; inherited the idea of the spliericity of tho earth, 31 ; inspired by anc. wrilen, 40; his idea of the width of the At> lantic, 51 ; Toscanelli\ letter to him, 51 ; in Iceland, 61 ; iratado de las cinxo zoniis,bi ; supposed knowledge of tile Norse discoveries, 96 ; efforts toianoni/f liim, 9'>: attacks on his character. (>'' ; nieets a Maya vessel, 173; hisOardenof Kden, 372. Coluinbu'^, lerd., his library, vi ; life of C. Columbus, xxxiv. Comanches, 327 ; vocabulary, 440. C( niforl. A. ]., 40(>. Comite d'Archeologie Amtfricaine, its numbers, 441; Annnaire, 441 ; Ac ti s, 441 ; M/rnoires, 441. Cointiicliii, Isiiac, OostJndisihe CotH' /agnie, xxxiv. Communal customs, 420; life, 175, 17^ Conant, A. J., 409; footprints o/a vanished raie^ 4(X). Conant, H. S., 177. Concacha, ruins, 220, 321. Conchucus, 227. Condamine, C. M. la, Yoyage^ i/i\ on Peruvi.in monuments, 271. Congres International dt s Amt^iica- nif-tes, 442 ; its sC'sitms and Cont/>tes nndus, ^42. ;ongi ■ 442. Connecticut Acad, of Arts, etc., 438. Connecticut Indians, 3. '3. Conover, 0. S., on the Seneca burial .nound, 405. v.dnttactus, H., Deutil. astrolabii, 37. Conybeare, C. A. V., Plact 0/ Jieland, »5- Cook, Ci. H , Fef^orts, 3SS. Cooke, J. J., his library, xii. Cooley, \V. I>., Maritime Discovery, Copan {ruins). 135; position of, 151 ; plan, 194; statues, 196; early ac- counts, 196; seen by Stephens, 196; plans, 11,7. Copan (town), 196. Cope, Kdw. I)., Jlfesozoie and Co'no- zoic 0/ A'. America, 353; on cave deposits, 390. Copenhaiieii, Royal Soc. of Northern Antiquities, 93; its publications, 94. Copper, mining, 417: tools of, 417, 41S; moundbuilder.s'use of, 40^- C(ipway, Geo., Ojil'ivay nation. ^27. Cora, (luido, 444; J'reeursori di Co- lontbo, 1 15. Coras, 1 3''). Cordeiio, L., Les Portugais dans la dhouiwrte de l^ Am^rique^ xix. Cordoba, Andres de, 155. Cordova, H. de, first sees the Yur.atan ruins, 173. Cordova y Salinas. T). de, 264. Coreal, Kranvois, I'oyages, .'45. Corlear, 2S9, Cornelius, K., 410. Cornell University, 5*.parks*s library at, vi. * C-orni, C. M., 263. Cnrroy, K., i93' Cortambert, RiMiard, Voyages, xxxvii. Coriereal, John Vas Cosla, at New- foundland, :>5, 125. Cortereal, Gasper, xix, xxxiv. Cortereals, the, xix, xxxiv. Corl^s, his lost first letter, xxi ; his let- ters, XXV ; sought a passage to Asia, i; arrives on the coast (1579), 149; hailed as QuetzalcoatI, 149; his state- ments about the native displays, 173: ^ \\- INDEX. 45' . 4-41- iplorod by Powell DIIS 111, 395. '.illty, centre of mi* •pliLT, ace. of hi» V, xxxiv, xxxvi ; bt- Asi.i, I ; inlicritfii si'Iieriiiiy of the ilmI hy anc. wrirers, in- Midili i,i ihi- At- iiifllis Untir u> him, '/'nt/,n/t> iff /as suppiPSL-dkiiiiwIidgf ci'Virifs, f>6; effnrts 9*'; attacks on his acts a Maya vtssci, of Kdcn, j{~2. his library, vi ; life xxxiv. oLabiitary, 440. hU knowli-dKc of i'.ilen(|ue, 191 ; hunu« fi.'d(hL'r v\urk 10 Lharlea V| L'orufla, .M.iriiii df •55. 'Kit-' AnnJricaine, its Htnuihi-f 441 ; Ac r.t, 441. '^ost-htiiischt Com- is. 420; life, 175, X) ; Footprints of a 00, ZO, 2 31. • 'a, I'oyage, j;i; mmt'nts, 271. nal di s Aiiidiica- >sions and tomptes d*AntIiroiMi'oj;ie, of Arts, etc., 438. I the Seneca burial util. astroiiilniy 37. ^^lUace 0/ Jielmii/, *rts, 388. brar\', xii. 'aritinic Dhco'.ery^ ; position of, 151 ; les, k/i ; early ac- II by Stephens, iij6; fcsozok and Ctrtio- rica, 353; on cave 1 Soc. of Northern its publications, ^4. .17: tools of, 417, ers'use of, 40S. '"ivay TiatioH' 327. rrectirsori di Co- PorUigais dixns la tn^riquc, xix. % 155. I sees the Yur.atan D. de, 264. oya^es, -45. P.parks's library at. , Voyageii xvxvii. s Costa, at New- X, xxxiv. xxxiv. etter, xxi ; his let- » passage to Asia, coast (r57C)), 149; )atl, i4(); his state* tive displays, 173; Corvo, e(|iii'htnan statue, 4i>. C itry.it, Lriuiitu's, 32. ( 'l^^nl.^S, \ 1, (S. C.'nsMiouonisis, \'^\. I'osmolonv "I the Middle Ages, 36. (."uursey. Cul. Henrv, ,104, Court, Or. .[., his lihraiy, xiii. Cousin, oti the So. Anier. coa^l, yU, tuwles, Henry, /Vw/ (_ox, Mythology 0/ the Aryan na- tions, 4(o. Coxe, I>aniel, ^'oyages^ xxxv ; Caro- iiithis lafi. ( ii/unu'l, ruins in, 1S5, iHS, 434. ( oiiZ'ii. M.trvt'iloHs Country, y^jf^. rr.uiinjojiv, diversified in America, ^5^ ; siieiice of, 173 ; c.ipacity no sure yiiide to intelliKi-nce, ',73 ; kinds ^U .175; lonn-headed, or cluliLhocc- phaiic, 375; shorl-luaded.or hrachy- cephalic, 37s; medium, or mcsoce- phalic, 375 ; Crom.iunon skull, 377, 3S1,; Calaveras skull, 3^*4, 1X5 ; 'rrt-n. ton Hf'^^'t*! skull>4, i^*< ; Kn^his skull, 3S,,; Neanderilial skull, 3^<), VA> ; Hochelanau skuil,3^'>; niounfl- builders' skulls, \)-i, 400, 401. Crinii'r, conuiieniatnr on IM.ito, 41. Crantz, David, driin/and, n'.; edi- tions, '^^; on liana I-l^ede, loS. Crates of Mailns, 7 ; his j;lobe, ■,. Crawford, Clus., Indiana dt-s3: finds piles, 3'^'4i ViS'* Aztec music, 420. Crevaux, J. (with P. Sai;ol and I.. Ad.uii), l.angues de la region des (inyanes, 425. Croyhan.Col. ileor^e, 31S. Croll, James, Climate and Cosmology, X^i* .1^7; bis theory of climaiic changes, 3S7 ; Climate and I'tmr, 3S7; controversy with Newcomb, Cronia^non skull, 377, 3*<') ; cul of, 377 ; of the cave race, 377. Cromlechs in Peru, 214- Crook, (1 , on makinj; arrow-heads, 417. Crosby, I>r. Howard, on Geo. H. Moore, xii. Cros-j, the, amon5- Crow Indians, 327. Crowninshield, E. A., his librar)', xii. Ctesias, hidia^ 39. Cuella, Juan de. 265, Cuesta, Fernandez, Encichpedia de 7>iajcs, xxxvii. Cuextecas, 136. Cuitatecs, 136. Cuitlahuac conquered, 147. Cukulcan,434. Cumanai;ota, 42S. Ciimiiip, I*., /'(JHr, 3gS. Cummin^. Thos., 30'!. CutK], J. A, on the Algonquin dialects, 425; Etndfs, 425; /,(( langue Iro- quoise^ 42c Currency. e Money. Cuscatian, lOS. Cushinj:. F. H.. on the habitation of man as affected by surroundings, 37S; on the Pueblo architecture, 3q«; ; on the Zuni, 30^; on N. Y. mounds, 405; Pueblo pottery, 419, 440; /^ufii fetiches^ 440. Cushitesnf Kgypt. 41. Cusick, David, ^«£-. History 0/ the Six Xations, 325. Cutler, M.inassch, on the Ohio mounds, Culler, Chat. A., edits Sparks's Cata- logue, vii; nil bibliox. oi iia (try, xxxii. Cutis, J. n., 4<»>. Cuvier opposes Lamarck, 3** 3. Cuyahoga \ alley itiounds, .^oH. Cu/to, gre.it wall in, 220; Its fortress, a2<>; plans of, 2J<; i old view. 2.">; ; /odiae of ^old fouiul at, 235 ; (uuii- ; dation of the ciiy, 240. ; U'Akhois I)U Juii.mnvillk, H., /,///. Ctitii/uf, 50 ; Litt. Epti}ue d^ir- lande, 50. D'Autiin, Honore, Imago Mundi, 4^. li'Avaloa y t-iguerabry de Thiersant, t^ri^j«i' des In- \ diens, 77, 176. j Dacotahs, 327: bibliog. , 424: mythol- j o;^y, 431 ; mounds, 41 x^ ; linguistic connection with Asia, 77. .SVe Sioux. Dahlman, F, (.'., /hhiemark^ S4. D.ihlniaiin, Forsihungen, >)<) Daliri,(Haf Vim, Sreariirs /Hit., S4. Dall, \V. II., on the peo|.liiigof Aiii.r- ica, jfi, 77, 7H ; on the l'olyne--ians, ■^2; on the Kskimos, 107,43;; .l.'i.\- Xvi, 107; on the origin of the .Ameri- cans, 3'..,; against the autochtho- nous theory, 375; '//>/. Amer.,\'i. Daly, D.. 432. I Damariscotia, Me., shell heap, 302. Dammartin, La I'ierre de Taunston, 104. Danforth, Dr., on Dightnn Rock, 103. Danilsen, A. K., 410. Danish peat beds, man of, 395. Danmar, 31, 47, 49. Dapiier's collection, xxxiv. Dareniburg and Saglio, Diet. dePAn- //./., 3<'.. Darlnumth College founded. 322, Darwin, Chas., Descent of Slan, 375 ; on the degener.icy of the savage, 3S1. Darwinism. 3S^. Dasent, O. W., Burnt Mai, S5 ; Xorscmen in Iceland, S;; intrnd. K) Vigfusstm's Icelandic Diet., Ss. Daux, A., F.tudes prehistori>}ues, 416. Davenport Academy of Sciences, 41**. Davenport tablets, '404; controversy, 404. Davilla Padilla. Prov. de Santiago, I ;C> ; / 'aria hist., i ■;'>. Davis, Asahel, Antiq. of Cent. Atner., 17ft. Davis, A. C, 4i». Davis, And. McF., on Indian games, .12S. D.avis. E. H. See Sqnier, E. G. Davis, Wornce, Japanese hlood on our X. II '. coast, -'<. Davis, John (navigator), xxxiv; in Davis Straits, 107. r)avis, John (Judge), on the Dighton Rock, 104. Dawkins, \V. H., on the Basques, 75 ; on the F.skinios, 105 ; on the tertiary man, 353 ; Parly man in Xo. A mer- ica, 353; Early tnan in Uritain, 31;'''! on prehistoric study, 37'''; on the an- tiquity of man, 3^3; on the Cala- veras skull, 3S<; ; on man and ex- tinct animals, 3SS; Cave Hunting, 300. Dawson. Sir J. W., on the Skrxlings, mi;: on thV earlv n>ieralions. 13**; follt>\vs Morgan in hi^ communal theory, 17^; on iht* unity of the human race, 374; tH:lieveH the bit>- lical account literally. 375 ; {Hirtrait, 3V1; on Ncp. .\mer. nngiatunis, pi; Fossil Men, ^Hj, )Mt, 4 1'j ; advocates the theory of dejieiieracy, jHj ; A'.i- ture and the Ihbie, js^ ; Story of the Earth, \^i, \^f>; Origin of tki Worlds 3Sj; on the I alaveras skutli 3S5 ; on the nioundbuilders, 401. Day, St. John V., Prehistoric Use of Iron, 41, 41.S. iMyiun, K. A., 410. 1 »(■ I lro-«ses, /list, des XavigatioHSf xxxv. De Ihy, TheiKhire, portrait, xxx : Coy* iigeit xxxi i his luirs, xxxi ; Collec" tiones pere^rinationum, xxxi; bib- liog., xxxii ; A7c/i(///f.f, vxvii; coun- lerlLil eiU., xxxii ; his oilier public.v lions, xxxiii; abritlginents, xxxiii; original W'yih drawings, xxxiii. De llure on f>e Kry, xxxii. De I anilolle. (ieog. I'otanique, 1 17. Set landolle. De t osia, li. F., i^ re-Columbian Dis- cot'ery, 97; .\otes on a Eei'iew, tt; ; Xorthmen in Maine, y; ; Sailing Directions of Hiuhon, 97; Colum* bus and the geof^raphers of thi Xorth, 07 ; on Dij hton Rt^ck, 104 ; on the Eskirnus, 105; on the Zeid, lis- De Courcv, Hist. Chh. in Anirrica, t,.y. De Ferry, H., Le Maconuuis prehis' torique, 35;. De Forest. Indians of Conn., 323. De li.ias, \\ ., Archicology of the MiS' s/ssifpi I 'alley, 417. De llirt, J D., 40S. De Hart. J. M., 40-; De la I'orte, Abbe, I'oyageur Fran- {e Laet. on M.uloc, icxj; on the Zeni, 1 1 1. See l«\et. r)e I,eyre, xxxv. De Pauw, C, his depreci.ation of Amer- ican ]iro(huts, 370; Kecheri hes Philos., 370 ; editions, 370; De- fenses, 370. I)e *I'oi(pn'ville on the Indians, 320. Dean, C, K.. 4C( |. Deane, Chas., his .ibrary, x; Ins like- ness, xi : on James Lenox, xi; on E. A. Crowninshield, xiii; on the Nrrthnien, y{<. Decrees, leiiglh of. 32. Delafieb', John. Antiq. of Amer.,ij2. Delamar. island, 41J Delaware River gravels, 360, 361, 388. .' >(• Trenton. Delawares, in Penna.. 30^1; in Pon- tiac's conspiracy, 3i^> ; sources of their history, 32;; their latiguage, ^2\ \ tlieir lepviids. 431. r>eUige, mvlhs (if the, j^\i. I>eman. island, 49. Demmin, A.. La C^ramique, 419. I V-mons, isles of, 32- Deiiis, Ferd., Arte plumaria, 420. I lennie. Portfolio, on the mounds, 39^. Denton. /7(r,fc. (7/A'. )'. . vi Derby, J. C. fifty years, viii. ] )es.imoni. Cornelio. on the Atlantic islands, 47 : Le carte uautiche del medio evo, 5; ; on the Zeni, 1 1 1. Desjardins, ?>nest, Kafport sut- Har* risse, v ; P^roit avant la conqi^te^ 270. Desnoyers on tertiary man, 3S7. I>esnr, Ed., Palafities, 195. Deulier. F. X. A . Gesch. der Schif fal.rt im Atl. Ozean, (o. D'eutsch, Manu-'l, xxvii. Iteutsche GeselUcbaft fiir Anthropolo* gie, 44^; Corresfondenzblatt, 443; Allcemeine I'ersammlung, 443. Dfvaux, v., 442. Devereux on Arkansas pottery, 419. r>ewitt, S . 405. Dexter, Henry M., his library, xvii; \ l^ Ji'' 452 INDEX. '• ',J h •,i m hii biblififi. of Congregftlionalum, xvii. I>hniilt:ariiain,4<}. UlaltLtt, 4Ji .Vi*/ LinKiiintx'i. Diaz, IkriialJiiN itoricft of rtx.il pomp. tjW UK .1 eliroiiiclLr, 153; Ul*. uf liu MS., 154, DiImIcii oit )>u Hry, xxxii. Uiiliiiii, Aine, AHnaUs Arihioio' A'i-JM'i, 441- I'K'NK.iu, lUron, on hin liulUn allit.'!t, Iji^litdti kt)ck, hcU) In he PIxL'nici.tn, 41, 11)4; K.'fiiS view uf ii, 101; vdritiUH (IrafK nf ii-. insLriptioti, lui; ucLuiiDt of, ii>4 ; unrk ot tlu* Indi.iitit, 104: of .Sibt.Ti.iiih, 104; uf Nurth- rntjii,iu4; ut Kuinan Latholic!t, 104. I>illL*, 1., 407, 410. Diin.in, J L., (Ill the unhiKtoric qual- ity i»f the sa^aH, v7- ])iiiiiiiii^, K. ()., 40H. Uinwiddic, Guv., un the Indians as allius, 2'^: T)ioiii)c, N. V , S17. ])iodciiiis Siculiis, 14. lJio;;tius l.acrtiu>, y iJi^trin liiMorii.ti Sot., 407. DV>rbi^iiy, A., /.'hoHiine AmerhtttPi, 41J; (in Ihe rulinion of the (^uichuas, I)noyle, English in Awericay 325. Drake, Daniel, Cinciunati, 398. Drake, K. C., I'oyages. xxxvi. Drake, Sir Francis, xxxiv.xxxv, xxxvi, xxxyii; on De Hry, xxxii ; on Claesz, xxxili. Drake, F. S., his deceptive Indian Tribes., 320, 44 1. Drake, Samu-jl (1., dealer in Ameri- cana, XV ; dies, xv ; his librar\', xv; sold to Conn. Hist. Soc. xv; sold coll. of school-books to the IJrit. M\is. xv; his books on the Indians, 31S ; Aborig. Races 0/ No. A merim^jn^. Draper, Inieliectual development 0/ Europty 17^. Draudius, /?//'/. Classica, i. Dresden Codex^ 204, 205 ; ed. by P'iVrstcmann, 205. Prnceo, 72, 12S. TlTrban, 43. Dn I'crier, Voyages^ xxxv. Du PnS \.. J., on a prehistoric thresh- inR floor, 210. Dncatel, J. T., on shell heaps, 392. Duchateau, Jnlien, V^criture calculi- forme des Afayas, 201. Diifoss^, Americana xvi. Dunbar, Jas., f/ixt.r ' Markland, :io^. Dunbar, J. B., ,.,. Dunbar, \V., on the Indian sign lan- ffUaRe. 437. Dunn, Oscar, 60. Dunning, K. o , 410. Dupaii. on Miila .iiiil Palempi^, ic)j; Antitf. M^.ttftint-t, l^^t\ on the inuniiment^ of New Sp.ini, J03. Dupoiueaii. V, K , 4i(; AUm, tur If .\y\tetHe f^ratnnuituul, 4^). I>ur.ir), l>ieKo, Luj Indias^ 155. Duru, t . 1- ., 444. Duro, tird., DisQuit. Xautiau, 75. hury, John, 1 1^ Dus^iLiu, \.., Hist, de la iih*^,, 94. Dtilch, L'.irly, in NtwlouiidUiul, 75. Dwi>;ht, 1 heo. F., xv. F.AMK^. Wit.HRKKDRCK, vi; biblin|{. of PloKrny, s\\ continues Sabin'^/^/i- tioniry, 414, Karl, tiiic nt, (>i. Karih, spbtriial theory, 2 ; the an- cients' noiinn of iiH kf/e, 4, 8 ; meas- ured, 4 • (li'>tribu(ion uf land and nea, 6; shape of the part known, S; no- tions respectinj; ttie unknown parts, S; a supposed jouthern contirtem, i> ; siiv supiMised in the Middle Ages, 30; rectangular map of, 30; sphe- ricily tauglit in the Middle Ages, 31 ; the word *' rulundus" as applied, 3^; its sphericity ignored by tlie l.hurch Fathers, 37 ; acknowledg^ed by other--, 37 ; iheoiiis rf8i>e(ting its form, 3S ; a plane in Homer, yi. Faster Kland, 81. KaMman, Mrs. Mary, Dacotah, 337, 43 1 • Kbeling, Professor, his likeness, iii; library, iii ; his own bookii on Amcr. historv, iii. Ebn S.iyd, 47. Ktker, Wrirt/:', 441. Keuador, map, 201. Fden, Richard, /Vuit/iri, xxiii; Hist. of Travavle. xxiii. F.(fen, Garcfen of, 372. Kdkins, J., 7S. Kdrisi. Geography, 33, 4S, 73; on Aral) voyages on the Atlantic, 72; his map, 72. Edwards, Jona., on the lost tribes, ii'i; on finguislic traces, ii'i; Alidt- htkanenv /ndians, ii'> ; on the Mo- hegan languagf , 423. Fffigy mounds, 40S. F.gede, Hans, in Greenland, '«), 107; OV man, 131. Egedc, Paul, m Gieenland, 69; GrOn- land, loS, 131; his map in facs., 131 ; ace. of, 13 1 ■ Eggers, H. P. von, Orn Grdnlands Merbygds, loS; Ueber die wahre L age des Ostgr'dnlands, 108; on the Zeni, III. Egilssagiu SS. Eguiara y Ejjuren, Bibl. Altx. 413. Egyptian migrations, 372; visits to America, 41 ; analogies in Mexico, iS^ ; built the mounds, 405. Eichthal, Gustave de, on Fousang, Ro; Les origines Honddhiques dela civi- lisation Atn^r.y So; Eaces ocMni- ennes, S2- Fl-<"ilianam, 47. Elephant mound, 409. Eliot, John, apostle, on Jews in Amer- ica, I M ; his letters, 322 ; Brief Xarration, 322 : Grammar A/ass. Indian Language, 423. Eiint, Samuel, Early relations with the Indians, 323. Elint, Samuel A,, iii. Ellicntt, Andrew, on mounds near Natchez, 39S. Elliott, C\ \V,. Xew England, 96. Elliott, E. T., :ioi. Ellis, F. S , Americana, xvi. Ellis, Geo. E., on Spark-;, vii ; "The Red Indian of North America," 2'<3; Red Man and White Alan, 322 ; on the Indians of Mass., 323. Ellis, Robt., Peruvia Scythica, 82, 241, 2^1. Ellis and White, xvi. Klion, C. v\ , R*maimqf Htti^d, a. Kly!«ian t- icUU, 1 j, \\. Kmblenulic niouniU, 400. Eniersun, Elicit R., Indian Afjftht, 4.»i. Emery, G«o. E., on iha Zeno mapi 115. Emory, W. IC, .)///. Retifnnffissaitcf, iJ/t yt^'i on the MexiL.in buundary survey, v/w 44" Encisu, M. F. d*, Sntna de Of^g-, "73" Engel, E. II. d', Esiai, 370. Eughis skull, t"'). England, arch.tological studies in, 44J English colonists in North America, tlieir treatment of (he Indians, 3H3 ; compared with the French, 29H; exceed the French in number, S99; numt)er of, 310. Engroiul.iiul, 72, See Greenland. Engronelanl sometimes m.ide distinct from (tiecniand, 121, 122 Enriipies, Martin, tries to gather Mex- ican relics, i!^s Ens, Gasper, It 'est-und-Ost Indischtr I.ustgart, xxxiii. EcKcne man, 3S7. Epstein, I,, 42''. Ecpiinoxes, precession of, 387. Eratostlienes, on the form of the earth, 3; measured ii, 4; Hermes, 7; his view of (he liabitable earth, g; and tlie western passage, 27; his age, .H- . . Eric I'psi, Bisluip, f.5. Eric the Red, liis career, 61 ; 8ai;a,S5, '>o, -14. Erl/io, I.e Stoperte Artiche, 127. Erslef, F.d., on the Zeni, 114. Erytheia, 14. Escoma (Holivi.i) ruins, 350. Escudero, Chihuahua, 306. Eskimos, their boats drift to Europe, ^i; appear in Greenland, ''Btioj-; near Uchrmg's Straits, 7^; described by La Peyr6re, H6; known to the North- men as Skru'lings, 105 ; bibliog., 103, loH ; their former southern range, >^'» 33''; their ^intellectual char., 106; their migrations, 106, 331 ; their skulls, 106, 377; bone implements, 106 ; their linguistic differences, 107, 435; missions amnne, loS; De Pauw 00,370; allied to the cave race of Europe, 377, 31)0; of the primitive race f)f America, 336, 367 ; their stone implements, 336. Esparza, M. de, Informt, 183. Espinosa, J. D., 427. Essex Institute, 438. Estes, E. C., 409. Estcte, M., 377. Estiennc, Jean d*, on Atlantis, 45. Estotilnnd, 72, 12S; identification of, 114; not America, in, 115; was America, 1 14, 115. F'teli, 277. Eternal Islands, 47. Flthnographical collections, 413. Ethnological Journal, 443. Ethnological Society, Journal, 442; Transactions, 442. Etowah valley mounds. 410. Ettwein, Traditions 0/ tlu; Indians, 325- Etzel, Anton von, Grdnland, 107. Eudoxus, 35. Eumenius, 47. Euphemus in the Atlantic, 26. Euripides, Helena^ 13; Hippolytus, 14- Euseues, 22. Euthymcmes, sfi. Evans, John, .W«<>; if^r (irrcnland. inics m.ulc distinct lii, 122. Irics In nallier Mcx- ■utit/'Ott Indischtr areer, 61 ; saxa,85, eclinns, 413. lal, 442. ty, Journaly 442; z. ids. 410. xs 0/ tlu ItitiioMS, rrJn/ittti/, 107. sfopte impienunis, Sister Republkx Kvtrett, Wm , nn the Nnrthmen, o^- EvrrHf t-( ArKktfoiojiy 0/ A/uiouri, 4l.^ K.wli.ink, T , A'lV'^-fi'ri/jM/, 105; /*i- (//.!« Antuf. >tHti Artt% 416. fr-yhyKKJA Sana, '^j. Fahhicu'h, Diutrt. Crit,^ 372. Kiibuloits i»landi, 4^1. ^rr Atlantic iiil.uidt. Kaidhcrbi', (Ji-n., jv Kairfii'ld C'oiinlv. < >hin, mnimd.% 40H. F.»ll». K., I.iXHiiiifr iHCii, 275 Katcoiier, lliinh, f\%hrontoi. Memoir s^ 1**4 ; Priiut-iiii Mitn, y/a. F'Voupr, Rich.iril, t'oviij^rs, iiM. Faht*», L., rofiu/.ttioHs f>rimitivt» tU V A tti^rique, \%y K.ill RivL-r, " SkeU'tun in Armor *' (tiund, rni{. Fancotirt.C (1., VHCittitH^ iSH. Farcv. C'h , r^i; AMtitf. tit CAmt' ri,fiu\ 77. Fariii y Souw, Hist, Portugm'Mtts, Faribault. (1. H , dttaio^itf, iv. Farnham, [.iither, Private Lihraries of /tostoti, X, xvii. Fariumi, Alx,, Sorthmen in Rhode Is/ami, 1112. Farne Inlands, 1 14. Fariiuharson, K J., 404. Farrar, Families of Speech, 75. Farrer, J. A., i'rimitive ahu 379- F.ivyn, Andre, S'avarrt^ 75. Fay* JuH. S., t,.,. Fay, S. L., 401. Feather wnrk, \io. Fechtier, CentralHatty 443. Ft'K^'iix, C '//(•"/.»rimiti/^ iSS, 41 2 ; Human Race^ 412 ; World be/ore the D*'lu^t\ ,(75. 412- Fin.'cuit, Orontius, his map, xxiv. Finiavt J. U., Wyandotte Mission^ I \t>. Finley, E. H., 401. Finley. I. J., Ross County, Ohio, 408. Finns build the mounds, 405, Fiorin, Nic, his map, 5S. Fischer, AbW, edits Ramirez's Cata- logue, 414; BiN. Mejicana, xiii, .4M- . , I Fischer,Theobald, edits Ongania maps, ' .■*7- I Fischer, Origine des Amh-icatneSt \ .76. Fish-hooks of bone, 417. Fish-spears, 360. Fish'weirs, 365. Fiske, Moses, 371. Fiske, Willard, Rihliog. yotices^ 93. Filch, John, his map on the mounds, 398- Fitzer, W., xxxi ; Orient. Indiany xxxiii. Five Nations. See Iroquois. Flat-heads, 425. Flath Inis, 32. Fiatoyensis Codex^ 99. Fleming, Abraham, Registre of HyS' torie, 2 1. Fletcher, Alice C, Indian Education and Civilization^ 321 ; her studies on the Sioux, 327; Omaha Tribe, 327- Fletcher, Robt., Prehist, trephining^ 440. Flint, Earl, on the Nicaragua foot- prints, 3S5 ; on Palenqu^, 191. Fhnt chips,'3H8. See Stone. Flint folk, 41A : in America, 417. Ftor.i, that of S<mcratc, re- {Mirted human remains in. fS.j ; ml- Kraiitii) fnim, t<> MexiLo, 13^; ninundit, 4)<>i pilt'-h<'uw« in, 39); (Mitterv, 4it(>K>cal times, 383; cut of one, 3V). FMrbct. I)., 442. FiirbiKer, Handbuch der Alien Ge0g.% 4, ,0. tnrce, M. F.,on the mounds, 402. Forie. fill. Heter, his hbrary, vt, 171 ; dies, vl; tributes to. vii. Fortieil relics made in Mexico. iKo. Formalcfmi, Sag^io suUa Sauiiia A nt. dt'i t 'eneziani, 47. Fnrrcy, Samuel, 374. Forshey, C ()., 40.(. Fiirstemann, Kd., edits the . ^'•esden Codex, 205 ; Die Afaya Han. hri/t, 20s; Per Maya Apptirat ■'■ Dres- den, 2US ; Frhiuterungen zur Maya- htiudschrift, .'*>-', jo^, Forsrer, J. R., iieichichte der Fntd. und .S"( hijfffalirten, xxxvi ; Fntdei k- ungen im Xorden, .y2 ; on the Zeni, III. Fort Ancient, Ohio, 40S. F : (with Whitney), Geology 0/ Lake Superior, 41^. Four Woruls, ; Commerce de Rouen, j*u Frey, S. L.. 405. Frtiier. A. F., Voyage, 241, 271. Friederiihsthal, Hamn vun, in Vua^ tan, iH<>. FrieiuU. See (Juakert. Friich, F F, h'lk'ingztige,^^. FriiiiuH, Laurcntius, map, 114. FrisUiula, yi : naiiie used by Cnlum* bus, 71 : *' Fixl.imla," 7*1 in maps, ^1; in (hf /enn map, 114; different i7, ir., 39a Fur traile, ^02. Fusaiig. See Fousang. Futt^r, Bibl. I'alenciana, ii. Gabkiac, Cth. ijb. Promenade h tra- versCAm^rique du Sud, i\\, Gacetas iU Literatura, i^ri. Ciadi', G., on an ancient Norse ship, 62 Gades (Cadiz\ \\, 24. Giffarel, Faul, L'AtlantitU, ifi; Les isles fantastiifues, 31, 47; Relations entre Pane, monde ft I'A mt^rit/ue, 3'^,f'o; Ftude sur les rapports de P .Im^riout, 40; Les (irecs ont-ils connu rAm/rii/ue^ 40; on the IMuenician visits to America, 41 ; on Roman inscriptions in America, 11 ; Rapports de r Atlantis, 44. I'l ; his later studies of it, 44,4'>; bilmog. of Atlantis, 4''> : I'oyages de St. Bran- dan, 48; his map (/ac'simile) of the Atlantic islands, 52 ; on the Arab voyages, 72; on Vinland, <>? ; on the Newport mill, lo^; ; on the Zeno voyage, 115; on the lost tribes of Hebrews, 116; on blackamoors in Amerl 1, 117. Galapagos, Si, Gale, (i., tapper Mississippi, 327; hts annotations on Laphams Atttig. 0/ Wisconsin, 408. Galibi, 428. Galicia, F. C, 171. Gallindo, L, 193. Gallicus, Ph., Enchiridion, 129; map, in iacs., 129. Gallatin, Albert, on Polynesian con- nections of the American man, 82; on pre* Spanish migrations, 13S; on the Toltecs, 141 ; S'otes on the semi- ciz'ilized nations of Mexico, \Uq, 424 ; Synopsis of the Indian Tribes, 320; his map of the Indian tribes, 321 ; a student of ethnology, 37''; on the pueblos, 39*^1; on American languages, 320, 423,424; review of Hale's work on the Wilkes Exped., 424; on Tcoyanmiqui. ^\z,\ founds the American Ethnological Society. 437; commends the work of Squier and Davis, 439. Galloway, W. H., Science and Geology, 3S7. Galvano, xxxvi ; on the seven cities, 75- Gannett, H., 397. Gante. Pedro de, 156; Chronica Com- Pend., \$^. Garcia y Cuhas, Ensayo, 41 ; Atlas Jg la RepuHica Mejicana, 139; Pird- mides, 183. '4 454 I.VDFX. itihr'; 'h I V (ijircia, Grrgnrin. Ori^m I1 ln'«t, J')4 (ttint.ir, ( .iitu-(lr.il, toA, | (».inli*n hi-iU, 4i*>h**^- aigHHti, Hi. (t.irnuT, J. \. , i?i. (LirriKUc and thilitern, Livrtt ch* rtfMX, XV. ^■A>». Kev. J., 404. 0.ii«M:hel, A. S.dii th-* llfnihiik-^, ui : Mtf;^raHon fffifHii t'f tfw i'ri-t-k\t iJ'i, 4i^, 4if>; lii» liiiKui^lie Niiuliux, 4i.tt Ct.-iv.irtuti', Jiiani 1^1;. (f.ivilin, A. k., i/ist. Uif Cn/kKii^tHti, Gay, Sydney II., '>n (lie Nome voynxet, , />7 . Gelu'lin, Count, 104; Momie ^rtmi- //. 4i.4*». ' Gf'im'r, L.i/.iru'^, /h':r/i>/>m>fnt 0/ the Gi'iitT, K. J., //ixf. of SwftifHy^^. Geilck', A,, Sfitrik Jor .UMu/h, 4*. | (itiku*, Ja^., */>#■(!/ Ay -Ijf/, lU, i^f.. Gi'lr ith, K., b'iiihgiiHg iit's i/; man in , the, i,.\\, 3S7. I Glnr al travels, 3S7. See Trenton. | Gladiatorial sione, i*afiia tie Jesus ^ 317. Goaiira p'^. Goajra lanmiace, 415. Got)inaau, M^at Diffriity 4/ R0t0$^ J74 (fiHiron, A., on FounanK, Ho. GiHlihaab, '• ^ (inid found In the mounds, 418. Goldnnndi, Kdnunid, 170. < Miini-i, Ktti'V.in, hi« voyiKt, XXRvi. (iontme, K', 1. , 44) i fODvalvi-i %\e Matiok Corrda, Dttea^tr' tau \ii)d-«nn. Strints of AHtan, no. < ionkin, |)aniL>l| 322. I ioiMnsiPn, '(J. t Mir^on islands, 1 \. (iii-«ntild foun//, xxxiii. Got tinmen, Anthropol. Verein, 443 ; Ainencina in, iii Got/. Preulener BibUotheky 20$. ( ioupil, ki*ne, 3> 1 Gowann, Wm., bookseller, vi ; dealer in Americina, xv Gr.tah, W. A., Heise till ostkysUn a/ (ironlanJ, i(x>, (irammar as an ethnical test, 421, 422. Granados y Galvei, J. J,, Tardes A ui^rieauas, 172. Grant, K. M , 410. (;raiacap, I. P., 177, 377. (irave (reek mound, 403 ; alleged Scandinavian inscription in, loa, 40^. Gravier, Gabriel, Les I^^ormands, 76, (>7; l)houverte de rA$n^ri,fHe,itT, on Norsi- civili/aiion amon>; the ki- lets, if., 325 (iray, Thomas, his copy of the Novm i ^r/'is, XXV. Greek allied to the Maya, 4,'r' <>reek>^, cosmography amm. ,2; in the Atlantic, 2f>. Green, Icdin, xxxv. Green. 1 )r. S. A., 102. GreL-n rrck (in the Atlantic), 51. (ireene, A'oert G,, his books, xiii. Greenlam!, in the Ptolemy of 14S2, xii ; its name, ^i ; earliest people there. 01; its folk lore, 61; Norse visits in eighth centnrv,Oi ; churches in, 63, Sf,; Kast and West Hy(i;d,63, loS; Norse occupation, dS; bishops of, 6S ; extinction of the colonisi>, 6S, (m): efforts to learn their fate, f»,\ climatic dunces, t>.)\ its colonists perhaps mer>;ed in tne Kskimos, hi,; ancient Inshopric, 8s; its ruins, S5; biblioij., H5; runes in,S7; seals of t)ie l>ishops, S7 ; voyages hence to Viid.nid, S7 ; Anti'j. Ainer., <.^\ map, <»5 ; a prolonjjatton of Kuri>pf, ii't, 122, us. See l'"skimos. Some- times confounded with Spiizbergen, 107 ; bibJioij, of the lost colonies, 107; voyas;es to discover thenj, 107, trt'i; Hans Ki;edc on, 107; sites of the colonies disputed, lo'^, inj; scant Sopnlation on east coast, lo-); the eni in, 114; cartocraphv of, 117, n2 : (ildcst map yet found, 117; in th'' ( lenoves" portolano, 117 ; in the 7'ii/\ AVf- -SV//., 117, 121 ; maps by Hans Ei;edc, loS; by G. Fries, loS; by Paul Ftiede, 10I, by AnderMm. laH; by K.ifn, lo-j i by C Liudins L'Uvus, 11;, M^; by Wa Maunt, 117; by Itvhami, uo, by S>lvanus, iKtl by Waldsceniilller, 122; by Ainan, 112; tiy Frntnui, 122; by GlauN Magnu-^, 121, ij^; by Mihi' ■trr^ ii'i) (ly Hordone, tj'>, by V'o* IH'lho, t2'<; by (falt.rus, in^; no- tions of (ireenland in ( olundiut* time, 120; ill Portuguese chart (150)), 110; Ruysili ni.ule it a part of Asia, lan; made to ntretdi north> rrly from F.urot)e, 129; to connect Kurope Mith America, i2f>; called Labrador by K< ti. i2'>; severed from Furot>e in the alteration of the /mo map 1 1 ^riil, 11^, ij-t\ made an isl.ind by Nicrtaior and others, ih) , earliest Scandinavian ni.tps to illusirair the sagas, ij.^; maps of xvilh cent . 130; Moll's contnsitm, Mil maps by Hans Kgede, 1 p ; by Paul Fgede, in facs., I \t ; by Jovis Carolus, 1 )i ; by H. I)oti'*l(er, 131 ; by J. Meyer, I (I > He la Marlini^ie connects it wit)) northern Asi.i, 1)2; I,a Pey- rere's map in fats , i \t. Greenwond, I)r lsa.ic, on Dighton Rock, KM. I'M' Greg, R. P, /"'ret ornament, 17ft. Gregg, Comwene des Prairies, 396. (iri'gory IV.. his bull, 'n. Grenvifle, Tnos,, Itihl Grenvil., iv. Griffis, W. E., A rent van Curler, (>njalva 'uan de, on the Mexican coast ;iH), xxi, n*t. Grimm's l,aw, 421. Giritdamlia. See (ireenland. GriswoUi, Almon W , his library, xiii. (iroctand, a geographical misapprehen- siun, i3g; on maps, 129. Grindand, or Gronl india. Se* Green- land. Gros, Skr les Mo/Mments di Mexico^ 170. Grossmann, F'\ K., 397. Grote, A. R., j6<); on th* Eskimos, 105. Grote, Greeee^ aS. Grotius, Hugo, on Scandinavia blood in Central America, (>*>; /V Origine A merit a nil rum, 369; his contro- versies, 370. Grotlandia. See Greenland. Gruppe,/>/> Kosmischen Systeme der Griechen, 3<>. Grvnajns, Simon, portrait, xxiv; Xo- 7'us Orl'is, xxiv; J)ie neiw Welt, XXV ; map (15.U), 1 14. Guajiquero Indians, l^<^. Guanches in the Canaries, 25, 116, 377. Guano, 253. Guaranis, 136. Guarini language, 27^. Guatemala, linguistic evidence of Norse influence In, 99; early hist, of, i.lSt VS'>; the ethnolojiical con- nection of its people in dispute, i f o ; native sources, i'-^ ; Pofml \'uh, if.o; Memorial de Tec/*afi Atitlati, :" \ bibliog., 166. See Quiches, Cakchiquela. Guatnsos, 169. Gnnxtecas, 136. (•uazucupan, 168. 1 iucumatz, 115, 435- Gudmund, Jonas, his Vinland map, 130. Gndrid, 65. Guerrero, ruins in, 184. Guerrero, Lobo, Constituciones Sync- dales, 2^S. Guest, I)r., Origines CelticiTy 45. Guest, W. E., 410. Guignes, on the Arab voyages, 72 ; Les trar'igations des Chinois, 7S. Guillot. Panl. .,3. Guimet, Emile, Anc. />euples de Mix- ique. Si, Gniyard, Ghg. d''Abul'Fada, 47. Gumilla, 75. I S \%i^ INDEX. 4S5 'o'^ ■ I'V Anderson, <'-i, liv I liiidiiu < . Iiy Kra Mauto, i '">■ \>y .S(lv.imi», '■■•iiiiill.r, ij, J |,v HrKIIII, IJj; \,y I 'I, iJ(i by Mllii. 'i.l.mr, ijf, , |,y Vn. I'llLnu, ijc^; iiii- '■l"'l Ml riiliiiiilMn' I'nrliiKUesi; cli.irl ill iii.idv ii ,1 |i,,ri ilf I" Mretih niirlh- I iM to connect infriL.1, ij(,i i.ill.d !'■; «fVcriMl (rum fr.irinnnl the Z. tm 1 1\ m.iilc an i^l.nul ilhrrii, ij(, , r^irllcHl pn til illuiirair Ihe if xvilh cenl , no; 111 ; niapH Ity by Paul KKfile, 'iiviii Cariiluii, I n J 'J I 1 by I Mever, lini*ie ciinniri* it 'i'l. "i»l !..> I'cy- ' , I w V1.K-, on Dinblon •riiamttil, i;ft. /.« J'niiritt, ]96. ill, lt\. ihl (irfMvil. , iv. r»«/ t',i« Curllr, on ihc Mexican reenland. Iiiii lilirnry, xiii. hical mlanpprehen- IS. I if). indi.i. Sm Grecn> mtHls dt Mtxico, on the Eskinids, Scandinavia blond a, 99; /''■ Origiiit 3691 his ciinlro- ■eenland. Khtn Syitetnt der nrtrait, xxivi .W Dii muf ll'tll, 114. ihy. laries, jj, 116, 3-7. lie evidence of 1. 99; early hist, ethnological con- f in dispute, no; •'■; Po/iul luh. Teil>iiH Atitliiii, See Quiches, is Vinland map, ■tituciofus Sync- Celticiiy 45. voyages, /j ; Lfi inois, 7S. peuples de Mix- l-Fada, 47. hi* voy«g«, Ai ; hit Jllicr- OtinlMr* Sirgmund. fhf^ifthht, \f \ Dit l.thrt %'OH atr hrUrumiuHgt \^ Ountet lltfurl, toi, (iulitrrvi, Manuff), \%y Haas \Vii.i.!t t>R,nn the mnuntlhuiUl- «rH, 4(11, 4u|. |l.ilttli S., un Kulpturet in (luate- Mt.iia, i<>7 IU"ck*jl, Hilt. 0/ CrtaiMH, 375; A'n- tir/. Sihiifi^HH£i/i:i'i(h.y »M3 H.ikluvt. KichariT, ciliu I'etir Martyr, miii; UHcd hy I.ok, xxiii; /ttirrt I'oVitfti, xwx \ Vrimi^iiU S'.tvt' AM/fwi, x\\\\ on M.idtH:, in;; nn ilif /i!iii, III- IlikluytSnc piibliciuiotiii, xxxvii, 441. H.ilclt'ni.iii, S. S., 437; tlificnvtrrA nMlt inii)l«ntfliitft, 147 ; on a Kock ihutter, ill iVnnA., 416. H.ik, < '.ipl- Chat. R., on the Diifhton Kiit.k, inj. Halt* K K., on the Maduc voyage, III. Hale, Horatio, Iroquoit Book of tiit^t* Si9> 4iS< <") the trihcH nf tlie N. W. loam, ijS; ()rttrift of i.,iH- gH,ig*\ W7i 4JII ', Nathan, 320 Haliburlciii, K. (i.. on HjarniS vny- akfi'.^t; "tt thu Nurse voyages, t>H. Hall, Jatnh, to;. Hall, janu"^, luiiian Tribtt^ 310. H4II, Joshua, 41a. Hanaunitis, /Wjiii, 75. Hamlin. A. C, loa. HainoKiead, U. S. B., Portsmouth^ Ohio. 4n'4. Hainor hi !>*; Rry, xxxii. Haniy, K. T.. on a Chinese inscription at ("o|>an, ^i ; Crania Ethica^ \T\\ Prhis tie paliontolo^ie humaint^ Hanno, on the cnant of Africa, J5 ; Ptrif^liis, 34: his voyage, 45- Hanson, iiartUmr^ JA-., 32a; Pfor- riii^eivoik^ Ija. Hapiiel, rht'uiHrui, 320. Haroinian, !riih miustrtisy^ 50. Hardin (.'<>., ( )hio, nioundH, 40S. Hardy, Michel, Les Siauiiifuurs^ 97. Hariot, /*/V<''/«/ri, xxxi. Harrassowit/, Otto, xvi, xvii. Harris, l». H., Lotver (Jt m see County ^ Harris, John. I'oraj^eSf xxxiv. Harris, T. M., on the mounds, 398; '/'our, 40S. Harriiion, Gen. W. H., on the mounds, 407. Hairison, yoh» HimHird l^ayne, 32ft. Harrisse, Henry, lUhl. Am. I'et., v, 414 : Notes on Columbus^ v ; contro- versy with Henry Stevens, v; Sur la nonvelle France, v\ At/Uitions, V ; La Colotnhine, v ; Les Corte- real, xix; on Peter Martyr, xx ; on early Masque vnva^es to America, 75. Hartgers, Joost, I'oy.igien, xxxiv. Hartman cave, 3<>i Harvard C'ollt-^e library, rich in Ame- ricana, iiii Sparks ^tSS. in, vii; its catalogue, xvii. Hassaurek, F., Squish Americans, 272. Hassler, Buchdruckcrgeschichte Ulms, IlK. Hatfield, R. C, on the Newport mill, 105. Ilatun'runas, 276. Haimiont^, J. U.,Z(i Langne Taensa, 425. Harard, V., 32S. Haven, S. F., on the Northmen, gfi ; portrait, ,374; his Kefiorts, 374 ; his career, 370; Archaology of th* Petrui A/artyr, Ifmted States, 37^) ; rtviMi !««(>• ham'»^*r//y 0/ ll itcoHSin,40n , on nifMind vx|>loratioii, 4(11,; behwes tn Ihtir Indian nnuin, 4S- Hayen, li I., /.am/ 0/ Detolatton, 6.), Haynes, H. W,, on runic frandit,'/?; on Vinland, ijM ; on ihe Monbegan runes, ioj ; "ihe prt'hi-^toric Ar ch.i-obigy of North America," »*'>; ibscovers rude itnplements in N F. , 347t V'\'' Iti^f <»nii arnnv uMkHtnvH to the falirolit/iic man, 35 j ; heheves in intergtaiial man, 1)5; .it SoltitrL', 3571 <") the Kiig- trans, of (trotlus, 370; on the Treninn implemeiils, 3SM ; Confer ttnfiltments^ 41H; on the Taensa fraud, 426. Hayli held to be Ojihir, Mj. HaywoiKl, John, I'enuessee, 371. Headlee, S. M., 4'>'). Heart, Ma) ^wy^., Ancient AfounJs, V,"*, 410. Heaviside, J. T. C, A*ner. Anti' t/Mitiei, 41. Hecat.eus, 34. * Heckewelder, J., on Delaware names, 417; on the mounds, 3<>S ; on the |)elaware laniiuaKc. 42) : correspon* dence with Ouponceau, 42}. Heer, h'hratert. Helv,, 44; i/rweli der Sihweitz, 44. Hepewisch, Prof., iii. Heidenheimer, H., f\ XX. Heimikringla, S3. Heller, C ft, on Uxmal, 189; Reisen, Helluland, U\, i 3"* Hellwald, F. von, on Amer. niigra* (ions, i3() ; on the autochthonous theory, 375; Naturgeschichte ties Menschen, 412; on Alexican min- ing, 41H. Helps, Sir Arthur, xii ; gives the first Knglish condensation of the Poful V'uh, t(if^ ; on /um.^rraga, 203 ; Sfitiuish Conquest, 269; on Peru, 266; title-pane of his fifth hook, showing portraits of Incas, 267; Historia, 1, »55- H«rval, ruins, 171, »77' Hervas, 1,., i.engmu y naeionei A meriianai, 4JI1 Catiilogo de U$ /.en/;UiH, 422- HiTviy lU St Deni«, EouSaMg, ^n He«i<»d, I htogony, i ; on the Elysun \t lelds, It; \i orkt and DttySf 13* HetprrldiFn, 14. tieve laiittuagt, 4>1- Heynig, /'sy^ Mtiljgisihei Af*igt$aint 441- Hiilai^a language, 4'V HieroglyplutHf invented, 1)1 ; of Yu- catan, attempts to decinher, i>jS ; by C'harencey, 1 i<( ; usrd ny hpaidardt iu retig. insiruclion.tif;; tiages of, 197 ; color and fornts, rtenieiits, i<>7 ( not easily read even by natives, ii/.H ( Mrs. Nuttall's complcinental signs, i<;X; plionetic scale, i<>>*, 2(»; l.an* da's Alphabet, i9| tarly descriplioni, 2(X} ; sculptured in wood, 200 ; inncription on th« Palenqu^ tablet, 200; cut nf tht same, 201 : cont^mrative age of tluis« on stone and in MS., 202; rebm character, 302 \C0dex Mendoza, jo) ; tribute rolls, 103, 205; Dresden Co* der, plate of, 204; rxpl.iineii, 20); Codex J'tlleriauO'ReniensiM, ms \ Codex i'atuanus, my, I'ejfrvary Codex, 205 ; other Riaya MSS , SOS ; Codex /'roauo, att$, 207 ; tV- di'x i 'ortfsianns, 20; ; facs of plate, 2rt); Codex f'ertzianus, 207. Higgiuson,T.W., Lurgtr Hist.V. S., <>*<. 17''. Higginson, Waldo, Memorials of Class of iSiu //. r, 4V) Highland County, Ohio, mounds, 408* Hildebrand, H. O. H., Island, H5, Milder, F. F, 4o>^ Hildreth, Richard, on the Northmen, Hildreth, Dr. S. P., Vionecr History^ 3i'>; Pioneer Settlers, 319, Hiliiard, K. W.,3S6, Hiir,G. W.,4oM. Hill, Horatio, iii. Hill, Ira, Antig. of Atnerica, 104, 415 Hill. S. S., Peru and Mexico, 272. Hiniiiko on the ocean, 25. Hindoos, migrations, 371, 372. Hipkins, A. J., Musical instruments^ 420. Hipparchus, 34; on the form of the earth, 3; on the oceans, 7. // is fa n ica ru m re rum Serif tores , xxix. Historical societies, their libraries, xviii. Hobbs, James, li'ild life, 327. Hochelagan skull, 377- Hoclistetter, F. von, (Jeber Mex. Re- liquien, 420. Hontjson, Adam, Letters, 76. Hoei Shin, 7M, Mo. Hoffman. \V. J , 347. Holdeii, Edw. S., Cent. Amer. Pic* tiirC'Writing, 201, 203,440 Holden, Mrs. H. M., on Atlantis, 45, Hole, the Norse Holl,.>(^ Holguin, D. G., his grammar, 279. Holm, Lieut., on the (Greenland ruins, Holmberg, A K., Xordboti, etc.. S5, Holmes, O W., on Jeffries Wynian, Holmes, W. H.,on tlie sacrificial stone of Tentihuacan, 1S3 ; on the cliff hou>-es, 3i>5 : survey of the serpent m; Ceramic art, 41'y; on pot- tery in the Mississippi Valley, 419; Pueblo Pottery, 4I'). 440. Homer, Arthur, Pibl. Amer.,\\. Homer, his World, /•; his ideas of '':S earth, 3S ; his peography, 39. HnnHt. V. de, xxxv. Honduras Indians, 169. \^ 4S6 INDEX. Hiwker, J. D., Botany of the I'oytge of the Erehui^ etc., 83; Fiort of FasiHanuiy f*2. Hopkins, A. (.i., 323. Hopkins, Saniucl, H ottsatunn%ik In- iiutnsy 323. HoratL', and Atlantic islands, 27. Horn, V. W.^Lit of the Scandma- viau Xorthy i<4, <>n. Horn (Hoinius), Geo., Kis/>onsw ad disi //. Groiii\ 370; on ihe 2eni, 111; on Mad'K, 109. Hornstone, 417. Horsford, K. N., Disc, of Auterica by Northniertt qS ; edits Zeisberger's DictioHitrVy 424. Hosea, L. M., 408. Hospitality, laws of, 175. Hotclikiss, T. P., 4ot^. Hotten, J. C.p xvi. Hough, F . H., on the N. Y. Indians, 325; on mound in N*. Y. Stale, 405. Houghton, Jacob, Copper mines of Lake Superior ^ 41S, Housatonics, 323. l^louses of the American aborigines, 420. Howart!, Lord, gov. of Virginia, 304. Howe, Hist. Coll. Ohio, 407. Howell, G. R., on SlunseM, xv. Howells, Jas., Fam. lettersy 109. Howcate polar exped., 106. Howland. H. R., 40S. Howley, M. F., Eccles. Hist, New- foundlatui^ 6, 213. Huanapu, 275. Huancas, 227; allies of the Chancas, 230. Huamico el viejo, 247. Huaraz, ruins, 220. Huarcu, 277. Huamchiri, 277, 436. Huascar, 231. Huasii'cs, 136. Huayna Ccapac, 231. Hubbard, ilela, Mem. 0/ half century^ 40S. Hudson, Hendrick, voyage, xxxiv. Hudson Day connected with the Great Lakes, 79. Hudson Bay Company, its relations with the Indians, 297. Hudson Bay Indians, 321. Hudson, Geog. vet. script. Graci mi- noreSf 34. Hudson River Indians, 325. Huebbe and Azuar, map of Yucatan, iSS. Huehue-Tlapallan, 136, 13;. Huemac, 140, 432. Huerta, Alonso de, 279. Huinaque, ruins, 220. Huiiramannaland, S2. Huitzillnpochtli, 14S, 432, 435. Hulsius, bibliog., xii. Hultsch, Mt'trologiet 4, 5. Human sacritices, 140, 145, 147, 148, 185; in Peru, 237, 23S : in Mexico, 43'- Humboldt, Alex, von, his librar.-, vi ; F.xamen Critique, vi , 40 ; Crit. Untersuchungen, vi ; Ghig. du nou- 7'eau monde, vi ; Cosmos, vi; hi. MSS., vi ; on early mentions of America, 40; cui Atlantis, 46; on the fabulous islands, 47 ; on the Arab voyages in the Atlantic, 72 ; on the Asiatic oricin of Americans, jf>\ on the Icelandic sagas,*) I : nn the Norse discovery, 96 ; on the Digliion Rock, 104; on the Eskimos, 105; on the Zeni, 115; on the Aztec wanderings, 13H; on their migration maps, 139; on Carreri, 158; buys some part of the Boturini collection, i()o, 162 ; on the ruins of Middle America, 176; on the Gholula mound, iHo; on Mitla, 184; describes Aziec MSS., 203 ; on the Codex Telleriano, 205 ; in South America, 270; I'ues de Cordiiieres, 371,371; Kng. iransl., 271; I'oyage ai4 regions er/u ino.tr ia/es, 271 ; An- sichten der Xatur, 271 ; Aspects of Nature, 271 ; / 'ieivs 0/ Nature, 271 ; on the Chibchas, 282; on the origin of Mexicans, 371 ; his bibliog. in his /'wcj, 413; on arts in America, 41(1 ; {with Bonplaiid) Voyage, 42''. Humboldt, \Vm. von, nis linguistic studies, 426- Humphrey, D., Soc. for propagating the Gospel, 323, Humphrey and Abbott, Physics of the Mississippi I 'alley^ 393. Hunt, Jas., 443. Hurakan, 435. Huron River, Ohio, mounds near, 408. Hurons, 321 ; their language, 423. Hutchinson, Thos., his library, i. Hutchinso 1, T. J., on Peruvian skulls, 244 ; Tw) years in Peru, 272 ; Some fallacies ai'out the Incas, 272. Huitich, J ihn, No%ms Orbis, xxiv. Huxley, <, n cataclysmic force, 382; Distribution of Races, 383 ; Man's place in nature, 390. Hygdcn maps (1350), 55, 117; Poly- chronicon, 1 17. Hyginus, on the form of the earth, 3; Poet icon astron., -3,(3, Hyperboreans, 12. Hyrcanian ocean, 382. IcAZ.\, Father, 444. Icazbalceta, J. G., on Indian lan- guages, vii ; Don Fray /.umarragay '55i ' s*^*! 203; on Sahagun, 157; ed. Mendieta, 157; Apuntes, 157: por- trait, 163 ; prints the Hist, de los Mexicanos por stts Pinturas, 164 ; defends Zum,irraga, 203 ; Destruc- cion de A ntigiiedades, 203 : Las bibliotecas de Eguiara y de Beris- tain, 413 ; Cat. de escritores en lenguas indigenas, 414; Bibl. Amir. del Siglo xvi., 157, 414, 426; his MSS., 427. Iceland, visited by King Arthur, *"«; by Irish. (0,82; by the Norse, 83; bibliog., 84; millennial celebration, 85 ; books printed in, 93, 94 ; Antiq. Amer., 94; map, by Rafn, 95; by Claudius Clavus, 117, 118; other maps, 118; in Mauro's map, 120; in map (1467), 121; in Martellus' m.'';^, 122; (^laus Magnus, 123, 124, 125; Seb. Miinster, 12^; Zeno map, 127, 128; by Gallons, 129. Icelandic language, (/>. Icelandic sagas. See Saga. Ideler, J. I., vi. Idols still preserved in Mexico, iSo. IrIi. 1.34- II ^enio vagante, xxxiv. Illinois, Indians, 327; mounds, 40S. Ilustracion Mexicana, 184. Imlay, G., Western Territory^ 398. Imox, 13.^. Inca civilization. See Peru. India, supposed westerly route to, 27. Indian languages. See Iiinguistics. Indian Ocean once dry land, 383. Indian summer, origin of the term, 319- Indians, variety of complexion among, III, 370; Morgan on their houses, i7_<;; their contact with the French and Knglish, 28^; their fends, 2S4; acquire fire-arms, 2S5, 301 ; deed lands, 286, 29^) ; trade with the whites, 28f) ; lose skill with the bow, 2*^7 ; adoption of prisoners, 287 ; sell them for ransoms, 287, 289; treatment of captives, 390 ; captives cling to them, 291 ; life of, 293; trails, 294 ; traden among, 294, 297; as allies, 2(>5; trea- ties with the English, 300, 304, 305; French missionaries among, '^oi ; fur-hunters, 301 ; attempts to chris- tianize, 307; the French instigations, 313; number ot" souls, 315; bibliog., 3U>; character in war, 318; govern- ment publications on, 320, 321 ; their shifting ItKations, 321: reservations for, 321 ; life of, as depicted by Mor- gan, 325 ; tribal society, 328 ; position of women, 328 ; medicine, 328 ; mor- tuary riles, j28; their games, 328; their mental capacity, 328; myths, 429 ; non-pastoral , 379; map of tribes, 381 ; decay of tradition among them, 400 ; degiaded descendants of the higher races of middle America, 415; industries and trade, 416; lost arts, 41b; copper mining, 418; in- fluence of missions, 430; belief in a future life, 431; scope of School- craft's work, 441. Indiana, Geol. Report^ 393; Indians, 327 ; mounds, 408. Indiana|>olis Acad, of Sciences, 438. Indio tnste, statue, 1S3. Industries of Ihe Amer. aborigines, 416. Ingersoll, Ernest, 440; Village In- dians, 396; tm Indian money, 420. Ingolf in Iceland, Oi. Ingolfshofdi, Oi. Ingram, Robert, 115. Institut Archeolngique, Annales, 441. Institution Ethnographique, 442 ; Rap- port, 442. Insulae Fortunatae, 14. See Fortu- nate Islands, Canaries. Interglacial man, 334, 355. InternatKtnal Congress of Prehistoric Arch.x'ology, Trans., 443. Inwards, Richard, Temple of the Andes, 219, 273. Iowa mounds, 409. Ireland the Great, 61 ; references, 82 ; variously placed, 82, 83 ; Rafn's map, MS- Ireland, early map of, 1 18. Irish legends about the island Brazil, Irish in Iceland, f>o, 61, 82. Irland it Mikla, 82. See Ireland the Great. Irminger, Admiral, on the Zeni, 114. Iron, meteoric, found in the mounds, 418. _ Iroquois, held to be Turks. 82; Sir Win. Johnson breaks their league, 284, 300; attacked by the French, 3C0; extend their hunting grounds, 303; war against the Illinois, etc-, 303; addicted to rum, 303; treaty with the English ( i7^t4)» V^\ \ sources of their history, 323; map of their country, 323 ; m Colden's Five Na- tionsy 324; their cession of western lands to t)ie English in 1726, 324; s.tcrifice of the white dog, 325 ; build the mounds in New York, 402, 405; their arts, 416; hero-gods, 430; their monotheism, 430; myths, 431; lan- guage, 425 Irving, Washington, on O. Rich, in ; on the Norse voyages, 93, ; edits the lufortnadones par tnandado de Don P. de Toledo, j6S ; his editorial labor-;, 274 ; edits Cieza de Leon, 274; edits lietanzos, 274; portrait, 274. Jogues, the missionary, 323; sources, 323- Johannes, Count. See Jones, George. Johnson, F.lias, .S'/,r .Vations, 325. Johnson, G. H. M., 325. Johnson, Sir William, and the Iroquois, 2S4 ; on his influence among the In- dians, 31S, Jolibois, Abbi, nti the anc. Mexicans, 81. Joly, L^houinit' av.int m^taux, 3S3; Alan be/ore metals, 3S3 ; on the moundbuilders, 403. Jomard, Lts Antiq. Atn/r., y^r; Un* pierre graz'fe , 404. Jones, C. C, Tomo-chi-chiy 326 ; finds rude stone implements in Georgia, 344; Antiq. of No. Amer. Indians, 344 ; on the making of arrow-heads, 417; on the Georgia mounds, 410; Indian Remains, 410; Anc. tumuli, 410; Antiq. of South- ern Indians, 2<)3, 410; on effigy nnumds, 410; on bird shaped innim8, I .)'->. Jnbinal, Z/iV«(A'j de S. Brantittirws, Julianehaab district, maps, 87, 89. Junks, drifting of, 78. Junquera, S. P., 115. Justimani, Dr. Pablo, 281. Karah, 18S, 200. Kabali-Zayi, iSfi. Kakortok, So, 88. Kalbtleisch, C. H., his library, xviii. Kaim, Peter, on the Norse voyages, 92; TraTels, 325; on the mounds, 398; on the formation of soil, 361. Karnes, Lord, I/ist. of JAiw, 3S0. Kan-ay-ko, 394. Kane, Paul, Wanderings, -^ii. Kansas Academy of Sciences, 438. Kansas City Revletv, 439. Kansas mounds, 409. Keane, .A. H., 273, 410; Ethnology of America, 412, 422. Keary, C. F., Dawn of History, 412, 4'5- Keller, Dr., on the Swiss lake dwell- ings, 395. Kelley, O. H., 40). Kemp's discovery in London, 388. Kendall, E. A., 104; Travels, 104. Kenncbecs, 322. Kennedy, James, Origin Amer. In- dians, 1 17. Kennedy, J., Probable origin of the A mer. Indians, i,(^ ; Essays, 3^19. Kennett, White, ^;W. Amer. Prim.^ i ; ills library, 1. Kcnnon, \\., 78. Kentucky caves, 390. Kentucky mounds, 409. Keppel, 'Gestalt, Grdsse, und Welt- stellung der Erde, 39. Kerr, Henry, Travels^ in. Kerr, Robert, l'oyages,-Kxxv\. Keyport, N. Jersey, 3^13, 393. Keyser. J. R., Private life of ihe old Xorthmen, .85; Religion of the Northmen, 85. Kevser. K-, Xor^es Hist., 85. Kirh-Mon, 1S7. Kirhe, Hrinton's spelling o! Quich^, 167. Kidder, F., 321;. King, Richard, ir6. Kiiigektorsnak stone, fvS. Kin borovigh, Kdward, Lord, his be- liei in the lost-tribe theory, i if> ; ace. of, 203; his MSS. in Rich's hands, 203 ; in Sir Thomas Phil- ipps', 203; Antiq. of Mexico, 203; cnpies, 203 ; finds no MSS. in Spain, 203. Kincsley, C'has., Lectures, 98. Kingsley, J. S.. Standard Nat. Hist., I }'^''- I Kino, Padre, 396. Kircher, A., Mundus Sulderraneust 9» 43 i (Edipus A'^gypticus, 204. Kinri, 4*'"^. Kirkland, the missionary, on the mounds, 399. Kitchen-middens. See Shell heaps. Kittanning, 312. Kiaproth, J. H. von, Fousang^ 78. Klee, Le D^luge^ yjo. Klemm, Allgem. Culturgesch. der Menschheil, 377, 431 ; Allgem, Culturivtssenschaft, 377. Kneeland, Samuel, Amer. in Iceland^ 85 i on the skeleton in armor, 105. Kneip, C H., iii. Kni-lit, Mrs. A. A., 45. Kmix, Robert, Races of Men, 36*). Knox, I'oyages, xxxvi. Koch and the Missouri mastodon, 3H8. Kohl, J. G., on the Northmen voyages, 9;; on Frislanda, 114 ; Kitchi-Gami^ 3-! 7. Kolaos, voyage, 40. Kollmann, Dr., 384. Kosmos, 438. Koriaks, 77. Kramer, J., ed, Strabo, 34. Krarup, v., on the Zeni, 113. KrAwstiyY.., Northwest Coast of A mer' ici, 328. Kristni Saga, 85. Krossanes, loi, 102. Kublai Khan, 82. Kukulcan, 152. See Cukulcan. Kundein, L,, A'at. Hist. A rcttc A mer- ica, 106. Kunslmann, Mhnoires, 53. La Hukdr, Mer du Sud, 43; L*ori~ gine des Caraibes, xxxiv, 117. La Harpe, I'oyages, xxxvi. La Motne Cacfillac at Detroit, 303. La Peyr^re, map of Greenland, 132; Relation du Groenland, 132. La Roqnette on the Zeni, 112. !.»! Salle and the Indians, 318. Labarthe, Charles, La civilisation peruvienne, 275 ; Doc. itUdits sur r Empire des Incas, 275. Labat, Nonveau I'oyage, 117. Labrador, name of, 31, 74. Lacaiidons, 188. Lacerda, Jos(5 de, Doutor Livingstone ^ 114. Lachmann, Sagenbibliothek, 91. Lacustrine dej)osits, 347; habitations, 3P3- Lael, Joannes de, Xieuwe Wereldt^ \', Xotee ad diss. //. Grotii, 370; further controversy with Grotius, 370-. Lafieri, Geograjia, 125. Lafitan, on the Asiatic origin of Amer- icans, 76 ; Mofurs des Saui'ages^ 317; on the Tartar origin of Amer- icans, 371. Lagerbring, Sven, 84. Lauuna, C'ol. de la, 1S4. Laing, Kd., Heimskringla, 92 ; on the sagas, 99. Lake Bonneville, 347. Lake Lahontan, 347. Lake Superior, copp-r mines, 417. Lamarck, J. H. A., Iiis transforma'.Ioo theory, 383 ; Phihsophie Zool.^ 3'^1. Lambayeque, 275. Lancaster. Pa., treaty at, 305. Landa, Hi-shop. Relacion, iM' ^oo't edited bv Hrasseur, 164 ; by Rada y Delgado, i6s ; critical account of editions by Hrinton, t'>5; his alpha- bet, 198; facs. of part of u, 198; exists only in a copy, 198 ; pro- nounced a fabrication, 200, 202 ; analysis of, 201; misleading, 20a; his destruction of MSS., foj. Landino, 35. I.andnamabok, S^ ; editions, 83. Landry, S. F., Moitndlmilder'* s Brain^ 403. Lands, tenure of, 175* M 458 INDEX. ) ? 'V Lang, A., 281. LniiK, J. Dm Polyneaian Nations^'^%, Lanj-dmi, V. W., 4o>. L.iii:.;«jbL'k, Jacobus, Hcriptores reruni J)ii>itiarufn^ S3. Langius, iMed. Epist. Misc., 41. Lan^lct clu Krcsuoy, Methode^ i. Language, as a test of nice, 421, 422; failed in the paleolithic ni.ni, 421. *SV(.' Linguistics. Laoii globe ( i4S(i), iiq; cut, 5^). Lapham, 1. A , on the Indians of Wis- omsin, 327; Antiq. of H'isconsin^ 400, 408. Lappawinzo, 325. Lnrenaudiere, AUxiquff 190. Larkin, F., Anc. man in America^ 3^4» 405. 4'^ Larrabure y Unanue, E., on the Ollan- tay drama, 2S2. Larrainzar, M., EsttuHos sobrt la hist. til' America^ 172, 195; on Palunqu^, Lartct, Ed., NouvelUs Kec/urc/ies, 3S,S; Anmiies des Sciences, 441. Lariet and Christy, Reiiq. Aquitani- cce, 3.S9. Las Casas, Narratioy xxxiii; Apolog. hist., 155. Latham, Nat. Hist, of Man. 374; JAi« and his migrations^ 3S1. Latreille, i^. Lairobe, C J., Rambles in Mexico, 180. Laud, Archbp., 205. Laurentian hdis, .1S4. Laurenziano-Gaddiano porlolano, 55. Law, A. E., 410. Lawson, Carolnui, xxxv. L" Estrange, Sir H., Americans no fetves^ 115. Le licau, I'oyage, 321. Le Hun, H., htjluence des lots Cos* miques, 3M7 ; Uhomme fossilcy 3S3. Le ^loyne, Florida^ xxxii. Le Xoir on the Dresden Codex, 205. Le Plongcon, Dr., on Atlantis, 44; on the connection of the Maya and Asiatic races. Si ; on traces of the Guanches in Yucatan, 117; his stud- ies in Yucatan, iW), 186; his discov- ery of the Chac-mool, 180, iSi, 190; Sacred Mysteries, iSo, 187; his over-confidence, 1S7, 200 ; contro- versies, 1S7; at Chichen-Itza, 187, 190: on tlie NLiya tonpue, 427. Le riongeon, Mrs. Alice, her studies on the Mayas, 166, 1^19, 1S7; J'es- tiges 0/ the Mayas, 187; Here and There in }'ucatan, 187. LcanU), (iinvanni, map ( 1448), 56; ('452), 5^' 5^'. II5- Leclerc, Ch., Jiibl. Amer., vii, xvi, 4 1. ■1, 423. Leclercq, Gasphie, 321. Leconte, J. L., on the California In- dians, 437. Lee, Arthur, on the mounds, 39S. Lee. J. C. Y., 3'.7- Lee, J. E., Lake dwellings of Switz- erhindy 305. Leffler, O. P., 84. Lejiendre. Napoleon, Races de I'Am/- rique^ 3''>9. Lepis-GIui'cksetig, Die Runen, 66. Legrand d'Aussy, Image du monde, , 3.7- . Leibnitz, Opera philoL, 40. Leidy, Jos., 374; discovers rude im- plements in lacustrine (U'pnsits, 347 : on a mustang skull found in the California gravels, 353 ; Extinct matnmalia, X^'<\ on shell-heaps, 3'»3 ; on the Hartman cave, 3()i. Leif Ericsnn, his career, 62 ; his voy- age to Vinland, 63; described, 90; statue in Roston, 98. Leipziir, Museun. fiir Viilkerkunde, h'l'y/r/if, 443 i I 'ere in fiir Anthro' poligazione, etc., xix. Libyan relic in Anierica, 404. Lick Creek mound, 40S. Lima, audience of, 211. Linares on Tcotihuacan, 182. Lindenow, G., voyage to Greenland, 107. Linguistics, American, bibliog. of, vii, 421, 423; affiliations with Asia, 77; with China, 81; used in studying ethnical relations, 421 ; number of stocks, 422, 424: dialects, 422; maps of America, by lanuuajjes, 422 ; poly- synthesis, ^22 ; collections. 425 ; vo- cabularies in Wheeler's Survey, 440. Linschoten, xxxvii. Lisbon Academy, Meniorias da I^it- teratura, xix. Little, Wm., li'arren, 322. Little Falls, Minn., 346. Little Miami valley, mounds in, 403, 408. Littlclield, Geo. E., xv. Livermore^ Geo., on Henry Stevens, xiv, I.izana, 11., 165. Ljung, E. P., Dissertaiio, 370. Llamas of Peru. 213, 253 ; cut of, 213. Llanos, Adolfo, Sahagun, 157. I.lovd, Humphiey, Cambria, 109. Llovd, H. K., 108 Lloyd. T. G. B..321. Loaysa, 163, Locke, Caleb, Hist, de la navigation, xxxiv. Locke, Jolin, on the Wisconsin mounds, 400 ; Mineral Lands, 400. Locket, S. H.,409. Luckwood, Rev. Samuel, 363 ; collec- tion, 393. Lodge, Henry Cabot, review of Gra- vier's Decouverte par les Nor* ifutnds, 97. Loess, 332, 348; of the Mississippi Valley, 388. Loew, O. , 394. Luftler, E., on Vinland, 98. Logan, James, his position in Penna., 308. Logstown, 287. London Anthropological Society, Me- moirs, 442 ; Trans, and fournals^ Liniilon Society of Antiquaries, Ar- chteologia, 442. Long, R. Cl.,Anc. Arch, of America^ 176. Long, Bibl. Amer.y 11. Longfellow, H. W., Skeleton in Ar* mor, 105. Longperier, A. de, Notice des Monu* ments, 444 ; Bronzes A ntiques, 26. Loo-choo Islands, 3u. Lopez, V. F., un Quichua roots, 280; Les Races Aryennes du Firou, 82, 241, 281; on the Ollantay drama, 282. Lorente, S., Hist. Antiq. del Peru, 270; papers in the Revista Feru- ami, 270; Revista de Lima, 270. Lorenzana, Hist, Nueva Espaiia, 203. Lorillard, Pierre, 177.^ Lorillard City, 177; situation, 188. Lort, Michael, 104. Loskiel, G. H., Mission, 371, 429, Lothrop, S. K., Eirkland, 323. Loudon, Archibald, Selection of nar* ratives, 319. Louisiana, missions in, 326; mounds, 409- Low, Conrad, Meer Buch, xxxiii, Lov ■-■nstern, Le Mfxique, 182. Lowndes, the bibliographer, xvi. Lvd)buck, Sir John, Origin of Civ Hi' zation, 377, 3S0; as an anlhropolo- pi^ti 379 1 portrait, 379; Prehistoric 'Times, 379; on No. Amer. Archa- ology, 379; on the degeneracy of the savage, 3^' '• Early Condition of Jifati, 381 ; Scientific Lectures, 387 ; on prehistoric archaeology, 412. Lncy-Fossarieu, P. de, Ethnographie de l" Am^rique Antarctique, 442. Ludewig, Hermann E., Amer. local History, v; Amer. Aborig. Lin- guistics, V ; Lit. of A mer. Aborig. Language, vii, 423. Lule, 42S. Lummi language, 425. Lumnius, J. F.,De Extremo Dei Ju- dicio, 1 1^. Lunareio, br, 280. Lund, Dr., on caves in Brazil, 390. Lurin, 277. Lyctonia, 46. Lydius, IJ., xxv. Lyell, Sir Charles, on Atlantis, 44; Antiquity of Man, 3S4 ; eds.,384; Second I'isit, 393: on tlie mound- builders, 402. Lykins, W. H. R., 4oi>. I.vman, Theodore, 3d, 412. Lyo-Paa, 184. Lvon. G. F., Journal, 170; Mexico, '183. Lvon, S. S., 410; Antiquities from Kentucky. 439. Lyon, W. P., 397. M.Arc.\ULKV, Clay, on the Seminole Indians, 326. Mac'dn. Dr., on Inca and Aztec civi- lizations, 275. Machimus, 22. Maciana lilirary (Venice), vi. Mnrkenna, P V., his hooks, xiii. Maclean, I. P. , nn AtUmtis, 41; ; MaS' todon. Mammoth and M'lfi, 38S; Moundbnilders, 401 ; on the serpent mound, 401 ; on the Grave Creek ■■i INDEX. 459 "iiit^l, 363; collec- 't, review of Gra- piir les i\or- i the Mississippi ^ical Society, Me- s. and yonrmils^ Antiquanes^ Ar- rch. of A merica^ ii. Skeleton in Ar» Votice des Afonu- ■fs Antiques, 26. ichua roots, 280; les du PiroH, 82, Ollantay drama, ^ntiq, del Peru, e Kevista Peru- de Litna, 270. fva Espaiia, 203. ';«. 371, 429. /(!«//, 323. Selection 0/ nar* "» 326; mounds, 3i4ch, xxxiii. t'que, 182. apher, xvi. ^ri^hi ofCivili' s an antliropolo- 379; Prehistoric Amer. Archa- legencracy of the ^ Condition of ic Lectures^ 387 ; cology, 412. e, Ethnographie 'nrctique, 442. K., Amer. local '. Ahorig. Lin- Amer. Aborig. n Atlantis, 44; 3S4; eds.,3,S4; on the mound* 412. '. 170 ; Mexico^ ntiquities from n the Seminole and Aztec civi- lablet, 404 1 mounds in Butler County, 40S. Maclovius, Biiihop of Aleth, 4S. ^i,lcoInb, J. N., Exploring Exped. from Santa /''<*, 44'>. Ntacrobius, 13, 31 ; Comm. in Sophh. Scip.f 9, 10, 1 1, .j'» ; his maps, 10, 1 1, 12. Madeira, 4S ; known to the ancients, 15, 25, 27 ; in the Hianco map, 50. Madier de Montjau, Chronol. hiirog., 133; on Mexican MSS., i(>3 ; Chronol. dt\s rois A ztfgucs, 200. Nfadison, llishop J., on the mnunds, 3<>S; on fortitkations in the West, 4.V- Madisonville, Ohio, Archa.'oIog. Soc, 407 ; mounds, 40S. Madoc, Prince, his voyage, 71; hib- liog., 109, 110, iii; linguistic traces f)f the Welsh in America, 109 ; Kr.glish eagerness to substantiate his voyage, io> ; some believe he went to Spain, iii; his people are the Mandans, 111; possible, but not probable, 1 1 1. Madriga, P. de, 271 ; voyage to Peru, xxxiv. Madrinanus, A., xx. Ma .'hUiin, 33, 50. Mag Mell,;i2. ISftigazin fiir die Naturgeschichte des Afensclien, 443. Magellan, xxviii, xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvi, xxxvii. Magi's Ant., Lengiia de los Indios Baures, 425. Magnus, Ohus, Hist, of the Goths, 84; maps (i53(;), 123; (i555). 124; ('5^'7)» '-5 I HistoritXy 125 ; Von dan alien Goettenreich^ 125. Magnusen, Finn, S6, (j6; on Scand. divisions of tim-f^ 99; an instance of his over-eagerness, 102. Magnussen, Arne, 88. Ma'i'inin, 33. M.duidel tin stone implements, 3S7. Mailduin, 33, 50. Maillard, Abb^, Miconaque language^ 425- , . Maine Indians, 322; Indian missions, 322; shell heaps, 392. Maisonneuve, Jiibl. Amer.y xiv, xvi; Collection linguist ique, 425. Maisonneuve. See Leclerc. Maize in Peru, 2 13. Major, R. H., on the Atlantic islands, 47; on Arab voyages in the Atlan- tic, 72; on the Northmen, «j6 ; on the sites of the Greenland colonies, 109, 113; on the Madoc voyage, III ; advocates the Zeni story, 112; portrait, 112. Mala, 277. Malay emigration to America, 60. Malay stock in America, 81, Sj. Mallery, Col. Oarrick, on the Dighton Rock, 103; on Indian inscriptions, 104; on piclogiaphs, 410: on ges- ture language, 422 ; Study of Sign language, 422, 440. Mallet, P. !!., Dannemark^ 92 ; Northern A ntiq. , x^, ijj. Malte-Hrun, Annali-s des I'oyages, xxxvi, 441 ; Xourelles Annales, xxxvi, 441 : on the Arab voyagers, 72 ; on the sa^as, i>2 ; on the Zeni, 112; Precis de la grcfg., 112; map of Central Anu-rica, 151; msp of Yucatan, iSS; L'^poque des monu- mens de ^Ohio, 3,)S; Nations et langues au Mexique, 427. Maine-Huasteqne language, 426. Mamcrtinus, 47. Mammoth, 3SS. Man Satanaxio, 31, 47, 40, 54. Man, r)rigin and antiquity of. in Amer- ica, 3p,36; scarcity of human remains of the pali'olithic era, 390 ; early man in So. America, 3i>t> ; as lake dweller, 3-^5; of the Danish peat beds, 34^ ; general references on prehistoric man, 412, 415 ; as a speaking animal, 421; unity of the American race, 429; the thoughts of early man, 429. See Anthropology. Manasseh Hen Israel, 115. Manchester Geographical Society, Journal, 442. Manco Cc.ipac, ori^n of, 225 ; at Cuzco, 224 ; portrait, 228. Mancos River, 395. Mandans, t u. Mange, Padre, 396. Mangue dialect, 428. Mangues, 169. Mani, 153; archives, 180. Manilius, on the form of the earth, j : Astronotnicon, 36. Manitoba Hist. Society, Tratts.^ 410 \ mounds, 410. Mapa de Cuauhtlantzinco^ iSo. Marana, J. P-, Turkish Spy, no. Mar(;ay, De, Dicouvertes de PAmS- rique, 45. Marceau, fc. , Les anc. peuples if A mi* rique, 412. Marcel d« Serre, Cosmog. de Moise, 41. Marcellus, Ethiopic fUstory, 41. March y Labores, Jose, xxxvii. Marcoy, Travels in So. A tner. f 2oq; i'oyage, 272. Marcy, R. H., Harder Reminiscences, 319; {withG H. McClellan) £.r/^- ration of t/w Ked River, 327, 440. Margry, Pierre, Mhnoires, 302, 317. Maricheets, 321. Marietta, mounds, plan of. by W. Sar- gent, 437 ; Harris, view of the mnunds, 405; mounds at, discovered, ^07. Marinelli, O., Erdkunde be i den h'ir- ihen-l'iitern, 30, 3S. Marinus of Tyre, 34; on the size v\ th.' known earth, 8. Markham, C. R., on the Eskimos, 10/ ; " The Inca civilization in Peru," 209; translates Repiirtof On- degardn, 261 ; Molina's Rites of the Incas, 262, 436 ; translates Avila's narrative, 2'i4 ; edits Salcamayhua, 266: Cnzcoand Lima, 271 ; Trax-els in Peru and India, 271 ; Peru, 271 : portrait, 272; on Tiahuanacn. 27^; liis editorial work, 274; nn the Qni- cluia language, 2S0; Olb^nta, 2>; Cosmog. Orecque, 39 ", Surie Timet^ Martin of Valencia, 15'). Marlines. J., tjuichua vocabulary, 279. Martimerc, map ol Greenland, 132; I'oyages, 132. Martiui), i'. 1'. vun, Sprachenkunde Amerikas, 428; Gloisarta, 42S; lieitrdge, 130. Mariyr, Veter, bibliog., xx ; his tirst ducatlc, XX ; Legal tO Haoyionuu^ XX ; .tec. by llairis^e, \\; by >clm- macher, xx . by Heidciihuiiner, xx; Die Schijfung, xxi ; I'o^mata, xxi ; De Nuper sub D. Caroio ref>ertit insulis, xxi ; facs. of tine, xxn ; De orbe novo, xxi ; Extrait on Recueil, xxi ; De rehus o<.eanicis, xxiii ; Su/nmario, xxiii ; joined with Gvie- do, xxiii; Kden's Decades, xxiii; Willes' I/ist. of Travayle, xxiii; edited by Hakluyt, xxiii ; by Lok, xxiii; opus Epiitolarum, xxiv ; on the Ethii)pian origui of the tribes of Yucatan, 117 ; describes the Maya and Nahua picture-writings, 203. Maryland, docs, in her Archives, xiv; Hist. Soc, xviii; Indians, 325. Masks, Mexican, 419. Mason, Geo. C, on the Newport millj 103; Rem. of Newport, 105. Ma>on, O- T., on the mounds, 402; bibliog. of anthropology, 411 ; on anthropology ii. the U. S., 411 J his anthropolog. papers, 431J. Massachusetts Bay map, 100. Massachusetts Hisi. Soc, Library Cat- alogue, xvii; on the statue of Leif Ericson, 98 ; on Kafn*s over-confi- dence, lOQ. Massachusetts Indians, 323. Massachusetts Quart. Rez'. , o'S. Massachusetts State Library, xvii. .^^-\ssilia founded, 2'"'. Mastodon, carvings of. 405 ; mound, 40 > ; remains of man associated with the, 3SS ; how lr)ng disappeared, 3'<'). Materiaux pour I histoire primitive, 411. Mather, Cotton, on Dighton Rock, 103, 104: Wonderful ivorks of God, 104: on Jews in New Knj^Iand, 115; on supposed remains of a giant, 389; and the Royal Society, 442. Mather, Increase, his letter to Lcus- den, 322. Mailier, Saml., Atnerica kno^vn to the ancients, 40. Mathers, their library, i. Maiieiizo, Juan de, Gobierno de el Peru, 2''>i. Matlaltzinca. 14S. Matthews, W., Language 0/ the Hi- datsa, 425; Hidatsa Indians, ^^o. Maudsley, A. P.. Guatemala, 197. Maurauli, Abenakii, 322. Maurer. Konrad. Altnord. Sprache, S4; Island, S5: Islandisrhe I 'oiks- sagen, Ns ; on the Zoni, 113; Recht- gesch. des Nordetis, S5. Mauro, Fra, map ( 14^7). 53i 117; facs- of northern i>arts, 120. Maury, Alfred, 374. Mavor, Voyages, xxxvi. Maximilian. Emperor of Mexico, his library, viii. Maximilian, Prince, Reise, 319; TratM els, \i2. Maxtla. 14''- ; Mayad'Ahknil-Cliel. I-''-. t Mayapan, 152; desertetl, j^v \'\ 460 m'M i 'i Mayas, origin of, 134, 152; name first heard, 135; nations comprised, 135; ace. (if, 152; hieroglyphics, 152,420; Kattines, 152; calendar, 152; man- uscripts, 1(13; Cliilan Balam, 1O4 ; Topul I'n/i, their sacred bi»ok, iM); tlieir last pueblo, 175; picture-writ- ing, i'>7 ; metals ariKing, 41S; lan- guages of, 4J7; dialects, 427; allied lo the lirtek, 4J7; general refer- ences, 427; reliKJim of, 433; hero- gods, 430, 434- Mayberry, S. P., on Florida shell heaps, 393. Mayda, 31, 47, 51, 53. Mayer, Hrautz, on Sparks, vii ; Mexico, 170; Observations oft Mex. hist.^ 1S4. Maytiews, the Indian missionaries, Mayta, Ccapac, Inca, 229. Mazahuas. 136. Mazetecs, i3(>. McAdams, \V., 409; Anc. Races in the Afississippi i 'alley^ 403, 41a ; Cahokia^ 40S. McCaul, John, 99. McCharles, A., 410. McClellan, (J, IJ., 440. McClintock and Strong's Cyclop, bibl. ///.,3^4. McClui^ and Parish, Mem. 0/ Wheel- cell, 322. McCoy, Isaac, Baptist Indian tnis- sions, 3f^iy. McCuUoh, James H., Researches on America^ i(k^, 372 ; on the mounds, McCullough, Jnhn, captive to the In- dians, 2(j2, 319. McEImo canon, 395. McFarland, R. W., 408. McGee, W. J., 377; on glacial man, 330. 343; oil the Columbia period, 343 ; 'ms lacustrine explorations, 349; on Iowa mounds, 409. Mcintosh, John, Disc, of America^ 372. McKenney, T. L., .l/'c;wc/rj, 320; his career, 3Jf. ; (with James Hall) In- dian Tribcsy 320. McKinley, Wm., 410. McKiiHiey, W. A., 41. McLennan, J. F., Primitive Mar- riiti^c, 3M0; Studies in Anc. Ifist.^ 3S0. McMaster, S. Y., lu. McParlin, J. A., 397. McWhorter, T., 40S. Measures nf length used by the Mexi- can?, 420. Meddelclser om Grdnland^ 86. Medel nn the Mex. hieroglyphics, 2ro. Megatherium, 389 Megiser, H., Sept. Noiutntiqutis, xxxiv III. Meigs, I. A., on Morton's collection, 372 ; Catal. human crania^ 372 ; Obs. on the cranial forms, 374 J J^orm of the occiput, 375. M«.ineke, A., ed. Strabo, 34. Mela, Foniponius, his views of the ex- tension of Africa, 10; relations with Ftolemy, 10 ; on men supposed to be carried from America to Kurope, 26; De Situ Orbis, 36. Melgar, E. S. de, 279. Melgar, J. M., De las Teogonias en los manuscritos M^xicanos, 431. Melgar, Senor, 116. Mflkarih, 24. Melci, Garcia de, 260. Menana, 102. Mendieta, Hist. Eccles. Ind.^ 157. Menddza, fiumesindo, 155; curator of Musco Nacioual in Mexico, 444. Menendez, (reo^. del Peru. 212. Menparini, G., Flat-head (Grammar, 42S- Mentone caves, 300. Mcnzel, Hibl. Hist., \\. Menzies. Wm., his library and cata- logue, xii. INDEX. Mer de I'Ouest. 79. Me*cator map (1538), 125, Mercer, H. G., 405. Mercurio Peruano, %^i:i. Meredith, a Welsh bard, 109. Merian, Si., xxxi. Merida, iSK. Meridian, the first, where placed by the ancients, 8. Merivale, C, Conversion of the North- ern Nations, S5. Merom, Ohio, 408. Meropes, 22. Merry Meeting Bay, 102. Mesa, Alonso de, 260; Attales del Cuzco, 270. Metal, use of, 41S ; working in Peru, 25O ; among the early Americans, 4'7. Metz, Dr. C. L.. finds paleolithic im- plements in Ohio, 340, 341 ; Prehist. Mts. Little Miami l^alley^ aoS. Meunicr, V., Les ancHres d^Ada.'u, 3^3- Mexia y Ocon, J. R., 279. Mexico (country), linguistics of, viii; held to *)e Fousang, 7?*, 80, Si ; cor- respondences in languages with Chi- nese, 81 ; with Sanskrit, 81 ; Asiatic origin of games, 81^ pde oniEiments in, Si ; Asiatic origin, references on,- 8r ; obscurities of its pre-Spanish history, 133; early race of gi^^ts, 133; chronologies, 133; the Toltecs arrive, 139; the confederacy grow- i"gi M7 ; its -Tature, 147; portraits of the kings, 148; sources of pre- Spanish history, 153; the early Span- ish writers, 153; the courts and the natives, 1(0; SiS. annals, 162; gen- eral accounts in English, ifK>; Ar- chiz'es de la Com. Sclent, du AUx- ique, 270; ethncplogy of, 172; char- acter of its civilization, 173, 176; the confederacy. 173; diverse views of the CAtent of the population, 174; disappearance of their architecture, 174; map by Santa Cruz, 174; mode of govertmient, 174, 175; their pal- aces, 175, 176; notes on the ruins, 176; astronomy in, 179; idols still preserved, iSo; superstitions for writ- mgs, I So; origin of the people, 375; copper, use of, 418; variety 01 tongues in, 42^; culture, 329, 330. See Tol- tecs, Nahuas, Anah'iac, Aztecs, Chi- chimec«. Mexico (city), founded, 133, 144 ; Cla- vigero's map in facs., 143; its lakes, 143: other maps, 143: facs. of the map in Coreal's Voyages, 145; a na- tive ace. of the capture, 162 ; calen- dar stone, 179 : u>ed to regulate mar- ket days, 179; Museo Nacional,4i9, 444; \\^ Analcs, 444; view of, 180, iSi ; forgeries in, iSo; no architec- tural remains, 1S2; the city gradu- ally sinking, 1S2; relics still beneath the soil, 1S2 ; Randelier's notes, 182 ; old view of the city, 1S2 ; early descriptions, 1S2; its military aspect, 1S2; relics unearthed, 1S2; temple of (views), 433, 434. Meye, Heinnch, Copan und Qniri- gua, i9(>, 197. Meyer, A, B., 417. Meyer, J., map of Greenland, 131. Mica, 41''). Michel, Francisque, Saint Brandan^ 4S-. Michigan mounds, 408. Michinacas, 136. Michoacan, 140, 433. Micmacs, 32- ; language, 425 ; legends, 431 ; missions, 321 ; traditions of white comers amo: g» 99. Mictlan, 1S4, 435. Mictlantecutli, 435. Middle Ages, geographical notions, 30. Miedna, 78. Migration of nations in pre-Spanish times, r37, 139, 369; disputes over, 138; Gallatin s viewi 138; bibliog., 139; Daw5on*8 map of those In North America, 3S1 ; generally from the north, 381 Mil, A., De origine Animalium, 37a Milhirt, a creek, 32f>. Miller, J., Modois, 327. Miller, W. J., li'ampanoags, ir2. Mindeleff, V , on Pueblu architecturet ?95- Minnesota mounds, ^cx). Minutoli, J. H. von, on Palenqu^, ii>i ; Stadt in (iuatemala, 195. Miocene man, 387. Miquitlan, 184. Mirror of Literature, iio. Mission Sclent ifique an Mexique^ Ouyrages, 207. Missions effect on the Indians, 318. Mississippi Valley, loess of, 388; mounds, 410. Missouri, mounds, 409*, pottery, 419. Missouri River, lacustrine age, 348. Mitchell, S. L., on the Asiatic origin of the Americans, 76, 371; on the Northmen, 102. Mitchell, A., 410. Mitchell, W. S., on Atlantis, 44. Mitchener, C. H., Ohio Annals, 407. Mitla, ruins of, 1.^4; plan, 184. Mitre, Gen. B., OHantay, 282. Miztec*-', 136; subjugated, 149. Mochica language, 227, 275. 276. Modocs, 327. Mohawks put English arms on their castles, 304, 324. Mohegan Indians, their language, 423. Moke, H.T.f Nist. des /euples Afn7- ricains, 172. i Moletta (Moletius) on the Zeno map, I 129. [ Molina, Alonzo de, 156. ^ Molina, Chr; >i0val de, in Peru, 262; I Fables and Rites of the Incas, 262; on the Incas, 436. . Molina, I'ocabulario, viii; Arte de la I lengna M^x., viii. I Mollliausen, Reisen, 396; Tagebuch, I ^'>'^- Moluccan mi ration to South Amer- I ica, 3 o. I Monardes, Dos Libros, xxix ; Hist. Medicinal, xxix; likeness, xxix; 'joyful I Nerves, xxix. Monboddo, Lord, on Irish linguistic traces in America, 83. Moncacht-Ape, 77, Money, 420. Mongolian stock on the Pacific coast, 82. Mongols in Peru, 82. Monhegan, alleged runes on, 102. Monogenism, 374. Monotheism in America, 430. Monro, R., Atic. Scotch lake dwell- i"ff^ .393- Mf)ntalboddo, Paesi Nov., nx. Motilana moimds, 409. Montanus, Nieuwe li'eereld, i; on the Zeni, 111; America,xxx\\ ', on the sagas, 92 ; on the Madoc voyage, 109. Monte Alban, 184. Montelius, O.. Bibliog. de Varchiol. de la Suede, 444. Montemont, A.. Voyages, xxxvii. Montesinos, F-, in Peru, 263; Memo- rias antiguas, 82, 263 ; Anales, 263 ; Mhnoire historique, 263 ; on Jews in Peru, 115; MSmoires, 273. Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois, 380. Montezuma (hero-god), 147, 150. Montezuma (first of the name), \^U ; in power, 147; various spelling of the name, 147; dies, 148. Montezuma (the last of ^ the name), 148; forelnidings of his fall, 148; hears of the coming of the Spaniards, 149; his *' Dinner," 174, i75« Montfaucon, Collectio, 30. Montgomery, James, (Greenland, 60. Moore, Dr. Geo. H., at the Lenox Li- brary, xii ; account of, xii. Moore, Martin, 322. I ' 'Ai I' i) t... INDEX. 461 n.ip of tliose in ii; generally from ^1 ftinuiliumy 370. (27- t/itnoa/^s, tc2. leblu iirclii lecture, 4CK> 'II, on Palenqurf, t/ef/ut/tt, 195. V, 1 10. an M^xigue^ ic Indians, 318. lotss of, 388; )9; pottery, 419. ilhne age, 348. ilie Asiatic origin 73; on Jews •«. 27.V r Lois, 380, '47* 150'- e name), 146 ; us spelling of |H. f the name), his fall, 148 ; the Spaniards, '•(. ^11- >. •enland, 60. he Lenox hv Mnore, M. V., 41. Muorc, This., Hist. Ireland, 61. MiKiMniillcr, P. O., Eurof^der in .-' merica, 88, 90. McKlucgua, 277. Mnqui Indians, 397, 429; lepresenta- lives of the rlifi' dwellers, 395. Mo'-aviiin missions, 308, 318. Mora7'ia» Qtiarterly^ loi^ Morcllet, Arthur, / oyage., 194 ; Trav- els, 195- Morgan, Col. Geo., 319- Mori;an, L. H., his Montezuma" s din- ner, ix, 174: attacked by II. H. Ilan- croft^ ix, 174: on the cradle of the Mexicans, 138; his exaggerated de- preciation of the Mexican civiliza- tion, \ji, 174; his rel.ilioiis with the Iroquois, 174; //oitsrs and House ^i^» '75' 420; Ancient Society^ 175, 382: controverted, 3.S0; his publica- tions, 175 ; his deati), 175 ; on Kau's views as respects the Tablet of the Cross, 195 ; on centres of migrations, 381 ; on human pnigres*., 382 ; on the Pueblo race, 395 ; on (he ruins of the Chaco caHon, 396; on the ruins on the Animas R'-er, 31/) ; on the social condition of the Pueblos, 397; on the moundbuilders, 401 ; tinds their life communal, 402 ; on their houses, 402; league of the Iroquois, 325, 416: on b.>ne implenient-s, 417; on linguistic divisions, 422; on Indian life, 325; Iroquois laws 0/ descent, 437; Bestcnving 0/ Indian names, 437; Houses of American Abori- gines, 437. Morgan, Thomas, on Vinland, 98, Morillot, Abb^, Esquimaux, 105. Morisolus, C., Epist. Cent, dute, 370. Morlot, A., 395 ; on the Phcenicians in America, 41. Mormon bible, its reference to the lost tribes, 1 (6. Morris, C, 403. Morse, Abner, Anc. Northmen, 105. Morse, Edw. S., Arroyo Release, (yc)', on the tertiary man, 3S7 ; on prehis- toric limes, 412. Morse, Jed., Report on Indian affairs^ 320. Mortillet, G. de, Le Signe de la Cross^ 196; Antiq. de Chomme, 3S3; founds the Materiaux , etc., 41 1, 442 ; L*homme, 442 ; Diet, des Sciences Anthrofiologiquey 442. Morttin, S. (1., Inquiry into the diS' tinctix)*" characteristics of the ahori^. race. 437; Crania Amer,, 372; lus collection of skulls, 372; Physical type of the American Indian, 37. ' Aboriginal Race of America, ^72', Some obserrations, 372 ; on the moundbuilders' skulls, yy), 403, Morton, Thomas, Xe^u English Ca- naan, 369. Mos-i, H., on the Quichua language, 280. Motolinfa, Hisioria, 156. Mntupe, 276. Moulton, J. W., Ne^v York, 93. Moultun, M. W., 409. Moundbuilders, connected with the Irish, 83 ; with the Welsh, 1 1 1 ; with the Jews, 116 ; with the later peoples of Mexico, 136, 137 ; Morgan on their houses, 175; Haynes's views, 367; literature of, 397 ; early Spanish and French notices of, 39S ; accounts by travellers, 398, 402 ; held to be ances- tors of the Aztecs and other southern peoples, 398 ; emblematic mounds, 400; the most ancient, 402 ; believed to be of the Indian race, 400,401, 402 ; earliest advocates of this view, 400; vanished race view, 400, 401, 402 : Great Serpent mound, 401 ; no clue to their language, 401 ; mounds in New York built^ by the Irotjuois, 402 ; date of their living, 402 j divisions of the United States by (heir character- istics, 402 ; held to be Chert kees, 402; agriculturalists, 402, 410; sun- wo shippers, 402 ; age of, 403 ; con- tents of the mounds, 403 ; fraudulent relics, 403; geographical distribuiion of their works, 404 ; built by Finns, 405 ; by Egyptians, 405 ; maps, 40*) ; use of copper, 408 ; pipes, 409 ; mil- itary character, ^09 ; turned hunters, 410: iheir textile arts, 419; cloth fipund, 419; pottery, 419. Movers, Die I'hoenizier^ 24. Mi>wquas, t II. Mnxa, 42M. M'Quy, I>r., 191. Mudge, H. F., 409. Miiellenhof, A Iterthumskunde^ 4. Muhkekaneew Indians, 116. Miihlenpfordt, K L, I'ersuch, 184. Muiscas. See Muyscas. Mujica, M. A., 282. Miiller, C, Geog. Graci, 34. Miiller, V.^Allgemeine Ethnographies 375- Miiller, J. G., on the Peruvian reli- gion, 270 ; Amer, Urreligionen^^^io, 430; on Quetzalco.itl, 433. Miiller, J. W. von, Reisen, 1S5. Miiller, Max, on early Mexican his- tory, 113; on lxtlilxochi:l, 157; on the J^opul I'uh, idj -. K. B.Tylor, 377; 'Jii American i...,notheism, 4^0. Miiller, P. E.. Icelandic Hist. Lit., 84; {with Velchow, J.) ed. Saxo Gram., 92; Sagenbifiliothek, S$. MiiWer, Handl'uch des klas. Alterih.^ 5. Muller, Frederik, xvi. Mummies, in American caves, 39! ; of Incas, 234, 2^^ ; Peruvian, 276, 277. Munch, P. A., DetNorske Folks Hist., 84; Olaf 'r*-ygi;vesdn, 90; .Vorges h'onge-Sagae r, (jo. Munich, Gesellschaft fUr Anlhropolo- gie, 443- . .. Munoz, J. H., 191; Historia, 11; on the Norse voyages, 92. Munseli, Frank, xv. Munsell, Joel, xv ; his publications, XV ; sketch by G. R. Howell, xv. Miinster, Sebastian, his map, xxv ; Cosmographia, xxv; likeness, xxvi, xxvii; Kosm-^^raffia, xxviii ; trans- lations, xxviii ; on the Greenland geography, 126. Murphy, H. C, his librar\', ix; his Catalogue, ix; dies, ix. Murray, Andrew, Gcf^. Distrib.Mam- mals, 82, 106. Murray, Hugh, Travels, 93, 1 1 1 ; Disc, in No. America, 72; on the Northmen, 93- Miirua, M. de, Hist. gen. del Peru^ 264. Museo Erudico, 276. Museo Gutitemalteco, 168. Museo Mexicano, 444. Music, 420. Musical instruments, 420. Mutsun language, 425. Muyscas, myths of, 436 ; idol, 281 ; or- igin of, 80. Mvths, not the reflex of historyj429; fiteraiure of American, 429. Naaman Creek, rock shelter at, 365. Nachan, 135. Nadaillac, Marquis de, L\Amh-inue prHtistorique, 3'x), 412, 415; Prehis- toric America, 415 ; on the autoch- thonous theory, ^75; De la pl'riode glaciaire, 388; Les prem. hommes, 3Cig, 412; Mceurs des *>euples pr^his- torique, 412; Les pipes et le tabac, 416; L'art prihist. en Amirique, 4 ' 9- Nahuas, origin of, lu- direction of their migration controverted, 134, 136, 137, T38: earliest comers, 137; from tiie N. W., 137; date disputed, 1 37 ; their governmental organiza- tions, 174; places of their kings, 174; their buildings, 18a; picture-writing, 197; myths, 431. See Aztecs, Mex- ico. Narborough, Magellan Straits, xxxiv Narraganselts, 323. Nasca, Peru, 271, 277. Nasnu til, J., 50, Natehez Indians, 32^) ; supposed de sceiidants of Votanites, 134. Natchez, relics at, 3S«y. Natick language, 423. National Geograpnic Society, 438. Natural Hist. Soc. of Montreal, 438 Nature, 443. NauKaiuck valley, 323, N.iuleite cave, 377. Nauset, 102. Navajos, 327 ; expedition against, 396; weaving among, 420, Neanderthal, race, 377 ; skull, 377, 3^9. Nebel, Carlos, / laje pintoresco, 179, 180. Negro racf. as primal stock, 373 ; of a stock earlier tlian Adan:, 3'^4. Nehring, A., on animals found in Peru- vian graves, 273. Neill. K. D., on ihe Ojd>ways, 327. Neolithic Age, 377; implements of, 377. See Stone Age. Nepciia, 27^). Neue Herliniscke Monr.tsschrift, 371. Ni-umann, K. V., Atnerika nach Chi- nesischen Qnellen, 7S, 80. Nevome language, 425 New lirunswick shell lieaps, 392. New England Hist, Gcneal. Society, xvii. New England Indians, 322; mounds in, 404; visited by the Northmen, 94» 95i 9''» shell lieaps, 392. New Grenada, map, 209; tribes of, 282. New Hampshire, bibliog., xv; Indi- ans, 322. New Jersey, copies of docs, in her Archives, xiv ; Indians, 325; shell Jieans, 393. New Niexico, maj of ruins in, 397. New (.Mean?, hu, lan skeleton found near, 389. New York Acad, o Science, 438. New York city, a? a centre for the study of Amer. I..st., xvii; its Hist. Soc. library, xvi; Astor Library, xvii; private libriTies, x, xviii. ^ New York State, ical histor\' in, v; its library at ilbary, xviii; the French import ,ood» into, for the Indian trade, 311 . ''..s trade with the Indians. 311 ; Indians, 323; missions, 323 ; mounds, 404. Newark, Ohio, map of mounds at, 407; described, 408, Newcomb, Sinum, opposes CrolPs theory, 387. Newfoundland, early visited by the Basques, 75; in the early maps, 74; Eskimos in, loTi; Indians of, 321. Newman, J. W, Red Men 4^.. Newport stone tower claimed to be Norse, 105. NezahualcovotI, i4'>, 147; dies, 148. Nezahualpifli, 14^. Nicaragua, early footprint in, 385 ; ex- plorers of, 19;* ; mytiiology, 434 ; sources of its history, ify). Nicholas V, alleged bull about Green- land, 69. Nicholls and Taylor, Bristol, 50. Nienhof, lirasH. Zee -en Lantreize, xxxiv. Niihoff, Martin, xvii. Nilsson, Stone Age^ 412. Niza, Marco de, Quito, 268. Noah, M. M., American Indians de* scendants of the Lost tribes, 116. Nodal. J. F.^ on the Quichua tongue, 2S0: Ollauta, 2S1. Nonolmatras, 13'). NordenskjrOd, A. E., Exped. till Grdnland, 86; his belief in a colony on east coast of fireenland, 109 '- J^'^r- trait, 113; on the Zeni, 114: /'»"'*• derna F.enos, 114 ; Trois Caries prholumbiennes, (14, 117; Studien mmml0iitM. 462 INDEX. U'' %■• H ' .h \ ) H I a i H: Ufuf Forachunf'en^ 114; finds ♦he diciest maps nf (ircenland, 117; his Iir()ji.-cifd At/as, 135; (Hi the Ul.ius Nla^mis nin|i t, I 5''/). i2S- Norman, U. M., KamNes in I'ucntan, iS(.. Norman sailors on the American coasis, i>7. Norris, P. \V,, 4o<>. Nnrse. .SV(' Nnrtlimcn. North CirnHna, aiitiqiiitics, 410; rock inscriptions, 411. Northmen, cut of their ship, f)2 ; plan of same, (jj ; ship discovered at Gokstad, (i2 ; another at 'rune, (>j ; one used as a house, '14 ; depicted in the llayeux tapestry, ''4; tiags, 64; weapons, 64 ; charaLterisiics, 67 ; in tireenl.uid, OS; in Iceland, Si; alleged visits to America, r>S ; their voyages seldom recoj;nizcd in the maps of the xvth cent., 11;. Northwest coast, the Berlin Museum's Xordwcst Kiiste, jd. ■ Norttnanus, R. C., Vf origitic gi'ttt. A >fier., 170. Norton, Charles B., liis L/f. Letter^ XV NorumbeRa held to be a corruption of Norvcgia, (^S. Norway, early i.iap, iiS; in Fra Man- ro's map, 120 ; in Olaus Mai^nus, 124, 125; by Hordone. 126; in (Jal- lit'US, 121). Nott, J, C (with C.Iiddonl, Types of Mankind, 372 ; Hiysical Hist, of tiw Jetvs^ 373 Indigenous Kaci'St 374. Nova Scotia, Indians, 321 ; shell- heaps, y^2. Nova Scotia Institute of Nat. Science, 43'^. Novo y Colson, D. P. de, and Atlantis, 45- , „ Noyes, Xnv Englattd s Outy^ 322. Noymlap, 275. Numismatic and Antiq. Soc. of Phila- delphia, 43S. Nuttall, V\\o\\\^'iy Arkansa Territory^ 3-'*- Nuttall, Mrs. Zeha, on Mexican com- munal life, 175; on the so-called Sacrificial Stone, 1S5 ; on coniple- mental signs in the Mexican graphic system, 19S ; on Mexican leather- work, 420 ; on terra cottas from Teotihuacan, 1S2. Nyantics, 323- O'Rkif.n, M. C, Rrammalical sketch of the Abnakc, 423. O'Curry, Eugene, Anc. Irish history, 5O' O'Flahertv, Islands of Arrttn, 50; Ogygia, SI. Oajaca, 149* 433: sourcesof its history, 16S ; ruins in, 184; teocalli at (view), Obando, Juan de, his Qiiichua dic- tionary, 279: grammar. 27'). Ober. F. A., Travels in Mexico^ 170; Anc. Cities of America ^ 177. Obsidian, 417; implements, 358. Ocean, ancient views of the, 7 ; depth of. 3^3- Ocean II ighways^ 442. Orocingo, 135, Odysseus, voyage of, 6 ; his wander- ings, 40. Ogallala .Sioux, 327. f)gilbv. America^ i, xxxiv. Ogygia, 12, 13, 23. Ohio Archtsological and Hist, Quar- terly, 407. Ohio Land Company (174^), formation of the. 3oort, 4c6 : pictographs, 410; State Hoard of Centennial managers, Final Report, 407. Ohio Valley, ancient man in, 341 ; an- cient hearths in, 3S9; caves, 391; English attempts to occupy, 312; frontiflife, 3i'>; Indians, 320 Ojeda, A. de, describes pile dwellings, 3f'4. Ojibways, 327. Olaf, Iryggvesson, 62 ; saga, 90 ; edi- lioiis, 90, Olaus Magnus, 65; Hist, de Gentihus Septent. 67. Olivarez, A. F., 2X2. Ollantai or Oilantay^ 425 , drama, 274, 242, 2S1; different texts, 281; its age, 282. Ollantay-tampu ^r iambi , iuins, 220, 221, 271. Olmecs, migration of, 135; earliest coiners, 135; overcame tne giants, 137- Olmos, A. de, 156, 276, 279. Olo-'ingo, 19*). Omalias, 327. Onas, 2S9. Ondcgardo, Polo de, in Peru, 260, 201 ; Relaciones, 2C11. Onderdiiuk, J. L., 412. Ongania, Sammlung, 47, 53. Onondaga language, 424. Onontio, 2Sg, Ophir of Solomon, S2, 369; found in I'alenciue, 191. Orbigny, A. d*, L'^howme Aw/ricnin, 271 ; I'oyageSf 271 ; liis ethnograph- ical map of .Si.ulh America. 271. Orcutt, S., Indians^ 323; Stratford^ 3 23^ Ordonez, Kamon de, La Creadon del Ciclot elc.^ 16S; Palenqu^, 191. Ore, L. (i. de, Ritualc, 227, 2S0. Oregon, Indians, 32.S ; mounds, 409; shell heaps, 393. Oio/.co y IJerra, helped by the collec- tions of Icazi)alceta and Ramirez, 1(13; (}eoji,. dc las lenguas de Mex- ico, 13;, 172, 427 : Die. Universal dc Hist.. 172; Mexico, i ?2 ; El CnauhAicalli de Tizoc, 1S5 ; Cddicc Mendozin'f, 200, Orrio, r. X. de, Solution del gran problema, •;(}. Ortega, C. F., eil ^'eytia, 159. Ortelius, on the i 11 ; holds Plu- tarch's continLiu e America, 40 ; believed Atlantis ic be America, 43; map of the Atlantic Ocean (1587^ 58; mapof Scandia, 129; and the sag^"; Otomis, 13ft. 424; their language, 81. Otompan, 140. Ottti, F. C, 271. Otumba, fight at, 175. i Ovid, Fasti, 3. Oviedo y llanos, J. de, Venezuelat 444. Oxford I'oyages, xxxiv, Oztotlan, 139. Paccari-tampu, 223. Pachacamac, 234, 277. Pachicnti, J. de S. C, Reyno del PirUt 436. P.ichacutec, Inca. 230, 277. Pacific (^cean, great Japanese current, 78; its islands in j^eol. titnes, 3S3; long voyages upon, in canoes. Si. Pacific Kailro-'id surveys, 440. Packard, A- S., on the Eskimos, 105. Padoucas, 1 10. J*(psi Xo7'anicntc, xix ; Ne7ve unhek. landtc, XX ; fac-siniile of title, xxi ; Nye unhek. lande, xx ; ItinerarOi Portugal^xw Sensuyt le nouveau tnonde, xx ; Le nouzK monde, xr.i. P.iez, 42S. Pat*z-Cast«lIano language, 425. Page. \. R.. 410. Paijkull, C. W., Sujnnier in Iceland, «3. Paint Creek, map. 406. l*ainter. C. C, Mission Indiatts, 338. Palacio, Diego (^ircia de, Carta^ 168, 427- Palacio. M.. 2S1. Paleolithic age, named by Lubbock, 177; its implements, 331; cut of, 331; man in America. 357, 35V; could he talk? 421; developments towards the neolithic state, 3*15. See Stone Age. Palenque, position of, 151 ; ruins de- scribed, 191 ; first discovered, 191 ; age of, 191 ; restorations, iij2 ; tablet, 193; sculptures fiom the 'reinple of the Cross, 193, n>5 ; seen by W aldeck, 194 ; plans, 195 ; views, 195 ; statues, ](/>. Palfrey, J. . comparativa, 424. Palmer, Kdw., 409; on a cave in Utah, 390. Palmtr, (ieo., Migrations front Shi' nar, :\7.\. Palipmino, 260. Palos. Juan de, 155. Palszky, F., 374. Panch.xa, 12. Pandosy, M. C, }'ahania langttagf, 4^5- Papabucos, 13'i. Papaiitla, 17S. Paracelsus, ThcMiph., on the plurality of the luiman race, 372. Paradise, position 01, 31, 47. Paraguay, 370. Paravey, C. H. de, Fou-Sang, 80; JVour-elles preuves, 80 ; Plateau de lio^ota, 80; replies to Joinard, 80. Pareja, F,, La Lengua Titnuquana, 4^5- Pareto, Bart, de, his map (1455), 56. Paris, peace of (17^3'). 312, 313; So- cicte de Oeographie foundetl, 441; Recueil de Voyages, 441; Bulletin, 441. Paikman, F., California and the Oregon trail. 327 ; France and England in North America. 316; on the Indian character, 317; La Salle, 3iJ<- Parmenides, 3. Parmentier, Col.. 81. I Parnumca, 275. ! Parsons, S. H., 437. Parsons, Usher, on the Nyantics, 323. Passamaqiioddy legends, 431. Patin, Ch., xxiv. Pattisrn, S. R., Age of Man, 387; Earth and th-: Word, 383. I'atton, A., 4o?>. Pauw, De, Recherches, 173. -SVe De Pauw. Pawnees, 327. Paynal, 432. Payta, 275. Pazos-kanki, V., his Quichua work, 2 So. Peabody, Oeo., 439. Peabody Academy of Science, 43S. Peabody Institute (Halt.), xviii. Pealjody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, 439 ; Reports, 439 ,* Special Tapers, 439. Pcale, T. R., 401), 410. Pech, N'akiik, 164. Peck, W. F., Rochester, 323. Pecos, ruins, 30. Pederson, Christiern, cd. of Saxo, 92. Peet, S. D., The Tyramid in Amer- ica, 177; on Pueblo architecture, 395 ; on the serpent symbol, 401 ; on the moundbuilders, 403. 40S, 401; on mounds as totcmr, 40S; on the Saint Louis mounds, 4o ; "I'VVfi, ro5; on the f'arativa, 424. <'»i a cave in rat I'ofis from Shi^ on the plurality of V' f . 3 1 , 47. -', Fou-Saiii^, 80; f, 80; riat\'au (fe s to Jumard. 80. 'A"""" Timitqnatia, "^•ip(M55). 56. ^^*' ,V2, ii.i; So. Ine fciundfti. 441 ; 44' ; liuliftin, 'iforttia and thr 17' France and th Amerka, 316; laracter, ji;;/,,! the Nyaniics, 323. ■ncis, 431, r f ^ran, 387; or a, 383. ^^es, 173. .SVi-De Quichua work, Science, 438. iilt.). xviii. Archxdlogy and Reports, 439; 9- ^'•'', 323. ed. of Saxo, ga. ., /'er//>/ns, 39. Perin:4»kioId, ed. //e/insA-rin^/at 91. Perizonius, 22, t"' Perkins, Kn-d. I!., his sketch of Gowans, xv ; .S\ ro/'e, xv. Pernetty, !>., controvL-rls De Pauw, 370; /i.vamen, i,-jo\ De VAmeri; evidencei* of it, 209; niai^s, 210, 211; hounds, 212 ; length ot the settled condition of the Inca race, 212; plants and nnitnals domesticat^-d, 212; ancient burial-places, 214 : pre-Inca people, 214: cyciopean remains, 220; water sacrifices, 221; deity of, 222; Pirua d\'nasty, 223. 225; its people, 227; Tampii Tocco, 223; Inca dynasty, 233; its duration, 221;: list of the kings, 223 '- "fi^iii "f the incas, 223 ; their rise under Maiico, 225; their original home, 22'^> ; their subjuga- tion of the ' earlier peoples, 227; estab!i>h their power at Cuzco, 22S ; portraits of the Incas, 22S, 2<'7 \ picture of warriors, 230 ; Chanca war, 230 ; Inca Yupanciui, 230; war between Huascar and Atahualpa, 231,2(^12; names of the Incas, 231; succession of the Incas, 231, 232; their relijiion, 232; belief in a Su- preme Heing, 23 ^ ; sun • wor>ihip, 233 ; plan of the '1 emple of the Sun, 234 ; religious ceremonials, 236, 240; astronomical knowledge, 236; their months, 23^* ; festivals, ^ .7 : htiitian sacrifices, 2.37, 23S; learned men, 241; the Quichua language, 241 ; the court language, ^41 ; refer- ences on the Inca civilization, 241 ; their bards, 243 : dances, 242 ; mu- sical instruments, 242 ; dramas, 242 ; quipus records, 242 healing art, 243; the c^-ntral sovereign, 244; tributes, 245 ; the Inc.- insignia, 245 ; their atchitecture, 247; two nages of it, 247; their thatching, 247 ; ruins, 247 ; social polity, 241J ; the Inca family, 249; divisions of the empire, 249; provinces, 150; 1 ruiuf^ of a village, 251 ; laborers. I 2.;i; bringing ur> of children, 251; land measure, 251 ; their agriculture, 252; hanging gardens, 252; 'rriga- tiun, 253: peculiar products, 253; their tlocks. 253; their roads, 21:4, 261; travelling, 254 ; map of roads, 254; colftnlal system, 255; military system. 255 ; art';, 255; nietnl-work- trs, 256; potter>', 2^f>, 2^-j, 25S ; i*eapons, 257 ; spinning, weaving, and dyeing, 257 ; clolh-making, 2^" ; ' authorities fm ancient Peruvian hiv tory, 259; the con([uerors as authors, 2f>o ; lawyers ,ind prie-«ls, 2O1 ; poetry, 2''2 ; chronology, 2'i2 ; efforts to extirpate idolatry, 2^)4 ; native writers, j'li; ; Keiaciones descri^- tivas tilled out in Peru, 2'rf»; the /n/orinae tones resjwcling the usur* p.ition of the Incas, 2'>M; pedigrees of the Incas, 2 Petzh.ildt, Bibi. lUbliog., xvn. Peyrere, Isaac ile la, Groenland, S5 ; editions and translations, S6; /Vfe- adtiniitte, 384; Man before Adam, 3^4- Peyster, J. W de, Miscellanies by an officer, 321. Phallic symbols, 3i, 195, ,^29. Philadelphia libraries, xviii. Philip, King, his war, 297 ; prisoners in, 2S9. Pliillii>s, H., jr., 155, 444; on the alleged Nova Scotia runes, 102. Pliillips, J. S., 372. Phillipps, Sir Thomas, 155; receives some of Kiiigsborough's MSS., 203 ; Catalogue. 203 ; liis copy of Kings- borough's book, 203, Philoponus, Nova typis tran^acta navigatio, 4S. Phcenicians and maritime discovery, 23i 29. Photography of the Yucatan ruins, 186. Picard, Veuples idolatres, xxxiii. Pichardo, J. A., and the Boturini ''ollection, i('0. Pickering, Chas., bis ethnolog. map, S2 i Races of Man, 374; Men and their geog. distribution, 38 1. Pickering, John, 423. Pickett, E., Testimony of the Rocks, 403, 4CK;. Pictngraphs, 105, 410. I'ictnre-writing, notes on, 197 ; that of the Aztecs and Mayas early con- founded, 107, 205 (ifV Hieroglyph- ics); recent sales of MSS., 200; Maya method, 202 : P. Martyr's de- scriptions, 203 ; in Kingsborough's work, 203. Pidgeon, \Vtn., Traditions of De-coo- dah, 400; on Fo.t Azatlan, 40S. Piedrahita, Granada, 436. I'ierre, Henry, xxviii. Pile dwellings, 3^14. Pillars of Hercules, 25. Pilling, jas. C, Bibliog. Indian Lan- guages^ /Voof's/ieetSi vii, 414,423; on lintjuisiic MSS., 423. Pim, Bedford, Dottings^ 197. Pima language, 425. Piinentcl, Aiilonio, Relaciones, 164. Pinieiitel, I"., Lenguas indiggnas de Mexico, viii, 142, 425, 42''. Piiurt, Alphonse, J.es Almontes, 7S ; Catalogue, 414. 423,425; Colec-ion de linguistica, vii; />//'/. de linguii- tique Am^r., 425. I'inart- Urisseur Catalogue^ vii, xiii. Pindar on the Ail.uitic ()ci*an, aS. I'inelo, Ant. de Leon, /iibliotecaf 41 ^\ Itarcia's ed., 413. Pinelo. See I.eon j' I'inelo. Pinkerton, John, I oyages, xxxvi. Pin/on's voyaue^, ace. of, xxiv. Pipart, Abbe J , 300; Astrouotuiedti Mexicainesy 179. Pipe-stone quarries, 416. Piq^uet, Kather, 30S, Pinnda-Othonii language, 426. Piruas, 222. Pi?ico, valley, 277 ; mutnniy from, 277 Pissac, 23f». Pizarro, Pedro, 2f'o. Pizigani, Pr., map(i3'i7), _ 55; cut of, 54; (i,173). 51' 55- Plato, on the form of the th, 3; J'hitedOf 3; 'J iinaeus, 3, 13. 42; o" the Atlantis story, 15, 41 ; his works^ 34; editions, 42. Platzmann, Julius, Grammatiken, vii. Plei.stocfme man in America, 329, 357. See I'ertiarv ami (Jualernary mai:. Pliny on the fiirtn of the earth, 3 ; Nat, Hist.^ 15, 35, 42 ; hi^ Atlantis, 42. Pliocene man, 3S5. See Pleistocene, Plummets, 417. Plurality of rates, 372, Plutarch. De I'lacitis Thilosophoruntt 3 ; his Saturnian C'lntinent, 23 ; Moralia, 35; on Solon, 42. Poinsett, J. k., Notes on Mexico, iSo. Poisson, J. W.y Animadx'crsionesy 370 polo, Mateo, xr'v, xxviii, XXXV, xxxvi. I*alyl)ius, 34 ; on tlie branches of the OLcan, 7. Pnlvnesians, iheir relations to the Alalays, Si ; their route to America, Si ; migrations, 82, 376. Pomar, J. B., A ntigiiedades de lot JnduKs, i''4 ; Meniorias histJricaSf 1(^)4; on a Mexican Iiouse, 420. Ponce, Father Alonzo, 197. Pontanus, Rerum et urbis A mst. hist.^ xxxiii ; on the Zeni, 1 1 1. Pontiac's conspiracy, 2S4, ;u4 ; num- ber of warriors, 315; posts captured, 31^ , Pontoppidan, NoniHiy^ 92. Pot)le, W. F., 43; (tn iJoniully's AU lantis, 45 ; on Welse's Disc, of A merica, 45. Popular Mag. of Anthropology ^ 442. Popular Science iMonthly, 43'y. Popular Science Re7'ie7r, 443. Porcelain in pre-Spanish times, 177. Porcupine bank, 51. l*ortu}j;uese discoveries in America, bibliog., xix ; the first exphrers of the African coast, 35; larly views of ihe American coast, 120. Posidonius, 5, 34. Post, C. F., in Ohio, 311, Potato in Peru, 21 1. Potter, W. P. , 409. Potter, Parly Hist. Narraganseii^ 323. Potter's wheel, 419. Pottery, collectionsof, 41S, 419; paper on, 41C); in Peru, 25(1, 257. I'ourtales, Count, on human remains in Florida, 3S9. Powell, David, loi). Powell, Maj. j. W.,in the Colorado caKon, 3'/'; portrait, 411; Survey of the Rocky Mt. region, 412 ; Ann> Reports Pur. Pthnol., 412: on the moun \V. I ^ ■ if I V :' ! i noln^y, 4-19; liis UnRuiMic studieAi 4,V*; edits CoMtributions to Etk- nologyy 440. PuwurH, Stephen, nn tim California Indiana, Hi ; Tribes 0/ i'nii/ornia, Hi, 32S. Pown.il, Onv. Tl]nn»as, suK;;ests the cranial tf>.l of race, .^71. I'r.mil, AristoUies, 7; Himmehgt- bttiuft", 7. Prall. \V. n.,4oS. J'rayiti^ Indians, jog. l'rL*ad,unilfs. 3X4, J^rehlc, Ci. H., nn Norse ships, 63. Precessidn of ihe eqiiimixcs, 1H7. Prehistoric arch.folojiy, canuns of, .^3<); Internal. ConKressfs, 411. prehistoric time, usual divisions of, 377 I statues of developnient not de- cided l)y tinu', ^77. Prescott. W. H., .m the Northmen, (/t ; Mexico , I'li ; noii-s j7. Pulszky. K., Human races and their art, 420. Pumpelly, R., Across America, 327. ''uquina, 274; languape, 22'), 2'''o. Purchas, Samuel, xxxiii ; on the Zeni, III ; buys the Codex Mcndoza, 204. Purpurarirc, 14- Putnam. C. E., 404; Authenticity of the elephant pi/>es, 404. Putnam, F. W., on tlie California In- dians. 3jS; on the origin of Amer- icans, 375 ; on the Trenton imple- ments, 314, 337, 3SS ; Palaolithic implements^ 3RS; on Kentucky caves, 300; on shell heaps, 392; on Jeffries Wyman, 39.'; on the Great Serpent mound, ^oi ; his position on the miestion of moundbui'oI(igical collections, 440: his I comments on the relics of tlie Naa- I man Creek rock shelter, 367. Putnam, Kufns, A'-m' County, Ohio^ 408. Pyramids in America, 177. Pythagoras, 3. Pytheas, 34; "" the Atlantic, 28; at Thule, 28. Quakers, liibliog., xvii ; in Peinisyl- vani.i, oppose resistance to Indiana, 308; relation to the Indians, 325. Quaritch, Hernaid, the London book- seller, xvi ; his Museum, xvi ; Ids (iemral Catalogues, xvi ; in tl»e *' Sett of t}dd Volumes, "xvi; sketch by \V. 11. Wyman, xvi. Quarry of pii>e-stones, 416, Quarrying stone, 41O. Quartz, 417. Quartzite, 417. Quaternary man. the earliest, 387, Qiiatiefages de Brean, A. de, Les Poly- n/siensj N2 ; Crania Ethica, 373; Vniti de Vespece humaine, 374 ; Kaces humaines, 374,387; Human species, 374 ; Xat. Hist. 0/ Man, 374. 387, 411 ; Les progres de C An- thropologic, 37^; Hommcs /ossiles, 3^9. 411; Kapport sur Ic progri-s de i* Anthropologic, 4r t. Quauhnahuac conquered, 147. Quauhtlatohuatzin, 146 Queh, F. G., 167. Quellenata, ruins, 249. Quemada, ruins, 183. Querez, 394. Querhm, xxxv. Qnetz.:!coatl (a king), 140; discredited by Ilrinton, 141. QuetzalcoatI (a divinity), a white- bearded man, 137; the myth, 137; identified with Cortes, 149; Ilastian on, 172; his nioun:!, 179; oiipressed by 'lezcatlipoca, 4^1; references, 432 ; historical basis of his story, 432 ; effigy, 432 ; under other names, 434. . Quiahuiztlan, 164. Qniche-Cakchiquel peoples of Guate- mala, 133; their geog. position, 151. Quiches, language, 4^7; myths, 435; origin of, 134; traditions, 135; their power in Guatemala, 150 ; warned of the Spaniards' coming, 151; their I g*^f*K' position, 151. I Quichuas, their language and litera- ture, 82, 241, 27S; grammars, 27S; vocabularies, 278; myths of, 436; original home, 126. Quignon, Mount, human jaw found at, y,o. Qumames, 133, 136. Quinantzin, 142. Quincy, Josiah, Hist. Harvard Uni- versity, iii. I i Quinsai, 51. I Quinte Hay mounds, 410. \ I Quipus, 242 ; cut, 243. ■ QuiriguA, ruins, i(/»; plan, 196; refer- I ences, 197. ! Quito, Hassaurek on, 272 ; map, 211 ; early accounts lost, 268; later his- ' tones, 268. Quitiis, 227. Quivira, 394. | Races, unity or plurality of, bibliog., ! 372. ' Rada, t)e la, on Rosny, 201 ; Les I 'ases p^ruviennes, 257. Rada y Delgado, J. I), de la, publishes Landa's Kelacion-, i''>5. Radisson, P. E., I'oyages, 318. ' Rae, John, iof^>, I Kafinesque, C. S., on Atlantis. 46; on the Delawares, 325; Anc. Mts of \ America^ 37a ; on the rnounda, 409^ his character, 424; introd. tu Mar- shall's K'eututky, 434 , Ancient His- ^'r^, 424; rhe A pnerican Nations, 4M' Rafn, C. C.t OrJnlands His*. Mindes- macrker, 86; auiog. , 87; Americas (ieog.f 87; cd. Olaf Tryg^vessnn's Saga, 90; portrait, '). Ragine, A., lUcouv. de VAmh'igue, 7«. Rnimondi, Ant., El Peru, 273. Rain-gnd, 180. Rali'^ih, Sir Walter, on De Bry, xxxii. Ramirez, Josii F., edits Duran's ///j- toria, 155; on Saliagun, 157; his collection of MSS., 157, 1^3; notes on i'rescott, ifi3; IHH. Afe.r., 414. Ramirez de Fuenleal, //ist. de los M^xicanos por sus Pinturas, 431, Ramon de Ordoftez, Hist, del Cielo, 1 14. .S>*' Ord'iflfz. Ranuisio edits I'. Martyr and Oviedo, xxiii; Xavigazioni,-x.x\\\,TiX\\\\\ on the Zeni, 1 1 1. Randolph. J. W.,xv. Ranking, John, Conquest of Peru by the Mongols, 82. Rask, Krasmus, 88; on the Irish dis- covery (tf America, 83, Rasle, ft., Abnahe language^ 423, Ran, Chas., on Dlphton Rock 104; on the Palen(iu*5 'I ablet, 195; on the progress of study in the hitroglyph- ics, 202 ; Catal. Xat. Mnseum, 403; on Illinois mounds, 408; Articles, etc., 411; on the aboriginal imple- ments of agriculture, 417; Prehis- toric fishing, 417*. on the stock in trade of an aboriginal lapidary, 417 ; various papers on stone imple- ments, 417; on Amer. pottery, 419; Aboriginal Trade, 420; thought the earliest man could not talk, 421 ; Ar- ticles on Anthropol. Subjects, 439; Archaolog. Coll. of the V. S., 440; J.apidarian Sculpture, 440. Rawlinson, Geo., Antiq. of Atan, 3S1, 3S2. Rawlinson, Sir H. C, on the Zeni, 113. Ray, Luzerne, 323. Rea, A. de la, Mechoacan^ 168. Read, Harvey, 418. Read, M. C, 407; Archepology of Ohio, 407 ; on the Tennessee mounds, 410. Reade, John, 328. Reck, P. G. F. von, Diarium, 326. Recollects, missions, 317. Recueit de Voyages, etc., xix. Reil River of Louisiana, 440. Red River of the North, mounds, 410. Red pipe-stone quarry, 416. Eegistro I 'luatho^ 444. Reynolds, E. R., 416; Shell-heaps at Xe^vburg, Md., 393. Reynolds, H. L,, jr.. Metal Art of Anc. Mexico, 418. Reid. Bibl. Amer., ii. Reikjavjk, Oi. Rcillo, island, 49. Reinaud, Relations de ^Empire Eo* maineavec VAsie, 11 ; Giog.itAiml- Fada, 47. Reindeer Period, 339, 377- Reisch's map, 122. Reiss, W., and A. Stiibel, Necropolis of A neon, 273. Relics, spurious, 180. Remesal, Ant. de. Hist. ren. de las hidias, 16S; praised by Helps, 16S. Renard, on St. Paul's Rocks in the Atlantic Ocean, 45. Repartimientos, 174. Retzius, A., Present state of EthnoU <*sy> 44 i <*" the human skull, 373.' h \i on the mounds, 409; 24; intriHl. to Mar- I', 424 , Ancient l/if A meruan Nations^ iiifuis /fist Mimies- ,it(i^. , M7 ; A nif r it ijs Olaf TryK^vesHiiii's i^itf »/o\ Ins career, Anfit/. Atn^r., 93; tiMiF, g4 ; biblioB., latenit'nis nbcmt iTie ^J*ancienne n^hig. des s, '». 'tv. tie VAmfrique^ "i Peru^ 273. ', on De Bry, xxxii, edits Uuran's ///j- Sahagiin, 157; ),js >.S., 157, 1A3; nok-a liihl. Mex.s 414 leal, Hiit. lie ios IS /'iniuras, 431. z, //«/. ^c/ 6'c/tf, ,■/. lartyr and Oviedo, Hit xxiii, xxviii; on nguesi of Peru by 1 on the Irish dis- 'anguage^ 423. phton Rock 104 ; ! ablet, 195; on the in tlie hitroglyph- \'at. A/useutn, 403 ; Js, 408; Articlea^ aboriginal imple- ure, 417; Preliis- ; on the stock in inal lapidary, 417 ; on stone imple- mer. pottery, 410; ■,420; thon^lit the not talk, 421 ; Ar- oi. Suif/ecis, 431); ■}/iiie tr. ^'.,440; 'tare, 440. ntig. 0/ Man,i%\^ C, on the Zeni, mcan^ 168. Archaeology 0/ the Tennessee Diariutn, 326. 317. etc., xix. na, 440. rth, mounds, 410. y, 416- 44- ; Shell-heaps at ., Metal Art 0/ ie V Empire Ro^ 1 ; Giog. (tA Iml* 377- iibel, Necropolis 'ist. gen, de las \ by Helps, if)^. 's Rocks in the Uate of EthnoU man skull, 373: on the unity of man, 374; on the (iuanchti skullH, 1 if>, 117. Ren^ner, Iconei, xxiv. R^vIUl*, Albert, Origin and growth 0/ religion, 241, (.)i. Kevista J/t.riiana, 444. Kt'vistit l\ruan,i, jp). Kcvue Antfricaini!, 441. Kevue d'A nthropologie, 44a. Kevue d\i rchitccturi', 2 1 7. Kevue Hthnograf>hii]Ut\ 441. Kevue des Soc. Siivaitti's, ^S, Rhee*, W. J., History 0/ tlie Smith' soniiin Institution, 4v>- Rhode Island, d"cs. in her ArchivtH, xiv ; Indians, ,t2 ). Rialle, U. de. La A/ythohgie, 430. Ribas, Juan de, 155. Ricardn, Am., 27H. Riccioli, Oeog., 5. Rice, A. T., Essays from No. Amir, Kev.,>i2. Rich, Ob.idi.th, his career, iii ; dies, iv ; his catalogues, iv; assists Kinga- borougli, 203; obtains his MSS., 203 ; helped Prcscntt, 260. Richarderie. .SV^ Houcher. Richardson, J. M., 4«jS. Richardson, I'oyages, xxxvi, Riggs, R- S., 413; Dacota language, 424; on the Dacotah myths, 431. Rigollet, convinced by be Perthes, l'>o. Rikardsen, K , 107. Rimac, 277. Rink, Hinrich, Eskimoiske Eventyr, 70; portrait, 106; best authority on the l^skinins, 106; his pulilications, 106; J'ales of the Eskimo, 107; Danish Greenland, 107 ; Eskimo Tribes, 107; on their dialects, 107; their origin and descent, 107 ; their primitive abode, 107; their tradi- tions, 107 ; Ostgr'dnliindcrne , 131. See ( ireenland. Rio, Ant. del, at i'.Uenque, i(>[ ; Ruins of an line, city, igi. Rio de Janeiro, Nat. Museum, 444; HUinoires, 444. Rios, 1*. de los, 205. Riscland, 130. River drift, man of, 377. Rivero, M. E. de, Antigiiedades /V- ruanas, 270; translations, 270. Rivera, 1*.. 1S3. Riviere, E., in the Meiitnne caves, 390; Un Squelette hutnain, 31JO, Robertson, 1). A., 403, 405. Robertson, R. S., 401, 403, 40S. Robertson, Samuel, 74. Robertson, Wni., America, ii. 169; on the Norse voyages, 92 ; his nearly correct view of the anc. Mexican civilization, 173 ; severe on Clavi- ^ero, 15S; disbelieved in pre-Span- ish ruins, 176; on the incas, 269 ; portrait, 269; on tlie Amer. Indians, 320; tm seventeenth-century litera- ture of Americana, 413; hisbibliog., 4M- Robin, Louisiane, 30^, Robinson, Conway, Disc, in the H^est, 93- Robinson, Edw., 439. Robinson, Life in California, 328. Rocca, inca, 229. Rock insLiipiioiis of the Indians, 104, 105, 410, 41 1. Rock shelter at Naaman's Creek, 365. Rock-writing, 105. Rocks, cup like cavities in, 417, Rockall, 51. Rockford tablet. 404. Roehrig on the Sionx, 77. Rogers, Horatio, Private libraries of Proz'idetice, xvii. Roisel, Etudes ante-historiques, 46. Rojas, Chohda, iSo. Roman, (i., aC'S- Roman, H., Kepublica de las Indias, 434- Roman coins, in the Danish shell- heaps, 3^2 ; found in America, 41. VOL. I. — 30 INDEX. Romans, Hernard, /'VcriViS:!, 32^,372; on the autochihnnouii Amer. man, Ruruaui in (he Atlantic, 20. Rome, .SVt/Wdr iieog. Ital., Bollettino, 444. Ronu-ro on Mexican languages, vii. RiK|uefeuil, de, I'oya^^e, 7^. Rosa, (ionzalfz de la, 274. 280. Rosas, iJr., 2M1. Kosiiy, Leon de, L" Atliintide, 46; on I'ousang, So; I'anttes Orientales, .So ; Les doc. Krit. de Cantig. A mh' , 139, ioi, iQ-j, 442: on Sahagun, 15;; gives fac. 01 Aztec map, iij3 ; Essai sur le dhhiffrement^ etc. i'.3, 19S, 201, 207; on Landa*s Alpha- bel, 200 ; Les hr it ure s figurative s, 201 ; Archives paleographiques, jnt, 442; Anc. textcs Mayas, 201 ; Xou- velles Reclterclu'Sy 2ui ; his studies on Spain and Portugal, 201 ; Les Sources d'histoire antt - Coiumbi- enne, 2o\,4\i\ bibliog. 201 ; portrait, 202; on the Codex i'ellerianO'Re- mensis, .'05; on Hrasseur's ed. 4)f the Codex Troano, 207; discovers the Codex I 'ere 2 ian us, 207 ; Manu- scrit dit M^xicain, No. 2 de la bibl. inif'triale, 207% his works on Anu-r. arch.T-olo;;v, 2)7; on jade industries, 417; Revue Orientale et Amiri- caine, 441. Kosny, Lucien de, Les Antilles, 412, 442 ; /,/ tabac, 416 ; La Cera' mique, 419. Ross, Thomasina, 271. Rosse, Irving C, lof). Kothelin, Abbt', l^e liry, xxxii. Rotz, his map of (Ireenland, 12'). Rotijow, Races liumaines, 390. Rowbotham, J. F., Hist, of Music, 420. Royal (Jeographical Society and its pul}lications, 442. Royal Historical Sue. Trans., 443. Royal Society of Canada, 43S. Royal Society, 442. Royce, C. C, on the Cherokees, 326; Indian Cessions of land, 440; on the Shawanees, 326. Royllo, island, 49. Ruchamer, Newe unbek. landtc, xx. Rudbeck, on Atlantis, 16. Kuffner. E. IL, Ute Country, 327. Kui;e, Der Chaldiier Selenkos, 7. Ruins in Middle America, notes on, 176. Runes, alleged ones in Nova Scotia, 102 ; cuts ot", C.C., 67 ; age of, 66 ; ref- erences, 66 ; in Greenland, S7. Runnels, M. T., Sanbornton, N. //., 404. Rupertus. P/ssertationes, 40. Russell. I. C. Lake Laliontan, 349. Ruttenber, E. 'SX., Hudson River In- dians, 325. RuxUm,Life in Far West, iii, 327. Kuysch's map, 120, 122. SA.\nvH, Hans E., 108. Sabin, Jos., his publications, vi: Amer. /irblio/>olist, vi ; Dictionary, vi, 414 ; Squicr Catal., viii, 414 ; Menzies Catal., xii. Sabine, Lorenzo, on the Indians in Maine. 322. Sac and Fox tribes, 327. Sacrificial Stone in Mexico, 180, iSi, .S5. Sacsahuaman. ruins, 220, 221. Sagard, Canada, 429 ; reference to cojiper mines. 417. Sagas, when written. 84; credibility nf. 87, 98,99; fac-sirnile of script. 87; largely nivths. 88 ; when put in writ- inir, 88; Codex Flatoyensis,^"^, (y)\ bibliog., 91 : absurdities in, 9-); old- est maps in accordance with, 129. Sec Northmen, Iceland, etc. Saghalien, 80. Sagnt. P..42;. Sahagun, Father, as linguistic student, 465 , Aniig. del Peru, 2611 156; portrait, 156; his true name, 156; bibliog., 157. Sahuaraura, inca, I>r. J., 2St ; Recutr* dos de la Monarquia Peruana^ J70. Saint. .Sir St. Sails used by the I'eruvians, axo. Saleamayhua, J. de, S, P. Y., Rtla* Cton, 2'i6. Saldamando, K.T., Los A ntiquos Jt" suitas del i'eru, 22}, 2^2, Sale, Ant. de la, La S,ilad^,H$. Sali.sbury, Stephen, jt., 137; assists Le IMongeon, iSft, 1M7 ; i he Mayas, isj ; Terra Cottas of isla Mujtrts^ 1H7. Salone on Atlantis, 46, Sailer, John, 32S. San Juan, cliff liouses on the, 393 { pueblo, 3'/>. San Miguel, 49. San Tonias, liis grammar, 278- Sana, 276. Sanborn, J. \V., Seneca Indians, 323. Sanb), 5J} ace. of, 53 (1320), 55. Saravia, B. de, /I 268. Sargasso Sea, 25. Sargent, Winthrop, on the Cincinnati mounds, 39S, 4^ ; plan of the Mari- etta mounds, 405. Sarmiento de Gamboa, P.. discovers islands, a'.S; I'iagc al estrecho di Macclhines, 268, Sars.'j.E., Xorske Hist., 85. Satana^io. See Man Satanaxio. Satanaxio. See Man. Samiders, Trelawny, map of Peru, 2t r. Saussure, H. de, Ruines d'une anc. ville, 182. Savage. A. D., 196. Savage, Jns,. 409. Sawkins, J. G., 184. Saxe-Eisenach, Duke of, 205. Saxenhnrg, island, 47. Saxo-Grammaticti'*, Hist. Danica, gi. Scandinavia. See Northmen, Nor- way. Sweden, Iceland. Schaefer, Eniwicklung. etc., 3; Ge- stalt und Grdsseder Erde, 39; Phi- lologus, 5. Srhaghticoke Indian*;, 324. ScheiUias, Die Mayahandschrift, 205. Siherer, J. P.. Recherches, 76, 424, 445- Sclierzer, Vi.,Wanderung.ti. tf>f>; Las Hist, del Origen de los /ndios, 166; Quirigua, 117. Schiern, F.. Vn Em'gme, 26. Schlagintweit. 412. Schmerling, I)r., Recherches sur les osscmens, 31 io. .Schmidel. Brazil, xvxii. Schmidt. E..4n2 : I'>!s.u-rt. de America, 40 : /?/(■ iiltesftn Spnren des Men- sclien, 3S4 ; A nthropol. Mcthoden, 411. Schmidt, Julius, Copan und Quirigua, K/|._1C)7. Schneider, C. E. C, 41. Schoebel, C, among the pueblos, 397. Schiining, Gerhard , Norges Riges Hist..' 02. Schonlandia, t39- Schoolcraft, H. K.. Books in *be In- diiin tontines, v'n : on tin- N'ortluuen, 06; un the Grave Cree!. inscription, 102: on the Dighton ^vock, 103, 104; /r/d/'in Tribes, 120, 37'''. 430, 441; opinions of it, 3-0, 441; oiherwis-s 466 INDKX. , I IM calUtl Ar^hh^ti ef Afntriginaf Suinvlgd^t., 441; niid Ethnolof^uat Kiifitrc/us^ 441; l". S. Dr.ikL-'n c(l., 441; liU xwnvv, oil anti()iiitiuS| .);'■( OH Irotpwtiy tJ4, 405 1 \\>Us OH (he Iroijuois^ iv4, 4US ; fin VirKiiii.i nu>uiitiuliL'H, 4^4; diu», A41 ; nvalrv el Ciilin, 441. Scfutiiteii in L)e liry, xxxii. Stlir.ulcr, A'liw/iw dt-r M^vre^ 13. SlIuiIu - .Hi'llatk, Carl, Dn Amir. iidttfr, ioJ, 414. Schtilu, iriivt'is, 405. hchuiiiatlicr, 11. A., J*ttrus Afariyr^ XX. Sclutniaclicr^ P., 3731 on pottery mak- inn, 4t'V- Scliwali, Mni.Hc, 404, Si:li\*.itka. K., on the Kitkimos, 107. S.u'HCt', 4V>. ^ci(»in V'iiiley, map uf niuinuU, 400. Scipiii's (Irmm ScolfL-rn, JipIiii, Str,iy /envvs, jHj, ticnlvua, Jac, liis l.nulfall, \i^), See Skniliu. Scull, v. A., 350. Sc'd, Sir W.iltLt, on the Sagas, Hj. .Sciitl.ind, early iii.ip of, it^. Sttuliler. s. 11.. Citt.ii. 0/ Scientific Si-riah, 43^, 141. Scull, 11. I.)., edits K idisson, 31S. bcylax till Ihu Ail.uitic, 2.S; Peripius, S(;ytlitan nn^rntiun t" Anicric.i, 370, Sea ol l>arknt;>s, v- 7-I- Scijier, Ids drawing uf the Dighton Rock, loi. Sebilitit, i»aul. L.\',;„fi-s, 47- Sceman, It., I}i<(tiiii,'s, vp- SL-ldi-n colk'Ction, zu^. Sclisli ;;raminar, 4j;. Sfllcrs. un arrnw points, 417. Stminok' Indian-, 3jri. Scndti-s, 21; St'iieca, I,. X.^OwstioHum iVrt/.,35; wurks. y^ \ i>i) the westward nassniiu, 27; Ills prnphrrv, 2 p : Ids Ulliina Tlud.-,'* J',: Iiis.IA-./ivr, 2.). Senera InrlLins. 121; oricin of (he nanii'. i-m; their bnrial mound, 403. .V(V lrn(nir>i';. Reptnn. I . ^;. So-(iii"-yah. 1,2^^. .St-rpeiit nuiiind. 401. SiTpinl syrnbftl. 4ni, Srrpciit. wor'^liip (if. 420. SL-rtorius, 14, 2'.. Sovuii ("aves, t ^'*. Seven ( 'ilics, island Sewall, Samuel, voiui'Hii. 1 1 ;. Sewfll, Stephen, on Piphton Rock, loi, T04. Shaler, X. S.. on the Xew Jt-rscy Rfnvls, ^^1; their iniph-nu'iits 3SS ; on the dis:ippear;inct' of ih'-' niasto- dnn. i«.(: on Ohio Valley caves, 3'(i ; Kentucky Sun-iy, 402; on the nioniuls. 4in. Shaw, J., 4()S. Shawnni.-fs, .^07,326; in Pontiac's con- spiiiicy, %}(}. Shea, J. (\.. Li7'rr\ the Indians (if N'nva Scotia, ^^i ; translates Martin's 7c'.i^w^.c, 123 ; on the Wisconsin Indians. 3271 Pict. /''ritr/(itis-<'>//off/tii;-ff,^, 424: Li6. of Avicr. I.iv^uistic!:, 425 : its con- tents, 425; French Onomiitt^a Did., 42%. Shell-heaps, 301 ; contempnrar\' with the cave-men, 301 ; contenlsof those in No. America, 3^2 ; ^enernl refer- ences, 302, 303. Shell-nionev, 420. Shell-wnrk, 4 1?. Shep.ird, H. A., Antitj- of Ohio, 405, 407. Sherman, D., 321;. Sherwood, J. t)., 403. nf. -tT, 47.4?. I Hornin-^, 370; Pha* Sherwood, R. H,, 3jj, t Shetiniaaha Indt.inH, 436, ShipH, sjitcil of ancient, 34; of the tiftecnth century, 71 i a Uritiih ship, I 110. A«r Northmen. I Short, C. W, 43;. I hhurt, J. '!'., AV. Atner. of Antig., vii, ; 4 1 J, 415; on FuuHang, >4i; un the antltpilty of man In America, 330. SlutHliones, aria of, 410; their inigru* tions, 3^1. Sierra, Justo, 165, Signdanguage. See Gesture language. Sigiienza y lion^ora, L. de, hiti chro- nology uf iMtiXicu, 13J ; collectiun uf, StlellUH, 31. Sillinian, jfournai of Arts, 371. See A iner. Jourtuil of Science ami A r/s. Sillustani, 236; L'hulpaa at, 34M; cut, 250. Silver, 41^. Silveslre, /\tUoj^r,i/ihif, 205. Simeon, kt-mi, /,,j Anmi/es AU.ri- iiittit-s, H4; /,,/ Uiii;ui' M^xiiaiut', 4271 Sur la Humhatiou, 170. Sinims, / if.vs and A'cTinrs, 32S. Simon. Mrs. W. ,\., f/o/^- t'f Israel, 116; '/',■« '/'rilrs, iir.. Sinuniin, L., L'honttne Aui^ricain^ .375. 3S1. Simpson, H. \\ M., Pn-hist. of the North, He. Simpson, j. H., Navajo Country, 327 ; Mil. A'cconnaissanci', 3'>5, y/>; fl.v/'/orations of I'tah, 440. Sindiiii:, I'.inl K, Scantfinavia^ i/->', Stanil/n, /Cacvs, S, 10?. See Kskimoa. Sknlls, trepanned, 244; deforming of, 244. ^SV(' t ranioloi;y,' Sl.uleii, Von, lUazil, xxxii. Slafter. K. K.. Voya^^cs of the North- iiiffi, ■;(<. Small, J<'hn, on Tlude, iiS. Snicdt, C. de, 4S. Smith. Alf. K.,xvi. Sndih, II., if'c,: on the Pighton Rock, 104 : //?:■(' lan^uaf^e, 425 *, Pima liif/i;'i/ai^i\ 42;. Smitli, (.'. D.,416. Snnih, C. H., 369; IfuttMn Sf>ecies, 374- Smith, Kthan, Vie^v of the Hebre^vs^ Smith, I\rrs. E. A., on the Iroquois, 42^', Myths of the Iroquois, 431. Sndth, Col. James, 292, 310; Oi/- tirity. 2^^. Smith, fohn, in Pe Bry, xxxii. Smith, J. O., ./Mr. 4;. Smith, John Un-^sell, \vi. Smith, J. 'P., Xorthvicn in Ne^v Enf^- /itnd. o. Smith. Jos. . Friends^ hooks, xvii ; Anti-ffthikeriitua, xvii; IHi'l. Qua- krrisficj, \\\\. .Smith. Wm.. A'.tc )'ork, 324. Smith'^onian Institution, 430; its pub- lications, 430. Snuicker, Isaac, 403: arch.Toloi;y in Dliio, 40^1 : on the Newark mounds, 40S : on the AUiuatnr mound. 409. Snivtli, Thos., Unity of the Human Race, 37.(. .Snorre .Stnrleson, Ifeimskrin^la, S3. Snorn-, ancestor of Thorwaldsen, the Danish sculptor, 65. Soap-stone quarries, 416. Soholew^ki. S , his catalogue, xlii ; hli Pe Itrv, xxxii. Sobron, V . C V., Lot uUcphos, vH. Socictii Aniericaine Uu France, 176, 441. SocietiJ d*Aniliropologie, 390; Bui- Iftiu A\\i\ Memotrts. A\i. Sotiele d'Kthiiographie, AUtnoirea, 44> : /-'■» /^''i unienti h rits de I* A w- ti'/mt? .1 nii^r., 44a. Socirte Klhnographi(|ne, Hulletin and M. i/toirt-s, 4.^1, Soil furmaiioii in Anurica, 461. Solbtrg, Th., bdiliog. of Scandinavia, Soldan, Paz., Oeo^. del J'eru, 212. Soligo, Christ., map (i4«7?J, 58. Stilinns, Polyhistor., 35. Sollars, \V, J., 'o^-- Solomon, his ( >iihir, Sj. See Ophlr. Solon and Atlantis, 15. 43. Soloryan; commended by Gallaiin and others, 439; on the New York mounds, 399 ; Observations oh \!. I) ^ is t .italoRur, xiii ; hli /-'J ttiiomast vii. tic France, i;^, 'l'"'"«ie. 390; Bui- '"■'Its hrititU I'Ah- l'lii. lir, Sj. jr/rOphir. s M. 42. If, J*oiitua huiiana^ 357. 377. »55J on (lie mounda, ira cnrrt'^ponds with prt-liisiuiic man in, 4iS. .; ini iIiL- Unily n| lievfs in the theory I'^i ; Ht\eut orij^ht \\ l)ihlic.)l trust. jSi ; Miiiunn'th, 3M2; hia Itilfdvcrsy with the '-' ; t-n his opponents, ndiiins of, 32b. Mtitioc, III. 2'7 ; hii-roylvphic Sdtii-d.ul Anthropu- ^ 4 |.( ; A'f7'iSttl, 444. 410. writers of. ii. is librarv, vi ; his , vii. in the palaeolithic Hry, xxxii. .. hih Quithua work, ////W, 20s. liniis tfiilcd Grecn- , KU'vatio^ 115, 'H the frontier posts, Euro/'iicr in Nord Zesteimann's OV- I'rutt^ (fo; his pnb- M-ary, vii, viii, ifig, tSyiubol^ 76; nates >3 ; on the Grave n, 103 ; Cataloi^tte "^ ; Central A mcr- 'I'o'i 0/ Docs., 169; •luftir Stone, 179; et'.s Traveis, 195; America ruins and , !'/>; Xicaraj^ut, iia* 197; critiiised on a defect in the i^shcroiiKh's book, ; at Chacha, 224 ; 247: /'" A'''^('.0 'I" rtrjui/ wofinnii-ut.% ''f't,^ r'nciticuts oj nission and studies •s inomtnievts liu , 272 ; y'radi'tious 's, 325 ; on early 'uchlo race, ;^<)^ ; 'tit/t'ns of Kiw ^crtiia, 39r.; (with o/ilw Afississi/'^i lendfd hyGallatni >ii tlie Now Vurk Observations on iHOHMih, \fY}\ di>id>tA the Gmvu Cfcek t.iblt t, 404 , Ab^rtt: Mts. Slate 0/ i\, }', 4Js: Anti./. 0/ 4V. )'. State, 4cjj; .\/ono\'r,i/^/i 0/ Aiit/ioru IJ7; S'f/^ent Syntfiot, ^i>f. Sfpiier, Mh. M. K., I'j5. St, Hon.iv niurr, (l. tie, 477; (/Vdw- maire Afaya, ji« ■. St- Itrand in. island of, )j ; his ttury, 4S ; hi-» i-'land, 4"^. St. (Ifnu-nl, ,17. St. I..iwrenie Itt.nid, 77. Si. Lnuio Ac.uk-rny of Science, 438; inoiiiuU ne.ir, 40 |. St M.ilo, lejiend *.f, 4H. .St. i'.itriLk. f^i. St. I'rtt-r^lMUK, Museum of Kthiiot;- raiihy, 441. St. rhoni.in in Central America, 137; connected with (Juetealcnatl, 4JJ. Stadium, b'nL;il) nf, 4. Siallli.ium.fd. nf I'lato, 41; on PheniI. o/linx-^ 41^- Staiilty, j. M., rortraitso/No.Amer, I'miians, 4 (ij. Sleensirup, lapetus, on the /eni, m4> Steenslrup, k , on St aniiin.ivlan ruinn, S'.; l'>\terh-^,ien, 1 )i ; onthetireen- land colnnies, lo.^ StefTen, Max, LantiwirtSiha/t, 333, 417- Stein, Gerard, Die .KntJtckuni^sreiseH, 7»- SieintT, At^rahani G., 40H. Steinthd, M., Urs,''run^ tier S/>t\ii/te, Stelle, J. P...)io. Stenstroni, II., />*■ America, 91 Stephen'*, ( ien,, O.'iiext Doc. i\ i)aHnh, O'j ; iV(». A'ntifc Mts. , '>'> ; Hitnic Mts. 0/ ScamiinuTia, '". StepheiiH, j. L,, J utatan, \(i\, 176, iH'i; prints a Maya doc, if>4 ; hchl responsible by Moi^.m for exa^;j;er- ated notions nf the M.iya splendor, 176 ; Central .i merica, 1 ;'», 1S6, 194; in V'ueatan, \^St ''''•i niap, iSS; at Uxmal, iS9 ; at Oneb<-n-It/.i, i'»o; his results in Vuimi.hi, ii>o; al i*a- lenqut', n>4 ; at (.'i'|nn, n/t. Stephens, A//, of the Cytnry, iii. Stephenson, ( leu., 410. Stephenson, M. V., 410. Sterlin};, H. H., /r/.v/i Minstrelsy, 50. Stevens, K. 'I'., Flint Chi/'s, i.,j, 444. Stevens, Henry, controversy with Har- risse, v ; buys Humboldt's lihr.ir\, vi ; on Humboldt, vi ; Recoil. 0/ Lenox, xi ; b3 ; /f //>//, 3(A. Stevenson, Mrs. T. K.. Reliffious life oftlif Xuiii child, 440. Stevenson, \V., on navijiation, xxxvi. Stickney, C. E., Minisiuk Region, 123. Stiles, Dr. Ezra, on the DiKhton Rock. i\i)i:x. 104 J Tk* Vnited States tln^aitd to ^'/t'r)'. 37 < i I'll the oMuiit of the Amer* lean. 1711 fiu an Indian ido., 4);. Slockbrid^f Indian*, m\. Stoddard, Ami>-«. Lonntana, ttOi Stoddard, Lomuaua, vt^. Stoll, () . Re/>ni'hh tiuatetmiU, 41?*. Si.Mif. t >, M , tenerifte, 4^. Stone, W. 1.., (in (lie m<)undl)uildt'r<(, 41; i'nuis anil Miantonomoh, \i\\ his lives of Jnjnisnn, Itrai^t, and KkI Jacket, 325; on the N. V. tnoundn, 401. Stone Age in America, oldest Imple* mi-nts yet fouixl, nt ' dilfeu nt Kii>iu-!4 u»ed, 3'2. See I'aU'olitliic, Neolithic. Stone, ariiliciat cleavatiesof, 3HH ; cltip- pin^, llie proci'ss. 417; uork in, 410. Strabo, (U) tliesi/iof ihi* known world, >4 ; Ids view« of hal>il.dile p.irts, t. I:'nt,'ra7-ers, xxvii. Stu.irt and Kuvper. /'»■ Alettsch, 320. Stiibel, A , Xecrofo/is of A neon, 273; I'eber Altferuvianische Geive- bemuster, 2;^, Stuillty, Cordelia A., 3<)o. Sturlcson, Snnrro, Heimskriny;la, 91. Suite, H., on the Inxpiots, ^21. Sumnrr, Chas., rro/^hetic voices C0H' cerniut^ .Imerini, 40. Sun, worshi)) of, 4^.>. Sinulerland libr.uy, xiii. Sustpiehanna WdlVy Indians, 12;. Suteliffe, Thomas, Chili and I\'ru^ Sntlurland, P. C, ID'S. Sweden, anlhropolot;icaI fltudtes in^ 444. Sweden, early map, 119, i-?4, U3» ii*). Swedes, their liHiulin^ patriotism, 8S; on the l)elav\are. 3 >7. SweetAi-r, Sith, on prebist. man, 412. Swinfnrd, Mineral Resources of Lake Superior, 41S. Swiss lake dwellings, 39; ; relics from, 395 ; >;enrral references, 395. Switzlcr, \V. F., .l/is.xotiri, 409. Sylvester, Xorthern X'—j )'ork, 323. Taciti'':, Gennania, 2S. Tacna, 27;. Tamana. idol from, 2'^i. Tamnanchar, 135; geog. position, 151. Tanmar. ^V^ Uanmar. Tanos, 31/4. Tac*s, 394, 3^.. Tapeiiecs. See Tepanecs. Tapijulapane-Mixe, 42'). Tarapaca, 270, 275 Tarascos, 13*^). Tarayre, G., L^ Exploration minera- loffiifue, 170. Targe, xxxvi. Tartar miurations to America, 369, 370; traces in N. W. America, 7S. Tas^in. French ^;ti>^rapher, 51. TayasAI, 175 Taylor, A. S., bibliop. of California, ix. Taylor, Isaac, /Xlfh.xbets\ 200. Taylor, lcx^my,Dissuasix'e from Po- pery, 51. Taylor, John, on the N. V. mounds, 404. Taylor, R. C, on the \Vi>consin mounds, 400. Taylor, S., 400. Taylor, Thomas, 41 ; Comuieutaries of /^ roc Ins. ^5. Tavlor, W. ^., on mounds, 405. TechntI, 146. Tecpan, 175. Ti'cpaneca conquered, 147. Tehna. 394. 467 Tehiirlhet, 438. TelieriaHo-RemiHsis Codtx, 303. Ti-inple, Kdw.. t raveh in Peru, 371. Tiiuple, At' lirookfield. tJ3. TetnpNky, G. I- . vuii, Mitla, i'*^. Ten K.ite, II F, C.,35'ii ReizcH, 393 Ti ii.un|iu.i, iv Mixiio l,city). Ten.nnuxtb, 15**, i'-?. Tiin nUuat.ni, 1 1*^. Tenuhuacan, Olmecs at, i3<;; a rel^ ^loua »hrinc, 140; ruins, t^ti Tn>v,ioini(ini, eHi^y, iHi, 435. 'I'epanecs, 1 ^'i, 14'], Te|)cthpan, i''2. Tepeu, 415, Tei)eyahualco, 173. Tern ira, 4*- Ternaux ( ontpans, H., his library, iv ; A//'/. Am^r., iv ; loyafft'St xxxvii, 2 3; his stuHie- ot Peru, 271 ; Lit theoffonie Mixii:; impression pre- served in pottery, 419; of the moundbudders, 401. Te/catlipoc.i, 431 i oppressor of Quet* /ak'oati, 4^1- Te/cucc. ^;ro\\th of, 140, 1.^2; alleged empire .it, \:\: old bridge near, iSj ; , 'Ihoruii, <>nf!n>v lU-. »(|, Thiiruwuinnl, 'l\\m\\n:*,Jt*ii'r» i'h A mfr* n,i, ii«; I'tUiiiiUt /rt(/.| 115; /'/- TiHirwiiUI mi Vitil.uul, hy Thrt-e (. liiniruyH (i^tjiuU), 5V 'i'hiilL* 117: (tiMnvin-il, j'li in Senecat ^<>; v.iryiiiu iMtHtiioii, 1 iS. TluirHidti, (i. I'., ^1, 4'jj, Ttiyle, (III MucrnhiiiM* in.ip, 10. Set Tluilt), Ti.ihuahncii. prmitiuni 1 \o \ architcc- iiir.il ilctitil%, Ji4, JM, ii<<, 317, iiXt ruins rctinrL-d, ii7i i vnrii'HH dficrip- tinnit. 3;i, 27); liy ItullniTt, 37) ; |jy linivniliL', J7i ; by Inw.udtt, 37J. Tii)lllllH, K/i'jfhS, 7. Tidei, Marrohiiis" view o(, 11, Tiili', I*. A., xxxiii. Tl;;iicx, .v>4. Tikal, 300. TIl.intiHiKd, 148. Tilliimh.>st, W. H.» "Ceog. Knowl- fdnu uf the AnciL-nts," i. Tini.ineru'H, 43. Timber bmn^hl from Vinland, ^<. TinilitTl.ikf, llcnry,oii ihu Clicrokcei, TimiieiM l.uiKU.ii;e. 431S. TimiKjiuii.i l.inunii^c, 435. Tin riiim s, uarly, ^4. Tiniii-'h, 7;. Ti»hcnl).in, vj. Titic.ua, lalif, seat n( wor««bip, jja; its myih. 333; siMt of thu i'irti.tH, 32j,\ cuiiiifclcd witli tliL" liiL-amyih<«, 334; dwcllt.r?* iitar, a.x. ; views of Like and ruins, 24^1; S^jnii-r's Kx- ploratiuns, 24''*, survi-ycd by J. U. rcntiand, H^^\ Inca palace, 347; map, 34S. Tiznc, 14K. TIacaiLCubili, 173. Tlaci'pan fcrms a confederacy, 147. TIacutzin, i,V). Tlaloc, 415; rain-gdd, I'^a Tlapallaii,"i.i7, 13*/ TIapallancn, iv>. TlascalaiiH, i4accn, nuirtars for pounding it, 416. Tobar. Juan de, Cot/i-.v Ramirez, 155 ; Kehxiiou, 155; printed by >ir Thc.s. Phillipps, 155; Hist, tie /i>s Imiios^ 155- To-carryhnpan, aSt). Tullan. 1.17, 1 v;- Tollat/inco, i^i^. Tnlodin, ii,o. Toltccs, descendants nf the Atlantides, 44: (irinin of, 135, 141 ; from Tollan, 137; their appearance in Mexico, 13. >; end ot' their power, 140; a na- tion or a dynasty, 1 jo ; their slory, 140; iheir later mi^ratinns, 140; I'rimoii nnd L'harnay (Hsa^ree on thfir status, 141 ; llamklior consid- ers ihtni Maya, 141: .Saba^in the " v;iants," 141; l'andeHL-r*s view, !4i; sources of their liistory, 141; ^IS. annals, i^z; their astronomical ideas. i7i>', build the ruins of Yuca- tan, t')i . Tonu«-tlii-chi, .■^s'n Tamlinsiin, A. H., 403. Tonccfite, 42s. Tnpinard (m the jawbone from the Naulctte Cave, 377. T prf.iiis, ///,(/. Grotiinniiio', 8^1 his characUT, ss ; //ist. I'iu/tutUiiP^ 92; facs. of title, 'ji ; places Vinland m N'ewfiiundiaiul. 'jv : sivus maps, \2<). Tnribio de Uenevente, 155. Torquem.ida, instructed by Txtlilxo- chill. 173; on the nrij;in of Ameri- cans, 3'.4; MS. used by him, lOa; MoH)tri/i',r /«(/., 157. Tnrres Rubid, Ircyo de, In Peru, jyt)-, his (^iiit hua grammar, j;'^. Torrid /ntie, niitinns rei^arding it, 6 ; they check exploration, 6. INDEX. T'>Kcani'Ili on Antlllia, 4^ i htn idt.ii n( thr Atlantic ucvaii, ji ; tetter to ( iiJumliUH, ji i dilferent text* of it, '//■/. Hi%f>. W nwr., xvi ; dies, xvi Trunibuil, J. fi., nn Indian langu.ages, vii ; edits tlu-- l.rinley library cata- higue. xii; hhiitin Missii'fts in iVnv J:'ni,'/in/ii, 322; his studies in the Indian languages, 322, 423, Trniat. K..411. Trutiit. 442. Truxilti', UicgoHe. Rt-lac'oUt 260. Trnxillo. niiu'. near, 375. Tschudi, J. I), von, on the llamas, 213; .-/ '///i,'- reruiiniis, 270 ; Ri'isi'ft, 270; '/V-/;rA, 270; Oiittttta, 2.S1; on the Quicluia language, 2«o; his gram- in.ir, 2V). Tula, 137 ; ruin at, 177. 'i'vilan, I ij;, 'I'tilan, ii^uiva, 139. Tunibez, J77. Tungus, y?. Tupac Inca Yupanqui, 230. Tupis of South America, 136, 438. Turnefort, 43. Turner, (1., 43/. Turner, Sharon, Aftgh-Saxous^ 83. Turner. \V., 423. Turner, W. W., vii, 424> 44°; Indian r/iiii'/txy, 439- Tnsayan, 31^4. Tuscarnra-'. 310. Tuttle, f, \V., 102. Two Sorcerers, island, 47. Tylor, E. It., on Egyptian hieroglyph- ics, 41 ; S^atiJiu. vivilizatiofi iIviohc /CsA'ittiar/.f, 70; on coniieclion of Asia and Mexico, 77 ; A nd/i/tai', 170, 174; applauds Prescott's view, 174; portrait, 37''; his rank as an anthropologist, 377; H^irly If ist. of Mattkiuti, 377. 3^0; hlarly Menial CouiiitioH 0/ Man^ 37S ; ComHtiou 0/ /'rr/tist. Rarrs, 37S;on man's progre-^s from barbarism to civiliza- tion, 37'^; /*ri/ttifiTi' Culture, 37X; Anthrof'olo^y^ 37S ; A tnrr. as/>t\ts 0/ A nt/iro/>o/oi;y, 379; ace. of, 379; on the degeneracy of the savage, Tyrians on the Atlantic, 24. TitnH.il language, 497. T/equile!*, i3V I'lclies, Sihoiia in Lyco^hr0H% If. V\ CiihHA, so. I'hile cnllectlon, 444. riile, Max, 404. riracKcha, m, j2<>, Ikert, iifxx 'ft*- (irifihfH^ i«, lA, it Ule, DtiM, />/,- /•>./,•, 44. L'llon, A, . AUiuoirfx. 371 ; / 'oyagi historiiiUi\ 371 ; AW. Anirr., 370. UMoa, J. J., />»'.uv. 371. IMIoa. Rtiation fhst , i»K UlpiuH globe, \^f^. L'ncpapiis, 337. I'liger, K , Intri Atlantis^ 44. United Stalls Army, Reportiof ihiej F.ngitwrr, (./> ; geologital survey, Rtforts, 39^ ; .National Museum, 440. Vpham, Warren, 333; Recxsion o^ the /< *• shett in Minnenota, 340 ; Ohio A-raTY/^u/i. 3H8. rrcaviica, 230. rrto, 229. Iricotchea, K., A/enioriast 2^3 \ Len* gua I Ai/'i /la, 425. I'rUperger Tutis, 326. Urrabieta, xxxvii. I'rsfl, Comte d', Sud A tnh'igue^ 272- Ursua, M., 175, IrUS, 22^1, 2S0, Utah mounds, 409. Uies, 127. Utlatl.in, poHiiioi) of, 151, 152. Uxmal, piisiiion of, i}i, in"J>; bv NVal- deck, i*., on Toscanelli, 51. Vai.adbs, DiuAcrs, Rhetorica Ch> i\t.^ IS4- Valdemar-Sthmidt, / 'oyagesau Groen* lauds to.>, YalcU/. .Ant., 2S1. Yaleiitia, Martin de, 155. Yalenliiti, P. j. J., Ohm-ias and TuU tt\as, i\j; on the Calentlar Stone, i7'j ; on I.anda'salph.ibet, 2(~>n ; J/e.r- ican iOf'f'er tools, 418; Katunes oj Maya Hist., \y, \(>\. V.'dera, Hl.is, bis work lost, 209; his career, 2'>i ; his MSS. used by (.lar- cilasso, 2'tJ. Valera. Luis, 2fc Yallancey, C has., 104. Valmy, Ducdc, 171. Valpy, J'anrgvriii veieres^ 47. YalsL-qua, (labriell de, his map {1439), 5'-- Vanciiuvei's Island, Si, 393. Van den Pergh, I,. 1'. C, AnwriAa 7i'or t'oluntl'us, 75. Van den Hos, Lambert, /fee-lnldrn x\xiv. Van der Aa. .S'ee Aa. Van Noort. Olivier, xxxiii. Vaiiuxeni, Professor, on shell heaps 3'*2- Varnhagen, K. de, f,'(irii;^ine toura- tiiftnie di'x A n/rriiains, 41, 117. V.asciuez, KrancisLO, (Juatemala^id^. Vasqiiez, 'I"., 2''0. Vater. J. S., Uehr AweriKas Rf7u\l keruufis(>o\ (with Adelnng). Mithri dates, 42a ; Analekten der S/>rachen kundes 42?. Vaugondv, Atlantis, i**'. Veer, Ci. de, royiii^t-s, S5. Vei;a, Father, his cojleciinn of MSS., '57- Vega. V. Nuiicz de la. knew the Pook ot Votan, 134; 0/>is/>ado de Chiap pas, 134. _ Vega, (larcilasso de la, in Peru, 265: luKise in which he was born, I'lj % *^d INDEX. 4G9 ■ liritchtn, iS, j6, ^ti '■"vi, J71 1 l\>y,>gt \i>1. Atftfr., 370. '.<■'• . 171. //ill , llH. A/Ziifi/it, 4^, my, A'.A»7j o/lliitj Ki'i|liiult.ll survey, Naliiiiiiil Muaciini, .VV1 ; KtceiiioH oj Miiiiiiiolii, 34'i; ('//w V«i/ A intrigue, 37 j. "/. '5". I5>- "I. 151. I'll; Tdiul iriinuiiial liiuisi' near, '■iv.ila, IV, i |,v \V,,|. Imni.iy, iM(,, |^S; lU.. nifccilitil ili|ih,intV iMrly ai'cminls, iM..; unipli', i,s,, : suin I v illll.lbilL'll ullt'll iliu , IV": pt.iiis, 1,^0. M'aiielli, 51. •iiKlutoruaChihl., t, / 'oyageiait ijy-Oi'n- tic, 155- ., Oliiiriiis and Till. lilt dlendar .Slnni', »al|)lial)i:l,..oo; .l/c.r- 'Is, 4 [ 8 i Kiilunes oj -•, .''4. work Inst, 200; his MSS. used by Gar- 104, 71. / Z'i'teresy 47. I de, his limp {1439), 1', xxxiii. or, cm shell heaps . l.'Orifiinc lonra- yu niiis, 41 , ( 1 7. >, iilititi'tnn/it, |f,S. r Aiiifnhis Jn-:;>t I Adeluiii;). Mithri ckti'H lit-r SpriUht'H J, I ft. :olletiion of MSS., la. knew the Took ^Insf'iuio th' Chiiip e )a, in Peru, 265.' Ill-' was bfirn, 2'>5 ton of an Inca prlnceia, I'iii \ hU tx- p.'iliiii)n (if 1)« Snio, i')^ ; ('I'lH/m'ff- t.iri<'i h\s, J'>'>; tiHi'il ItU^ Vjlcr.). J>i\ wriitu (lit S|>,iiii thirty yi-.irH .iiler Icivinji iVni, j'>'. 1 c■ VclaHLO, Juan tie, t7<>; AV/W litQuita, Vi-nt.iiiturt, Tfitiro At't;i 1$^; used llotiuini's coIU'Clion, i5->; .innni.ites IxthKo* chill'i* MSS., i6j ; tuniinues iStnu- rini'* l.ibnr*, i6i. Vic.irv, I. K., .V./C'» '/»"'. 'Ji- Victor, J, I)., Dn/^ui, t/e Aiiwriiiif^o, Vienna, 3t.v Vienna, AnihropoIogUche Oescllftchafti 44 1: Pr.thi-*«; Ict'LimiU- S,if,'its, I/O. Viuil, J.-r M., icj'. Vikin^H, !i n.il nfj '-J. Vitca8mi.in)an, ruuin, 347, 371. Villacajitin, V, dc, 27 ; bililiof;., S7, .^S:'the sai;as, S;, SS; pm HI writing, S^; situate. 9') i >" Nevy- fonndland, '^z, t;i, •m> '/'< 'ril )>i Greenland^ ';3, '^S; in New V'ork.'^j, ]oj ; not in America, y,i ; in New Kngtand, n ; i" Mainc^ 103; in Massachusetts, 94, 99; in RhLKle Island, .j4, i/i, 99, 103; in Africa, 100; maps. 04; thnsi.' of Kafn re- produced, 95, 100: piob.d)ihi,' of tiio voyages to, 9^; linj;uisiic proofs of, 9H; cthnograi>liical proofs,./;); phys- ical and geitgr.iphic.d piimfs, .(ij ; tides in. gj : lengtli of -.unimer day in, v<» ; Kafn's attempts to identify it. 100: his map, it^j; lield to be a prolongation of Afiica, nyo\ monu- mental piMofs, 102; has no frost, 102; natives tailed .Skr.elings, 10^; held to be north of Davis's Straits by the oldest Norse maps, 110; that by Stephanins (is;o) in facs., 130; separated from America, 130. Vinson, jidien, I. a lan^^ue basqutu 75. Viollet-Ie-I)uc, Habitation hninaine, ^>4. y-f-i'x behef in a yellow race in Central America, Si ; on Noise cer- emonials in the south, 9'j; his text to C'harnay, 176; a restoration of Paleiique, 193. Viracftcha, 436. Virch iw, R., on Peruvian skulls, 344; on human remalnt found In Ptru> vian >{raveii, j;|. Viritil, (/<('rA'/iJ, 'li prophecy of An* cniii!*, 37. Virginia, (loci. In her Arcltivei, xiv; Indian cmiHplracy of i(>jj, 3X4 ; In- dianx, 335; muund» in, 410; Kfave?*, 410. Vi^tontl, n\ inap(niO, 53; (ijiH), SV Vitali^, OrderituK, ///>/. AVc/**/., HS. Viiiitiput.'.li. 4 W' Vivien de St. Martin, ///>/. J* /.i u KnunanK, 'l% .^34. .Sir LiiiKuUtics. Vogel, '1 hco . xxxvd. Voider, A. W., y,s, 401. Vogt, larl, i'or/,'u*H\'efi, 369I J^/t'. titri'S on Man, 3'"i. 44*' Viilckrr, //onit-ru/t. dfot,'*, 37. Volney on ilu- nmnndii, .vA Von H.ier, K. V.^lahrttHtUtOttyt* .ti'H.I, 40. Vo^%, /'/,' tit-^tait iiir EriU, 39. Voian, and his follower*, i u. '4' I ihok of I 'ofaii, 134; dim connection with < •uaiLMn.ita, tju ; with Vncatan, IS-'*, myth of, 4i3. Voyages, toUectioiis of, xxxlv, early onm to America, hibliog,, xix. Vreeland,l'. E-t Antit/mtiis at /'a«- I ta/font 197' I Vriefl, voyage to Virginia, xxxiv. Wadswohth, M. E,, 334 ; Aficro- siopic I'viiifncf oJ a hit coHtimnt^ ' 45- , , I Wagner, <»., Dt originwux Anwr., • 370; Jhitriigc znr Anthrof>o{of:;ict ' 44,1- I W.ddstedt, J. J,, Iter in Amertcani, Waiknas, 1 Y*, Waiti, 'l'.. on Peruvian anthropology, J7ti ; Xatnri-iUKrft 3"ij, 4 jo, 44 ( ; Anthro/'oiot;if, 37'^, 410; portrait, 37S i Die A merikaner, \ 73, 37S ; Introtl' to Anthropoioi^y^ 370, 37!^, 443. Wake. C. S., Chaf^ttrs on Man, 83; Srr/>t-i/t ll'ors/ti/>t 4^9. Walain-< )lum, \2%. Walileck, Frederic de, buys some of the lioturini collection, 1'. J ; I'oyai^-e pittoreujuCy i.Hr»j ,it rxmal, iVi, IMS; portr.iit, 1S6; m.ip of Vncatan, iss; in Vncatan, 194; Afonnnicnts Afit'.i/n AU.vii/ne, t;. .lA'.r. , 144. Walkenacr, (.'. A., I'oya^es, xxxvii. Walkendorf, Itishop Kric, 107. Walker, S. T., on 'Tampa Hay shell- heaps, 393. Walker, A them Comity, Ohio, 40S. Walker River caflon, 350. Wallace, A. R., Antiq. 0/ Man in Amrrica, 330; on climate and its inlluence on races, 37^; Tropical Xatnre, 3S^ ; does not bcHeve in sunken continents, 3^1 ; (reoff. Dis- tribution of A niuials, 3S3 ; Malay Archipt'la^o, 'S^w <^>n the antici. of man, 310, 3M4 ; Island life, 3'<7. Wallace, C. M., Flint imfletnents, 145- Wallace, Jas., Orkmy Islands, iiS. Wallbridge. T. I"., 410. Wampanoag Indians, 102, 323. Wampum, 430 ; belts, 4;o. Ward. H. (;.. Mexico, i«o. Warden, Havid I!., his library, iii ; Art de verifier des dates, iii; dies, iii ; translates Rio on Palenque, 191 ; on the t>rigin of Americans, ic)2 ; on the mounds, 31(9 ; Kecherches, 415. Warner, J., 409. Warren, Dr. J. C, on the mounds, 400. Warren, W. K., Key to Anc. Cosmol- ogies, is; on Homer's earth| 39; TrM Ktyt 391 Paradiii FoHHit, wi.'mii W, W.,3i7. Wa'^hiiiKtoni Col., ox^iedition Again4 Navajos, 3i/>i Waihinuion, Gco.| on the I>iKhtoa Koi-k, 104, Wa^hoiiiion, ]>■ C, at a centre d ntiidv in Amer. hiilory, xvii. Water, proportion ol, on the globe, Waikinton Library, xii, W.itrin, K., ji''. Wat-on, J', H, /libliog. 0/ yW Col/tmbiaH />/j. i':.r/*i, i^S. WatlN, Robt., i. Weaving, art I'f, 430. W.l.b, nani.-I. (70. W.bb. Mr. l. U., 94. \N eliMtr, No.ih, on the moundlf 398. WeiluwoiMl, (^r/t,'tn of langutigt, 431, Weedeii, W. \\., Indian moHty, 4 jo, Wcmier, (j., D* Aav* Solomo'ufii, t*3. Wrigel, T. O., xvii ; on Ue Ilry, xxxil. Weight!! UAcd bv the Peruvians. 430. Wtise, A. J., /'/it. 0/ Amtrte*, 45i 9s; on .Atlantisj 45. Weistr, Conrad, micrpreter, 305; ht» career, 305; his papers, 305. Welch, L. H., i rehistoric Helici^ 40S. Welsh in America, 73. See Madoc. West India Island, Malay stock in* Sj. Western Resi-rve Ili'-iorical Soe , 407. Westropp, II. M., l*rehistoric /'/mjhtj, .113. Wh.Ttely, Richard, Volit. Fcononiy^ 3S1 ; Origin of Civilization, 3S1, Wheaton, lienry, Xorthmetty 93. I'retich version, ijj. Wheeler, (1. M.. on llie Pueblos, 395 U, S. lieol. Surrey, io'>, 440. Wheelock, Khazer, his ch.irity school, 333; founds It.iitniouth College, 323; Indian Cluirity School, 333 ( memoir. ^23, Whipide, Report on the Indian tribes, luraii/io A'. A'. A'epts., 3-/). White's drawings in Harlot's i'ir* trinia, xxxiii. Wliite, John S.,r.3. Whitney, J. D., Clintaiic Cltanges, <}■), 3S3; searches in the Trenton gravels, 337; on the neolithic man in the ternary gravels, 3110; views the Calaveras skull. ^"^5 ; hfs accounts of it, 3H5 ; Auriferous linn-els, 3^5; llnnuin remains of the (iraret series, 3S=; disbelieves the preces- sion of the equinoxes as atlecting I ciini.ite, 3*^7 ; on the Trenton imple. I meiits. 3*iS ; (h-ol. of Lake Snferior^ i 4"'^- ' Whitney, W^ 1)., Language, 74', j Hearing of language on the Vuity I of Man, 172; I'estiiiiouy of bin- I gnage respecting the unity of tht human race, 422. Whitney, W, I' . Hones of the native races, 373. Whittlesey. Col. Chas.,on a- c, liearthi i in the Ohio Valley. 3'*i>: Antiquity of Man in the V. S., 3,1; poriralts, I \ti\ Ancient U'ork^ in Oh/o. VK*i // 'capons of the Race of the Mounds, 400: (HI the Crr.ive Creek tablet, 404: (tn the Ciiuinnati tablet, 404} surveys the Marietta mounds, 405; on t'le Ohio nunmds, 407, 40H ; AV« fort on the anh.Tology of Ohio, 407; Fugitive Essays, ^o-j' surveys the Newark mounds, 4o,S; on Kt^k inscriptions, 410; Anc. mining at Lake Superior, 41S; on anc. human remains in Ohio, 437. Wicksteed, P. H., 241,431. Wiener, Charles, l\^rou et Botivie, 271 ; Le counuunisme des fucas^ 371 ; Les institutions de CEmpire des fncas, 83, 271. 470 INDEX. • ! i I %'\ WiesLT, F., on Zoana Mela, 133. Wildu, Sir W. R., on lacustrine dwell- nip, yti. Wilder, IJ. (1., on Jeffries Wyman. 392. Wilheimi. K , hiami, cic, «3, (/,. \Villi;;>, Kicliard, edits Eden, xxiii. William of Worcester, 50, Willianis, L. M., So. Williams, (1., i i uatg ma Ut^i^-;. Willianis, 11. C, 410, Williams, H. L., .^ifs. W illiams, Helen AI., translates Hum- boldt's / 'ucs, 271. Willianis, Is.'*.ac, memoir, ^i-j. Williams, John, J^rirwv Majoe^, "o, Willianis, ' iger, on (lie jews in America, : 5; K'ty, 4JV Williams, S. W., on Fousaiif;, So. Willi.inison, Jos., on the Northmen in Maine, 97. Wiili.imson, I'eter, SiiJJ^erhigs, 31S. Williamson on the Asiatic origin of Americans, ^71- IVilliamsdn, .\\>. Carolina., 93, Wilisun, Marcus, AmerLan History^ 415. Wiis(m, r-iir Daniel. Lost Atlantis, ^(>\ on Vinland,97; H iitoric Footprints in America, 97; on Dighton Kocki 104; on the ex.iK}:;eration of Mexican splendor, 1 74 ; on picture-writing, 19S; on the Hiiron-iroquois, 322; on tl '■ 'Janada tribes, 322 ; Certain Cra^ii^.. Forms, 375; on the unity of nil II, 374 ; A mericun Cranial ^J'A . y.W portrait, 375; Prehis- tori. A finals 0/ Scotland, 37') ; SrU ust'.l the word "prehistoric,** 3/0; Prehistoric Man, 37'), 379, ti5 ; Pre-Aryan Auier. Man, 377 ; hnvritten History, 37/; Interi^la- cial Man, -^S^: on ilic moundbuild- ers, 402 ; on the (Irave Creek t.d)lei, 404 ; accepts the Cincinnati tablet, 404; on Canadian mounds, 410; on bone and ivory work, 417; on Amer- ican pottery, 419; Artistic faculty in the al'orifT, races, 419; Amer- lean Crania, 437. Wilson, R. A. , AVrv f^onquest o/Mex- ico, 41, 1^4, ?03. Wi -ainer, . 1'. ■" .^ Kunenskr(ftenSf eu . f''*. Wi.ir -'11, Air> . 01 Atlantis, 45, r.n tht .-et-ocess'un of t!'e falls of St. Aiitii .-ny^ j32 ; Preaa -'lites, 379, . 384- Winch ill, N. H., Geoi. of Minnesota, 333; disco .-•■s rude nnplement'- 345 ; on coi ,)er Ti-ning, 418. Winsor, Justii^. '•Americans," ; " Earlv Descriptions of Arrer!-;., * etc., xix; Ptoleu,} ^ GcOf^raf<), SS. Woodward, Ashbel, If 'am/'unit 420. Workshops of :'ione chipping, 417. Worinskiold on the sites of the Green- land colonies, loS. Worsaae, J. A., I'or^^esch, des Nor- dens, S5; ace. of, S5; Prehistory of the North, 62; L^ organisation des MusreSt 444 ; Danes in ICn^'land, (>i. Worsley, Israel, I'ieiu of the Amer. Indians, 116. Worthcn, A. H., 388. Wright, H. M., Gold ornaments from the i; raves, etc., 273. Wright, D. F., 410. Wright, Oeo. F., on the antiq. of man in America, 340; examines deposits in Delaware, 342 ; ^hln and the gla- cial period, 3SS; Preglacitil fnan in Ohio, 3SS; Viiogra7'eil>eds^ 3H8. Wright, Thomas, St, Brandan, 48. Wuieland, 1 17. Wuttke, \\., Erdkunde^ 38, 49; on the Atlantic islands, 47. Wuttke, Gesch. der Schrift, 205. Wyandots, 327. Wyhlandia, 117. Wyman, Jeffries, 439; on the Caktve- ras skull, 353; portrait, 392; investi- gates sheil-iieaps, 3 .j2 ; death, 392; accoi :s of, 392; on the Florida shell heaps, 393 ; on the St. John River, 393- . , Wyman, W. H., on Quaritch, xvi; Bihliog. of Printing, xvi. Wynne, Private Libraries of N. K, X, xviii. Wyoming Hist, and Geol. Soc., 438. Xahila, F. E. a., :67. Xenophanes, 6. Xeres, on Peru, xxxvii. Xibalba. 134: held to be Palenqu^, 135; Rrinton's view, 135. Xicalancas, 136. Xicaques, 169. Ximenes, Francisco, 155; finds the Popul I'uh, iC>6. Ximenes, Gnomone fioretino, 51. Xinca Indians, 428. Xochicaico, i-So. Xochimilca conquered, 147. Xoloc founded, 142. Xolotl, 162. Xuares, Juan, 155. Yahama language, 425. Yahuar-huaccac, 229. Yaqui, 135. Yarrow, H. C, Mortuary* Customs^ 328, 440; on mound-burials, 408, Yates and Moulton, Ne^u Vork^ 104. Yea, 277. Youmans, Eliza H., 4ir._ Yucatan. 6'<'t? Mayas; difficulty of the chronology, 153; the Perez MS.| 151 sources. 164; scant material, if)4 , Harendts collection, 1O4; ruins| 185; early described, 1S6 ; seen by Stephens, 1S6; ancient records, 1S7; architecture, 1S8; Charnay's map, iSS; other maps, iSS; age of the ruins, 191; types of heads, 195; bas- relief, 20S; had an Ethiopian stock, 370; crucible for melting cop).er used, 41S; folk-lore, 434, Yucay, 247. Yuma language, 426. Yuncas, 227 ; grammar of, 280. Yupanqui, Inca, his portrait, 228; in power, 230; called Pachacutec, 230. Zaborowski, L' hovitne prehist0rigue% 412. Zacatecas, 183. Zachj CorrespondenZf 41. Zachila, 1S4. Zahrtmann on theZeni, ii3. Zamn^, 152, 434. Zani, Count V., 205. Zapaiia, 229. Zapata, MS. Hist, of Tlaxcalla, i6a } Cronica de Tlaxcallan^ 164, Zapotecs, 146, 149. Zaragnza, Juslo, 167, 444. Zarate, Auguslin de, Prov, del Peru, 261. Zavala, L. de, on Uxmal, 1S6. Zayi, ruins, iSS. Zegarra, G. P., OUantay. 281,282. Zegarra, I'edro, 281 ; Ollantay, 425. Zeisberger, David, missionary, 423 ; Indian Dictionary-, 423 ; on a Dela- ware grammar, 437. Zeitschrift fur die Anthropologies 443- Zeitschrift fiir physische Aerzte, 443. Zeller, Gesch. der Griech, PhUosophiet Zeni, brothers, xxvni, xxxiv, xxxvi; northern voyage, 72, in ; bibllog., 115; Dei Connnentarii del I iaggiot 73; fac-simile of title, etc., 70, 71 ; their map perhaps used by Bordone, 73; it made an imiiression, 74, 12S; history of the belief in their voyage, in; the map, iii, 112, 114; fac- simile of , 1 1 , 1 27 ; altered in Ptolemy, III, 114; fac-similes of this altera* tion, III, 12S; maps possibly to be used by the young Zeno, 114, 126; map compared with that of Glaus Magnus, 126; condition of nortliern cartography at the date of the Zeno publication, 126, 127. ZerflR, I/ist. development of arty 41G. ZcpterniaiHi, C A. A., Colonization of A merica^ 60, S3. Ziegler, America, xxxii., 125. Zoana Mela, 122. Zorzi, Pipsi Nov., xix. ZumArraga, Hp.. orders a collection of traditions, ifj4; I/ist. de los A/exi- canos, 164; Codex Zumdrraga, 164; his alleged destruction of MSS., 203. Zuiii, representatives of llie cliff dwell- ers, 395; references on, y/3\ visits to, 396. Zurita, A. de, on the Quiches, 168; Rapport, 153; character of. 153. Zurla, Cardinal, on the Zeni, 112; Dis- seriazione, 112; Di Marco Polo, 4-;, 112 ; Fra Mauro, 47- Zutigils, 152. ' i hi : the Perez MS., 64; scant material, ollection, 1O4; ruins, ribed, iSO; seen by indent records, 187; i; Charnay's map, 3, iSS; a^;e of the i of heads, 195; bas- an Ethiopian stdck, or mehing cop| er ore, 434. 6. imar of, a8o. lis portrait, 228; in id Pachaculec, 230. tnme prihistorique% ^eni, ZI3. 5- of Tlaxcalla, i6a ; caUatty 164, 7. 444- ;, Prov. del Peru^ '^xmal, 186. intay^ 281,282. ; Ofiafitay, 425. missionary, 423 ; yi 423 ; on a Dela- '7- w A nihropologie^ sische Aerzte, 443, riech. PhUosophiex i'iii, xxxiv, xxxvi; 72, in; bibllog., ttarii del I ittggio^ title, eic, 70, 71 ; > used by Bordone, niiression, 74, 12S ; ei in their voyage, ij, 112, 114; fac- altered in Ptolemy, les of this altera- aps possibly to be ig Zeno, 114, 126; iih that of Olaus ditidii of iinrtlicrn date of thu Zeno 7- uient 0/ arty 416. I., Coloiiizatwn of xxii,, 125. ers a collection of ist. de los iMexi- Vjr Ziimarraga^ itruction of MS.S., iof the cliff dwell- es on, 396; visits lie Quiches, 168; racter of, 153. U' Zeiii, 112 ; Dis* '/ Marco Polo^ 47, 47-