IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) // ^/ ^ >. '^ ^* II 1.1 11.25 ■«i|21 121 y ia 12.2 £ t& 12.0 1.4 i4 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRIieT WiBSTIR.N.Y. 14580 (716) 873-4503 .^ (meaning "CON- TINUED"), or the symbol V (meaning "END"), whichever eppiies. Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en pepier est imprimde sont fllmte en commenpant par le premier plat et en terminent soit par la dernlAre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration. solt par le second plat, salon le cas. Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont filmte en commenpant par la premiere page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminent par la dernlAre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. Un des symboles suivants apparaftra sur la dernlAre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbols -^ signifie "A SUIVRE". le symbols y signifie "FIN". Maps, plates, charts, etc.. mey be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too lerge to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diegrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc.. peuvent Atre filyii6s by the sides. And why^ Because of its short legs. As it throws tho earth back with its feet, what do they answer for? A shovel. Right ; and a shovel is. . . Irroad. When it digs, it uses its . . .feet like a . . . What do laborers use to ])reak up hard ground ? A 'pick. Therefore its feet roust bo . . . sharp and . . . What else? Strong ; and when the earth is loosened, it uses them for a . . . Shovel — therefore the mole's feet should be . . . broad. You told me before that the nose was . . . sharp^ and round the shoulders how do you think it will be 1 Thick. How will the body be towards the hinder p • rts ? Smaller — Thicker, Some say thicker, and one says smaller. Let us see. If this were the hole (drawing it on the black-board), and the body of the mole were large behind in this way — if it were to throw the soil back what would happen ? It would not get past. What would not get past? The earth would not get past — past the . . . hinder part of the mole. Surely ; and then the mole could not . . . get forward. When it has got a quantity of soil past its body, what will it do with it? Push it all back. Yea out of the . . , mouth of the hole. AH will pow tell me the shape the II II I m • 11^ ■ ^ if I! 10 SUGGESTIONS I! m( le should be of. Yr ii have heard that itn nose should bo . . . sharp and strong — its feet . . . brond — its shoul- ders . . . thick — and its body j^rowing ratlier . . . smal- ler behind. Wnat do you think the body is covered with? Fur. x\nd whether should it be soft or stifl. Suppose an enemy of the mole to meet it in front, what would the mole do? Run away. Hut before it could run, what must it do? Turn in the hole. But you remember the hole is just about the width of its body — what must it do? G) backwards. YeS; it will run backwards till it ctimes to some . . . opening or . , . hole below, and then it will run . . . JIow? Forwards. When it runs backwards, the hair would . . , rub against i he sides of the hole., and the hair would be . . . raised or . . . ruffled. And if it were stitf, it would be just like a . . brush. What, then, would be done if it were to be brushing all the way backwards 1 The earth would tumble in. Right ; and it would ^et into ... a heap , and the poor mole would be . . . stopf, and . . . What would happen to the mole ? It would be caught. Now, what kind of hair would be best? Soft fur. Right ; and if very soft when you draw your hand along the head, it will be nearly as smooth as when you . . . draw it the other way. Besides, if it were stiff, when the earth ismoist, the animal would become . . . How? Dirty — the soil would stick on the . . . stiff hairs ; but if it were soft, the soil or earth would . . .fall off again, and it would still be . . . clean. When earLh or dust is falling all around us, as when the mole is digging, what are we afraid of? Our eyes. Quite right ; our eyes are very . . . easily hurt. There are some animals, like the liare, that have very large eyes, but besides being large, they are very . . . they standout. Another word f ; r standing out? Promi- nent All will repeat the word that means standinj^ out. Prominent. The hare's eyes are large and . . . prominf.ni. And if the mole had such eyes, what would you say ? They would be hurt — they would be in the way. What must we have besides eyes that we may see? TO THK TEACHKU. 11 Light. And where does the mole chiefly live? Under ground. And under ground it is . . . very dark. Wlien a collier goes down into the pit, he takes a . . . Jamj) ; but as the mole lias no lamp, having eyes in the dark . . , would be useless. "Will it have any need of eyes at all? No^ Sir. This boy perhaps remembers hearing people say to others, You are as . . . blind as a mole. I must tell vou that bometimes the mole comes abovo the ground, then eyes will be . . . useful. But as it is ofienest under ground among falling earth, you say they should not be . . . large, and especially they should not be . . . standing out or . . .prominent. All will now repeat ; the eyes should be . . . small and low, that is sunk in . . . Where? a hollow place. And it sunk m a hollow place, what would happen ? Ihey would not be easily hurt. We shall now go over the chief points once more, all answering. You think it should have its nose . . . sharp and . . .strong, its legs . . . 5^or/,feet . . . broad — to make its way . . . through the earth. Its body thick at . . . shoulders — towards the tail rather . . . smaller — that earth m^y get . . . How ? Easily past. Its fur would require to be . . . very soft, and its eyes prominent or how ? Small and sunk. Now, look at this stuffed mole and compare it with what you have told me. Everything that you could think of, and a great . . . deal more, has been given by . . . God to make the mole . . . happy, and to add to its . . . comfort. At once, you see here the Creator's . . . ivisdom, and . . . power — and . . . What else ? Goodness to suit it for the kind of life God desired it should . . . lead " — Stow's Training System. It would be impracticable to give here more than a brief outline of this introductory course of oral lessons on Geography. But a hint to the wise is sufficient. Indeed the skilful teacher before a class of children, would not restrict himself to anything more than a ge- neral outline of a previously formed plan. Even if he is himself the author of that plan, he will in the school V A If Ml M : . i 12 SUGGESTIONS room, be irresistibly drawn away in the details, to new illustrations and new trains of thought, not entering into his original scheme, drawn up in the study. The illustrations he had chosen perhaps fail in presenting the subject m a clear light to the children, or to some of them, he must look about for new illustrations; he discovers dark spots in chcir minds, not anticipated in his preparation, he must furnish an extempore light to dispel the shadows ; — he is excited by the presence of the children, hanging upon his words, to a brilliancy of thought and a clearness of expression, unattainable in other circumstances. By no means, however, does this preclude the importance of preparation on tho part of the teacher. He should clearly understand his subject and have distinctly delineated in his mind, the main features of the course to be pursued. In commencing a course of oral lessons in jreography with young children, a good idea to fix in their minds first, is the cardinal points of the compass. They will obtain this easily from the position of the sun at different times of day, and will at once be able to point out the north, east, south, west sides of the school room. They may then- be required to point out everything in the room, and name various qualities of the room as well as the furniture, &c. The teacher having taken some object, as the desk, and drawn from the children an account of everything pertaining to it, — size, form, qualities, uses, etc., he may tell them that such an ac- count of the desk is called a descripion of it, or that they have described it — that a description of the desk is a writing or telling of all we know about it. Various objects before them may then be described, until they attain the clearest roncoptions of the meaning of the terju. The teacher may next picture out the word svr- face^ by reference to the outsicie and inside of his desk, and show them the difference between a description of the surface and the interior. This should also be ex- tended to other objects, until all fully comprehend the vaQmnngQ^ a description of the surface. The character TO THE TEACHER. 13 and ns38 of a map may be illustrated by di awing upon the black-board a representation of the school room, as it would appear to one lookinc; down throuorh tiie ven- tilator. Or the attention of the children may be called to the appearance which the villao;e or adjacent district would present from the top of a high tree, the summit of a liill, or the tower of the church, ^f the teacher have not a map of the locality to lay before the children, he should draw one upon the blackboard. The children may then be asked to give a description of the territory delineated on the map. Ail may now be invited to take an imaginary jour- ney to the adjoining neighbourhood or village. And in order to enlist the attention and interest of the child- ren, the p'ace chosen may be the residence of the grand- father, uncle, or brother of some of the pupils. The forests, cultivated fields, plains, valleys, hills, stream? &c., met with on the way, will form proper objects ot" notice and description. In this way the whole country for a few miles around should be brought as vividly as possible before their minds, and represented to them by a map. Within this space, objects will be met with, affording the teacher ample opportunity of illustrating many principles of Geography as well as the terms usu- ally given to^the pypil at n. more advanced age, to be committed to memory as geographical definitions. Let us suppose for instance, that their attention is called to the inequalities of the earth's surface. When the child- ren look upon the floor, or perhaps upon the play- ground, they Bee all smooth or level ; not so when they look abroad upon the surrounding country. Here is a depression — a valley, there an elevation — a hill ; yonder is a little hill, in some ether placeagreat one,andaway in tlie distance, they see a very high one, —a mountain^ not diftering from the small hill in kind, but in degree. Suppose twenty or thirty such mountains piled up one upon the other; what a vast mountain! How little this one beside it ; but far away there are mountains of fiuch greatness. i-.i M r. y V -f. ■ 14 SUGGESTIONS m Or a stream of water, a brook or a river is the sub- ject of the lesson. As they sttind upon the bridge, they 800 the waters moving forward, they throw in a st ok, it is carried along by the water. Why does the water flow? or why m one direction, rather than another? Water poured upon the floor, remains stationarj , upon the slope of the desk, it seeks the lower part. How shall we find the highest spot upon the desk ? It is that point to which no water will flow, — th^ water runs away from that point with all speed. So on the land. Follow up the stream and search out from what quar- ter the waters proceed. Here is a little brook, tTiere another, and farther up a third, all pouring^ in thoir waters to make the large stream ; — the little streams ffive^ or bestow, or contribute their waters to the large outt ; they are givers, or besfmvers or tributaries. But the little streams get their waters from some source. Search it out. Away back in the country, on some ruii^ed mountain's side, ')he little stream issues forth from the gushing spring, and the gushing spring gets its waters drop by drop as they trickle down among the stones from the surface. Here then the moral Icssoa, *' Despise not the day of small things." Good begin- nings, however feeble, lead to great results, and so with bad ones. But here is a stream which flows from a large pond. The children know what a pond is. They have seen the frog pond, or the mill pond. The waters here do not seem to bo so restless as in the river, they are still. But why does the water remain here/ Let the teacher form a gentle inclined plane with a board containing a doep indentation. Water poured into this^ is held there as in a basin, until it ri esto the level of the low- est side, where it flows out and forms a stream. If alt sides have the «ame elevation, when the basin is full, the waters will overflow all sides at the same time. The basin of the frog pond was formed by the removal of i/he earth, or it is some naturally low spot, surround- ed on all sides, by higher ground. The miller made TO THE TEACHER. 15 hiB basin by raising an embankment of earth. Biittbe pond from which the stream flows is a very hirge one ; it is called a lake. Its basin was formed natural) v by low ground surrounded by that of greater cle\ation. One side is lower than the othera, here the stream takes its rise. The children may then be led to the enquiry, after the source from which the lake derives its waters and may be told that in some places there are lakes vast- ly larger. They have now seen the origin of the rive^*, but to what place is it hasting away ? l{ the locality is inland, the teacher must picture out the sea ; but at thia stage, it will be sufficient to represent it as simply a vast expanse of water ; it will not be necessary to go into particulars. Of what use is the river will now form a proper subject of investigation. Thus one feature after another can be brought belore the class, the teacher ever aiming to lead the children by a way which will enable them to find out things for themselves, rather than to tell them the facts, and let him bear in mind that his ultimate aim in these first lessons is not so much to impart information respecting the lo- .cali ties around him, as to exorcise the minds of the ^children, to give them a clear idea of ths nature of the jobjects with which Geography deals, and to make thorn acquainted with geographical terms, thus laying a foundation for a subsequent superfcjtructure. Having thus prepared the way, the pupils are ready to begin their specific work, Geography properly so jcailed, whi^h they do by contemplating the earth as a iw'hole, for no complete idea of a part can be obtained nntil they know the grand outlines of the whole globe. They should be taught the form of the earth, its mag- nitude compared with some known object, its motions, its^reat divisions, &c. ; they should be made to under- stand also that every little spot on the siirfaeo has its peculiar features and admits of a description similar io that which they had already given of the locality around them ; that a description of the surface of the earth is .oalled Geography, something written or said about tlw E a-th. i i \ 16 SUGGESTIONS In order to give the children an idea of the form, mo- tions, &c., of the earth, verbal descriptions and even maps are insufficient. There must be something pre- sented to the eye so like the tiling to be illustrated, that the idea can be acquired without much demand upon the imagination. Every school should be provided with globes ; but in the absence of these the best spheri- cal bodies that can be obtained must suppjy their place. The whole future course should be a system of outline and gradual filling up, takingr the physical features first, then the political. Of course in these oral lessons, a great amount of important matter is omitted alto- gether, as too difficult for the comprehension of young children, and remains for that second or third courso when a book is placed in their hands. Whilst such a system of oral lessons is being pursued^ as well as in a more advanced sta;;e, much geographical knowltdge can be, and ought to be conveyed in an in cidental manner. The name of some country or city is by some circumstance brought before the class. The teacher fixes upon this place, making it the subject^, of an oral lessc . For instance in the reading lesson, the sentence occurs. Ivory comes from Africa. Here ivory, the elephant, his nature and habits, and the country in which he lives, are made the subject of an oral lesson. When the child is sufficiently advanced to use a t»xt book, he should first be shown the earth in its more ob- vious relations to the heavenly bodies ; then he should pursue a system of outline moye full than in the course of oral lessons, until he come to his own country which he ought invariably to make the first object of particu-. lar investigation. If the preparatory oral lessons have been faithfully followed out, it will be found, when the child takes the book, that the learning of geographical definitions and technical terms, has been, in a large measure, anticipa- ted. With respect to now terms that may occur, let the same plai) of picturing out, be pursued. No one would think of giving to a pupil about to commeuce' TO THE TEACHER. 17 tlie study of Greek, the lexicon to coraniit to memory in order to prepare him for translating];. The echolap loams the words as he finds them in his readinp; lesson. Why not pursue the same course with the student in Geography. The proper time to get the meaning of a technical term or aifficult word, is on the first occasion when its use becomes necessary ; then it is the teacher'a outy to picture out the term or word so that its mean- ing can be apprehended by all. At the end of this work a vocabulary of geographi- cal terms and other difficult words with their roots and meanings, is given. To this the pupil can refer as in his pro2;ress he meets with words whicii he does notun-» derstand. Difficult words have not been shunned in any case. They afford the teacher an opportunity of picturing out orally, which conveys the idea more for- cibly than any circumlocution of words in a book, Such words too when fully understood are like the apo- thecary's essences, — multum in parvo — far more convex oient and effective than a bundle of heybs. m 'K-' 4f INTRODUCTION, CHAPTER I. GENERAL OUTLINE. The Earth. — When children look out upon a clear night and see the moon and stars which stud the vault of heaven, they think, " What pretty bright things these are", — never supposing all the while that the earth upon which they are standing is just like many of these distant heavenly bodies- — that if they could get away to the moon and look back, the earth would then appear just as bright and beautiful as the moon does now, and very much largor. The earth is a large globe or ball which is over moving along through space and whirling around as it moves along. It belongs to a class of heavenly bodies called planets which revolve round the sun, a« their common centre, deriving trom it light and heat; the sun and its attendant planets are called the solar system.. The earth is 95,000,000 of miles from the sun, a- round which it revolves in about 3G5 days. The immense distance of the earth from the sun can be the more easily riSalized from the fact, that if there was a railroad all the way, a car going at the rate of a mile a minute, would bo 180 vears in travel linoj from the one body to the other. 8ome of the planets sarc very much larger than the earth and some are a grmt de^l ftu'ther fri^m the sun. GENERAL OUTLINE. 19 The earth is a ball nearly 8000 miles in diameter, and nearly 25,000 miles in circumference. We live upon the outside or surPace of the earth, and of course are whirled around with it, as it turns upon its axis and carried forward with it, as it moves around the sun. The axis of the earth upon which it turns is an imaginary line passino; through the centre of the earth North and South. The ends of the axis are called the poles — the North pole — and the South pole. A circle equidistant from the poles, passing round the earth East and West dividing it into two equal portions, called Northern and Southern Hemispheres, is called the Equator. The distance from pole to pole is called breadth or latitude, the distance East and West longitude. Latitude is measured from the Equator to the poles, north of the Equator is north latitude, south of it — south latitude. Longitude is measured from a line passing from one pole to another, through Greenwich in England. East of this line, half way round the world, is east longitude, and West half way. West longitude. Around the Earth East and West are five belts or zones, covering its whole surface, and differing in cli- mate and productions : — the torrid zone, embracing the middle or warmest portions of the earth, the North and South temperate zones — the interme- diate portions, and the North and South frigid zonos — around the poles, the coldest. The two most obvious divisions of the earth'^s sur- face are land and water, in the proportions of about one-fourth land and three-fourths water. But the land is not all in one place and the water I'll 20 INTRODUCTION. \ ■' in another ; here we find a patch of land and there a sheet of water, scattered over the earth's surface. There are however two portions of land much lar- ger than the others, situated upon opposite sides of the globe, thc^o large portions of land are called con- tinents, — the Eastern and the Western continents. The Eastern continent is much the larger ; it con- tained all the ancient empires and indeed comprised all the civilized world until about 200 years ago, and is often called the Old World. It includes three great divisions : Europe^ Asia, and Africa. The Western continent was entirely unknown to the rest of the world until the year 1492 when it was discovered by Christopher Columbus, a native of Ge- noa. Its inhabitants were then in a savage or half- civilized condition, from whom have sprung the pre- sent Indian tribes of America. It comprises two divisions. North America and South America. In addition to these two continents there are ma- ny smaller portions of land called islands. The great- er part of the insular land surface of the globe is sit- uated to the South-East of the Eastern continent, and is called by the general term Oceanica. Thus we have the principal land surface of the earth included in these six divisions; — Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America and Oceanica. Europe has the greatest extent of coast in propor- tion to its size and hence possesses the greatest facilities for commerce ; — here also are found the most power- ful nations, the mcst celebrated institutions of learn- ing, and the most extensive cultivation of the arts and sciences. Europe was the seat of two of the great ancient empires, Greece and Home. GENERAL OUTLINE. 21 The former occupied the Eastern peninsula still known by the name of Greece and was disMnguishcd for poetry, science, and architecture. The latter occupied the central peninsula » )w called Italy ; it extended its conquests over a large part of Europe, and from its ruins have arisen many vif the modern European nations. The most powerful nations of Europe are Great Britain, France, Russia, Austria and Prussia. Asia is the largest of the six divisions, and contains the loftiest mountains in the world ; it is noted as the cradle of tha human race, as the place in which was transacted most of the events recorded in the Bible, also, for its ancient empires, particularly the Assyri- an, Babylonian and Mcdo-Persian. Africa is distinguished for the regularity of its coasts, its extensive deserts, hot climate, the barbar- ism of its inhabitants, and the size and ferocity of its wild animals ; its ancient empires were Egypt and Carthage, the former noted for its civilization and learning, and the latter for its commerce. America is noted for its high mountains, its large rivers, and fresh water lakes. Shortly after its dis- covery the English, French,Spaniards and Portuguese came across the Atlantic, subdued the native Indians and established colonies in the country. The colo- nists were for somo time subject to their respective Governments in Europe ; bnt the greater number of them have subsequently thrown olF their allegiance to European powers, and organized independent govern- ments. America is about 9000 miles in length extend- ing from the Arctic ocean about 75 ^ N. Lat. to Cape Horn 56 ® S. Lat., and about 3,500 miles in breadth at the North — becoming narrower towards 22 INTRODUCTION. the South until it is reduced to about 40 miles at the isthmus of Panama ; then it suddenly expands and forms another large territory, similar to that in tho north. Its entire area is about 15,000,000 square miles, and its population about 55,000,000. OcEANiCA consists wholly of islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, the largest of which is Australia, celebrated for its rich gold mines. Ocean ica is usu- ally divided into Malaisia, Australasia, and Poly- nesia. Oceans. — The water surface of the earth is divi- ded into five great oceans : Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Northern, and Southern. 'J^he Atlantic lies between the old and new wo/ld having Europe and Africa on the East and America on the West, it is about 3,000 miles in breadth. The Pacific also separates the great continents hav- ing America on the East and Asia on the West, it is three times as broad as the Atlantic. The Indian ocean lies to the South of Asia and be- tween the Pacific and Africa. The Northern or Arctic lies around the North pole and the Southern or Antarctic around the South pole. ■ ft . i 11 ,. .1 I ft t c It NORTH IM ERICA. ta CHAPTER IL NORTH AMKRICA. North America contains about 8J millions of square miles, and it possesses almost every variety of climate and vegetable productions. Thfi folbwing are the principal political divisions j British Danish Russian America 500,000 sq. m. i;i the N. W, America or Greenland 380,000 sq. ra. Amer I ca 3,600,000 sq. m. United States 3,000,000 Mexico 830,000 sq. m. Central America 200,000 sq. m.. In addition to the above there is a number of islands between North and South America called the West Indies, noted for the rich tropical produce with which they have supplied the civilized world during the last two centuries. They consist of four large and many smaller islands. The four large islands, known as the Great An^ tilles, are Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico. The smaller islands are subdivided into the follow- ing groups : Bahamas, Carribbee Islands, Little Aus- tilles and Bermuda^. 4 24 INTRODUCTION. / Russian America is a frozen region abounding in seals and fur-bearing animals to which it owes its principal importance. New Archangel on Sitka island is the chief town. Greenland is also an inhospitable country similar in climate and products to Russian America. It has belonged to the Danes for several centuries. Thein-» habitants, called Esquimaux, are of a dwarfish" size and filthy in their habits. There are no towns. The Moravian missionaries have a few stations on the West coast. British America extends from about 42° to 72® N. Lat. ; it is about 3,000 miles in length from East to West, and nearly 2,000 miles in breadth. Its po-^ pulation is about 3^ millions. The northern part is in the temperate 2;one and possesses a climate and ve- getation similar to other temperate regions. The western coast is much colder in the same lati* tude than the Eastern. A large portion of this ter- ritory was wrested from the French who originally colonised it, — and many of the inhabitants are of French extraction. United States.— This is a large and highly impor- tant division of North America, situated between 25° and 49° N. Lat , and l^ence is wholly in the North Temperate zone. The length from East to West is 2,400 miles and the breadth 1,G00 miles. The population is 24 millions. This country possesses many grand and beautiful natural features such as lofty mountains, large rivers, iKiajestic waterfalls, extensive lakes, and wide spread- ing plains. Its great river, the Mississippi, is the lar- gest river in the world ; the lakes between British AGierica and the United States are the largest fiesb .ti liORtH AMERICA. 25 Watei* accumulations. The climate and soil are ve* ry varied, being in the east ndupted to grazing and esculents, in the middle and west, to wheat, Indian corn &c., in the ^outh, to rice, cotton, sugar cane, and the choicest fruits. In the southern states the labor is performed principally by African slaves. The ma* nufactures and commerce are very extensive. The inhabitants are distinguished tor their activity, enter-* prise, and general intelligence. There are many large and beautiful cities as New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, Cincinnatti and New Orleans. Washington on the Potomac is the capital. This country was colonized by the British ; but became independent in 1776. The Government is republican. Mexico, contains nearly a million of square miles and a population of about 7 millions. The interior is elevated table-land ; the coasts are low and un- healthy ; vegetation is varied according to the ele- vation ; Indian corn, sugar cane, cotton, tobacco, in- digo &c,, grow luxuriantly. The silver mines are valuable — although not so rich as formerly. Mexico city* the capital, has a beautiful situation on the interior table land, 7000 ft. above the level of the sea. When America wns discovered the natives of Mexi* CO were far more civilized than thcDc of the north, they nad large towns and possessed great wealth. The Spaniards, led on by Cortez, conquered them, treated them very cruelly, in order to obtain their riches, and at lenglh took possession of their country. Mexico revolted from Spain and became an inde- pendent republic in 1821. r i -i?i iV f- i I i i M^ w 26 INTRODUCTION. Central America occupies the narrow part, in the south of North America, embracing several political divisions. The surface, climate, and productions are similar to those of Mexico ; volcanoes are numerous,- and the country is subject to violent earthquakes. The states of Central America, including Guate- mala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Cos- ta Rica, were formerly subject to Spain 5 they gained their freedom in 1824, and are now independent re-* publics. In addition to the above states are Yuca- tan and lialize or British Honduras. The latter is noted ibr its forests of mahogany and logwoodjof which large quantities are exported* CHAPTER III. BRITISH AMERICA. This portion of America forms a part of the wide- ly extended British Empire on which **the sun never sets." The British isles or Great Britain and Ire- land form the centre of the Empire, and its colonial posf-essions are found in every part of the world. In respect to power, commerce, wealth, literature, and civilization. Great Britain ranks first among the na- tions of the earth. Its revenue is nearly one-third of that of all the states of Europe. London with a population of 2^ millions is the ca- pital. ^ The British possessions in America are claimed bj BRITISH AMERICA. 27 the crown of England in right of discovery, settlement and treaty. They con^prise : The Territories of Hudson's Bay and Labrador, in the North, and The Provinces, or Colonies. Ca da na N.Brunswick Prince Edw'd Island. I Newfoundland I Nova Scotia. m The Temperate Pvegions. In addition to these colonies Great Britain owns Balize in Central America, British Guiana on the northern coast of S. America, The Bermudas, The Bahamas, Jamaica, Trinidad, and several other important West India islands. Labrador and Hudson'sBay Territory constitute about five-sixths of British America. Labrador consists of the peninsula in the north east, between Hudson's Bay and the Straits of Belleisle. So short is the warm season here that even where the climate is mildest, it is with the greatest difficulty that a few vegetables can be brought to maturity. In ^1 w 28 INTRODUCTION. • i, if: I \ ■' ' \ Ml the southern parts and in the valleys, are found for- ests of birches and firs ; as one goes to the north, these trees dwindle inio shrubs, and at length, near the 60th parallel, even the shrubs disappear. The inhabitants are principally Esquimaux who subsist by hunting and fishing. Hudson's Bay Territory comprises all iho British possessions west of Labrador and north of Canada and the United States. The 49th parallel of north lati- tude forms the boundary between this territory and the United States fiom the Pacific ocean nearly to Lake Superior. The climate and products of Hud- son's Bay Territory are similar to those of Labrador, except an extensive country in the south-west called, New Caledonia, situated between the Bocky moun- tains and the Pacific. Here the climate is much milder and more like that of Canada. This is considered a fine country ; but its resources have not yet been developed. Near the Frascr Biver, a large stream 500 miles in length, valu- able gold mines have recently been discovered. The British government in 1858 formed a new colony consisting of New Caledonia and Yancouver's Island. This island is separated from the main land by the Gulf of Georgia. It lies be- tween the parallels of 48°and 51° N. Lat. ; it is about 290 miles long and 55 broad. It has a fine cli- mate, there is but little frost, the spring is early, and the island is well adapted to agriculture. The exports of Hudson's Bay Territory are furs, fish, oil, walrus-ivory, &c. The Hudson's Bay Com- pany, organized about 200 years ago, enjoys, by Roy- BRITISH AMERICA. 29 al charter, the exclusive privilege of trading with the natives. The Company's charter expires in 1859. Canada is an extensive and important province including Canada West and Canada East. It lies between Hudson's Bay Territory and the United States and is separated from the latter by the great lakes. It is situated between the parallels of 42° and 51" N. Lat., containing an area of 35,800 sq. miles and a population of about 2^ millions. The climate is liable to the extremes of heat and cold, especially in the east ; in the south-west it is more equable and temperate. The soil is generally very fertile ; the common ce- reals grov7 to perfection, and large quantities of flour are exported. ^ In 1856 the total value of exports was £8,000,000, to which agricultural products contributed £3,750,- 000, and produce of the forest £2,500,000. The re- venue for 1856 was about 1,500,000. The principal cities are : Canada West. Pop. Toronto on lake Ontario 50,000 Hamilton " " 28,000 Kingston " " 15,000 London, on the river Thames 10,000 Canada East. Montreal on the St Lawrence 70,000 Quebec " " 45,000 Ottawa on a river of the ^ame name is the capi- tal — population 10,000. M '^W 30 INTRODUCTION. This country was colonized by the French who re- tained possession of it until 1759, when Quebec was captured by Gen. Wolfe, and the whole country fell into the hands of the British. The French language, laws, and customs still prevail to a large extent in Canada East. New Brunswick lies between 45° and 48° N. Lat., and 63° 50' and 67° 50' W. Lon. Its area is 27,620 sq. miles and its population 220,000. This country is beautifully diversified with hill and dale but not mountainous. The soil is fertile and well watered. The river St. John, 450 miles long, is the most important river. It is navigable for large vessels to Fredericton, 84 miles from its mouth, small steamers ply to Woodstock 60 miles further up, and occasionally even to the Grand Falls 220 miles from the sea. Dense fogs prevail along the coast, but the climate is more temperate than in Canada East. Iron and coal are found in abundance. Timber and fish are the chief articles of export. Ship-building is extensively carried on and much facility for commerce is afforded by its extensive sea coast and excellent harbors. The exports amount to about £1,750 000. St. John at the mouth of the river, is the principal city — population 35,000. Fredericl-on is the capital. Like Canada, this country formerly belonged to the French, it formed a part of the country called Acadia. It was finally ceded to the English in 1713, and became a separate province in 1784. Nova Scotia is a valuable portion of British Ameri- ca, it consists of Nova Scotia proper or the peninsula, and the Island of Cape Breton. On the north are the Bay of Fundy, Chiegnecto Bay, a narrow isth- BRITISH AMERICA. 3l tniis connecting it with New Brunswick, Northumber- land Strait, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. On all other sides are the waters of the great Atlantic. The province lies between 43° 25' and 47° N. Lat. and 59° 40' and 66° 25' West Long., it has an area of about 18,600 sq. miles, and a population of about 300,000. The surface is agreeably diversified with hill and dale ; valuable minerals abound, especially coal and iron. The climate and soil are well suited to airri- culture; the fisheries are very profitable; and no country in the world possesses greater commercial ad- vantages. Halifax on the Atlantic is the capital — ' population about 30,000. Nova Scotia was colonized by the French who called it, together with New Brunswick and the East- ern pnrt of the United States, by the general name Acadia. Prince Edward Island is a small but fertile island in the Gulf of St Lawrence, to the north of Nova Scotia from which it is separated by Northumberland Strait. It is between 45° 50' and 47° 7' N. Lat., and 62° and 64° 27' minutes West Long. Length 130 miles; breadth 30 miles, including an area of 2,173 miles. The climate is temperate and salubrious. Agriculture is pursued successfully and the fisheries are productive. The population is about 72,000, nearly one half of whiA is Roman Catholic. The revenue is about £16,000. Charlottetown — the ca- pital, is the only city ; population 7,000. It was discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1497 on St John's day whence it derived tbe name St John's Island which it retained until 1800, when it received its present name, in honor of Prince Edv^ard. Il i 1 Hffi w K M; 1 1 1 w 1 ll 'C 1j 1 1 1 1 i' I- >' '!1 I M f'.' i 'i, : t w I 00 INTRODUCTION. li-l was alternately in the hands of the French and Eng* lish until 1758 when it was captured by tlic British. Newfoundland is a large island in the G ulf of St> Lawrence, distant from Cape Breton about 50 miles, from Labrador about 12 miles. It is between 40*^ 40' and 51° 39' N. Lat. and 52° 44' and 59° 31' W. Jjong., — extreme length 419 miles, breadth 300, area 30,000 sq. miles. The climate is severe, dense fogs prevail in tho spring and early part of summer, grains do not ripen well, but vegetables and grasses flourish. The island is important on account of its position, forming a sort of stepping stone between the old and new world. It is nearer to Europe than any other part of America, the distance to Ireland being only 1,650 miles. To the east and south of Newfoundland is a cele- brated sub-marine plateau of great extent, called the banks of Newfoundland, forming the most celebrated cod fishery in the world. The inhabitants reside chiefly along the coasts, they number about 100,000. St John's, the most Eastern port in America, is the capital, — population about 15,000. Newfoundland was discovered by Cabot in 1497. 1583 Sir Humphrey Gilbert visited the island and took formal possession of it in the name of his sove- reign Queen Elizabeth. It was afterwards partially colonized by the French, but finally ced^d to the Eng* lish in 1713. British Honduras, or Balize in the south-east of the peninsula of Yucatan has a hot and moist climate, — the products are sugar, cotton, coffee, mahogany, logwood, ttc. Balize is the capital. It has been occupied by tho 13ritish for nearly 200 years. BRITISH AMERICA. 33 British Guiana extends about 200 miles along the north coast of South America, it has an area of about 100,000 sq miles and includes three divisions, Demcrara, Essequibo, and Berbice. On the coast the country is low and alluvial, in the interior it is more elevated. The climate is hot and unhealthy to Europeans. The staple products are sugar, rum, and coffee. Georgetown in N. Lat. 6° 49' 20'' is the capital. Guiana was taken from the Dutch in 1803. The Bermuda Isles situated about 580 miles from the United States' coast, are said to be as numerouJi as the days in the year. They are small, rocky, and nearly surrounded by coral reefs ; only eight are in- habited. Long Island, or Bermuda Proper, and Saint George are the most important. The climate is delightful ; the products are arrow- root, tomatoes, potatoes, &o , A species of cedar furnishes valuable timber. The population is about 11,000. Hamilton on Long Is- land, is the capital. The Bahamas are about 500 in number, many of them are very small and are mere rocks. Providence, Bahania, Guanahomi or St. Salvador, are the most important. The latter is supposed to be the first ^and discovered by Columbus in 1492. Turk's Island is noted for its salt. The population of the Bahamas is about 25,000. Owing to the rocky and dangerous character of the coasts, shipv/recks are frequent ; and hence many of the inhab^itants are wreckers. Jamaica is about 150 miles long and 50 broad, 1 34 INTRODUCTIONS'. containing an area of 6,400 sq. miles, and a popuTa" tion of nearly 400,000. The exports are sugar, molasses, rum, coffee, pi- mento, &o Kingston is the largest city, Spanish Town is the capital. Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in 1494 ; it was colonised by the Spaniards in 1509. The natives had been wholly extirpated in 1558. During the protectorship of Oliver Cromwell In 1655, the island was conquered by the English. The Carribbees include the Virgin, Leeward, and Windward Isles. The principal of these belonging to the British are the following : 93 miles 70 275 78 1,700 166 131 140 109 225 Antigua area St Christopher Dominica Montserrat or reservoir in Cape Breton. It is about 12 miles in length, and is the source of the Margaree river. Ill VERS. — The rivers are necessarily small. The following are the principal : Inhabitant, Mabou, Margaree, and St. Denis, in Inverness; Baddeck and Middle, in Victoria; Mire and Salmon, in Cape Breton ; Grand lliver, in Rich- mond. I'fe.YS AND Inlets are very numerous on the East coast The principal are : Aspe Bay, St. Ann's Bay, Great Bras D'or, Little Bras D'or, Sydney Harbor, 3Iire Bay, Gabarus Bay, St. Piter's Bay. Inland Seas and Basins. — Bras D'or Lake, Why- CAPK BRKTOK ISLAND — liAYS. 45 kokomagh, Basin St. Denis, West Bay, East Arm, The Narrows. Straits. — Canseau, Great Bras D'or, Little Bras D'or, St. Patrick's Channel, Barra Strait, Lennox Channel. Harbors. — The most important are: St. Ann's Bay, Great Bras D'or. Sydney, Cow Bay. Mire Bay, Louisburg, Gabarus Bay, Fourchm, Arichat, Ship Harbor, Plaister Cove, Port Hood, Mabou, Margarec, Cheticamp. Description op Waters. — Aspy Bay is broad ami deep, and has a bold shore. The coast continues rocky and elevated, presenting bold headlands, for about 30 miles, to St. Ann's Bay. This is a narrow sheet of water penetratingr several miles into an elevated -country. Great Bras D*or and Little Bras D'or are two narrow channela, communicating with the inte- rior waters?. The former, to the North of Bou- lardarie, is about 25 miles in length and one mile in breadth, allowing passage to large vessels. — Little Bras D'or is much narrower at its en- trance and is not navigable for large vessels ; until recently it was spanned by a bridge ; seven or eight miles from its mouth, this channel becomes tnuch wider and deeper The two channels uaite at the West of Boulardarie, forming a ! asin called Lit- tle Bras D'or Lake; th^iuce a portion of the waters extends to tho North West, in an arm called St. Pa- trick's Channel, and still farther on, into the Basin of Whykokoraagh. The larger portion of the waters passes to the South West, through the Strait of Bar- ra, 12 miles from Boulardarie, and spreads out, forming the inland sea called Bras D'or Lake. This is R very irregular expanse of water, sending out aio ^ 4G NOYA SCOTIA. '•t arm to the North West, called Basin St. Deni«, one to the West called West Bay, one to the South, to the Isthmus of St. Peter's, called the Narrows, and a fourth to the East, called East Arm. The greatest length of the lake, from the extremity of West Bay to that of East Arm, is about 50 miles. These wa- ters are generally navigable for large vessels. Sydney Harbor is a Basin about 2 miles in breadth at its entrance^ extending several miles inland. Four miles from the entrance, it divides into North West and South West Arms. The Strait of Canseau is a deep channel, about a mile in breadth and 15 miles in length ; it is the great thoroughfare between the Atlantic and the Gulf and River St. Lawrence. The coast on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, from Che- ticamp around to Aspy Bay, is rocky and precipitous. Cafes. — Many of these are bold and elevated. — The principal are Mabou, St. Lawrence, North, Eg- mont, Enfumd, Dauphine, Aconi, Murgain, Breton. IsTiANDS.— These are Boularderie, Scatari, Ma- dame, Janvrin, and St. PauFs. Boulardarie, between the Great and Little Bras D'or, is about 25 miles in length and S^ in breadth. The soil is fertile. Isle Madame is the most Southern land in Cape Breton. It is quite irregular in its form ;: its great- est length is a,bout 12 miles, "t has many harbours^ of which Arichat ranks among .^e first of Cape Breton* These give shelter to the fishing vessels, which resort thither in great numbers. St. PauFs Island, a precipitous rock, IS miles to the north of Aspy Bay, is the scene of many disasters to mariners. NOT A SCOTIA— GEOLOGY AND SOIL. 47 NOVA SCOTIA AND CAPE BRETON ; OR, THE PROVINCE OF NOVA SCOTIA, The two natural divisions of the Province having many featiifes in common, it will be more convenient ito notice them together. Oeology and Soiii. — Below the soil, varying in depth from the surface, solid rock is found over all parts of the earth, which may be divided, according to its origin, into two classes — aqueous and igneous. The aqueous rocks are sedimentary^ having been deposited in the bottoms of lakes or seas, in which their materials were once held in a state of solution or suspension. The igneous rocks, whether of earlier or later ori- gin, have been formed by the agency of heat. When aqueous rocks have been changed by the action of fire, yet not reduced to a state of fusion, they are called metamorphic. The soil consists partly of decayed vegetable and animal matter, but mainly of disintegrated rocks ; hence its character depends very much upon that of the underlying and circumjacent rocks. Rocks admit of a much more detailed classification, according to the period at which they were formed, and their contents. We may consider tne soils of Nova Scotia under six heads. 7. The metamorphic district of t/te Atlantic coast. This division occupies a large area in the South, ex- tending from Digby to Cape Canseau, varying in !!?'! I ■' y 48 lSi)V\ yCOTfA. breadth from 50 miles, in tho West, to 7 or 8, in the East. The Rurface is rugged and uneven, but not moun- tuiitous ; it abounds in lakes and bogs. The rocks of this region are chiefly slate, quartz, and grarite; in many places the surface is covered witl) large boulders and much of the soil is barren; grains do not grow well, owing partly to the charae- ter of the soil and partly to Atlantic fogs ; but many districts are well adapted to vegetables and fruit trees. JL Metamorphic hills of the interior. This division comprises the b'outh Mountain range — the Cobequid Mountains, and the bills of Pictou and Sydney, in Nova Scotia Proper; and in Cape Kreton, the high- lands in the North of Inverness and Victoria, and much of the country South of Bra.s I>'or Lake. The^e sections, including the most elevated land in tho Prrvincc, contain shales, grits^ and fimestones, which are often scattered on the surface in greal abundance*. The soil fs deep, generally fertile, and adapted to the growth of grains. IiL Carboniferous districts. These cover much of the Eastern part of the Province. They occur in the Eai't of Kings, North of Hants, principal low- lands of Colchester, Pictou, and Sydney, in that part of Cumberland North of the Cobequid Mountains, and in a narrow strip in Guysboro ;, in Cape Breton, they occupy the South of Inverness and Victoria, the West of Kichmond, and the East of Cape Bretoo county, covering a very large part of the Island. The varieties of rock belonging to this system, are sandstone, gypsum, limestone, and coal. The surface is generally undulating. The soil varies from light loaiu to istififclay, and is for the most part fertile> CLIMATK- 41) IV. New Red Sandstone, This district embraces the valley between the North and South Mountains, and the lowlands bordering upon Cobequid Bay. — The soil varies from fertile loam to barren sand. V. Trap district. The North Mountain is com- posed of a dark coloured stone called trap. The soil 18 usually fertile, especially when mingled with that of the sandstone at the base of the mountain. VI. Alluvial Soils. Besides the above, there are )arge quantities of alluvial soil along the banks of many of the rivers. Of this there are two kinds, marine and river alluvial. The former, commonly called marsh, is formed by deposits left by the tide at tlie estijaries of the rivers, and is reclaimed from the sea by artificial embankments, called dikes.^ — The marshes upon the borders of the Bay of Fuudy and its branches, are the most extensive and valuable. Marsh is generally a very rich soil, having, without any fertilizing application, retained an extraordinary productiveness «?ince the settlement of the country. The river alluvial soil, called interval, is compo- sed of materials brought from the higher grounds^ by the rivers, and deposited along their banks. It is very fertile. • CuMATE. — The winters of Nova Scotia are severe and long. The extreme of cold is 24° below Zero (Farenheit), and cattle require to be fed and housed seven months in the year. Vegetation is very rapid, and the summers are, in general, sufficiently hot for the ripening of Indian corn. The hardier varieties In some Counties, the term dike is also applied to the soils protected by these embankments. 1(1 I K i! ! 1 ■» i. ' 50 NOVA SCOTIA. of the grape also come to maturity in the open air. The extreme of heat is OC^ in the shade, and the mean annual temperature is 43". There is usually a rainy season in the spring and autumn ; through- out the year, the weather is somewhat variable ; yet the climate is salubrious and well adapted to promote bodily and mental vigour. Minerals. — Nova Scotia is rich in those minerals which contribute most to the prosperity of a country ; coal, iron, lime, and gypsum are abundant ; copper, manganese, sulphur, sulphate of barytes, salt, and ochres are also found, some of them in considerable quantities. Coal is found at various places in t^ ^ counties of Cumberland, Colchester, Pictou, Inverness, Richmond, and Cape Breton. The mines most extensively work- ed are the " Sydney Mines," Cape Breton, " Albion Mines," Pictou, and ** The Joggins" in Cumberland. The most important iron mines arc at Londonderry in Colchester, and Nictaux in Annapolis. The ore is of a superior quality. Lime and gypsum are abundant in Hants, Colches- ter, Cumberland, Inverness, and other carboniferous districts ; building materials are plentiful, including granite, sandstone, sl»to, clay, and some marble. — Sandstones are found in Cumberland of a rare grit required in grindstones. Vegetable Products. — These are such as grow in the Northern States and in Canada. The folio winrr are the most important native trees, shrubs, and herbs : Oak, be,ech, hazelnut, ash, maple, birch, elm, wil- low, poplar, pine, hemlock, spruce, fir, larch, cedar; wild gooseberry, wild currants, wild rose, raspberry, WILD ANIMALS. 51 blackberry, dogwood, elder, tree-cranberry, bush-ho- neysuckle, shrub-birch, alder, ground-hemlock, ground- juniper, blueberry, whortleberry, labrador tea, may- flower, laurel ; mints, heal all, lily, solomnn's seal, ■trawberry, spikenard, parsaparilla, ginseng. There are extensive forests in the Province, yield- ing valuable timber ; such as oak, beech, ash, ma- ple, birch, and elm ; — pine, spruce, and hemlock are much used for lumber. Larch or Hackmatack is highly prized for its durability, and is much employ- ed for ships, railways, posts, &c. The cultivated plants include the cereals, potatoes, turnips, &c. ; and among the fruits, apples, pears, plums, cherries, and currants. Wheat is most exten- sively raiseu in the eastern counties, and fruit, in the western. The best hay districts are the marine and river alluvial soils. According to the census of 1851, Pictou produced more than one-fourth of the wheat and a fifth of the oats in the Province ; Annapolis and Kings, nearly two-thirds of the Indian corn ; Kings more than one-fourth of the potatoes and more than one-third of the rye. Wild Animals. — Many of the wild animals have disappeared, or are becoming very rare. The most important are included under the classes Mammalia, Birds, Reptiles and Fishes. These four classes are distinguished by their form, habits, and internal struc- ture. The Mammalia comprise the bear, wolf, wildcat, lucifee, fox, raccoon, seal, weasel, bat, mole, and shrew mouse, which live on the flesh of other animals and are hence called Carmvora ; the hare, woodchuck, porcupine, beaver, squirrel, muskrat,and fieldmouse, — these are furnished with a peculiar kind of teeth with T u '\ 52 NOTA SCOTIA. which they gnaw, rather than cut or tear their foo/i and other substances, hence they are called gnawers or Kodentia ; the moose and carriboo, which live upon grass, leaves, twigs, &c., and chew their food twice, or chew the cud, on account of which they are called Euminantia ; ard the whale, which, although it resembles fishes, possesses the characteristics of Mammalia, and is therefore properly classed with them. The bear is the largest carniverous animal in Nova Scotia ; though very destructive to sheep, it seldom attacks a man ; it passes the winter in a partially torpid state in some hollow tree or secluded den. The wolf is rarely found in Nova Scotia. The moose is the largest wild animal in the Pro- vince ; his head is adorned with large and branching antlers, which fall off every spring and are replaced by new ones. When seen in his native forests, the moose presents a majestic appearance ; he is much hunted, and the flesh is highly esteemed as an article of food. The earriboo is much smaller, and is simi- lar to the reindeer of Lapland. Birds. — The principal ar3: — 1. The eagle, hawk and owl, which prey upon small- er birds and are called plunder -^rs, or Raptores ; 2. The robin, blackbird, yellnwbird, kingbird, snow- bird, crow, raven, bluejay, hummingbird, kingfisher, swallow, nighthawk, and sparrow, — the most of these live mainly upon insects and fruit, and are much on tho wing — frequently resting upon trees : — they ar« called perehers or InsesFores ; 3. The woodpeckers, which subsist upon insects found beneath the bark of decaying trees ; they have a long sharp bill, well adapted to obtain their food ; WILD ANIMALS. 53 their toes are so formed that they can cling to the side of a tree or climb upon it ; thej are called climhers^ or IScansores ; 4. The partridge and pigeon, which live upon seeds and berries ; these belong to the same class as the domestic hen, and resemble it in the habit ot scratch- ing, or scraping, with the foot, from which they get the name scrapers^ or Rasores ; 5. The crane or heron, snipe, phalarope, and plover, which subsist on small fish and aquatic insects ; to adapt them to their mode of living, they are furnished with long i^ecks and long legs ; they look as if they went upon stilts, and are hence called wadtrs^ stilt birds, or GraUatores ; 6. The goose, duck, loon, auk,-»and gull. These birds love the water ; they have their toes united by a membrane, enabling them to swim ; they are called web-footed, Palmipides^ or Natatores. Reptiles. — These animals are distinguished for their slow breathing, which renders them cold-blood- ed. Many of them have no limbs and move by creeping — hence the name Reptile Those in Nova Scotia are small and harmless. The principal are snakes, tortoises, turtles, lizards, toads, and frogs. Toads and frogs at first live wholly in the water. During this period of their existence they have gills like a fish, and are called tadpoles ; in a short time they begin to live on land, having exchanged their tail and gills for legs and luni:;s, by which they are adapted to their new mode of existence. Toads are very useful in ridding gardens of destructive insects. Fishes inhale but a small portion of air, which they obtain from the water passing through their gills. Hence they are coM-blooded, like the reptiles. Their »:*'■ j ij ^ i ^; 54 NOVA SCOTIA. gills require to be constantly moistened to enable them to breathe, consequently they soon die out of water. The following are the most important on our coasts : — 1. The Cod tribe, including the cod, haddock, pol- lock, haak, &c., Vv'hich are of great value as an arti- cle of food, and also for the oil obtained from their large livers ; 2. The Flatfish, including the flounder, halibut, &c., noted for their flat bodies. The halibut often attains a great size and is much prized for food ; 3. The Salmon tribe, including th ^ rsalmon, trout, smelt, and capelin ; the salmon aacends the rivers to deposit its spawn, and is noted for its habit of leap- ing up cascades of considerable elevation ; its flesh is highly esieemed; 4. The Herring tribe, including herring, shad, and alewife ; these are plentiful and important as an arti- cle of food ; 5. The Mackerel tribe, of which large quantities are captured. Resourcjis, &c. — The chief natural and industrial means of wealth may be included under Agriculture, Mines, Timber, Fisheries, Commerce, and Manufac- tures. Agriculture is extensively and successfully pur- sued, and it may be regarded as the basis of the country's prosperity. Improved stock, farming utensils, aud modes of farming, arc gradually taking the place of those of an inferior character. Agricul- tural Societies are numerous. The Mineral wealth of the Province has already been noticed. As yet, however, owing to circum- stances incident to every new country, it has never PUBLIC WORKS. 55 been fully developed. The number of chaldrons of coal raised from the various mines in 1856 was 87,- 168. The iron mines are not very extensively worked. The Forests of Nova Scotia are not so extensive as those of New Brunswick and Canada; yet their products, such as hewn timber, lumber, fuel, &c., form an important item in the exports of the Pro- vince. The annual value of exports of those articles may be reckoned at about £150,000. The Fisheries well repay the labour and capital invested in their pursuit. Nova Scotia has nearly 1,000 miles of coast, and upon all sides its waters teem with many varieties of fish, yielding wholesome and delicious food to man. The annual value of the exports arising from the fisheries is over £600,000. The Commercial Facilities of Nova Scotia are un- surpassed by any country, and its trade is steadily and rapidly increasing. Its principal articles of ex- port are coal, gypsum, produce of the forest, agricul- tural produce, fish, live stock, &c., to the annual value of about £1,500,000. The imports consist of woolens, cottons, silks, iron,and various articles o^anufacture from Britain ; flour, agricultural and other imple- ments, furniture, tobacco, &c., from the United States ; West India goods, tea, &c., to the amount ot about £2,000,000. Public Works. — These include railways, canals, public buildings, &c. The structure of Hallways in Nova Scotia was com- menced in 1854. by the Provincial Government, under whose auspices the work has been steadily progressing. There are now open for traffic a trunk line from Hali- fax to Truro, distance sixty-one and two-tenths miles, If 'Ml I»l m I 56 NOVA SCOTIA. V ' i and a branch, leaving the main line thirteen and one- tenth miles from Halifax, and extending thirty-one and six-tenths miles, to Windsor, ll is contemplated ultimately to continue the trunk line to the New Brunswick frontier, to meet a line of Railway in that Province, and also to construct a branch line to Pictou. The entire cost of the road from Halifax to Truro rnd the branch to Windsor is £1,024,866, — the aver- age cost per mile, £11,044. No Canals are yet finished. One is in course of construction, to connect Halifax harbor with the Shubenacadie river, passing through the lakes in that section of the country. The whole distance fiiom Dartmouth to the mouth of Shubenacadie is about 60 miles. The cost of the canal when finished has been estimated at about £50,000. Over £6,000 have been expended in cuttings for a canal across St. Peter's Isthmus in Cape Breton ; but nearly ten times that amount will be necessary to finish the work. The telegraph lines of " ihe Nova Scotia Electric Telegraph j^Jompany," extend about 1,200 F>iles, bringing all the principal places in the Province into communication with Halifax. Nova Scotia is also connected by telegraph with the other Provinces and the United States ; — there is a submarine cable from Cape Breton to Newfoundland. iPopuLATiON. — The inhabitants of Nova Scotia are of very varied origin. The following may be regard- ed as including the principal original settlers : — The English who arrived with Governor Cornwal- lisinl749; The French who escaped the general expulsion in 1755, or who subsequently returned ; — the piincipal ,i A EDUCATION. 67 French settlements are Cheticamp, East of Rich- mond, and Isle Madame, in Cape Breton ; Tracadie, Minudie, Clare, Pubnico, and Chezzetcook, in Nova Scotia Proper ; The Germans, who settled in Lunenburg, in 1753 ; The Scotch, who settled principally in the Eastern counties and Cape Breton ; The Irish, many of whom settled in Halifax, others in Cumberland, (fee. ; New England Colonists, who came at the expul- sion of the French and occupied their lands, others at the Americ'in Revolution on account of their at- tachment to the British Government ; Soldiers, disbanded at the close of the American War ; Negroes, who accompanied their masters from the United States, or escaped from that country at the Revolution. Nova Scotia was originally inhabited by a tribe of North American Indians, called Micmaos, whose descendants in the Province now number about 1000. They are a vagrant, harmless people, but little improved by that civilization which has so greatly changed the character of their once forest home. Within a few years an Association of the vai'ious Protestant denominations has been formed, with a view to the religious and social advancement of this unfortunate, yet interesting race. There are now two missionaries, one of whom is a native Micmac, labouring amongst them. Education.' Novascotians, in respect to intel- ligence, compare favourably with the inhabitants of other Christian lands. Common Schools are nu- merous and well attended. According to the Su- perintendent's Report for 1857, the Common and '^' I 58 NOVA SCOTIA. Grammar Schools w^jre, in that year, attended by about 37,000 pupils, and sustained at an expense of £45,435 7s. 6d. The general educational affairs are presided over by a Superintendent of Education. The Superin- tendent is also Principal of the Normal School es- tablished at Truro in 1855 for training teachers. This Institution is sustained by the Province, and includes a Normal College and Model School. — The system of education taught is that called the Training or Natural System. The Colleges are : — King's College, Windsor founded in 1789 and belonging to the Episcopalians ; Acadia College, Wolfville, to the Baptists ; Pres- byterian College, Truro ; Free Church College, Halifax ; St. Mary's College, Halifax, Roman Ca- tholic ; St. Francis Xavier's College, Antigonish, Roman Catholic. Religion. — The religious denominations of the Province are divided into two great classes, Pro- testant and Roman Catholic, the former comprising more than three-fourths the population. The prin- cipal Protestant denominations are Presbyterians, Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists, Lutherans, Quakers and Universalists. The various bodies of Presbyterians comprise more than one-fourth the population ; Roman Ca- tholics, nearly one-fourth ; Baptists, over one-se- venth ; Episcopalians, over one-eighth ; Methodists, over one-twelfth. The others are much less nu- merous. All enjoy equal civil privileges. CIVIL DIVISIONS. Counties, &c. — For the greater convenience in .! toUNTlfiS. 59 l*egnlating the internal affairs of the Province, it is divided into eighteen Counties, and these arr sub- divided into Townships. Each County is indepen- dent in managing its own local affairs, has its own judicial courts, and sends representatives to the Provincial Assembly. Some central Town or Vil- lage is chosen, in each County, in which to hold the courts and transact the public business of the County. Such place is called the County Town* The following Table shows the Counties, with their population, &c., according to the census of 1851, their Townships, and Countv Towns : — Counties. Oumberland. Colchester. Pictou. Sydney. Guysboro'. Halifax. Popu- lation. 14,339 15,469 25,693 13,467 10,838 39,112 Prob. val. of Real Estate. £590,224 672,318 655,619 278,689 166,361 1893,887 Acres Dyked Land. \wnships. 16,170 5,139 20 111 540 I Amherst, ■? Wallace, C Parrsboro' f Truro, j Onslow, ^ London- iderry, Stirling. Pictou, Egerton, . Mavwel- [ ton. ( Antigo- I nish, Ari- \ saig, i'ra- I cadie, St. t Andrews. Manches- ter, Guys- boro', bt I Mary's. (Halifax, Daitm'th, \ Lawrence I town, (^ Preiston. Cty Towns. Amherst* Truro. Pictou . Atigonish, Guysboro*. Halifax. til I ii . 1 I f. i ^(i 60 Counties. Lunenburg. Queens . Sholbarne. Yarmouth. Digby. Annapolis. Kings. KoVA SCOtlA. Popu- I ation . Hants. Inverness. Victoria. C.Breton Kichmond. Proh. val. of Real Estate. Acres Dyked fjand. Toumships. 16,395 7,256 414,83U 252,506 10,6221 137,090 13,142 12,2'i2 14,288 14,138 286,703 281,173 454,624 618,166 14,330 585,809 45 59 1,720 83 2,793 0,988 6,292 rLi f Chester, J Lunen- "> burg,Now (^ Dublin. Liverpool Tiuys- borough Barring- ton, tShel- burne. J Yarmouth I Argyle. S Digby, I Clare. Annapolis Yarmouth Clements, I VVilmot. Horton, Cornwal- lis,Ayles- ford. ' Windsor, Falmouth IN ewport, ^ Kempt, Kawdon, Douglas, Maitland . CtyTotmu, Lunenburg Liverpool. Shclburne< Yarmouth. Digby. Annapolis. Kentville. Windsor. CAPE BRETON. 16,917 316,787 1,052 27,580 419,041 10,381 127,090 ( PortHood J Canseau, j Margarie, [ Ainslie. f Sydney, I St. Pa- ■j tricks, St. I Andrews. r Arichat, Maitland \ Lennox, I Hawks- I bury. Portllood. Baddeck. Sydney. Arichat. COUStlES. 01 SYNOPSIS OF THE SURFACE, &c., OF THE COUNTIES. Counties, Guinborland. Colchester. Piciou. Sydney. Guysboro'. Halifax. Lndultiting lu the north, Co- beqaid Moun- tains in the in- terior, uneven in the South. Low on Tatama- gouohe Bay — Cobequid Mountains near the middle — undulating in the south. Undulating and hilly— outliers of Cobequid range in the west, as Mount Thorn, &o. Hilly in the west and south — low in the east. Some hills in the north, rugged in the south. Uneven and rooky — many lakes. Geuerally ara- ble — best up- lands near Northumber- land Strait — extensive marshes at the heaa of Cum- berland Basin. The soil is vari- ' ed, but gener- ! ally fertile, ex- cellent marsh and interval on the rivers. Fertile— hilly dititriots stony — valuable in- tervals on the rivers. Generally tile. fer- Much good soil in the north — rocky and bar- ren in the south, except on the rivers. Generally poor except on the margins of the rivers. Leading branch' es of Industry. Agricuilure, shipbuilding, lumbering, — mining at the Joggins. Agriculture, shipbuilding lumbering, n.nd fishing. Agriculture, — mining, ship^ building, and lumbering. Agriculture and fishing. Agriculture and fishing. Fishery, trade, and agricul- ture. i ;! i^J^ , ii m •^t 3 !.*■ j !■' 02 KOVA SCOTIA. Lunenburg. Queens. Sholburne. Yarmouth. Digby. Annapolis. Undulating. Rugged, several lakes. Low and uneven on the coast, more elevated iu tho interior. Low- many small lakes. Low and undu- lating on the coast, more ele- vated in the in- terior. The North Mountain ill the north, valley oi the Annapolis nearthemiddle, hilly in the SO' h. Much stony and poor Boil, — on the rivers and alongtheghnres of Mahone Bay, it is gocd and well cultivated. Rocky and bar- ren on the coast, lor tile tracts in the interior. Rocky, exten- sive barrens and peat bogs — fer- tile districts in iho interior. Rocky, general- ly arable — some marsh. Average quality — the best soils are on Digby Neck and at the head of St. Ma- ry's Bay. Generally fer- tile, best soil aloRg the base of the North Mountain — the valley well adapted to fruit j trees. I Leading hrn7uh- f.v of Induatry, Fishery, agricul- ture, lumber- ing, and ship< building. Lumbering,fish- ery, agricul* turOfShipbuiid- ing. Fishery,lumber« ing, shipbuild- ing, and agri- culture. Shipbuilding, navigation, fiishery, agri- culture, and lumbering. Agriculture, fishery, and lumbering. Agriculture, — large dairies and extensive orchards. PRINCIPAL TOWNS. 63 Kings. Hants. Inverness. Victoria. Cape Breton. Kicbmond. The Ncrth Mountain in the north, South Moun- tain in the south, undulat- ing valley in- tervening. Undulating and hilly — Ardoise Hill the most elevated. Undulating and hilly in the south, moun tainous in the north. Uneven and mountainous — some low land in the south. Undulating. Generally low — more elevated a.t the eastern and western ex tremities. Varied gene- rally fertile — much superior marsh. Much fertile soil — good marsh on the Avon and St. Croix. Soil generally fertile — north- ern part mostly in furest. Much fertile soil — extensive forests in the north. Generally fer- tile. Leading branch' e» of Industry. Agriculture. Agriculture, plaster trade, shipbuilding. Agrieulture and fishery. Agriculture aud fishing. Agriculture, mining, and fisheries. Fisheries, coast- ing trade, and agriculture. Principal Towns. mouth, Pictou, Windsor^ pool, Annapolis. Halifax, the Capital, The soil is gene- rally good — best soil on the shores of £ras D'Or Lake and along the ri- vers. -These are Halifax, Dart- Yarmouth, Truro, Liver- was founded in 1749, by I ji Jll m- vi t;4 NOVA SCOTIA. Governor Cornwallis, and named in honour of Lord Halifax, an active promoter of the settlement. — Previous to 1749 the place was called Chebucto. — It is a handsome city, about three miles in length and three-fourths of a mile in breadth, built upon the side of a hill, sloping somewhat abruptly to the harbor on the East. The city contains many fine buildings, among which is the Provmce Building, a large and beautiful structure. The population is about 30,000. Halifax may be regarded as the key to British power in Amer'.. i. On the summit of the hill overlooking the tpwn, is an impregnable ci- tadel, constructed of stone and earth, whose bristling guns command the harbor below. Its capacious and safe harbor and excellent dockyard mak^ Ha- lifax the principal naval station for British ships in America. It has direct communication with Eng- land through the Cunard and other steamers, is the terminus of an important railroad, and is con- nected by telegraph with all the principal cities in the other Provinces and in the United States.* Across the harbor, a fine placid"sheet of water about a mile in width, is the pleasantly-situ- ated town of Dartmouth. It may be regarded as a suburb of Halifax, with which it is connected by regularly plying ferry-boats. It was settled a year or two subsequent to the setdtment of Halifax ; the * A submarine cable landing irj Cape Breton connects Hali- fax with &t. John's, Newfoundland. In the summer of 1868 an electric cable was submerged across the Atlantic from New- foundland to Ireland. After transmitting a few . ssagea it suddenly ceased to work, and continues up to this i-^'e (Stii- tember 1858) inoperative; the oause remains a mystery. 'Ii ili- 58 w- it IF t»RlXCll?AL TOWNS. u '^arly inhabitants were greatly harassed and some of them cruelly murdered by the Indians. PiCTOU, the second town in Nova Scotia, is plea- santly situated on the north sideof Pictou Harbor; »t3 shipbuilding and commerce are extensive ; and h is the emporium of the coal trade from the Albi- on Mines, 8 miles distant. The coal is conveyed to the harbor on a railroad constructed for that [)urpose. New Glasgow, a small place near the mouth of East River, is noted for its shipbuilding, Windsor, on the Avon, is one of the most beau- tiful towns in Nova Scotia. In its neighborhood are extensive gypsum quarries. It is the seat of King's College.— Hantsport, ne arthe mouth of the Avon, is noted for its shipbuilding and navigation. Yarmouth, the largest town in the west, U >K>trA SCOT Lit. Ibe one OF tlie other became the possessors afihw SYr>NEir, or> Sy(tmvy Harbor^ was foriBerl/ the Capital of'Ct>p(i ]kvtoi>y arid it is still a place ik con- siderable importanex:?. The Bak \n North Sydney ^ an the opposite sider oP the bc>ii)or^ is ar> jisetive and flourishing village^ Three loiles distj^ut are the irvinesy from which the eotU is brouglit, by railway, to the kwiding ground. LoriS'PiTufj, (m the Soothe rn shores of Cape Bre- loii, is important lor its past history ,^ rather tlian for any j^^eatnes^ that attaches to it at the present time* it was on«^e a stronr/iy fortified town, foundt'd by the Freneliy in 172'>, and named in honour of Louis of France. Nova vSeotia had already passed inta the hands of the Ivvgiisli. Louisburg beeame the rendevottz of Indian^ sind of French privateers* who frequently harassed the settlers on the British coast. The New Rngland Colonists deternoined to dislodge them from that p<>«iition, and, making a bold attack^ ihey captured the j)lace in 1 745» Louisburg was re- stored to France in 1749, but was retaken by Gen^ erals Amherst and Wolfe in 1758. The glory has long since departed from this ancient stronghold of the French. No longer does a forest of roasts stud its harbor, no longer do its high walls bristle with O.mnon, no longer are its magazines stored with in- struments of destruction ; — all is now dilapidated and in ruins. Arichat, on Isle Madame, has a fine harbor, from which large quantities of fish are exported. Tiie trade is carried on principally through the Jer- sey merchants. CIVIL GOVERNMENT. CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 67 The Government of Nova Scotia, although amen- able to the Imperial Government in England, is not subjected to any unpleasant dictation, or control.—* No Provincial Law is valid until it is sanctioned by the Sovereign, - but, as the Acts of the Provincial Legislature are generally affirmed, it may be con- sidered as practically independent in the manage* ment of its local affairs In its form the Government is modeled after that of Great Britain. The Sovereign is represented by an Officer appointed by the Crown^ who receives the title of Governor. The Government embraces three departments : Executive, Legislative and Judicial. 1. The Executive, generally originates the policy or system of measures to be purs'ied in the adminis- tration of public affairs, and also carries the laws into effect. It consists of the Governor, who is the head officer, and the Executive Council, usually compri- sing rJne members. Five of these, Attorney-Gene- ral, Solicitor- General, Provincial Secretary, Finan- cial Secretary, and Receiver- General, hold lucrative offices and are styled Heads of Departments. This Council is responsible to the people for the public acts of the Governor, and holds office only so long as it possesses the confidence of the people, express- ed by their representatives. 2. The Legislature consists of the Governor, Le- gislative Council, and the House of Assembly. The Legislative Council is composed of twenty- one members, appointed by the Crown and holding office for life ; it possesses the power to sanction, 08 NOVA SCOTIA. K " ,.tli ? ":ii 1 I- \ -I ■ 1 1 t amend, or reject '11 measures previously passed by the Assembly. It can also originate any Bill which does not involve an expenditure of the public money • but Bills originated by this body require the assent of the Assembly, before they become law. The House of Assembly consists of 53 members, chosen every four years by the people, — represen- tatives of certain counties, districts, and townships. This Body possesses the power to originate all Bills, control the expenditure of public money, and levy taxes. Its enactments require the assent of the Legislative Council and Governor. 3. The Judicial Department applies the laws to par- ticular cases, investigating and deciding with respect to violation of law, and awarding penalties. It em- braces the following Courts : Court of Error and Appeal, Supreme Court, Court of Vice Admiralty, Court of Marriage and Divorce, Court of Sessions, and Justices' Courts. The Court of Error and Appeal consists of the Governor and Council. Appeals may be made to this Court from inferior courts, where the amount of judgment is not less than £300. The Supreme Court is presided over by a Chief Justice and four Assistant Judges. All civil causes are decided by a Jury of nine men, and criminal causes by a Jury of twelve men. It has jurisdic- tion in all criminal cases, in civil suits in which the sum is not less than £5, and in appeal cases, under that sum. The Court of Yice Admiralty decides upon ma- ritime causes. The Court of Probate has jurisdiction over the property of deceased persons. REVENUE, EXPENDITURE, &C. 69 The Court of Marriage and Divorce consists of the Governor, one of the Judges of the Superior Courts, commissioned by the Governor, and tlie mem- bers of the Executive. It decides upon the legality of marriage, and has the power to dissolve the legal connection between husband and wife. The Court of Sessions consists of the Magistrates and Grand Jurors in the several counties ; its duty^ is to manage the local affairs of the county. Justices' Courts consist of one, two, or more Jus- tices of the Peace. In civil suits a single justice cannot give judgment upon a case in which the sum exceeds £3 ; two Justices Can give judgment on any sum not exceeding £10. An appeal can be made from these Courts to the Supreme Court. KEVENUE, EXPENDITURE, &c. The Revenue, or public money of the Province, arises from various sources, as duties on goods im- ported, sale of crown lands, licenses, &c. The following is an extract from the Public Ac- counts for 1857 : — Duties, . . . . Crown Land, Distilleries (for Licenses), Casual Revenue, . Other Sources, £138,515 7 10 . 5,502 18 2 6,354 . 10,239 13 10 44,434 3 7 Total, . . £205,046 3 5 Expenditure. — The public money is expended in ways quite as diversified as the sources from which it is derived, as in payment of the Civil List, which includes the salary of the Governor, of the Officers of the Government, Judges of Supreme »i f; iff* i- 70 REVENUE, EXPENDITURE, &C. Court, Clerks, &c. ; Legislative Expenses, which include payment and travelling expenses of the mem- bers of the Legislative Council and House of As- sembly, salary of the Speaker of the House of As- sembly, Clerk, and other Officers ; for Education, Public Works, Roads and Bridges, Post Communi- cation, Support of Agriculture, Interest on Public Debt, &c. The following Expenditures are extracted from the Public Accounts for 1857 : — Civil List, .... £15,130 8 4 Legislative Expenses, . . 10,666 7 4 Revenue Expenses, . . . 9,471 17 5 Education, .... 19,528 8 1 Paid to Chairman of Board of Works, 28,932 5 4 Roads and Bridges, . . . 42,584 6 4 Post Communication, . . 6,886 11 2 Support of Agriculture, . . 983 6 8 Provincial Railway, . . 27,131 6 5 Various other Objects, Total, 37,137 11 11 £198,452 9 h i! 'vn ai t< ol HISTORY OF NOVA SCOTIA. ■^ 4 4 5 1 4 4 2 8 5 11 1. Four hundred years ago our forefathers were living beyond the wide Atlantic, quite ignorant of the existence of that land which Nova Scotians call their home, as well as uf that vast continent of which it forms a part. Indeed they would have consider- ed it absurd to suppose that the earth could be cir- cumnavigated, or that there lived men on the oppo-* site side. True they did not fear to ride upon the heaving bosom of the restless sea, as they coasted hither and thither, along its shores, but a bold adventurer was he who dared to entrust his frail bark far out of sight of land. 2. About the year 1435, the city of Genoa, situ-* ated on the Mediterranean and noted, at that time, for its commerce, gave birth to a man destined to exert a mighty influence on the future history of the world. That man was Christopher Columbus. The father of Columbus was a poor wool comber, whose limited means rendered him unable, at a time when books and schools were scarce and costly, to do much for the education of his son. Hov/ever, as our hero showed, at an early age, a great desire for knowledge, especially in respect to Geography and Navigation, his good father did what he cou^i to aid him. That Cokimbus improved his scanty opportunities, his future history abundantly proves* 3. Having spent his early years in maritime ex- L 72 ciViL mstonv I ■:;!i^ I ploits, Columbus, no^v about 35 years of age, Vis;it ed Portugal, atfructed thither by the enterprising character of its Sovereign, Pi'ince Henry* Here^ among a people the foremost of the age in making discoveries, he met with opportunities which tend- ed much to mature his vievvs and enkindle within liim an ardent desire to explore the unknown seas* Deeply impressed with the conviction that he could make great discoveries, if the means were placed at his disposal, he applied to the King of Portugal for assistance* The King, unwilling to lose an opportunity of adding at once to his domin- ions and his glory, called a council of his scientific men to decide upon the prospects held out by the ardent adventurer. The philoso[)l»y of Columbus was too deep for their understanding, his thf^ory was too novel to withstand their prejudice, and his enthusiasm too ar- dent to find a response in their breasts. They re- garded the scheme as quite fanatical and likely to result only in disgrace. Columbus, ungenerously treated, withdrew in disgust. How truly noble does the homeless and penniless man appear as he turns away, with bitter indignation, from the court of Por* tugai, and seeks for those more worthy of the boon which was his to bestow. 4. From Portugal he went to his native Genoa, from Genoa to Naples, but nowhere did he gain anything, save pity for his bewildered mind. He applied to the King of England but received no en- couragement. Poor, poor Columbus ! Wilt thou not now return to thy sober senses and think and act as other men ? He feels that he is right and that truth must prevail; he will persevere. OF NOVA SCOTIA. 5. He turns to Spain. With all the dignity of a prince, he stands before the sovereiqrns, Ferdinand and IsabelLa, offering to them that new world, so clearly mapped out in his brain. Ferdinand also applied to his men of Science, but their wisdom did not exceed that of the Portuguese. " What a de- mented eld man," said some, " to think that there can be a land where men walk with tlieir heels up- wards and heads hanging downwards." But al- though thus derided and repulsed, Cohunbus refus- ed to undertake the enterprise, except upon terms honorable to himself. At length Isabella, the queen, espoused his cause and ordered the port of Palos to fit him out with ships and men, within ten days. 6. On the 3rd of August 1492, Columbus, with 8 ships and 120 men, set sail from Palos. Loud were the wails of the inhabitants of this town, for their departmg friends whom they never more ex- pected to behold. Columbus set sail with a light heart, not doubting that the tide of fortune had now turned in his favor, and that he would soon reap a rich reward for all his toils. But his hopes were well nigh blasted on the very eve of fruition. The ocean was much more extensive and consequently his promised land was much further off, than he had anticipated. His crew, at the beginning hardly reconciled to their voyage, and now, having their hopes deferred from day to day, became mutinous. 7. At length, however, they were overjoyed at the siofht of land which, in token of his deliverance from the perils of the sea, Columbus called Saint Salvador. Tiiis first land discovered in the nevv IV ' \ 74 CIVIL HISTORY world, is an island sometimes called Guanaliani, — one of the Bahamas. Columbus immediately di.^embarked and proceed- ed, with great pomp, on shore, to take possession of the island in the name of his sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isab' 11a. The niuiy>- crowded around the strangers, equal- ly astonis ?f.Hi hi the monstrous winged creatures which bad conve} ■ ^ them thither, and at the men themselves whom they regarded as beings of a su- perior order. 8. On the 15th of March, 1493, the inhabitants of Palos were no less overjoyed than surprised to see the Nina, the ship in which Columbus had embark- ed, sail into the harbor, bearing its proud com- mander. When Columbus presented himself at court, all the honors that Royalty could bestow were lavished upon him. Columbus lived to make several other voyages to thenaw world, and the Spaniards, eager for gain, flocked thither in great numbers, vainly be- lieving that they would find gold scattered about as stones of the field. 9. Like most new things, the beauties and riches of the new world were greatly exaggerated. It did not satisfy every avaricious Spaniard with gold ; hence, as men are ever prone to extremes, Colum- bus was soon the object of as much reproach and disgrace, as he had been, a short time before, of praise and envy. He did not live to enjoy the ho- nors Wiiich a golden mediocrity of opinion, viewing his discovery in a proper light, would have bestow- ed upon h'm. He died in the year 1506, seeking that consolation in religion, which he had failed t\ It I OP NOVA SCOTIA. 75 to obtain from a fickle and ungrateful people, anrl hasting to that better land, whose riches are mce substantial and whose glories are more unfadin^.,^ than those of that new world to which he was the pioneer. 10. Other adventurers to the western world quickly followed. Americus Vespucius, a native of Florence, was among the first to cross the Atlantic. This man appears to have obtai* ^d honors which properly belonged to Columbu?. 'rom him the continent received the name of >m^ ica ; injustice to Columbus, it should have ^ .vn jailed Columbia. 11. John Cabot, a learned Venetian mariner, re- sident in England, caught t^ idea of discovery from the success of Columbus. He represented to Henry 7th, already jealous of the glory which the Spaniards had acquired from the New "World, his willingness to undertake a voyage of discovery, un- der the auspices of the English Crown. Accord- ingly, Cabot and his son Sebastian were fitted out with two ships, and set sail in May, 1497. The idea still entertained was, that the islands discovered by Columbus belonged to the Indies, off the coast of Asia, and one great aim of Cabot was to obtain a short passage to India ; so erroneous were his ideas regarding the magnitude of our globe, and so ignorant was he of the existence of the great Continent now called America. Cabot seems to have directed his course further north than Columbus, and it is supposed that the first land which he reached was Nova Scotia. Be- fore returning to Europe, he explored nearly the whole coast of North America, and hence he has ,ii^ 76 CIVIL HISTORY the credit of being the first discoverer of most of that immense country. 12. Nearly a century now elapsed, during which the English seem to have nearly forsaken the New World. The French, however, were more active ; several adventurers visited different parts of North America, taking possession of the country in the name of the Monarch of France. 13. In the year 1583, Elizabeth, Queen of Eng- land, fitted out a fleet for America, under the com- mand of the gallant Sir Humphrey Gilbert. This brave man having formally taken possession of the island of Newfoundland, sailed to Sable Island, for the purpose of obtaining cattle which he understood had been left there by the Portuguese. In this at- tempt h^ lost one of his vessels, on the sand bars ofl that dangerous island. He then, with two ships, set sail for England, but the one which he commanded was cast away and all on board perished. 14. In 1598, the Marquis De la Roche, on his way to Nova Scotia, left 40 French convicts on Sa- ble Island, absurdly supposing it a fit place for a co- lony. After visiting different parts of Nova Scotia, he returned to France, leaving his colonists behind liim. Most of these poor fellows died of starvation, only twelve surviving to return to France seven years afterwards. 15. In the year 1604, a Frenchman, named De Monts, having a commission as Governor General of the country betv een the 40th and 46th parallels, came for the purpose of forming settlements in No- va Scotia. This country together with New Bruns- wick and a part of the territory now belonging to the United States, was then called Acadia. OF NOVA SCOTIA. 11 Having sailed into Annapolis Basin, Pontrin- cnurt, a personal friend of De Monts, was so charm- ed with the place, that he resolved to adopt it as his residence. To this place, which is now called An- napolis, the French gave the name of Port Royal. It was the capital and most important place in the country whilst in the possession of the French. De Monts continued his voyages along the coast trading with the natives and making further disco- veries. He was very active in exploring his territory and in promoting the interestw of his colonists ; but his power was of short continuance.' Jealousies were excited on account of his exclusive privileges ; mis- representations were made at the French court and his commission was canceled. 16. But Pontrineourt, strongly attached to his new home, still remained at Port Royal. He turn- ed his attention to Agriculture, and succeeded in raising fine wheat, specimens of which he sent to to France. This colony appears to have sustained quite a loss in the death of the Indian chief, Mamberton, at the advanced age of 100 years. This venerable chief had been very friendly to Pontrineourt and he was now interred in the French burial ground with mi- litary honors. It was with great reluctance that he consented to have his remains separated from the last resting place of his forefathers. 17. Meanwhile the English were establishing co- lonies further south. In 1G07, a settlement called James Town ,was made in Virginia, and, in the same year, Sir John Gilbert, a brother of Sir Humphrey, spent the winter on an island not far from Nova t , TS CIVIL HI8T0RT t li> . 1' 4'i Scotia ; he and his party experienced g:i'eiit privj^- tionjj. When felie colcrtiists of Virginia were apprised of the existence of the French settlement in Acadia^ eonf^idoring it withui tike limits of their rfvarter, they iitted €>iit a fleet with which, in lf>13^ they cornpt^lletl the inlwihitafits of Acadia to abandon their settle- ments. 18 It was about the year l&2»%that the English attempted to colonize Awidia, nnder the name of No- va Scotia. Sir Wm. Alexander, having received a grant of Nova Scotia, comprising all temtories east wf a line, drawn irom the river Saint Croix to the? Gulf of Saint Lawrence,, sent ©ot a nuiober of emi- grants to Pbrt Royal, ta take possession of the coun- try. Tliese persons found, on their arrival, that the French had resnmed the poesession of their settle- tlement, and accordingly they returned to England^ 19. Dnring this time, the French were actively engagtid in colonizing Canada. In 1627, they sent out a number of vessels, bearing supplies, anHBuni-^ tion, &o, for the bemifit c/ the cdonists. Sir Wm. Alexander, aided by Sir David Kirk„ iiad also fitted out a tieet for America, which fell in with the FreReh transpoi'ts and captured eighteen oT them. Amongst the French prisoners,, was a distinguish- ed man, ntvnaed Claude De la Tour, who made ar- rangenaeirts with Sir ITm. Alexander to- settle the- couiitr}^ He attempted the conquest of his son, wha held I^a ILtve^ in the French interest. Failing in this, he reUirned to Port Royal, and foi'med a set- tle>n>ent at the place now called Granville^, ou th.€$ nwth siile of the Aiuuipolis river. !.■ OF KOTA SCOTIA. ^*ir "William Alextinder, fin(Jin«j hU colonizing schemes unprofitable, conveyetl his titl were pillaged, some of them hangeti, and one fami- ly burned within their dwelling. The English co- lonists o£ Massachusetts attacked the defenceless Acadians of Chiegnecto> now Cumberland, plunder^ ed them ot their property, and burned their houses., 24. Massachusetts, finding the detence of Nova Scotia more troublesome and expensive than prolit- able, wished to be set free from its charcre. As it yielded only furs and fish, it was little valu- ed by the British Government, and consequently, in; the year 1G9(>, was restored to France, by the trea- ty of Ryswick. The French liaving once more obtained N'oyj^ OF NOVA SCOTIA. 81 Scotia, sought every opportunity of annoying the colonists of Massachusetts. Through want of regular forces, they had recourse to pirates who were solicited to capture English fish- ing vessels, and the Indians were encouraged to commit ravages on English settlements. 25. The people of Massachusetts retaliated upon the Acadians of Chiegnecto and Minas, (Ilor- ton) taking away their goods, burning their houses, and breaking down their dikes. At length, they were aroused to the importance of taking Nova Sco- tia entirely out of the hands of the French. Ac- cordingly having obtained the assent of the British Government, with the promise that it should not again be restored to France, they succeeded, in the year 1710, in effecting the conquest of Port Royal. The expenses of the expedition amounted to £23,- 000, which were defrayed by the British Govern- ment. As the fate of Port Royal usually decided that of the w4iole country, Nova Scotia w^as nov/ considered an English possession. The French, after making several ineffectual attempts to regain the eoimtry, finally ceded it to the English, in 1713, by the treaty of Utrecht. 26. Port Royal now received the name of Anna- polis Royal, in honor of queen Anne, the reigning Sovereign of England. For many years, very few English settlers arrived in the country, being deter- red through fear of the Acadians and Indians. Of the former, there were now about 4000 in Nova Scotia, capable of bearing arms. These were sum- moned, by the Governor at Annapolis, to take the oath of allegiance to the Sovereign, or to leave the 82 CIVIL HISTORY Pi couatiy within a year. As tlieir feelings and pre- judices were all in favor of that country from wliick their fathers had emigrated, and whose language *hey still retained, the majority declined taking the oath, and as no facilities for removal were allowed them, they still remained in the country. 27. The French dispossessed of Nova Scotia, the vjdue of which they were too late in appreciating, turned their attention to the island of Cape Breton which they still retained. In 1720, they began 0*i fortification of a strong town, named Louisburg, in iionor of Louis, King of France. At an expense of about £1,250,000, this town, situated in the south of I he island, was made one of the strongest forts in America. It soon became the asylum for the per- petrators of the most cruel and daring assaults upon the English in the Peninsula. A settlement at Canseau was attacked, during the night, by a party of Indians, several of its inhabi- tants were cruelly murdered, and it was pillaged of property to the amount £20,000. Many vessels^ belonging to the English colonists, were captured by the Indians, and their crews cruelly treated, or put to death in the most barbarous manner. The plun- der thus obtained, found a ready market at Louis- burg. When complaint was made to the French Governor, on account of such conduct in a time of peace, he replied, that the Indians were an indepen- dent people, entirely beyond his control. 28. About this time, war was declared between France and England. The Governor of Cape Bre- ton received the intelligence before the people of Nova Scotia. He immediately fitted out an avma- ment and, taking the inhabitants by surprise, OF NOVA SCOTIA. S3 ween Bre- i)le oi vma- 'prise, made an easy conquest of Canseau and immediate- ly after laid siege to Annapolis. Timely aid arriv- ing from Boston, the French were obliged to raise the siege. 29. The colonies of New England urged on by the Governor of Massachusetts, now determined on the conquest of Louisburg. To this end, in 1745, they sent thither a force of 4000 men, under Wm. Pepperall, a militia colonel. Pepperall was joined by Commodore Warren, with additional forces, and they immediately attacked the town. After a few days siege, the Governor of Louisburg was induced to surrender. The New Englanders were quite surprised at their success, when they entered the town and surveyed its strong fortifications. The French flag was allowed to remain in the harbour to deceive French trading vessels. Two East India men and a South Sea Ship were thus decoyed and captured. About the same time. Prince Edward Island fell into the hands of the English. 80. The French soon took active measures to re- cover their lost possessions. A force of 1700 men was sent from Canada, and a fleet of 70 sail, includ- ing 1 1 ships of the line, was sent out from France, under the command of the Duke d'Anville. The fate of this fleet was most disastrous. Some of the ships were lost in a severe gale, some were captured by the English, and others were disabled and dispersed. After a passage of 90 days, the Duke arrived at Chebucto, with a very small force, many of his men having died and many more being ill. So great 84 CIVIL HISTORY • '{ w Pi' was his grief at the loss he had sustained, that, he died four days after his arrival. The forces from Canada, designed to act in con- junction v/ith the fleet, .after waiting some days, de- spaired of its arrival and set out for home. Having experienced several other reverses, the diminished and disabled fleet returned to France, without effecting any conquest. In 1748, by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, Cape Breton, much to the annoyance of the New Eng- landers, was restored to France. The French, desiring to obtain still more territo- ry from the English, asserted that it was Vcadia alone which had been yielded to the EngHt'h by the treaty of Utrecht, and that that name pert^iined on- ly to b^.j Peninsula, consequently that a i' rge coun- try between New England an J the G I of St. Lawrence, still belonged to the Fr«,iicij Cxwn. 32. Roused by -^rong petitions from the New England colonists, a:2ain i allowinor this claim, the British Goverrrient re;-olv d to begin at once the settlement of the country. Accordingly 37G0 indi- viduals, with their families, were sent out, under Governor Cornwallis, for Nova Scotia. They ar- rived at Chebucto harbour on the 8th of June, 1749. After establishing a civil government, consisting of a council of 6 persons, Cornwallis selected a site and commenced the building of a town which he named Halifax, in honor of the Earl of Halifax, a pre meter of the enterprise. 38. Shortl^^ after the arrival of the English at Halifr.x, the French settlers and Indians made them a visit, manifesting very friendly feelings, and tender- im^' submission to the English Governor. But the OF NOVA SCOTIA. 85 a h at der- the French Government, not yet abandoning all hope of regaining the country, immediately sent instruc- tions to tlie.se people, influencing them to a very dif- ferent policy. The Indians, led on by French com- manders, committed the most barbarous outrages upon the infant colony. The town was frequently attacked by night and plundered, and the inhabit- ants could not enter the neighbouring forest, but at the risk of being murdured and scalped, or captur- ed and carried off to Louisburi: and sold as slaves. When expostulation was made to the Governor or Louisburg he replied, as before, that the plunderers w^ere not his subjects and, consequently, were beyond his control, and that the captives were purchased to save them from the barbarous hands of the Indians. But he shewed his want of sincerity by retaining these captives until enormous sums were paiv! for their ransom. The Governor of Halifax, having strengthened his position in the country, by ei'ecting a block h<:use at Minas — now Lower Horton, and a fort at Pesi- quid, now Windsor, summoned th' A^cadians to take an oath of unconditional allegi. ce to the? British crown. This they declined doii ^. 34. Meanwhile the barbarit' s of the Indians continued. At Dartmouth, wb* re a settlement had recently been formed, the inhal rants were attacked, four men killed and scalped, and others car. ied off. Similar attacks were made upon other settlements. Governor Cornwallis, roused to the necessity of vi- gorous measures, denounced the Indians as traitors and issued orders througliout th( jountry that they should be treated as such. He also organized com- panies to hunt them in their retreats, and offered a mk 86 CIVIL HISTORY reward of ten guineas for every Indian scalp. This retaliation gave a temporary tranquility to the set- tlement. 35. Determined to harass the English, and, if pos- sible, to dislodge them, the Governor of Canada sent M. La Corne, with a force of GOO men, to Bay Verte, under pretence that that place was within his government. On intelligence of their arrival, Corn- wallis dispatched Major Lawrence, with a small force, to seoure the fidelity of the Acadians at Chiegnecto. But, at his approach, they burned their houses and fled to La Corne, thus increasing his force to about loOO men. At an interview with La Corne, Major Lawrence If irned that the French were dt^termined to dispute the territory with the English, and, as his force was too small to cope with that of J. a Corne, he returned to Halifax. He was immediately sent back with a large force. On land- ing, he was opposed by th# French and Indians "whom he repulsed with much slaughter. He then constructed a fort which he named Fort Lawrence. This served to keep the French, who still remained in the country, in check. 36. In 1752, Governor Cornwallis returned to England and was succeeded by Peregrine Hopson. During his administration a number of Germans, upon the invitation ot the King of England, formed a settlement in Lunenburg. These people met with opposition from the French and Indians, similar to tiiat experienced by the English. 37. In the year 1755, a force of 3000 men, under colonels Moncton and Winslow, was sent to dislodge the French in Ciiiegnecto, The result of this expe- dition was the complete conquest of the French. OF NOVA SCOTIA. 87 Two forts were forced to surrender, and the garri- sons were sent to Louisburg, on condition of not bearing arms in America, for six months. The Aca- dians, who had aided the French, asserting that they had been forced to that service, were pardoned. It was at this time, that the name of the place was chan^'/id to Cumberhmd. Tiie joy inspired by this victory was much damp- ed by reverses experienced by the Enghsh, in Ca- nada. Also the arrival of a reinforcement at Louis- burg, shewed that the French were determined to strengthen their position in America. 38. The Governor of Nova Scotia, apprehensive that another attempt would be made by the French to regain the Province, a •; fearing that in such an event, the Acadians, whose predilections for the French were well known, and whose fidelity to the English was in many instances worse than doubtful, would join the enemy, assembled his council to de- termine what course to pursue in relation to them. It was finally resolved to remove them all from the Province, and disperse them throughout the other colonies. Accordingly, without intimating to them what determinations had been formed, they were all commanded to assemble at their churches, where of- ficers, with military forces, awaited them. Here they were apprised of their fate, declared to be the King's prisoners, and all their property, except mo- ney and household goods, confiscated to the crown. Many, suspecting no good was designed for them, fled to the woods. To prevent such from gaining a subsistence, their houses and barn- were consumed by fire, so that most of those who bad escaped were forced to return. About 7000 of these unfortunate . li W" III {\\ 88 CIVIL HISTORY people were thus transported from Ilorton, Canard, Cumberland, and Annapolis. They were taken away from comfortable homes and set down ])oor and friendless, in a strange land, where they expe- rienced great privations. Their fate was truly a hard one, and no doubt many innocent were made to suffer with the guilty ; but the safety of the p]ng- lish colonists seemed to render the measure neces- sary. Many managed to escape the expulsion, and some afterwards returned. Upon invitation of the governor of Nova Scotia, accompanied with every inducement, the lands thus vacated were settled by farmers from New England. 39. Meanwhile the English were endeavouring to wrest Canada from the French. In this attempt they often experienced sad reverses. On entering upon a new campaign against the French in America, in 1758, it was determined to attack Louisburg. Accordingly a powerful force, under Generals Wolfe and Amherst, and Admiral Boscowen, made a bold attack upon the place. Af- ter a vigorous defence, the Governor of Louisburg was forced to surrender, on humiliating conditions. ]5y the terms of capitulation, the islands of Cape Breton and Prince Edward were transferred to the English, and the soldiers of the ^rarrison at Louis- burg were made prisoners of war. There were great rejoicings in England on the reception of the news. Tiie value of the place not being considered equal to the expense of maintaining a garrison, at the close of the war, the fortifications were destroyed. Shortly afterwards, upon the conquest of Qnebec, all Cana- i the separation of tliirteen colonies and half the British territory, trom the parent state. On the fourth of July, 1776, the re- volted colonies declared themselves independent, and assumed the name of the United States of Ame- rica. Great Britain acknowledged their independ- ence in 1783. 44. Amid this general rebellion. Nova Scotia maintained her allegiance and fidelity to the British Crown. During the war some localities were in- deed accused of revolutionary feeling, and the inhabi- tants of Onslow and Truro refused to take the oath of allegiance, in consequence of which their mem- ber was not permitted to take his seat in the house of Assembly. 45. The destinies of Nova Scotia were, no doubt, much influenced by the revolution. The policy of Britain towards her remaining colonies, was m^ich modified by past experience. It is computed that Nova Scotia received an accession of about 20,U00 inhabitants, who came from the revolted colonies, on account of their attachment to British rule. 46. Since these events, Nova Scotia has been steadily increasing in population and prosperity. In the year 1818, the population of Nova Scotia Proper OP NOVA SCOTIA. 01 was 78,345 ; in 1828 it had increased to 123,848 ; and in 18">1, to 221,2a0. 47. In 1823, Roman Catholics were admitted to equal civil privilej;es with other denominations. Until the year 1838, a single Council, consisting of twelve members, possessed both Legislative and Executive power, and always sat with closed doors. This Council was th(^n dissolved and two were cre- ated in its stead : a Legislative Council of 19 mem- bers, whose deliberations were to be open to the public, and an Executive Council, of twelve mem- bers. 48. The ten years following this change in the Council, were characterized by violent agitations in the country as well as keen contests in the Assem- bly for political reform. These movements, at length, resulted, in 1848, in the establishment of what is called Responsible Government. The Exe- cutive is now chosen from the House of Assembly to which it is responsible and whose confidence must possess to retain office. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 _!.3 US u m *» MM u 125 2.0 1^ " Ili& lyi 114 IJ^ Hiotographic Sciences Corporation «^ /. \ 23 WIST MAIN STRUT WiBSTM.N.V. USSO (716) •72-4S03 I ! VOCABUIAEY OF 6E0OE.APEICAI TERMS AND DIFFICULT WORDS. ABBREVIATIONS EMPLOYED IN THE VOCABULARY. L. Latin; Gr. Greek; Fr. French; Swed. Swedish, Accumulation [L. ad, to, and cumulus, a heap] The act of making a heap; a heap. Adapt [L. ad^ to, and apto^ I fit] To fit one thing to another ; lo make suitable. Agriculture [L. n^er, a field, and cu//ms, tilling] The art ot'tiiliLg the ground. Allegiance [L. ad, to, and ligo, I bind] The tie that binds a people to tLeir king. Alternately [L. a//er/*o, I take turns] By turns. Alluvial [L ad, to, and lUo, I wash] Carried to any place by water, applied to soils formed by rivers or the tide. Amenable [Fr. amener, to lead or bring.] Liable to be called to account. Anller [L. ante, before, in front] The horns of the moose. Aquatic [L. aqua, w^ter] Pertaining to water ; living m water. Aqueou3. Watery ; formed by means of water. Architecture [Gr. arche, chief, and tektonydk carpenter] The art ot building houses, bridges, &ti. Area. The space enclosed within any given lines. Axis [Gr. axon, an axle] An axle ; an imaginary straight line passing through the centre of the earth, on which it performs its daily revolutions. Bras D'Or. Fr. Arm of Gold ; the name of waters ia Cape Breton. If VOCABULARY. 93 Bowlder or Boulder Ibowl, a ball used in a ^ame] Rounded stones scattered over the surface of the earth. Cape [L caput, the head] A head land ; land running out into (he sea. Capital [L. capui^ the head] The head or chief town in a country ; the town in which the laws are made. Capture [L. capio^ 1 take] To take by force. Carboniferous [L. car^o, coal, and /ero, I bear] Bear- inrr or containing coal. Carnivora [L. caro, flesh, and voro, I devour] Flesh eaters. Cascade. Fr. A small waterfall. Cataract [Gr. Rata, against, and rasso, I dash violently] A great waterfall. Cede [L. cedo^ 1 give up] To give up. Century [L. centum^ a hundred] A hundred years. Cereal [6*ere.v, the goddess of corn and tillage] The grains used as food, such as wheat, rye, barley. See, are called cereals. Charter [L. charta, paper] A piece of writing giving certain rights and privileges. Citadel. Fr. A place made strong, in or near a city, to protect against an enemy. Circumjacent [L. circum^ around, and /aceo, I lie] Ly- inv around. Civilization [L. ctm, a citizen] The state of having good manners and general improvement. Circumference [L. circum^ around, and /cro, I bear] The distance around a ball. Climate [Gr. Klima, a slope, or slant] The condition of a country with respect to heat, moisture, &c., aris- ing from its slope or inclination to the sun, &c. Colony [L. colo^ 1 cultivate] A company of people who have left their native place and settled in a distant country, still obeying the laws of their native country ; the place thus settled. Commerce [L. commercor, I trade] An exchange of the goods or products of one country, for those of ano- ther. 94 VOCABULARY. Continent [L. con^ together, and teneo^ I hold] A great extent ct land not separated by water. Coral [Gr. Kore, a damsel, and ats, the sea] A solid sub&tanee, made in the sea by small injects. Deposit [L. dcj from or down, and pono, I place or lay] To lay down ; something; laid down. Designate [L. de, from, and signum, a mark] To mark or point out. Develop [L. rfe, from, and velum, a vail] To lay open ; to uncover. Diameter [Gr. dia, through, and metron, a measure] A straight line passing through the centre of a ball or circle, from one side to the other. Dilapidated [L. dis^ asunder, and lapis, a stone] Torn down, or fallen into decay — originally applied to stone work. Diversify [L. dlversus, different, and facio, 1 make] To make utilike. Eject [L. e, out, and Jacio, I cast] To cast or drive out. Emporium [Gr. empttrion, a market place] A city or town of much trade. Empire [L. imperium, power] A country ruled by an emperor. An empire is usually larger than a king- dom. The countries governed by the Queen of Eng" land, are called the British Empire. Equator [h. aequo, I make equal] A great circle pas- smg round the earth, from east to west, and dividing its surface into two equal parts, called the northern and southern hemispheres. Estuary [L. aestno, 1 boil or rage as the sea] The part of a river where the tide meets the current. E.xecutive [L. ex, out, and sequor, I follow] Following out, performing ; the person or persons who see that laws are carried into eff'ect. * Export [ex, out of, and porio^ I bear] To carry out of a country. Exports. Goods carried out of a country. Expulsion [L. ex, out of, and pello, I drive] The act of driving out. act tOCAIlCLARY. 05 Extraction [L. ex, out of, and traho, I draw] The act of drawing out j the race or I'amil}^ from which one is born ; birth. Extirpate \ex^ out of, and siirps, a root] To root out< Facility [L. facilut^ easy] Ease. Facilities. Things which make the doing of anything easy. ^ Frij^id [L friguH, cold] Very cold. See Zone, Frontier [^frons^ the front] The border } that part of a country whiuh is nearest another country. Fusion yundoy I pour] Ti:e state of being melted } the act ot me king. Geography [ Gr. ge, the earth, and graphe^ a descrip- tion] A description of the earth's surlace ; it includes three divisions ; — Mathematical Geography, treatinii of the form, size, and motions of the earth ; Physical Geography, treating of the natural features of the earth, as its lakes, rivers, mountains, &c. ; Political Geography of the Cirth ?s it is changed by the hand of man, — the governments, religions, manners &c. Geology [Gr. ge^ the ea-th, and logos,^ word or discourse] The science which treats of the materials forming the crust of the earth. Geography is confined to the sur- face ; geolo, forward, andyacto, I throw] A part extending out beyond. Promontory [L. pro^ forward, and motutj a mountain] A high point of land extending out into the sea. Province [L. pro^ for, and vincot I conquer] A coun* try belonging to a kingdom or state, — properly a cun* que.red country. Ittptores [L raptor a robber] Birds that live by rob- bing and killing other birds weaker than themselves. RasoreH [L. ra<7o, I M;ratch or scrape] Birds that scratch with the foot to obtain food. Reef. A range of rocks at or near the fturfaca of tha^ water. Rendezvous — Pronounced Ren-de-TOo-<-[Fr. ren^kz vow^ eo, repair] A place of meeting or retreat. Reptile [L. repo, 1 creep] Creeping animals. Republic [L. res^ publico^ public affairs, the state] A state or country in which the highest officers of gov- ernment are chosen by the people. The head officer is called President. Reservoir. Fr. A store-house ; a place where water is collected. Resources. Things from irhich wealth or support is de- rived. Responsible [L. repomleo^ I answer] Answerable ; lia- ble to give account for one's conduct. Revenre [L. re, again, venio, I come] Gain arising from any quarter ; the yearly amount of public money brouuht into the treasury. Revolve PL. re, again, and volvo, I roll] To roll around. Revolt. lo tarn away from ; to rabel tgunit the king^ VQCABUX.ART. ft Revolution. The act of turning around ; Ad entire change in the form of government. Rugged. Rough ; uneven with sharp hills. Ruminantia [L. ruminatio^ a ehewinir of the cud] A class of nnimals so jailed because they cliaw thu cud. Rodentia [L. roi/o, I gnaw] Gnawers ; a rlass of ani- mals, including such as mice, rata, squirrels &c. Salubrious [L. salus^ hnalrh] Favourable to health. Sanction [L «anc/u.«f holy, established] Toestabliiih. Scansores [I>. scantioy I climb] A claims of birds, hriving the foot MO formed that they can cling to the side of a tree, or climb upon it. Sculpture [L. sculpo, 1 carve upon stone] To cutout ; to carv'^ Se'duded [L. xe, apart, and cludo, I shut] Shut out. Sedimentary [L. stdeo^ I settle] Formed of materials settled to the bottom of a liquid. Shale. A ruck having a slaty appearance. Solution [^L.solvoy I melt] The act of melting a solid; the liquid formed from solid. Solar [L. sol^ the sun] Belonging to the sur. Staple. Firm ; the most important production of a countrv. Strait. A narrow passage of water Joining two largo bodies of water. Structure [L. slmo^ I build] The act of building ; the way in which the parts of anything are placed. Sublime [L. suhlimis^ high] Lofty ; grand. Subsequently [L. sub, under, and sequor, I follow] Fol- lowing after; at a later time. Surface [Fr. .vwr, upon, and face] The outside part. Suspension [L. svb^ under, and ptndeo, I hang] State of being hung up. Solids are suspended in liqui ;!' M. 109 TOCABULAKY. Thoroaff>)fare. A poata^e. Torrid [L. torreo^ 1 roast] Very hot The torrid tone is that part of the earth, lying between the Tropics. Tropic [Gr. trope^ a turninji;] The turning point or the sun. The Tropics are two parallels of latitude — the Tropic of Cancer 23 ® 28\ north of the eauator, and the Tropic of Capricorn 23 » 28' south of it. Torpid. [L. torpedo^ numbness] Stupid ; unable to move and feel. Trap [Swed. trappa^ a stair] A kind of rock, so called because it often occurs in masses rising one above another, like steps. It is supposed to have been melt- ed by great heat, under ground, and poured out over the surface, where it has cooled and taken its present form. The North Mountain is formed of trap. Triangular [L. tres^ three, and angulus, a corner] Hav- ing three corners or angles. Ultimately [L. ultimus, last] At last. Undulating [undo, a wave] Rising and falling like waves of the sea. Utensil! [L. ii. Mi