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Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atre reproduit en un seul cliche, il est filmA A partir da I'angle sup6rieur gauche, de gauche it droita, at da haut an has, en prenant la nombre d'images ndcessaira. Les diagrammas suivants illustrent la mithode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 Th. Geographical Journal. No. 6. DECEMBER, 1898. Vol. XTI. THE GLACIERS OF NORTH AMERICA. By Prof. ISRAEL C. RUSSELL, University of Micliigan. Thkre is a popular impression that for the proper stmly of glaciers one must visit Switzerland. A tramp through that country is instructive and highly enjoyable, I freely admit, but in this paper I wish to show, among other things, that an American need not leave his own continent in order to gratify his taste for mountaineering and glacier study. Wo are greatly indebted to the many explorers who have climbed the Alps, for observations and theories concerning the nature and origin of glaciers, and are also under lasting obligations to European students for a vast amount of information concerning the time when much of the northern hemisphere was buried beneath vast ice-sheets, but for the sfudy of both existing glaciers and the records of the Glacial epocli, North America funushes an abundance of material. Before reviewing the present status of our knoAvlcdge concerning the glaciers of North America, let us endeavour to obtain a clear idea of what a glacier is, oven at the oxpcnso of repeating what maybe regarded as elementary infornuition. Suppose a climatic (.-hange should occur of such a nature that the snow falling over the surface of New Englai^d each winter should not bo entirely melted during the succeeding summer. If the remnant left over from one year to the next were a foot thick, in a thousand years the land would be buried beneath a thousand feet of ice. The covering would bo mainly ice, and not snow, except in its superficial portion, for the reason that the summer melting would lead to the saturation of the sn;laciers originate above the snow-line, and, descending below it, melt away. The places where perennial snow is possible outside the polar regions are on high mountains. The snow falling about lofty peaks accumulates most deejily at the heads of valleys and in great amphitheatres; and flows from these gathering grounds as streams or rivers of iee. These ice- rivers frequently descend, not only below the snow-line, but in numerous instances well below the highest limit of tree-growth or the timber-line. These long, narrow, river-like streams of ice were first studied in the Al|)s, and honc(^ are known as " alpine glaciers." Some alpine glaciers not only descend below the snoAv-line and traverse vallevs bordered by luxuriant vegetation, but reach the plains adjacent to the mountains and spread out as nearly level ice-sheets. When several alpine glaciers expand in this manner and unite on a plain, a lake-like ice-body is formed. Such ice-bolies differ in many ways from i i THE GLACIERS OF NORTH AMERICA. 0.)O bs. to the 8, behaves bick layer •f gravity. 8 of glacial lat an ice- re motion ire it was have built a body of of its own f a glacier • tempera- ild not be age in the elation of 's surface, from year 3a, 18,000 ar. The kvn as the lial snow, snow-line 3a in high 1 are met ine. "We ons, that ■ it, melt ir regions umulates md flows hose ice- lumerous ibor-line. d in the line and le plain 8 e-sheets, I a plain, lys from their feeding ice-streams, and it is convenient to designate them by a separate name. Their occurrence about the bases of mountain ranges has lor! ';o the suggestion that they be termed " piedmont glaciers." Glaciers also originate on plateaus and plains, where the winter's snow is not coiiijiletely melted, as in the hypothetical case of the origin of a glacier in New England. The climatii; conditions favouring the accumulation of pereniiia] snow over broad ].latean-liko surfaces occur at the present time only in high latitudes. L uder the conditions named, the ioo flows in all directions from the central region of accumulation, unless local topographic influences prevail. Tliese accumulations of ice are, in certain typical instances, of broad extent. The areas covered by them are, in fact, comparable with tontinents, and we term them " con- tinental glaciers." At the present time a continental glacier covers nearly the whole of Greenland. In the southern hemispliere, the climatic con- ditions favouring ice-acoumulation on low ground again occur, and we have the antarctic ice-cap, with an area approximately equal to that of North America, and an estimate! thickness in the central part of many thousands of feet. Glaciers of any of the three types I have mentioned, that is, the alpine, piedmont, and continental, may enter the sea. When this happens, the ice usually breaks oif and floats away as berga. On account of the well-marked characteristics of glaciers which terminate in this manner, it is convenient to have a general term bj- which to designate them, and we call them " tide-water glaciers." Investigations carried on in North America by various explorers, have shown that we have many hundred, and possibly' several thousand, glaciers of the alpine type. Two characteristic examples of piedmont glaciers are known in Alaska, and Greenland fmnishes a typical example of continental glaciers. Several of the alpine glaciers of Alaska end in the sea ; the great ]\[alas])ina glacier, the type of piedmont glaciers, also touches the sea for a few miles at Icy cape, near Mount St. Elias, and the Greenland ice-sheet sends thousands of bergs afloat. We have, in fact, many magnificent examples of tide-water glaciers. America thus furnishes characteristic examples of all the types of glaciers now known, a statement that cannot be sustained in reference to any other continent. All the glaciers of North Amei'ica, not considering for the jiresent tliose of Greenland or the arctio archipelago, are confined to the Cordil- leran region, adjacent to the Pacific coast. We there find a belt of snow-capped mountains over 3000 miles long, and from 80 to 100 miles broad in its widest part, in which glaciers are of (;ommon occurrtiice. This great belt of shining mountains is curved so as to be rudely crescent-shaped. The extreme southern end of the crescent is in east- central ('alifornia, and its north-west extremity on the larger of the Aleutian islands. At its ends this curved belt of snow and ice is 550 THE GLACIERS OF NORTH AMERICA. broken into detacliod <;laciers of small size, situated, at high elevations- among overshadowing peaks ; but in its broadest portion, in tlie neigh- l)ourhood of Mount St. Elias and Mount Logan, the snow-line descends to within about 2000 feet of the sea, and hundreds of ice-streams come down to sea-level, and a score or more meet tide-water. The most southern glacier in North America, so far as known, with a p ible exception of perennial snow and ice about tlie summit of Popocatepetl in Mexico, occurs amid the ukost lofty peaks of the High Sierra, in Eastern California. In that region there are several peaks, such as Blount Lyell, Mount Eitter, Mount Dana, etc., which attain elevations of over lo.OOO feet. These splendid summits are white throughout nearly the entire year, but in late summer, when seen from the southward, they seem to bo completely bare of snow. On their northern sides, however, in the shelter of great cliffs, small snowfields may be seen from a distance at the season of greatest melting, but if one visits these snoAv-banks as they appear to be from a distance, he finds them to be actual glaciers. They are small, but present many of the characteristics of even ti^e largest ice-streams of the alpine type. The larger, the one on the north side of the summit peak of ]Mount Lyell, is not over a mile long, but on traversing its surface one finds very many of the features common to true glaciers. There is an upper region of snow, or a 7ieve, and a lower region of compact banded ice. Crevasses, glacier-tables, moraines, etc., as well as striated rock surfaces adjacent to the ice, are all present. Jsothing is lacking, in fact, to make this and several other ice-bodies of the Kigh Sierra, strictly counterparts of typical alpine glaciers, except the river-like form characteristic of the larger glaciers of Switzerland. North of High Sierra, for several hundred miles, glaciers are absent. In fact, in the Sierra Nevada proper no glaciers occur except those uieutioned above, in the highest and most rugged portion of the range. Mount Shasta is a volcanic mountain with a double summit, stand- ing west of the north extremity of the Sierra Nevada, and distinctly separate from that range. This splendid peak, rising in its solitary grandeur to a height of about 14,500 feet, is white Avith snow through the year, and from its summit gives origin to five glaciers. Tho largest of them, an ice -stream of the characteristic alpine character named Whitney glacier, in honour of Prof. J. D. Whitney, of Harvard, has a length of a little over two miles, and is from 1000 to 2000 feet wide. Tho general line of elevation marked out by the rugged summits of the Sierra Nevada, is continued northward by the scarcely less imposing Cascade mountains. The Cascade^ also have a high central region in West Central Washingtcm, where several peaks attain an elevation of HOOO feet or more. Tiie snow-line is tliere lower than in California, and the climate far more favourable for tho ac(;umulation of ]>ercnnial snow. In this, the High Cascades, as they may bo termed, there are olevations- the uei;4h- no descends roams come Down, wi(Ji summit of f the High 'eral peak.s, hich attain are white seen from On their snowfields but if one e, he finds any of the ype. The unt Lyell, finds very an upper inded ice. k IS ur faces t, to make mterparts ^eristic of re absent, apt tliose 9 range, it, stand- listiiictly solitary through largest r named 'ard, has ; wide, nmits of iiposiiig giou in it ion op lifornia, ironnial ere are THE GLACIERS (>F NORTH AMERICA. i>.)/ •scores of glaciers, gom<; of them of what may be termed respectable size, but as )"('t they are unexplored. From the summit of Glacier jieak, in Northern "Washington, the writer has counted fifty veritable glaciers, and somewhat extended explorations in that region have shown that fully two hundred glaciers still exist there. An outstanding watch-tower of the Cascades on the east, and sojiarated from the crest of the main range by a belt of 20 to 30 miles of rugged country, is afforded by Mount Stuart, 9470 feet above the sea. This lone summit, rising spire-like from a group of encircling foothills, command-' a most magnificent and far-reaching jprosjiect of the Cascade region. Standing on the summit of Mount Stuart, or, better still, on the apex of son.e one of its score or more of sujiporting peaks, having elevations of about To'tO feet, the eye ranges over a region containing iiiany objects of magnificence. To the south-west rise the snowy domes of Mount Hood and Blount Adams. Ap]iarently near at hand, especially on the wonderfully clear days following storms, although some 70 miles distant, stands ^Mount Kainier, beloved of all the friends of nature who have ever seen its glorious summit. ]>elow the gleaming snowfields, sheathing all the higher ] portions of thia the finest single mountain in the United States, south of Alaska, there are several ice-streams which descend far into the encii'cliiig forests. INfore will be said in what follows of these fine glaciers. What especially attracts the eye of the geographer who stands on the summit of one of the rugged foothills of Mount Stuart — particularly when the sun is rising above the distant cloud-like mountains of Idaho, or when only the summit of Eainier is aflame with the rosy light of the aftei-glow — is the generally even sky-line of the Cascades. On looking westward, one beholds what seems a vast plateau, rising gradually from far to the east of his station, like a great smooth surface swell of the sea, and attaining its maximum height aloiig the sky-line to the west, about 7000 feet above tide. 'J'he plateau referred to, or, what is more nearly the case, the great elongated flat-topped dome, appears to have a smooth surface, because the valleys are in shadow, or filled with purple liaze, and their presence lost to view. Blount IJainler stands on the Cascade plateau, and similar to it in position are Mount Hood in Oregon. Blount Adams, Blount ]>aker, and Glacier ]ioak in Washington. Eaeli of these commanding summits, once aglow with volcanic heat, is now glacier-crowned. From each peak long tongues of ice, forming typical alpine glaciers, descend in all directions, and in several instances invade the dark coniferous forests with which the lower slopes of the mountains arc clothed. The finest of these series of radiating glaciers clusters about the summit of ]\[ount Ifainier, 14,520 feet above the sea, and flows far down its rugged sides l)efore melting away. In this cluster there are at least ten glaciers which descend below timber-line. These are bordered by 558 THE GLACIERS OK NORTH AMERICA. pino anil spruce trees, and flow between precipitous banks decked witli. gorgeous alpine flowers. The larger of these very characteristic ulaciers, named in honour of .S. F. Emmons of the U.S. Geological Survey, one of the first explorers to climb the great peak, is about 7 miles in length, and approximately a mile broad. Examples of all the typical features of the glaciers of Switzerland are here illustrated. Few glaciers in any country can show finer ice-cascades, crevasses, moulint;, glacier-tabl-js, moraiues, etc., than are eucountored by one who climbs Mount Kaiuier. Alpine glaciers, in many waj's typical of their class, occur in thts elevated valleys of Montana. Still finer ones maybe reckoned by tlio score in the central ranges of the justly famed Canadian Kockies. As the great Cordilleran belt is followed northward, the ice-streams descend to lower and lower levels, and finally in the southern extremity of Alaska, a few miles north of Fort Wrangell, they enter arms of the sea and become tide-water glaciers. Travellers who have ascended Stikine river, which rises in Ihitish Columbia and flows west across South-Eastern Alaska, have described, several fine examples of alpine glaciers, which descend from lateral canyons and encroach on the river itself, thus adding a unique attraction to its marvellous scenery. It was in the neighbourhood of the Stikino that Muir discovered a large lake, held in a lateral valley by a glacier which crossed its mouth. Glacial lakes of this typo are common in the more extensively glacier-covered region to the north. After sighting the floating ice discharged by Kotlum glacier, or the thunderer, just referred to, the tourists who visit Alaska by the usual ute leading through the land-locked waters separating the many itlands 1 British Columbia and South-Eastern Alaska from the mainland and from each other, see several glaciers above the dense forests fringing the coast, but none which reach tide-water are met with until Taku inlet is traversed, and the magnificent ice-cllfi"s of Taku glacier meet their astonished gaze. Taku glacier has its source far back in the mountains, in a region as yet entirely unexplored, and flows seaward through a deep rock-walled valley as a veritable liver of ice nearly a mile broad. AV'here it enters the sea the ice stands in sheer clifl's of the most marvellous shades of blue and white, about 200 feet high. The ceaseless, onward flow of the glacier is counterbalanced by the breaking away of great masses of ice from its terminus. These fall from the face of the ice-cliffs in avalanches, whose thunder is sent back in deep-toned rever- berations from the surrounding mountains. The ice set free, after centuries of imprisonment, floats away as gleaming bergs. The visitor to the wild Alaskan shores, who derives his first tangible ideas of a tide-water glacier from the one at the head of Taku inlet, will say, [ think, that nothing could be at the same time more exquisitely beautiful and more awe-inspiring. If, however, his wanderings are to be continued westwai'd, I would bid him wait. •'} r-j«' n««»iH-i*»«i- -w THE GLACIERS 01' NORTH AMEIilCA. 5:.o lofketl witli. itic L;liicier.s, rvoy, one <>[' in length, cal features ciei'8 in any icier-tublLS, it Iiaiuier. ccur in thu ned by tluj oekiee. As His descend ctreinity of of the sua in ihitisli described oin lateral Q attraction the Stikino jy a glacier imon in the tcier, or the y the usual lany itlands linland and ts fringing Taku inlet/ meet their mountains, through a nile broad. ■ the most le ceaseless, ag away of face of the )ned rever- freo, after st tangible inlet, will xquisitely ngs are to The sail up Lynn canal, tlie route so many fortune-hunters are now following on their way to the Vukon goldfields, reveals scenes of wondrous beauty. Forest-covered shores, with many bays and inlets, overshadowed by rugged precipices, leading upward to snow-covered mountains, are the elements that in various combinations make up the ever-changing panorama bordering Lynn canal on either side. In the valleys between the ragged and serrated mountains there are scores of glaciers, some of which descend steep precipices and form beautiful ice-eascudes. When the mists shroud the mountain-tops, these broken ice-falls seem cataracts of foam descending from the sky. The number of glaciers along Lynn canal can scarcely be realized by one who traverses that great inlet, once a river valley, but now flooded by the eea ; but let the touiist climb some of the rugged jieaks which command a far-reaching view over the deeply sculptured land, and every valley will bo found to be partially ice-tilled. On one occasion, from a peak about 3000 feet high near Dyea, I counted forty alpino glaciers, and a change in position of a few rods brought still others into view. None of the glaciers on Lynn canal actually enter its waters, but a number come down to within a fewhundrtil feet of sea-level. The moht conspicuous of these is Davidson glacier, which expands on emerging fiom a dee]) high-grade valley, and forms a delta-like ice-mass fringed with a dense belt of spruce trees. The reader who has patiently followed our lead thus far, perhaps needs to be encouraged by the statement that we are only on the border of the glacier wonderland. Scenes far more marvellous than any pre- viously seen await the traveller who sails westward along the sublime Alaskan coas t. The next Indentation of the land west of Lynn canal is Glacier bay. On entering Glacier bay from Icy straits, one sees before him a broad inlet, studded by fleets of gleaming bergs or packed with floating ice, so as to call to mind the accounts given by explorers of the borders of the arctic ocean. The head of the bay is beyond the reach of vision as one enters it, but far beyond rise white mountains of marvellous splendour. The highest of these is Mount Fairweather, which, although as yet not accurately measured, is over 15,000 feet high, and, with the exception of its steepest clifis, is ice and snow covered from base to summit. About the head of the inlet several large glaciers reach the sea, and break off in towering cliffs of ice. The largest and best known of these, named in honour of the discoverer of Glacier buy, John Muir, the well- known writer, drains an area of 800 square miles. A score or more glaciers of the aljiine tyjte there unite their floods of ice, which is forced out through an opening between rugged mountains about a mile broad, and breaks off in a manner characteristic of tide-water glaciers. The splendid palisade of ice in which the glacier terminates is from 250 to .»0(J THE «:iACIKRS OK NORTH A.MKIUCA. .UM) feet lii<;li. The (lepth of water from wliicli it rises is iibout 700 feet, making tlie tliii-kiiess of the glacier at its terminus 1000 feet. From these shining elitl's, Inige masses of ice, sometimes reacliing from liehjw the water's surface to the crest of the palisade, break away with a ileafcning roar, and topple over into the sea. During warm summer days these oucurrcnces are i'oi)eatcd every few minutes, and in fact at such times the echoes from the neighbouring mountains are seldom .silent. 1'ho scene behold from the deck of a vessel anchored a mile from the terminus of Muir glacier is impressive, and will be long remembered by all who have feasted their eyes upon it; but still more wonderful scenes await one who climbs a neighbouring peak, and has in view th(^ hundreds of scpiare miles of rugged mountains from which the glacier derives its many tributary ice-streams. Looking down on the glacier from a commanding station for the first time, one is filled with awe and wonder at the vastuess of the panorama before him. The rough broken ice, with shining pinnacles ieparated by profound crevasses of the deepest blue in the central ])art of the stream just before it makes its final ]ilunge into che sea, reveals the line of most rapid movement. The rate of ice-current is there about 7 feet a day during the summer, but is less in winter. Turning from the ice-clifis and rugged surfaces above them, and looking northward, one sees a broad valley, the bottom of which seems a nearly level pavement of ice. The way in which the mountains rise out of this ice-sheet shov/s it to be of great thickness. Not a tree is in sight, and not a trace of vegetation in all of the broad wintry landscape, excei)t the exocedingly brilliant alpine flowers at one's feet. Far to the north rise white-robed peaks. Each valle^^ between them is occupied by an ice-stream. One can count a score of separate glaciers, which unite to form the broad ice-field in the main valley. Several other glaciers of the same general character as the Muir enter Glaeier bay, and many more descend nearlj' to tide-water, but melt away before being able to add their contributions to the countless bergs that whiten its waters. West from Glacier bay, the mountains which rise directly from the beating surf of the Pacific to great heights are bare and desolate, but in brilliant weather shimmer in the sunlight like burnished silver. Snow and ice fill every ravine and valley, and thousands of domes and preci- pices are sheathed in crystal. For 250 miles the coast-line is unbroken save by one small inlet, not easily accessible to ocean-going vessels. The next opening in the land is Yakutat bay, about 60 miles eastward of Mount St. Elias. The head of this inlet forms a long narrow water- waj% which bends about the bases of the mountains like a broad river. Entering this land-locked estuary are foiir glaciers of the type of those discharging into ( Jlacier bay. One of those, named in honour of Gardiner G. Hubbard, for many years president of the National Geographic ■■ff*V***^.0 Tin: (ILACIKRS OF NORTH AlMEIMCA. 5G1 IN about 7(M) s 1000 feet, niching from k away with ai'Mi summer i^ landscape, . Far to tJie is occupied iers, which 3 the Muir watei', but 9 countless y from the ate, but in er. Snow and i^reci- 1 unbroken g vessels. I eastward ow water- •oad river. B of those Gai'diner eographic Society, is larger than Muir glacier, and e.ids in a mighty palisade of ice, which is even more iniignilicent than those we have just left in our ti reside wanderings. To the west of Vakutat bay there is a plateau of ice some 20 miles broad, which intervenes between the base of Mount St. Elias and neigh- bouring mountains and the I'acific. This ice-sheet at sea-level is fed by a number nf large glaciers of the alpine type which How down valleys in the mountains to the north, and has an area of about 1500 square miles, and its surface is, in general, about l.'iOO feet above the sea. This ice-sheet is strikingly difleniit from any of the glaciers thus far considered. It has no gathering ground or nere fields of its own, but is supplied by ice-streams in much the same way that a lake at the base of a mountain range is fed by torrents. The ice-sheet in question has been named the ^Malaspiua glacier, in honour of one of the earliest explorers of the Alaskan coast. As stated on a preceding page, it is the type of a class of ice-bodies termed piedmont glaciers. One of its most novel features is the presence of a forest growing on the dirt and stones which conceal the ice. Many sqi'are mi] s of dense vegetation have at least 1000 feet of ice beneath them. At one place the ilalaspina glacier ontors the sea, and, breaking oif, forms the finest tide-water glacier in tlie y^laskaii region. This is the only locality on the west C(jast of Ntjrth Ajnerica where a glacier meets the surges of the open ocean. From nearly everywhere on the ico-sheet at the base of Mount St. Elias the precijutous southern slope of that great peak is in sight. The mountain rises 10,000 feet above the broad glacier encircling its southern ba^e, and has an altitude of IS, 100 feet above the sea. The vast avalanches that rush down its southern slope illustrate on a grand scale the manner in which mountain peaks rising into regions where melting is unlvuown, are freed of their aeitumulations of snow. The avalanches feed the glaciers not only with snow and ice, but contribute to their freight of stones and dirt as well. Mount St. Elias and its giant neighbanks and endanger trans- Atlantic commerce. The tongues of ice extending out from the vast central gathering- ground in Southern Greenland, but melting away before reaching the sea, end in low frontal slopes in much the same manner as do alpine glaciers similarly situated in Alaska. In Northern Gi'eenland, however, as has been carefully recorded by Chamberlin and others, the glaciers which end on land terminate in precipitous, and even in some instances in overhanging, escarpments 200 feet or more in height. These glaciers end on the land in cliflfs of ice quite as steep as those found at the extremities of tide-water glaciers in more southern regions. The reason for this remarkable feature of the extremities, and also of the borders, of glaciers in the far north has not been clearly explained, although Chamberlin has made the suggestion that it is owing to the low angle of incidence of the sun's rays. The direct rays from the sun, as well as the reflections from the sea surface, reach the ice in nearly horizontal planes, and not at high angle as in more southern latitudes. Wheiher this is a sufficient reason for the peculiarities referred to, however, remains lo be determined. Remarkable glaciers discovered on Grinnell Land by the Greely expedition have been described by Lieut. Lockwood, as ending in great walls which could be traced across the land for many miles. One of these escarpments of ice is termed the " Chinese Wall," but it is a wall only when seeu from the south, being the margin of a plateau of ice. The brief accounts brought by General Greely and others from the far north, although not as satisfactory as could be wished, are sufficient to show that many things of extreme interest to glacial students there await study. We have now passed the existing glaciers of North America in rapid review, and can judge to some extent of the richness of this continent in objects of special interest to the student of glacial geology. It is safe to say that the mountains of the Cordilleran system hold thousands of glaciers of the aljune type, ranging in size I'rppi th*; great Seward 56+ THE ENVIRONS AXD NATIVE NAMES OF MOUNT EVEREST, glacier, probably the largest of its class known, to the small ice-bodies of the High Sierra. There are also two piedmont glaciers known, one the Malaspina glacier, briefly described in this paper, and a second on the coast to the west of the Mount St. Elias, and named Bering glacier. This second example, however, has only been seen from a distance, and no white man, so far as I am aware, has ever set foot upon it. Of con- tinental glaciers, the one in Greenland is the only example in the northern hemisphere, unless the recently discovered ice-sheet of Franz Josef Land shoulfl prove to be of this type. Space will not permit of a comparison of the glaciers of North America with those of other regions, but it is safe to say that no other continent affords such a variety of ice-bodies, or in such numbers. It might be said that it is unfortunate America should have so much ice, but this is a matter which may be consideied in two or more ways. The moderating influence of glaciers on climate, their conservative action on water-supply, etc., are frequently far-reaching and beneficent. To the geographer and geologist, glaciers are of more than passing- interest, not only as illustrating the intricate working of the laws of nature at the present day, but for the reason that they furnish the key for unlocking a most interesting and instructive chapter in the Earth's history. But for the study of existing glaciers, the records of the Glacial epoch would still be a sealed book. i I EVEREST. small ice-bodies ciers known, one and a second on i Bering glacier, n a distance, and pon it. Of con- example in the 8-sheet of Franz aciers of North ly that no other I numbers. Id have so much ^0 or more ways, sir conservative ; and beneficent, re than passing of the laws of furnish the key r in the Earth's records of the SPECIAL SALE OWING TO REBUILDING OF PREMISES. June 1909. THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE looloaical Societp or Conaon FROM ITS FIRST PUBLICATION TO THE PRESENT TIME. ®tfcrc^ at exceptionally low prices. A limited number of copies only for sale. Early application is desirable. Customers are invited to complete their sets. Duplicates exchanged or purchased. Special quotations for sections or periods. FRANCIS EDWARDS, bookseller) 83, HIGH STREET, MARYLEBONE, LONDON, W. Telephone : 803 Mayfair. Telegrams: •' FiNAi.iTY, London." 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