CoIOHial CI)urrl) M^tovit^* DIOCESE OF MACKENZIE RIVER. BY RIGHT REVEREND WILLIAM CARPENTER BOMPAS, D.D. BISHOr OF THE DIOCESE. WITH MAP. PUBLISHED UNUEK THE DIRECTION OF THE TRACT COMMITTEE. LONDON : SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE. NORTHUMBERLAND AVENUE, CHARING CROSS, W.C. ; 43, Qt'EEN VICTORIA STREET K.C. ; BRIGHTON: 135, North Streht. New York : E. & J. B. YOUNG & CO. 1SS8. ^(.(. \ {^^^^oy *' ^RTHERf* AFFAIRS PHONAL RE-UUR';- ^AR 13 195. "Morlhem Affairs Library CONTENTS. CHAl'TER I. EARLY EXPLORERS PAGE I n. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION 15 in. CHURCH OF ENGLAND MISSIONS . • 27 IV. INHABITANTS 39 V. LANGUAGES 51 VL FAUNA AND FLORA .... • 59 VII. ARCTIC LIFE . 69 VIII. METEOROLOGY • 79 IX. DRESS AND HABITS .... . 90 X. RESOURCES AND PROSPECTS*. . 100 ■•1 DIOCESE OF MACKENZIE RIVER. CHAPTER I. EARLY EXPLORERS. The ecclesiastical history of this diocese is but a short one It may be allowed, then, to preface it with some account of the progress of discovery in this region, previously to the commencement of missionary enterprise. The explorers in the region now comprised in the diocese of Mackenzie River have been many and distinguished, so that even their names form a goodly list. The following may be referred to : — Mr. Samuel Hearne (17 71), Sir Alexander Mackenzie (1789), Sir John Franklin (1820), and a second voyage in 1826, Admiral Sir (Icorge Back and Mr. King in 1833, Messrs. Dease and Simpson (1837 to 1839), Captain l.efroy (1844), Commander Pullen (1849), Sir John Richardson and Dr. Rae (1848), and others. The narratives of these voyages may be very shortly reviewed. Mr. Samuel Hearne, of the Hudson's Bay Company's service, starting from Hudson's Bay, B 2 MACKENZIE RIVER. travelled with Chipewyan Indians westward overland as far as the Great Slave Lake, and thence northward to Coppermine River, which he struck within about fifty miles of its mouth. He then returned by a similar route. The most unpleasant part of Mr. Hearne's story is that the party of Indians with whom he travelled^ entirely without his sanction, made an unprovoked attack on a number of Esquimaux encamped on the Coppermine River, and, in the night, barbarously massacred the whole body of men, women, and children, and spoiled their tents. The site of the massacre became known afterwards as the Bloody Falls. It is remarkable that there is a bird in those parts which the Indians there call the alarm bird, or bird of warning, a sort of owl, which hovers over the heads of strangers, and precedes them in the direc- tion they go. If these birds see other moving objects tliey flit alternately from one party to the other with screaming noise, so that the Indians place great confidence in the alarm bird, to apprise them of the approach of strangers, or to conduct them to herds of deer or musk oxen. Mr. Hearne remarks that all the time the Indians lay in ambush, preparatory to the above-mentioned horrid massacre, a large flock of these birds were continually flying about and hovering alternately over the Indian and the Esquimaux tents, making a noise sufticient to wake any man out of the soundest sleep. The Esquimaux, unhappily, have a great EARLY EXPLORERS. 3 objection to be disturbed from sleep, and will not be awakened — an obstinacy which seems to have cost that band their lives. In comparing the character of the country and its inhabitants loo years ago, as detailed by earlier travellers, with the present time, the following reniarks occur. P^irst, there appears a great dimi- nution during the past century, in the number of native inhabitants, and still more in the number of wild animals. The decay of the human race here has been much owing to the ravages of small-pox, which is described as having formerly cut off nine- tenths of the inhabitants, having been communicated from the more southern Indians, shortly after the date of the earliest explorations. The diminution of the animals may be attributed in great part to their wasteful and excessive destruction after the intro- duction of firearms among the Indians. The cruelty and vice of the earlier natives, as disclosed by Mr. Hearne, who resided among them, are quite enough to have called for a visitation of heaven for their chastisement ; and it is pleasant to witness a considerable improvement in the Indian character in later days, especially in regard to the moderating of their habits of cruelty and violence to one another. The accounts of the domestic habits and customs of the Indians a century since are still a good deal applicable at the present time, though some of their superstitions fall into disuse as they mingle with Europeans. Their implements and utensils B 2 4 MACKENZIE RIVER. remain much the same, except so far as stone axes and knives, and kettles of roots and dishes of board have since been replaced by metal purchased from European traders. The narrative of Mr. Hearne is very detailed and graphic, and is only far too true to be agreeable in regard to his description of the native character. No greater contrast could be imagined than between such a history and modern works of fiction about Indian life. The utter absence of all knowledge of, or obedience to, any one of the ten commandments, or rather the glory found in the habitual and delighted breach of every one of them, especially those of the second table, is the melancholy characteristic of the book. The abandonment of the aged, sick, and help- less ones to death ; unrestrained plunder and liber- tinism ; wife murder, polygamy, war, and massacre ; kidnapping, and worse crimes, — such things form the staple of the description of the natives in Mr. Hearne's book. In the year 1789 the great Mackenzie River was descended by Sir Alexander Mackenzie. It is hard to overpraise the intrepid courage, cool prudence, nnd inquiring intelligence of that noble traveller. To that time the large country to the north-west of Great Slave Lake had been wholly unexplored. Sir Alexander Mackenzie, leaving Athabasca Lake in June 1789, by canoe, descended the Slave and Mackenzie Rivers till he met the tidal waters of the Arctic Sea. Thence he returned safely to Atha- basca by the same route, before winter of that year. EARLY EXPLORERS. 5 He may be said to have discovered far more than he saw, for he ascertained, by careful examination of Indians met along the Mackenzie, the existence and course of the Youcon River, more accurately than that river was laid down in the maps fifty years afterwards. For he stated his conviction that the Youcon River debouched in Norton Sound, while there are maps of far later date, and still existing, which place that river as flilh'ng into the Arctic Sea, confounding it with the Colville. Sir Alexander Mackenzie took the greatest pains to conciliate all Indians whom he met, by presents and promises of peaceful trade, and he energetically restrained all attempts at murder or rapine made by the Indians who accompanied him. He did not meet with Esquimaux, and it is little wonder that these and the Mackenzie River Indians were shy of him, as it was then customary for the Athabasca Indians to make annual war expeditions down the Mackenzie for purposes of plunder, massacre, and rapine, as well as for kidnapping of women and slaves. As the dependence of the expedition for provisions was chiefly on their guns and fishing-nets, and on the Indian hunters who accompanied them, considerable delay was occasioned, their success was j)recarious, and often endangered by scarcity. Under the care of a gracious Providence all returned safely, without casualty or mishap. A foundation was thus laid for the peaceable prosecution of the fur trade in these regions, which has since been carried on successfully for a century. 6 MACKENZIE RIVER. As in the case of Mr. Hearne's narrative, so that of Sir A. Mackenzie leads to the observation how much both men and animals have since diminished in that region. Moreover it was then a country of war, and has since been one of peace. For this result the policy and success of the Hudson's Bay Company deserve much credit, and make it worth while to consider how far the pursuit of useful trade should be credited as a handmaid to the gospel in spreading the peace of Christ's kingdom. The next expedition was conducted in 1820 by Mr. afterwards Sir John Franklin, accompanied by Messrs. Back, Hood, and Dr., afterwards Sir John Richardson. The expedititon proceeded first from York Factory to Athabasca and Cireat Slave Lake. The winter of 1820 was spent at Fort Enter])rise, situate at the head of Yellowknife River, which falls into a bay at the north-western side of Great Slave Lake. Thence the following spring tlie exj)edition pro- ceeded first over land and then by boat to the moutli of the Coppermine River. But even to weather the first winter was a matter of much difficulty, as it was a time of famine among the Indians, many of whom were starving at no great distance from the wintering place of the expedition. It was thought needful that the expedition to the Arctic Sea coast should consist of not less than twenty persons, for fear of a collision witli the Escjuimaux, of whose treachery many warnings were received. From the first the men of the cxpc- EARLY EXPLORERS. 7 dition were overloaded with heavy packs, including instruments for surveying, and tents, Sec, besides provisions. The descent of the Coppermine River was not managed without much peril and delay, it being full of falls and rapids. The sea being reached, the course was continued along shore to the east- ward, but not without much impedimer;t from ice. A civiHsed Esquimaux from Hudson's Bay accom- panied the expedition as interpreter, who succeeded in having communication with a small party of the coast Esquimaux. He assured these of the peace- able intentions of the voyaging party. The natives could not, however, be ]jersuaded to approach the Europeans. The expedition having reached as far to the eastward as Bathurst Inlet, were warned l)y the lateness of the season and the exhaustion of their provisions to return. After returning westward as far as Arctic Sound the sea travelling was abandoned, and an effort made to cross the country in a direct line to Fort Enter- prise, to winter there again. This, however, proved one of the most woeful journeys ever undertaken by men. Provisions failed ; and the men, hungry and frost-bitten, fainted under their loads. At last the pnrty was divided. Dr. Richardson and those with him subsisted for about six weeks on the lichen growing on the rocks, known as " tripe des roches," together with a drink known as swami)-tea, made from a country herb. At last treachery and murder assailed the band. S MACKENZIE RIVER. A treacherous Iroquois Indian shot one of the officers, Lieutenant Hood, to satisfy on his flesh the cravings of hunger ; and after threatening the other officers, he was himself ohot by them for self- protection. A diminished party at length reached Fort Enterprise only to find the post deserted and without provisions. The waste heaps were searched for rotting bones and skins thrown off the spring before, and at their extremity the survivors were rescued when too weak to rise by the arrival of friendly Indians with provisions. Dr. Rae also afterwards soon joined the party, and their sufferings were ended. In 1826 Sir John Franklin again descended the Mackenzie River in boats, and explored the sea- coast to the westward as far as about half-wav to Point Barrow, whence returning, he mounted the Mackenzie again, and wintered at Great Bear Lake. The following summer he reached England from thence by way of Canada. In 1833 an expedition was undertaken under the command of Captain Back, accompanied by Mr. King as naturalist, to descend Great Fish River (afterwards called also Back River) to the Arctic coast with the view of offering succour to Sir John Ross, then engaged in Arctic survey. Captain Back's expedition was, however, pursued by intelligence of the safe return of Sir John Ross, .so that his voyage was confined afterwards to geographical interest. Proceeding by way of Montreal and Canada, and EARLY EXPLORERS. 9 tiience to J.akes Superior and Winnipeg by the north-west canoe route, Captain Back pursued the usual course taken by the traders and Arctic voyagers as far as Great Slave Lake, and wintered at Fort Reliance, situate on a bay at the north-eastern extremity of that lake. This winter was marked by great suffering and famine among the Indians, many of whom perished of want; and it is a remarkable circumstance that the earlier narratives of travels in this northern land tell of much more serious and constant starvation among the Indians formerly tlian now, even though the wild animals have in later days grievously diminished. The fact may be explained by the diminishing numbers of the natives, and by the survivors being supplied with ammunition and fire- arms, as well as with twine for fishing nets, by the European traders. After the necessary boats had been built, the expedition descended in these the Great Fish River in the summer of 1834. 'I'hc river was found impeded by rapids, but the coast was reached without misliap. The ice along shore, however, seemed to preclude the successful exploration of the coast, and the further prosecution of the voyage was abandoned from that point, the exi)edition jiarty returning by the way they came. In 1837 Messrs. Dease and Simi)son again de- scended the Mackenzie, and explored the Arctic coast to the westward of that river much further than Sir John Franklin had previously reached. 10 MACKENZIE RIVER. Messrs. Dease and Simpson proceeded overland from Manitoba to Athabasca in winter, and thence descended by boat with several canoes to the Mackenzie, and thence by a like route with that of Sir A. Mackenzie to the Arctic Sea. Turning westward, the expedition soon reached along the coast as far as Return Reef, the extremity of Sir John Franklin's voyage in 1826. Proceedmg for- ward thence with caution and despatch, the boat reached the neighbourhood of Point Barrow, en- •countering several parties of Esquimaux, whom they tried to conciliate with presents; but they were exposed to some danger from the treachery of these natives. No great discoveries were made along the coast, which proved shallow, much indented, and somewhat ice-hampered. From Point Barrow the expedition returned to the mouth of the Mackenzie River, which they mounted as far as Bear River, and proceeded thence to Great Bear Lake, which they crossed. They reached their wintering ground at Fort Confidence, in the north-east extremity of Great Bear Lake, on September 25, 1837, after being reinforced by the arrival of a boat with winter supplies from the south. The ensuing winter at Fort Confidence seems to have been passed by them pleasantly and without scarcity of i)rovisions, either for the expedition party or the neighbouring Indians. In June, 1838, Messrs. Dease and Simpson crossed overland t<» the Coppermine River, and thence descended to the Arctic Sea. I'hcy hauled the boat overland EARLY EXPLORERS. II from Dease River, which falls into Great Bear Lake, to the Coppermine, over a portage of six miles. Descending the Coppermine with the spring freshet, the expedition had some peril in passing the tur- bulent rapids. At the mouth of the river some delay was caused by ice ; but when this cleared off, the exploration of the coast to the eastward was proceeded with. Though Esquimaux were seen they proved shy of approach ; but the boats made good their course along the coast a good deal further than Sir John Franklin had previously at- tained. The return was made from W. long. io6°, opposite the south coast of Victoria land. The return voyage to the former winter quarters iit Fort Confidence was effected without mishap by September 14, 1838, and another year's supply of provisions was there received from Mackenzie River. The following winter saw considerable distress among the neighbouring Indians, who were relieved as far as means admitted by the party at Fort Confidence. Next year (1839) another summer excursion was made along the Arctic coast to the eastward, in the same direction as before ; and, the season being more favourable, a point much further to the east- ward was reached. 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In other parts of the world it has generally been observed that the inhabitants of the sea coast or mountainous regions are more lively and intelligent than such as dwell in a flat or inland country. This region forms no exception to the rule, for the Tenni tribes appear much more demure and stolid than the Esquimaux, who live on the Arctic sea coast, or the Tukudh race, whose home is chiefly among the Rocky Mountains and adjoining ranges. The Tenni tribes are of a sallow complexion, in this as in features more resembling the Mongolian type than the Red Indians of the south. The Tukudh tribes have a national tradition of having reached their present country by crossing an icy strait of the sea, which was probably Behring's Strait ; and the Tenni tribes must have a similar origin, for their language, though nearly as difi'erent from the Tukudh as French from English, yet has sufficient resemblance to betray a common stock. 40 MACKENZIE RIVER. The Tenni tribes are rather coarse featured, with thick lips and prominent cheek bones. They are at present inoffensive and submissive in temper, though a century since, before the introduction of European trade, the tribes waged a predatory war on one another, and among the distant bands on the Rocky Mountains this is hardly yet extinct. The occupation of all the natives of the diocese is wholly confined to the chase or fishery. The Tenni tribes pursue for their sustenance the moose deer, reindeer, bear, and beaver, and for their skins the fox, wolf, marten, wolverine, and other small animals. The hunting is now carried on chiefly with firearms, the bows and arrows being mostly left to the boys ; but snares and traps are used for all the above animals, at times, and for killing the wolves and foxes poison is occasonally employed. The Tenni tribes live in conical tents or lodges, with a frame of poles and covered with dressed deer or moose skin. In spring they make canoes of birch bark for water travel and chase. In the fall of the year they make birch-wood snow shoes for winter voyaging. Their tents are floored with a litter of pine branches, and warmed with a pine-log fire in the centre. Their dress is of moose or deer-skin, trimmed more or less with beads or dyed porcupine quills, except so far as they may be able to purchase clothing of European manufacture. It is foreign to the Indian nature to remain long in one place. They mostly shift their camps every few weeks or oftener. If deer or moose have been INHABITANTS. 4I killed, it is more convenient to remove their camp ta the place where the animal fell, than to haul the meal through the woods to a distance. • • Many of the Indians have erected wooden log-houses, after the fashion of the whites, which they are quite competent to do, but they seldom inhabit these long. Their fondness for roving, or an increasing scarcity of wild animals round their fixed abode, soon drives them again to their tent. Moreover, if a death occurs in their house, the Indians have a supersti- tious dread of remaining there, and these Indians are not careful enough in their domestic habits to keep their houses cleanly, so that it is hardly con- sistent with health and comfort for them to continue long in one place. Though vegetable crops might be grown in the southern part of the diocese, the Indians have not yet found patience and perseverance enough to con- tinue to cultivate these. When wild animals are scarce, the Indians are generally driven to stay with their nets at the fish lakes, where they make, perhaps, a scanty living. The easiest time for them is when the rabbits are plentiful, for these are easily snared ; but the rabbits, like most of the small animals of the north, have periodical times of increase and decrease in number, having their maximum about once in every eight years, and between these periods dwindhng to a very few. The Tenni tribes are not quick at learning when adults, but if children are taken from the tents and placed at school along with the children of Euro- 42 MACKENZIE RIVER^ peans, the Indian children may keep pace with the others in their learning or even outstrip them. They are also docile and easily managed. The whole of the Tenni race seem to be of a sickly habit, and rather dwindling in numbers. They do not seem to be much addicted to ardent spirits, nor are these now supplied to them ; but they have an inveterate propensity to gamble. Though almost wholly free from crimes of violence, and not much inclined to thieve, yet heathen habits of impurity chng, alas, still too closely to them, and they exhibit the usual Indian deficiency in a want of stability and firmness of character. This Indian race seems to have been free from idolatry before the arrival of Europeans among them, and they had some know- ledge of a good and evil Spirit, and of rewards and punishments after death. The different Tenni tribes inhabiting the country speak different dialects, and bear different names, such as the Chipewyans, Yellow Knives, Dog Ribs, Big River Indians, Slave Indians, Nahany or Mountain Indians, &:c. The Yellow Knives are so called from their formerly using knives and other tools or weapons made by themselves of native copper found near Coppermine River. The Chipewyan tribes extend in some of their members from Hudson's Bay to the Pacific coast, or the whole width of the continent of America. The Dog Rib tribes live to the north of Great Slave Lake, or between that and Great Bear Lake ; and the Hare Indians to the north of Great Bear Lake. INHABITANTS. 43 The Tukudh race are rather more sharp featured and more lively and intelligent, as well as more cordial and affectionate than the Tenni. Their eyes are inclined to be small and pointed, rather as the Chinese. From this circumstance, probably, they obtained from the French the soubriquet of the Loucheux or Squint-eyed, for they are not really affected with squint. The Tukudh make their tents in the shape of a beehive, with bent poles for the frame, and the tent covering is formed of deer- skins with the hair on and turned inside, the skins being softened by scrap- ing. Their camps become thus nearly as warm as a log-house, and quite comfortable. Their dress in winter consists also of deer-skins with the hair on, and in cold weather the hair is turned inside. Their country lies mostly north of the Arctic circle, but these deer-skin dresses are almost impervious to cold. These Indians receive instruction with avidity, whether in religion or other subjects ; and they have taught one another to read the Gospels printed in their own language, though the words are of for- bidding length. They had some national dances and songs of their own, and were fond of making harangues at the feasts, which it was their custom to make for one another. On such occasions a distri- bution of property took place somewhat as is usual with the tribes on the Pacific coast. Before Chris- tianity was introduced among this tribe they were much under the power of their medicine men or 44 MACKENZIE RIVER. conjurors, who deceived them with their charms, and sometimes even frightened them to death. The food of the Tukudh Indians is almost exclu- sively the reindeer, with salmon taken in the Youcon river. The deer are mostly killed by being driven into grounds or enclosures hedged with felled trees. The salmon are taken in weirs or traps made with willows in the bed of the river. The salmon are dried in the sun or over the camp fire for winter store. The flesh of the reindeer is also dried and sometimes pounded for preservation. The reindeer tongues are considered the most delicate part. In summer time the reindeer migrate to the Arctic coast to escape among the sea breezes of the barren grounds from the flies and mosquitoes which torment them at that season in the woods. In winter the deer return to the more southern forests to avoid the too-piercing cold and exposure of the extreme north. The Tukudh Indians do not make many canoes, but travel on the rivers in summer mostly on rafts, which they construct and manage with a good deal of skill. Their snow-shoes are distinguished from those of the Tenni tribe by being round instead of pointed in front. These Indians are kind to Europeans, whether traders or missionaries, and they are hospitable to visitors at their camps. The winter in their country lasts eight months out of the twelve, and it may be as well so, for it is much easier to traverse their country walking on the level snow of winter than INHABITANTS. 45 over the uneven swamps in summer. The surface of the swampy ground is broken up by the rains into high and slippery lumps locally called tetes des fetnmes^ or women's heads, from the likeness of the dependent tufts of grass to dishevelled hair. Cer- tainly the wresting of the ancles in sliding among these yielding knobs and their interstices suggests the idea of walking on the heads of a crowd. When the snows have fallen and snow-shoes are donned there is no such impediment to smooth and even travel, unless by an occasional trip of the snow- shoes among the ground willows or bushes. The Tukudh Indians are of various tribes, as the River, Lake, Mountain, Valley Indians, &c., but their dialects do not differ so much as among the Tenni. On the Upper Youcon, however, the races inter- mingle v/ith others speaking a different tongue, and some appear more allied to the coast tribes to the west. Since peace has been established among them the Tukudh tribes often visit the Esquimaux of the Arctic coast, chiefly for the purpose of trading furs from them, and sometimes such visits are returned. The Esquimaux observe and admire the change of character wrought in the Indians by the introduction of Christianity among them, because they are now sometimes fed and saved when starving or distressed by the very Indians who would formerly have only sought to surprise and massacre them as their here- ditary foes. _^^...^^.^^...^-..^^^-^-^^A-^^^^^-^^--.- The Esquimaux differ much in appearance and habits from the Indians. In complexion they are 46 MACKENZIE RIVER. as fair and fresh-coloured as ourselves, and do not differ much in feature from northern Europeans, but their eyes are rather smaller, and their faces and hands somewhat chubby. This seems caused by nature having provided them with a layer of fat or oil beneath the skin as a preservative from the cold. If you shake hands with an Esquimaux in winter you will find his skin in a glow at the lowest tem- perature. Their animal heat is sustained in winter, not by external fires, as with us, but by consuming a sufficiency of fat and oil to support a process of combustion within. For avoiding frost-bites their fingers and noses seem naturally short and dumpy. In stature the Esquimaux of the mouth of the ]\Iackenzie are, many of them, large and tall and of muscular frame ; but the women are mostly below the average height of Europeans. The dress of men and women is nearly alike, but the coats differently shaped. The material is white deer-skin, tastefully decorated with beads and trimmed with fur. The men wear a circular tonsure on the head similar to that of a Romish priest. They have also the inconvenient custom of piercing each check with a hole to admit of the insertion of a large '-ead, often surrounded by a white disk or tablet of ivory nearly two inches in diameter. This awkward ornament somewhat interferes with the process of drinking and eating, forming too many outlets to the orifice in- tended for admission. The Esquimaux-, both men and women, arc im- INHABITANTS. 47 moderately fond of tobacco, which they smoke differently from other people. The bowl of their pipe is less than half the size of a thimble, and two or three whiffs are all they use on each occasion. This smoke, however, they swallow, which produces a transient intoxication or even unconsciousness, under the influence of which they occasionally fall from their seat. When the process is gone through in an unsteady canoe in the water it is not altogether free from danger. The Esquimaux wives have also an awkward habit of weaving in a pile or parcel on the top of their heads, by way of chignon, every particle of their own hair which has become disconnected from their youth up, so that the woman's age may be surmised from the relative size of her top knot. The Esqui- maux mothers seem fond of their children, but seldom have more than one or two. If the number exceeds this it seems to be thought a superfluity, and they may probably sell or barter away the extra ones. The skill of the Esquimaux workmanship is con- siderable, especially in carving needle-cases and other small ornaments out of the ivory of the walrus tusks. Their spears, bows and arrows, and other implements are all neatly contrived. Tiicir canoes are well framed and covered with sealskin. These have no natural tendency to keep upright, but the reverse ; yet the owner will ride them over the ocean waves as on a prancing steed. When his waterproof coat is secured over the mouth of the 48 MACKENZIE RIVER. canoe he will turn a somersault, canoe and all, from side to side in the water. They have a singular way of throwing a spear from a hand-rest at the musk-rat, so as not to overbalance the canoe, the management of which probably resembles somewhat that of a bicycle. Their provision consists mostly of the flesh and oil of whale, walrus, and seal. These they hunt, not in their canoe, but embarked ten or a dozen together in a larger boat covered with walrus hide. In their common travels this large boat is managed by the women, who convey the tents, bedding, and utensils therein, while the men paddle about and hunt in their light canoes. The Esquimaux wives thus become superior oars women. The dwellings of the Esquimaux vary at different seasons of the year. In the fliU and early winter they dwell in houses partly excavated and lined with logs covered with poles, and over these with earth or snow. They arc thus much warmer than they would be (^uite above ground, and it is not their habit to use fire in their dwellings. If fire is required for cooking, they make one outside. If fuel is at hand they prefer to cook their food ; but if fuel is wanting or cooking inconvenient, they cat their meat or fish raw without trouble. In fact, meat or fish frozen can be eaten raw without so much distaste, the freezing having an effect on the tissues somewhat similar to the cooking. The taste of whale blubber is not unlike raw bacon, and it cannot easily be cooked, as it would licjucfy too soon. Seal oil is the favourite . INHABITANTS. 49 luxury of the Esquimaux; and it is indeed sweet, but somewhat mawkish and sickly. When the winter is advanced, the Esquimaux leave their excavated dwellings, and build houses or even villages of frozen snow. These are con- structed with such ease and speed that, as Milton's imagined palace, they seem to rise like an exhalation from the earth. The blocks of frozen snow are cut out of the mass with large knives, and built into solid masonry, which freezes together as the work proceeds, without the aid of mortar. Being arched over, a dome-shaped house is formed ; with a piece of clear ice for a window, and a hole, through which you creep on all fours, for a door or entrance. One half of the interior is raised about two feet, and strewn with deer-skins, as beds and sofas, in which the long nights are passed in sleep, for which an Esquimaux seems to have an insatiable capability and relish. In summer the Esquimaux camp in deer-skin tents. They then visit the trading establishment of the Hudson's Bay Company at Peel River, about 100 miles from the seacoast, and there they barter their furs for tobacco, kettles, and axes. They do not purchase European clothing. In the autumn they often hunt for reindeer, or fish for herring, which they store for winter use ; and they seem to l)rcfer these when somewhat rotten. The character of the Esquimaux is, unhapi)ily, still rather treacherous and murderous. They are great thieves, and soon angry. They are, however, E 50 MACKENZIE RIVER. capable of attachment and gratitude, and are some of them quite free from ill-will. They are willing to accept instruction in the Christian religion, though they have not yet learned to obey its dictates. Though in some respects disgusting in their domestic habits, yet in their manners to a stranger they are courteous and even ceremonious. Before the introduction of iron among them the Esquimaux tools and implements were, of course, of stone or bone. They made fire by twisting through means of a bow-string a piece of hard wood in a hole made in a piece of soft friable wood, till the friction produced smoke and flame. They also picked up pieces of iron pyrites on the Arctic coast, and struck fire with these and pieces of flint gathered from a place called Flint Mountain. MACKENZIE RIVER. \ 51 CHAPTER V. LANGUAGES. It will not be expected that a philological account be here given of the languages spoken in the Diocese of Mackenzie River, but some observations on them may be permitted. The first is the Tenni language, of which the dialects are as numerous as the tribes of Indians composing that widely-spread race. It appears to be the design of Providence that a difference of speech should operate to confine each nation or tribe to the country or district allotted to it. This is specially needful in the Indian country, where, from the scarcity of provision, all would soon be starved if the population were to accumulate in one spot. The difference of dialects is so arranged that the speech of each tribe is generally intelligible to their imme- diate neighbours, but not to those more remote, as the distinction of dialect increases with each remove. The general characteristic of the Indian languages is that they admit of great precision in the descrip- tion of external objects and of ordinary occupations or actions, but these tongues are greatly deficient, or almost wanting, in abstract terms or the representa- tion of mental ideas. The language then may be said to be a reflection of the life of the speakers of it» F. 2 52 MACKENZIE RIVER. and unless speech and language are gifts of heaven, it seems impossible to account for the regularity of structure and beauty of arrangement of a language spoken by people incapable perhaps of the mental effort of counting from one to twenty. That many of these languages had a common origin seems betokened by the fact that some resemblances of words may be noticed among them, and also some analogies of structure. A distant affinity to the Tenni tongue may be recognised even among the languages spoken on the Pacific coast, and these again may be probably traced to the languages of Asia. The Tenni language was originally mono- syllabic, but in some of its dialects it exhibits now. very long words, arising by a process of agglutination. The names, however, of elementary objects continue mostly monosyllabic, as kon^ fire: /"//, water; tsnZj firewood. It might be thought difficult to convey religious teaching, or to translate the Gospels, in a language so destitute of abstract expressions ; but a careful examination of the Gospels in Greek will show that nearly every radical word is based upon some out- ward act or object. It has thus been found not impossible to render the Gospels and other instruc- tions into the Tenni tongue, and the effort has been a fresh proof of the universal adaptation of the Gospel to the wants of every nation. — Extracts from the Prayer-book, with Hymn-books and Primers, have been with much liberality printed in the Tenni language by the Society for Promoting LANGUAGES. ^ 53 Christian Knowledge, and presented by them as a free gift to the Mission. The same Society has also printed a Primer in Western Esquimaux, and still continues to offer important aid to the Missions of a similar kind. The Tukudh language, though having an affinity to the Tenni, is much more full and complex. The conjugation of the verbs is more elaborate than in Greek, and the New Testament, Prayer-book, and Psalms have been rendered into the language with- out the vocabulary being found inadequate. The Tukudh tongue, in its purest dialect, is probably spoken by not more than 500 adults; yet its gram- matical structure is complete, and its phraseology flexible. That the language is the invention or elaboration of the people who speak it appears as incredible as that the forests of their land are their handi- work, and the only alternative seems to be that their language is to each race the gift of their Creator. The Esquimaux language appears to have no affinity either to the Tenni or Tukudh, but in its structure and in a few words seems to have a distant resemblance to the Cree tongue. The Esquimaux words are long, and the grammar complicated princi- pally by the pronominal subject and object of the verbs being denoted by inflexions, as in the Cree. From the Esquimaux tongue one word has been naturalised in English, namely, harpoon^ which is Esquimaux for a fish spear; and igloo^ the Esquimaux for a house, is not altogether unknown. i 5i MACKENZIE RIVER. Some casual resemblances between words in these languages and European expressions may be hap- pened on, as Napoleon is Esquimaux for a sledge- brace ; and in Tukudh sun means a star ; and in Tenni, to-day is to-dzifie, the prefix being the same as in English. In Esquimaux dark is tak, which is sounded so much like the English word that it might be mistaken for it. It does not appear that any words have yet been incorporated into English from the Tenni or Tukudh tongues. The same language obtains among the Esquimaux from Greenland to the Pacific Ocean, but the dialects vary a good deal between the east and west. The translations of Scripture made for the Greenland or Labrador Esquimaux, or even for those in Hudson's Bay, are quite unserviceable for the same race at the mouth of the Mackenzie River. A native from one part would, however, probably be able to make him- self understood by the others in subjects of easy dis- course. -- ■' — ■ • ■" - ■■ •■■- - ' '-^■--' '-' The Esquimaux language is nearly confined to the latitude north of the Arctic Circle. The Tukudh and Tenni languages may be said, generally, to stretch across the American continent to the south of the Esquimaux tongue, down to about lat. 53^, south of which the Cree language predominates. But this does not apply to the country east of Hudson's Bay, where the Esquimaux race extends further south, as do also the cold and ice. i, ._ . For a specimen of the languages, John iii. 16 is subjoined in Tenni and Tukudh, and in Western LANGUAGES. 55 Esquimaux as spoken at the mouth of the Mackenzie River : — Tenni. Ekaonte Niotsi nun gonito, te Yazi thligi yi koganiti, tene oyi yekeinithet, tsiedethet ka ile, ithlasi kondih katheon oli. TUKUDH. Vittekwichanchyo kwikit nunhkug kettinizhun ettevirzi ti Tinji kwunttlantshi chootyinte yikinjizhit elyet rsyetet gititethii ko sheg kwundei tettiya. Western Esquimaux. Nonamik Chuneyouk mutomuni nonami kobiagiait Notakak atoutsik mounga kontaga; keakia okperitpuni tamaita igilaitait ami witawak pugnichi nakchoami. It may be noticed that the word for world is similar in the above three specimens — Tenni, min ; Tukudh, 7mnh ; Esquimaux, 7wo?ia. This may be a casual resemblance as regards the Esquimaux. In all these languages the system of counting is founded on the principle of reckoning the fingers, and the Esquimaux include the toes. Thus, in Tenni, five is literally one hand, and a hundred is ten on each finger. In Tukudh nine is literally "one thumb held down," because this number is so repre- sented in holding up the hands. In Esquimaux twenty is one man's fingers and toes, forty, two men's fingers and toes, &c. The name adopted for God in the Tenni and 56 MACKENZIE RIVER. Esquimaux languages has been chiefly the Creator or Maker of the world. Occasionally the expression " Our Father in Heaven " is also used. In the Tukudh language a native word is used (or God that had been already applied by themselves to the Good Spirit. The expressions implies "The Propitious One." The name given to the English by the Tenni and Tukudh Indians is " the dwellers in stone houses." The origin of the name consists in the fact that the Chipewyans of Athabasca first found the English at the Stone Fort erected by them at the mouth of English River, Hudson's Bay. There are some characteristics which the Tenni and Tukudh languages present in common with most or all of the Indian tongues of North America, even though these betray no affinity in their words. Such are the following pecu'iarities : — Parts of the body cannot be spoken of apart from some individual, expressed or implied, to which they belong. An Indian will say his or her, or its head, or a man's or a deer's head, but not a head or the head simply; and the same with the other members. Again, a different word is used for an elder brother or sister and a younger one, for an imcle on the father's side and on the mother's, and a father and mother will use respectively different words to express their son or daughter. The word " to give," receives various terminations according to the size, shape, and quality of the article given, and whether one or more, and the same with the word " to throw," and many others. . * LANGUAGES. 57 In the Tiikudh tongue the verbs have a negative form, which is often so very like the affirmative expres- sion, as to create much difficulty for one unpractised in the tongue. Even in English, the words literate and illiterate have been confounded by the un- learned. Adjectives and adverbs are mostly con- jugated as verbs. The verb " to take," in the Tukudh tongue will have different forms, according as it means to take a person, or thing, one or many, for oneself, or for another, and with the foot, hand, mouth, word, or mind ; and all these in the singular, dual, or plural number, and past, present, or future time, and each of these forms in various combinations together, till the ultimate number of variations is almost illimitable. The Lord's Prayer may be added as a further specimen of the languages for those interested in such study. Tenni. Nakhe Tah yake, Nizi Edarie tsenidhun ka. Nine ko tsun Kaodhet neli ka. Ayi ninedhun kezi agote tidi ninike yake ente. Mego sheiti enete tidi dzine ke nakhegadindi. Nakhe othlini nakhega naonili tene ga kothlini nakhetsun ageti koga naoniyi kezi. Nakhetsunea kotsun ninakhonili ile. Ojidi cha nak- hinchu. Tta nine kotsun Kaodhet neli, nanetset chu Edarie chu ithlasi. Amen. Tukudh. Nyiwho Ttyi zyeh zit nyikwilnjik Nyoohrzi rsin joo chootinyoo. Ni koo ke kwadhut nichoozhit. Ni 58 MACKENZIE RIVER. yinji zyehzit kwikit nunh kug akontekonji. Chih ttrinzit nyiwhon enyantsit ttrin ndo thlekwitunazya nyiwhoh ssih. Nyiwho trigwandyoth nyiwhet ooun- kwichili nittso einut trigwandyoth nyiwhet tungittiyin, ko tsut oounkwichitili Kookukwutundai kwutsut nyiwho tunoe rsho. Ko trigwandyoth kwutsut nyiwhoh yunnounji. Kwnggutyoo nitsun nili kookekwadhut ttei ako ekwandit sheg ako sheg kenjit. Amen. Western Esquimaux. Angotwot kalangmioyouk, Inuit atkan ikchiouk chinaglo. Kalangmin Kadetsi ikpukkaitpun. Chuna ichoomugibichion inuit taimuna iliokoyait muni nonami kailakton ililogo. Oblomi nukiikparaini nukiptignik. Chuinukpot iktiga, inuit chuinuk itkutputigot ikchiniakutka taimuna. Kachagiaini ililugo. Chuinagmin totkokligot. Kisiani Kadetsi igiogni niaktotin. Ilwi choo- kungaiotin. Ilwi kisiani koumayooktotin, kungiak- totin, taimonga. Amen. MACKENZIE RIVER. 59 CHAPTER VI. FAUNA AND FLORA. The animals are the most numerous denizens, and form a main interest of the sub- Arctic clime, in which is included the diocese of Mackenzie River. The first to be mentioned are the bears, from which the Arctic world derives its name. The common black and brown bears are not dangerous, but timid. They flee at the approach of man, and will not even fight to defend their cubs. The grisly bear is fiercer, and dangerous when wounded. It is much stronger than the common bear, but is chiefiy confined to the Rocky Mountains or their neighbourhood. The polar bear inhabits the ice of the Arctic sea,. and lives on fish. It will attack a man if hungry,. and is dangerous when provoked. The hair of this bear, which lives among snow, has such a natural quality of keeping unencumbered by the fallen snow, that it is used as a snow-whisk by the Esquimaux to clear of snow the deer-skins or other furs to which the snow more readily adheres. Such a polar bear- skin snow-whisk, which is usually made in the form of a mitten, is called by them, through a curious coincidence, "poalerin." "Poals" is a polar bear- skin. "~~ T\^~~^^r"- • « ^)0 MACKENZIE RIVER. The common bear is greedily fond of berries, and fattens in the fall when they are ripe. Afterwards it betakes itself to its hole for hybernation. The bear's hole is either some natural cavity found on a bank or hollow, or else is scraped out by itself Here the bear lives without food or motion, or other sign of life but breath, throughout the winter, and in spring it is still fat. This foodless life seems almost miraculous till we consider that food is to supply waste of structure, and in perfect inaction there is no wasting. Is this revival, after a death-like hybernation, no aid to faith in the possibility of a resurrection ? The predatory animal next in size to the bear, and to which it bears some resemblance, is the wolverine or glutton. Many are the tales told of its rapacity and cunning. It is an enemy to the hunter from its habit of robbing his traps of their baits, or even of the animals caught in them. From its wary shrewd- ness it is not itself easily trapped. Wolves are common, and are seen both black and white, both singly and in bands, but not in large packs ; and as they do not attack man unless mad, they are not feared. They are great enemies to the moose and reindeer, and to nearly every other animal. Fastening on its haunches they will drag down a large moose. They will then mostly leave the animal to freeze to death before returning to feast on the carcase. The large animals hunted for food are chiefly the moose and reindeer. The former of these is a solitary animal, the latter gregarious. The moose FAUNA AND FLORA. ^l- being highly nervous and of keen scent, needs to be approached by the hunter with great caution. It is mostly hunted in windy weather, when the crackling of boughs by the breeze drowns the sound of the hunter's cautious tread. Otherwise his footfall, how- ever soft, would alarm his prey too soon. The moose is sometimes hunted with dogs, by which it is baited or badgered as a bull by bull-dogs, till the hunter approaches. If the moose is chased to any distance by running, before its death, the meat becomes frothy and unpalatable. The reindeer is hunted by running, not so much after it, as parallel to it, for this deer will seldom flee at once from the hunter, but rather circles round him or returns to and fro in front of him. When on their annual migrations, the deer take a straight course in large bands, and are not easily turned aside from the route they have chosen. They are then easily shot by the hunters in passing. At times both moose and reindeer are taken by being strangled nith snares or slip-nooses of twisted sinew placed in their expected track, and firmly fixed to some wood. The deer are also driven into pounds con- structed of felled timber, and to which the deer are guided by rows of pine branches or upturned turfs placed over the snow and radiating in expand- ing lines from the pound. These, like scarecrows, though placed twenty feet apart, are viewed by the timid deer as a fence, which he is indisposed to cross, and he is thus led to his destruction. The flesh 62 MACKENZIE RIVER. of both moose and reindeer is pleasant and very easily digested, more so than the meat of domestic animals. The moose meat bears somewhat such relation to the deer's meat as beef to mutton, being of coarser texture and less tender. The smaller animals, hunted for the value of their fur, are numerous. Such as foxes, marten, beaver, lynx, otter, minx, and muskrat. The foxes are of various colours, chiefly white or blue toward the sea coast, and red or black inland. They are mostly taken in steel traps. The most valued fur is that of the black fox which is worth about ^,^15 in the country, and more in England after it has been dressed. The marten are similar to the Russian sable. They are taken in wooden traps, with a trip stick and fish bait. The lynx and beaver are good eating, as well as valued for their fur. The beaver are taken either by breaking open their houses in winter, after stopping their means of egress, or else by the gun in spring. The industry of the beaver is proverbial Mul- titudes of small trees are felled by their teeth for the purpose of either stemming back the current to produce still water for their convenience, or else in building their lodges. The young poplars are also felled by them for a supply of food, as they nibble the bark. To fell a tree the beaver sits up on its hind legs and tail, and, placing its fore paws against the tree, it nibbles all round the trunk, working down- wards with its teeth as with a foot adze. The animal is FAUNA AND FLORA. 6$ careful to gnaw the wood most deeply on the side the tree is intended to fall, and it seldom fails in bringing the tree down in the intended direction, though with even a human workman the contrary event not un- frequently happens. It has been doubted whether the beaver uses its tail in building. That it carries mud on its tail is fabulous. For such purpose its fore- paws only are used, but that it may smooth the mud with its tail is generally considered fact. The beaver's lodge consists of a heterogeneous pile of tree stems and branches, with mud chambers arranged among them, on the edge of the stream. As a dead beaver soon sinks, much smartness is needful to secure the prey if shot in the water. The beaver tail, being wholly composed of fat, is one of the luxuries of the north. Indeed, the meat of the beaver generally, is often as much fat as lean. Another small animal of which the flesh is very good is the porcupine, which tastes something like sucking pig. The porcupine of the north is much smaller than that of southern countries. The quills are only about three inches long, and supple. When dyed, they are much used in ornamental leather work by the Indian women. Rabbits are numerous and very wholesome. As these do not burrow, they are called Arctic hares by the naturalist. But as their not burrowing is probably a provision of Providence, to suit the fact of the ground bci»g mostly frozen, it seems a pity that this animal shoutcl thereby lose the name of a rabbit, wliich it certainly resembles. The rabbit skins arc of no Ml ( 1 *^ 64 MACKENZIE RIVER. value for trade, from the hair being loose, but they are much used by the Indians in the woods for their own clothing, being the warmest of all coverings. The rabbit skins are cut in strips and twisted, and are then laced into coats or other garments. Robes for bed coverings are mostly made of the dressed skins of the reindeer or mountain goat, or of the siffleux or marmot. The wild goats inhabit the rocks of the mountains, where they are hunted with the gun by the Mountain Indians. Their flesh is good for food. The wild sheep of the mountains are less numerous. There is a wood deer or stag, of a size half way between the reindeer and the moose. This animal keeps to the woods, and is not numerous. The musk-rat is numerous in the streams, and is eaten by the Indians, though rather strong-tasted. Squirrels and field mice are plentiful. Otters are found, though not plentifully, in the lakes, and fishers on the land. Confined to the barren grounds towards the Arctic sea coasts, are the musk oxen. These are smaller than the buffalo or domestic cattle, but are fierce and dangerous when wounded. Their hides make good rugs. Their flesh is rather strong-tasted, with a musky flavour. The whale, walrus, and seal are the larger animals of the Arctic seas in these quarters. The walrus tusks are good ivory, and are valuable in trade. The walrus skins cover the boats of the Esquimaux, for these have no boat-building timber, but split ihc frames of their boats and canoes out of FAUNA AND FLORA. 65 drift wood. The walrus skins are never cut by the ice, a quality essential to an animal living amongst it. The walrus flesh is but coarse food. The seal-skins are used by the Esquimaux to cover their canoes, and for waterproof boots and shoes, and for various other purposes. The flesh and fat of the seal are much esteemed as delicacies by the Esquimaux. The fish of the Mackenzie River and of the ad- joining lakes are chiefly the white-fish, blue-fish, jack-fish, perch, loach, and one commonly called the inconnu, or unknown fish, but which seems to be known to naturalists as only a different species of corigenus from the white-fish, which is designated Corigenns albiis. Trout of a large size are taken in Great Bear and Great Slave Lakes, weighing commonly about 30 lb., and sometimes as high as 50 lb to 60 lb. The white-fish are numerous in the lakes, about 50,000 being netted every autumn at one fishery in Great Slave Lake, and weighing 2 lb. to 3 lb. each. This fish, for week^, or even months, often forms the sole food of the employes at the Hudson's Bay Company's trading posts, and it is a sort of pro- vision that as an exclusive diet it seems less wearisome than meat. The birds of Mackenzie River are numerous, especially the migratory class. Those which pass in large flocks in spring and fall are the geese, swans, and cranes. These proceed to the Arctic coasts for the breeding season in summer, and return south to pass the winter somewhere in the LTnited States. Many other kinds of birds arrive in spring and leave in fall, V 66 MACKENZIE RIVER. as the eagles, ducks, grouse, and robins. Owls, hawks, crows, gulls, and some others continue more or less all the year. The cinereous crow, or whisky jack, is a saucy bird that frequents the camps of voyagers to eat their scraps, and in this wild country it appears the only thing that is tame by nature. The grouse are of various kinds. Many sorts, like the rabbits, change their colour from brown to white on the approach of winter. This is an arrangement of a benign Providence to defend them from their depredators, such as hawks, owls, lynx, marten, minx, &:c. ; for on the white snow a moving brown speck is very conspicuous, and white almost unseen. White is also the warmest coloured dress for winter Avear. Kingfishers, woodpeckers, redbreasted thrushes, plovers, snipes, sandpipers, martins, and other small birds, are noticed in summer; and large flocks of snow buntings skim the ground in spring and fall, in going and returning between the north and south. Gulls are numerous on the rivers and lakes, where they breed on rocky islands ; and pelicans frequent the broken waters of rapids and cascades, where they fish in the shallows. The different kinds of geese, waveys and ducks, teal, tern, loons, and other waterfowl, need not be e snow generally disappears by the end of April in the more southern parts, and in the month of May in the extreme north. The end of October, or the beginning of November, mostly brings the fresh snowfall 90 MACKENZIE RIVER. CHAPTER IX. DRESS AND HABITS. The Mackenzie River being supplied with domestic requisites from England has not in this respect the appearance of a foreign land. Not only the white residents have their clothing and utensils from Europe, but the Indians also purchase these articles of English manufacture. Even when they make clothes of their own native leather, they now affect European shapes and costumes, and their ancient national dress, ornaments, implements, and weapons are falling into disuse. Still it may be worth while to offer a few words on Indian drc^s and habits. The Indian dress is naturally made of fur, deer-skin, or dressed leather, and consists of coat, leggings, cap and shoes, with a skin blanket by way of a cloak. Marten or beaver skins formed at first rich coats for the Indians, but these are now traded off for necessaries. The cap is usually of fur in winter. The shoes are always of soft dressed leather. The native Indian coat in the North was formerly pointed both before and behind. In fact, the name Chipewyan is a Cree Indian term meaning the pointed coat, but this shape has fallen into disuse. The women's dress mostly consists of a long leather coat trimmed with cloth or beads, and some- DRESS AND HABITS. 9 1 times a cloth hood for the head. The women's faces were till recently often slightly tattoed with dark lines on the chin, formed by drawing a thread loaded with gunpowder or colouring matter under the skin. The men were formerly much addicted to painting their faces with vermilior, but this has 'fallen into disuse among the tribes in contact with Europeans. The Esquimaux young men stripe their faces with ver- milion as a distinguishing mark when they have killed an enemy. The Indians are fond of rings, earrings, bracelets, and necklaces, and they formerly pierced the cartilage of the nose for the insertion of a shell ornament. Belts are tastefully manufactured by the Indian women of porcupine quill work. This or bead work, and the making of shoes, form their chief employ- ment. The old women employ themselves in twisting grass, roots, or sinew into twine for sewing, or fishing nets. The men and boys are often busied in shaping bows, arrows, snow-shoes, sledges, or other articles. The Indians were formerly accustomed, instead of burying their dead, to place them on high scaffolds above ground, but this habit was probably owing to the ground being for many months in the year frozen too hard to dig it. The raising on scaifolds was also a safer preservative than burying under ground from the ravagcG of animals of prey. Since mingling with the whiteii, however, the Indians conform to European habits of burial. It was also formerly a superstitious custom to place with the deceased his bow, arrows, and other necessaries; and even in later 92 MACKENZIE RIVER. times a gun, ammunition, tobacco, fire bag, and other articles, have been buried in the grave of a dead Indian. Such a superstition it is hard to eradi- cate, and perhaps it needs some care not to quench too roughly the idea of a life continued after death, until the knowledge of a spiritual immortality and a final resurrection can be instilled, to supplant the instinctive notion of a continued mundane life. The old stone axes, knives, and spear and arrow- heads of the Indians have naturally now been ex- changed for iron. Still however, a blunt stone axe is used for grubbing up edible roots, and flint arrow- heads are still occasionally used by the boys, and a sharp flint is preferred for a bleeding lancet. The view of these stone implements still existing seems a warning to antiquarians not to dogmatise too much as to the date of similar remains found as relics of a past age ; and as to judging of such date by fine- ness of workmanship, a guess may be quite illusory. The good shape of the flint arrow-heads may de- pend on the question whether they were made by a man or boy, or the inferior skill may be a sign of more degradation, and thus of a later period. Stone knives are still used by Indian women in currying skins. It has been already remarked that copper was made use of for knives by the Indians near the Coi)permine River before the arrival of Europeans, and pieces of meteoric iron were used by the Esquimaux for striking fire. For cooking, the Indians were formerly accustomed to weave baskets of roots closely enough to hold DRESS AND HABITS. 93 water. This water was then heated for cooking pur- poses, by immersing in it a succession of hot stones. Meat was baked by being buried in the earth and a fire made over it. At present the boihng is done in iron or copper kettles, and the roasting on wooden spits or skewers before the fire. The Tukudh Indians had formerly regular tracks or roads cut through the forests throughout their country for communication between the different tribes. They used sleds mounted on runners, as the Esquimaux do now. None of the Indians of Mackenzie River seem to have been acquainted with the use of plants or herbs for medicines. In their medicine making they used only the charms of drumming and singing. The Esquimaux, with the drumming and singing, com- bine an address as to an invisible spirit supposed to have power over the disease. The women in the Indian lodges were formerly obliged to eat after the men, but they are now learning of the Europeans to mess in common. Indians were formerly accustomed to have a private cup of their own, and v/ould object to others, and especially to a woman, drinking from it; but this superstition is also dying out. The Indians had formerly much superstitious dread of using any clothing or other articles belonging to a person deceased. In case of a death all the clothing and effects of the departed were thrown away or destroyed, and even the relatives would destroy their tents, guns, and other property, either out of grief or 94 MACKENZIE RIVER. from dread of using again anything that the deceased had come in contact with. These inconvenient cus- toms are being gradually relinquished. A hunter was considered bound to eat the head of an animal killed by him in order to secure further success in the chase. Some Indians attribute to the chase of particular animals, such as the w^olf, the effect of spoiling their gun ; but it would be idle to enumerate further the Indians' vain superstitions. The Esquimaux are accustomed to angle with an imitation fish carved in ivory having an iron hook protruding from it, so that the one instrument forms hook and bait together without more. Their fishing- nets are often netted of split whalebone. The use of an almost exclusively animal diet does not appear productive of any ill effects among the European residents, nor is it distasteful when it has become habitual. In fact, the cold climate calls for strong food, and fat or sweets as generators of heat are adapted to the country. The sicknesses of the Indians may, however, be partly attributable to their free use of animal blood, in which disease may be communicated, for skin diseases are common among the wild animals as among the Indians. The health of the Indians seems to have improved since they have been more plentifully supplied with tea, the use of which has moderated their indulgence in blood as a beverage. Their neglect of the use of salt may also be a means of their unhealthiness, and if they were more plentifully supplied with this article, it might tend to counteract their scrofulous habit. DRESS AND HABITS. 95 The taste for tea and tobacco has, of course, been acquired by the Indians only since the arrival of European traders among them. It is doubtful whether their large use of tobacco conduces to their welfare. An idle Indian may be more inclined to allay the pangs of hunger with his pipe than to brave the cold of winter in hastening to the chase. Many of the Indians complain of pains in the chest, which may arise from their incautiously imbibing the caustic ashes with which they often load their empty pipes in lighting these at their fire embers. The infant Indians are, as is well known, enveloped in bags of moss, which, in this severe climate, are admirable preservatives against cold and exposure. In these bags the infant is tightly laced up, confining the limbs and leaving only the head exposed. This process of mummification does not seem to weaken the hmbs, nor to give discomfort to the patient. The swing is the usual accompaniment of the moss bag, where the swaddled mfant is lulled to rest. Slung over her shoulder, this moss bag is the constant burden of the mother's travels. When the Indians shift camp, which they often do every week or two, the men-folk start first, un- encumbered but with their guns, and after making a track for ten or twelve miles, they mark out a spot for the next encampment, and then proceed on the chase till evening. The women with their families and dog-sleds, loaded with tent, bedding, and utensils, trudge slowly after, and on arriving at the intended camp, after clearing the snow, they strew •96 MACKENZIE RIVER. the space with pine branches and erect the tent. After arranging this by disburdening the sleds of their loads, they proceed to collect fuel for firing, and have all ready for a repast by evening, when the husbands return, bearing the produce of their hunt. If a large animal has been killed, the wives walk to the spot the next day to carry home the meat and hide. The men, however, now more than formerly take a share in the camp duties. In Indian marriages it seems to be a part of the etiquette that the bride should show great reluctance to be wedded, till she has at times to be forcibly dragged from her camp. Her friends also may exhibit great opposition to the intended match ; and yet this may be, in fact, only a part of the •ceremony. Among some Indians it is understood to be absolutely forbidden to a mother-in-law to look her son-in-law in the face, at least until the birth of his first child. This does not seem to be enforced nmong the more northern Indians, but a son-in-law is looked upon as a sort of hunter for his wife's parents. Their daughter does not leave her parents' camp, and even after marriage appears to be more under their control than that of her husband. As soon as a child is born, its parents usually drop their own name and assume that of the child ; and this is continued a good deal, even in the case of baptised Indians ; so that you may hear John's father or Jane's mother so spoken of, in preference to their own name. A wife, instead of speaking of her husband, will prefer to speak of her boy's father. DRESS AND HABITS. 97 Polygamy was practised among the non-Christian Indians chiefly by the chiefs and leading men, and in the excuse that more than one wife was required by them, to dress their furs and skins, and ca.uy their meat and effects, and do other camp duties. In sickness the Indians are veiy pitiful. They soon lose heart, and seem to die more from de- spondency than disease. Their need is often not so much medicine as good nourishment and nursing ; but this is hard to obtain. Food is often scarce even for those in health to seek it, and for a sick Indian it may be hard to find a friend in need. The constant removals are trying to the weak and infirm, and in times of distress those who cannot follow the band ar*^ left behind to perish. Indians have been known to devour their own children in cases of absolute starvation ; but such instances are rare, and may, perhaps, be attributed to a temporary mania. Those who are believed to have perpetrated such an act are feared and shunned. The dying are often hastily wrapped up and laid aside, even before the last sigh has escaped, for there is a reluctance to handle the dead. There is no fear of the resuscitation of the corpse, which is, for the most part, stiffly frozen as soon as removed from the camp fire. Chocolate is a favourite beverage with the sick where it can be obtained, and it is looked upon as a medicine. The Indians universally give it thii name of ox blood, because it was mistaken by them for the blood of the musk ox when first they saw it used by the whites. Rice, which is called H 98 MACKENZIE RIVER. white barley, is another luxury coveted by the sick. Flour is known by the Tukudh Indians as " ashes from the end of heaven." Tobacco is warmth or comfort, and the pipe the comforting stone. All articles in use by the whites are named by the Indians without hesitation, according to their employ- ment. A table is what you eat on ; a chair, what you sit on ; a pen, what you write with. A watch is called the sun's heart. A minister is with them, the s])eaker, and a church the speaking-house- So a lion is called the hairy beast, and the camel the one with the big back. A bat is called the leather wing, because such is its appearance. Thus^ an Indian is never at a loss for a name. A steam- boat, before it was seen by the Indians, used to l)e called the boat that flies by fire ; but since they have seen it, the fire-boat seems to be name enough. The Indians are quick at learning by the eye, but slow if taught by the ear. Even in Christianity it is ])robable they would be better schooled by example than by i)recept. In the Tukudh language there is a different mode of expression used in speaking of the works of God, from that api)lied to the works of mcn^ the former implying some sort of awe and reverence. Before the advent of whites or Missionaries, the Tukudh youth were advised by their elders to good behaviour, and they were warned not to be deceived by the garish pleasures of youth, but to remember a hereafter. The Esquimaux have a tradition that in the first family in the world two brothers quarrelled, and the DRESS AND HABITS. 99 one killed the other, and had afterwards to wander from his home and was lost On the arrival of Europeans among them, the Esquimaux thought these might be descendants of the long-lost murderer. So far as the white men have come among them armed with the fatal fire-water, or other weapons of destruc- tion, there may be only too much truth in this view, l^uropeans, however, seem to liave leturned the compliment by affiliating the Esquimaux upon ancient cave - dwellers in France and Switzerland, an hypothesis which appears nearly as arbitrary as the former one. The Esquimaux have still a word for d world above, and acknowledge that a system of religion was known to their forefathers, but say they have forgotten it. They seem to have some super- stitious ideas connected with the sun. -f lOO MACKENZIE RIVER. CHAPTER X. RESOURCES AND PROSPECTS. It has been already said that the sole present trade in Mackenzie River is in furs. It may be asked what other resources the country presents. The leather ilerived from the dressed hides of the moose and reindeer is of some value, but at present nearly the whole of the leather obtained is used in the country for shoes and clothing. The reindeer in the woods and the fish in the lakes are somewhat abundant, but no more are killed than are required for provisions used in the country. Walrus tusks for ivory, and seal skins, and oil of both whales and seals, may be traded to a limited extent from the Esquimaux on the coast, but not in large quantities. Vegetable crops might be much increased in the countrj', but it is unlikely that these would be exported. For resources to be consumed in the country, agricultural ])roduce will probably in the end prove the most reliable, notwith- standing the severe climate. Animal provisions seem always diminishing, and it is surprising what a vast expenditure of animal life is required to sustain even a very small population on meat only. When a reindeer is killed, the meat of its r1bs fs cut off and dried, and this is usually the only part of the animal furnished to the trading establishments for RESOURCES AND PROSPECTS. 10 1 provision for the resident whites. These ribs form just one day's provision for one man, so that in one sense it may be said to require the life of a deer to sustain each man for a da v. Then about 1,200 fish are required to feed a train of dogs for the winter, and the dogs are needed for hauling fresh meat, if not fuel. Altogether, with the sparsest of populations, there is an enormous expenditure of animal life every year in Mackenzie River for provisions. When to this is added the number of animals slaughtered for their fur, the total is very great. It is a country of death. It seems an instinct in an Indian to destroy every living animal he sees. Little pains have yet been bestowed on the cultivation of the soil in Mackenzie River, but where patience and perseverance have been used, the result has been encouraging. The crops cannot be said to be altogether certain, but are dependent on the season. 13y working the soil regularly the frost seems to leave it. A considerable amount of provi- sions could no doubt be raised from the soil by real efforts at farming. It has sometimes been suggested that a penal settlement might be placed in Mackenzie River similar to these in Siberia, but such a scheme the scarcity of provisions forbids. The meat and fish are insufficient to support any considerable number in one place, and the crops could not be trusted for the support of a convict establishment with enforced labour, though hardy emigrants work- ing with a will might force a livelihood. The climate Is not one to invite immigration on any 102 MACKENZIE RIVER. considerable scale, unless the half-breed or Indian population of the Sascachewan plains or adjacent country should retire to the north before the advance of civilised Europeans. It might, Indeed, be more hunfiane to the Indian population of the south to banish them to the uncoi strained freedom of the northern forests, where they might still pursue the chase to which their instincts guide ihem, rather than to confine them to reserves of limited area and to farming pursuits, for which they are less fitted, and which often prove distasteful. In case any further expedition should be organised with a view to reach the North Pole, it has been suggested that the mouth of the Mackenzie River would form a favourable basis of operations. After laying deposits of provisions along the route in advance, sledge journeys on the ice might be arranged from the Mackenzie River toward the Pole, to be conducted not by English sailors but by those more habituated to rapid snow-shoe travelling and inured to Arctic cold. The timber of Mackenzie River region is, doubtless, valuable, but would not pay the cost of exportation. When saw-mills are introduced, the lumber will be more used for building in the neighbourhood. Regarding the mineral resources of the district, it has been already said that gold has been found in the extreme west of it, on the Upper Youcon. This discovery may attract more population in that direction, and open a route from the Pacific coast, RESOURCES AND PROSPECTS. IO3 which is certainly much the shortest distance from the ocean to the Mackenzie River country. Formerly, trade was carried from jNIackenzie River through the Rocky Mountains by the west branch of the Liard River as far as Dease Lake, and access from the west may hereafter be obtained to the Mackenzie River by the same route. The river is, however, difficult and dangerous for navigation, and impeded by numerous rapids. The route from Dease Lake to the western coast is also mountainous, and traversed in parts by mule trains only, w'hich may forbid any heavy traffic by that route. The new route from the coast to the mines of the Upper Youcon runs more to the north than the one last mentioned. This road lies through the country of the Chilcats^ a rather wild and murderous race of Indians, but who will probably be taught good manners by the miners, for whose i)rotection an American gunboat has visited the coast. Other mineral resources may possibly develop in the country, but it is unlikely that any metal besides gold would pay the cost of exportation. Communication with the south will probably soon be improved. The Inter-Oceanic Railway will pro- bably extend branches northward suflicicr.tly far to connect with the navigable rivers that run to the Arctic Ocean, and on these rivers steamers are already being placed. - Government mail communication, and some system of law and police, may be expected to extend, in the future, even as far as Mackenzie River, for the tide 104 MACKENZIE RIVER. of civilisation is ever flowing westward, and even a framework of civil political government may be added. The Mackenzie River Diocese alone is about as large as the peninsula of Hindostan, and it seems strange that so vast a region of British territory should be ignored, so far as respects Government supervision. A Government survey is already locating the boundary-line between the American country of Alaska and British territory ; and this may probably be followed by some custom-house authority, to regulate trade crossing the border. Some Government aid towards education in the Mackenzie River country may be expected, and has, indeed, been promised, and toward the sup- port of Missionary clergy some assistance may be hoped for from the older provinces of Canada ; but self-help must be the watchword, and an effort after independence and self-support should be made by all. To admit of any number of children being gathered for schooling, it appears essential that a Mission-farm should be set on foot to raise crops for their support ; and at all the Missions it seems de- sirable that an industrial lay agent should be asso- ciated with the clerical staff, both for the support of the Mission and to encourage the Indians to aim after more settled habits, and to attempt the cultiva- tion of the soil. Farming and education arc the two levers to be used, in subservience to a preached Gospel, for raising the Mackenzie River country to civilisation and improvement. Probably the most striking impression conveyed to RESOURCES AND PROSPECTS. I05 the mind by the appearance of this country is that here we are brought into immediate view of stupen- dous natural works of the great Creator unsullied by hi man handiwork, undisguised by hu'^:ij.n artifice. Magnificent lakes, rivers, mountains, meet the eye, and these at one time buried under deep ice or snow, and chained with the iron grasp of winter, and at another time smiling in summer's glow and free- dom, and flowing with melted streams. Few opera- tions of the powers of nature are more forcible and striking than the binding back of the swift current of a mighty stream, in the severe frosts of early winter, and the loosing of these icy fetters on the return of spring. An equal contrast is seen in the congealing of the tossing waves of a large inland lake or of the Arctic Ocean. As the power of nature, so also the care of Providence, is exhibited to perfection in the far North, as shown by the safe protection and pro- vision afforded to the wandering tribes, apparently helpless amid Arctic frost and snow. In the huge carcases of the whales, and other marine monsters of the Arctic deep, and the swarming land animals of the northern wastes, nature and Providence seem to have been, in some respects, more lavish and ])rodigal in care for the sparse inhabit- ants of the far North than for the teeming pojmlations of more favoured climates. Yet the provision is not in excess of the need, and in that forbidding climate both natives and FAiropcan residents maintain a constant struggle to keep aloof the foe of famine, or in familiar figure of speech, to " keep the wolf from I06 MACKENZIE RIVER. the door." A restful trust in heaven's bounty will, however, lead to a cheerful Ljntent, even in the far North, and the fact that in God's Word, and espe- cially in the Book of Job and in the Psalms, the regions of ice and snow are so vividly pourtrayed, will induce an Arctic Christian to acknowledge, and exult in the consciousness, that his God is still present with him there. The Mackenzie River may be regarded as the Ultima Thule, and, in some respects, as the forlorn hope of Missionar}' enterprise ; for no zeal can tame the elements, or soften the rigour of an Arctic clime. Still, however, the Gospel wins its triumphs amid Arctic snows, and shows itself sufficient for the com- fort of the wanderer in the frozen North. Russian Missions from the East, in connexion with the Greek Church, long since penetrated to the neighbouring country of Alaska, so that in the borders of Mackenzie River Diocese east and west may be said to join. Alaska having now fallen under the domi- nion of the United States, the work of its evangelisa- tion is being taken up from thence, and the American Episcopal Church, with Presbyterians, Methodists, and Moravian brethren, are already occui)ying Mis- sion fields in Alaska, to the immediate west of the Diocese of Mackenzie River. On the south border of the diocese, Mission work is also being zealously carried on in the province of British Columbia. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel have supported a Missionary at the Cassiar Mines, near Dease Lake, and immediately RESOURCES AND PROSrECTS. I07 adjoining Mackenzie River Diocese on the south-we«;t. A little further south again are the Church Missionary- Society's stations on the Naas River and at Metla- katla. In the adjoining diocese of Athabasca, Mission work is also zealously carried on in connexion with the same Church Missionary Society by the bishop and a staff of Mission clergy, as is also the case immediately to the eastward, on the shores of Hudson's Bay, in the diocese of Moosonee. The Missions in ^Mackenzie River are therefore far from isolated when the continent of America s viewed as a whole, for similar IMissionary efforts surround it on all hands, unless only to the frozen North. Yet within the diocese itself we speak of a Missionary being isolated when his nearest colleague may be 300 miles distant. Ten or a dozen Mission agents are but a small band to cover a country as large as Western Europe, for France, Germany, Italy, Holland, Belgium, and Switzerland could probably all be included in the space occupied by Mackenzie River Diocese. The Mackenzie River Diocese need no longer be reckoned as a heathen country, for none of the Indian tribes therein refuse or oppose the Gospel, and they are all in the main under the instruction of Church of England Missionaries or Romish Priests, though they are by no means yet fully enlightened. The Esquimaux, though not yet Christianised, may be reckoned as also under instruction. The staff of French Roman Catholic Missionaries, Io8 MACKENZIE RIVER. including bishop, priests, friars, and nuns, exceeds that of the Church of England Mission. The numbers under the instruction of each Church may not greatly differ, but the adherents of the English Church Mission are most numerous in connexion with the Tukudh Missions. As the Missionaries in this diocese may be considered in the vanguard of the Christian Missionary army, their position is no dis- honourable one, though their lot may be humble and their victories unfamed. 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