IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 itt lii 12.2 s lite *" :^ 1^ 12.0 U iOlC Sdfflices Corpcaation ^ 23 WIST MAIN STMIT WIBSTH.N.Y. 14SM (716) 172-4503 mm CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVi/iCIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Inttituta for Historical MIcroreproductlons / Instltut Canadian de microraproductions historiquas mm Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Note* techniques et bibiiographiquee The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographicaliy unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checiced below. 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Additional comments:/ Commentaires supplAmentaires: L'Institut a microfilm* le meilieur exemplaire qu'il iui a At* possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exemplaire qui sent peut-Atre uniques du point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la m^hode normale de filmage sont indiquAs ci-dessous. The tot |~~1 Coloured pages/ D This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est film* au taux de rMuction indiqu* ci-dessous. 10X 1«X 18X 22X Pages de couleur Pages damaged/ Pages endommagtes Pages restored and/oi Pages restaurAes et/ou pcliicuites Pages discoloured, stained or foxe( Pages dicoiortes, tachettes ou piquAes Pages detached/ Pages dAtachtes Showthrough/ Transparence Quality of prir Quality in1 ; ) 1 6 MAR ISSS PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OK AMERICAN PROGRESS. COMPRISING ©fficial ©escriplioRs of Sreat ^ii^^mericaa Cities PRKPARFT) UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF THE AUTHORITIES OF THE RESPECTIVE CITIES, SHOWING THEIR ORIGIN. DEVELOPMENT. PRESENT CONDITION. COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. iLLlfSTRATED SKETCHES OF j^MERICy^N SceXERY, AMD CELEBRATKL) RKSORTS. WITH HISTORIrAI. SKETCIirS OF THE WONDERFUL ACHIEVEMENTS OF OUR COUNTRY, UNDER THE VARIOUS ADMIiNISTRATlONS. m J. H. BEALK, M.A. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS. • NEW YORK : The Empire Co-operative Association. COPYRIGHTED, 1^89, BV THE EMPIRE CO-OPERATIVE ASaJCIATION, : : I I ■ I 7^1 ■';'n'r"iriiiir p*«i.M p'lw^m m ptf^tpitivimv^^wmwimjwifii^ifi «fufiii ANNOUNCEMENT. How few realize that the State of Texas is larger than the German Empire or than Austro-Hungary, and that California is half as large again as Italy, or that Florida is larger than England and Wales. It has been stated on good authority that the whole quantity of cotton used in the world could be grown on 1,900 square miles, or less than one-fourteenth of the State of Texas. Belgium has 482 inhabitants to the square mile, and Great Britain 290, while the United States, exclusive of Alaska, have less than 14, Should the density of Great Britain ever be attained, there will be upwards of 1,000,000,000 Americans. The marvellous progress made since 1880 in the settlement of the new regions thrown open by railways completed since that date can hardly be realized. The population of Dakota has quadrupled in five years, and its wheat crop last year was 30,000,000 bushels, twice as great as the whole crop of Egypt. The growth of American cities seems no less astonish- ing than that of the States. New York has doubled her population in half the time that London has doubled hers (35 years); while Great Britain and Ireland expend annually upon education $33,500,000, the United States expend $93,000,000, which is more ♦■han is spent by the whole of Continental Europe. Already America makes one-fifth of the iron and one-fourth of the steel of the world, and is second only to Great Britain in steel. The cotton industries, also, of this country are increasing nearly three times as fast as those of the rest of the world. From i860 to 1880 the consumption of cotton by our factories was increased by 140 per cent., while the consumption in Great Britain gained but 25 per cent. So, too, the American woolen industry has increased since i860 six times as fast as that of Great Britain; the consump- tion of wool by our mills in 1880 being 320,000,000 pounds, against 338,000,000 pounds in the United Kingdom. This work is arranged in the best and most convenient manner. Each great event in the progress of our country is sketched sepaiately and complete in itself. The reader can pick it up at any moment, read a sketch, and lay it down until a more convenient time. The sketches of our great cities show their origin, development, and present importance ; their great industries, manufacturing, and commercial achievements ; their public institutions, rapid growth of population, etc., enabling the reader to form a correct opinion of each great city, its natural and acquired advantages, comparative growth, wealth, and characteristics. The work will be found to have a fascinating interest for all readers, young and old, and will be of inestimable value to every American and to those who would become familiar with the home of their adoption. 0) liv THE AUTHOR'S ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO THE MAYORS OF THK VARIOUS CITIBS, BOARDS OF TRADE, CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE, ETC., Who have Oencrouslv Atsisrco in the Phemkation or PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. The Author desires to express his thanks for the hearty co-operation of these gentlemen, and to acknowledge the great obligations under which he has been placed through the invaluable services rendered by them while the work was in progress, and takes this opportunity to testify to the courteous and liberal manner in which they ably seconded his efforts, not only by furnishing invaluable information concerning their respective cities, but in revising the proof-sheets, to guard against any possible inaccuracy of state- ment, and to include the very latest facts before going to press. He is anxious, especially, to acknowledge the eminent courtesies extended by the following gentlemen : Hon. Edmund Fitzgerald, Mayor of Troy, N. Y. Hon. Henky C. Kumpf, Mayor of Kansas City, Mo. Hon. J. E. Boyd, Mayor of Omaha, Neb. Hon. Geo. D. Hart, Mayor of Lynn, Mass. Hon. C. T. Denny, Mayor of Indianapolis, Ind. Hon. Ezra H, Ripple, Mayor of Scranton, Pa. Hon. Willis B. Burns, Mayor of Syracuse, N. Y. Hon. J. H. Dannettell, Mayor of Evansville, Ind. Hon. J. H. Stearns, Mayor of Manchester, N. H. Hon. Geo. W. Gardener, Mayor of Cleveland, O. Hon. Thomas A. Doyle, Mayor of Providence, R. I. Hon. Edmund Rice, Mayor of St. Paul, Minn. (4) -vt,, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 5 ^S, ss. m of 1 he the eous by t in ate- e is the t Hon. S. C. Wilson, Mayor of Harrisburg, Pa. Hon. Dr. John Woolverton, Mayor of Trenton, N. J. Hon. George F. Holcomb, Mayor of New Haven, Ct. Hon. C. B. Rhodes, Mayor of Wilmington, Dei. Hon. J. C. Abbott, Mayor of Lowell, Mass. Hon. Thomas A. Kercheval, Mayor of Nashville, Tenn. Hon. Alex. McKay, Mayor of Hamilton, Ont. Hon. James C. Mackintosh, Mayor of Halifax, Nova Scotia. Hon. J. E. Bates, Mayor of Denver, Col. Hon. John L. Whiting, Mayor of Kingston, Ont. Hon. F. Langelier, Mayor of Quebec, Can. Hon. T. S. Bores De Veber, Mayor of St. John, N. B. Hon. Francis Armstrong, Mayor of Salt Lake City. Hon. H. Leauqran, Mayor of Montreal, Can. Hon. E. D. Hull, Mayor of Wilmington, N. C. Hon. Philip Beec.^er, Mayor of Buffalo, N. Y. His Honor Mayor Courtney, of Charleston, S. C. His Honor Mayor O'Brien, of Boston, Mass. His Honor Mayor Thacher, of Albany, N. Y. Wm. Stockell, President, and Pitkin C. Wright, Secretary of the Mar- facturers' and Mechanics' Association of Nashville, Tenn. David P. Hadden, President Taxing District, Shelby Co., Tenn. Prof. Jonathan Tenney, Albany, N. Y. Chas. G. Lord, Secretary Board of Trade, Columbus, O. Wm. F. Phelps, Secretary Chamber of Commerce, St. Paul, Minn. R. W. Luce, Secretary Board of Trade, Scranton, Pa. M. A. Fanning, Mayor's Secretary, St. Louis. W. P. Lett, City Clerk of Ottawa. Henry S. Thayer, Mayor's Secretary, Buffalo, N. Y. R. G. Neale, Mayor's Secretary, Charleston, S. C. Heber M. Wells, Recorder, Salt Lake City. U'- \ U\ TESTIMONIALS. -♦■♦- Mayor's Office, XanhvUle, Tenn. Oenttemen :— Your letter encloHiuff n brief hintory of Nanhville came duly to hand, for which I thank you; it has been referred to a committee of ffentlemen whom we have oryanized on the auhjerf, and in a few day» I will be able to report to you the result of their work. Yours truly, THOMAS A. KERCH EVA L, Mayor, From the Manufacturers' and Mechanic^ Ass* on of Nashville^ Tenn. Gentlemen : — / have received your second proof on the City of Hashville. I have examined it in all its details with great care and cam, vouch for the correctness of its statements. I regard it as complete^ satisfactory^ a/nd as good and thorough a sketch as could he desired. W3f. STOCKELL, President. i PITKIN C. WRIGHT, Secretary. \ THOMAS A. KF.RCHRVAL, Mayor. Attest Mayor's Office, Hamilton, Ont. Gentlem,pn :—Tn, nnswer to ijowrs of the 2Gth Inst, with cnclo.inl shrtnh of Hamilton, I ivniilil s-i,if, it is very complete for the space occu- pied, ami if the rest of the ivorlc is as correct it will he a valuable hook- I am, very truly yours, ALEX McKJY, Mayor. r Ottn^va, Ontario. Ocntleinon :— Tlic IVInyor hnm mndc HOine corroctionM of iiiiportimce In your Nicctch orthc City orOtta«v:i, partU'iilarly In relVrcnee to trnde, populntion, etc. ITours truly, W, P. 1.KTT, City Cleric. Mayor's Office, Buffalo, N. Y, Gentlemen : — In accordance with your request, I have devoted some little time to the preparation of an article on the City of (Buffalo, which I transmit herewith, and can assure you of its cor^ redness, and would say that it has the approval of His Honor the Mayor, who is a representative business man, a member and ex= (president of the (Board of Trade, (President of the German Insurance Co., and the head of the firm of (Philip (Beecher c&* Co., Wholesale Grocers. ^ Yours truly, HENRY S. THAYER, Mayor's Secretary. I am much pleased Dritli tlie article on the City of Urilmingrton, Del. C. B. RHODES, mayor. HnTannata, €}a. Xbe sketch av It no^r titnndM In correct; llic .fSnyor tlirectM me to thank you itor yoar courtesy and kIntlncHN. Ycry lloMpeclfuiiy, FRiilVK K. KKIIAKKK, Clerk of CoancU. ^he aHlcle an 3i^^enian., J^. Jf'., -^ think u caf^i^cct, aih luLLL Le laith. the additLana. and caf^fectums. _J' hcuiii made an the fii^af. Q^Qui^ tndij., _fohn /WaLu.ei'tan, jM.at^ai^. ^lEout ft^«tcR 0^ ^otumvii^ 16 a Edit, wMyiOM^ ^atement oE out 4pitj.. CHAS. G. LORD, Secretary Columbus Board of Trade. O- o^nu vHyO^fJC t^.'uJ^u^ u^o-u^Vt^, It ivovZcL he djiffloiCub to impTove otz tuhab youu scuy in this shetch abouub T-roy, JT. Y. EDMUND FITZGERALD, Mayor. '^'d (3^. <^u ul-^^d.^ Ciy^om -which yon can get a more extended notice oi* our city, its financial condition, etc. These reports of the Tarious departments of our city -vrOl be conTincing proof that we -would like to hare a true and correct publication. Respectflnlly yours, OATIO P. IIAVOKIV, President. Taxing District, Shelby County, Tenn. Dear Sirs t— The sketch of the City of RlemphlB is all satisfactory. I am yours truly, DAVID P. MADDEN, President. Dear Sirs : City of Charlenton, 8, C, Executive Department, I beg leave to enclose you herewith the corrected sketch of the City of (Jharleeton, and to say that there is nothing further to suggest. The sketch is admirable and concise* Mayor Courtenay will be pleased to include in the City's Library a copy of so valuable a work as this will no doubt be, Vowrs respectfully f H. G. NEALE, for the Mayor. ffr u\ CONTENTS. AMERICAN CITIES ALBANY, NEW YORK, ATLANTA, GEORGIA, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND, . BOSTON, MASS., BROOKLYN, NEW YORK, . BUFFALO, NEW YORK, CAMBRIDGE, MASS., . CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, . CINCINNATI, OHIO, . CLEVELAND, OHIO, . COLUMBUS, OHIO, . . . DAVENPORT, IOWA, . DENVER, COLORADO, DETROIT, MICHIGAN, EVANSVILLE, INDIANA, . GALVESTON, TE^'AS, HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA, . HAMILTON, ONTARIO, HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA, HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT, INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA, JACKSONVILLE, FLORIDA, JERSEY CITY, N. J., . KANSAS CITY, MISSOURL KINGSTON, ONTARIO, LONDON, ONTARIO, . LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY, LOWELL, MASSACHUSETTS, LYNN, MASSACHUSETTS, . (lO) PAGB 123 148 66 51 126 71 82 99 96 134 132 137 86 131 152 172 170 129 118 98 142 52 130 167 173 95 124 120 CONTENTS. MANCHESTER, NEW HAMPSHIRE, MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE, MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN, MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA, MOBILE, ALABAMA, . MONTREAL, CANADA, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE, . NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT, NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA, NEWARK, NEW JERSEY, NEW YORK, NEW YORK, OMAHA, NEBRASKA, OTTAWA, ONTARIO, . PETERSBURG, VIRGINIA, PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANM PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA PORTLAND, MAINE, . PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND, QUEBEC, CANADA, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA, ROCHESTER, NEW YORK, . SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA, SAVANNAH, GEORGIA, SCRANTON, PENNSYLVANIA, SPRINGFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI, ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA, ST. JOHN, NEW BRUNSWICK, ST. JOHN'S, NEWFOUNDLAND SYRACUSE, NEW YORK, TOLEDO, OHIO, TORONTO, CANADA, . TRENTON, NEW JERSEY TROY, NEW YORK, UTICA, NEW YORK, . ™fT?7^''' DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, WHEELING, WEST VIRGINIA WILMINGTON, DELAWARE, ' WILMINGTON, NORTH CAROLINA, WORCESTER. MASSACHUSETTS . II PAOB • "3 • 135 • 103 • no • 144 . 161 • M5 . 116 • 73 • 53 • 36 • ^33 • 171 • 136 • 54 . 105 114 IT2 164 157 150 155 140 79 147 125 120 83 108 166 173 122 134 169 128 121 151 17 154 143 129 114 ■«SWP»>*WW^iiH^«MI H 12 CONTENTS. AMERICAN SCENERY. THE YOSEMITE VALLEY, .... THE YELLOWSTONE REGION, . THE NIAGARA FALLS— THE NEW STATE PARK, THE THOUSAND ISLANDS, DOWN THE RAPIDS OF THE ST. LAWRENCE, WATKINS GLEN, THE RHINE OF AMERICA (HUDSON RIVER), OUR COUNTRY'S ACHIEVEMENTS OUR COUNTRY COMPARED WITH THE GREAT NATIONS, THE EARLY SETTLEMENTS, THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND, THE INDIAN WAR, .... SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK, . THE LAND OF PENN, SETTLEMENT IN THE OTHER COLONIES, THE COLONIAL PERIOD, . THE GROWTH AND GOVERNMENT OF THE COLONIES, THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE— THE GATHERING CLOUD, THE BURSTING OF THE STORM, GEORGE WASHINGTON, COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, JOHN HANCOCK, .... BENJAMIN FRANKLIN— ISRAEL PUTNAM, PATRICK HENRY, THE ORATOR, SAMUEL ADAMS BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL AND SIEGE OF BOSTON, THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, THE PROGRESS OF THE WAR, . THE FRENCH AID TO THE COLONIES, THE CAMPAIGN OF 1777 AND 1778, THE WYOMING MASSACRE, THE WAR IN 1779 AND 1780, THE FIRST AND ONLY TRAITOR, THE CLOSING YEARS OF THE STRUGGLE, THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD, ADMINISTRATION OF WASHINGTON, . ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS, . ADMINISTRATION OF THOMAS JEFFERSON, ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON, SECOND WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE, . THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS, ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MONROE, rAOB 177 179 182 188 198 201 306 210 216 217 220 222 223 224 226 229 238 241 242 243 244 247 253 254 256 258 262 264 268 269 274 277 280 281 284 285 287 289 OF JAMES LINCOLN, CONTENTS. LAFAYETTE (SKETCH AND VISIT), ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JACKSON, . ADMINISTRATION OF MARTIN VAN BUREN, ADMINISTRATION OF HARRISON AND TYLER, ADMINISTRATION OF POLK AND MEXICAN WAR, THE PERIOD OF AGITATION, ADMINISTRATION OF ZACHARY TAYLOR, . ADMINISTRATION OF MILLARD FILLMORE, ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE, . THE STRUGGLE IN KANSAS— ADMINISTRATION BUCHANAN THE CIVIL WAR— ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM THE OPERATIONS OF 1862, THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION, THE MILITARY OPERATIONS OF 1863, THE MILITARY OPERATIONS OF 1864, THE CLOSING EVENTS OF THE WAR, RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS— ADMINISTRATION OF AN- DREW JOHNSON, .... ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT, . THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION, ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES, ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES A. GARFIELD, . ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A. ARTHUR, PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT SINCE THE CIVIL JAMES ABRAM GARFIELD (POEM), OUR POSITION AMONG THE NATIONS, OUR HERO DEAD (POEM), WAR 13 PAGB 290 293 296 297 302 310 3" 3'3 318 326 332 340 341 350 357 360 362 367 369 371 373 378 381 382 390 '« ll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. \ i\ ill THE CAPITAL AT WASHINGTON, SENATORS' RECEPTION-ROOM, . THE SENATE CHAMBER, . THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT, . THE WHITE HOUSE, THE BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE, THE CORCORAN GALLERY OF ART, THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, THE NATIONAL MUSEUM BUILDING, THE WAR, STATE, AND NAVY DEPARTMENTS, THE BUREAU OF ENGRAVING AND PRINTING ARLINGTON HOUSE OF ROBERT E. LEE, THE SOLDIERS' HOME, .... MOUNT VERNON, ..... WILLARD'S HOTEL THE PENSION OFFICE STATUES AND MONUMENTS, FISHING ON THE POTOMAC, BARTHOLDI STATUE, LIBERTY ENLIGHTENING THE WORLD; SCENE IN NEW YORK BAY, THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE, .... ELEVATED RAILROAD, NEW YORK, BROADWAY AND TRINITY CHURCH, NEW YORK, CENTRAL PARK, NEW YORK, FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK, GENERAL GRANT AND FAMILY, NEW YORK, THE CUSTOM-HOUSE, NEW YORK, THE GRAND CENTRAL DEPOT, NEW YORK, . SHIP-BUILDING, NAVY YARD, BROOKLYN, . INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, FAC-SIMILE LETTER BY BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, MAIN EXHIBITION BUILDING, PHILADELPHIA, MACHINERY HALL, PHILADELPHIA, . CARPENTER'S HALL, PHILADELPHIA, . PARK STREET, BOSTON, . THE CUSTOM-HOUSE, BOSTON, . THE HANCOCK HOME, BOSTON, . LONGFELLOW'S RESIDENCE, CAMBRIDGE, GORE HALL, CAMBRIDGE, . INTERIOR OF DRAWING-ROOM CAR, . LAFAYETTE SQUARE, NEW ORLEANS, (14^ FAGB 'U 17 i 18 19 20 21 24 25 26 27 28 "i.r 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 1 36 37 ,' |- 39 % 40 42 43 ¥ si''- 44 45 46 47 49 53 57 58 59 60 61 66 .M 67 68 69 70 72 73 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 15 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 39 40 42 43 44 45 46 47 49 53 57 58 59 60 61 66 67 68 69 70 72 73 THE COTTON EXCHANGE, NEW ORLEANS, . THE MAIN EXHIBITION BUILDING, NEW ORLEANS, UNITED STATES AND STATE BUILDINGS, NEW ORLEANS NEW ORLEANS TO SAN FRANCISCO, . THE BALDWIN HOUSE, SAN FRANCISCO, THE PALMER HOUSE, CHICAGO, THE COURT HOUSE, ST. LOUIS, THE MERCANTILE LIBRARY, ST. LOUIS, THE NEW POST-OFFICE, ST. LOUIS, . THE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, ST. LOUIS, THE SOUTHERN HOTEL, ST. LOUIS, . LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY, . CLEVELAND, OHIO, .... DRAWING-ROOM CAR, VIEW OF THIRD STREET, CINCINNATI, VIEW OF FOURTH STREET, CINCINNATI, VIEW OF MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN, . VIEW OF UNION DEPOT, PITTSBURGH, VIEW OF THE COURT HOUSE, PITTSBURGH VIEW OF ST. PAUL, MINN., SUBURBS OF MINNEAPOLIS, MINN., FIRST BAPTIST CHURCH, PROVIDENCE, R. L, CITY HALL AND COURT HOUSE, PORTLAND, MAINE, VIEW OF CITY OF ALBANY, N. Y., VIEW OF PARK, BUFFALO, N. Y., VIEW OF CITY OF DAVENPORT, lA., VIEW OF CITY OF OMAHA, NEB., VIEW OF CITY OF COLUMBUS, O., VIEW OF CITY OF DENVER, COL., VIEW OF CITY OF CHARLESTON, S. C VIEW IN AND AROUND CHARLESTON, S. C A STREET IN SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS, . BAY STREET, JACKSONVILLE, FLORIDA, VIEW OF MOBILE, ALA., . VIEW OF SAVANNAH, GA., VIEWS IN AND AROUND ATLANTA, GA., SCENES IN GALVESTON, TEXAS, MAIN STREET, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH, STATE CAPITOL, RICHMOND, VA., PATRICK HENRY ADDRESSING THE ASSEMBLY OF VIRGINIA, MAP SHOWING NEW YORK AND CANADIAN CITIES, ANCIENT GATE, QUEBEC, . MONTCALM'S HEADQUARTERS, QUEBEC, VIEW OF ST. JOHN, N. B VIEW OF KINGSTON, ONT., VIEW OF TORONTO UNIVERSITY, VIEW OF CHAUDIERE FALLS, OTTAWA, 74 76 77 78 79 83 88 89 90 90 91 95 96 97 100 100 roi '05 [06 ro8 [09 12 >5 23 [26 [32 '33 '34 '37 '38 '39 141 [42 144 '47 '49 '53 '56 '57 '58 [62 [64 '65 [66 [68 [69 171 i6 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. VIEW OF LONDON, ONT., . BRIDAL VEIL FALLS, VOSEMITE, UPPER YELLOWSTONE FALLS, . NIAGARA FALLS, .... THE HORSE-SHOE FALL, . THE BRIDGE, BATH, AND GOAT ISLAND, TABLE ROCK TERRAPIN TOWER NIAGARA FROM NEAR QUEENSTOWN HEIGHTS, RIVER NIAGARA BELOW THE FALLS, . NIAGARA SUSPENSION BRIDGE, . NIAGARA RIVER, THE WHIRLPOOL, . ALEXANDRIA BAY, THOUSAND ISLANDS, BETWEEN THE ISLANDS, . ON THE ISLANDS, .... ROUND ISLAND, .... BONNIE CASTLE, THOUSAND ISLANDS, DOWN THE RAPIDS OF ST. L.AWRENCE, THE GORGE, WATKINS GLEN, . GLEN MOUNTAIN HOUSE, THE TRIPLE CASCADE, WATKINS GLEN, RAINBOW FALLS, WATKINS GLEN. FAC-SIMILE LETTER OF BENEDICT ARNOLD THE PALISADES ON THE HUDSON, . TURK'S FACE ON THE HUDSON, BATTLE MONUMENT, BALTIMORE, INDIANS VIEWING THE FIRST RAILROAD, CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, BOSTON, . LAFAYETTE 5ANTA ANNA, GENERAL WINFIELD SCOTT, THE GREAT CANNON, ENGINE-ROOM OF EXPOSITION, TO MAJOR ANDRE rAOB 173 176 177 182 183 184 184 185 186 186 187 187 190 191 192 193 196 198 200 204 205 206 207 2o8 209 225 232 252 290 298 301 325 368 h ^1 OFFICIAI. CHITSXJS OF 1890. THE FOLLOWING TABLE GIVES THE POPULATION OF EACH CITY OF THE UNITED STATES THAT IS SKETCHED IN THE PRESENT WORK, AND ALSO INCLUDES ALL CITIES HA VING 50,000 INHABITANTS AND OVER. Xamerioal Bulk. CITIES. 20 42 28 7 6 4 11 41 50 63 2 9 10 80 68 48 27 58 15 56 40 «7 44 62 54 26 71 19 23 73 52 57 58 20 61 60 43 18 Albany, N.Y., Atlanta, Gai, Allegheny, Pa., Baltimore, Md., Boston, Mass., Brooklyn, N.T., Buffalo, N.Y., Cambridge, Mass., Camden, N.J., Charleston, S.C, Chicago, 111., Cincinnati, O., . Cleveland, O., Columbus, O., . Davenport, la. Dayton, O., Denver, Colo., Des Moines, la., Detroit, Mich.,. Evansville, Ind., Fall River, Mass.,. Galveston, Tex. Grand Rapids, Mich, Hampton, Va., Harrisburg, Pa., . Hartford, Conn., Indianapolis, Ind., Jaxsksonville, Fla., Jersey City, N.J., . Kansas City, Mo., Keokuk, la., . Lincoln, Neb., . Los Angeles, Cal. , Lowell, Mass., . Louisville, Ky., . Lynn, Mass., Manchester, N. H., Memphis, Tenn., Milwaukee, Wis., . 1800. 94,640 65,514 104,967 434,151 446,507 804,377 254,457 69 837 58,274 54,592 1,098,576 296,309 261,546 90,398 28,500 58,868 106,670 50,067 205,609 50,074 74,351 29,118 64,147 2,800 40,104 53,183 107,445 17,160 163,987 132,416 14,075 55,491 60,394 77,605 101,005 65,084 43,983 04,586 204,150 1880. 90,758 87,409 78,683 333,313 362,839 566,663 155,134 53,669 41,659 49,984 503,185 255,750 160,146 51,647 21,831 38,678 35,629 22,408 110,340 29,280 49,006 23,248 32,010 2,684 30,726 43,551 75,056 10,927 120,733 55,785 13,117 13,008 11,183 59,475 133,7.'5S 38,074 33,030 33,593 115,583 * Estimated. r^fimmmmm OFFICIAL CENSUS OP 1890, Continued, M I :( VII r'i Nmucrioal h UK, 18 66 30 17 32 12 1 21 37 60 3 18 64 25 47 36 22 57 63 8 34 58 72 55 5 24 31 35 49 46 59 14 65 45 70 33 CITIES. Minneapolis, Minn., . Mobile, Ala.,. Nashville, Tenn., Newark, N.J., New Haven, Conn., . New Orleans, La., New York, N.Y., . Omaha, Neb., Paterson, N.J., Petersburg, Va., . Philadelphia, Pa., . Pittsburg, Pa., Portland, Me., . Portland, Or., Princeton, N. J., Providence, R.I., . Reading, Pa. , . Richmond, Va., . Rochester, N.Y., Salt Lake City, Utah, San. Antonio, Tex., . San Francisco, Cal., Savannah, Ga., . Scranton, Pa., Springfield, Mass., . St. Augustine, Fla., St. Joseph, Mo., St. Louis, Mo., St. Paul, Minn., Syracuse, N.Y., Toledo,©., Trenton, N.J. , Troy, N.Y., Utica, N. Y., . Washington, D.C., . Wheeling, W. Va., Wilmington, Del., . Wilmington, N. C, Worcester, Mass., ISUO. 164,738 31,822 76,300 181,518 85,981 241,905 1,513,501 139,526 78,358 23,317 1,044,804 238,473 36,609 72,079 3,940 132,043 58,926 80,838 138,327 45,025 38,081 297,990 41,762 83,450 44,164 15,000 52,811 460,357 133,156 87,877 82,652 58,488 60,605 44,001 220,796 35,052 01,437 20,008 84,536 18S(). 46,887 29,132 43,461 136,508 62,882 216,090 1,206,299 30,518 51,061 21,656 847,17© 156,389 33,810 17,577 3,209 104,856 43,278 63,600 89,330 20,768 20,561 233,959 80,709 45,850 38,340 12,117 82,431 350,518 41,473 51,791 50,187 29,910 56,747 33,914 147,293 80,737 42,478 17,350 58,201 NOTE :— The population of the several cities as given in the body of the work for the years 1881 to 1880 inclusive, was in many instances based upon an estimate furnished by their respective Mayors, and not upon an actual enumeration. This fact, therefore, should be borne in mind in making a comparison of these figures with those of the " Official Census of 1800." t As given by the Mayor, including suburbs. * Estimated. OFFICIAL, CHUSXJS OF 1890. POPULATION OP THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. [Prom the Official Census of 1890.] 391 work for urnished lerefore, e of the Vumariwl iank. STATES AND TERRITORIES. 1800. 1880. Inor>ni0 per Cent. 17 AlabHiiia .... 1,508,073 1,363,505 19.46 48 Arizona , 59,091 40,440 47.00 24 Arliansas 1,135,385 803,525 40.28 23 California . 1,304,003 864,694 39.24 81 Colorado 410,975 104,337 111.49 29 Connecticut 746,861 033,700 19.78 43 Delaware 167,871 146,608 14.50 89 DIst. of Columbin 839,796 177,634 29.37 83 Florida . 390,435 369,493 44.88 13 Georgia 1,834,366 1,543,180 18.95 45 Idaho 84,329 32,610 158.29 3 Illinois 3,818,636 3,077,873 24,06 8 Indiana 2,189,030 1,978,301 10.65 10 Iowa . 1,906,729 1,624,615 17.36 19 Kansas . 1,423,485 996,096 42.91 11 Kentucky . 1,855,436 1,648,690 12.54 25 Louisiana 1,116,828 939,946 18.83 80 Maine 660,261 648,936 1.75 27 Maryland 1,040,431 934,943 11.28 6 Massachusetts . 2,233,407 1,783,085 25.26 9 Michigan 2,089,793 1,636,937 27.66 20 Minnesota . 1,300,017 780,773 66.50 21 Mississippi . 1,284,887 1,131,597 13.55 5 Missouri . 2,677,080 2,168,380 23.46 44 Montana 131,769 39,159 236.50 2« Nebraska . 1056,793 453,403 133.60 49 Nevada . 44,327 63,366 <128.81 33 New Hampshire 375,837 346,991 8.31 18 New Jersey . 1,441,017 1,131,116 27.40 43 New Mexico 144,803 119,505 21.16 1 New York 5,981,934 .1,082,871 17.09 16 North Carolina 1,617,340 1,399,750 15.54 41 North Dakota 182,435 * 4 Ohio . 3,666,719 3,198,063 14.65 46 Oklahoma 61,701 1- 88 Oregon 313.490 174,763 78.80 3 Pennsylvania 5,348.574 4,383,891 22.55 85 Rhode Island . 345,343 276,531 34.88 23 South Carolina 1,147,161 995,577 15.33 b 87 South Dakota . 327,848 * 13 Tennessee 1,763,723 1,543,359 14.35 7 Texas . 2,233,220 1,591,749 40.24 40 Utah . 306,498 143,963 43.44 36 Vermont . 333,205 333,286 d .03 15 Virginia 1,648,911 1,512,505 9.01 34 Washington 349,516 75,116 365.30 28 West Virginia . 760,448 618,457 22.96 14 Wisconsin . 1,683,091 1,315,497 27.99 47 Wyoming 00, 5«) 20,789 191.45 Total - 62,480,540 50,155,7-^3 24,57 Alaska and Indian Territory are not included in this enumeration. * Two States formed from the territory of Dakota - Population in 1880,-136,177. \ New territory found in 1890. f 31 OfilGIN AND DETELOFIBNT OF AHBRIGAN GITIBS. WASHINGTON D.C. THE CAPITOL. V Washington is the Capital of the United States ; it is in the Federal District of Columbia, situated on the left bank of the Potomac River, i6o miles from its mouth, between Anacostia River and Rock Creek, which separates it from Georgetown. It is 37 miles from Baltimore, 136 from Philadelphia, 120 from Richmond, 225 from New York, 432 from Boston, 700 from Chicago, 856 from St. Louis, 1,033 from New Orleans, and 2,000 from San Francisco. The Potomac at Washington is one mile wide, and deep enough for the largest vessels. When in October, 1800, the transfer of the Government of the United States was made to its present seat, the most visionary dreamer could hardly have foreseen the magnificence and beauty of the city of Washington as it is to-day. The grandeur and greatness of the model Government of the world is fittingly represented by the stately city, which is the home |of the central government of the most powerful republic the world has ever (17) i8 PICTURESQUR SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. known, and its growing splendor (tlie evidence of the prosperity of the j)eople) is but an exemplification of the saying of the great President Lincoln that " a (iovernnient of the people and by the people shall not perish from the face of the earth." In points of historic interest there is not a city in the world possessing the attractions to the American citizen, that the Capital of the nation affords. In accordance with the act of Congress (March 3, 1 791) the city was laid out, under the direction of President Washington, on a plateau 40 feet above the river, with several elevations, with over 250 miles of streets and avenues. The I SENATORS' RECEPTION-ROOM. streets are from 80 to 120 feet wide, and the avenues 130 to 160 feet — the lat- ter are named after various States. General Washington called it the Federal City, and it was not until after his death that it received his name. The streets from north to south are numbered, and those from east to west are let- tered. Twenty-one avenues cross these in various directions ; the new Execu- tive Avenue winds from the White House around the city to the Capitol. The original plan of the city was so extensive and the increase of population so small, that Washington was often called " the city of magnificent distances." In 1839 «i" English traveler said : " The town looks like a large straggling village reared in a drained swamp." In 185 1 the work of laying out and adorn OGRr:ss. of the people) ncoln that " a oni the face of possessing the •n affords. In aid out, under 'ove the river, ivenues. The CITY OF VVASIIINCiTON. 19 ing the reservations and parks was commenced under the skillful guidance of A. J. Downing, but his death, the next year, and the neglect of Congress, arrested it for twenty years. In 187 a government for the District was estab- lished by Congress, with a governor and legislature and a board of public works, to which was given control of the streets, avenues, and sewers of Wash- ington and Georgetown, with authority to improve them under a general plan. A system oi sewerage and of pavements was organized which resulted in regrad- ing most of the highways, paving 160 miles of streets with stone, wood, or concrete, planting about 30,000 shade trees, and improving the public squares with fences and trees. In three years the city was transformed. From that time to the present a very large number of public buildings and private resi- I dences have been erected. The city covers about 6,000 acres, of which the Government reservations comprise 500, and the streets 2,500, leaving 3,000 for sa. m :t— the lat- he Federal ime. The est are let- ;w Execu- )itol. The alation so tances." straggling ' nd adorn THE SENATE CHAMBER. the lots on which private residences are built. As open places are in all parts )f the city, fresh air is abundant, and healthfulness is greatly promoted. The mdulating surface of the city produces a constant variety of scenery without )bstructing the travel. Its environs present a beautiful and picturesque land- scape, which is seen to the best advantage from the portico or dome of the !)apitol, and drew from Humboldt the declaration, " In all my travels I have lot seen a more charming panorama." THE CAPITOL BUILDING. Travelers who have visited all the capitols of the world pronounce this to )e the finest civic building extant, and certainly every American may well be )roud of it. It stands upon Capitol Hill, fronting both east and west. It is rji feet long from north to south, 324 feet in width, covers an area of three imd one-half acres of ground, and has cost upwards of $15,000,000. The cen- |ral portion is of sandstone, painted white ; this was partially desti;pyed in --^- — ^. — ^ &: 20 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. 1814 by the British. The extensions are of Massachusetts marble, with mono- lith columns of Maryland marble. The dome is of iron, and weighs 40 tons. It is surmounted by a statue of " Freedom," from designs made under the direction of Jefferson Davis, at the time he was Secretary of War. The cor- ner-stone of the original Capitol, now the central part of the structure, was laid in 1793, by George Washington, with Masonic ceremonials. The corner-stone of the extensions was laid in 185 1, Daniel Webster delivering the oration. The Capitol is always open to visitors except on legal holidays. The admis- sion is free, and parties endeavoring to collect an entrance fee to this or any other public building in Washington are impostors, and ought to be handed over to the police without ceremony. Here the objects of interest are so numerous that space can be given only to a brief mention of each of them. Upon a platform erected in the east cen- tral portico, the oath of ofifice is administered to the President in the presence of the public, and here he delivers his inaugural address. Fronting the porti- co is Greenough's statue of Washing- ton. On each side the steps leading up to the portico arc emblematical groups in marble ; the one on the south side is Persico's " Discov- ery," the one on the north Greenough's " Civilization." The first represents Co- lumbus holding a globe aloft, while an Indian maiden crouches by his side. In the other the pioneer husband and father rescues the wife and child from impending death at the hands of the bloodthirsty Indian. Within the portico are statues of " War " and " Peace " in niches. The door opening into the rotunda is the Rogers bronze door, so widely famous. It is well worth the closest study. It was cast in Munich, in 1861, from designs by Randolph Rogers, and cost alto- gether about $30,000. It is nine feet wide and seventeen feet high, and here, in a great bronze picture, is told the storj' of the life of Christopher Columbus. Having studied this magnificent work of art, the visitor enters the rotunda, avast circular room, 97 feet in diameter, 300 feet in circumference, and 180 feet in height to the base of the canopy which surmounts it. The lower part of the wall of the rotunda is occupied by eight historical pictures. Four of TREASURY DEPARTMENT. CITY OF WASHINGTON. 21 these pictures, viz. : " Declaration of Independence," " The Surrender of Gen- eral Burgoyne," " The Surrender of Lord Cornwallis," and " The Resignation of General Washington," were painted by John Trumbull, son of Governor Trumbull, of Connecticut, and for a time an officer of General Washington's staff. The chief value these paintings have lies in the fact that every face in them is a portrait. These four pictures cost the Government $32,000. Besides these are " De Soto Discovering the Mississippi," by Wm. H. Powell, for i which the Government paid $15,000 ; " The Landing of Columbus," by Van- derlyn, $12,000; "The Baptism of Pocahontas," by Chapman, $io,OfXj; and "The Embarkation of the Pilgrims," by Weir, $10,000. There are four doors lopening into the rotunda, and over each is an alto relievo, viz. : over the north Idoor, " Penn's Treaty with the Indians in 1682," by Gevelot ; over the south Idoor, "The Conflict between Daniel Boone and the Indians in 1775," by Cau- Isici ; over the east door, " The Landing of the Pilgrims on Plymouth Rock," THE WHITE HOUSE. Iso by Causici ; and over the west door is the " Preservation of Captain Smith ly Pocahontas," by Capellano, Above the architrave is a fresco in chiaro-oscura |f sketches from American history. The work was begun by Brumidi, and at is death was taken up by one of the masters of his school. It will, perhaps, completed by the end of the present year. In the canopy above is Brumidi's llegorical painting, representing " Washington Seated in Majesty." By climb- »g 365 steps the visitor may ascend to the top of the dome, whence a mag- ificent view of the city of Washington and the surrounding country may had. The old hall of the House of Representatives is reached by passing through le south door of the rotunda. The finest piece of sculptured work in Wash- ^gton is the marble clock in this hall. It is by Franzoni, and represents the Genius of History Making up Her Records." This hall is now known as jStatuaryHall," and is reserved for the reception of statues — each State being 1 — 22 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. permitted to send statues of two of her chosen sons. Of these there are already here Ethan Allen, from Vermont ; John Winthrop and Samuel Adams, from Massachusetts ; George Clinton and Robert R. Livingston, of New York; Edward D. Baker, of Oregon ; William King, of Maine ; Nathaniel Greene and Roger Williams, of Rhode Island ; and Jonathan Trumbull and Roger Sherman, of Connecticut. Besides these, there are a plaster cast of Houdan's Washington ; Vinnie Reams' Lincoln ; a bust of Kosciusko ; Ames' bust of Lincoln ; statues of Alexander Hamilton, Robert Fulton, and Thomas Jeffer- son ; bust of Thos. Crawford, the designer of the statue of " Freedom " and the Senate bronze doors ; a mosaic portrait of Lincoln, made by an Italian who never saw him ; portraits of Joshua Giddings, Gunning Bedford, Henry Clay, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, General Washington, Benjamin West, and Thomas Jefferson. A large safe standing in this hall is filled with papers of historical value placed there in 1876 ; the safe is not to be opened till 1976. Proceed ing o^~ri^^y^b^irShn^!!lA^^!»K^I?^IZ^i;^SI still further south, through a corridor of handsome pro- portions, the new hall of the House of Representa- tives is reached. This is 139 feet long, 93 feet wide, and 36 feet high. Galleries which will accommo- date over 1,000 people range about the sides of the chamber, and are always open to the public when the House is in session. There are reserved spaces for families of the Representatives, news- paper correspondents, and the diplomatic corps. The ceiling is a vast sky- light, the opaque glass being set in panels in great iron frames, each panel bearing the arms of a State. On one side of the Speaker's chair is a portrait of Washington, by Vanderlyn ; on the other a portrait of Lafay- ette, by Ary Schefer, both full length ; there are also paintings by Bierstadt. " The Landing of Henry Hudson " and " Discovery of California," and some frescoes by Brumidi, also find space here. The Capitol is floored with English Minton tiles. The corridors are lined with rooms for the use of the various committees of Congress, elaborately frescoed and furnished. The staircases on the House side leading to the galleries are of Tennessee marble. Over the western staircase is Deutze's great picture, " Westward the Course of Empire Takes it Way "; over the eastern is Carpenter's picture, " The Proclamation EAST ROOM OF THE WHITE HOUSE. CITY OF WASHINGTON. 23 i of Emancipation." The library of the House is located on the second floor. The ground floor is used for committcc-rooms, the House post-ofifice, the House restaurant, folding-rooms, etc., etc. Still further down are the engines land furnaces which supply heat and ventilation to the south end of the build- ing. Underneath the rotunda is the crypt, now nearly all taken up with temporary rooms in which are stored the surplus books belonging to the Congressional Library proper, and for which accommodations are lacking in jthe rooms assigned to the library above. Retracing his steps from the House wing, the visitor on entering the Irotunda will gain admission to the Congressional Library through swinging Idoors on the west. Here he finds himself in the midst of a library comprising jpwards of 450,000 volumes. They are stored in three beautiful halls, the lain one being 91 feet long, 34 feet wide, and 38 feet high ; the two side halls irc each 95 feet long and 30 feet wide. The general public is admitted to the ^ibrary between the lours of nine and four every day ex- cept Sunday ; and )crsons are at lib- priy to call for any ;lc.,ircd book for ,'urposcs of rcfcr- [;ice, but arc not lllowed to take licin away. Ta- bles and chairs arc iirnishcd for the lonvcnience of jadcrs. Members |f Con rcss and Icrtain officials are llowed to take Jooks away with the understanding that they must be returned within a certain jme. Leaving the library, the visitor passes through the north door to the Su- Ireme Court Room. This was formerly the Senate Chamber. Admission l-m only be had when the court is in session. It was in this room that the Electoral Commission sat in February, 1877. Thence through a broad corridor the visitor passes to the Senate Chamber, room of similar arrangement to the Hall of the House of Representatives. is not so large, however, being but 1 12 feet long by 82 wide, and it is much etter furnished than the Hall of the House. Back of the Vice-President's Siair, and separated from the Senate by a spacious lobby, is the famous Marble ^oom, where Senators may receive callers during sessions of the body. This a well-proportioned and beautiful room, the ceiling supported by lofty Cor- THE INTERIOR DEPARTMENT. I f J 24 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. inthian columns of Italian marble, and the walls lined with costly mirrors. Adjoining it on the north is the President's room ; it is so called because it is used by the President whenever he has occasion to visit the Capitol to confer with members of Congress in person. During the last hours of a session the President invariably occupies this room with the members of his Cabinet to sign bills as they are passed by the two Houses, as in case he does not sign before the session closes these enactments fail of becoming laws. At the opposite end of the lobby is the Vice-President's room. Here Henry Wilson died. East of this room is the vast apartment known as the Ladies' Recep- tion-room, where ladies may come to call on Senators on business. Still further south is the post-office of the Senate, from which entrance is gained to the office of the Sergeant-at-Arms. On the north side of the Senate Cham- ber are the offices of the Secretary of the Senate. Passing out upon the portico over the eastern entrance to the Senate, the celebrated Crawford Bronze Door will be found worthy of at- tention. It illus- trates Revolutionary history, and cost in the neighborhood of $60,000. It was cast at Chicopee, Mass. 0\ cr the centre of the portico are a number of figures il- lustrating the " Prog- ress of American Civ- ilization and the De- cadence of the Indian Race." Returning to the interior, the visitor will find over the staircase on the west side of the Senate Chamber, Walker's oil painting of " The Battle of Chapultepec," in many respects one of the most remr.rkable works of art in Washington ; over the east staircase hangs Powell's painting of " Perry's Victory at Put-in-Bay, Lake Erie." The west staircase on the Senate side is of white marble ; on the east side it is of Tennessee marble. The ground f^oor is occupied by committee-rooms, bath-rooms, the Senate restaurant, etc. In the basement is located the heat- ing and ventilating apparatus — well worth a visit. The central building, situated on the summit of a gentle elevation, was designed chiefly by B. H. Latrobe, and commenced in 1793. The extension, with the dome, was designed by Thomas W. Walter. The grounds consist of 35 acres. It was burned by the British troops in 18 14, completed in 1825, and extended by the addition of two spacious wings in 185 1. THE BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE. )GRESS. CITY OF WASHINGTON. 25 costly mirrors, d because it is pitol to confer i a session the his Cabinet to does not sign laws. At the Henry Wilson Ladies' Recep- jusiness. Still ance is gained Senate Cham- he Senate, the ated Crawford :c Door will be worthy of at- >n. It illus- Revolutionary y, and cost in ::ighborhood of X). It was c.isl licopee, Mass. the centre of aortico are a cr of figures il- tingthc " Prog- American Civ- )n and the De- :eof the Indian Returning interior, the nate Chamber, y respects one east staircase Erie." The east side it is imittec-rooms, rated the heat- elevation, was he extension, •ounds consist leted in 1825, The new Hall of Representatives was occupied in 1857, and the Senate Chamber in 1859. During the war of the Rebellion the work was carried on ; jthe great dome rose from day to day while the city was an intrenched camp, land at the close of 1863 the statue of " Freedom " was lifted to its place. There are many other objects of interest in the Capitol building to which a [lack of space prevents reference. Regularly authorized guides may be found in the building, who are allowed to charge visitors a moderate fee for their services. THE BOTANICAL GARDENS. The visitor may pass out of the western entrance and in a very few min- lutes' walk reach the Botanical Gardens, with its eleven conservatories, the [largest being 300 feet long. To naturalists and lovers of rare plants and trees, [there is much here of highest interest. On the east of the [President's house is the massive Treasury )uilding, of freestone ind granite, 468 feet jy 264, with Ionic jorticoes on all four sides, the monolithic columns on the south front being 31 ^ feet ligh and 4>^ feet in liameter; and on the /est, the magnificent luilding for the state, War, and Navy departments, of jranite, in the Ro- lan-Doric style, with r fa9ades, of which those on the north and south, and on the east and west Respectively, correspond. THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT. The doors of the Treasury Department are open at nine o'clock in the lorning, and close to the general public at two in the afternoon. The White louse is not open to visitors till ten A.M., and by the time the objects of Interest in the Treasury Department have been seen, an entrance can be had Id the President's house, the grounds af which adjoin those of the Treasury. The Department building covers the space occupied by two blocks. It is fcoo feet wide at the north and south fronts, and 582 feet long. The four fronts are elaborately finished in the colonnade style, with porticoes on the Horth, .south, and west fronts. The east front, the first one built, is of Vir- Jinia freestone ; the others are of the Dix Island granite. The structure cost THE CORCORAN GALLERY OF ART. 26 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. nearly $7,000,000. It was many years in building, having been added to from time to time, as the increase of business required ; and yet it is not large enough to accommodate all the bureaus belonging to the Treasury. The cash-room is the most beautiful in the building, if not in all Washington. The walls and ceilings arc entirely of foreign marbles. A permit from the Treasurer of the United States can readily be secured, by means of which the great vaults can be seen, the visitors being under charge of a Government offi- cial. The offices of the Secretary of the Treasury are well worth examining. They are richly and tastefully furnished, and the rooms, facing south, are of noble and beautiful proportions. THE WHITE HOUSE. The Executive Mansion, standing on elevated grounds between the Treas- ury on the east and the War, State, and Navy Department buildings on the west, is two stories r7i"^"^^':>>^ high and 170 feet long. It is modeled after the palace of the Duke of Lein- ster, the arciiitect, James Hoban, being from Ireland. It is of sandstone, paint- ed white. It fronts north on Pcnnsylva nia Avenue, across which is Lafayette Park. From the north front projects a huge portico, un- der which the car- riages of visitors are driven. The south front looks upon a lovely park stretching down to the Washington Monument. The visitor enters at the north door, and finds himself at once in a magnificent vestibule 40 by 50 feet in size. A sash screen, filled with colored and ornamented glass, separates the vestibule from the cor- ridor running in front of the Blue, Red, and Green parlors and the State dining-room. Ushers are in attendance to show to visitors those portions of the house open to the public. The East Room is 80 feet long by 40 in width, and is 24 feet high. The ceilings are paneled and richly frescoed, while the chandeliers, mirrors, furniture, and carpets are of the most magnificent description. This room is used on all occasions of ceremony, grand recep- tions, etc. The Green Room adjoins on the west, and is so called because it is entirely furnished and adorned in green. The Blue Room comes next, furnished in blue ; in turn the Red Room is entered, still proceeding THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. CITY OF WASHINGTON. 2^ added to from it is not large rreasury. The 11 Washington. ;rmit from the ns of which the overnment oflfi- rth examining, g south, are of veen the Treas- uildings on the is two stories and 170 feet It is modeled the palace of Duke of Lein- the arciiitect, s Hoban, being Ireland. It is nd&tone, paint- hite. It fronts on Pcnnsylva \vcnue, across is Lafayette From the front projects ^e portico, un- vhich the car- i of visitors are down to the oor, and finds A sash screen, e from the cor- and the State those portions long by 40 in frescoed, while st magnificent grand recep- called because Room comes ;ill proceeding west. This last is used more than any other, as the sitting-room for the President's family. The State dining-room is in the southwest corner of the house. It is 40 by 30 feet, and is very richly furnished. The family din- ing-room is also on the first floor, in the northwestern part of the house. The east half of the floor above is used for the transaction of public business. Here the clerks and secretaries are found, and here is the Cabinet Room, where Cabinet sessions are held, and where the President usually receives vis- itors on ordinary routine business. The kitchens, store-rooms, servants' quar- ters, etc., are in the basement. The conservatory is attached to the west end of the building. It is beautiful and completely appointed, and cost over §40,000. The Executive stables are at some distance southwest of the man- sion. They cost over $30,000. The White House was first occupied by John Adams, in 1800, the corner-stone having been laid in 1792. It was burned by the British in 18 14. The cost of the pres- ent structure was something over §300,000. Portraits of the various Presi- dents arc hung t li r o 11 g h o u t the building. THE INTERIOR DEPARTMENT. The Department of the Interior has a grand Doric build- ing, comgi on ly known as the Patent Office. A visitor can take one of the cars on the Metropolitan Street Railway and in five minutes reach the Interior Department building, within which are located the Patent Office, the General Land Office, the Pension Office, the In- dian Office, the Census Office, the Educational Bureau, etc. For the purpose of saving time, however, he may wisely stop at Tenth Street, whereon is located within half a square of " F " Street the old Ford's Theatre in which President Lincoln was assassinated, and the house directly opposite where the great martyr died. The old theatre is now used as the Army Medical Museum, having been bought by the Government after the assassination. The Interior Department building covers two squares of ground, between Seventh and Ninth and "F"and "G" Streets. Its dimensions are 410 by 275 feet. It is of the Doric style of architecture. The centre, the first part built, is of freestone, the rest of marble and granite, and its cost was nearly NATIONAL MUSEUM BUILDING. I 1! I 28 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. $3,000,000. There are thousands of patent models and other objects of inter- est in this building. THE WAR, STATE, AND NAVY DEPARTMENTS. A short walk brings the visitor to the building occupied by the War, State, and Navy Departments, just west of the White House. This is one of the most beautiful structures in Washington. It is in the Italian renaissance style, and is built of Maine and Virginia granite. The architect was A. B. Mullett. It is 342 feec in width, and runs 567 feet from north to south. The interior finishing is in harmony with the exterior. Taking everything into consideration, it is probably finished more handsomely and expensively than any other public building in the country. The State Department has charge of the original Declaration of Independence. The War and Navy Depart- ments have each museums of interesting relics, etc., and superb libraries. In all the departmental buildings are to be seen portraits of the various Secreta- ries, from the earliest days to the present. It will be some years before this building is entirely finished, for, although it is now occupied, the west wing yet re- mains to be built. THE DISTRICT COURT-HOUSE, Where the District Courts hold their sessions, is located on the southern part of Judiciary Square, between Fourth and Fifth and " D " and " G " Streets. The new building for the accommodation of the Pension Bureau is now being constructed on the north side of this square. It was in the District Court-House that Guiteau was tried and the famous Star Route trial was held. The Post-Office Department building stands opposite to the Interior De- partment building, on the square bounded by " E " and " F " and Seventh and Eighth Streets. It is of white marble, and is of the Corinthian style of architecture. The Dead-Letter Ofifice is the chief object of interest in this building, to which access is readily had. The Department of Justice, or Attorney-General's office, is situated at the corner of Sixteenth-and-a-half Street and Pennsylvania Avenue, north of the Treasury Department, The building, of brick and brown-stone, was erected THE WAR. STATE, AND NAVY DEPARTMENTS. i CITY OF WASHINGTON. 29 by the Freedman's Bank for its own uses, and was bought but a year or two a'TQ by the Government. There is nothing here to attract the tourist. THE BUREAU OF ENGRAVING AND PRINTING Is located on an eminence but a short distance southwest of the Agricultural building. Here the printing of Government bonds, greenbacks, national bank notes, internal revenue stamps, etc., etc., is done. No place in Washing- ton is more attractive to visitors. The building is very handsome in itself, and with its wonderful machinery and hundreds of employes rates second to none in interest. The Washington Monument is but a short distance south of this building. It is undoubtedly the loftiest artificial structure in the world. The Census Office, having finished its work, is in a few rooms over the Second National Bank, Seventh Street, opposite the Post-Office Department. The Smithsonian Institution is located just east of the Agricultural Bureau. It is of a red stone, and with its towers and gables of the twelfth century, Norman style of ar- chitecture, makes a very pleasing im- pression. An im- mense volume would be required to cata- logue the curiosities to be found here. Adjoining it on the east is the still more interesting National Museum building, which is also crowded with curios from all parts of the world. It was in this build- ing, then incomplete, ^HE BUREAU OF ENGRAVING AND PRINTING. that the Garfield Inaugural Ball was held in 1881. THE GOVERNMENT PRINTING-OFFICE. This is said to be the largest and best equipped printing-office in the world It is situated at the corner of " H " and North Capitol Streets, and cov'( more than two-thirds of a square of ground. It is in a building 300 feet by 175, has a complete equipment, and manufactures about 1,000,000 volumes annually. The Navy Yard covers about 27 acres, and though not much used for the construction of vessels, is of great importance in manufacturing and storing supplies. Besides the public buildings already erected, others in different parts of the city are rented for the Department of Justice, Pension Office, Commissary Bureau, and other branches of service. 30 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. VARIOUS INSTITUTIONS. The Columbia Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, at Kendall Green, accom- modates lOO pupils in beautiful buildings, surrounded with lOO acres; the Hos- pital for the Insane has a commodious building in the midst of 400 acres, and shelters 600 patients; Providence Hospital has 200 inmates ; the Louise Home is a beautiful building, on the finest avenue of the city, erected and endowed by Mr. Corcoran as a memorial of his daughter and a home for gentle- women who have become poor. The Columbia Woman's Hospital, the Washington Orphan Asylum, Soldiers* and Sailors' Orph- ans' Home, St. Joseph's and St. Vin- cent's Orphan Asy- lums, St. John's Hos- pital for Children, the Frecdmen's Hos- pital, and the Home for the Aged, under the care of *' The Little Sisters of the Poor," are among the charitable insti- tutions with which the city abounds. Among its inslitu- ARLINGTON, HOME OF ROBERT E. LEE tions of learning are Columbian University, Gonzaga College, under Jesuit instruction, and Howard University, for colored youth, under Congregational and Presbyterian supervision. THE ARMY MEDICAL MUSEUM Contains 10,000 MS. volumes of hospital reports and a large assemblage of specimens representing the effects of wounds, diseases, and surgical operations. The microscopic section is admirable ; and the models of barracks, hospitals, ambulances, and surgical instruments, are not equaled in any similar collec- tion. The medical library contains about 40,000 volumes. The great interests centering in the legislation for over 55,000,000 of people, bring to the city multitudes of people of everj' class and for various objects ; and its pleasant winter climate makes it attractive to persons of wealth and leisure from all parts of the country, and to visitors from other lands. The fashionable season begins with the meeting of Congress in December. From Christmas to Lent, receptions, balls, and dinners abound ; the levees of the President, members of the Cabinet, and Speaker of the House, are open to all vomers ; the President receives the calls of the public, and on Jan. ist OGRESS. CITY OF WASHINGTON. 31 I Green, accom- icres ; the Hos- 400 acres, and : Louise Home 1 and endowed me for gentle- Hospital, the ngton Orphan u m, Soldiers* Sailors' Orph- H o m e, St. I's and St. Vin- Orphan Asy- 3t. John's Hos- for Children, eedmen's Hos- md the Home e Aged, under are of " The Sisters of the are among laritabic insli- with which ty abounds. : its inslitu- under Jesuit Congregational assemblage of :al operations, cks, hospitals, similar collec- 55,ooo,ocx) of id for various ions of wealth other lands, n December, the levees of use, are open d on Jan. ist his reception is attended by foreign ministers in official costume, officers of the Army and Navy in uniform, officers of the Government, members of Con- gress, and citizens generally. The Pension Office is at present located in the Shepherd Building, at the corner of Twelfth Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. In the long summer evenings it is the almost universal custom in Washinr^- ton to drive out after dinner to the Soldiers' Home, where there are tweiit)- miles of the finest roadways in the world, in the noble public park belonging to this institution, and is well deserving a visit. In the winter the bright, bracing afternoons offer the most favorable opportunities for this purpose. The Soldiers' Home, a national institution for invalid soldiers, was estab- lished in 185 1. It has since been greatly enlarged, and is maintained with a fund accumulated by retaining 12^ cents a month from the pay of each pri- vate soldier. The buildings are hand- some, and the grounds adorned with meadows, groves, and lakes, rhe Naval Hospital supplies a similar home for sick and disabled seamen of the Navy. The buildings of the Home are for the most part of Ohio or other white sandstone, and while they are picturesque, afford most comfortable homes for the old veterans. The President usually occupies one of these cottages for his summer residence. THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Occupies a building of brick and brown-stone, in the renaissance style, 170 feet by 61, with green-houses, graperies, and experimental grounds, around it, covering 10 acres. The business of the Department is the distribution over the country of seeds, plants, and general agricultural information. THE UNITED STATES NAVAL OBSERVATORY. The United States Naval Observatory is on the Potomac, between Wash- ington and Georgetown. The grounds attached to it are 19 acres in extent. From the flagstaff on the dome of the principal building a signal-ball is dropped daily at noon, transmitting by telegraphic connections the mean time to all THE SOLDIERS' HOME • \ I I! I I 32 PICTUKESQUK SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. parts of the United States. Another edifice has been specially adapted to the reception and employment of the great equatorial telescope made by Alv;in Clark, and mounted in 1873. It has an object-glass of 26 inches, and cost nearly $5o,cxx). MOUNT VERNON. The Tomb of George Washington is at Mount Vernon, Washington's old home, seventeen miles down the beautiful Potomac. Every day except Sun- day a steamer runs to Mount Vernon for the accommodation of tourists, leav- ing the city at nine A.M. and returning at four r.M. The city has 120 churches. Some of the public halls are Lincoln, Odd Fel- lows', Willard's, Tallmadge, and the Masonic Temple ; and of the hotels, Wil- lard's, the Arlington, Ebbitt House, Riggs House, National, and Metropolitan are widely known. Boarding-houses greatly abound. The number of Govern- ment officers and clerks is about 7,000. During the Rebel- lion Washington was the centre of vast military opera- tions. The military works were service- able for the safety of the city after the disasters of 1862, and when Early marched on the city. Throughout the war Washington was a vast d6pot for mili- tary supplies ; long , .. . trains of army wag- ons were almost constantly passing through its streets ; immense hospitals for the sick and wounded were erected, and many churches, public institutions, and the Capitol itself, were at times given up to this service. WILLARD'S HOTEL. While there are a great many noble buildings and historic spots in Wash- ington which have the highest interest to the visitor, Willard's Hotel stands second to none of them, historically considered. It was in the very early days of the Republic, and very soon after the National Government had become fixed in its new quarters on. the Potomac, that the first humble beginning of what is now a magnificent and luxurious structure, was made on a spot directly adjoining the present site of the house. The enterprise of that early day located with wonderful accuracy the point that would be most convenient and most desirable for a hotel. Willard's MOUNT VERNON. CITY OF WASHINGTON. 33 was known seventy-five years ago as the "City" Motel, subsequently it was called " Williamson's," and later on it took the name of " Fuller's," which it kept until a few years before the Civil War, when, passing into the hands of the Willards, it was given its present name. From a time whereof the memory of even the oldest inhabitant of the city runneth not to the contrary, our Presidents have goi.j from the suites of rooms on the second floor at the corner of Pennsylvania Avenue and l<'our- tcenth Street, escorted with all the pomp and pageantry which have grown up around the ceremony, to the east front of the noble Capitol building, there to assume the oath of their high ofifice in the presence of waiting thousands, and to deliver their inaugural addresses which marked out the policy to be pursued by the new administration. Of the vast ar- mies which ebbed and flowed through Washington during the late war, there arc thousands of old sokliers who will re- call with delight the hours spent within the hospitable doors of Willard's. The old statesmen who served their country in the halls of Con- gress or the Cabi- nets of the Presi- dents will recall, at the sound of the name, the grave and patriotic consulta- tions held within the walls of the famous old house — consultations which had for their object ihe happiness of millions of people, the welfare of the great Republic. THE CORCORAN GALLERY OF ART. This balding, with a large number of paintings and an endowment fund of $900,000, was given to the United States by Mr. W. W. Corcoran, a retired banker of great wealth resident here. Handsome additions of works of art are made to the gallery every year, and it is well worth a visit. WILLARDS HOTEL. LAFAYETTE SQUARE. Leaving the art gallery and passing east this lovely park is reached by a walk of half a square. In the centre is Clark Mills' celebrated equestrian statue of General Jackson. The public parks are kept in admirable order by appropriations made by Congress, and expended under the direction of an officer of the Army Engineers detailed to the charge of public buildings and grounds. I I ! ! ii liiDI ! { in ex Dr. Purvis 34 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. There is an aristocracy among the colored people of Washington as well as among the white, and it is quite as exclusive. The caste is very strictly marked, and it is as difficult for a camel to go through the eye of a needle as for a member of the class denoted as " trash " to gain admis- sion to the circle of the "quality." The focus or pole around which the high-toned colored society revolves is the Fifteenth Presbyterian church, which stands in an aristocratic section of the city — McPherson Square — beside the residence of Associate Justice Blatchford, of the Supreme Court, and within a stone's throw of the palace Senator Palmer, of Michigan, has just completed. In the immediate neighborhood are the residences of Chief-Jus- tice Waite ; John W. Thompson, the richest banker of Washington ; William E. Chandler, ex-Secretary McCulloch, and the historic house which Con- gressman Hitt, of Illinois, purchased a few years ago, is just across the square. The leading men this church are - Senator Bruce ; John M. Langston, late Min- ister to Hayti, who has recently been elected president of a colored college in Virginia ; Professor Greener ; the Worm- leys, who are pro- prietors of the most aristocratic hotel here ; George Cook, the Superintendent of Colored Schools ; John F. Cook, the Collector of Taxes of the District, and others of the crime de la crime. The pastor of this church is the Rev. Mr. Grinke, a young man about thirty-five, who was graduated at Lincoln Univer- sity with the valedictory of his class, and studied theology at Princeton. Frederick Douglass does not worship here, but lives in a suburban village called Uniontown, and belongs to the Baptist denomination. Since he mar- ried a white woman he has not been received as cordially as before in the aristocratic circles of his race, who thought he might have found a spouse of his own color in better taste. Congressman O'Hara, of South Carolina, is a member of the coterie, but, singularly enough, he and his wife are Catholics, and attend St. Augustine's church. Mrs. O'Hara is one' of the loveliest ladies in Washington, and were it not for the slight trace of negro blood in her veins, she would be a leader in white society. Like Mrs. Bruce, who is also beautiful, she is a highly educated and accomplished oman, speaks French, plays Beethoven, paints plaques, and is up in art and literature to a degree that would make some of her white sis- THE PENSION OFFICE. CITY OF WASHINGTON. 35 ters blush for envy. Both Mrs. Bruce and Mrs. O'Hara are very nearly white, and it would be difficult for a stranger to detect their relation to the African race. Mrs. O'Hara has a white governess for her children, and intends that they shall be as accomplished as herself. These people have their own society, give balls, dinner parties, receptions, and other entertainments, ind pay formal visits on regular reception days, just like the ladies of official life. I have before me the en[:;raved visiting card of a colored belle. At a " high tea," or a ball given by this circle of the colored aristocracy, one can find quite as much in- telligence, quite as much beauty, and quite as much siracc of manner as will be gathered at any of the swell receptions of white folks. There are Cleopatras and Hebcs who come in car- riages, and when they throw off their opera cloaks dis- cl( " attractions which woi. J make many a white belle envious. Both gen- tlemen and ladies appear in full evening-dress, and the costumes of the ladies are duly described in the Sunday Bcc, the organ of the high-toned colored residents of the District. Now and then there is a scandal, but I think the average of morality is quite as high among the colored people as among the whites. STATUES AND MONUMENTS. STATUES AND MONUMENTS. There are a great many statues of distinguished soldiers and statesmen scattered over the city, located in the various parks and squares. Of these i may be enumerated the Thomas equestrian statue, in Thomas circle, at the [junction of Fourteenth Street and Vermont Avenue ; Scott's equestrian statue in Scott circle, at the junction of Sixteenth Street and Massachusetts Avenue ; ! r I 36 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. McPherson's equestrian statue in McPherson Square, Fifteenth and " K " Streets ; Farragut's statue in Farragut Square, Seventeenth and " K " Streets ; Jackson's equestrian statue, fronting the White House ; Rawlins' equestrian statue, New York Avenue, between Eighteenth and Nineteenth Streets ; equestrian statue of Washington in Georgetown circle, Pennsylvania Avenue and Twenty-third Street ; these are all in the northwestern part of the city ; east of the Capitol, in Stanton Square, at the intersection of Maryland and Massachusetts Avenues, is the equestrian statue of General Nathaniel Greene, of Revolutionary fame ; and in Lincoln Square, due east of the Capitol a half a mile or more, is the bronze group, called " Emancipation," representing Presi- dent Lincoln striking the manacles of the slave. The National monument to Washington was commenced in 1848, and after long delay is now com- pleted as a lofty and plain obelisk, 70 feet square at the base and 600 feet high. The population in 1880 was 147,293, and in 1886 205,459. The yearly city expenditures average $3,500,000, the cost per capita being $17.38. The natural situation of the city is pleasant and salubrious. It is one of the hand- somest and most commodious cities in the world. Its great prosperity is due to the presence of the National Government. It has considf^rable retail trade, but the manufacturing or other business is unimportant. FISHING ON THE POTOMAC NEW YORK CITY, EW YORK, one of the greatest cities of modern times, is the most important city and seaport in the United States, and the third in the civilized world. If to thf population of New York in 1886 we add that of Brook- lyn, Jersey City, and other neighboring com- munities, which arc practi- cally the suburbs of New York, we find within a ra- dius of twenty-five miles from the City Hall a com- pact population of nearly 3,000,000, which is the real population of the great city. Its wonderful in- crease can be attributed in great part to (ts admirable situation. The water in |he outer and inner bay and in the river Is so deep that great ships lie close to the )iers. The navigation of the harbor is |eldom impeded by ice, even when the 'hesapeake and others are frozen up. The canal system connects it not only nth Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, but [Iso with the Ohio River, which gives an outlet to the Mississippi and the rulf of Mexico. .Soon after the open- ig of the Erie Canal in 1825, New York, |hich was at that time smaller than [hiiadelphia, began to make tremendous |ridcs, and soon was far in advance of |1 other American cities. Its facilities [)r cheap communication with the Great ^est give it great advantage over Bos- |>n and other Eastern coast cities, and ^r this reason they can never rival it. liladclphia and Baltimore are nearer ie West, but are at a considerable dis- BARTHOLDI STATUE — "LIBERTY (nee from the ocean, and when their enlightening THE WORLD." il • !i I ilill : I i SS 38 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. vessels arrive at the open sea they am left behind in the race to Europe, as they have a much fu/ther distance to go than vessels lea ing New York, which is a great loss and disadvantage for steamers, not only in time and expense, but in earning capacity, i^s every extra ton of coal carried to complete the voyage means one ton of freight less, as it reduces the carrying capacity for freight to just that extent. It is true the coal consumed in the voyage can be purchased cheaper in Baltimore and Philadelphia. New York's imports are annually about $320,0(X>,CXX) ; domestic exports about $300,000,000; foreign exports about $13,000,000. The exports would probably be far in excess of the imports were it not for the fact that a great many goods from the West and South are exported by way of New Orleans, while most of the valuable articles brought from abroad that are consumed in the same Statiss come in by way of New York. During the last year the exports of wheat from the port of New York were 16,000,000 bushels, of the value of $15,000,000, as against 27,000,000 bushels of wheat at $26,000,000 for the year 1884. Indian corn was shipped more largely in 1885 than in any year since 1880. The shipments of oats have largely increased. The quantity of flour shipped has been about the same as in 1884, but the price has been lower. There has been a slight gain in the shipments of live cattle. New York is situated on the east side of the mouth of the Hudson River, at its junction with the East River, which opens into Long Island Sound, in the State of New York, 18 miles from the ocean, and separated from the main- land by a narrow strait, called the Harlem River, on the east, and on the west by Spuyten Duyvil Creek. This forms the island of Manhattan. The ci^y also includes several smaller islands, containing the fortifications in the harbor and the public institutions in the East River, and since 1874 a considerable portion of the mainland north of Manhattan Island. Its present boundaries are Yonkers on the north, the Bronx River and the East River on the east, the bay on the south, and on the west the North or Hudson River. The city now extends 16 miles north from the Battery, and its middle part is 4^ miles wide, and its total area is 41^ square miles. September 9, 1609, Henry Hudson, an Englishman in the employ of the Dutch East India Company, sailed his little vessel into New York Bay, and commenced his voyage up the river to which his name is attached, which he explored to a point above Hudson. All the land which he dis- covered was claimed by the Dutch, and named New Netherland, and in 161 1 the States-General offered special privileges to any company open- ing and encouraging trade with the natives of their newly-acquired pos- sessions. This encouragement procured not only trading, but colonization. In 161 3 a fort was built on Manhattan Island, but the settlement about it was broken up by the English. In the following year another Dutch colony established itself on the same spot, and continued in possession. In 162 1 the prospects of a lucrative commerce with America had induced certain merchants in Holland to combine in the organization of the Dutch West India Company, for colonization purposes, and two yeare later this NEW YORK CITY. )pe, as they which is a ense, but in the voyage )r freight to e purchased lually about ;ports about mports were d South are cles brought way of New oi New York 5t 27,000,000 was shipped lents of oats en about the I a slight gain 39 company took out eighteen families, who settled at Fort Orange (Albany), and thirty families, who made a settlement on Manhattan Island, which they bought for $24, and founded New Amsterdam, now New York. This was accomplished by Peter Minnits, the Director-General, who, representing the Dutch West India Company, came here to take charge of their colonies. He was an able Governor. The English opposition to the Dutch colonization schemes was persistent from the beginning, and fruitful of much conflict. The English claimed the territory north of Virginia on the ground of the anterior discoveries by Cabot ; and in 1664 a charter was granted by Charles II. to the Duke of York, which covered all the lands lying between the Hudson and the Delaware, and in- cluded New Netherland, as well as lands already held by prior grant, by "^tr^m ^ ■m^ \;^ « iM... '-->1»W-<« employ of the cw York Bay, ne is attached, which he dis- lerland, and in •ompany open- y-acquired pos- ut colonization. :ttlement about another Dutch in possession, ja had induced n of the Dutch yea« later this SCENE IN NEW YORK BAY. Connecticut Massachusetts, and New Hampshire. In the summer of the year In which this charter was given, Colonel Nicolls was sent from England with ^ufificient force, and on arriving at New Amsterdam demanded the surrender )f the Dutch possessions. The demand was acceded to by Governor Stuy- tresant, who was powerless to prevent its enforcement, and the country in Question passed into the hands of the English without a struggle. The name lew York was now given both to the settlement on Manhattan Island and to |he entire province, and that of Albany to Fort Orange. A subsequent ijcapture by the Dutch was followed by a speedy restoration to the English ; id on the Duke of York ascending the throne of England under the title of |ames II., the province passed into the possession of the Crown. In 1696 the first Trinity Church was built. A slave market was estab- shed in 171 1. The New York Gazette was established in 1725 ; this was the L> ' I :\m I < III HI 'I I ii ilii'i 111 1 11 iw NBW YOBK AND BBOOKLTN BBIIKIE. NEW YORK CITY. 41 first newspaper published in the city. About 1730 a line of stages was estab. lished between New York and Boston ; they occupied two weeks in making the trip. In 1750 the first theatre in the city was opened. In 1755 the Stamp Act created great excitement ; the Colonial Congress assembled in the city, and the Stamp Act was publicly burned, In 1765 the Sons of Liberty were organized. The statue of George III. was destroyed in 1770, and the duty on tea was resisted in the same year. In 1774 a ship laden with tea was returned to England after eighteen chests were destroyed. In 1776 the city was occupied by an American force, but the battles of Long Island and others in the immediate vicinity being disastrous to our arms, Washington and his army abandoned it, and the British took possession of the city and held it for seven years, from August 26, 1776, to November 23, 1783. The building of the present City Hall was commenced in 1803, and finished in 18 12. Robert Fulton made his first steamboat voyage to Albany in 1807, and in 1812 began running the ferries from New York to Brooklyn by steam. In the same year gas was introduced, but did not come into general use until 1825. The Erie Canal was begun in 181 7 and finished in 1835. The efTect of this great work was to enrich the State, while opening the way for the stream of commerce which has resulted in making the city of New York the metropolis of the Western Continent. In 1826 the Hudson & Mohawk Railroad was chartered — probably the first railroad charter granted in the country. This road was com- menced in 1830, and the New York & Erie in 1836. The gradual absorp- tion of the various New York lines which form the Hudson River Railroad, and the consolidation of the New York Central and Hudson River Railroads into one powerful four-track trunk line connecting the metropolis with the West, were significant events in the development of the city and State. In 1832 an epidemic of cholera caused the death of nearly 4,000 persons, and in 1834 about 1,000. The east side of the city below Wall Street was destroyed by fire in 1835, the entire loss being $18,000,000. In 1837 a financial panic brought failures and general loss to the entire country. The Astor Place riots in 1,849, ^^^ ^-^^ cholera epidemic of that year, which carried off 5,071 persops, were important events. The first city railroad was built in 1852, and on July 14, 1853, the Crystal Palace Industrial Exhibition was opened, the President of the United States officiating. A second financial panic occurred in 1857. From i860 to 1865 the city was engaged in patriotic and generous service in behalf of the Union, threatened by the secession of the Southern States. In the fall of 1873 occurred the great financial panic which began with the failure of Jay Cooke & Co. During several years at this period took place the investigation into the acts of the so-called " Tweed Ring," by which the city had been plundered of many millions of dollars. The arrest, trial, and punishment of most of the offenders, and the death of Tweed himself in prison, was a lesson that seems to have been forgotten by the aldermen that granted the Broadway Railroad franchise in 1884, which is Hmtimmm i) <;;i m GRAND CENTRAL DEPOT SHOWING ELEVATED RAILROAD, N Y. NEW YORK CITY. 43 --^r^i^fsri^-^ now being investigated by the Senate Committee. In iS>fcai BROADWAY AND TRINITY CHURCH. west from Fifth Ave- nue. There are also 13 numbered avenues, nearly 200 numbered streets, and about 400 named streets, avenues, etc. New York is built of brick, brown sandstone, and white marble. Among its finest edifices are the City Hall, Custom-House, County Court-House, Post-Office, Trinity Church, Grace Church, two universities, cathedral, Acad- emy of Music, Metropolitan Opera House, Casino, Cooper Institute, the numerous great hotels, and many other fine public and private structures. Besides, there are thirty-five Roman Catholic schools, and colleges and academies of the religious orders. The hospitals and institutions of charity are on a liberal scale ; and besides legal outdoor relief, the poor are visited ■ uiJMii^Uii i!| '!' I' MM Ii i '*aO»- W N iviiiil'in" in ■iTi;:';,i"i'ii NEW YORK CITY. 45 and cared for by a public society, with agents in every district. Among the charities are asylums for insane, blind, deaf and dumb, magdalens, foundlings, etc. The Astor Free Library, founded by John Jacob Astor, has 150,000 carefully selected volumes; the Mercantile Library, 150,000 volumes, with a large reading-room ; Society Library, 64,000 ; Apprentices' Library, 50,000, with rich museums of antiquities; the Cooper Institute, a present to the city by Peter Cooper, has a free reading-room, picture-gallery, art-schools, etc. Annual art exhibitions are given by the National Academy of Design, Dusseldorf, and International Galleries. The Academy of Music or opera-house has seats for 4,700 persons. Among the clubs are the Army and Navy, Knickerbocker, Lotos, Man- hattan, Century, Down-Town, Harmonic, Merchants', New York, Press, Rac- quet, St. Nicholas, Union League, Union, and University. FIFTH AVENUE HOTEL. Central Park is laid out in the finest style of landscape gardening, and is two and one-half miles long by three-fifths of a mile wide. It was begun in 1858, and includes between Fifty-ninth and iioth Streets and between Fifth and Eighth Avenues, and contains 840 acres, in which are two large lakes. It is inferior in some respects to older parks, especially in its trees as compared with old park forests. Its lawns are necessarily limited in space, yet in pro- portion to the space which it covers it has developed many beauties and much interest for the public. The plans for its laying out were submitted and executed by Frederick Law Olmstead and Calvert Vaux. Four thousand men were engaged on the work in 1858. The ground was a region of hills and swampy hollows, containing a few old farms and mansions. Within five years the transformation was astonishing. The reservoirs within it occupy 142 acres. In addition to this water there are six artificial lakes, containing 42 acres; the lawns cover nearly no acres. It contains nearly 10 miles of n NEW YORK CITY. Af .^:-^ Hiv Ij^^^l ill ^^Hl ^^^H Mi % ^^^H 1 WV w ^^^^H W lA ^^^^H ^^^1 >*. ' \ ^^^^^H ^ ^H H w "' ^^H / '■HE ■' vvA ^^^^B ^^H '-': I , V, »M ill ::; » carriage roads, 28 miles of walks, and nearly 6 miles devoted to equestrians; there arc in all 46 bridges. The visitors to the park often number 100,000 a day. Riverside Park, which is now famous as General Grant's last resting-place, is situated above Central Park, on the cast bank of the Hudson River. It is a long, narrow strip of land, and is visited by thousands from all parts of the country. The tomb can be seen by travelers on the Hudson River boats, as tlic site commands a fine view of the river. The accompanying picture of General Grant and his family is engraved from a photograph taken at Mount McGregor a short time before his death. The Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870 for the purpose of encouraging the study of the fine arts, and the ap- plication of the principles of art to manufactures and to practical life, and for the purpose of furnishing popular instruction. The building was erected at a cost of $500,000, and open- ed March 30* 1880, by the President of the United States. It is located in Central Park at Fifth Ave- nue and Eighty-second Street. It is 218 feet long and 95 broad, and contains numerous articles of great beauty and interest. It is open free of charge to the public on Wednesdays, Thursdays, Fridays, and Saturdays ; 50 cents is charged for admission on Mondays and Tuesdays. About twenty other smaller public parks are to be found in the city. The Museum of Natural History is located in Central Park at Eighty-first Street and Eighth Avenue; admission free. The city contains numerous art galleries, over 300 public schools, and about 400 churches. The Bartholdi statue is on Bedloe's Island, a short distance from the Battery, which is at the foot of Broadway. The Stock Exchange is a fine white marble building, located in Broad Street, having an extension to Wall Street and running back to New Street. Seats in the Exchange are now worth $32,000. None but members are allowed on the floor. Ten thousand dollars is paid to the heirs of every deceased member from the Gratuity Fund established by the Exchange. The government of the city is vested in the " Mayor, Aldermen, and com- THE CUSTOM HOUSE. 48 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. monalty of the city of New York." The legislative power is vested ip a board of twenty-four aldermen. The executive power is vested in the Mayor and heads of departments appointed by the Mayor, and confirmed by the Board of Aldermen, for a term of six years (except in special cases). The salary of the Mayor is $12,0G0, and that of each Alderman $4,000 per annum. The Finance Department is under the direction of the Comptroller, who receives a salary of $10,000 per annum. The City Chamberlain receives a salary of $30,000, out of which he pays all the expenses of his office. Among the important buildings deserving notice is St. Patrick's (Roman Catholic) Cathedral, occupying the block on Fifth Avenue, between Fiftieth and Fifty-first Streets. The corner-stone was laid on August 15, 1858, and it was dedicated by Cardinal McCloskey, May 25, 1879. ^^^ architecture is of the thirteenth century style, the ground plan being in the form of a Latin cross. The dimensions are: Interior length, 306 feet; breadth of nave and choir, 96 feet, with the chapels, 120 feet ; length of transept, 140 feet ; height, 108 feet. The Fifth Avenue front comprises a central gable 156 feet in height, with towers and spires, each 330 feet high. The building is of white marble, with a base-course of granite. The total cost was about $2,500,000. The luilding of the Young Men's Christian Association, Fourth Avenue and Twenty-third Street., was erected in 1869, and cost $500,000. It is French renaissance in style, five stories high, 175 feet front and 86 feet depth. Castle Garden is now used as a depot for emigrants, for which purpose it has been employed since 1855. It is situated in the Battery Park, at the extreme southern end of Manhattan Island, convenient for foreign steamers and shipping. The business of receiving, caring for, and shipping to their destination the many thousands of immigrants is in charge of seven Commis- sioners of Emigration. During the year ending December 31, 1880, 372,880 persons arrived at this port, of whom 320,607 passed through Castle Garden. Their destinations were — Eastern States, 63,368; Western States, 112,119; Southern States, 6,497 ; New York State, 137,561 ; Canada, 1,627. New York has thirteen beautiful cemeteries. The Health Department is under the direction of a Board of Health, which has charge of all sanitary m^.tters except the cleaning of streets. The expense of the Fire Department, which is very efficient, is about $1,500,000 annuall3^ The Building Depart- ment supervises the erection of new buildings and additions to old structures within the city limits. New York has a great network of city (horse) railroads. The elevated railroads are all in the hands of one company. The Police Department is fyoverned by a Board of four Commissioners, who receive $6,000 a year each, excepting the President of the Board, who is selected by themselves from themselves, who receives $8,coo. Patrolmen receive $1,000 a year; rounds- men, $1,200 ;■ sergeants, $1,500, and captains, $2,000. The city has a large number of public markets under the general direction of a superintendent. Besides the General Post-Office, there are 19 sub-stations and over 1,000 lamp- post boxes, from which collections are made seven times daily (Sundays NEW YORK CITY. 49 excepted). Each police court has connected with it a prison, viz. : The Tombs, or City Prison, in Centre Street ; Essex Market, in Essex Street ; Jefferson Market, Sixth Avenue and West Tenth Street; Yorkville, Fifty- seventh Street; Harlem, 125th Street. Ludlow Street Jail is used for pris- oners from the Federal and State Courts. The Croton Aqueduct brings a river of pure soft water from 40 miles distance, which is received in reservoirs of a capacity of 1,500,000,000 gallons, and distributed with such a head as to supply public fountains of 60 and 80 feet jet, and the upper stories of mosc buildings. New York is the great centre of American finance and commerce. It re- ceives 66 per cent, of all imports, and sends out 50 per cent, of all exports. The New York & Harlem, the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and the New York Central & Hudson River Railroads ter- minate at the Grand Central Depot at Forty- second Street, while many railroads termi- nate at Jersey City, the pas- sengers being carried across the Hudson River on the companies' large and com- modious ferry- boats. It is understood the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad have completed arrangements to make Staten Island the terminus of their great system, and to connect with New York by ferry-boats. The Long Island Railroad terminates at Hunter's Point, L. I., and connects with the city by ferry. The finest passenger steamboats in the world pass up the Hudson, Long Island Sound, and down the Narrows, through the Lower Bay. The evening schools supply instruction to about 20,000 children and others who are obliged to work during the day. The College of the City of New York was established in 1847, ^"^ until 1866 was known as the New York Free Academy. It is open only to pupils from the public schools who have been in attendance at least one year. The college confers the degrees of B.A., M.A., B.S., and M.S. The buildings are on Lexington Avenue and Twenty-third Street, and valued at $150,000; they contain 9, library, natural THE GRAND CENTRAL DEPOT. ' 1 it 2 4 s, r- 50 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. history cabinet, and scientific apparatus, the whole valued at $75,000. The annual cost of maintaining the college is about $150,000. The Normal College for Women is on Sixty-ninth Street, between Lexington and Fourth Avenues. The building is 300 feet long and 125 feet wide, fronting on Fourth Avenue; its cost was $350,000. There is also a model or training school for practice. Its object is to prepare teachers fo/ the common schools. The cost of main- taining this institution is about $100,000 per aunuiT^. Other institutions of learning are Columbia College, the University of the City of New York, and the medical, law, and theological schools and seminaries. Columbia College, originally King's College, was chartered in 1754. The Corporation of Trinity Church erected the first college building on the church lands between College Place and the Hudson River. About 1850 the old buildings were surren- dered, and the college removed to its present site on Madison and Fourth Avenues, Forty-ninth and Fiftieth Streets. The departments are the Aca- demic, the School of Mines, and the Law School. The University of the City of New York is comprised in the univers ty building on Washington Square, and the Medical College building on East Twenty-sixth Street, oppo- site Bellevuc Hospital. The university was chartered in 1830, and is non- denominational. Instruction in the departments of the arts and sciences is given free of charge. The regular medical schools or colleges are Bellevue Hospital Medical College, the College of Physicians and Surgeons, and the University Medical College, the second of these being the Medical Department of Columbia College. Bellevue Hospital Medical College is located within the hospital grounds, at the foot of East Twenty-sixth Street. It was founded in 1801, and is under the control of the Comnvssioners of Public Charities and Cor- rections. Applicants for admission must be eighteen years of age. The course of study is three years. The fees in all amount to $185. The college ranks high, and has about 500 students. The Protestant Episcopal Theological Seminary is situated in what is known as Chelsea Square, between Ninth and Tenth Avenues and Twentieth and Twenty-first Streets. It was founded in 18 19 and chartered in 1822. The course of study lasts three years. The Union Theological Seminary is on University Place, between Waverley and Clinton Places. It was founded in 1836. The seminary course occupies three years, and the library has 35,000 volumes. In 1700 there were only 800 dwelling-houses on Manhattan Island, and about 5,000 inhabitants. In 1790 the population was 29,906, and the city extended as far north as the lower end of the City Hall Park. In 1805 the population was 79,770; in 1840,312,700; in 1880, 1,206,577, and in 1886, 1,338,000. The total amount allowed for city expenditures in the final esti- mate for the year 1886 was $35,736,320.59, an average of about $28 for every man, woman, and child of the city. This sum is enormous when compared with the expenditures of other cities. CITY OF BROOKLYN. ROOKLYN is situated at the west end of Long Island^ and is the capital of Kings County, N. Y. There are thirteen lines of steam ferries plying between Brooklyn and New York, and the annex boats connect Jersey City with Fulton Street, Brooklyn, every twenty minutes. The " Brooklyn Bridge," which crosses the East River, and connects Brooklyn with New York, is 125 feet above high water; its total length is 5,989 feet, or about a mile and a quarter ; it is 85 feet wide, and its grand stone piers rise 278 feet above high water ; their size at high-water line is 140x59 feet. The Bridge cost $15,000,000, and is a marvel of engineering skill. Occupying comparatively elevated ground, Brooklyn commands a complete view of the adjacent waters and their shores. It is governed by a mayor and board of aldermen. Brooklyn has a very large number of churches (nearly 300 in all), whence it is often called the " City of Churches." It has an im- mense trade in grain, the warehouses being capable of holding about 12,000,000 bushels. It possesses also a National navy yard, which embraces 45 acres of land, and magnificent docks, including a wet- dock for the largest vessels, the most extensive in the Union. Along the entire river front is an almost unbroken line of storehouses. The Atlantic Dock warehouses of South Brooklyn, opposite Governor's Island, cover a space of 20 acres, and inclose a basin 40 acres in area, and about 25,000 vessels, exclusive of canal boats and lighters, are said to be annually unloaded there. The principal articles are molasses, sugar, grain, coffee, oil, hides, and wool. The annual storage of merchandise in Brooklyn is valued at nearly $300,000,000. The streets, with the exception of Fulton Street, the principal thoroughfare, are generally straight, have a width of from 60 to 100 feet, and cross each other at right angles. The large number of persons who reside in Brooklyn iind do business in New York, has caused the city to be termed " the bed- room of New York," the larger part of the city being devoted to private dwelling houses. Brooklyn is connected with other parts of Long Island by a number of railroads, besides lines of city horse railroads in every direction ; an elevated railroad extends from Fulton Ferry to East New York, a distance of 5^ miles, and connects with the Bridge cars. Several other elevated railroads are in j course of construction. The city is well supplied with pure soft water. (51) 52 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. Under the act of consolidation the city comprises Brooklyn, Williamsburgh, Greenpoint, Wallabout, Bedford, New Brooklyn, Bushwick, Gowanus, and South Brooklyn, embracing an area of 16,000 acres, or 25 square miles. The city is 8 miles long, with a breadth from 2 to 5 miles ; it has a water-front on the East River and Bay of New York, S}4 miles in length. Along the shore, near the end of the Island, is a bluff, which is called the " Brooklyn Heights," on which are many fine residences. A large portion of the city is level. Williamsburgh, now called Brooklyn, E. D. (eastern district), contains a large number of manufacturing establishments, and has its entire water-front devoted to commercial purposes. Greenpoint also contains large ship-yards and manufactories. South Brooklyn has an extensive water-front, and contains large wood, coal, stone, and lumber yards, numerous planing-mills, distilleries, breweries, plaster-mills, foundries, and machine-shops. Brooklyn has several parks ; one of the finest in the county is Prospect Park. It was commenced in 1866, and covers 550 acres, including the Parade Ground. The site is one full of natural beauty, and on which some of the battles of the Revolution were fought. The Park has a fertile soil, magnifi- cent views, fine forest trees, and a large, magnificent lake. It has a nobler effect in sylvan features than Central Park. Upon the Plaza at the main entrance is a bronze statue of Abraham Lincoln and a beautiful fountain. From Lookout Hill can be seen the palatial hotels and Atlantic Ocean at Coney Island, which is about seven miles distant. A fine wide boulevard lined with shade trees extends from the Park to the Island, on which are numerous hostelries, one of the most popular being the " Woodbine," where " English Pete " entertains his friends by his wonderful recollections and inventions. The boulevard is under the supervision of the Park Commissioners ; is gener- ally in fine condition and well patronized. The Park has 1 1 miles of walks and 10 miles of roads for driving and riding. Among tlie cemeteries which are widely known are Greenwood, Cypress Hills, and the Evergreens. The more important churches are — St. Ann's, on the Heights, which is a fine Episcopal church. The Church of the Holy Trinity is one of the hand- somest churches in the country. St. Paul's has a front of 75 feet, and a depth of 145 feet. The Church of the Pilgrims is built of gray stone, and inserted in the main tower is a piece of the Plymouth Rock ; its pastor, Dr. R. S. Storrs, is a noted pulpit orator. Plymouth Church has accommodations for seating 2,800 persons ; Henry Ward Beecher has been its pastor for the last forty years, and the desire to hear him preach is so great that marty pew- holders give up their seats to strangers for the evening service. A Roman Catholic cathedral is in process of erection on Lafayette Avenue ; it will be a very large and imposing structure. The Tabernacle is on Schermerhorn Street ; the interior is well arranged for seating a large audience ; the plan is a large semicircle, giving the speaker command of the entire building ; its pastor is the well-known Rev. T. De Witt Talmage. CITY OF BROOKLYN. 53 iwood, Cypress There are nearly 200 private schools and educational institutions in Brooke lyn. Among the principal buildings are the City Hall, the Kings County Court-house, the new Hall of Records, the new Post-office, the new Brooklyn Orphan Asylum, the College of St. John the Baptist, the Art building, the Academy of Design, and the Long Island Historical Society. The Academy of Music, on Montague Street, was built in i860 ; it contains seats for 2,300 persons. Opposite is the Brooklyn Library ; the building was completed in 1867, at a cost of $227,000. The Kings County Penitentiary is on Nostrand Avenue. The four principal theatres are the Park Theatre, on Fulton Street, opposite the City Hall Park ; the Brooklyn Theatre, corner of Johnson and Washington Steets, on the site of one which was destroyed by fire December 6, 1876, causing the death of over 300 persons — the new structure has proper means of exit ; the Grand Opera House, on Elm Place ; and the Criterion Theatre, on Fulton Avenue near Grand Avenue. The latter was completed in the fall of 1885, and has a very handsome interior. There are twenty- one hospitals, dispensaries, and infirmaries, besides numerous other benevo- lent institutions. The first settlement of Brooklyn was in 1636 ; it was then called " Breucke- len," at which time a few Walloon colonists settled on the spot now known as the Wallabout. English and Dutch settlers followed. In 1667 the town received a charter from the Governor ; in 1666 the first church was erected ; in 1698 the population was 509 — of these, 65 were slaves ; in 1776, on the site of the present city, the battle of Long Island was fought, and its neighbor- hood was one of the principal seats of the Revolutionary War. Brooklyn became a chartered city in 1834, and Williamsburgh became a city in 1851. In 1800 the population of Brooklyn was 3,298 ; in 1830, 15,292 ; in 1840, 36,233 ; in 1850, 96,838 ; in 1 860, after its consolidation with Williamsburgh, the population was 266,661 ; iii 1870 it was 396,099 ; in 1880, 554,696 ; and in 1886, 650,000. The yearly expenditure for 1884 was $8,045,017, being $io.SS />er capita. SHIP-BUILDING. JERSEY CITY. ERSEY CITY, the county seat of Hudson County, is situ- ated in the State of New Jersey, on the west bank of the Hudson River, opposite New York, of which it is in fact, though in another State, an extension. Large steam ferry- boats connect it with New York ; they are lighted with gas, and travel day and night. In 1802 it contained but thirteen inhabitants living in a single house. In 1804 the Legisla- ture of the State granted a charter to the " Associates of the Jersey Company," who laid out the place in streets in 1820. It was incorporated as " the City of Jersey '; in 1838 the name was changed to " Jersey City." It is now about 5 miles long and 3 miles wide. Its principal public buildings are the County Court-house, the City Hall, the Jail, and the Market ; while the business portion of the city has numerous substantial business structures, yet it is not as imposing as might be ex- pected from its population, but this can very properly be attributed to its close proximity to New York. The city has many hand- some residences, many fine school buildings and churches. There are several small public squares ; some of them contain fountains, and are adorned with trees. The Morris Canal, which connects the Delaware with the Hudson, terminates here. Numerous lines of railway approach New York at this point ; among the principal are the Pennsylvania, the Erie, the Northern New Jersey, the New Jersey Midland, the Reading, the Central of New Jersey, and the New York and Midland. The work of constructing a tunnel under the Hud- son between the two cities was begun about six years ago. The city is a part of the New York Customs district, and, therefore, not a port of entry. The immense quantities of coal and iron brought to the city by the calial and railroads create a large business. The city has large manu- facturing interests, including extensive glass works, the United States Watch Manufactory, steel works, crucible works, boiler works, zinc works, railroad repair and supply shops, locomotive works, machine shops, foundries, sugar refineries, breweries, medals, car springs, pottery, chains and spikes, planing- mills, soap and candles, articles in copper, saleratus, oils, fireworks, jewelry, drugs, lead pencils, chemicals, etc. Large numbers of animals are slaughtered in the northern part of the city for the New York market. The city is sup- plied with water from the Passaic River. Among the charitable institutions are the City Hospital, the Home for Aged Women, and the Children's Home. The number of churches is 60. The population in 1880 was 120,728, and in 1886, i54,ocx). The appropriations fori 1886 were $1,623,459. (54) CITY OF NEWARK. EWARK is a city and port of entry of New Jersey, and capital of Essex County. It is situated on an elevated plain on the right or west bank of the Passaic River, lo miles from New York and 4 miles from Newark Bay. Its principal street is over 2 miles long, 120 feet wide, shaded by great elm trees and bordering on three beautiful parks. The population, which has increased very rapidly, was, in 1780, 1,000; in 1870, 105,059; in 1880, 136,400; and in 1886, 155,000. The amount appropri- ated for expenditures in one year was $1,742,912. The College of New Jersey was located in Newark from 1747 to 1755 ; the Newark Academy was founded in 1792. The town was sacked, plundered, and nearly destroyed by the British in 1777. New- ark is a very beautiful and industrious city, and contains 104 churches, an academy, high-school, and 25 public schools. It has many fine public buildings, among which are the City Hall, Court-house, Custom-house, and Post-oflfice. Among the promi- nent societies are the State Historical Society and the Library Association. Among the goods manufactured are carriages, india-rubber goods, jewelry, machinery, leather, paper, patent leather, and spool thread ; there are also very large flour-mills, in fact the city is noted for its varied manufactures, numerous industries, and large life and fire insurance companies. The shipping interests are very large, the docks being nearly a mile and a half in length. The total capital and assets belonging to the financial institutions amount to about $100,000,000. It is the largest city in the State, and contains nearly two hundred miles of streets and nearly fifty miles of sewers. Great quantities of building material are produced from the brown-stone quar- ries a short distance from Newark. In 1682 Newark was famous for the manufacture of cider. In 1665 the colonies of Hartford and New Haven, Conn., being united in spite of the opposition of the people of Branford, the latter deserted that part of the country in a body, headed by their pastor, and takinr^ with them their families and household goods. They bought the land on which Newark now stands, from the Hackensack Indians, for ;{^I30, 12 blankets, and 12 guns, and there founded their city, laying it out in broad streets. No one was permitted to hold office, to vote, or was a free- man, who did not have membership in the Congregational Church. About three miles from Newark is the beautiful city of Orange, with a population of 12,000. One of the numerous horse railroads connects the two cities. (55) Si ! '^i Q y- ^€/9^^^ tr-L^crrl^-tf .^rpccyf^t >^«'5>^ ^ft^cr^ t^^:^''-^, '=>C'^>'<*- '^ ^^ ^Z-^rt-^ FACSIMILE OP LETTER FROM BENJAMIN FRANKLIN TO JIR. STRAHAN. CITY OF PHILADELPHIA. HILADELPHIA is the chief city and seaport of Penn- sylvania, and the second as to population and import- ance in the United States. It is situated on a plain on the west bank of the Delaware River (which separates it from New Jersey), at the mouth of the Schuylkill, which since 1854, the time of the extension of the boundaries of the city to those of the county, flows through the city and joins the Delaware. The city between the two rivers is about 3 miles wide, and its water front on the Delaware is 23 miles in extent. It is 96 miles from New York, 135 from Washington, and 96 from the open sea. Its extreme length is about 23 miles north and south, and averages about 5|^ miles wide east and west; it embraces 129 square miles. The city as founded and planned in 1682 by William Penn was bounded by Vine and Cedar Streets and the two rivers. That portion which lies west of the Schuylkill is now called West Philadelphia. Penn stated : " I took charge of the Province of Pennsylvania for the Lord's sake. I wanted to afford an asylum for the good and oppressed of every nation, and to frame a government which might be an example. I desired to show men as good and happy as they could be ; and I had kind views to the Indians." With these ends in view he selected its name. The Indian name of its original site was Coaquenaka. In 1682 twenty-three ships arrived containing settlers, who were mostly Friends. INDEPENDENCE HALL. ■ 1 If. i m i; ;i! i-m m V^' 58 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. SKETCH OF THE NEW SETTLEMENT. In 1684 the new settlement numbered over 300 houses and 2,500 popu- lation. It grew rapidly by large immigration from Germany and the North of Ireland. Penn returned to London, but revisited the city in 1699, at which period the population was 4,500. The city was incorporated in 1701, after which Penn took his final departure. In 1704, at the time of the war of England with France and Spain, the Governor of the Province created a militia. This was very obnoxious to the Friends, and in order to enlist them in its favor the Governor used stratagem. He sent a messenger from New- castle on the Fair Day in 1706, with the news that the enemy's ships were in the river. The Governor, with drawn sword and on horseback, urged the people to arm for the defence of the city. Great excitement prevailed ; the people hid their valuables and fled, but the Quakers were not disturbed, and could neither be frightened nor coaxed to take an interest in the movement, when the fraud was finally discovered. The Governor was displaced. In 1719 was here printed the first American newspaper, the Weekly Mer- cury. The Gazette was established in 1728, and afterward edited by Benjamin Franklin, who, by the publication of his " Plain Truth," in 1747, was the first to rouse a military spirit of enthusiasm among the people, which culminated in a military force of 10,000 men. In 1755 a militia bill was passed, and Franklin became Colonel of the City Regiment. Philadelphia finally became very prominent from 1765 to 1774 in resisting British aggression. At Car- penters* Hall, September 5, 1774, was held the first Continental Congress; the second was held in the State House, May 10, 1775. It was here that Colonel George Washington, of Virginia, on June 15, 1775, was appointed General and Commander-in-Chief of the United States Army. On July 4th the Declaration of Independence was adopted in the State House, and proclaimed July 8, 1776. The city was in possession of the British from September, 1777, to June, 1778; at that time the population of the city was 21,767. The battle of Germantown, of Revolutionary fame, was fought October 4, 1777. The city expended much treasure in men and money in the cause of the Union. Except the period of the British occupation, the city was the capital of Penn- sylvania until 1799, and the Government of the Union was conducted here from 1790 to 1800. It was the first city of America until surpassed by New York. In 1812 the city was visited by yellow fever; in the same year the steam water-works at Fairmount Park were commenced. In 1832 the Asiatic cholera caused nearly 1,000 deaths. In 1837 specie payment was suspended, and the failure of the Bank of the United States in 1839 caused great depres- sion, in commerce. Serious riots disturbed the city at different times from 1834 to 1844. The Philadelphia, Germantown & Norristown Railroad was completed in 1832. Gas was introduced in 1836, and the first telegraph lines were established in 1846. The great Sanitary Fair held in Logan Square in the same year netted over $1,000,000. CITY OF PHILADELPHIA. 59 THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION was I'pened in Fairmount Park, May lo, 1876^ 100 years after the Declaration of Independence, on a magnificent scale, covering 236 acres. The cost of the five principal buildings was $4,500,- 000. The enclosure contained 200 separate buildings. The main building covered no less than 20 acres, and the roof was 70 feet high. It was 1,876 feet long, 464 feet wide, with pro- jecting wings in the centre 416 feet long. Space was apportioned as follows, in square feet : Ar- gentine Republic, 2,861 ; Austria-Hungary, 24,- 727; Belgium, 15,598; Brazil, 6,899; Canada, 24,118; Chili, 3,244; China, 6,628 ; France, 45,- 460; Germany, 29,629; Great Britain and Ire- land, 54, 155; India and British Colonies, 24,193; Hawaiian Islands, 1,575; ^taly, 8,943; Japan, 17,831; Luxemburg, 247 ; Mexico, 6,567 ; Neth- erlands, 15,948; Norway, 6,959; Orange Free State, 1,058; Peru, 1,462; Spain and Colonies, 11,253; Sweden, 17,799; Switzerland, 6,693; Tunis, 2,015; Turkey, 3,347; United States, 1 36,684. This gives a fair idea of the magnitude of the main building. Within this vast space the weilth, power, industries, and greatness of the nations were exhibited to millions of admiring visitors. The exhibition was opened every day, except Sundays, for six months ; the number of admissions was nearly 10,000,000, of which nearly 8,000,000 paid the regular fee of 50 cents, and nearly 1,000,000 paid the special rate of 25 cents. A large building was devoted to the progress of modern education. The Women's Pavilion, designed to receive the prod- acts of woman's ingenuity, co*^ered an acre of ground. The Memorial Hall, or Art Building, remains as a permanent representative of the exhibition. The building is 365 feet long by 210 feet wide, and 59 feet high. It is made of granite, glass, and iron. It is a beautiful struc- ture. Machinery Hall covered 13 acres, and was the next in size to the main building. The . I '"ii\ i ''4 i i.. i :m 6o PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. I* m mi il I ! United States building was 504 feet by 300, and the operations of the Government service were exhibited in this great building. Horti- cultural Hall, which was intended to be per- manent, was built of iron and glass, by the city of Philadelphia. Its size is 383 feet by 193 feet, and 72 feet in height, and covers 820 by 540 feet of ground. Several nations had pavilions for their commissioners and others. There were 26 buildings represent- ing as many States. Many private exhibitors and companies had special buildings of their own. Among them were the Telegraph Building, the Transportation Building, the Bankers' Building, the American Kindergar- ten, the Bible Building, and others. The in- genuity of man was supplemented by bees making honey in the midst of all the crowd. PLACES OF HISTORICAL INTEREST. Among the places of historical interest in Philadelphia arc — Carpenters' Hall, between Third and Fourth Streets, on Chestnut Street ; the legendary treaty ground at Shackamaxon, with a monument marking the site of the elm tree, erected in 1827 ; the Germantown battle-ground, and Fort Miflin, on the site of the mud fort on the west bank of the Delaware ; the old London Coffee- House on the southwest corner of Front and Market, and Independence Hall, or the old State House, on Chestnut, bctwi and Sixth Streets, built in 1 " in this building that the s (^nta Congress adopted the Dci ition i inde- pendence, and where, July 8, 1776, the famous Liberty bell fulfilled the great m ion in- scribed on it in the words of the Scriptures : " Proclaim liberty throughout all the land to all the inhabitants thereof" (Lev. xxv. 10). In one of the rooms of this building is the National Museum, filled with relics of the Colonial and Revolutionary history of our country. In the adjoining hall Congress met ss. CITY OF PHILADELPHIA. 6i by 300, t service Horti- be per- , by the 5 feet by d covers . nations icrs and epresent- xhibitors ; of their elegraph iing, the indergar- The in- by bees le crowd. EREST. nterest in between Chestnut ound at rking the 827 ; the rt Miflin, est bank Coffee- ront and the old nt. indc famous ion in- riptures : land to XXV. 10). ig is the s of the of our teas met for ten years, and Washington, Adams, and Jefferson were inaugurated. At the southwest corner of Seventh and Market is the house in which Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence. The new County Court House and City Hall is a magnificent structure, probably the largest and finest in the country. It is situated at the intersection of Broad and Market Streets. It covers nearly 41^ acres, exclusive of the court-yard. The new United States Post-OfTice is one of the finest in America, and is located on Chestnut, Ninth, and Market Streets. The Custom- House and Mint are among the prominent buildings of the city. The Masonic Temple, at the corner of Broad and Filbert Streets, is said to be the finest Masonic structure in the world. It cost $1,300,000, and is in the Norman style. The Government arsenals. Navy Yard, Naval Asylum, and Naval Hospital are situated at Bridesburgh and Gray's Ferry Road. PARKS, PLACES OF INTEREST, AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS. Fairmount Park is nearly 1 1 miles long and 2 miles wide, and is one of the finest parks in America, covering 2,740 acres. Its fine old trees, broad expanses of turf, varied surface, and great ex- tent, with the Schuyl- kill River flowing by its side, and the Wis- sahickon, flowing through a picturesque rocky valley clothed with the trees, shrubs, and wild vines of vir- gin nature, through dark dells, broken by numerous waterfalls, give it a different character from that of other parks. Philadelphia has a number of public squares, five of which were laid out when the city was founded. Among the daily papers published in Philadelphia twelve have an aggregate circulation of 350,000, and the weeklies have a still larger circulation. The city contains over 2,000 public schools ; evening schools are conducted during the autumn and winter months. The Girard College is one of the finest architectural buildings in the country. The University of Pennsylvania is the outgrowth of the College of Philadelphia, founded through the influence of Dr. Benjamin Franklin and others. There are many other fine colleges in Philadelphia, including two dental colleges ; also, the Academy of Natural Sciences, which carpenters' hall. 1'. 62 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. is strictly scientific, and has a library of 30,000 volumes and fine collections. There is also the Wagner Institute and Franklin Institute. The American Philosophical Society was founded in 1763. There are many theological colleges. The Byzantine Order has a superb structure on the west side of Broad Street devoted to art. It contains a copious collection of sculptures and paintings. It was organized in 1803, and is the oldest academy of art in the country. There is also a School of Design for Women, conducted on a liberal scale, and founded in 1850. There are numerous libraries in Philadelphia, the Apprentices' being free. The Historical Library of Pennsylvania is very large and valuable. The city has numerous charitable institutions of every kind, including 24 hospitals, 12 dispensaries, 20 asylums, and homes of various kinds. The Bank of North America is the oldest in the country. Many of the bank buildings have great architectural beauty and merit. On Chestnut Street are located some of the best hotels, the Times, Ledger building, many fine business structures, the Mint, and several handsome churches. On this street is conducted the finest retail trade of the city. In the magnificence of its public and private buildings Philadelphia is second only to New York and Washington. FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS— MANUFACTURES— COMMERCE. The great financial centre is in the neighborhood of Third Street, the latter being considered the Wall Street of Philadelphia. It is situated in the lower portion of the city. In this section can be found the great banking and insurance companies, the courts, and the Custom-House. The city is famous for its building and loan associations, of which there are about seven hundred, mostly composed of trades people. Philadelphia leads every other City in the Union in the number of its manufacturing establishments, also in the number of persons employed, in the amount of capital invested, the value of the material used, and the variety of articles manufactured. It is second to New York only in the value of the products. The banks of the river are devoted to commerce, and manufacturing establishments are to be found in all direc- tions. Nearly 10,000 manufacturing establishments give employment to about 220,000 hands; the capital invested in these establishments amounts to over $250,000,000; they produce about $500,000,000 annually. The commerce of the city is of comparatively recent growth, and is of great importance. In 1880 the imports amounted to $38,933,832, and exports, $50,685,838; the exports included provisions, breadstuffs, tallow, petroleum, naphtha, tobacco, and benzine. The duties received in 1880 were $12,726,376.80, In the same year 16,886 male immigrants arrived, and 13,078 females. The coal trade of the city is simply enormous, vast quantities being brought here for shipment. The lumber trade is very extensive, the supplies coming from the northern part of the State, Virginia, and North and South Carolina. Philadelphia is one of the four great centres of the book trade ; the others being New York, Boston, and Chicago. Publishing is conducted on a very extensive scale. It rivals any city in the Union in the manufacture of Family Bibles. The !(■ ill CITY OF PHILADELPHIA. 63 "i oysters of the Chesapeake and of the New Jersey coast form an important branch of trade. An extensive trade is done in Florida oranges, which are shipped in vast quantities to Philadelphia every year. It is also one of the principal markets for peaches and other fruit. The manufacturing facilities of the city are very extensive. Among these may be mentioned the coal and iron fields in close proximity, and the great water-power which abounds in the vicinity. The textile industries employ 75,000 persons, and produce about $90,000,000, distributed as follows : Carpets, $19,000,000 ; hosiery, $16,500,000 ; worsted and woolen yarns, $11,000,000; silk and mixed goods, $6,000,000; cotton goods, $19,000,000; woolen and mixed fabrics, $18,500,000. The iron and steel production amounts to $30,000,000 ; machinery, $10,000,000; sugar, $20,000,000; building materials, $10,000,000. Boots and shoes, chemicals, hardware, tools, furniture, gold and silverware are among the other important industries. The Customs district includes the city of Camden, N. J., and all the shores of the Delaware in Pennsylvania and tributaries. There are man) regular lines of steamers to Southern and various coastwise ports, a line to Havana and New Orleans, a line to Liverpool, and another to Antwerp. GROWTH AND GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY. The city has about 800 miles of paved streets. The streets intersect at right angles, and the cross-streets, running east and west, are in numerical order from the Delaware River, commencing with Front, First, Second, Third, etc. In numbering the houses 100 numbers are allotted to each block. In going north or south Market Street is the point where the enumeration begins. Iron ship building is carried on at the Delaware and at Chester. The city is exceedingly healthy, has an abundance of water and good drain- age, and its growth is extraordinary. Its population in 1683 was 500; in 1777, 23,734; i" ^800, 70,287; in 1850, 300,365; in i860, after the extension of the city, 508,034 ; 1870, 674,022 ; 1880, 846,980 ; 1886, 935,000. The annual city expenditures are about $15,000,000. Philadelphia contains over 160,000 dwelling-houses, all of solid material. The great extent of territory is such that the necessity of tenement-houses has not existed as in other cities ; it is therefore pre-eminently a city of homes, as on the average a house contains only five persons. The city has over 30 markets, which furnish good food in great abundance. The water-works are controlled by the city, and the supply is obtained from the Delaware and the Schuylkill. Philadelphia contains 70 public fountains, 61 of which were erected by the Philadelphia Fountain Society. There are over 150 miles of sewers. The Fire and Police Depart- ments are very efficient. The municipal government consists of the Mayor and Recorder, a Select and Common Council. The Mayor, elected for three years, has control of the police, and the right to approve or veto the ordinances of the City Councils. The Select Council consists of 31 members, representing the 31 Wards, elected by the people for three years; the Common Council contains nearly 100 members, each representing 2, vessels of the largest class. In the har- bor are more than fifty beautiful islands. The prin- cipal entrance to the har- bor is very narrow, it is between Castle and Gover- nor's Islands, and is well defended by Fort Independence and Fort Warren. There are stationary elevators under whigh steamers can be loaded. Boston has made great progress in competing for the export trade, and the opening of the " through business," which first originated in Boston, has done much for her shipping interests. Boston claims to be the shortest and cheapest line between the great Northwest and Europe. In extent of imports Boston ranks next to New York, and third city in the United States in the value of foreign commerce, New York being first and New Orleans second. The total value erf the commerce in Boston in one year was $87,055,255. Over 1,000 vessels belong to the port, with an aggregate tonnage of nearly 400,000. The princi- pal industries are 45 book-publishing establishments, over 100 printing-houses, 55 cabinet-ware factories, about 35 book-binderies, 40 establishments for the manufacture of machinery, 33 hat and cap factories, 30 establishments for the manufacture of watches. It is a centre of the boot and shoe trade, the leather trade, and of the trade in foreign and domestic dry-goods. The other manu- factures of the city are many and varied, including — besides ship-building, THE HANCOCK HOUSE, BOSTON. LESS. CITY OF BOSTON. 69 ise, is mar. lities, than le one side reen them, nothing of as it is, by y inherited eight great south, the it virtually network of he coasting n is under- 5 open at all 5 deep water iccommoda- ng and un- without de- s anchorage sssels of the In the har- than fifty is. Theprin- to the har- [arrow, it is and Gover- ort Warren, id. Boston [the opening done much Iheapest line loston ranks le of foreign total value ,000 vessels The princi- ting-houses, ints for the lents for the I, the leather ither manu- lip-building, sugar refining, and leather dressing — clothing, jewelry, chemicals, brass and iron castings, cars, carriages, pianos, upholstery, glass, organs, melodeons, etc., etc. The business of the city is promoted by 61 national banks — more than any other city in the Union has — with a capital of more than $57,cxx),oco. Thirty of these have cash capitals of $1,000,000 or more each. PUBLICv INSTITUTIONS— GROWTH OF BOSTON, ETC. The first " meeting-house " was erected near the head of State Street, 1632. John Cotton was one of its pastors. The city contains now over 200 churches. Free schools, open to all, were established in the United States first in Boston 250 years ago, and the excellence of the system of public in- struction there has been so great that many other cities have taken its schools for patterns. The university at Cam- bridge properly belongs to the Boston school system, for it was found- ed by the men who set- tled Boston, and was in- tended for the educa- tion of the youth of the city and surrounding country. Indeed, " Newe Town," as Cam- bridge was first called, was intended for the capital of the commonwealth. Harvard College was founded in 1638, and for two generations was the only college in New England. The public Latin School in Boston was founded in 1635, the Institute of Technology in 1861, Boston College in 1863, Boston University in 1869. There are more than 200 public schools in the city. Private schools abound. The chief libraries are the Public, with 459,031 volumes, and 115,000 pamphlets, etc., distributing 1,500,000 volumes a year ; the Athenaeum, 125,000 volumes, circulating 75,000 volumes a year ; the Historical Society's library, containing 75,000 books and pamphlets, many of them being among the rarest of publications ; the State Library, with 50,000 volumes ; the Social Law Library, with 16,000 law books ; the library of the Historic-Genealogical Society, 75,000 books and pamphlets ; the General Theological Library, with 15,000 volumes. LONGFELLOW'S RESIDENCE, CAMBRIDGE. t .' I : I i 70 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. The old State House is situated at the head of State Street. It was on this spot that the old Town House was built in 1763. It was in the street in front of it that the " Boston Massacre " occurred, at the time of the excite- ment caused by the Stamp Act. It was from the balcony of this building that the Declaration of Independence was read. On a peninsula to the north of East Boston, rises Bunker's Hill, so famous in the war of independence ; while the Dorchester Heights, only less famous, occupy the centre of South Boston ; and, lastly, the peninsula of Old Boston seems to have originally taken the name of Tremont, from its three mounts or hillocks. Boston has many public buildings worthy of notice. Among those that are remarkable for architectural beauty or grandeur are the United States Post-ofifice, on Post-oflfice Square, Trinity church, the Museum of Fine Arts, the Hotel Venddme, the Cathedral of the Holy Cross, the State House, the City Hall, the English High and Latin School on Warren Avenue, and the new " Old South church." The Eng- lish High and Latin School was begun in 1877, and the portion to bv ' ^or school purposes cost lan $400,000. The remi is used by oflficers of the St joard. The entire edifice is one of the largest for educational purposes in America. Boston's original owner, John Blackstone, sold out his right and title, in 1635, for ;£"30. With so well chosen a site, and, doubt- less, also through the industry and enterprise of its Puritan occupiers, the new town increased so stead- ily in wealth and population, that in less than a century and a half it became the foremost champion of colonial independence. Since then it has overleaped its natural limits, swarming off, as it were, into an island toward the northeast, and into the mainland on the southeast, and consists of Old, East, and South Boston ; Roxbury, annexed in 1868 ; Dorchester, annexed in 1870; and Charlestown, Brighton, and West Roxbury, annexed in 1873; which are connected by bridges. An immense dam, called the Western Avenue, connects the whole with the inner side of the harbor. All the divi- sions of the city are of an uneven surface ; undulation, in fact, is a character- istic of the entire neighborhood — continent, islands, and peninsulas alike. The inhabitants are essentially of the old British type, as befits the descend- ants of the " Pilgrim Fathers." In 1880 the 250th anniversary of the settlement of Boston was celebrated. GORE HALL, CAMBRIDGE. ''I CITY OF BOSTON. 71 was on reet in excite- ng that famous famous, Boston )unts or 3se that i States (\rts, the the City the new rhe Eng- hool was : portion purposes 00. The )fificers of he entire argest for America, ner, John his right 30. With nd, doubt- iustry and occupiers, d so stead- opulation, tury and a Since then an island consists of ;r, annexed i in 1873; e Western .11 the divi- character- sulas alike, he descend- celebrated. Boston was a town for 192 years. In 1700 the population was only about 7,000; in 1790, 18,000; in 1830,61,000; in 1870, 250,000; in 1880, 363,968; in 1886, 410,000. If we add to this the population of the CiTY OF Cambridge, which in 1886 was 60,000, it brings the population up to 470,000. The Highland Street Railway Company petitioned the Legislature on January 26, 1886, for leave to lease or purchase the franchises and property of any and all other street railroad companies in Boston, making one consolidated compwiy, with authority to make such undergound or surface alterations of the streets as may be necessary to establish and maintain a cable system of motive power, amd also that it may increase its capital stock as may be necessary to carry out the above plans. The Highland Company claim that by this scheme they can run a less number of cars, give better service and prevent the street blockades which have been so annoying the past year. THE CITY OF CAMBRIDGE Is 3 miles northwest of Boston, situated on the west of the Charles River, which separates it from Boston, and is one of the county seats of Middlesex County. It is practically a part of Boston, as Allegheny is of Pittsburgh or Brooklyn is of New York. Here, in 1638, within eighteen years after the landing of the Pilgrim Fathers, was founded Harvard University by the Rev. John Harvard, who bequeathed it a legacy of about $4,000, and which has gradually been endowed to the amount of $1,000,000. It is the oldest institution of the kind in Amer- ica. In addition to the collegiate department proper, the University includes a theological, law, scientific, and medical school, and a department for such as wish to prepare themselves for business avocations without going through a classical course. Cambridge is rapidly advancing. The population in 1830 was 6,072; that of 1870 was 39,634; 1880, 52,669; 1886, 60,000. The city consists of North, East, Cambridgeport, and Old Cambridge. It covers a large area of territory. It is beautifully laid out in fine broad avenues with shade trees. It was under one of these trees that Washington took command of the Revolu- tionary forces in 1775. The house in which Longfellow, the poet, lived was formerly occupied by Washington. The College Duildings occupy fourteen acres and are situated in Old Cambridge. They are shaded by fine old elm trees. Among the conspicuous buildings near the College are the Harvard Law School ; the Lawrence Scientific School ; the Museum of Comparative Zoology', founded by Louis Agassiz ; the Observatory, and Memorial Hall, which is 310 feet by 115, with a tower 200 feet high, erected to the memory of Har- vard graduates and students who lost their lives in the service of their country during the Civil War. This is conceded to be the grandest College Hall in the world. It contains three apartments — a memorial vestibule, a dining hall which seats 1,000 persons, and the Sanders theatre for large academic assemblages. A fine granite monument, erected by the city in honor of the soldiers who lost their lives in the Rebellion, stands near the college. M ri PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. Mount Auburn is one of the finest cemeteries in the country. It is laid out in a picturesque manner and occupies 125 acres of hill and valley. It was dedicated in 183 1, and is the oldest of the beautiful burying-places of America. Cambridge is not much of a business centre, but is, to a great extent, a home for the people of Boston. Among its industries may be mentioned the manufacture of steam-engines, locomotives, cabinet-ware, chemicals, biscuit, brushes, candles, soap, chairs, carriages, glass, marble, books, etc., etc. The University printing-office is located here, and the Riverside Press; the former is the oldest printing establishment in the Union. Bridges over Charles River connect Cambridge with Boston, Brighton, and Brookline. Horse railroads connect with all adjacent towns, and the Boston and Lowell and the Fitchburg railroads pass through East Cambridge. Cambridge has a large number of fine public schools, thirty-two churches, and several newspapers. The place was first settled as Newtown in 1630. At that time it was intended by Winthrop and others to make it the principal town in the colony. Mr. Hooker was settled as the first minister in 1632. In 1638 a vote was passed appropriating money to establish a public school, to which was added the large grant, as above, by the Rev. John Harvard, of Charlestown. The city was incorporated in 1846. It now has a regular City Government vested in a Mayor, Aldermen, and Common Council. DRAWING-ROOM CAR— FROM BOSTON TO NEW ORLEANS. ss. It is laid It was ilaces of extent, a ined the biscuit, tc. Tlie le former titon, and le Boston e. churches, 1630. At principal 1632. In school, to [arvard, of gular City ■ / S"f^V.&|^ NEW ORLEANS SCENERY. 1. Uetaire Cemetery. 3. Jackson Square. .3. Oarrier Street. 4. View from St. Patrick's CatfaedraL h. Stone-rall Jackson Monument. 6. Robert E. Lee Monument. 7. West End Promenade. 6. Bntmnce to Metaire Cemetery. 9. West End Hotel. 10. Tombs Metaire Cemetery. U. Staircase to errand Opera House. IS, OntbeLeToe. l» •* CITY or NHW ORLliANS. EW ORLEANS is the capital of Louisiana, and a port of entry, situated on the left bank of the Mississippi River, io8 miles from its mouth. It ranks next to New York in the value of its exports and foreign com- merce. Nearly all the streets running parallel with the Mississippi River, from the lower to the upper part of the city, are about 12 miles long; the streets running at right angles to these descend from the river bank to the swamps ; the drainage is by canals which open into Lake Pont- chartrain, which is on a level with the Gulf of Mexico. The city being built on ground lower than the high-water level, is protected from inundations by the levee or embankments, which extend on both banks of the river for several hundred miles. About half of its 40 square miles of territory is closely inhabited, while the rest is nearly all swamp. The city extends along the river on an inner and outer curve, giving it the shape of the letter S. The older portion, extending around the outer curve, LAFAYETTE SQUARE, NEW ORLEANS. gave it the name of the " Crescent City." New Orleans is the great port of tran- shipment for a large portion of the crops of the southwestern States, and the produce of the vast region drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries. It (73) 1 i if' "I f m COTTON EXCHANGE, NEW ORLEANS, ^?v CITY OF NEW ORLEANS. 75 commands 10,000 miles of steamboat navigation, and is the natural entrepot of one of the richest regions of the world. In 1861 the city had arrived at its greatest commercial prosperity ; in that year it received and handled 460,000 hogsheads of sugar and 2,255,448 bales of cotton. Its commerce and general prosperity were geatly retarded by the War, and since that period by political agitation and severe visitations of yellow fever ; yet, notwithstanding these drawbacks, its imports average about $12,000,000 and its exports nearly $100,- 000,000. The Custom-house is one of the largest buildings in America. In con- sequence of its natural advantages, geographical location, and the recent navi- gation improvements in the river, the commerce of New Orleans is destined to be greatly increased, and the probabilities are that it will eventually be one of the first cities in America. It is generally conceded that New Orleans is an unhealthy city to reside in ; its vital statistics, however, show plainly that it is not exceptionally so in comparison with other cities in the United States and throughout tl j world. Many sanitary improvements have been introduced since the yellow fever epidemic of 1878. It is seldom that the temperature is in the extreme, ranging from 50° to 85°, the general average being about 68°. New Orleans bears the impress of three distinct civilizations in her society, her architecture, and her laws. It was settled in 1718 by the French ; in 1762 it was transferred to Spain with Louisiana; and in 1800 retransferred to France, and sold in 1803, by Napoleon I., with a vast territory, for $15,000,000, to the United States. At this time the population was about 8,000, mostly French and Spanish. It was successfully defended in 181 5 by General Jack- son, afterward President, against the British. The city became an important centre of military operations during the War for the Union. Louisiana hav- ing seceded in i860, a Federal fleet blockaded the city. Farragut, with an expedition of gun-boats, forced the defences near the entrance to the river on April 24, 1862. The city was forced to surrender, and was then occupied by General Benjamin F. Butler, as military governor. Among the buildings of fine architectural appearance are the Roman Cath- olic cathedral, on Lafayette Square, facing the levee ; the Mint, the Post-office, the City Hall, the Custom-house, and Svite House. The hotels, theatres, and public buildings are on a magnificent scale. There are numerous hospitals, infirmaries, and asylums, several colleges, and 145 churches. Besides the great river, New Orleans has railways connecting it with all parts of the country. The soil is full of water, so that no excavations can be made. The largest buildings have no cellars below the surface ; and in the cemeteries there are no graves, but the dead arc placed in tombs, or " ovens," five or six tiers above ground. The remains are often collected and burned. There are numerous public parks, several canals, and 16 markets. The best streets are wide, bordered with trees, and are very attractive in appear- ance : some of them paved and some of them shelled, all lined with princely residences set with gardens, where the palm and magnolia are in their glory, and the roses blossom in mid-winter. Canal Street, which is the great wide thor- oughfare, has many fine stores and ele -^ant private residences. The continuation I i^fw^mm^ 76 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. of Canal Street is a fine shell road to the lake, the shores of which contain an mexhaustible quantity of white ^;hells. The manufactures, which are small in proportion to the commerce, consist of oil, syrup, soap, cotton-seed oil, sugar refineries, distilleries, and breweries. There are a large number of insurance companies, banking institutions, tow- boat companies, and custom-house warehouses. The city has a May or^ and seven officers, known as administrators. The police are mounted, and under the control of the Governor of the State. The pub- lic schools, of which there are nearly 100, are also under State control, the city providing for their support. Among the other educational institutions are the Mechanical and Agricultural College, the Dental College, the Jesuit Col- lege, and the University of Louisiana. There are about 40 Catholic churches, and a large Catholic population, consisting of French, Irish, Italian, and Spanish. In 1820 the population of New Orleans had increased to 27,000; in i860, to 168,823 ; and consisted of Americans, French Creoles, Irish, Germans, Spaniards, etc. In 1870 it was 191,418; in 1880, 216,090; and in 1886, 236,425. The expenditures for 1884 were $i»'47>496- ^ !l THE MAIN BUILDING. The water is supplied from the river for household purposes, except drink- ing, for which rain-water only, kept in cisterns, is used. Before the mint was established in New Orleans, t\ve coins used were Span- ish, the dollar being the Spanish milled dollar. There were several other coins, iricluding the pistareen (20 cts.), and the picayune, the latter being equal to 6^ cts., was the smallest coin used. After the mint was established, and pre- vious to the Civil War, our nickel was the smallest coin in circulation, and many used to say that they did not want any " nasty dirty cents." To say the least, it is a wonderful city, and has a great future. It has some of the finest restaurants in the world. Hospitality is the rule and not the exception ; hearts appear to widen, nature expands under the influence of the genial southern sun, and a stranger caunot remain a stranger in Nevr Orleans long. New Orleans has been known as the Paris of America, the home of refine- ment, wealth, and luxury, and the abode of pleasure. It is a most cosmopoli- tan city ; and its ways partake largely of the traditional habits of both Spanish and French towns. It is gay, yet sad. Its people are fond of idleness, yet CITY OF NEW ORLEANS. n build up and sustain a great commerce. It is an enigma. The streets in the French quarter are narrow. It may be Sunday morning, but trad-; is going on briskly. The names of streets and firms are all those of a foreign people. Here and there one encounters a word in Spanish or Italian. The great Cosmopolitan French Market, where one may buy almost any- thing that can be named, rambles along in several squares of low, densely populated sheds, with a labyrinth of narrow alleyways. It is quite the thing to resort here early on Sunday morning, and, taking a cup of excellent coffee from one of the many stands, mingle with the populace for an hour, and enter into the spirit of their Sunday bargain-making. From the French market it is a pleasant walk along the broad levee, thronged at all times with people who have business upon the great marine highway which bisects the Union. Here are acres of cotton, of molasses in huge hogsheads, and of tobacco or general merchandise. The huge steamers of the curious pattern peculiar to Western rivers are ranged along the levee for : drink- UNITED STATES AND STATE EXHIBITS BUILDING. miles ; their blunt noses run diagonally up against the sloping shore ; long gang-planks are thrown out and double ranks of sable roustabouts go and come like ants with their burdens, singing in time with their work. The beautiful cemeteries of New Orleans are well worth a visit. To the stranger, the long streets of tombs are somewhat depressing. The merchant will admire the beautiful structure of the Cotton Exchange. The club life of the city is a feature, and the restaurants, saloons, and billiard parlors, theatres and concert-halls, with their myriad lights, impart a Parisian- like effect to the streets in the evening. Canal Street is the great thorough- fare and fashionable promenade of the city. Beautiful buildings and beautiful broad walks, illuminated by the faces and figures of the most beautiful women in America, gay with showy equipages and brilliant with the displays of the great shops. Canal Street will be found to rival in beauty the thoroughfare?, of many of the cities of this or any other land, and its beauty is a matter of wonder and admiration to the visitor from the North and East. Si THE WORLD'S EXPOSITION. Fortunately for the World's Exposition, its resources, though not lavish, were abundant for all the purposes of providing ample space, securing necessary 78 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. attractions, and promoting the completest success. The appropriation by the general Government of $1,300,000, the contribution of the citizens of New Orleans of $500,000, and the appropriation by the city of New Orleans and the State of Louisiana, each of $100,000, afforded an ample source for the pur- poses mentioned. The management of the Exposition had been benefited by the experience gained by others in conducting like undertakings. It did not consider it politic or necessary to give to temporary structures the same degree of elaboration and detail that should be given to those that were intended for permanence. So that, as an instance, the main building of the World s Exposition, while affording fifty per cent, more space than the main building of the Philadelphia Centennial, and being fully as pleasing in architectural design and appearance, affording equal facilities in every respect for position, inspec- tion, and display, did not cost one-fourth as much to erect. The same can be said of the other structures. The carnival pageants, which occurred about the middle of the Exposition period, were the most elaborate and brilliant of this world-wide famed festival. \ DRAWING-ROOM CAR — FROM NEW ORLEANS TO SAN FRANCISCO. CITY OF SAN FRANCISCO. (,i ding of AN FRANCISCO is the most important city on the Pacific Coast of North America. It is the capital of San Francisco County, CaHfornia. The city and county, which were consoHdated in 1856, contain an area of 42 square miles. The city is situated at the north end of a peninsula 20 miles long and, at this end, 6 miles wide, which sepa- rates the ocean from the Bay of San Francisco, arid com- prises, in addition to the northern part of the peninsula, several islands, some of which are 24 miles out in the Pacific. It is about 5 miles south of the Golden Gate, which is 3 miles wide, and is the outlet, leading west through the range of mountains on the coast, and connecting the bay with the Pacific Ocean. Table Mill, on the north of this strait, is 2,500 feet high. The city enjoys a monopoly of the commerce on the North Pacific Coast in consequence of its harbor, which is decidedly the finest on the western coast of North America. The bay extends 50 miles in a direction slightly east of south, and is in some parts !i I- I THE BALDWIN HOUSE. 20 miles wide. The Guadaloupe River empties itself into the south end of the bay. At the north the bay communicates by a strait very much like the (79) 8o PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. Golden Gate with San Pablo Bay, which is about 1 5 n»tles in diameter, which receives the waters of the two principal rivers of California, the Sskcramento and San Joaquin. The climate is mild and healthy; the temperature m Jauau- ary is 49° F. ; in July, 58" ; and averages about 56°. The summer is exceed- ingly cool and delightful. About 50 ocean steamers run from this port regularly to Japan, Australia, China, Panama, Mexico, Victoria, and to domestic ports on the Pacific Ocean, besides many inland steamers which ply on the tributaries to the bay. About 5,cxx) sea-going vessels arrive in San Francisco annually. Four railroads, the Central Pacific, the North Pacific Coast, the California Pacific, and the San Francisco and North Pacific, terminate on the Bay of San Fran- cisco, being connected with the city by steam-ferries, the Southern Pacific being the only railroad which terminates in the city. A part of the land upon which the city stands was quite hilly, but has been leveled. The soil is sandy and unproductive. The connection of the Central Pacific Railroad with the Union Pacific Railroad, completed in 1870, makes San Francisco an important point as the commercial highway from Europe and the eastern United States to Asia. In 1776 a Spanish military post was established on the present site of the city. A mission of San Franciscan Friars was commenced in the same year by two Spanish monks for converting Indians. This mission flourished, and in 1825 had 1,800 Indians under its care, and possessed 76,000 cattle and 97,000 sheep. In 1835 the property of the mission having been secularized, a village was laid out and called Yerba Buena. The name was changed to San Francisco in 1847 5 ^* *^'s time the population was only 450. In 1848 the dis- covery of gold in California created an immense excitement, and people flocked there from all parts of the world. The growth of San Francisco from that time was marvellous. In three years the population had increased from 450 to 25,000, and the city was then incorporated (1850). In 1849-51 the city was visited by several large fires which devastated the business portion. Slight earthquakes are frequent, but do little damage. In 1851-56 the criminal classes were so numerous and lawless, and the municipal government so corrupt, that the citizens, in order to protect themselves, organized vigilance committees which summarily dealt with a number of public criminals and awed others into subjection. Since that time the city has been more orderly. It was here that, in 1877-78, Dennis Kearney created so much excitement, and from which trouble was apprehended. San Francisco has probably the finest hotels in the world, among which is the Baldwin House, which, it is stated, cost $3,500,000 in construction. It is one of the most magnificent buildings of the kind in the world. The Palace Hotel is said to be the largest, and for architectural bearty is rarely excelled. It cost $3,250,900 in land and construction. Both thesv^ houses are first-class in all their appointments. The Cosmopolitan, the Occidental, and the Lick House are also first-class hotels. The custom of re- siding in hotels is very popular in San Francisco, not only for single men, but also for families; and some of the hotels have accommodations for 1,200 guests. Several of the public buildings are fine specimens of architecture. Among these are the new City Hall, which cost $4,000,000 ; the Merchants CITY OF SAN FRANCISCO. 8i Exchange, the Mercantile Library building, the Bank of California, the new U. S. Branch Mint. The Custom-house and Post-office is a plain, substantial building. In the southern portion of the city, especially in Dupont and Stock- ton Streets, are a large number of fine, handsome, brick residences. The fashionable promenades, on which are the great retail stores, are Montgomery, Market, and Kearney Streets. On California Street can be found the principal banks and brokers' and insurance offices. In Front, Sansome, and Battery Streets can be found '.tie principal wholesale houses. Many of the private resi- dences are built of wood, which in many instances are very handsome, and the grounds laid out with flowers and evergreens. The streets are wide, and cross each other at right angles ; there are no shade trees. The business portion, which is closely built up, is paved with Belgian blocks and cobble-stones. There are nearly icx) churches in the city, which is the residence of an Epis- copal bishop and a Roman Catholic archbishop. The most important church edifices are St. Mary's Cathedral and St. Patrick's Church (both Roman Catho- lic), the latter being the finest church edifice on the Pacific Slope; Grace Church and Trinity Church (both Episcopal) are fine structures. The First Unitarian Church is considered one of the finest buildings in the city ; it has over lOO papers and periodicals ; i8 public libraries ; various charitable institu- tions and schools ; five colleges, three of which are literary and two medical ; an academy of sciences ; and a school of design. Of the population attracted by the discovery of gold to San Francisco, a great number are Irish, German, British, French, and Chinese. There are newspapers in English, French, German, Spanish, Italian, and Chinese. The Chinese have a church, Roman Catholic, with a Chinese priest educated at Rome; and a school. Among the manufactures are flour, woolen goods, iron, silk goods, carriages, iron castings, glass, soap, leather, cordage, pianos, furni- ture, billiard tables, wind mills, willow- ware, sashes, doors, cigars, boots and shoes, etc. The Golden Gate Park, west of the city, contains 1,043 acres. It is the only public park, and is not yet completed. There are three or four public squares in the city, which are planted with trees and shrubs. "China- town " is a great curiosity to strangers. It is here that the Chinamen are huddled together, and live as though in China. They have Chinese theatres, joss-houses, opium-cellars, and gambling-houses. The exports are chiefly wheat, barley, wool, quicksilver, hides, furs, flour, gunpowder, and copper-ore. The imports include sugar, coal, rice, coffee, tea, wines and spirits, iron, cotton, silk, and various manufactured goods. With the finest harbor on the coast, and a population mainly composed of enter- prising people from all parts of the world, it is not surprising that the city is distinguished by its great accumulation of capital, large financial institutions, and great mining operations. On January i, 1880, 889 vessels belonged to the port of entry, of 205,206 tons in aggregate. The exports, consisting of treas- ure and merchandise, amount to about $62,000,000 annually. Population : i860, 56,000; 1870, 149,000; 1880, 300,000; 1886, 390,000; including 25,000 Chinese. Less than one-half are natives of the United States. Nifl I! I' li'M' liii: : ;' .' CITY OP CHICAGO. HICAGO is the principal city of Illinois. It is situated on the southwestern shore of Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Chicago River; on this site in 1803 a stockade fort was built, and named Fort Dearborn ; the place was first settled in 1831 ; in 1832 it contained about a dozen fam- ilies, besides the officers and soldiers at Fort Dearborn. The town was organized by the election of a board of trustees, August 10, 1833. On September 26th, of the same year, a treaty was made for all their lands with the Pottawattomies, 7,000 of the tribe being present, after which they were removed v/est of the Mississippi River. The first charter of the city was passed by the Legislature March 4, 1837. Chicago is considered the most remarkable city in the world for its rapid growth ; when in 1831 the first white settlement was made, it seemed a very poor site on which to build a great city ; it con- sisted of muddy flats ; the harbors were constructed to a great ex- tent by human enterprise and ingenuity ; the channel was dredged, the flats filled, and artificial structures erected to keep the waves of the lake from over- flowing the city ; in addition to this the grade of the principal portion of the city was eventually raised from 6 to lo feet, as the people of Chicago had suffered much from various kinds of fever and sickness, caused by the low, marshy situation ; it was found necessary to have a thorough system of sew- erage, which could only be had by raising the city. Immense hotels, large business structures, and blocks of heavy buildings were raised by jack-screws, worked by steam power, to the required level ; it was one of the most extra- ordinary and stupendous engineering experiments ever undertaken in this or any country, but it was finally accomplished. The city is now built upon a plain sufficiently elevated to prevent inundation, and possesses a splendid har- bor equal to the demands of its great commerce ; the river extends back from the lake nearly three-quarters of a mile, at which point two branches intersect it, one from the south and the other from the north ; the south branch of the river is connected by the Illinois and Michigan Canal (which was completed in 1848) with the Illinois River at La Salle, making a direct water communica- tion with the Mississippi. The canal is 96 miles in length, and was originally 12 feet above the lake at its highest level; it is now 8^ feet below the lake; to accomplish this the city expended in 1866-70 no less than $3,250,000. The river channel was also deepened ; so that in place of flowing into the lake, its stream flows the other way, receiving a fine supply of water from the lake, (8a) CITY OF CHICAGO. 83 aated on ; mouth '■''> I h ti^ 84 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. $5,0(X>,ooo, and occupies an entire block of 342 feet by 210 feet ; the Exposi- tion building is of iron and glass, and is a vast structure 800 by 200 feet ; its dome is 160 feet high and 60 feet in diameter. Some of the public schools are capable of holding 1,000 children, and every child without distinction can be educated free, and have the advantages of the High-school, which teaches the classics and modern languages ; the Catholics have schools of their own, and there are numerous private academies. Connected with the University of Chicago is a law school, the Dearborn Astronomical Observatory, and a library of about 25,000 volumes ; this is a Baptist institution, and was estab- lished through the efforts of Stephen A. Douglas. There are six medical col- leges, one of which is open to women. Four theological seminaries, one each — Baptist, Congregational, Lutheran, and Presbyterian ; several commercial colleges and female seminaries. St. Ignatius College is a very successful institution. The Public Library contains over 100,000 volumes ; the Academy of Sciences has a new museum and library. There are over 300 churches in the city, some of which are very fine structures. There are numerous public parks, the finest of which are Lincoln, Central, Douglas, and Humboldt ; 6 of the principal parks contain a total of 2,000 acres ; they are connected by fine drives 250 feet wide and 30 miles long ; a part of the drive is on the shore of the lake, and the surroundings are very picturesque. Chicago is probably the greatest railroad centre in the world ; about 500 trains enter and leave daily. Over 30 railroads make this a common centre. The vast commerce of the entire chain of northern lakes, with 3,000 miles of coast hne, also centre in this great city. Immense quantities of iron and cop- per ore are brought from the shores of Lake Superior. Vessels pass from Chicago by way of the Welland Canal around Niagara to Montreal, and con- nect at that point with steamers for Europe. New York is reached by the Erie Canal. On the banks of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, about 20 miles from Chicago, are vast quarries of marble called Athens marble ; it is consid- ered the finest building material in the* Union. This canal is of great import- ance, as it is convenient for the coal-fields of Illinois, and gives direct commu- nication with the Mississippi, its tributaries, and the Gulf of Mexico. In October, 1871, a terrible fire occurred, which raged two days and nights, burned 18,000 houses, extending over more than 2,000 acres, embracing nearly all the business portion of the city and a large number of private residences ; 200 persons perished, and nearly 100,000 were rendered homeless. The prop- erty burned was estimated at $200,000,000 ; it included the court-house, cus- tom-house, post-office, newspaper offices, 10 theatres and halls, 41 churches, 32 hotels, 3 railroad depots, 5 grain elevators, 8 school-houses, and of the banks there was only one left. The insurance recovered was about $40,000,000. This stupendous calamity awakened the sympathy of the civilized world. The city was entirely rebuilt in a style of great magnificence within two years. Over $7,000,000 were raised in this country and in Europe in aid of the sufferers. As a commercial centre Chicago ranks next to New York. It is the most CITY OF CHICAGO. 85 i^xposi- et ; its ichools on can teaches , ir own, iversity , and a \ estab- cal col- ne each imercial ccessful cademy rches in 5 public dt ; 6 of I by fine tie shore >out 500 n centre, miles of and cop- ass from and con- d by the 20 miles s consid- t import- commu- d nights, g nearly idences ; he prop- mse, cus- hurches, d of the ,000,00c. rid. The vo years. of the extensive lumber market in the world ; its trade in grain and flour is almost fabulous; since 1854 it has been the largest grain depot in the world. Pork- packing is conducted on a very extensive scale ; beef in large quantities is killed, packf d, and shipped by way of the lakes to Europe. The great cattle yards were opened in 1858 ; they occupy nearly 1,000 acres. There are over 100 newspapers and periodicals, and it has become a great book publishing centre. Ship-building is conducted to a considerable extent. Among the manufactures are watches, leather and leather goods, cotton, agricultural im- plements, boots and shoes, iron, flour, high-wines, etc., etc. The water supply for the city comes from Lake Michigan, and is conducted in two brick tunnels, one 7 feet and the other 6 feet in diameter ; the.se exteyd 2 miles under the lake and meet in an immense inclosure, where the water descends into them through a grated cylinder ; one of these was completed in 1866, and the other in 1874. The cost of the tunnels under the lake was $1,500,000; the water works up to the present time cost $10,416,000. In addition to this the city has many artesian wells, which yield a large supply for the stock-yards and the West Side Park. The city has a multitude of benevolent and charitable institutions ; includ- ing several orphan asylums, dispensaries, homes for the aged, indigent, and friendless, etc., etc. The Young Men's Christian Association has been very active for the relief of the poor and destitute, and did good service at the time of the great fire ; as did also the Chicago Relief and Aid Society, which distribut' 1 the vast amount of money contributed for the sufferers. The population in 1835 was 1,000; 1840, 4,470; 1850, 28,260; i860, 150,000; 1870,298,977; 1880,503,304; 1886,630,000. The expenditures for the year 1884 were $10,195,404, being $16.18 /^r capita. CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES HAVING A POPULATION OF 50,000 AND UPWARDS, CENSUS OF 1880. cities and towns. populat'n CITIES AND towns. POPULAT'N CITIES AND TOWNS. POPULAT'S New York, N. Y.. . . 1 hiladelphia. Pa.... Brooklyn, N. Y Chicago, III Poston. Mass 1,206,590 8^6,984 566,689 503,304 362,53s 350,522 333,190 355.708 233,956 216,140 160,142 156,381 Buffalo, N. Y. Washington, D. C... Newark, N. J Louisville, Ky.. . Jersey City, N. J. .. Dptroit, Mich Milwaukee, Wis Providence, R. I Albany, N. Y Rochester, N. Y Allegheny, Pa Indianapolis, Ind 155.137 147,307 136,400 123,64s 120,738 116,34a "5,578 104,850 90,903 80,363 78,681 75.074 Richmond, Va New Haven, Conn . . Lowell, Mass Worcester, Mass... Troy, N. Y Kansas City, Mo . . Cambridge, Mass... Syracuse, N. Y Columbus, O Paterson, N. J Toledo, O 63,803 63,882 59,485 58,295 56,747 55,813 53,740 51.791 51,665 50,887 50,143 St. Louis, Mo Baltimore, Md Cincinnati, O.* San Francisco, Cal.. New Orleans, La Cleveland. O Pittsburgh, Pa i the most .^^... o^.\^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1.1 M 12.5 2.2 La ■U 13. II ui US us KS U 11.25 III 1.4 IIIIM.6 y] ^1^ v: ^ '/ Fhotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRERT WEBSTER, N.Y. MS90 (716)873-4503 s> rv V CITY OF DETROIT. 'ETROIT, the chief city of Michigan, the oldest city by far in the west of the United States, and older than either Baltimore or Philadelphia on the seaboard, was founded by the French of Canada in 1670, as an outpost for the prosecution of the fur trade, on the right bank of the river of its own name, about 18 miles from Lake Erie and 7 miles from Lake St. Clair. For more than a century and a half, however, the advantages of its position were rather prospective than actual. The settlement of the adjacent wildernesses was so slowly carried into effect that Michigan, of which Detroit was the capital, contin- ued to be a subordinate territory from 1805 to 1837. The site is sufficiently elevated above the river to afford excellent facilities for drainage, which have been thoroughly improved. The river, which is the dividing line at this point between the United States and Canada, is half a mile wide and over 30 feet deep, forming the best harbor on the lakes. The city extends 6 or 7 miles along the bank of the river, and from 2 to 3 miles back from it. The river front is lined with warehouses, mills, foundries, grain elevators, railway stations, ship-yards, dry docks, etc., the signs of an enterprising and thriving community. Fort Wayne, a mile below, commands the channel. The site of the city was visited by the French early in the 17th century, but no permanent settlement was made by them until 1701. Sixty-two years later, in 1763, at the close of the war between England and France, it fell into the possession of the English. Immediately after this Pontiac, the great Ottawa chief, made a desperate but unsuccessful effort to expel the whites from all that region. In 1778 Detroit contained only 300 inhabitants, living for the most part in log huts. The British, in 1778, erected a fort, which, after the Americans gained possession, became Fort Shelby. At the peace of 1783, Detroit became a part of the United States, but the Americans did not take possession until thirteen years later. The place was wholly destroyed by fire in 1 805, and two years afterward the present city was laid out. In the war of 1812 it was surrendered by Gen- eral Hull to the British, but recovered by the Americans after the battle of Lake Erie In 1813. It was incorporated as a village in 181 5, as a city in 1824. It was the seat of government of the Territory of Michigan from 1805 to 1837, and of the State of Michigan from the latter date till 1 847. The streets are broad and well paved and lighted ; many of them lined with beautiful shade trees. The avenues are from 100 to 120 feet wide. Many of the business structures are (86) CITY OF DETROIT. 87 large, solid, and imposing, and there are many elegant and costly private resi- dences. The city has had a very rapid growth, the population increasing from 770 in 1810, to 116,340 in 1880, and 133,269 in 1886. The principal park of Detroit is the " Grand Circus," and it is the centre from which the principal avenues radiate. It is semicircular, and divided by Woodward Avenue into two parts, each adorned with a fountain. The " Campus Martius " is a plot of ground 600 feet long and 250 feet wide, crossed by two avenues. Facing it is the City Hall, a fine structure of sandstone, 200 feet in length by 90 feet in width, which cost $6oo,cxxD. In front of the City Hall is a monument to the soldiers of Michigan who fell in the War of the Rebellion ; and facing the Campus Martius on the north is an opera house, a large and fine building. The United States Custom-house and Post-ofifice, a large building of stone, is on Griswold Street. The largest church edifice is the Roman Catholic Cathe- dral, but there are several of other denominations which are fine specimens of architecture. The Roman Catholic Convent of the Sacred Heart is a large and handsome structure. The Michigan Central freight depot is 1,250 feet long and 102 feet wide — a single room, covered by a self-supporting roof of iron ; and near it stands a grain elevator with cupola, commanding a fine pros- pect. The House of Correction is also a very handsome building, erected at a cost of $300,000, with a capacity for 450 inmates. T cr • :ire many lines of steamers with elegant boats running to different points Oi <' e la';es. Eight great lines of railroad centre here. The large foreign commerce of Detroit is almost exclusively with the adjoining British possessions. The exports mostly consist of wheat, oats, corn, hogs, cotton, bacon, lumber, lard, etc. The trade in lumber is simply immense. A very large trade is done in cattle. There are numerous foundries and blast-furnaces, copper-smelting works, locomotive and car works, safe factories, furniture establishments, iron bridge works, brick-yards, flour-mills, tanneries, breweries, distilleries, and tobacco and cigar factories. The city is supplied with water from the Detroit River, by works valued at nearly $1,250,000. The public school system is well organized. The Detroit Medical College was established in 1868, and the Homoeopathic Col- lege in 1 87 1. There is a fine public library, and 65 churches. The total appropriations for city expenditures for 1886 were $1,527,771, being O11.46 per capita. I i^ are I CITY OF ST. LOUIS. T. LOUIS is the chief city and commercial metropolis of Missouri. It is a port of entry, and is situated on the west bank of the Mississippi River, i8o miles above the mouth of the Ohio, and about i,2CX) miles above New Orleans, and i8 miles below the confluence of the Mis- souri. It is connected with East St. Louis, a city in Illinois, by a magnificent bridge of steel, which cost >io,ooo,ooo. The bridge was begun in 1869 and completed in 1874. It is 2,225 feet long by 54 feet wide. The central span is the longest in the world, being 520 feet, and 60 feet above the water. The bridge was designed by Captain James B. Eads. On the present site of the city was established, in 1734, a trading-post with the Indians ; it was named after Louis XV. of France. In 1764 it was the depot of the Louisiana Indian Trad- ing Company. In 1768 it was taken by a detachment of Span- ish troops. In 1804 it was purchased by the United States with the whole country west of the Mississippi, at which time its population was 1,500, and its yearly fur trade amounted to over $200,000. In 1820 its popu- THE COURT-HOUSE. lation was less than 5,000. It was chartered as a city in 1822. Its first news- paper was started in 1808, and its first bank in 1816. • Cholera appeared in 1832 and again in 1849, from which the city suffered much. The first railroad (88) ' CITY OF ST. LOUIS. 89 commenced its business in 1853. A large portion of the town was destroyed by fire in 1849 ; after this substantial buildings were erected from stone quar- ried from the bank of the river. St. Louis under a special act of the Legis- lature is exempt from county government, and exists entirely distinct as a municipality. St. Louis County adjoins the city. The latter is regularly built, and has fine streets which cross at right angles, and extends about 14 miles along the river. As a commercial and industrial centre it ranks among the most important cities of the Union. It is only exceeded by New York and Philadelphia in the number and capital employed in its manufactures. It is the centre of one of the finest agricultural districts in this country, for which it not only affords an outlet, but is also a centre of supply. The Mississippi, with its great tributaries, affords many thousands of miles of navigable water, while nearly thirty railroads and their numerous connections, place it in communication with all parts of the country. All these railroads, except one, centre in the same depot. In the older portions of the city near the river, some of the streets are narrow and crooked. The principal streets are Fourth Street, Grand Av- enue, Olive Street, Main Street, and Second Street. The principal retail stores are on Fourth Street, which is the grand promenade. The finest residences are on Grand Avenue, Lucas Place, Pine, Locust, and Olive Streets. There are two fine boulevards for driv- ing in the western part of the city. It contains nearly 500 miles of paved streets and alleys. The total area of square miles covered by the city is 62. The numerous public parks, which are very beautiful, cover 2,560 acres. In addi- tion to these there are many fine public squares. The Fair Grounds contain halls of mechanical and industrial exhibits ; a zoological garden, claimed to be the most complete in the world, and an amphitheatre with seats for 40,000 people. The annual fairs are held in October. St. Louis has two of the finest cemeteries in the country, beautifully laid out and adorned with trees and shrubbery. It has a vast amount of manufac- tures, including very extensive flour-mills, sugar refineries, tobacco, whiskey, hemp, bale rope and bagging, oils and chemicals, pork, beef, lard, and ham. Packing is done on a very extensive scale, and employs an immense capital, and only exceeded by the amount invested in the manufacture of iron. The best flour produced in the world is made in St. Louis, and is largely shipped to Europe ; the production is about 2,500,000 barrels annually. The number THE MERCANTILE LIBRARY. "jmn,niUs«"»iniii7'. 90 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. of hogs packed annually is about 600,000. The cotton trade amounts annually to about 500,000 bales. The machine-shops, linseed oil factories, provision packing-houses, and iron foundries are very extensive. The annual products of the factories are valued at nearly $275,000,000. The fur trade of America centres in St. Louis, and the traffic in agri- cultural produce is simply enormous, while in the manufac- ture of flour it stands unrivalled, and com- petes successfully with the markets of Eu- rope ; it is also cele- brated for its unsur- passable lager. Nearly 500 vessels belong to the port, with an aggregate ton- nage of nearly 200,000. There are 30 banks, 35 insurance companies, a chamber of com- , , ■ merce, a merchants* exchange, a mechanics' and manufacturers' exchange, a board of trade, a cotton exchange, and a mining exchange. The principal public buildings are the City Hall, the new Post-office, and Custom-h o u s e , which contains the United States Court Rooms, and cost about $5,000,- 000. The Court- house occupies an entire square. The Great Ex- po s i t i o n and Music Hall, is a building pro- nounced by all who have seen it to be far superior to anything of the kind in this country. Other buildings worthy of note are the Masonic Temple, the Columbia Life Insurance building, the Mercantile Library, with about 65,000 volumes. About 170 churches, mostly of fine architectural appearance, adorn THE NEW POST-OFFICE. CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. CITY OF ST. LOUIS. 91 the city. Among the more imposing structures are the Roman Catholic Cathe- dral, Christ Church (Episcopal), and the First Presbyterian Church. The city contains some of the finest hotels in the country, among which are the Southern, the Lindell, the Laclede, and the old Planter's. A fire in 1877 destroyed the Southern Hotel, which was one of the largest and finest in the city. It has been rebuilt, and now occupies twice the space it first covered. The charitable institutions are very numerous, including hospitals, asylums, and homes. The Institution for the Blind, which is controlled by the State, has facilities for 200 pupils, and teaches many industries. The Convent of the Good Shepherd is for the reformation of fallen women. There are also the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, St. Luke's Hospital, the St. Louis Hospital, the Emigrants' Home, the Widows' and Infants' Asylum, the SOUTHERN HOTEL. Insane Asylum. There are 108 public school buildings, occupied by over 55,000 children during the day, and 6,000 pupils at night. The Washington University includes, in addition to the college proper, the Polytechnic Institute, the Marcy Institute for the education of women, the School of Fine Arts, the Manual Training School, and the Law School. The Concordia Institute (which is German Lutheran) includes a theological college. The Catholics have over 100 parochial, private, and convent schools, among which are the Academies of Loretto, the Visitation, and the Sacred Heart, the Ursuline Convent, and the St. Louis University. The latter is under the control of the Society of Jesus, and has a large and valuable library and museum. Prominent among the other Catholic institutions is the College of the Chris- tian Brothers. There are several theatres and places of amusement, and a fine opera house. The assessed value of real and personal property is $2 1 2,ooo,oco. Population: in 1820, 4,590; i860, 151,780; 1870, 310,864; 1880, 350,522; 1886, 400,000. Yearly city expenditures, $8,329,221.85. h CITY OF BALTIMORE. ^«u •♦.•- -I I ALTIMORE fs a magnificent city in Maryland, it is situated 200 miles from the Atlantic, and is considered one of the three great seaports of the East ; the bay is large enough and of a suflficient depth to accommodate the largest ships, and the channels in the river have been dredged to a depth of 24 feet and a width of nearly 4CX3 feet. The city has many advantages, especially in loca- tion, as it is situated at the most northerly extremity of the Chesapeake Bay, into which numerous rivers flow after passing through the fertile districts of Maryland and Virginia. The city was founded in 1729. In January, 1730, a small town was located north of Jones' Falls, and named Baltimore, in honor of Calvert, Lord Baltimore. At the same period William Fell, a ship-builder, settled at Fell's Point, and two years later another town was pro- jected and named after David Jones. The town was joined to Bal- timore in 1745, dropping its name. By successive unions these little settlements passed into Baltiu'.ore, and in 1752 the future city had about two dozen houses and 200 inhabitants. In 1767 Baltimore was made the county seat. In 1773 the first theatre, newspaper, and stage line to New York and Philadelphia were established. The city is divided into two nearly equal parts by "Jones' Falls," a rapid stream, which, though troublesome from its floods, and expensive from its bridges, supplies immense water-power, and an abundance of pure water for domestic use. In 1776 the Continental Congress met in Baltimore in quarters thus described by John Adams : " The congress sit in the last house at the west end of Market Street, on the south side of the street, in a long chamber, with two fire-places, two large closets, and two doors. The house belongs to a Quaker, who built it for a tavern." Though Maryland was originally a Roman Catholic colony, there came to Baltimore, after the Revolution, a number of enterprising Scotch- Irish Protestants,* whose energy and means were of great value to the city. In 1789 the course of Jones' Falls was changed, and the original bed filled in. In 1792 there was an accession to the population of many refugees from San Domingo. By 1796 Baltimore was made a city. Baltimore is de- fended by Fort McHenry. It was during an unsuccessful bombardment of this fort by the British fleet, in 1814, that Francis Scott Key, an American prisoner on one of the English ships, composed the celebrated " Star-Spangled Banner." During the Civil War, a portion of the 6th Mass. and 7th Penn. regiments were mobbed while passing through the city, and in the contest several citizens and soldiers were killed. No more troops were sent through Baltimore until the city was put under military rule. Baltimore is on undulating ground, and it has more than 200 churches, three universities, a number of colleges. Among the commemorative structures which have gained for Baltimore the name of th^ " Monumental City," the most interesting is an elegant obelisk, erected in (9a) CITY OF BALTIMORE. 93 1815, to the memory of those who had fallen in defending the town against the British. The Roman Catholic Cathedral takes the lead among the ecclesiasti- cal edifices of Baltimore. It is a massive building of granite, being 190 feet long, 177 broad, and 127 high; and besides one of the largest organs in the United States, it contains two beautiful paintings, presented by Louis XVI. and Charles X. of France. Baltimore's water communications are of great importance; the James River affords communication with Richmond, Petersburg, and Lynchburg, and the waters of the bay, with Norfolk ; by canal, with New York and Philadel- phia ; by the Potomac River, with Washington ; by canal from the latter place to Cumberland, the district in which the collieries of the State are located. Along these coasts are numerous thriving towns and many well-tilled farms, the latter sending to her docks at times over ioo,CXX) bushels of grain a day. The city is much nearer to the interior of the country than most of the large cities on the Atlantic Coast. Her position at the head of the Chesapeake, en- ables her to convey freight by water, which is a greater distance, much cheaper than by other transportation. Her immediate vicinity to the coal regions en- ables steamers to get their supply of this article at less than half the price they could get it in New York or Boston. Steamers crossing the Atlantic can save nearly $2,000 in this way on a single trip, as they generally use from 800 to 1,000 tons of coal. This probably explains why Baltimore is growing in favor as the great outlet of the West as well as of the interior, and as a distributing emporium of imports for the same localities. The vessels belonging to the port number nearly 2,000; tonnage, about 150,000. About 1,200 foreign ships, 1 50 foreign ocean steamers, and 400 American ships, engaged in foreign trade, enter the port annually. There are lines to various parts of Europe. The city has 15 national banks, with an aggregate capital of nearly $12,000,000. There are also several private banks of a substantial character. It is one of the greatest flour markets in the world. The trade in oysters is enormous. About 12,000 men are employed in packing and handling oysters. One house puts up over 50,000 cans of raw oysters daily ; and there are nearly 50 large establishments exclusively engaged in packing. Another house puts up over 35,000 cans of cooked oysters daily. Nearly 100 smaller concerns are engaged in opening oysters. After the oysters are all canned each year, the canning of fruits and vegetables — which is conducted verj' extensively — is commenced, of which over 25,000,000 cans are packed annually and sent to all parts of the civilized world, even to Hindostan, China, and Japan. In the coffee trade Baltimore is only second to New York, the sales amounting to nearly 500,000 bags annually ; the bulk of this is imported from Brazil. Baltimore is one of the great centres of the coal trade ; over 50,000 tons are exported annually. There are about 20 mills engaged in the manufacture of cotton (shirtings, cotton duck, and sheetings), and it has been estimated that 80 per cent, of the cotton duck produced on the globe is made in these mills. Nearly 100,000 bales of raw cotton are exported annually. The cattle trade; of Baltimore is conducted on a very extensive scale, as is also its lumber trade. 94 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. about 40 large houses being engaged in the latter industry. The export trade in lumber is at the present time nearly five million feet annially, while about sixty million feet of yellow pine are used annually for making packing-boxes. The city is the nearest seaport to the oil regions, and has great facilities for refining petroleum. There are many large refineries. The export trade in oil is very large, amounting at times to 50,000,000 gallons annually. Baltimore is also prominent in exporting tobacco. The largest iron rolling mills in the United States are the Abbot Works. The city is surrounded by iron-ore beds. One railroad iron mill can turn out over 40,000 tons of finished rails annually. The industry in copper goods is very extensive, and are considered equal to any on the coast. A very extensive business is done in marine and stationary steam-engines, mill-gearing, water-wheels, pulleys and shafting, hollow ware, stones, iron work, agricultural implements, etc., etc. Baltimore has gained a great reputation for its preparation of lard, of which it exports great quantities. Large quantities of provisions from the interior are exported to foreign ports. The shoe and leather trade is of j; "at import- ance, amounting to over $25,000,000 annually. Much of the Icathci is exported to England and Germany. There is also a large trade in sugar and molasses. Other industries are: ship-building, woolen goods, pottery, sugar refining, dis- tilling, tanning, saddlery, etc. About 10,000,000 bricks are made and sold an- nually. Baltimore possesses many charitable and beneficial institutions, among which are the Maryland Institution for the Blind ; the Sheppard Asylum for the Insane, endowed with $1,000,000 by Moses Sheppard; the Pcabody Insti- tution, which received over $1,000,000 from George Pcabody; the Hopkins Hospital, endowed with $2,000,000 by Johns Hopkins. The Johns Hopkins University is magnificently endowed, giving opportunity for post graduate study and advanced scientific research. There are about 125 public schools, with 100,000 average attendance. The finest building in Baltimore is the new City Hall, occupying an entire square of more than half an acre, 355 feet long, which cost $2,600,000. The Peabody Institute was incorporated in 1857. It contains a library of 56,000 volumes, and halls for lectures, etc. The Custom- house is a fine edifice, 225 by 141 feet. On the four sides are colonnades, each column being a single block of Italian marble. The new Pratt Library seems to meet a "long-felt want." Thus far about 1,600 books a day have been taken out. It comprises 40,000 volumes, distributed from one central point and five branches. Baltimore is supplied with water from Lake Roland, with a capacity of 500,- 000,000 gallons, and by the new system of water works, the grandest in the world, 200,000,000 gallons per day ; quantity used, 27,000,000 per day. The city can boast of the noblest forest park in the United States. " Druid Hill" is an old forest which was previously the private park of a fine estate. It con- tains over 600 acres, acquired by the city in i860. It adds much to the beauty of the city, and has many picturesque walks and drives. The population in j8oo, was 25,514; in 1830,80,620; in 1840, 102,513; in 1850, 169,547; in 1870, CITY OF LOUISVILLE. 95 267,354; in 1880,332,190; and in 1886, estimated at 425,000. Population (taken by police) May, 1882: white, 348,900; colored, 59,620, and 85,600 in the " Belt" around the city, the limits not having been extended since 1817. The annual city expenditure, in 1886, was $4,106,447. CITY OF LOUISVILLE. OUISVILLE, the chief city of Kentucky, is on the falls of the Ohio River, 130 miles below Cincinnati. It is handsomely built. The city is supplied with water from the Ohio, by artesian wells, one of which has a depth of 2,086 feet, a three-inch bore, and supplies 330,000 gallons of water in 24 hours, which rises to a height of 170 feet. The Court-house cost $1,000,- 000. There is a fine custom-house, jail, a marine asy- lum, 10 orphan asylums, hospitals, houses of refuge, 95 churches. Steamers pass over the rapids of the Ohio at high water, but at other times pass through a canal and locks. Population : in 1880, 123,645, and in 1886 nearly 135,000. It was named Louisville (1780) in honor of Louis XVI. of France, whose troops were then assisting the Americans in the War of Independence. The falls or rapids of the Ohio have here a descent of 27 feet, affording a fine water-power. A number of railroads connect Louisville with the Northern and Southern railroad systems. A bridge crosses the river at the head of the falls, having 27 spans, and a total length of over 5,000 feet, and cost over $2,- 000,000. An important in- dustry is the sugar-curing of hams, and pork-packing. This city is also one of the largest markets for leaf-t o b a c c o in the world ; cigars are made in great quantities. The manufacture of whiskey is also an enormous business. Other important manufactures are cement, leather, furniture, iron pipe, etc. LOUISVILLE. CITY or CLEVELAND. LEVELAND, next to Cincinnati, is the most commer- cial city in Ohio, and the capital of Cuyahoga County. It is situated on the southern shore of Lake Erie, at the mouth of the Cuyahoga River. The harbor is one of the best on the coast, and has been rendered still more available by extending a pier on either side into deeper water. By means of this secure and commodious haven, Cleveland, with the aid of artificial works in both directions, has navi- gable communications with the Atlantic Ocean on the one hand, and with the head of Lake Superior on the other. It is celebrated for its ship-building, and is becoming rapidly m.ore and more important for its manufactures. Magnificent works were erected at a cost of about $800,000, to supply the city with water from Lake Erie ; this is obtained by means of a tunnel under the lake. The city has grown to its present dimensions £rom a small town, which was set- tled in 1796 by General Moses Cleaveland, one of the directors of the Connecticut Land Company, after whom it was named. It is the chief port of the " West- ern Reserve." It is divided into two parts, connected with each other by bridges cross- ing the Cuya- hoga River, which here empties into the lake. One of the bridges is 2,000 feet in length, and built of solid masonry, costing $2,500,000. The principal public buildings are of stone, and present a fine appearance. The United States building contains the Custom-house, Post-office, and rooms for the Federal Courts. The County Court-house and City Hall occupy con- spicuous places, and are well adapted to their several uses. The House of Correction cost $170,000. The Cleveland Medical College is an imposing (96) CLEVELAND. CITY OF CLEVELAND. 97 structure. The Union Railway station is a massive structure of stone. The high-schools and several of the churches are very handsome structures. There is also a public library, and several other libraries. There are numerous hos- pitals, orphan asylums, and other charitable institutions, besides two convents, a Young Men's Christian Association, a seminary for women and a business college. The Catholic people have 1 1 academics and schools. The public schools are numerous and well organized. The State Law College has a fine library and many students. The Cleveland Medical College was founded in 1843, and the Ilomueopathic Medical College in 1849. Cleveland has over 100 churches, many large insurance companies, several fine markets, and 33 hotels. It is the centre of many great railroads, and the Ohio Canal connects Lake Erie at this point with the Ohio River. It was this canal, completed in 1834, that first gave a great impetus to the commerce of the city. Numerous steamers ply between Cleveland and all other ports on the lake. The manufacturing industries of the city are varied and extensive, and increasing with great rapidity. They embrace iron, coal, refined petro- leum, nail manufactories, copper smelting, sulphuric acid, wooden ware, agri- cultural implements, sewing-machines, railroad cars, marble, white lead, etc. The population was in 1830, 1,000 ; 1850, 17,034 ; 1870, 93,018 ; 1880, 159,404; 1886, 227,000. The city is lighted by electric lights, which are elevated to a great height. There are many beautiful cemeteries. The finest part of the city is on a sandy bluff on the east side of the river, from 60 to 150 feet above the lake. The city is laid out mostly in squares, the principal streets being from 80 to 120 feet wide, and one having a width of 132 feet. Shade trees are so abundant that the place is properly called the " Forest City." Euclid Avenue, lined with elegant private residences, each of which is surrounded with ample grounds, is acknowledged to be the handsomest st)eet in the country. Superior Street, having a width of 132 feet, is occupied by the banks and the principal retail stores. Monumental Park, in the centre of the city, with an area of ten acres, as originally laid out, is now crossed by streets at right angles, and so divided into four smaller squares, beautifully shaded and carefully kept. In one of these squares is a handsome fountain, in another a pool and a cascade, and a statue of Commodore Perry, the hero of the battle of Lake Erie, erected in i860 at a cost of $8,000. West of the river is another finely shaded park called the " Circle," with a beautiful fountain in the centre. The total appropriation for city expenditures for 1886 was $1,697,698. CITY OF INDIANAPOLIS. ::, 'NDIANAPOLIS, the capital and largest city of Indiana, is built on the west fork of White River, near the centre of the State, lOO miles northwest of Cincinnati. It is situ- ated in the vicinity of an extensive coal region. Its man- ufactures and commerce are very important and exten- sive. Thirteen lines of railroad connect the city with all parts of the country. It is a regularly built and beau- tiful city, with a handsome State-house, court-house, jail, and State asylums for the blind, deaf and dumb, and insane ; has a university, two female colleges, and eight banks. Indianapolis became the seat of government in 1820, and in 1824 became the capital of the State. The city was incorporated in 1836. The streets ar6 broad, and run at right angles. Nine bridges cross the river, three of which are for railroads. There are numerous street railroads, including a belt-line around the city. Seven parks, one of which contains over 100 acres, add much to the beauty of the city. Pork-packing is carried on extensively. There are a number of large flour- mills, grain elevators, iron rolling-mills, foundries, machine-shops, car works, sewing-machine shops, and factories for the manufacture of agricultural imple- ments, furniture, pianos, organs, carriages, cotton and woolen goods, etc., etc. There are nearly 50 incorporated manufacturing institutions, with a large aggregate capital. About 90 churches adorn the city ; also a Roman Catholic theological seminary, an art school, a city hospital, an academy of music, a State library with 25,000 volumes, and a free city library with about 20,000 vol- umes. The new State House cost $2,000,000. The public schools are mainly supported by the State school fund of $8,000,000. The Court-house is a splendid structure. Among the other fine buildings may be mentioned the Exposition Building, the Chamber of Commerce, the Union Depot, the Ma- sonic and Oddfellows' Halls, the United States Arsenal, and numerous fine, massive blocks of buildings. The best private residences are surrounded by fine lawns and gardens. This city was the home of the late Vice-President Hendricks. The contract for the State House was made under very favorable circumstances ten years ago, at $2,000,000, and drawn in such a way that no extras have been permitted ; it will, therefore, not exceed the original contract price. It would cost fully $3,000,000 if contracted for at the present time. Indiana has no mountains, and over two-thirds of its surface is level or undulating. It has but one port, Michigan City, on Lake Michigan, and no direct foreign commerce. Its internal trade is of vast extent, its rivers, canals, and railroads being numerous and of great importance. The population of Indianapolis in 1840 was 2,692 : in 1870, 48,244 ; in 1880, 76,200; and in 1886 it is estimated to be 100,000. (98) n |U mi'iwmw'f^^T''!^f CITY OF CINCINNATI. INCINNATI is the chief commercial city of Ohio ; it is situated on the north or right bank of the Ohio River, 1 20 miles from Columbus, the capital of the State ; 458 miles below Pittsburgh, where the Ohio is formed by the junction of the Monongahela and Alleghany Rivers, and 5CXD miles above the junction of the Ohio and the Missis- sippi Rivers. It is 340 miles east of St. Louis, 280 miles southeast of Chicago, and 610 miles from Washington. On the opposite side of the Ohio, in Kentucky, are two cities — Covington, which is the most important, has a population of 28,542 ; and New- port, with a population of 18,412. Cincinnati, which is the county seat of Hamilton County, has communications by numerous steam ferries, besides two bridges, with these cities. The city occupies 24 square miles, and extends along the fiver 10 miles, and is about 3 miles wide. It has a fine, substantial appearance, and is noted for the architectural beauty of its public buildings. Its fine broad streets and avenues remind one of Philadelphia ; they are well paved, and in some instances lined with shade trees. The principal part of the city lies between Deer Creek on the east and Mill Creek on the west, which are nearly 3 miles apart where they flow into the Ohio. A few settlers from New Jersey first located on this site in 1789. In 1800 the population only amounted to 750 ; its development being greatly retarded by the Indians, who rendered navigation on the Ohio very dangerous. Its ecclesiastical, literary, and commercial edifices are as numerous as befits the acknowledged Queen of the West. The city occupies chiefly two terraces, which are elevated respectively 50 and 108 feet above the level of the river. The water of the Ohio has been lifted up into an immense reservoir, at an expense of about $i,8oo,cxx>. A large suspension bridge, 100 feet above low water, connects the city with Covington, Ky. Its entire length is 2,252 feet ; the principal span is 1,057 f^^t ; this was designed by John A. Roebling, and cost nearly $2,000,000 ; it was completed in 1867. Another bridge connects the city with Newport, Ky. Cincinnati is the centre of a great network of railroads, and is connected with a vast region of territory by the Ohio and Mississippi and their connec- tions ; while the Miami Canal connects it with Lake Erie, and a branch con- nects the Miami with the Wabash and Erie Canal, which is the longest canal in the Union (374 miles) ; this canal extends from Toledo to Evansville, Ind., on the Ohio River. The city was incorporated in 18 14, and since that time has made steady progress. Thirteen companies use seven railroads, which enter the city ; two others have their terminus at Covington, on the other side of the river. Nearly 400 passenger and freight trains arrive and leave daily. There are four depots near the river in different parts of the city. Nearly twenty lines (99) "^ H^J' *K>^ •• "."11 f "•■ ■ 100 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. of street railroads cross the city in all directions. An incline steam-passenger railway affords communication with the top of the adjacent hills. Vineyards and gardens abound in the suburbs. Previous to and during the War the Slavery question created intense excitement. Social and vast commercial relations of the city with the South brought it in sympathy with the Slave States. Several attempts were made to establish an anti-slavery paper in the city, but without success, as it was always destroyed by a mob, who were sustained by prominent citizens ; and THIRD STREET. in 1862, when a Confederate force was expected to attack the city, it was found necessary to place it under martial law. Many of the leading families furnished men and money for the Southern cause ; but the great masses of the people, especially the Germans, were patriotic, and identified themselves with the North. In the suburbs of the city are many fine, costly residences, surrounded with beautiful lawns, laid out with shrubs and trees. The scenery in the vicinity of the city is very attractive ; there are numerous parks and public grounds. Among the public buildings are the United States Govern- ment building, containing the Custom-house, Post-office, Court-rooms, etc. The County Court-house cost nearly $500,000, and with the County Jail occu- pies an entire square. The City Hospital occupies a square, containing nearly r r I r m 1 \\ r r 1 CITY OF CINCINNATI. lOI 4 acres ; the buildings and land are valued at $1,000,000. The Public Library cost about $700,000, which was raised by taxation. Pike's Opera House is a very imposing edifice, 134 by 170 feet. The Masonic Temple is 195 by 100 feet, and 4 stories high. Mozart's Hall has seating accommodations for 3,000 people. Longview Asylum for the Insane, situated outside of the city, is 612 feet long; the property is valued at over $1,000,000. There are also St. Xavier's College, which is governed by the Jesuits ; Lane Theological Sem- inary (Presbyterian), organized in 1829, with an endowment of $200,000. The Catholics support over 100 parochial schools. There are in all 6 medical col- FOURTH STREET. leges, 5 literary colleges, one college of dentistry, several commercial colleges, a university, and a law school. In 1842 the Wesleyan College for women was founded. There are nearly 200 churches ; the finest of which is St. Peter's Cathedral (Catholic) ; it is 180 by 90 feet, with a fine stone spire 224 feet high. The Tyler Davidson Fountain is a fine work of art ; it cost $200,000, and was presented to the city in 18/1. Wine is made in the neighborhood to a great extent. The city itself also is largely engaged in a variety of important manufactures, hundreds of steam- engines being employed in the different establishments. The manufactories in- clude iron-foundries, rolling-mills, lard, oil, and stearine factories ; and countless n-'i.m^iF.i I |i,>jwu ■ i|^i.w>«TJ w> ■Wiii«i!|IU'fim 102 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. works connected with flour, clothing, furniture, paper, printing, tobacco, soap, candles, hats, etc. The total value of manufactured goods in one year amounted to nearly $i70,cxxD,0C)0. The Board of Trade has nearly i,ooo members. The Merchants' Exchange and Chamber of Commerce has about 1,200 members. Six National banks have a capital of nearly $5,000,000, and 17 other banks nearly $3,000,000. An annual Industrial Exhibition has been held in Cincin- nati in the fall of each year since 1871 : the buildings occupy 3^ acres of ground- A canal completed in 1872 around the falls of the Ohio, at Louisville, enables the largest steamboats on the Mississippi to reach Cincinnati. The imports in one year amounted to $223,237,157, and exports $186,209,646. By act of Congress in 1870, foreign merchandise may arrive in Cincinnati without appraisement or payment of duties at any port where it may first arrive. At one time Cincinnati was the. great centre in the United States for the pork trade, but since 1863 Chicago has held first rank. At the present time Cincinnati has about 60 establishments for the slaughtering of swine and the packing of pork ; the yards for the reception of live hogs occupy about 60 acres. In one year 793,863 hogs, 142,851 cattle, and 274,027 sheep were received. The celebrated lager-beer of Cincinnati has gained a reputation, not only in the United States, but abroad. The malt liquors manufactured in one year amounted to nearly 6,000,000 barrels, which consumed about 1,500,000 bushels of malt, 1,250,000 pounds of hops, 700,000 pounds of rice, over 6,000,000 bushels of coal, over 3,500,000 bushels of coke, and used up 60,000 tons of ice. Whiskey is made on a very extensive scale ; the returns of rectified spirits for one year amount to nearly 13,000,000 gallons. The tobacco and cigar trade is of great extent and value. In one year the sales of tobacco amounted to over 40,000 hogsheads; and the number of cigars made in Cincinnati, Covington, and Newport, was over 100,000,000. Nearly 2,000,000 cigarettes were made in the same year. And the production of fine-cut (chewing) and plug tobacco was nearly 5,000,000 pounds ; while the smoking tobacco amounted to over 2,000,000 pounds. Fine candles are made in Cincinnati, and are largely disposed of in foreign countries ; the shipments for one year were nearly 250,000 boxes. The manu- facture of soap is very extensive ; the total shipments in one year amounted to over 366,000 boxes. It was here that soap made from cotton-seed oil was first manufactured. The manufacture of starch has gained for the city a great reputation ; the shipments for one year amounted to nearly 5,000,000 boxes ; it is sold not only in the United States, but in nearly all parts of the world, including Mexico and .South America. Furniture forms an important part of the manuff s. The manufacture of boots and shoes is constantly increas- ing, and tl ' ijoing trade in this line is very extensive ; the shipments in one year amounted to about 100,000 cases. Cincinnati is one of the great grain warehouses for the South ; the receipts for one year amounted to about 12,000,000 bushels. Boat-building, including steamboats and ferry-boats, gives employment to a large number of workmen. The population in 1820 was 9,602; in 1840,46,338; in 1850, 115,438; in ft I ":*^ai^^y.'f\" "^' ^w CITY OF MILWAUKEE. 103 i860, 161,000; in 1870, 216,289; i" 1880, 255,708; in 1886, 275,000. The yearly expenditures of the city are $3,922,933, being $14.52 /^r capita. 1 ft I CITY OF MILWAUKEE. UI^-'ILWAUKEE is the most important city and port of entry of Wisconsin. It is situated on the western shore of Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Mil- waukee River, which enters the lake from the north, and flows through the city. The Menomonce River joins the Milwaukee near its mouth. The bay is 6 miles long by 3 miles wide. The city is 84 miles north by west of Chicago, and 87 miles east of Madison, which is the capital of the State. The harbor is one of the best on the lakes, and has been much improved by the Government. The city is very handsome, and is built of yellow or cream, colored brie ks made in the vicin- ity, and from which it has derived the name of the " Cream City of the Lakes." The streets are regular, the centre and most level parts of the city being de- voted to business. The residences crown a high bluff, and give the city a very picturesque appearance when viewed from the lake. Its first white settler was a Frenchman, whose name was Juneau, who located there in 1818, and engaged in the fur trade, and finally became Mayor of the city, which was incorporated in 1846. The city has a fine sewerage system, and is furnished by the lake with water. It is connected with all parts of the country by railroads. In 1870, Mil- waukee claimed the rank of fourth city in the Union in marine commerce. MILWAUKEE IN i860. I04 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. This position it has since lost by the rapid and extraordinary development of other cities. Copper and iron mines within 50 miles of the city have done much towards making her a great manufacturing centre. Among the fine public buildings are the Post-office and Custom-house, which is built with marble, and in which are the United States Courts. The County Court-house was erected at a cost of more than $400,000. The receipts and shipments by rail and water are immense and of great value. The most important items of merchandise are wheat and flour. The immense agricultural products of the three great States of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Min- nesota are shipped from its port. Pork-packing is conducted on a very exten- sive scale, and the city is celebrated for its lager-beer, which finds a market in nearly all parts of the Union. About $4,000,000 is invested in this branch of industry. There arc vast iron and rolling mills, which employ nearly 3,000 men, and have a capital of nearly $5,000,000. There are six immense elevators, with a total capacity of nearly 6,000,000 bushels, one of which is claimed to be the largest in the Union, having a capacity of 1,500,000 bushels. One of the largest flour-mills has a daily capacity of 1,000 barrels. The leather factories are very extensive, the total capital being nearly $2,000,000. Among the goods manufactured are the following : agricultural implements, machinery, pig-iron, iron castings, steam-boilers, car wheels, woolen cloth, carriages, wagons, barrels, furniture, sashes and blinds, boots and shoes, tobacco and cigars, white lead, paper, soap and candles, iron castings, leather, malt, high- wines, brooms, etc. It has a large number of educational institutions, comprising acade- mies, public and private schools, and an Industrial School, several orphan asylums and hospitals, a College for Women, a monastery and Franciscan Col- lege, a public art gallery, a public library and a German library and public museum. There are 75 churches, 2 cathedrals (i Episcopal and i Catholic), about 20 banks, several insurance companies and theatres. The Government asylum for invalid soldiers is situated two or three miles from the city. The population, which largely consists of Germans and other national- ities, was, in i860, 45,000; in 1870, 71,000; in 1880, 115,570; and in 1886, 158,509. City expenditures in 1884, $1,438,976; per capita, $9.07. The sur- rounding country is of great fertility, and as a manufacturing centre it has great advantages. 1 CITY OF PITTSBURGH. ITTSBURGH is the second city in population and im- portance in Pennsylvania, a port of entry, and the county seat of Allegheny County. It is situated at the junction of the Monongahela and Alleghany Riv- ers, where they form the Ohio, which at this point is a quarter of a mile wide. The city is 356 miles from Philadelphia, 245 miles from Harrisburgh, which is the capital of the State, and 227 miles from Washington. The distance from New Orleans by the river is 2.040 miles. Some of the richest deposits of coal and iron in America are to be found in the vicinity. The city has nearly 200 iron establishments, about 75 iron foundries, 50 iron and steel works, and over 600 furnaces. There are vast machine-shops ; the manufacture of steam boilers, engines, etc., is very extensive. There are about 56 glass manufacturing establishmonts, the products of which are about $12,000,000 annually. The trade in crude and refined oil is enormous ; nearly 3,000,000 barrels of crude oil are received annually, and about 2,500,000 barrels of refined oil shipped. Large quantities DEPOT. of coke are purchased, averaging more than 1,000,000 tons a year. The iron manufactures amount annually to about $50,000,000 ; the total amount of pig metal consumed is about 7,000,000 tons annually, being nearly one-quarter of (105) io6 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. the total produced in the Union. There are large copper-smelting works, 22 rolling-mills, numerous cotton-mills, and white lead factories. The best quali- ties of English steel are surpassed by several large steel works, seven of which produce about 35,000 tons annually. The products of several copper manu- facturing establishments amount to $4,000,000 annually. Vast quantities of coal are produced in nearly 200 collieries in the neighborhood of the city. Pittsburgh is the great manufacturing city of America. The immense foundries and factories fill the air with smoke, and hence it has derived the names of " the Smoky City," and " the Iron City." It has often been com- pared to Birmingham, England. The first glass manufactured in Pittsburgh was in 1796. The first at- tempt at making steel was in 1828, and for several years only the lowest grade was produced. The manufacture of cast steel for edge-tools was commenced in i860. The first rolling-mill was built in 1 8 1 2, and the first iron foundry in 1 804 ; from the latter can- non were cast and supplied for the fleet on Lake Erie and for the defence of New Orleans. Pittsburgh occupies the site of the old French Fort Duquesne. In 1754 a por- tion of its present territory was occupied h'^ the English, and a stockade fort was built at the confluence of the rivers. After many struggles with the French and Indians, in which the British General Braddock was defeated, it was finally taken by General Forbes in 1758, and a permanent foothold estab- lished. The place became a permanent trading-post in 1759. A new fort was eventually erected, and named Fort Pitt, in honor of William Pitt, then Prime Minister of England, the name changing finally to Pittsburgh. In 17/4 the place was surveyed and laid out by descendants of William Penn. It was incorporated as a city in 18 16. At that time its limits were confined to a peninsula between the rivers ; it now extends over the adjoining hills, and seven or eight miles up both rivers. In 1845 Jt was nearly destroyed by fire. Its appearance is that of a solid and substantial city. The eastern part is devoted to fine residences. Most of the streets are paved. Besides its vast manufacturing interests, Pittsburgh has a great traffic over the three rivers, which gives it an outlet to the Mississippi River, its tributaries, and the gulf coast, while canals connect it with Philadelphia, and, by way of Cleveland, with the lakes. It is a port of delivery in the New Orleans district. THE COURT-HOUSE i CITY OF PITTSBURGH. 107 Among the principal railroads are the Pennsylvania, the Alleghany Valley, and the Pittsburgh, Washington, and Baltimore, which connect Pittsburgh with nearly every part of Pennsylvania and the East. The Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago Railroad and connecting lines give communication to the West and Northwest, while the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and St. Louis Rail- road connects the South and Southwest. The public buildings include a fine Court-house, the Western State Peni- tentiary, the United States Arsenal, etc. The city has very efficient police and fire departments. There are 50 banks and a large number of insurance companies ; 75 schools, including a high-school. Among the colleges are the Western University of Pennsylvania and the Pittsburgh Female College (Methodist). There are over 40 newspapers, of which 10 are dailies; and one hundred and twenty churches. Among the ecclesiastical buildings is a fine large Roman Catholic Cathedral. The rivers are spanned by numerous fine bridges. Pittsburgh has rapidly increased in population and manufactures. The majority of the population is of foreign birth ; mostly Irish, German, and Eng- lish. The population in 1788 was 480; in 1800, 1,560; in 1840,21,000; in 1S60, 79,000; in 1870, 121,799; '" 1880, 156,389 (the annexation of adjoining boroughs caused much of this increase); in 1886, 175,000. The city of Alle- ghany, with its population of 85,000 in 1886, is on the other side of the river, and as it is in fact a portion of Pittsburgh, except in its municipal govern- ment, it should be added to these figures, making the total population of Pitts- burgh in 1886, 260,000. Seven bridges span the Alleghany River, and not only connect the two cities, but are practically continuous streets traversed by horse-cars, as in cities where no rivers exist. Five bridges span the Monongahela, and give an out- let to the suburbs of Pittsburgh in that direction. Large steamboats run on the Ohio from Pittsburgh to Cincinnati and many other points, and great facilities are afforded for the reception of mineral oil, iron, coal, lumber, etc., etc., by the Monongahela and Alleghany Rivers. Over 200 large steam- ers belong to the port, and 600 or 700 barges, with a total tonnage of nearly 200,000. The figures showing the production of pig-iron indicate that the Southern States are forging to the front, although Pennsylvania still holds an easy lead, having produced last year 2,445,496 tons of the entire 4,529,869 tons produced in this country. Ohio comes next in the list of iron-producing States with 553,963 tons ; Illinois third with 327,977 tons ; and Alabama fourth with 227,438 tons. The next highest producing States are Virginia, Tennessee, New York, and Michigan, in the order named. While recognizing that the South is making rapid advances, Pennsylvania, with its abundant coal and its newly utilized store of natural gas, is sure, however, to be the great pig- iron centre for an indefinite period. The fuel and ore anci the market are so conveniently near each other in the Keystone State that no probable com- petitors are seriously to be feared. CITY OF ST. PAUL. ■ll ||T. PAUL is the capital of Minnesota. It is a thriving commercial city and port of entry, situated on both banks of the Mississippi River, 9 miles east of Minneapo- lis, 400 miles northwest of Chicago, 2,080 miles from New Orleans, and 9 miles from the Falls of St. Anthony. Excel- lent springs of water abound in the hills near the city. It is the head of navigation for the large steamboats of the Lower Mississippi and its tributaries, and is 800 feet above the Gulf of Mexico. The city of St. Paul, standing at the navigable head of what the Indians fitly called, in their musical and ex- pressive tongue, the " Great River," has been fortunate in many things. Above them all, it is supremely fortunate in situation. A visitor needs only to go to the summit of either of the four principal blufifs upon which the city lies, and beyond which it is spreading itself so rapidly, to see the secret of that spell which its scenery and distant outlook communicate. Established in the midst of a territory dominated by prairies, it looks down upon a vast and beautiful landscape in a way that suggests the supremacy and lordliness of Rome. Its vistas are various from these lofty coignes of vantage, and each is a separate and individual picture. In 1846 the white people living on this site consist- ed of ten per- sons. In 1 84 1 a chapel was dedicated here to St. Paul by a Jesuit mis- sionary, and from this it derived i t s name. The principal railroads are the Northern Pacific ; St. Paul, Minneap- olis, and Manitoba ; Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul ; Chicago, Burlington, and Northern ; Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Omaha ; St. Paul and Du- luth ; St. Paul and Northern Pacific ; Wisconsin Central ; Minneapolis and St. Louis ; Chicago and Northwestern ; Minnesota and Northwestern. (108) ST. PAUL. CITY OF ST. PAUL. 109 L The Custom-house and Post-office is a fine granite structure, which cost $600,000. The State capitol was erected at a cost of $374,000. St. Paiil has a fine court-house, several hotels and theatres, public libraries, with nearly 50,000 volumes, a number of daily and weekly newspapers, several of which are in the Swedish and German languages. It has a State Historical Society, an Academy of Natural Sciences, a State Reform School, various fine public schools, orphan asylums, Catholic parochial schools, a commercial and busi- ness college, a Home for the Friendless, and Magdalen reformatories, about 50 churches, and a fine cathedral. The city has very efficient fire and police departments, street railways, a Mayor and Council. It is connected with West St. Paul by two bridges across the Mississippi River. The boundaries of the city include West St. Paul since 1874. There are quairies in the vicin- ity from which limestone is taken for building purposes. Its water supply is derived from Lake Phalen, which is about three miles from the city. The public park, which is very beautiful, is on the shore of Lake Como, and con- tains nearly 300 acres. It has several grain elevators, numerous banks and insurance companies. The shipments of wheat amount to about 2,000,000 bushels annually, and flour 250,000 barrels. The manufactures consist of agricultural implements, machinery, furniture, ale and beer, carriages, boots and shoes, lumber, sash and blinds, doors, and blank books. Six of the National banks have a capital of $6,350,000. It is the centre of a large growing trade in flour, lumber, furs, machinery, etc., and has a very extensive wholesale trade. The growth of the city, like its twin sister, Min- neapolis, has been very rapid. The banking capital of St. Paul exceeds that of all the rest of the State put together. As a place of residence St. Paul is delightfully situated, and on a clear, bright day in spring, the view from the bridges which span the river is sur- passingly beautiful. Up the river as far as the eye can reach, are green banks, with hills and plateaus crowned with fine residences and comfortable homes. The atmosphere of St. Paul is dry and pure, and remarkably invigorating, especially for those in poor health, or suffering from some pulmonary com- plaint. Though the thermometer shows a greater degree of cold in winter than is experienced in the New England or Atlartij States, yet it is not nearly as perceptible as in other sections where the " raw," damp days of winter pene- trate through the thickest clothing. The average mean temperature for the nine years, including 1883, in the city was 19° Fahrenheit for the wintet months ; for the summer months, 69° 80' ; and for the spring and fall months, 40° 30' and 45° 70' respectively. The report of the jobbing trade for 1884, places the amount of business done at $74,820,700. Notwithstanding dull times and financial depression, St. Paul has increased during the past year her output of manufactured articles by nearly $3,000,000, an increase for the year of twelve and one-half per cent. Population: in i860, 10,000; in 1870, 20,000; in 1880, 41,000; and in 1886, 111,397 — the latter figures are according to the State census. The yearly expenditures are $1,123,185. CITY OF MINNEAPOLIS. 'INNEAPOLIS is a city in Southeastern Minnesota, on the Mississippi River, situated at the Falls of St. Anthony, nine miles west of St. Paul. The sur- rounding country is noted for its picturesque beauty. The city is built on a fine broad plateau, seemingly specially designed by nature for a me- tropolis. The river makes a fall or descent of 50 feet within a mile, has a perpendicular descent of 18 feet, and has i35,ocx) horse-power at low- water mark. It is crossed by a fine suspension bridge built in 1 876, and three other bridges. There are four fine lakes in the vicinity. Ini- mense manufacturing establishments arc conducted by meani of water power from the river. The value of the lumber sawec in one year amounted to $3,000,000, and the flour made in one year amounted to nearly $8,000,000. The wholesale grocery business amounts to nearly $6,000,000 a year. An immense amount of grain is millcU. Among the other important manu- factures are iron, machinery, water-wheels, engines and boilers, agricultural implements, cotton and woolen goods, furniture, barrels, boots and shoes, paper, linseed oil, beer, sashes, doors, and blinds. Pork-packing is conducted on a very extensive scale ; and there are numerous saw-mills. The wholesale trade is very important, and is constantly increasing. Minneapolis is regularly laid out with streets and avenues from 60 to 100 feet wide. The streets cross at right angles, and are shaded with fine trees. The city is orna- mented by a series of beautiful parks, boulevards, and parkways, laid out and improved at an enormous expense. It is well sewered, and has a fine fire department and police force. Minneapolis is the great railroad centre of the Northwest. All the roads of the Northwest, in fact, touch Minneapolis. It has a line of steamers to St. Cloud. Among the public buildings are a court-house, a city hall erected in 1873, an academy of music, and an opera-house. There are 70 churches. The Athenaeum has a library of 15,000 volumes. Minneapolis is the seat of the University of Minnesota (open to both sexes), organized in 1868, and having a library of 18,000 volumes ; and the Augsburg Theological Seminary, estab- lished by the Scandinavians of the Northwest, with a library of 1,800 vol- umes ; also Hamline University (Methodist). It has numerous newspapers. The Falls of Minnehaha are three miles distant. Considerable interest attaches to this cascade, it being the scene of a legendary romance wrought into the story of Longfellow''' poem of " Hiawatha." The Minnehaha River flows over a limestone clifT, making a sudden descent of 60 feet, and the story runs that Minnehaha, an Indian maiden crossed in love, here took the fatal leap. Min- nehaha, in Dakota language, signifies laughing water. (HO) CITY OF MINNEAPOLIS. Ill The twin cities arc at once rivals and neighbors, and may at some future period be consoUdatcd into one metropoUs. Th' census of Minnesota has just been taken ; according to it St. Paul has grown rom a population of 3 in 1838, to 1 1 1,397 in 1885; and Minneapolis from 45 in 1845, to 129,200 in 1885. According to the mercantile agency report of R. G. Dun & Co., there are in Minneapolis 3,511 business houses, with an aggregate pecuniary respon- sibility of $53,138,000 ; while in St. Paul there are 2,601 houses with responsi- bility of $36,847,600. Total for the two cities, $89,985,600. During the past three years there has been expended in new buildings In these two cities $52,300,000, in addition to a large sum in public improve- ments ; and it may be safely affirmed that so great a sum thus expended in London, Paris, or New York, in so short a time, would attract the admiration of the world. Yet the palatial hotels, massive business blocks, huge flouring- mills and elegant residences built with this money, stand on the wooded bluffs of the Mississippi, and the world cannot keep up with the facts. The i)aid-up capital and surplus of the National and State banks of these two cities together, are $2,225,000 in excess of those of New Orleans. Minneapolis alone handled 10,000,000 more bushels of wheat this year than Chicago. The PJllsbury A mill manufactured in one week last fall 40,050 barrels of flour, on two separate days turning out 7,000 barrels ; while the grist of the Pillsbury B is 2,000 barrels daily. During the crop-year just closed those two mills made 1,730,000 barrels of flour, while the Washburn mills made 1,318,939 barrels ; and there are, besides these mammoth mills, twenty-eight others in these cities, with a total daily capacity of 36,500 barrels. The amount of other manufactures in Minneapolis last year exceeded $26,000,000. Indeed, this is the natural home for manufactures of all kinds, there being no other locality in the West with its advantages. The climate is mild and pleasant, and to those who desire to get rich, we would say, " Go West, young man," but by all means go to one of the twin cities, as they have had an unparalleled growth, and the hidications arc will continue to grow as rapidly as heretofore. 112 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. CITY OF PROVIDENCE. Providence, one of the two capitals (Providence and Newport) of Rhode Island, and the principal port of entry and county-seat of Providence County, is situated at the head of navigation on the Providence River, which is at the head of Narragansett Bay, i6o miles from New York, 44 from Boston, and 33 from the ocean. The harbor is spacious, and has depth for the largest ships. The place was settled by a colony of refugees from Massachusetts under Roger Williams in 1636, who established there the oldest Baptist church in America in 1638. It was incorporated as a town in 1649. In 1776 the population was only 4,355, notwithstanding it had been settled 140 years. It was incorporated as a city in 1832. It is now the second city in New Eng- land in population, wealth, and manufacturing inter- ests, covering nearly 15 square miles on both sides of the river, which above the bridges expands into a cove a mile in circuit, on the banks of which is a handsome park, shaded with elms. It contains ^-'^ many beautiful residences, surrounded with fine lawns and gardens. Its com- merce is very extensive, and the city abounds in manufactures and wealth. Among the manufac- tures which are produced on an extensive scale are cotton and woolen goods, tools, fire-arms, sewing-machines, iron-ware, gold and silver ware, jewelry, chemicals, dyestuffs, toilet and laundry soaps, alarm tills. There are also several bleaching and calendering establishments. The iron manufactures include steam-engines and boilers, butt-hinges, screws, locomotives, iron castings, etc. The manufacture of jewelry, however, is con- sidered the most extensive industry in Providence, there being nearly 200 factories of this kind. The Household Sewing-Machine Company, purchasers of the property of the Providence Tool Company, employs nearly 2,000 men in manufacturing sewing-machines. Fine tools are manufactured by the Brown and Sharpe Manufacturing Company. Small wares and notions are made by the FIRST BAPTIST CHURCH. CITY OF MANCHESTER. 113 Fletcher Manufacturing Company. Solid silverware is manufactured by the Gorham Company on an extensive scale. There is also the Providence Steam Engine Company, the Allen Fire Supply Company, the Barstow Stove Com- pany, the Rhodq Island Locomotive Works, the Corliss Steam-Engine Works, Spicer & Pcckham Stove Works. There are 6 cotton and woolen mills ; it is also the headquarters of 100 cotton factories and 60 woolen mills. The total value of the manufactures is about $65,000,000 annually; total imports about $150,000. The exports, which are unimportant, are quoted at only $23,000. This is probably accounted for from the fact that most of the vessels are engaged in the coast trade. The number of vessels belonging to the port is 126, of 32,000 tons, while nearly 1,000 engaged in the coast trade enter the port every year. There are several lines of steamboats, some of which connect with New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Norfolk, and Charleston. The coasting trade is very extensive. Railroads radiate in all directions. There are about 55 banks, 25 insurance companies, 80 churches, 4 daily papers, and 80 public schools. Among the principal institutions arc Brown University, an Athe- naeum with a library of about 50,000 volumes, a College of the Society of Friends, a Roman Catholic Institute, Franklin Lyceum, hospitals and asylums. The city is governed by a Mayor, with one Alderman and four Councilmcn from each Ward. Its population in 1875 was 100,675 ; in 1880, 104,857 ; and in 1885, 118,070. Yearly expenditures, $2,205,000, making per capita about $18. CITY OF MANCHESTER. Manchester is the most populous city in New Hampshire. It is situated on the Mcrrimac River at the Falls of Amoskeag, 59 miles north of Boston, and 18 miles south of Concord, the capital of the State. Manchester was originally settled in 1722 by Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, and was at first called Derryfield, and incorporated under this name in 1751. The name was changed in i8ioto Manchester, and the city was incorporated in 1846. Its manufactures of woolen and cotton goods are of vast proportions. The great mills grind on day after day, and during the evening and at noon thousands of hard-working people can be seen at the post-ofifice and on the streets. The falls of 54 feet afford water-power through canals, which is the foundation of the great manufactures, which consist of cotton and woolen goods, machinery, paper, steam-engines, locomotives, hardware, carriages, boots and shoes, soap, tools, starch, etc. The total capital invested in manufactures has been estimated at $12,000,000 to $15,000,000. Among the great corporations may be mentioned the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company, the Stark Mills, the Manchester Mills, and the Langdon Mills. The principal public buildings are the Court-house, State Reform School, Catholic Convent, Library, etc. The city contains 9 banks, about 20 churches, and 50 schools. Its streets are well shaded with elms. It is the terminus of several railroads. Population in r 114 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. i860, 20,000; 1870, 23,536; 1880, 32,000, and in 1886, 40,000. The other cities of New Hampshire are Concord, the capital (population, 17,000), Nashua (14,000), Dover (11,000), Portsmouth (11,000), and Keene (7,000). CITY OF WORCESTER. Worcester is the semi-county-seat of Worcester County, Massachusetts. It is situated on the Boston & Albany Railroad, 44 miles from Boston, in a valley surrounded by beautiful hills. It is the centre of a fine agricultural district. The building sites in and around Worcester are delightful, and many of the residences are very handsome. The streets are broad and well shaded. The city is famous for its political and philanthropical conventions. The town was incorporated in 1722, and the city in 1848. It was from the steps of the Old South Church (still on the Common) that the Declaration of Independence was first read in Massachusetts. Among the public buildings are the County Court-house, the Union Depot (a massive structure), and the high-school building. The principal institutions are the City Hospital, the Orphans' Home, the Homes for Aged Men and Women, the American Anti- quarian Society with a library of over 50,000 volumes and a valuable cabinet, the State Lunatic Asylum, the State Normal School, the College of the Holy Cross, which is the principal Catholic college in New England ; the Military Academy, and the Free Institute of Industrial Science. The high, grammar, intermediate, and primary schools are considered the model schools of New England. The principal manufactures consist of boots and shoes (of which there are over 30 factories), iron, wire, machinery, boilers, corsets, cotton goods, woolen goods, carpets, pistols, paper, locks, hardware, pianos, etc. The city is the centre of several railroads. There are numerous banks, insurance companies, and newspapers, three of the latter being French. Main and Front Streets are the principal business streets. The business blocks have a fine appear- ance, and impress a stranger with the magnitude and importance of the business which centres in Worcester. Population, 1880, 58,295; 1886, 67,000. CITY OF PORTLAND. Portland is the leading commercial city and a seaport of Maine, beauti- fully situated on an arm of the southwest side of Casco Bay. It occupies a peninsula three miles long by nearly a mile wide. Its Indian name was Machigonne. It is 105 miles northeast of Boston, 60 miles southwest of Augusta, and 293 miles from Montreal. It includes several small islands in the bay, and was originally a part of Falmouth. It is connected with Mon- treal and Detroit by the Grand Trunk Railway; it is the terminus of six other railways. Grain is shipped from the Pacific coast to Portland without change of cars. Its trade with Europe, South America, the West Indies, and coast CITY OF PORTLAND. "5 towns is very important. Its harbor is the best on the Atlantic coast, having 40 feet of water at low tide ; it is protected by the islands from storms, and has a good entrance. It is the winter station of the Canadian steamers. It is defended by two forts and fortifications on Hog Island, which protect the four entrances. The exports average $25,000,00x3, and imports $22,000,000. It has one dry-dock. Ship-building is conducted on an extensive scale. Among the other industries may be mentioned the manufacture of iron, carriages, furniture, leather, petroleum, varnishes, boots and shoes, jewelrj', etc. The sales of merchandise amount annually to about $50,000,000 ; the manufactures amount to about $10,000,000. The city has fine, broad, shaded streets and handsome public edifices, among which may be mentioned a fire-proof and granite building for the United States Cou rts and Custom-house, costing $490,- 000; the City Hall of olive- colored free- stone, the Mechanics' Hall of gran- ite, the Post- office of white marble, etc. The city con- tains over 30 churches, and is the seat of an Episcopal Bishop and of a Catholic Bishop. It has numerous charitable in- stitutions, and about 70 societies for charitable objects, etc. The city contains a Law Library and Public Library. The place was first settled in 1632 by an English colony, and was called Casco, but in 1668 it was changed to Falmouth. In 1786 a. portion of the place, containing about 2,000 people, was called Portland. The principal occupation of the early settlers consisted of fishing and trading in furs, which they purchased from the Indians. In 1675 the place contained but forty families. The town was incorporated in 1718. In 1755 the population had reached nearly 3,000 souls. In 1800 Maine was separated from Massachusetts and admitted into the Union as a State, and from that time until 1832 CITY HALL AND COURT-HOUSE. :t M . 1 1 16 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. Portland was the capital ; in the latter year the capital was removed to Augusta. Portland was three times burned in the wars with the French and Indians. In 1866, on the 4th of July, a fire-cracker in a boat-builder's shop was the cause of a fire which destroyed $io,cxx),ooo worth of property. Population in 1870, 31,413; in 1880, 34,000; and in 1886, 36,000. CITY OF NEW HAVEN. New Haven is the largest city in Connecticut and a port of entry. It is situated at the head of a bay, 4 miles from Long Island Sound, on a plain between the Quinipiack and West Rivers. East Rock and West Rock are on either side, and are of volcanic formation, about 400 feet high. The city is 76 miles from New York and 36 from Hartford. The harbor is shallow, but has been much improved, and a breakwater is being constructed. The city is known as " Elm City," from the fine old elm trees which shade and adorn its streets, parks, and squares, many of which were planted over 100 years ago. The Rev. John Davenport and Theophilus Eaton, with a small colony of Puritans, founded New Haven in 1638, and with other adjoining towns were an independent colony until 1662, when it was included in the same charter with Connecticut. New Haven and Hartford were joint capitals from this time until 1873, when Hartford became the sole capital. The public square or " Green " is located in the centre of the city, and is surrounded by a double row of fine old elms. Temple Street, which passes through the " Green," is bordered by some of the finest elms in the city. On the " Green " are three churches, one of which is the oldest in New Haven. Behind one of these churches are the tombs of the " Regicides," Whalcy, Digwell, and GofTe ; and upon the side or slope of West Rock is a cave com- posed of boulders, in which the " Regicides " concealed themselves, and on which is the inscription : " Opposition to tyrants is obedience to God." The ccitral part of Chapel, Church, Orange, and State Streets is devoted to business. There are many fine streets, bordered with ancient elms, on which are handsome residences, surrounded with fine lawns and gardens. Among the finest edifices may be mentioned the City Hall, County Court- house, Post-office and Custom-house, the Yale College buildings, the Insur- ance building, the Hillhouse High-School, the Hospital, Trinity Church, St. Mary's Roman Catholic Church, the Calvary Baptist Church, etc. A large, new, and beautiful park has been built on East Rock, with several miles of drives. The scenery from the sides and top of this rock is very picturesque. The drives wind around the rock in serpentine form. On the top of the rock is a restaurant, from which point a beautiful view of the city can be had. The new Soldiers' Monument is to be erected on the top of East Rock, where it can be seen from the vessels coming up the harbor. The Famham Drive and the English Drive are so named in honor of the late Mr. Famham and CITY OF NEW HAVEN. "7 ved to :h and op was ulation . It is a plain : are on city is ow, but : city is iorn its ago. Dlony of 'ns were charter om this ', and is passes ty. On Haven. Whaley, Lve com- and on " The oted to )n which y Court- le Insur- arch, St. A large, miles of uresque. the rock be had. :k, where m Drive ham and Governor English, who donated the money for their construction. Churches, cemeteries, and fine drives abound in and about the City of Elms. Savin Rock, on the west shore, 4 miles from New Haven, has become very popular as a summer resort. It contains many fine residences, and is in some respects a miniature Coney Island. New Haven is a manufacturing city of great importance. Its manufactures of fire-arms, clocks, pianos and organs, carriages, india-rubber goods, corsets, iron goods, and machinery are very extensive. Other manufactured goods consist of cutlery, fish-hooks, paper boxes, brass goods, musical instruments, boots and shoes. It is the centre of a considerable wholesale and retail trade. The carriage business is one of the largest industries in the city. It is probably the first city in the Union for fine carriages. The Candee Rubber Factory is claimed to be the second largest in the world, while the Winchester Rifle Company finds a market not only in the United States, but in many parts of the globe. The Wheeler Iron Works and Sargent's factories are among the most important in the State. Nearly all the coal and much of the freight of New England passes through the city. New Haven in years past has had a large intercourse with the West Indies, but in later years much of it is conducted from New York. Its com- merce with Europe has increased rapidly, its foreign exports chiefly consisting of fire-arms, cartridges, shot, carriages, pianos, organs, machinery, etc. In one year 80 vessels of about I7,0CK) tons entered and 34 vessels of 9,000 tons cleared the port in the foreign trade. The direct foreign exports amounted to nearly $3,500,000, and the direct foreign imports to nearly $1,000,000. Much of the business being done through New York, these figures do not represent the entire exports and imports. About 800 vessels are engaged in the coast trade, which is very extensive ; about 200 vessels belong to the district. There are 12 national. State, and savings banks, i trust company, 2 insurance companies; 5 lines of railroad connect it with all parts of the country, and 2 daily lines of steamboats with New York. It is the seat of Yale College, which was founded in 1700; first established at Saybrook, and removed to New Haven in 17 16. It is named in honor of Elihu Yale, who was born in New Haven in 1648, and when ten years old was taken to England by his father, and never returned ; was afterwards Governor of the East India Company, and Fellow of the Royal Society. His gifts to Yale College were about .^500 in money and many books. The college has over 100 instructors and nearly 1,200 students. Of its four faculties, the medical was organized in 1812, the theological in 1822, the legal in 1824, and the philosophical in 1847. Its government consists of the Governor and Lieutenant-Governor of the State, 6 fellows, its President, and 10 ministers. There is a geological and mineralogical cabinet of 30,000 specimens, and the college has the historical pictures and portraits of Trumbull. The buildings of the academical depart- ment occupy one of the squares in which the city was first laid out. It is almost in the centre of the city, above the " Green " or park ; it has about 650 students. Examinations are held in Chicago, Cincinnati, and New Haven li^ Ii8 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. each summer for admission to this department ; the course is four years. The college library has about 100,000 volumes ; the libraries of the professional departments number about 20,000 volumes. The Peabody Museum of Natural History in connection with Yale College was erected from a fund of $150,000 donated by George Peabody, of England, and its accumulations, at a cost of $175,000. The collections are open to the public. The population of New Haven in 1870 was 50,840; in 1880,62,882; and in 1886, 75,000. The city is noted for its charitable institutions. hi ' i ll. i; CITY OF HARTFORD. Hartford is the capital and one of the principal commercial cities of Connecticut, and is situated in the centre of the State, on the west bank and 50 miles from the month of the Connecticut River, at the head of navigation, 36 miles from New Haven and 1 1 1 miles from New York. It is a port of delivery connected with the District of Middletown. The new Capitol is of white marble, and was erected at a cost of $2,500,000, and opened in 1878. It is one of the finest structures of its kind in America. It is 295 feet long, 189 feet deep, and 257 feet high from the ground to the top of the crowning figure. It is located in the park on Capitol Hill, and commands a splendid view. The city is beautifully situated on rolling ground or small hills, and covers about 10 square miles. A small river, known as Park River, runs through the park ; and near the centre of the town a fine bridge spans the Connecticut River, and connects East Hartford with Hartford. The park covers 45 acres, and is named after the late Rev. Dr. Horace Bushnell. It contains a memoral arch, erected by the town of Hartford, " In honor of those who served and in memory of those who fell in the War for the Union " ; a fine statue by Ward of General Israel Putnam, and a statue of Dr. Horace Wells, the discoverer of anesthetics. Trinity College for- merly occupied the site now occupied by the Capitol. Its new site is on Rocky Hill, approached by some of the finest avenues of the city. The buildings are of brown-stone, and form three great quadrangles ; the front is about 1,300 feet long; the grounds consist of 80 acres. This city is the home of Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain), Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, and was the home of the late Mrs. Sigourney, the poetess. Some of the private resi- dences in Hartford are very beautiful, and are set in lawns and gardens, many of them adorned with statuary, groves, and greenhouses. The city is regularly laid out. The principal retail trade is on Main and Asylum Streets, which cross each other at right angles at State House Square in the centre of the city. It is here that the old State House stands, now occupied as the City Hall. It was built in 1795. It was in this old State House that the famous Hartford Convention met in 181 5. The new Post- office is an elegant structure, and is located just back of the old State House. CITY OF HARTFORD. 119 Hartford was settled in 1635 by English colonists who had first settled in Massachusetts. In 1636 was established the General Court of the Colony; in the following year occurred the war with the Pequot Indians; the first church was founded in 1638 ; a Constitution for the government of the Colony was framed in 1639; a House of Correction was established in 1640; the first tavern was authorized in 1644; capital offences were reduced (by a new code of laws) from 160 under English laws to 15 in 1650. In 1654 the Dutch of New Amsterdam, who had possession for a time, were ejected. Governor Andros tried to seize the Colonial Charter in 1687, but failed in the attempt, as it was carried oiif and hid in the famous Charter Oak tree. Connecticut was very patriotic in the Revolution, and contributed largely in men and money to the late Civil War. The city of Hartford was incorporated in 1784. It became the sole capital in 1875, New Haven and Hartford having been semi-capitals previous to this date. Hartford has an extensive trade with nearly all parts of the country. It is one of the principal scats of the life and fire insurance business, and several of the finest buildings in Hartford have been constructed by insurance com- panies. Book publishing has been conducted on a very extensive scale for a city of its size. Among the great manufactories may be mentioned Colt's Anns Factory (capital, $1,000,000), the Weed Sewing-Machine Factory, the Pratt & Whitney Machine Factory, the Washburn Car-Wheel Factory, the Plimpton Envelope Company, several large iron works and foundries, marble works, and Cheney's Silk Mills, etc. The various manufactures amount to about $7,000,000 annually. In proportion to its number of inhabitants, Hartford is claimed to be the richest city in America. The Deaf and Dumb Institute was founded in 1817 by Dr. Gallaudet. The Retreat for the Insane is a fine building, in which nearly 5,000 patients have been treated. Among the other institutions are the Wadsworth Athcn.-eum, in which the Connecticut Historical Society is located ; the Hartford Hospital, the State Bible Society, the State Arsenal, the Widows' Home, the City Hospital, etc. About forty churches adorn the city. The Church of the Good Shepherd (Episcopal) was built by Mrs. Colt as a memorial to her husband. It is a very beautiful structure, with fine pictorial windows. The Cedar Hill Cemetery is very picturesque, and has many fine monuments, Hartford has a fine system of public schools, and contains the oldest grammar school in the State, founded in 1655. The city has a Free Library, a School of Design, and about 20 banks. Railroads connect the city with all parts of New England, and numerous lines of steamboats and sailing craft carry on an extensive commerce. Among its exports arc tobacco and silks. Hartford is famous as one of the oldest towns in the country where were enacted the "Blue Laws." Population in 1870, 37,180; in 1880, 45,000; and in 1886, 50,000, ft ; i\ , I20 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. CITY OF SPRINGFIELD. SPRlNGFiELn, Mass., is an important commercial centre. It is situated in the Connecticut Valley, on the east bank of the Connecticut River, 138 miles from New York, 102 from Albany, and 98 from Boston. It is the county seat of Hampden County, and the centre of a large number of railroads that connect it with all parts of the country and have done much towards the growth of the city. The principal manufacturing industries are the United States Armory, employing about 800 men ; the Smith & Wesson Company (manufacturers of revolvers), the Wason Car Company (manufacturers of rail- road cars), and the Morgan Envelope Company. Other manufactures are cigars, jewelry, buttons, cloth edge tools, pumps, gas machines, fire-engines, india-rubber goods, paper, etc. Some emij^iants from Roxbury settled in Springfield in 1635. The place was at first called Agawam, and finally changed to Springfield in 1640. The city was incorporated in 1852. The main street in Springfield has a fine business appearance ; it is long and broad, and has many fine business blocks. The streets are gcncrall}'^ shaded. The Arsenal is situated on the hill in a fine park of over 70 acres. During the Rebellion the Armory was run night and day, and about §12,000,000 was expended in the production of arms. I'our bridges span the Connecticut River at this point. The suburbs of the city are very picturesque. The public buildings consist of the Court-house (a fine granite building); the City Hall ; the Public Library, containing about 50,000 volumes, which cost over $100,000; a Museum of Natural History is also located in this building. About 30 fine churches adorn the city. There are numerous banks, fire and life insurance companies. It is here that the Springfield Republican is published, a paper that is well known in all parts of the country ; there are numerous other papers, both daily and weekly. There is a good system of public schools, and the Fire and Police Departments are very efficient. This city is the home of Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, the publication of which has done much to increase the reputation of Springfield. In the suburbs is a beautiful cemetery, which impressed the writer when on a visit to the city as being as fine for its size as any he had ever seen ; there are three other cemeteries. Population, 1870, 26,703 ; 1880,33,340; 1886,40,000. CITY OF LYNN. Lynn, a city of Massachusetts, on the east bank of the Saugus River, extends 3 miles along the Atlantic shore, 9 miles northeast of Boston. It has a small harbor lying west of the peninsula of Nahant. It is connected with Boston by the B., R. B. & L. and B. & M. Railroads, and by a horse railroad. Nearly the whole population is engaged in the manufacture of boots and CITY OF TROY. 121 shoes and works connected therewith. The shipments of boots and shoes annually are about 12,000,000 pairs, worth about $20,000,000. There are over 200 establishments engaged in this industry, with an estimated capital of $12,000,000. The leather industry employs nearly $1,000,000 capital ; tan- ning and finishing about 1,000 skins per day. These industries employ nearly 12,000 hands. The Thompson-Houston Company employ about 500 men, and are increasing their works very rapidly. Among the principal architectural attractions of the city is the St. Stephen's Church edifice, presented to the parish by the late E. R. Mudge, of Swampscott, as a memorial to his son, Colonel Charles E. Mudge, killed at Gettysburg. The material of which the church is built was taken from the Mudge estate at Swampscott. The place was settled in 1629, and incorporated in 1850. Originally it com- prised the town of Swampscott and the watering-place of Nahant, which is 2 miles distant. "We have more men than uniforms; what shall we do?" was the response to the call of the State for troops in 1861. It was in Lynn that the first American fire-engine was made, and the remains of the original iron-works are still exhibited. The coasting trade is consider- able. High Rock, in the centre of the city, is 180 feet high, and is the end of a range of hills that form its north background. It has a Soldiers' Monument which cost over $30,000, erected in 1872; 3 beautiful cemeteries, extensive water-works, a well-organized Fire Department, a fine system of public schools, a Free Public Library, with 30,000 volumes ; about 30 churches, a City Hall which cost over $300,000, 2 fire insurance companies, and banks with about $1,500,000 capital. The handsome common, the public squares, and above all, the beach, where numerous fine residences have been built, add much to the attractions of Lynn. Salem, noted for witchcraft, is only 5 miles distant. Population of Lynn, 1870, 28,000; 1880, 38,284; 1886, 46,000. CITY OF TROY. Troy is a city of New York, and the capital of Rensselaer County. It is situated on the east bank of the Hudson River at its confluence with the Mohawk, at the head of steamboat navigation and tide-water, 151 miles north of New York City and 6 miles north of Albany. Troy was settled by the Dutch in 1700, and was incorporated as a village in 1794. Four times it has been nearly destroyed by fire ; in 1862 the loss amounted to $3,000,000. Two small streams, having a series of falls, furnish water-power to mills and fac- tories, besides that given by a dam across the Hudson. At Troy is the principal outlet of the canals connecting the Hudson with Lakes Champlain, Ontario, and Erie ; and it has railways diverging in all directions, connecting it with New York, Boston, etc. The Union Depot, in the centre of the city, is one of the largest in America. n ' The iron furnaces and manufactories are the largest east of the Alleghanies, being furnished with the magnetic ores of Lake Champlain and the hematitic t-i^ II 122 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. ores of Western Massachusetts. The coal is brought from Pennsylvania and Maryland. The chief iron-works are those for bar-iron, railway-spikes, nails, locomotives, stoves, hot-air furnaces, hollow-ware, machinery, agricultural implements, etc. Other important manufactures are those of railway cars, coaches, cotton and woolen goods, breweries, flour, boots and shoes, shirts and collars — the latter employing upwards of io,CXX) persons, with extensive machinery. There is also the largest manufactory of mathematical instruments in the country. The property which reaches tide-water by the canals center- ing at Troy, including lumber, is valued at $17,000,000 annually. Its manu- factures are among the most successful and important in America. The first Bessemer steel works were located at Troy. Its manufacture of stoves exceeds that of any other city in the Union ; while the products of its furnaces, rolling-mills, and foundries are enormous. In the product of shirts, collars, and cuffs it stands unrivalled. Several railroads connect it with various parts of the country. A fine iron bridge, which cost $250,000, spans the river, connecting Troy and West Troy ; the latter is practically a part of Troy, as Allegheny is of Pittsburgh. The city contains 55 churches, fine public schools, the Rensselaer Poly- technic Institution, a Roman Catholic seminary, asylums, academies, etc. The Watervliet Arsenal, with workshops located in handsome grounds, is in West Troy. Population, 1870, 46,421 ; 1880, 56,747; 1886, about 63,000. CITY OF SYRACUSE. Syracuse is an important city of Central New York and county seat of Onondaga County. It is situated in the Onondaga Valley, at the head of Onondaga Lake, on the Erie Canal, at the junction of the New York Central and Oswego Railroads. It is 148 miles from Albany and 150 miles from Buffalo. The Oswego Canal runs north from the city. It is the centre of a large trade on account of its central location. It is sometimes called the city of conventions. The manufacture of salt is one of its principal industries. The Salt Springs were first discovered by the Jesuits in 1654, and were taken possession of by the State in 1797, at which time special laws were passed governing its manufacture. About twenty companies are now engaged in this industry ; the works are situated on the shores of the lake, and are the largest in America. The other important industries are iron furnaces, numerous large machine- shops, Bessemer steel works, rolling-mills, boiler works, fruit canning, silver- ware, breweries, carriage-shops, malleable iron works, musical instruments (organs), tinware, sheet-iron, door, sash and blind factories, agricultural implements, etc. There are over 100 large manufacturing establishments ; the annual product is about $20,000,000 a year. It is a handsome city ; contains a Court-house, State Arsenal, State Lunatic Asylum, 56 churches, 1 1 banks, numerous schools and libraries. Population in 1880, 55,563; in 1886, 75,485. :ss. CITY OF ALBANY. 123 nia and :s, nails, cultural ay cars, s, shirts xtensivc ruments 5 ccnter- 3 manu- rhe first [ stoves s of its »f shirts, 1 various he river, Troy, as er Poly- tc. The in West y seat of head of ; Central es from itre of a the city dustries. re taken passed jaged in are the CITY OF ALBANY. Albany is the capital of New York ; it is situated on the west bank of the Hudson River, 145 miles north of New York City. It is the oldest town in the Union, with the exception of Jamestown, Va., and St. Augustine, Fla. It was settled by the Dutch, and used as a trading-post with the Indians as early as 1614 ; it was known as Beaver Wyck, and afterward as VVilliamstadt. Fort Orange was erected in 1623, and the place was known by that name until it came into the possession of the British in 1664, when it was named Albany, in honor of the Duke of York and Albany, afterward James II. It was incor- porated as a city in 1686, and in 1797 became the capital of the State. The new Capitol at Albany is a magnificent structure. It is built of gran- ite, and was erected at great cost ; it is, in fact, one of the finest, largest, and most expensive buildings of the kind in the Union. It is 390 feet long by 290 wide, and cov- ers more than 3 ^'^ acres. It contains the public insti- tutions, among which are the State Library, containing 150,- 000 volumes, and a great many interesting Revo- lutionary relics; and the Geologi- cal Hall, contain- ing very extensive and varied collec- tions in Geology and Natural His tory. The State Hall is used for certain Departments of the Government. The State Nunnai School, established in 1844, has been very successful. The Albany Acadcni)' has a building of rare architectural beauty. The Union University was in- corporated in 1852, in which the most important branches of practical science are taught in all their departments. The Medical College, founded in 1839, has one of the best Museums in America, and is well furnished with ample means of instruction. The Law School, established in 185 1, has educated a large number of students. The Dudley Observatory, established in 1852, is well organized and equipped for its purposes. The Medical and Law Schools were at first separate institutions, but now, with Union College, constitute Union University. ALBANY, N. Y. 124 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. Albany has a fine system of public schools, with a high-school, which is very efficient. There are two public Hospitals and a Penitentiary. It is a great centre of railways, and is one of the largest timber markets in the world ; millions of cubic feet pass through this market annually. Stove manufacture is an important branch of its industries. The city is situated in the midst of a fertile country, and is a great emporium for the transit trade of the North and West with the cities on the coast, and being situated at the point where the Champlain and Erie Canals join the Hudson, it has great advantages for commerce. It contains some of the finest public edifices in the Union, which for rare architectural beauty are seldom surpassed. Viewed from some points on the river, Albany has a fine, picturesque, and striking appearance. Three large bridges span the Hudson River. The water supply is from an artificial lake a short distance from the city, and in part from the Hudson. There is a beautiful public park on the west side of the city, in which some of the scenery is very picturesque. There are over 60 churches of various denom- inations. The population in 1880 was 90,903, and in 1886, ioo,ooo. Yearly expenditures about $1,500,000. CITY OF LOWELL. Lowell is an important manufacturing city of Massachusetts, situated on the Merrimac River, 25 miles from Boston. It is the centre of numerous railroads, and has been called the Manchester of America, by reason of its vast manufacturing industries. The Merrimac River, near the mouth of the Concord River, has a fall of 33 feet at this point, which supplies canals with water power. These canals are controlled by a company, which erected extensive factories for twelve large corporations, who consume about 10,000,000 pounds of wool and 50,000,000 pounds of cotton annually, and have an invested capital of $16,000,000 and employ 16,000 operatives, of which over 11,000 are females. The employes for years came from the agricultural districts of the surrounding States, and lived in large boarding-houses, built and owned by the corporations, and kept under strict discipline. Foreign immigration has added largely to the number of operatives in later years. Its natural advan- tages for manufacturing are unsurpassed in America. The twelve corporations produce annually 140,000,000 yards of cotton, 3,500,000 yards of woolen cloth, 2,500,000 yards of carpets, 135,000 shawls, nearly 10,000,000 dozen hosiery (dye and print), and 67,000,000 yards cotton cloth. It has eighty large mills. The capital of each corporation varies from $1,250,000 to $2,500,000. We doubt if the reader would be interested in the vast array of figures, represent- ing the products and goods manufactured by all the mills in this great line of industry. The carpets manufactured include ingrain, Brussels, and Melton, and equal in design, quality, and finish any manufactured in Europe. Among ^he other industries are the Lowell machine-shops, employing 1,400 men and CITY OF SCRANTON. 125 a capital of $600,000; the Kitson Machinery Factory, the American Boll Company, the Swainc Turbine-Wheel Company, the Lowell Bleachery, employ- ing 500 hands and over $250,000 capital. Other manufactures are hosiery, edge tools, tiles, screws, fixed ammunition and cartridges, paper, hair felt, elastic goods, carriages, furniture, pumps, hydraulic presses, bobbins, chciriicals, etc. This is the city from which Dr. J. C. Ayer & Co. flood the country with patent medicine, and send out 10,000,000 ahnanacs annually. The City Library contains 17,000 volumes; the Mechanics' Library, 13,000 volumes. The city was chartered in 1836. It originally consisted of the town of Chelmsford ; subsequently parts of Dracot and Tewksbury were added. It is well paved, drained, and lighted by gas. It has a Court-house and 7 national banks, with an aggregate capital of $2,350,000. There are C savings banks, 2 hospitals, 2 insurance companies, Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum, an Old Ladies' Home, Young Women's Home, a good Fire Department, with an electric fire-alarm, and a well-organized police force. The city has handsome public squares. In the centre of the city is a monument erected to the memory of Ladd and Whitney, members of the Sixth Massachusetts Volunteers, who were killed on April 19, 1861, by a mob in Baltimore. The water-works were finished in 1873, and cost $1,500,000. The city was named in honor of Francis Cabot Lowell, of Boston. Belvidere is the fashionable quarter of the city, and is in the eastern section. The population in 1861 was 36,827; 1870,40,928; 1880,59,845; 1886,65,000. CITY OF SCRANTON. ScRANTON is a city in Pennsylvania. It is situated in a valley on the Lackawanna River. It was founded by a family of the name of Scranton in 1840, and incorporated as a city in 1866. It is 145 miles from New York and 167 miles from Philadelphia. It is in the midst of the coal region. Its shipments, upwards of 50,000 tons daily, are enormous, and it has a large trade in mining supplies. It has vast iron and steel works, extensive machine- shops, breweries, gunpowder works, and stove works. It fixes the American rate on steel rails. Other industries are silk fabrics, brass goods, leather, hollow-ware, etc. It has numerous handsome and substantial public buildings, 12 banks, over 30 fine churches, gas-works, water-works, a good fire depart- ment, numerous charitable institutions, public schools, academies, a Board of Trade, a Scientific and Historical Society, and a fine collection of Indian relics. The city is well laid out, and has a fine business appearance. Its wholesale trade is very extensive. It is on the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Rail- road, and is the terminus of the Lackawanna & Bloomsburgh, Delaware & Hudson, the Erie, and the Philadelphia & Reading Railroads. Scranton is a growing city and a great hive of industry. Population, 1880,45,850; 1885, 70,350. 126 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. f'Mi CITY OF BUFFALO. Buffalo for many years has been called the " Queen City of the Lakes," and well merits that prond appellation. It is a " Port of Entry," and the capital of Erie County, New York ; situated at the eastern extremity of Lake Erie, at the head of Niagara River, and the mouth of Buffalo River, in lati- tude 42 degrees 53 minutes North; longitude 78 degrees 55 minutes West, about 293 miles northwest of New York City, and is the western terminus of the Erie Canal. It has one of the finest harbors on the lakes, formed by the Buffalo River, a small stream which is navigable for about three miles from its mouth. The entrance is protected by a breakwater 1,500 feet long, upon the south side of the river. In 1869 the United States Government began the VIEW IN BUFFALO PARK. construction of an outside harbor, by building a breakwater 4,000 feet long, fronting the entrance to Buffalo River, at a distance of about one-half mile from the shore. In addition to the harbor, there are a large number of slips, docks, and basins, for the accommodation of shipping and canal-boats. The city was founded in 1804, and named New Amsterdam. It became a military post in 18 1 3, and was destroyed by the British in the same year. The place was rebuilt after the war, and took its present name from the river, on whoso banks stood the principal village of the Seneca Indians, and where lived the famous Chiefs, Red Jacket and Farmers Brother. It grew rapidly after the ompletion in 1825 of the Erie Canal, and soon became a transfer station for all the commerce of the lakes. It was incorpora- ted as a city in 1832, with a population of about 10,000. In later years it CITY OF BUFFALO. 127 has become one of the most important railroad centres in the country. It is the terminus of the New York Central ; New York, Lake Erie, and Western ; Lake Shore and Michigan Southern ; Michigan Central ; New York, West Shore, and Buffalo ; Lehigh Valley ; Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western ; Buffalo, New York, and Philadelphia ; New York, Chicago, and St. Louis ; Buffalo, Roches- ter, and Pittsburgh, and two branches of the Grand Trunk. The railroad yard facilities are the most extensive in the world, there being about 660 miles of track inside of the city. The vast quantities of grain moving east to the Atlantic coast is an important part of the commerce of Buffalo, and no other city in the Union has better facilities for handling or storing it, there being about 40 elevators with a capacity for handling nearly 4,000,000 bushels per day. The large stock-yards in the eastern suburbs of the city are used not only as a transfer station, but as a market for local distribution. The city has an immense trade in coal, which arrives from Pennsylvania, and is shipped east by rail and canal and west by lake. Its anthracite coal docks are the most extensive in the world; the total receipts of anthracite coal for 1885 were about three million tons, and of bituminous, about one and one-half mill- ions of tons. There is quite an extensive trade in lumber from Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Lower Canada. There are over thirty large establishments for the man- ufacture of iron, besides two yards fitted to iron ship-building, which have pro- duced some of the finest vessels on the lakes, and many iron revenue vessels for the Governmc . The estimated value of the leather manufacture here in 1885 was $10,000,000, of boots and shoes $2,000,000. Buffalo takes the lead in the quality of hemlock sole leather produced in the United States. Its flour-mills are also quite extensive, having a capacity of 3,850 bbls. per day. The city is regularly built, being eight miles long, north and south, and about five miles wide, containing thirty-nine square miles. It has long been celebrated for the elegance of its private dwellings which can be found in nearly every part of the city, especially on the avenues lying west of Main Street. The broad, straight avenues lined by noble trees add greatly to the beauty of the city. The climate though cold in winter is considered pleasant and very healthful ; it has a good water and sewerage system. Many of its streets are paved with smooth asphalt. The city is divided into thirteen wards, and its principal officers are the Mayor and Common Council, com- posed of two Aldermen from each ward, the Comptroller, City Treasurer, City Engineer, Street Commissioner, three Assessors, and Corporation Counsel. The assessed value of its taxable property is $114,000,000. Its principal public buildings are : The City and County Hall, completed in 1876, at a cost of $1,445,000. It is built of granite, is three stories high, not including the fin- ished basement, and furnishes quarters for all the city and county officers, as well as the courts. It is situated on the square bounded by Franklin, Church, Delaware, and Eagle Streets ; the County Jail is on the opposite side of Dela- ware Street, and is connected by a tunnel under the street. The State Insane f. I- i iiii »ii: !! ( I II 128 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. Asylum, recently completed at a cost of over $2,000,000 ; the Erie County Almshouse ; Erie County Penitentiary, and many public hospitals, asylums, and charitable institutions. Among its fine edifices are, the Custom-house ; the German Insurance Building; theHayen Building; the White Building; the Board of Trade Building; the Marine Bank Building ; the Young Men's Asso- ciation Building ; the Erie County, Western, and Buffalo Savings Banks Build- ings; the Fine Arts Academy; the Fitch Creche ; the State Arsenal ; and the Seventy-fourth Regiment Armory ; besides its many elegant hotels and rail- road depots. Among the institutions in which special interest is taken are the Young Men's Association, now called the " Buffalo Library "; the Society of Natural Sciences ; the Grosvenor Library ; the Buffalo Historical Society ; the Acad- emy of Fine Arts; the Decorative Arts Society; the Liedertafcl Singing Society ; the Buffalo Orphan Asylum ; the Young Men's Christian Associa- tion, and the Law Library. There are over one hundred churches and places of public worship. There are ten daily newspapers, and ten weeklies, besides several monthly periodi- cals. There are over fifty public schools ; a State normal school ; one high- school ; two medical colleges; Saint Joseph's College, conducted by the Chris- tian Brothers ; and Canisus College ; besides numerous private schools, col- leges, and academies. Music Hall, the property of the German Young Men's Association, was destroyed by fire March, 1885, but is now being rebuilt more substantially than before. The Young • Men's Association, now Buffalo Library Association, are also erecting a new and elegant fire-proof building for the accommodation of their valuable circulating library of nearly 50,000 volumes— this building is to be occupied also by the Buffalo Historical So- ciety, the Society of Natural Sciences, and the Academy of the Fine Arts. The Park system, extending around the business part of the city in the shape of a horse-shoe, contains over 600 acres, and is connected by boulevards comprising over 12 miles of delightful drives. Forest Lawn Cemetery is beautifully situated, and laid out in the northern part of the city. It contains 75 acres. The population in iSiowas 1,500; in 1830, 8,653; in 1850,42,000; in 1870, 117,700; in 1880, 155,134; and in 1886,210,818. Its growth is not only rapid but substantial. The proportion of tax-payers to the residents is not exceeded by any city in the United States. CITY OF TRENTON. Trenton is the capital of New Jersey and an important manufacturing city. It is situated on the Delaware River at its confluence with Assanpink Creek, at the head of steamboat navigation, 28 miles from Philadelphia and 57 miles from New York by the Pennsylvania Railroad. It is a well-built and CITY OF HARRISBURG. 129 handsome city, and commands a fine view of the river. It contains the State Capitol, State Lunatic Asylum for 600 patients, State Normal School, Deaf and Dumb Asylum, penitentiary with 915 inmates, State Library of 25,000 volumes, 36 churches, several daily newspapers, and extensive railway con- nections. The city is famous for its extensive manufactures of tcrra-cotta and crockery, which exceeds all the rest of the United States put together. Cooper & Hewitt's large iron-works and Roebling's famous cable bridge works are located here. Other manufactures are steam-engines, machinery, wire, wire- cordage, cotton, woolen, and several large rubber factories. In the War of the Revolution Trenton was the scene (December 25, 1776) of a night attack by Washington upon the British troops — chiefly Hessians — whom he surprised by crossing the Delaware when the floating ice was supposed to have ren- dered it impassable. Population, 1870, 22,870; 1880,30,000; 1886,35,000. CITY OF WILMING-TON. Wilmington is a city and port of North Carolina, on the Cape Fear River, just below the junction of the northeast and northwest branches, about 7 miles from the sea. It has a fine harbor, railway connections, and internal navigation. The exports are extensive, and consist of cotton, shingles, tar, resin, turpentine, lumber, rice, etc. It is sufficiently far south to enjoy a balmy climate, and is, withal, not only an enterprising and growing city, but a shady, attractive place, sufficiently near the sea to gain the advantage of its health-giving saline atmos- phere. It has fine drives and watering-places. Wilmington is a railroad centre of importance, and a port of heavy shipments of Carolinian staples. Depth of water at main bar, 18^ feet. During the Civil War it was one of the principal ports of the Confederacy, and was celebrated for blockade-runners. It finally surrendered to General Terry in 1865. Population, 1870, 13,446; in 1880, 17,300; and in 1886, 21,000. CITY OF HARRISBURG. Harrisburg is the capital of Pennsylvania and the county seat of Dauphin County, situated on the Susquehanna River, and surrounded by a productive region and magnificent scenery. It is 106 miles from Philadelphia. The river is here a mile wide, and is crossed by three railroad bridges, one of which is nearly 4,700 feet in length. It has a handsome State House, 180x80 feet, sur- mounted by a dome. It has a handsome public square. Its industries con- sist of iron foundries, machine-shops, coach, car, and steam-engine factories, tanneries, breweries, saw-mills, cotton-mills, etc. It is the seat of a Catholic bishopric. The Cumberland Valley, the Pennsylvania, the Northern Central, l1 130 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. the Philadelphia & Reading, the Schuylkill & Susquehanna, and the Southern Pennsylvania (unfinished 1886) Railroads radiate from this centre. The city has a United States Court-house and Post-office building, Court-house, jail. State Arsenal, State Lunatic Asylum, 35 churches, several academies, 8 or 10 newspaper-offices, markets, schools, and 7 diverging rail- ways. It was settled in 1733 by John Harris, an Englishman, under a grant from the Penns, the original European settlers of Pennsylvania. In 1785 a town was laid out, and named Harrisburg, after John Harris, Jr., the founder. An attempt was made by Chief -Justice McKean to change the name to Louisburg, in honor of the Dauphin of France, but was successfully resisted by Harris. It was selected as the seat of the State capital in 1 812. The city is well paved, and has gas, electric light, and water. Population, 1870, 23,104; 1880,30,400; 1886 (estimated), 40,000. KANSAS CITY. Kansas City is the county seat of Jackson County, situated in the State of Missouri, at the confluence of the Missouri and Kansas (or Kaw) Rivers. The boundary line between the States of Kansas and Missouri runs through the western section of the city. A large part of the city is built on a plateau, covering numerous bluffs, which are boldly rugged and picturesque. The principal bluff almost overhangs the narrow strip of land called the bottom that runs along parallel with the river. The plateau is intersected by numerous ravines, which form great hills and pretty vales all across the entire city. Thus it happens that almost every street in Kansas City, save only those in " the bottom," is a constant series of " ups and downs," hills and valleys. This lends a picturesqueness to the view when taken from any point of observation that is exceedingly interesting and enjoyable. Situated in the midst of a territory rich in natural resources to an almost unlimited extent, and with almost unequalled climatic advantages, Kansas City engages in com- merce of infinite variety. Crop failures are less damaging for the reason that all do not fail in the same season, and the ever-expanding live-stock industry furnishes another source of revenue. Kansas City has become the central point in the United States for the packing and canning interest. With six great packing-houses, Kansas City is producing pork products and canned meats that are shipped in immense quantities to all parts of the United States, and the trade abroad has become a regular and special factor in the business. The Western States and Terri- tories are regular patrons of the packing-houses in this city, the trade extend- ing even to the Pacific coast. A conservative estimate of the packing output of the city in value is $35,000,000. In bank clearings Kansas City ranks as the eleventh city in the Union, the total figures for 1885 being $223,582,933. The business buildings of the city » LSS. aouthern building, 5, several ging rail- r a grant ;n 1785 a founder. name to y resisted The city on, 1870, CITY OF EVANSVILLE. »3i the State w) Rivers. IS through a plateau, ^ue. The le bottom numerous ntire city. y those in id valleys. ' point of ted in the ed extent, es in com- eason that industry es for the sas City is immense las become and Terri- de extend- ing output are extensive and very substantial ; the private residences are numerous and elegant ; and the value of real estate has advanced rapidly, in many instances more than doubling in a year. Fremont alludes to the site of the city in 1843 as Chouteau's Landing. The growth of the city began from 1850 to i860. Alter the Civil War it became one of the great railroad centres and an important point for supplying emigrants on their Western journey, and the principal market for the sale of cattle, buffalo skins, and hides. It is now the centre of a vast railway system. Most of these railroads cross the Missouri River on an iron bridge 1,387 feet long, and supported by stone piers. The Kansas River is spanned by two other fine bridges. Kansas City is almost in the geographical centre of the country, as she is in the centre of the rich agricultural region. The line of industrial and populous growth approaches near this point with each year of progress, and it is easy to discover why Kansas City extends its trade limits with such remarkable rapidity. The table of assessed valuation of property for 1885 shows a very marked increase over 1884, and is only another evidence of the rapid progress of the city. The assessed valuation of the city last year (1885) was $31,678,520. Kaw Township was also added, amounting to about $3,000,000, making the total $34,678,520. This year (1886) the assessed valuation of the city is exactly $46,386,790. The city assessed valuation is made at 40 cents on the dollar of cash value. On the ist day of January, 1886, the total deposits of the banks were $12,072,973, an increase of nearly $4,000,000 over January, 1885. A year ago the loans and discounts aggregated $6,214,000, while at present they amount to $8,282,835, an increase of $2,068,835, or 33.29 per cent. The city has one of the best paying cable lines in the United States, and several others are in course of construction. There are numerous grain elevators, having storage capacity for a vast quantity of grain ; immense stock- yards, and a cattle stock exchange. Bituminous coal, taken from the sur- rounding counties, is distributed from this point over a vast region of territory. Population, 1870, 32,260; 1880, 55,813. In November, 1885, a municipal enumeration was completed, and showed a population of 105,049. If we add that section which is cut off by the State line of Kansas, but which is prac- tically a part of the city, the population would be increased to 150,000 in 1886. CITY OF EVANSVILLE. EVANSVILLE is an enterprising city and port of entry of Indiana. It is situated in Vanderburgh County, on the right bank of the Ohio, midway between Louisville and Cairo, 150 miles from Indianapolis. It is very advan- tageously situated for trade, being connected by several railroads with the great railroad system of the United States. From Evansville downwards the navigation of the river is seldom interrupted either by drought or by ice ; and m i .:i J I lili 132 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. here terminates the Wabash & Erie Canal, the longest work of the kind in America. Thus, the place connects the Lower Ohio at once with the inland lakes and with the Gulf of Mexico. Coal and iron ore abound in the vicinity. It is a manufacturing centre of importance, and the trade in agricultural prod- ucts is very extensive. The city has a fine Custom-house and Post-office, Court-house, Marine Hospital, numerous public halls, schools, churches, etc. It has grown rapidly, and is in a flourishing condition. Population, 1870, 21,830; 1880,35,000; 1886,45,000. CITY OF DAVENPORT. Davenport is a city in Iowa, opposite Rock Island, 111. It is situated on the right (or west) bank of the Mississippi River, below the Upper Rapids, 183 miles west of Chicago. It is on the Great Western route from Chicago, and is the centre of numerous railroads. A large iron bridge, which cost $1,000,000, spans the river at this point, and connects the city with Rock Island ; it has railroad, carriage, and pedestrian accommodation. The scenery in this vicinity is unsurpassed on the North Mississippi, and the city, which is on a commanding bluff, aflords a fine view of the river. The manufactures consist of cotton and woolen goods, agricultural imple- ments, flour, carriages, furniture, lumber, etc. It is situated in the midst of a fine agricul- '^ ^ ' ' ^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^ui^-^iim^- arr. ,.,. and has a large trade with the surrounding country. It has a fine court-house. City Hall, gas- works, water- works, over 30 churches, schools, banks, Opera-house, a Catholic Acad- emy, Semina- ry, Hospital, and an Epis- copal College. Coal is abundant in the vicinity, and an extensive trade is conducted by rail and water. Numerous fine buildings, erected by the United States Government, including the United States Arsenal and Military Head- quarters, are situated on Rock Island. Population, 1870, 20,038; 1880, 25,000; 1886, 32,000. DAVENPORT. CITY OF OMAHA. 133 CITY OF OMAHA. Omaha is the principal city of the State of Nebraska. It is situated on the west bank of the Missouri River, opposite Council Bluffs, 20 miles from the mouth of the Nebraska River, and 490 miles west by rail from Chicago. The name of the city is derived from one of the Indian tribes of Dakota. The city is built on a plateau about loo feet above the river, and i,oco feet above the sea. The place was laid out in 1854, and incorporated in 1859. The capital of the Territory was first located at this point, but was afterwards removed to Lincoln. Omaha is the terminus of the Union Pacific, the Omaha & Northwestern, the Omaha & Southwestern, and numerous other railroads. It is here that the Union Pacific and Central Pacific connect. The town was originally planned on a scale that provided for the growth of a large city. Before the Union Pa- cific was con- structed it was the great point at which emi- grants ar- rived and fitted out for their over- land trips to the "Far West." Its growth has been rapid. Abridge „ ^t OMAHA AS IT WAS IN l870. spans the Missouri, and connects the city with Council Bluffs. It has extensive railroad shops, iron-works for the manufacture of railroad iron, machine-shops, and smelting works for separating and refining all kinds of ore which come to Omaha from the various mining regions. The city has about 30 churches, several daily and weekly papers, is lighted with gas, has numerous street (horse) railroads, fine schools, hotels, fine residences and business blocks, a United States Post-office and Custom-house, in which are the United States Court Chambers for the District of Nebraska ; a large State Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. Its wholesale trade is extensive, and rapidly increasing. Population, i860, i,9C»; 1870, 16,083; 1880,30,518; in 1885,61,800; and in 1886, 70,000. Lincoln has a population of 16,000. n [I V ' t; 1 ' I! 134 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. CITY OF COLUMBUS. Columbus is a flourishing city, and the capital of Ohio. It is situated in Franklin County, on the Scioto River, which is a tributary of the Ohio. It is about 100 miles northeast of Cincinnati, in the midst of an extensive plain. Its streets are wide and handsome, and shaded with elms. The squares and beautiful parks add much to its appear- ance. The city be- came the State capi- tal in 1816; to this and the other numer- ous State institutions, the city for a long time owed its import- ance. But in 1 a t -e years its manufac- tures have increased STATE CAPITOL. , . .. ,^„:ji„ tu^„ ■• , .' \ rapidly. Iney con- i sist of carriages, agri- cultural implements, furniture, files, harness, brushes, printing establishments, extensive flour-mills and engineering works, rolling-mills, blast furnaces, tools, saws, watches, leather, window glass, malleable iron, boots and shoes. The principal public buildings are the State Capitol, the City Hall, the Penitentiary, the new Government Building, the numerous asylums for the blind, deaf and dumb, insane and idiotic, the Court-house, Opera-house, Alms- house, United States Arsenal, high-school building, the Odd Fellows' Hall, and Post-office. Other attractions are the beautiful gardens of the Horticul- tural Society, numerous hotels, fine suburbs, horse-railroads, and Green Lawn Cemetery. It is the centre of fourteen lines of railroad, and its population and trade are rapidly increasing. Population, in 1870, 31,000 ; in 1880, 52,cxx3; in 1886, 75,000. CITY OF TOLEDO. Toledo is the county seat of Lucas County, Ohio. It is situated on both sides of the Maumee River, near the western extremity of Lake Erie, 92 rriiles west of Cleveland and 53 miles southwest of Detroit. It was first settled in 1832, and incorporated in 1836. It has a fine harbor, and is well built. Its streets are broad and regularly laid out. It has very extensive railroads, which centre in one great union depot, and is the terminus of the Miami & Erie and CITY OF MEMPHIS. 135 Wabash & Erie Canals, together 7CX) miles in length. The local and transit trade is immense. It has 45 churches, a convent, 3 asylums, several lines of horse railroad, a water system which cost $1,000,000, a fire department and police system which are first-class, numerous fine hotels, banks, schools, a Free Public Library, numerous newspapers, and a Produce Exchange. Its com merce in one year was, in exports, $1,836,782 ; imports, $283,329. The total value of the commerce of the city for the year 1885 was $220,166,419. Its 10 grain elevators can store 4,017,000 bushels. In one year the deliveries of grain amounted to 39,304,891 bushels. The manufactures of the city are very extensive, and comprise carriages, wagons, iron, lumber, sash and blinds, railroad cars, moldings, steam-engines, boilers, pumps, bricks, etc. The whole- sale trade is very important, and it is the centre of a large retail trade with the surrounding country. Population, 1870, 30,731 ; 1880, 50,000 ; 1886, 70,000. CITY OF MEMPHIS. Memphis is a fine commercial city in Tennessee, and between St. Louis and New Orleans the largest city on the Mississippi. It is the capital of Shelby County. It is 420 miles below St. Louis, and 800 miles above New Orleans. It is handsomely built on the fourth Chickasaw bluff, 70 feet above the highest floods. It is the outlet of a large cotton region. It has fine public buildings, hotels, and theatres, 50 churches, 3 colleges, 100 schools, 5 daily and 10 other newspapers, 10 banks, and several insurance companies; railways connecting it with New Orleans, Charleston, Louisville, Little Rock, and all parts of the country ; with several foundries ; 10 of the largest oil-mills in the United States, producing vast quantities of cotton-seed oil and oil cake, in the production of which is consumed 500,000 sacks of cotton seed annually ; manufactories of boilers, machinery, etc. The Mississippi River is the scene of an extensive commerce. There i.- a Cotton Exchange, a Custom- house, a Chamber of Commerce, and a Board of Health. The latter have taken stringent measures to prevent a recurrence of the yellow fever. In the Civil War the city fell into the hands of the Federal forces in 1862, and was the base of military operations for the capture of Vicksburg, July 4, 1863. Memphis was desolated by fearful outbreaks of yellow fever in the summers of 1878 and 1879. I" January, 1880, the city began to lay sewers, and now have 50 miles of the best sewer system in the United States, and also have a good subsoil drainage system of about 50 miles in extent. The city is ver>' picturesque when viewed from the river. The large ware- houses along the bluff present a fine appearance. There is a fine park in the centre of the city. The streets are regular and broad. There are numerous handsome residences, with fine lawns and gardens. The river is deep enough to float the largest ships. The trade of Memphis is about $75,000,000 per annum. About 70 vessels belong to the port. It is a progressive city, and is now looked on as the coming commercial centre of the Southwest. !.t iii' 136 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. ^! '■ t !il K li The following is from the report of the President of the Taxing District of Shelby County : " The outstanding bonded indebtedness of the Taxing Dis- trict, issued in settlement of the old city indebtedness of every kind, is $3,186,. 569.27, and against this we have assets deemed to be good of $721,751.97, which would leave a net debt, after these credits have been applied, of $2,464,- 817.30. It is believed that the present financial statement is in two principal respects the most favorable that has, or could have been made in the past fifteen years, in that — ist, the debt of your municipal governmerit is definitely known and fixed ; and, 2d, in that the debt is less than it has been in the past fifteen years. The success of the several measures inaugurated with a view to compromise and fund the debt of the old city of Memphis has been largely due to the active and efficient aid and co-operation of a number of prominent citizens." Population in 1870,40,226; 1886, 65,000. tH'\ CITY OF PETERSBURG. Petersburg is a port of entry of Virginia, on the south bank of the Appomattox River, 12 miles above its junction with James River, at City Point. It is 23 miles south of Richmond. Five railways contribute to make it the third city in the State in respect of population. Petersburg is well built. It contains churches of the Presbyterians, Methodists, Episcopalians, Baptists, and Catholics. There are here several cotton and woolen factories, forges, and numerous mills, to which the falls in the river furnish extensive power. In the campaign of 1864, Lieutenant-General Grant, commander of the Federal army, failing to take Richmond, besieged Petersburg, and was repulsed in several attacks by General Robert E. Lee, with heavy loss. Ample evidences of the operations in the vicinity are still to be seen. A leading point visited by tourists is the battle-field beyond Blandford church, where upon the brow of the hill, overlooking the ravine which separated the oppos- ing forces, is the confused yellow mass known as the " Crater " or mine, which was tunnelled by Union sappers and miners, and blown up in order to effect a breach in the Confederate line of defences. Many relics may be found around this portion of the field still. One turns with relief from a contemplation of this scene to the beautiful old ruin of Blandford church, a mossy relic long before the struggle between the North and South. Its hallowed churchyard contains the tombs of the bravest and best among the early people of colonial Virginia. Petersburg is the junction point with the Norfolk & Western Railroad leading to Suffolk and Portsmouth, opposite Norfolk. A side trip may be made by this route to Fortress Monroe, which, together with Newport News, has grown into a great winter and spring coast resort. In journeying swiftly southward through the great pine forests of North Carolina the tourist begins to realize the balmy influence and delightful somnolence that betokens his '• CITY OF DENVER. 137 approach to the land of spring. It is a temptation not to be resisted to open the window and lean contentedly back in a delicious dolce far niente, noting with listless interest the odd and amusing phases of life and types of Southern character to be seen at the stations we pass. Population in 1870, 18,950; in 1880, 21,000; and in 1886, 23,200. CITY OF DENVER. Denver, the principal commercial city and capital of Colorado, is situated on the South Platte River, 15 miles east of the Rocky Mountains. Six railroads connect it with various parts of the continent. It is 5,000 or 6,000 feet above the sea, occupying several levels ascending gradually toward the mountains. It commands a grand view of peaks covered with perpetual snow. Its commercial and manufacturing interests are making great strides, and its population is rapidly increasing. The climate is remark- able for its salu- brity, and in win- ter the weather is generally mild. Between July and October there is scarcely any rain. In 1858 the place was uninhabited. Now there are numerous fine public buildings, various manufac- tories, numerous smelting and re- fining works, a United States Mint, and many solid business structures. Its growtn is remark- able. It has sev- eral national banks. The Denver & South Park and Pacific Railroad connect It with Leadville, a new city, only 8 or 10 years old, with a population of 25,000, situated over 10,000 feet above the sea, and surrounded with rich silver mines, the product of which in one year is estimated at $10,000,000. The entire State is pre-eminently a mineral district, and to this owes its wonderful growth. The population of Denver in 1870 was 4,759; in 1880, 35,000; and DENVER. % ff|n ' ii'i 138 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. in 1886, JlfOOO. In some parts of Colorado there are occasional storms of wind and hail ; otherwise, " an air more delicious to breathe cannot any- where be found." :P Mil! CITY OF CHARLESTON. Charleston is the largest city and commercial emporium of South Carolina, and is one of the most important cities of the South. Columbia, which is situated on the Congaree River, 130 miles from Charleston, is the capital of the State, and has a population of 12,000. Charleston, which is a fine city and seaport, is situated between the Ashley and Cooper Rivers, which here form a spacious harbor, extending 7 miles to the Atlantic. The city occupies about 5 square miles, and has a water front of about 10 miles. The commerce consists mostly of exports. The foreign commerce comprises exports to the value of about $23,000,000 annually, and imports to the amount of $150,000; of the exports about $18,000,000 is in cotton. There is also a large com- merce with the ports of t h e United States. The manufactures as compared with the com- merce are un- important. They consist principally of fert ilizers from phos- g^ phat e ob- tained in the vicinity. The wh o le sale trade in dry-goods, boots and shoes, hats, caps, clothing, etc., is extensive. There are 12 banks, and 3 railroads terminate here. There is also a canal which connects with the Santee River. An atmosphere of interest, such as attaches to no other city of the South- em land, will always seem perceptible to the stranger in Charleston. This is due to the important events, that, forming the overture of a long and terrible war, had their scene of action here. The scars of those days are still visible in many portions of the city, and to a still greater extent down the harbor, where the shapeless heap of stone and brick still gathers the mold of Time, where the gallant band that held Fort Sumter passed through their " baptism CHARLESTON. ESS. il storms mot any- of South Columbia, on, is the /hich is a ;r Rivers, itic. The 10 miles, comprises le amount : is also a g e com- ce with ports of ; United :e3. The lufactures compared 1 the com- ce are un- portant. ly consist icipally of t ilizers tn phos- ate ob- led in the inity. The I ol e sale extensive. Iso a canal the South- in. This is and terrible still visible the harbor, )ld of Time, ir " baptism VIEWS AROtJND OITY OP CHARLESTON, S. 0. 1. Institute Hall, 1861. S. Ohamoteristlo Street Scene. 3. City Hall. 4. East Battery ProiiMiUMl* 5, Entrance to Fort Stunter— reKisterlng names, 6. Interior of Fort SumMr. 7. Fisherman's Basin. 8. Fort Sumter. 11 I ' !! M III ■ f I 1 [iij'ii I P I 140 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. of fire." Charleston has nearly outgrown her chastisement, and turns her scars to account by attracting thousands every winter who might otherwise never enter her borders. A single day, leisurely arranged, will enable the stranger to see all that is notable here. The battery, where many of the finest homes of the city front on the harbor, is a shady, well-kept place. St. Michael's spire, always open to visitors, gives a superb view of the city and harbor, with the surf breaking beyond historic Morris Island. The Mount Pleasant & Sullivan's Island Ferry Company run frequent boats to Sullivan's Island, where Fort Moultrie stands. A small boat will take the curious stranger over to Fort Sumter. Jtist beside the gateway of Fort Moultrie, enclosed by a small iron railing, is the grave of Oceola (often incorrectly spelled with an " s "), the Seminole, who once figured so prominently m national history — an implacable, proud, thoroughbred Indian, who died a prisoner within these walls. Magnolia Cemetery is well worthy of a visit. The Magnolia Gardens, upon the Ashley River, about 20 miles from the city, is one of the most lovely spots in the South. It is reached either by the daily excursion , ceamers or by train. We cannot too strongly urge the visitor to Charleston to devote a day to this lovely retreat whose beauties no illustra- tion could adequately portray. A pleasant side trip may be made from Yemassee, the junction of the Augusta & Port Royal Railroad, while en route between Charleston and Savannah to Port Royal and the ancient city of Beaufort ; the former has developed a large shipping trade within a few years, and the latter enjoys the advantage of a good hotel. Population of Charleston in 1886, 63,ocx>. CITY OF SAN ANTONIO. San Antonio is a city of Texas, 1 10 miles southwest of Austin. It is one of the oldest Spanish towns in America. No city in the Union is so peculiarly interesting as San Antonio. There are seven Catholic churches, in which services are held in the English, Spanish, French, German, and Polish lan- guages. Mexicans jostle against Indians, and John Chinaman washes the linen of the commercial traveller. Visitors can eat at night on the plaza the strangely-made dishes prepared by the natives of Mexico. Strangers, while making purchases of curiosities in the shopS; wonder at the massive thickness of the walls, and hear, with surprise, that 200 years ago or more the Spanish troops found shelter there from the attacks of the Indians. It is a strange country, within five days* rail from New York, and when travellers pause there a little for rest, while en route for California and Mexico, they will find that it is unnecessary to visit Europe in quest of those quaint old vestiges of a past generation, or those strange sights which the new world of the North does not afford. CITY OF SAN ANTONIO. 141 It is the county seat of Bexar County, Texas. It is situated on the San Pedro and San Antonio Rivers. It is probably the most important place in West Texas. The principal business streets are Commerce and Market, which run parallel from the principal square. The business portion has been mostly rebuilt since i860. About one-third of the population are Germans, and one- third Mexicans. It comprises three divisions, che city proper betv/een the rivers; Alamo, which is east of the San Antonio River; and Chihuahua, which is west of the San Pedro River. Alamo if mostly occupied by Germans, while the Mexican quarter is in Chihuahua. In the city proper there are many fine business buildings. In the Mexican quarter the houses are mostly 1 A STREET IN SAN ANTONIO, built of stone and wood, and are only one story high. There is a public park on the banks of the San Pedro. The city contains an arsenal, a Roman Catholic Cathedral, College, and Convent, a Court-house, and banks. It is a centre of trade for the outlying country, the principal productions of which are wool, cotton, hides, and cattle. It has very important and growing manu- factures, and considerable water-power. The manufactures include extensive flour-mills, breweries, ice factories, etc. Invalids find the climate of San Antonio very desirable, as it is mild and genial. The place was settled by the Spaniards in 17 14. The population at the present time is 25,000. In the Texan Revolution of 1836 it was the scene of J '1 142 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. the massacre of the Alamo, when a garrison of 1 50 men, led by Colonel Travis, and including David Crockett, was surrounded by several thousand Mexicans, and after a heroic resistance killed to the last man. f; ■!:l i m ii i; -J CITY OF JACKSONVILLE. Jacksonville, Florida, is situated on the St. John's River. It is a flour- ishing city and the metropolis of the State. It is much resorted to by Northern invalids on account of the salubrity of its climate. In Jacksonville everybody seems on the move. Its street-corners are built up with hotels, and shops, and ticket-offices. It is a mart, and the sick man must needs partake of the BAY STREET, JACKSONVILLE. excitement if he stops here. Perhaps he needs diverting ; if so, let him stay. If rest is sought, he will do better to go up the river to some of the smaller points. Jacksonville has a score of hotels and a legion of boarding-houses. One-half of the population waits upon the other half. Bay Street, extending for a mile or more along the river, is built up closely, some of the structures CITY OF WILMINGTON. U3 being large and costly. The hotels are chiefly of wood. The population of the city in 1880 was i&,ooo; in 1886 it is estimated at 25,000. It is a growing city, and great excitement prevails in the winter, when the place is full of invalids, not only from the North, but from various parts of the globe. Tallahassee is the capital of the State, and has a population of 4,000; St. Augustine, 3,000. Key West is built on an island of the same name; the population is about 7,000. Pensacola has a population of about 5,000, which is about the same population as Fernandina contains. The productions of Florida consist of lumber, cotton, rice, cocoanuts, tobacco, sugar-cane, arrow- root, hemp, flax, coffee, oranges, lemons, bananas, limes, olives, grapes, and pineapples, which grow in great quantities and are of very fine flavor. Among the other products may be mentioned Indian corn, beans, sweet potatoes, peas, Irish potatoes, barley, buckwheat, hops, etc. Many of the people of the State have grown wealthy on the cultivation and export of oranges and other fruits. The manufacture of what is known as " Key West cigars " is an important industry, and has done much for the people of Key West. Game and fish are to be found in great quantities in all parts of ^he State. In the forests, rivers, and swamps deer, wild turkeys, partridges geese, ducks, and other game abound in great quantities. On all the coast can be found green turtle, oysters, sheepshead, red fish, and mullet ; and in iA of the inland waters can be found fresh-water fish in great variety. Sponges of a fine quality can be found in great quantities along the reefs, and are a considerable part of the trade. The pasturage of the savannahs is unexcelled, cattle requiring very little attention, and are seldom housed in the winter. Key West was nearly destroyed by fire in the spring of 1886. CITY OF WILMING-TON. Wilmington is the principal commercial centre in Delaware ; it is a port of entry and the largest city in the State. It is situated at the junction of Christiana and Brandywine Creeks, 28 miles from Philadelphia on the Phila- delphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad, and is the terminus of the Wil- mington and Reading, and the Wilmington and Western Railroads. The buildings are mostly of brick, and the streets meet at right angles. Among the public buildings are the City Hall, Post-oflfice, Custom-house, the Library and Institute, the Opera-house, and a large hospital. The city was incor- porated in 1832, and first settled in 1730. It has about 50 churches, numerous publ'c schools, academies, banks, newspapers, a good fire department, police system, gas works, horse-cars, etc. The manufactures consist of iron steamships, railroad cars, locomotives, car- riages, paper, powder, agricultural implements, machinery, cotton and woolen goods, flour, boots and shoes, leather, and bricks, which are produced in great quantities. The annual products of the various factories have been estimated at $30,000,000. 144 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. I ;.i ;i;i iiii! II ii Wilmington is a very handsome city, and has many picturesque water views. Its commerce with local cities is extensive. Its foreign exports and imports are mostly conducted through Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. Population, in 1870, 31,000; in 1880, 42,500; in 1886, 60,000. CITY OF MOBILE. Mobile is the only seaport and the largest city of Alabama. It is situated on a beautiful plain, on the west side of Mobile River, at its entrance to Mobile Bay, which opens into the Gulf of Mexico. It is 141 miles from New Orleans, and 180 miles from Montgomery, the capital of the State. The city, which is elevated 16 feet above the highest tides, rises gradually from the river, and is laid out with fine, broad, shaded streets. It was originally settled in 1702 by the French, and for years it was the most important place in the Louisiafia district. It was visited by famines and by epi- demics. At this period the settle- ment was lo- cated about 8 miles south of its present site. In 1706 the women of the place, be- ing dissatis- fied with In- dian corn as the principal article of food, revolted. This was known as the "Petticoat Insurrection." The place was nearly destroyed in 171 1 by a hurricane and flood ; the people then decided to move with their effects to a more desirable location, and selected the present site of the city. In 1763, at the Treaty of Paris, the city was ceded to Great Britain. After remaining in the possession of the British about 20 years it was ceded to Spain. In the War of 1812 it was surrendered to General Wilkinson. It was incorporated as a city in 1819, and during the Civil War was in the possession of the Con- federates. Admiral Farragut with his fleet sailed up Mobile Bay in August, 1864, and the renowned engagement with the forts and the enemy's fleet took place ; the latter was destroyed or captured, and the forts surrendered. The remaining fortifications were carried by assault, and early *in the following year the city surrendered. Mobile is lighted by gas, has numerous lines of horse railroads, and several railroads connect it with all parts of the country. It has a fine Custom-house MOBILE. CITY OF NASHVILLE. «4I and Post-office, City Hall and Market-house, theatre. Odd Fellows' Hall cathedral, 30 churches, 4 orphan asylums, several hospitals, a medical college, St. Joseph's College (a Jesuit institution), a Convent of the Visitation, and Academy for Young Ladies. Mobile has several ship-yards, foundries, and cotton-presses. The chief business is the export of cotton, timber, and naval stores. ' ' Mobile Bay is a handsome sheet of water, about 30 miles in length and about 12 miles wide; vessels drawing more than i6}4 or 17 feet of water can- not reach the city except at high tide ; but improvements are now being made to a depth of 22 feet and 200 feet wide. Its cotton trade is only exceeded in the South by New Orleans, its exports of cotton for one year amounting to nearly $6,cxx),ooo, while its total exports were nearly $7,ooo,ocx) ; the imports are over $5CXD,ooo annually. There is a line of steamers between Mobile and Liverpool, and numerous vessels and steamboats engaged in the river and coast trade. Its traffic in naval stores and lumber is extensive. Its exports to foreign ports last year in lumber and timber were $6i7,cxx), and the value of rosin and turpentine product last year was $1,027,166. The city extends along the river five or six miles, and runs back about a mile and a half. Population, 1886, 40,cxx). 'i'\ CITY OF NASHVILLE. Nashville, the capital of Tennessee, is situated on the Cumberland River, 235 miles from its mouth, with steamboat navigation of over 400 miles above the city. It was made the State capital in 1826. The State House is a very handsome building, built of Tennessee stone, quarried within 300 yards of the building. It is located on an abrupt eniinence in the centre of the city. It is 112 by 239 feet, and is 206 feet to the top of tower. The corner-stone was laid July 4, 1845, and first occupied by the Legislature, October 3, 1853. The total cost was $1,500,000. The architect and the chairman of the Building Committee were by act of Legislature buried in vaults constructed within the walls of the northeast and southeast comers. Nashville is a handsome city, built on a series of hills affording ample drainage, and is noted for its enterprise, almost unparalleled growth since the war, and the culture and hospitality of its citizens. It has a very advantageous and well-arranged system of railroad facilities, and is the largest commercial city in the State. The amount of capital invested on January i, 1884, in the four leading cities in the State was $10,865,000, of which Nashville had $4,995,500, being nearly double either the others. There are 2,670 business firms and companies, of which 708 are engaged in manufacturing. The whole- sale trade of the city gives employment to about 700 commercial travellers. There are 120 incorporated companies and 10 street-car lines. There are employed within the limits of the post-office carrier delivery — not including railroad shops — about 5,300 mechanics and skilled workmen. During the year 1883, $1,212,000 was invested in machinery within the above-mentioned limits. 1 ;l I 5 I !■! 1 ^ I h:., \\\\ m AW ill' I 11) .1 fl I'M' !:■! 146 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. There are 3 cotton factories — one of which employs over 800 hands — and a woolen factory. This is the first hardwood lumber market in the United States, and the fifth general lumber market, having 25 saw and planing mills, and 33 firms engaged in the lumber business. It is the fifth boot and shoe market in the United States; the largest candy and cracker manufacturing city in the South, and does an enormous wholesale dry-goods, grocery, and drug business. In stoves and hollow-ware, Nashville's manufactures have a good trade as far west as California and north to Chicago, and have recently secured profitable Government contracts in competition with the best Northern and Eastern houses. Its flouring mills have a daily capacity of a0out 1,800 barrels. It has a fine electric fire alarm and about 150 Brush lights. The local Telephone Exchange has 2,100 miles of wire in the city, supply- ing 1,300 telephones within the city limits, besides giving connection with 132 towns in Middle Tennessee. There is a fine electric time system, furnishing standard time from a central clock, with a service of 375 clocks, and is rapidly increasing. The banking capital in national banks is $3,100,000, besides several private banks. The individual deposits in the national banks average over $4,000,000. The latest taxable valuation of prop- erty gives $570 to each inhabitant. The iron interests of the South are largely controlled here, one concern alone representing $10,000,000 capital employed in making coke and iron in Tennessee and Northern Alabama. The city is divided by the Cumberland River, which is spanned at this point by a new iron truss bridge, 639 feet long, 55 feet 7 inches wide, and double roadway. An eminent geologist and mineralogist has said, " that if a circle were drawn around Nashville, with a radius of 120 miles, and paths made to each degree of the circle, 1 10 of them would pass over inexhaustible and easily available deposits of iron." Among the prominent public buildings are the Court-house, 3 universities, hospital. Custom-house and Post-office, County Jail, Market-house, 2 theatres, a Masonic Temple, an Opera-house, State Penitentiary, Free Academy, Protestant and Catholic orphan asylums; 66 churches, of 12 denominations, 47 white and 17 colored; 47 daily, weekly, and monthly publications. It has an extensive public school system, with 10 large buildings accommodating 6,000 white children, and 4 buildings accommodating 2,000 colored children. The value of public school buildings is $230,000. Near the city are the State Lunatic Asylum, and the " Hermitage," once the residence of President Jackson. Nashville was occupied by the Federal troops in 1862, and here the Federal General Thomas gained a victory over General Hood. The city is noted for its handsome private residences. A very extensive system of water-works supplies the city with pure water from the river. The educational facilities are unsurpassed in the South. The Fisk University for colored teachers was founded in 1867, the Central Tennessee College for colored students in 1866, and the Vanderbilt University in 1875, named after the late Commodore Vanderbilt. The Nashville Medical College and numerous other CITY OF SAVANNAH. 147 institutions, including a State and Public Library, the Roger Williams Univer- sity, academies, seminaries, private schools, and business colleges, adorn the city. The place was first settled in 1779; incorporated as a city in 1806. Population in 1870, 25,865; 1880, 43,cxx); 1886 (within the postal carriers' delivery), 75,000. CITY OF SAVANNAH. Savannah is a fine city and port of entry of Georgia. It is situated on the right bank of the Savannah River, 18 miles from its mouth, and 90 miles from Charleston. It is greater than Mobile or Charleston as a port of commerce, and it is the largest port for shipment of naval stores in the United States. The principal trade of the State centres at this point, and consists mainly of cotton, rice, and lumber. Great facilities are afforded by the Savannah River for internal com- merce. A canal, 16 miles long, connects this river with the Ogeechee River. Nearly 1 ,000 vessels enter and clear the port annu- ally, with an aggregate ton- nage of nearly 1,250,000. Savannah is the beau-ideal of an old-time Southern town. The visitor will fall in love with the shady vistas of the streets, and re- member with pleasure the parks set with monuments that alternate the squares. Bonaventure Cemetery is at once the saddest yet most charming spot one will encounter in a year of travel. The great live-oaks stretch their witch-like arms and join hands across the avenues, while from every branch and twig, like drapings of woe, depends the long and swaying Spanish gray moss. The Savannah hotels are large and well kept. 1 ne visitor will find a great deal at the rooms of the Georgia Historical Society to interest him. The scenes among the warehouses and clusters of shipping are extremely animated. Savannah is the terminal station of several railroads. The climate is very pleasant in winter, and is not considered unhealthy at any season. The city has SAVANNAH. % 148 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. \y- ( . iiiiiil ' ill a fine harbor, and the river is navigable as far as Augusta. It is built on a sandy plain, 40 feet above the river, with broad streets shaded by beautiful trees. Its chief edifices are the Custom-house, City Exchange, Court-house, State Arsenal, theatre, St. Andrew's Hall, Oglethorpe Hall, market, 3 hospitals, asylums, and Masonic Hall, where in 1861 the ordinance of secession was passed. The exports are about $5o,500,cxx), consisting of cotton, rice, lumber, etc. The cotton exported annually amounts to 850,000 bales; imports, $1,000,000. Vessels of upward of 22 feet draught discharge and load three miles below the harbor. City expenditures for 1885, $595,325.22 ; balance on hand, $43,340.82 ; total bonded debt of the city, December 31, 1885, $3,737,200, at 5 per cent, per annum. Savannah is surrounded by marshes and islands, and on the river side is defended by Forts Pulaski and Jackson. It was founded in 1733 by the English General Oglethorpe. In 1776, a British fleet, attempting to take the town, was repulsed after a severe action ; but it was taken in 1778, and held in 1789 against the combined French and American forces. In the late war, after many unsuccessful attacks by sea, it was taken by General Sherman in February, 1865. As a cotton port it is inferior to New Orleans only. The manufactures are not important, and consist of the products of foundries, planing and flouring mills, and a large cotton-mill. In the park is a Confederate monument ; and in Johnson Square an obelisk to the memory of General Greene and Count Pulaski. The Pulaski monument in Monterey Square is 55 feet high, of marble, surmounted by a Statue of Liberty, and is considered one of the finest works of the kind in the Union. The city has 35 churches, a Public Library, Historical Society, several banks, and an excellent school system. It has had two great fires, one in 1796 (loss, $1,000,000), the other in 1820 (loss over $4,000,000). Its Police and Fire Departments are very efBcient ; the latter is now a paid department, reinforced by " call men." In Georgia the tops of the hills are mostly covered with forests of pine, oak, palmetto, ash, hickory, cypress, black-walnut, cedar, and mulberry. The agricultural products of the State are cotton, wheat and other grain, maize, tobacco, sugar-cane, indigo, rice, etc. Cotton is one of the great articles of commerce, as is also tobacco, indigo, canes, timber, maize, and deer-skins. The population of Savannah in 1880 was 33,000, and in 1886, 42,000. CITY OF ATLANTA. Atlanta is a port of entry, a fine city, and the capital of Georgia. It is called the " Gate City." It is destined to be a city of great importance, as it is the terminus of all the railroads of the State. There is little of the con- ventional South about Atlanta. The energy, persistence, and phenomenal growth of this city have won for it the sobriquet of the " Chicago of the South." The new Kimball House, built upon the hotel of the same name recently destroyed by fire, adds greatly to the already excellent hotel accprnmodations CITY OF ATLANTA. l: m it fonoo d9 l«on Sinlog. 8. U. S. Custom House and Post Office. 8. In the Oonunercial Quortor. i ynioD Depot 6. Feaobtree Street. ISO PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. of the city. Its streets are laid out, or perhaps we should say wander, with a freedom from relation to the cardinal points of the compass, which should make Boston envious, but they are bright, wide, and shady streets. There is not a prettier avenue anywhere in the land than Peach-tree Street, which bears the same relation to Atlanta that Euclid Avenue does to Cleveland. The surrounding country, besides being rich in grain and cotton, contains gold, iron, and other valuable minerals. Atlanta was destroyed by General Sherman, November, 1864. The large negro population and the heavy traffic in cotton are almost the only features which proclaim Atlanta as a Southern centre. As the city has been chiefly rebuilt since the war, the prevalent styles of architecture are modern and pleasing. The United States Custom-house and Post-office is a handsome structure in the heart of the city. Upon Washington and other leading streets there are many large and costly churches of several denomina- tions. After the war, Atlanta speedily recovered from almost complete ruin, and within two years had as great a population as when the war began. It became the capital of the State in 1868. Among the public institutions are the Oglethorpe University, the North Qeorgia Female College, the Atlanta Medical College, and the Atlanta University for colored students. From the high ground occupied by the McPherson Barracks, in the north western portion of the city, a very fine outlook upon the city's environment may be had. Not far away is Kennesaw Mountain, the scene of much sanguinary fighting, and away to the north are the pale outlines of the Tennessee Mountains, famed through the names of Lookout, Mission Ridge, Chickamauga, and Chattanooga. Within the limits of the city and in its immediate vicinage are many huge yellow mounds, portions of the cordon of defences which extended around the city, upon which the grass has never grown. Atlanta is built on an elevated plateau, 1,100 feet above tide-water, and is singularly dry, cool, and healthy. Atlanta, unlike her sedate sister cities of the South, owes her rapid growth and commercial importance to her favorable position and her great spirit of enterprise. Her railroads have direct lines to all sections of the country. In the last ten years it has grown rapidly, and given great impetus to the new industries of the South. It has vast cotton-mills, and immense iron rolling- mills; these give employment to a large number of persons. Population about 52,000. f'; ■•; CITY OF ROCHESTER. Rochester is a commercial city and port of entry, situated on both side. of the Genesee River, 7 miles south of its entrance into Lake Ontario. It is the capital of Monroe County. It is 230 miles from Albany. It is located on an elevated site, which covers about 17 square miles. Its streets are shaded, and generally from 50 to 100 feet wide. It is the terminus of the CITY OF UTICA. I5» Rochester & Pittsburgh and numerous other railways. It is crossed by the Erie Canal and the New York Central Railway. Owing to its advantageous situation it has grown very rapidly ; by means of the Genesee it has easy access to the lakes, while its railroads and canals give it communication with the fertile coun- try by which it is surrounded ; besides, it has an immense advantage in water- power. The numerous falls of the Genesee River within its boundaries amount to 268 feet in perpendicular height. The upper falls of the Genesee, a cataract of 96 feet, are in the centre of the city; a mile or two below are two other falls, one 84 feet and the other 25. The river runs through a deep gorge 120 feet high. As a result of this immense water-power it has become one of the principal markets of the flour trade, and has some of the largest flour-mills in the Union, besides numerous other extensive manufacturing establishments. Rochester was settled in 1810, and incorporated as a village in 1817. It was first laid out by Nathaniel Rochester, an American pioneer. It was incorporated as a city in 1834. The city is very handsome and well built. The canal crosses the river on a fine aqueduct containing seven arches. Main Street is the principal thoroughfare and promenade. It is in the centre of the city, and crosses the river, which is spanned by a substantial bridge. Among the principal buildings may be mentioned the County Court- house; the City Hall, with a tower 175 feet high; the high-school building, the Powers block, and the Warren Astronomical Observatory, the finest private observatory in the world. The University of Rochester occupies large buildings in the eastern part of the city. It was founded by the Baptists in 1850, and the grounds, consisting of 23 acres, are beautifully laid out. There are about 70 churches, a fine public school system employing over 200 teachers, nearly 50 public and private schools, a theological seminary, an athenaeum, hospitals, and reformatory. The nurserj' trade of Rochester has assumed vast propor- tions, and is not surpassed by that of any other place in the world. Mount Hope Cemetery is beautifully laid out, and is an ornament to the city. The population of Rochester was, in 1820, 1,502; in 1840,20,191; in i860, 48,243; in 1870, 62,386; in 1880, 89,363; and in 1886, 115,000. The city expenditures in one year were $1,078,038, making about $io/>er capita. % CITY OF UTICA. Utica is a city of New York and county seat of Oneida County. It is situated at the junction of the Erie and Chenango Canals on the Mohawk River. It is 95 miles west-northwest of Albany. The city, regularly and handsomely built, rises from the south bank of the river on a gradual eleva- tion, the ground generally being level. Among its buildings are a city hall, United States Court-house and Post-office, opera-house, public halls, 34 churches, large hotels, banks, cotton-mills, woolen-mills, a State lunatic asylum, Catholic and Protestant orphan asylums, academies, and schools. 152 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. There are 1 1 newspapers and periodicals, of which 2 are Welsh and i German. In 1813 it had a population of 1,700. It was incorporated as a city in 1832. At the period of the Revolution Utica was a frontier trading-post, and the site of Fort Schuyler, built to guard the settlements against the French and Indians. It is connected with various parts of the country by the New York Central, the Utica & Black River, and the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroads. Its principal business street is very handsome, and contains fine substantial blocks of buildings. It impresses a stranger with being a live, active place. It covers a large extent of territory. It has numerous public parks, a public library, and a mechanics' association. It is the centre of a rich dairy and farming district ; it is the largest cheese market in America. Its manufactures consist of clothing, steam-engines, boots and shoes, pianos, agricultural implements, cotton and woolen goods, carriages, carpets, etc. Population, 1880, 34,000; 1S86, 40,000. CITY OF GALVESTON. Galveston is the most important commercial city and seaport in Texas. It is situated in a county of the same name on Galveston Island, at the open ing of Galveston Bay into the Gulf of Mexico. Its harbor is the finest in the State ; it has 14 feet of water over the bar at low tide. The bay extends north to the mouth of Trinity River, a distance of 35 miles, and is 12 to 18 miles wide, and is a very handsome sheet of water. The island of Galveston is 28 miles in length, and about 2 to 3 miles wide. Its average elevation above the sea level is only 5 feet. The streets of the city are straight, spacious, and elegant ; and its principal buildings — the Roman Catholic University of St. Mary's, the Roman Catholic Cathedral, and the Episcopal Church — are large, imposing edifices of brick in the Gothic style. Galveston has 18 churches, 2 libraries, a convent of Ursuline nuns, a medical college, an orphan asylum, hospitals, over 10 miles of street railway, and a number of schools of various kinds. It has railroads connecting it with all parts of the country, and is connected by steamship lines with Liverpool, New Orlear New York, and the coast towns of Texas as far as Mexico, and by tnU vessels with countries in Europe, Mexico, the West Indies, and S( ica. The principal trade is the shipping of cotton (over 40 acres of [ md aa devoted to cotton presses and warehouses), hides, grain, pork, and beet. Tl' foreign exports in one year amounted to nearly $18,000,000, and the impo to about $1,000,000. The city has good wharves, several ship-building yards, foundries, machine-shops, gas-works, railroad shops, daily and weekly news- papers, savings and national banks, etc. The island of Galveston was, from 1817 to 182 1, the haunt of the pirate Lafitte, who was dislodged in the latter year. Plenty of vegetables and tropical fruits grow all the year round. Population in 1870, 13,818; 1880, 26,000; 1886, 45,000. LESS. German. y in 1832. :, and the rench and 4ew York It Western itains fine ng a live, 3U3 public entre of a I America, es, pianos, irpets, etc. t in Texas. t the open- inest in the ay extends is 12 to 18 Galveston e elevation e straight, n Catholic Episcopal Galveston college, an number of )arts of the w Orlcar by <^i' t aid aa bed. Tl- he impo ding yards, eekly news- 1 was, from n the latter ^ear round. QALYBSTON. , fl I It j 154 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. CITY OF DAYTON. Dayton is one of the most prosperous and wealthy cities of Ohio. It is situated at the junction of the Miami and Mad Rivers. It is connected with Cincinnati, on the Ohio, by the Miami Canal — the distance being 52 miLi. In the variety and extent of its manufactures Dayton stands foremost among Western towns in proportion to its size. Fine water-power is supplied by the river. The population has very rapidly increased. In 1850 it amounted to 10,976, having almost quadrupled within the preceding 20 years; in 1853 it had risen to 16,562, showing an addition of more than 50 per cent, in three years; in i860 it amounted to 20,482; and 1 870 to 30,473. It owes its pros- perity chiefly to the great number of railroads centering here, among which are the Atlantic & Great Western ; the Cincinnati, Hannibal & Dayton ; the Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati & Indianapolis ; the Dayton & Union ; the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati & St. Louis, and several others. It has a fine Court- house, a Public Library, several newspapers, 53 churches, a Catholic Institute for Boys ; a National Home for Disabled Soldiers and Sailors, situated in fine grounds, and other institutions. Many of the private residences are very handsome, af^d have elegant grounds. The streets are broad and well paved. It is in the midst of a rich agricultural district, in which limestone quarries abound. Population, 1880, 38,000; 1886,45,000. 1:,:^ CITY OF WHEELING-. Wheeling is the largest city of West Virginia, a county seat, a port of entry, and the capital of the State. It is situated on the left bank of the Ohio River, at the entrance of Wheeling Creek, 60 miles by rail and 92 by river, below Pittsburgh. It is the largest commercial city between Cincinnati and Pittsburgh on the Ohio River. It extends 5 or 6 miles along the river on both sides of the creek The city is built at the foot of the hills which rise to the Alleghanies, and is the terminus of the Baltimore and Ohio, and of the river division of the Cleveland and Pittsburgh, and numerous other railroads. The great national road here crosses the Ohio, over which is a wire suspension bridge, 1,010 feet long. Its manufacturing establishments are very extensive, and consist of iron foundries, glass works, blast-furnaces, forges, machine-shops, paper-mills, cigar factories, flour-mills, ship-building, etc. About 500 vessels belong to the port. Large quantities of bituminous coal are mined in the hills in the vicinity. The public buildings consist of the Custom-house, Post-office, and United States Court Chambers, which are combined in one ; the State-house, the Opera- house, and Odd Fellows' Hall. It has a public library, a college for women, and several charitable institutions. It is the centre of an important trade. The place was first settled in 1772, and incorporated as a city in 1806. Population in 1870, 20,000; in 1880, 31,000; in 1886, 40,000. CITY OF READING.— SALT LAKE CITY. lis CITY OF READING-. Reading is a city of Southeast Pennsylvania, on the left bank of the Schuylkill River, 58 miles northwest from Philadelphia, 55 miles northeast of Harrisburg ; it is at the junction of the Union and Schuylkill Canals. Three fine bridges span the river. It was originally set off by Thomas and Rich Penn in 1748, and incorporated in 1847. The streets cross at right angles, and the city is handsomely laid out. The business portion contains fine buildings, erected with great regularity. It is the centre of a very productive farming district, and has a considerable wholesale and retail trade. It has a handsome Court-house, an Academy of Music, a jail, several hotels, banks, well-organ- ized police and fire departments, numerous fire insurance companies, a public library, a Catholic academy, numerous public and private schools, a Catholic hospital, and several charitable institutions. It is pleasantly situated on an ascending plain, and is supplied with streams of pure water from a mountain behind it. Penn's Mount is on the east and Neversink mountain on the south. It publishes 12 newspapers. Its industries are rolling-mills, blast-furnaces, machine-shops, saw-mills, foundries, shoe factories, breweries, tanneries, rail- road shops, manufactories of cigars, cottons, woollens, flour, nails, bricks, paper, etc. It has an extensive trade in coal. Population in 1870, 34,ocx); in 1880,43,300; in 1886, 51,000. SALT LAKE CITY. Salt Lake City is the capital of Salt Lake County and of Utah Ter- ritory. It is situated at the foot of the Wahsatch Mountains, in an immense valley, 4,350 feet above the sea level, on the east bank of the River Jordan, between Lake Utah, which is a beautiful body of fresh water, and Great Salt Lake, the latter being 12 miles distant. The city is connected with Ogden, the junction of the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific Railroads, by the Utah Central Railroad, the distance being 36 miles. It is supposed that the valley in which Salt Lake City is situated was in prehistoric times a sea, which by convulsions of nature has been changed from its original level. The soil still holds in solution the salt of the sea. The streets are 128 feet wide and shaded with trees, and cross at right angles, forming 260 squares of 10 acres each. Two streams of pure water from the neighboring mountains, some of them 10,000 feet high, flow through each street. The city is divided into 21 Wards, each of which has a public square or common. No drones are permitted iri the city, as the Mormons are very industrious. They never seem to tire of work or making converts to their faith, and bring large numbers of converts from all parts of Europe. The "City of the Saints "was founded in 1847 by the Mormons, after a % I t * t^i' h!II| I i; »:li I ' " ii - ■ R 156 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PR6GRESS. long and weary pilgrimage through forests and a wilderness that was far more extensive than that traversed by the descendants of Abraham after escaping from the bondage of Egypt. The dwell- ing-houses are chief- ly built of adobes or sun-dried bricks. Since the National Government has taken polygamy in hand polygamous wives are less nu- merous. The houses were generally built one story high, and were small ; but lat- terly many elegant residences have been erected. Each lit- tle dwelling is sur- rounded by its gar- den and orchard. The plates from which was written the Book of Mor- mon were discovered in 1827 by Joseph Smith, who founded the "Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints " in Manchester, N. Y. The church was afterwards removed to Ohio, Missouri, Illinois, Iowa, and finally to Utah. Their system of government is admirable, as it considers the interests of all, and were it not for the practice of polygamy, there could be little objection raised to the Mormons, who are only carrying out the doctrines of the Old Testament. The administration of the Edmunds law, passed by Congress in 1882, has put nearly two hundred Mormons in prison for terms varying from six months to three years, and made the practice of polygamy more unpopular; but it has seemingly neither destroyed nor shaken the Mormons' faith in the divinity of the principle of plural marriages. The principal business streets are Main, South Temple, and First South Streets, upon which there are several fine business blocks. Over one-fifth of the population are Gentiles and apostate Mormons, and since the laws of the United States against polygamy have been so rigorously enforced the latter are increasing. The city, which is not very imposing in appearance, is lighted with gas, and has numerous lines of horse railroads. The great Mor- mon Tabernacle, which is located on Temple Block, cost $150,000, and seats 13,000 people. There are Catholic, Episcopal, Presbyterian, Methodist, and Congregational churches, a Public Library, Museum, City Hall, University, MAIN STREET, SALT LAKE CITY. CITY OF RICHMOND. 157 ar more banks, hotels, halls, theatres, graded schools, newspapers, and periodicals. The city revenue amounts to about $175,000 annually; its debt, contracted to dig a canal for migation, etc., amounts to $225,000; its resources are more than $1,500,000; licenses for liquor-selling cost $1,200 per annum for each dram-shop. Salt Lake City is a growing centre of trade for the mining and agricultural districts. It is 650 miles from San Francisco, and 1,100 west of the Missis- sippi. The Warm Springs, which issue from a limestone rock at the foot of the mountains, are about one mile distant from the city, the health properties of the water being very beneficial to bathers. The Hot Springs are about a mile from this point. Population in i860, 8,236; 1870, 12,854; 1880, 22,000; and in 1886, 30,000. CITY OF RICHMOND. Richmond is the capital of Virginia and a port of entry. It is situated on the north bank of the James River, at the head of tide-water, about 150 miles from its mouth. It is 100 miles south of Washington, picturesquely situated on the Richmond hills on the lower falls of the river. A trip from Washington to Richmond leads through the storied soil of Virginia; first along the broad Potomac, crossing numerous tide-water creeks, and affording many pleasant outlooks, then to historic Fredericksburg, where the tide of war surged so fiercely, and on through the rolling, well-tilled coun- try, meeting frequent villages, at one of which, Milford, a stop is made for meals, and then through Ashland, with its vener- able college buildings, be- yond which it is a short run to Richmond. The opportunity to visit and familiarize oneself with the many interesting his- toric points in the famous capital of the late Con- federacy is one which is eagerly seized by nearly all intelligent pleasure travellers going South for the first time, and thus it happens that there is a very general interchange of passengers at this point. One day devoted to the city of Richmond for rest and relaxation will suffice to give an intelligent idea of this centre of the great struggle. A half day of pleasant driving through the broad and shady streets of the city to Hollywood Cemetery, one of the most beautiful places of sepulture in the land, would be a source of much pleasure and entertainment. A monu- STATE CAPITOL. ifi ;4 CO M W O b u M CO w u CITY OF RICHMOND. 159 ment of great interest is that which marks the grave of President James Monroe. Here also lies General J. E. B. Stuart, who commanded Lee's cavalry during the Rebellion ; while hundreds of Confederate dead rest within the cemetery. A drive to Libby Prison, and the score of lesser points famous in connection with the war, will prove a pleasant and instructive item o'. travel. The fine Capitol Square, located in the heart of the city, contains 8 acres. Within the bounds are found the prominent and shapely structure of the State House, and the famous Washington Monument, as well as the statue of Stonewall Jackson. The city is re^'-'arly laid out and built, and surrounded with beautiful scenery. The Capitol is a stately building. Among the manufacturing estab- lishments, which give employment to nearly 6,000 hands, are large iron-works, machine-shops, foundries, sugar refineries, flour-mills, carriage-shops, tanneries, tobacco and cigar factories. The Tredegar iron-works, covering 1 5 acres, were employed for the manufacture of cannon during the existence of the Con- federacy, and are now among the most important iron-works in the country. The flour-mills are among the largest in the world. There are 10 insurance companies, 4 national banks, 6 State and savings banks. Richmond, when only a small village, in 1779 became the capital of the State. Richmond was founded in 1742. In 181 1 the burning of a theatre destroyed the lives of 70 persons, including the Governor of the State. It was here that the Convention to ratify the Federal Constitution met in 1788, and it has since then been the scene of many great political gatherings. On the 17th of April, 1861, the State of Virginia seceded from the Union, and in July follow- ing the Confederate Congress met in Richmond, and made it the capital of the Confederacy. General Joseph E. Johnston at this time had 60,000 Con- federates under his command in Virginia, and from this time until the close of the war Richmond continued to be one of the principal points of attack by the Federal army under Generals McDowell, McClellan, Burnside, Hooker, Meade, and Grant, and defended by General Lee with a large army and formidable lines of fortifications, until the seizure of the lines of supply by Generals Grant and Sheridan compelled its evacuation after a series of sanguinary battles, April 3, 1865. During the evacuation of April 3, 1865, over 1,000 houses in the business portion of the city were destroyed ; the loss of this and other property destroyed amounted to over $8,000,000. Imme- diately after the close of the war rebuilding was begun, and proceeded rapidly. Spring Hill and Manchester are connected with Richmond by five bridges across the James River. Manchester is a busy place, and contains two large cotton-mills. A short distance from this famous city are several battle-fields. Two fine public parks are respectively at the east and west ends of the city. The celebrated Libby Prison and Castle Thunder (military prisons) are now used as tobacco warehouses. St. John's Episcopal Church is celebrated as the place of meeting of the Virginia Convention which decided the attitude of the Colony in 1775, and in which Patrick Henry made his celebrated speech, end. f j ll i6o PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. ing — " I know not what course others may take : but as for me, give me liberty or give me death ! " This church was also, in 1788, the place of meet- ing of the Convention which ratified the Federal Constitution. Numerous lines of railroad intersect at Richmond. Regular lines of steamers connect the city with Norfolk, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. Since the recent improvements in the river, vessels drawing 19 feet of water can load and unload at the docks. A canal round the falls gives a river navigable 200 miles, and a canal and several railways enhance its commercial importance. The city is handsomely laid out. The business section has solid and hand- some structures. The private residences are mostly surrounded by fine lawns and gardens. The river has much picturesque scenery. The State Library contains about 50,000 volumes and many fine historical portraits. The Custom- house and Post-office occupy a fine granite structure. Near the Medical College can be seen the Brockenbrough House, which was occupied during the war by Jefferson Davis as his official headquarters. The population of Richmond at the present time is about 70,000. CANADIAN CITIES. T CITY OF MONTREAL. 'ONTREAL is the great commercial metropolis of Can- ada, and the largest city of British North Amer- ica. It is in the Province of Quebec, situated on the Island of Montreal. This island is formed by the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers, and is separated from the mainland by the Back River, or, as the French prefer to call it, the Riviere des Prairies; it is i8o miles southwest of Quebec, and 200 miles northeast of Lake Ontario, 406 miles north of New York, and 310 miles northeast of Toronto, 3,200 from Liver- pool, and 600 miles from the mouth of the St. Lawrence. Situated at the head of the ocean navigation of the St. Law- rence, Montreal has naturally become the depot for the exports and imports of all the Canadas. Its harbor admits vessels of 3,500 tons, and is 3 miles in extent. It is lined with wharves for a mile and a quarter, and is, from its inland position (90 miles above the influence of the tides), perfectly safe. At the same time, the obstruction to vessels sailing further up the river, caused by the rapids, has been surmounted by magnificent canals. It is in immediate connection with the vast lumber country adjoining the former river and its tributaries. While navigation is open, an extensive daily traffic is carried on by steamers and sailing vessels of every description with Lake Ontario and the Ottawa district, as well as with the lower St. Lawrence ; and the ships of several ocean steamship companies keep up a weekly communi- cation with Liverpool, while at the same time the harbor is constantly crowded with vessels from other foreign ports. After the navigation of the St. Lawrence is closed (December to April), the ocean steamers find a harbor at Portland, Maine, which is connected with Montreal by a railway of 292 miles. This line belongs to the Grand Trunk Railway Company, and crosses the St. Lawrence at Montreal by the celebrated tubular Victoria Bridge, the length of which, including its two abutments and 24 piers, is above a mile and three-quarters. By the lines of the same com- pany, Montreal has railway communication with Upper Canada^ the Western States, and Lower Canada, while the Intercolonial Railway opens up com- munication with Halifax and St. John. Several other lines, including the Canadian Pacific, afford communication with various parts of Canada and the United States. The position, therefore, of Montreal as a centre of commerce !i 1^ I ! lil 162 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. is perhaps unequalled, and its rapid advance in consequence has placed it, within the last few years, among the first commercial cities of the American continent. The most conspicuous building in Montreal, which is also one of the finest churches on the ^ ^Y ?J kil QUEBE^HPf'l continent of America, is the Roman Catholic Cathedral. Built in the Gothic style of the thirteenth century, it comprises seven chapels and nine aisles. Its bells are famous, one of them being ranked among the five largest in the world. It accom- modates io,oc» people. It has numerous turrets and two imposing tow- ers on the main front which are 2'^r> feet in height; ana its chief window is 64 feet high and 32 broad. There are several other Roman Catholic churches be- longing to the order of St. Sulpice, to whose members chiefly Mon- treal owes its founda- tion, and who still hold the seigniory of por- tions of the island on which the city is built. Adjoiningthe cathedral is the Seminary of St. Sulpice, to which a large addition has been built within the last few years at a cost of $40,- The city contains also some of the largest convents in the world. The CXX). general wealth, indeed, of the Roman Catholic Church in Montreal has grown enormous, in consequence of the increased value of the property given to it during the early settlements. The Church of England has a Cathedral greeted at an expense of above $100,000, which is very chaste in style. St. CITY OF MONTREAL. 163 iced it, nerican of the on the America, Catholic ilt in the of the itury, it n chapels les. Its ous, one g ranked re largest It accom- X) people. »us turrets )sing tow- :iain front CO feet in its chief . feet high td. There ler Roman irches be- le order of to whose liefly Mon- |ts founda- still hold of por- island on ity is built. le cathedral lary of St. which a m has been |the last few •St of $40'- rorld. The has grown ly given to Cathedral style. St. Andrew's Church, the most important belonging to the Church of Scot- land, is also a very chaste specimen of Gothic architecture, and cost about $50,000. At about the same cost the Methodists have built a handsome church in the florid Gothic style. Besides the Roman Catholic College on Sherbrooke Street, St. Mary's College of the Jesuits, and a Baptist College, Mon- treal possesses an important university under the name of McGill College ; founded by a bequest of the Hon. James McGill in 181 1, erected into a university by royal charter in 1821, and reorganized by an amended charter in 1852. Montreal is supplied with water by magnificent works, which cost about $6,000,000. The water is brought from the St. Lawrence, above the Lachine Rapids, by an aqueduct 5 miles long. The eastern suburb of Montreal, now incorporated as one of the wards of the city, called Hochelaga, was originally the site of an Indian village of the same name, discovered in September, 1535, by Jacques Cartier ; and it is from his admiring exclamation at the view obtained from the neighboring hill that Montreal (corrupted from Mont Royal) derives its name. The westernmost permanent settlement which the French obtained in Canada, it was, under them, merely an outpost of Quebec, and continued to be such, under British rule, till 1832, when it became a separate port. Since then, the rapidity of its progress has been marvellous. The annual imports are about $100,000,000, and the exports $90,000,000 ; the latter consist of flour, lumber, grain, furs, fish, oil, etc. The principal manufacturing industries con- sist of flour, type foundries, woolen and cotton goods, steam-engines, various kinds of iron-ware, tools, cordage, rubber goods, paper, furniture, etc. Montreal has its French quarter, as well defined as that of New Orleans, and its English quarter. The active centre of the French population surges around Bonsecours Market, a huge and stately building fronting upon the river, and up through Jacques Cartier Square. Upon Notre Dame Street, at Jacques Cartier Square, stands the Nelson Monument. The splendid mansions on Sherbrooke Street are chiefly occupied by English and Scotch merchants. Along the side of the " Mountain " there are magnificent mansions, which command a grand view of the surrounding country. The " Bonaventure " is a " union " depot, and from thence arrive and depart Grand Trunk trains, the Central Vermont, Southeastern, and other lines. The North Shore Line has its depot (Quebec route) at the other end of the city, fronting on Notre Dame Street. Montreal is a festive town ; is very proud of its battalions of volunteers, and takes keen delight in the achievements of its lacrosse md snow-shoe clubs. The mid-winter carnival is now a fixed institu- tion ; and it is really a fact, that to see the city unde. its most favorable con- ditions, one must visit it in January or February. The stranger who wanders along the business streets, if observant, will note the air of solidity imparted to the structures. They are largely built of stone, and look as though they might endure for ages. McGill University ranks as one of the leading educational institutions of the Dominion. Its fine buildings and extensive grounds are located in the upper portion of the city. t i1 i : i : I. t 'I i 1 K 164 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. The great Allan liners give dignity to the water-front views, and the vessels of half a dozen lesser lines are clustered along the wharves. In 1840 the popula- tion of Montreal was 27,000; in 1850, 53,000; in i860, 88,000; 1870, 105,000; 1880, 125,000; 1886, 160,000. CITY OF QUEBEC. Quebec is a fine commercial city in the Province of Quebec, Canada. It is considered the most important military positicMi in British North America. It is situated at the junction of the St. Lawrence and St. Charles Rivers, on a steep ridge or promontory formed by the rivers. It is 180 miles northeast of Montreal, 500 miles northeast of Toronto, 578 miles north-northeast from New York, 360 miles from the sea, and 2,070 miles from Liverpool. The Grand Trunk Railway, the Canadian Pacific Railway, and the Quebec Central Rail way, connect it with the systems of railroads in Canada and the United States. It is being connected with the Lake St. John Region by a railway of 180 miles, of which 90 are completed. In 1534, under the patronage and direction of Francis I. of France, the navigator, Jacques Cartier, started from St. Malo with three ships upon an ex- ploring voyage, entering the river St. Lawrence upon the festival day of the saint of that name, and upon the 14th of Septem- ber reaching the bold promontory where the citadel stands, under the shadow of which he found the Indian village of Stadacona, a name popular with the people to this day. Nearly a century later, in the year 1608, Samuel de Champlain appeared upon the scene, and Quebec had its real beginning. Champlain also found and named the Riche- lieu River, after Cardinal Richelieu, the founder of the trading company of " One Hundred Associates," under whose direction he operated. He also found the Ottawa and the American lake that still bears his name. He introduced the order of the R6colIet Friars into Canada, and these were followed quickly by the more powerful and enterprising Jesuits, who toiled with that heroic ardor which has the mainspring only in faith, among the Indians and settlers, uniting the clerical office with that of the explorer. In 1663 the population of Quebec was but 800 souls, and about this time Louis XIV., the reigning monarch, assumed control of the colony of New France, and the trading company lost its prestige. It continued to be the centre of French trade and Roman Catholic missions in North America till 1759, when it fell into the hands of the British by the memorable victory of Wolfe on the Heights of Abraham above the city, — Wolfe, the English com- mander, whose character, portrayed so vividly in the " Virginians," has I GRESS. he vessels of 5 the popula- 870, 105,000; CITY OF QUEBEC. 165 :, Canada. It [orth America. 2S Rivers, on a OS northeast of east from New >l. The Grand c Central Rail : United States. railway of 180 of France, the lips upon an ex- il day of the saint 14th of Septem- jntory where the fhadow of which of Stadacona, a .le to this day. fin the year 1608, leared upon the real beginning. amed the Riche- |l Richelieu, the ,pany of "One le also found the e introduced the ilowed quickly by that heroic ardor id settlers, uniting charmed the readers of a generation. He came to extend the dominion of the British crown. Wolfe and his veteran Highlanders and Grenadiers scaled the precipitous heights, and fought upon the Plains of Abraham against the soldiers of Montcalm, and the tourist of to-day sees behind the superb Dufferin Terrace a unique monument, probably the only such shaft in the world, in joint memory of the two opposing generals who fell upon that day. Fifteen years later, Arnold, the destined traitor and bite noire in the history of the Revolutionary period, coming down the valley of the Chaudiere, and Mont- gomery by Lake Champlain, joined in the siege of the city. Montgomery was killed at the first assault, and Arnold's subsequent efforts were abortive. Quebec remained the chief city of Canada till the British settlements in the ■west were erected into a separate province, when it became the capital of 'Canada East, now forming the Province of Quebec. Quebec is the Gibraltar of America, and its picturesque old-world battle- ments, its impracticable streets, its landmarks of history still abundant, and its un-Anglo-Saxon ways attract the attention of the tourist. The walled portion of Quebec is triangular in shape and three miles in circumference. The wall is pierced by five gateways; three of these communicate with the lower town. St. Louis Gate, now a beautiful Norman structure, leadi; to the battle-field, while St. John's Gate is the outlet to Beauport and St. Rochs. The gate by which strangers enter the upper town from trains and boats was removed some years ago to facil- itate travel. The leading attrac- tions within the walls are the Ursuline Convent, the Seminary, the great Laval University, the English and French cathedral (Basilica), and above all, the out- look from the DufTerin Terrace. The highest point of the city is Cape Diamond, on which is built the citadel, about 350 feet above the water. From this point it extends or slopes down to the river St. Charles. The upper and lower towns are so named on account of the differ- ence in elevation. Quebec is only second to Montreal in Canada in the importance of its commerce. About '600 vessels enter the port annually from the Atlantic Ocean, and as many pass in front of the city to go to Montreal. It is one of the great lumber and timber markets of North America. The imports amount to $8,000,000, and •exports $13,000,000, annually. Ship-building is conducted on an extensive scale. The chief industries are the boot and shoe and the leather manu- ifactures. It has lines of steamers connecting with Liverpool, Glasgow, and I i66 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. London, and numerous lines with the gulf, coast, and river towns. The view from the citadel of Quebec is one of the most magnificent in the world, and the scenery in its neighborhood, amidst which are the Falls of Montmorenci, adds greatly to the attractions of the city. It contains a seminary for the education of Catholic clergy, established in 1636. Quebec is the seat of a Catholic archbishop, who is now Cardinal Taschereau, and an Episcopal bishop, whose respective cathedrals are among the finest specimens of church architecture. The Church of Scotland and other denominations are also represented. Population in 1871, 59,699; 1886, 75,000. CITY OF ST. JOHN. St. John, the capital of St. John County, is the commercial metropolis and largest city of New Brunswick, Canada. It is situated at the mouth of the river of its own name, 190 miles northwest of Halifax. The harbor, which is protected by batteries, is good, and accessible to the largest vessels at all ST. JOHN, NEW BRUNSWICK. seasons of the year. The entrance of the river into the harbor is through a | rocky gorge, about a mile above the city, spanned by a fine suspension bridge, 640 feet long and 90 feet above the water ; also by a cantilever railway bridge, completed since 1885, by which a direct line of travel is established, as formerly j all passengers and baggage had to be transferred from the Intercolonial Rail- way to the New Brunswick Railroad by ferry. The streets are wide, and meet )S. CITY OF KINGSTON. 167 . The in the ?aU3 of itains a jcbec is and an lecimens tions are netropolis mouth of bor, which isels at all »,4 at right angles. Some of them are cut 30 or 40 feet deep through solid rock, the city being built on a rocky peninsula, slanting down to the water. Since the great fire the buildings constructed are mostly brick or stone. The principal public buildings are the Court-house, the Insane Asylum, Post-office, City Hospital, City Hall, Opera-house, Academy of Music, Roman Catholic Cathe- dnil, the Uarracks, the Mechanics' Institute, and the Penitentiary. The city has a fire department, a police force, a system of water-works, gas, horse-cars, a fire-alarm telegraph, about 40 churches, several schools, banks, academies, orphan asylums, newspapers, good hotels, a Natural History Society, a His- torical Society, etc. The city is governed by a Mayor, and eighteen Aldermen. It is con- nected with the New England States by the New Brunswick Railroad, and with Nova Scotia by the Intercolonial Railroad. In June, 1877, a fire destroyed the greater part of the town, and caused a loss of about $12,000,000. The principal industries are ship-building, fisheries, and the lumber trade. The manufacture of machinery, boots and shoes, cotton and woolen goods, leather, carriages, edge-tools, paper, iron castings, steam-engines, etc., is carried on to a considerable extent. The exports, which average annually $4,000,000, are principally lumber shipped to Europe, the West Indies, and the United States. The imports are about $8,000,000 annually. Population in 1871, 28,805 ; 1886, with suburbs, 55,000. The population of St. John County is mostly of Irish descent. is through a [ension bridge, lailway bridge, led, as formerly Ircolonial Ran vide, and meet CITY OF KINGSTON. Kingston is a city in the Province of Ontario, Canada. It is situated on the northeast shore of Lake Ontario, where the waters of the Canadian lakes issue into the St. Lawrence. Distant from Montreal 198 miles, from Toronto 165 miles, and from New York 274 miles. It was occupied by a French fort from 1673 till 1758; it began to be settled by the British about 1783, was laid out in 1793, was incorporated as a town in 1838, and as a city in 1846. On. the union of the two Canadas, in 1840, the seat of government was established at Kingston, but was removed again in 1845. The harbor of Kingston affords a most imposing and effective picture. In the midst of the scene a storm- washed Martello tower rises from the water, and beyond it is a granite battle- ment, upon the mainland behind which rises the shapely form of the City Hall. The public buildings of Kingston are all excellent examples of archi- tecture. Across the channel is Wolfe Island, which is connected with the city by a ferry. Upon a prominent hill to the right is the large defensive work known as Fort William Henry, and near it the Military College, which is the West Point of Canada. There is a decided military air to Kingston, due to this fact. The Thousand Islands begin about Kingston, and continue for some 50 miles down the river, and steamboats run daily from the city 16 the popular summer resorts among these Islands. WWi 'ti,' 168 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. The bhip-building of Kingston is second in Canada only to that of Quebec. The Canadian Engine & Machinery Company manufactures railway rolling- stock on the most approvea principles. Besides it there are several large foundries for the manufacture of engines and locomotives, of agricultural implements, edge-tools, ayies, nails, etc. There are also large tanneries and breweries. Besides its outlets by water, Kingston communicates with all parts of the country by the Grand Trunk Railway, which passes within 2 miles of the city, and connects by a branch with the wharves; a' d by the Kingston and Pembroke Railv/ay, which connects with the Canada Pacific. The shops and offices of the Kingston and Pembroke Railway are in Kingston. Next to Quebec and Halifax, Kingston is the most important military position in . KINGSTON FROM FORT WILLIAM HENRV. British \merica. Queen's University and College at Kingston is one of the most popular and progressive of the gr-at educational institutions of Canada. It was incorporated by royal charter in. 1841, for the education of a Pres- byterian ministry, and has since instituted the additional faculties of law and medicine. There are also a Catholic irstitution called Regiopolis College, the County Grammar School, and the common schools, besides several private academies. The Provincial Penitentiary and the Asylum for the Insane, and local hospitals and homec for the pofjr are situated in the city. In 1862 Kings- ton became the seat of the new English bishopric of Ontario. Many beau- tiful homes ariorn the suburban a^enues. Population in 1871.. 12,407; 1886, ?o,ooo. CITY OF TORONTO. 169 CITY OF TORONTO. Toronto, a port of entry and the capital city of the Province cf Ontario, Canada, is situated on the north shore of Lake Ontario, 165 miles from Kingston, and 320 miles southwest of Montreal. It is connected with Canada and the United States by the Grand Trunk Railway and numerous other lines. Its industries are extensive, and consist of iron foundries, rolling-mills, car-shops, breweries, distilleries, machine-shops, carriage factories, soap works, tanneries, boot and shoe factories, flour-mills, cabinet-ware, and iron rails. It is over 2 miles in length between east and west, is bounded on the south by the Bay of Toronto, a spacious inlet of Lake Ontario, and is i^ miles broad from south to north. The situation of the town is low and flat. The most elevated quarter — the Queen's Park in the west, containing the University, 0^n>^^*--^» u TORONTO UNIVERSITY. Observatory, and handsome private residences — being only from 100 to 200 feet above the level of the lake. The harbor or bay is a beautiful sheet of water, about 5 miles long and I mile in width. It is separated from the lake by a long, narrow strip of land, except at its entrance. It is capable of accom- modating the largest vessels that navigate the lakes, and is defended at the entrance by a fort, mounted with the most efficient modern ordnance, Toronto has much the appearance of an English town, and is distinguished for the number and beauty of its churches, many of which are surmounted by handsome spires. The principal are St. James' Cathedral (Anglican), a noble edifice in early English, erected in 1852; St. Michael's Cathedral (Roman Catholic); Knox's Church and St. Andrew's (Presbyterian); the Metropolitan (Methodist); and the Unitarian Chapel. Toronto is the fountain-head of the Canada school system, and its educational institutions arc numerous and well appointed. Th'; University, charmingly situated in the well-w^ooded Queen's m 170 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. Park, was inaugurated in 1843. Trinity College and the Upper Canada College have numerous students. Knox's College, recently built, is the Presbyterian theological hall. The University Park, with its beautiful monument to the volunteers who fell at Ridgeway, and the Horticultural Gardens, are frequented by all classes of the community. There are also the Normal and Model Schools, in the first of. which teachers exclusively are trained. Attached to the University is the Observatory. There are many benevolent institutions and handsome ofTicial buildings. It is the seat of the Supreme Courts of the Province, and contains the Legislative buildings, the Government-house, the Custom-house, and the Post-ofifice. There are two large theatres in Toronto. During open navigation magnificent steamers ply in all directions on the lake. The exports are manufactured lumber, flour, wheat, and other grain. The name Toronto is supposed to be of Indian origin. The town was founded in 1794 by Governor Simcoe. It was incorporated in 1834, was burned by the Americans in 181 3, and suffered severely in the insurrection of 1837, on which occasion it was the headquarters of the rebellion, as also from fire in 1849. Population in 1870, 56,000; 1886, 80,000. CITY OF HAMILTON. Hamilton is a city in the Province of Onta-io, Canada. It is situated on Hamilton Bay, formerly Burlington Bay, at the west end of Lake Ontario. It is 38 miles from Toronto, 378 miles from Montreal, and 43 miles from Niagara Falls. It is an important railroad centre ; the Hamilton & Port Dover, the Great Western, and the Hamilton & Toronto all radiate from this point; while she has by the great lakes and rivers water communication from Chicago, Duluth, and Fort William at the West to the Atlantic. It is situated in the midst of the finest agricultural district. In 1840 the population was 3,000; six years later the population was nearly 7,000, and a city charter was obtained. This rapid increase is due to the railroads and the grain district in which it is situated. Its manufacturing establishments are exten- sive, and comprise steam-engine and locomotive works, large iron works, car works, foundries, clothing, sewing-machines, etc. The last census of Canada, taken in 1 88 1, shows that the capital invested is nearly one-thirty-fourth of the whole capital invested in manufacturing industries throughout the whole Dominion. The merchants of Hamilton organized a Board of Trade in 1845, which "has done much for the prosperity of the city. Imports, 1885, $4,095,032. Since 1881 several new factories and workshops have been built, including a cotton factory, running 12,000 spindles. The mills and plant of this company cost $475,coo, and their output last year was nearly 2,225,000 yards of cloth, and 225,000 pounds of yarn. These mills employ 390 hands, their annual pay list being $104,000. A new rolling-mill, established last year, has a capital of $50,000, and employs 30 hands; annual output, $175,000. New and larger CITY OF OTTAWA. m sUege terian o the lented Model led to utions of the se, the sronto. le lake. vn was j4, was :tion of so from jated on ario. It Niagara )ver, the is point; on from situated ition was charter ;he grain re exten- orks, car Canada, ourth of he whole 45, which 4,095,032- eluding a company of cloth, nnual pay capital of ind larger shops have been erected for the chief engine works of the city, and a new factory has also been built by the Wanzer Company for the manufacture of their sewing-machines. Since 1861 that company has made in Hamilton 1,500,000 sewing-machines. Their business extends to all countries of the world. Their output of machines has reached 1,500 per week. The city has 33 churches, 7 banks, and a large insurance company; a Young Men's Christian Association, and a fine public school system, with 5,000 pupils and 100 teachers. The Collegiate Institute and Training College has 600 students, with 15 masters and teachers. There are also 5 separate Catholic schools in Hamilton, and a Methodist College for young women ; numerous charitable institutions, the Hamilton Association for Investigating Natural History, Botany, etc., and private institutions for commercial and business training. The assessed value of property last year was ;^4,ooo,ooo sterling. Population in 1886, 41,000. CITY OF OTTAWA. Ottawa is the capital of the Dominion of Canada. It is situated in the Province of Ontario, 88 miles above the junction of the Ottawa River with the St. Lawrence, 450 miles from New York, 126 miles from Montreal, and 95 miles from the city of Kingston. It was incorporated as a city in 1854. CHAUDIERE FALLS. Prior to this it was called Bytown, in honor of Colonel By, who constructed the Rideau Canal in 1827. The scenery in the vicinity is very beautiful, and not surpassed by any in Canada. In the neighborhood are three magnificent cataracts. The first of these is the Chaudiere Falls, on the Ottawa River, at the west end of the city. The falls at this point are spanned by a suspension bridge, connecting Jpper and Lower Canada. Its great industry is lumber, its immense water-power being made use of in numerous saw-mills. The •it' ■ 11 Vi 'i' r 1 » HI 1^9 ^1 'W' 172 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. imports arc about ;^ 500,000, and the exports nearly ^^ 1,000,000, annually. In 1858 Ottawa was selected by Queen Victoria as the capital of Canada. The erection of magnificent Government buildings was commenced in i860, the Prince of Wales laying the foundation. The Parliament buildings are prob- ably as fine as any in America. The principal railroads are the Canada Central lines and the St. Lawrence & Ottawa. It is connected by steamer on the Ottawa River with Montreal ; the Rideau Canal connects the city with Lake Ontario at Kingston. It derives its chief importance from being the seat of the Government. The natural beai'.ty of its surroundings and its fine architectural structures attract the tourist. Population, 35,000. CITY OF HALIFAX. Halifax, a seaport and city of Canada, and the capital of the Province of Nova Scotia, stands on the southeast or outer coast of the peninsula. The har- bor is one of the finest in the world. It is entered from the south, extends north- wards about 16 miles, and terminates in a magnificent sheet of water called Bedford Basin, is spacious enough for the entire navy of England, and offers all the year round easy access and safe anchorage to vessels of any magn\ idc. Lines of steamers ply between Halifax and London, Liverpool, the Con- tinent of Europe, New York, Boston, and the West Indies. It is the great centre of trade for the Maritime Provinces of Canada. A large stone grading dock is now being constructed which can accommodate the largest class of ocean steamers and war-ships. Halifax with its suburbs extends along the slope of a hill, and is over three miles in length, and averages about a mile in width. There are many beautiful residences on the Northwest Arm which runs from the harbor three miles inland. The dock-yard, covering fourteen acres, is one of the most ex- tensive in the British Empire. A number of British war-ships are generally moored off this dock-yard. The city is now the stronghold of the Imperial Army and Navy in North America. All the entrances to the harbor bristle with batteries armed with the heaviest ordnance, and garrisoned with British A..rtillery. The principal edifices are the Custom-house and Post-office, the Province Building, Dalhousie College, Government House, Military and Provincial Hospitals, Admiralty House, Lunatic Asylums, Schools for Blind and Deaf and Dumb, and several fine Common schools. Penitentiary, Court-house, Academy of Music, a New City Hall, etc., etc. There are 25 churches, a R. C. Cathedral, and residences for an Episcopal Bishop and a R. C. Archbishop. It has three sugar refineries, a cotton factory, several boot and shoe factories, and a number of minor industries. There are seven Banks and a Government Savings Bank. Halifax has railway communication with the whole continent. It is the winter port of the Intercolonial and Canada Pacific Railways. It enjoys unrivalled shipping facilities and has a grain elevator. The parks and public gardens are famed for their beauties. Population about 40,000. CITIES OF LONDON AND ST. JOHN'S. CITY OF LONDON. 173 London is the chief city of the county of Middlesex, Ontario, Canada. It is situated at the junction of the two branches of the River Thames, about 114 miles west-southwest from Toronto, with which it is connected by the Great Western Railway. The site of the city began to be cleared and laii! out in 1825; in 1852 the population was 7,124. When the city was called London, the river, which had formerly been known by an Indian name, received that which it now bears ; a Westminster and a Blackfriars bridge LONDON, OTTARIO. were thrown over it ; and the names given to the principal streets and locali- ties still seem to indicate a desire to make the westernmost city of Canada a reproduction, as far as possible, of the capital of England. It has an outlet by railway to every part of the American continent. The centre of a rich agricultural district, London carries on a large trade in the produce of the country, while there are also many foundries, tanneries, breweries, printing- offices, and, outside the city, large petroleum lefineries. Huron College, Hellmuth College, and HcUmuth Ladies' College are the principal educational institutions. Population in 1886, 30,ocx). CITY OF ST. JOHN'S. St. John's is a city and the capital of the Island of Newfoundland. It is situated on the east coas' of the island, which is about 400 miles long and 300 wide at the extreme points. The city is 2,000 miles from Liverpool, 540 from Halifax, Nova Scotia, and 900 from Quebec. It has an excellent harbor, which -v-"*^ " _--=:i^-.. T, '"-.'- ■ ,.-'^ .- M^M --■■-' "M-i' ' "_.-■- ^.'^'""-r^^^L^-:-"--^'' .-^^=■^^^2 }• . !l : I' IT: ! dk 174 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. is well fortified. Being the nearest port in America to Galway, Ireland (dis- tance, 1,650 miles), St. John's has acquired importance in the commercial and political world in connection with steam navigation between the two conti- nents. It has suffered severely from repeated conflagrations; in 1846 it was more than half destroyed. At the entrance to the harbor are the Narrows ; on the north side of the Narrows is a cliff over 300 feet high ; back and above it is Signal Hill, 520 feet above the sea level. On the other side of the Narrows is a hill, 650 feet above the sea, on which is a lighthouse. The Narrows will admit only one vessel at a time. The latter ridge of hills extend into the interior for miles. The city is built of brick, and is well situated on sloping ground on both sides of the harbor. Bridges and causeways connect the north and south sides. Over 1,200 vessels enter the harbor annually, having a tonnage of 250,000. There is a dry-dock and marine railway. The business portion of the city is solid and substantial. It has several banks, 12 churches, several convents, 20 insur- ance companies, various societies, benevolent organizations, academies, colleges, theological institutions, a medical society, an athenaeum, 2 libraries, 13 news- papers, and 2 fine cathedrals (one each. Catholic and Episcopal). Among the public buildings may be mentioned the Government-house, the residence of the Governor, which cost $250,000; the Assembly building, the Court-house, the Public Hospital, and Market-house. The island, with the coast of Lab- rador, forms an English colony, and is administered by a Governor, assisted by an Executive Council, a Legislative Council of 1 5 nominated by the Crown, and an Assembly elected by the popular vote; these also govern the city. The Allan line of European steamers has a station at this city. Its manu- factures consist of ship-bread, furniture, boots and shoes, iron-ware, and nets. It has large storehouses, distilleries, tanneries, breweries, refineries, block factories, and steam seal-oil works. A large trade is done in exporting oil, seal, and cod. Its principal business is connected with the fisheries. It receives the large imports of the colony. Regular lines of steamers connect with the harbors on the coast. Population in 1874, 25,000; 1886, 40,000. i s. id (dis- al and conti- it was of the 20 feet ; above 3ssel at he city of the Over There is sohd o insur- olleges, 3 news- ong the ence of t-house, of Lab- assisted Crown, he city. s manu- nd nets, s, block ting oil, ries. It connect CXX). .■H'P^J'nw* ■^■i«ii^i i^'i ; ' BKIDAL VEIL FALLS, YOSEMITE VALLEY. 11 OUR AMERICAN SCENERY. THE YOSEMITE VALLEY. ^WO tracts of land have been set aside by Congress as National Parks. They were reserved by reason of their natural beauty and picturesque character, and are fur the use in commOii of the entire people, except for settlement or private use. They include the Yellow- stone region and the Yosemite Valley. The latter was granted by Congress to the State of California (March 30, 1864), "to be set aside forever as a place of public res )rt and recreation." It is in Mariposa County, California and includes the Mariposa Big Tree Grove. It is nearly 150 miles from San Francisco, and almost in the centre of the State. The Valley is nearly a mile wide and 6 miles long, and nearly level. It is about a mile in perpendicular depth below the Si:rrounding level, yet 4,000 feet above the sea, and through it flows the Merced River. Its walls are almost vertical. There are numerous well-supplied hotels for the accommodation of tourists. The first great object of interest in proceeding up the Valley is the Bridal Veil Fall, which is formed by the great leap of the Bridal Veil Creek over a descent of 630 feet to a slope from which a series of cascades extend to the Valley. The entire fall is nearly 1,000 feet. The next great object of interest is the " Cathedral Rock," an immense granite formation nearly 3,000 feet in height, which is situated a little above the fall. A little farther on are the " Spires," which consist of single columns of granite, 500 feet in height, standing out from the main walls of the Valley. " Sentinel Rock" is over 3,000 feet high. Other important objects of interest are the "Sentinel Dome "and the "Virgin's Tears Fall"; the latter is a beautiful cataract, falling more than 1,000 feet. Next are monster masses of rock, known as " El Capitan " and the " Three Brothers." The Yosemite Fall is above the latter, and has a descent of over 1,500 feet. Next is a series of magnificent cascades, falling nearly 700 feet, with a final descent or plunge of 400 feet. The effect of this beautiful sight is grand and imposing to an exte.it almost beyond description. The best time to see the falls is in May, June, or July, as the streams which form them nearly dry up in August and September. Other great eccentricities of Nature, with smaller falls, abound in the Valley. The general effect is grand and sublime, and surpasses anything known to exist in other localities. The Mariposa groves of " big trees " are about 15 miles south of the Yosemite Valley ; three of these groves are in Mariposa County, and include nearly 1 50 trees more than 1 5 feet in diameter. Many of (177) ,K I i I k N'': I!' ^^m UPPEE YELLOW-STONE FALLS. THE YELLOWSTONE REGION. 179 them are nearly 400 feet in height and over 30 feet in diameter. Some of them after being cut down have been estimated to be 2,5(X> years old. The Yosemite Valley was first visited by tourists in 1855, ^"d was not known to white men until 185 1. At the present time thousands visit this beautiful region annually, and come away impressed with its grandeur and sublimity. THE YELLOWSTONE REGION. The Yellowstone River rises in a beautiful lake of the same name high up in the Rocky Mountains, and receiving numerous branches from the south, flows northeasterly through the Territory of Montana, and empties into the Missouri River, in the northwestern part of Dakota Territory. It is 800 yards wide at its mouth, 1,000 miles long, and navigable 700 or 800 miles. The region of the Yellowstone and its source was for the first time explored by parties from the United States in 1870-71, and is one of the most wonder- ful spots on the earth. Making their way up the river through the grand scenery of the Rocky Mountains, the explorers came to a district of a square mile in area, filled with hot springs in active operation, which cover the hill- sides with a snowy white deposit like a frozen cascade. Three or four miles around were occupied by springs which have ceased to flow. They are about 6,000 feet above the sea, and are already resorted to by invalids. This was but the beginning of the wonders. Next they came to a terrific rift, 2,000 feet in depth, with a river rolling in its deeps, " a grand, gloomy, terrible place." At the head of this caflon are ♦^he Tower Falls, with a sheer descent of 400 feet. The Grand Caflon, however, throws this into the shade. This fearful abyss is 3,000 feet in perpendicular height, and to one looking up from the bottom, stars are visible in broad daylight. The ravine is full of hot springs of sulphur, sulphate of copper, alum, steam jets in endless variety, some of most peculiar form. The grandeur of the caflon is at once heightened and diversified by the Upper and Lower Falls; the latter one unbroken sym- metrical expanse, 350 feet in height. Between this fall and the lake lies a region full of boiling springs and craters, with two hills formed wholly of the sinter thrown from the springs. Further on is a valley containing about 1,500 geysers, some throwing up immense columns of water. The beautiful lake from which the river issues is situated 7,427 feet above the level of the In 1872 the region at the source of the Yellowstone, 65 miles long by sea. 55 miles broad, including the Grand Caflon and the lake, was reserved by Congress from occupancy, and set apart as "A PUBLIC park or pleasuring- GROUND for the benefit and enjoyment of the people." The Upper Falls of the Yellowstone are one-fourth of a mile from the Lower Falls. The Upper Falls flow through a grassy, meadow-like valley, with a calm, steady current, giving no warning until very near the falls that it is about to rush over a precipice 140 feet, and then, within a quarter of a mile, again to leap down a distance of 350 feet. The exploration of the Yellowstone region was made by the officers of the l<\ ,>:!■■ :mI6 ' HI IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 4 // // 4r i /. ■% 1.0 = m - m Ui lis lit Wuu 1^ 12.2 1.1 ||l.25 ^>^ ^/v^ •> 7 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRHT WEBSTiR.N.Y. 14SaO (716)872-4503 tk i8o PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. i United States Corps of Engineers in 1871, under the orders of Lieutenant- General Sheridan. Their report was the first which made known to the world the wonders of this beautiful region, which was known as the " Great Divide." It is comprised in the Territories of Montana and Wyoming, and is in the geographical centre of "North America. The vast reservation covers 3,578 square miles. Many of the mountain ranges are at an elevation of over 10,000 feet above the sea. The most convenient route for tourists has been from Corinne on the Central Pacific Road to Virginia City, Montana ; from this point to Fort Ellis, and to Bozeman at the upper end of the Gallatin Valley, which is only 3 miles from Fort Ellis ; the next point is a Crow agency, about 25 miles distant, and then south by the Yellowstone River to the great falls. The scenery after reaching the Yellowstone River is probably the finest in the world. Among the most sublime, impressive, and picturesque scenery is the " Devil's Slide," projecting 1,000 feet into the air. As we proceed, Gardiner's River, or Warm Stream Creek, is met where it flows into the Yellowstone, 15 miles from the Middle Caflon. We have now arrived at the hot springs district. Here can be found the largest spring in the country, with a basin 40 X 25 feet ; from this basin great quantities of carbonic acid gas are dis- charged through several openings. There are smaller basins and terraces which contain water from this spring of different degrees of temperature; these basins are gracefully curved, and vary in color from a rich yellow to a bright red, creating a beautiful effect. # We now cross the "low divide" between the valley of the Yellowstone and that of Gardiner's River, and the steep entrance to the Great CafSon is reached. The gloomy and forbidding aspect of this place has gained it the name of the " Devil's Den." The river rushes with great force and rapidity through this narrow gorge, and shoots over an abrupt fall of nearly 200 feet ; and after a series of cascades and rapid falls, leaves the cafion with a sudden fall of nearly 400 feet, after which it gently pursues its course over a rolling prairie for many miles. The sides of the Great Caflon are more than 2,CX)0 feet high. We next arrive at a new hot spring. This is very remarkable for its extraordinary " mud geysers," and a " mud volcano," which has a crater 30 feet deep by 25 feet in width, and in a constant state of ebullition ; one of the geysers spouts every six hours. Yellowstone Lake is 8 miles from these geysers ; its shore line is over 300 miles ; it is 30 miles long, 1 5 miles wide, and averages about 25 fathoms deep. Numerous hot springs exist almost in contact with this lake, and a new system of hot springs are to be found about 10 miles from the Yellowstone. The entire district appears like a vast lime- kiln in active operation. In the main eastern part of the Madison River are several beautiful springs. The one of greatest interest is the Great Geyser Basin. The geysers are all named ; two are known as " The Sentinels," one on each side of the river. The geyser known as " The Well " spouts to a height of nearly 100 feet. The " Grotto " is a formation about 100 feet in circumference and 8 feet high ; it spouts or plays to a height of 60 feet several times a day. The " Giant " Geyser is probably the most remarkable in this GRESS. : Lieutenant, to the world reat Divide." ind is in the covers 3,578 »f over 10,000 as been from la; from this illatin Valley, igency, about he great falls. J finest in the scenery is the ;d, Gardiner's Yellowstone, 2 hot springs with a basin gas are dis- and terraces temperature; h yellow to a ; Yellowstone reat Cafion is gained it the and rapidity :arly 200 feet ; rith a sudden 3ver a rolling re than 2,000 emarkable for I has a crater lition ; one of les from these [ 5 miles wide, jcist almost in : found about e a vast lime- son River are : Great Geyser lentinels," one " spouts to a it 100 feet in 60 feet several arkable in this XnAOABA FALLS. NIAGARA FALLS.— THE NEW STATE PARK. t9| extraordinary group ; it stands on a mound, and has a crater 5 feet in diameter, and throws a large column of water 130 feet into the air, continuing each time it exerts itself for an hour and a half. Twelve miles distant from this point is "Castle" Geyser, consisting of a chimney 120 feet in diameter at the base, 60 feet at the top, 12 feet high, with a 3-foot opening. This extraordinary geyser is situated on a platform 100 feet long by 70 feet wide, and sends a column of water to a height of over 250 feet. It works at intervals, and its time of active operation is about an hour. Another geyser, which plays with great regularity every three-quarters of an hour, has on this account earned the name of "Old Faithful." It throws a stream nearly 150 feet in the air. There are many other geysers, and the district is drained of its hot water by the F'irehole River, which flows into the Madison. The writer of the Gvovern- ment report said of the country in question : " No other locality, I think, can b" found which combines so many attractions both of climate and scenery." In summer the atmosphere is pure and clear, and is undisturbed by storms. The Act of Congress which reserved this region as a national park, stated that it was " reserved and withdrawn from settlement, occupancy, or sale, under the laws of the United States, and dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasuring ground, for the benefit and enjoyment of the people," while by the same Act it was placed under the exclusive control of the Secretary of the Interior. The Park is 65 miles by 55 miles. t >| NIAGARA FALLS.-THE NEW STATE PARK. There is probably no more beautiful sight in the world than the Falls of Niagara, and a sketch of the Falls and the surroundings cannot fail to be of interest. The illustrations ac- companying this sketch are engraved from photographs, and are de- signed to give an accurate idea of the grandeur and sublimity of Nature's great work. The Niagara River flows from Lake Erie northward into Lake On- '^"^ HORSE-SHOE FALL. tano. It is 36 miles long, descending 334 feet between the lakes. It is three- quarters of a mile broad at Lake Erie ; but as it flows on, it becomes several m THE BRIDGE LEADING TO BATH AND GOAT ISLAND. 184 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. miles wide, making robm for a number of islands, the largest of which. Grand Island, is 12 miles long, and from 2 to 7 broad. At the foot of Grand Island, which reaches within i}4 miles of the Falls of Niagara, the river is contracted to a breadth of 2^ miles, and grows narrower as it proceeds By this and by the descent in the channel, which is about 60 feet in the mile above the Falls, are pro- duced the swift currents known as the Rapids, in which the river, notwith- standing its great depth, is perpetually white with foam. At the Falls, which are 22 miles from Lake Erie, the river is divided by an island contain- ing about 75 acres, called Goat Island ; but in consequence of a bend in the channel, by far the larger portion of the water is sent down by the Canadian side. On this side, therefore, is the grander cataract which has been named the Horse-shoe Fall, but no longer bears the name appropriately, as the precipice has been worn from a curved into a somewhat angular shape. The separation caused by Goat Island leaves a large wall of rock between the Canadian and American Falls, the latter being again divided by an islet at a short distance from Goat Island. This fall is from 8 to ID feet higher than the Horse-shoe, but only about 220 yards broad. A little above the fall the channel is divided by Bath Island, which is connected by bridges with Goat Island and the Ameri- can shore. A small tower, approached from Goat Island, has been built on a rock over the brow of the Horse-shoe Fall ; and from this the finest TABLE ROCK, HORSE-SHOE FALL. view on the American side maybe obtained, the Table Rock on the Canadian side giving the completest view of the entire cataract. The Falls can also be seen from below on both sides, and every facility is given for viewing them from all NIAGARA FALLS.~THE NEW STATE PARK. 185 the best points, while magnificent hotels, Canadian and American, offer their inducements to the tourist to stay till he has received the full influence of the scenery. The river is crossed about 2CX) or 300 yards below the Falls, where it is 1,200 yards broad. The current is lessened for about a mile, but increases again as the channel becomes narrower and the descent greater. Between 3 and 4 miles below the Falls, a stratum of rock runs across the direct course of the river, which, after forming a vast circular basin, with an impassable whirl- pool, is forced away at right angles to its old channel. The celebrated wire suspension bridge for the Great Western Railway, with a road beneath for vehicles and foot passengers, crosses the river i^ miles below the Falls ; it is 800 feet long, 40 broad, and 200 feet above the surface of the water. This process of wearing away goes on gradually still, a large projection on the Canadian bank, known as the Table Rock, having partly fallen off in 1863. The Horse-shoe Fall is above 600 yards in breadth, and about 154 feet in height. The water is so deep that it retains its green color for some distance below the brow of the precipice ; and it rushes over with such force that it is thrown about 50 feet from the foot of the cliff. One may thus, having donned an oil-skin dress, enter 2 or 3 yards behind the curved sheet of water ; but the spray is so blinding, the din so deafening, and the current of air so strong, that it requires a tolerably calm nerve and firm foot. The village of Niagara depends chiefly on the pat- ronage of the visitors to the Falls for its prosperity. The entire domain, secured by the State for a public park at an expense of one and a half millions, amounts to 106 acres. By this large acquisition the State now owns the most remarkable park on earth. By reason of the changes made no one who has heretofore visited Niagara would recognize it in its new dress. The construction at Falls View on the Canadian side, of a glass pavilion, 400 feet long, to be called the " Crystal Palace," will be commenced at once. The promenade will be twelve feet higher than the present terrace in use. On the American side, diagonally opposite to the entrance to Prospect Park, a large and beautiful Opera House has been built. The design of this building is a TERRAPIN TOWER, HORSE-SHOE FALL, FROM AMERICAN SIDE. ■,» Ml y^ . klAGARA FROM NEAR QUEENSTOWN HEIGHTS. i86 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. marvel of modern architecture. A new steam yacht and ferryboat called the " Maid of the Mist " has been launched at the foot of the inclined railway, and adds a novel effect to the caflon scenery. Numerous other improvements, particularly about the ri- parian homes along River Street,are being effected, so that Niagara p r e - sents a totally new appearance vastly grander and more pic- turesque than has heretofore been witnessed at this favorite resort. Since the opening of the new park, making it free to all, the number of visitors has largely increased. A walk around the approaches of Niagara at the present time is a blissful experience compared to any attempts in other years. The American side presents a long array of shaded green terrace unobstructed by old fences and broken-down buildings, while opposite the full picture of Goat's Island, strongly contrasting, with its wild beauty, numerous variety of trees and underbrush, looks like a freak of nature heretofore unseen. Bath Island, once loath- and hid- some den with old mills, bursts forth in a carpet of green. Niagara has numerous ho- tels. Champlain made the first map of the place In 1603. The waters of Lakes Erie, Superior, St. Clair, Huron, Michigan, and several smaller lakes flow into the river ; it has a constant supply winter and summer. The river has a descent of 104 feet in 7 miles between the foot of the Falls and Lewiston. Its course is between perpendicular walls nearly 300 feet RIVER NIAGARA, BELOW THE FALLS— THE CANADA SIDE. NIAGARA FALLS.— THE NEW STATE PARK. 187 i . high. From Lewiston to Lake Ontario the chasm gradually diminishes to 30 feet. It is claimed by geologists that this great chasm has been formed by the action of the water through countless ages on the limestone strata. Large ' \ . " " -Ml "^- \ ■-.' :.^^-- ■• ; ■, r - ■ ,'r . ■: ■- T ;v* ^"f".-S'- -; _;.... - ... • -^ -?--»■ <7.- 3iV* .,-=c- r -^^ ~~'~jzlZ.-'' '-'•Si P5^ r « I 111 ^^^^■jf^'r- ■-^-'^■=-i---- =^ '0^^--^^::.:. ----^- S^ 1 IlllfgUl ^^^^^HMUBBtinii..^ ^^- -- ^_M^dflMilElllli ;i ^> ^ '■i; :i 3 r- .iilu.,.i,ll"'l''ll',llllllll'lll'IIIMIIIIIlll]i '1 i'Mi.iiiiii;r ■"'Kllllli,'".' :ililli:n'i|i,;iiiiill!iliailliiiiiiiiiiiiiM r-'^i . :^^-^ ^mmBkaikLf < ^ UT T \ j||||||||p!i||p|||y -X--:- *'v= ' Wg»--^ ..:- ' ^^iT^ ' -; ? ._,—:- >rC'^:^^ ^^- .. ■ ^^^'.■" Vi?^^ V' v ■ ^ '^' > vS NIAGARA SUSPENSION BRIDGE. portions of the edge of the precipice on the American side gave way in 1818, and portions of the Horse-shoe Fall gave way in 1828, and at various times since then other portions have broken down. It is estimated by an eminent authority that I foot of the precipice at the Falls wears away each year. Niagara pre- sents a scene of great sublimity and grandeur not only in sum- mer, but in the winter, when the ice in the river presents a wonderful scenic eflfect, and is visited by thousands from all parts of the world. We advise all lovers of the beautiful and romantic in natural scenery to visit Niagara, believing that they will derive the same pleasure from an acqua^intance with its won,* NIAGARA RIVER— THE WHIRLPOOL. 1^ m ■If! V- 188 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. derful scenic attractions that the writer has enjoyed. At every point new and varied scenery greets the eye, and the deafening roar of the waters is grand and impressive. The marvels and beauties it reveals will long be enshrined in the heart of the visitor. This remarkable wonder of Nature has now become so widely known and so highly appreciated that it ranks as one of the greatest attractions of the American Continent. Its wild grandeur and beauty must be seen to be appreciated. No words can describe it and do it justice. It is no wonder that the tide of travel has set toward it from all directions. Its profound and sublime fall of water causes the visitor to specu- late on its wonderful formation. THE THOUSAND ISLANDS. The St. Lawrence River is the volume of the overflow of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario. Its course is in a general northeasterly direction. From the point of its ddboucher from Lake Ontario to the crossing of the 45th parallel at Cornwall, it forms the boundary line between New York State and the Province of Ontario, Canada, a distance of 85 miles. For a further distance of more than 4(X) miles it leads through the Canadian Prov- ince of Montreal and Quebec. The final 200 miles, or nearly all of that portion below the city of Quebec, is practically a vast sound, varying in width from 6 to 30 miles. The ever-varying features and the constant change of vista afforded the voyager, overflowing at every turn with unexpected instances of those combinations of water, land, and sky which we recognize as beautiful, make up the charm and glory of the Upper St. Lawrence River. Much has been said by a multitude of writers concerning the rapids of the St. Lawrence, down which the large and staunch passenger steamers daily perform their exciting and apparently perilous descent. These rapids are seven in number, and are divided by intervals of smooth waters and broad lakes. Between the passage of the Long Sault and the Lachine there is an interval in voyaging down-stream of about five hours; the return is made by all craft around the rapids through a series of costly canals. The St. Lawrence was originally known as the Great River of Canada, and was also known by the names of Cataraqui and the Iroquois. The name it now bears was bestowed upon it by the explorer Jacques Cartier, who first penetrated its mouth upon the festival day of St. Lawrence. ' The steamboat express, which is a part of the through route via the St. Lawrence River to Montreal, leaves Niagara Falls over the Lake Shore Division of the Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg Railroad, arriving at the thriving town of Clayton, where close connection is made with the steamer for Alexandria Bay and the trip down the St. Lawrence. Through sleepers arrive here every morning, also from New York, which is only 1 1 hours distant via Utica and Albany. All lines of steamers stop at Clayton. If you corpe from the West, you will be on board the steamer at Clayton LESS. oint new waters is long be •f Nature : ranks as grandeur it and do t from all to specu- 1 Superior, theasterly le crossing veen New liles. For dian Prov- lat portion /idth from ;e of vista istances of I beautiful, pids of the mers daily rapids are and broad there is an is made by Canada, and he name it r, who first ite via the Lake Shore ving at the steamer for gh sleepers Durs distant at Clayton t, : m ti'i I '' ^ THE THOUSAND ISLANDS. 191 Q h-V just as the sun has fairly thrown off the rosy drapery of his couch, and touch- ing at Round Island, Thousand Island Park, Central Park, and Alexandria Jay, within the next hour you will find the pretty skiffs or convenient steam yachts of scores of cottages waiting to capture and bear awuy among the islands their happy, newly-arrived guests, and you are indeed fortunate if you are numbered among these. There is a strange enchantment in the stilly mornings here. The city, its pressing cares, its hurry, heed- less, and often heart- less strife for su- premacy, seem far away, and as unreal as a troubled dream that is past. Some- times the voices of nature hint to us that here is the true life to lead — that all else is dross and a delusion. Dawn ushers in the beginning of the through traveller's trip down the river, and he makes up his mind whether or no the vaunted Thousand Islands are all that they are claimed to be. First, let it be understood that all of the land you can see to the left is made up of islands, one overlapping the othei^ along the distance until they give the impression of being con- tinuous coast line. Not so ; they are threaded by many devious and charming channels. As Round Island is approached the graceful proportions of the large hotel in its centre are revealed through interstices in the dense foliage along its shores. From this point there is a charming succession of pretty, brightly- painted cottages all along the clifT-like frontage of the island. Each year witnesses the rearing of scores of costly and beautiful villas upon coigns of vantage, and island property appreciates rapidly in value. After passing Round Island we have a fine view of Thousand Island Park and the clustered islands in its vicinity. We soon enter the narrow precinct of the American channel, which for several miles separates Wellsley Island from the mainland. BETWEEN THE ISLANDS. V. 192 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. Rock Island is on the right, and beautiful cottages are here, there, and every, where. At the lower end of Densmore Bay, vhich indents Wellsley Island at this point, are the " Seven Isles," a most romantic spot, which one must needs explore with a row-boat to discover its hidden charms. " Bella Vista," a large and costly place, is now noted upon the right, distinguishable by its square tower and ultra-modern style of architecture. Perched upon the cap of a cliff ! I ON THE ISLANDS. stand? the villa known as " Louisiana Point." The tall tower looming abovf the trees of a mid-stream island ahead is the large villa upon Comfort Island. Within easy hail down-stream is Nobby Island. It hides modestly behind Friendly Island. To the west of Nobby Island stands Welcome Island. A pretty cottage stands in its centre. A notable property passed by the steamer just before reaching the " Bay," and the last in the channel, is that of Mr. Albert B. Pullman, of Chicago, known as Cherry Island. As the steamer rounds up to her dock at Alexandria Bay, the wealth and variety of picturesque surrounding, in which the natural and artificial are so ) I * '.1 1 sil f? m BOUND ISLAND PARK. IHWi THE THOUSAND ISLANDS. 195 happily blended, almost bewilder the new-comer, whose imagination must be vivid indeed if he has conjured from the recesses of expectation anything half so beautiful. The huge and shapely hotels loom up close beside the water, and sable representatives of each lay in wait for the coming tourist upon the wharf. In the foreground of the accompanying picture of Alexandria Bay is seen the famous Thousand Island House, Charles P. Clemes, manager. Round Island, occupied as Round Island Park, is located in the centre of the American channel, 8 miles above Alexandria Bay. One hundred and fifty acres of land, beautifully diversified by sun and shade, are contained in the island, every portion ot which has some special attraction. The entire island is under the management of " The Round Island Park " Company, a stock company with a capital of $50,000. The hotel is modern, and well conducted. There are no two sunsets just alike at Round Island. Each day brings some special beauty. The going down of the sun, as it sinks upon the green Canadian hills, realizes the finest phenomenon in nature, save only that of light itself. Whether the declining orb drapes himself with the purple and gold of a royal couch, or sinks amid the tears and sackcloth betokening a coming storm, he is always grand in his leave-taking. Men in all ages have con- templated this phenomenon with awe and admiration — even to adoration. What a place for a moonlight row ! What enchanted islets to thread between, if one but knows the way ! In midsummer there are veritably but five hours of darkness upon the St. Lawrence. At 10 o'clock the sunset yet stains the western sky ; and soon after 3 there are manifest tokens of the coming of another day. The Methodist organization, known as the Thousand Island Park Asso- ciation, began its operations in 1875 by the purchase of a large territory at the head of Wellsley Island, aggregating i ,000 acres. Thousand Island Park now stands, with its 300 tasty cottages, as the most extensive of the denominational resorts upon the river. The new hotel, erected last season, is a large and costly structure, which must aid greatly in advancing the interests of the park. As at Chautauqua, a regular programme of the season's exercises is announced. It is a mooted question if the islands which dot the broadened river in front of Alexandria Bay look their prettiest at sunrise or eventide. Far away the camp-fires begin to twinkle out of the mellow purple gloom, and the merry sounds of human occupancy float out from the island homes. It is an hour of repose which even the wordy wrangling on the dock concerning the " catches " of the day can scarce disturb ; but wait, a finer thing is yet to come. Take supper and come out half an hour later. Now, displayed against the black masses where the islands stand, beneath the lingering stain of the sunset, are a score of devices, wrought in twinkling lamps ; here an anchor, there a star, a harp, or initial letter. Far up toward the cap of the lofty tower upon the Thousand Tsland House glows the white heat of an electric lamp, and along every cornice through the garden below and over among the rock and verdure of the illuminated Crossman House, a thousand lamps and torches dance in the eddying night-windj each tiny flame caught up and reflected on every 196 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. ripple of the deep black stream ; and as we gaze and admire, the night is pierced by the swift flight of rockets, which mount into the dome of heaven, and, shattering there, scatter particolored stars far out upon the silent tide. The largest and most costly, if not the most picturesque, of the many hundreds of cottages along the river are found in the vicinity of Alexandria Bay, many of them being within an easy row of the dock. The passing voyager, who only looks at these places from the steamer's deck, can have but slight idea of the loving care, even extravagant outlay, lavished upon many of them. One of the best-known properties in the vicinity is " Bonnie Castle," the property and favorite home of the late Dr. J. G. Holland. It is said that the final words of that genial and popular writer, who died in October, 1881, after a joyous summer at " Bonnie Castle," related to his life here, which had "BONNIE CASTLE. extended through five summers. " It is to me," he said, " the sweetest spot on earth." He then went on to speak of the constant, all-winter longing he felt, almost counting the days to the approach of the time when he could escape the weariness, or as he expressed it, the " incessant grind," of the city to this delightful home. Dr. Holland is also credited with the mot : " We stay in New York, but we live upon the St. Lawrence." Over beyond the islands which shut out the western horizon, when looking from the Bay, is Westminster Park, which occupies an extensive domain upon the lower er Vellsley Island. This park, like others upon the river, Is under denom...«4,ional influence, being of Presbyterian bias. The hotel, known as the Westminster, is composed of two roomy buildings. In Poplar Bay one finds a commodious dock, and a semicircle of bright and pretty homes. Just here is the entrance to the weird Lake of the Island, a large pond hidden ESS. THE THOUSAND ISLANDS. 197 night is f heaven, it tide, the many Uexandria le passing \ have but n many of ite Castle," s said that ober, 1881, which had away in the midst of Wellsley Island, to which access is had through a narrow and precipitous channel. This pond or lake is two miles in length and nearly a mile in width. On leaving Alexandria Bay for Montreal, scattering islands, many of them quite as wild as when the white man first voyaged here, are passed all the way down to Brockville, where the Thousand Island system terminates in a group called the "Three Sisters." Brockville is a substantial Canadian city of 10,000 people. It is 125 miles from Montreal by the river. The reader will note the large number of fine private properties along the rugged river front, both above and belov; the town. Immediately opposite is the American town of Morristown. Fourteen miles beyond, the Canadian town of Prescott and the American city of Ogdensburg stand vis-a-vis upon the banks of the river. A railway connects the St. Lawrence at this point with Ottawa, the Canadian capital. Ogdensburg is the focal point of three lines of railway, and a depot for a vast transhipment of grain and lumber from the West. It has an energetic population of nearly 12,000 largely engaged in manufacturing and internal commerce. Five miles below Ogdensburg is Chimney Island, where vestiges of French fortifications still exist, and immediately below are the first of the series of rapids, the Gallopes, and shortly thereafter the Rapide de Plat is met. Neither of these swift places is especially exciting, but they serve as a preliminary to the great Long Sault (pronounced long sou), which is next in order. A long reach of smooth water intervenes, however, during which we pass the small American town of Waddington and the attractive Canadian city of Morris- burg, Just below this place is the battle-field of Chrisler's Farm, where an engagement occurred in 181 3 between British and American forces, while the latter were marching to the capture of Montreal and Quebec. Over upon the American side is Massena Landing, whence a stage connecting with a steam ferry runs to the fine old medicinal resort known as Massena Springs, which, aside from its picturesque and healthful location, the excellent Hatfield House, and good fishing, boasts of remarkably strong and potent sulphur waters. At Dickinson's Landing, the boat, which is well fitted for her daily task of breasting the wild surges of the rapids, turns in the swift current, and a mile ahead the passengers see the white, stormy waters of the Long Sault stretch- ing from shore to shore. Now the real fun begins. There is a sudden hush to the monotone of the steamer's pulsations. We are in the grasp of the current. Extra men are at the wheel, and others are aft in charge of a spare tiller. If you are inclined to be nervous now, remember that steamers have been going down here ever since 1840, and no passenger vessel has ever been wrecked in the rapids. The first plunge is over a cascade at " the cellar," and is exhilarating. We are no sooner into the vast expanse of broken waters than fresh sensations await us. Look at the shore 1 Heavens, how we slide along ! Now across our way a vast green billow, like the oncoming surge of the ocean upon soundings after a nor'easter, disputes our passage. It is of the beautiful green where the sunlight shows through its wedge-like cap that I I 198 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. one sees upon the coral beds of Nassau, or at the deep centre of the Horse- shoe Fall at Niagara, or in drug-store jars. It does not rise and fall, advance and recede. It simply stands there forever, a vast wall of water through which we cleave our way with a fierce, brief struggle, only to meet a second, a third, a fourth like wave beyond. The rapids are about two miles in length, but there is a continuance of reasonably swift water for several miles further. The actual fight between the boat and the angry billows is over in less than three minutes. The important town of Corn- wall, where sev- eral large fac- tories are lo- cated, is shortly seen upon the Canadian shore. After leaving Cornwall we bid good-bye to American soil, for here the iii- ternat ional boundary line intersects the river. Four miles below Cornwall the Indian vil- lage of St. Regis is noted on the right shore. .We are now on t h e broad Lake St, Francis, which is about 25 miles long. We pass the village of Lancaster on the left shore of the lake, when we arrive at the river once more. It dashes off impetuously just after leaving the village of Coteau du Lac, and carries us headlong down the " Coteau Rapids," which are about 2 miles long ; then the " Cedars," 3 miles, and the Cascades, the village at the foot of which is Beau- harnois ; and now a second lake is met, as if the river dreaded the final plunge down the famous Lachine. Lake St. Peter is 12 miles across the village of Lachine. DOWN THE RAPIDS. #1A i WATKINS' GLEN. Total Ascent^ SQo/ett. WATKINS GLEN. 201 We are now in sight of the great city of Montreal. The village of Lachine is simply a picturesque suburb of the city. The reader may ask why the curious name, La Chine (The China), is applied to this point. It is said that the earlier voyagers believed that the St. Lawrence opened a way to the Pacific, and therefore to the Flowery Kingdom. From the deck of the steamer the passenger may see the bold outline, standing out against the sunset, of a huge stone watch-tower, and if close enough the crumbling remains of two stone forts, built to protect the settle- ments along Lake St. Louis from the savages. Onward forges our speedy craft, and ere long the troubled waters of Lachine are seen far ahead, a snowy breastwork across our path. The lake is again a river. We are abreast the village of Lachine, where the canal from Montreal debouches into the St. Law- rence. The muddy Ottawa pours its tide into the pure blue waters in which we have voyaged since morning, as the Missouri pollutes the Mississippi. We are drifting steadily down toward the rapids. The bell signals "go ahead," and the Indian pilot, who has come aboard from a skifl, takes supreme command at the wheel. A little while later and we are in the vortex ; the current grows swift and swifter ; all the mighty outpouring of the stream is pent up in a single channel ; all the bosom of the river is covered with reefs and rocks. The boat heads this way and that ; down we plunge, and onward straight toward a rocky islet ! Which side? Just as destruction seems immi- nent, the vessel sweeps round to the right, and shoots like an arrow between two sunken ledges. We are through, and can look back up the watery hill, we have descended, and admire the courage of the men who first navigated this wonderful channel. The once marvellous Victoria Bridge comes into view. In a few moments we steam beneath it and swing around the dangerous shoals that bar the terminus of deep-water navigation, and heading up-stream are speedily at the lock, within which, as the steamer rises to the upper level, the passengers are landed. In Montreal, an account of which is given elsewhere, the Windsor, stately and American-like, plays an important part in the pleasures of spend- ing a portion of each year upon the grand and changeless St. Lawrence. It is the memory of happy days in other years when the picture of care-free hours has included our warmest friends, the whole framed with the exquisite environ- ment of the islands, which solaces us for the cold and cheerless days of winter which must intervene before we can again take up this ideal habit of life. All indications point toward a brilliant future for the island region and the tour of the river. \'\ { jf r WATKINS G-LEN. This beautiful Glen is situated west of and partly in the village of Watkins, Schuyler County, N. Y., near the head of Seneca Lake. It is 20 miles from Elmira and 40 from Geneva. It is on the Geneva & Coming Rail- road ; also, on the Northern Central Railroad, which connects at Canandaigua 202 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. with the New York Central Railroad. It Is also reached by a line of steamers, running from Geneva to Watkins, over Seneca Lake, touching at all points. This is a delightful way of reaching the Glen from the north, as the scenery of this beautiful lake is equal to anything on the continent. The word Glen gives but a faint idea of the gorge ; it is a marvellous rift in the mountain, which appears to have been made by some stupendous earthquake. The Glen, with iti dashing, flashing, cascading stream, is a really wonderful natural curiosity. It is not properly a glen, but a numerous succession and variety of glens. At every turn there is material for a w onderful picture. It is one of Nature's reservoirs of eternal coolness. Even in July and August the air is cool, fresh, and bracing ; laden with sweet odors, the fragrance of many flowers. It is renowned the world over for its wonderful scenery. It is as well worthy a visit as the Falls of Niagara. The total ascent of the Glen is about 800 feet. Looking upward, what a sight bursts upon us ! Towering and irregular cliffs of dark rock, angular and sullen, rise one above another till they appear to meet in the clouds, and seem to forbid approach. At numerous places in the Glen we pause, and wonder how it is possible to go much farther, the way appears impassable, and the distance so inaccessible ; but as we advance the path always opens, and gives far more interest to the ascent than though we could clearly mark our way before us. Minnehaha is one of the numerous beautiful cascades ; it is irregular, yet full of grace. The waier, broken several times in its fall, is dashed into foam and spray, which forms a brilliant contrast to the dark, rocky surroundings. About icx) feet beyond Minnehaha is the Fairy Cascade, which, with one graceful bound, leaps into Neptune's Pool. For sublimity and grandeur Cavern Gorge is probably unsurpassed by any in the Glen. Near this beautiful cavern is another, known as Cavern Cascade, which leaps 60 feet in a single column from the rocks above into what is known as the Grotto, which is a dark, damp, weird cavern. After emerging from the dark chasm, we see before us silvery cascades quiet pools, and moss-garnished walls, overarched by stately forest trees and thick shrubbery, with a broad light flooding the distance; and far above through the emerald foliage, like a web of gossamer, is seen the beautiful iron bridge spanning the Glen. The beauty of the foliage is very impressive, and the vegetation is almost tropical. From this point along the verge of the gorge is a " new " pathway, with a fine stairway, broken by platforms recently erected, and which leads to the building known as the " Swiss Cottage," now a cottage of the Glen Mountain House, the only hotel connected with the Glen, which is located on a sort of natural shelf, 100 feet above the level of the stream, and 200 feet above the level of Glen Alpha, overlooking The Vista, and nestling among the trees and shrubbery. Thousands of feet of pathways and many of the stairs are cut in the solid rock. A few rods above the Mountain House is situated Hope's Art Gallery, which was built by Captain J. Hope, late of 82 Fifth Avenue, New York, and contains a superb collection of more than 100 of his finest and most celebrated I i 1 1' GLEN MOUNTAIN HOUSE, WATKINS GLEN. WATKINS GLEN. ao| paintings. From this point Sylvan Gorge is not far distant. It is considered one of the wildest, most beautiful, and interesting portions ' the Glen. A Auccession of little rapids and cascades leap into Sylvan Gorge, of which the upper termination is called the Sylvan Rapids, and they glide and dance very beautifully through their irregular rocky channel. Here we have a delightful bird's-eye view down through Sylvan Gorge, with its many windings and mysterious recesses. Looking upward we find ourselves in Glen Cathedral. All attempt at description fails, and words are inadequate to paint a picture that would do this subject justice, or convey to the mind an idea of its grandeur. The Cathedral is an immense oblong amphitheatre, nearly an eighth of a mile in length. Here the Glen is wider than at any other point ; the rocky walls tower to a great height — over 300 feet — and arc richly tapestried with mosses and clinging vines, and crowned with lofty pines and other evergreen trees. The floor is composed of a smooth and even surface of rock; the vaulted arch of the sky forms the dome. In the upper end the Central Cascade forms the Choir, and, as it dashes from rock to rock, sings continual hymns of praise to the Infinite Power that created this mighty temple. Central Cascade has a beautiful fall of about 60 feet, and while far above, projecting through the trees, is seen Pulpit Rock, close by is the Glen of the Pools, so called from its great variety and number of rock basins. Situated near the upper end of the Cathedral is a large and beautiful pool, called the Baptismal Font. The Grand Staircase, which is close by, is 170 feet high. We have to ascend this before we can reach the " Poet's Dream," which is a very mag- nificent scene, and affords new phases of magical beauty like the ever-varying changes in a kaleidoscope. The Triple Cascade is considered by many to be the finest in the Glen. As its name indicates, it is composed of three portions, one above another, each different in form from the others, and forming a beautiful combination. Just below the Triple Cascade, on the south side, a little brook leaps over the brow of a great cliff nearly 400 feet high down into the Glen, The water does not descend in a smv oth sheet, but in a myriad of tiny threads and drops, forming a sparkling crystal veil, behind which our course leads. This novel cascade is known as Rainbow Falls. The space between the fall and the cliff I'l THE TRIPLE CASCADE. Sfii I 206 PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF AMERICAN PROGRESS. is narrow, but sufficiently wide to allow free passage. In the afternoon, from June to September, when fair weather prevails, the rays of the sun fall into the gorge, and the enraptured visitor, in looking through the veil, beholds two most beautiful rainbows, a primary and secondary — a sight that, once enjoyed, can never be forgotten. Glen Arcadia well deserves its name, for a more beautiful scene cannot be imagined. It has been called " The Artist's Dream," where all the beauties of the other glens, silver cascades, and crystal pools, light and shadow, sharp angles and graceful curves, foliage, sky, and rock, mingle and produce a picture that more resembles an ecstatic dream than anything that can elsewhere be found. Other scenes of great beauty or interest are Pluto Falls, on which the sun never shines; the Arcadian Fall, which is a beautiful cascade, falling into a kind of natural grotto, and at its foot is a beautiful basin ; Elfin Gorge, which is a scene of wondrous beauty; Glen Facility, at which point the most im- portant of the great natural beauties of the Glen terminate ; but many visitors go half a mile beyond, to see the mag- nificent new iron bridge of the Syracuse, Geneva & Corning Railway Company, which spans the Glen at a height of 165 feet above the water. In our de- scription we have passed through 2)4 miles, and are now 600 feet above our starting-point. "THE RHINE OF AMERICA." The Hudson or North River is one of the most beautiful and important streams of America. It rises in the Adirondack Mountains, 4,000 feet above the level of the sea, and runs south from the vicinity of Lake George to New York. Above Troy it is broken by falls and rapids ; from this point to the bay, 151 miles, it is a tidal stream, varying from a third of a mile to two miles in width, and navigable for steamboats and sailing craft. Much of the scenery along the Hudson is magnificent. Its head-streams are the outlets of many mountain lakes in the northeastern portion of the State. At Glens Falls it has a fall of 50 feet, and soon after, taking a southerly course, runs nearly in a straight line to its mouth. At Newburgh, 61 miles from New York, the river enters the Highlands, which rise abruptly from the water to the height of 1,200 to 1,600 feet. Here the scenery is of great beauty and grandeur, and is RAINBOW FALLS. ss. n, from all into Ids two iry and :n joyed, s name, nnot be i "The beauties des, and w, sharp age, sky, 1 picture ic dream vlierc be aeauty or /hich the lian Fall, lling into at its foot ■ge, which ty ; Glen most im- leauties of ly visitors the mag- Company, n our de- above our important feet above ge to New lint to the two miles he scenery ts of many ^J'alls it has learly in a :, the river : height of leur, and is M Ph w H i l\\ I »?1 i: i',i ■ ■MM "THE RHINE OF AMERICA." 209 admired by all travellers. Several of the heights are crowned with the ruins of fortiHcations built to prevent the passage of British ships in the War for Independence. Here was the scene of Arnold's treason and the sad fate of Major Andr^. Emergini^ from the Highlands, the river widens into a broad expanse called the Tappan Zee. Below, on the west bank, on the New Jersey shore, rises an almost straight and perpendicular wall of trap-rock, from the river's brink to a height of 300 to 500 feet, called the Palisades, extending 15 miles to a point opposite the upper portion of the city of New York. The VIEW OF THE TURK'S FACE ON THE HUDSON. river is here from one to two miles wide, and here it flows into New York Bay. Its whole length is nearly 300 miles, and its principal tributaries are the Hoosic, Mohawk, Walkill, and Croton. The steamboats which ply on the Hudson are among the finest and fastest in the world. Some are more than 400 feet long, are fitted up with great luxury, and attain a speed of 23 to 24 miles an hour. The Hudson River Railway runs along the margin of the river on the east bank to Albany. By this river, and the Erie Canal, the West Shore, and several other railways New York is connected with the great lakes and the West. The river is samed from the English navigator who dis- covered it, in 1609. S''\ i: I tF' a w I 11 t) I'l 'I ■ 1 i s o n Ui mmm I OUR NATIONAL GOVERNMENT, AND HOW IT IS ADMINISTERED. GommtSHT is necessary for the restraint of disorderly persons and for the seenrity of Jnstloa It is the manifestation of organized social power. Its primary and neoesaaij fkmotiona are to auift tain the peace and to execute Justice between different members of society. Where there is no transgression there is no necessity for law. Every citizen has a natural right to defend his life and property from injuiy. The collective body of citizens have the right to orgaa* lie power for the general good — in other words, to create a Government, which, therefore, jastly derives its powers from the will and consent of the governed— the people. According to this fhndamental principle the people of the United States, in representative coB' ▼ention assembled, establisbed a National Government in republican form, having its Ainctions pre- scribed by a written declaration adopted by the people and known aa the ContUlutum of the Unittd Statu. THE G07ERNMENT. The National Government is composed of three co-ordinate departments— namely t 1. Thx Legiblativis, or that which makes the laws. 2. The Executivk, or that which enforces the laws. ' ■ 3. The JuDiciATi, or that which interprets the laws and administers justice. These powers are lodged in different hands. The body which makes the laws has nothing te do with the enforcement of them, while the Judicial department is independent of the legislative and executive departments. LEGISLATIYE DEPABTMENT. The legislative power is vested in a Congress of representatives of the people. It consi^M of a tttiate and ffotue of Btpresentatives. The members ^f the former are chosen by the several Stat* Legislatures, and those of the latter are chosen directly by the people by secret ballots. Repbbsgntatitbs. — A representative, when chosen, must be twenty-five years of age, a citizen of the United States six years, and an inhabitant of the State in which he is chosen. The number of representatives of each State is determined by the population of the State. la order to keep the number of the members of the House of Bopresontatives about the same the ratio of representatives is changed from time to time. For example, in 1792 the apportionment was 33.800 inhabitants to every representative ; in ISTO the number was 138,000 inhabitant* to every reprosentft- tive. When a vacancy happens in the representation of a State the executive authority of such State issues writs of election to fill such vacancy. The representatives choose their own presiding officer (the "Speaker") and others, and have i (be sole power of impeachment. Senate.— A Senator, when chosen, must be thirty years of age, nine years a citizen at the United States, and an inhabitant of the State for which he is chosen. Each State is entitled to two Senators, without regard to its population. They are chosen f>r a term of six years. Each Senator has one vote. The Yioe-President of the United States is President of the Senate, but has ■• vote onlesa thsy ke equally divided. The Senate has the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting as snch bi|^ oevt it !■ the duty of the Chief Justice of the United States to preeide, and no persen may be aaaTietet ^ (he eeaourreBoe ef two-tkirda of the meabera of the Senate praeent J 1 HI C!' •^i OUR NATIONAL OOVEBNMBNT Both Hottmh.— The two Houses of Cengresa aaettt the stine tisu ud place, la sepente oha» bers. Banh Ilouge is the judge of the elections, returns, and qaalifioationa of its own memben. a m^ority in each House oonstltates aqoomm. Each House determines its own rales of proceeding, ma,j punish its members, aad, with the con- aorreuoe of two-thirds of the members present, may expel a member. Neither House during the session of Congress may, without the consent of the other, a^eara foi more than three days, nor to any othor place than that in which the two Houses may be sitting. Members of both Houses are priTileged from arrest (except in cases of treason, felony, er breach of peace) during their attendance at the sessions of their respective Houses, or going to or returning from ^be same. Nor may they be questioned in any othor place for any speech or words in debate in either House. No person holding office under the United States may be a member of either Ir>:ue during his oontinuance in office. The existence of each Congress Is limited to two years. POWERS OF CONGRESS. Congress Is Tested with sorereign powers to levy and collect taxes and provide for the national de- Ibnce ; to borrow money ; to regulate eommerco witli foreign nations and among the several States ; to coiu money ; to punish counterfeiters ; to ostablish post-routes and post-ofBcos ; to grant patent* and copyrights ; to declare war, carry it on on land and sea (but not to make appropriations, for the purpose, for a longer time than for two years), and conclude peace ; to create and maintain a navy ; to call forth the militia of the several States in certain contingencies, and to enact all laws necessary for the execution of the powers granted them. But Congress may not suspend the privilege of the writ of kitbeiu corpus unless where the public safety may require it ; pass a bill of attainder or ex-pml- facto law ; lay a tax or duty on inter-State ozchangos of commodities ; give commercial proferenoo to any port ; subject vessels bound to or from one State to enter, to clear, or pay duties in another State; cause money to be drawn from the public treasury, excepting appropriations made by law ; grant any title of nobility, nor allow any person holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, without the consent of Congress, to accept any gift from any foreign power while holding such office. MODE OF PASSING LAWS. All bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of Representatives, Every bill must have the concurrence of both Houses, and then be presented to the President of the United States. If approved by him he signs it and it becomes law ; if not approved he returns it with his written ob- jections. This is called a veto. Then it may be reconsidered, and, if passed by a vote of two-thirds of each Honse, it becomes a law without the signature of the President. Every order, resolution, ot vote to which the concurrence of the two Houses may be necessary (excepting on a question of adjournment) is presented to the President of the United States, and may take the course of a bill. The enumerated powers vested in Congress are denied to the several States which compose the Bepublio. THE STATES. The several States of the Republic are tndqtendent in a degree, but not sovereign. By the provi sions of the National Constitution they are denied the exercise of the functions of sovereiftn power. Originally there were thirteen States in the Union. Since then the process of forming a new Slate is by erecting a prescribed domain of the Republic into a Territory and organizing a Territorial government, administered by a chief magistrate and other officers appointed by the President of the United States, by and with the consent of the Senate. The Territory has a Legislature to enact laws of local application, but Congress may reject any of them. The inhabitants elect a delegate who re- pre.-ionts them in Congress, tells thot body what the Territory needs, but has no vote. The people of a Territory do not vote for President of the United States. When a Territory contains a specified num- ber of iahabitimts a convention may be called, a State Constitution formed and adopted, and applica- tion be made to Congress for the admission of the Territory into the Union as an independent Stato The application may be rejected, and there is no appeal but to another Congress. If permitted to beeoflse a State it immediately assumes State powers and takes its position as an equal of the ethei States aocerding to its ability. AND HOW IT 18 A D M I N I 8 T B RE D . When a new State is formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of anj other State, or lormed Vf the junction of two or more Stiites or parts of States, the consent of the Legislatures uf titu States oaa- cemed and of Cougross must first bo obtained. Congress must guarantee to every State in the Union a republican form of government, and pro- tect all from invasion when required by the proper authorities of a State or States su invaded. EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. The executive power of the Republic is vested in a President of the United States, whoso term of office is limited to four years. Ho is eligible to ri'-i'lection indoflnitoly. His jtower is coordinate but not coequal with that of the Legislative Departmuut. He is the agont to exociito the will of Congress expressed by laws. Tho mcliiod of choosing a President and Tico-Prcsidont is prescribed in the Twelfth Amendment to tho National Constitution (Jco page xx. of tho Supplement). Tho President is commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy of the United States; also of ♦'ho militia of the several States wlion called into the actual service of the Republic. With tho ndvico and con..unt of tho Sonato, the Prosident makes treaties with foreign Po'v r il^'*| ■ ir 'I'" -Vt '•-■ i:l >i . :•! •i ; ^^ ) I! ■'■■ 'i-;^!*. r OUR i^ATIONAL GOVERNMENT. Department and other diplomatic afents of the United States abroad, and thofle of foreign powers •ceredited to the Qovemment. The Cmuular branch ban charfi^ of all correspondence between the Department and the consuls and commercial agents of the United States. TiiK Finance or Tbeardrt Dkpautmrnt is in charge of the Secretary of the Troasuiy, who has aa assistants a First and Second Comptroller of the Treasury, a Commissioner of Customs, six Audi- tors, each charged with distinct functions, a Treasurer a Rogistor, a Solicitor, and a Comptroller of the Treasury, lie has under his direction a Light-Houso Board, a Bureau of Construction, the United States Coast Surrey, the Internal Revenue, and the United States Mints. He has the general super- vision of the flnancial transactions of the Government, and is charged with the execution of the laws ooncoruing commerce and navigation. Thk War Dbpartment is under the control of the Secretary of War, who is charged with all trasinoss pertaining vo the Army and the supervision of all fortifications, arsenals, and stores, also of tho Weather Signal Service. Ho has under his control the offices of the Commanding General of the Army, the Adjutant-General, the Quartormastdr General, tho Paymaster-General, the Commifsarj'- General, tho Surgeon General, tho Engineer's Office, the Topographical Office, the Ordnance Office, and the Office of Refiigoes and Frcedmen ; also the Military Academy at West Point. These titles indicate the functions of tho respective bureaus. TnK Navy Department is under tho control of tho Secretary of tho Navy, who is charged with all business pertaining to that branch of tho sorrioo. That business is conducted through the aid of eight bureaus — namely, of Yards and Docks, of Navigation, of Ordnance, of Constniction and Repairs, of Equipment and Recruiting, of Provisions and Clothing, of Steam-Enginccring, and of Medicine and Surgery. These several titles indicate tho functions of tlie respective bureaus. Tho Secretary of the Navy has control of the Marine Corps, a military organization attached to tho Navy. Thk Interior Drparthbnt is in charge of tho Secretary of the Interior, who has tho caro and management of tho Public Lands, of PenRions, of the Indians, of the Patent Office, of tho Department of Agriculture, and the Bureau of Education The Post-Offick Department is in charge of the Postmaster-General. The business of this De- partment is distributed among several bureaus, as follows: tiio Ap|)ointment Office, in charge of the First Assiittant Postmaster-General; the Contract Office, including the Inspection Division, in charge of the Second Assistant Postmaster-General ; the Finance Office, in charge of tho Third Assistant Postmaster-General, who has also charge of tho Dead Letter Office ; and tho Money Order Office, in charge of tho Superintendent. The Department of Jtt8TICB is in charge of tho Attorney-General of the United States. Its ordinary duties may be classified as follows : 1. Official opinions on tho current business of the Government. 2. Examinations of the titles of land purchaser, for sites of public works. 3. Applications for pardons in all cases of conviction in the courts of the Unit.ed States. 4. Applications for appointment in all the judicial and logol departments of tho Government. 5. The conduct and argumiwit of all suits in tho Supreme Court of the Unitod States in which the Oovemmont is concerned. ft. The supervision of all other snits arisiBg in any of tho Departments, when rofcrrod to tho At- t»i»cy-GoficraL Thb Dki'aktmbnt of AoRictri.TORB is in charge of the Secretary of Agricaltare, who, in addilinn to executive functioiis, perforins the diiticB which devolved upon the CommisBioDcr of Agriculture when this branch was subordinate to the Interior Depart nici't. OUR COUNTRY'S ACHIEVEMENTS. 'HE earliest settlement that remained permanent in the United States was at Jamestown, Virginia. Sir Walter Raleigh, who was at one time a great favorite of Elizabeth, the Queen of England, was very much interested in making a settlement in America, and expended a vast amount of money to forward his plans. But his colonies always failed for some cause or another. Sometimes the colonists would return in disgust at the hardships which they had to endure. One colony was murdered by the Indians, and when help came nothing but ruins could be found, and one colony was lost, and its fate is unknown to this day. At last, in iCo6, a grant was given by the king to a company who could colonize any part of America claimed by the English and trade with the natives. Under this grant, a company of one hundred and five men set out for Virginia in three vessels. One-half of this number were gentlemen of broken fortunes, some were trades-people, and some were footmen. There was not a farmer or mechanic among them. There was one man in this band who was a born hero and leader, — John Smith. They came to the James river and laid the foundation of a set. tlement, which they named Jamestown, in honor of the king. Here were planted the seeds of the first settlement that took root and flourished. The colonists, unaccustomed to toil, worked manfully and erected their homes in the wilderness, and planted their wheat. When the summer came, the supply of food was low, and many of the settlers died from the heat and hardships ; but winter brought them better climate and abundant supplies of game and fish, with a good harvest of wheat. Smith set out to explore the country, was captured by the Indians; and after puzzling them for a time with the mysteries of the pocket compass and the art of writing, was rescued from death by Pocahontas, the young daughter of the Indian chief, Powhatan, who had decided to kill him. When Smith returned from his captivity with the savages, he found his colony on the very point of breaking up. Only thirty-eight were living, and these were making preparations to leave. But the return of their leader inspired them with new hope, and they resumed their work. New colonists joined them from England, but they were of a class known as " vagabond gentlemen, who had packed off to escape worse destinies at home." The reputation of the colony was so bad, that we are told that some, rather than come to Virginia, " chose to he hung, and were." These were the undesirable subjects whom Smith was obliged to rule with an authority that none dared to question. But unfortunately for the colony, Smith was obliged to return to England to procure surgical treatment for an injury caused by an accidental discharge of gunpowder. In six months the colony was again reduced to sixty men, and teiJ ' V -I* m i'Ui ■ ii»3 Iv * B' ;< V 'mm ii'. M :|'i 111 ■ ■ 'f ' ' '■■■A • ■ ; ■ ! ' , ' ! . • CI |i 1 :';:! i; 1' r:i!; ■ 11 ■ t, 'h o 3 l» 1733] THE AGE OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 217 were making ready to depart, when Lord Baltimore, their new governor, rame and prevented them. Once more the settlement was saved on the very verge of dissolution. Years of quiet growth followed, and a better class of emigrants came. There was a great demand for tobacco, — a new plant unknown to Europe until Sir Walter Raleigh introduced it into England ; — and the colonists found it growing in Virginia, and learned its cultivation from the natives. It was in extensive use among the Indians, and regarded as a medicine. The use of this plant spread in England very rapidly, and created a demand for its supply, and the Virginians found it a most profitable crop to cultivate. In the absence of money, tobacco became a medium of exchange among the colonists. Salaries of officers and ministers, fines in churches and State were paid with it. In a few years after the first settlement there was a written Constitution. They had a House of Parliament chosen by the people, and a governor sent out from England. The Episcopal church was recognized as the State church, and the colony was divided into parishes. A college was founded, and the Indians were friendly. The first white child born in America was here baptized by the name of Virginia Dare. Pocahontas went to England with her husband, a young colonist by the name of John Rolfe, where she was kindly received by the queen, and made the recipient of many favors; but she died at Gravesend, March, 1617, just as she was about to return to America with her husband. She left an infant son, from whom some of the noblest families of Virginia descended. THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. LITTLE more than two centuries ago, the part of the United States we call New England, was one vast forest, with here and there a little clearing where a few Indian families made their temporary home, and raised their scanty supply of corn. But it was destined to become ^the abode of hardy and devout people, who by their Jindustry and frugality were to lay the basis of a mighty nation upon the broad foundation-stones of civil and religious liberty. A noble band of men who were denied the liberty of worship which they desired in their own land, resolved to escape from England to Holland to find the freedom denied by their own countrymen. Mr. Robinson, a wise and good man, had been their minister, and after straggling bands of Pilgrims, as they were called, reached Holland, their pastor joined them. They remained here eleven years receiving additions, from time to time, from those who were anxious to be free from religious oppression. Then it was decided to establish fit.. I I ' I' fM- h'-j: I ■ ' \':\i : t III '^ ii, 318 THE AGE OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. [1620 a new State in America where they could be free to worship God, and not fear any alliances with the nations around them. Enough money was raised among them to equip and send one hundred of their number to the new world. A ship called the Mayflower was chartered to take them across the stormy Atlantic. On a morning in July this vanguard of freedom knelt on the sea-shore at Delftshaven to listen to the prayers of their pastor, and receive his parting blessing. The vessel was of one hundred and sixty tons burden, an old hulk which would not now be considered safe for a coast-wise trip in fair weather. After repeated delays, the expedition set sail in the early part of Sep- tember, 1620, and after a long and stormy voyage, dropped her anchor in the waters of Cape Cod Bay on the i ith of November of the same year. It was a cold and barren coast which met their view, with low sand hills devoid of any vegetation except long grass and low dwarf trees. The Pilgrims hesitated so long about the place to begin a settlement, that the captain threatened to put them all on shore and leave them. They went out to explore, and finally chose a spot where they decided to found their colony. They landed on the 22nd of December upon Plymouth rock, and began the Colony which they called by the name of the city in England which they had left. Here they were in an unknown wilderness, the winter upon them with scant supplies and no shelter. But they worked manfully to build their little town, sadly hindered by the severe cold and the death of their comrades, who fell around them. They erected nineteen houses, sur- rounded them with a palisade, and then on the hill they erected a building which served the double purpose of a fort and a church. The severe winter passed, and when the spring came their numbers had been sadly reduced by death ; but now the health and spirits of the survivors began to improve. The little band had signed a civil compact in the cabin of the Mayflower before they landed, in which they formed themselves into a government, and chose John Carver as their governor. They acknowledged King James as their sovereign, but were emphatically a self governing commonwealth. They had known enough of the despotism of Kings, and were quite sure that democracy could not be any worse, and they had faith to try the experiment. From this small beginning came the establishment of self-government over all the country. For some years, the difficulties which beset the infant colonists were well nigh insurmountable, but their faith failed not, and after a time prosperity came to theni. Each summer new additions were made to their number, of men and women who had caught the spirit of religious freedom, and sought to find here an asylum from the tyrannies to which they were subject in their old homes. Thus New England became the place of refuge to many of the wearied victims of persecution, and seemed a paradise to those who were ' 1 .MM 1733] THE AGE OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 219 jovernment denied the right to worship God according to the dictates of conscience. Whole congregations with their pastors came to swell the number. The men were stout of heart and patient in toil, and their industry and labor brought them comfort. They were simple in manners and plain in dress ; their wants were few and these were supplied by the harvests of the autumn, by their success in hunting and fishing and by the flocks they raised. The women carded, spun and wove the wool. The men felled the forests and built houses and vessels, erected cities and formed new towns in the woods. The ships they built crossed the ocean and carried their freights of timber, fish and furs. Commerce sprung up and prosperity smiled upon the settlers. They early made friends with the Indians, and one of the most pleasant episodes in the early days of the Colony was the visit and friendly aid of Massasoit, a chief who lived at Sowansee, now Warren, Rhode Island. He came with his brother and sixty warriors to the little settlement in March, 162 1, the spring which followed the first severe winter in the new world. He made a league of friendship with the English, and for forty years was their staunch friend and protector, never failing them in all their dangers and hardships. His influence saved the little band from destruction by the Narragansets. Two years after his visit the old chief was taken very sick, and would have died if the governor had not sent him Mr. Winslovv who used simple remedies which effected a cure ; and in his great joy and gratitude he said, " Now I see that the English are my friends and love me, and while I live I will never forget the kindness they have shown me." The kindness of this Indian was of great value to the Colony as long as he lived, and he was highly respected by them. The Colonists of New England paid great attention to the subject of education, believing that it was of vital importance to the preservation of the State and Church. In a few years schools began to appear, and a law was passed that every town of fifty freeholders should maintain a common school, and every town of one hundred, must sustain a grammar school. Some tolerably qualified brother was chosen and " entreated to become school- master. " Harvard College was established within fifteen years after the Pilgrim fathers landed at Plymouth. Twenty-three years after the landing, there were twenty-four thousand white people in New England. Forty-nine wooden towns, and four Colonics namely, Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New Haven. There seemed at first a desire to scatter widely, push out into the wilderness, form new settlements and set up self-government, each for itself. But this separation could not long exist for there were other human beings in the wilderness beside the white settlers, and these had a prior claim there. Within calling distance there were Indians enough when aroused and com- bined to drive out all the colonists. And beyond the frontiers were French and Dutch settlements. So it came to pass that the four Colonies were forced to form themselves for mutual protection and encouragement, into a band called " The United Colonies of New England." This was the first confed- •. r ;^-'!J ' la ^^^iil L i: I ', ^'^'l lill ■' I ^ '[ 222 THE AGE OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. [1609 SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. ENDRICK HUDSON, an explorer in the employ of the Dutch, had discovered and sailed up the river which bears his name, in the year 1609. Three or four years after the Pilgrims had landed at Plymouth, the Dutch West India Company resolved to establish a trading post with the Indians. They sent out a settlement in 1623, which located on Manhattan island at the north of the Hudson, and built a town which they called New Amsterdam. They grew rich and numerous, until a war broke out with the Indians, who drove the settlers to the southern extremity of the island, and they built a wall across the island where Wall Street is now situated. The war came to an end, and for twenty years after there was a time of peace and prosperity under the government of a wise and sagacious man, Peter Stuyvcsant. While his government was not faultless, the city flourished under it, and a continued flow of emigration came in from Europe. In the year 1664, when Peter was away from home, an English fleet appeared in the harbor to demand the territory in the name of their sovereign. Charles II. had given his brother James of York, a large tract of country, embracing the land on which the Dutch city stood. Peter at first was willing to fight them single-handed ; but the English settlers would not fight against their king, and the Dutch, who remembered some of the petty tyrannies of Peter would not join him. At length he yielded to the entreaties of two ministers and many of the people, and the city of fifteen hundred inhabitants quietly passed into the hands of the English, and its name was changed to New York. With this city the Dutch also gave up their settlements in New Jersey, which they had taken from the Swedes, and so the English had the Atlantic coast from Massachusetts Bay to Georgia. 1733] THE AGE OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 223 THE LAND OF PENN. ILLIAM PENN, the son of an English admiral, who had won many noted victories for the Crown, became a Quaker, to the dismay of his friends, just at the time a brilliant future spread out before him. At first the father was furious and turned his son out of doors, hoping that hunger would soon cause him to recant ; but the admiral relented and restored him to favor. When his father died, soon after the reconciliation, young Penn mherited his possessions, and among the rest a claim for $8o,cxx) due the admiral from the king. Penn, who had formed in his mind a design to establish a settlement in America for the persecuted members of his own sect, offered to take payment of the king in land ; and Charles was ready enough to bestow upon his subject a vast region stretching westward from the Delaware River. Penn then came to America with the noble purpose of founding a free and self governing State, where, as he said, he could show men as free and " as happy as they can be." He proclaimed to the men who were already settled within his territory, " Whatever sober and free men can reasonably desire, I will comply with." He was true to his word ; and when they sp»'t representatives his people met them and a Constitution was framed. Penn confirmed this arrangement. He also dealt honorably and kindly with the Indians, and bought their lands of them, and in return they respected and loved him. The conference with the natives was held under a large elm which stood in the forest where Philadelphia now is, and a monument marks the spot. All was to be " openness and love," and " no advantage was to be taken on either side." For long years the Indians recounted the words of Penn, and the blood of a Quaker was never shed by an Indian on the soil of Pennsylvania. The fame of Penn's new State went abroad to all lands, and it grew very rapidly with grave and God-fearing men, who came from all parts of Europe. During the first year, two thousand persons arrived, and Philadelphia became a ..own of six hundred houses. A few years later Penn returned to England, and reported that " things went on sweetly with the Fnends in Pennsylvania: that they increased finely, in outward things and in wisdom." The settlement of Pennsylvania was founded in 1682. Iitl! I ■ h:J8 rr 4 !' li'i 324 THE AGE OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. [1620 :11' .;; •li'! s !''l SETTLEMENTS IN THE OTHER COLONIES. )HE thirteen original States were Virginia, Massachu- setts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Connecticut was settled by men and women from Massachusetts, in two colonies. One came through the wilderness and settled in Windsor above Hartford ; the other came by water and settled in New Haven. Rhode Island was settled by Roger Williams, a minister of Salem, who declared that the State had to do with the " bodies and goods and outward estates " of men. In the domain of conscience God alone was the ruler. He was banished and went to Rhode Island, where he obtained a grant of land from the Indians and laid the foundation of a new State. He founded the city of Providence and proclaimed that his settlement was to become a " shelter for persons distressed for conscience sake." And so has it ever been. New Hampshire was settled by colonists from Massachusetts, of which it was a part from 1 641 to 1679. Delaware was named in honor of Lord Delaware, who came to Virginia to aid the colony at Jamestown, in 161 1. It was first settled by the Swedes, in the year 1627, and passed, as we have seen, into the hands of the Dutch and then to the English. Penn annexed it to his new State. In the year 1703, it was returned to its former condition as a separate colony. Maryland was first settled in 1 631, by a band of adventurers from Virginia, under one Captain Clayborne, and received a charter from the king making it a distinct province, named after the queen, his wife. New Jersey was first settled by the Dutch in 161 2, and then by the Swedes and Danes. It afterwards passed into the hands of the English when they took possession of New York in 1664. North Carolina was permanently settled under a grant from King Charles II., in 1663. John Locke, the celebrated Scotch metaphysician, wrote a code of laws which were in force in this colony for twenty-five years. South Carolina received its first well-defined settlement in 1663, under a charter from Charles II., when a number of English noblemen built a city at Port Royal, and established themselves in a government. The city of Charleston, named in honor of the king, was founded in 1680, and thereafter the growth of the colony was very rapid. Georgia was the latest of the colonies, and the farthest south of any of the English possessions in America during the time of colonial history. It was settled in 1733, when General Oglethorpe founded the city of Savannah. He obtained a charter from Charles II. of all the land between the Savannah ^iver and the Altamaha, extending westward to the Pacific Ocean. It was 1733] THE AGE OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 225 designed to be a refuge for the deserving poor and for Protestants suffering persecution. Parliament voted $50,000 to aid in carrying forward this noble enterprise. One hundred and twenty persons came in the first expedition under the leadership of General Oglethorpe, and were kindly received by the Indians. The next year a hundred Germans came and were assigned a place, which they in gratitude named, Ebenezer. They were steady and industrious and eagerly applied themselves to the raising of silk and indigo. The fame of the colony spread through Europe and attracted large numbers. Thus was planted on the eastern shore of the continent a chain of English colonies like a vanguard, which was in time to conquer the wilderness and fill the land with busy towns and thriving villages. The hum of machinery was to be heard along its water-courses. Its hills were to resound to the whistle of the shop and locomotive. The wharfs of its cities were to be crowded with commerce from all parts of the world, and a stream of emigration was to pour in from all the crowded nations of the East, and an empire would be erected upon the foundation that these feeble colonies were laying. Each distinct, with no common bond but the slight allegiance to a distant sovereign, they were to become united in one mighty compact, and together give the world its highest ex implc of a free government of the people and for the people. These earnest men buildcd better than they knew, and shaped the destinies of the ui*^^^ millions who should come after theme BATTLE MONUMENT, BALTIMORE. ij- km ■> ^ .^:'A m r FTER the establishment of the colonies which stretched along the Atlantic coast from the Penobscot to the Altamaha, and owned allegiance to the English king, there came a period of formation and growth in which they developed their natural resources and established their commerce, built colleges and seminaries, and grew in all things which increased their prosperity and strength. The Indian tribes were subdued, the forests were cleared and cities and towns sprang up as if by magic. Manufactories were built and agriculture was flourishing. The colonies were left alone by the home government and allowed to direct their own affairs. In some cases a Governor was sent from England to rule the colony, but the laws were enacted by representatives chosen by the people. In others the people had the right to elect their oun Governors. They regulated their own commerce and internal trade and directed their own taxation and system of religion and education. We will take a hasty glance at the condition of each colony during this period. In New England we will find some things that may surprise us. The early settlers had been a religious, sensible people, but when they left Europe there was a universal belief in witchcraft. King James had written a strange book on Demonology, in which he said that to forbear to put witches to death was an " odious treason against God," and the people were no wiser than their king. The superstition spread to America, or was brought thither by the ship- loads of emigrants who were flocking over the sea to find a home here. All at once it burst out like a fearful scourge in the little town of Salem, Massachusetts, now a fine city. There was here a minister by the name of Parris. The daughter and the niece of this clergyman fell ill of a strange nervous disorder. The doctors claimed that they were bewitched, and the minister set out at once to find out who were the offenders. Three old women were suspected, and taken into custody. From this the mania spread, and every one became alarmed and suspicious. No one was safe. Witches were supposed to ride in the air at night. Even the beasts were not safe, and once a dog was solemnly condemned to death for taking some part in a satanic festival. The prisons were filled with the accused, and many were put to death. The town of Falmouth hanged its minister; and the wise and intelligent were no mote secure than the low and ignorant. The wild panic lasted for a, 1775] THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 227 whole year. Those who confessed that they were wizards or witches were set free for the most part, while those who denied it were judged guilty and hanged. Many refused to buy their life by falsehood and miserably perished. The delusion spread wide like a forest fire, until the whole colony was filled with terror. But the reaction came as suddenly as the outbreak of the mania. The Governor put an end to all the persecution, stopped the prosecutions, dismissed all the suspected, and pardoned the condemned ; and the General Court proclaimed a fast. They entreated that God would pardon the errors of the people " in the late tragedy caused by Satan and his instruments." One of the judges with bowed head stood in his pew in a church in Boston while a paper was read asking the prayers of the congregation, that the innocent blood which he had shed in error might not be laid to him, or the country. The Salem jury asked forgiveness of God and of the community for what they had done under the power of a strong and general delusion. Reverend Mr. Parris was obliged to resign his church and leave the town a broken man. The error of New England had been great and lamentable, but her repentance was deep and sincere. Strange as was this wide-spread delusion, there is another chapter in colonial history none the less strange. The very men who had come across the ocean to find religious liberty, in their turn became persecutors and bigots. They had discovered that the restraints laid upon them for conscience* sake were unjust and grievous, and while they claimed toleration for themselves they had not learned that others had as good a right to think for themselves. After a few years of cheerful religious liberty there began to arise strange doctrines which they thought it their duty to put down at all hazards. Roger Williams, a young clergyman — " godly and zealous " — landed in Boston in 163 1, with strange notions he had brought with him. He had been the friend of John Milton and taught him the Dutch language. Long and serious study had convinced him that in regard to creed and form of worship, man was alone responsible to his Creator, and no one is entitled to lay compulsion upon another man in reference to his religious opinions. The colonists were not ready to receive these opinions although Williams was settled as a pastor over the church in Salem, where he was held in high esteem. But his bold preaching drew down upon him the wrath of the authorities, and deserted by his church and his own wife, he was banished to Rhode Island where he established a colony for perfect religious toleration, as we have before seen. Williams had a forgiving spirit and twice saved the Puritan colonies from their enemies. But they continued to whip the Baptists, and when the Quakers came to Boston the General Court proclaimed a fast, and cast them into prison. Their books were burned by the common hangman, and ship masters were forbidden to bring any Quakers into the colony. They were publicly whipped, had their tongues seared with a red-hot iron and were banished under penalty of death if they returned. Four persons suffered I, IH. ' '■» H' I'M mt ■• M I i 1 ■1 1 11 'I bkl. ' t lull II i 228 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. [1773 death ; others had their ears cut off. The Quakers had friends at home, and in 1661 a letter came in the king's name directing that the authorities in New England should forbear to proceed farther against the Quakers. The letter came by the hand of a Quaker |who was under sentence of death if he returned. But they did not dare to do otherwise than respect it. With this closed the most shameful chapter in the history of New England. A writer on the history of these times offers the following excuse for the persecution of this peaceful sect : " But, in justice to New England, it must be told that the first generation of Quakers differed extremely from succeeding generations. They were a fanatical people, — extravagant, intem- perate in speech, rejectors of lawful authority. They believed themselves guided by an ' inner light,' which habitually placed them at variance with the laws and customs of the country in which they lived. George Fox declared that ' the Lord forbade him to put off his hat to any man.' His followers were provokingly aggressive. They invaded public worship. They openly expressed their contempt for the religion of their neighbors. They perpetually came with ' messages from the Lord,' which were not pleasant to listen to. They appeared in public places very imperfectly attired, thus symbolically to Jexpress and to rebuke the spiritual nakedness of the time. The second generation of New England Quakers were people of beautiful lives, spiritual-minded, hospitable, and just. When their zeal allied itself with discretion, they became a most valuable element in American society. They have firmly resisted all social evils. But we can scarcely wonder that they created alarm at first. The men of New England took a very simple view of the subject. They had bought and paid for every acre of soil which they occupied. Their country was a homestead from which they might exclude whom they chose. They would not receive men whose object seemed to be to overthrow their customs, civil and religious. It was a mistake, but a most natural mistake. Long afterwards, when New England saw her error, she made what amends she could, by giving compensation to the representatives of those Quakers who had suffered in the evil times." :use for the ind, it must :mely from gant, intem- themselves ice with the Fox declared His followers They openly 3ors. They )t pleasant to attired, thus of the time, e of beautiful il allied itself :rican society. ^ wonder that a very simple of soil which they might object seemed ras a mistake, gland saw her nsation to the mes." 1733] THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 229 THE GROWTH AND GOVERNMENT OF THE COLONIES. T the first there was some diversity in the form of government in the different colonies, but as time passed on this lessened, and one general type came to be in force in them all. The governor was appointed by the king, and he had to depend upon the assembly of representatives chosen from the people, for the moneys needed to carry on the Government and execute its laws. So as the time of separation drew near the governors found their powers very much circumscribed by the heavy pressure which the Assembly brought to bear upon them. When the governor as the king's representative had a falling out with the popular will as expressed by the representatives of the Commonwealth they assumed the whole business of government. They were in fact, a self-governing people who held a pride in their connection with the mother country, but if their governors encroached too much upon their rights, they were ready to resist them to the utmost. Virginia had two councils at first, one appointed by the king, and the other elected by the colonists, but both were under control of the king. In a few years the representative system prevailed, but the governor retained the power of veto. She was more closely allied to the Crown than the more northern colonies, and remained loyal to the Stuarts. Charles II. ruled her while in exile, and Virginia refused to recognize the dictator, Cromwell. Refugees from England were gladly received during these troublous times, and when the Stuarts were returned, her joy was unbounded. On the other hand the colonists of New England had come to America to get rid of kingly rule, and were of a difTerent spirit and temper. In the little cabin of the Mayflower they had signed their compact of government and selected their own governor. Every member of the church was an elector, and could hold ofifice. This democratic form of government continued for sixty years, until the despotic James II. took it away and appointed a governor of hfs own choosing. They cordially supported Cromwell, and hesitated for two years after the restoration of Charles II. before they recognized him as their king. These colonies were the most democratic and the least tolerant of kingly interference of any of the colonies in the New World. New York, which had been given to the Duke of York, had its governor appointed by him. Pennsylvania was bestowed upon Penn^ who had a right to name its governor. But at last all the colonies came to receive a governor from the king. Connecticut held out longer than the 'est, and when the governor, appointed by the king, came to Hartford to I'M: ! . 1 1 I U it! IfM M; ll*: I i^ HI '.' It i ! 'ft '^i I' 'I'il "" ■"' 1 .; i:^^y'r-- 3 «30 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. [I7S5 demand the charter of the colony ; it was hidden in the hollow of an oak tree, afterward known as the Charter Oak. While the colonies had as yet no thought of separation from the Old Country they were still in the presence of a common enemy. The French had taken Canada and the present State of Louisiana, and thus were stretching down from the north, and up from the south, a line of tradinfj posts and settlements, which was a continual menace to the western frontier of the colonies. The French were inciting the Indians to attack the English, and there were constant incursions upon the pioneers who were moving westward from the coast. Sooner or later the trial of strength must come between these rival forces. The French claimed the Mississippi River and the fertile valley of the Ohio. To establish this claim, they sent three hundred soldiers into this valley and nailed upon the trees leaden plates bearing the French coat of arms, and drove out the scattering English who had ventured there. The English, on their part, had given large grants of land to a trading company, who agreed to colonize the valley, establish trading relations with the natives, and a competent military force. This was in 1749, and then the two nations were preparing for war. The home government left the colonies to carry on the struggle for themselves. Virginia raised a little army and appointed a young man of twenty-one, in whom they had great confidence to command it. His name was George Washington ; a name destined, a few years later, to become famous over the whole world. He started for a fort on the Ohio, to hold it as an out-post against the French, but after toiling on in the pathless forest for six weeks, he received intelligence that the French were coming towards him with a force far out-numbering his. He halted and built a fort, which he called Fort Necessity, because his men were half starved while building it. Nor did they build it any too soon ; for the French attacked the fort, and after a brave resistance, Washington was obliged to surrender, upon honorable terms, and return to Virginia. This campaign was honorable to Washington, but resulted in no especial advantage to the colonies. This contest between the colonies of French and English was going on for a year and a half before war was declared between the two great nations. But the English were aroused to the necessity of doing something to secure the rich Ohio valley, and they sent Edward Braddock, an officer of distinction, with two regiments of soldiers, to aid the colonies. He began his campaign in 1755, with two thousand troops. He had learned the best rules of war in the broad battle fields of Europe, but was perfectly unacquainted with the rude tactics of the West. Wash- ington was invited to join his staff, and the young man eager to retrieve his loss in the former campaign, assented. The English general started on his march, June loth, to reach Fort Duquesne, on the Ohio, the great center of j French power in the valley. Ohio was the objective point of Washington in 1 his former expedition, and was deemed of great importance. This fort had been built by the English and taken from them by the French. Benjamin 1759] THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 331 Franklin told General Braddock that " he would undoubtedly take the fort if he could reach it, but the long slender line which his army must form on the march would be cut like a thread in several pieces by the hostile Indians." Hraddock " smiled at his ignorance." Franklin offered no further opinion, but performed his duties of collecting horses and equipage for the army. The young aid-de-camp, Washington, offered some suggestions based on his experience, but the general would not listen to any advice from a provincial subordinate. No scouts were sent out, and the commander did not know how near his unseen foes might be. He was marching along a road twelve feet wide, when suddenly an Indian war-hoop burst upon the air, and a murderous fire opened upon them. The battle lasted three hours and General Braddock was killed. " Who would have thought it ? " said the dying man as they carried him from the field. Washington was the only mounted officer who remained unharmed, while the regulars, seeing their general fall, fled in confusion. But young Washington rallied the provincials and covered the retreat of the regulars with such a desperate defense that the Indians did not follow. One half of the entire force had been killed, and the remainder returned, disheartened a"d broken, at the end of a disastrous expedition. War was now proclaimed between France and England, and the siege of Quebec by the English General Wolfe followed. This was the crowning achievement of a long and tedious war which established the English in possession of Canada, and saved the Northwest to the Anglo-Saxon crown. The English fleet came to Quebec in June, 1759, with a large force. Captain James Cook, the famous navigator, who had been the first to sail around the world, was in charge of one of the ships, and General Wolfe had command of the army. The city was divided into an upper town, on the heights of Abraham, beyond the reach of the guns from the fleet, and a lower town, on the banks of the river. The lower town was quickly reduced, but the upper town held out against any attempt of the English. But the enthusiastic young general was not to be baffled, and carefully searched the coast for miles around. He found an opening where a path led up to the heights above, and here Wolfe resolved to land his men, lead an attack and capture the French position, or perish in the attempt. One night in September, he landed his men silently, and they quietly clambered up the high hill, while the sailors contrived to drag up a few heavy guns. When the morning rose the whole army stood on the Heights of Abraham. Montcalm, the French commander, was so taken by surprise at the presence of the enemy, that he refused to believe the first report which came to him. But he lost no time in forming his line of battle, and made a fierce and bloody contest with his unexpected assailants. Both generals fell in the conflict, Wolfe dying happy at the thought of the French defeat. As his blood was flowing he heard the shouts, " They fly ! They fly ! " He raised his head to ask, " Who fly ? " " The French," was the answer. " Then I die content/' said the hero. The French General died thankful he was not 1 1 232 THE COLONIAL PERIOD. L>755 compelled to surrender to the English. These men died as enemies, but after-generations blended the two names upon a common monument, which marks out to posterity the scene of this decisive battle. The French madr an ineffectual attempt to regain Quebec the following year. In due time tlu; French surrendered Canada to the English; at the same time, Spain gave vip Florida to England ; and thus the English held undisputed possession of America from the regions of perpetual ice and snow to the Gulf of Mexico. All these contests with the savages and the French had fallen with heaviest weight upon the colonists, although they had received some assistance from the home government in the latter part of the struggle. The colonies had poured out their blood and treasure without stint and were loyal to their King. They were proud of the mother country, and were willing to do tluir utmost to support the honor of the English flag. A hundred and fifty years had passed since the settlement of the feeble colonies on the Atlantic coast. They were self-sustaining and prosperous and their increase in numbers and wealth was most remarkable. Thousands were coming every year to seek their fortunes in the West. America opened her wide arms to the oppressed and offered them the blessing of liberty and comfort. The thirteen colonics had increased to a population of three millions and were upon the eve of a mighty struggle. Hh:rt i f. THE WAR OF THE GATHERING CLOUD. T may be a natural question to ask, how it came to pass that in the short space of ten ' twelve years the affection and respect which the colonics had for England, which they still fondly called " home," were changed to hatred and a desire for separation ? What cause had been at work to sever the bonds of attachment, and awaken the mighty spirit of resistance which spread all over the country ? For generations they had spoken the same language, and had a common code of laws, while glorying in the history of the past. England was the model in all things, and to be an " Old England man " gave one a prestige and position among the colonists ; while all yielded a willing obedience to her laws. They were governed, as Benjamin Franklin had said, " at the mere expense of ink and paper." I^ jney was voted without grudge by their assemblies, and all the relations between the colonies and the home government were of the pleasantcst kind, and such was their love for England that " they were led by a thread." But a wonderful change was wrought in the public mind, and the aroused people resolved in their public gathering by the most solemn compact, that they would not use any article of English manufacture, or engage in any transaction which would bring money into the pockets of the English. They tarred and feathered any person who expressed friendliness for the British, I-/!' J* I I 'I r i fl J I i; \ ! I R V; Rl' . ' m ji :'?-i Wi ril lifi 234 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. [i;75 and burned the acts of Parliament by the common hangman. They fired upon the king's soldiers, and resisted the authority of the king's government. In fact, the thirteen colonies were in open rebellion and armed resistance. What had caused this wonderful change, and how were three millions of obedient subjects taught to despise and fight against the very men whom they had before regarded as fellow countrymen? The answer to these questions can be summed up in one sentence. Thi persistent ignorance and folly of the English government, urged on by cupidity and a desire to wring out of the prosperous colonies a rich revenue to replenish the depleted treasury of the country that had become exhausted in the expensive wars of Europe, wrought all this evil, and lost to the English crown her richest possessions in the western world. The result was that a new nation was formed that was destined to become the leading power of Christendom, but it would have been better if she had gone in peace, and thus not engendered an animosity that lasted for two generations, and led to two disastrous wars between men of the same language and religion. We come now to the story of this Iruggle. England had shown for many years a disposition to govern her American colonies in a spirit of harshness and undisguised selfishness. The interest of England was the chief object, and not the good of the colonies. No foreign vessels could land in American ports, and woolen fabrics could not be taken from one colony to another. At one time the manufacture of hats was forbidden. Iron works were prohibited, and up to the last the Bible could not be printed in America. The colonies had borne the expense of their own governments and defenses, but now the long-continued struggle had left the treasury of England very low, and Parliament came to discuss the propriety of taxing the colonies for the benefit of the home government. The eager eye of Lord Greenville was searching for something new to tax, and he saw that America was growing rich and powerful. The English officers who had served in the West, had brought back the most glowing accounts of its resources and prosperity. The English merchants were already envious of their increasing wealth. When the House of Commons passed their resolution setting forth their right to tax the colonies, not a single voice or vote opposed the measure. Thereupon an act was passed imposing a tax upon silks, sugar, coffee, and other articles used in the colonies. The Americans remonstrated, and claimed that taxation and representation should go together ; they were willing to vote what money the king might require of them, but they would not pay taxes when they had no voice in laying them. But Lord Greenville, who thought the Americans would finally submit, persisted in his course. The act called the Stamp Act was passed at the next session of Parliament in 1765, this required a government stamp on all legal documents. Benjamin Franklin told the House of Commons that America would never submit to this, and no power on earth could enforce it. Nor could England long misunderstand the position of the colonies upon this 1765] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 235 question. Everywhere in New England riots were raised, and the Stamp Act was denounced. \ The stamp distributors wore obh'ged to resign. A universal protest that they would not eat, drink, or use anything which came from England, was passed by the citizens everywhere. The act came in ')rce November 1st, 1765, and on that day the bells tolled, and the people appeared as if some great public calamity had fallen upon them. Not a stamp was sold in America, but business went on all the same, men were married, and bought and sold their goods. The courts were held and all the functions of government went on ; but all this was illegal because it was done without stamps. Yet no serious harm came of it. The English were astonished, and some demanded that the Stamp Act be enforced with the sword, but the British merchants feared the loss of their trade with the colonies if this were done. William Pitt, afterwards the Earl of Chatham, joined with the merchants and caused a repeal of the law the very next year. But stupid old King George never ceased to regret " the fatal repeal of the Stamp Act." The first inter-colonial Congress was raised during this excitement. It met at New York, but did little else than agitate and discuss the situation of things. It accomplished a good design in showing the tendency of Union between the States. The approaching crisis was delayed for a little time by the repeal of the Stamp Act. But when the feeling in England was stormy against the colonies, Charles Townshend, the virtual Prime Minister of England, during the sickness of Pitt, proposed to levy various taxes on America. All his proposed measures became laws. The most obnoxious of them was a tax of three pence a pound on tea. This act was passed in 1767. The Americans despaired of justice and right from the English Parliament, yet they hardly dared to think of open separation, but already the most thoughtful among them were becoming fixed in their opinion as to what the issue would be. They protested, they appealed, they held large public meetings, and everywhere the people were inflamed with a sense of their injuries, other laws restricting the liberties of America were passed by Parliament, and the people resorted to the last step in the solution of the fearful problem. Riots were raised, the foreign officials were resisted, and public meetings were held to deliberate upon their grievances. English troops were sent across the ocean to preserve order. Their presence was galling to the citizens, who could not brook this restraint upon their liberty. The press, the pulpit, and the assemblies of representatives in all the colonies were bold in their utterances against the tyranny of the old country. The General Court of Massachusetts, called on their governor to remove the soldiers, but he was powerless. The governor called upon the court to raise money to maintain the troops, and they took infinite pleasure in refusing to I r I n 4i U '<■ -iil -^1' ■. 236 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. [1775 raise money for that purpose. Then came the Boston massacre, in which the troops fired upon the citizens, and killed and wounded eleven persons. This inflamed the zeal of the patriots still more, and the entire populace was aroused. The people again demanded the removal of the troops from the city, and the trial of the soldiers for murder. This was complied with, and two of the soldiers were found guilty of murder, by a Boston jury. Parliament now wavered in its treatment of America, and removed all the duties, except the small one on tea. But they had mistaken the feeling of their colonies. It was not the amount of the tax to which they objected, but the principal of taxation without representation. In the spring of 1773, ships laden with the taxed tea, appeared in the bay of Boston. The crisis has now arrived. Although it is Sunday, a council was called in the exigency. If that tea is landed, it will be sold and liberty will become a by-word in America. Samuel Adams, a man of strict integrity and powerful eloquence as a speaker and writer, was the true leader of the revolt in Massachusetts. He was one of the first who saw at the outset that there could be no stopping- place short of independence. " We are free," he said, " and want no king." He assumed the leadership of his fellows, and was worthy of the trust. They hoped that the officers of the East Indian Company, in whose employ the ships were engaged, would send them back, but they refused. Days of intense excitement followed. Public meetings were held constantly in an old building, Faneuil Hall, afterward known as the cradle of American liberty. One day the debate waxed hot, and the people continued together till night-fail. Samuel Adams announced, " This meeting can do nothing more to save the country," and with a shout it broke up. The excited crowd hastened down to the wharf, led by fifty men disguised as Indians. This band of disguised men, rushed on ship board, broke open the boxes of tea, and poured their contents into the harbor. The crowd looked on in silence, an,d not a sound was heard but the striking of the hatchets, and the splash of the ruined tea in the water. That cargo of tea would bring no taxes into the English treasury, that was certain. This was the night of December i6th, 1773, and was the first move of the colonists toward open resistance. Then they waited to see what might be the next move of England. Lord North was then Prime Minister of the English Crown, and he determined to deal harshly with such men. The port of Boston was closed as a port of entry and sailing for shipping ; a heavy fine was imposed for the destruction of the tea. The charter of Massachusetts was revoked, and the governor was ordered to send political offenders to England for trial. In spite of the remonstrance of Lord Chatham, and of Edmund Burke, these measures became laws. Four regiments of regulars were sent to Boston, under the command of General Gage. The Americans held a day of fasting and prayer. More than this, they organized military companies, and began the process of equipment and drill. While all this was going on in the northen provinces, the other Colonies were not idle, but Massachusetts received '775] THE WAk op independence. «37 the heaviest blows of vengeance. An invitation to all the Colonies to meet in General Congress at Philadelphia, on the fifth day of September, 1774, was sent out by the sturdy Representatives, who met in Salem, Massachusetts. Twelve States sent delegations to this Congress. Georgia, the youngest and most southern of the thirteen Colonies, alone stood trembling upon the verge of the perilous enterprise. The first General Congress of the American States, met in Carpenter's Hall, in the city of Philadelphia, on the 5th day of September, 1774, agreeable to this call. The regular business of the Congress, began on the 7th, and was opened v/ith prayer. In all their proceedings, decorum, firmness, moderation and loyalty were manifested, and the delegates voted to adjourn to the loth dr.y of the following May, unless the English Crown in the meantime should redress their grievances. But King George was blind and stubborn. Lord Chatham said in open Parliament of the men who formed this Continental Congress : " For solidity of reasoning, force of sagacity, and wisdom of conclusion under such a complication of circumstances, no nation, or body of men can stand in preference to the General Congress in Phila- delphia." Peyton R.r.dolph, of Virginia, was President, and Charles Thompson, of Pcnnsy'vania, was secretary of this body. George Washington, Patrick Henry, Johr Routlcdge, Richard Henry Lee, John Dickinson, and other men of that stamp were there. Washington assures us that this Congress did not aim at independence, but a removal of wrongs. The time was ripe for open resistance, and the patriots of Massachusetts were busy in the autumn and winter of 1774, in making preparations for war, and uniting the people to meet the storm that was sure to come. ■I i; ; ■, X' !'■; .'^n 238 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. [i;;5 Ik h THE BURSTING OF THE STORM. O alternative was now left to the colonists, and they saw that they must fight for their liberties or forego them altogether. Throughout the State of Massachu- setts, where the heel of the oppressor was planted the heaviest, the most active preparations were in progress. Minute men were drilling, and stores of arms and ammunition were being collected in central places, where they would be considered safe from seizure by the British. The press and the pulpit vied with the rostrum in their bold defiance of the aggression of the soldiers. Fathers and sons were urged on by their wives and mothers, and the spirit of freedom incited them to deeds of danger and sacrifice. The officers of the English Government were insulted, the soldiers defied, and the laws set at defiance. Such was the condition of things when the spring of 1775 dawned upon the conflict. This is regarded as the first year of the long struggle of seven years which was to test the strength of the young country in her contest with the victorious armies of English warriors who came fresh from the battle-fields of Europe. General Gage, the commander of the British forces in Boston, had learned that a large amount of military stores were secreted at Concord, eighteen miles away. He decided to send an expedition to seize it in the king's name. He sent eight hundred soldiers upon the errand. To prevent the tidings from being carried to the patriots the general forbade any one going out of Boston. The troops were silently landed at the foot of the Common, where the tide then reached, under the pretence of learning a new kind of drill. Doctor Warren, ai^erwards killed at Bunker Hill, made arrangements with his friend, Paul Revere, to carry " the tidings to every Middlesex village and farm." Young Revere escaped from Boston in a small boat just five minutes before the guard was stationed to prevent any one from leaving the city. He was to notify Hancock and Adams who were at Lexington, and to arouse the people all along the route. Revere waited on the Charlestown shore until his friend should learn how the British were to proceed. He was to hang a lantern in the North Church tower, " one if by land and two if by sea." At the instant the twin lights appeared upon the tower, be da.shed off in the darkness and spread the tidings. He reached Lexington and warned Hancock and Adams. Then he proceeded toward Concord, but was arrested by a British guard, not, however, until he had communicated the news to a friend, who carried it forward. The British crossed the Charles River and marched all night, and reached Lexington just as day was breaking. The minute men were called by the 1775] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 839 in their ranks to beating of the drum, and sixty or seventy farmers stood meet ten times as many trained soldiers. There they stood on the " Common, in the cold frosty morning as the regulars came up. Captain John Parker had ordered them not to fire on the British until they had first fired on them. Major Pitcairn rode up and ordered the " villains " and " rebels," with an oath to disperse, and instantly commanded his men to fire on them. The captain of the Continentals had intended to disperse his men, but the fire of the British had killed eleven and wounded nine, one-fourth of the whole. The British fire was returned only by a few of the wounded men ; not an Englishman was harmed. But the war had begun by the cold-blooded murder of Americans on their own soil. It was no battle and the act of the British officer was nothing less than wanton murder. Samuel Adams said when he heard it, " Oh ! what a glorious morning this is," knowing that it would rally and unite all the people. The regulars cheered over their triumph of sixty or seventy farmers, who had not attacked them, and pressed on to Concord. They reached here at seven in the morning, but were too Ltc, for the news of their coming had preceded them several hours. The military stores had most of them been removed and hidden away, and but little remained for them to destroy. In the mean time the towns all around had been aroused, and the militia were pouring in from every direction. There were not enough to attack the troops, nor was there any serious thoughts of doing so, and they were with- drawn from the village of Concord to a hill on the other side of the river. The British scattered to find the concealed stores, and one party went ovei the north bridge and one over the south. As the party went over the north bridge, the provincial troops, if troops we could call them, were in plain sight, and therefore, a part of the regulars, about one hundred, were left to guard the bridge, while the rest, about the same number, went over. The Continentals saw the British at the bridge and could see the smoke that arose across the bridge. What should they do ? see their houses burned and not go to the rescue of their wives and children ? They consulted and agreed to march down to the bridge, but not a man was to fire until they had been fired upon. The British saw them coming and began to tear up the bridge. The Continentals hurried on and the British fired upon them, — at first one or two shots by which no harm was done ; then more shots were fired ; two men were wounded ; a whole volley and two of the patriots were killed. " Fire ! fellow soldiers ; for God's sake, fire ! " cried Captain John Buttrick, leaping into the air and turning to his men. This began the American revolution. Two British were killed and several injured. Blood had been shed by men in armed rebellion, and the men who had done it were rebels and traitors. There could be no backward steps now, and the contest must wage till one or the other side should give in. This was the battle of Concord, and the first one of the war. The British retreated from the town, as quickly as possible toward m i S H IS^vi 11 5 i .'■ M )" i • i 340 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. [1755 Lexington and Boston. It had been a mild winter followed by an early spring, and the day was intensely hot. The provision train which was to supply them with food had been taken, and all they could get was what they might plunder from the citizens. Nor was this the worst, for the minute men without any orders from their officers, but each on his own account, lay in ambush behind trees and fences and stone-walls, where they were safe, and kept up a harassing fire upon the retreating British to the very shelter of their ships. As the troops would pass by one. place the patriots would go forward by by-paths and fire upon them again from another position. When one party became worn out, fresh recruits would come up from the surrounding country, and thus the war was kept up all along the distressing march back to Boston. The march was kept up in good order at first, fcut broke into an irregular rout at last. About two o'clock in the afternoon they were met by twelve hundred British troops, sent out from Boston to aid them with two pieces of artillery. But their position was perilous even after the arrival of these reinforcements. The colonists were increasing in numbers every moment, and unless they moved rapidly the whole force would be cut off. The firing began again, and more and more of the patriots came up to aid the weary Continentals, and they fought like men in thorough earnest, and although they were undisciplined and their methods were crude they put the very flower of the English army to the worst, and it was not till seven o'clock at night that the regulars were safe under the protection of the guns of their ships. The British lost 'seventy-three killed, one hundred and seventy-two wounded, and twenty-six missing ; while the Americans had forty-nine killed thirty-six wounded and six missing. The British suffered heavily in the loss of officers. This was the opening contest that the British had forced upon their patient and loyal subjects in America, and which was to rage for seven years. We will now speak of some of the heroes whose names are conspicuous in this period of American history. ifn-f '•(1" 1765] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 241 GEORGE WASHINGTON, THE COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE CONTINENTAL ARMY. 'HE man who was fondly regarded, "the first in war, the first in peace, and the first in the hearts of his countrymen," can trace the line of his ancestry, beyond the Norman conquest in England. He was born February 22nd, 1732, in Virginia, and educated by his mother, who became a widow when her eldest son was eleven years of age. She early instilled into his mind a love of goodness and truth, which gave a color to all his after life, and to a great extent, moulded the destinies of America. Under her gentle yet firm control, George learned I ^ the great lessons of obedience and self-command, and in early life gave promise of the excellences which would ripen into a well-rounded manhood. He had his mother's love of command, f^and inherited her calm, judicial character of mind. Even among his schoolmates he became an arbitrator of their dis- putes and would not allow anything unjust or unfair. His person was large and powerful, and he delighted in athletic sports, and out of door pursuits. He had a bodily frame suited to a lofty soul, and could endure hardship, toil and fatigue, to almost any extent. His education was limited, and he learned no language but his mother tongue. He learned mathematics and land surveying, the keeping of accounts, and the framing of legal documents. This was the extent of his literary acquirements. But George Washington was precise and exact in every thing he undertook. His copy books, and measurements of surveying when studying, were as neat and scrupulously kept, as if they were of great pecuniary value. At the age of eighteen, we find him serving as a government surveyor for the State of Virginia. Many of his returns are on file in the county court- house, and are so very accurate that their evidence is taken in contested disputes to this day, where the measurement, or boundary of land is involved. He was Adjutant General of one of the military districts of his native State before the Indian war, and as we have seen, was sent to the Ohio valley with a body of troops, when he was not yet twenty-two years of age. He covered the retreat of the remnant of General Braddock's army, after his death, and was a member of the first Continental Congress at Philadelphia in 1774. He was for the years prior to the Revolution engaged in conducting the affairs of his private estate at Mount Vernon, Virginia, where he shipped his tobacco, kept his books and conducted his own correspondence. He raised a large quantity of wheat, and ground it at his own mill. It became renowned for its excellent quality, and such was his reputation for business integrity that no one thought of inspecting the barrel which bore his brand. He had the rare combination of a massive intellect, an iron will, and a gentle, loving ; '■' .]ifih •'ill 250 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. [1782 Nearer and nearer the solid line of red-coats came vr to the breastworks. At last the word is given to fire, and the American sharp-shooters made every shot tell with deadly effect. The English line recoiled. Once more they advanced to the very breastwork to receive a murderous fire from the patri- ots, and again sustain a bloody repulse. Now they throw off their knap- sacks and great-coats, and come up again to the assault. They are resolute this time and will end the fight with the bayonet. The Americans have spent their little stock of ammunition and can give the red-coats only a single volley. They have no bayonets, and for a little time fight hand to hand with their clubbed muskets, but are soon driven out of their works and flee to Cambridge under the galling fire of the English ships. The English had doubtless won the day, but some things had been gained ; it had been demonstrated that American freemen could contend with the disciplined soldiers in a fair stand-up fight. Henceforth the success of the Revolution was a foregone conclusion. George Washington exclaimed when he heard ol this battle, " Thank God ! the liberties of the country are safe." The loss of the English in this engagement was nearly eleven hundred, and of the Americans five hundred, yet as the English obtained the works they regarded it as a victory. The Americans who had up to this time taken up arms and fought the English troops, had done so without any form of authority, and no responsible body or legislature had recognized or employed them. They were without a commander, and had no supplies of any kind. Their friends at home wove and spun to send them clothing and blankets, and the neighboring citizens fed them as best they could. The second Continental Congress appointed George Washington of Virginia, the Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army on the 15th day of June, 1775, and shortly after the battle of Bunker Hill, adopted the incongruous assembly of men at Cambridge as "the army." Washington hastened to join the army before Boston, and assumed command under a grand old elm in Cambridge. Their condition was a sad one. They were without any ammunition ; only nine rounds for each man in the ranks. They could not use their artillery and their rude and irregular fortifications stretched for eight or nine miles. The provincials were not soldiers enough to know how weak they really were. Any moment the English might break their feeble lines and hurl them back in utter confusion. Washington saw the peril, but he was powerless. There was an army of ten thousand well-trained soldiers in Boston. A noble body of men, but fortunately for the Americans led by incompetent generals. Gage quietly endured the siege without making a move. SmaU-pox broke out in his army and did fearful havoc. They were poorly supplied by the fleet, and had to destroy the very houses for fuel. Gage was recalled by an angry ministry, and quitted Boston in disgrace. General Howe was to succeed him. Washington was at times almost in despair. His men had enlisted for three months, and they found that a .soldier's life was a hard one, that even their patriotism could not endure. The 1775] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 25' general was a strict disciplinarian and would be obeyed. When January, 1776, arrived, he found himself with a new army much reduced in size, and he had to begin the weary process of drill and organization over again. He knew that Howe was informed of his condition, and he was constantly looking out for an attack. In February, Congress sent him a liberal supply of arms and ammunition. Ten regiments of militia were added to his little army and lie began to feel that he could make a move. The heights of Dorchester lay to the south of Boston, and if he could secure and hold this position he would be able to drive the British out of the city. He settled upon the night of the 4th of March for the undertaking. He kept the attention of the enemy by a constant discharge of artillery, while he sent a strong party of men to Dorchester to throw up a line of works. Huge wagons loaded with bales of pressed hay were driven there to form breast works for the men, who could not dig rapidly in the frozen ground. The men worked with such energy that when morning came they had fashioned the bales of hay into redoubts and fortifications of quite a formidable appearance. In the morning General Howe peering with his glass through the fog, saw the works and said, " The rebels have done more work in one night than my whole army would have done in a month." Howe prepared an expedition to cross to Dorchester and fight the patriots, but for two days a fearful easterly storm raged that scattered his transports, and on the third day he saw that the Americans had made the heights ; then he knew that it was impossible to capture them. He laid aside his plans of battle and made preparations to evacuate the city. Washington might have t"ken them as prisoners of war, but he could not care for them, nor could the Colonies keep them until exchanged ; so he gave a written promise that he would not hinder them in departing from the city. On the 17th of March not a British soldier was left in the city of Boston, and five thousand of the joyous Continentals entered in triumph. Seven thousand soldiers, four thousand seamen, and fifteen hundred families of those who had been loyal to the king, sailed for Halifax. General Israel Putnam, with a second detachment of troops, entered the city and took possession in the name of the Thirteen Colonies. Washington had learned that Sir Henry Clinton had sailed from Boston with his troops upon a secret expedition early in January, 1776, and he naturally supposed that the British general had gone to New York. He at once ordered one of his generals, Charles Lee, to go to Connecticut, raise troops for the defense of that city, and watch Clinton wherever he might attempt to land. Six weeks before the evacuation of Boston, Lcc had twelve hundred troops in the vicinity of New York, and was on the watch for the British. But in the mean time the citizens of New York had committed overt acts of treason on their own account. They had seized the cannon at Fort George, and had driven the royal governor on board of an English ship. In March, Clinton arrived with his fleet just outside of Sandy Hook, and the same day, L^ie, not knowing where the English were, marched into the 111 •M ii |:';< 'Ii? K ''ii-i;i' 252 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. [i78i I m fl t city and took possession. Clinton, foiled in this attempt to obtain New York, sailed to the southward. Washington had not heard from Lee or Clinton, and as soon as he could leave Boston he pressed on to aid Lee and find Clinton, also thinking that Howe would sail to New York. He arrived about the middle of April, and began fortifying the city and the Hudson Highlands fifty miles above. General Charles Lee had been ordered south to assume command, and Lord Stirling, an American citizen of New York, who espoused the patriot cause, but was of Scotch descent, was left in command. Lee was hastening toward the Carolinas, arousing the Whigs, and on the lookout for the English General Clinton. Clinton had been joined at Cape Fear by an expedition sent out from England by Admiral Sir Peter Parker, and the combined fleet appeared off Charleston, South Carolina, on the 4th of June, 1776. The patriots in the South were aroused and had defeated an army of loyalists under Colonel Caswell of over fifteen hundred, early in the spring of that year. When Governor Rutledge called for volunteers they rallied all over the State, and six thousand well armed men appeared in Charleston to repel the invaders. A fort of palmetto logs and sand was erected on Sullivan's Island, and twenty-six cannon were mounted, and a garrison of five hundred men stationed there under Colonel William Moultrie. The British made a combined attack by land and water upon this island, but were repelled after a persistent battle of ten hours. Colonel Thompson, with a small force in a battery, held the advancing land forces of Clinton at bay, while the fort poured its shot and shell into the fleet. At night the crippled and discomfited fleet sailed away, and for two years the sound of British guns was not heard below the Potomac. The English fleet sailed for New York, June 31st, 1776, and the victory of the patriots of South Carolina had an inspiring tffect upon all the colonists throughout the country. 1775] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 253 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. FTER these months of fighting there were those wht. could not come to think of separation from the homf government but with pain. Those who were native Englishmen could not but love the land of their birth, anJ ir.any were slow to abandon the proud title of British citizens. The Quakers and Moravians were opposed to war as sinful, and great numbers thought it was useless for a few weak colonies to measure strength against the power of England. There was long and anxious discussion. The land was flooded with pamphlets and papers setting forth the oppression of the home government and the grievances of the Colonies. The wisest and best minds of the age were agitating the question of a final rupture, because they saw that this was the only course. The vast weight of intelligence, learning and argument, as well as patriotism, was in favor of this. Among these, a man who wielded a powerful pen, and aided the cause with the full weight of his influence and talent, was one who has never received the full amount of honor due him. He held a conspicuous place among the men of his time, and his judgment was considered of importance in the settlement of serious questions. We refer to Thomas Paine, the infidel thinker and writer. He had been but a few months in the Colonies, but his vigorous mind was enlisted on the side of human freedom. He wrote a pamphlet entitled Common Sense, in which he took the strong ground that the Colonies ought to be free. The Continental Congress was in session, and the time was ripe for a decision of this question. On June 7th, 1776, a resolution was introduced, " That the United Colonies are and ought to be free." Some opposed, some favored. Pennsylvania and Delaware had instructed their delegates to oppose it, for the Quakers were loyal to the last. Seven states for, and six against this resolution. It was then voted that the matter be deferred two or three weeks. On the 4th of July, the Declaration of Independence was adopted by the thirteen States, by the unanimous consent of all the delegates. It was a most remarkable document, setting forth the wrongs done to the Colonies, and portraying the character of George the King, in the roughest handling he ever received, and ending with these wonderful words, " and finally we do assert and declare these Colonies to be free and independent States, and that as free and independent States they have power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do, and for the support of this declaration we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes and our sacred '- 'Hi mut mi ii . L i, 3: t i !?.! I! ^/ ■If •'.V ,, 1: ;f ll IIW 254 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. [1782 honor." To this immortal bill of rights were appended the names of the fifty-six delegates from all the Colonies. » This document is preserved in the hand writing of Thomas Jefferson, the youngest member of the committee, and was published to the world, July 4th, with only the name of John HancocI: appended, but the other names were signed on the 2nd of August, all but two, who afiixed their names afterward. This act of the Congress inspired the patriots with enthusiasm. It was read by order of General Washington at the head of each regiment, and by the ministers in their pulpits and everywhere in posters and papers from Maine to Georgia. The quarrel must now be fought out to the end, and result in a glorious victory for freedom, or in a shameful defeat. Everywhere it was received with shouts of joy, and the soldiers in New York pulled down a leaden statue of King George and sent it to Litchfield, Connecticut, where the governor's wife and family melted it and run it into bullets to kill the king's soldiers. General Washington issued orders to his troops, in his customary dignified style, in which he said, " The General hopes and trusts that every officer and soldier will endeavor so to live and act as becomes a Christian soldier defending the dearest rights and liberties of his country." THE PROGRESS OF THE WAR. UST after the publication of the Declaration, General Howe, with Clinton and a large force of troops, made up mainly of Hessians hired to fight from some petty German Prince, appeared off New York. These Hessians were hired at so much per head to fight in any war ; and their employment was a scandal to Europe. Frederick the Great did not hesitate to express his unmitigated contempt for both parties to the bargain and sale. The British army was now twenty-five thousand men, and Lord Howe had brought with him a commission to pacify the Colonies. They were now no longer Colonies but free and independent States. So when General Howe invited them to lay down their arms, and promised them a free pardon, they replied that they were not seeking forgiveness but liberty. The sword must be the arbiter :iow. The British landed upon Staten Island, a few miles from New York. With his fleet he could hold undisputed possession of the bay, and at his leisure choose his point of assault. General Putnam was sent with a body of troops to take and hold the heights of Brooklyn which commanded the city of New York. Staten Island could be seen from the heights and after a while the English were observed moving. They struck their tents, marched on ship board and crossed the bay. Putnam marched out of the works to meet the enemy, fof 1775] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 255 Washington did not hope for a victory, only to do all he could to cripple them. The English landed ten thousand men, in three divisions. The left division under General Grant, moved along the shore towards Gowanus. The right, under Clinton and Cornwallis, toward the interior, and the center, composed of Hessians, under De Heister. The right attacked the Americans, and others came to help what seemed the main attack, while the remaining column of British cut off their retreat, and the center closed in upon them. Here they were surrounded, and Howe might have taken them, but he waited to make a regular siege. Washington silently withdrew his forces and returned to Now York. So skillfully was this done that the last boat load had left the shore before their retreat was discovered by the English. Washington had to leave New York to its fate, and marched northward nine miles ; but the English fleet followed him up the Hudson, and he was forced to retire to New Jersey. The English again followed him and on the way stormed a fort and took three thousand prisoners. Lord Stirling had been defeated and taken prisoner. General Sullivan had been defeated, and General Washington was fleeing from the victorious enemy. It was indeed a dark time for the American cause. Scarcely four thousand men were left and they were half clad and dispirited at the defeats they had suffered. Thousands of their comrades had been killed, or worse than death, were crowded into prison ships to die of neglect and starvation. This army of men, without blankets or shoes, poorly armed and ill-fed, were a strange band to conquer a continent. Washington was in full retreat to Philadelphia, and the British had possession of New York and Long Island. Again the English general issued his offers of pardon, and many of the rich colonists accepted them to preserve their property. The loyalists, who had been silenced by the popular u^)rising, now became clamorous and defiant. The terms of enlistment of the militia were expiring, and they were leaving the ranks, and the Continentals were deserting every day. Newark, New Brunswick, Trenton and Princeton were occupied by the British, and Washington reached the banks of the Delaware river with scarcely three thousand men. The citizens laughed at them as they marched along the streets, and looked with dread upon the well-fed and clothed soldiers who came after them. So near was the vanguard of the advancing British, that their drums could be distinctly heard by the rear guard of the Continental army. And often the men engaged in destroying bridges behind the Americans would see the head of the column of the enemy before they had completed their work of destruction. Washington knew the desperate odds against him. He had not hoped to overcome the British in the Eastern States, but he resolved to do what he could with such an army as his country had given him. When he crossed the Delaware he confiscated and took all the boats he could find for seventy miles along the river. Lord Howe waited on the eastern bank until the river should freeze and he be able to pass over. Washington strove to devise a plan by which he should win back success to his cause. • n-m •:.^i:«! =:;. ' H rf?m 256 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. [1782 The defeats which had followed each other so rapidly for four months had caused the people to become uneasy and dispirited. The short terms of enlistment had been embarrassing to the army, and the increasing activity of the tories, as the loyalist colonists were called, all had a disastrous effect. The winter of the second year of the war had come, and the British general was inactive ; his officers and men were enjoying themselves in New Vork, and small detachments were scattered throughout New Jersey. Ten miles from Philadelphia was the city of Trenton, held by a considerable force of British and Hessians. Washington crossed the Delaware, Christmas, 1776, in the intense cold, and made a hurried march to Trenton to surprise the careless army there. He succeeded. The general in command was slain, and the troops surrendered at discretion. A week after this encounter, three regiments of English troops came to Princeton, on their way to retrieve tlie defeat of their companions. While they were resting for the night, Washington surprised them and after a sharp fight defeated them with heavy loss. These successes, slight as they seem, revived the drooping spirits of the patriots and restored the wavering confidence in Washington, which after this was unbounded. Congress gave him unlimited military authority for six months. They also decided that all enlistments thereafter should be for the war. Thus in the time of its deepest peril the infant Republic was rescued from its danger by the inconsiderable victories of Trenton and Princeton. Thus opened the third ^'^ear of the struggle with victory and enthusi. for thei Commander-in-Chief, but soon the hearts of the colonists were to be cheered by the arrival of a new ally to freedom, and a source of strength that would be of great aid to them in their contest for liberty and independence THE FRENCH AID TO THE COLONIES. NEW force was now to enter into this, which had been up to this time an unequal contest. France had long cherished a bitterness toward England for the loss of her possessions in Canada, caused by the defeat at Quebec. She had fondly hoped that America would avenge her for this loss by throwing off the British yoke. She had more than once despatched to the Colonies a secret agent to encourage their good will, and since the troubles with the mother country had begun, her secret emissaries had been at work among them to offer sympathy and give pledges of commercial advantage. It was safe for her to foster the growing dislike of England in America, and to stir up the Americans to fit out privateers to prey upon British commerce But there was one young man at this time serving in the French army, whose professions of friendship for America were not all flattery and inspired by hatred of the British. This man was a young French 1775] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 257 nobleman of immense fortune and strong love of liberty. He was less than twenty, and had first heard of the American struggle from the Duke of Gloucester, while he was dining with some French officers. That conversation made a radical change in the young man's plans for the future. Napoleon said that, " He was a man of no ability," while Marie Antoinette said " There is nothing in his head but the United States." He had the keenest sympathy with the cause of liberty in which he believed the American States to be engaged, and no sooner had he become satisfied of this than he was ready to ally himself with the patriot army. He had just been married to a beautiful lady whom he left in France, and came to America in a ship fitted out at his own expense. He offered his services to the Continental Congress in the third year of the war, when the cause seemed to be at its lowest ebb. His presence awakened the courage of the whole nation, for it was a visible proof that there was help and sympathy for them beyond the ocean. America has given this impulsive, generous young man a high place in her affection. The Continental Congress gave the zealous French youth a commission as Major General, July 31st, 1777, and three days afterward he was presented to General Washington at a public dinner. Here on August 3rd, two men met for the first time whose names were forever after blended in grateful remembrance by a patriotic people, who regard them as deserving the highest love of the nation. George Washington the plain untutored Virginian planter, and the Marquis de Lafayette, the wealthy French nobleman, who had espoused the cause of the feeble Colonies with all his heart. Together these men were to play a grand and noble part in the Drama of Nations, and like brothers were to stand side by side through the darkest days of gloom until victory should crown their united efforts and a free people should sound their praises from the lakes to the gulf, and from the sea to the great river. The Americans have delighted to do honor to the first and most faithful ally to their cause. I'V.' i!i lili tt|t [Jit iil^^:' •'■■■■I 'i'^-'-s (IS « 1? I !l il 258 - THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. THE CAMPAIGN OF 1777 AND 1778. [1782 E have left Washington after his victory at Princeton, in January, 1777, and the returning enthusiasm of the patriots. He was too weak to attempt the capture of the large amount of British stores at New Brunswick, and therefore he hurriedly retreated to Morristown, where he established winter-quarters. He kept up his plan of harassing the enemy until at the opening of spring not a British or Hessian soldier was left in New Jersey except at New Brunswick and Amboy. No general movement was made by either army until the first of June, and Washington remained in his winter-quarters till the last of May. His army was improvinj^ in health and numbers, in discipline, spirits and material. A feu- slight movements had been made in the spring. The British had made an expedition up the Hudson and destroyed some stores, returning the same night. They had also marched from the Sound to Danbury, Connecticut, destroyed the town, fought the militia under Generals Wooster, Sullivan" and Arnold. The first had been killed, the second barely escaped, but Sullivan had discomfited and harassed them all the way to the coast and inflicted severe injuries upon them while getting on board of their ships at Compo, now Westport, Connecticut. May 22nd, Colonel Meigs had crossed the Sound from Guilford Connecticut, attacked the English garrison at Sag Harbor, Long Island, burned a dozen vessels, destroyed stores, and returned the next day with ninety prisoners. A similar exploit was performed in Rhode Island. A party in whale boats rowed across Narraganset bay amid the hostile ships and captured the British General Prescott in his bed, July loth, and he was sent under a strong guard to Washington. Colonel Burton led this expedition, and afterward received a fine sword, as a testimonial of his bravery, from Congress. Thus the campaign was opening. Congress sent word to Washington to lose no time in totally subduing the enemy ; but he could, safely wait and abide his time, smiling at the vain confidence which had so quickly taken the place of distrust and almost of despair. His army was being recruited every day, and the old soldiers whose time had expired were induced to remain by patriotic appeals and the promise of bounty. By the middle of June there were eight thousand men in the Continental army, tolerably well armed and clothed, and under a fair state of discipline. The Hessians had committed many depredations in New Jersey, and a strong thirst to avenge private wrongs induced many of the citizens of that State to enter the service. Howe desired to capture the capital of the States, Philadelphia, and advanced his army to do so, but Washington was so 1775] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 259 strongly intrenched across his road that he dared not attack. He then returned and prepared an expedition to sail to the Chesapeake, leaving New Jersey in complete possession of the Americans. On the 1 2th of July, General Burgoyne, with a force of seven thousand men, had taken Crown Point and Ticonderoga from the Americans, and spread terror and devastation through New York and Vermont. General Clinton was left in command at the city of New York. The force of English under General Howe landed at Elkton, Maryland, on August 25th, and marched toward Philadelphia, and at Brandywinc Creek a severe battle was fought with the Americans, September nth, in which Lafayette was wounded, just forty days after his introduction to Washington. The patriots were defeated with a loss of twelve hundred men. The generals of that time laid the blame of this defeat upon Lord Stirling, a warrior brave but foolish, " aged and a little deaf," who commanded the right wing. Washington had lost the battle, but not by any want of skill or bravery. A fortnight afterward the British army entered the city of Philadelphia, where so many Tories were waiting to receive them that Benjamin Franklin said, " Lord Howe has not taken Philadelphia, but Philadelphia has taken Lord Howe." The Federal Congress had fled at his approach, and when in the bright September morning the British troops marched into Philadelphia, there were many citizens eager to receive them with open arms. The British were in possession of the long desired prize, the Federal Capital, but they could obtain no supplies by sea, on account of two forts on opposite sides of the Delaware, a few miles below the city, and on the morning of October 22nd, they were attacked by a large force of English under Howe. Fort Mercer was bravely held by General Christopher Greene of Rhode Island, and Fort Miffin by Lieutenant Colonel Samuel Smith, who both made a gallant defense and drove the British away. The forts were afterward abandoned and the English had possession of the river to the sea. While the British were weakened by the large detachment which had gone down the Delaware, Washington decided to attack the main force of the enemy, and a complete surprise was given them, which at first was successful. But in the darkness of night confusion arose among the regiments of the Continental army, and some of them mistook each other for enemies, confusion increased to a wild panic and they fled in disaster. We must leave Washington preparing to go into winter-quarters, and turn northward to see about the army of Burgoyne which we left in possession of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. This English general now set out on an expedition from Canada to subdue the northern part of New York. General Schuyler was in command but he had only a small force of militia. These men were of different temper and spirit from the citizens of Philadelphia and vicinity, and when they heard of the invasion, assembled from all over the country. Each man took down his musket from where he had hung it, and hurried away to join the army. They were undisciplined but resolute of purpose. The invader made slow progress until he found himself at Saratoga. A band was sent to Bennington, Ver i ►. 1". ■;!iJ ■n P:.t».ii. O'V'l -^ mt^m m^^^ ■ifif r • 1 •i ill ' i t\ I '" i 260 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. [1782 mont, to seize cattle and provisions which were gathered there. Colonel John Stark had been commissioned to raise troops in New Hampshire, and with his men defeated one party of English, while Colonel Seth Warner met and overcame another, August i6th. These victories were like a star of hope in the prevailing gloom of the darkness. Burgoyne was in difficulty ; he had been impeded by the efforts of Schuyler in his march, was in an enemy s country without supplies, and found but little help from the tones. It was now October and the heavy fall rains made the roads impassable. Provisions were getting low and hard to procure. The Indians had been aroused in the Mohawk Valley and joined the British. They invested Fort Stanwix with a band of tories under Johnson and Butler, and had led Colonel Gransevooit with his militia into an ambush, and defeated them, mortally wounding the colonel. But the besieged party under their commander, Colonel Millit, made a successful sortie and broke the sicgo. Arnold came up with a body of troops to relieve the garrison, and the Indians and their unhappy tor> friends fled in confusion. The British general had little hope of fulfilling his promise to eat his Christmas dinner in Albany. He could not remain where he was ; to retreat or to advance would be equally disastrous. He crossed the Hudson and fortified a camp on the hills and plains of Saratoga. The American army was four miles distant at Stillwater. An indecisive battle was fought on the 19th of September, both sides claiming the victory. The English fell back to thoii camp. Here Burgoyne resolved to wait for reinforcements from General Clinton, but after a few days not hearing from Clinton, he made another attack upon the Americans and was completely defeated October 7th, 1777. His army was becoming enferbled by frequent desertions of the tories and Indians, while that of the patriots was being strengthened by the militia which flocked to them, and the Indian warriors of the Six Nations who joined them. Ten days after his defeat, when he had only three days' rations in camp, he surrendered his whole force to General Gates. They were surrounded and had no chance to escape ; so closely had the net been drawn, that when the last council of war was held by the British officers they were within reach of the American muskets. Six thousand men laid down their arms to mere peasants. Well drilled, armed and clothed, the English surrendered to patriots who were ununiformed and fought with powder-horns slung across their shoulders, and with muskets that had no bayonets, no two of whom were dressed alike. Such humiliation had never befallen the British army before. But this uncouth American army behaved with noble spirit toward the conquered. General Gates kept his men within their lines that they might not see the vanquished lay down their arms. Not a word or look of disrespect was given the enemy. " All were mute in astonishment and pity." Ticonderoga and Crown Point were given up to the Americans ; they had gained a large amount of arms, cannon, and munitions of war. England took this defeat very much to heart, and now too late they resolved to redress the wrongs of the Colonies. The patriots were ^ >775] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 261 encouraged, the torics put down, and France was urged to espouse the cause of America, all as the effect of this defeat. Parliament abandoned all claim to tax the Colonies, every obnoxious law would be repealed, and all would be forgiven if America would return to her allegiance. Commissioners were iiurrled away to bear the olive branch of peace to Congress. liut the time for peace with England, as Colonies, had passed forever. In a few well chosen words Congress declined the offer, and the war went on. America had chosen to be free, and proud England, whose armies had been victorious all (tver the world could not tamely abandon her claim and retire defeated before the feeble Colonies. The war so far had cost the English twenty thousand lives and increased the national debt to an alarming extent. Her ablest generals had been defeated by half-clad and half-armed countrymen. Tratle was languishing, and there was dissatisfaction among the laboring classes. Commerce was crippled by American privateers, who attacked English merchantmen, and for all this loss what had been gained ? Actually nothing': but the vain satisfaction of having inflicted untold misery upon an industrious and frugal people, carrying sorrow and suffering to thousands of happy homes in America. They had caused men to leave their peaceful associations, and leave their fields unsown : their shops silent. The trading classes had been impoverished, the fisheries and commerce well nigh annihilated, and solid money had disappeared from the country. That was all that England had gained ; for the Americans were still determined to gain their independence. February 4th, 1778, the treaty of alliance between the United States and France was signed, and now the Americans were not left to fight the powerful British nation single handed. Spain also joined with France and from this union the cause of American independence was secured. Washington had gone into winter-quarters with his troops at Valley Forge, where his poorly-clad and ill-fed army shivered in their log cabins, while the army of Howe were passing their time in luxury and ease within the comfortable homes of Philadelphia. If there is a spot on the broad Western Continent where a monument ought to be erected to perpetuate the memories of the Revolutionary struggle, it is at Valley Forge. Here Washington held his army together without clothing or camp equipage, and but little provision, through the long, dark night of that terrible winter of 1777-78. The general shared with his men the privations and suffering of the winter, and neither lost hope in the justness of their cause, or the final issue. And when the fearful ordeal had passed, and the troops received the news of the treaty with France in the early spring, shouts and cheers shook the air and were heard for miles around. This alliance with France gave the Americans great hope and added to thdr zeal. Nor was this all, for the French government began active measures at once. A fleet of twelve ships of the line was despatched at once to American waters to co-operate with General Washington, under the command of Count D'Estaing. The British Ministry ordered General Howe Llli ! P 11 If ' ''.i" •;•«■ 262 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.. [1775 to leave Philadelphia and concentrate his force in New York. Nor did he leave that point any too soon, for the French fleet appeared in the Delaware July 8th. But then the British w«:re far on their way to Amboy, beyond the reach of the French ships which Vv^ere too large to cross the bar which stretches nortVi\va«*d from Sandy Hook toward the narrows. But Washington ha^ been watching the movement, and on the morning of Sunday, June 2ijth, had begun a general engagement with the whole Britsli force at Monmouth, and won the battle after a severe fight which lasted all day. All night he rested en his arms, to renew the attack in the morning, but when day came the enemy were not to be seen, having begun their retreat at one o'clock in the moriiing, Washington did not follow, but returned to New Brunswick. When the F'-ench fleet arrived, Washington urged D'Estaing to proceed to Rhode Island to drive the British out of that provinc-c. General Sullivan was sent to take command of the troops there. John Hancock came with the Massachu'5'itts militia. Several English ships reinforced the fleet ai New York and appeared off Rhode Island the day the American:^; landed. The French fleet came out to engage the English, but a storm disabled both fleets and the Frenchmen sr.iied for Boston to repair, leaving the land force to mcot the British unaided. The Americans retreated to the north end of the Isla'^d, where General Sullivan defeated the British at Quaker Hil!, August .29th, and then to avoid being cut off by Howe retired to the main land the next day. THE WYOMING MASSACRE. E come to a chapter in the American conflict which has no parallel in the scenes of carnage and cruelty that stain the pages oi history. A '.ragedy that found no apologists in the nation in whose interests it was enacted. There were in all the provinces numbers of persons who still sympathized with the English, some were oorn in England and loved the land of their birth better than the young Republic of the West, some were shocked by tne fratricidal war rnd dreaded its consequences; some were co.iscientious loyalists v/ho thought the patriots were guilty of treason ; some were rencf/ades who had private grievances to settle, and some v;ere bribed by offers of British possessions and gold. All of them, from the pe.'iceful Quaker and Moravian who would rather suffer than fight, to the lawless assassin v»ho would kill for pay, were termed tories. We have spoken of two, Jfhnson and Butler. The latter, Colonel John Butler, was in command of a body of tories from Niagara, and he came southward inciting the Indians to ari«;e against the settlers. They gathered at Tioga early in June, 1778, and ■>iHm»*^' 1782] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 263 by the ist of July mustered eleven hundred whites and Indians, the latter from the head waters of the Susquehanna. They entered the beautiful Wyoming Valley the 2nd of July. This was a part of the State of Pennsylvania. The strong men were mostly in the distant army on duty ; the aged men with the women and children and a very few trained soldiers were all that were left in this defenceless valley. Colonel Zebulon Butler, a native of Connecticut, who had been in the early Indian and French wars, with a small force of four hundred men marched up the valley to drive the tory Butler and his Indians back. They were met by the savage foe and after a fearful conflict were most of them killed or taken prisoners July 4th, 1778. A few of them made their escape to Forty Fort where the families of the settlers were gathered for shelter and defence. The invaders swept like a storm cloud down the valley and surrounded the fort, where contrary to expectation they offered humane terms of surrender. They returned to their homes in fancied security, but the Indians could not be held in restraint, and plundered and burned, slaughtered and butchered on every hand. They scattered in every direction at sunset and when the darkness of night settled upon the scene twenty burning houses sent up their lurid flames to the sky The cry of women and child»-en went up from every field and house, and many who fled to the Wilkesbarre mountains r^nd the black morasses of the Pocono, perishrr' from exposure and starvation. That dark region between the valley and .iic Delaware is very appropriately termed the Shades oj Death. Thus was enacted the most shameful crime committed among the many that disgraced the action of the English during the war. Joseph Brant, a Mohawk Indian, who had adhered to the English, had gone with war parties south of the Mohawk River, and joincil, with their allies, Johnson, the tory leader, and together they attacked the settlement of Cherry Valley, killed many of the people, and carried the rest into captivity. Such was the alarm in all that region that for months no eye was closed in security. The country for a hundred miles around was called the dark and bloody ground. The record of that one county in New York, — Tryon County, it is now called, — for four years, would fill a large volume. To such severe straights had the British government come in their contest with a united people fighting for their freedom. The Americans had a great account to settk with the tories who had already been the cause ot much bloodshed and misery and were always a source of strength and information to the Britisl' "1-1 tr ' 1^^.:.. \!ir E'' f Sir George Collier sailed up Hampton Roads into the Elizabeth River, and laid the country waste on both sides from the Roads to Norfolk and Portsmouth. The last part of the same month two forts on the Hudson were captured by the same fleet, Stony Point and Vcrplanck's Point. These exploits ended. General Tryon went to New m ■ ■WliWitBflg 1782] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 265 Haven, Connecticut, and burned that city, also East Haven, Fairfield and Norwalk, and boasted of his extreme clemency in leaving a single house standing on the coast. The Americans were not idle all this time, but were making ready to strike heavy and unexpected blows at different points. Three days after the burning of Norwalk the Fort at Stony Point was captured by Colonel Anthony Wayne, who secretly attacked it on the night of July 15th, 1779, with ball and bayonet, and captured it after a strong resistance. This was one of the most brilliant exploits of the war. Another brilliant achievement followed this, the capture of a British force at Jersey City by General Henry Lee, August 19th, but the joy which these events occasioned was changed to sorrow by disaster in the extreme East. Massachusetts fitted out an expedition of forty vessels to sail to the Penobscot and take a fort held by the British at Castine. The commander delayed to storm the place for two weeks after his arrival, and an English fleet appeared, destroyed the vessels and captured the sailors and soldiers, all but a few who made their way back to Boston through the trackless wilderness. The settlers of the territories beyond the Alleghanies, who had beer- accustomed to fight the Indians from their first coming into the wilderness were fearless and bold, and now they turned their attention to the British outposts to fight the whites. Colonel George Rogers Clarke (who finallj broke the power of the Indians incited by the tories and English) led an expedition into the far wilderness of the northwest territory, where Illinoi? and Indiana now are, and took the fort at Kaskaskia, and the strong post af Vincennes. This had happened in ^778. But the British from Detroit retfiok the post in January, 1779. Acting as a peace-maker, Clarke again penetrated a hundred miles beyond the Ohio river, to quiet the Indians in the Northwest. He came through the drowned lands of Illinois in the month of February, and came upon the fort at Vincennes like men who had dropped from the clouds On the 20th of February, the stars and stripes floated once more over the fort. The indignation of the people was thoroughly aroused by the massacre ol the Wyoming, and General Sullivan was sent to the very heart of the region held by the Six Nations to chastise and humble them. On the last day of July he marched up the Susquehanna and joined the forces of General James Clinton, a patriot soldier, in August, making an army of nearly five thousand men. On the 29th of August they fell upon a fortified band of Indians and tories and dispersed them. Without waiting for them to rally, he went on dealing severe blows and chastising the savages on every hand. The Indians were awed and spirit-broken for a while. The campaign in the South had closed with the unsuccessful attempt of the Americans to capture Savannah. The French fleet was withdrawn, and General Lincoln was in full retreat toward Charleston. Tnus closed the campaign for 1779 ^'^^^ discour- agement for the Americans, as nothing of importance had been accomplished in the South. In the North the British were driven out of Rhode Island by the fear of a French fleet. Lafayette had gone to France and induced the *. i ^:: J . ''^t H r:m 266 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. [i;75 government to send a larger fleet and six thousand troops to America. Sir Henry Clinton sailed for South Carolina in December, 1779, and Washington went to winter quarters. While at best there was no perceptible gain on the land, the American sailors were achieving wonderful success from their bravery and audacity. John Paul Jones had dared to attack the strongest' ships in the English navy, and had followed them into the very chops of the British channel. The Serapis and the Countess of Scarborough had struck their colors to the Bonhomme Richard, the ship commanded by Jones, and he had taken in all, during the year, prizes to the amount of two hundred thousand dollars. The English had gained nothing in America, and had a great weight of trouble in other parts of the world. Spain had declared war with England, and the hands of the English were full. The campaign of 1780 in the South was a source of disasters to the Americans, resulting in the loss of Charleston, the whole State of South Carolina, the destruction of two armies, and the scattering of a good band of independent rangers. Lincoln and his army surrendered at Charles- ton after a gallant defense of forty days. Thus the British took at one time between five and six thousand men, and four hundred pieces of artillery. Colonel Tarleton, a name which is held in contempt by all honest mc, and which comes down the pages of history as the synonym of the meanest treachery, surrounded a band of patriots, who were retreating from Charleston toward North Carolina, with a force twice the size of the Americans, and almost annihilated them, killing men after they had surrendered and while they asked for quarter. It was a cold-blooded massacre, denounced by the liberal press of England in the most scathing terms. General Gates and Baron De Kalb were defeated at Sanders* Creek after a sanguinary encounter in which they were completely overcome, and Baron De Kalb was slain. The flower of the American army was now destroyed, and the hearts of the patriots were beating with anxiety. General Gates had ordered General Sumter to command a detachment to intercept a detachment of British and take their supplies. But when he heard of the defeat of General Gates, Fumter fortified his camp at the mouth of the Fishney Creek. Tarleton, the atrocious general, fell upon him and scattered his band. Sumter escaped, but his power was broken. But while these misfortunes were spreading a pall of darkness over the American cause, a man hitherto unknown was waging a warfare on his own account upon the tories, and hanging upon the flanks of the BritisAi army, deaUng heavy blows to injure and cripple them. He was Marion, the partisan leader of South Carolina who had collected a band of Southern patriots after the fall of Charleston. He had been with the army in that city, but at the time of the surrender was at home with a wound, so he was not hampered b> any parole. He came to General Gates just before the disastrous battle of Camden with a few ragged fellows, more grotesque than 1782] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 267 merica. Sir Washington ible gain on s from their lie strongest ;hops of the ( had struck r Jones, and ;wo hundred a, and had a declared war sters to the ite of South a good band at Charles- took at one ed pieces of honest mc , the meanest reating from size of the ;r they had cold-blooded lost scathing Creek after le, and Baron sstroyed, and etachment to Jut when he camp at the ell upon him :en. less over the on his own British army, Marion, the of Southern army in that id, so he was : before the otesque than the soldiers of Falstaff. The general was inclined to ridicule them, but Governor Rutledge, who was present, knew the sterling qualities of the man, and made him a brigadier on the spot. The people of Williamsburg arose in arms and sent for him to command them. He went and organized his wonderful brigade which defied the British power after the disaster at Camden. Cornwallis organized the State of South Carolina as a royal province as military governor, but he was so merciless, vindictive and selfish that even those who were friendly to the British fell away from him, and on the 7th of October a band of patriots fell upon the army, which he was leading into the North State, at King's Mountain, two miles south of the State line, and totally defeated them. This gave the republicans renewed hope. On the seaboard Marion's men were doing wonders in driving back the British and redeeming the country. Cornwallis fell back to Wainsborough and fortified. Here he remained until he went in pursuit of Greene a few weeks later. Victory after victory crowned the efforts of Marion and his men, but he had confined his operations thus far to forages upon the enemy. Now he concluded to try strength in an open assault upon the British post at Georgetown. The partisan warrior was repulsed but not disheartened. He had a camp on Snow's Island in the Pedce country, and would sally forth so suddenly and attack the British unawares at so many and widely separated points in such a marvelously short time, that they became thoroughly alarmed, and determined to break up his rendezvous. This was not accomplished until the spring of 1 781, when t, band of tories led the way to his camp in the swamp, while he was away, took the few whom Marion had left there and destroyed his supplies. The hero, when he returned, was surprised, but not disheartened, and at once started in pursuit of the marauder, and after following him, suddenly turned and confronted the British coldnel, Watson, who came up with fresh troops. But now we will turn to the North for a little while. In June, 1780, Clinton had made an invasion into New Jersey, burned Elizabeth and Connecticut Farms, and had been driven back to Staten Island after a severe defeat at Springfield, June 23. The French fleet under Count de Rocham- beau had landed in Rhode Island with six thousand land troops, July 10, 1780. Lafayette had arranged the whole affair during his visit in France, and to prevent any conflict of authority, as in the case of D'Estaing, the French had commissioned Washington a Lieutenant General in their anny. Rochambeau first met Washington in Hartford, and his men were sem co encamp in Lebanon, Connecticut, as the season had too far advanced for them to be of service in the campaign this season. Jl I'll liW'^'*; r li I II ill V- ^ i -'I ' 268 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. THE FIRST AND ONLY TRAITOR. U77S OW we come to a sad chapter with which we wish to wind up the record of the year 1780. At diflferent times during the war the British officers had attempted, directly or indirectly, to tamper with Americans of high rank whom they thought were of easy virtue, but not till the very last of the war had they found a single one to listen to their advances. Now they approached one whose personal ambition had led him to aspire to supersede his commander-in-chief, but he had failed in the attempt. Benedict Arnold, of Connecticut, the arch traitor and the man whose name would go down to posterity covered with execration to future generations, was a brave man, but thoroughly bad. He had fought nobly at the outbreak of the war, as we have seen, and held a high command in the Continental army. He was impulsive, vindictive and unscrupulous, and always in some sort of a quarrel with his fellow- generals ; unpopular with his command. When he was appointed to the command of Philadelphia, after being wounded at Bemis' Heights, he married the daughter of a provincial tory, and lived in splendor far beyond his means. To meet the exactions of his creditors, he resorted to a great many fraudulent practices, which caused him to be reported to the Continental Congress. He was convicted and severely reprimanded by a court marshal appointed to try the case. Washington bestowed this reprimand, and Arnold, smarting under the disgrace, and pressed by the load of debt, fell into the grievous crime of betraying the command at West Point. He was regarded with suspicion, but Washington did not think him capable of treason. The price of his perfidy was to be a major general's commission in the English army and fifty thousand dollars. Major John Andre was sent by Sir Henry Clinton to complete the negotiations which had been going on for months. West Point was a fortified position on the Hudson, deemed of great importance to both parties, and was strongly garrisoned by the Americans. The plans were, that Clinton was to sail up the Hudson, attack the Fort, and after a show of resistance, Arnold was to surrender all the arms and men to him. But the final arrangements must be made by a personal conference, and Andre was sent for this purpose. He was taken up the Hudson on board of a British vessel, the Vulture, — rightly named — and landed ; but all did not work well, for some patriots dragged an old six-pounder out upon Tellers' Point, and hammered away with it until the Vulture was compelled to land Andre and drop down the river. He then proceeded on foot as far as Tarrytown, when he was stopped by three young Americans, searched, and sent to the nearest military post, then in command pf Colonel Jackson. The colonel unwisely allowed the prisoner to send a 1782] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 269 letter to Arnold, although he could not see why ; and then the double-dyed traitor abandoned the unfortunate Andre, and escaped in his own boat to the Vulture. Andre was more to be pitied than blamed, but found in the vile condition of an enemy taken in disguise, he was tried as a spy, found guilty and hanged, while the real miscreant escaped. Washington did his best to save the brave young officer, but the stern rules of war would not permit him to save one engaged in such an act. There were dark intimations of other treasons, and it would not do to pass this lightly by. Andre begged to die a soldier's death, but this was denied him, and he wus executed on the second day of October, 1780. The double traitor, Arnold, whose life was not to be compared with that of Andre, lived and enjoyed the price of his treason. And thus the campaign of the sixth year closed with a dark plot for the betrayal of the cause of the American States by one of its own officers. THE CLOSING YEARS OF THE STRUGGLE. tHE events of the year 178 1 opened with one of the noblest displays of true patriotism in the army. For the long years of the struggle the soldiers had endured every privation and suffering from the want of money and clothing. The scrip in which they had been paid depreciated in value until it was almost worthless. Faction and discontent had come into the Continental Congress and prevented needed action upon important measures. The soldiers had enlisted for three years, or during the war, and this they regarded as meaning for three years if the war did not sooner end, but the officers interpreted it for the entire war, even if it lasted longer than three years. The soldiers asked for aid, which was not given them. On the ^first day of January, thirteen hundred of the Pennsylvania line who regarded their term of enlistment as having expired, marched out of their camp at Morristown and determined to return to Philadelphia in a body and demand their rights of Congress. General Anthony Wayne, who was much beloved by his command, tried by threats and promises to dissuade them, but they would not be persuaded. The poor fellows thought, rightly enough, that they had a righteous cause of grievance. General Wayne stood before them and cocked his pistol, but they presented bayonets to his breast and said, " We love and respect you ; you have often led us to battle, but we arc no longer under your command ; be on your guard. If you fire your pistol we will put you to instant death." Wayne appealed to their patriotism, and they pointed to the impositions and unfulfilled promises of the Congress. He told them of the comfort and aid their conduct would give the enemy, and they pointed to Iheir tattered garments and poorly-fed bodies, but said that they were willing 6 f I i 'I ii' I 'Ji II I ! [''1 i: ['1 M' I <' Hj f It It Q M ^i i bl H' ;ll itt, .1,1 ■. t'< "f t'»f. II iiln ■r li; ! E) I- ' I I : I I 270 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. [^77$ to fight for freedom for it was dear to their hearts, but Congress must make adequate provision for their comfort and necessities, and declared that they were determined to go to Philadelphia to enforce their rights. Wayne went with them, and when at Princeton they halted and drew up a written programme of their demands. This was forwarded to Congress and resulted in a compliance with their just demands. The Pennsylvania line was disbanded, but when Sir Henry Clinton endeavored to treat with them and sent emissaries to promise them all their back pay, one of the leaders said, " See, comrades, he takes us for traitors, let us show him that the American army can furnish but one Arnold, and that America has no truer friends than we." They seized the emissaries and their papers and sent them to Wayne, who executed them as spies. When the reward was offered to the insurgt:nt3 they refused to touch it and sent back word : " Necessity compelled us to demand our rights of Congress, but we desire no reward for doing our duty to our bleeding country." Many of them re-enlisted for the war. On the 1 8th of January the New Jersey troops, emboldened by this success, also mutinied, but the mutiny was put down by harsher means. Congress was aroused to action, and devised means for the relief of the soldiers. Tax^s were imposed and cheerfully paid, money was loaned on the credit of the government, a national bank was established, and Robert Morris, who had given his wealth to the country and aided in establishing the national credit, was the president. He supplied the army with food and clothing bought on his own credit, and doubtless prevented it from disbanding by its own act. All honor to Robert Morris, who, though not a soldier, was a patriot and thr soldiers* friend. The military operations of the year were confined to the South, and opened with a series of depredations committed by the arch traitor, Arnold. who seemed over anxious to inflict all the misery he could upon his suffcrini; country, and earn the price of innocent blood with which his treason had been rewarded. He made two expeditions up the James river, destroying public and private property at Richmond and Petersburg, and s^lthough th<- Americans did their utmost to capture him, he was too cautious, watchful and quick for them, and after plundering and slaughtering the people on every hand, returned with the English fleet to the New England coast, where an inhuman butchery, equalled only by the massacre of the Wyoming Valley, •vas enacted under his command, of which we will speak hereafter. General Greene was appointed to supersede General Gates in command of the American forces in the South. The battle of Cowpens was fought January 17th, 1781, and resulted in a brilliant victory for the Americans. Then followed the most remarkable military movement in the war, the retreat of General Greene through North Carolina to Virginia, who ^yas not stronj^ enough to cope with the whole British army, but on the 15th of March. finding his force much increased in strength, he fought the battle of Guilford, and although the Americans were repulsed and the British were in possession of the field. Charles Fpx, in a speech in the House of Commons, declared 1782] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 271 " Another such victory will ruin the British army." A line in the Scotch ballad was fully illustrated : " They baith did fight, they baith did beat, they baith did rin awa'." Cornwallis could not maintain tlie ground he had gained, and the Americans retreated in good order. Greene rallied his forces and pursued the British to Deep River, Chatham county. April 25th the American army was surprised and defeated at Hobkirk's Hill, but Greene conducted his retreat in good order. The British commander, Ra^don, set fire to Camden and retreated May loth. Within a week Greene captured four important posts, but was unsuccessful at Fort Ninety-Six fron which he retired June 19th. Successes at other points were being reported. Fort Galpin and the city of Augusta, Georgia, had been taken by the Americans under Charles Lee. Now the British were retreating and the Americans were the pursuers. The battle of Eutaw Springs, September 8th, resulted in a victory for Greene. The partisan bands under Marion and Sumter were winning victories on the Santee waters. The French army left New England to come southward to the aid of Lafayette, and Washington succeeded in avoiding the watchfulness of General Clinton in New York, and crossed the Hudson into New Jersey, and was well on his way before Clinton was aware of his real intention. Arnold was sent to New England by the British to draw Washington back. Then followed the bloody and inhuman butchery of the garrison at Fort Griswold, opposite New London, in which nearly one hundred men were murdered in cold blood by the orders of the traitor. Cornwallis was fortifying his army at Yorktown. Clinton sent a fleet to aid him, but he was too late, for when the British ships came to the mouth of the Chesapeake they found the French fleet there, under De Grasse, to oppose their advance. The combined American and French forces under Washington and Lafayette were investing the whole British force under Cornwallis. A desperate defense was made and repeated sallies were attempted to drive the assailants from their works, but all without success. The end was approaching. In a few days the defenses at Yorktown were laid in ruins by the armies of Washington and his compeer. The English guns were put to silence. One night Cornwallis attempted to break the lines and get his men back to New York, but was prevented by the obstinate fire of the besiegers, and barely escaped to his intrenchments All hope was over, and eight weeks after the siege began Cornwallis and his army of eight thousand men capitulated to the American commander-in-chief. Cornwallis felt the keenness of his humiliation and feigned sickness on the day of his surrender, and therefore sent his sword by an inferior officer General Lincoln, who had before surrendered to Cornwallis under the most humiliating terms at Charleston, S. C, was detailed to receive the formal surrender. When the sword was handed to him he took it and at once returned it to the fallen English general. The war was virtually over, a little skirmishing was going on in Georgia and Soi-*"^ <"aroUna, but all was rejoicing and gladness. Mi !pi|ii ■I < 272 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. [1775 \Jl< I'V V,:: t * i Hi ^ ■■ • •( • ' ■ I':. iSl Old King George was stubborn, but his Parliament would not sustain him, and although a treaty of peace was not signed until 1783, there was but little movement in America among the English, while the Americans were constantly on the watch. Savannah was evacuated July nth, 1782. The last blood was shed in September, 1782. Measures were taken by the American Congress and the British government to effect terms of peace. Peace was made with France and Spain. The Americans had become exhausted by the long struggle of eight years, and could show little more than their soil and their liberty in return for it all. Iheir commerce uas dead ; their fields ruined ; their towns and cities in ashes ; and they had no money. The public debt had swelled to one hundred and seventy millions of dollars, and there was nothing wnich could be called a government. Five commissioners were appointed to meet the English commission in Paris, and effect a settlement. John Adams, John Jay, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas- Jefferson and Henry Lawrence were the five chosen. A preliminary treaty was signed November 30th, 1782, but the final treaty was not signed till September 3d, 1783. That treaty gave full independence to the thirteen United States of America, with ample territory to the great lakes on the North and westward to the Mississippi river, with unlimited rights to fish on the banks of Newfoundland. The two Floridas were returned to Spain. There is one little episode prior to this time which we desire to mention: After the surrender of Cornwallis on the 19th of October, 1781, and before peace was declared, everything seemed to be in a perfect state of confusion. The thirteen States were loosely held together. Congress had but little power. There was no money to pay either ofificers or men, and they had been fighting for no pay. The army would become disbanded. They had fought bravely, heroically, and, as patriots, had won the victory. Now they must find a livelihood amid the desolations which had been wrought by the fearful struggle. The gloomy aspect threw a pall over all classes. Congress voted to retire the ofificers on half pay for life, and the soldiers must shirk for themselves, but this was afterwards changed to full pay for five years, and the soldiers to full pay for four months, in part pay for their losses. Great dissatisfaction arose all over the country. Many attributed the trouble to the weakness of a Republican form of government, and desired a monarchy. Nicola, a foreign officer in a Pennsylvania regiment, in a well-written letter, advocated the claims of a monarchy, and proposed that the army make George Washington king, but he was sharply rebuked for this by Washington, and it was never afterwards broached. The United States was now a nation recognized by England, France, Spain and Holland. But the feeble compact of the Continental Congress could not long hold them together. Each State might or might not comply with its demand, as she saw fit. That power could only discuss and advise. No taxes could be collected by their authority ; they could onl;,' apportion certain amounts for the States to raise or not, as they chose, and most frequently they did not choose, and it became utterly impossible to raise I782J THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 273 money by this method. The hardships and miseries of the people fell with a severe burden upon the laborers. The sufferings of a patient people could not endure everything, and their impatience showed itself in mutterings of discontent. A band of two thousand men in Massachusetts arose in revolt and demanded that the collection of taxes should cease for a time. It was some time before this insurrection could be put down. Four or five years of intense privation and suffering followed the Revolution ; and surrounded with the troubles of a misgoverned people, it almost seemed as if the war, after all, had been a failure. There had been dark days during the war, when men's hearts failed them and they lost confidence in Washington. Reverses and disasters came thick and fast, and he was retreating far too much. He adhered to a defensive policy when Congress was demanding quick and decisive blows to curb the invader. The people did not consider the utter insufficiency of his resources, but laid the blame of every reverse upon him. Hut when the tide of battle had turned, and Washington, with his well disciplined army, was moving on the offensive, and victory brought glory to him, they feared that he would become too powerful, and, like other conquerors, assume kingly prerogatives. His army loved him with a fervor that amounted almost to idolatry, and he had but to speak the word and they would rise to hail him king. The country feared that he might prove another example of a successful military chieftain, who would be actuated by the lawless and vulgar lust of power which has disgraced the pages of history. But when the war was over, Washington sheathed his sword and resigned his commission. He had refused to receive pay for his ser'''ces, and rendered to Congress a bill of his actual expenses, kept with neatness and precision, fo' the whole period from the time he assumed command to the close of the war. He then retired to cultivate the affection of men, and to practice the domestic virtues. He attended to his farm, and was thankful to escape the burden of responsibility which official position must bring. This exhibition of noble grandeur in its wonderful simplicity, endeared him forever to the hearts of the American people. Mount Vernon was to become the shrine to which the feet of patriots would turn, and where the measure of American devotioi would be full. George Washington had won the proudest place in the hearts of his countrymen. The family of generals who composed his staff and his immediate companions loved him as a brother, and the common soldier regarded him as much more than an ordinary being, and his presence would inspire them with intense enthusiasm. The great mass of the people all over the country hailed him as the deliverer of his country, and esteemed him above all glorious names of those who had won the independence of the country. Washington and Lafayette were the two names that blended in all the public addresses and orations of the period, and rested alike upon the lip? of the rich and poor. i i i;!lfc ^.^3 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 w tii |2.2 I m m iu ii.6 I.I m Si £ 1^ 12.0 u Wuu Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRUT WfBSTER.N.Y. 14SS0 (716)872-4503 '^ .^ .<^ iSf i^\5^ % '^o p ■^ ^ ASHINGTON and the leading minds of this period saw the great need of modifying or changing the articles of confederation which had held the thirteen States so loosely together. Congress (Vas only a name, and the league held the States only for a moment ; it might be sundered by any one or more of them at will. The lovers of their countrv could discover at a glance that there was imperative need of a central government which should exercise power over all, and be respected by all. In the absence of such a government, the liberties of the people would be constantly in danger from internal dissension within and foreign foes without. Some one might rise with the power to make himself king. Conspicuous among those who shared this view with Washington, was a New York man who had entered the army at nineteen, and had been the friend and companion of Washington through all the war, Alexander Hamilton. He had risen to high rank in command, and afterward to high position in office. He had brought order from the utter financial chaos which threatened the very existence of the army and country. It was he who first proposed the CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED States. He was the firm friend and staunch ally of Washington all through the troublous times that tried the very life of the infant nation. Hamilton was a brave and skillful soldier, a brilliant debater, a persuasive writer and a true statesman. At the suggestion of Washington, a convention to remedy the defects of the articles of confederation was called to assemble at Annapolis, Maryland, in September, 1786; only five. States sent delegates. John Dickinson was appointed chairman. They did little except to appoint a committee to revise the articles, and adjourn with a recommendation to Congress to call the meeting of a convention in Philadelphia the following May, to complete the work. Congress recommended the several States to send delegates to such a convention. The convention met with delegates from all the States except New Hampshire and Rhode Island, but they had not gone far before they found that no amount of amending and tinkering could make the old '• Articles of Confeucration " serve the purpose of a permanent government. For a number of days there was no progress. Such was the great variety and difference in opinion that everything was at a standstill. Franklin urged the necessity of imploring Divine assistance in a memorable speech. " How j*;^ leriod g the irteen nly a for a more could central spected , of the isension i^ith the se who iiho had nd and exander to high il chaos was he ;s. He |ugh the n was a id a true 1787] THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. 275 has it happened, sir," he said, " that while groping so long in the dark, divided in our opinions, and now ready to separate without accomplishing the great object of our meeting, that we have hitherto not once thought of humbly applying to the Father of Lights to illuminate our understandings ? In the beginning of the contest with Britain, when we were sensible of danger, we had daily prayers in this room for Divine protection. Our prayers, sir, were heard and graciously answered. * * * Jhe longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of the truth that God governs in the affairs of men. I therefore move that henceforth prayers, imploring the assistance of Heaven and its blessings on our deliberations, be held in this assembly every morning before we proceed to business." It was adopted. After long and earnest discussion the convention referred all papers to a committee of detail, and adjourned for ten days. They reassembled and the committee reported a rough draft of the present constitution. Amendments were made, long and angry discussion followed, and the whole matter was referred to a committee for final revision. This final report was made September I2lh, 1787, and the Constitution was submitted to the Legislatures of the several States for adoption. The convention had worked for four months, and was composed of the ablest and best men in the country. George Washington was the president; Benjamin Franklin brought the ripe experience of eighty-two "CRrs to this crowning task of a noble life. Alexander Hamilton came from And with such men came many whose names are held in .ew V--1. endu.!. ; honor by a grateful people. These men were the peers of any in the country, and this assembly had not seen its equal since the convention which published the " Declaration of Independence " had met in the same hall eleven years before. Their great work had gone out to the country, and the people were divided in sentiment upon it. There were many true patriots and lovers of their country who were opposed to it. They were strong in their argument, and conscientious in their opposition. Some feared the most those evils which would arise from a weak government, and sought relief from this in a close union of the States under a strong central government, and some feared the example of the over-governed nations of Europe and hesitated to give too much power to the central government for fear that a despotism might arise. State sovereignty, sectional interests, and radical democracy, all had their advocates, and were united only in opposing the ratification. Hamilton wrote pamphlets and articles for the public press in its favor. Washington threw the whole weight of his influence in its favor. Thomas Payne sent out his powerful argument in the "Crisis," and the excitement ran high. Somewhat reluctantly,* and in many cases by bare majorities, the States all ratified it, and it became the organic law of the land. At once, ten amendments were proposed and accepted, to meet the views of those who were apprehensive of too much power in the central government, and a trial of its powers for nearly a century has demonstrated the wisdom of those men who devised it, and asked the blessing of God upon their deliberations. m % % wMi^ 276 THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. [1787 This constitution is the supreme law of the land. Under its authority the President, the Congress, the judiciary act, and all the laws passed, must be in conformity to it. Congress may pass an act unanimously and the President heartily i'^n it, but if the Supreme Court decide that it is contrary to the Constitution, it has no binding force as law, and can never be executed. The great love of law which predominates in the Anglo-Saxon race has caused a reverence for this document which rouses the nation to arms when once it is assailed. When eleven States had ratified this Constitution, the Continental Congress took measures to carry it out, and fixed the time for choosing the electors of President and Vice President. They provided for an organization of the new form of government, and a transfer of their power. On the fourth day of March the National Constitution became the supreme !aw of the land, and the Continental Congress passed out of existence. This was the commencement of the glorious career of the United States as a nation. One thing we should mention before passing to the Administration of the first President. The old Congress had organized a territorial government for the vast region northwest of the Ohio river. In the bill in which this was done there were many important provisions. It contained a provision striking at the old English law of primogeniture, in which estates descended to the eldest born, and instead this law divided the property among all the children, or the next of kin. It also declared that " there shall neither be slavery nor involuntary servitude in said territory, otherwise than in punishment for crime whereof the party shall be duly convicted." This was adopted July 13th, 1787, and at once a mighty tide of immigration began to flow into that fertile region, amounting to twenty thousand in one year 1788. 1789] THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOa THE ADMINISTRATION OF WASHINGTON. HEN the vote of electors was opened by Congress it was found that George Washington had been unani mously elected for President, and John Adams for Vice President of the United States. There was much work to be done to get the new machine of government into working order. The first serious question was what to do with the public debt. Washington was perplexed, and with a sigh asked a friend, " What is to be done about this heavy debt ? " " There is but one man in America can tell you," replied his friend, " and that is Alexander Hamilton." The subject of the tariff was brought forward by James Madison, the acknowledged leader of the House of Representatives, two days after the vote of President and Vice President had been counted. He proposed a tax on tonnage and a duty on foreign goods brought into the United States, that were favorable to American shipping. Then three executive departments were organized, namely, of the Treasury, of War, and of Foreign Affairs, at the head of each was a secretary. These were to be appointed by the President with the concurrence of the Senate, and should form his advisory council, and report in writing when required. Alexander Hamilton was appointed Secretary of the Treasury. He was the most able financier of the Revolution, and made those remarkable reports which for twenty years formed the policy of the national government. He proposed the funding of all the public debt, registered and unregistered ; the payment of the interest ; the redemption of the Continental money, and the assumption of the State debts. The government certificates and Continental money had depreciated from their face value, and were held by speculators who had bought them at a low price, and some thought that the government ought not to pay full price for them, but Hamilton wisely claimed that the public credit was concerned in its full redemption. All these outstanding debts were to be funded, and interest paid at six per cent, until the government should be able to pay the principal. A sinking fund was formd by appropriating the receipts of post offices, and it was prophesied that in five years the United States could borrow money in Europe at five per cent. A system of revenue from imports and internal duties was devised by Hamilton, and all his proposed measures were adopted by Congress at their second session. While the House was at work on the revenues, the Senate were engaged on the problem of the judiciary. Senator Ellsworth of Connecticut, proposed a measure which was adopted with some changes. Webster afterwards said of Hamilton, in his eloquent style, " He smote the rock of natural resources li m im ig::?!^:'-' 278 THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. [1789 and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. He touched the dead corpse of the public credit and it sprang upon its feet." The vigor of a government, so unlike the old Congress, renewed the public confidence, and commerce began at once to improve. Ships were built, and in a few years the new flag was floating on every sea and in every port. The people at home were recovering from their poverty imposed by the war. Agriculture and manufactures were prosperous, and a steady stream of immigration from the coast westward was opening up the wonderful resources of the regions beyond the Alleghanies and Ohio river. North Carolina and Rhode Island, the only two States which had not adopted the Constitution, now came into the Union, the first, November, 1789, and the latter May 29, 1790. The third session of the first Congress met in December, 1790, and found all departments of government in good condition, ample revenue coming in, and general prosperity on all sides. During this session, the first of a long list of States which should come in to swell the original thirteen was admitted. Vermont came into the Union February i8th, 1791, and the territory southwest of the Ohio was formed. A national currency was established. The question of a national coinage of money was decided at the first session of the second Congress, and a mint established at Philadelphia. The post office department was organized at this session, but the Postmaster General was not made a cabinet officer until 1829. Most of the first term of Washington as President was taken up in getting the government into working order, but such was the moderation, wisdom, and patriotism of these grand men who performed this gigantic but novel work, in which they had no model to guide them, that but few changes have had to be made, and none of these few were in any degree radical. There had been some disturbance with the Indians in the northwest, incited by emissaries from the British, who still held some of the posts on the frontier, contrary to the provisions of the treaty of Paris. Open hostilities began in 1790, and General St. Clair, the governor of the Territory, with two thousand troops, was surprised and defeated in Drake county, Ohio, November 4, I79i> but General Anthony Wayne was sent to take command and punish the savages, which he did so effectually that they caused little trouble until the war of 1812-15. Kentucky was admitted to the Union June 1st, 1792. Party spirit assumed definite form during the second session of the Second Congress, just as the first term of Washington was coming to an end. Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson were the two men around whom the organizations began to crystallize. They were both members of Washington's cabinet. Hamilton became the leader of the Federalists and Jefferson of the Republicans. The Federalists believed in a strong central government, and would concentrate the power of the national government, while the Republicans would distribute the power among the States. Hence arose the strife between the two, and the country was being stirred by bitter discussion, and in the heart of this excitement the second election came of the an end. id whom nbers of ilists and central 'crnment, States, stirred by ion came 1797] THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. 279 on. Washington and Adams were re-elected by large majorities. The Republicans were gaining in numbers and strength, and when the French Republic had declared war against England, Spain and Holland, Genet came from France to procure aid and sympathy from America. The Republicans and many Federalists received him with open arms, and he began to fit out privateers to fight England and Spain. Washington prudently issued a proclamation of neutrality. May 9th, 1793, but Genet insisted, and tried to excite hostility between our people and their own government. Washington finally requested his government to recall him, which they did, and the French assured the United States that their government disapproved of the course Genet had taken. The first insurrection against the government arose in Pennsylvania, and is called the " Whisky Rebellion." It was caused by Congress imposing an excise duty on domestic liquors. This measure was very unpopular, and awakened opposition. The insurrection broke out in the western part cf Pennsylvania and spread over all that portion of the State, and into Virginia. At one time six or seven thousand men were under arms. The local militia were powerless, or in sympathy with the rebels. Washington issued two proclamations to them to disperse, but seeing that they would not disband by peaceful means, he ordered out a large b<3dy of militia from New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia, under command of General Henry Lee, which quelled the rebellion, and thus the trouble that had threatened the stability of the nation was averted. Another dark cloud arose above the horizon. England and America accused each other of infringing upon the terms of the treaty of 1783. The United States claimed that the British had not indemnified them for negroes carried away at the close of the war. That English posts on the frontier were maintained contrary to treaty. They had been inciting the Indians to hostility, and in the war with France the neutrality of our ships had been violated. The British claimed that the United States had not done as they agreed concerning the property of loyalists, and the debts contracted in England prior to the Revolution. War seemed inevitable, and was only averted by the prudence and wisdom of Washington, who sent John Jay as envoy extraordinary to England to compromise and settle. He effected the best arrangement he could by which the British might collect all debts actually due them before the war, but they would not pay for the slaves taken away. The British would pay for unlawful seizure in the war with France, and evacuate the forts on the frontier. This was not satisfactory to most of the people, but congress ratified it on the 24th of June, 1795. Soon after John Jay proved his patriotism by concluding a treaty with Spain by which the United States gained tlie free use of the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans, for ten years. Through the whole of Washington's administration, the greatest prudence, circumspection and wisdom were needed. No sooner had one difficulty been surmounted than another appeared. The infant commerce which was spreading all over the world, was attacked by the J,- P i8o THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. [«797 Algerian pirates, who captured large numbers of American sailors, and held them in white slavery in the Barbary States, until their ransom was paid. This gave rise to efforts to establish a navy. After many attempts had been made, Congress finally in the spring of 1794, passed a law creating a navy and appropriating seven hundred thousand dollars to build and equip vessels. In the absence of the proposed navy, the United States in common with other governments entered into a treaty to pay the Dey of Algiers an annual tribute for the ransom of captives taken by his pirates. Washington's administration, which was drawing to a close, had been one of incessant care and action. The two parties that had arisen during his administration were ready to enter the political contest when Washington issued his famous Farewell Address. After retiring from office he lived fo • three years at his home in Mount Vernon, and died December i8th, 1799. THE ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS. 'HE two parties had but little time to engage in the contest for. the election of a successor to Washington after the publication of his Farewell Address in September, for the election came in November. The contest was sharp and earnest, and resulted in a victory for both sides. John Adams was elected President, and Thomas Jefferson, Vice President. They were inaugurated March ^th, 1797, and were confronted at the very outset of their administration by a threatened war with France. The French Directory which had the management of govern- ment at the time, had ordered Pinckney, the American minister, to leave the country; depredations were committed upon American commerce and the French minister had insulted the United States. Adams took very decided and active measures to redress the wrong. He sent three ministers to France to settle the difficulty with Pinckney at their head. The French would not treat with them, and the Americans made ready for war. The navy was finished and ships put in commission. A large land force was collected and equipped, and there was a naval battle in which the French man-of-war was conquered. But there had been no formal declaration of war, and the French Republic, seeing the strong position of the United States, receded and made overtures of settlement. Three envoys were sent and conferred with Napoleon, and concluded a treaty of friendship and peace. The ambassadors returned to A merica, and the army was disbanded. Two very unpopular measures were passed by the administration known as the Alien and Sedition laws, which they were obliged to repeal the next year. The death of Washington in the last month of the century was a sad i8oi] THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. 281 bereavement to the country, and every party voice was hushed in silence while the nation did honor to his memory. Napoleon, then First Consul of France, rendered universal honor to his memory in a General Order to his army in which he said, " Washington is dead ! This great man fought against tyranny; he established the liberties of his country. His memory will always be dear to the French people as it will be to all free men of the two worlds ; and especially to French soldiers, who like him and the American soldiers, have combated for liberty and equality." The Congress of the United States, and the Legislatures of all the States united with the whole people all over the land in paying the highest tribute to his memory. In the year 1800 the .second enumeration of the population was taken, and the census reported 5,319,762, an increase in ten years of thirty per cent. There came another election in which party spirit ran high. The Democratic party nominated Thomas Jefferson for President and Aaron Burr, Vice President, and the Federalists John Adams and C. C. Pinckney. There was no election in the electoral college, and it was sent to the House of Representatives. After a severe struggle in which thirty-five ballots were taken, Mr. Jefferson was elected President, Aaron Burr was chosen Vice President, by the Senate. THE ADMINISTRATION OF THOMAS JEFFERSON. HE inauguration address of Mr. Jefferson was waited for with much anxiety by the people throughout the country, as he was the first exponent of the new party who had been raised to the chief magistracy of the land. He surprised all classes by the manly and conservative views which he uttered, and at once all fears were allayed. Although he made some removals from office and set vigorously at work to reform abuses and irregularities, his measures were so conciliatory and just that many Federalists came over to his party and heartily supported his adminis- tration. The obnoxious laws were repealed. The diplomatic system was put on better footing, the judiciary was revised, certain offices were abolished, and vigor and enlightened views marked the beginning of his term. One State and two territories were added to the Union in his first term of office. Ohio was admitted in the fall of 1802, and the territories of Louisiana and New Orleans were purchased of France for fifteen million dollars. This bargain was effected in April, 1803, and the United States took peaceful occupation of the land in the autumn of the same year. It contained eighty-five thousand mixed population and forty thousand negroes. A naval expedition was sent out to the Mediterranean to put an end to »:& ■I'^M'*:* /^; 'i ji K 282 THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. [1801 the infamous tribute extorted from the United States, to redeem the American sailors held in slavery by the Barbary States. Captain Bainbridge had gone to Algiers in 1800 with the tribute money, and when it was paid the Dcy demanded the use of his ship to carry an ambassador to Constantinople; and, when Bainbridge refused, the Dey' replied, " You pay me tribute, by which you become my slaves, and therefore I have a right to order you as I think proper." Although the captain was obliged to comply with that demand, the insult resulted in a severe punishment, which a few years later put an end to white slavery in the Barbary States. It is hard for us to realize that even in the nineteenth century our countrymen have been held in great numbers in the most degrading slavery in the north of Africa. The merchantmen who displayed the American flag made their appearar; ,e in the Mediterranean directly after the Revolution. The pirates of the Barbary States would attack them, and when captured would sell them into slavery. There were thousands of sailors from New England and the Atlantic coast thus held when the century began. The indignation of the United States was aroused, and they determined to put an end to the infamy, which the government of Europe had long tolerated at their very doors. In 1803 Commodore Preble was sent to humble the pirates. After bringing Morocco to terms, he came to Tripoli. There he had the misfortune to lose a large vessel, the Philadelphia, which struck upon a rock, and before she could be got off she was captured. The officers were treated as prisoners of war, but the crew were sold into slavery. The next year, 1804, this disaster was somewhat repaired. Lieutenant Decatur with seventy-six volunteers, entered the harbor of Tripoli and boarded the Philadelphia, drove off her captors, and setting fire to her, made their escape without losing a man. This gallant act received ample acknowledgment from the Navy and the home governm.ent. In the first term of Mr. Jefferson the first exploration to the Pacific was organized, and sent out under the command of Captains Lewis and Clarke. They left the Mississippi the 14th of May, 1804. Mr. Jefferson was re-elected for a second term, but Mr. Burr, who had displeased the Democratic party, was not nominated by them, and George Clinton was elected Vice President. Burr, in anger, and feeling that he had lost the confidence of the people, resolved to cause a revolt in the regions southwest of the Mississippi. He had murdered Alexander Hamilton in a duel July 12, 1804, and was generally abhorred by all classes. The attempt of Burr against the Government failed. There were indications of a war with Spain, but it was providentially averted. The United States were continually irritated by the British claim to a right to search American vessels and take away any suspected deserters from their army or navy. An act of partial non-intercourse with England took effect November, 1806. In i8o7j the first steamboat was built by Robert Fulton, and the application of steam to navigation became a fact. The ominous war cloud that threatened the country grew heavy and dark. France and England 8oi] THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. 383 »ere at war, and they both were inflicting injury and insult upon our young ut thriving commerce. England still seized and searched American vessels, 5sued orders and decrees against commerce, proclaimed blockades on paper, nd was crippling the marine interests of the United States, in order to prevent them from reaping any benefit from the French carrying trade. Napoleon retaliated with like orders, decrees, and paper blockades, and between jhe upper and nether millstones of these two powers the commerce of America was being ground to pieces. The crisis came. Four seamen of the United States man-of-war, Chesapeake^ were claimed as deserters from the British ship, Melampus, and Commodore Barron of the Chesapeake refused to give them up. A little while after the Chesapeake was unexpectedly attacked by two English vessels, and was obliged to surrender the men. This aroused the nation, and Jefferson issued a proclamation in July, 1807, that all British ships should leave American waters. Great Britain continued in her unjust course, and a general embargo was placed upon all shipping, detaining all American and English vessels in any of the ports of the United States, and ordering all American vessels in other ports to return home, that their seamen might be trained for war. This embargo was the cause of great distress, and put American patriotism and firmness to a severe test. Ihis measure failed to accomplish the desired result, and was repealed three days before Jefferson retired from the office which he had held for eight years, and at the same time Congress passed a law forbidding any commercial intercourse with France and England so long as their unjust orders and edicts were in force. James Madison was elected President, and George Clinton. Vice President for the n^xt four years. \i'^.\ m ^iJi ^1 284 THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. [1809 THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. rHERE was no man in the unprejudiced judgment of the people of all classes better fitted to administer the government in this period of gloom and doubt than James Madison, who had been the Secretary of State under Jefferson. He made no change in his policy, and pressed the claims of the United States for a redress of grievances upon both England and France. The latter acceded to the rights of America, but still continued to deal in a covert and underhanded way, while England, in a more honorable but wicked way, persisted in her right to impress and search. There was an important question at issue between the United States and the foreign governments. It was the right of changing allegiance from one country to another. England held that a man born under her flag was forever an English subject, and although he might settle in any part of the world, he could claim the privileges of a British subject, and was bound by the obligation of citizenship to render service to the English flag. America on the other hand, claimed that a man had the right to choose the place of his citizenship, and could renounce his allegiance to the land of his birth, and become a citizen of any country he should choose to settle in. The Englishmen who had settled in America were regarded as American citizens and nothing else. She would defend the rights of her adopted sons, and maintain her position to all the nations of the world. England had a system of obtaining seamen for her navy by impressment ; that is, she would take men who were engaged in the merchant service and compel them to serve on her men-of-war. This was a species of slavery, and the men thus obtained would embrace the first opportunity to desert. These desertions became frequent, and the natural refuge in America was in most instances sought, and the protection of its flag obtained. Now it was very hard to distinguish between an English and an American sailor, and when the American ships were searched the English were not very exact as to nationality, provided they got a first class sailor. Thus things went on until 181 1, when the British sloop of war. Little Belt, was met ofT the Virginia coast by the American frigate, President, and was obliged to pull down her flag, after a severe fight, This same year an Indian revolt broke out which was evidently the result of English intrigue. All the frontier tribes were engaged in it, under a crafty, intrepid and unscrupulous chief, Tecumseh. It was suppressed by General William H. Harrison, who thus became the hero of Tippecanoe, in a severe engagement which routed the whole Indian force. The nation was now ready for war. England had an immense navy of nine hundred vessels with one hundred and forty-four thousand men, while America had twelve [i809 1817] THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. 285 vessels, which mustered about three hundred guns. It seemed the wildest folly to cope with " the mistress of the seas " at such a fearful odds, but th« rallying cry, " Free Trade and Sailors' Rights " was taken up from the Lakes to the Gulf, and war was formally declared June 19, 181 2. The people of the West and North were no less enthusiastic than on the seaboard. The only region where the Federalists, or peace party, was predominant was in New England. Congress at once voted an appropriation of fifteen million dollars for the army, and three millions for the navy, and authorized the President to enlist twenty-five thousand regulars and fifty thousand volunteers for the army, and call out one hundred thousand militia for the defense of the coast. THE SECOND WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. as this contest was rightly named, now began. Benjamin Franklin had before this said to a friend who hr^d called the Revolution the war of independence, " Not the war of independence, but the war for independence." And now the second act of the grand drama was to be presented to the world. There had been all along a suspicion that England had not relinquished her hope to regain the colonies she had lost. The constant intrigues with the Indians, the subtle arts of diplomacy, and her heavy armament in Canada pointed to this. The American nation was watchful and jealous, and now the whole force of her power was thrown to settle the question of nationality forever. Four days after the declaration of war, England had repealed her blockading decree, and there remained only the question of the right of search and expatriation. The British minister at Washington offered to peaceably settle the question at diflference, but his proposition was rejected. The first attempts in the war were signal failures. General Hull was sent to Canada with an army of invasion, but no sooner was he on Canada soil than he was obliged to surrender. He was put on trial before a court martial, on his return to the States, found guilty, and sentenced to be shot. But he had been a brave officer in the Revolution, and for his past services he was pardoned. His reputation was afterward vindicated, and the cloud removed from his fair name, but he retired to private life. The war had been long threatening, and in this time Canada was fortifying her strong points and preparing for a threatened invasion. The able generals of the Revolution were now either all dead, or too old for active service ; and the army was either under the command of men who had been inferior officers in their youth and were now old men, or of men who had seen but little service except with the Indians. A second invasion under Colonel Van Renssellaer was equally unsuccessful. The whole army of the Northwest had surrendered, and nothing was gained at that point. But on the sea, the American sailor had dared to measure strength with the British, and had been remarkably successful in every engagement during the first year of the war. In spite of the tremendous odds in the navies of the two countries, the American was 'l-ii ji !tt 286 THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. [1812 gaining victory after victory. The British ship, Guerriere, had been taken by the frigate, Constitution, August 19, 18 12. The Frolic had struck the English flag to the little Wasp October iSth. The Macedonian surrendered to the United States Ociober 25th, and the Java to the Constitution December 29th, all in the same year. This rekindled the national spirit, and made up for the defeat on the land. The country was justly elated by these successes, and sustained the administration by re-electing Mr. Madison to a second term. The second year of the war, and the first of Mr. Madison's second term, was signalized by a series of important victories by the Americans in Canada ; and the naval victory of Commodore Perry, on Lake Erie, by which the United States became masters of the Great Lakes. These were cheering to the Americans. At sea, England was doing her best to retrieve the severe blows she had received the year previous, and regain her injured prestige as " Monarch of the Seas." The loss she had met the autumn before, of five ships, was a heavy blow to her pride, and her statesmen regarded this humiliation as greater than the loss of so many battles. No other country, before this, had produced sailors equal to hers. Now she had met her first disasters from an inferior, and strenuous effort must be made to undo this disgrace. The British nation and navy felt this, and put forth their best endeavors to show their superiority. Two English ships came to Boston in the summer of 181 3, and Captain Broke sent a challenge to Captain Lawrence to come out and " try the fortunes of their respective flags." The English captain sent one of his ships away, and with the Shannon waited for the Chesapeake to come out. Captain Lawrence accepted the challenge, and went to his death. The fight lasted only fifteen minutes, but in that time the Chesapeake was dismantled, her commander killed, and her flag struck to the proud ensign of Britain. This was June ist, 18 13. This same Captain Lawrence, who exclaimed, " Don't give up the ship ! " with his latest breath, had in February before, taken the English frigate, Peacock, with the sloop Hornet. In August another disaster befell the American navy. It was the loss of the Argus, which had taken Mr. Crawford, the minister, to France, across the ocean, which was obliged to surrender to the Pelican. The tide of victory now turned, and the English ship Boxer struck her flag to the Enterprise, September 5th. The complete naval victory of Commodore Perry, on Lake Erie, in which he captured the whole English fleet of six vessels, followed. When the year closed, the balance seemed to be in favor of the Americans. On land, the war had been waged with varying fortunes. The English had talked of chastizing America into submission, and the instrument they sent was a squadron under the command of Admiral Cockburn, which scattered to different points on the Atlantic coast and burned, robbed and slaughtered, xvithout mercy. In April, they destroyed the town of Lewiston, on the Delaware ; in May, Frenchtown, Havre de Grace, Georgetown, and Frederickstown on the Chesapeake, and all along the southern coast committed their fearful work of depredation and pillage. Commodore Hardy was sent to the New England coast, but his conduct i8i5] THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. 287 everywhere was in strong contrast to that of Admiral Cockburn. He acted like a high-minded gentleman and generous enemy. He landed at Castine, Maine, and sent a land force up the Penobscot to capture the sloop of war Adams. The war was now carried on with renewed vigor by the United States and men and money were furnished without stint. The Americans were gaining victories and matters were progressing. Then came an act which was most reprehensible and unusual in the annals of civilized warfare, for which the home government of England was solely responsible. The war with Napoleon had ended at the battle of Waterloo, and the veterans of Wellington were sent to America. The city of Washington was taken by them, and acting under orders the people were commanded to pay a large sum or have the public buildings burned. They refused to pay and the Capitol, Post Office building. President's mansion and other buildings were plundered and burned. The navy yard and some ships in process of building were burned by the Americans themselves. The bridge across the Potomac was destroyed, and then the British vandals withdrew to the coast. The war was scattered over a wide theater and . the Americans were gaining victories here and there. Commodore Macdonough had gained a complete success over the whole English fleet on Lake Champlain, and the British sailor found his match on the ocean in his Anglo-American kinsman. Both sides were becoming weary of a devastating war and already there were negotiations for peace. The treaty was signed in December, 18 14, and sent to America, but before it had arrived or was known one of the most remarkable battles of history had been fought and won. This deserves record and we will here give a short account of it. THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. If there had been a submarine telegraph in 18 15 the battle of New Orleans would never have been fought, and much English blood would have been saved. The treaty was signed December 24th, 18 14, and it was seven weeks before the news came to the southern portions of America. New Orleans was then a town of twenty thousand inhabitants and, as now, the center of a large cotton trade. The English Commander, General Packen- ham, saw that it was an important point and decided to attack it. He had the best English troops fresh from their victories in Europe. Andrew Jackson, now a Major-General in the army, arrived at New Orleans December 2d, and, declaring martial law, soon restored confidence. He fortified the city, and when the British squadron, bearing twelve thousand soldiers, made their appearance he was ready to give them a good reception. On the 23d of December he met the advance guard of the army, twenty four hundred and routed them at a place about nine miles from the city, then he returned to a stronger position. He built a line of breastworks of cotton bales and earth to defend New Orleans, and awaited the attack that was madf ' ill 'T ;i ;¥«lJii:.J' J, i it in ' 288 THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. [1815 Januii*/ 5th, 181 5. These defenses were four miles from the city, and guarded the advance. General Packenham advanced with his entire army, urjer the best military discipline in the world, numbering twelve thousand. Jackson had less than six thousand men and the most of them were militta, but all had become good marksmen in the western woods. All was silent as the grave while the British advanced in solid column to carry the works. " Trust in God and keep your powder dry" had been Jackson's advice in the swamps of Florida, and now his men were putting it in practice. Steadily the attacking army advanced and not a shot was fired until they were half a gun-shot distant, and then a terrific fire, every shot of which did good execution, burst upon the assailants. The British column wavered, their general was killed and they fled in confusion leaving seven hundred dead and more than a thousand wounded on the field. The fugitives hastened to their camp and ten days after sailed from the mouth of the Mississippi. This battle saved the whole South from invasion and rapine which would have followed before the news of peace was received. Thus the war closed, and both countries could point with pride to the heroic courage that had been displayed on land and sea, and deck their brave defenders with the medals of honor. The president issued his proclamation that peace was declared, February i8th, 181 5, and the people united in celebrating the return of quiet all over the country. Business had become prostrated, the ships were rotting idly at the docks and industry was at a stand-still. The echoes of the shouts of rejoicing had not died on the air before the ring of the woodman's axe was heard in the forest of the settler, and the sound of the carpenter in the deserted shipyards. Commerce revived and industry lifted up its head. The Americans had the wonderful powci of rapid recuperation from disaster. The treaty was not all that America could ask, but she had asserted her claim and maintained her rights. Never afterward was a sailor taken from an American ship as an English deserter ; sailors' rights were maintained, and the flag of the United States respected as never before. The Americans had lost thirty thousand lives, and one hundred millions of treasure, while England had suffered much heavier. The war had been a gigantic piece of folly and crime such as we trust no future generation will re-enact. During Mr. Madison's term and after the peace with England, the Algerian pirates thinking that the power of the United States on the sea had been broken, began their depredations again and were violating their treaty. Commodore Decatur was sent to punish them and forever put a stop to their infamous trafllic. He bombarded Tripoli and the capitals of the several Barbary States which were subject to Turkey, brought their rulers to terms and compelled each State to re-imburse the United States for the losses caused to American shipping, and free all the American and English slaves held by them. This put an end to the infamy for all time. The only remaining events worthy of notice during the remainder of this Presidential term, were the admission of Indiana into the Union I8i7] THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. 289 December, 18 16, and the chartering of a United States Bank with a capital of thirty-five million dollars. The new election resulted in the choice of James Monroe as President and Daniel D. Tompkins as Vice President. THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MONROE. 'HE fifth President of the American Republic had been the Secretary of State under his predecessor. His administration was distinguished by the rapid growth in material wealth and population, and the expansion of all the resources of the Republic. The manufactories of the United States, which had kept busy during the war, suffered from the influx of foreign goods, and were obliged to contract their work. This compelled many who had been engaged in them to seek new homes in the fertile lands beyond the Alleghanies and Ohio, and a steady and uninterrupted flood of emigration flowed in from the seaboard. New States and Territories were formed and the natural resources of the country were being developed at a most rapid rate. Mississippi was admitted into the Union December loth, 1817; Illinois December 3d, 181 8; Alabama December 14th, 1819; Maine March 3d, 1820; Missouri March 2d, 1821. The buccaneering pirates that infested the Gulf of Mexico were surprised and put down. Florida was bought of Spain for seven millions by a treaty signed at Washington, February, 18 19. It was an era of general prosperity and growth. But the continued presence of slavery was a menace to the Union, and in 1821 the measure known as the Missouri Com- promise was passed through Congress, and Missouri was admitted as a slave State. The temporary excitement abated, and the re-election of Mr. Monroe and his associate, was the most formal and quiet affair ever known in American politics. His administration had made itself popular by two measures which had been passed. The first was the pensioning of all the surviving soldiers of the Revolution, their dependent widows and orphans, and the second, the settlement of the boundary line from the Lake o/* the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. The visit of Lafayette, the friend and companion of Washington, to this country, in which he was the nation's guest and received ovations in every town and city through which he passed, occurred in 1824-5. He was every- where greeted with the wildest enthusiasm and met men who had served under him in the war. He saw the wonderful improvement on all sides, and towns, counties, streets and public institutions on every hand had been called after him. When he was ready to return, the government placed at his ■.l!"li|'^pi!,> ■im m J ^m m » 1 f! 290 THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. [1817 service a vessel, named after the battle in. which he first fought in the Revolution — the Brandywine. LAFAYETTE. THE FRIEND OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND AMERICAN FREEDOM ! The Marquis de Lafayette was born in 1757, and was one of the most extraor- dinary and influential men of his time. He was, in the fullest sense, a member of the French aristocracy, and a gentleman of fortune. His precocity may be inferred from the fact, that at the age of fourteen he displayed marked literary ability, and wrote with great fluency. When but six- teen he married ; and three years afterward, moved by a love of liberty, on hearing of the struggle in which the American Colonies were engaged, he resolved to leave wife, home and kindred, and draw his sword on the side of the oppressed. Here was a sacrifice at the shrine of human freedom ! — Young, noble, wealthy, the friend of princes, and the beloved of an adored and beautiful wife, he separated himself from all, and the advantages pertaining to his rank, to share the dangers and the fate of the brave handful of half-starved, half- naked patriots, who dared to stand up for the right in the face of one of the most powerful nations in the world. His freedom of action in this relation, however^ was embarrassed, inasmuch as the king, who objected to his leaving France, ordered his arrest so as to prevent him carrying out his noble project. But here the French monarch was powerless, for the object of this persecution, having fitted out a ship at his own expense, escaped to it in disguise after untold privations, and after having once been recognized by a young girl who found him asleep on some straw, but who never once thought of betraying him. He had heard of the loss of New York and New Jersey to the Americans, but this only served to increase his desire to hasten to the relief of the latter. And so, although pursued by two French cruisers, and menaced by the English men of war on the coast, he escaped all dangers and landed safely on the shores of South Carolina. Here everything was novel and delightful to him, as he observed in a letter to his wife shortly after his arrival, and here V "^on met Washington, for whom he formed an instant and abiding ' ^ship, so impressed was he with the true nobility and commanding virtues of that great and mighty man. When Lafayette first saw the poorly armed, ragged and half-fed forces of America in line before him at Philadelphia, nothing could exceed his surprise. 1825] THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. 291 But with a penetration beyond his years, he perceived in this stern, self, sacrificing and dogged array, all the elements of future success ; and this conviction often seemed to impart strength and hope to any whose spirits tended to droop beneath the weight of the reverses and great privations that pressed upon them. Washington also soon began to discover the true metal in the young Frenchman of nineteen, whose sword invariably leaped from its sheath at the word of command. Hence, when but twenty, he was made a Major-General. Lafayette's sufferings in our cause were severe, and his labors terrible. He was wounded at Brandywine, and lay for six weeks at Bethlehem, when, although scarcely able to move, he wrote letters constantly to France imploring its statesmen to attack England in India and the West Indies. Before his wounds were healed he rejoined the army. He performed in wiiiier a journey on horseback of four hundred miles to Albany ; he commanded at Rhode Island ; fought like a lion, and bore all the hardships and privations of war. After this he was seized with a violent fever, and seemed for weeks at the point of death. On his recovery he set sail for his native land, from Boston, in 1780. On returning to France, he was received with open arms by all the young nobles of liberal views, while the King pardoned him and sent him back to America with a promise of ships, money, clothes and men. Once again he rejoined Washington, who soon trusted him beyond all others. He now commanded in Virginia with skill and bravery against Cornwallis, and with his illustrious chief planned the campaign which resulted in the taking of Yorktown and the close of a long and painful war. After the surrender of Cornwallis, Lafayette returned to France once more, when the Revolution, prompted by the ideas and the success of the Americans, began to move in its tortuous grooves. He was now the favorite of the people, and was all powerful in the land, but in the shadow of his path crept the Marats, Dantons and Robespierres of the hour, while the armies of Europe lay in front of him, ready to crush his republican projects. He was overpowered and constrained to fly from France and seek shelter on foreign soil ; but instead of shelter, in a friendly sense, he found himself immured within the gloomy walls of Olmutz, where he remained for five years. For more than half that period he was cut off from all communication with the world ; and could not even learn whether his wife and children were still alive. At length his wife, who had barely escaped from the guillotine, joined him with her two daughters, and shared his imprisonment — their son having been sent to America to the care of Washington. Nor was it until the armies of France, under Napolean, began to shake Europe that they were released. He now became a leader in every move pertaining to the advancement of liberal government, and cultivated a large farm at La Grange, near Paris, On hearing of the death of Washington he wept bitterly; and in 1824-25, after an absence of forty years, he again visited America, but this time with his son. His reception was magnificent beyond measure — the gratitude of a itilaiill^BM ,1 '■' 1 l«|; ' I -.t::;! i m m PEMOD OF AGITAIN AND THE DARK CHAPTER IN AMERICAN HISTORY. E have brought our readers down the line of events to the time the twelfth President was about to take his seat of office. We have seen the continent redeemed from its savage inhabitants and settled with an active, energetic population of freemen who had acquired their independence, subdued the wilderness, devel- oped its resources, spread their white-winged com- merce on every sea, explored their own territory and made discov- eries in other parts of the world, driven the pirates from their own borders and humbled the pirates in the Mediterranean, compelled the respect due their flag from other nations and established their widest boundaries by peaceful diplomacy or glorious war. They had grown from thirteen States to thirty and their domain now stretched in one broad belt from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the lakes to the gulf, with no nation to challenge their right. They were prosperous at home and respected abroad. The industry, intelligence and enterprise of her citizens are unparalleled, and their inventions, discoveries and mechanical arts were astonishing to the inhabitants of the old world. The inventors and discoverers of the United States had revolutionized the commerce, the manufactures and the travel of the past. The steamboat, the electric telegraph, the cotton gin and the inventions in every department of trade had startled the inhabitants of Europe from their dream of centuries. But in spite of the growth in material strength, in national domain and wealth there was a dark blot upon the country, and the agitation and strife which it was continually causing, gave reasons for constant alarm to our wisest and best statesmen. How to deal with this dark subject was a serious question to the moralist, the patriot and the philanthropist. That question was the fearful presence of American slavery and its insatiate demand for more territory. To go back to the beginning : England had forced the African slave trade upon the unwilling colonists, and her Parliament had watched with fostering care this hideous traffic. In the first half of the eighteenth century there was constant legislation in its favor, and every restraint upon its largest development was removed with solicitous regard. Twenty negro slaves were sold to the planters of Virginia in the same year the pilgrims landed at Plymouth, 1620, and these were the first brought into America. In December, 1671, Sir John Yeamans, Governor of South Carolina, brought two hundred black slaves with him from the West Indies. In 1641, the blacks were recognized in law as slaves by Massachusetts. In Connecticut i85o] THE PERIOD OF AGllATION. 303 and Rhode Island in 1650; in New York in 1656; in Maryland in 1663, and in New Jersey in 1665, There were some slaves in Pennsylvania and Delaware about 1690. In North and South Carolina, they were introduced at the time of settlement. In Georgia the use of slaves was prohibited by law but the planters evaded the Iaw by hiring servants for one hundred years, paying their owners in the other colonies the value of such slaves. In New Hampshire the slaves came with the settlers from Massachusetts. So we see that slavery could be found, under the sahction of law, in every one of the original thirteen States, at the opening of the eighteenth century. The British government seemed determined to encourage the importa- tion of slaves into the West Indies and American Colonies by every means in her power. The Colonies sought to check the increase by imposing a tax on slaves brought into chcm, but Parliament compelled its repeal. A hundred acres of land in the West Indies was given to every planter who would keep four slaves. Forts were built and manned on the African coast to protect the men who were engaged in this trafific. The most humiliating chapter in the history of England was in regard to this subject. As late as the year 1749, the English Parliament passed an act bestowing still greater encouragement upon the trafific, in which it was stated : " The slave-trade is very advantageous to Great Britain." The moral sense of New England was opposed to slavery and very early the idea became prevalent there that it was unscriptural to hold a baptized persoji in slavery. They did not however liberate their slaves, but withheld religious instruction from them. The Bishops of the church and the officers of the crown endeavored to put them right on this question, and the Colonial Assemblies passed laws to reassure the people that it was right to hold Christians in slavery. Before the Revolution three hundred thousand slaves had been brought into the Colonies from Africa, and at that time there were half a million slaves scattered over the country. These were in every Colony, although there were but thirty thousand in the North. The children of the Puritans owned Indians, and in due time came to hold Africans, but the soil was hard and sterile and required that the tiller should be a person of thought and intelligence. All kinds of labor demanded brain as well as physical force and for this reason slave labor in the North was never remunerative, and gradually the slaves all died out or were shipped South. The moral senti- ment as well as the conditions of the soil and climate of the North wa;; opposed to the whole system of human servitude. There were different conditions in the fertile and sunny South. The climate was congenial to the African and the soil was productive to the extreme of luxuriance. The crops were such as the unskilled labor of the slave could produce with profit to his master, tobacco, cotton and rice. The land in the South was divided into large plantations and the cities were mostly engaged in the export of their staple products. Yet for all this, at the time of the Revolution there was a very wide spread opposition to the t; irw'f ill': : !J ! ■ ■ ■■ I •"■■n : ■ ■ ! '■!' ■ ( *■ I ''^ [I I 1 1 mm ■ 304 THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. [1620 institution of slavery. The free spirit which influenced the patriots was antagonistic to the whole idea of human bondage. The leaders of the conflict were many of them slaveholders but they rega'-ded the institution as odious and wrong. Washington provided in his will for the freedom of his slaves. Hamilton was the member of a society which aimed at the gradual abolition of the whole system. John Adams was deadly opposed to it. Patrick Henry, Franklin, Madison and Monroe, were outspoken against it. Jefferson, the man who wrote the first draft of the Constitution, himself a Virginian, said of it, ** I tremble for my country when I remember that God is just." When the convention that met to frame the Constitution assembled in Philadelphia, the feeling was strong against slavery, and had the majority followed their own conviction of right, a provision would have been incorporated for its gradual and final extinction. But the desire to frame a document that would be acceptable to all the States led to a tender treatment of the subject, and finally to one of these unholy compromises which has marked the whole course of legislation upon the subject for more than eighty years, and in time resulted in the most cruel and bloody internal war which has ever come to any nation. It was proposed to prohibit the importation of slaves at once, and all the Northern and most of the Southern members were in favor of it. But the delegates of South Carolina and Georgia threatened to withdraw from the convention if this was done ; and instead, it was provided that Congress might abolish the traffic after twenty years if she saw fit. Using the same threat of disunion, the slave States of the extreme South gained other concessions of great importance. First, that if a person escaped from a slave State to a free State that did not make him free ; and second that in the apportionment for representatives to Congress the population of white citizens should be taken and to this should be added three fifths of all other persons excluding Indians not taxed. While the words slave and slavery are not to be found in the Constitution, by these unrighteous concessions to the extreme slave States, the vile institution was intrenched within the organic law of the land and the first and most important victory was gained for the monstrous evil. Even in the South there was a strong public sentiment against the wrong. Slave owners acknowledged its evil and freely discussed it. The pulpit preached against it, and men prophesied its extinction, and the meanest black might hope that the time would come when the words of the Declaration of Independence would apply to him. The accession of the vast domain of Louisiana from France, opened up a mighty region to the profitable cultivation of sugar cane and cotton by slave labor. The growth of cotton was becoming a matter of great importance. The invention of the spinning jenny by Richard Arkwright in England, in 1768, followed by the introduction of steam power by James Watts had created an extensive demand for cotton, which Great Britain could only find in sufficient quantity and proper quality in the Southern States of the i850] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 30s American Union. Eli Whitney, a New England farmer's son, was a born mechanic. In 1792, he was on a visit to the home of Mrs. Greene, in the State of Georgia, and heard of the trouble which surrounded the cotton planters in separating the fibers of the cotton from the seed, and the wish that some device would be invented to overcome this. Young Whitney set his inventive genius at work to construct a machine for this purpose, and after much study, many improvements, and oft repeated failures, finally invented the cotton gin. The planters of Georgia saw in the rudely constructed machine exhibited to them in the back room of Mrs. Greene's residence the possibilities of untold wealth for them, and heeded it as a sign of their deliverance from this trouble. The cotton gin made the growing of cotton vastly more remunerative than ever before. But the South treated the brain work of the " Yankee mudsill " the same as they did the toil of the poor African. They stole it without paying for it, and the inventor of the instrument which gave the cotton growing States their supremacy in the markets of the world, and brought a constant flow of wealth to their doors, died a poor man. To return from this digression. Ten years after Whitney's cotton gin had been invented, Louisiana was added to the United States, and there was a great demand for slaves. The northern tier of slave States began to grow slaves for the southern market. Human beings were bred and used like cattle to be sold. Great God ! how could such things be in a country that boasted of freedom, and claimed to be a beacon to the oppressed in all nations? John C. Calhoun, for eight years Vice President of the United States, was the leader and apostle of the slave holders. He was a South Carolinian of great force and eloquence. He taught the people that slavery was good for the black. It was a civilizing and benign institution, which gave the slave a greater measure of intelligence than he could attain in freedom, and surrounded him with Christianizing influences which he never would have had in his native land. The inference was easily drawn that it was a Providential design for the advancement of both races. Hence opposition to this heaven-appointed institution was profane, and abolitionism was only a species of infidelity running rank in the North. This Calhoun taught ; and the people were eager to catch upon an excuse for their pet institution. Calhoun's last utterance in Congress was to the effect that the opposition to slavery would result in the destruction of the Union, and his latest conversation was upon the all-absorbing topic. The people of the South were taught from pulpit and press, from the rostrum, and in the schools, that it was a divine institution, ordained of Heaven, and they were willing enough to believe it. Laws were passed which were extremely barbarous. The slave was regarded not as a person, but a thing. He had no rights. The most holy ordinance of marriage, was set aside at the will of the master. Parents had no claim on the offspring of their own bodies. The child followed the condition of its mother no matter what that of the father might be. It was a statutory offense to teach a slave to read. The life of the slave was in the hand of his master, and a slave who would not submit to m . I'J^ m ■\ 1 1 ii 306 THE PERIOD OF AGITATION, [1620 a flogging by his master's order, might be shot. If a white man killed a slave, not his own, he could settle with the master of the slave, by paying his value. If a slave killed a white man, he might be shot without trial. No black, bond or free, could give testimony in court. There was a very slender show of protecting the right of the slave. The practice of the slave owners was not better than their laws. Families were separated ; husbands from wives ; and children from parents. And the men and women were compelled to pair as often, and with whom their masters wished. The hunting of fugitive slaves became a business in which trained bloodhounds were used, and the owners of the slaves paying for those returned. Discussions against slavery were not permitted in the slave States ; and no papers, pamphlets, or books opposing the institution were allowed to find sale or to pass through the mails. To such an extreme of madness had the defenders and upholders of the system gone that many northern men were subjected to the most cruel indignities, and even in numerous instances to death. Shipmasters from northern ports were obliged to submit to seizure and search — the very thing for which the country had gone to war with England in 1812. Mobs were raised and the North denounced. We do not wish to tear open the old wounds, but are writing sober history which is proven by the records of the past. There were good masters and Christian principles taught in many instances. The blacks under such conditions were contented and happy, but the death of their owner and the settlement of his estate might change all this in a day. The whole system was evil, and the stifled conscience of the enlightened people knew it to be so. When the State of Louisiana was admitted into the Union, in 1812, the vast northern part of the purchase from France was left in a territory without inhabitants. This was rich in natural resources. Iron, copper and coal enough to supply the earth, lay beneath its surface. Large rivers flowed in natural highways to the seas. The climate was genial and mild. Gradually settlers came flocking thither. The slave-holder with his human chattels was the first in the field, and the free settler turned aside to the northwest, from which slavery had been excluded by the act of the Continental Congress. So Missouri became a slave State. In 18 18, there were sixty thousand persons in the Territory of Missouri, and she was knocking at the doors of Congress for admission. The slave States of Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi, had been admitted before this without any controversy, but now the slave power was becoming too aggressive and reaching far to the north. The first great contest between the North and the South was fought over this question. For more than two years the conflict waged, and after a desperate fight in the Halls of Congress and before the people, resulted in the compromise measure. There had been heated debates which had agitated the whole country from Maine to Louisiana. The compromise was that slavery should be allowed in all States south of 36 degrees, 30 minutes north latitude, and excluded from all States and territories north of that latitude. i85o] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 307 man killed a e, by paying without trial. 2 was a very e of the slave ed ; husbands women were wished. The [ bloodhounds lose returned, states ; and no ed to find sale dness had the hern men were lus instances to bmit to seizure e to war with i. t writing sober re good masters cks under such owner and the le whole system knew it to be on, in 1812, the erritory without and coal enough Dwed in natural radually settlers tels was the first est, from which Congress. So housand persons oors of Congress Alabama, and roversy,but now ar to the north, fought over this Lfter a desperate resulted in the ich had agitated tromise was that 30 minutes north of that latitude. This conflict ended with a decided victory for the slave power. The cotton gin, the admission of Louisiana, and the teaching of Calhoun, had all had their effect in making the South a unit, and the slave power very strong in the nation. The institution required more territory for its expansion. And the policy never changed. The agitation which had begun would rage over the country for fifty years, and find its solution only when the institution lay in ruins at the fall of a gigantic struggle inaugurated to uphold it by an attempted dissolution of the Union. Indeed this was the threat all through the controversy that had led to the compromises which were always in favor of the slave power. The active hostility of the North against slavery, began to grow in the time of John Quincy Adams (1825-1829). General Andrew Jackson was President from 1829 to 1837 ; during a part of the same time, John C. Calhoun was Vice President. This question was the overshadowing one for this period. The South found a faithful ally in a certain class at the North. People in the North participated in gains from the slave trade in the South. The planter borrowed money in the North, and sold his cotton to the Northern manufacturer, and Northern ships were engaged in the cotton conveying trade. They were coining money out of the peculiar institution and no scruples of conscience about it. There was a wide spread opinion that the slave of the South was in better condition than the poorly paid laborer of Europe ; and that was all that could be asked. It was claimed that cotton could not be grown without slave labor. And thus the institution, intrenched in the constitution, became united in the South, and had its friends in the North. There seemed no hope for the poor black now, and the South began to rule in Congress with the same spirit that was displayed on the plantation. But there was an influence at work in the free States, at first weak and insignificant, but like the leaven hidden in the three measures of meal, affecting the whole mass. On the first day of January 1831, there appeared in Boston the first number of a paper, called the " Emancipator," published by a journeyman printer, William Lloyd Garrison. It was devoted to the abolition of slavery. It was an insignificant opening for a noble enterprise, which found its consummation in the necessity of a civil war that threatened the very existence of the Republic. But every word spoken or written upon the subject found some willing hearer or ready reader, and gradually the influence reached the pulpit, the political caucus, and the Halls of Congress. An abolition society was formed at first composed of twelve members. In three years the^e were two hundred such organized, and in seven years increased to over two thousand anti-slavery societies. The contest began in earnest. The conflict was long and fiercely waged. The question of the tarif! had its northern and southern side, and when the nullifiers of South Carolina, in 1833 and '34, resisted the government, it was in the interest of their cherished institution, and in every measure that came before the National Congress the decision turned upon its aspect to the } Mi -mr i II i tm 'If 111 'v^k ii 4 h 1 t^ I <■■■ -1 i 11 h J K) ^H 1 j; M ilsB' I^H 'i % ^'H^'Ip ll IH '^% iHi 11 1 308 THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. fl620 same question. There is another side to the annexation of Texas into the Union than the one we have presented. Texas was a large uninhabited tract on the southwest border of the country, and the South looked upon it as a desirable region for the spread of slavery. The climate was genial and the soil rich. It was of uncertain ownership, and after some negotiation it was recognized as belonging to Mexico. The United States offered to purchase it but Mexico refused to sell it. General Samuel Houston, of Virginia, with a number of adventurers from the southwest went to Texas and started a revolution, proclaimed a provisional government, and declared it independent. It was wanted for a slave State and Mexico had abolished slavery. Now the liberties of the new State must be defended with the sword, and General .^ :muel Houston with four hundred men imperfectly armed and equipped, at once became a patriot. Santa Anna had an army of five thousand men, and the Texans retreated. At San Jacinto Houston found two field pieces and turned like a lion upon his pursuer. He then followed and fell upon the unsuspecting Santa Anna as he was crossing the river, and poured grape and canister into his ranks. The Mexicans fled in hopeless rout, and Texas was a free State. The grateful Texans made Houston President of the Republic which he had thus saved. The independence of Texas, as we have said was acknowledged by the United States, Great Britain, France, and some other European countries, but Mexico still claimed the territory. A fierce debate arose in Congress, and the first proposal from Texas to enter the Union was rejected. The conflict became bitter. If Texas was admitted she would come as a slave State ; on this ground the North opposed it, and the South favored it. Daniel Webster said, " We all see that Texas will be a slave-holding State, and I frankly avow my unwillingness to do anything which shall extend the slavery of the African race on this continent, or add another slave-holding State to the Union." The Legislature of Mississippi said in resolutions on the subject, " The South does not possess a blessing with which the affections of her people are so closely entwined, and whose value is more highly appreciated. By the annexation of Texas, an equipoise of influence in the Halls of Congress will be secured which will furnish us a permanent guarantee of protection." Such was the plain statement of the question from both sides. The matter went to the people and resulted in a victory for the South. Texas was admitted, two votes for slavery were gained in the Senate, and unlimited room for the expansion of the darling institution. But the victory cost a war with a sister Republic, in which might was arrayed against right, and the United States won the questionable glory of conquering a weaker power and dismembering her territory to a vast extent. In this Mexican war we find the names of many men who won their first military honors in the "country under the sun," and afterwards took a conspicuous place in history. Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant took part in this war ; but never met face to face until many years after, when they had a conference under an historic apple tree, on the Appomatox River, in Virginia, to arrange for the surrender of a brave but conquered army. General Franklin i850] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 309 nto the ;d tract 1 it as a and the I it was }urchase kia, with itarted a pendent. Now the 1 General ipped, at nen, and ieces and ipon the [rape and icas was a RepubUc said was >me other ce debate Jnion was puld come ' favored ing State, xtend the ve-holding utions on affections ire highly nee in the guarantee rom both the South. lenate, and the victory linst right, a weaker exican war \OTS in the place in i war; but conference irginia, to •al Franklin Pierce, and General Zachary Taylor were also in the Mexican war, and became Presidents of the United States. There was a strong opposition to this war and in the North the public opinion was instantly aroused in regard to the demands of the arrogant slave power. A young lawyer from Illinois, serving his first term in Congress, made a most stirring speech against it. He was Abraham Lincoln, who was destined to occupy a position next to Washington in the hearts of his countrymen. Thus far in the conflict of agitation and argument the South had gained at every move and in their delirium of madness considered them- selves safe to demand that their institution should be considered a national one. But there came other agencies into the field and the very war which had been waged in Mexico became under Providence the means of checking.; their supremacy and putting an end to the acquirement of any moru slave States. Of the original thirteen States, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, were slave-holding. Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, P^lorida, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, and Texas had been added to their number. But now there was to be a halt and the voice of Providence seemed to say " thus far shalt thou come and no further, and here shall thy proud waters be stayed." The discovery of gold, and the rapid increase of population in California made up of men who came to carve out their fortunes, was unfavorable to the introduction of slavery and the people formed their Constitution and asked admission as a free State. This was a grcivous disappointment to the slave States which had been so enthusiastic in pressing on the Mexican war, for the sake of gaining new States and new votes in the United States Senate, and a large area for the spread of slavery. The people from the North had flocked to the Pacific Coast and quickly decided the fate of the first State formed on that coast. But we will now resume the line of general history at the end of Mr. Polk's administration. General Zachary Taylor, who had been conspicuous for his bravery and patriotism in the war with Mexico was elected to th(.' Presidency by a large majority, as we have said. m :i^i' 310 THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. [1849 ADMINISTRATION OF ZACHARY TAYLOR. iHE twelfth President of the United States was inaugu- rated March 5th, 1849— the 4*^, being Sunday— and from the start had the sympathies and best wishes of a large majority of the people. The administratiijn of the newly inaugurated incumbent promised to be one of unusual happiness and prosperity. The Constitution framed by the delegates of California at Monterey, was adopted by the convention on the first day of September, 1849. The birth and formation of a crude State had been so sudden as to surprise the country, having been only twenty months from the time of the discovery of gold. Edward Gilbert, and G. H. Wright, were sent as dele- gates to Congress and John C. Fremont, and William M. Gunn, were elected Senators and appeared at Washington with the State Constitution in their hands, and presented a petition asking to be received as a free and independent State. Then there came a severe struggle in the two Houses of Congress over the anti-slavery clause, and the excitement ran high all over the country, The old and oft-repeated threat of disunion was raised and again another compromise was effected in which the victory was on the side of the South. Henry Clay appeared as a peacemaker and implored the people to make any sacrifice but honor to preserve the Union. Daniel Webster warmly seconded the efforts of Mr. Clay and the compromise measure was passed September 9th, 1850. This is known as the Omnibus Bill and provided " for the admission of California as a free State ; second, the formation of the territory of Utah ; third, the formation of the territory of New Mexico, and ten million dollars be paid to Texas for her claim on this territory; fourth, the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia: fifth, the fugitive slave law." This last measure was extremely unpopular in the north. Its provisions were excessively obnoxious to the whole non slave-holding States, and raised a storm of opposition, evasion and violation, which led to serious disturbance and much bitter strife. In the midst of this excitement the President died, and was succeeded by the Vice President, Millard Fillmore, July 9th, 1850. In the brief administration of General Taylor, there had been a number of important events which affected the issues of the impending Civil War. One of these was the invasion of Cuba by General Lopez, a native of that island, who had come to the United States and raised, organized and equipped a force in violation of the neutrality laws. He landed in Cuba the 19th of April, 1850, expecting to find the Cubans ready to rise and make a strike for freedom from Spain. But in this he was disappointed, and returned to the States to raise a larger force. Of this we shall speak further on. The other event was the establishment of Mormonism in the region called Utah, a large tract of country midway [1 849 \YLOR. ites was inaugu- T Sunday — and best wishes of administraticiii promised to be e delegates of nvention on the I formation of a ise the country, of the discovery rere sent as dele- Villiam M. Gunn, lington with the ented a petition ent State. Then juses of Congress over the country, ind again another side of the South. [ people to make Webster warmly :asure was passed Bill and provided the formation of y of New Mexico, on this territory; : fifth, the fugitive in the north. Its ive-holding States, hich led to serious is excitement the Millard Fillmore, Taylor, there had the issues of the f Cuba by General United States and he neutrality laws. o find the Cubans [n. But in this he la larger force. Of the establishment ,f country midway 1853] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 311 between the Mississippi and the Pacific. The Mormons were a religious sect who had accepted the delusion of Joseph Smith in 1827, and had emigrated from the State of Illinois. They came across the plain and founded their settlement, after many hardships and trials, in the spot they called Deseret. They were fanatical in their notions, and had adopted a system of marriage which was antagonistic to the religious and moral sentiment of the whole country. They recognized the right and held to the practice of polygamy, or a plurality of wives. They spread their doctrines by means of missionaries over nil parts of the world and came in large numbers to Utah. They have long had sufificient population to form a State but up to this writing — 1882 — have been kept out of the Union on account of their peculiar in.stitution of polygamy. ADMINISTRATION OF MILLARD FILLMORE. 'HE compromise measure adopted as we have seen was the first measure of importance during his term of office. The cabinet of General Taylor resigned at the time of his death but the incoming President retained them in office, and zealously carried out the policy which had been inaugurated by his predecessor. The Fugitive Slave Law was supported by the executive power, and occasioned wide-spread dissatisfaction all over the non-slave-holding States. Before this time, while the slave owner could claim, and recapture his so-called property when found, he could not demand the aid of northern officials, or citizens in aiding him in the search ; but this law authorized him to employ the executive arm of the general government, in the search and delivery of his fugitive slaves, and any citizens could be called upon to assist in this, when a United States Marshal demanded it. This was at utter variance with the spirit of free institutions in the North, and the people of that section, and a large number in the South, were in favor of its repeal. This led to a fearful struggle on the part of both sides, to carry their points, and the final result was most disastrous to the nation. In the spring of 185 1, there were enacted the most salutary changes in the Post Office laws, and a great reduction in rates of postage. The electric telegraph became perfected, and thousands of miles of wire, were binding cities, countries and States. Thus instantaneous communication could be held between distant points. Fulton and Morse, by their discoveries, had annihilated time and space, and bound the distant States into a more solid union, than had ever been known before. In the summer of 1851, there was increased excitement over the proposed invasion of Cuba a second time under General Lopez. The illfi^j "-"■'' ■ i" 'V'' 3»2 THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. [1850 watchfulness of the government was awakened, and the United States' marshals were ordered to arrest any persons suspected of violating the neutrality laws. The steamer Cleopatra, was detained in New York harbor, and several respectable citizens were arrested for complicity in the matter. General Lopez made his escape from the authorities, with four hundred and eighty men, and landed on the northern coast of Cuba, August iith. He left Colonel N. L. Crittenden, of Kentucky, with one hundred men at that point, and went into the interior with the rest. Crittenden with his party was captured; taken to Havana, and shot on the i6th. Lopez was attacked on the 13th, and his band dispersed. He had been deceived in finding any of the natives ready to aid him. There were no indications of any uprising; and he was a fugitive. He, with six of his men, was arrested on the 28th, and on September ist, 1851, they were all shot. In the Fall of 185 1, there was more accession of territory for the United States. Many millions of acres of land, were purchased of the Sioux Indians and they were removed to the reservation appointed for them. The territory of Minnesota was organized, and emigration sofin filled it with a white population. The number of Representatives and Senators in Congress had increased so much since the war of 1812, that it now became necessary to enlarge the Capitol building in Washington, and the corner-stone was laid for a new wing July 4th, 185 1, by the President, with appropriate ceremonies. The expedition of Elisha Kent Kane, M.D., a surgeon in the United States Navy, started for the Arctic Ocean, in 1853, and resulted in many scientific discoveries which settled the fact of an open Polar Sea, but the object of the search, to find Sir John Franklin, was not accomplished. The visit of Louis Kossuth, an 'Hungarian patriot to this country during Mr. Fillmore's term of oflfice, was an occasion of much interest in awakening the sympathies of the people, but the government did not give him the material aid he sought. There was much ill feeling engendered between the United States, and England, growing out of the Newfoundland fishery question ; but it was settled in October, 1853, without any rupture. An event of great commercial interest, occurred the same year in the distant East. Commodore Perry,— a brother of the hero of Lake Erie,— made a treaty with the Government of Japan, in which it was agreed that part of that Empire should be opened to American commerce; the steamers from California to China, should be furnished with coal, and American sailors shipv/recked on the coast of Japan, should be hospitably treated by the natives. The relations between t\m United States and Spain, became involved, growing out of the Cuban matters, and for a time war was threatened. There was a feeling in Europe, that the United States wanted Cuba, to hold command of the entire Gulf of Mexico. England and France, asked that the United States enter into a treaty with them which should secure Cuba to Spain, and disavow, " now and forever hereafter, all intention to obtain i853] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 313 possession of the Island of Cuba." Edward Everett, Secretary of State, answered this demand in a logical, and unanswerable argument, which was praised for its power and patriotism, and the subject was dropped. The most important event at the close of President Fillmore's term was the organization of the Territory of Washington, from the northern half of Oregon. This became a law on March 2d, 1853, two days before the newly elected President, General Franklin Pierce, took his scat. William R. Kinj;, of Alabama, had been elected Vice President, but failing health prevented him from entering upon the office. ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE. »HE day that Mr. Pierce was inaugurated, March 4th, '853. there was a bitter storm of sleet and rain, the most severe that had ever been known in Washington, and augured a tempestuous administration. So it proved in the sequel. The first serious difficulty that arose was in regard to the boundary line between Mexico and the United States, and for a time war seemed inevitable. The Mexican army occupied the disputed territory, but the matter was amicably settled by peaceful negotiation, and friendly relations between the two republics have existed ever since. In the early part of this administration a large exploring expedition was sent to the Pacific coast of Asia, which was of great importance in view of the establishment of numerous steamship lines between the ports of Asia and the United States. The question of connecting the Atlantic and the Pacific coast with railways, was agitated in connection with this subject. Four explorations were sent out by government to survey as many routes : one from the head waters of the Mississippi to Paget Sound ; one from the same river to the Pacific along the thirty-sixth parallel of latitude ; one by way of the Great Salt Lake to San Francisco, — which line was completed in 1869; the fourth from the lower Mississippi to Southern California. The explorations were made, and a vast amount of scientific, geographical and natural information was gained. A world's fair of Industry and Mechanical Arts was opened in New York, in the spring of 1853 and modelled after a similar one held in Hyde Park, London, England, in 1851. This gave great encouragement to the manufacturers and mechanical arts in America, and showed the nations of Europe what strides the young republic was making in the march of improvement. The lull which precedes a deadly storm had fallen upon the country at the time Congress met, in December, 1853. There was an unprecedented calm in the political world, and the quiet of a settled peace 1 ;'' .■i'..! 11 V >\i 314 THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. [1853 rested upon the country, rippled only by a wave of troxible with Austria, which was soon settled. Important treaties with Mexico and the Central American States were in progress of settlement in regard to various inter-oceanic communications by railway or water. In the distant Pacific there was a kingdom whose inhabitants had become civilized, Christianized, and established in a govern- ment with a wide extent of commerce, in a single generation, namely, the Sandwich Islands. The king and his people desired to unite with the American States, and took steps to bring that about. France and England at once were jealous, and charged the whole scheme upon the American missionaries. The United States Minister and the missionaries denied that they had influenced the natives. The American government denied the right of foreign governments to interfere, and a treaty for the annexation of the Sandwich Islands was in preparation when King Kamehameha died, and his successor discontinued negotiations. These were afterward revived in 1866, by Queen Emma, when she returned from her visit to England. The slavery question which had been so quiet for a few years, suddenly presented itself just as Congress was sitting down to work on the important matters of commerce and internal improvement. Stephen Douglass, United States Senator from Illinois, introduced a bill which aroused the people to the most intense excitement, and broke in upon the harmony of Congress. In the very center of our continent there was a vast domain embracing one fourth of all the public land of the country. It extended from thirty-seventh parallel of north latitude to the British possessions, and was the most fertile and best watered portion of America. The bill of Mr. Douglass provided that this territory should be organized into two territories — Kansas and Nebraska — and contained a provision to repeal the compromise of 1820, and allow the people to decide whether or not slavery should be permitted. The thunder storm broke over the country in renewed fury, and violent discussion arose in the North and South. The bill was discussed in the Senate from January 30th to March 3d, 1854, and thousands of remonstrances poured in from all parts of the North, but it passed the Senate by the decided vote of thirty-seven to fourteen. In the House of Representatives it was shorn of its worst features by amendments, and the final defeat seemed almost certain. A bill for the construction of a railroad to the Pacific, was reported to the Senate. A Homestead Act, giving one hundred and sixty acres of land from the public domain to any white male citizen who would occupy and improve the same for five years, was introduced in the House of Representatives,, An amendment graduating the price of land was passed in its stead. Another victory for slavery. But the excitement quieted down till the 9th of May, when the Nebraska bill was called up again. At once the public pulse ran up to fever heat. The debate was fierce and intense ; the suspense of the people was fearful, but on the 22d of May, the bill as amended passed the House, was rushed to the Senate, adopted as amended, and signed by the President the last of May. Every barrier to the [1853 with Austria, States were in lunications by ngdom whose i in a govern- jn, namely, the mite with the e and England the American ;es denied that ent denied the the annexation nehameha died, :erward revived t to England. ' years, suddenly ,n the important Douglass, United :d the people to ony of Congress, n embracing one »m thirty-seventh the most fertile ouglass provided ries— Kansas and nise of 1820, and permitted. The violent discussion the Senate from ;rances poured in decided vote of 5 it was shorn of seemed almost the Pacific, was lundred and sixty itizen who would ed in the House land was passed :citement quieted lied up again. At e was fierce and fe 22d of May, the lenate, adopted as ery barrier to the «857] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 315 lawful spread of slavery over the public domain was now removed ; but the end was not yet. Another chapter in the controversy opens at once. Spain had a cause of grievance with the United States in regard to Cuba. The American steamship, Black Warrior, was seized in the port of Havana by the Cuban authorities. The Spanish government justified the act when the American Minister at Madrid asked for redress. But the Cubans became alarmed and offered to give up the ship by the owners paying a fine of six thousand dollars. The owners complied under protest. The matter was amicably adjusted between Spain and the United States. The slave power used the irritation caused by this incident as a pretext for a gigantic scheme of propagating slavery. In 1854 President Pierce appointed James Buchanan, then ambassador at London, James M. Mason, ambassador at Paris, and Mr. Soule ambassador at Madrid, as a commission to confer about the difificulties in Cuba, and to get possession of that island by purchase or otherwise. The Ostend Circular was issued by them, on the i8th of August, 1854, in which they said, "If Spain, actuated by pride and a stubborn sense of honor, should refuse to sell Cuba to the United States," then, " by every law, human and divine, wc shall be justified in wresting it from Spain, if we possess the power." This is the argument of the highway robber, and why it should not have been rebuked at Washington can only be understood in the coming light of future events. In the light of these events, we learn that the stupendous design embraced the plot of " the Golden Circle," which was to establish an empire with Havana as its center, embracing an area of sixteen degrees of latitude and 'ongitude, to take in the slave States, the West Indies, and a great part of Mexico and the Central American States. We find a little relief in turning from this subject for a moment to others. The boundary line between Mexico and the United States was established upon satisfactory terms, as we have already stated. The United States was to pay ten millions of dollars, and be released from all obligation imposed in the former treaty of 1848. Seven millions on the ratification of the treaty and three millions when the line was established. These conditions were faithfully carried out. An important reciprocity treaty was made with Great Britain, which was of great advantage to both parties, and removed to a considerable extent the restrictions on free trade, between the United States and Canada. Thq two governments agreed to the introduction of many articles, such as bread- stuff, coal, fish, and lumber, from one to the other, free of duty. England gave the United States the free use of the St. Lawrence, and the canals of the provinces, and in return, enjoyed the right of fishing, as far as the thirty-sixth degree of north latitude, and other privileges. This treaty continued until 1866. The attempt on the island of Cuba, had failed; but there was started ;■?•'( IMA .:.. '■■I. 3i6 THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. [»853 ili : at once an expedition to Central America to overcome a portion of the golden circle. This was organized by a warm personal friend of Jefferson Davis, Secretary of War, under the administration of Mr. Pierce. His name was William Walker, and he invaded the State of Nicaragua, on what is known as the Mosquito Coast, under the pretext that the British were attempting to take this coast, in violation of the principle of the " Monroe doctrine," many persons had emigrated hither from the Southwestern States. The guns of the United States Navy, had already awakened the echoes of these tropical forests. The Mosquito King, h* Id a large tract of land to two British subjects, and the emigrants led by Colonel H. L. Kenney, had settled there. The attention of our Minister to the State of Nicaragua, had been called to this matter, and our government could not wholly ignore the subject, but dealt with it so mildly as to leave the inference that the emigrants would not be molested by the United States. Captain William Walker, went to the aid of Colonel Kenney, and with his band attempted to capture the city of Rivas, but his attack was repulsed, and he escaped to the coast. Walker returned, with armed followers, in August, 1855, and in September the emigrants assumed the independence of Nicaragua. Walker, after gaining some victories, placed General Revas, in the Presidential chair, of the independent State of Mosquito, and drove Colonel Kenney away. He strengthened his military power, and was recognized by a British consul. The other States of Central America, became frightened at this display of audacity, and combined to drive Walker out of his position. Costa Rica, formally declared war against this new power, and Walker raised a strong band, and shamelessly proclaimed, that he was there by invitation of the liberal party of Nicaragua. The army of Costa Rica came to attack him, and he overcame them. Walker then became arrogant, forced a loan from the people, and after Revas had abdicated the Presidency, Walker was elected President, by two-thirds of the popular votes. He was inaugurated June 24th, and our government hastened to recognize the new nation. It was the opening chapter in the grand plot. He held his position for two years, and finally was obliged to surrender his army of two hundred men, and flee to New Orleans. He attempted to raise another expedition, and on the 25th of November, landed at Puntas Arenas, where he was captured by Commodore Pauling, of the United States Navy, and with two hundred and thirty-two men, was taken to New York. President Buchanan privately commended Commodore Pauling for the act, but for " prudential reasons" publicly censured him in a special message to Congress, January 7th, 1858. Walker was discharged, and preached a new crusade against Nicaragua, all through the Southern States, collecting money to aid him in a new invasion. He sailed from New Orleans, on a third expedition, but was arrested, and tried before the United States Court, for " leaving port without a clearance," but was acquitted. Then he went to Central America, recommenced hostilities, was taken, and shot at Truxillo by the natives. Thus ended another act in the civil strife which was raging. [1853 3rtion of the 1 of Jefferson :e. His name 1, on what is : British were the " Monroe western States, the echoes of ract of land to ,. Kenney, had Nicaragua, had loUy ignore the rence that the :aptain William band attempted md he escaped .ugust,i855, and .ragua. Walker, residential chair, inney away. He t British consul. It this display of ion. Costa Rica, r raised a strong invitation of the to attack him, Tced a loan from icy, Walker was was inaugurated new nation. It position for two .;o hundred men, r expedition, and he was captured ith two hundred luchanan privately udential reasons" anuary 7th, 1858. |nst Nicaragua, all in a new invasion, was arrested, and :hout a clearance," |ica, recommenced hus ended anothet 1857] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. i^7 In 1855, there was serious trouble with the Indians in Oregon, and Washington Territories, and the United States Army was sent to quell it, the aborigines overcame them, and a general massacre of white families followed. In the season of 1855-56, it seemed that the combination of Indians was so strong that the settlers would have to abandon the territories named, but General Wool, was sent to Oregon, to organize against the savages, and the trouble was settled the following summer. A slight war-cloud arose between Great Britain and the States, growing out of the enlistment of men in the United States for the Crimean war. This was done under the sanction of several British consuls in this country. After some diplomatic correspondence, the offending consuls were dismissed and the British Parliament disavowed any complicity in the matter. The remaining events in the administration of Franklin Pierce, are full of matter having immediate reference to the great struggle going on in the country between the advocates of the spread of slavery, and the advocates of free soil. The contest was most intense and bitter in Congress, and in the political canvass. Silently there were unseen and complicated moral forces at work, but none the less potent because unseen. A great party sprung into existence in the North, and found many adherents in the South. John C. Fremont of California, and William L. Dayton, were the candidates of this party for President and Vice President. This was the Republican party. Another organization throughout the country known as the American or Know-Nothing party, who were opposed to the foreign element in the national politics, nominated Ex-President Fillmore and A. J. Donaldson of Tenne.ssee, for the same offices. The Democratic party put James Buchanan and John C. Breckenridge, in nomination for the same. The political canvass of 1856, was the most exciting and antagonistic that the country had ever seen. The press, the pulpit and the rostrum, rang with the utterances of men who were alive to the questions of the hour. In every hamlet and village of the North, and most of the South, the party lines were distinctly drawn, and families, and neighborhoods were stirred with the agitation of the all absorbing subject. The day of the election came and the whole country waited in breathless anxiety for the returns. The election of James Buchanan for President and John C. Breckenridge for Vice President, was the result. 'm h' • II !r i*: ■ r M^: i I ■'■■i jiyj^^ iiijL J! 318 THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. [1853 THE STRUGGLE IN KANSAS. ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. jHE virtual repeal of the Missouri Compromise of 1820 led to a renewal of the contest between the two contending forces, and Kansas became the battle-ground of the decided opponents on the two sides. The people from the North began to pour into the new territory and it became apparent that they would largely outnumber the settlers from the slave States. The South was the first in the field and took possession of land in all parts. Missouri was near at hand and Kansas was easy of access, but the Southern people were not an emigrating class and their numbers came slowly. There were people enough to form a State in time, but the Northern settlers could outvote the Southern. The time for election was coming and some decisive steps must be taken. Large bodies of Missourians came in 1854, and when a delegate was chosen from the Territory out of twenty-nine hundred votes cast, seventeen hundred were by Missourians who had no legal right to vote there. These men from " over the border " were in tents and had artillery with them as if arrayed for battle. A legislature was illegally chosen to meet at Pawnee City, one hundred miles from the Missouri line. This body immediately adjourned to meet on the very borders of that State and proceeded to enact laws in favor of slavery. They were vetoed by the governor and passed over his veto. The actual settlers of the territory appointed a convention to meet at Topeka, October 19th. Governor Ruden was nominated for Delegate to Congress and at once elected by the legal voters. On the 23d of the same month a convention chosen by the actual citizens of Kansas adopted a Constitution providing that it should be a free State, and asked admission to the Union under this instrument. Governor Ruden and the pro-slavery delegate appeared at Washington as contestants for seats. In the meanwhile January 17th, 1855, an election was held and the state officers were chosen by the legal voters of the Territory. President Pierce, January 24th, sent a special message to Congress representing the action of the people in Kansas in forming a State government as a rebellion. Then there came a reign of terror for Kansas in which violence, blood- shed and fraud were rampant. The actual settlers resisted the efforts of their pro-slavery neighbors in forcing upon them a condition of things obnoxious to their sense of right and justice. Men were slain and driven out of their possessions for expressing anti-slavery sentiments and the [1853 of 1820 he two -ground ; people tory and tnumber ith was ill parts. : access, lass and lough to I outvote ind some ssourians from the seventeen t to vote i artillery chosen to ne. This lat State etoed by territory Governor acted by )n chosen ng that it nder this peared at , 1855, an al voters message forming a 1857] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 319 struggle seemed to be like the death grapple of giants. Finally a committee of investigation was sent from Congress, and a majority of them agreed in their report to sustain the acts of the legal voters and refuse the frauds by which Whitfield had been elected and the pro-slavery constitution passed. The member of the Committee from Missouri alone dissented from the report, and the mission failed to accomplish any result either way. Then came the election of Buchanan as fifteenth President of the United States. There had been an important case pending in the United States Supreme Court in which a decision had been reached before the election, but it was withheld from the public until the result of the popular vote should be known. It was the famous Dred Scott decision. Scott was a slave of a United States ofificer who had taken him into a free State and while there Scott had married the slave girl of another ofificer, both masters giving their consent. Two children had been born of this marriage on free soil. The master of Scott bought the wife of his slave, and brought the parents and their children to Missouri and held them all. Scott claimed his freedom on the ground of his involuntary service in a free State and the District Court had given him the case. It went to the Supreme Court of the State which reversed the decision. Then it came before the Supreme Court upon the question of jurisdiction solely. The Chief Justice of that court decided against Scott, and announced that no person " whose ancestors were imported into this country and sold as slaves " had any right to sue in the courts of the United States. The majority of the Court agreed with him. But after the election was decided they published their decision, and went beyond the question at issue to say that our Revolutionary fathers " for more than a century before " regarded the African race in America as " so far inferior, that they had no rights ivhich the white man was bound to respect" and they were never thought or spoken of except as property. President Buchanan in his inaugural address two days before this strange decision had been promulgated, referred to a mysterious something which would settle the slavery ques- tion " speedily and finally," and expressed the hope that thus the long agitation of this disturbing question was approaching its end ! But the end was not yet. Kansas was still a battle-ground and the contending parties had not given up the struggle. Peace was for a while restored, but the two forces were energetic and active. The question of a free or a slave State was not yet decided. The pro-slavery party had met in convention and framed a constitu- tion favorable to their side, at Lecompton, in September, 1857. It was submitted to the people in this way. They could vote " For the consti- tution with slavery " or " For the Constitution without slavery ; " in any case they must vote for this Constitution, which was "all one way," and that protected slavery until 1864. Of course the free soil men would not vote at all, and the pro-slavery Constitution was adopted by a large majority. „- ''■ i''' '■^Uii I;- ■■ ii.'-. H a '■ n IS 'iilL 320 THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. I1853 An election for the territorial legislature was held under assurance from Governor Walker that the people should not be molested, and although there were many frauds the anti-slavery party had a large majority. This legislature ordered that the Lecompton Constitution, should be sent to the people to vote " for " or " against " the measure as a whole. It was rejected by over ten thousand majority. But in spite of this the President sent the Lecompton Constitution to the Senate, February 2d, 1858, by whom it was once passed. The House of Representatives amended the bill by referring it again to the people of Kansas for acceptance or rejection. It was again rejected by over ten thousand majority, and finally Kansas was received into the Union as a free State. In the year 1862 the opinion of the Supreme Court was practically rejected as unsound by granting a black citizen a passport to travel in foreign countries. Such were some of the skirmishes which preceded the war of 1861-65. The " Southern Commercial Convention " convened at Vicksburg, voted on the nth of May, 1859, ^^^^ "-^^^ ^^^s, State or Federal, prohibiting the slave trade, ought to be abolished," a scheme was started to promote the African slave trade, under the specious disguise of an "African labor-supply Association." The withdrawal of American cruisers from the coast of Africa, was discussed in the United States Senate by Mr. Sidell, of Louisiana, and Mr. Buchanan protested against the right of British men-of-war to search suspected slave-traders who flew the United States flag. Ship-loads of slaves were landed in southern ports directly from Africa. The northern States had in many instances passed personal-liberty laws, restricting the Fugitive Slave law so far as they could do, without a rupture with the national law. This exasperated the other party. A National Emancipation Society was formed in Cleveland, Ohio, which aimed at the gradual extinction of the institution of slavery. The attention of the country was turned to the disturbing Mormon question. These people in Utah were rising in a revolution because they could not gain admission as a State. They destroyed the records of the United States District Court, and by orders of Brigham Young, their governor and spiritual guide, they were to look to him for all law. Colonel Cummings, the actual governor of the Territory, was sent with an army to enforce the United States law. The Mormons destroyed a provision train, committed sundry depredations, but finally Young surrendered the seal of the territory, and threatened to gather his people and leave the country rather than submit to Gentile rule. But he thought better of it, and in a short time Utah made another unsuccessful attempt to enter the Union. This little episode made scarcely any impression upon the great excitement that was agitating the country. The " Mormon War " had ended in smoke. The South American troubles were settled. Walker in Nicaragua, had ceased to interest the public mind, and Congress was engaged upon the Homestead \ct, the Pacific Railroad bills, Soldiers' Pensions for the war of 18 12, and 1859] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 321 ier assurance tiolested, and had a large Constitution, e measure as ,ut in spite of late, February .epresentatives f Kansas for ten thousand s a free State. vas practically t to travel in preceded the icksburg, voted prohibiting the o promote the :an labor-supply ti the coast of 11, of Louisiana, -of-war to search 3-loads of slaves northern States ig the Fugitive :he national law. ion Society was ctinction of the ;urbing Mormon an because they ; records of the n Young, their ill law. Colonel with an army to provision train, iered the seal of ave the country of it, and in a er the Union, great excitement ended in smoke, ragua, had ceased n the Homestead f/SLT of 1812, and other peaceful and unexciting measures, when suddenly the smouldering flame of excitement broke out afresh, and startled the land from Maine to Florida, and from ocean to ocean. John Brown, an honest enthusiast with a handful of followers had assembled at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, and with a written constitution, a secretary of war, a secretary of state, and a treasurer, he was ready to declare war with the government as far as slavery was concerned. His little band consisted of seventeen white men and five blacks. The whole land was informed by telegraph from Baltimore, that " an armed band of Abolitionists have full possession of the Government Arsenal, at Harper's Ferry." All the border States were in a ferment of anxiety ; their homes, their sacred altars, and their institutions were in danger. Governor Wise, of Virginia, summoned the State Militia, and General Robert E. Lee with United States troops and cannon, were hastened to the spot to suppress the bloody insurrection. Two of Brown's men were slain, and he was arrested. He was tried for exciting the slaves to insurrection, for treason and murder, found guilty, and shot on the 2d day of December, 1859. This was the raid of John Brown. The excitement and terror of Governor Wise, of Virginia, was very great. The most exaggerated rumors concerning the whole affair spread over the whole country, and Governor Wise prepared to repel the invasion which he was sure was being organized in the Northern States to sweep over Virginia. A thorough investigation developed the fact that Brown had less than twenty persons associated with him in his undertaking, and no open sympathizers in the whole land. The indications of the elections of 1858 and 1859, pointed to a loss of supremacy in the party which had held the national government so long, and something must be done to protect their own interests. The designing politicians had a gigantic plot in view, and while the great mass of the people in the South were a law-abiding people, who would abide by the constitution and the laws of their country if left to their own judgment, these men, comparatively few in number, deliberately set about the scheme of severing the Union, and establishing a Confederacy of States in the South. The time had come for their action, for the new party were growing strong. If they did not strike at the close of Mr. Buchanan's administration, although they might succeed in electing a President in sympathy with them, their power in Congress would be much weakened. Now if they could give the people of the South another cause for their action and succeed in " firing the Southern heart " to the sense of wrong they would gain a material advantage when the blow should fall. It would not do then to have their candidate of the Democratic party elected, and the first point was to assure the election of a Northern man to the office of President, by the vote of Northern States. How could this be done? Why, the answer was easy enough. Divide the grand old Democratic Party into two factions. Then with the plea that the Republican party was a sectional one, and would oppress the South, inflame the people of the slave-owning States with the ' ' ' . , t ■ M M 1,; ■'(}■ * iiii'' i mi !i hb 1 Hi ;l 1' j'i: ' ; pji^ ;! i^fiPli^ i !| m :f '■' ■ ■ ■ !■'■* . ' '' 'X '1' > ',■■1 u iiiM- 1 m 1 w' 322 THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. [1850 idea that their State institutions were in danger, and arouse them to patriotism for the State. Now the people of the South were brave, her men were conscientious, and her upper classes were the peers of any nation in intelligence. The doctrines of Jefferson had been the theme of her orators for two generations, and the theory of State Sovereignty had taken root in a rich and productive- soil, where it had grown to a stalwart tree. The training of years had taught the great mass of her people to believe that slavery was right, or if not morally right, was a necessary evil in the very condition of things. Tlie North had agitated, discussed, and stirred up strife when the whole land had been prosperous and at peace, and had caused contention and unreasonable commotion with their internal affairs. What though the North disavowed any intention of interfering with slavery in the States where it then existed, the very agitation of the subject on their borders, made them restless and stirred up their slaves. The conspiracy of a few score men could magnify all this into a grievous wrong, and stir the warm blood of the South to the intensest heat, and unite the people in a common cause, as dear to them as that which moved the hearts of their Revolutionary sires. For months there had been indications that the convention which was to meet in the city of Charleston, South Carolina, would be a stormy one, and there were mutterings of the coming tempest, that should shake the country to its center. The gathering of the six hundred delegates, from all States in the Union, began on the 23d of April, i860 ; and from the hour of its opening, there was the strong pressure of the conspiracy felt. Caleb Cushing, was chairman, and Stephen A. Douglass of Illinois, was the strongest candidate whose name had been proposed before the convention. He had won the title of " Little Giant of tne West. " His idea of popular sovereignty, had been engrafted into the platform of the party at Cincinnati four years before. The oppositions were in favor of a speedy adoption of the institution of slavery as a national institution, but the friends of Douglass were not ready for this. The convention, by a handsome majority, re-affirmed the doctrine of popular sovereignty, and at once the plot was sprung. The leader of the delegation from Alabama, announced that he, and his colleagues, would formally withdraw from the convention. Other delegates followed, and a new convention was formed, in another hall. The dismemberment of the Democratic Party, was complete, and the plot was subsequently unmasked by Mr. Glenn, of Mississippi, who said in the new convention, " I tell Southern men here, and for them I tell the North, that in less than sixty days, you will find a united South, standing side by side with us." Charleston was the scene of great delight that night, for South Carolina understood what that utterance signified. The result of this secession was that John C Breckenridge, was nominated by the National Democratic Party, and Stephen A. Douglass was the candidate of the Regular Democratic Party. The Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, for President, and Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, for Vice President. A fourth party. The [i850 use them to conscientious, Uigence. The /o generations, and productive ars had taught ght, or if not things. The vhole land h;id d unreasonable orth disavowed it then existed, lem restless and )uld magnify all le South to the ir to them as that ntion which was e a stormy one, should shake the ^legates, from all Dm the hour of its Caleb Gushing, Tongest candidate He had won the jreignty, had been jOur years before, [he institution of IS were not ready [med the doctrine The leader of the colleagues, would ;s followed, and a ;mberment of the ;ntly unmasked by " I tell Southern |ixty days, you will [harleston was the icrstood what that fas that John C. arty, and Stephen :ratic Party. The ■or President, and ourth party. The 1861] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 323 Constitutional American Party, which adopted the constitution of the United States for its platform, nominated John Bell, of Tennessee, for the Presidency. And the political contest was fought with such vigor as had never been known before. The Republican and the pro-slavery wing of the Democratic party, were antagonistically opposed, and the brunt of the struggle waged between them. Abraham Lincoln had said there is " an irrepressible conflict between Freedom, and Slavery." " The Republic cannot exist half slave, and half free," and " Freedom is the normal condition in all the Territories." This was the Republican side of the question. Mr. Breckenridge claimed that no power existed that might lawfully control slavery in the Territories, and it existed in full force wherever a slave-holder, and his slaves, entered it, and it was the duty of the National Government to protect it there. The issue was plain and decided ; no one need misunderstand it Abraham Lincoln was elected by a majority of the votes in the electoral college ; but since there were four candidates in the field he had a large minority of the popular vote. This was a part of the plot, to claim that he was a sectional, and a minority President. There would be four months in which tc mature and carry out the plans already working so well. Two years before this, William L. Yancey had written to a friend : " Organize committees all over the Cotton States ; fire the Southern heart ; instruct the Southern mind; give courage to each other; and at the proper moment, by one organized, concerted action, precipitate the Cotton States into revolution." Mr. Yancey had been an active public speaker in the South, during the canvass of i860, and when the result was known, the leaders in the South were as much elated over the election of Lincoln, as any one in the Republican party. Now the pretext that the platform, and the policy of the Republican party, and the utterances of the President elect, with the fact that he was a sectional candidate, elected by Northern votes, and these a minority of all the votes cast, led the people of the South to fear that he would be a usurper of their rights, and the people listened until their righteous indignation was stirred, and they were ready to make one bold and united stand for their inalienable rights. In the third year of the war, a Southern gentleman wrote in a letter to a f-iend, " Perhaps there never was a people more bewitched, beguiled and befooled, than we were when we went into this rebellion." In the President's Cabinet, there were three, if not four men, in active sympathy with the movement, and they were anxious to wait until the end of the term before the blow should be struck. There were arsenals, fortresses, custom houses, and other public property in the South. The forts and arsenals in the North were stripped of all movable military stores, and they were sent South. The United States Navy was scattered to the four quarters of the globe, and most of the ships in commission were beyond the reach of speedy recall ; others were lying in ordinary in the navy yards under the pretense of being repaired, but no work was being done upon them. The United States Army Officers in suspected sympathy with the 324 THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. [1850 I: '■ m r ? H North, were sent to the extreme West, and the credit of the government was purposely injured. A small loan could not find a market at twelve per cent, interest. This was the condition of things. Some wanted to strike the blow as soon as the election was over ; others had another plan, which was this, as avowed by a disunionist who was in the plot. Near the close of Buchanan's term " we intend to take possession of the army and navy and the archives of government ; Hot allow the electoral votes to be counted ; proclaim Buchanan Provisional President if he will do as we wish, if not choose another, seize Harper's Ferry Arsenal and the Norfolk Navy Yard, and sending armed men from the former, and armed vessels from the latter, seize the city of Washington and establish a new government." Why was this not done? Lewis Cass was Secretary of State, and he discovered the treason of his associates ; but being powerless to avert the danger, he resigned. The Attorney General was promoted to be Secretary of State, and E. M. Stanton was called to be Attorney General, Secretaries Holt, Dix and Stanton, all of whom had been called into the Cabinet after its first formation, were loyal men, and brought a pressure upon the President that he could not withstand, and while he did nothing to openly aid the plot, he was obliged to make a show of sustaining the National government. The first step to open revolt was made by South Carolina, A convention of delegates in Charleston, adopted an Ordinance of Secession December 20th, i860. This was signed by one hundred and seventy members. A similar ordinance was passed by the following States in the order given ; Mi::sissippi, January 9th, 1861 ; Florida, January loth ; Alabama, January iith; Georgia, January 19th; Louisiana, January 26th; Texas, February 1st; Virginia, April 17th; Arkansas, May 6th ; North Carolina, May 20th; Tennessee, June 8th. On the fourth of February, 1861, delegates of six of the States above, met in Montgomery, Alabama, and formed a league styled Thp: Confederate States of America. A provisional Constitution was adopted at once, and Mr. Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was chosen Provisional President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice President. This organization of a few conspirators, — since no Ordinance of Secession was ever submitted to popular vote, — became a self-styled government, and made war on the United States ; seized its public property : put a loan upon the markets of the world . issued letters of marque and reprisal, and raised armies to overthrow the government while yet its own instrument was in the presidential chair in Washington. And to increase the infamy, the Attorney General of the United States declared that the President had no right to interfere to prevent the property from being seized, and so millions of dollars worth of public property fell into the hands of the South, without an arm being raised to prevent it. A Peace Convention was held in Washington, in January, 1861, but the Senators and Representatives, rejecting all offers of compromise that were pr& m ' ! 11850 rnment was ve per cent. strike the ch was this, ission of the the electoral if he will do icn;il and the . and armed t'ablish a new :tary of State, powerless to •omoted to be orney General. :alled into the I pressure upon did nothing to sustaining the ^, A convention ssion December y members. A the order given : abama, Janua.y Texas, February Una, May 20th , ptates above, met K CONFEDEKATE Lted at once, and lal President, and 1 organization of a ver submitted to Ivar on the United cets of the world . ■ to overthrow the esidential chair m neral of the United ere to prevent the lofpublicprop^'^^y ed to prevent it. uary,i86i.butt^^ >mise that were pre- i;]6i] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 325 scnted from Congress, and from this Peace Convention, withdrew as their States seceded under the pretext of being loyal to the State. The poor, distressed President Buchanan, had to do his best for the t\\ o months which remained of his term of office. Tlie Southern members of hiii Cabinet, holding on to their positions as long as they could be of any service to the South, there and then leaving their chief to fill their places with Northern men. The first overt act was performed when Major Robeit Anderson, a loyal Kentuckian, refused to give up Fort Sumter, into which lie had retired from a weaker fort, Moultrie. The General-in-chief of the army was Lieutenant General Scott, who was enfeebled in body and mind from age, and although he was loyal he was unable to cope with the mighty problem. He, however, caused Mr. Lincoln to be warned of his danger, and the President elect came through Baltimore alone on his way to Washington, on the morning of February 23d, 1861, and remained there until his inauguration, on the 4tli of March. :'if 11 ill I. i' ■vi.! ■■'li III Mill! I) i CIVIL WAR. 1861-5. ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 'HR sixteenth President of the United States was inducted into his office in the fear of having his lift- taken at any moment, and General Scott had arranffid the military forces at his disposal in such a way they could be called upon in any exigency that mi^, .t arise from any suspected outbreak in the National Capitol. But all passed off quietly, and the President took the oath of office as his predecessors had done in the open air, at the east portico of the Capitol. The Senate confirmee! his nominations at once. The new administration set itself at work with great zeal to ascertain the resources of the government and FOUND what we have already hinted at. The public credit was destroyed, but the now loyal Congress set at work to restore it. The Army and Navy were of little use ; of the former there were only i6,cxx) men, and most of them were on the frontiers, sixteen forts with all their equipments were in tlic hands of the South, and all the arsenals. The value <- c public property in the hands of the insurgents was thirty millions of ( There were forty-four vessels in commission, and of these only one, tuc Brooklyn, of twenty-five guns, was ready for immediate service, and a store ship. Many officers of the navy were Southern men and had resigned, leaving this branch of service very weak and crippled. The first gun fired at Sumter, April I2th, 1861, awoke the slumbering nation which had thought that all this array in the South was for effect. Before Major Anderson and his heroic band brought away the flag from Sumter, which he evacuated hut did not surrender, there was a divided sentiment in the North; some thought that there could be no war and that a peaceful solution was still possible, others comprehended the spirit of the revolt and were satisfied that the struggle would produce blood-shed. The flag was taken from Sumter, on April 14th, and the sun went down that day with a united North arrayed against a united South. Such an uprising the land had not seen before. Men of all grades of society, and every political and religious creed were ready to spring to arms in defense of the Union, at the call of the President two days later. Seventy-five thousand men were called for a three months' service, and were hurried to the front from all the Northern States. The six slave States, to whose governors the requisition for troops was sent, treated the whole subject with utter scorn. The crusade was spontaneous ; in every town and hamlet and village the Stars and Stripes were displayed, and brave 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 1^7 men enlisted to don the union blue, and march to the front. Nothing like it had been known since the crusades of the Middle Ajjes to redeem the tomb of the Saviour from the Saracen. The Nation was in danger, and the old spirit of the fathers now glowed in the bosoms of their sons. But little did they know what was before them. Three months they thought would suffice to put down the revolt. Three months and they would come home as heroes, and a grateful country would honor them as the preservers of their nation. They soon found that the South was organized for war, and fighting at their own doors on the defensive. They had mistaken the spirit and temper of the men in arms against the government. In the South there was also a wide-spread mistake in regard to the North. They thought that the Northern people would not fight, and that their friends of the pro-slavery party there would make a strong resistance in their favor. Within seven days after the attack on Sumter, the South had an army in the field ready for battle, and the shout " on to Washington," was as enthusiastic as the cry " on to Richmond " was in the North. The South and the North were of the same race, but under the sunny sky the former had warmed up to fever heat, and were ready for war at the instant ; the latter under a colder climate, was longer in being aroused, but when once in thorough earnest they had entered the strife they did so with the dogged determination to conquer or die. These were the two parties in the contest, and now in dead earnest, there could be no cessation in the deadly grapple until one or the other should succumb to superior strength and determination. Governor Pickens had said to the people of the cotton growing States, " Sow your seed in peace for old Virginia will have to bear the brunt of battle." So prompt was the 'rising cjf the people in the North that the very next day after the issue of the call for troops several companies of militia arrived in Washington ready for the service. The Sii'th Regiment of Massachusetts volunteers were attacked in the streets of Baltimore, and the first blood shed on the 19th of April. Communica- tion by rail and telegraph was severed between that city and Washington and for several days the President and his Cabinet were virtually prisoners in their Capital, but General Benjamin Butler with Massachusetts men found a way there by water to Annapolis and the Relay House, and relieved the anxiety of suspense. Troops of hopeful men began to throng to the Capital, but they were none too soon, for an army was being collected in Northern Virginia to march to Washington and take the city. Harper's Ferry Arsenal and the Norfolk Navy Yard had fallen into the hands of the insi. 'gents. There was an opinion on both sides that the war would be brief, and the South thought that she had only to march on to the Capital of the United States, seize, hold it and dictate terms of peace favorable to herself; while the North regarded the Southern uprising as a formidable riot that could be crushed in ninety days. So little did either party under- stand the grit and persistency of the other. The truth was that six .il .f • ii ■.j; .' ^im. m 328 THE CIVIL WAR. ri86i millions of people in the South, high spirited, possessing a fertile soil, with a great industry upon which the manufactories of England were dependent for a supply, had risen against the government after months, if not years, of careful preparation. The problem for the loyal States, taken at a fearful disadvantage in matter of preparation, was to conquer. The new flag of "stars and bars" was floating over Alexandria in full view of the Capital. Preparations were being pushed to fortify Arlington Heights from which the Confederates could shell the city of Washington. At Manassas Junction a large army were encamped only thirty miles away. It woi.ld seem to a casual observer that the proper course to pursue would have been to act on the defensive, but the North were now fully aroused. They had been deceived by the threats of disunion so many times before that it had taken .some time for them to realize the fact now, but once awake to its stupendous existence they bent all their energies to its suppression. A blockade of all the Southern ports was declared, and in a few weeks ships enough were manned to shut every Southern port of any considerable size. The government had gained much in a short time but there was a general cry for some decisive battle. The Secretary c War, at this time more sanguine of a short contest than he was a few months later, yielded to the popular pressure and ordered the imperfectly disciplined army of citizen soldiers to battle. General McDowell with an army variously estimated from thirty to forty thousand, marched from his quarters at Centerville, to Bull Run, Sunday, June 17th, a distance of only ten miles. The volunteers, not yet inured to hardship, suffered much on this march, and when they reached the small stream which was to become famous as the scene of a great battle, they were met by the Confederate army of General Beauregard, and a general engagement took place in which the loss was heavy on both sides. The Union army was repulsed and fled in a precipitate route to Washington. The men were hurrying in wild confusion from the field of conflict. The defeat had become a general panic, and baggage trains, artillery, cavalry, infantry, and civilians were mixed in a promiscuous mass. The confederates had won <-he battle, but showed no disposition to follow up the advantage. In fact they had suffered as severely, and in the first general engage- ment each side was equally astonished at the force displayed on the other, and awoke to the« consciousness of the fact that there was equal determination and bravery in both armies. The North were taught that the work of putting down the insurrection was a more stupendous task than had been imagined but their purpose was not shaken. The day after the battle Congress voted to raise five hundred million dollars and five hundred thousand men to put down the Confederates. A few days after a resolution was passed in both Houses, saying that it was a sacred duty of the nation to put down the revolt, from which no disaster should deter them, and to which they pledged every resource, national j::id individual. Mr. Lincoln said : " Having chosen our course \\i6i a fertile soil, ilngland were ;er months, if States, taken ; to conquer, icandria in full •tify Arlington [ Washington. r thirty miles (per course to were now fully anion so many ;e the fact n. »w, their energies 5 was declared, every Southern ned much in a i^e battle. The contest than he re and ordered battle. General forty thousand, L Sunday, June t yet inured to iched the small -eat battle, they d, and a general )oth sides. The ; to Washington, of conflict. The artillery, cavalry, The confederates p the advantage, general engage- isplayed on the there was equal were taught that stupendous task haken. The day iUion dollars and tes. A few days g that it was a from which r\o every resource. losen our course 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 329 without guile and with pure purpose, let us renew our trust in God and go forward without fear and with manly hearts." The spirit of the North was fully aroused and no thought of any other issue came to them. Thousands of earnest youth and middle aged men thronged into the ranks, fermented with the same lofty spirit of patriotism. Many of the three months' men re-enlisted for three years. Regiments and brigades divisions and army corps, were organize 1, and the army was being rapidly disciplined and prepared for the fearful task imposed. Public credit was established and private patriotism was r.roused. The money to pay the soldiers of a Connecticut Regiment w'^s not ready on time, and a private in the ranks drew his check for one hundred thousand dollars to advance the pay of his comrades. This man was Elias Howe, Jr., of Bridgeport, the inventor of the sewing machine. He had a physical lameness which would have exempted him from military service, and when a commission was offered to him refused it on the ground of his inability to perform the duties, but he enlisted as a private to encourage other men, who could perform good service, to do the same. After the disaster at Bull Run, General George B. McClellan was placed in command. He was a skillful engineer and organizer and set about the task of organizing this incongruous mass of patriotic volunteers into a well arranged and thoroughly disciplined army. His friends knew that he was the man to mould the army and make it what it should be, an obedient, disciplined and well officered instrument of the government. In October, 1861, he was the commander of two hundred thousand fighting-men, the largest army the United States had ever known. The men loved Iiim with an enthusiasm that had been unequalled since the days of Napoleon Bonaparte and the army delighted to call him " The young Napoleon of the West. " After the secession of Virginia the Confederate government removed its seat from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, and now the capitals of the two contending forces were within a few hours travel of each other. The most severe fighting of the entire war was occasioned by each endeavoring to capture the capital of the other, and the brave obstinacy displayed in the defence of each. General Robert E. Lee was in chief command of the Confederate army. He had been educated at the United States Military Academy at West Point, and was an officer in the United States Army when his native State, V'rginia, joined her fortunes with the Confederacy, and following his sense of duty and honor, he allied his fortunes with those of his native State. He was a brave, conscientious and skillful general, and a calm, thoughtful, unpretending man. He contended almost always with a force superior in number and armament, — such was the fortunes of war — but he made up more than the deficiency by his genius and skill. By his consummate ability and devotion to the cause, the war was maintained after the hope of success was gone, and when at length the overpowering resources, and numbers of the North compelled his surrender, he was esteemed even by his enemies, who ( \,H . '1 Mm k a ■-■'mi. 330 THE CIVIL WAR. [5867 were proud of this noble but erring son, who had been educated by the nation against which he had with mistaken judgment drawn his valiant sword. Thomas Jackson, who earned the epithet of " Stonewall " Jackson, was the most celebrated of Lee's generals. He was an earnest religious man of stern uncompromising integrity, which won the admiration of friend and foe alike ; but he had gone into the war from a high sense of duty, and shows how a noble man can be sadly mistaken in judgment. He was scrup'jlously exact in his own private life, led a class in Sunday School, taught his negroes, and delivered lectures on the authenticity of the Scriptures. He firmly believed in the justness of slavery, and ordered his slaves to be flogged when he thought the circumstances required it. He proposed at the commencement of the war, " that no prisoners be taken," and when this inhuman opinion did not gain the sanction of the chief generals, he never ceased to his death to regret that this policy was not carried out. He was a brave, expert and successful general, and died regretted by honest men in both armies. In January, 1862, President Lincoln ordered General McClellan to advance with his finely equipped army upon the enemy, and by the end of March was ready to move. At the opening of the new year we will glance back over the history of the year 1861. Fort Sumter had been evacuated by Major Anderson, April 14th. President Lincoln had issued his call for troops on the 15th. The sixth Massachusetts had been mobbed in the streets of Baltimore, on the 19th. The offensive operations were begun by the United States Army on the 18th of May. The engagements of Big Bethel, Philippi, Fairfax Court House, Paterson Creek, Mather's Point, York Bridge, Laurel Hill, Rich Mountain, Beverly, Carrichford, Bunker Hill, Barboursville, and First Bull Run, all in Virginia, had been fought before the disaster at Bull Run, of which we have written. They were, for the most part but preliminary skirmishes, and in no sense decisive. The insurrection in Maryland had been strangled at its birth, and that State saved to the Union. In Missouri, three engagements of considerable importance had been fought at Boonsville, Carthage, and Briar Forks. The Confederate privateer Petrel was sunk by the St. Lawrence, August 1st. A battle was fought between General Lyon, of the Union army, and General McCulloch, of the Confederate army, at Dug Spring, Missouri, August 2d. Fort Fillmore was treacherously given up by Major Lynde, with seven hundred and fifty men, the same day in New Mexico. Lovettsville, Grafton, Boone Court House, Carnifax, Lucas Bend, Lewinsville, Elk Water, Cheat Mountain, Darnstown, Romney Fall Church, Chapmansville, Greenbriar, Bolivar, Balls Bluff, Vienna and Drainsville, all in Virginia, were places where more or less blood was shed during the opening year of the war. In the State of Missouri, whose governor was determined to take her out of the Union, a severe contest ensued, which resulted in driving the Confederates from her borders, and preserving her to the United States. Potosi, Wilson Creek, Charlestown, Lexington, Blue Mill Landing, Papinsville, i! ited by the his valiant ackson, was ious man of end and foe d shows how ilously exact legroes, and mly believed jed when he mmencement I opinion did his death to e, expert and lies. McClellan to jy the end of the history of iderson, April ;th. The sixth [, on the 19th. ly on the 18th Court House, ich Mountain, 1 Run, all in hich we have les, and in no d at its birth, Tagements of age, and Briar St. Lawrence, of the Union Dug Spring, up by Major New Mexico, id, Lewinsville, Chapmansville, Virginia, were ear of the war. ike her out of driving the United States, ng, Papinsville, V 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 331 Fredericktown, Springfield, Belmont, Mount Sion, were the names of places where engagements were fought in that State. In Kentucky the Confederates gained a slight foothold in the southern and western part, and under the show of military power they held a convention, and passed an ordinance of secession and delegates were chosen to the Confederate Congress. A skirmish was fought at Buffalo Hill, and another at Hemington in that State, in October, and battles at Wildcat, Cromwell, Saratoga, Piketown, during October and the early part of November. On the 7th of November, the Union forces captured and held the forts on Hilton's Head, South Carolina. In the fall of 1861, there occurred an event which for a time threatened to cause a rupture with Great Britain. The Confederate government had sent two commissioners with credentials as ambassadors to the English and French courts, which had already acceded belligerent rights to " The Confederate States of America." These gentlemen, each with his secretary, had succeeded in running the blockade on the stormy night of October 12th, 1861, and proceeded to Cuba. Here they took passage on the British steamer Trent for St. Thomas, intending to take the regular packet steamer from that port, but the United States vessel, San Jacinto, Captain Charles Wilkes, took them from the Trent and carried them to Boston, where they were incarcerated in Fort Wrrren, then used as a military prison. This act was in the strictest accord tvith the British interpretation and practice of the question for which the Will- of 1812 was fought, and which was left undecided in the treaty of peace at the close of that war. But it was in direct opposition to the avowed theory and policy of the American government. England now claimed, as the Americans claimed in 181 2, that this was a violation of the rights of neutral powers, and after fifty years, in which she had strenuously maintained the right to do the very thing which the United States had now done, that proud nation acknowledged that the principle was wrong. A demand was made for the return of the ambassadors, James M. Mason and John Slidell, The American government were too glad to vindicate their policy, and to rid themselves of the burden, by giving up the men on January ist, 1862. The ambassadors did not gain the advantage they sought, and the event silence 1 forever the arrogant claim of England to search the ships of neutrals. 'ilri •)..■■ I i^^- :: ' ; H,; .} :;■, V **"■ ; j' ■m !' ■ 1 ". ■ft , i i.' ' ' ■'■. 332 THE CIVIL WAR. [1861 THE OPERATIONS OF 1862. 'HE year 1862 opened with a design on foot to establish the national power on the Atlantic coast of the Southern States. A secret expedition under Command of Major. General A. E. Burnside, sailed from Hampton Roads January nth. The result was that Roanoke Island and the coast of Albemarle Sound fell into the hands of the Union forces. The Confederate force fled from Port Royal, South Carolina, January 2d. In Kentucky there had been a fight near Prestonburg, in which General J. A. Garfield, defeated the disunion General Humphrey Murphy, January loth. General Thomas had defeated General ZolHcoffer in a battle at Mill Spring, Kentucky, where the latter was killed. Kentucky was saved and a path of escape made for the Union men in East Tennessee by these two decisive victories. The disunion army fled into Tennessee. A flotilla of gun boats had been built and equipped under General John C. Fremont, of California fame, at Cairo on the Mississippi. Commodore A. H. Foote, had been put in command. An expedition against Forts Henry and Donaldson had been organized, and General U. S. Grant had been put in chief command. Commodore Foote was ordered to the Tennessee River with his gun boats. February 3d, he was in front of Fort Henry, and on the 6th, the fort surrendered. General Grant made immediate preparation to attack Fort Donaldson, while Commodore Foote hurried back to Cairo to obtain mortar guns for the siege. The battle began on the 13th, was renewed on the two following days and the fort surrendered on the i6th with thirteen thousand three hundred prisoners of war. The Confederate Generals, Floyd and Pillow, fled the night before and left General Buchner, who was the only brave man of the three to surrender the fort. This was the first brilliant victory for General Grant during the war. The fall of Fort Donaldson was a heavy blow to the Confederates, but the news caused the most wide-spread rejoicing all through the loyal States. It was regarded as a crushing blow to the Southern cause, and lost to them the States of Missouri, Kentucky and all northern and middle Tennessee. The campaign in Arkansas resulted after a few skirmishes in the decisive victory for the Union forces under General Sigel at Pea Ridge, on the 7th of February 1862, in which the five disunion generals, Van Dorn, McCulloch, Mcintosh, Pike and Price were engaged. McCulloch and Mcintosh were mortally wounded and Van Dorn retired behind the mountains. The Confederate army lost thirty-four hundred men in killed and wounded, and sixteen hundred prisoners. While these important victories were going on in the West there 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 333 were events of interest occurring in Virginia. The Confederates had taken an old frigate which they sheathed in iron and roofed her with iron rails and fitted her up as a formidable iron clad. There was no ship in the United States Navy which could withstand her attack. On the 8th of March she steamed down to assault the fleet in Hampton Roads. This mon Ucr, which had been re-christcncd the Mcrrimac, came into the vc.y midst of the fleet. Not a man was seen on board, not a gun was fired, and the broadsides poured in upon her rolled off her iron sides and left her unharmed. She destroyed the Congress and Cumberland, and no power could withstand her assault. The Union fleet was apparently doomed, and this monster could devastate the whole Northern coast. There were anxious hearts that day through all the North as the news of this encounter flew on the wires over the country. The Confederates had the advantage of them now, and could rest on their laurels for one night at least. The next day she came down the James to complete her work of destruction so well begun the day before. But at midnight a mysterious something came in from the sea, lighted on her way by the burning Congress. The thing looked like a cheese box on a raft ; and there had been nothing like it in the whole history of naval warfare. It was the Monitor on her trial trip from New York. That day was the trial of strength between the inventive genius of the two sections. The Yankee cheese box won the prize. In the novel naval engagement she was the victor and the monster crawled back to her moorings disabled and useless. The United States Navy had found a champion that could defend her from the monster that but yesterday threatened her annihilation. The army of the Potomac was transferred to Fortress Monroe, and prepared to sail up the James river. General Banks was sent up the Shenandoah to attract the attention of General Stonewall Jackson. The battle of Winchester was fought on the 23d of March and resulted in a victory for the Union arms. The month of May found General Fremont in the mountains of West Virginia; General Ranks at Strasburg in the Shenandoah valley; and General McDowell at Fredericksburg on the Rappahannock, for the two fold purpose of defending Washington and helping McClellan. The swift moving General Ewell had joined Jackson, and on May 8th struck Fremont a heavy blow, and May 23d sent Banks flying down the valley to Winchester. Then the tide turned and Ewell was driven back, pursued by Fremont and Shields. Jackson rallied his forces, joined Ewell, and on the 9th of June the national armies began their second great race down the Shenandoah, followed by the Confederates. The two main armies were face to face with each other on the first of June, within six miles of the Confederate Capital. The army of the Union were anxious to enter the city of Richmond at once, and the time hac* come for a decisive blow. The leader was wanting, McClellan's habitual \. m > i ■Hn 3J4 THE CIVIL WAR. [1861 caution and desire to save human life led him to be over anxious for the safety of the army, every man of which loved him. They were burning to win glory and honor, and were in good condition to march directly into the city. Lincoln urged him daily to make the attack, but still he hesitated. The Confederates came out to attack him, and the general made preparation to retreat to the shelter of the gun boats on the James river. He would save his army or " at least die with it and share its fate." The army of patriots were anxious to fight on the offensive and could decide the question of its own fate but the general, over- solicitous, moved away from the enemy, and his retreating army was dailj' attcked by the Confederates, and as often gained the victory ; but still they fell back for seven days. Once they drove the enemy fleeing before them and the soldiers demanded to be led into Richmond. The army was strong enough but its leader was weak. McClellan was loyal and desired the success of the North, nor would we for an instant hint at any improper motives. McClellan was such a man as aroused the enthusiasm of the rank and file, and at the same time hesitated to lead them to death. He lost fifteen thousand men in seven days fight' from Gains' Mills, June 28th, to July 3d, 1862. The army of Generel Lee had sustained a loss even larger, and when McClellan was fortifying his camp on the James, Lee was glad to rest his shattered and discomfited troops behind the fortifications of Richmond. The retreat was a masterly and skillful one, and showed magnificent generalship no doubt, but neither the army nor the country were in a hi mor to appreciate the greatness of a General whose skill consisted in conducting a successful flight. The prize had been within the grasp of a hand powerful enough to seize it, but the brain that directed that power was conservative and cautious, and therefore the city of Richmond was to be a bone of contention between the magnifi- cent army of the Potomac and the brave army of Virginia for long years to come. The Confederates were exultant and the North sadly disappointed with the results of the campaign of the Spring of 1862. We will turn in this swiftly changing panorama to the West. The silent, determined and persistent General U. S. Grant, was doing valiant service for the Union army, and rising in rank and influence. After the fall of Fort Donaldson, Johnston saw that he could only save the Confederate army by evacuating Bowling Green, and Columbus, Kentucky ; he then marched his forces to Nashville, Tennessee, closely followed by General Buell, and at the same time the national gunboats moved up the Tennessee River from Fort Donaldson. Nashville, Tennessee, was surrendered to the Union forces February 26th, and on March 4th, Andrew Johnson was appointed Military Governor, with the rank of Brigadier-General. Columbus was taken bj- Commodore Foote and General W. T. Sherman, March 4th, 1862. Island Number Ten, a thousand miles from New Orleans, was now regarded as the key to the Mississippi River, and was strongly fortified by the Confederates. This was flanked by General Pope, and Commodore Foote hammered away at tver anxious , They were Dn to march e attack, but him, and the run boats on : with it and the offensive general, over- my was daily but still they g before them 'he army was al and desired any improper usiasm of the liem to death, lins' Mills, June sustained a loss on the James, ps behind the and skillful one, T the army nor ,s of a General prize had been but the brain id therefore the en the magnifi- for long years lly disappointed t865] THE CIVIL WAR. 335 the defenses from his gun-boats until it surrendered, April 7th. This was another heavy blow to the Confederates, and they never recovered from it. General Grant had sent the gun-boats up the winding Tennessee River, from Fort Henry, and they penetrated the country as far as Florence, Alabama, under Lieutenant Commander Phelps, United States Navy, who found an intense loyal feeling among the people. The army were anxious to advance to their aid, and General Grant attempted to do this. The objective point was Corinth, a city on the Memphis and Charleston Railroad. The large Union army was encamped at Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, about twenty miles from Corinth, on the first of April. General Buell was trying to join Grant with his forces from Nashville, leaving General Neyley in command in that city. Huntsville was captured April nth, by a part of Buell's army under General Mitchell. The battle of Shiloh had been fought and won by Grant, on the 7th. The Southern army had advanced from Corinth to within four miles of the Union army unperceivcd on the morning of the sixth, Sunday, and fell upon Generals Sherman, and Prentice, — the battle waged all day, and the Union army at night was driven discomfited to the shelter of their gun-boats, on the Tennessee. Beauregard telegraphed a shout of victory to his chief at Richmond, but Buell and Lew Wallace arrived in the night, crossed the river, and Grant's army was saved. The next day the fight was renewed. Wallace charged m the Confederate left, and pressed Beauregard back. The battle became general, and the Southerners were driven from the ground that they had taken the day before. Then they fled in precipitate rout, covered by a strong rear guard. The South lost ten thousand men, the North fifteen thousand, and that night the Union army buried the dead on the battle field, while the enemy fled to Corinth. General Halleck came from St. Louis, April 12th, and assumed command, but instead of marching directly upon Corinth, he moved by slow approaches with spade and pick, fortifying as he advanced. On the morning of May 30th, when he sent out skirmishers " to feel the enemy's position," there were no enemies, for Corinth had been evacuated, and the city burned. At the mouth of the Great River the Union Squadron, with General Butler, had captured Forts Jackson and Philip, and entered the Mississippi. New Orleans had been occupied by General Butler, who declared military law April 29th. Commodore Foote with his flotilla, besieged Fort Pillow, May 10th, and on the 4th of June the forces fled to Memphis, where Commodore Davis, who had succeeded Commodore Foote, had a severe engagement on June 6th, but soon after the flag of the United States waved over the city of Memphis. All this was going on in the west while the army of the Potomac was moving so cautiously under General McClellan. The expedition to North Carolina was accom;;^Ushing much in gaining that State back to national control. The battle of Newberne was fought on March 8th, and a fight occurred upon the nth of April, near Elizabeth City. The Northern troops had taken the coast, and were moving into the interior. The national forces captured l-'ort Mason, at the entrance of i' I! f m 336 THE CIVIL WAR. [1861 Beaufort Harbor, April 25, and now held undisputed sway from the Dismal Swamp to Cape Fear River. While General Burnside was engaged in this work in North Carolina, General Sherman and Commodore Dupont went upon a similar expedition to the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. Fort Pulaski was taken after a severe pounding, April 12, and this commanded the entrance to the Savannah River. The coast of Florida was easily seized in the early winter. Fort Clinch, the first of the national forts re-occupied since their seizure, was taken in February, Jacksonville, Florida, March nth, St. Augustine and Pensacola, opposite Fort Pickens, which never had been in possession of the South, were captured in March. Thus in less than a year from the fall of Sumter, the United States was in possession of the Atlantic and Gulf Coast, with the exception of Charleston harbor, as far as Pensacola bay. The scene will change again to the army of the Potomac. General McClellan had disappointed the country, and when the news of the disasters to the Union forces, in front of Richmond, swept over the North, the hearts of the people sank within them. The commander assured the government, three days after the battle of Malvern Hill, that he did not have " over fifty thousand men with their colors." What had become of the one hundred and sixty thousand men who had been sent to him within the one hundred days previous ? Lincoln with an anxious heart hastened to the head-quarters of McClellan, to solve this question and answer his request for more troops. The result of this conference was that Lincoln found forty thousand men more than the general had reported, and yet there were seventy-five thousand men missing. Orders were given to remove this army from the Peninsula, and concentrate it before Washington, but McClellan was opposed to this plan, and he was slow to obey. In the month of August, 1862, the national Capitol was in great danger. The battle of Cedar Mountain had been fought on the 9th of that month. In this fight the national troops were under command of General Banks. They were driven back, but by the timely reinforcement of General Rickett's division, were able to check the Confederate advance in one of the most desperate encounters of the war. Both sides claimed the victory. General Pope was reinforced by Burnside's army, and moved to the Rapidan, intending to hold that position until the arrival of McClellan, but was driven back by Lee. The Confederate general found that he could not force a passage in this direction, and he moved toward the mountains to outflank Pope. This general did his best to thwart the plan of Lee, but his army was much weakened, and McClellan protesting against moving from the James delayed reinforcements from that quarter. Pope, therefore, concentrated his forces at Rappahannock Station, August 23d, 1862, that he might be able to fall with a superior force, upon the flanking army under " Stonewall " Jackson. This adroit and skillful general, with accustomed swiftness, crossed the Bull Run Mountain at Thoroughfare Gap, and placed his immense force between Pope and Washington. His cavalry swept as far as Fairfax Court House [i86i m the Dismal lorth Carolina, expedition to taken after a I the Savannah T winter. Fort jure, was taken and Pensacola, Lhe South, were of Sumter, the Coast, with the omac. General of the disasters orth, the hearts ;he government, have " over fifty )ne hundred and le hundred days head-quarters of or more troops. y thousand men ity-five thousand n the Peninsula, opposed to this in great danger. 1 of that month. General Banks. eneral Rickett's one of the most victory. General to the Rapidan, 1, but was driven ould not force a tains to outflank but his army was from the James concentrated his might be able to jnewall" Jackson. crossed the Bull ise force between •fax Court House 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 337 and Centerville, and his main army were at Manassas, waiting for a heavy column under Longstreet, who was advancing. The two armies were both of them in danger of annihilation. Pope moved with quickness to attack and capture Jackson, before Longstreet could come up. But the latter succeeded in joining Jackson, and Pope, who was now assured that he need no longer wait for reinforcements from McClellan, saw that he must fight. The second battle at Bull Run, was fought with great loss and defeat to the Union army, August 30th. Pope fell back to Centerville, where he was joined by Franklin, and Sumner. Lee did not now attack them, but made another flank movement August 31st. This resulted in a battle September ist, at Chantilly, where Generals Philip Kearney and Stevens were killed, and the whole army driven within the fortifications of Washington. The Confederates now had the advantage and determined to follow it up. The time had come when they could make a formidable advance upon Washington, and carry the war into the land of the enemy. September 7th, Lee crossed the Potomac with almost his entire force, and marched into Maryland with the belief that thousands of people in that State would join his army and fight, to redeem her from the Northern army. In this he was sadly disappointed. McClellan with the Army of the Potomac, numbering 90,000 came to the rescue, and the army of Virginia was merged into it. McClellan moved cautiously ; but in the meantime Burnside had fought and won the battle of South Mountain, in which the gallant General Reno was killed. Harper's Ferry was captured by Lee's army, where Colonel D. H. Miles, a Virginian, surrendered nearly \2Q0 United States troops. The crisis was coming and the issue must be met at Antietam. The Confederates had possession of the right bank of the stream, and the Union army the left. The contest opened with artillery firing from the former. McClellan was not ready to move until noon. Hooker crossed the Antietam and had a successful fight on the Confederate left, and rested on his arms that night to renew the fight in the morning. The fight opened early the next day, by Hooper charging on Lee's left again ; Burnside on the right, was doing good execution against Longstreet. The contest waged all day, and at night the Confederate army retreated from the scene. Fourteen thousand fresh troops came to the aid of McClellan, and it would seem as if he might have followed up his advantage, and taken the Confederates ; but when he was ready to move, thirty-six hours later, Lee's shattered and broken army were behind their own defenses on the south side of the Potomac, whither they had hastened in the cover of darkness, the night before. McClellan came to Harper's Ferry, which he found abandoned by the Confederates, and ten days after the battle of Antietam, while the North were hourly expecting to hear that his victorious army had pursued and overcome Lee, he coolly declared his intention to remain where he was, and " attack the enemy should he attempt to re-cross into Maryland." October ist. President Lincoln, instructed the Commander of the Army of the Potomac, to move at once across the river , but twenty days were spent in correspondence, during which the beautiful r'l ' ' i« ,( ■ I • II 338 THE CIVIL WAR. [1861 im^ October weather, which was favorable for military movements had passed, and Lee's army was resting, recruiting and fortifying. Then, November 2d, McCleilan announced that his whole army were in Virginia, prepared to move southward, on the east side of the Blue Ridge, while Lee was on the west side. The patience of the government and the loyal people of the North was exhausted, and McCleilan was relieved November 5th, and General A. E. Burnside was placed in command. This ended the military career of Major General George B. McCleilan, the beloved commander of the army of the Potomac, who was over-cautious and careful of the lives of his men. General Burnside reorganized the army and formed a plan to capture Richmond. For this purpose he made his base of supplies at Acquina Creek, and took position at Fredericksburg, from which he intended to advance. But before he was prepared to cross the Rappahannock, Lee appeared with an army 80,000 stron^^, on the heights in the rear of the city, and destroyed all the bridges on the river. Burnside was obliged to cross upon pontoon bridges. The Union army advanced under a heavy fire, and a bloody battle ensued, which lasted from the 13th, to the i6th of December, and the Unionists were defeated with great slaughter. Lee took possession of the city, and the Nation,' forces retired under cover of darkness. Burnside was superseded by General Joseph Hooker January 26th, 1863, when the army were in winter-quarters. We must here leave them, while we turn our attention to the stirring events on the Mississippi. We had left the Northern army June ist, 1862, in possession of the river, from its mouth to New Orleans, and from its sources to Memphis, Tennessee. Colonel John H. Morgan, of Tennessee, had organized an independent band for guerilla warfare, and was overrunning his native State with his horsemen, and making long and swift raids through the country in all directions preparatory to an invasion of Tennessee and Kentucky by a Confederate force. By these raids much damage was done to private and public property, and many exactions were wrung from the people. General E. Kirby Smith, with a large Confederate force, entered Kentucky from East Tennessee, and prepared to march upon Frankfort, the capital. A desperate battle was fought August 30th at Richmond, Kentucky, in which the Union army under General Manson was defeated. The affrighted Legislature in session at Frankfort, fled to Louisville. But the Southern army pressed on to Lexington with the intention of crossing the Ohio River and destroying the city of Cincinnati. They found their way obstructed by strong fortifications on the south side of the river and a force under General Lew Wallace. Smith then turned toward Frankfort, captured the city, and waited for General Bragg. Bragg crossed the Cumberland River September 5th with 8000 Confederates, and September 14th the advance guard was repulsed by Colonel T. J. Wilder; but two days after Colonel Wilder was compelled to surrender to a superior force. Thus far the Southern army had had it their own way, but now there came a change; General Buell fell upon the combined armies of Bragg and Smith at IP 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 339 ts had passed, November 2d, epared to move as on the west ; of the North d General A. E. career of Major Lhe army of the lis men. plan to capture lUes at Acquina he intended to )pahannock, Lee rear of the city, obliged to cross a heavy fire, and 5th of December, e took possession ver of darkness, nuary 26th, 1863, ve them, while we ppi. We had left it river, from its nphis, Tennessee, independent band |with his horsemen, in all directions by a Confederate irivate and public :ople. General E. ntucky from East jital. A desperate [n which the Union [ted Legislature in •n army pressed on ver and destroying :ructed by strong ,rce under General .captured the city, [Cumberland River 1 14th the advance days after Colonel :e. Thus far the re came a change; igg and Smith at Perryville, and after a severe fight, drove the Confederates from Kentucky, with severe loss, October 8th. General Buell like General McClellan was too cautious and careful. If he had acted with vigor and decisioai, the invasion of Smith and Bragg, would have been crushed at once by the capture of the entire force. As it was it was harmful rather than beneficial to the Southern cause, and General Bragg who was responsible for it, was relieved of his command by the Confederates. While all this was going on in Kentucky, General Van Dorn, and Price, were invading Tennessee with another Confederate force. General Rosecrans with a small force overcame the Confederates in a closely contested battle at luka Springs, September 19th. The beaten army fled southward, and at Ripley were reinforced, and prepared to attack Corinth, now held by Ros- ecrans, and in both engagements of October 2d and 3d, the Southern army was repulsed, and finally driven back to Ripley. Then there came a period of quiet in the department over which General Grant was in command. In the meantime there were important events transpiring on the Great River. The forces under Admiral Farragut, and General Butler, had moved up the river and taken Baton Rouge, the capital of Louisiana, as early as May 7th. Farragut's vessels ran up to Vicksburg and exchanged salutations with the gun-boats of Admiral Davis, which came down from Memphis, June 29th. Farragut with the Hartford, and other vessels, ran by the forts of Vicksburg and joined the fleet above. He besieged the city, and attempted to cut a canal across the peninsula, and avoid it altogether, but this failed, and the fleet returned down the river. There was an attack by the Confederate troops under General Breckenridge, at Baton Rouge. The Union General Williams was killed, but the assailants were repulsed. The Confederate ram, Arkansas, was destroyed by the United States vessel Essex, Captain Porter commander, August 6th. Captain Porter went up the river to reconnoitre and had a sharp fight at Port Hudson, September 7th. A large part of Louisiana, on the west bank of the Mississippi, was brought under control before the close of the year. General Butler was relieved of the command of New Orleans, by General Banks, December i6th. The account of one more battle will end the record for the year 1862. General Rosecrans had taken the sadly demoralized army of the Cumberland, thoroughly reorganized and disciplined it. It was in the vicinity of Bowling Green when he took command. Bragg had a large force at Stone River, or Murfreesborough, and was preparing to annihilate the Union army. A most sanguinary conflict was begun on the 31st of December, and was fought all day. At night the Unionists were so completely overcome that Bragg expected that they would seek safety in flight during the darkness, but to his astonishment they were still in his front, ready to renew the encounter. The contest was fierce and sharp, when the day seemed to be irretrievably lost to the North, a charge of seven regiments under the leadership of Brigadier-General W. B. Hargen, sent the Confederate lines flying in confusion, and won the fearful prize of victory I'ifl W^ yA\ If' m ■fj' '■■'"Ij '•■i J':M :i m.''\ 340 THE CIVIL WAR. [I86i from the very teeth of defeat. Bragg retreated to Chattanooga, and Rosecrans held possession of Murfreesborough. Thus begins the year of 1863, with a decided and glorious victory on the field of battle ; but there was a moral victory also won on this day, which decided the fate of the country for future generations. THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. 'HE National Government had disavowed any intention to make war upon slavery in the States where it existed- The contest was for the supremacy of the Nation, and the enforcement of its laws and Constitution. There came a mighty revolution of feeling among those in the North, who had sympathized with the peculiar institution of the South. They came to see that this was the fundamental cause of the insurrection, and at the same time a means of prolonging strife. The negroes could plant, reap the crops, and attend to domestic affairs, while the white men were doing military duty. The course of many of the Northern generals in returning the fugitive slaves who came into their lines, was very unpopular. The Republican party in Congress was pressing upon the attention of President Lincoln, the importance of emancipating the slaves held by those who were fighting the national government. Congress had abolished slavery in the District of Columbia, and on the 22d of September, Abraham Lincoln issued a preliminary proclamation, in which he declared his purpose to issue a Proclamation of Emancipation on the first day of January, 1863, forever setting free the slaves of all men found that day in open rebellion against the United States. The Confederates sneered at this, and their Northern sympathizers, of whom there were some still remaining called it a " Pope's Bull against a Comet." The war went on as we have seen ; prosecuted with vigor on both sides. The dawn of the New Year came, and " The Emancipation Proclamation " was issued under the seal of the United States. The friends of freedom hailed it all over the world as the harbinger of success to the North. At once the fetters were stricken from over three mi'' human beings, and they were free before the law to enter tht u* and as fast as new territory in the South was occupied by iie> were set at liberty. It was a severe blow to the South, and >k aw;i heir hope, but it allied all the real friends of human liberty in the world to the cause of the Union. While the North was engaged in this v rk, the Confederacy was engaged in extensive preparations to destroy the commerce and the power of the nation. Privateers, built in British shipyards, equipped with British guns and seamen, fitted out in British waters ; were sent to prey upon American commerce, with the stars and bars flying at their peak. 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 341 (1 any intention ^here it existed- of the Nation. id Constitution, feeling among thizcd with the ley came to see insurrection, and fe. The negroes domestic affairs, aty. The course ning the fugitive popular. as pressing upon ; importance of were fighting the led slavery in the am Lincoln issued jrpose to issue a lary, 1863, forever bellion against the i their Northern d it a "Pope's Bull isecuted with vigor :e Emancipation lited States. The inger of success to three mi^' |er t1 '• ,d .k awa '^eir the worUI to the |in this V rk, the (troy the commerce ihipyards, equipped ; were sent to prey ring at their peak. When the people of New York heard the cry of the starving operatives at Manchester, England, whose supply of cotton had bi'cn cut off by the blockade of the South, they sent a ship-load of provisions to aid them. Thia vessel, laden with the voluntary bounty of America to the starving citizens of England, was guarded upon her voyage by an armed government vessel to preserve her from the piratical torch, lighted by Hritish hands. The course of Great Britain, during all the period of civil war in America, seems to the historian a peculiarly inconsistent one. With the proud boast that no slave could live under her flag, she hastened to recognize the belligerent rights of the Confederate States, gave the moral aid of her indifference and apathy to acts of illegality, and stultified herself in regard to her national policy of eigiity years on the question of neutrality ; gave a ready market to the bonds of irredeemable value, and sheltered and abetted the enemies of a country with which she was at peace; furnished ships, munitions of war, and men to fight against the same country. All this for the sake of aiding a cause avowedly resting upon slavery as its chief corner- stone. The Confederate privateer Alabama, the principal one of the craft fitted out by the Hritish, committed fearful depredations on American commerce during the last ninety days of the year 1862. THE MILITARY OPERATIONS OF 1863. E will open the account of the year with the operations on the Mississippi. A portion of this great river was still in the hands of the Confed- erates, from Vicksburg to Port Hudson, where the South had been permitted to erect strong fortifi- cations, a distance of twenty-five miles from Baton Rouge. Grant had a large amount of supplies at Holly Springs, which, owing to the carelessness or something worse of the commandant, there fell into the hands of the Confederates December 20th. Grant was forced to fall back, and thus a large force was able to come to Vicksburg. Sherman had planned to attack the city in the rear, but in an engagement on the Chickasaw Bayou was defeated with great loss December 28th, 1862. He was compelled to abandon that p' enterprise, and January 2d, 1863, he was superseded by General McClernand, who out-ranked him. About the middle of January the Confederate fort at Arkansas Pass was captured and many supplies destroy d. Grant had come down the river from Memphis, and Vicks- burg s placed under siege. The army was organized into four corps, and a series of movements which would in themselves fill a volume he finaii, truck upon a plan which he followed to the end. Some of the naval i^ t i ■ ■ ] ■ ■ i , i ■! ^;-| 342 THE CIVIL WAR. [1861 fleet ran down by Vicksburg to destroy the Confederate fleet below, but were themselves taken and destroyed. A strong force went down the west bank of the river in command of generals McClernand and McPherson, in the direction of New Carthage. Porter determined to run by the batteries of Vicksburg, and succeeded in doing so with most of his fleet and transports on the i6th of April j on the 22d six transports accom- plished the same feat, and now Grant prepared for a vigorous attack upon the flank and rear of the city. A most wonderful cavalry raid under Colonel Grierson through the very heart of Mississippi assured Grant that the bulk of the Southern army of that region was in Vicksburg. Porter attacked and again ran by the batteries of Vicksburg April 29th, and May ist gained a victory at Port Gibson. Sherman joined the Union army May 8th. The Confederates were defeated near Richmond May 12th, and again at Jackson May 14th. The Confed- erates were driven northward and another victory was gained for the Union army at Champion Mills; the i6th and 17th Grant drove them from Big Black River, and on the 19th he had the whole army penned up in Vicksburg, having lived off the enemy's country for two weeks, in which time his army had gained repeated victories. The very day he arrived before Vicksburg Grant made an assault, but was repulsed. This he followed up with another unsuccessful attempt on the 22d, Then he settled down to a regular siege of the city for forty days, pouring shot and shell into the beleaguered town day and night, until the citizens were safe only in caves that they dug in the banks of the hills with which the city abounds. The army and people were reduced to the verge of starvation and were in great distress. They were driven to the necessity of eating mule meat, and cats and dogs. Fourteen ounces of food for ten days was the extent of the rations issued. General Pemberton gave up all hope of being relieved by Johnston, who he thought would strike in Grant's rear, and on the morning of July 3d he sent proposals to surrender. The formal surrender was made on the glorious fourth of July, and there was great rejoicing, for on the same day another hard fought battle was won in the East. Twenty-seven thousand stand of arms were taken and the strongest fortress on the Mississippi fell into the hands of the Unionists. The commander of Port Hudson, vvhich had been bravely besieged by General Banks for forty days, surrendered on the 9th; but we will recount his doings in the Lower Mississippi prior to this. Banks had sent troops to the support of the Union forces at Galveston, Texas, but the Confederate General Magruder had repulsed them and retaken the city. This was a barren victory to the Confed- erates for Admiral Farragut maintained a strict blockade over that port. After this a land and naval force was sent into the Teche region and • made a successful expedition to repossess the western part of Louisiana. An expedition to the Red River under Banks penetrated the countr)' 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 343 ictrated the countr)' as far as Alexandria, where the general proclaimed that all Southern and Western Louisiana was free from Confederate rule. With this impression he led his troops to Port Hudson and invested that point. He made an assault on this fortress on May 29th, but was repulsed with much loss. The siege went on for forty days, and after Vicksburg fell into the hands of the Unionists, the Confederates saw that it would be useless to try to hold out longer and capitulated. Now the river was open to the sea, and the Confederacy was severed in two parts. The blow was a severe one, and the wiser men of the Confederacy saw that their cause was hopeless from this point in the contest. We last left the army of the Potomac in winter-quarters at the opening of the year, Major-General Joseph Hooker in command. There followed a period of three months in which he was busily engaged in re-organizing that army. A large number of ofificers and men were absent from their regiments. There were officers who were opposed to *;he Government's policy on the question of slavery, and many were crying out it is a " war for the negro " and not a " war for union." These men •.vere removed and their places were filled by energetic men in full sympathy with the administration. Order and discipline became thoroughly established and Hooker had over one hundred thousand available troops on the first day of April. The period of rest and reformation of the army had done much to add to its tone and strength. During this same time General Lee had been engaged in strengthening the army of Northern Virginia, A rigid conscription act had been enforced and all the available men were hurried into the ranks. He had made the defense of Richmond impregnable and with wonderful energy and skill had put his army into the best condition for the coming struggle. In April, Lee had a well organized and enthusiastic army of more than sixty thousand men. A part of his army under Long- street were in South-eastern Virginia but Lee was behind the strong, fortifications and able to cope with a much superior force. Early in April Hooker determined to make an advance upon Rich- mond. He threw a mounted force of ten thousand men in the rear of Lee's army, and moved with another large force to Chancellorsville, within ten miles of Richmond. The left wing of Hooker's army, consisting of the First, Third, and Sixth Corps, was near Fredericksburg, under General Sedgwick, and by their demonstration on the Confederate front so completely deceived General Lee that Hooker was well on the way before Lee was aware of his real design. But Lee did not turn back to Richmond, as Hooker thought he would when he discovered his peril, but pushed the column of Stonewall Jackson forward, and compelled Hooker to fight at Chancellorsville, with his army divided. There was great peril for both armies — Hooker and Lee. The bloody battle of Chancellorsville was fought the 1st and 2d of May, and resulted in a bitter defeat for the Union army. The struggle was severe and sanguinary, and Hooker's army was driven back on the road leading to the Rapidan and the Rappahannock. Lee's forces i;u ) 344 THE CIVIL WAR. ri86i u J i! were united, but Hooker's were divided. Sedgwick, at Fredericksburg, was in danger and could not come to Hooke-'s aid. When he received the command of his chief, he moved at once and took possession of Fredericks- burg — stormed the heights, and drove General Early back May 3d. He then moved on to join Hooker's main body, but was checked at Salem's Church, a few miles from Fredericksburg, by the whole of Lee's army. Now, instead of being able to join Hooker, he was driven across the Rappahannock May 4th and 5th. Hooker, hearing of the disaster to Sedgwick, was obliged to retreat across the river. The Union forces united and fell back on May 5th. The whole movement had resulted in a severe loss to the Union army, and a decided victory to the Confederates. Longstreet had made a spirited and vigorous attack upon General Peck, but had been repulsed at Suffolk at the head of the Nansemond River, and Longstreet, hearing of the disaster at Chancellorsville, joined Lee and made his army as strong as that of the Nationals. The Union army had been out-generaled once more, and the skill and energy of the Confederate commander had won the day. Under the impression that there was still a large body of people in the North who would manifest active sympathy with the Confederates if they had the opportunity to do so, and highly elated by their successes at Chancellorsville, the authorities ordered Lee to prepare for another formidable invasion of Maryland and Pennsylvania. But they had misunderstood the temper and the resources of the North. Hooker suspected this design, and reported his convictions to the government at Washington. The term of enlistment of a large number of troops that had volunteered for nine months had expired, and Hooker's army was being weakened by their discharge, but other recruits for three years or during the war were coming in. By a flank movement Lee compelled Hooker to break up his camp ont le Rappahannock and move toward Washington. Lee at the same time sent his left wing up the Shenandoah, and a battle was fought at Winchester, in which General Milroy was driven back and the Union forces suffered severe loss, but escaped into Maryland and Pennsylvania with their supply and ammunition trains. A large cavalry force pursued Milroy into Pennsylvania, and destroyed the railroad up the Cumberland Valley to Chambersburg, in Pennsylvania, plundering the people all along the march. The Confederate army was upon Northern soil on June 25th. Hooker had been vigilant and active in the meanwhile, and crossed the Potomac at Edwards' Ferry. A disagreement arose between General Hooker and General Halleck — then Commander-in- chief — and Hooker resigned. General George G. Meade was placed in command of the army of the Potomac June 28th, and retained it to the close of the war. At this time the Union army were in Frederick, Maryland, ready to cut off Lee's line of communication, fall upon his columns in retreat, or follow him up the Susquehanna Valley. Lee was then preparing to march on to Philadelphia, but learning of the danger which threatened his flank and rear he recalled Ewell, who was within a few miles of Harrisburg. The rapid gathering of the militia of Pennsylvania and surrounding States 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 34S , was in red the dericks- He then lurch, a istcad of Vlay 4th ) retreat th. The ,y, and a •ited and ,k at the isaster at it of the I the skill lie in the es if they cccsscs at formidable rstood the lesign, and le term ot ne months :h?.rge, but iy a flank pahannock :t wing up ch General 3ut escaped trains. A ;royed the ;nnsylvania, y was upon tive in the isagrecmeiit imander-in- placed in d it to the :, Maryland, in retreat, ireparing to eatencd his Harrisburg. iding States t is alarmed him, and Lee, therefore, concentrated all the army of Northern Virginia in the vicinity of Gettysburg. He did this for the purpose of falling upon the army of the Potomac with crushing force, and then march upon Baltimore or Washington, or, in case of defeat, have a line of retreat to the Potomac River. General Meade did not comprehend this design of Lee until June 30th, and then at once he prepared to meet the shock of battle on a line a little south of Gettysburg. This was the pivotal battle of the war, and deserves more than a passing notice. The Confederates had invaded a Northern State, and were now to meet the Union army on its own soil. The great cities of the North were threatened. The Southern army had touched its highest point, and upon this issue the fortunes of the country hung. A new general had assumed the command of an army with which he was unacquainted two days before the contest was commenced. Meade had an oft-defeated army of from sixty to seventy thousand men with which to meet the seventy-five thousand victorious troops of Lee. McClellan, Burnside and Hooker had measured abil'ty with this adroit and self-possessed chieftain, and been worsted again and again. It seemed a hopeless task, but Meade was calm, quiet, resolute, brave, and unpretending. He set himself about the task assigned him, and he accomplished it by the loyal co-operation of his brave corps commanders, and the persistency of the noble rank and file who were determined to conquer or die. Thousands of men who had hitherto excused themselves frorr active military service in the field arose to arms, and offered themselves for immediate service, when the field of battle was changed from Southern to Northern soil. The Union cavalry under General Kilpatrick had met and defeated the force under General Stewart, at Hanover, a town east of Gettysburg, June 29th, and on the odme day Buford and his horsemen entered Gettysburg, but found no Confederates there. The 30th, General J. F. Reynolds, the brave commander of the First Corps, who fell on the field of battle the next day, arrived with his troops. General Hill of the Confederate army was approaching with a large force from Chambersburg, which encountered Buford's cavalry in the early morning of July ist. The sound of a sharp skirmish brought Reynolds to the field, and a severe engagement ensued on Oak or Seminary Ridge, in which the gallant Reynolds fell dead. General O. O. Howard with the Eleventh Corps came up and the battle became more general, for Lee was concentrating his forces there. The Union army resisted the attack, and held their ground bravely as charge after charge was made upon their lines, but at night they were pressed back to a more advantageous position selected by General W. S. Hancock, the intrepid and beloved commander of the Second Corps. This position was on a range of rocky hills back of, but close to, the village. The line was formed m the two sides of a triangle, with Cemetery Hill, the point nearest the town, forming the angle. Here the troops halted for the night, and threw up breastworks for defense. General Meade with the main body of the army hastened up to join the noble forces who had sustained the brunt of the first day's fight. The next day the forces were facing each other on what was to )^%: ! 346 THE CIVIL WAR. [1861 prove the most hotly-contested battle field of the war. Each commander understood the immense value of the prize at stake, and seemed loth to make the first move in the decisive contest. Not until late in the afternoon of July 2d did the carnage open. General Lee then precipitated his solid columns upon Meade's left, commanded by General Sickles, and the fearful harvest of death began. This extended to the center, commanded by Hancock, and the heavy masses of armed men rolled up to his line to be driven back, like the waves of the sea from an iron-bound coast. Huge furrows were plowed through the solid ranks of men by the shot and shell, that swept them from the Union artillery and y;t they would re-form and march up, again to be swept back by the aw/ul whirlwind of slaughter that opposed them. At sunset the battle ceased on this side of the triangle. The rocky eminence called Little Round Top, was the center of the most determined struggle, and the Confederates endeavored to take it at any cost so that they could hurl the left wing, back on the center. But the brave troops stationed here were as firm as the impenetrable granite, and held the position : at once it was opened on the right and right center, commanded by generals Slocum and Howard. The latter occupied Cemetery Hill, and the former Culps Hill. Early and Johnson, of General Ewell's corps of the Confederate army, fell with great vigor upon these points, and seemed determined to carry them at all hazards. They were repulsed with great slaughter from the right center on Cemetery Hill, but succeeded in turning the right wing, and holding it for the night. This struggle ended at ten o'clock at night. This day's fight had resulted in some advantage to the Confederates. Lee was sanguine that another day would bring a complete victory for the Confederate cause. That was an axious night in many a Northern home, as millions of sleepless men and women were reading the swiftly flying news of the deadly encounter. The loss of Lee had been considerable ; but the Union line was weakened, and an attack on the morning would sweep them from the field. This was the hour of deepest gloom to the Union cause, and not a man from the Commander-in-chief down to the humblest private in the ranks but knew it. A million of brave men throughout the country were in arms, but the (Course of Lee's northward march could not be prevented if he won this (decisive battle field. At four the next morning General Slocum advanced and re-occqpied the ground ,he had lost the night before. Meade strengthened his weakened lines. ^ hard fight of four hours was necessary to retrieve the old position, and hold the persistent columns of Ewell in check. The Union left and left center were impregnable, and Lee prepared to fall with crushing eflect upqn the weaker right. The entire forenoon was passed by the opposing generals in making prepj^ration for the fearful death grapple. At one o'clock the artillery from Lee's army ^opened upon Howard's front. The challe;r)ge Was answered by the Union army,. The (pountry for npiiles around ;sbopk aj^ ,the rpar pf ^yex Ahrpp .Uwti/ed 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 347 heavy guns. For three hours the awful duel was kept up, sending death and carnage to either side. Then Lee, under the cover of this heavy cannonading, precipitated his solid columns which were to break the Federal line and gain the day. They swept over the plains, and with the fearful yell of battle, attacked the breastworks, only to be swept down by the grape and canister, belching forth from a hundred cannon. The ranks fell as grass before the mower's scythe ; but on and on the gathering columns press, and the harvest of death ceased not till the sun v/ent down. As men went down in the bloody tide their places were filled by those who pressed on after them, and brave men contended hand to hand on the ramparts. At one time Lee, who, like the French Napoleon at Waterloo, was watching the battle from a hill-top, saw through the lifting battle-cloud the Confederate flag waving on the Union ramparts at a certain point. His generals congratulate him on a victory ; but he looks as another dense cloud of* smoke lifts, and his men are seen broken and fleeing down the fatal hill-side, where dead men cover the ground so thick that the retreating army tread upon them at every step. The last attack has failed and the Federals have won THE Battle of Gettysburg. Lee began his hasty retreat on the fourth of July, and Meade, with his victorious but exhausted army, followed in hot pursuit to the Potomac, where, by fortifications and a show of force, Lee was able to hold the Federals at bay until he had got his army and artillery safely across the river into Virginia. This was the last Confederate advance into the territory of the Northern States. The United States now resolved to make one grand effort to suppress the Confederacy. A call for men to fill up the army not meeting with so ready a response as the circumstances required, a draft was made upon able- bodied men between eighteen and forty-five. This gave rise to much dissatisfaction among the peace faction, and was the occasion of riots in New York. These were put down by the police, aided by some troops, and the draft went on. After the defeat at Gettysburg, General Lee and General Meade had a race down the Shenandoah Valley similar to the one of the year before. There was no decisive battle between the two armies for the remainder of the year. Several cavalry fights at Culpepper, Fairfax, Fredericksburg, Raccoon Station, Robertson's River and Kelley's Ford, in the months of August and September. At Cumberland Gap, Burnside captured two thousand Confederates September 9th. There was a sharp fight on the Rappahannock November 7th, in which Lee with his army was driven across the river with a loss of two thousand prisoners, four guns, and eight stands of colors. Lee then took his post across Mine Run, which he strongly fortified with breastworks and abatis, and held Meade again at bay. Meade attempted to dislodge him, and for this purpose cut loose from his base, with ten days rations crossed the Rapidan, and with his force advanced to Mine Run, but he found Lee so strongly intrenched that he gave up the ■ m ■p ^t U: f- 1 ^w ■'■i. 'I ^i' 'it: V 1 I 348 THE CIVIL WAR. [1861 attempted attack, atiu re-crossing the river went into winter-quarters the first of December. In the State of Tennessee there were some startling events during the summer and fall of this year. In June, Rosccrans ordered an advance of his army in three divisions under generals Thomas, McCook and Crittenden. The point to be reached from Murfreesborough was Chattanooga. June 30th. Bragg, who saw the design of Rosecrans, fled before him and passed over the Cumberland Mountains. Rosecrans followed hard after him, but he reached the Tennessee River, and crossed it at Bridgeport, and then hastened to Chattanooga. Rosecrans pursued Bragg as far as the base of the mountain ; here he halted and rested for a whole month. But the middle of August he surprised Bragg by appearing in his front, with a line extendinj; along the Tennessee River above Chattanooga for a hundred miles, and poured shot and shell into the Confederate camp. Early in September, Thomas and McCook had crossed the Tennessee River, and by the 8th had secured the passes of Lookout Mountain, while Crittenden was in Lookout Valley, near the river. When Bragg was informed of this, he abandoned Chattanooga to defend his line of communication, and Crittenden moved his forces into the Chattanooga Valley. Thus without a battle the object of crossing the mountain was gained. Bragg had been driven from Middle Tennessee, and from his strong- hold. Burnside crossed the mountains with twenty thousand troops and joined Rosecrans on the line of the railroad south-westerly from London. Rosecrans thought Bragg was in full retreat and pushed forward to strike his flank, but found him concentrated at Lafayette. About the middle of September the two armies were face to face on the Chick- amauga Creek. A battle ensued and the Confederates won the closely contested field at a fearful loss to themselves. Chattanooga was held by the Federals but they were hemmed in by Bragg and his army. The Government decided to hold this point, and ordered generals Grant, Burnside and Rosecrans to concentrate there. The Federals were now threatened with famine, but General Hooker was sent from the army of the Potomac with the Eleventh and Twelfth Corps, Howard's and Slocum's, to hold the line of communication for Rosecrans. So the attempt of Bragg to starve out the Federals in Chattanooga failed. The Confed- erates had possession of Lookout Mountain, and swept down upon the Twelfth Corps October 28th-29th at midnight, but found the general upon the watch and they were repulsed. In the mean time Longstreet had been sent into Tennessee to seize Knoxville and drive out the army of Burnside. He came swiftly and secretly, and Burnside was closely besieged in that city. Grant saw that he must attack Bragg at once upon the arrival of Sherman's troops. The plan was made of the battle in which Grant was determined to strike the center of Bragg's army on Missionary Ridge and his right on Lookout Mountain. Thomas advanced to Orchard Knob, and fortified it NoYcmber 23d. Hooker carried the works at the base ■fr 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 349 of Lookout Mountain, and his victorious troops pressed up the sides of the mountain, which was hidden from sight by a heavy fog, and fought above the clouds. The Union armies in the valley below heard the cannonading and the shout of the charge, but could not see anything of what was being done until the fog cleared up the next morning and showed Hooker in possession of the mountain peak. While Hooker was fighting above the clouds Sherman had successfully performed his part in the plan and secured a strong position on Missionary Ridge. In the night of November 24th Bragg retired from Lookout Mountain and concentrated all his forces on Missionary Ridge. The severe and desperate encounter of the 25th raged all day — Sherman, Thomas and Hooker all taking part, and at night the fires of victory lighted up the whole length of Missionary Ridge as Bragg was in full retreat. Sherman advanced to the relief of Burnside at Knoxville, and Longstrcet was compelled to raise the siege December 3d, and return to the army of Virginia. Sherman returned to Chattanooga and Burnside was left at Knoxville. So great was the rejoicing at these victories that President Lincoln proclaimed a day of thanksgiving and praise, as he had done after the Union victory at Vicksburg and Gettysburg. There were military operations of some little account in North Carolina during the year, where General D. H. ' had been sent by order of . the Union forces held ■♦■ pass from their control. >rt Sumter and Charleston and discouragement. The obstacles in the form of General Lee to harass the Federal ti- the advantage gained and the State d* There was a most desperate attempt to ca^ waging all the year, with repeated failure harbor had been filled with the strongest torpedoes, heavy iron chains, sunken vessels and other impediments, and guarded by batteries of great strength. General Q. A. Gillmore was placed in command of the Union forces June 12th, 1863, and Admiral Dupont was succeeded by Admiral Dahlgren July 6th. Active operations were commenced at once from Folly Island, held by the Union forces, opening upon Morris Island. General Strong landed on the latter island July loth, and drove the Confederates to their fortification, Fort Wagner, but when he attacked them the next day he was repulsed with heavy loss. Gillmore began a siege of this fort, which continued until September 6th, when the Confederates abandoned it, and at once the Federals occupied Fort Wagner and Fort Gregg. Now they had full command of the city of Charleston, and could pour their solid shot and shell into the streets of the doomed city. Fort Sumter was made a heap of shapeless ruins in October by the heavy cannonading that Gillmore poured in upon it. There were some operations of more or less consequence beyond the Mississippi, inflicting some damages upon the Federal troops and stirring up the Indians against the United States. But these resulted in no very decided advantage to the Confederates, and at the close of 1863 all Texas west of the Colorado was in the possession of the Federals. Ti? *• 1 I 1 \ 350 THE CIVIL WAR. [1861 m. \i The finances of trte United States were in a healtny condition, for in spite of the enormous debt, constantly increasing, the public credit never stood higher, while the Confederate States were in a most deplorable financial situation. Their war debt was as large as that of the Federal government and the credit was wanting. They were forced to seize supplies for their army, and in order to keep their ranks full, passed a most severe conscription act, calling out every available man for military service " robbing the cradle and the grave." THE MILITARY OPERATIONS OF 1864. iHE Congress of the United States in the opening of this year saw that there had been some radical trouble in the management of the war, and came to the conclusion to put some one man in command of the entire force of the Government and make him responsible for the conduct of the war. Hitherto there had been at times a conflict of authority, and different generals had been working upon opposing theories, and this had been the prolific cause of delays, and reverses. Now a new rank was created by law, and U. S. Grant was commissioned Lieutenant-General and Commander-in-chief of all United States forces. He believed that the surest way to end the war, and in the long run save human life, was to strike decisive and heavy blows and follow them up with hard fighting. He would make war with the horrible intention of killing men and end the contest as quickly as possible. Two expeditions were formed, one having the capture of Atlanta, Georgia, and the other, that of Richmond in view. For the first he put General W. T. Sherman in chief command, and for the second. General G. G. Meade. The task of the latter was to beat the army of General Lee, and the former the army of Johnston. These were now the chief armies of the Confederacy, and upon their destruction hung the issue of the war. The year 1864 began with a series of reverses in tlTe extreme South and South-west. The capture of Fort Pillow and the treacherous massacre of its garrison by General Forest, in April, was a foul blot upon the civilization of the age. He sent a flag of truce demanding the surrender of the fort, and while it was under consideration secretly arranged his forces to fall upon it unexpectedly. This was done with the cry " No quarter," when a large number who threw down their arms were butchered in cold blood. Forest said in self-defense : " War means fight and fight means kill — we want but few prisoners." General Banks was sent up the Red River upon a disastrous expedition. Missouri was invaded by a large force which caused considerable trouble throughout the summer and was not driven out until November. Arkansas had come under the control of the Confederates, and the Union ^t [I86I ondition, for in ic credit never lorablc financial :ral government pplies for their ere conscription )bing the cradle 1864. e opening of this adical trouble in ;o the conclusion le entire force of ponsible for the d been at times a merals had been been the prolific k was created by ieutenant-General tes forces. He id in the long run heavy blows and make war with the contest as rmed, one having e other, that of Sherman in chief task of the latter .rmyof Johnston. and upon their tremc South and IS massacre of its he civilization of r of the fort, and ;s to fall upon it :," when a large id blood. Forest -we want but few pon a disastrous lused considerable until November, s, and the Union 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 351 citizens who had been making preparations to return the State government to the Federals were silenced. The operations in Charleston Harbor were being carried on slowly. East Tennessee was the scene of stirring events of minor importance, but the country turned from all these to the more sanguinary and gigantic operations in Virginia and Georgia. Some movements were undertaken in the early spring of 1864, with the design of capturing Richmond and releasing the Union prisoners in Libby Prison and on Belle Isle. In February, General B. F. Butler sent fifteen hundred troops against Richmond, but his design was frustrated by treachery. Later than this General Kilpatrick swept around Lee's right flank with five thousand cavalry and penetrated the outer defenses of Richmond, but was compelled to retire March ist. Another part of the same command was able to enter the lines at another point, but were driven back with the loss of Colonel Dahlgren and ninety men. General Easton with a considerable force threatened to cut Lee's communications with the Shenandoah Valley. But all these little forays were only intended to show how hollow the Confederacy really was, rather than to accomplish any great result. The two great plans of General Grant were to be put into execution later. The mistaken opinions in the early part of the war had been corrected by bitter experience, and the North and South were alike aware that the fight must wage to the end. A well-tried general, in whom the whole North had confidence, had assumed command. The volunteer army was no longer a mass of citizen militia, but hardened veterans of battle, inured to heavy marching and heavy fighting. The spirit of the North was resolute and as determined as ever. Grant had his headquarters with the army of the Potomac, which had been re-organized and formed into three corps, the Second Corps under General Hancock, the Fifth in command of General Warren, and the Sixth with the gallant Sedgwick at its head. General Burnside with the Ninth Corps, which had been filled up by recruits and thoroughly reconstructed during the winter, was attached to the army of the Potomac. General Grant ordered Meade in Virginia and Sherman in Georgia to advance the beginning of May. We will follow the fortunes of the first. The 4th of May the army of the Potomac was led into the region known as the Wilderness, to attack the Confederates who were intrenched on Mine Run. A fearful carnage in that trackless and tangled country ensued for two days; Lee's front could not be carried, and his flank must be turned it possible. General Warren led the movement out of the Wilderness with the Fifth Corps May 8th, and came to the open country at Spottsylvania, where he found a part of Lee's army posted across his path, and the rest of the ^orce rapidly concentrating there. The flanking movement had been expected by Lee, and he was ready to meet it. On the 9th, General Sedgwick was killed while reconnoitering on the front line. The battle opened on the loth, and was contested with fearful loss on both sides. On the nth Grant sent his famous dispatch to Washington, " I intend to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." On the 12th Hancock broke Lee's i .n \ . 352 THE CIVIL WAR. [1861 line and gained a decided advantage, but the following night the Confederate army silently withdrew behind his second line of intrenchments and was as strong as ever. Another flank movement was impending, and Lee made an attack to prevent it on May 19th and was repulsed. While thes-.- operations were going on, General Sheridan made a raid upon Lee's rear with a large force of cavalry, and came to within a few miles of Richmond, destroying railroads and military supplies. General Sigel was in the Shenandoah and Kanawha valleys, and had a fight at New Market May 15th, in which the Confederates gained the day. General Hutler with the army of the James had left Fortress Monroe with twenty-five thousand troops in transports, followed by Admiral Lee with gun-boats, and they took possession of both sides of the rivet as far as City Point by the aid of fifteen hundred mounted men, who hiui forded the Chickahominy and taken their position on the James opposite City Point. This was done with but little fighting, for there were few Confed- erates there. Butler fortified liermuda Hundred and intended to cut communication between Petersburg and Richmond. The former city could have been easily taken, but for some reason it was not accomplished, and the Confederates from South Carolina hastened there to aid in its defense. Beauregard got into Petersburg before the railroad was destroyed, and on the morning of May i6th attacked Butler's right, and after a sharp fight drove his army into their intrenchments. At the same instant a charge on Butler's front was repulsed. For several days there was much fighting all along his lines. Grant's army was moving by the left flank, but Lee had the inside line of the parallel circles on the road to Richmond and consequently was able to move faster than his antagonist. A heavy battle was fought at the North Anna River. Grant was satisfied that he could not carry the strong position of Lee, and again resumed his march by the left flank. On the 26th of May the whole army was south of the Pawmunkej*. Lee was again In a fortified position and a heavy battle ensued. " By the left flank " again came the order, and the army moved to Cold Harbor. Ten thousand men from General Butler's army under command of General W. F. Smith re-enforced the army of Meade, and he made an advance upon the enemy in front. The fight here on June 3d was bloody and short. In twenty minutes the Union army lost ten thousand men and only succeeded in holding their own position. The line of Lee's arny could not be broken. Other attempts to force the lines the next day met with similar results, but all the while the Union forces were moving by the left flank and June 7th rested on the Chick- ahominy. Sheridan crossed the river with his cavalry and tore up the railroads and bridges. The whole army moved across the river to Lee's right and crossed the James June 14th and 15th. Butler made an unsuccessful attempt to take Petersburg before aid could arrive from Richmond. The failure to accomplish this disarranged the plans some- le Confederato ts and was as nd Lee made While thts.j _,ee's rear with of Richnioiul, 1 was in the rket May 15th, left Fortress ^ed by Admiral :s of the river 1 men, who had James opposite 'ere few Confcd- tendcd to cut )tmcr city could t accomplished, lere to aid in d was destroyed, ht, and after a : same instant a there was much 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 353 what, and caused the long and exhaustive siege of both cities which lasted for ten months. Grant established his head-quarters at City Point, and on the i6th preparations were made to carry the city of Petersburg by assault. Warren, Hancock and Burnsidc made a desperate attack on the lines here, but it was evident that the whole army of Lee was south of the James. The assaults of the Union army on the 17th and i8tli of June resulted in some advantage to the Nationalists, but it was plain that the time to take Petersburg by direct advance was past. An attempt was now made on the right of the Confederate army to cut the Weldon Railroad and turn his flank. The railroad was destroyed as far as Ream's Station. The besieging lines of Meade's and Butler's army extended from Bermuda Hundred to the Weldon Railroad around Petersburg and Richmond. A disastrous attempt to break the Confederate lines at Petersburg was made on the 30th of July by exploding a mine under a fort on the outpost of the line. This proved a heavy disaster to the Union army, in which five thousand troops were lost and no advantage gained. September 29th Butler stormed and carried the strongest works on Lee's left, known as Fort Harrison. On October 27th an attempt was made to extend the Union lines to Hatcher's Run, but after heavy fighting the Federal troops were obliged to retire to their fortifications in front of Petersburg. Here they settled down for a winter's siege of that city. From the opening of the campaign in May to the ist of November the Nationalists had lost in killed, wounded, prisoners and missing, the enormous number of one hundred thousand men. There were exciting times up the Shenandoah Valley in the summer and early fall of this year. A Union army had encountered a Confederate force at Winchester July 20th and defeated it, taking many prisoners and supplies. Early was in full force up the valley, and so sanguine was he that an invading force of cavalry swept through Maryland and burned the city of Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. Sheridan was sent into the valley with thirty thousand troops to repel the invaders. By a series of the most brilliant and dashing operations and unexpected movements, Sheridan sent the Confederates " whirling up the valley." Then there came another battle at Winchester, in which Early was driven to his strong position at Fisher's Hill September 19th. He was forced from the new position the 21st and fled to the mountains. Early had less than one-half the men now that came with him into the yalley. Sheridan had his position at Cedar Creek near Strasburg, and Early, who had been re-enforced heavily, now came with crushing effect upon the Union army at a time " when Sheridan was twenty miles away." The lines were driven back in great confusion. The Eleventh Corps were not able to withstand the fierce onslaught of Early's men. Sheridan hastened to the scene of battle, reformed the broken lines, and riding along the regiments and brigades with cheers encouraged his men to victory, regained the lost ground, and swept the Confederates in hopeless flight up the Shenandoah. Early's Ml w cl'jffii' u «5 .- i Mm, 3S4 THE CIVIL WAR. [1861 i! army was nearly annihilated and Lee could spare no more men. This ended the contest for the fertile valley which had been overrun so often by the opposing forces — Sheridan had burned and destroyed on every hand — such was the stem necessity of war — and the Confederates could no more gain the abundant supplies that they found in the rich valley, which for years had been the store-house of their armies. The beginning of May, when General Grant ordered the two great armies to move, Sherman was at Chattanooga with about one hundred thousand men. His antagonist was General Johnston, with fifty-five thousand troops, who was at Dalton strongly intrenched. Sherman's plan was to move by the left flank and compel the Confederates to abandon one strong position after another in order to save their army. A sharp iiglit took place at Resaca Station May 15th, which drove Johnston across the Oostenaula. The Union army closely followed in three divisions. At Adairsville, Johnston made a stand, but when the Federals advanced he pushed on and fortified a position commanding the Altoona Pass. After resting a little Sherman moved forward to the right, and had a severe contest May 25th. This was a drawn battle, without advantage to either side. June 1st, Johnston was forced to abandon the Altoona Pass. Sherman took possession of this and made it a second base of supplies by repairing the railroad to Chattanooga. He here received reinforcements. June 9th he took possession of Big Shanty, and by persistency and frequent fighting forced Johnston to give up Pine Mountain June 15th, Lost Mountain June 17th, and Kenesaw Mountain July 2d. On the morning of July 3d, the stars and stripes waved over the last mentioned mountain, and Sherman rode in triumph into Marietta, close upon the heels of Johnston's army. The Confederates succeeded in crossing the river here before Sherman could give them a crushing blow. Johnston was obliged to retreat July loth, toward Atlanta, Georgia. He fortified his army on a line covering that town from the Chattahooche River to Peachtree Creek. He knew that his force was less than that of the Nationals, and therefore he preferred to save his army rather than risk an engagement. He had already had a number of severe encounters, and had been worsted in them all. General Johnston was here relieved of the command of the Confederate army, and superseded by General Hood. The former was a cautious, scientific soldier, while the latter was a dashing, reckless ofiicer, who did not care for the loss of men if he could make quick work. July i6th, General Rousseau, with two thousand cavalry, joined Sherman. On the 19th, all the Union forces were across the river. A flank movement was made to cut the railroad leading to Augusta. This was accomplished. On the 20th, Hood attacked the weakened lines in front, but was repulsed with heavy loss. On the 22d, the Confederate lines on the heights about Peachtree Creek were abandoned, and Sherman thought that Hood, like Johnston had evacuated the city, and consequently moved his army rapidly toward Atlanta. He found Hood in a strong line of works near the city, which had been built the year before. Preparations i86s] THE CIVIL WAR. 3SS were made for carrying the city by assault, when a large part of Hood's army, which had come around Sherman's rear in the night, fell upon him, and a most sanguinary and hotly contested battle raged for four hours. The Union army was successful, and the Confederates were driven back to their breastworks. July 28th, Hood made another attack upon Sherman but was repulsed with heavy loss, and seeing that the Unionists were gradually (jetting possession of all the railroads leading from the city, after a month of counter maneuvering the Confederate general abandoned Atlanta, having destroyed all factories, warehouses and whatever would be of advantage to the enemy. He left no food for the inhabitants, who were on the point of starvation. Sherman took possession, and not being able to feed the citizens and his own army, humanely ordered all non-combatants to leave the city, either for the North or South, as they might choose. He furnished transportation for all who wished to go to Chattanooga. Hood, after leaving Atlanta, moved upon Sherman's base of supplies at Altoona Pass, and threatened the small force there. Sherman sent to their assistance, and drove the army of Hood with great slaughter. Then he returned to Atlanta with all his troops, destroying all foundries, dismantling the railroads, and preparing to cut loose from his base of supplies. His army numbered sixty-five thousand men of all kinds. He cut the wires which connected him with the North, and started on his grand march to the sea. The people in the North did not hear from him for some time except through the newspapers of the South, and this was far from being reliable. His army was divided into two great columns; one under General O. O. Howard, the other under General W. H. Slocum, with the cavalry in command of General Kilpatrick. Nothing was heard from this army until December 13th, when it appeared before Savannah and captured Fort McAllister, on the Ogeechee River, not far from that city. Savannah was invested at once, and on the 20th, Hardee evacuated it and fled to Charleston with fifty thousand troops. The army of Georgia entered the city the next day and there rested, after a march of two hundred and fifty- five miles, inflicting very heavy loss upon the Confederates and sustaining but little loss in return. Some active measures were going on in Florida and North Carolina during this time, but the most interest was centered upon the two grand armies. In September and October there were some interesting events, and after considerable skirmishing on both sides there was a general engagement at Franklin, in which the Confederate forces at first drove their antagonists from their breastworks, and were in turn driven back. Hood the Confederate general, lost three thousand men. On the 15th of December, a desperate battle was fought in front of Nashville, where Hood was besieging Scofield. The attack was opened by General Thomas, who drove the Confederates from their works and pursued them out of the State. The campaign ended with complete success for the Union army. The Anglo-Confederate privateers were doing immense damage to our ^ •I 'I « ■; :& ! .1' l',< •M ■'■■'1 H Si ' ill Pli': ^ H 356 THE CIVIL WAR. [1861 U t commerce in all paits of the 'world. The first and chief was the Alabama, in command of a former United States navy officer, Captain Raphael Semmes. The English also built for the Confederates the Florida, Georgia, Tallahassee, Olustee and Chickatnauga, all of which were committing great depredations upon ihe vessels and cargoes of American ship-owners. This drove a large part of our maritime commerce to seek the protection of foreig:, flr.gs. A stupendous effort was made to capture and destroy these cruisers, f s Georgia was captured off the coast of Lisbon in August, 1864, by the United States vessel Niagara; the Florida by the Wachusett, October 7th, in a port of Brazil. The Alabama had been sunk some time before this by the Kearsarge. Captain Semmes was rescued from capture by a British vessel which was conveniently near at hand, but the "common people" were left to drown or be picked up by the American vessel and a Frenchman. This had occurrt i Sunday Juno, 19th. Admiral Farragut had captured the port of Mobile with a fleet of eighteen vessels aided by a land force under General Gordon Granger. This fleet passed between the two forts, Morgan and Gaines, lashed together in pairs, August 5th, 1864. It was in this engagement that the brave admiral was lashed to the rigging of his flag-ship. Tlit Confederate ram Tennessee was destroyed and a complete victory gained. The forts were surrendered after cannonading and siege. Fort Gaines on the 7th and Fort Morgan on the 23d of August. The port of Mobile was closed. We will turn for a brief space from the consideration of military to political affairs. The National Republican par y had met in a convention at Baltimore, in June, and nominated Mr. Lincoln for re-election, affirmed its determination to maintain the Union and the policy of his government, and pledged themselves to sustain it to the end. Andrew Johnson was nominated for the Vice-Presiden':y. August 29th the opposition party, or " Democratic," as it was called, opened at Chicago, and displayed an intense anti-war feeling. George B. McClellan was nominated for the Presidency and George H. Pendleton for Vice- President. The resolution that declared the war a failure was scarcely dry upon the paper before *ke people of the United Sliites were called to devote a day to thanksgiving anc praise for the glorious victories of Sherman and Faixagut. The electicr. resulted in the most overwhelming majorities for Lincoln and Johnson. Only the three States of Delaware, Kentucky and New Jersey gave their vcte3 to the oppositioiu [i86i ,s the Alabama, in ] Raphael Semmes. | Florida, Georgia, committing great ] ihip-owners. This 3tection of foreig'w :roy these cruisers, just, 1864, by the 5/, October 7th, in before this by the )y a British vessel eople " were left to nchman. This had lie with a fleet of don Granger. This .lashed together in the brave admiral irate ram Tennessee tswere surrendered I and Fort Morgan ration of military to et in a convention at lection, affirmed its lis government, and drew Johnson was 5 it was called, opened George B. McClellan Pendleton for Vice- ire was scarcely dry were called to devote ctories of Sherman whelming majorities Delaware, Kentucky 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 357 THE CLOSING EVENTS OF THE WAR-1865. ■HE year that saw the closing operations of the civil strife had come, and General Sherman, after giving his gallant army a rest of more than a month, started for a march into the interior. On the 17th of February, 1865, he captured Columbia, the capital of South Carolina. Wade Hampton had ordered all the cotton in that city to be piled in the public square and burned. In the 11^ severe gale which was then blowing the city was set on fire and destroyed in part. Sherman had now flanked the city of Charleston, which so long had withstood the most persistent siege, and in consequence the Confederates abandoned it. Hardee fled from the city and the United States colored troops marched in and raised the stars and stripes upon the public buildings February 19th. Sherman pressed onward to North Carolina, leaving a track of destruction forty miles wide, until he came to Fayetteville, March 12th, where he found the concentrated forces under Johnston, numbering forty thousand. Sherman here halted three days for rest. After destroying the Confederate armory and the military stores, he marched on in two columns, as when in Geo i.'a. The column under Slocum had a severe fight with Hardee's force of twenty thousand men, and won the victory March i6th. Slocum marched on toward Goldsboro', and was attacked by Johnston, whom he repulsed near Bentonville March i8th. Johnston had fully expected to crush Slocum before the main body could come to his aid, but that commander held his ground firmly, and after six desperate attempts to drive him back, Johnston gave up the contest at night fall. The next morning, the 19th, there were sixty thousand Federals in front of Johnston, who retreated. Sherman's whole army then reached Goldsboro*, the point for which they had started. Sherman then hastened to City Point to confer with Grant and Meade, and returned to his command three days later. Here we will leave him for a while. After closing the port of Mobile, the only port left to which the blockade runners could gain access was Wilmington, North Carolina. A movement was made in December, 1864. Admiral D. D. Porter was in command of the fleet, and General Butler, the commander of that department, accompanied it. After various attempts the expedition was successful and took possession of the city. The Confederates had abandoned Fort Anderson, destroyed the privateers Tallahassee and Cliickamauc^a, lying in port, burned a vast amount of cotton and naval stores, and fled from the city February 22d, 3865. In the Gulf Department the fleet under Farragut had prepared the way for the fall of Mobile, which was accomplished April 2d. 1865, What m . ' 'i. ■ ■. i ,;.;rja.:f 35« THE CIVIL WAR. I1861 were the army of the Potomac and General Lee's forces doing all this while ? Let us see. Grant was holding Petersburg and Richmond in a vise-like grip, which prevented Lee from going to the assistance of Johnston. He dared not send him any men, for in so doing he would weaken the defense of the Confederate capital. The besieges were pounding away with solid shot, and mortar shells upon the fortifications around the doomed cities, and daily extending the cordon around them, and cutting one after another of the railroads which fed them from the south. About the end of February, Sheridan with ten thousand cavalry left their head-quarters, and sweeping around Lee's flank scattered the forces under Early from Staunton March 2d, and destroyed the Lynchburg Railroad as far as Charlotteville. Then dividing into two columns, one to destroy the railroad further up and the other to destroy the James River Canal, accomplishing this, he swept around Lee's left and joined the army of the Potomac March 27th. Lee now made a desperate attempt to break through Grant's lines and join Johnston. A most desperate assault was made March 27th upon Fort Steadman, in front of Petersburg, held by the Ninth Corps. The Con- federates captured the fort and held it about four hours : then it was recaptured by the Federals, and Lee's last chance to break the Union lines was gone. The Union troops were nearer the city at night than when the attack was made in the morning. A grand movement was begun on March 29th by General Sheridan with ten thousand cavalry, the Fifth Corps under Warren, and the Second under Hancock, while the Ninth, under Parke, held the long line of breast works. Lee sa ^ his peril and made great haste to avert it if possible, but his army was disheartened by the hard work of the winter, the want of supplies, and the loss of all hope. A heavy fight ensiu d at Five Forks, in which Sheridan was forced back on Dinwiddle Court House, but held his ground, April ist, 1865. On the evening of the same day a continuous and concentrated cannonade was opened upon Petersburg all along the line, and at early dawn of the 2d a part of the works were carried, The left had been successful, and when General Longstreet came down from Richmond to aid Lee he was too late to be of any service. Lee sent word to President Davis : " My lines are broken in three places ; we can hold Petersburg no longer: Richmond must be evacuated this evening." Davis and his cabinet fled to Dansville, where Lee hoped to join him, but Sheridan '"as in the way at Amelia Court House. Lee endeavored to escape and did some heavy fighting in the desperation of despair, but on the 9th of April, after one final charge to break the Federal lines at Appomatox Court House, he sent a flag of truce with an oiTer of surrender. Grant and Lee met under an apple tree on the grounds of W. McLean to make generous terms of surrender. Mr. Lincoln went to Richmond April 4th, and was enthusiastically received by all classes, the officers high in rank, and the poor colored men, and then returned to Washington happy that the cruel war was over. On the [i86i ill this while? ke grip, which lared not send he Confederate )t, and mortar daily extending railroads which iridan with ten and Lee's flank d destroyed the ito two columns, ;troy the James and joined the grant's lines and h 27th upon Fort :orps. The Con- s: then it was k the Union lines It than when the begun on March 'ifth Corps under inder Parke, held le great haste to hard work of the leavy fight ensiu d [die Court House, I the same day a on Petersburg all ■orks were carried, came down from Lee sent word ices ; we can hold , evening." Davis .him, but Sheridan to escape and did . the 9th of April, itox Court House, id Lee met under generous terms of Us enthusiastically [poor colored men, ' was over. On the 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 359 evening of the 14th, while the patient man who had endured the most fearful strain of these anxious years, was quietly sitting in a private box in a public place of amusement, he was shot by an assassin, who entered from behind and deliberately aimed his revolver at his unsuspecting victim. John Wilkes Booth, a play actor of moderate ability, and a warm secessionist, was the actor in this diabolical crime. The Confederate government were not responsible for the act, much less the brave men who had contested so many hard fought battles with the North. No man was found to openly applaud the act save here and there a solitary voice in the North, which was quickly hushed by the intense popular excitement of the times. Andrew Johnson took the oath of President April 15, 1865, and entered at once upon the discharge of his duties. After some active operations in North Carolina Johnston asked for an armistice, proposing to refer the matter of settlement of grievances to General Grant. The armistice was granted the 14th day of April, but the idea that the defeated chieftain should dictate terms caused Grant to order a resumption of hostilities on the 26th. This was followed by the surrender of Johnston on the same generous terms that had been given General Lee. The fugitive President of the Confederacy was captured at Irwinsville, Georgia, May nth, and sent to Fortress Monroe, and there he was treated with marked kindness, u itil he was released under bail placed at one million dollars. Lieutenant-Gcncral Grant issued a patriotic and thrilling farewell address to the " Soldiers of the Armies of the United States," June 2d, 1865. The military prisons, where tens of thousands of Confederate prisoners of war were held for exchange, were opened and the men were sent to their homes at Government expense. The millions of liberated blacks were cared for by Government, and the nation, happy that peace had again dawned upon the distracted country, were loud in their demonstrations of joy. The most brilliant pageantry of modern times was held in Washington, consisting of a grand review of the Union armies of the Potomac and of the ^ames, and of Sherman's army. This lasted two days, and then the task of disbanding the mighty Union army began. The rolls were made out, the arms were stacked, the artillery parked, and flags were furled. In an incredibly short time the hundreds of thousands of boys in blue had donned the garb of private citizens and returned to the avocations of peace. The great work of putting down armed resistance to the Government had been accomplished, and now the peaceful question of regulating the commercial, political and social relations of the States late in arms would be settled in the halls of Congress. I :i;i:;. 1 1 1 t 1 ,; *)L !l 7 -.i^i-A km I: I ; rT'.l I a RECONSTROGTION AND PROGRESS. ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON. HAT was the position of these States which had passed the ordinance of secession? The war had closed, but it had been maintained by the North that the Stites were all the while an integral part of the Union and had no power to dissolve their allegiance to it. What was to be done ? Should their territory be held as if it had been conquered from a foe? They had endeavored to sever the bonds that bound them to the Government but had been prevented by the firm hand of armed law. They now claimed the right to resume their old places in Congress as if they had never attempted to secede. What should be done? The Proclamation of Emancipation had given freedom only to those slaves whose masters were in arms on the first day of January, 1863. There were many others whose owners could hold them under that proclamation, but many of the slave States removed this impediment of their own account. Louisiana, Maryland, Tennessee, Missouri and Arkansas had abolished it within their borders. An amendment to the Constitution of the United States had been submitted to the several States and adopted, in 1865, by more than the required number to make it a part of that instrument. Another amendment was submitted to the States, giving the fullest rights of American citizenship to all natural-born citizens and naturalized citizens of the United States. This was made the condition for the restora- tion of rights to those men who were seeking to return to their old position of citizenship. The questions growing out of all this were most delicate. and required the careful consideration of patriots ; but the institution which had caused all the controversy of the past, all the bloodshed and ruin which had come to both sections of the country, must be thoroughly eradicated now, and leave no seeds to spring up in after years. So the men who had won the fight thought, and the men who had yielded " to the stern necessity of war " came to accept the situation with what grace they could, and slowly the work went on to its completion. April 29th, 1865, President Johnson issued a proclamation removing certain restrictions on commercial intercourse with the Southern States. May 20th, provisional governors were appointed for the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas. The order for rescinding the blockade was issued the 23d of June, another to still 1866] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 361 N. tcs which had The war had the North that rral part of the their allegiance i their territory •ed from a foe? od them to the hand of armed :ir old places in e. What should d given freedom on the first day se owners could the slave States iiana, Maryland, lin their borders, d been submitted lan the required ;iving the fullest and naturalized In for the restora- :heir old position ;re most delicate, institution which Id and ruin which jughly eradicated phe men who had le stern necessity [could, and slowly limation removing Southern States. States of North ind Texas. The [ne, another to still further remove the restriction on inter-state commerce August 29th. State prisoners were released October 12th. Tne "habeas corpus" was restored December ist. The provisional governors in the States, who were zealous to do all that could be done to reorganize their States, called conventions of delegates, chosen by citizens, who could take the oath required by the act of Congress. Before the session of Congress had met in December five States had ratified the proposed amendment to the Constitution, formed new State Constitutions, and provided for Representatives to Congress. When Congress met there arose at once a conflict between the President and the Legislative Department. This breach widened until it became an open rupture. The Cabinet resigned, with the exception of the Secretary of War, E. M. Stanton, who was advised to remain by his friends. On April 2d, 1866, the Executive issued his proclamation declaring that the civil war was at an end. Tennessee was finally restored to the Union July 23d. There had been a French occupation of Mexico, in which Maximillian had assumed to be emperor of that country during the years of the war. On the 5th of April, 1865, our Government had informed the French Emperor that the continuation of the French troops in Mexico was objectionable, and at once the assurance came that they would be withdrawn. Trouble arose with Great Britain over the Fenian question, but it was peaceably adjusted. The elections throughout the Northern States showed that the people sustained the policy of Congress. The act conferrinf^* the elective franchise upon all citizens in the District of Columbia was passed December 14th. This was vetoed by the President, but passed over his veto by more than a two-thirus vote January 7th, 1867. The same day the preliminary steps were taken for the impeachment of Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, which resulted in a trial before the Senate, with the Chief Justice presiding, in May, 1868. The territory of Nebraska was admitted into the Union March ist, 1867 There was intense excitement over several bills which the President vetoed and Congress at once passed over his veto. The thirty-ninth Congress closed its session March 3d and the fortieth Congress met at once. This Congress adjourned on March 31st, to meet on the first Wednesday in July. This was done, and then the two Houses adjourned July 20th, to meet again November 2ist. In the mean time the President attempted to remove E. M. Stanton, Secretary of War, who refused to resign. General Grant was ordered to assume the office, which he did. The controversy went on until the impeach- ment of the President, and the trial lasted from March 5th to April 26th, when he escaped conviction by only one vote. Two-thirds of all the votes cast are required to convict. Every member was present. Thirty-five voted guilty and nineteen voted not guilty. The Secretary of State certified to the fact that the required number of States had adopted the amendment to the Constitution conferring civil rights upon all citizens, without regard to race or color. '"■'^'M 1 if ;, ■ ' ■Hi Si!)' n n V. f V, II i "■ i kt !■ .i^-^M 362 RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. [1869 The work of reorganization was completed in all the States save three, and the people of the South were betaking themselves to the task of retrieving their ruined fortunes, and thus comparative quiet was restored. An important treaty with China was ratified by Congress before its adjournment. The Indian question had caused some discussion, and an attempt to transfer the conduct of these affairs to the War Department failed. A fifteenth amendment was proposed by Congress February 26th, 1869, and submitted to the States, the requisite number of which ratified it soon after. General U. S. Grant was elected President of the United States, and Schuyler Colfax Vice-President, at the election of 1868, and on the 4th of March, 1869, took their oaths of ofifice and entered upon the discharge of their duties. ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. RESIDENT GRANT entered upon the task of finishing the incomplete work of reconstruction at once, and sent a special message to Congress April 7th, 1869, in which he urged that body to adopt and maintain such measures as would effectually secure the civil and political rights of all persona within the borders of the States not yet in full relations to the Union. Both the Executive and Lcgisla- tive Departments took every means in their power consist- ent with the provisions of the amended Constitution to restore the people who were not yet represented in the National Congress to this position. This was finally acconn- plished in 1872, when, on the 23d day of May, every seat that had been abdicated in 1861 by members from the Southern States was filled by legally elected members. May 22d a general Amnesty Bill was passed by Congress, removing the disabilities imposed by the Fourteenth Amendment from all persons, with the exceptions of those who had held positions in the National Government, the diplomatic corps, and the army and navy of the United States during the administration of James Buchanan. The political unity of the whole country was now established by law, and the rights of American citizenship conferred upon all native born and naturalized persons within the borders of the United States, with the exception of the comparative few mentioned above. The last tie which completed the railroad from the Atlantic to the Pacific was laid May 10th, 1869, and marked an important event in the social and commercial life of the United States. By this the States on the eastern sea-board and the distant Pa,cific coast were brought [i869 tes save three, 3 the task of IS restored. ;ress before its ussion, and an (artment failed, lary 26th, 1869, ratified it soon ed States, and on the 4th of the discharge of IRANI. n the task of econstruction at . Congress April body to adopt jou\d effectually ! of all persona not yet in full /e and Lcgisla. • power consist. Constitution to resented in the IS finally accom- May, every seat om the Southern rs. May 22d a ss, removing the ndment from all lositions in the ly and navy of Buchanan. The ed by law, and native born and States, with the Atlantic to tbe |)ortant event in this the States St were brought ■8;;] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 363 together, and a grand highway opened to communicate with the over- land trade from China and Japan. There was a general rejoicing as the last spike was driven, for communication was made with the entire telegraph system of the country, and the blows of the hammer was recorded in thousands of offices in all parts of the land. A gigantic insurrection arose in Cuba with which many citizens of the United States were in close sympathy, but the Government wisely maintained neutrality, and measures were taken to suppress all fillibus- tering. A number of gunboats ordered by the Spanish Government were detained in the United States on suspicion that they were to be used against Peru. They were n^lcased. There arose quite intense excitement, and war was threatened, growing out of the seizure of the steamship Virginius in Cuba while flying the American flag, under the belief that she was bringing arms and supplies to the Cuban insurgents. A number of her passengers and her captain were shot by the Spanish authorities. The whole matter was finally settled by diplomacy. The Virginius was sunk at sea while being conveyed to the United States in a gale off Cape Fear. There was a violation of the neutrality laws in 1870 by a large band of Irishmen known as Fenians, who assembled to the number of three thousand on the borders of Canada in the State of Vermont. They invaded that province with the intention of freeing Ireland by some vague plan. The two governments suppressed the trouble, and our adopted Irish citizens have not since then attempted to violate the neutrality laws in force between the two countries. The United States had long desired some territory in the West Indies, and in 1869 a treaty was made with Hayti by which that island was to be annexed to the United States; but the Senate did not ratify it, and thus the movement in that direction ceased to be a government measure. The survey of a proposed inter-oceanic canal across the Isthmus of Darien was made by an exploration under Commander Selfridge in 1870. The year 1871 saw two of the most destructive fires, amounting to a national calamity, that ever visited this country. In October of that year the greater portion of Chicago was swept by the flames, which raged for forty-eight hours and devastated two thousand acres of territory and destroyed two hundred millions of property. This disaster called forth the sympathy and material aid of the whole civilized and commercial world. The next month, November, the fire-fi^nd swept away the very center of Boston, destroying seventy-five millions of dollars. President Grant found at the opening of his first term the question of the Alabama claims an open one with the Er.glish Government. A joint commission was proposed by the United States, and England agreed. This "joint high commission" met at Washington May 8th, 1871. and completed a treaty, referring the whole matter at issue to a court of arbitration : this treaty was at once ratified by both countries. Ther* ,4v n r 4 I i 364 RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. [1869 were four important questions involved : 1st. The settlement of all claims by either government growing out of losses sustained during the Civil War. 2d. The permanent settlement of the American coast fisheries. 3d. The free navigation of certain rivers, including the St. Lawrence, and, 4th. The settlement of the boundary between Vancouver's Island and the mainland on the Pacific coast. The first question was referred to a tribunal of arbitration, which met at Geneva, Switzerland, December 15th, 1 87 1, and adjourned to June 15th, 1872. The final meeting of this tribunal was held September 14th, 1872. By their award Great Britain was to pay to the United States the sum of fifteen million five hundred thousand dollars in gold, as an award for losses sustained by the depre- dations of the Alabama and other British-built privateers during the Civil War. The money was paid the following year. The fourth ques- tion was referred to the Emperor of German/ who decided in favor of the United States, giving her the island of San Juan, which had been in dispute. The other important measures and events of General Grant's first term were the adoption of weather signals by the means of the Morse telegraph under control of the National Signal Service. This has proved of inestimable value to American commerce and agriculture. The apportionment of representatives to Congress, by which there was one representative to every one hundred and thirty-seven thousand eight hundred population, making two hundred and eighty-three members in all, A new pension law was passed in aid of all Union soldiers who had suffered the loss of limbs or health in the late war. Early in 1873 the franking privilege was abolished, by which much money was saved to the Post-Ofifice Department. In 1872 an important embassy of twenty- one of^cials of the Chinese Government visited the United States, and the Grand Duke Alexis of Russia also came to this country. Steps were taken to celebrate the centennial anniversary of American inde- pendence, which would occur in 1876, by a display at Philadelphia of the industries of all nations. The political campaign of 1872 was begun in May by the nomina- tion of Horace Greeley for President and B. Gratz Brown for Vice- President by a convention of "liberal Republicans." The Democratic party coalesced with them and ratified the same nominations July 9th. The Republicans re-nominated General Grant for President and Henry Wilson for Vice-President June 5th. The election resulted in retaining General Grant for a second term and making Mr. Wilson Vice-President. The relation of the troublesome Morman question to the general government agitated the public mind to some extent during this time. The system of polygamy was strongly intrenched in the very heart of the Continent, and a petition signed by twenty-five hundred women in its favor was presented to Congress. The elective franchise had been given to the female sex, and out of a large vote in favor of a State [1869 t of all claims iring the Civil t fisheries. 3d. Lawrence, and, Island and the referred to a and, December meeting of this i Great Britain ion five hundred d by the deprc- ;ers during the he fourth ques- ided in favor of which had been jral Grant's first IS of the Morse This has proved igriculture. The h there was one nd eight hundred mbers in all. A oldiers who had Early in 1873 the :y was saved to Ibassy of twenty- Inited States, and country. Steps American inde- It Philadelphia of by the nomina- [ Brown for Vice- The Democratic knations July 9*^- [ident and Henry ^Ited in retaining m Vice-President. to the general [during this time. Ithe very heart of lundred women in lanchise had been favor of a State 1877] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 365 Constitution nearly one-half were cast by women. There had been population enough in Utah for some time, but the Congress of the United States refused to admit her with the .system of polygamy. The second term of General Grant as President began March 4th, 1873, and his nominations for Cabinet officers was at once confirmed by the Senate. The country was prosperous and rapidly recuperating from the sad effects of the war. The improvement in the feelings between the South and North was very marked, growing out of the leniency with which the Government treated those lately in arms against it. The Indian troubles assumed unusual proportions during the second term of Grant's administration. The humane policy inaugurated at the beginning of his first term had not resulted in all that was hoped for it. The trouble .seemed to be in the fact that the Government treated the tribes of Indians as distinct nations, and made treaties with them, appointed agents and com- missioners, supplied them with bounties and subsidies, and compelled them to remain upon reservations set apart for them. The men who were acting as Indian agents were not always true men, and caused ill feelinj^^s on the part of the red men. Not far from three hundred thousand Indians are living in the States, of whom ninety-seven thousand are civilized and one hundred and twenty-five thousand half civilized. The remainder are in a savage state. General Custer was sent into the Dakota region in 1874 with a military and exploration expedition, and gave such a glowing account of the country as to excite the mining population to enter and prospect for the precious metals in great numbers. At the close of 1874 a bill was introduced into Congress 'o extinguish as much of the title to the Black Hills reservation as lay within he territory of Dakota. This greatly irritated the chiefs of the SiouX; for ■;hey, with great show of justice, regarded it as a step toward robbing them of their lawful domain. A national geologist, guarded by a large military escort, went to this region early in 1875, and the Indians began preparations •'or war. A strong force of troops was sent to the Yellowstone early in 1876. «nd were divided into three divisions, General A. H. Terry in chief command. The three columns were commanded by Generals Terry, Cooke and Gibbon, and intended to form the meshes of a net into which they expected to ensnare Sitting Bull, the warlike chief of the Sioux. General Gibbon had a fight with the Indians June 17th, in which he was obliged to fall back. General Custer, with General Terry and his staff, joined Gibbon on the Yellowstone, near Rise Bub Creek. Custer was ordered to make an attack with his force, which consisted of the Seventh United States Cavalry. He and Gibbon advanced to the Big Horn River, and Custer, coming up with the Indians first, C[ave them battle without waiting for Gibbon, and falling into an Indian ambush was killed, with the greater part of his men. Many gallant officers and men were slain in this terrible encounter, including Custer and two of his brothers and a brother-in-law. This was June 25th, 1876, and at once the Government sent a large force to this region. The Sioux evaded a contest with them anti the troopo went If. ■I- ,:> d. f ■ !■ ,<■" 'ill b. '1 ■ . ''i'-': 'uM i> :'i'v V il'; '1 .''■! .' 'I 306 RFXONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. [1869 into winter quarters. Sitting Bull with his followers retired to the British Possessions, whither the United States troops could not follow him. The Government had a war with the Nez-Perce (or nose-pierced) Indians in 1875. They had been a peaceable and friendly tribe since the time of Jefferson, when the early explorers had come to their country, and were living happy and contented in the fertile Wallewa Valley. When agents were first sent to them they had been a little dissatisfied, but there had been no out- break. Now the settlers had begun to crowd upon them, and treaties were made with a part of the tribe to remove to a reservation, upon the Govern- ment paying them a certain fixed annuity. But an old chief, by the name of Joseph, who had taken no part in the treaty, refused to leave, and in 1873 Grant had ordered that they should not be molested. When the avaricious whites began to encroach upon the domains of this tribe the President was induced to revoke this order, and in 1875 a force was sent to compel them to move at a given time. Before the time came Joseph became incensed at the encroachments of the white settlers and about twenty whites were murdered. War was begun, and lasted until the Indians were forced again to make a humiliating treaty in 1877. These measures embittered that part of the tribe which had not entered the war, and they became enemies of the Government. Sitting Bull, who had gone to the British Possessions with his warriors in 1876, was an unwelcome guest there, but he remained stubborn and sullen. The United States sent several commissioners to treat with him, but he regarded them with contempt until 1 880. The British authorities had informed him that if he attempted to cross into the United States with hostile inten- tions that Government would join with the United States in making war upon him. Finally he offered, in 1880, to surrender with his braves, and a thousand of them did so in the early part of 1881, but their wily chieftain did not give himself up until some time later. Colorado, the " Centennial State," was admitted into the Union July 4th, 1876. The year 1876 was the '• centennial year" and the year for a Presidential election. The celebration of the new year was very general throughout the United States with bonfires and the ringing of bells as the old year and century passed. The events of the political arena were the impeachment of Mr. Belknap, Secretary of War, for maladministration of ofifice. He was acquitted in August. A resolution for submitting another amendment to the Constitution was passed in the House, but defeated in the Senate. At the end of June a resolution to provide for the coinage of ten millions of silver was passed, and very quickly silver became plenty. The fractional currency, v'hich had come in use during the war, at once disappeared from circulation. June i6th Rutherford B. Hayes was nominated by the Republican party for the Presidency and William A. Wheeler for Vice-President. The 27th of the same month the Democratic party nominated Samuel J. Tilden and Thomas A. Hendricks for the same offices respe jtively, and a most exciting ^?invass was carried on until November, of which we will speak hereafter. I „I.J \ [1869 1 to the British him. icrced) Indians ncc the time of and were living rents were first i been no out- id treaties were lon the Govern- by the name of re, and in 1873 1 the avaricious le President was sent to compel Joseph became jt twenty whites lians were forced i embittered that came enemies of th his warriors in jborn and sullen, vith him, but he ties had informed ith hostile inten- s in making war his braves, and a wily chieftain did ;entennial State," • for a Presidential throughout the he old year and c impeachment of office. He was imendment to the Senate. At the millions of silver actional currency, from circulation, lublican party for it. The 27th ol [uel J. Tilden and . a most exciting leak hereafter. 1877] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. 367 'HERE had been a wide-spread desire to celebrate the centennial year in some way in which all nations could rejoice with the young Republic of the West. It was proposed to hold a gigantic exposition of the arts, manufactures and industries of all nations at Phila- delphia. Invitations were sent to other governments and were very generally accepted. The early inception of the plan was opened by the communication of the Franklin Institute to the Mayor and other authorities of Philadelphia for the use of Fairmount Park for an international exhibition. A committee of seven members of the municipal government proceeded to lay the subject before Congress. At the same time the Legislature of Pennsylvania sent a committee to ^1 Washington for the same purpose. March 3d, 1871, an act was passed empowering the President to appoint a commission for superintending the exhibition, and an alternate commission from each State and Territory in the Union. These com. missions met at Philadelphia, March 4th, 1872, and found twenty-four States and three Territories represented there. "The United States Centennial Commission" was organized by the choice of Joseph R. Hawley, of Con- necticut, as president, with five vice-presidents, a temporary secretary, an executive committee and a solicitor. John S. Campbell afterward became permanent secretary. A Centennial Board of Finance was appointed in 1873, and on the 4th day of July of that year the authorities formally surrendered the grounds to the commission. There were five grand buildi'vj- orected, the Main Building, Art Gallery, Machinery Hall, Agricultin-xl Hall and Horticultural Hall. The applications for space from foreign governments was so great that it was seen that the work done by women would be thrown out or lost in the maze of other exhibits, and therefore the women of America raised thirty thousand dollars to build a Woman's Pavi''on. The first five buildings named covered, in the aggregate, seventy-five acres or ground, and cost the sum of four million four hundred and forty-four thousand dollars. There were besides these men- tio!\ed a number of other buildings erected by the several States and Terri- tories and by foreign nations, as well as by individual exhibitors, in all amounting to one hundred and ninety. At the beginning of 1876 there were lacking funds to the amount of one and a half millions to make it a success upon the plan that every one interested thought should be carried out. Congress advanced the money, with the proviso that it should be returned out of the proceeds of the Exposition. The exhibition was formally opened on the designated day, May 10th, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 11.25 L& IM |2.5 Ki£ 1^ ||Z2 MMU m LA. ill 1.6 6' <^ v f /. %^*' -^ Photographic Sciences Corporation V ^ ,v gi>^ \\ 23 WBT MAIN STRUT WEBSTIR.N.Y. 14S80 (716)S72-4S03 " ^^ 368 RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. [1869 with imposing ceremonies. The President of the United States received the presentation of the ground and buildings from the President of the Centennial Commission, and the Stars and Stripes were unfurled upon the Main Building, to signify that the Exposition was opened to the public. The total number of ad- missions to the grounds was 9,910,965, at an admission fee of fifty cents each. The month of October there were 2,663,911 persons passed the several gates Thirty, six States had exhi- bits, and most of the foreign governments. We will speak of the material effects of this Exposition further on. The day of the national election came, and the result was in ENGINE ROOM OF EXPOSITION, great doubt, owing to two sets of returns from each of the States of Louisiana, Florida and South Carolina. Both parties claimed the presidency, and for the first time in the history of the country each party claimed the election of its candidate. One hundred and eighty-five votes in the Electoral College were necessary to a choice. It was at once conceded that Mr. Tilden had one hundred and eighty-four. Representative men from both parties went to the questionable States to watch the ofificial counting of the votes. Excitement ran high, and there were muttered threats of bloodshed and revolution. The United States troops in Louisiana and South Carolina were under orders November loth to be in instant readiness to preserve the peace. The air of Washington was filled by mutual accusations and charges of fraud. The way to settle the matter in such a contingency was not clearly defined by the Constitution, and it was at length agreed to submit the decision of the question to an Electoral Commission, composed of an equal number of both parties. A committee similarly constituted was to report a bill to put this in effect. January i8th, 1877, they reported the bill, which provided that five members from the House and five from the Senate, with five justices of the Supreme Court, should constitute the Commission, to be presided over by the justice longest in commission. Both parties agreed that the decision of the board should be final. The bill was passed and signed by the President January 29th. The next day the Senate appointed Messrs. Edmonds, Morton, Frelinghuysen, Thurman and Bayard. The first three were Republicans, the I877J RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 369 others Democrats. The House of Representatives appointed Messrs. Payne, Hunton, Abbot, Garfield, and Hoar, the first three of whom were Denf.ocrats, and the others Republicans. Associate Justices Clifford, Miller, Field, and Strong were appointed, and they chose Joseph P. Bradley for the fifth. They met in the Hall of Representatives February ist, and remained sitting until nearly the time for the session to close, March 3d, when they declared Rutherford B. Hayes duly elected President of the United States. ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. {HE nineteenth President was inaugurated March 5th, 1877, Chief Justice Waite administering the oath of office. He nominated hi.. Cabinet, and the names were at once confirmed by the Senate. He began with a kindly conciliatory policy toward the South, and en- deavored by every means to produce the best of feelings among the r'tizens of the distracted States. He appointed Mr. Key, of Tennessee, one of the military leaders in the Confedera'e army, Postmaster-General. The United States troops were removed from the Southern States, and left the management of their affairs in the hands of their own civil ..adckS. He pronounced in favor of civil service reform. An «. ?:tra session of the forty-fifth Congress had to be called October 15th, 1878, to provide for a deficiency of $35,000,000, which had not been appropriated to pay the expenses of military service in the army. The object was not attained, for debates of an exciting partizan character consumed the time, and showed a disposition to block the wheels of government. A bill opposed to Chinese emigration was passed by Congress and vetoed by the President, and the opposition, having the power, failed to pass the appropriation bills. Another special session was called, to convene March 1 8th, 1879, when the House passed appropriation bills with such obnoxious provisions for extraneous matters that the President vetoed them, after which the bills were passed with the unsatisfactory measures omitted and he signed them. This session adjourned July 1st. There was an immense exodus of negroes from the Lower Mississippi States and the Carolinas to Kansas and Indiana in 1879, which caused Congress to appoint a committee to inquire into its cause. The results obtained did not prove in any way satisfactory. Specie payment was resumed January ist, 1879, after having been suspended for eighteen years. The business of the country had been in a depressed condition since the great panic of 1873, but it now began to rapidly improve. In opposition to this measure there arose a " Greenback party," which clamored for an unlimited issue of irredeemable greenbacks, as the ■ ■■(-!! .■' !'('■ 370 RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. ri877 Rational currency was called. They prophesied the financial ruin of the country to result from a specie currency, and have waited to the present time to see it come, but instead the country has been prospering in all departments. There was a fearful outbreak of the Ute Indians in 1879. ^^^ government agent, N. C. Meeker, was murdered, and for a time a general Indian uprising was feared. Major Thornburg was sent against them, but he and ten of his men were killed, and the rest surrounded for six days. The troops intrenched and held out until succor arrived, and soon the Utes were put down. A joint resolution, having for its design the enfranchisement of women, was introduced into the House of Representatives January 30th. The same in substance was presented to the Senate January 19th, 1880. It is known as the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The project of an inter-oceanic canal was revived by a visit to this country, in 1880, of M. de Lesseps, the engineer of the Suez Canal. He examined the Isthmus, and declared his belief in the feasibility of the scheme. The President sent a message to Congress March 8th, 1880, in which he apprised the world that it is the duty of the United States to assert and maintain such supervision over an enterprize of this kind as will protect our national interests. The national election of 1880 was one of intense interest, and party spirit ran high. There were four candidates in the field. James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur were nominated by the Republicans June 2d. On the 9th, the Greenback party nominated James B. Weaver and Benjamin J. Chambers. The Prohibition party put in nomination Neal Dow and A. H. Thompson June 17th. The Democratic party assembled in Chicago June 22d and nominated Winfield S. Hancock and William H. English. There is another fact which if not mentioned in history would be soon forgotten. There was another party in the field, whose candidates were John W. Phelps and Samuel C. Pomeroy. It was the Anti-masonic party. All of the four candidates for President had been generals in the Union army. The canvass was particularly spirited and bitter. The excitement ran high, and many rumors were put in circulation which had no foundation in fact. James A. Garfield was elected by an unquestionable majority. On the 28th day of February the President elect left his home in Mentor, Ohio, and in company with his family proceeded to Washington, accompanied by his aged mother. A special session of the Senate was called to confirm the nominations of the new President. i88i] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 371 ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES A. GARFIELD. ►HE inaugural address of President Garfleld met with the general approbation of the country. The points were: equal protection for all without respect to race or color ; universal education as a safeguard of suffrage; an honest coinage; the funding of the national debt at a lower rate of interest ; the prohibi- tion of polygamy and the regulation of the civil service. These were well received by all parties and the administration started off with high hopes. The Senate of the United States was so evenly divided between the two great parties that at the beginning of the administration of General Garfield there was quite an animated contest over the appointment of oflRcers for that body. This caused a dead-lock for a number of weeks. There had been a gentle- man nominated by the President for the office of Collector of the port of New York who was distaseful to the senior Senator from that State, Roscoe Conklin, and because the Senate confirmed the nomination he with his colleague resigned and left that great State unrepresented in the United States Senate till an election of their successors. The Legislature of New York was in session at Albany, and at once there began an exciting canvass for the elec- tion of the United States Senators. This lasted for several weeks and finally resulted in the retirement of Mr. Conklin and his colleague to private life and the election of two other gentlemen to take their places. In the mean time Congress had been performing its regular work. A treaty with China concerning immigration and commerce, with the United States of Columbia in regard to extradition of criminals, a con- sular convention with Italy, a convention with Morocco and a reciprocal treaty with Japan concerning shipwrecked sailors had received the attention of Government. May i8th the Senate had postponed the resolution reasserting the Monroe doctrine. The country was startled on the eve of a general wide-spread celebration of the anniversary of American independence by the news that the President of the United States had been shot by an assassin and would probably die. This diabolical crime had been committed at the passenger depot of the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad in Wash- ington Saturday morning, July 2d. Mr. J. G. Blaine, the Secretary of State, and the President were walking arm-in-arm through the waiting- room when two pistol shots were fired in quick succession from the rear. One shot penetrated the President's body, and he was carried wounded to a room in the second story of the depot, and as soon as possible removed to the White House. The assassin was at once arrested dik ;'l: w '■iVt m 372 RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. [1881 by police officer Kearney and taken to the- jail. He proved to be Charles J. Guiteau, a man of great self-conceit and little ability, who had been for months beseeching the President and the Secretaiy of State for an official appointment, and at length, becoming incensed at not receiving the attention he thought he merited he resolved upon revenue. It may have been that his unbalanced mind was inflamed by the discussions going on in the Republican party. The President, before leaving the depot where he had been shot, caused a telegram to be sent to Mrs. Garfield, who was at Long Branch, to relieve her of any undue anxiety in regard to his condition. It was in these words: "ThePresident desires me to say to you from him that he has been seriously hurt, how sericusly he cannot yet say. He is himself and hopes you will come to him soon. He sends his love to you. A. F. Rockwell." Contrary to the expectations of the attending physicians he did not die at once, but seemed to rally, and hopes were entertained of his final recovery. The deepest gloom was over the nation, and North and South alike felt the fearful shock of the blow. The glorious celebra- tions which were planned for July 4th in all parts of the country were abandoned. Messages of sympathy and condolence came from all parts of the world ; crowned heads in every country, American citizens in foreign lands, every form of association, commercial, social, benevolent, political and religious, vied with each other in tendering the deepest expressions of sympathy in this hour of sadness. Most heartfelt and touching were the kind words of the widowed Queen of Great Britain. Then followed the long and painful struggle for life which lasted for weary weeks. There were repeated relapses and rallyings, which caused the nation to alternate between the hope of final recovery and the despair of sorrow, until September i6th he had an alarming relapse. He was at Long Branch, where he had been carried in the most careful manner by a special train from Washington to the very door of the cottage where he was to die. The struggle for life had been heroic, persistent and patient, but the President must die. At 10:55 Monday, September 19th, he drew his last breath, and thus passed away the man who had risen from the humble position of a driver on the canal to the proudest station in the gift of a great people. This sad ending of an eventful life had filled the country with gloom and foreboding. Instantly the painful news was telegraphed all over the world, and the messages of condolence and kindest sympathy poured in from every quarter of the globe. The noble Queen of England sent a message to her not less noble sister in America, Mrs. Garfield, in the following words: " Words cannot express the deep sympathy I fed for you at this moment May God support •nd comfort you as He alone can. Tus Queen." The Cabinet at once summoned Vice President Arthur to take 1883] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 373 the oath of office without delay, and he did so in a very quiet manner before night. The oath was administered by Judge John R. Brady, of the Supreme Court, in New York. The remains of the dead President were conveyed to Washington, where they lay in state in the rotunda of the Capitol for two days. The floral tributes were of the most beautiful and expressive kind, and throughout the entire country the tokens of mourning were displayed from public and private buildings. The mansions of the rich and the homes of the humble poor, the large commercial palaces of business and the humble stand of the street vender, the massive factory of the wealthy corporation and the shop of the mechanic, all alike were decked with some emblem of- mourning. The South vied with the North, and the whole country united in their heartfelt expressions of sorrow. Ill .' support JUEBN." to take ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A. ARTHUR. RESIDENT ARTHUR was formally inaugurated in Washington September 22d. The oath was re-adipin- istered by Chief Justice Waite in the presence of Mr. Garfield's Cabinet, ex-Presidents Grant and Hayes, General Sherman and some others. He then delivered a brief inaugural address, and immediately issued a proc- lamation appointing Monday, September 26th, as a day of fasting, humiliation and prayer. He called an extra session of the Senate, to meet October loth. The body of the late President was removed from Washing- ton, after appropriate religious services, and conveyed by a military guard, accompanied by the Congressional Committee and prominent citizens. Among the many emblems which were presented was a floral ladder, on the successive rounds of which were the words, " Chester, Hiram, Williams, Ohio State Senator, Colonel, General, Congressman, United States Senator, President and Martyr." These names indicated the upward steps by which James A. Garfield had advanced in his public career. Chester was the seat of an obscure seminary where he began his education. Hiram is the name of an insignificant college where he was a teacher, and Williams is the college where he graduated. The other titles explain themselves. The last public services over the remains were performed in the presence of two hundred thousa id citizens in the cemetery at Cleveland, Ohio. There were services in all the cities and towns in the country at the same time. On the 23d of October the body was quietly transferred from the receiving tomb to the private vault of Captain L. T. Schofield, in Lake View Cemetery. The special session of the Senate met October loth, and the President's WW 374 RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. [1881 nominations for Cabinet officers were confirmed, as follows: E. T. Freling huysen for Secretary of State ; Chas. J. Folger, Secretary of Treasury ; Samuel J. Kirkwood, Secretary of the Interior; Robert T. Lincoln, Secretary of War; Wm. A. Hunt, Secretary of Navy; Benjamin H. Brewster, Attorney-General, and Timothy O. Howe Postmaster-General. Other nomi- nations were confirmed and the routine business of the Executive Department, which, to some extent, had been interrupted by the illness and death of the late President, was resumed. The Senate had considerable trouble in organ- ization, growing out of the even division of the two great parties. It ended in the election of David Davis, of Illinois, as President pro tempore of the Senate. The centennial celebration of the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, at the close of the War of the Revolution, was an occasion of great national interest. A grand naval review and a military display on shore, with histo- rical addresses and public festivities, were the main features of the occasion. The French Government was represented by a large number of officials and a national vessel. Among the distinguished guests were lineal descendants of Count D'Estaing, Lafayette and Rochambeau, who had aided the patriots in their early struggle. Other nations of Europe were also represented. The President and Cabinet with the diplomatic corps of the nations of the world took part in the occasion. The celebration began October i8th, 1881, and lasted for a number of days. The trial of Guiteau, the assassin of President Garfield, was begun in November of the same year. The widest latitude was given the accused to present his defense. The counsel were allowed ample time to prepare their answer, and the brother-in-law of the prisoner undertook the case for him, associated with Mr. Reed. After a fair, impartial and lengthy trial, in which the plea of insanity was strongly urged, Guiteau was found guilty of murder and sentenced to be hanged June 30th, 1882. Two ineffectual attempts to shoot the prisoner were made during the progress of the case ; the first by a civilian, whose name was Wm. Jones, on the 26th of November, who shot at him while being conveyed in a van from the court house to the jail. The second attempt was by Sergeant Mason, of the military guard, who shot through the window of the prisoner's cell and failed to injure him. They were both brought to trial and punished as their cases demanded. A number of unsuccessful measures were taken by the family and legal advisers of Guiteau to set aside the verdict, obtain a new trial, or induce President Arthur to interpose his executive clemency in favor of the con- demned man, but all of no avail, and on the appointed day he was hanged. To the last he displayed his egotism and excessive self-conceit by making a characteristic speech from the gallows on which he was executed June 30th, 1882. Congress met in regular session in December, 1881, and entered upon a long and heated debate upon political questions. The people were demanding a revision of the tariff and a reduction of the burdens of taxation occasioned 1883] 1883] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 375 by the immense war debt and the heavy expenditures of government. They were demanding reform in the civil service and purity in the administration of public affairs. The people of the Pacific States were clamoring for a national law to prevent the immigration of Chinese into the country. The opportunity for Congress to distinguish itself in passing measures of great public benefit was never more plainly presented. The session lasted for nearly eight months, and when at last it adjourned the country took one long breath of relief. What had been done ? The subject of revision of the tariff was referred to a commission, to sit during the recess of Congress and receive testimony. The internal revenue tax was removed from perfumery and proprietary medicines. Appropriation bills, exceeding the amounts of similar bills passed by the previous Congress to the sum of $76,000,000, had been passed. The anti-Chinese immigration bill demanded by the Pacific States was passed and vetoed by the President, and then another bill, in modified form, passed. "A River and Harbor Bill," appropriating the immense sum of $19,000,000 for internal improvements, was passed and vetoed, and then passed over the President's veto. The great interest of ship-building, which had been entirely prostrate since the war, received some attention. And with this record they had adjourned and gone before the people for their verdict. The celebrated trial of the " Star Route conspirators " was pushed with , great vigor in the United States Supreme Court. This grew out of excessive and fraudulent contracts for the postal service, in which a number of promi- nent men were implicated. The first trial resulted in the conviction of two of the minor offenders, the acquittal of two, one of whom was dead, and a disagreement of the jury in regard to the principals in the alleged conspiracy to defraud the Government. Congress, we should have said, granted a special pension to the widow of President Abraham Lincoln of fifteen thousand dollars March 15th, 1881, but that sadly unfortunate lady died a few months after. She had never recovered from the severe shock caused by the sudden blow of her honored husband's assassination. General U. S. Grant, the hero of the Civil War and the President for two terms, had retired from public life after receiving many tokens of esteem from his fellow-countrymen. Ex-President Hayes at the end of his official term had retired to quiet life, from which he emerged at the funeral of President Garfield, only to return again to the retirement of domestic life. The political outlook of the country was somewhat disturbed, and the canvass in most of the States waged bitterly. In the great States of Penn- sylvania, New York and Ohio there was much dissatisfaction in the ranks of the Republican party. In the State of Maine, the home of James G. Blaine, the ex-Secretary of State, the contest waged fiercely. All the Congressmen in this State who had been suspected of being friendly in any way to the River and Harbor Bill were defeated. In Vermont the majority was in favor of the Republican party. In Georgia, Alexander H. Stevens, formerly "Vice President of the Confederate States," was elected governor, and the n .'; m 37^ RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. [1881 Democratic nominees for Congress were also elected by heavy majorities. In Ohio the election was a most disastrous defeat to the friends and apologists of the " River and Harbor Bill." A large number of the States held their election for members of Congress on the 7th of November, which resulted in a most sweeping defeat for the Administration in all parts of the country. In the States of New York and Pennsylvania, where the most strenuous efforts were made on the part of the Government to elect its candidates, the opposition had immense majorities. The complexion of the National House of P.epresentativcs was changed to Democratic, while all who voted in favor of the Harbor and River Bill were cither defeated or returned with meager majorities. Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and a majority of the States elected Democratic governors. The rebuke to the stalwart wing of the Republican party was most decisive. The XLVII. Congress opened its final session on the first Monday in December, and the annual message of the President was read in both Houses. The President first alluded to the pleasant relations with all the foreign governments, and expressed the hope that the differences between the United States and Spain in regard to naturalization may be speedily settled. Negotiations had also been opened with the Swiss Government upon the same matter. He also announced that the Ottoman Porte had not yet assented to the construction which the United States had put upon the treaty of i860 in regard to jurisdictional rights in Turkey. The recommendation of the United States to Chili in regard to her difficulties with Peru have been declined, and any steps toward the formation of a Protectorate is in opposition to the avowed policy of our Government. The President recommended that especial attention be paid to the interests of ship-building, which had declined since the war. FINANCIAL EXHIBIT FOR 1882. The ordinary revenues of the Government from all sources for the year ending June 30, 1882, amounted to $403,525,250.28, and the ordinary expenditures were $258,981,439.58. The surplus revenue was $145,513,81:0.71, which, with an amount drawn for the cash balance in the Treasury of $27,737,694.84, makes $166,281,505.55. Of this there was applied to the redemption the sinking fund, .... Of fractional currency for the sinking fund, Of Loan of July and August, i86i. Of Loan of March, 1863, Of Funded loan of 1881, Of Loan of 1858, . Of Loan of February, 1861, , Of Five Twenties of 1862, Of Five Twenties of 1864, . Of Five Twenties of 1865, Of Ten Forties of 1864, of bonds to $60,079,15000 58,705,587 55 62,572,050 00 4,472,900 00 37» 1 94.4500a 1,00000 303,000 00 2,100 00 7,40000 6,50000 254,550 00 1883J Oi Of Of Of Of Th( includin Mei Spe Mer Spe( T( Exc< This years. The session, i upon the American The the unset Romero, to negotia The ; visit to W and visite( The I the Arctic James G. : received fr by a telej being aidec bad been ( small boats landed upo been swam landing. ( United Sta The t 1883] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 377 Of Consuls of 1865 86,45000 Of Consuls of 1867, 407,25000 Of Consuls of 1868, 141,40000 Of Oregon War Debt, 675,250 00 Of Old Demand Compound Interest and Other Notes, 18,35000 Total, $224,927,387 55 »■ ! The foreign commerce of the United States during the last fiscal yean including imports and exports of merchandise and specie, was as follows : EXPORTS. Merchandise, $750,542,257 00 Specie 47,417,47900 Total, $797f959.736 00 IMPORTS. Merchandise $724,639,574 00 Specie 42,472,390 00 Total, $767,111,96400 Excess of exports over imports of merchandise, . $25,902,683 00 This excess is less than it has been before for any of the previous six years. The Congress set at work in earnest to transact the business of the session, and at once several important measures were introduced and put upon their passage. A bill favoring civil service reform, one in regard to American shipping, for a reduction of postage, and many other reforms. The difficulties between the United States and Mexico, growing out of the unsettled condition of the border, were referred to a commission. Romero, the Mexican minister at Washington, was one of the commissioners to negotiate a new treaty between Mexico and the United States. The Duke of Newcastle, a member of the English Government, made a visit to Washington in December, 1882. He dined with the British minister, and visited the Senate Monday, December nth, to observe its methods. The United States vessel Jeannctte had been sent upon an expedition to the Arctic regions by co-operation of the Government and a private citizen, James G. Bennett, proprietor of the New York Herald. No tidings had been received from them for more than two years, when the world was electrified by a telegram from the coast of Siberia that survivors of the party were being aided by the friendly Russians. Captain James H. Long and his men had been obliged to leave their ship in a sinking condition, ana with three small boats traverse the immense ice fields to the open sea. Two boat loads landed upon the barren and uninhabited coast of Siberia. One boat load had been swamped in a gale, and the party with Captain Long were Irozen after landing. One boat's crew and two men of the other finally returned to the United States in 1882 and were the recipients of many honors. The two hundredth anniversary of the landing of William Penn, in :r '.' Bl'! • t:\ 378 RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. [1856 Pennsylvania, was celebrated in Philadelphia in a becoming manner by the city government and various organizations of citizens October 25th and 26th 1882. It was the occasion for fine military and civic display, the delivery of historical and patriotic addresses, and unusual festivities of great interest. PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT SINCE THE CIVIL WAR. 'HE war had been practically ended with the surrender of Generals Lee and Johnston in April, 1865, and both sections of the country rejoiced at the return of peace. The South had suffered most heavily and lost her all. The wealthy families were reduced to the verge of necessity. Their slaves were free, their plantations uncultivated, and their prospects for the future were dark indeed. Where the land remained in possession of its former owners they had not the means to cultivate it, nor the money to buy seed. The worthless Confederate bonds and currency in which they had invested or which had been forced upon them was of no use to them now. Their towns and villages were filled with brave men who were shattered in life and limb, and had no government to care for them. Their industries were paralyzed and their commerce destroyed, and their political status was as yet uncertain. The first thought was for personal preservation, and all classes bent their energies to the raising of the first crop of cotton, for which the manufacturers of the world were waiting. The demand for cotton and their ability to supply this demand was the only line of hope. Bravely and grandly did they seize upon it. Could it be produced without slave labor? This was a problem as yet unsolved. It must be done. The freedman was given an interest in the growing crop, and he labored with more zest than he had ever shown for the kindest master. He was dependent upon his own resources now, and with no owner to care for him his first experience in the new condition of things was at best a hard one. Even with the kindest disposition the whites were unable to aid the blacks. The bounty of the Government was extended to all alike. The United States issued rations of food and clothing to both blacks and whites in many places, and thus the first season after the return of peace was passed. The cotton crop brought a good market. The deserted factories in the North sprang into action, and the production of cotton goods, which had been suspended for years, was resumed once more. In the North the industries had been somewhat disarranged, but not to the extent they had been in the South. The manufacturing of all manner of army supplies had been pushed to its utmost limit. Iron factories had been running day and night. The demand of the army for clothing and RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 379 \il equipments had been immense ; but that was all changed by the disbanding of the army, and the industries of the North must be turned to other channels. The vast numbers of returned soldiers must be provided with means of livelihood and positions for peaceful employment. There was an abundance of money in the country, but it was below par value and prices were high. There had been a disposition to withdraw capital invested in mercantile and manufacturing pursuits. But with the return of specie payments and depreciation in prices came a general impulse for investments. The capital of the North was moving southward. Cotton mills and other factories were being erected nearer to the supply of the raw material. There arose a period of railroad development and thousands of miles of new roads belted the country. Real estate was advancing in price and the era of speculation was upon the nation before they were aware of it. All the while the South was recuperating most rapidly. The vast war debt was being reduced and its interest lessened. The dawn of specie payment was like a healthful tonic, when all at once, like a thunder-clap from a cloudless sky, burst the ominous mutterings of that terrific black Friday that sent so many towering fortunes tottering in their fall. The long panic of weary years followed, in which the public was taught to contract private expenditures and perform business upon solid principles. The lesson was a bitter but a needful one, and the people were taught by a hard experience that inflated values and high living are destructive to financial success. Slowly the public confidence returned, and the revival of business began and assumed a healthy tone. The Centennial Exposition had displayed to the amazed countries of the world the wonderful progress in all the arts, n- inufactures and improvements of the age, the United States leading in nearly every department of trade, and at the same time showing the old world her desirable advancement in the refined arts and scientific discoveries. In machinery and labor-saving appliances she had distanced the nations of Europe. While in defensive and offensive military armature she had given them lessons which they were but too ready to lean and improve upon. A grand impetus was given by this exhibition to all the industries of the United States, while it opened up the markets of the world as never before. The fertile wheat and corn- growing sections of the great central Western States, as well as the cotton- growing South, found a ready market in the old world. The export trade of the United States began shortly after the war to grow into enorrrous dimensions, and far exceeded its imports. The exports in i88i reached the amount of $898,142,891 and the imports $729,608,823, as against exports in i860 $373,189,274 and imports $335,233,232. These figures are expressive of the vast producing power of the nation and the demand for the luxuries and necessities of life produced by other countries. The increase in positive values in the country would far exceed these figures. The public debt has been reduced at the rate of nearly one hundred million per year, and refunded 'lt:i- ■W |: !«tfl'' 38o RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. the principal at a low rate of interest. The cities of the South and the North have shared in the general prosperity and regained the lost ground caused by the war. The enterprise of the whole country has been stimulated by a healthful rivalry in business, and the bonds of commercial intercouse are fast blotting them out. The following extract show the real feeling of the South, especially among its young men: From the Century. The Southern States are now rearing a large number of young men before whom the outlook is bright. Some of them are sons of the old ruling families, but many of them have sprung from the lower and middle classes. They enjoy the advantages of poverty ; they have no money to spend in luxuries or diversions ; they have fortunes to retrieve or to gain ; they have grown up since the war, and have inherited less than could be expected of its resentments. " Well," said a bright fellow at the close of a college commencement in Virginia last Summer, " Lee and Jackson have been turned over in their graves but once to-day." The sigh of relief with which he said it indicates the feeling of many of these young men. They keep no grudges and have no wish to fight the war over again. The senti- ment of patriotism is getting a deep root in their natures. Yet they are full of faith in the future of their own section. Well they may be. During iheir lifetime the industry of the South has been revolutionized, and the results already achieved are marvel- ous. An era of prosperity has begun ; and there are few intelligent men at the South to-day who will not at once confess that it is destined to be a far brighter era than they have ever seen. Free labor is unlocking the wealth of farms and mines and falling waters in a way that slave-labor never could have done. New machinery, new methods are bringing in a new day. In the midst of the stir and move- ment of this industrial revolution these young men are growing up. Hope and expectation are in the air ; the stern discipline of poverty goads them on, and the promise of great success allures them. All the conditions are favorable for the development of strong character ; and any one who will visit the Southern colleges and schools will find in them a generation of students alert, vigorous, manly and tremendously in earnest. Probably they do not spend, on an average, one-third as much money per capita as is spent by the students of the New England colleges ; and in the refinements of scholarship the average Southern student would be found inferior to the average Northern student ; but they are making the most of their opportunities. They ought to have better opportunities. Most of the South- ern colleges and schools are crippled for lack of funds, and much more of the flood of Northern bounty might well be turned southward, to the endov...ient of schools and colleges for whites as well as blacks. The generous sentiment of the young South would thus be strengthened, and the bonds of union more firmly joined. But whatever may be done in this direction it is evident that a race jf exceptional moral earnestness and mental vigor is now growing up in the South, and that it is sure to be heard from. If the young fellows in the Northern colleges expect to hold their own in the competition for leadership, they must devote less of their resources to base ball and rowing and champagne suppers and come down to business. The " Cotton Exposition " in the beautiful and rejuvinated city of Atlanta, Georgia, in October, 1882, was a gigantic exhibition of the resources of the great cotton-growing States, and displayed the rapid stride made by a people but a few years ago prostrated by an exhaus- tive and unsuccessful struggle. The vast domain of the South-west is being rapidly opened up by the means of railroad communications and the influx of immigration. The crowded denizens of the old world are thronging in inconceivable numbers to the western republic as never before in the history of the country. The number of foreign immi- grants landed reached to the sum total of 669,431 human beings of every nation under heaven. Since 1820, when the Government first began to keep the official account, there have come to the United States no less than 10,808,189 persons of foreign birth to find homes in this country. w RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 381 In addition to these there have come 232,283 Chinese, who have been less welcome and more harshly treated than any of the rest. This vast heterogeneous mass of men and women of different races and types has become assimilated and equal under the law. They have aided much in developing the resources of the land, and added to its material wealth in many directions. The vast improvement in every department of science has kept pace with the demands of the age. The telephone, the audiphone, the electric-light have been invented during the period of which we are writing. The future success of this republic is assured if the institutions of its founders are maintained and its constitution and laws are kept unimpaired. The purity of the ballot box, the maintenance of public honor, the education of the masses and the civilization and Christianization of the foreign element and of the aborigines are demanded by the spirit of the hour. The great blots still remaining upon the national character — the permission of polygamy and the treatment of the Indian — should be removed. The sanctity of the marriage relation and observance of the Sabbath should be required. Public faith with nations, tribes and individuals is imperatively demanded, and then the fondest dreams of the most enthusiastic well-wisher of his country will be realized. Private integrity, sobriety and industry with the qualities above mentioned will secure us from the fate of the old republics that tottered to their fall as soon as these were wanting. In ,'!-, '.. ml m • iir 'ill'-; 'r I- JAMES ABRAM GARFIELD, THE MARTYRED HERO. Atlantic's waves with ceaseless rolling In ebbipR tide of sorrow break, As muffled bcMs at midnight tolling The saddened nation quickly wake. The Lord of Life the word hath spoken, " Be still, O throbbinR heart of pain ; " The golden wheels at once arc broken, And Death hath touched the mighty brain. The vital forces strong had striven For many painful weeks in vain ; His column fair at length is riven, For death hath torn the veil in twain. He bravely yielded to the spoiler, And won at last his well-earned rest. From home of wealth, or humble toiler, The answer* comes, " God's will is best*' In city mansions heads are bending. From manly eyes the teardrops start, And country homes their griefs are blendini;, For death hath pierced the nation's heart. Palmettos join their mournful sighing In union with the northern pine, And east and west together vieing Their richest tributes for him twine. Two oceans join their swelling surges 1 o mourn our nation's honored dead ; From northern lakes to gulf the dirges Rise o'er the martyred hero's bed. From mountain slope to flowing river The mournful requiems softiy rise, For saddened hearts with sorrow quiver As home the wing6d arrow flies. A deep, impressive silence resting On thronged mart and busy mill, A solemn awe each soul investing,— The mighty rush of trade is :till. A world with sympathy is heaving To share with us a nation's grief, As gray and blue alike are weaving A garland for our fallen chief. O God, we thank Thee that the nation May claim the hope Thy promise gives, And find in this our consolation. The God of justice ever lives. Our trembling hands in silence clasping Above the martyr's sacred bier, A new-bom hope 'mid sorrow grasping, As doud-ri(t» show a sk^ more clear. I. H. \ ■h IN OOB MOT. E are standing to-day like the Roman god of the gates with our faces turned both ways. With one we are gazing in subdued tenderness upon the sacred memo- ries of the past, and stretching our hands with their wealth of flowers to do honor to our hero dead : with the other we turn to the hopeful future, and offer our arms still strong to bear its burdens and brave to share its battles. For those who have nobly fallen in the line of duty the end has come, and to them the fullest praise should be given ; but for us who remain, the bugle only sounds the need- ful truce, while with reverent tread we bear our comrades to their resting place and strew their graves with the richest perfume of each returning spring. For us the respite from the conflict is but a brief one. The present makes its ever increasing demands upon us, and calls for brave hearts with noble purpose true. Scarcely do the echoes of the burial note and the " volley of honor ' die upon the air when the thrilling tones of the bugle sound " On to the battle f " If we thought the truce meant a peace we were most sadly mistaken, for we shall find that the contest wages still. The battle-field only has changed, and with it has changed the relation of the contending forces. The armies late arrayed against each other are divided on a different line now. Happily the issues of that contest are settled, but the conflict of the people against the enemies of popular government wages still. The recent civil war was but one phase of the gigantic struggle which began with our existence as a people, a single scene of the national drama which opened when the genius of liberty " rang up the curtain," and our fathers pronounced the grand old prelude in their immortal bill of rights, "The Declaration of Indepen- dence." The first battalions of the army have engaged in conflicts fierce and long and they won the victory ; but their triumph was not destined to give com- plete security to them who came after them. The enemies of popular lib- erty have been encountered and overcome on many a hotly contested battle- field, but after each successive victory new allies of tyranny have as suddenly arisen ; new assaults have been prepared ; new tactics have been employed, and still new enemies pour down upon the army of freedom. Conquering field after field from their foes the patriot soldiers see the frowning hill-tops * An address delivered on Decoration day by the Author. LESSONS IN OUR HISTORY. 383 beyond, still black with threatening warriors pressing forward to meet them on other fields — and ^^the end is not yet." The march of freedom's host is like that of a conquering army into a fortress that has been breached. The men in the vanguard may fall by thou- sands. Was their fall a failure ? Nay, nay ; for their bodies but helped to bridge the trench over which their comrades have marched to a complete victory. The dying exhortation of the falling heroes to those who came after them has been like that of noble Lawrence, carried wounded unto death from the deck of his vessel, " Don't give up the ship ! " Each succeeding genera- tion will find that " Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty," and this price must ever be paid by those who would retain it ! " This last successful experiment of self-government by the people" is still on trial before the ages, and the severest tests are now being applied, the strength of our institutions is put to its utmost tension. The cable of law that holds our ship of State is being stretched by two opposite forces : already do the strands smoke in their intense friction around the pierhead of the constitution. On the one side unbridled license exerts the full force of its diabolic strength ; the love of money and of power, on the other, puts forth all its energy to break the bonds of lawful restraint. Human greed and human lust have united to bid defiance to the right, — twin monsters more hideous than mythology ever painted or poet ever dreamed. They have given birth to a whole brood of bantlings as repulsive as themselves — the demagogues in society and Church and State ; communism with its red hand, Ishmael-like arrayed against every man, and every man's hand arrayed against it *, the Moloch of wealth seizing in its fiery arms the noblest children of our race; the Goliath of intemperance bidding defiance to the Church of God and the cries of humanity ; the shameless goddess, Free Love, and her wanton sister, Easy Divorce, who have polluted with their fetid breath the purest sanctuary of home ; dark-robed Skepticism assuming the name of Human Reason, who would pluck with skeleton hand the brightest star from our sky and throw her own black mantle of night over the horizon that hides our hopes of immortality; license which would bring to our land the Sunday of Europe and rob us of all the sacre.d memories which hallow " the day of rest ; ' ' the corrupting and festering influences that are sapping the manhood of the nation ; the shameless immoralities and ill-concealed dishonesties which so frequently startle us with their public outcroppings are enough to sicken the heart and unnerve the arm of the patriot if he has not the same confidence in the God of battles that our fathers had. These are the foes with which we still have to contend, in their new disguises and upon their own well chosen and well fortified battle ground. Shall we overcome them ? In the words of the flaming orator of our early struggle, " I have no way of judging of the future, but by the past." Look back on the line of history along which this "Young Republic of the West " has come, and with the broad chart of ancient and modern times before you find a parallel to it all if you can ! But little more than a century V: ! it i;i 384 LESSONS IN OUR HISTORY. has passed since thirteen isolated and dependent colonies, with no community of aims and no mutual bond save a common grievance in the oppression of the Home Government, came to agitate the question of an appeal to arms ; and to-day, as regards moral force and material strength, they stand united as the first power in Christendom. The thirteen States have increased to (will some little boy or girl who has the latest edition of geography please to tell me ?) — I am unable to keep up the count they come in so fast. We have a new star in our flag'to-day, I believe, and the number is thirty-eight. In view of the facts in our remarkable history we may well say with the inspired Hebrew bard, " He hath not dealt so with any nation." Can we fathom the problems of Providence in reference to this American people? Has not Jehovah some mighty design in all this wonderful develop- ment ? Can we not see the plainest indications all along the highway of the past of the great fact which the crazy old king of Babylon acknowledged, " God doeth according to his will in the army of heaven and among the inhab- itants of the earth; and none can stay his hand"? Let us look back upon our history and trace, if we can, these developments of Providence. If we can do this we will not have misspent the few moments devoted to-day to thfs exercise. Here was a continent lying in a wilderness state, the only inhabitants were the wild beasts and scarcely less wild aborigines who roamed, unre- strained, over its extensive plains and through its grand old forests. Here were the same noble rivers, the same broad inland seas, the wide extended prairie with its rich deposit of soil, the hidden wealth of minerals in the bowels of the earth, water-power capable of carrying all the machinery of the world to-day ; the same lofty mountains with their magnificent scenery, the grandest upon which the sun e'er shines, all as we behold them now, and yet for fifteen hundred years after the birth of Christ it is an unknown world. And why was this ? Look at the condition of the more civilized parts of the world for these long centuries and you will find the answer, — the dark black night of a thousand years which had come over Europe, when moral, religious and social darkness rested on all the people so dense that scarcely a ray of light e'er penetrated it. Then man was working out the bitter problem of the relation of the Church to the State, in the union of temporal and spiritual power : and the fearful solution was well nigh given in the loss of civil and religious liberty. Many abortive attempts were made to regain that which had been lost, but the heel of the tyrant at Rome was upon the neck of the masses, and the flickering fires, uncertain and disconcerted, which arose ever and anon amid the surrounding gloom went quickly out and made the darkness all the more inten.s 'r their short-lived burning. These questions had an ample theater in tl > world ; the new was held in reserve for grander trials of those questions which are closely interwoven with our world-wide humanity. At length the echoes of the hammer of Luther as he nailed his bold Theses to the church door at Wirtemberg awoke the people from their sleep of LESSONS IN OUR HISTORY. 385 centuries, a sleep which had cost them so much, in which the chains of an irksome bondage were being riven harder and harder still about them. But the strength of the sleeping giant was aroused and the bands were rent asunder. And now, when this spirit of freedom from the chains which had bound body and mind and heart alike, had swept across the newly awakened nations, and men were seeking for some asylum from the bondage, God himself sent the hardy Genoan navigator in his Spanish ships to open the way to such a land as this. And he did it. When "the fullness of times" had come he sent the right people to colonize the land. The stern unyielding Puritan with hardy hand and living faith He sent to Plymouth, the Dutchman with his love for " Faderland " to Manhattan ; the Quaker with charitable heart and uncompromising integrity to build up the City of Brotherly Love ; the fervent, zealous Catholic to the shores of the Chesapeake ; the vanguard of all, led by the boldest of pioneers, to Jamestown ; the Huguenots of sunny France to the no less sunny clime of Georgia and the Carolinas. And these were they who laid the foundation of the civil government we now enjoy. Do we not see the plainest indications that right here, in this new world upon whose eastern shores these feeble colonies were planted, there were questions to be solved which were to affect all the race ? The variety of creed and nationality which characterized the pioneers was an arrangement of Providence to hold each in check, and thus prepare for the coming struggle which so soon was to be theirs. The seeds were planted, but it would take years of storm and sunshine, of tempest and calm, of anxious watching and bitterest disappointment, before that seed would germinate and develop into a full grown tree beneath whose shadow the nations of the earth might rest. This period which preceded the revolution is rich in indication of manifest providences. All the wars with the Indians, with the French, and the wilderness, too, were but as a training- school for the contest which they were to have. All this was but the formative, concentrative period which was to try their young strength and develop it to maturity. Like the infant Hercules crawling from his cradle to throttle the twin serpents one in either hand did these young colonies contend with difficulties which might well appall the stoutest heart, and they overcame them. The savage climate and the more savage aborigines had well nigh annihilated the little band. But still they stood by the daring enterprise which seemed so perilous. A race of warriors was thus reared hardy of muscle and quick of sight, with indomitable courage and perseverance such as was soon to try the mettle of the well-trained soldiers of the Mother Country. The conflict came. Statesmen and generals and patriot soldiers were not wanting for the conflict. The night was long and dark and almost starless, but still they watched with unequaled patience for the coming morning. Seven weary years of war with all its sad experiences of want and misery, of sacrifice and blood came upon them. Then it was that these noble men needed such trust in God as il!; i r :i 386 LESSONS IN OUR HISTORY. the Puritan had instilled into his faith, such indomitable perseverance as the Germanic element infused with the burning zeal of the Catholic, and the inimitable patience of the Huguenot under affliction. And that there was a wise design in this protracted war is seen in the fact that the colonies were thus knit together as never before by a community of sacrifice and suffering in the same cause, and so the bond which was to hold them in sympathy was more and more firmly cemented. At length the glorious dawn was ushered in ; faint and uncertain at first, like the earliest break of day, but surely coming, till soon the sun of liberty rises full and clear on this western land. Clouds, dark and portentous, may cross his track and hide him from our view, but never again will he set till all the world has felt the warmth which cornea from his beams. Now follows the formative period, when there needed men of wise heads and honest hearts to lay the foundations of government upon an unyielding basis. That these men who gave us such a document as "The Constitution of the United States " were eminently fitted for such a task is amply proven by the experimental workings of this Magna Charta of human rights for more than a century. Wisdom and patriotism in a very marked degree were the characteristics of the Federal Congress in the early days of our history. It was most eminently fitting that George Washington, who had commanded the army during the war of the Revolution, should be the chosen one to inaugurate the new government. No other man in all history had so united in himself every characteristic of nature's nobleman as he. Right worthy the trust confided to him by a grateful people he displayed to the wondering governments of Europe an example unequaled by anything which had preceded it. They sneeringly had asked the question : Can the American people establish a republic after a protracted war, arousing as war was prone to do an ambition for power in the breast of the successful chieftain ? The farewell address of George Washington to his countrymen, an immortal production, is the unhesitating answer to their questioning. Now succeeds another period of development unparalleled in all that the world had before seen. The government had demonstrated its adaptation to the wants of the masses ; it had shown its power to suppress domestic turmoil, and now the country is at peace. The pursuits of agriculture, of manufactures and of commerce receive the attention of the people. Wealth and commer- cial influence very rapidly increase, while throughout all the land there are being built up the monuments of intelligence and industry. The liberal arts and sciences, these problems which touch the vital interest of such a govern- ment as ours, receive ample attention. Our prosperity at home is not equaled by our national standing abroad. Two of the chief powers of Europe were at war, and while we remain strictly neutral they each trample upon our rights as a nation. The one takes from our ships of war, by a pretended right of search, men to fill her own depleted navy, and they both in turn, by their unrighteous embargoes, unite LESSONS IN OUR HISTORY. 387 to cripple our young commerce. France recedes from her position and makes restitution ; but the mother land, who has ever behaved in a very step- motherly way toward her vigorous child, is compelled to yield only by force of arms. In this war, disastrous to both countries, we were enabled to assert our national dignity, and to command the respect of other nationalities. That this war was needful is clearly seen by the marked increase of our commercial interests and the respect paid to our flag by all other powers ; a result which immediately followed. And, again, through a period of years the develop- ment of our country keeps pace with the loftiest imagination. State r>fter State takes its place beside its fellow in the Union. Territory is acquired by peaceful purchase from Spain (of Florida) and from France (of Louisiana). Texas gravitates to us by the fortunes of war, and the golden land, with Arizona and New Mexico, are wrested from a sister republic by the force of arms. The strong arm of the nation has proved its power in subduing the Indi- ans and bringing the NuUifiers of Georgia and the Carolinas to bow to right- ful authority. The republic has, by the providence of God, taken a foremost place among the powers of the world, and with an enlightenment and liberal- ism unknown before has spread her broad arms to the nations and welcomed the oppressed of every clime and race to her " asylum of the free." Freedom, civil and religious, was proclaimed, in theory, at least, through all the land. And thus, as we have hastily sketched, a nation of patriots had conquered their independence and had laid the foundation of the best govern- ment the world has ever seen. They had developed into a powerful people, prosperous at home and respected abroad. This prosperity they had earned by their industry, this respect they had won by their swords from willing lips. For, while the bitterest hatred of old dynasties in the Eastern World still lay smouldering ill-concealed beneath their pretended friendliness, they only dared to flatter the rising power they so intensely hated. All the peo- ples of the Old World were looking on in amazement to see this experiment of popular government prove so successful as it did. Sister republics sprang up in the New World modeled upon our Constitution. The trembling mon- archies of Europe felt the moral force of such a fact in history as " the United States of America " came to be, and they all desired our destruction while they feared the power of our example, for the masses in every country where a general intelligence prevailed had caught the spirit of liberty borne to them on every Western wind, and should the fact be established beyond question that the entire people were capable of self-government they would be most likely to follow the example thus set them. This caused the monarchs of Europe to wear uneasy crowns as they sat upon their tottering thrones. And they said, " A violent internal commotion will rend this country asunder, and its disrupted States will form rival independencies, and thus the power which we fear will ere long overshadow us will be destroyed." This they said and this they sincerely hoped. There seemed to be the prospect of a speedy realiza- tion of their fond anticipation, for there had been one dark spot upon our t ji ti- ■« i!l 388 LESSONS IN OUR HISTORY. otherwise fair escutcheon. It stood out bold and black and repulsive, and made us a by-word to the nations. It was this: While we proclaimed univer* sal liberty in our immortal Bill of Rights, the Declaration of Independence, there was all the time within our own borders a race of serfs cut off from all these inalienable rights which we had demanded for every man. How to deal with this forbidding question which we had inherited from the mother country was a perplexing one to our wisest and best statesmen. Good men of all shades of political opinion could not fail to see the fearful cloud, small and inauspicious at first, but spreading wider and wider still was threatening our destruction. The contest must come sooner or later. Politi- cal extremists in either section of the country hastened it to its final issue. An appeal to arms, rash as it was wicked, was made. The flag of our common country was insulted and disgraced. The authority of the government despised and its rightful allegiance set aside. Nothing in all the world would give more satisfaction to the enemies of civil liberty in the Eastern continent than to see the rebellion prove a success. And so they threw the whole force of their sympathy and moral aid, under cover of a pretended neutrality, on the side of those who sought to overthrow the government. In this they were disappointed. The unrighteous appeal to arms was most disastrous to those who made it. The authority of the government was asserted by the overthrow of the armed rebellion. The strength of the citizen soldiery which the nation could call into the field was appalling to other nationalities. More than two million of names were borne upon the muster rolls of the United States army, a greater force than Napoleon could command in the height of his power. The grand review of the army at the close of the war was a spec- tacle unequaled in history. One hundred and eighty thousand strong, they marched past the president and the generals of the army, and that, too, when many thousands of soldiers equally brave were scattered throughout the South. Never before had the world seen such a sight. But these men were ready to stack their arms, pack their artillery, and return to the avocations of peace. In an incredibly short time they were disbanded ; and to-day you will find them in the workshops, the fields, the stores, and all the marts of trade throughout our land, from its one extreme to the other. Those questions which were left to be solved as the outgrowth of the war are too new and too recent for us to discuss them without bias by our former opinions. That ultimately they will be wrought out to a successful issue is the hope, yes, the settled belief of every man who recognizes the truth that •• God ruleth among the nations of the earth," and " he maketh even the wrath of man to praise him." Is there no design of Providence in all this wonderful history of the past and aspect of the present ? This free land, extending from sea to sea, with no abutting nation upon either frontier, capable of containing one hundred millions of inhabitants, offers now a home to the oppressed of the world ; and they are hastening to its shores, spreading over its wide extent, and peopling its towns and villages. The Celtic and Teutonic, the Anglo-Saxon and his Germanic cousin, the Scandinavian of NortI the A Euroj which i.he Pj home Tl Joseph thank ( tion foi Catholi name a betweei sion of ] the une( balIot-b( that futi The he her j united, and to cc Christ, '« How sha self answ( must chri part in th freedom c These, thi ours, and person an the civiliz; grandest written on weighed ir another," Let us which has . of three ge soluble cha the noblest The p sacrifices f( enrich the « »sh, striking 't lift its to LESSONS IN OUR HISTORY. 389 11 i Northern Europe and the child of sunny France and Italy. The Asiatic and the African are beneath a common flag to-day. The teeming population of Europe and Asia came of their own accord, the one part across the ocean which laves our Eastern shores, and the other wafted by the softer gales of ihe Pacific to the golden shores of the west. And now they find an equal home as they strike glad hands across our free America. The dusky sons of Africa are here as well. They came, it is true, as Joseph came to the land of Egypt, " whose feet they hurt with fetters." But, thank God, those fetters are stricken off to-day. Here there is ample protec- tion for all religions alike, the true and the false. The Protestant and the Catholic, the Mohammedan and Pagan, the Jew and the Christian of every name are on an equal footing before the law. The only conflict there is between them is the conflict of argument and ideas, and with a general diffu- sion of intelligence among the people the true religion has nothing to fear in the unequal contest with the false. If America in the future will keep her ballot-box pure and her people rightly educated she need fear nothing that that future has in store for her. The great duty of America to-day is to civilize, to educate and to christian- ize her people. The first of these results will follow from the other two united. God has sent the world to our feet for us to enlighten, to instruct, and to convert to him. When the great question came to the church of Christ, •• How shall we bring all men to a knowledge of the truth ? How shall we send the light of a pure religion to all the world ? " God him- self answered it by sending the nations to us. Here they are to-day, and we must christianize them or they will paganize us. The Church can do her great part in this work so long as the strong arm of the Government protects the freedom of speech and disseminates the light of intelligence to the masses. These, then, are the bold questions which affect this common humanity of ours, and which America is working out for the world to-day : freedom ol person and conscience ; universal equality and the brotherhood of the race ; the civilization and redemption of all men. If she be true to her trust the grandest place in history awaits her, but if she prove false, she will find written on the walls of her proudest palaces b)' the finger of Deity, " Thou art weighed in the balances and art found wanting. Thy kingdom is given to another," which, may heaven forbid ! Let us who are here to-day prize, as we should, the blessed inheritance which has come down to us from the past. Let us remember that the blood of three generations cements the bond which binds this union with its indis- soluble chain. The altar of our liberty has been baptized with the richest and the noblest blood which ever flowed in human veins. The patriots of 1776, of 1812, and of 1861 have vied with each other in sacrifices for a common country, and poured out their blood like water to enrich the soil from which has sprung this tree of liberty. Long may it flour- ish, striking its roots deeper and deeper still into the earth ; higher yet may it lift its towering top into the heavens as its branches, outstretching far and liJ '■ 390 LESSONS IN OUR HISTORY. wide, throw their protection over all the land alike. Nor storms, nor tempests' fiercest power can now tear up the giant oak. If e'er it shall decay, the worm which feeds upon its life will be the cause. But may God forbid. Let us, then, swear renewed fidelity to our institutions, to the Constitu* tion and the laws of our united land. And with that stern old patriot, Andrew Jackson, answer back to the world, " The Union must and shall be preserved." OUR HERO DEAD. God's eternal stars are keeping Faithful watch above our dead, And His clouds, in pity weeping, Bathe each sleeping hero's bed ; Thus her misty mantle throwing 'Round each sacred resting-place, Nature keenest sorrow showing, Veils awhile her tearful face. Day and night, with varied changes, Hasten through the restless years. Swift-winged time, whose flight estranges Friendship's mingled joys and fears. Heals the wounds of bitter anguish Caused by deeds of angry strife, When the hearts in sorrow languish Brings its buried hopes to life. But our vows can not be broken Lightly as the spider's thread ; Vows in earnest whispers spoken, When we laid away our dead. And those deeds are not forgotten Which they wrought amid the brave, — Deeds of manly hearts begotten. Shedding luster o'er each grave. Low the gentle winds are sighing, Through the cypress and the pine, O'er the holy dust now lying Where their shadows dark entwine, And the soft and mournful cadence Of their plaintive, sad refrain. Breathing like a heavenly presence Sing the tribute to our slain. Where the Nazarene was taken. Laid within a new-made grave, There by friend and foe forsaken, Was there not a spirit brave, Who had found the situation In the dismal midnight gloom, Taking then his humble station. Warden of the Saviour's tomb ? Thus would I, the office prizing, Stand beside our honored dead, While within my bosom rising. Thoughts that glory's luster shed, For the sacred voice would listen, " Weep not here with heart forlorn, Though like pearls your tea-drops glisten, Hail with joy the risen morn." Long in sorrow we have waited, For the passing of the storm. And the morning so belated. Lo ! there comes an angel form, Bidding us " No more in sadness Shed our bitter, scalding tears, For in that bright world of gladness Light shall shine through countless years See ! the thinning clouds, now rifted Here and there, disclose the blue : Where their parted folds have lifted Breaks the sun upon our view. And his promise for the morrow Cheers our hearts amid the gloom ; Bids us banish every sorrow ; Sheds a radiance 'round their tomb, J. H. B. in. ITS THE BIRTHPLACE OF THOMAS JEFFERSON. ^M^^^ Mms^ i--^-"-^-^ abolis SIGNATURES TO THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. ▼r\ DECLARATION OF DEPEIENGB. In Congress, July 4th, 1776. By the Representatives of the United States, in Congress assembled* A DECLARATION. HEN, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitled them, a decent respect for the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident : — that all men arc created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ; that, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former sys- tem of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history f repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States, To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world, !i ih r I ,,1 • !-■ ■^. ! 394 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessaiy for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of repre- sentation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- fortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights o the people. He has refused, for a long time ter such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dan^, r invasion from without and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners, refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their ofHces and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of and superior to the civil power. He has com^bined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation, — For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States : For cutting off our trade with all parts of the worid • For imposing taxes on us without our consent : For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury: For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offenses : For abolishing the free system of English law in a neighboring pronncc DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 395 establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering fundamentally the forms of our government : For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all rases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries, to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domesti.: insurrections among us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms ; our petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose charr.cter is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts made by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. Wc have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. Wc must therefore acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war — in peace, friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies solemnly publish and declare that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as independent States, they have fuU !! I liii'i M I it I, f' t > .1 ! :i:' I*! H ■ i! 396 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protec- tion of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, out fortunes, and our sacred honor. Signed by order and in behalf of the Congress. JOHN HANCOCK, President. Attested, CHARLES THOMPSON, Secretary. NEW HAMPSHIRE. JOSIAH BarTLETT, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton. MASSACHUSETTS BAY. Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. RHODE ISLAND, Etc, Stephen Hopkins, William Ellerv. CONNECTICUT. Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. NEW YORK. William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. NEW JERSEY. Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. PENNSYLVANIA. Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, GsoRGE Clvmer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. DELAWARE. CiESAR Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. MARYLAND. Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll, of Carrollton. VIRGINIA. George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. NORTH CAROLINA William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. SOUTH CAROLINit Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. GEORGIA. Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. rn i>i N^^j COfflTDTION OF TE Omi STATES OF AMCA. We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic trariquillity, provide for the common de- fense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution of the United States of America. ARTICLE I. Section I. — All legislative powers herein graated shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Sec. II. — I. The House of Representatives shall be composed of mem- bers chosen every second year by the people of the several States ; and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of the State in which he shall be chosen. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the sev- eral States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and ex- cluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three ; Massachusetts^ eight ; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one ; Connecti'-ut, five : New York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; Maryland, six; Virginia, ten ; North Carolina, five ; South Carolina, five ; Georgia, three. 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the ex- ecutive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 5- The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers, and thall have the sole power of impeachment. Sec. III.— I. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two ii Ii! '!* ! VA !t Ji" 1-1 Hi. ,£ .I'll III 398 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the e?cpiration of the fourth year, and the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise, dur- ing the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore in the absence of the vice-president, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the mem- bers present. 7. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall, never- theless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. Sec. IV. — The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature there- of ; but the Congress may, at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year ; and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Sec. V. — I. Each house shall be judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members ; and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, wjth the concurrence pf two-thirds, expel a member, w CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 399 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and, from time to time, publish the same, excepting such parts as may, in their judgment, require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the con- sent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Sec. VI. — I. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensa- tion for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to or returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house they shall not be questioned in any other place. 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil ofifice under the authority of the United States which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time ; and no person holding any ofifice under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. Sec. VII. — I. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve, he shall sign it ; but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house ; and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays ; and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journals of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless Congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return ; in which case it shall not be a law. 3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Sen- ate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States, and before the same shall take effect shall be approved by him or, being disap- proved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of V:::il,; I'll' 400 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. Sec. VIII. — ^The Congress shall have power — 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises; to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States : but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States : 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States : 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes : 4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States : 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures : 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States : 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads : 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries : 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court : 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and ofifenses against the law of nations: 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water : 12. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years : 13. To provide and maintain a navy: 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces : 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions : 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and /or governing such part of them as may be employed in tiie service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia, according to the discipline prescribed by Congress : 17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may by cessionof particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings : And, 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this con- CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 401 stitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. Sec. IX. — I. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States, now existing, shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight ; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importations, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. 3. No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed. 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No preference shall be given, by any regulation of commerce or revenue, to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 6. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. Sec. X. — I. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confed- eration ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts ; or grant any title of nobility. 2. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ! ■ : ■if i f 1 r [■ r i. ' i 1* .■1. li ! k I if ARTICLE XL Sec. I. — I. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of foui 402 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 3. [Annulled. See Amendments, art. 12.] 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same t^-oughout the United States. 5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President ; and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- pensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected ; and he shall not receive, within that period, any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the follow- ing oath or affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the constitution of the United States." Sec. II. — I. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States: he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive depart- ments upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Sen- ate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall appoint, ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the United States whose appoint- ments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 403 by law. But the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of their next session. Sec. III. — He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress informa- tion of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordi. nary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disa- greement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassa- dors, and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed ; and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Sec. IV. — The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and convic- tion of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III. Sec. I. — The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may, from time to time, ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. Sec. II. — I. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity arising under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, and other public ministers, and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more States; between a State and citizens of another State ; between citizens of different States ; between citizens of the same State, claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens or subjects. 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls and those in which a State shall be a party, the supreme court shall have original jurisdiction. In all other cases before mentioned, the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Congress shall make. 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such a place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. ^r I ■ r r 1: ii! u w '1; I': 404 CONSTITUTION OF THL UNITED STATES. Sec. III. — I. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testi mony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or confessions in open court. 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. Sec. I. — Full faith md credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Con- gress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Sec. II. — I. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered upon claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Sec. III. — I. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union, but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the legislature of the States concerned, as well as of the Congress. 2, The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Sec. IV. — The United States shall guarantee to every State of this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, and, on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature can not be convened), against domestic violence. ARTICLE V. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary. shall propose amendments to this constitution, or, on the application of tlu legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for pro- posing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three- CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 405 fourths of the several States, or by conventions in thrce-fourthri thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article i and that no State, with- out its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. pr ARTICLE VI. 1. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this constitution as under the confederation. 2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by an oath or affirmation to support this constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VIL The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty -seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. GEORGE WASHINGTON, President, and Deputy from Virginia. NEW HAMPSHIRE. John Langdon, Nicholas Oilman. MASSACHUSETTS. Nathaniel Gorham, RuFus King. CONNECTICUT. Wm. Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. NEW YORK. Alexander Hamilton. NEW JERSEY. William Livingston, David Brearley, William Patterson, Jonathan Dayton. f 4o6 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. PENNSYLVANIA. Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifkmn, Robert Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris. DELAWARE. George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickinson, Richard IUssett, Jacob Broom. MARYLAND. James M'Henry, Dan'l of St. Tho. Jenifek, Daniel Carroll. VIRGINIA. John Bi.air, James Madison, Jr. NORTH CAROLINA, William Blount, Rich. Donns Spaight, Hugh Williamson. SOUTH CAROLINA. John Ruti.edge, Charles C. I'inckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler, GEORGIA. William Few, Abraham Baldwin. Attest, WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. Art. I. — Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment o! religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom ot speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Art. II. — A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Art. III. — No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war but in a manner to be prescribed by the law. Art. IV. — The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated ; and no vi^arrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or afifirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Art. V. — No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jur}. except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia when i)i actual service, in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be sub ject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb : nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be witness against himself, nor be de- prived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. Art. VI. — In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a ppeedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been jrr CONSTITITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 407 previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause ol the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. Art. VII. — In suits of common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved ; and no fact, tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of the common law. Art. VIII.— .Excessive bail shall not be recjuired, nor excessive fines im- posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Art. IX. — The enumeration in the constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Art. X. — The powers not delegated to the United States by the consti- tution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States rcspec- tively, or to the people. Art. XI. — The judicial power of the United States shall not be con- strued to extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. Art. XII. — I. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the persons voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each : which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest number, not exceed- ing three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Represen' tatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But, in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. 2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole M 4o8 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-Presi- dent; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. 3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. Art. XIII. — I. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legis- lation. Art. XIV. — l. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several States accord- ing to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons i:) each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of tlio United States, representatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrec tion or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payments of pensions and bounties for services In suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim f tions, a 5. provisic Ar not be ( of race, 2. < Icgislati Will Lord one by the P following " Thi eii^ht hun designate! the Unite utivc gov authority and will d efforts the "Tha lamation, thereof re< the fact tl faith repre thereto at shall have mony, be are not the Now, by virtue ( Navy of tl authority EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. 409 claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, oblisa' tions, and claims shall be held illc£:;al and void. 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. Art. XV. — i. The rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Whereas, on the twenty-second day of September, in the year of out Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, a Proclamation was issued by the President of the United States, containing among other things the following, tb wit : " That on t'^c first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred an sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any State, or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward and forever free, and the exec- utive government of the United States, including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom." "That the executive will, on the first day of January aforesaid, by proc- lamation, designate the States and parts of States, if any, in which the people thereof respectively shall then be in rebellion against the United States, and the fact that any State, or the people thereof, shall on that day be in good faith represented in the Congress of the United States by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a majority of the qualified voters of such State shall have participated, shall, in the absence of strong countervailing testi- mony, be deemed conclusive evidence that such State and the people thereof are not then in rebellion against the United States." Now, therefore, I, ABRAHAM Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy of the l"'nited States, in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and government of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war ■t 410 EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. rAcasure for suppressing sgiid rebellion, do, on this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and in accord- ance with my purpose so to do, publicly proclaim for the full period of one hundred days from the day the first above-mentioned, order and designate, as the States and parts of States wherein the people thereof respectively are this day in rebellion against the United States, the following, to wit : Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jefferson, St John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assump- tion, Terre Bonne, Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of .New Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except the forty-eight coun- ties designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Ann, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted parts are, for the present, left precisely as if this Proclamation were not issued. And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of States are, and henceforward shall be free ; and that the executive govern- ment of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thf re- of, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons. And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free, to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self-defense, and I recommend to them that in all cases, when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. And I further declare and make known that such persons of suitable con- dition will be received into the armed service of the United States to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service. And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution, upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judg- ment of mankind and the gracious favor of Almighty God. In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my name, and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. Done at the City of Washington, this first day of January, in tJu [L. S.] year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-thrct\ and of the Independence of the United States the eighty-seventh. Abraham Lincoln. By the President: William H. Seward, Secretary of State. GROVER CLEVELAND, The public career of Grover Cleveland presents an example of rapid success probably unparalleled in the history of public men. Before his elec- tion as Governor of New York State he had held no hrgher office than that of Mayor of Buffalo; but his triumphant victory over Charles J. Folger, Secretary of the Treasury, in 1882, placing him at the head of the Empire State by a majority of nearly two hundred thousand votes, and his successful administration gave him the prestige which placed him in the proud position he now fills as President. He was born at Caldwell, Essex County, New Jersey, March 18, 1837. His father was a min- ister. After receiving a common-school education young Cleveland was sent to the academy situated at Clinton, Oneida Coun- ty, N. Y. Upon leaving this seat of learn- ing he went to New York City, where he filled the position of clerk in an institution of charity. He is next heard of making his way to Cleveland, Ohio ; but visiting, while on the way, an uncle residing in Buffalo, he was induced to remain in that city as clerk in the store of his relative. He was eighteen years of age at the time, an ambitious young fellow, possessed of the earnest desire to be- come a successful lawyer, and we soon find the youth a clerk in the office of a promi- nent law firm. He was admitted to the bar in 1859. His first political office was as As- sistant District Attorney for the County of Erie, under C. C. Torrance. He held the position three years, until the end of his superior's term of office, when he was nominated for District Attorney on the Democratic ticket, but was defeated. In 1870 he was elected Sheriff of Erie County; and in 1881 was elected Mayor of Buffalo by a decided majority. In the fall election of 1882 Mr. Cleveland was elected Governor of New York. His administration gave great satisfaction. He began his Presidential term supported by the good-will of all classes throughout the nation. GROVER CLEVELAND. THOMAS A. HENDRICKS, Thomas A. Hendricks was born in Ohio on the 7th of September, 18 19. He was graduated from South Hanover College in that State in 1840, when he removed to Chambersburg, Pa., and began the study of law. When admitted to the bar his career opened auspiciously, and he became a lawyer of excellent standing. In 1848 he was elected to the State Legisla- ture, and in 1850 was a delegate to the State Constitutional Convention. The next year he was elected to the Mouse of Representatives, and in 1853 his term expired. He was appointed Com- missioner of the General Land Office by President Pierce, and from this on he has been one of the most important political characters in Indiana. In i860 he ran for Governor against Henry S. Lane, and was defeated. He was elected to the United States Senate in 1863 for the long term. Here he served with marked ability in the Committees on Claims, Public Buildings and Grounds, the Judiciary, Public Lands, and Naval Affairs. After leaving the Sen- ate in 1869 he practised law until 1872. He was then elected Governor of the State by a majority of 1,148. His name was presented to the Con- vention in 1868 as candidate for the Presi dency. Again, in 1872, he was proposed as a candidate in the National Convention, and but for the fusions of that time he would probably have been the nominee of his party. He was nominated for Vice- President in 1876, and between that memorable contest and his nomination and election to the Vice-Presidency in 1884 his professional duties engrossed the greater part of his attention. Mr. Hendricks was a skilful public speaker and a learned lawyer, and his services as a statesman gave him an honorable position among public men. He was married near Cincinnati on the 25th of September, 1845, to Miss Eliza C. Morgan, by whom he had one son, born in 1848, but who lived to be only three years of age. The sudden death of Mr. Hendricks in the fall of 1885, cast a gloom over the entire country. THOMAS A. HENDRICKS. Twenty-third President. Born in North Bend, Ohio, August 20, 1S33. Grandson of Gen. IVilliain Ileiii . Ilurriso:i, ninth President, Graduated at Miami University, 1852. Admitted to the Ini: in Cincinnati, and settled in Indianapolis, 1854. Elected Reporter cf the Indiann Supreme Court, i860. Entered the Union Army as Colonel of the Seventieth Indiana Volunteer Infantry, 1S62 ; 7vas brcvetted Brigadier-General, February, 1865 ; mustered out of the service, jfune, 1865. While in the field, October, 1864, -ums re-elected Supreme Court Re- porter ; served four years. Defeated as Republican candidate for Governor of Indiana, 1876. Appointed member of the Mississippi River Commission, 1879. Elected U. S. Senator, 1S80. Elected President of the United Stales, Xovember, 1888. Vice-President, Levi P Alorton, Inaugurated March ^, iSSy H Land L within current All : their na or natio; poets, o the Kni| ed undei inauspici tentious start oul ulated I amount Knights tion, cer men wen Never die such unfa that it di( Two r Order of t HISTORY AND CONSTITUTION OF THE KNIGHTS or LABOR. HAT vast industrial organization, known to the world as the Knights of Labor, is one of the wonders of the age. Eighteen years ago it was not yet in existence ; six years ago it was weak and unknown ; to-day it has a net- work of organizations which cover the American con- tinent. It has found lodgment in France, Belgium, and England. Knights of Labor can be found on the five continents. The Order has been accorded an amount of atten- tion seldom given to any organization ; and it can be said without exaggeration that it is exerting a greater influence on material affairs and public opinion than any other organization in existence. The Chartist movement in England sprang into existence, accomplished an object, and djed. The Repeal movement in Ireland was the concrete expression of a people groaning under oppression. It passed away. The Anti-Slavery Leagues of America were the outgrowth of decades of agita- ' tion, favored by fortunate circumstances. So with the Irish Land League. It was born, raised, and ended within three years, after leaving its mark on current history. All of these great movements, similar in their nature, were backed either by religious or national sentiments which were inspired by poets, orators, and historians. Not so with the Knights of Labor. That Order was start- ed under the most adverse, commonplace, and inauspicious circumstances, by a most unpre- tentious set of workmen. Most organizations start out with a flourish of trumpets, stim- ulated by dclat, ceremony, and a certain amount of publicity. In the case of the Knights of Labor ^clat was out of the ques- tion, ceremony impossible (for only seven men were present), and publicity was dreaded. Never did any other organization begin under such unfavorable conditions. The wonder is that it did not die before it was born. Two men were associated in the work of bringing the " Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor " into existence. The name and history — evea (415) URIAH S. STEPHENS, Faunder K. of L. 4i6 HISTORY AND CONSTITUTION OF THE the existence — of one of them is shrouded in mystery, and probably never will be known. The heart, the soul, and brains of the project was Uriah S. Stephens, a journeyman tailor, a native of New Jersey, and a resident of Philadelphia. He was an humble, industrious. God-fearing man. Four years ago he died almost unknown, but time and events have since given him " a niche in the Temple of Fame." The question has been asked: Why did he start the Order? He was an old trades unionist. When he reached the age of manhood trades unionism was in its infancy, and when he had reached the middle age it had made but little progress. No trade or labor organization had yet become nationalized. He saw the defects of the existing unions. There was no concert of action between them ; a fraternal feeling was want- ing ; and a spirit of aristocracy was prevalent in union circles. The printer, the machinist, the watchmaker, and engineer looked down upon men engaged in the more laborious branches of industry. While all were struggling to better their condition, none of them seemed to be guided by a higher motive than a desire to get a slight advance of wages. As far back as 1861, in writing to a fellow- unionist, residing in New York, Mr. Stephens said : " I speak to you of unions as they now exist. To be candid with you, I will say that I have little or no faith in their power to raise the toiler to the position he should occupy in this favored land. They are too narrow in their ideas, and too circumscribed in their field of operations. None of them look be- yond a city, and few of them look a year ahead. This is to be regretted. I do not claim to be gifted with the power of proph- ecy, but I can see ahead of me an organization which will cover this globe. It will include men and women of every craft and creed and color ; it will cover every race worth saving. It will come in my time, I hope. Its groundwork will be secrecy, its rule obedience, and its guiding star will be mutual assistance. It will make labor honorable and profitable, and lessen its burdens ; it will make idleness a crime, render wars impossible, and obliterate national lines. Its pioneers will be denounced, reviled, and persecuted ; traitors will betray it, corporations will try to strangle it, and despots will place their iron heels upon it ; but it will spring up, blossom, flourish, and eventually cover the whole earth." In a letter which he subsequently wrote to the same man, Mr. Stephens informed him that he and a friend were devoting their leisure hours in laying the groundwork of an organization such as he had spoken of in his previous letter. Nothing more was heard of the project until August, 1869. During HUGH CAMERON, K. of L. Gen. Co-operative Board. thouf P!* ■F KNIGHTS OF LAIiOR. 417 that month Robert Blissert, the well-known New York labor aj^itator, who afterward founded the New York Central Labor Union, had occasion to visit Philadelphia on business connected with the Tailors' Union, of which he was a member. In the course of his business Mr. Blisscrt was thrown into Uriah Stephens* company, lilissert was then very active in the labor movement, and Mr. Stephens concluded that it would be well to talk the matter over with him. He unfolded his plan to him. His intention, he said, was to bring no one but clothing cutters into the Order at first. He wanted to have the clothing trade thoroughly organized at first. That, he thought, would take years, but he was willing that it should. He was more anxious for stability than extent of the organization. If matters went on as he hoped for, he would then gradually enroll other branches of tailors. Mr. Blissert advised him against such a policy. He said an organ- ization of that character was too grand an idea to be confined to any one industry, and he strongly urged Mr. Stephens to admit to membersTiip all worthy men, whether they worked with a needle, a pen, or a plow. Mr. Stephens had already consulted several of his fellow-craftsmen on the subject. He thought the time opportune for starting the Knights of Labor. He was puzzled in select- ing a name for the Order. He was afraid that in a republic the name " Knights of Labor" would not be popular. The names of the Brotherhood of Labor, the Industrial League, the Brotherhood of Industry, and the Sovereigns of Industry suggested them- selves to him. He finally decided upon the title the Order now bears. He argued that workingmen had been called the " Mudsills of Society," and that the title of " Knight " would serve to impress upon them an idea of the dignity of labor. He said that as in the middle ages knights had been the protectors of the defenceless, so, too, in our time the Knights of Labor would be the defenders of those who needed defence and who were worthy of defending. Two other ideas moved him. He was a hater of labor strikes; and he determined, if possible, to prevent them — to bring employees and employers together so that they might settle their differences by arbitration. He had seen workingmen pauperized by strikes and employers bankrupted. He therefore thought it time to stop that costly sort of warfare. He was a firm believer in co-operation, and he was impressed with the idea that through organization and education work- men might become their own employers, and thereby reap all the fruits of their labor. He had an abiding faith that in time all who worked for wages, would be converted to his way of thinking. JOHN G. CAVILLE, dncral A iiditor. 4i8 HISTORY AND CONSTITUTION OF THE These were thoughts that filled his mind when he called six of his fellow- craftsmen together on Thanksgiving Day, November, 1869, at his residence in Philadelphia, There were only seven men present at that simple, but im- portant, conference. They were Uriah S. Stephens, James L. Wright, William Fennimore, Henry L. Sincxson, and three others whose names are not obtain- able. Five of them have since died. James L. Wright still resides in Phila- delphia, and he is an active organizer of the Order, acting under the jurisdiction of District Assembly No. i, and doing excellent work. Henry L. Siriexson is still living. Mr. Stephens unfolded his plans to them, and explained them at length. Some of those present doubted the practicability of the movement, but all agreed to the desirability of it ; and all expressed a willingness to further the organization, for, as they said, it was well worth trying. Mr. Stephens' enthusiasm en- couraged them, and they left the house that evening full-fledged Knights of Labor, pio- neers of a new movement, preachers of a new idea, Mr. Stephens impressed upon them the absolute necessity of inviolable secrecy re- garding the movement, saying : " Open and public associations having failed after a cen- tury's struggle either to protect or advance the interests of labor, we constitute this Order not to shield or promote wrong-doing, but to protect ourselves from the persecution of men in our own sphere and calling as well as those out of it." The Declaration of Principles, which are given in full further on, in the part of this article that treats of the first General Assembly, was the chart of the organ- ization. It declares the objects of the Order to be — co-operation ; weekly pay- ment of wages; the abolition of contract labor; arbitration instead of strikes in settling labor troubles ; " equal pay for men and women for equal work "; the adoption of the eight hours' system; the abolition of convict contract labor, of child labor, and the formation of bureaus of labor statistics. The parent branch of the Order was called the Sons of Adam, and after- ward Local Assembly No. i of the Knights. Its growth was slow to a wearisome degree, because the greatest care was taken in selecting members. This is the method in which members were selected : A man, who was already a member, would speak in a guarded manner to a fellow-workman about the necessity of an organization national in its scope and universal in its aim. If the man's replies were of the kind expected, and if he was deemed worthy of affiliation in the Order, he would be proposed at a subsequent meeting. A fommittee would then be appointed to investigate his character, habits, and JOHN p. McGAUGHEY, Secretary Co-operative Board. ^r KNIGHTS OF LABOR. 419 his record as a union man. If a satisfactory report were made he was elected and initiated. He had to take a solemn oath not to mention the name of the organization, the name of any member, nor the time, place, or object of a meeting; nor the business done or proposed; nor its signs, grips, or pass- words. In a word, he was bound to keep all knowledge of the Order from the outer world, under the penalty of expulsion and social ostracism, " due to perjury and violated honor." Mr. Stephens always insisted upon this policy. The saddest day of his life was January i, 1882, when the Order was made public by an official proclamation. He wept, and said publicity would shatter the organization within ten years. A Knight tried to argue with him, but he would not listen. He said : " Brother, it is useless to talk. An organization which abolishes one of its fundamental principles cannot live and prosper; but I have hopes that my brethren will see their mistake and return to the old methods." Mr. Stephens was elected Master Workman of the pioneer branch, which is still in existence in Philadelphia. The members went to work with the zeal of apostles, and spert nights and days in building up the Order. For a con- siderable period no one but clothing-cutters and tailors were admitted. Mr. Stephens' idea was that it was better to spend a year in bu'''1ing up one solid branch than to form six weak ones in half the time. Shortly after the Order was formed, a convention was held in Philadelphia, under the auspices of the National Labor Union. Over 500 delegates, from all parts of the country, attended. Among them were Capt. Richard F. Trevellick, of Detroit, now a foremost Knight of Labor; Robert Blissert and William Jessup, of New York; Gen. A. M. Wc^., of Mississippi. A few of the then unknown Knights mixed among the delegates, and went as far as they dared in advancing the claims of their organization. Out of the 500 who attended the convention, probably a half-doze.n were initiated as Knights. Robert Blissert joined the Order at Mr. Stephens' solicitation. He returned to New York, but he concluded that the time was not yet ripe for starting the Order in the great metropolis. A year from the time the Order started, there were about four branches of it in Philadelphia. The Order was then introduced into Camden, N. J., and it crept along to Glassboro, N. J., and spread throughout a considerable portion of South New Jersey, principally among the glass-workers. In 1873, Fred. Turner, now General Secretary-Treasurer, then a gold- beater, was taken in as member. He saw at once the advantages his craft would obtain from connection with it, and he accordingly helped to organize Goldbeaters' Local Assembly, No. 20, of Philadelphia. Later on, in the same year, he went to New York City, and founded Goldbeaters' Assembly, No. 28, which did not live long. The members of it were hounded and victimized by employers, who seemed to divine the existence of the invisible organiza- tion. Up to July 15, 1873, the name and even the existence of the Knights of Labor were well-kept secrets. On that day their Declaration of Principles was given to the press, which gladly published it. The public were mystified as 420 HISTORY AND CONSTITUTION OF THE to the source from which the document emanated, but no light was thrown upon the subject. Whisperings of conspiracies, dark-lantern societies, com- munism, etc., then became the fashion. The document awakened the interest of the workingmen in Pennsylvania, and the Order took an upward bound. The necessity of a governing body then became manifest, and accordingly a mass convention of the local Assemblies in and around Philadelphia was called. The body decided to form District Assemblies. On Thanksgiving Day, November, 1873, District No. i was formed, (so says Secretary Turner's records). Shortly afterward, District No. 2 was organized in the Glassboro N. J., region. This latter body began a bitter and successful fight against the "shin-plaster" and " store-order" system which then prevailed in the factories and mills within its jurisdiction. One of its leaders was Thomas M. Ferrell, a glass-worker, whose activity brought down upon him the vengeance of several grinding corporations. His colleagues sent him afterward to the New Jersey Assembly, then to the State Senate, and, finally, to Congress. The Order spread along the lines of the trunk roads of Pennsylvania, reach- ing Scranton in 1874, and Pittsburg about the same time. It was in Pittsburg that the organization found its strongest foothold, and its growth there was simply marvellous. District No. 3 was then formed, with a wide jurisdiction. So far as can be learned, it was the first district which became powerful enough to pay a salary to its Master Workman, and to keep him in the field. It spread through the coal regions, and then embraced thousands of railroad employes on the Philadelphia and Reading Road. Reading, Pennsylvania, becan another stronghold, and the capital of District No. 4. Organizers went throu^.. the State, building up Assemblies wherever possible and advisable. In the meantime the Order had become a power in Philadelphia. Its existence had become partly known, but no one knew where it met, when it met, or who were members of it. No meetings were ever advertised. A simple chalk-mark would be made on the side-walks of certain corners of certain streets in the morning. No one but Knights of Labor knew what it meant, but the result would be the presence of from 5,000 to 10,000 workingmen at a labor rally in the evening. If any documents were issued, the name Knights of Labor was not mentioned. Five stars (* * * * ^») would take the place of the title. Every Knight knew what it meant. Originally eight stars were used, thus ********, signifying the " Noble and Holy Order of Knights of Labor." Philadelphia preachers began to denounce the unknown organization, politi- cians speculated on its power, and certain papers said that it should be stamped out by conspiracy laws, but the Order grew and prospered. Although it was an absolutely non-political organization, the leaders con- cluded that while they would not dabble in politics, yet they were determined that objectionable men should no longer fill seats in municipal. State, or national councils. In 1875 l number of objectionable candidates for munic- ipal offices, who had been nominated by the dominant parties, were fairly slaughtered at the polls. Although not instructed to do so, the Knights of Philadelphia voted as one man against them. " Why ? " was asked. " Because KNIGHTS OF LAHOR. 421 the candidates were enemies of the working element," was the response of one of Philadei[)hia's gifted journalists in an editorial. About this time the " Molly Maguire " matter was uppermost in the public mind. The enemies of the Order now saw a chance to strike at it. They linked the unknown Order with all the crimes chargcil against the " Molly Maguires," and charged it with being the moving spirit in the allegeil coti- spiracy. By Jan. i, 1877, the Order had branches in Pennsylvania, Missouri, Ohio, West Virginia, Indiana, in Elmira, N. Y., and three branches in New York City. There were about 400 locals in all then in existence. The Green- back-Labor Pirty was looming up just then. Many of the Knights of Labor joined it. They supposed that it had come to stay, and many of them con- cluded that they had better jump into and control it, with the idea that if it became a power, they could force it to make their principles the organic laws of the land. Uriah S. Stephens became an ardent member of the party, but neither he nor his companions ever attempted to lead the Order into it, as has been charged. Their idea was not to form political parties, but to control those which existed. The year 1877 was a turning-point in the history of the Order. In some localities it had grown strong enough to come out publicly. There were prob- ably 10,000 members of the Order in Pennsylvania alone. The great railroad strikes came on during the summer of that year. Many Knights of Labor took part in them, and were it not for the influence which they exercised over non-members who struck, disasters and scenes too frightful to think of would have marked that historic event. Man; Knights were members of the militia regiments which were called out to quell the trouble, and thanks to their cool- ness, as well as to their inside knowledge of affairs, that Pittsburg did not become a vast slaughter-house. The outcome of the strike was that over 2,000 Knights of Labor had to leave Pennsylvania. They scattered all over the West. Although not com- missioned to do so, they began the work of forming branches of the Knights of Labor wherever they went. The organization had no legally constituted head as yet, but District No. i, of Philadelphia, was regarded as the source of authority. 'The need of a central controlling body was keenly felt. After considerable correspondence between Mr. Stephens, T. V. Powderly, Chas. H. Litchman, and other zealous members, it was decided to call a general conven- tion. So far as was known, at the time of this contemplated step the Order had obtained a 'oothold in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, West Virginia, Missouri, Massachusetts. Colorado, and Illinois. There were 500 local Assemblies, which were governed by 1 5 district Assem- blies. Frederick Turner, of District No. i, issued a call for the convention. MEETING OF THE FIRST GENERAL ASSEMBLY AT READING, PA. On New Year's Day, Tuesday, January i, 1878, the pioneer delegates to the first General Assembly met at 508 Penn Street, Reading, Pa. Among them were T. V. Powderly, Uriah S. Stephens ; Charles H. Litchman, of "^^w^^w^r ^\ ■ 422 HISTORY AND CONSTITUTION OF THE Marblehead, Mass. ; Ralph Beaumont, "the eloquent shoemaker," of Elmira ; John B. Chisholm, of Carbondale, Pa. ; Robert Schilling, then of Akron, Ohio, now of Milwaukee. There were 32 delegates in all, representing 15 branches of industry and the States of Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, West Virginia, Massachusetts, and Missouri. There was i clothing cutter, 4 shoemakers, I school teacher, 9 coal miners, i moulder, i engineer, 2 locomotive engineers, 4 machinists (of whom Mr. Powderly was one), i printer, 3 glass-workers, 1 carpenter, i cooper, i nail packer, i steam-boiler maker, and 1 blacksmith. Fred. Turner, a [goldbeater, now General Secretary-Treasurer, wa:, present, but not as a delegate. Never before, and hardly ever since then, has a more determined, energetic, or brilliant body of workingmen assembled. Many of them have since gained national reputations, and among the wage-earners of the world they are looked upon in the same light that true Americans look upon the signers of the Declaration of Independence. New York had 5 dele- gates, one of them a resident of Brooklyn ; Pennsylvania had 19 ; Massa- chusetts, I ; Missouri, i ; Ohio, 4; and West Virginia, 2. As it wil' be observed, Pennsylvania had the lion's share of the delegates, but this is ex jlainable from the fact that that State was the birthplace of the Knights of Labor. All these men were thoroughly alive to the importance of the work assigned them. The Convention was called to order by Delegate Thomas King, of Pennsylvania, and Uriah S. Stephens was unanimously chosen to preside, with Charles H. Litchman, of Marblehead, Mass., as secre- tary. The sessions lasted for four days. The great governing body of the Order was formed during these four days, and the men who sat in that General Assembly started the machinery which has since brought into existence nearly 8,000 branches of the giant Order. The Resistance Fund was proposed and adopted. The provisions concerning it were that 5 cents of the monthly dues of each member of each local Assembly should be set aside in care of each local Treasurer. This is the fund which was afterward reserved for the support of men on strike, and 8,000 local Assemblies now have a similar fund to draw upon in cases of n'^cessity. Another important matter was discussed. Some delegates were anxious to have the name and existence of the Order made public. There was strong opposition to the idea, however. Finally, to test the matter, Charles H. Litchman, of Massachusetts, proposed that the Order should be made public. Only 5 delegates voted in favor of the motion, while Messrs. Powderly, Beau- mont, and Litchman, with 19 of their colleagues, voted against it. Uriah S. Stephens, who had gone back to Philadelphia on the previous day, would have voted against publicity had he been present. It may be well to explain this vote. At that time labor organizations were comparatively few and weak. The country was then recovering from the paralyzing effects of the panic, and work was not easily obtained. Trades unions were unpopular, and thousands of Knights of Labor feared that if the Order was made public, their connection with it would be discovered, and corp hope I be p weall T thos£ eat b T of orj party who suffr; legis with measi vote greatc the wi I. indivi( 2, suffice faculti word, In 3- correct laborir KNIGHTS OF LABOR. 423 they would be black-listed by their employers. And it may be said that their fears were well founded, because thousands of Knights have been sent on tramp because they were Knights. Other considerations prompted the opposition to publicity. The members were afraid that politicians would try to capture the organization. Again, Mr. Stephens believed that secrecy would make the Order invincible. The great work of the General Assembly was the formulation of the Declaration of Principles. The best minds of that body were taxed in building the document which is the chart and ^uide for the toilers who were then and who have since become Knights of Labor. The platform adopted was rather brief. Since then additions have been made to it. For con- venience sake, the platform as it now stands, which includes all of the original one and the amendments thereto, is given below : DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES. The alarming development and aggressiveness of great capitalists and corporations, unless checked, will inevitably lead to the pauperization and hopeless degradation of the toiling masses. It is imperative, if we desire to enjoy the full blessings of life, that a check be placed upon unjust accumulation and the power for evil of aggregated wealth. This much-desired object can be accomplished only by the united efforts of those who obey the Divine injunction, " In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread." Therefore we have formed the Order of Knights of Labor, for the purpose of organizing and directing the power of the industrial masses, not as a political party, for it is more — in it are crystallized sentiments and measures for the whole people — but it should be borne in mind, when exercising the right of suffrage, that most of the objects herein set forth can only be obtained through legislation, and that it is the duty of all to assist in nominating and supporting with their votes only such candidates as will pledge their support to those measures, regardless of party. But no one shall, however, be compelled to vote with the majority, and calling upon all who believe in securing "the greatest good to the greatest number " to join and assist us, we declare to the world that our aims are : 1. To make industrial and moral worth, not wealth, the true standard of individual and national greatness. 2. To secure to the workers the full enjoyment of the wealth they create; sufficient leisure in which to develop their intellectual, moral, and social faculties; all of the benefits, recreation, and pleasures of association; in a word, to enable them to share in the gains and honors of advancing civilization. In order to secure these results, we demand at the hands of the State : 3. The establishment of bureaus of labor statistics, that we may arrive at & correct knowledge of the educational, moral, and financial condition of the laboring masses. t\\ Jill urn ■■T^iT*" 424 HISTORY AND CONSTITUTION OF THE 4. That the pubh'c lands, the heritage of the people, be reserved for actual settlers; not another acre for railroads or speculators, and that all lands now held for speculative purposes be taxed to their full value. 5. The abrogation of all laws that do not bear equally upon capital and labor, and the removal of unjust technicalities, delays, and discriminations in the administration of justice. 6. The adoption of measures providing for the health and safety of those engaged in mining, manufacturing, and building industries, and for the indem- nification to those engaged therein for injuries received through lack of neces- sary safeguards. 7. The recognition by incorporation of trades unions and orders, and such other associations as may be organized by the working masses to improve their condition and protect their rights. 8. The enactment of laws to compel corporations to pay their employds weekly, in lawful money, for the labor of the preceding week, and giving mechanics and laborers a first lien upon the product of their labor to the extent "of their full wages. 9. The abolition of the contract system on national, State, and municipal works. 10. The enactment of laws providing for arbitration between employer and employed, and to enforce the decision of the arbitrators. 11. The prohibition by law of the employment of children under 15 years of age in workshops, mines, and factories. 12. To prohibit the hiring out of convict labor. 13. That a graduated income tax be levied. And we demand at the hands of Congress : 1. The establishment of a national monetary system, in which a circulating medium in necessary quantity shall issue direct to the people, without the intervention of banks ; that all the national issue shall be full legal tender in payment of all debts, public and private ; and that the Government shall not guarantee or recognize any private banks, or create any banking corpora- tions. 2. That interest-bearing bonds, bills of credit, or notes shall never be issued by the Government, but that, when need arises, the emergency shall be met by issue of legal tender, non-interest-bearing money. 3. That the importation of foreign labor under contract be prohibited. 4. That, in connection with the post-office, the Government shall organize financial exchanges, safe deposits, and facilities for deposit of the savings of the people in small sums. 5. That the Government shall obtain possession by purchase, under the right of eminent domain, of all telegraphs, telephones, and railroads, and that hereafter no charter or license be issued to any corporation for construction or operation of any means of transporting intelligence, passengers, or freight. And while making the foregoing demands upon the State and National Government, we will endeavor to associate our own labors : w KNIGHTS OF LABOR. 425 1. To establish co-operative institutions such as will supersede the wage system, by the introduction of a co-operative industrial system. 2. To secure for both sexes equal pay for equal work. 3. To shorten the hours of labor by a general refusal to work more than eight hours. 4. To persuade employers to agree to arbitrate all differences which may arise between them and their employes, in order that the bonds of sympathy between them may be strengthened and that strikes may be rendered un- necessary. The General Assembly closed its work on Friday, Jan. 4, 1878, by electing these Grand Officers* : Grand Master Workman, Uriah S. Stephens, a garment- cutter, of Philadelphia, Penn.; Grand Worthy Foreman, Ralph Beaumont, shoemaker, of Elmira, N. Y. ; Grand Secretary, Charles H, Litchman, shoe- maker, of Marblehead, Mass. ; Grand Assistant-Secretary, John. G. Laning, nail-packer, Clifton, W. Va. ; Grand Treasurer, Thomas M. Gallagher, machin- ist, of St. Louis, Mo. The Executive Board was then selected, and was com- posed of these members : Thomas P. Crowne, shoemaker. New York, Chair- man ; James A. Hamilton, printer, Leetonia, Ohio, Secretary ; John A. Gibson, minr r, Knightsville, Indiana ; Robert A. Stecn, glassworkcr, Pittsburgh, Penn. ; anc' William L. Van Horn, teacher, of Lewiston, W. Va. These officers, ex- cepting Mr. Stephens, were formally installed, and into their hands was. placed the care of the organization, which was destined to become a power throughout the world. Messrs. Litchman and Crowne were afterward deputed to go to Philadelphia, and install Uriah S. Stephens into the greatest office within the gift of the Order he brought into existence. The delegates parted full of zeal and enthusiasm, and resumed the work of organization. It began to be noised everywhere that a secret labor organiza- tion was spreading its network all over the country. Newspapers began to attack it fiercely, denouncing the members as conspirators and assassins ; clergymen inveighed against it as a league with Satan ; and employers began to discharge every man whom they supposed were members of it. Some of the members became panic-stricken, and Grand Master Workman Stephens was daily in the receipt of letters from members, who pressed hfm as to the advisa- bility of making the Order public. Mr. Stephens, after consultation with lead- ing members, concluded that something had to be done, and accordingly the following call for a special session was issued on May 16, 1878: "N. AND H. O. if * * * * "Special Call. " On account of what is believed by many of our most influential members to be an emergency of vast and vital importance to the stability, usefulness, *The title " Grand Officers " was changed to "General Officers," at the request of Local Assembly, No. 1825, of Williamsburg, N. Y., by the General Assembly which met at Cincinnati in Sept , 1883. The reason assigned for the change was that the title " grand " was undemocratic. 426 HISTORY AND CONSTITUTION OF THE and influence of our Order, and in accordance with the power given me by the Constitution, I do hereby call a special session of the General Assembly of the N. and H. O. of K. of L., of North America, to be held Thursday, June 6, 1878, in the hall of District No. i, at Sixth and Walnut Streets, Philadelphia, Penn. * * * * The business is to consider the expediency of making the Order public^ for the purpose of defending it against the fierce assaults and defama- tion made upon it by press, clergy, and corporate capital, and to take such further action as shall effectually meet the grave emergency. " Uriah S. Stephens, G. M. W. "Chas. H. Litchman, G. Secretary.'' Fifteen delegates, representing New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Massachusetts, and Missouri, responded to the call, and met at the time and place named ; Uriah S. Stephens presiding. They immediately began to discuss the question at issue. A motion was made authorizing the Grand Master Workman and the Grand Secretary to empower District and Local Assemblies to make the order public when two-thirds of the members of such bodies should declare in favor of such a step. Secrecy being a fundamental rule of the Order, it required a two-thirds vote to pass such a resolution. The resolution was killed, nine votes (less than two-thirds) being cast in favor of it, and six against it. Finally, on the motion of T. V. Powderly, of Scranton, it was decided to refer the following matters to the consideration of the District and Local Assemblies for approval : the advisability of making the Order public, and of making such changes in the ceremonials as would tend to remove the opposition of the churches. And at the suggestion of Mr. Litchman, it was decided to order each Assembly to vote on these questions not later than Dec. i, 1878. The Assembly was then closed. The formation of the General Assembly imposed new duties on the Order all around. The Grand Officers had to begin to pick up the scattered threads which seemed to exist all over the country. The work was slow, but steady. Beginning on the 9th of April, 1878, Grand Master Workman Stephens began to appoint organizers on the recommendation of the various District and local Assemblies. Seventy-four were appointed during that year, and the Order was constitutionally established in Kansas, Minnesota, Kentucky, Michigan, Maryland, Colorado, Iowa, and Alabama. Weak, isolated, " char terless " branches were already in existence in a few of these States. An organizer was sent to Florida. The Order was getting in smooth running order. During that year the various local Assemblies voted on the advisability of making the Order public. The returns were very meagre, but, such as they were, they showed that the majority of the Assemblies were against publicity. When the second session of the General Assembly was called in Nie's Hall, St. Louis, Mo., on January 14, 1879, 97^ local Assemblies had been heard from. The increase for the year had been 471. There were only 25 delegates present, but they represented a wider area of the country thao thosf who KNIGHTS OF LABOR. 42; attended the first General Assembly. Iowa, Wisconsin, Kansas, Kentucky, and Alabama had representative's at the second session. Uriah Stephens presided. In his formal address he said : " Your presence here gives us light and hope. It means a waking up to the historical facts, that great wealth means certain corruption at the fountain of law ; that limited intelligence is suborned to villainy; and the best genius of our time is perverted to the base uses of unprincipled and yet, after all, bankrupt greed. Coming as you do from all parts of this continent, shows the magnitude of the awakening. It foretells the blessing of Heaven upon those who will help themselves. Wel- come to this General Assembly, than which in its bearing upon the destiny of the race a more important assemblage of representative men never before met upon the globe." Three very important matters were discussed by the delegates. First, the feasibility of a life insurance department ; second, the formation of State Assemblies; and, third, the wisdom of taking political action. (At the pre- vious election 15 men representing the principles held by the Knights of Labor had been elected to Congress.) The delegates killed the State Assem- bly plan ; they feared that it would eventually tend to make a political machine out of the Order. By an almost unanimous vote. Assemblies were authorized to take political action if two-thirds of their membership favored the idea. The insurance plan met with general favor, but nothing definite was done about it. Several of the delegates seemed determined to force the matter of making the Order public. A delegate from Ohio made a motion to that effect. A prolonged debate followed. Finally, T. V. Powderly pointed a way out of the difficulty, and at his suggestion the General Assembly authorized any local or District Assembly to make itself known, provided two-thirds of the mem- bers should so decide. The Assembly finished the work by re-electing Grand Master Workman Stephens ; T. V. Powderly, of Scranton, was chosen Grand Worthy Foreman ; Charles H. Litchman, Grand Secretary ; W. H. Singer, Grand Treasurer. The members elected to the Executive Board were : John McCaffrey, Pennsylvania ; E. S, Marshall, Alabama ; Thomas Kavanaugh, Illinois; James H. Coon, Iowa; Newell Daniels, Wisconsin. Nothing of public importance was done in the eight months which passed before the third session of the General Assembly met in Chicago, on Septem- ber 2, 1879. Twenty delegates, representing ten States, took part in the deliberations. Much to their regret, Mr. Stephens was not present. Why he was not there was explained by the following letter : Office of the Grand Mastfr Workman, 1 Philadelphia, Pa., August 30, 1879. ) Charles Litchman, Esq., Grand Secretary. Mv Dear Brother : Business and finance together render it impossible for me to be at Chicago. I do not feel that I can any longer bear the burden. It must rest on other shoulders. My preference [for successor] lies between Powderly and Richard Griffiths. I have transmitted my address and report, also my decisions and statement of accounts, to Brother Griffiths, to hand to you. I must devote my energies to personal afTairs that have * : 428 HISTORY AND CONSTITUTION OF THE been so much neglected the last two years, while giving brain and energy to the interests of others. I sincerely hope for wise legislation, and that humanity may be benefited thereby. Yours fraternally, U. S. Stephens, Grand Master Workman. In the absence of Mr. Stephens, the duty of presiding devolved upon Grand Worthy Foreman Powderly, one of the 20 delegates who were present. A considerable portion of the five days' session was taken up in discussing the testy question as to whether the time had not come for making the aims and name of the Order known to the world. The delegates thought the time was yet inopportune, and they settled the question in the way it was disposed of at the second session, viz. : the Assemblies were empowered to make the Order public in their own localities if deemed advisable. Up to this time women were barred out from membership. Delegate Philip Van Patten, of Ohio, thought the barrier should be removed, and, with that end in view, he offered an amendment to the Constitution, providing that workingwomen should be admitted to the Order. Twelve votes were cast in favor and 8 against it. Lacking a two-thirds majority, the question was referred back to the Order at large for approval. The General Assembly also endorsed the stand previously taken in favor of allowing Assemblies to take political action whenever the interests of the Order would be served thereby. Two other important measures were brought up, disposed of, and adopted as a part of the organic law of the Order. The want of an official organ was keenly felt, and by a unanimous vote the Grand Officers were authorized to i.ssue a monthly organ, to be circulated only among members of the organiza- tion. The paper was issued on the 15th of May, 1880. It now has a large circulation, and it has been a means of welding the Brotherhood together and of establishing a unity of sentiment among the members. The other measure was the establishing of a black-list. The black-list is a mode of punishing traitors. It was ordered that as soon as a traitor was expelled that his name, age, occupation, personal appearance, and his ofifence should be published in the journal and sent broadcast, indorsed by the local or district which ex pelled him. The report of Grand Secretary Charles H. Litchman showed that the Order had made encouraging gains ; that 41 organizers had been commissioned, not only in the States already organized, but in Texas, California, Iowa, North Carolina, and Massachusetts. It was shown, too, that 1,325 locals were work- ing, making an increase of 354 in 8 months. Other reports showed that a number of the locals then recently organized were composed of men engaged at special branches of industry. A resolution was adopted, declaring that trade locals were contrary to the spirit and genius of the Order, and all locals were recommended to initiate men of all trades and callings. The session was ended by the election of Terrence V. Powderly, of Pennsylvania, as Grand Master Workman ; Richard Griffiths, of Illinois, Grand Worthy Foreman ; Charles H. Litchman, of Massachusetts, Grand Secretary (re-elected) ; Dominick Hammer, of Ohio, Grand Treasurer. To the KNIGHTS OF LABOR. 429 Executive Board : Edward A. Stevens, of Illinois; Philip Van Patten, of Ohio; Michael A. Leary and David Fitzgerald, of Pennsylvania ; and Cornelius Cur- tin, of Illinois. The work of organization went on quietly during the winter and spring which followed. New York was as yet unorganized. While the leaders were anxious that the Order should gain a foothold in the Empire State, they had misgivings as to its probable success. In the early days of the Order three Assemblies had been formed in New York City, one of goldbeaters. No. 28 ; one of boxmakers. No. 159; and one of shoemakers, No. 221 ; but they had withered and died. An organizer settled in Brooklyn, N.Y., in 1879, and after 13 months' hard work he established Advance Assembly No, 1562 (mixed), with 14 members. Most of them were staunch and zealous men. Assisted by them, he started Local Assembly No. 1 563 in New York City, and Progressive Assembly No. 1570 in Greenpoint, N. Y. No. 1562 infused a spirit into the Order at large, which took the upward bound which landed it in the high position it now occupies. In its onward march the Order gained firm footholds in Alabama, Colorado, California, Maryland, Michigan, Kentucky, Indiana, and Kansas. Branches were started at Savannah, McAllister in the Indian Territory, and at Cheyenne, Wyoming Territory, bringing the total number of Assemblies up to 1,580, with 42 districts, on September I, 1880. The fourth regular scssiop of the Knights of Labor was held at Grand Armory Hall, on September 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, in Pitttsburgh. Among the 40 delegates were representatives from California, Michigan, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, States that never before had been represented in the General Assembly, This, and the fact that 1,580 locals were in existence, proved very encouraging to the young Master Work- man, Mayor T. V. Powderly, of Scranton, who made his maiden address a.s chief of the Order of the Knights of Labor. In the course of it, he said in reference to strikes : " We must teach our members that the remedy for the redress of the wrongs we complain of does not lie in the suicidal strike — it lies in thorough effective organization. Without organization we cannot ac- complish anything ; through it we hope to banish forever the curse of modern civilization — wage slavery." The question of strikes had for years engaged the attention of the Order. The general policy of it was against strikes, but it was considered that a plan for dealing with them was necessary. A special committee was appointed by the General Assembly, and it presented this report, which was adopted : " It is the opinion of the Order that strikes are, as a rule, productive of more injury than benefit to the working people ; consequently, all attet nts to foment strikes should be discouraged. But, should circumstances compel our brothers in any locality to strike, the local Assembly to which they belong shall elect an Arbitration Committee, which shall try to settle the difficulty. Should this Committee fail to arrange matters satisfactorily, the District Assembly shall elect an Arbitration Committee, which shall renew the effort to settle the difficulty." It was further provided that should the District fail, a committee selected 430 HISTORY AND CONSTITUTION OF THE from three Districts should try to settle the difficulty. And, if that body failed, the matter was to be referred to the General Executive Board. The Executive Board and the Grand Officers were empowered to order a strike if deemed justifiable, to support the strikers from the strike fund, and to levy a general assessment on the whole Order in support of the strike. The question of admitting women to the Order came up again, and a dele- gate offered this resolution : " That workingwomen m?.y become members of the Order, and form Assemblies under the same conditions as men." This met with almost unanimous approval, and the General Assembly declared that woman was the equal of man. The Grand Officers were author- ized to put the motion into effect at once. • An effort was made to remove the ban on physicians. A motion declaring them eligible was defeated by a vote of 38 to 2. A lengthy debate followed a motion pledging the Order to sup- port the Greenback-Labor Party. The motion was tabled indefinitely. The Resistance Fund, established at the first General Assembly, had grown to considerable proportions, and there was considerable doubt as to how it should be used. Hours were taken up in considering and debating the ques- tion. It was finally decided that 10 per cent, of* the fund should be laid aside for educational purposes, 30 per cent, to be set aside as a Strike Fund, and the remaining 60 per cent, was ordered to be set aside and used in starting co- operative factories, mills, and stores. The position of the Order on the Chinese question was defined by the adoption of the following resolution : " Resolved, That all members of the Order oppose Chinese coolie importation of what- ever form, and it shall be their duty to withdraw all patronage from said class and the employers of them. It shall be the duty of all brothers to exact a pledge from their repre- sentatives in Congress that they will do all that li^s within their power to secure the abro- gation of the Burlingame treaty." The old Board of Grand Officers were re-elected, and the following delegates became members of the Executive Board : James L. Wright and Frederick Turner, of Pennsylvania ; Daniel Mc- Laughlin, of Illinois ; Henry G. Taylor, New York ; and Robert W. Price, Maryland. In December, 1880, several members of the Order were arrested during a labor-strike in Pennsylvania, and charged with being members of the Knights of Labor, *' an organization which encourages crime, theft, arson, etc." A special meeting of the Executive Board was held in Philadelphia on Jan. 9, 1 88 1, to consider their case. Their liberty was at stake, and the reputation of the Order was in danger. Grand Master Workman Powderly and James L. Wright, Chairman of the Executive Board, were authorized to attend the trial as witnesses on behalf of the accused Knights. They did so, with the result that the unfounded charges of conspiracy fell to the ground. For some unknown reason the organization did not spread very rapidly during the year beginning Sept. i, 1881. Only loi local Assemblies and one KNIGHTS OF LABOR. 431 District Assembly were organized, but the States of Tennessee and Minnesota and the District of Columbia were added to the roll, bringing the total number of locals up to 1,681. The fifth session of the General Assembly was held in Ney Hall, Detroit, Mich., on Sept. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, 1881 ; Grand Master Workman Powderly presiding. Thirty-three delegates were present, one of them representing Kansas. Brooklyn, N, Y., had a delegate for the first time, and New York City had two delegates. The question of making the Order public came up again, and no less than four resolutions were offered by dele- gates from different parts of the country in favor of the scheme. Thomas M. Ferrell, afterward a Congressman from New Jersey, submitted the following resolution, which, after a prolonged discussion, was adopted : " Whereas, Believing that it will be in accord with the great work we are engaged in, and to aid more fully in educating the public to a favorable opinion in the inte»est of the working unions of this country ; therefore, be it " Resolved, That the name of the Order be declared by the General Assembly to be no longer a secret, leaving it optional with the District Assemblies and locals in connection with the G. M. W. when to so proclaim it in their respective jurisdictions." Nearly every delegate spoke on this subject, and the minority, led by Theo. F. Cuno, of Brooklyn, N. Y., made a strong fight against the motion. Their opposition proved futile, and the motion was adopted by a vote of 28 to 6. James L. Wright, one of the founders of the Order; Cuno, and the dele- gates representing Detroit, Newark, N. J., Baltimore, and H. G. Taylor, of New York, voted to the last against publicity. Accordingly a committee of three was authorized to draft " a proclamation to the workingmen of the United States, informing them of the existence and objects of the Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor." A strong eiTort was made to establish State Assemblies. Some delegates believed them to be a necessary addition to the Order. Others insisted that they should supplant District Assemblies. The General Assembly decided that State organizations were desirable, but impracticable then. It also refused to admit physicians to membership. The delegate from Newark submitted a plan for the appointment of a board, which was to have charge of and to direct all co-operative schemes started by the Order. The idea was approved of, but the delegates thought it deserved long and serious consideration. Therefore, the whole matter was referred to the Advance Labor Assembly, No. 1562, of Brooklyn, N. Y., many of whose members were recognized authorities on the subject of productive and distributive co-operation. Recognizing the neces- sity of a bureau of general information for the Order, a new official was cieated, with the title of " Grand Statistician," whose duties were implied by the title. The General Assembly made another important innovation by establishing a system of life insurance for members. There had been a general demand for an insurance department. The new feature met with universal approval, and it has grown to be quite an institution. One of the closing acts of the General Assembly was the authorization of another innovation, viz., permitting mem- bers to wear symbolical badges. ; 432 HISTORY AND CONSTITUTION OF THE These were the officers chosen : Grand Master Workman, T. V. Powderly ; Grand Worthy Foreman, Richard Giiffiths, Il'inois; Grand Secretary, Robert D. Layton, of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Grand Treasurer, A. M. Owens, Clarksburgh, W. Va. ; Grand Statistician, Theodore F. Cuno, Brooklyn, N. Y. Executive Board : Messrs. Powderly and Layton ; James Campbell and Myles McPadden, of Pennsylvania ; and Archibald Cowan, of Ohio. The peculiar con. position of the board was the result of a plan to make Pittsburgh the per- manent headquarters of the Knights of Labor. The laws of the Order provide that the home of the General Secretary shall be the headquarters of the Knights of Labor. From Jan., 1878, to this time Marblehead, Mass., the home of Sec- retary Litchman, had been the headquarters. After Secretary Layton had been elected it was decided to make him and Grand Master Workman Powder ly the first two members of the board, and that the other three members should be selected from Pittsburgh and vicinity. That system has since been changed, so that the Executive Board is now made up of men from different States. The year 1882 was a rather eventful one for the Order. On New- Year's day the Grand Officers issued a proclamation informing the world of the ex- istence of the Knights of Labor, and of their aims and principles. The press throughout the country gave the subject considerable attention, and rather welcomed the Order than otherwise. The proclamation came upon the trades unionists of America like a revelation, and thousands of them poured into the Order. By Sept. i, 1882, the Order had gained 22,517 members. In many localities the Order came out publicly, making known the names of officers, and giving the time and place of meetings. Many Assemblies continued to work secretly as before. In New York City there are over 300 locals and seven District Assemblies, but their existence is practically a profound secret. The strength, extent, or influence of the Order had not been tested up to 1882. Mostly all of its actions had been local in their extent and bearing. Boycotting was yet an unknown factor in the settlement of labor difficulties. On the morning of March 25, 1882, a universal boycotting order was issued and published by Advance Assembly, No. 1562, of Brooklyn, N. Y., against a prominent New York corporation, which was accused of general unjust treat- ment of its employes. The order for the boycott was the outcome of an in- vestigation made by a committee consisting of three members of No. 1562. The boycott order was flashed all over the land ; it met with a general response' and it caused the corporation a direct loss in solid cash of $250,000 in one year. The boycotting idea met with general favor throughout the Order, and it became and is to-day a part of its policy. (The subject is dealt with more fully further on.) The boycott created great excitement at the time. The corporation hired detectives, who tried inefTectually to worm them- selves into the Order. A treacherous Knight, yet unknown, revealed the cir- cumstances of the boycott, and the corporation threatened to have Cuno and the investigation committee indicted. In anticipation of such a contingency, bondsmen were secured, and Robert Blissert, of New York, quietly arranged for a monster indignation meeting, to be held in Union Square the very night KNIGHTS OF LABOR. 433 that the members of No. 1562 should be arrested. The workingmen of New York were in a state of intense excitement at the time, and had the arrests been made trouble would have followed beyond a doubt. The Grand Officers afterward raised the boycott, and the corporation not only remedied the grievances complained of, but it helped its employes to form an Assembly of the Knights of Labor. Since the boycott was raised the corporation has been restored to its old prestige, and is domg an immense business. This boycott demonstrated the power of the Knights of Labor, and it restored No. 1562, of Brooklyn, to its position as the foremost Assembly of the Order. Since No. 1562 was formed, three of its members, John G. Caville, Theo. F". Cuno, and John S. McClelland, have been honored with national offices. Six of its members have been honored with seats in the General Assembly, and probably twenty of them have held organizers' commissions. During 1882 new locals in Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Wisconsin, Texas, and Nebraska were heard from. By Sept. ist, 513 new Assemblies had been formed, and 9 new District Assemblies ; 86 locals which had lapsed were reorganized. The total number of locals was 2,190, with 49 Districts, and a membership of 100,000. Two notable events in the history of the Order were recorded that year. On the i6t\\ of June, 1882, ten pottery firms at East Liverpool, Ohio, combined to crush the local Assembly in that place. They began by discharging their 350 employes, who refused to aban- don the Order. Right " upon the heels of this " a firm at New Castle, Penn., discharged 61 of their employes for the same reason. The struggle in both instances was bitter, and the Order granted such aid to the men as its limited treasury permitted. During the same year 13 members were arrested for assisting General Organizer Myles McPadden to organize the miners and laborers of Centre and Clearfield Counties, in Pennsylvania. He also was arrested. The Executive Board rendered them all the assistance possible. During this year the board had to support the East Liverpool brothers, and to contribute nearly $6,000 to the shoemakers who struck at Rochester, N. Y. It also had to extend a helping hand to 3,800 miners who struck in the George's Creek region, Maryland. Fifteen States, including Connecticut, Rhode Island, Texas, and Wisconsin, hitherto unheard from, were represented at the sixth session of the General Assembly, which met in New York City on Sept. 8, 1882. Seventy-five dele- gates attended the session. Several days were devoted to the boycott ques- tion, and an effort was made to confine the right of inflicting boycotts to the Executive Board, but it was unsuccessful. The unjust system of selecting all the members of the F"..cutive Board from Pennsylvania was wiped out. And it was provided that no two members of it should come from the same State, and that no Grand Officer should be eligible thereto. A family affliction called Grand Master Workman Powderly home again (as it did four delegates during the session), and Ralph Beaumont took the chair. Many things were done during this session, but the principal ones were the enactment of a law allowing girls of 16 and over to join the Order ; 434 HISTORY AND CONSTITUTION OF THE the establishment of a National Co-operative Board ; and the establishment of a system of financial aid for men and women who were " locked-out " for bciny members of the Order. The order renewing the movement to bring about the early closing of stores, was endorsed by the body. The election of officers resulted as follows : Grand Master Workman, T. V. Powderly ; Grand Secre- tary, R. D. Layton (both re-elected) ; Grand Worthy Foreman, Ralph Beau- mont, of Elmira, N. Y. ; Grand Treasurer, Richard Griffiths, of Illinois; Grand Statistician, Francis B. Egan, Michigan ; Insurance Secretary, Charles H. Litchman, Massachusetts. Executive Board: David Healy, New York; John S. McClelland, New Jersey ; James Campbell, Pennsylvania ; R. W. Price, Maryland ; H. C. Traphagcn, Ohio. During 1882 the Order was started in Canada, beginning with Hamilton. From September i, 1882, 656 local Assemblies were chartered. A consider- able number of them were in Maine, Canada, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Virginia. Fifteen District Assemblies were founded. Up to the latter date, 26 States, the District of Columbia, the Indian and Wyoming Territories, and Canada were under the shield of the Knights of Labor. During 1883 the resources of the Order were severely taxed in supporting strikes and lockouts at East Liverpool, Ohio ; in the Cumberland mining region ; Newcastle, Penn. ; Cannelburgh, Ind. ; in Cincinnati ; at Allentown, Penn. ; at Rochester, N. Y. The great strike of the Western Union teleg- raphers, who formed part of District Assembly No. 45, occurred that year. A considerable sum of money was raised for the telegraphers, but the strike was a failure. What threatened to be a serious schism occurred in Baltimore about that time. A number of Knights of Labor, who did not agree with the general policy of the Order, started a society known as the Improved Order of the Knights of Labor. The old organization attacked it vigorously, and it dwindled away. The seventh session of the General Assembly was held in Cincinnati, September 4-1 1, 1883. It was attended by iii delegates, repre- senting 21 States and 2,714 Assemblies. For the first time a woman was present as a delegate. The matters which came up and were approved of by the body were few in number. At the request of Local Assembly No. i825» of Brooklyn, N. Y., the aristocratic title of " Grand Officers" was wiped out. and the title " General Officers " substituted. A clause demanding the r pulsory education of children was added to the platform, and th' A"--'!'^ Fund (designed to help men on strikes which had been duly am ^u; < re-established. Mr. Powderly was re-elected to his old position of ad of the Order, under the new title of General Master Workman, and Fred. Turne of Philadelphia, was elected Secretary. Soon after the Assembly adjourned, the headquarters of the Knights of Labor was removed from Pittsburgh to Philadelphia. Two missionaries crossed the Atlantic in the early part of 1884, and organ- ized flourishing Assemblies in England and Belgium. One of the Assemblies, No. 3504, of Sunderland, England, now has over 2,000 members. During that ' 1 KNIGHTS OF LAHOR. 435 year branches sprang up in Washington Territory, Florida, New Mexico, Utah, British Columbia, Idaho, and Montana. It received a great impetus in Maine, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Texas, the latter State gaining 20,000 members. In all, 561 locals were formed, bringing the total number up to 3,270, with 76 Districts. In the spring the Executive Board received an appeal for aid from Knights of Labor at Cannelburgh, Ind., who had been victimized by a mining corporation, with which they had been struggling for a year. After due consideration, the Board thought that it would be better to start the men in business for the Order on the co-operative principle than to support a strike. Accordingly, money was advanced, and a raluable tract of coal land was purchased outright at Cannelburgh, and the men put to work. The mine is yet the property of the Order. The Board also adopted a special label to be placed on all goods made by Knights of Labor. The label is granted only to employers who employ Knights exclusively. The eighth session of the General Assembly was held in Philadelphia. Twenty-four States were represented by 127 delegates, two of whom were women. An immense amount of business was proposed and transacted, and 300 different plans, amendments, and ideas on different subjects were sub- mitted. The Assembly removed the barrier which kept physicians out of the Order. The " Assistance Fund " was placed under the control of the District Assemblies, instead of the General Assembly, as had been the case. The financial affairs of the organization had grown to such proportions that a new office, that of General Auditor, was created, to which Mr. John G. Caville, of No. 1562, Brooklyn, was elected. He was re-elected at Hamilton, Canada, in 1885. Authority to form State Assemblies was given to local Assemblies, and since then Texas, Michigan, Illinois, Arkansas, and Massachusetts have availed themselves of the opportunity. The rapid growth of the Order from October, 1885, to March i, 1886, pre- vented the officers from giving routine matters due attention. Consequently the General Executive Board ordered that all organizing should cease for forty days ; when the forty days had ended there w ere i ,000 applications for charters on file. In April, in response to a call signed by five District Assemblies repre- senting five States, General Master Workman Powderly summoned the dele- gates to meet in special session at Cleveland, on May 25, 1886. One hundred and forty delegates met in Cleveland on that day and continued in session until Thursday, June 4. Most of the session was spent in discussions on strikes and boycotts. The law was changed so as to confine the right to boycott to the General E cutive Board exclusively. As regards strikes the power to order them w taken from local and district assemblies and placed in the hands of the ecutive — this is in cases where more than twenty-five men or women are c oerned. It was ordered, too, that the command to strike or to resume work should be given secretly. 1 ; 436 TERRENCE VINCENT POWDERLY. The commissions of the 600 organizers were cancelled, and provision made for the appointment of new ones, who should have to undergo an examina- tion as to fitness. Political action received a quasi-endorsement, inasmuch as a committee was appointed to secure legislation at the hands of Congress favorable to labor interests. Owing to the pressure of business on the Ex- ecutive Board, the General Assembly authorized the election of six auxiliary members of the Executive Board. The duty of the auxiliary members was confined to examination into the causes of labor difficulties. TERRENCE VINCENT POWDERLY, GENERAL MASTER WORKMAN OF THE KNIGHTS OF LABOR OF NORTH AMERICA. Mr. Powderly was born January 29, 1849, ^^ Carbondale, Pa. His father was an humble Irish miner, and his mother an industrious. God-fearing woman. She was the mother of twelve children, of whom Terrence was the youngest except one. He received such education as was obtainable where he lived. As soon as he was able he secured a situation as a switch- tender for the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company. He followed that occupation for four years, at the end of which time he left to become a machinist for the company. Mr. Powderly became a resident of Scran- ton in 1869, and secured a situation in the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Company's shop. The following year he joined the Machinists' and Blacksmiths' Union. He had been studying the labor question for years, and his knowledge made him a power among his fellow-craftsmen. In a short time he was elected President of the Union. In 1872 he married a Miss Devitt, a very estimable young woman, who has lived to share in the honors which have been bestowed upon him. The Knights of Labor had been in existence five years before he was aware of the fact. The panic of 1873 threw him out of work, compelling him to travel through Ohio in search of employment. Returning to Pennsylvania, he secured a situation in Oil City. He had been there a very short time when he waS elected a delegate to the National Convention of Machinists' and Blacksmiths* Unions, held at Louisville, Ky., in September, 1874. He exercised a marked influence upon that gathering, and displayed those talents which have since made bim a power in the land. Returning to Scranton, he secured work from the Dickson Manufacturing Company. TERRENCE V, POWDERLY, General Matter IVorkman. TERRENCE VINCENT POWDERLY. 437 One night in November, 1874, a friend called at Mr. Powderly's house, and asked him to go out for a walk. Mr. Powderly went along. His friend told him that there was in existence an organization, then but an infant, but which was destined to become a giant. He told Mr. Powderly its aims and principles, but, of course, the laws of it forbade him mentioning even its name. He conducted Mr. Powderly to a hall in the city of Scranton, and when he (Mr. Powderly) left it he was a full-fledged Knight of Labor, full of zeal for its welfare, and full of faith in its efficacy " to rescue the toiler from the grasp of the selfish." He was now a member of Local Assembly No. 88, which was composed of men of all crafts and callings. That night he vowed to devote his life to the Order. With that end in view, he set to work to bring all the members of his craft in Scranton into the Knights of Labor. The result of his labors was that in November, 1876, he was enabled to " found " Local Assembly No. 222, of machinists, of which he is still a r\cmber. In the meantime, through his efforts, several other Assemblies had been started in Lackawanna County. The work was extremely difficult, for at that time no man dare even mention the name of the Knights of Labor. The organizers had to take one man at a time and "sound" him, and if he was deemed discreet, determined, and reliable, he was " covered with the shield " of the organization. In the latter part of 1876, Mr. Powderly and his col- leagues were enabled to start District Assembly No. 16, with six local Assem- blies in the jurisdiction. He was elected Secretary of it, and he still retains that position. The growth of the Order had now become steady, but slow and healthy, but the great labor strike of 1877 drove thousands of Knights of Labor out of Pennsylvania. They went to the far West, and Assemblies began to crop up wherever they located. Up to this time the Order, judged from a national stand-point, was run without rudder or compass. Mr. Powderly, with others, interested themselves in bringing the Order under one general head. He was elected a delegate to the first General Assembly, which was held at Reading, Pa., on January 1-4, 1878, and represented District No. 5. He took an active part in the deliberations, and was a member of the committee that drafted the Constitution which governs the Order. His popularity in the organization even at that early day was plainly manifested, for he received 10 votes for Grand Master Workman, being second only to Uriah Stephens, who received 14 votes, ani.^ was thereby elected. He was a delegate from District Assembly No. 16 to the second General Assembly, which met at St. Louis, January 14- 17, 1879. H^ worked like a Trojan at that session, serving on three important committees. He was elected Grand Worthy Foreman by this General Assem- bly, and filled that office creditably until the following September, when the third General Assembly met at Chicago, to which he was also a delegate. Grand Master Workman Stephens did not attend the Assembly, hence Mr. Powderly, by virtue of his office, filled the Grand Master Workman's chair, and he did so creditably. Mr. Stephens had marked Mr. Powderly's abilities, and selected him as his successor. In the course of business, Grand Secretary 438 TERRENCE VINCENT POWDERLY. f- C. H. Litchman read a letter from Mr. Stephens, who declared that he could no longer fill the office, and recommending that either Mr. Powderly or Richard Griffiths, of Chicago, should be elected Grand Master Workman. Mr. Pow- derly was elected, receiving 15 votes, or more than three-quarters of the total vote cast. He was then only 30 years of age. It is not necessary to speak of his efforts from the time he was elected to that exalted position. He has devoted night and day to the work, and has travelled through nearly every State in the interest of the Order, arbitrating labor troubles, settling strikes, raising boycotts, and attending to even routine matters connected with the Knights of Labor. At this writing he is serving his seventh term as chief of the organization, having been re-elected six times: At Pittsburgh in 1880; at Detroit in 1881 ; at New York in 1882 ; at Cincinnati in 1883; at Philadelphia in 1884; and at Hamilton, Canada, in October, 1885. Like most Knights of Labor, Mr. Powderly has always taken an active interest in politics. His herculean efforts in behalf of the Order led the workingmen of Scranton to place him in the field for Mayor, in the spring of 1878, much against his wishes. He was pitted against a man of wealth and local influence, but he was triumphantly elected. He was only 2) years old at the time, making him one of the youngest men ever raised to the chief magistracy of a city. Scranton had about 40,000 inhabitants then. He proved a model Mayor, and corrected many official abuses. One of his first acts was to abolish the Coal and Iron Police, a body of men who ruled with an iron hand. He filled their places with Knights of Labor — men upon whom he could rely. Before his term was out he was chosen Grand Master Workman of the Knights of Labor. He was re-elected Mayor two years later (1880). He was supported this time by business men who, two yea/s before, were amazed at the idea of a mechanic becoming Mayor. The ton ., conduct, and results of his administration had won them over. His second administration was similar to the first, marked by ability, energy, and fidelity to the people's interests, and they rewarded him, in 1882, with a third term. His salary as Mayor was $1,500 a year, and his pay as Grand Master Workman was $400. One of the good results of his service as Mayor was that the debt of Scranton was reduced $20,000. He has been actively identified with the National Greenback-Labor party, and was a delegate from Pennsylvania to the party's second National Convention, held in Chicago in June, 1880, which nominated General Weaver for President. His fellow-citizens would have gladly re- elected him in 1884, when his third term expired, but he declined to serve any longer; he preferred to devote his attention to the Knights of Labor. He has been actively identified with the Irish Nationalist movement. Although a thorough American, Mr. Powderly has always felt for the land of his father, warmly sympathizing with the Irish people in their struggles for liberty, and he has filled high offices in their councils. He also took an active part in the Land League movement, and was one of the National Vice- Presidents of the Irish Land League of America. His influence on the Knights of Labor has been marked. It was mainly \ FREDERICK TURNER. 439 through his influence that it was transformed from a secret, oath-bound organ^ ization to what it is now. He is a fluent writer, and his articles on the Labor Question have been published in the leading American magazines. He was at one time editor of the Labor Advocate, of Scranton. He has a good com- mand of language, and knows how to make himself understood. He is an excellent speaker, and his voice has been heard in nearly every city and town of note in America. He is about 5 feet 9 inches in height, and of sturdy frame. He has a large, finely-shaped head, which now has a scant covering of hair. Intelligence is stamped all over his kindly face, which is lit up by a pair of large blue eyes. He is a man of the most exemplary character, thoroughly honest, earnest, and energetic. He is strictly temperate, never tasting liquor ;> nor does he smoke or use tobacco in any form. He is a poor man in the strictest sense of the word. After he became connected with the labor movement he was black-listed by employers, and compelled to travel through several States in search of work. At one time he was so hard pressed that he was obliged to sleep on the floor in a railroad depot in Buffalo, with nothing under him but a news- paper, which served to keep his clothes clean and to do the duty of a sheet. Several years ago he had amassed $1,000, with which he started a grocery store in Scranton. It was an unfortunate venture, and he lost every dollar. He is an indefatigable worker, and as a rule spends fourteen hours a day in his ofifice in Scranton. He has been known to have opened, read, and arranged answers for 400 letters in one day. Take him all in all, he is a splendid specimen of the American character, and organized labor is fortunate in having for a leader such a man as Terrence V. Powderly. FREDERICK TURNER, GENERAL SECRETARY-TREASURER OF THE KNIGHTS OF LABOR. ily Second in importance to the General Master Workman is the General Secretary-Treasurer of the Knights of Labor. The growth, interest, and wel- fare of the Order are largely dependent upon him. Frederick Turner, of District Assembly No. i of Philadelphia, holds that position now. Mr. Turner is an Englishman by birth, and thoroughly American in his ideas and prin- ciples. He was born in 1846. Ten years later he came to America, and settled in Philadelphia. He spent several years in the public schools ; then he entered the high- school, which he left with a fair education. He then learned the gold-beating trade. He joined the Knights of Labor in 1873, and shortly afterward induced the goldbeaters of Philadelphia to organize Local Assembly No. 20. He set 440 JOHN WILLIAM HAYES. to work to bring the craft throughout the country into the Order. With that end in view, he organized Local Assembly No. 28 of goldbeaters, in New York City, of which Henry G. Taylor, now chief clerk at the head- quarters of the Knights of Labor, was a leading member. This Assembly is now dead. His activity in the labor movement made him a marked man, and he found it impossible to get work. He then opened a grocery store, which he still owns. He has been a local, a district, and a general officer. He was a delegate from District No. i to the General Assembly which met in Cincinnati in September, 1883, and was elected General Secretary. He was re-elected at Philadelphia in 1884; and at Hamilton, Canada, in 1885. The offices of Secretary and Treasurer were rolled into one at Philadelphia in September, 1884, and he was elected to fill the dual position. Mr. Turner is a resident of Philadelphia, and by the laws of the Knights of Labor the home of the Secretary-Treasurer is the headquarters of the Order. Mr. Turner presides over the general office, which is situated at No. 500 Locust Street, Philadelphia. He furnishes all charters, supplies, documents, and literature used by the organ- ization. The work is so great that fifteen clerks are constantly employed there. Mr. Turner frequently receives 500 letters in a day. During the month of February, 1886, he issued no less than 515 charters. At this writing (April 3, 1886) over I, OCX) applications for charters were on file at the office. He is editor of the official journal of the K. of L., and by virtue of his office as Secretary Mr. Turner is also a member of the Executive Board. He frequently travels thousands of miles to arbitrate labor difficulties, to order strikes, to put on or raise boycotts. He figured prominently in the recent conferences with Jay Gould during the railroad troubles in the Southwest. FREDERICK TURNER, General Secretary- Treasurer, JOHN WILLIAM HAYES. The youngest member of the General Executive Board is John William Hayes, of New Brunswick, N. J., a most efficient officer. He was born on December 26, 1854, in Philadelphia, Pa., the home of the Order. When but a child he was taken by his parents to Ireland, where he lived until he had grown up. Returning to New Jersey, he secured a place as hrakeman on the Pennsylvania Road in 1870, and retained It until 1878. He joined the Knights HON. CHARLES H. LITCHMAN. 441 f of Labor in 1874, and at once became a most zealous worker, attracting the attention of Uriah S. Stephens, who ever afterward was his friend. On the 4th of May, 1878, he was commissioned as an organizer, on the rec- ommendation of District Assembly No. i of Philadelphia. It was during that year that he met with a frightful accident which nearly ended his life. One night, while on his way to form an Assembly of the Knights of Labor, he fell from a freight car on to the track. The wheels passed over his right arm, mangling it frightfully, and rendering amputation necessary. This was a terrible blow to young Hayes, but he went to work manfully and learned telegraphy. He worked as an operator until 1883. He was a delegate to District Assembly No, 45, which met in Chicago that year and ordered the great telegraphers* strike, which occurred in the summer of that year. His activity during this strike cost him his position. The Western Union Company black-listed him. He then went into the grocery business in New Brunswick, and he is still engaged in it. He was one of the founders of the New Jersey Trade and Labor Congress, which was formed in 1879, and he was President of it for two terms. He was a delegate to the General Assembly which met at Phila- delphia, September, 1884, and was then elected a member of the Executive Board. He was re elected at Hamilton, Canada, in 1885. JOHN W. HAYES, F. recti live Board, HON. CHARLES H. LITCHMAN, FIRST GRAND SECRETARY. Hon. Charles H. Litchman, of Marblehead, Mass., is a man to whom is due much of the success which has greeted the Knights of Labor. He was born on April 8, 1849, in the town in which he still resides. He was educated in the public schools until he was fifteen years of age, when he became a salesman for his father, a shoe manufacturer. When twenty-one years of age he went into the shoe business with his brother. He was a member of the firm four years, or until 1874, when he began to study law. Lack of money forced him to abandon his studies and to seek employment as a shoemaker. He was elected a member of the School Board, and was instrumental in bringing abont the free book system. He was an unsuccessful Republican nominee for the State Legislature in 1876 and 1877. In 1878 he "stumped" Massachusetts for General Butler, then a candidate for Governor. The same year the Greenback-Labor party sent him to the Legislature. He devoted ail of his attention during the 442 WILLIAM H. BAILEY. session of 1879 ^o ^^^ question of convict labor. He succeeded in forcing the appointment of a special committee, which travelled through Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania, in search of information on the convict labor question. He was chairm.an of the committee. Mr. Litchman was elected Grand Scribe of the Massachusetts Grand Lodge of the Knights of St. Crispin in 1876. He joined the Knights of Labor in New York City in 1877, and he was largely instru- mental in forming the General Assembly in 1878, to which he was a delegate. He was the first Grand Secretary, and was re-elected three times. He was the first Secretary of the Insurance Fund. He was a delegate to the .\^ational Labor Convention at Chicago, in June, 1880, of which body he was Secretary; and a delegate to the same party's Convention at Indianapolis in 1884. He is high up in the councils of the Freemasons, Odd Fellows, the Red Men, the Royal Arcanum, and Past Grand Commander of the Massachusetts Commandery of the American Legion of Honor. He has ably managed several papers as editor, and as a speaker he is known all over the country. Like his colleagues, Messrs. Powderly and Beaumont, he is strictly temperate. HON. CHARLES H. LITCHMAN, First Grand Secretary. WILLIAM H. BAILEY. William H. Bailey, the Ohio member of the General Executive Board, is a Canadian by birth, having been born in Hamilton, Canada, in 1846, His parents settled down m Ohio when he was a child. He received a common school education. As soon as he was able he went to work at coal mining, which calling he has followed most of his life. He joined the Knights of Labor about ten years ago, and is one of the leading members of District Assembly No. 7. He was an organizer for years, and his activity in that capacity gained him a place on the black-lists of the mining corporations of Ohio. He found it impossible to get employ- ment, and was preparing to leave Ohio, when the citizens of Shawnee made him WILLIAM H. BAILEY. G*neral Exicutivt Board. • * RALPH BEAUMONT. 443 Chief of Police. He has frequently been a delegate to the General Assembly, and was elected a member of the General Executive Board of the Knights of Labor in 1884, and was re-elected in 1885. He is a quiet, unassuming man, of fine physique. He distinguished himself in settling the great glovers' strike at Gloversville, N. Y., and the mill strike at Cohoes, N. Y., in the spring of 18S6. These strikes involved 20,000 persons, and one of them had lasted months. RALPH BEAUMONT, ELECTED FIFter Workman, but he was not anxious to get the position. He took an active part in the National Labor party movement, and was a candidate for Congress in 1878, and polled 19,000 votes. RALPH BEAUMONT, First Grand Worthy Foreman. 444 HOMER L. McG AW.— THOMAS B. BARRY. He has spoken on the labor question in most of the principal cities. For the past six years he has been engaged as a newspaper writer. Mr. Beaumont is a married man, and the father of four children. He is strictly temperate, using neither liquor nor tobacco in any form. HOMER L. McG AW, GENERAL INSURANCE SECRETARY OF THE KNIGHTS OF LABOR. Homer L. McGaw, the General Insurance Secretary of the Knights of Labor, was born in Bethlehem, Stark County, Ohio, on April 8, 1H48, of Scotch-Irish parentage. When only seven years of age he entered a country printing-office as devil. He afterward served in the War of the Rebellion as a drummer- boy. He paid his way through college with the money saved while in the army, and grad- uated with honors. He has livfed in Pitts- burgh for twenty-one years, and has held many positions of trust and responsibility, being cashier of a bank before he was twenty- one years old. For many years he has conducted a print- ing-office. He organized one of the first Assemblies of the Knights of Labor west of the Allegheny Mountains, in his printing- office, also assisting in organizing District Assembly No. 3, the first District in the West, whose limits at one time included Iowa. At the session of the General Assembly of HOMER L. MCGAW, ^he Order held at Cincinnati in 1883, Mr Gen. Ins. Secretary. McGaw was clccted to the officc of General Insurance Secretary, and at each succeeding session he has been re-elected by acclamation. He has succeeded in building up within the Order a system of life insurance, which, for $500 indemnity, costs but the trifle of one cent per day. Great good has already been accomplished by the insurance feature of the Order— the widows and orphans of its members have been relieved, and the desolate hearthstones made bright and happy. At last reports the fund was getting 300 members a month. t THOMAS B. BARRY. The Hon. Thomas B. Barry, member of the General Executive Board of the Knights of Labor, was born on July 17, 1852, in Cohoes, Albany County, N. Y. He went to work in a cotton-mill when eight years of age, and U JOHN G. CAVILLE. 445 worked fourteen and sixteen hours a day, until he was sixteen, when he be- came an axe-maker. He afterward worked at his trade in Cleveland, Ohio. He took part in a now famous strike there and mortgaged his property to supply the strikers with funds. The strike failed and Mr. Barry lost whatever property he had, $6,(X)0 in all. He then moved to East Saginaw, Michigan, from which city he was sent to the Legislature in 1884. He was the author of the Ten-Hour Law which ob- tains in Michigan. Mr. Barry joined the Knights of Labor over twelve years ago, and has been an or- ganizer since 1880. He has been a delegate to the General Assembly of the Knights of Labor several times. He was elected to the General Executive Board at Cincinnati in 1883, and re-elected at Hamilton, Canada, in 1885. The famous strike of the Saginaw Valley saw-mill employes began on July 10, 1885, and by an almost unanimous vote he was asked to lead it. Six days later he was ar- rested twice and charged with conspiracy. Two days still later he was arrested on the same charge. He had to furnish $6,000 bail on each charge. He was again arrested on the same charge, and a civil suit for $10,000 was instituted against him. He was tried for con- spiracy in January, 1886, and he had an imposing array of counsel who were retained by the workingmen of Michigan, who raised a large "defence fund." The jury was out twenty-four hours, but it failed to find Mr. Barry guilty. Mr. Barry is a man of family and is strictly temperate. THOMAS B. BARRY, Af ember o/ General Executive Board. t f JOHN G. CAVILLE. Mr. John G. Caville, of Brooklyn, N. Y., General Auditor of the Kni';hts of Labor, and the first man to hold that office, is a native of the City of Churches. He was born on Thanksgiving day, 1855. He began work when only nine years of age. When fifteen years of age he went to Davenport, Iowa, in 1870, and became travelling agent for a hardware house. Returning to Brooklyn he married an estimable young woman. He secured a responsible position in an ink house and remained there several years. He joined the Knights of Labor in 1880, and he helped to organize the Spread the Light Club, a noted labor reform organization, which served as a re- cruiting office for the Knights in Brooklyn. He has been Secretary of District Assembly No. 49, and represented it in the Philadelphia General Assembly in 1884, which body created and elected him to the office of General Auditor.