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AMD qiSKEi'. r^iWGfc V im-m. ■\-rf- >-%: n! ,0 V< •'/■ £'^'-^^ y '■''ft >■ r SEAMANSHIP. EXAMINEU ANI> INSTIiUCTOlJ e» MASTERS AND MATES KOU TDE MARINE BOARD EXAMINATIONS W GA.1S A.JJ A. JOHN ST. VINCENT McNALLY, LATE OP CAPT. R. McNALLY & SON, Who have smceeded in obtaininq Certificates for upwards of nine hundred JUasterit and scvm hundred Mates from the Belfmi and Dublin Local Marine Boards ; and now of the Finn of McNALLY & SEATON, Priparers by Oovcnttumt Apjtoiiitttwnt for the above Exavdnatwm, AT dAINT JOHN, HALIFAX, AND QUEBEC. SAINT JOHN, N. B. rUINTED BY BAKNE8 AND COMPANY, rKINCt WILLIAM STRKKT. 1878. TO THE IIONORAnLT: TUE MINISTER OF MARINE AND FISHERIES, THIS WORK 18 MOST UE8PECTFUL1, Y DEDICATKD DY UIS VHKY OBEDIENT AND IILMIILE BEUVANT, THE AUTIIOlf. Entered, according to Act of I\trlimneiit of Canada, in the yrar of our Lord our. Lord One Thoiimml Eir/ht Ilnndird and Scnaily-thra, by Jouji St. Vincent McNally, intfie O,0ke of the Mmister of Ayricultun'. PREFACE. Tills work Ims boon compilod nt oonsldcrablo cost and labour, and is spocial'y intondod to meet the requirements of candi- dates for certificates of competency, from the several Local -Marine Boards of "C'a;?« . 28 , :i2 . 35 . 36 . 37 . 37 . 38 . 89 . S» . 40 . 41 . 41 . 42 . 43 . 43 . 44 . 44 . 46 . 46 . 45 . 4(1 . 40 . 4G . 40 . 46 a . 47 . 47 . 48 . 49 . 50 . 51 ,. 62 VI hi(h:>; Tho Snint Lawrence (('ontiiiuoil), .... .... .... . . . . r»!J Manaf?c?nont of Ships at Sin^lo Anchor, with Diuj^iam to illuatrato finmo, 64 DcUilLMl Kxplanalion of Getting Under Way, A;c. &c., .... .... 6.'» llcV-^iiliilioiis for I'reventinfj ('oIliHions nt Sen, .... .... .... 88 Ruli'.s (Jonuernin;; Fd;^ Si^'ii;iI.-<, an 1 SU'i'Hn;,' nii'l Sniliii;,' Riili'!*, .... CO Diagrams to liliistrato the use of liiu liiglits Curried by Vo.-rida ut Soa, witii Kxplanntion, ,',.. .... .... .... 68 The Rule of tho Road at Sea — Aids to Memory, .... .... 64 Heads of Kxamhiation in Rogulations Respecting Lights and Fog Signals, and in the Steering and Sailing Rules, .... .... .... Hoard of Trade Instructions for the (iuidance of Masters and Seamen when using tho Mortar and Rocket Apparatus for .Saving Life, .... Pinto of the Flags of the Oommcreial Code of Signals, .... .... (lonoral Kxplanntion of Sigiuil Hook, .... .... Arrangement of Signal Hook. ... .... .... .... Oommerelal Code of Signals, .... .... .... .... To Distinguish the Signals, with Plate to Hlustrate same, .... .... Commerciul Code of Signals — Examination of Candidates .... Distant Signals— Explanation of Arrangi'incnt — with Signification when made Singly, with Plato to Hlustrate Important S'gnals composed of Two Symbols, .... .... .... .... Plate of Alphabet for Composing Distant Signals, .... .... Plate of Alphabet for ('(imposing Semnpiiorc Signals, .... ... Semaphores — Plate showing the manner of using them in connection with the Distant Signals, .... .... .... .... Boat Sigrmls— Plate to Illustrate .«ame, .... .... .... Definitions in Xautieal Astronomy, List A, ... .... .... Deviation of tho Compass, List H, Definitions, .... .... .... Heaving Down, .... .... .... .... .... If Recpiiring Heavy Repairs Abroad, .... .... .... To Get Machinery in or Out, .... .... .... .... To Make a Stern Board, ... .... .... .... Fire — To Smother it, .... .... .... .... Man Overboard, ... .... .... .... .... Riding nt Anchor in a Gale of Wind, .... .... .... Rafts — To Construct same, ... .... .... .... Cutting Away Masts, .... .... .... .... Scudding in a Heavy Gale of Wind, .... .... .... Error in tho Course of a Scudding Ship, .... .... ... Laying-To Under a Drag, ... ... .... .... To Construct a Temporary Rudder at Sea, .... .... .... Another and Better Plan of Constructing a Temporary Rudder, .... Making tho Land, .... .... .... .... Signs of Land, .... .... .... .... .... Rounding-To in a Gale of Wind, .... .... . • • • Laying-To in a Gale of Wind, .... .... .... • • • • 65 73 74 75 76 78 71) 80 84 85 8(5 87 m 92 96 96 98 98 99 100 101 102 104 104 lOl 10.-. 105 106 107 108 109 109 ///fA ^'X. VII Siiualli!, .... .... I ■ >•.- f«<* !••• •#§• «*«t Caught in a S(niull with StiiddiiigHaiirt S(!t, .... ('rossing a Ship's How at Anclior, lleiiviiig.To to (Joiiimunifato, .... .... . . . , VVIion in Cliargc of Boatii, Deviation of the CompasH in Shipa Ladon with Iron, togellicr with the Metlioil of DctiTinining it .... .... l{pniuri{H on the Haroractcr, showing what Weather may be expected from itH Standing Height and Sudden Change, Jtating a t'lirononieter or Tiine-Kecper hy a simple and acenrate nietiioii I'llRl'. Ill) 111 111 112 111 114 \U list ERRATA ET CORRIGENDA. Page 47. Page 73. , leruUy remain up till the new mast is taken in. Q. — State the rule for dropping the shear heads for taking in the bowsprit, iiow you will take it in and lash your purchase ? A. — Tiie shears being dropped over the stem, the large tackle is made fast to the bowsprit, outside the distance from the heel to the knight-heads^ the truss tackle and guys fastened to the outer end, the former to cant the heel, and the two guys to assist in steadying the bowsprit when pointing the heel through the knight-heads. Q. — Suppose you have topped the bowsprit well up by means of the truss-tackle, and j'ou find that you cannot get the shears sufiSci- cntly sloped to point the heel, what will you do ? A. — I would rig a jib-boom or any other spar over the forecastle, lash the heel, and have a tackle on the outer end to haul the heel of the bowsprit out and point it. It is singular tliat books on rigging have omitted mention of this spar, for though it is possible lo plaee a bowsprit without It, something of the sort is necessary when one has to be taken out, as it requires a pull in a direct line to draw the heel clear. Q. — What gear will you have on your mast-head before step- ping it ? A. — Two mast-head gantlines with the blocks secured to the mast- head above the trestle-trees. Q. — How would you get the trestle-trees over with the mast stand- ing, the shears being unrigged ? A. — The shears being unrigged, there are only two methods (if the vessel is of any size), by which the trestle-trees can be got over : one plan is to take a chock out and sway them up with girtlines : the other is to lash a studdingsail-boom or other spar, up and down the mast, and have two girtlines on the end : by the latter plan the trestlc-trccs can bo slung amidships, and easily placed over the mast-head. Q. — Suppose you join a ship, say of a thousand tons, with her lowermasts and bowsprit in, proceed to get her rigged? A. — I would first secure the bowsprit by the bobstays, gammoning, and shrouds. Q. — How do you proceed to gammon your bowsprit in a large ship ? A. — By slinging some heavy weight, such as a cask of water, and suspend iug it from the bowsprit end. 4 Masting^ Riyging, <&c. Q. — What would you do after securing the bowsprit ? A. — Get the top over the mast-head. Q. — How would you place the top to send it from the deck, also proceed to get it over ? A. — The top being placed on the deck abaft the mast, resting on its edge, the upper part aft, I would place a block on each side of the lowermast-hcad, and reeve two girtlines, overhaul them down, and pass them on the underneath part of the top, hitching them to the after cross-tree, and put stops on all the cross-trees in the way of the bolt holes, and stop the rim. I would also have two guys, one forward and one aft; then sway away, and when the rim of the top reaches the girtline blocks, cut the stops hauling on the guy required, lower away and bolt it. Q. — How is a top sent down ? A. — The main gantlines are bent as before, but the after gantline is bent to the fore part of the top, and used for canting it over the mast-head. When clear of the mast-head let it rest on the trestle. trees, stop also the gantlines to the fore part, then sway clear, and *' lower away." The rule is to send the mizzen top up atid down on the fore side of the mast, but can be sent up abaft equally us well. Q. — From what kind of rope is standing rigging made ? A. — Shroud-laid. Q. — How are the lowermasts rigged ? A. — With shrouds and a fore and aft stay. Q. — What ip the measurement for the length of the foremost shroud ? A. — From half way across the mast-head to the outside edge of the channel, abreast the foremost dead-eye. Q. — How would you measure for a gang of lower rigging ? A. — Having the length of the foremost shroud, place two posts upright at that distance apart, coil the shroud hawser round them, the second coil lying outside the first, flat on the deck ; the third outside the second, and so on. Cut the bights where the coil was commenced. Q. — Before fitting the rigging, how much is it stretched ? A. — One inch lor every foot. Q. — What is the measurement for the eyes of shrouds ? A. — For the pair that goes on first, once and a quarter round the mast-head; each of tlio others, in succession, the breadth of a seizing larger than the one below it. Q. — State how the eyes are parcelled, and why ? A. — The eyes are parcelled upwards on each leg, meeting at the Masthiff, Rif/(/inf/, ttv. 5 crown ; for if put on in any other wny, the water, instead of running . off, would get in between the parts of the parcelling, and soon rot the rope. Q.— How is each pair of shrouds fitted ? A.— With a throat seizing on the bight round the mast-head. (A strip or tarred ciinvns is put on first to keep the turns of the scizhip from opening the eerviee.) When there are a number of ropea supporting a spar, as ninny as possible nre fitted in pairs : the middle or bight of tiie rope is placed over the end of tlic spar, and a seizing is put on to form an eye. Tims, with an even number of ropes, tliey arc all fitted in pairs, witli throat sei/.ings on the bight. Witii an odd number, tliey are«U fitted in the same way e.xecpt the odd one, which, being a single rope, is fitted witli an eye splice. Q. — What proportion must the lanyard be to the shroud ? A. — Half the size. Q. — What proportion must the dead-eye be to the shroud ? A. — Once and a half the size. Q, — How far is the foremost shroud served down, and why ? A. — All the way, as it catches the chafe of the sail. Q. — How far are all the rest of the shrouds served down, and why ? A. — One-third, as the yard touches and chafes them when it ia braced up. Q. — In placing the rigging, how are the shrouds known from each other ? A. — They are all marked with knotted spunyarn ; the pair going on first with one knot, the second with two knots. This brings all the odd numbered the starboard, and the even numbered the port side. Q.— If the dead-eyes are turned in, how may a starboard shroud bo known from a port one ? A. — By the seizings being aft, and the end of the shroud inside on both sides of the ship. Q. — Where would you place your girtline block for rigging lower- masts ? A. — They are lashed to the after part of the trest'e-trees. Some lash the girt-line block to the cross-tree that lies next to the after pull oi Llic iua.*t-liead, considering that the most convenient place. The cross-tree before the mast-head is also used tor this purjose. Q. — How, and in what order, are tlie shrouds placed on the mast- head ? A. — The bolsters having being well parcelled and tarred, are put on; the starboard foremost pair of shrouds put on first; then the foremost pair on the port side ; then the second pair on the starboard side, and so on, alternately, working aft : and the stay on, over all, outside and close down. The seizings of each pair should be kept clear of each other, and by standing in the channels or on the rail, I 6 Jfantiuff, Rigylny^ Ac. should SCO if the sci/.ing aloft bears in a parallel direction between the two lower dead-eyes which the shrouds will be set up to. Q. — In placin<^ the rigging, how are the shrouds sent aloft ? A. — Bend the gantline on to the shroud, sufficiently below the eye seizing, to allow the eye to go over the mast-head when the bend is at the block, stop the gantline along the upper part of the shroud with three or four stops to the end of the eye. " Sway away." Cut the stops in the top as they come to the block, and when the bend is at the block the men in the top place the rigging on the mast-head. Q. — How is your forestay fitted ? A. — With a fork and two lashing eyes, which are lashed together abaft the mast-head, with a rose lashing. Q. — Where do the two legs of the forestay come up ? A. — Away of the trestle-tree ends, underneath the foremost cross- tree leg of top. Q. — How does the forestay set up away the bowsprit ? A. — Some old-faahioned ships set up with dead-eye and lanyard, but the neatest way of setting up the lower stays is by reeving them down through a bull's eye, with tarred parcelling upon the thimble, and setting them up on their ends, with three or four seizings. Q. — How would you stay your moat, supposing the stay sets up with a lanyard ? A. — I would hook one luff-tackle to the mast-head, overhaul it down, put the other luff on the stay, allowing sufficient drift to stay the mast without fleeting ; then hook the lower block of the latter tackle on to the lanyard of the stay, and hook the lower block of the mast-head tackle to the fall of the other tackle, and then haul away. Q. — How would you set up a forestay with lashing eyes abaft the mast ? A. — Get a tackle from the mast-head on to the bowsprit, and heave the mast well forward. Get two smaller tackles from the after part of the trestle-trees on to the stays to light the slack in. Pass the lashing from both ends and heave the turns tight with a Spanish windlass. If the two stays are frapped together, one tackle it sufficient. Q. — Where are the mainstays set up ? A. — They are now frequently set up to strong bolts in the deck. Q — In setting up the lower stays, why do you pull upon both ends of the lanyards ? A. — To prevent undue strain on one part. Q. — State how you will turn in lower rigging, whether with or against the lay of the rope, and why ? A. — With the lay of the rope; turning in against the lay would open the lay and let the water in. Q.— IIow is a dead-eye turned in, or secured to a shroud ? A. — Having parcelled the score of the dcad-cye, and hove the shroud taut round it, if right-hand-laid rope it is turned round the dead-eye rifjld-licinded or uith the sun, and against the sun if hawser- laid ; then pass the throat-seizing with nine or ten turns, the outer turns being slacker than the middle ones. Pass quarter-seizings half way to the eye, and then the end seizings and cap, the shroud well tarred under the cap. N. B.— Wire rl(?{{iiifj is generally spliced In ; but when it is turned in, wire seizings are used. Q. — How do you turn in cutter stay fashion ? A. — The dead-eye beinj? placed to the mark, the end is passed round it as before, but instead of being secured with a throat seizing, the end is passed round the standing part, and to the part round the dead-eye with a round-seizing, and another on the end round the dead-eye. Q. — State how you reeve lanyards ? A. — I would reeve the end of the lanyard through the hole of the upper dead-eye nearest to tlie end, and stop it with a Matthew Walker knot to prevent its slipping ; the other end is passed through the hole of the lower dead-eye, and returning ujjwards, is rove through the middle hole in the upper dead-eye, and next through the middle hole of the lower dead-eye, and lastly, through the foremost hole of both dead-eyes, Q. — Next proceed to set up your lower rigging ? A. — Clap a salvage-strop on the shroud, well up, to this hook the single block of a luff-tackle ; the double block to a blackwall hitch in the lanyard ; the fall is then made fast ta the hook of the main- tackle with another cat's paw or blackwail ; reeve the tackle fall through the leading block, and pull up, the lanyard being well greased to make the whole slide with ease through the holes in the dead-eyes. When the rigging is set up for a full due (which is when the masts are stayed forward and the stays all set up), the lanyard is first nipped, or stopped,:^ and the end passed between the throat- seizing and the dead-eye with a hitch, then brought round all the parts in turns to expend the lanyard, and the end is well stopped to its own part with spunyani. The ends of the shrouds are then cut square and capped, and. the mats laced on. Q. — How, and where, is the lower rigging secured ? A. — By lanyard rove through dead-eyes in the channels, and others in the rigging; or, sometimes, it is set upon its end. Q. — After setting up theMgging, how is the end of the lanyard secured ? A. — There are various methods of doing so ; a very general practice h to pass tho lanyard under the throat-seizing. 9 Mastimj^ Uhjijinij^ Jcc. I' i ill Q.— Whore is tlio staniliiig part of the lanyard of a ahroud secured ? A. — To the upper dead-cyo, a knot being made on the end. Q. — Why is the standing part of the lanyard rove flrst through the after hole of the dead-eye, and on the port side ? A. — Because the end of tiio shroud is on that side of the dead-eye . when setting the rigging up, the most strain is on the other parts of the lanyard at the side of the dead-eye that the shroud comes round. The part nearest the purchase, must, therefore, be forward imme- diately under the shroud, or the dead-eye would be turned round. Q. — With the rigging properly turned in cutter stay fashion, docs the nip lie on the fore or the after side of the shroud, and why ? A. — On the starboard side, with the nip aft — port side, forward ; ends, on both sides, inboard. The reason of this is, that rlgKlnsf should be turned in, as the rope would be coiled down, so that it at otu-e aeeoiniuodate!* itself to tlie beud it would naturally take, and no turns are takeu out of the lay of the rope. With left- handed rope the same principle holds >::ood, and the result Is necessarily re- versed. However, for the sake ot unifonnity of appearances, both ends are generally turned in alike, witli the nip forward. Q. — When rigging is turned in with the end up, how does the end lie ? A. — With right-handed rope the end will be, on the starboard side, aft ; and on the port side, forward ; crossing inside. Q. — In turning in rigging, after forming the knot of the tliroat, seizing, what is done with the end, and should the end lie outside or underneath ? A. — The end of the throat-seizing is not cut oflF after the knot is formed, but two or three feet are left and expendorl rouuil \\\r' shroud below the seizing : for, if cut off, there would be no end to work with on turning the riggmg in afresh. Q. — State the advantages and disadvantages of turning in cutter stay fashion ? A. — The cutter stay plan has the advantage of holding well, and it admits a sail when set upon a rope to be hauled down ; but on the other hand, it is weaker than the main part of the rope— about one. tenth — principally caused by the compressure of its own running-eye, which reduces the sectional area of the substance at that spot, and renders the rope less durable. Q. — Of the three ways ot turning in rigging, which is the strongest — end up, dead eye spliced in, or cutter stay ? A. — By experiments on the three diflferent plans, it has been found that under the pressure of a breaking strain, a shroud first gives way at the splice. The next weak point was found in the cutter stay plan, at the nip. The old plan broke out at the main part of the rope, at the maximum strain, which, when the seizings are carefully |)ut on, io therefore the strongest. Jfikiti/if/, liujyitnj^ itc. to test Q. — llow would you rig a bowsprit ? A. — In modem merchant ships, all collers for stays, bobstays, «&c., are of iron work, and fitted before the bowsprit is put in ; fit the ridgcropes, pass the gammoning, set up the bobstays, and shrouds, and frap the gammoning, N. B.— Iron bowsprits are now {jeucrally secured with an Iron gammon screwed down. Q. — IIow do you get the bowsprit cap on ? A. — Kig a stage under the bowsprit, and have a studdingsail-yard rigged up alongside the bowsprit with a block and line. Bend on the cap and send it out and knock it on — that is, if it is too heavy to put on by hand. Q. — How would you lay the topmast alongside ? A, — With its head forward. Q. — State where you would lash your top-block, aud describe the operation ot lashing it ? A. — The top-block is lashed to the head of the lowermast, around the hook, with a lashing long enough to allow the block to hang tree. Q, — How do you send up a topmast ? A. — Having lashed a top-block to the head of the lowermast, reeve a mast-rope through it from aft forward, and bring the end down through the trestle- trees and reeve it through the sheave- hole of the topmast, hitchiug it to its own part a little below the topmast- liead, and stopping both parts to the mast at intervals. Snatch the rope and sway away. As soon as the head is through the lower-cap, cast off the end of the mast-rope, letting the mast hang by the stops, and hitch it to the staple in the other side of the cap. Cast off the stops and sway away. Q. — How would you get the lower-cap on ? A. — The lower-cap, if heavy, is generally placed on after the top- mast is pointed through the top or, by means of a spar lashed to the mast-head, and separated thcrelrom by a wedge, the thickness of the cap. To place the cap on by the former method, send it into the top by two girtliues, which being rove and overhauled down, are bound to the forepart of the cap aud stopped to the bolts ; then " sway away," and when up, place the round hole of the cap over the square hole of the trestle-trees for the topmast to reeve in : stop the cap to the sheave-hole of the topmast as the mast goes up ; when high enough, place it on the lowermast-head, casting off the lashing that stopped it to the sheave-hole of the topmast : the cap is then driven close on to the lowermast-head, Q. — How do you send the topmast cross-trees up ? A.— If the crobs-trcca are heavy, they may be placed in the follow- 10 Mastinrward part against tlic topmast . lower away the topmast until the cross-trees fall into their place, and then hoist until they rest on Mio shoulders. Q. — Rig a topmast in fi'.ll detail ? A. — I would tar the bolsters and put them on ; then place the span for Oin-Uocks. Some prefer chain spans to shackle the iron-bound block to. Tlie most approved method is an iron plate with a hook on each end, which lies across the trestle-trees. Next, put over the mast-head pendants ; then follow the strops with thimble in for standing part of the tycs. The Shrovds arc swayed up and placed over the top mast head : the first pair on the starboard forwaid, then the port, and so on with the other pairs. Backstays are hoisted and placed the same as shrouds, starboard pair first ; stays arc swayed up and lasbed abaft the topmast-head. After that the strops for the topsail lifU, and the studdingsail halyard pendants. Q. — How are the topmast stays set up ? A. — Set up to the knight-heads with a lanyard and a lufT-tackle, the double block out on to the bee with a strop round the stay, and the single block hooked on to the lanyard. Q. — How is the topmast cap sent up ? A. — They are swayed up by girtlines, which are to be lashed well up to the topmast-head for the purpose. Overhaul down before all the foremost ends, and secure them to the foremost bolts in the cap ; stop them to the centre ones, and also to the square hole in the after part, then sway the cap up ; when near up, cut the after stops, sway it upon the topmast-head, and the man aloft places it on, then beats it down firmly. The girtlines are unlashed and got down, and the topmast hove up and fidded. Q. — Your foreyard alongside, proceed to get it on board ? A. — I would overhaul the mast-rope, and bend it on amidships, and stop it out to the yard-arms. Sway away, and cast oflf the stops as the yard comes over the side, and get the yard across the bulwark. Q. — Proceed to rig it ? A. — Fit clew-garnet, reef-tackle, and leech-line blocks. Rig the yard-arm, thus : — First the grummet, then the earing-strop, foot- rope, brace-pendant, and lift. Q. — Now send it aloft ? A. — Overhaul the purchase down, and hook the lower purchase- block to the slings of the yard. Take the lifts aloft and reeve them. Then sway up, steadymg the yard by the lifts as it goes up. When high enough reeve the trusses, shackle the slings, and send the pur- chase down. Haul taut the lifts and braces. « Mnki)}{j ond Taking in Snil^ cfcc. n |p3, |0p3 irk. Ithe jot- isc- lem. Ihca )ur- IkEAKIXG AND TAKIN(; IN SAIL, &c. Q.— IIow would you set a foresail ? A. — Loose the siiil and overhaul the buntlines and lecch-linca. Let go the clew-garnets and overliaul them, and haul down on tho sheets and tacks. If the ship is close-hauled, I would ease off the lee-braces, slack tho \ve;ither-]ift and clew-garnet, and got tlio tack well down. When tlie tack is well down, siiarpen the yards up again by tho brace, top it well up by the lift, haul aft tiic sheet, and then haul out the bowline. Q — State how you would take a mainsail in ? A. — I would man the weather clew-garnets and buntlines, ease off the niaiu-sheet a fathom or two, and belay ; I would then slack away the main-tack, and haul u[) the weather clew-garnet and buntlines, taking care to have the sail kept full. When tho weather-clew is up, and as much of the buntline as can be got, then luff the vessel as close to the wind as possible ; ease away the main-sheet, and haul the lee clew-garnet up, and buntlines at the same time. I would haul a foresail up in the same manner. Q. — IIow would you bend a course in blowing weather? A. — I would stretch tho head of the sail across the deck as near as possible ; bend the gear, then bring the leeches of the sail as near wlierelt should haul up on the yard as I can ; then stop my sail well' about every two or three feet ; besides the yard buntlines, have one in 'midships of the sail. When ready, man altogether, and run it up the yard ; then the sail may be bent and furled with very little difficulty. Q. — You are under double-reefed topsails, and you want to shake the double-reef out, what orders would you give to the men before going aloft ? A. — To haul the reef-tackles taut, slack the halyards a little, and be sure to haul well taut the rocf-points of the first reef, before letting go the earring. Q. — IIow would you reef a course ? A. — Haul up and spill the sail, as if you were going to furl it ; then haul out the reef-tackles and reef it. Q.— How would you close-reef a topsail, by the wind, when the course is set ? A. — Clew the sail snugly up, haul out the reef-tackle, brace the yard by, and reef; then fill the yard and set the sail. If you ptart the sheets only, the siiil is like a balloon, and you endanger the men on the yards. Q — In bending and unbending a topsail, what ropes are bent and unbent ? A. — Bunt-lines, clew-lines, sheets, and reef-tackles. 12 Miikinr/ and Tnkinff hi Sail^ iibc. Q.— Suppose you arc under doublcrt'cfcT ai or to aud )wcr icest It, or leers. Q.— What do pilots' vessels use in a fog on tlieir signal station ? A. — Pilots' vessola, when to an anclior. upon their signal station shall use a gonj^ every ten minutes. Q.— When a steamer is laying a telegraj)!! cable, what will she bo distinguished by ', A. — At night she will show two red lights, vertieally under the white mast-head light, four leet apart, and of tlie same construction and character as of the before mentioned mast- head lights. Hy day, between sunrise and sunset, exhibit two opaque black balls vertically, from the foremast-head : each ball not less than three feet diameter. Q. — Scudding, you arc suddenly taken by the lee, or broach-to i A. — Get the head-yards braced round full, to keep headway on her, that she may answer her helm; and when she comes to I'.er course again, trim her to steer better, and let no one to the wheel that would be likely to get her into that position again. " Q. — How would you reef the topsails? A. — Slack away the halliards, haul in the weather brace until the sail shivers; haul out reef tackles, snug up the bunt-lines, then lay aloft and reef the sail. (J. — IIow would you send down a royal yard, in a gale, on the starboard tack ? A. — 'To windward — Having a tripping line on the weather-foot rope, unbend the gear, stop the tie out to the leo-quarter, watch when she is steady, and sway taut the lialliards or yard rope, and trip the yard. olVwith lifts and braces, and tend the yard down carefully on deck, aud stow it on the booms, Sec. Q. — How would you act when taken aback on a wind ? A. — Flattea in head-sheets .ind raise loretack and sheet, brace round the foreyard, and 1)0.\ her off; but if too late, let the mainyard run scjuare and let her come round, get her by the wind again, alter yards not ijuitc so sharp up, and watch her better afterwards. Q. — If you have stern way, how would you put the helm to cant her head to port i A.— Port. Q. — How do you know she is dragging in a fog '. A. — By putting the hand lead over. (-1. — How would you bend a topsail in a gale ot wind '. A. — Reef the sail at the foot, commencing at the close reef, taking in each ot the three lower reefs separately, then bight it down, send it aloft with gautline and bunt-lines, bend the gear on in the top, get it snug to the yard, reef it to the yard, and bend afterwardc. Q. — Proceed to set the forctopmast studdiugsail ? A. — Steady the lower-yard {well trimmed), with lift and braces, send hands to get the boom out while others are getting the sail ready. 28 Tacking^ Wenrhuji, Boxing^ v,n the jib and get your spanker-boom well over to windward. As you raise tacks and sheets, let go the lee fore-topsail brace, being careful to brace up again as soon as she takes aback. Also, hoist the jib, and trim down, if necessary, as soon as she takes on the other side. Tacking against a iikavy Head Sea. — You are under short sail, there is a heavy head sea, and you doubt whether she will stay against it. Haul down the fore topmast stay sail, ease down the helm, and raise fore sheet. When within about a point of the wind's eye, let go main tack and sheet, lee braces and after bowlines, and Mabisailhaul! If she loses her headway at this time, shift your helm. As soon as she brings the wind on the other bow, she will fall off rapidly by reason of her sternway ; therefore shift your helm again to meet her, and Let go and haul! at once. Brace about the head yards, but keep the weather braces in, to moderate her falling off. Wlien she gets headway, right the helm, and as she comes up to the wind, brace up and haul aft. Tacking by Hauling of all. — This can be done only in a smooth sea, witli a light working breeze, a smart vessel and strong crew. Man all the braces. Let her come up head to the wind, and fall off on the other tack, shifting the helm if she gathers sternway. When you get the wind about five points on the other bow. Haul off all ! let go all the braces and bowlines, ana swing all the yards at once, llight the helm, board tacks, and haul aft sheets, brace up and haul aft. 80 TachhKj, Wear/'/if/, Ito.rhif/, (b« ,11 To TuiM TiiR YAims \VHKN Ci>osE-ii.vur,ED.- Ill smooth water, with a Hglit breeze, brace the lower yards sliarp up, and trim the upper yards cacli a trillc in abaft the one below it. If you liave a pretty stitt" breeze, brace the topsail yard iu about half a point more than the lower yard, and the topgallant yard half a point more than the topsail yard, and so on. If you have a strong breeze and a topping sea, and especially if reduced to short sail, brace in your lower yards a little, and the others proportionally. Tlii^ will prevent the vessel going off bodily to leeward ; and if she labours heavily, the play of the mast would otherwise carry away the braces and sheets, or spring the yards, MissiNO Stays. — If, after getting head to wind, she comes to a stand and begins to fall oflf before you have hauled your main yard, flatten in your jib sheets, board fore tack, and haul aft fore sheet ; also ease otf spanker sheet, or brail up the spanker, if necessary. When she is full again, trim the jib and spanker sheets, and when she has recovered sufficient headway, try it again. If, after coining head to wind, and after the after yards are swung, she loses headway and refuses to go round, or begins to fall off on the same tack on which she was before, and you have shifted the helm without effect, haul up the mainsail and spanker, stiuare the after yards, shift your helm again a-lee, so as to assist her in falling off, and brace round the head yards so as to box her off. As she fills on her former tack, brace up the after yards, brace round the head yards, sharp up all, board tacks, haul out and haul aft. Weauing. — Haul up the mainsail and spanker, put the helm up, and, as she goes off, brace in the afteryards. If there is a light breeze, the rule is, to keep the mizzen topsail lifting, and the main topsail full. This will keep sufficient headway on her, and at the same time enable her to fall off. But if you have a good breeze and she goes off fast, keep both the main and mizzen to])sails lifting. As she goes round, bringing the ,vind on her (juarter and aft, follow the wind with your after yards, keeping the mizzen topsail lifting, and the main either lifting or full, as is best. After a vessel has fal- len oft' much, the less headway she has the better, provided she has enough to give her steerage. When you have the wind aft, raise fore tack and sheet, square in the head yards, and haul down the jib. As she brings the wind on the other (quarter, brace sharp up the after yards, haul out the spanker, and set the mainsail. As she comes to on the other tack, brace up the head yards, keeping the sails full, board fore tack and aft the sheet, hoist the jib, and meet her with the helm. To WEAii UNDEii Courses. — Stjuare the cross-jack yards, ease oft" main bowline and tack, and haul up the wciither clew of the main- n- Tackinij^ Wearln(/, Jioxinij, jib. the ;omc3 full, with fee off Imain- sail. Ease off the main sheet, and haul up tlic Ice clew, and the bunt-lines and leach-lines. Square tlie main yards and put tlie lielm u-weathor. As she fails off, let go the fore bowline, ease off tlie fore sheet,''and brace in the fore yard. When she gets before tlie wind, board the fore and main tacks on the otiier side, and haul aft the main sheet, but keep the weather braces in. As she comes to on the other side, ease the helm, trim down the fore sheet, brace up and haul aft. To WEAR UNDEU A Mainsail. — Vcsscls lying to under this sail, generally wear by hoisting the fore topmast staysail, or some other head sail. It this cannot be done, brace the cross jack yards to the wind, and, if necessary, send down the mizzen topmast and the cross, jack yard. Brace the head yards full. Take an opportunity when she has headway, and will foil off, to put the helm up. Ease off the mainsheet, and, as she falls off, brace in the maiuyard a little. "When the wind is abaft the beam, raise the main tack. When she is dead before it, get the other main tack down as far as possible; and when she has the wind on the other quarter, ease the helm, haul aft the sheet and brace up. To WEAK UNDER BARE PoLEs. — SoHic vcsscls, wliich are well down by the stern, will wear in this situation, by merely pointing the after yards to the wind, or sending down the mizzen topmast and the cross-jack yard, and filling the head yards; but vessels in good trim will not do this. To assist the vessel, veer a good scope of hawser out of the lee quarter, with a buoy, or something for a stop -water, attached to Lhe end. As the ship sags off to leeward, the buoy will be to windward, and will tend to bring the stern round to the wind, W liuii oiic is belurc it, haul the hawser aboard. Box-hauling. — Put the helm down, light up the head sheets and slack the lee braces, to deaden her v,ay. As she comes to the wind, raise tacks and sheets, and haul up the mainsail and spanker. As soon as sho comes head to the wind and loses her headway, square the after yards, brace the head yards sharp aback, and flatten in tlie head sheets. The helm, being put down to bring her up, will now pay her off, as she has sternway on. As she goes off, keep the after sails lifting, and square in the head yards. As soon as the sails on the foremast give her headway, shift the helm. When she gets the wind on the other quarter, haul down the jib, haul out the spanker, set the mainsail, and brace the after yards sharp up. As she comes to on the other tack, brace up the head yards, meet her with the helm and set the jib. Box-UAULiNG suoRT ROUND ; somctiiucs called wearing short-round. — Haul up the mainsail and spanker, jiut the helm hard a-wcathcr, square the aftcryards, brace the head yards sharp aback, and tlatteii 32 Stowiny Cargo. in the bead sheets. As she gathers sternway, shift the helm. After this, proceci as in box-hauling by the former method. The tirst mode is preferable when you wish to stop headway as soon as pos- sible ; as a vessel under good way will range ahead some distance after the sails are all thrown flat aback. Few merchant vessels are strongly enough manned to perform these evolutions ; but they arc often of service, as they turn a vessel round quicker on her heel, and will stop her from fore-reaching when near in shore, or when close aboard another vessel. Club-haulikg. — This method of going about is resorted to when on a lee shore, and tlie vessel can neither be tacked nor box-hauled. Cock-bill your lee anchor, get a hawser on it for a spring, and lead it to the lee quarter ; range your cable, and unshackle it abaft the windlass. Uelni's a-lee ! and Raise taclcs and sheets ! as for going in stays. The moment she loses headway, let go the anchor and Main- mil liaul! As soon as the anchor brings her head to the wind, let the chain cable go, holding on to the spring ; and when the after sails take full, cast off or cut the spring, and Let go and haul ! STOWING CARGO. Q. — Suppose you are appointed to a ship, what would you do first ? A. — Report myself, take a memorandum of the things in the ship under my charge ; if about to take in cargo, I would sec that the limbers were clear, the hold well swept, and the dunnage properly laid, and the pumps were all right. Q. — Where are the limbers, and what are they ? A. — They are on each side of the kelson, and are square holes cut through the lower part of the ship's floor timbers. They form a channel which communicates with the pumps throughout the whole length of the floor. Q. — How would you keep the limbers clear when the cargo was in ? A. — Before taking in cargo, I would pass a length of small chain through the limber holes and lead the ends up to sunie place easily got at, and by hauling backward and lorward, the channel for the water may be kept clear. Q. — In what part of the hold would you place most dunnage ? A. — In the wake of the chr' j plates and scuppers, around the masts, and pump wells, chain lockers, transoms, »&c. Q. — Name the general rule for dunnaging a ship ? A. — Place Ave inches more dunnage in the bilge than on the floors ; or nine to ten inches on the floor, fifteen inches in the bilge, and three and a half inches in the wings. iStoicl/u/ Caiyo. •,i3 M in? bain isily the lascst )ors ; three Q. — What dunnage would you lay for a cargo in baga ? A. — On the floors, ten inches, fifteen in the bilge, and three or three and a half in the -wings. Q.— How would you lay the dunnage in the 'tween decks, and why? A. — I would lay it athwart-ships, so that in case of leakage, the water might have free access to the scupper holes. Q. — What dunnage would you allow for cases, bales and bags ? A. — One inch for cases, two-and-a-half inches for bales and bags. Q. — How do you stow cases ? A. — With mark and number uppermost. Q. — Where would you stow bale goods, and how ? A. — I would stow them in the after hold, mark and number upper- most, on their flats. Wing bales on their edges. Q. — Why the wing bales on their edges ? A. — So that in case of leakage, only part of the bale would be damaged, and not the edges of each piece in the bale. Q. — How would you stow an entire cargo of iron ? A. — I would rig a platform as high as the kelson or higher, then commence stowing from the fore part of the fore hatch, or from the heel of the fore mast, to the after part of the after hatch diagonally, and an inch or two apart, or grating fashion. Carry it over into the wings, right up both sides, bringing it up from the ends in a slant, like steps, towards the main hatch. Have bars along the sides to keep the chafe off the skin. To secure it, drive down pegs between the bars, and place planks over with good toms from the upper beams. The iron may be carried further forward and aft, if the trim of the ship will admit of it. Q. — How do you raise the entire body of iron ? A. — See alove. By stowing it grating fashion and bringing it up in a slant from the ends towards the main hatch. Q. — What is the use of raising the body of iron ? A. — By doing so, the violent rolling of the ship is prevented, and she is more easy in a seaway. Q. — You have a quantity of iron (200 tons) to take in; how would you stow it 'i A. — Stow from the after part of the fore hatch to the fore part of the after hatch, each side of the kelson, till level with it, and then diagonally, but not hring it up to a point. Q. — You have bale goods to go on top of it, what precaution would you take ? A. — Place an inch or an inch and a-half of planking on the iron to keep off the chafe. Q.— What is *' dead weight," and why have it in a ship ? u tSUnoiag Cargo. li A. — The heavy portion of the cargo— such as iron, copper, lead, and other metals, constitute " dead weight," and is nsed to ballast the ship. Q. — If the cargo to be stowed, consists of machinery and liquid in casks, where would you stow each ? A. — The machinery amidships, and the casks towards the ends of the vessel. Q. — Where would you stow oil, resin, tar, &c. A. — In the fore peak. Q.— ■'yhp- - "uld you stow provisions ? A. — In the r.iter hold. Q. — How many kinds of acids are there ? A. Two ; liquid and solid. Q. — Where would you stow acids ? A. — On dv'-;.. o. , lUng over the taffrail. Q.— W iiy A. — So that il ii ,1 r, ii, might readily be thrown overboard. Q. — The holu is r iaily full with cargo at each end, and some hogsheudd of b jr are to ' r sti/ivoil ,; how would you lay the ground tier fore and afi ai(>r -the : i A. — Bilge and cunthui. Q. — Where would you commence to ptow casks ? A. — In the midships, and stow towards the wings. Q. — When would you stow casks from wing to wing ? A. — When by so doing I can get another cask in the tier. Q. — Supposing you had to stow a whole cargo of beer, in hogsheads, how would you form the lower tier ? A. — Bung up and bilge free and well quoined. Begin amidships and stow towards the ends till one longer is finished, then stow towards the wings. The bilges of the second, longer from the kelson in the cuntlines of the first longer. Q. — How would you block oflF the ground tier in the wings ? A. — By dunnage wood, keeping the bilges free at the wings. Q. — How would you stow the riding tier ? A. — In the cuntlines of the lower tier. Q. — How would you secure the riding tier ? A. — By four quoins at the quarters of the casks. Q. — How many heights of pipes, of puncheons, and of hogsheads, would you stow ? A. — Three heights of pipes, /tor measurement, and what articles would be objectionable, also at wliose expense the cargo would be loaded and discharged, that is in bringing it alongside and taking it to the consignees. I would have specified the (juantity of dead weight and light freight to be taken. I would stipulate to have the ship loaded according to Lloyd's regulations, viz., three inches of side for every foot immersed. I should also be careful to ascertain the respecta- bility of the charterer. ml' ' ii t i iji' i ]■ BILL OF LADING. Q. — What is a bill of lading ? A. — A document whereby the master acknowledges the receipt of goods shipped on board. Q. — When ought a bill of lading to be signed, and what ought the master to request to be produced before signing ? A. — Twenty-four hours after the goods are on board, the mate's receipt ought to be produced, and the master ought to look at it, and see that it is a clean receipt before signing the bill of lading. Q. — What does a master obligate himself to perform in a bill of lading? A. — To deliver the cargo received in the same good order and con- dition as it came on board to the proper consignee, on payment of the stipulated freight ; the act of God, the dangers and accidents at sea, of fire, of the Queen's enemies, i\;c., being excepted. Q. — Suppose the consignee refused to pay tho freight, how would you act ? A. — I would apply for judicial authority to enable me to sell as much of the cargo as would pay the freight and all charges. Q. — For your own security, how would you (jualify your obligation in sigLing a bill of lading when the qiumtifi/, quality, and condition are unknown ? A. — By underwriting my signature with the words " contents un- knoion,''^ ^^ not liable for deterioration''^ (]. e.), it getting worse. Jnvoiea (Cud JfauifcKt — Protettt and Sm-nt/. :VJ INVOICE AND MANIFEST. Q. — What 19 an invoice, and wliat docs it contain ? A. — An invoice is an account of goods sold or consigned. It con- tains a description of tlio goods, with the quantity, quality, marks and numbers, with the prime cost, and all charges, such as freight, insurance, entry bond duty, dock charges, lighterage, commission, stamps, &c., also the name of the ship, of the master, export mer- chant, and of the consignee. Q. — What is a manifest ? A. — A document signed by the master, containing particulars rela- tive to the cargo on board, such as the marks and numbers and quan- tity of the different articles as cargo, the names of the shippers and consignees, also the master's name, the tonnage of the ship, port of loading and discharging, lists of stores, crew, and passengers. Q. — Where do you obtain the items for making up the manifest ? A. — From the bills of lading. Q. — What is done with the manifest ? A. — It must be handed over to the Custom House on the arrival ot the ship at the port of destination. PROTEST AND SURVEY. fe )uld ill as Ition un- ci. — If, on your arrival in jiort, you anticipate your ship or cargo damaged, on account of bad weather experienced during the passage, "what would you do fli-st ? A. — Note a protest. Q.— How ? A. — By going to a notary and informing him that I anticipate damage to the cargo, and he makes a note of it. Q. — If, after you have discharged part of your cargo, you find it damaged, what would you do then ? A. — Call a survey, consisting of two ship-masters. Q. — What would you require of them ? A. — To certify that the cargo is properly stowed and duunaged, and that it was damaged by sea water. Q. — What would you do then ? A. — Extend the protest. Q.— How would you do that ? A. — By taking my log book and certificate of survey to the no- tary, and leave them with him till the freight was paid, and all busi- ness was settled between the owner or charterer, and the shippers or their agents. iO JloUoint'i/ Jio (l. i t Q. — Your cuigo is discharged ftud on th« (juay, what do you do thon '{ A. — Call a survey of two respectable tncrchants not iutorcstcd iu the cargo. Q. — What would you ro([uirc of them ? A. — To certify the amount of damage. Q. — What must the surveyors be able to certify in order to enable the shipper to have a claim on the underwriters ? A. — That the goods have been damaged by sea water. Q. — What would you do with the certificate they gave you ? A. — Send a duplicate to the owners. Q. — When abroad who is the agent for the underwriters as well as for the owners ? A. — The master. , HOTTOMllY liOND. \A Q. — What is a l)Ottomry bond ? A. — A contract whereby a ship is pledged on security of money ad- vanced for the use of the ship. Q. — Under what circumstances is a master authorised to borrow on bottomry ? A. — When entering a port in distress, and he has no other way of raising money. Q. — What is the authorised mode of getting money on bottomry ? A. — By advertising, and taking the lowest amount of interest oflFered. Q. — For what purpose must money so obtained be expended ? A. — For the benefit of the ship. Q. — After obtaining a bottomry bond, you find you have not suffi- cient money to complete repairs, what would you do ? A. — Obtain a second bond. Q. — And then suppose you had not sufficient ? A. — Obtain a third if possible, or borrow on the cargo. Q. — Under these circumstances, which is the first to be paid ? A. — The last bond obtained, and backwards, according to date. Q. — Is anything payable before a bottomry bond ? A. — Yes ; seamen's wages. Q. — When does the owner become liable for the amount borrowed on bottomry ? A. — On the safe arrival of the ship at her destination. Q.— ^If the ship is lost, is the owner liable then ? A. — No ; the lender loses his money and interest. Mi»'li/ai/(! — Jie.y)oniltnti(C — (Jfficial Iauj. 41 M011T(}A(4E. Q.— Wlmt is Mortgage ? A. — Wlien the ship is pledged by the owner himself, the transac- tion is termed a mortgage. Q. — Wluit is the difference between mortgage and bottomry ? A. — In the first the money obtained may bo used by tlie owner any way ho wishes, while in bottomry it must bo expended entirely for the ship's use. Q. — If the ship has been mortgaged and a bottomry bond has been raised, which is paid first ? A. — The bottomry bond. IlESPONDENTIA. Q. — What is respondentia ? A. — Money lent on security of cargo. ^ed OFFICIAL LOG. Q. — What is an ofHcial Log Book ? A. — A book supplied by the Board of Trade, in which the master if a ship is compelled by law to make certain entries, to be returned to the shipping office at the termination of each voyn-^. Q. — What are the entries to be made in the official i.>g ? A. — A list of the crew, convictions, offences, punishment, conduct, character and qualification of each of the crew, illnesses and injuries, medical treatment, deaths, births and marriages, wages of seamen entering the navy, wages of deceased seamen, sale of deceased sea- men's effects, collisions, and the circumstances attending the same. Q. — Suppose an entry had to bu made against a man, what would you be careful to do ? A. — To enter the offence at the proper time, have it witnessed, and read over to the man, within twenty four hours of the occurrence. Q. — In the event of the man making a statement, would you enter it into the log ? A. — Yes, and have it properly signed. Q. — What would you do with the effects of a deceased seaman ? A. — If possible, sell them ; if I could not, I would deliver them up to the shipping master on my return. Q. — What would you do with the balance of wages of a deceased seaman, and the proceeds of the sale (if any) ol his property ? A.— Deliver thorn to the shipping muster. o M TUT W1 42 Chartci'hti/. Q.— On your anivul home, what is to bo done with the official lo^' book? A. — It must be handed over to the shipping master within twenty- four hours after arrival. Note.— Tlio iini)ortiince of kiv'pinii' tliiji book properly, unci duly makiii!; nil entries at the pn)i)er time, witli the strictest rey;iu'd to" form, eaimot be' too Btrongly impressed on ship masters. By ne.slceting to do so, they Hul)jcct them- selves to lieavy iteuaities, and their owners to loss and inconvenience. No fine or forfeiture can be deducted, and no punishment inllieted for any ollenee, unless the entries are properly made and attested. CHARTERING. When about to charter a vessel, there are several points which it is necessary to ascertain : for instance — if the port or porta to which the ship is to be sent ai-e safe ; If the expenses are moderate ; if the season of the year for going or returning be favorable; what are the customs of the port; whether the goods are to be shipped by measurement or weight ; and what articles arc objectionable. Specify the quantity of dead weight, and light freight, which the vessel is to receive on board; and stipulate to have the vessel loaded according to Lloyds' regulations — three inches of side for every foot immersed. If the vessel is to be loaded at a port where light freight may run more than 50 cubic feet to a ton, endeavor to obtain a compensating rate of freight on the particular goods. Any intelligent shipmaster who has been to the port before, will be able from his experience to give the requisite information in these matters. Such is the uncertainty, however, attending all mundane operations, that even after the most careful inquiries have been made, and every precaution hps been supposed to be taken, some hitch may be discovered that was never contemplated ; and shipowners too frequently blame their captains for an accidental oversight such as they are themselves every day committing. How many hundreds of vessels, for example, are chartered in England for the East Indies, without the provision of saving clauses for objectionable goods ? When the vessel arrives home, and her cargo is discharged, the owner, probably, has little reckoned that he has been giving 70 cubic feet to the ton ; he feels surprised that his ship should not have carried more cargo, imagines there is some blame attaching to the captain, perhaps picks a quarrel with him about any trifle, and dis- charges him. More caution in the first instance,, and a little reflection and consideration, would obviate any such disagreeable incidents. n A^Uus^tmciit of the Scvtant. SEXTANT. 43 The Sextant is a sector of a circle made of metal. The upper face is called the phiJie of the iitstntnifiit, and tlie circular part the limb or arc. This arc has let into it a slip of white metal, usually silver or platina, which is divided into degrees and parts of dej^rces. Full Sextants are divided to every 10 minutes, that is, every de- gree is sub-divided into six parts ; half Sextants, to 15 minutes, that is, the degree is divided into four parts ; and Quadrants to 20 minutes, or the degree is sub-divided into three parts. The frame of the instrument carries on its face two glasses; one fixed, called the horizon ghiss, because it is through it we look at the liorizon when taking an altitude; the other, called the inchj; glass, is attached by means of a Hat brass rod to the Vernier, and is made to revolve with it to the extent of the arc. This Vernier, or as some prefer to call it. Nonius (both names being after dilferent men who claim to have invented it), is a contri- vance for subdividing small portions of arc into much more minute ones ; thus, in a Sextant divided to 10' or 15', we can, by the Vernier, read to 10 seconds or 15 seconds, as the case may be. The Vernier is divided from right to left, exactly as the arc is, and is fitted with two screws ; one underneath to fasten it with, called the damp scrcic ; and the other at its end, forming a tangent to the arc, and hence called a tangent scrcic, is used for moving the Vernier after it is clamped. On tlie right hand side of the Sextant face, and opposite to the liori/.ou ghis;5, is fitted a ring juade double, the two parts being brought together by means of two screws in tho front of the ring. This is for holding the Telescope. It can be raised or lowered by a screw underneath, so that the centre of the Telescope shall agree with the line between the silvered and unsilvered parts of the horizon- glass. The Sextant, when in perfect order, should have its index and ho- rizon glasses perpendicular to the plane of the instrument. These glasses also should be parallel to each other when the instrument is clamped at ; and the inverting Telescope should have its axis pa- rallel to the plane of the instrument. N'^OTE. — In these tlirec Ailjiistnients, the .sun, a plar, or any distuut object, will doiis well as the horizon. y; ADJUSTJMENT OF TIFE SEXTANT, Tht.e arc four adjustments to the Sextant' The First Adjustment is: To set the ^k/c.^ yZas-s perpendicular to the plane of the instrument. To do it, place the index to about the 44 AdjustmcM of the kSextroit. middle of the arc, and holding the instrument horizontally, look ob- liquely into the index glass, and see if the true and reflected portions of the arc form one continuous arc ; if they do, the index glass is perpendicular to the plane of the instrument ; but if they do not, it must be made perpendicular by the screws at the back of the glass. The Second Adjustment is: To set the horizon fflass perpendicular to the plane of the instrument. To do it, set the index to O, and hold- ing the instrument horizontally, look through the horizon glass to the horizon, and see if the true and reflected portions of the horizon arc in one straight line ; if they are, then the horizon glass is perpen- dicular to the plane of the instrument ; but if they are not in the same straight line, the horizon glass must be made perpendicular by a screw at the back of the glass. The Third Adjustment is : To set the horizon gkm parallel to the index glass when the index is at O. To do it, set the index at O, and holding the instrument vertically, look through the horizon glass to the horizon, and see if the true and reflected portions of the horizon are in one straight line ; it they are, then the horizon glass is parallel to the index glass ; but if they are not in the same straight line, the v^'^rizon glass is made parallel to the index glass by a screw at the back of the glass. Note. — Many instruments arc made without this screw ; in such a case the INDEX ERKOii must bc fountl. TO FIND THE INDEX EIlllOR BY THE HORIZON. Hold the instrument vertically and look at the horizon ; if the true and reflected portions of the horizon are not in the same straight line, move the tangent screw until they arc. The reading on or oil" the arc is the index error. To be added if the reading is o^\ but suhstracted if on. TO FIND THE INDEX ERROR BY THE SUN. Place the index to about thirty miles on the arc, and holding the instrument vertically look at the sun. On doing so, two suns will be seen. Bring them edge to edge, one above the other, by the tangent screw, read ott', and mark it down. Put the index to about thirty miles off the arc, and bring the suns into contact again, and note the reading. Subtract the less from the greater, and divide the remainder by two, and the result is the index error. It must be added to altitudes &c., taken by the instrument when the greater reading is oflF the arc, but subtracted when the greater reading is on the arc. If both the readings are on or both off, half the sum instead of half the difference, is the error. To prove the accuracy of the observa- tions, when one reading is on and the other oft' add them together, and divide the sum by 4 (four), the result should be the sun's semi- diameter, within a few seconds for the given day in the nautical al- MercatOT's (liart (dhI ita vsc. 45 manac ; but should both readings be on or both off, one fourth their difference will be the semi-diameter. If it docs not corres])ond, the observations must have been inaccurately made, and will have to bo repeated, KXAMl'LK. (Ist.) To find the Index Error. (2d.) 1st Rending 32' 10" on. | 2d do. 31' 10" off. \ '■ Divide b}' 2)1' oO" ;ubt. 1st Reading 5' 10" on. } 2d Reading 08' 3i)" ou. Divide by 2)73 4()" - add. Index error subt. 0' 30 ' because Inde.x error subt. 36' 5u" because both greater leading is on the arc. readings are on. ■ (3d.) 1st Reading S2' 10" off. > , . 2d Reading 31' lo" on. \ ^""^• Divide by 2)1' 00" Index error add. 0' 30 ' because greater reading is off arc. (1st proof.) To prove the contacts. (2d proof.) 1st Reading 32 lo" ) ^,,_ 1st Reading 6' lo" | 2d do. 31' 10 ' f Divide by 4)i)3' 20" Sun's semi-diam. 15' GO" sum. 2d do. 6S' 30" f Divide by 4)63' 20" Sun's semi-diam. 15' 50" (3d proof) difference. 1st Reading 3i' 10" 2d do. 31' 10" Divide by 4)6^20^ }' sum. Pun's semi-diameter, 15' 50" The FounTii Aimtstment is : To set the axis of the telescoi^e parallel to the plane of the instrument; to do it, screw in the inverting te- lescope, turn the sliding piece until two of the wires in it are parallel to the plane of the instrument. Then measure the angular distance between two stars, not less than 90 degrees apart, bring them into contact on one of the wires just mentioned, then by slightly raising or lowering the instrument, the star will appear on the other wire. If they are in contact on that wire as on the first, then the axis of the telescope is parallel to the plane of the instrument ; if not, it is to be made adjust by the screws in the collar or socket holding the telescope. MERCATOR'S CHART AND ITS USE. To find the latitude and longitude in. TO FIND THE LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF ANY PLACE. To find the latitude — Insert one leg of the compasses in the spot where the ship is, and the other leg on the nearest parallel of latitude, which, carried to the margin of the chart and read from the least pa- rallel, will give the latitude of the ship. To find the longitude — In- sert one leg of the compasses in the spot where the ship is, and the 40 Mi'i'<)ator\'i Chart and its use. I'M other leg on tliu nearest mcrulian, which, carriod to thelongitude side of the chart, and read from least meridian, will give the longitude in. TO ESTABLISH THE SHIP'S POSITION LV A GIVE.V LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. Place one leg of your compasses on the given degree of latitude, and tiic other on the miles, then take your parallel rulers, and place them on the given degree of latitude, and move them back until they are parallel with the miles, where they are to remain. Next take your compasses, aud place one leg on the given degree of lon- gitude and the other on the miles, thon cairy them on the same meridian up to the parallel rulers, and the spot where the leg of the compasses touch, is the ship's position. TO FIND THE COURSE AND DISTANCE BliTWEEN TWO PLACES. To find the distance — Lay your parallel rulers so that the edge will just touch both places, then take your compasses, and measuring — say twenty or thirty miles on the latitude side of your chart — (and us nearly on a line with the two places as possible), then see, by repeat- ing the number of times this distance will go between the two places, which summed, will give the distance required. To find the course — Slide the parallel rulers back to the nearest compass, will give the course magnetic. If the compass be magnetic, but true. If the com- pass be true, which may readily be made magnetic, or compass course to steer, by applying the variation the reverse way, viz: — easterly to port, and westerly to starboard. TO FIND THE SHIP'S POSITION BY CROSS-BEARINGS. Place your parallel rulers on the bearing by compass of the first object, slide them up to that object aud draw out a line ; next place the rulers on the bearing of second object, slide them up to this object, from which draw a line now where the two lines intersect, is the exact position of ship. TO FIND THE SHIP'S POSITION BY TWO BEARINGS OF ONE OBJECT. Lay your parallel rulers on the first bearing of the object, to which slide them up aud draw out a line ; next lay your parallels on the second bearing by compass, slide them up to the object, aud draw out another line, then take the course tlie vessel has steered, and the distance sailed during the interval, upon both these lines, and where the legs of the compasses touch, is the distance from the object at both first and second bearings. TO FIND THE COURSE YOU WOULD REQUIRE TO STEER IN A CURRENT. First, establish the ship's position by cross-bearings or otherwise; from which place draw a small line in the direction the ship is going ■I. ■ Jlvirator^s Chart HUCH. ; wliite '20 sees. Manicoiiagiui Siioal, Ligliti2 vessel, Father Point, |l I{ic(iuette Island, ! 1 Fixed, Fixed, Fixed, llov., 2 minutes. Rod Island Reef, Light vessel! 1 Fixed,. Red Islet, . . . Green Island. Brandy Pots, Pilgrims, , Kamouraska, St. Roque Shoal, Light vecscl. Lower Traver.sp, Light vessel 2 Fixed, . . Fixed,. Fixed, , Fixed, . Fixed, , Fixed, , Fixed, . Upper Traverse, Light vessel 2 Fixed, Stone Pillar, Crane Island, Belle Chasse, Point St. Lawrence, Monte du Lac, .... Rt. Antoine, St. Croix, Port Neuf, 1 Rev., \\ minutes 1 Fixed, 1 Fixed, 1 J'ixed, 1 Fixed, 1 Fixed, 1 Fixed, 2 Fi.xed, Interval of 30 seconds between cai'li Flash. \ gun every half hour in fog or snow. On dilferent Masts ; Steam Whistle in fog or snow. A gun every half hour in fog or snow. Moored in 10 fatlioma. A Steam Whistle; blast 10 seconds in every mmutc. (Jim every hour during fog or snow. On separate masts. Bell in fog or snow. If the light vessel should be out of position the light on the foremast only will be exhibited, and du- ring the day the ball on the foremast will be taken down. Main light 4 feet higher than the other. ^Vhen the Light ship is out of place, the ball at the mainmast head is taken down during the day, and she exhibits one light instead of two during the night. A bell tolls during fog or snow. Main Light 8 feet higher than the other. Ifthe vessel should bo out of place, the light on the foremast only will be ex- hibited, and during the day the ball on the foremast head will be taken dnwn. A bell tolled during fog or snow. Three lights in one lead up Richelieu Channel to the light on Richelieu Island. A ib wr 54 Management of S/u'jis ut Singb: Awhor, MANACIKMKNT OF SHIPS AT SINGLE ANCIIOII. No. 1 is at anclior, hciiil to wind and tide ; in line wentlier notiiiiiff is roquircd !)Ut to j^ivc her n Hliglit slioor to kcc[i licr stoivdy. It is wlien slie takes the phice of No. 2 tlmt tlic iiUHfliicf l)egin«, Tiio prime object is to ^<'<7> the cable taut^ tlmt hlio may not tumble over her anchor. Orders should bo given to call tlio ofllcor when she " tends tide" or begins to cant, the yards being S(iuare will bo laying aback, then lioist the staysail, liauling the weather staysail sheet al't. When she has brought the wind abaft the beam, and the yards arc full, let draw the staysail sheet and steer her taut a-hcad of her anchor and cant the afteryards forward ; when the wind comes aft and the anchor astern, or a little on the starboard quartei , haul down the staysail, and brace the head yards bye, and drawing her to, put the helm hard, a star- hoard ; she will then be No. 2, riding "weather tide," the wind a little on the port quarter, and the anchor on the starboard quarter. No. 2 swings " lee tide" to resume the position of No. 1. When the tide begins to break she may get unsteady, the staysail should be hoisted, letting draw the sheet, and it may be necessary to steer her, but generally she will fall gradually round as the tide turns, and the staysail is Iiauled down. When she comes head to wind, give her a small sheer, and cither S(iuare the yards or leave them, according to the weather, and not the look of the thing. No. 3 has anchored with the ind blowing across the tide, and a shoal on her starboard side. The rule is, when the wind is he/ore the heam, the ship lays to leeward of her anchor; and when it is ahaft the learn, she lays to windward of her anchor — see Nos. 3 and 4. But in the case of No, 3 the wind is abeam, and it is doubtful which way she ought to be laid ; however, as there is a danger near, she is according to another rule sheered towards the danger, that if she breaks her sheer she may go from it. In this case the helm is put up, the yards braced aback, and the staysail set with the weather sheet hauled aft — see No. 3. The wind veering a little, and coming abaft the beam No. 3, " breaks her sheer,''"' and she nuiy foul another ship, or run away with her anchor and go on the shoal, or p her cable. The same things may occur with No. 1, when she assuming the position of No. 2, if she is not attended to. No. ^ haying " broke her sheer," hoist the staysail, _fill all the yards, and steer her ahead of her anchor; and when you have got it astern; brace forward the after yards, haul down the staysail, brace the head yards, and, drawing her to, put the helm a-starboard — see No, 4. No, 5 is supposed to be wind-rode, bloAviug heavy, her yards pointed to the wind, and the helm a little a-starboard. In tliis case ia ho XT icn )lic aw tho !rn, uco ar- 1 a hen lUlcl ;eer and ;ivo liner id a the the in is I she Iput Ihcr Ihcr ma 3rn> lead Irds ase IM I ■•"^vx.. Vctailed Ex2jlanatlon of getting under Way, t&c. 55 it is blowing too much to allow her to come near her anchor on either tide, but she may tail roimd with the tide, and bringing the wind on her side, may require all the yards pointed to the wind to case her ; she is then the reverse of No. 3. DETAILED EXPLAXATIOX OF WAY, &c. GETTING UNDER Unmoou. — Pay out on your riding cable, heaving in the slack of the other. ^Yllcn the oilier is short, trip it, cat and fish, and heave in on your riding cable. Instead of this method, the anchor which you are not riding by may be weighed, if it is a small one, by the long-boat. Send the long-boat out over the anchor, take aboard th(! buoy-rope, carrying it over the roller in the boat's stern, or through the end of a davit, clap the w.atch-tackle to it, and weigh it out of the ground. This done, and the buoy-rope and tackle secured to the bout, heave in on the chain on board, which will bring the anchor alongside, the boat approaching at the same time. When under the bow, cast off the fasts to the boat, heave up the anchor, cat and fish. Getting undeu Way from a Sixcilk Anchor.— It is the duty of the chief mate to see all ready forward for getting under way ; the rigging fair for making sail, the cat and fish tackles rove, and the fish-davit at hand. Heave sliort on your chain and pawl the windlass. Loose all the sails, if the wind is light, and sheet home and hoist up topsails, topgallant sails and royals. If there is a stifi" bieeze, set topsails alone, whole or reefed. You should always, if it will answer, cast on the opposite side from your anchor ; that is, if you are riding by your starboard anchor, cast to i)ort. Brace your head-yards aback and your after-yards full for the tack you mean to cast ujion. The sails being set, man the windlass again, give her a sheer with the helm, and trip your anchor. The mate reports when it is away. As soon as it is away, hoist the jib. The fore-topsail aback will pay her head off. Put the helm for stern-board. When her head is off enough, till away the head yards and haul out the spanker, shifting the helm for headway. Trim the yards for your course, and make sail on her. If the Avind is light and the sea smooth, you may cat and fish your anchor after you get under way ; but it is best in a rough sea to keep the vessel hovc-to until the anchor is catted and fished. To Cat and Fish an Anciiou. — When the anchor is lifted and brought under foot, pawl the windlass, keeping a good hold on the chain. Overhaul down the cat-block and hook it to the ring oi the anchor. Stretch along the catfall and let all hands tally on. Set taut on tlic cat-tuckle ami pay out a little chain. Hoist away the anchor to the cathead, and belay the fall. Pass the cat-stopper H' I'l '}' .; n 66 Detailed £Jxplanation of (letting under Way ^ cfct*. through the ring of the anchor, through the chock, belay it to the cat-tail, and seize it to its own part. Overhaul down the fish-tackle, hook the lower block to the pennant, and hook the fish-hook to the inner fluke of the anchor, llig out your fish-davit across the fore- castle, and put the bight of the pennant into the sheave-hole. Get a guy over it, near the outer end, to keep it down, and another at the inner end to keep it out. Get the shoe over the side, to fend off the bill of the anchor. Hoist the fluke well up, pass the shank painter under the inner arm and shank, bring it inboard, and belay and stop it to the timber-heads. Rig in the davit, unreeve tlie cat-fall and fish-tackle. A vessel may sometimes be got under way to advantage with the jib and spanker ; particularly if the wind is blowing directly out of the harbour. Heave the anchor up at once. When it has broken ground, hoist the jib, and, as she pays off, haul out the spanker. Keep her under this sail until the anchor is catted and fished, then make sail and stand out. To Get Undek Way, with a Wikd Blowing Directly out, and Riding Head to it. — Suppose the ship to have her starboard anchor down. Heave short and clear away the jib, and put the helm to port. Heave again until the anchor is up to the bows. Cat and fish_ When the anchor is a-weigh, hoist the jib. Let her pay off under the jib. When she gathers head-way, shift the helm, and let fall the sails. When she gets before, sheet home and hoist the topsails, set the foresail, and haul down the jib. Make sail aloft. To Get Under Way, Riding Head to the Wind, w^tii a Rock or SnoAL Close Astern. — Suppose you wish to cast the ship on Lhu starboard tack. Heave in a safe scope on the chain, and run out a kedge with a hawser from the starboard bow. Cast off the yard arm gaskets and masthead the topsails, keeping the bunts fast. Heave taut on the hawser, and brace the yards up for the starboard tack, fore and aft, hauling the jib sheet to windward. Heave up the anchor, taking in the slack of the hawser, cat it, pass the stopper and have all ready for letting go. Haul ahead on the hawser, and as soon as the kedge is short apeak, or comes home, sheet home the topsails, run up the jib, and put the helm a-starboard. As soon as the jib tills, run the kedge up and take it in. When the topsails take and she gathers headway, draw the jib. set the spanker, board tore and main tacks, haul aft sheets and right the helm. If she falls off too rapidly when the topsails take, give her the spanker and mainsail, casing off the jib sheet. When she comes to, haul aft the jib sheet and board the fore tack. If, when the kedge is a-weigh, she fall oft' on the wrong side, let go the anchor. To Get Under Way, Riding Head to Wind and Tide, and to ■*^'^ Detailed Mv,pkinatio7i of (letting xuulerWay^ c5c. 57 Stand out Close-hauled. — Suppose you wish to cast to port. Heave short, keeping the helm a-starboard. Set the topsails. Brace up the afteryards for the starboard tack, and back the liead yards. Man the windlass and heave up the anchor. When the anchor is a-weigh, hoist the jib. 'When she has paid oif sufBciently, fill away the headyards, shift the helm for headway, set the spanker, and make sail. Cat and fish, either before or after filling away. If you have no room to cast on either side, but have a vessel on each quarter, heave short, set the topsails, jib, and spanker, brace all the yards half up for the starboard tack, weigh the anchor and put the helm to port. The tide acting on the rudder will sheer her head to starboard. When the sails take aback and give her sternway, the rudder and aftersails will act against the head sails, and she will drift fairly down between the two vessels. Keep her oflF or to, by the spanker and jib. When you are clear, cast to port, or, haul up the spanker, shiver the after yards, and let her go off before it. To Get Under Way Wind-kope, with a Weather Tide ; that is, a tide setting to windward. — Suppose you wish to cast to port. Heave short, loose the sails, and set th„ topsails. Square the after yards, and haul in the starboard head braces. Heave again, and when you are a-weigh, put the helm to port and hoist the jib. When she has paid off enough, fill away the head yards, and shift the helm for headway. To Get Under Way, Tida-rode, Casting to Windward. — Sup- pose the wind to be a little on the starboard bow, and you wish to cast to starboard, standing out on the port tack. Having hove short and set the topsails, brace up the afteryards for the port tack, and brace the headyards aback. Weigh the anchor, keeping your helm to port, and hauling the spanker boom well over to star- board. When she comes head to the wind, hoist the jib with tJie sheet to port. Shift the helm for sternway. As she falls off, draw the jib, fill the head yards, and shift the helm for headway. To Get Under Way, Tide-rode, Wearing Round. — Suppose you have the wind on your starboard (juaiter, and are obliged to wear her round and stand out on the port tack. Set the topsails. Square the head yards, and shiver the after yards. When the anchor is a-weigh, put the helm hard a-starboard, oth green and red lights are seen anywhere but ahead. 3S in ts of mi' ship mses the rcen or a recn \. i fl /-vw PLATE. Jl. \\ I'hJ 7h3 ih/j. })it5 V'Sfi 68 tnut ixirries them. <'''S- 1.) ""«">• "Pl>"silo t„ |,cr „„.„ ^ J If A sees a Win e Ma ? ?'"' ^"''^'^"°° ^^ Port, as inn ^ ' °' tjat t.e vessel is 'a^ "1:^':^^ f ?ve the n.a il^]^,,, the same direetion as fi or is c" ^' '^''^'^^ ^PProaehing ] ° r L as DDD. ^^ ^« ^-ssing to Port i. some dhJio^ 1;^ Wn^N THE OKKEN AKD XOT THE n.n A sees a Green LiW,^ , r "''"^ ^« ««e^- ^ t\^ a -ei is ^^zz r iiryr^ ^-- ^^^^t eit... vFiff. 5), a vessel is crossing in to2 aL ^"'"'"^ '^°^. «« B or If A sees a White Mast head t '^'^ ^' Starboard, as DDn knows that the vessel 1 1!/ "'''^ "^'^^^ "^^^ Greon J L?. / 'Iirectzon as DDD. ^' '^ "'"^^^'"^^ ^<' ^tarbo«rd in s.'.u 1:1 «il IliK Hide of the liioml at /SVa. TIIK RULE OF THE UOAD AT SEA, AIDS TO MEMORY. BY THOMAS GRAY, fkct'ftnrii of the Board of Tnulc, ImhIoti. lit. Two Steam ShipH mectmj. When both side lights you sec alicad, Port your liehn and show your TUd. 2n(Z. TiDO Steam Ships passiiiff. Oreen to Orcen^ or lied to Red, Perfect safety — go ahead ! 'ird. Two Steam Ships erossiruj. Note. — This is tlic position of greatest danger ; tlicre is notliing for it but a good look-out, caution, and Judgment. If to your Starboard Red apjiear, It is your duty to keep clear ; To act as judgment says, is proper, To Port, or Starboard, Back, or Stop her ! But when upon your Port is seen — A Steamer's Starhoard light of Green ; There's not so much for you to do, For Orcen to Port, keeps clear of you, A^th. All ships must keep a good hoh-out, and Steam Shtps must stop and go astern, if necessary. Both in safety and in doubt, Always keep a good look-out ; In danger, with no room to turn — Ease her ! stop her ! go astern I ■■?!:' X'.' llaula of Ju'aiiiiimtiun. HEADS OF EXAMINATION 66 In lief/uldtions rctfpcctinr/ Li(/hts (ind JAuj Sir/nals, and in the iStcerinf/ luid Sdilijig Hides, 1. — What light or lights arc rc(|uiro(l by the regulations to bo c.v- Iiibitcd by sailing vessels at anchor in a roadstead or fairway ? A. — One light only, viz., a white light. 3. — What light or lights are required by the regulations to be cx- liibited by steam ships in a roadstead or I'airway at auchor. A. — The same as tor sailing vessels. !{. — Where is the anchor light to be exhibited 'i A. — Wlnsre it can best bo seen. It must of course be placed whore there is the least possible chance of obstruction from spars, ropes, ite. ifec. 4. — To what height may the anchor light bo hoisted ? A.— It may bo exhibited at a height of 20 feet above the deck, but not higher. 5. — What is the description of the lantern containing tho anchor light required by the regulations ? A. — Globular. 0. — In what direction or directions must the anchor light show ? A. — It must show a clear, uniform, and unbroken light, visible all round the horizon. 7. — At what distance must it be visible ? A. — At least one mile. 8. — What is the number of lights required by the regulations, to be earned by sailing ships when under weigh at night, A.— Two. 9. — Of what colour are these lights, and how are they to be placed on board the ship ? A. — A green light on the starboard aide, and a red light on the port side. 10. — What description of light must be shown from the sides of sailing vessels under weigh ; and over how many points of the com- pass, and in what directions, and how far, are they required to show ? A. — Each light must be so constructed as to sh. :ui uniform and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 10 points of the com- pass ; so fixed as to throw the light from right ahead to two j)ointa abaft the beam on the starboard and port sides respectively ; and of such a character as to be visible on a dark night, with a clear atmos- phere, at a distance of at least two miles. 11. -What light .ue tlicy to carry when being towed at night ? A.— Tho saiiic. K 66 Heads of Exiun'mathm. \M\ I 12, — Are the side lights required to be fitted with screens ; and if 80, on what side, and of what length, and how ? A. — Yes, on the inboard side : at least three feet in length, mea- suring fonvard from the light. Tiicy are to be so fitted as to prevent the colored lights from being seen across the bows. 13. — What is the number of lights required by the regulations to be Carrie^ by steam ships when under steam at night ? A.— Three lights, 14. — Ofwha' colour are these lights, and how are they to be placed on board the ship ? A. — White at the fore mast head, green on the starlx>ard side, and red on the port side. 15. — Over how many ix)intsof the compass, in what direction, and how far, is the foremast head light of a steamer required to show ? A. — Over 20 points, viz., from right ahead to two points abaft the beam on both sides. It must be of such a character as to be visible on a dark night, with a clear atmosphere at a distance of at least five miles. 16. — Ar< they required to be fitted with screens; and if so, on •which side, and of what length ? A. — The green and red lights are to ])e fitted w.th screens on the inboard side, extending at least three feet forward from the light, as la the case of sailing vessels. 17. — Over how many points of the compass, in what direction, and howfar, are the colored side liglits of 3tean»ers required to show ? A. — Each light must be so constructed as to show an imitorm and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 10 points of the compass 80 fixed as to throw the light from right ahead to two j)oint3 abaft the beam on the starboard and port sides respectively, and of such a character as to be visible on a dark night with a cle^r atmosphere at & distance of at least two miles. 18. — What description of lights arc steamers required by the regula- tions to carry v. hen they are not under steam, but under sail only ? A. — Side lights only, the same ps sailing vessels. 19. — What exceptional lights are to be carried by small sailing vestels in certain cases ? A. — Whenever, as in the case of small vessels during Ixil weather, the green and red lights cannot be fixed, these lights shall be kept on deck, on their respective sides of the vessel, ready for instant exhi- bition, and shall, on the approach of or to other vessels, be exhibited on their respective sides in sufficient time to prevent collision, in such manner as to make them most visible, and so that the green light Bball not be aeen on the port side, nor the red light on the star- board ijide. Ih'dds of J'.'j'(ii/it'/i(ition. G7 )n ni- kl [h it |v- To luake the use of thost^ portable lights more certain and easy, the lutiterns coutainiiig them sliull ouch be painted outside with the colour ot the light they respectively contain, and shall be provided with suitable screens. 21. — What description of light are .billing pilot vessels required to carry { A. — Sailing pilot vessels are not to carry coloured side lights, but a white light like an anchor ligiit, and to Inini a flare up every 15 uiinutes. 22. — Wiiat lights arc open boats and fisiiing boats roiiuired to carry ? A. — Open fishing boats and other open boals shall not be recjuired to carry the side lights re(]uired for other vessels; but shall, if they do not carry such lights, carry a lantern having a green slide on the one side, and a red slide on the other side ; and on the approach of o*- to other vessels, such lantern shall be exhibited in sufficient timo to prevent collision, so that the green light shall not be seen on the port side, nor the red light on the starboard side. Fishing vessels and open boats when at anchor, or attached to their nets and stationary, shall exhibit a bright white light. 23.— May open boats use a i\hrc up ? A. — Yes, if considered expedient. 24. — Is the flare up to be shown by open boats instead of or in addition to the lantern with the colored slides? A. — Tlie flare up must be in addition to the lantern with the two colon.'d slides. 25. — What lights are steamships required to carry when towing otiier ships? A.— Steam ships, when '.owing otiier ships, shall carry two bright white mai^t-head lights vertically, in addition to their side lights, so as to distinguish them from other steam ships. Each of these mast- head lights shall De of the same construction and character as the mast-iiead lights which other steam ships are required to carry. 20.— Are sailing vessels required to use any signals when at anchor, or when sailing in thick weather, or in a fog; anil if so, what are they '{ A. — Yes; a fog horn and a bell. 27. — When is each sort of signal to be used ^ A. — The fog horn is to be sounded when under weigh in a fog, and the bell when in a fog, and not under weigh. 28. — How often are the fog signals of sailing vessels to be sounded ? A. — As often as necessary, but every five minutes at least. 29. — Are steam ships required to use any signals in a fog or in thick weather; and if so, what are they ? A. — Yes; a steam whistle and a bull. 30. — "When is each signal to be used ? :l 08 J/(',ili7s of J'li'dliillKltlnii. A. — The steam whistle to be sounded when under woigli, luid tlx' hell when not under weigh. 31, — IIow often are the fog signals of steamers to be sounded ? A. — As often as necessary ; but every live minutes at least. 33. — At what height above the deck is the steam whistle to be placed ; and where ? A. — Not less than eight feet above the deck. Before the funnel. 33. — What other precaution is to be observed by steamers when steaming in a fog ? A. — Tiie regulations require the steam ships in a fog sluiU go at a moderate speed. 34. — Wiiat jirecaution is to be taken by steamers a]iproaching anotlier vessel ? A. — If there is risk of collision, the steamer is to slacken speed, or if necessary stop and reverse. 35. — If you see a white light alone, what does it denote as regards the ship carrying it? A. — It denotes the presence of a vessel at anchor, or a pilot vessel, or a fishing vessel attached to her nets ; or it may be the forenuist- head light of a vessel, under steam, with her side lights not uithin sight on account of distance, fog, ».tc. 36, — If you see a green -or red light without a white light, or both a green and a red lij^'ht without a wliite light, is the vessel carrying the light or lights seen, a vessel under steam or a •cssel under sail i A, — A vessel under sail. 37. — IIov,' do you know ? A. — Because there is no white liglit at the foremast head. 38. — If you see a white light over a colored light, is the vessel a vessel under sail, or a vessel under steam ? A vessel under steam. The mast-head light denotes that the vessel is under steam. [The Examiner will tlu'Ti take oiiu model of a m'ssi-I, wliicli lir will place on the table, and eall it A. He will tlieii take the mast or stand with a whiU' ami a red ball on it, and place It at the other .-iid of the table, and call it B.] [The Examiner i^liould l)e careful that tiie model of one vessel only is used when the (pie. lions numbered ?,> to 41) ;ire asked.] 30. — A is a steamer going nortli, seeing a white light and a red light ahead at IJ. Are A and the vessels showing the two lights iJ meeting end on or nearly end on, or is B ])assing A, or is B crossing the path of A, and in what direction ; and how do you know <• A.— Passing to port, because if I see a red light ahead, I know that the head of the vessel carrying that red light juust be pointing away in some direction to my own port or left hand. The ship showirg the red light has her port or left side more or less open to A. 40. — If A is going north, within what })oints of the compass must the vos&el B showing the white and red lights be steering ? JItffih of' Kiunii'iiififtoH. no :1 a the (111 luiul Led hcnl k)\v list A. — P) must be pjoiiig from a iiltle W. of S. to ^V. N. W. 41. — How do YC/Li know this ] A. — Because, tliu sciet'iis being projjerly fitted, I could not see tlic rod light of B at all, with tl'.e vossers head in any other direction. 4C.— Is the steamer A to starboard, or to port, or to keep on ? A. — To do neither suddenly, but, if anything, to port a little. 4:?.— Why ? A.— To bring the red light o<' A to the red light of the stranger B. [Till- Examiner should then explai 1 thiU if tlic steiinu-r A starboiirds, slic will run acros.-. the path of the vef;i>e' earryuiu' the lights 15, bceuuse tlie, ves^i'l f-iMnvin;;- the, red lisilit must Ite passin;: to jioft.] i'llic Kxiuiiiuer j-liould now substitute the mast with the Whitehall and <:reen hall fr,r the nuist with the Whitehall and red ha';!. One ship only in still to he used. | 44. — -^ is a steamer going north, and seeing a white and green light :diead. Are A and B meeting, or in B passing A, or is B crossing the course of A, and in what direction ; and how do you know i A. — B is passing to starboard of A, because if I see a green light «.' ad, I know that the liead of the vessels carrying that green light J...- 'c pointing away in some direction to my starboard or right h:!iu The shi]> showing the green light has her right or starboard aide more or less open to me. 45. — As A is going north, within what points of the compass must the vc««cl showing the white and green lights bo steering ? A. — B must be going from a little I'], of 8outh to E. N. E. 46. — How do you know ? A. — Because, the screens being pro])erIy litted, I cannot see the green light at all with the vessel's head in any other direction. 47. — Is the stennier A to starboard, or to port ? A. — To do neither suddenly, but, if necessary, to starboard, 48.— And why i A. — To show her green light to the stranger's green light. There can be no danger of collision when the green of one vessel is opposed to the green light of another. 40. — What would be the r(\sult if you ported to a green light ahead ? A.— I should prolvibly run right across the path of the vessel carrying the green light. [The Examiner should then explain that A must not port, because as lh<' vessel show in;^ the ^\■hile and screen lights B, niust ln' jiassing to starlajard, A Wi)uld run across th.e path of L> by porliiiL;;. | [The Exaiuiner sliould mw place the models of two steamer* 'X the table mcetiui? end on. One he should cull A, and the other H.] 50. — If a steamer A sees the three lights of anotl>er steamer B ahead or nearly ahead, arc the two steamers meeting, passing, or crossing ? A. — Meeting end on, or nearly end on. «» 11 7.0 Jli'inh of KxinhhhitUm. ol. — Do tlic regulations expressly require the liclm of a ship to bo put to port in any case ; and if so, when < A. — Yes ; in the case of two steamers or two sailing vessels meeting end on, or nearly end on. 53. — Do they expressly require the helm of a ship to be put to port in any other case; and if so, what other? A. — No. The use of the port helm is not in any other case ex- pressly required by the regulations. [Tlie Exiiniiner should then exj)lain thut the only case in which port-helm is luuntioiiud in tliu rcjj;ulalioTis, is in Article 11 and Hi, for two sliips meeting end on.] 53. —If you port to a green light ahead, or anywhere on your star- board bow, and if you get into collision by doing so, do you consider that the r ^ulations arc in fault ? A. — Xo ; because the regulations do not expressly require me to port in such a case, and because by porting I know that I should probably and almost certainly run across the other vessel's path, or run into her. J The Examiner should see tlic candidate put the models in the positions icat ;d by the questions 54 and followhii;.] 54.- If a steamer A sees another steamer's red light B on her own starboard side, are the steamers meeting, passing, or crossing ; and how do you know ? A. — Crossing; because the red light of one is opposed to the green light of the other ; and whenever a green light is opposed to a red light, or a red light to a green light, the ships carrying the lights are crossing ships. 55. — Is A to stand on ; and if not, why not \ A. — A has the other vessel B on her own starboard side. A knows she is crossing the course of B, because she sees the red light of B on her (A's.) starboard side. A also knows she must get out of the way of B, because Article 14 expressly requires that the steamer that has the other on her own starboard side, shall keep out of the way of the other. 56. — Is A to starboard or to port in such a case ? A. — A must do Avhat is right, so as to get herself out of the way of B ; she must starboard if nece?safy, or port if necessary; and she must sto[) and reverse if necessary. 57. — If A gets into collision by porting, wid it be because she is acting on any rule ? A. — No; the rule does not reortant Signals. Three Flags together denote Signals relating to general topics of information and inquiry. Four Flags together denote Geographical and Vocahitlarg Signals, and Shijjs' Names. By the arrangement of tlie Flags — that is Burgee, Pennants, and Square Flags — a distinctive character is given to Signals, as explained at pages 78 and 79. All the Signals of Part I, of the Code are made in hoists either of Two Flags together, or Three Flags together, with tho exception of the Geographical Table. These Signals arc made in hoists of Four Flags together. An Alphahetical Index to tlie Geographic^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. H580 (716) 872-4503 •^, IB iJotmuerHal Cwlc of Sh/nah. COMMERCIAL CODE OF SIGNALS. Q.— How many flags docs the Coinmorcial Code of signals consist of ? A. — It consists of a •' Code Signal," or " Answering Pennant,*' and eighteen .lags— viz. : 1 Burgee, 4 Pennants, and 13 Square Flags. NoTR.— Tiie eighteen ^a^a rupruscnt the condunanta of IIk: ulplmbct from Q. — Desqribc the whole of the Flags 'i A.— Code Signal, ur Answering Pennant, is lied and White, in vertical stripes. B is the Burgee— a Red Flag with a swallow tail. C is the White Pennant, with a Red spot. D is the Blue Pennant, with a White spot. F is the Red Pennant, with a White spot. O is the Yellow and Blue Pennant — vertical. H (^"^'') is White and Red— vertical. J " is Blue, White and Blue — horizontal. K " is Yellow and Blue — vertical. L " is Blue and Yellow — four cheques. M " is Blue, with a white cross from corner to corner. N " is Blue and White — sixteen cheques. P " is the Blue Peter -Blue, with a White centre. Q " .a the Quarantine Flag — Yellow. R " is Red, with a Yellow cross from side to side. S " is White, with a Blue centre. T " is Red, White, and Blue— vertical, V " is White, with a Red cross from corner to corner. W " is Blue, W'lite, and Red — Outer border Blue, inner border White, and centre Red. Q. — You want to signal by the Commercial Code — what would you hoist up ? A. — The ensign with the Code Signal underneath. Q. — Is the Code Signal used for any other purpose ? A. — Yes ; it is also used for an answering Pennant. Q. — When used for this purpose, where is it to be hoisted ? A. — Where it can be best seen. Q. — What are the other One-Flag signals besides the Answering Pennant ? A.— •' Yes" and " No." Q.— What is " Yes ?" A.— The White Pennant (C.) Q.— What is " No ? ' A.— The Blue Pcunaut (D. ) PLATH J FLAGS or the: '''Commercial code of signals. ((universal s Elsies) .==:.^=.=.-_^.._-..^ 1 YffUfi . lived ct\ thf Cffff •Sl(//irlf'. f/nx f¥rvnfnit rs fo ff /itistfff under tfa "KflsiefHynhenancfht the ''Jfl'Wfnnfi/PcfmnHfl'frhcn Ir.tt seen . B n c P>.'\"X K / /I M N H AiJ-«r-V4*. Penmnt. «-■ «F; fj •7#-- pc UlU ■•feractiacd in the use of the Spelling Table, by being required to spell his own name, or some word not in the Vocabulary Code. When the candidate has satisfied the examiner that ho understands how to male Signals by the ordinary Flags and by the Distance Code, his ability to interpret Signals should be tested by the examiner • With this view the examiner should place a few of the various Flag Signals on the board. The candidate should at once bo able to tell the character of each Signal from the nature of the houts, and ho should afterwards be required to find the interpretation ot them in the Signal Book. His ability to interpret Signals made by the Distance Code, and by tbc Semaphores, should be tested in the same manner. All candidates must pass the above examination satisfactorily, but candidates for Masters' Certificates, should in addition, be able to answer the following questions : — 24. IIow can you tell the Quadrants of the Compass by any particular characteristic in the hoist ? (Anttcer.) — From N. to E. ^ N. the C Pennant is uppermost. From E. to S. i E. the D " " From S. to W. i S. the F " « From W. to N. i W. the G " '• 25. What is the meaning of a Two Flag Signal with a Pennant U)>permost and the Flag W below ? (Answer). — It is a Meteorological forecast. 20. What Flag in the Spelling Table is common to every syllabic ? (Answer). — The C (white) pennant uppermost. 27. IIow is the Commercial Code applied in making Boat Signals ? (Answer). — The Distance Signals are used. The symbols of Square Flags, Pennants, and Balls, can be made with handkerchiefs and hats. These Signals arc made from right to It/t. uud read from left to ri OannoidtBtinguiHhvoarFlaKS. Come nearer, or mnlte Distant Signals. XI* Ton may communicate by tl>o Sema- phore, if yon please. J. Stop, or bring to. Something impor- tant to eommuaioate. K« Have you any Tdegranu or dcs- pntohMforme? XJ. Want a Pilot Can I have one f M.* Want a Tag. Can I have one? PC. What is the MeU^orologieal Weather Forecast t lo audition to the above, the following IMstant Signals, composed of Turn- SymboU, have the special signiflcaUon indicated beneath. P. Calls attenUoD of Signal iUUen to sight. Q. Vessels asks fsr orders by T^*«gnph limn Owner, Mr. at . (.Sss «■, Fart I, and ItulnuiUomt n. Beport me by Telegraph to my Owner, Mr. — at . 18»$ Qif , Part 1, and TtutruaUoiu thittto.) ei. Send the firilowinf; message by Te- legraph, T» Sena the fellow inp raoswisc by the Siffnat Ml3r» tliroiiKli tlu: Te> Icgraph. V. "W. )iii nil itiiiniufwli Hiauffi- Fill , (I- l.nili W'liiil immnfiii/f aasiiliinrf \hlllil I'loviyililiX >ltllHli," .l^'niiinit lliui/ wimedidlr intutniirf •4 Commereial Code of SignaU, ALPUABKT FOR COMPOSINQ DISTANT SIGNALS Commercial Code of SignaU. U L.b. ALPHABET FOR SEMAPHORE SIGNALS. B l-l 86 Commercial Code of SignoU, SEMAPHORES. A system of Signals consistiiig of a Tortical post with throe more* able projecting arms, is extensively used at Signal Statioiis on the French Coast, and is known as the " Stimaphore.** The moyeabla arm of the Semaphore is equiraleut h> the ball (rf the distant Signal when horiiontal, to the pennant when oblique and pointing down-^ wards, and to the square flag when the ead is paiatiag upwards , thus :— \ ' i"i i III ^ '■■ m The am in the positioB pointiag dowHwardt represents a raWNANT The arm in the AorwMite/ podtioo represents a BALL. Thti arm in the position pointiog vpwtrdi represents a FLAG. / M MIKJ. " Leave the Buoy or Beacon to Port." N Commercial Code of Signals. 91 the ibto pial rds. BOAT SIGNALS. The S3rmbo1s to be employed are— 1. Two sqaare flags or pieces of cloth, i ^k* — -«i^— 2. T\70we(t8 or strips of cloth. 'JWanycolow. 8. Two balls, bundles, or hats. By means of the above Symbols, all the Signals of the Distant Hignal CotU may be made as shown below. Hankerchiefs, Hats, Buckets,or Baskets, may be used in making these Signals ; and if no mast, pole, or spar is' bandy, these Signals can be made by holding the hat, bundle, or other symbol at arm's length. The Signals will l)c made from rigM to left, and be read from l^ to right. EXAICFUBS 1 Signifies — " You are running into danger." .71 B Signify— -JB " Accident ; want a surgeon." h " Stop" or Finish after each complete Signal Note. — It is necessary, however, in using the proper means to attract attention, to avoid those which may occasion confoaion. V - i 1.1 J 88 r ^^mri S'Jfjhu^ llahCaxUho To. Definitions in Nautical Aatronomy. 80 MST A, DEFINITIONS IN NAUTICAL ASTUONOMY. The candidate is to write a short dcftnitiou ayaiust so viany o/thefoH.i ifi;/ terms as nuxg be marhtl vsith a cross by the Kxaminer. The Examiner tcUl vot mark kss than lu. The wnting should be clear and the spclUmj shmdd not be disregarded, Q. 1.— The Eouator. A. — The Equator is a Circle passing round the Earth equally dis- tant from the Poles dividing the Globe into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Q. 2.— The Poles. A. — The Poles are the extremities of the Earth's Axis. Q. 3. — A Meridian. A. — A Meridian is a Great Circle passing through both Poles crossing the Equator at ri^ht angles, and dividing the Globe into two parts, called the Eastern and Western Ilemisplieres. J Q. 4.- The Ecliptic. A. — The Ecliptic is the apparent annual path of the Sun in the Heavens. Q. 5.— The Tropics. A. — The Tropics is that portion of the Earth between 331' N. and 23i° S. Q. 6. — Latitude. A. — Latitude is that portion of the Meridian contained between the Equator and the given place, and is reckoned in " ' " It is named North or South, according to the Hemisphere in which it is situated. Q. 7. — Parallels of Latitude. A. — Parallels of Latitude are Circles parallel to the Equator. Q. 8.— Longitude. A.— Longitude is an arc ot the Equator, intercepted between the first Meridian (Greenwich), and the Meridian of the place. Q. 9.— The Visible Horizon. A.— The Visible Horizon is the Circle that bounds the observer's view at sea. Q. 16.— The Sensible Horizon. A. — The Sensible Horizon is the Circle tliat passes tiirough the eye of an Observer whose Poles are in the Zenith and Nadir. Q. 11. — The Rational Horizon. A. — The Rational Horizon is the Circle parallel to the Sensible Horizon, but passing through the centre of the Earth. Q. 13. — Artificial Horizon and its use. A. — An Artificial Horizon consists of a Reflecting Plane parallel to the Natural Horizon, on which the rays of the Sun, or any other Celestial Object falling, are reflected back to an eye placed in a proper position to receive them ; the angle between the real Object 90 Definilimu in Nauticid Antrrmomi/, Hucl its roHcctcd Imago being measured with a Sextant, is douhlo the altitude of tlio Object above the Horizontal Plane. Q. 13. — True course of a Ship. A. — The True Course of a Ship is th.e Compass Course corrected for Deviation, Leeway, and Variation. Q. 14. — Magnetic Course. A. — Magnetic Course is a Compass Course corrected for Leo-way and Deviation. Q. 15.— Compass Course. A. — A Compass Course is the Course steered by a Compass. Q. 16. — Variation of the Compass. A. — Variation of the Compass is tlie Angle between tlictrue North and the Magnetic North. Q. 17. — Deviation of the Compass. A. — Deviation of the Compass is the Angle between the Magnetic North and the Compass North. Q. 18. — The Error of the Compass. A. — The Error of the Compass is the Deviation and Variation combined. Q. 19. — Lee-way. A. — Lee-way is the Angle between the Ship's Course l)y Compass, and her path through the water. Q. 20.— Meridian Altitude ot a Celestial Object. A. — The Meridian Altitude of a Celestial Object is the highest Altitude it attains, or its Altitude when on the Observer's Meridian. Q. 21.— Azimuth. A. — An Azimuth is an arc of the Horizon contained between the North and South point of the Heavens, and a Vertical Circle passing through the centre of the object. Q. 22.— Amplitude. A. — An Amplitude is an arc of the Horizon contained between the centre of the object when rising or sotting, and the East or West points of the Horizon. Q. 23.— Declination. A. — The Declination is the number of " ' " tiie Sun, Moon, Planet, or Star is North or South of the Equator; similar to Latitude. Q. 24. — Polar Distance. A. — The Polar Distance is the number of » ' ", an Object is from the Elevated Pole, or Ship's nearest Pole. Q. 25. — Right Ascension. A. — The Right Ascension is the Distance the Sun, ]\[oon, Planet, or Star is from the First Point of Aries, measured in time Eastward on the Equinoctial. ~ ssion Q. -Dip or Depress Jh'JinUlons hi Nimth'ai Aatronorny. 01 [the ''est net, pm lor 111 A. — The Dip or Depression of tlie Horizon, is the An<(le rontaiiidl between tlic Sensible nnd the Visible Horizon. Q. 27.— Refraction. A. — Ilcfraction is the difference between tl»o Real and Apparent Places of the Heavenly Bodiet*, as affected by the passage of the Rays of Liglit through the Atmosphere ; or is that Variation which Hea- venly Bodies have when viewed Obliquely through the Atmosphere. Q. 28.— Parallax. A. — Parallax is the Difference between an Altitude of a Celestial Body observed at tlic Centre of the Earth, and on the Surface of the Earth. Q. 20 — Semi-diameter. A. — Semi-diameter is half the diameter of tlie Heavenly Bodies which appear to an Observer on the Earth. Q. 30. — Augmentation of the Moon's Semi-diameter. A. — The Augmentationof ^[oon's Semi-diameter is a Correction to be added to Moun''8 Semi- diameter, as given in the Nautical Almanac ; on account of the Moon being nearer to the Earth when above the Ho- rizon, than when on the Horizon ; and is most when she is in the Zenith. Q. 31.— Observed Altitude. A. — An Observed Altitude is the Height ot the Sun, Moon, Planet, or Star above the Horizon, as measured by a Quadrant or Sextant. Q. 32. — Apparent Altitude. A.. — The Apparent Altitude is the Observed Altitude corrected for Index Error and Dip. Q. 33.— True Altitude. A.. — The True Altitude is the Apparent Altitude corrected for Refraction and Parallax. Q. 34. — Zenith Distance. A. — Zenith Distance is the Distance an Heavenly Body is from that Point of the Heavens which is perpendicular over our heads. Q. 35. — Vertical Circles. A. — Vertical Circles are Great (.'ircles passing through the Zenith and Nadir ; perpendicular to the Horizon. Q. 30.— Prime Vertical. A. — The Prime Vertical is a Great Circle, passing through the Zeuith and Nadir ; cutting the Horizon in the East and West points. Q. 37.— Civil Time. A. — Civil Time is that used by the generality of mankind ; it ])egins at Midnight, and ends at Midnight following : the first 12'"" called A. M. ; the lust Vl^"- called p. m. Q. 38. — Astronomical Time. A. — Astronomical Time is the Time between two successive Transits of the Mean Sun's centre over the same Meridian ; which always 99 JJevidfion of th( Cotnpann. H begins at noon (0 Mean Hours) and is reckoned through the 24'>"- till Noon returns ngnin. Q. 39.— Sidereal Time. A. — Sidereal Time is the hour angle which the First Point of Aries is Westward of the Meridian. Q. 40.— Mean Time. A. — Mean Time is the hour angle of the Mean Sun Westward of tlio Meridian. Q. 41. — Apparent Time. A. — Apparent Time is the Interval between Sun's departure from, and his return to the same Meridian ; or Time shewn by the Sun, according to his Altitude, reckoned Westward of the Meridian. Q. 43. — Equation of Time. A. — Equation of Time is the Difference between Mean Time and Apparent Time. Q. 43. — Hour Angle of a Celestial Object. A. — The Hour Angle of a Celestial Object is an Arc of the Equator contained between the Meridian of the Place and that of the Celestial Body. Q. 44. — Complement of an Arc or Angle. A. — The Complement of an Arc or Angle is what that Arc or Angle is short of being 90". Q. 45. — Supplement of Ditto. A. — The Supplement of an Arc or Angle is what that Arc or Anglo requires to make it 180". LIST B. ' DEVIATION OF THE COMPASS. The candidate vt to answer at least ciijht of such of thefoUotPhijj questions as are tnarkcd with a cross by the Ejcamiiier. The Examiner wUl lutt mark less than 13. Q. 1. — What do you mean by Deviation of the Compaas ? A. — Deviation of the Compass is the Error caused by Local Attraction. Q. 3. — How do you determine the deviation (a) when in port, (and b) when at sea ? A — Deviation is determined in Port by Reciprocal Bearings, or the Bearings of a known Object ; and at Sea by Amplitudes and Azimuths. Q. 3. — Having determined the deviation with the Ship's head on the various points of the Compass, how do you know when it is Easterly and when Westerly ? A. — Wc know Deviation is Easterly when the Real Magnetic Bearing is to the Right of the Bearing from the Ship; Westerly, when contrary. JJeviatioji of the Conqxtss. 03 or are peal lort, Ithe knd [on ia Itic ieu Q. 4. — Why is it necessary, in order to attcertain the deviatioDB, to bring the Ship's head in more than one direction ? A.— Because the Deviation alters as the direction of the Ship^s head is changed. Q. 5. — For accuracy, wliat is the least number of points to which the Ship's head should be brought ? A.— Eight Ecjui-distant points arc the least to be used lor ac- curacy, from wliich, with the aid of Napier's Diagram, a tolerable good Deviation Curve may be formed. Q. 6. — How would you find the deviation when sailing along a well-known coast ? A. — By getting Two known Objects in one, take their Bearings, and compare it with the known Correct Magnetic Bearing. The Objects should not be less than G or 7 Miles distant from the Ship. Q. 7.— In the following table give the correct magnetic bearing of the distant object, and thence the deviation : — Ship's Bead by standard Compass. North N. E. East S.E. Bearing of distant object by Standard Coin pass. S86° 8 67° S62» 8 63° 45' E 45' E 16' E 46* E Deviation required. 4" 16' 17" 46' 22" 16' 13' 45' W £ E E Ship's Head by standard Compa.^. South S. W. West N.W. Bearing of distant object by Standard Compass. 8 44" 8 82- 8 17" 8 16" 16' E 16' E 46' E 16' E Deviation required. 4" 16' E 7" 46' W 28* 46' W A. — The sum of the bearings on the above Equi-distant Points is 320" 0', which divided by 8 gives 40" 00' for the correct Magnetic bearing (appro.ximate) of the distant object ; then the difference be- tween the correct Magnetic and Compass bearing on Each Point is the Deviation for direction of Ship's head. Q. 8. — With the deviation as above, give the courses you would steer by the Standard Compass to make the following courses, cor- rect Magnetic ; S E and East. A.— S 58° 45' E., and N 67° 45' E. Q. 0. — Supposing you have steered the following courses by the Standard Compass, find the correct magnetic courses made from the above deviation table ; N W and S W. A. — By drawing a Deviation Curve the Standard Compass courses are N 68" 45' W, and S 37° 15' W. Q. 10. — You have taken the following bearings of two distant ob- jects by your Standard Compass as above ; with the Ship's head at N E, find the bearings, correct magnetic, S W and 8. E. A. — By the Deviation table or curve, the Deviation for Ship's head N E is 17° 45' E, applied to bearings gives S 62" '45 W and 8 27° 15' E. Q. ll.~Namesomc suitable objects by which you could readily 94 JJeoiatiou of the (JoinpaHS. I obtain the Deviation of the Compass when sailing along the cousts of the Englitih Channel ? A.— English Channel. The South Foreland Lighthouses in one ; or any prominent Point of Land or Lighthouse. St. George's Channel. Coal Rock, and Skerries Light in one. Skerries and South Stock iu one. In the Uivcr Mersey, by marks on the Dock Wall, and Vaux. hall Chimney in one line. Q. 12. — Do you expect the Deviation to change; if so, state under >vhat circumstances 'i A. — Yes, it changes rapidly for several months after the Ship is launched; an nlteration also takes place by changes of Magnetic Latitude, and in Ship's running long upon one course, and then changing the course ; by the heeling of the Ship, and by taking in a Cargo of Iron. Q. 13. — How often is it advisiblo to test the accuracy of your tabic of deviations ? A. — As often as convenient ; at every opirartunity ; and after taking in a Cargo likely to attract the Compasses. Q. 14. — State briefly what you have chiefly to t^uard against io selecting a position for the Compass ? A. — As far as p ssible from any considerable Mass of Iron, and should not be near the extremity of any Elongated Mass of Iron, especially if Vertical ; such as the Spindle of the Capstan, Iron Stan- chions, Iron Quarter Davits, and Iron Funnels. Q. 15. — The Compasses of Iron Ships are more or less affected by what is termed the heeling error ; on what courses does this error vanish, and on what courses is it the greatest ? A.— Greatest at North and South. Least at East and West. Q. 16. — State to what side of the Ship, in the majority of coses, is the North point of the Compass drawn in the Northern hemisphere ; and what effect it has on the assumed position of the Ship when she is steering on Northerly, and also on Southerly courses ? A. — To the Weatherside. — To Windward on Northerly courses. — To Leeward on Southerly courses. Q. 17. — The effect being as you state, on what courses would you keep away, and on what courses would you keep closer to the wind, in order to make good a given Compass course ? A. — Keep away on either tacks on Northerly courses. Keep closer to the Wind on Southerly courses. Q. 18. — Docs the some rule hold good in both hemispheres with regard to the heeling error ? A. — No. Ships which have a large heeling error to Windward in Northern Latitudes, will probably have as large a heeling error to Iccwurd iu high Suuthuru Lotitudob. Ifetwing JJoicn. W pS, IS 3re; she lyou 'the jscr ?itb in to HEAVING DOWN. Q. — You nrc in a lorcign port and ready for soa, but getting your vessel on a rock or reef, her bottom is so much injured, that you will have to discharge hor cargo and heave her down ; how would you proceed, supposing you had no assistance from ashore? A. — I would first send down all yards, masts, and rigging, except the lowermasts and bowsprit. Got everything moveable out from between decks, lower hold, and upper deck, keeping on board such spars as I may require for shores and outriggers, also preventive rig- ging for the masts. Q«^-Proceed to secure the mainmast ready for heaving down. A. — Place the outriggers abreast the mast on the side to be hove out first, either on the upper deck, or through the 'tween deck ports, if the ship had them. Strip off a sheet of copper abreast the mast, as low down as possible, drive bolts into the ship's side with a good spread and clench them inboard. Secure the outriggers by strong stays set up to the ring-bolts. Lash the heels of the outriggers well down, and have guys from their ends leading fore and aft. Get sufHcient preventive rigging over the mast-head to secure the mast by the outriggers. Slack up the lee rigging, and knock out the wedges in the partners, letting the mast go close over to wind- ward. Set up the preventive and weather rigging, and just take in the slack to lee-ward. Q. — How would you secure the mast on that side to be hove down, or on the lee-side ? A. — By double shores placed sheer fashion, the cross under the trestle-trees with a strong lashing round the mast, not forgetting to have plenty of parcelling, taking care that they do not touch tho trestle trees, as the strain may injure or displace them. Have good hardwood shoes under the heels, placing them over beams, and lash them to ring bolts. Have a cross lashing between the heels to keep them from spreading fore and aft. Having the shores securely placed, wedge them up sufficiently to take part of the strain off the weather rigging. Q. — Proceed to lay out your anchors for heaving down ; and there being no hulk, nor wharf for your lower blocks ; how would you secure them, all your resources being such as you have on board the ship? A. — First moor the ship head and stem, then lay out th« tripping anchors on that side to be hove out, bringing tho chains under the ship's bottom, and in-board on the lee-side. Have good warps to tho same anchors brought on board to the weather side. Take the anchors for the lower blocks on shore, and place one behind the N 9$ Jie5s bill accepted. Of course, these obacrvatioas refer to a case wiiun the owner has no accredited agent abroad. In cases wlicro a loaded vessel encounters heavy weather, and puts into port for repairs, there is both general and particular average ; the former is where anything has been done for the preservation of the vessel, such as cutting away spurs or sails, slipping from anchors, or throwing cargo overboard ; and afterwards the landing, carting, storing, and shipping of cargo, it lauded, to cnublo the ship to com< pleto repairs. These, together with some other items, the under- writers of the cargo all contribute to make good, ns well as the uudci writers of the ship and freight: consciiuently, with a valuable eurgo, there is very little loss to a shipowner when a general average occurs. But in all cases of damage through stress of weather, get- ting ship ashore, &c., &c., when heavy repairs for hull and spars are retjuired, such repairs come under the denomination of particular average, and the underwriters, if the vessel is insured, pay for it, less one-third, which it is customary for the owners of the ship to bear the loss of, upon the supposition that their vessel gets a large quantity of new articles in room of old ; but as there are many expenses the owner cannot recover, such as detention, &c., it may generally be calculated that the owncr^s loss in a particular average, amounts to «ne-balf, or nearly so; consequently, the system is unfair for honest men, and opens a Held to dishonest ones for the display of their ability. It sometimes happen, that the estimate for repairs amounts to almost as much as the ship is insured for, and it is better for all parties to sell the vessel. If there be a probability of getting a ship home (especially if the owners arc uninsured), without entering largely into repairs abroad, the master should do so. For instance, suppose a ship to S])rlng a leak on the passage home, and it be tound that she makes no more water in rough than in calm weather; you put into port with a viev,' to discover the leak, and find this cannot be effected without dis- charging the cargo, going into dock, or heaving the ship iown ; one pump constantly at work, probably keeps the ship free. Now, it would be better to ship some extra hands, and proceed with the voyage; and if there be any doubt about the pumps, have an extra one or two fitted. There are generally some condemned ycssers pumps to be purchased in most ports. Lloyds' agent may probably object, but he is not infallible ; and if you do what you think is right, having the opinion of a respectable merchant, and a shipmaster or two, which coincides with your own. Then no insurance officers 08 7'(> ffet Marhineri/ in or Out. — S(rrf)-/io(n' <""' =P™ «d^ "mple andat.hesa„etimr o^n.^^iX" ""* ""P'"" "> >« » xr " '" "-— >e. .:u;;:f,ru;i-2^^^^^^^ -™t ;peetr d^^Sr r'-«" "-. -a ,a. :rp::-xrae^.riH»--"»- tt.en lift one end of the epa^uf o'^f "T " "•'"' f"- the end ; fonBed- », ashing ean now ,^p^'°n" out and a triangle will b^ end to keep the heels steady aTff !„'°"f '*" ""S' " ">e lower luence of the heavy lurehinl'of tb ' "^"'■"''ered requisite in eonse' a steadying ,i„e f J„ the °des „f ' 77 ' ""' """' """» '"n Ce ™sed there Will be little dTfflentv in "■ '^"""^ got the triang™ leg to leg of the triangle three emf I =!? 1 ^' ' "'""'«'' from Md also the same number of 1^ ^" "'°'° '" "-e lower end7 ends, drive staples or nltol'eT/n •"'"'" '"" «='' f" between the e^ss pieces lash tht "Jn, '°^ "^ "'PP'"*' "-en barrels Will answer), adopting such mert^d.^t: "'"^ *™™'-°n Thr:;r^*i:gr'r^ ° ' ^* - "p?. """ "■"= '"^'■"■«' - beWtehed toffr •attTueltrr'^d""'"'-"- "■« "»V eomparative safety i„ it ; „„ sea iT*!, T ° """^ "■» ""aj Bni caps™ a raft n,ade in this manner it * '"!'" :".?■ »"" "»"'"« ean four men and thrown overboard in the h?^ ^ '"*"" "? by ,h4 or of water a cask of bread, or «n meals ./"f' ™'» «>' akeg and at that awful «„, ^^'.^ „""«*■ "an be found in the cradle^ over, a couple of rafts such .. .k1 ^ . °P'"B tbe vessel afloat i« o»t of the way of any'Sng tlliTl'^'' "'^^ *- "ft, ' h and be far preferable in ?!inf'„f "afctv t° t '*" ™'»' ^'^dered! be fast breaking up on the rocks and n!^ ° ^°'- °' » ''«»«1 may 'be shore, then such a raft wonW 1 , . "««tance can bo got fton, so. hat their bilges project t;h:t*:;r'^^ 104 Error in the Course of a t>mJ^C:^::'^Z': "*'" "' '>-""« - of 11.0 spars „„„,,,, ,„„ ,„j, „, „ ,'"" '"" '"= '"face ; to eaol, end 'hrongl. tl,c I,a>vse.„„,L, a„d\™d i, T'"'' " ^'^-chain „„ •nd annch ,|,e „.,,„,e concern „™.," °r° "'° "Mdle of „,esp„„ JO coKSTnrcT a t.mpokarv ,a-oi,K. at se. When a shin Ina i^ i. i ^^'A. made several feet shorter hantho I ' ''" ''^^'•-^"^^-, and if [t 'j below water. Jlakethe rudder ^l,f' T '' ''*" ''^ b^^^-" «ecu ed f the upper part of the old stoek ,T "'''''"'''' ''' ^' '>-nd, and •fee to the new one. placing tl rp^. ! '^T,? ='^'''^- ^''^^^'-er the pi uies and prepare the rudder-head 7 ^ *' ^''^ ''"^'"^ distance as brfl shipped. Kow take a pece^^^^^^^^^^^ middle it exactly, and ZT, t "r';.;"«-"^ length foVu, corresponding n^arks. take a rounTr ' "' '""^^''^'^'^ ^^^^h exact^^^^^ chain round the foot of the rLT "™ ''^"^ ^he middle of fh' fore part of the ruddo: and c1 ,rir;;^'' ^^ -«- tj^ o t ' Then, when the guy-lines In d h '''^^^°^ ^^^ 106 To CoHsfrttrt a Tempoi'arj/ Iludder at Sea. !'3 :■ w i quarter (taking care that the crossing has been retained), and passed forward, are hauled taught abreast of the main rigging, and the cor- responding marks on the chain arc then placed at an equal diutancc from the rails on one side. After the pintles of the rudder arc shipped, then clap tackles on the guys and haul them taught, whicli will bind the lower part of the rudder to the ship's stern-post, and at the same time allow it to act freely. The guys should be cleeted to the ship's side on the first calm day, to prevent them chafing about in the wash of the sea. The reason why the rudder is not required the whole length is, that the lower part of it, is of no use to the ship for steering pur- poses, and it is only the upper part of it that is acted upon by the water, and which has been proved in cases where a ship, having had the lower part of her rudder broken off at the lower gudgeon, lias been steered as well ns if nothing had been amiss with it. This can be easily accounted for, when we consider the immense pressure of the ship on the water, and that as she advances, this water, being set free from under her, rushes up her run at an angle of about 45°, and must necessarily strike the upper part of her rudder with a force greater than the actual velocity at which she is going through the water. Another, and better plan of constructing a temporary rudder, which I should more strongly recommend for simijlicity of construction and efficiency : Take, say a spare topmast, or other spar of equal size (if you have not a spare spar, one of the topmasts must be taken, for a topmast can be done without, but not a rudder), ascertain by the sounding rod where the gudgeons are situated, and make corres- ponding marks upon the topmast for notches, so that the spar may lie close to the stern-post when overboard. If the topmast has been taken, the top may also be taken to form a rudder with. If not, build one the shape and size, with the best materials at hand, well parcelled, and bolted through. Next, bore holes in this rudder, op- posite to the notches in the topmast or spar, through which and round the spar work grummetts, well parcelled and served to prevent chafing. Next, have guys leading from the back of the rudder to leading blocks attached to a smaller spar across the taffrail, or to the bumpkins, either will do, to lead into the barrel of the wheel, if it remains. Two guys (mooring chains will do) must lead from the heel of *■*' : topmast, as far forward as possible, say to the main chains ; then n'\'^»i ;ou have all ready for launching overboard, attach a kedge < i sight to the heel of the topmast, with a slip rope to sink it close to vr^a stern post ; the bight of a rope may also be sent down through Lhe V' r .or case, and taken up with a boat hook, and made fast to a ring-Dolt drove in to the head of the spar. Now, having all ready. iHunch overboard Imnl „„ '^^ TJn-3- ^^^^r^^« THE LA.\D. --:Sr^-- -;^- an.^^^ especian, i„ ..pes... «f the uncertainty in the reckon inJi '■''''"'^' «^t«ined, because l^eon probably „uderthe in^cT "^f ' '^"^^'J^^^^^o^'ti-shipha^^^^^ near tj.e land, and great cautio„Tt ^"T'' "'"■^'' ^--"''^ P - H ^t. When ..«,,,,, ,,„ ,^ obtaine r::^ "L""' '" "^^^^-"^"^ When the reckoning is doubtfil M. ^ '?"'^ ''''"' ^ "eglected making an islarri r • """"ff mto Us paraJlel • -... ,•„ .. «..« .1,:. "hot to tt p "r°'°' '"^'"e Weft of tt s ii s ""'" °' Tt io fi . ^"*^ Eastward of it hnf- !• ,.. ^ ' ^''^ '""st bo It therefore safest, if there is no n, ^""'"° ^"'« ^ts parallel €■•■=■=-»€"=-»=:.•:; >vi]en a ship is boim.? f^ 8-"., .1.0 ,a/d .ho d1Jrar.'r "™°" """" '-* Nor.-, «ua Wieu obsemtions for latitude I, ^ " P"" "f destination ponded „„, they „,„,„<, becoSld ^''""™otcr can bTde .he and is expected to bo s^ KcI "'' 1° ""= '""" P«ri»''*^'^ ^-ward ' J^' f"*- a mile astern Mill be soon T '^'"ow. and then probnbJv -^.iation orthe wate' ^l^^ ^l^ ' ^'^ ?^?^^"^' « '"^-I" seen L ;'' '""""tainous wave h i ^ t '. ""' ''"^' '"'■ «^«""" seen 1 ke J, to follow immediately ml i ".''"''' ""^ "« "^ore are - q^J'ckly as possible. Son.e n t L „' ^ '" f'^""' «"'' -"-^ to tl"8 ,s not right ; tho sooner a shin i )^ f "^ '^'''^'^ *" f'e Mind • ga^ the better, as it stands r fo tt^"' '"^ "'« ^""^ - « '-a y «-vposed to the sea, the greatcrTs H. 1 '""S'-''' '^ «'>Jp's broadside if '"flnng on board and m^kW a ec n "^^^ "' '^ ".ountainous 'iv »^""g^ng the ship to the w ^d J tl. r'''^.\ "''^'"t' -'cceedod n -V. and falling off, a« direZ in the"h Lr'"'-' ""^^•" "" --'"« 'o a gale of wind. " "^' '""*« contained when laying to LAYING To IV A n 1 T T, ^^ "^ ^ALE OP WIND »n' experiment. ' Soml' P-^'-enlarly sharp-buile vessels ^ ""' """ "■^•l'"^' 'ore-reaching ^'^rL^r-\rr:::--«-- thebaic i, -"-"-^^it^c^Sf-™-'^^ . eovered, ,„„ iatc^fhaf the s "? TT''''^ ""'•''- "■ and uTdt recommended that every offlee^'mlra "T --«=■ It is strlX sale « breaking Mhc advan,;ge"ftl » if': ™' '"-™ "" '"»'» the' » Of tins jsobvious; and if instead rf 110 SijHdlU. getting uuJcr the loo of the bulwark, or boat, lie will stand uciir tlio man at the Avliccl, and have the helm put down when he sees a towering wave rushing onwards, and likely to break on board, many a fearful disaster would be avoided. The practice of lashing the wheel chains, or wheel, cannot be too strongly condemned. I once saw a vessel nearly foundering from this cause ; the only plan that ought to be allowed, with a view to assist tho helmsman, is to piss a couple of round turns with a twig- ling line on one of the spokes of the wheel, and allow him to hold the end in his hand : this is sufficient to keep him from being thrown over the wheel, and at the same time can be let go instantly when required. If there be much jerking from the wheel chains being slack, put a watch tackle on the standing part ; it can be let go im- mediately when necessary. The practice of putting tho helm hard down is a very bad one, many a rudder having been broken from this cause. When a ship is to, she is supposed to have no head way, but as all vessels will natu- rally forge ahead, it seems right that the helm should be put down a little. Sharp-built vessels will frequently, if proper canvas be set in a gale of wind, forge ahead with the helm amidships, and keep close to the wind by the hour together, without requiring the helm to be moved. m SQUALLS. It is well known to seamen that there are three kinds of squalls — the white squall, the arched squall, and the descending squall. The white squall is seldom experienced by vessels trading to India, but is common enough in the Mediterranean, and as it only gives notice of its approach by a ripple on the water, great expedition is neces- jsary to reduce canvas. A small white cloud is sometimes seen at night rising rapidly when a white squall is approaching. It cannot be said for certain that this is the case ; however, it seems probable, and is worthy of attention. The arched squall, as its name indicates, rises in the form of an arch, and if the edges are well defined, and show one unbroken cir- cular line, it is the signal that something severe may be expected. The descending squall is a block cloud without any regular shape, the wind from which is never felt till nearly over the mast-heads. If this kind of scjuall, when first seen on tho horizon, rises rapidly, it is a sign that wind may be expected, and the sooner sail is reduced the better. It may be taken as a general rule, that when the clouds are broken, the edges ill-defined, and the horizon or stars seem under- neath, no violent wind may be auticipatcd ; but as there arc cxcep- Ci'ossiftf/ a tShip^s Jioio at Anchor. Ill tions to all rules, the careful officer, especially at night, will not no- gleet to reduce sail. Aiirial currents are sometimes formed by tho breaking up of a squall, which wi" take a topmast out of a ship, and the next minute all is calm, so that it is sometimes impossible for the most experienced seaman to Judge of tho weight of a squall. Always be on the safe side, especially at night time, and let the first burst of a squall strike the ship on the quarter ; if it is violent the vessel will be under command, and it is better to run for a quarter of an hour out of the course than lose the topmasts. Tho weight of wind in a squall should never be judged of by the apparent extent of the squall, as a small black cloud will frequently bring as much wind as a large one. At daylight, the violence of a squall can be ascertained better than at night, by the ripplo on the water, or by seeing through it, as sailors term it. Ian ;ir- CAUGHT IN A SQUALL WITH STUDDINQSAIL8 SET. The best plan is to let fly studdingsail tacks, and outer lower hal- liards, and get the spanker in, if set. This will give command over the vessel to keep her before the wind if requisite. In letting go royal and topgallant-halliards in a squall, never start a sheet ; even the topsail-halliards may be let go, and the yard will come down without the topgallant-sheets being slacked ; many a sail is split to pieces by attempting to clwe it up in a squall, whereas if the halliards only are let go, and the yards clewed down, till the first burst of the squall is over, there would be little danger of losing anything. Let- ting go the halliards of square sails, of course refers to a time when no studdingsails are set, as the studdingsail-halliards would prevent a yard from coming down ; but if the squall is very severe, then the studdingsail-halliards should be let go, that the yards may come down, as it is better to lose a studdingsail than a topmast, and the studdingsails after the squall is over, will generally be picked up across the stays. If is the ire ler- Ip- CROSSING A SHIP'S BOW AT ANCHOR. It is not generally known among young officers that in crossing a vessel's bow riding at anchor in a tide way, the moment the vessel's masts appear in one— suppose you are looking from the poop c ; quarter-deck— all danger from collision is over. IIJ iV/ien in t'/iari/c of Jioatn. IlEAVIXO-TO, TO COMiMUNICATE. When Iicaving-to, to coinnuinioato with nnothor vessel at sou, It In advisftblo that tho windwijrcJ ship should iiiy withtlic forc-topsiiil to the mast. The renson for which ia, thuL .liu will f;iM olV, and come- to less, under tliiw nrrnngement of her canviis than otherwise, wiilcli arises from tlic exteiit of snil-^iuface exposed to the wind to iinsrst in keeping her to ; while tiie forward sails, by bting smalN.'r in propor- tion, are more rcacUIy filled, in the event of liaving to slioot ahcnd. If to leeward, with the mniu-tojwail to the mast, it i» only ncce;*Hary to Bhivcr the mizen-topsail, shift the helm, and fall off. WHEN IN (^riAIlGE OF BOATS. 1. Acfjuirc the habit of sitting down in a boat, and never »tand to perform any worl< which may be done sitting. 3. Never climb the mast of a boat, even in sn>ooth water, to reeve halyards, or for any other purpose, but unstej) and lower the mast; many boats have been upset, and very many lives lost by doing so. The smaller the l)oat the more necessary is this and the foregoing precaution. 3. All spare gear, such as mmsts, sails, oars, Ac, which are stowed above the thwarts, should bo lashed close to the sides of a boat, and any heavy articles on the boat's floor to be secured as well as possible amidships, to prevent them falling to leeward together on a heavy lurch of the sea. 4. On a vessel getting stranded, or otherwise disabled in a heavy sea, or an open coast where there is a high surf on the beach, the crew should remain by their vessel as long as they can safely do so, in preference to taking to their boats. As a general rule much more risk is incurred in a boat than in a ship, providing the latter will hold together. Indeed, in a moderate wind on a iee-sbore, in open situations, and even in a calm, there is frequently more surf than any ordinary ship's boat can with safety attempt, however well managed she may be. 5. After being compelled to desert a ship in an ordinary ship's boat, too great precaution cannot be taken before attempting to land. Viewed from seaward, a surf has never so formidable an appearance as when seen from the laud ; persons in a boat outside broken water are very apt to be deceived by it. They should therefore, if prac- ticable, proceed along the land outside the surf, until abreast of a coast-guard, or life-boat, or tishing-station, whence they might be seen by those on shore, who would then signalize to them where they might safely attempt to land, or else warn them to keep oil'; 1 When in Chnrtfti nf J],KttA. 113 Ic [r la Ic |e or who iuiH;lit proceed in a life bout or u tiHliiii^-boiitto their aid, tlie j;;(!ncrality of couMt flshiiif^ boats belii^ far better able to stand the iHiiif than an ordinary whip's boat, and the coast-boatmen bein^ nior»5 skilful ill niana<{iii^ boats in a surf than the crews uf nhips. If in the night time, double precaution is necessary ; and it would be better to anchor the boat outKicte the surf until daylii^ht than to attempt to html in the dark. For this ro^tson an anchor and chain should alwayH be placed in the boat before Icavinj^ the ship, and also tw») or three buckets, in addition to the balei or hand-pump, wiiieh siiuuld always bo kept in her, so that she may be (piickly relieved of any water she ships. 0. lloats may ride out a heavy gale in an open sea In safety by lashing theirspars, ours, iiv.., together, and riding to leeward of thcin, secured to them by a span. The raft thus formed will break the sea; it may either be anchored or drifting, according to circum- stances. If the boat has a sail, the yard should be attached to the spars with the sail loosed. It will break much sea ahead. In all cases of riding by spars, not h'ss than two oars should be retained in the boat, to be ready for use in case of parting from the spars. 7. AVherc a surf breaks at only a short distance from the beach, a boat may be veered and backed through it, from another boat anchored outside the surf, when two or more boats are in company, or she may be anchored and veered, or backed in from her own ancltor. 8. Ships' boats should, in addition to their oars, mast, and sails, have the following articles kept in them when at sea, and if not in (hem. they slionld be placed in them if possible before deserting a ship at sea : A baler or hand pump, and buckets; the plug, and a spare one, both fastened by lanyards; spare thole-pins and grammetts, if rowed in that manner; two or three spare oars ; a small hatchet; an anchor and cable; a long small line as a whale-line, or deep-sea lead line, and any life-buoys or belts which are on board. If in the niglit, or at a distance from the land, a lantern and matches, and if available blue lights or hand rockets. If beyond sight of land, a compass and telescope, and a course oi fresh water and provisions; a log-line and sand-ghiss ; a hand-lead and lino; small arms and ammunition (with ball cartridges and small shot). A red tlag and a boat-hook for a llag-st air might often be useful to attract atlention. A red flannel shirt is a good substitute for a tlag. In addition to the above, small empty casks or breakers, tightly bunged and lashed beneath the thwarts, would partially convert any boat into a life-boat, by making it impossible for her to founder ; and by leaving less space to be occupied by water if filled by a sea, they would expedite the process of pumping or baling out. 114 Deviation of the Compass in Ships Laden loith Iron. 10. No ship's boat should either be lowered into, or hoisted from, the water, without first having a rope from the fore-part of the ship made fast to her bows, by which means she will bo much steadied, and prevented going adrift if the tackles should happen to be only partially hooked, or carried away. The rudder should be sluug, to prevent its being lost or accidentally unshipped. DEVIATION OF THE COMPASS IN SHIPS LADEN WITH IRON. From the various improvements daily taking place in the con- struction of wooden ships, mauj of those partaking of an iron form, have so affected the compasses as to produce deviations somewhat similar to those in iron ships, but in a less degree. From the ex- tensive exportation of iron alone, a considerable amount of deviation takes place, of which the various commanders are well aware. Also, the deviations from iron, as a cargo, may be modified in the stowage of it, particularly bar iron, by occasionally laying transverse bars across the ends. It has been assumed, where plates, boileis, or locomotives are put in as cargo, that by taking the deviations from its position on land, an approximate idea might be given as to the amount of its dis- turbing influence on the compasses. No confidence should be placed in such surmises, at; iron, no matter what its form may be, will simply indicate the effects of magnetism from the earth, and that which may be induced by physical action. Besides, when placed on board, its arrangement becomes totally changed. Its influence on the com- pass will depend entirely on the combined magnetic influence of the ship, and to that it will either add or take from. The deviation of one ship appears to lorm no principle or guide to what it may be in another. The deviation has been observed to vary from four degrees to even eight points. In one particular case that came under my own observation, I found as much as fifty-six degrees, or five points. In the last vessel, whose compasses I was called upon to adjust, (the iron barque " Alumina,^'' which was con- demned, after having been ashore off" St. John harbour, in July last, but subsequently brought back to port, and repaired), when ready for s»!a, she was swung, by reciprocal bearings ; and at the points of N. E. and S. W. respectively, I found as much as two and a quarter points deviation. She afterwards sailed ^for Liverpool, where she arrived safely. To Determine the Deviation by Recipkocal Bearings. — The ship must be fixed in such a position that she can be gradually warped round, so as to bring her head successively upon each of the thirty-two points of the standard compass, or on each alternate point. When Deviation <]f the Compass in Ships Ldderi vith Iron. l\r> the ship and compass card are perfectly steady, at a given signal, the observer on board talces the bearings of the shore compj.- \ and the observer on shore takes the bearing of the compass on board, and so on, from paint to point of the compass on board. The dif- ference between the simultaneous bearings, is the amount of devia- tion at the point on which the ship's head may be at the time. Note. — The shore ('om2>aHK Hhould be a (/;«/XM,t, tiiud bif entirely free from iron of any dexcription, and alno to avoid eotif union or the etuuieeof error, all the obseriiationx shotdd, if practicable read from the name quadrant of the eoinpann when (hi .\hore beariny ix reversed and reeorded opposite to the point ). t In an Aneroid, a uietallic or a wheel barometer, the hands' motion should correspond to tliat of mercury in an independent instrunjcnt. Remarks on the liaromcter. 11' inches — the first rising usually precedes, and foretells strong wind— (at times heavy squalls)— from the north-westward— northward— or north-eastward — after wliich violence a rising glass foretells im- proving weather, if the thermometer falls. But, if the warmth con- tinue, probably the wind will back (shift against the sun's course), and more southerly, or south-westerly wind will follow. The most dangerous shifts of wind, and the honvicst northerly* gales, happen after the mercury first rises from a very low point. Indications of approaching changes of weather, and the direction and force of winds, are shown less by tho height of mercury in the tube, than by its falling or rising. Nevertheless, a height of about thirty inches (at the level of the sea) is indicative of fine weather and moderate winds. The barometer is said to be falUng when the mercury in the tube is sinking, at which time its upper surface is Kometimen concave or hollow. The barometer is rmng, when the mercurial column is lengthening ; its upper surface being then, as usual, convex or roundedt. A rapid rise of the barometer indicates unsettled weather. A slow rise, or steadiness, with dryness, shows fair weather. A considerable and rapid fall is a sign of stormy weather and rain. Alternate rising and sinking show very unsettled weather. The greatest depressions of the barometer are with gales from the S. E„ southward, or S. W. ; the greatest elevations, with winds from the N. W., northward, or N. E. Although the barometer generally falls with a southerly, and rises with a northerly wind, the contrary sometimes occurs ; in which cases the southerly wind is dry and the weather fine ; or the northerly wind is wet and violent. "When the barometer sinks considerably, high wind, rain, or snow will follow ; the wind will be from the northward, if the barometer is low (for the season) — from the southward, if the thermometer is higli. Sudden falls of the barometer, with a westerly wind, are sometimes followed by violent storms from N. W. or North. If a gale sets in from the eastward or S. E., and the wind veers by the South, the barometer will continue falling until the wind becomes S. W., when a comparative lull may occur, after which the gale will be renewed ; and the shifting of the wind towards the N. W. will bo indicated by a fall of the thermometer as well as a rise of the barometer. Three things appear to affect the mercury in a barometer : — 1. The direction of the wind — the north-east wind tending ta * Southerly in South latitude. t In the best coluuius, those of standards for example, no conciivity is soen at any time. 118 Jieinar/cs oh the liarometer. raise it most— the soutli-wcst to lower it the most, and wind from points of tlie compass between them proportionally as they are nearer one or the other extreme point. N. E. and S. W. may therefore be called the wind's extreme bearings. The range or difference of height of the mercury, due to change of direction only, from one of these bearings to the other (supposing strength or force, and moisture, to remain the same) amounts in these latitudes to about half an inch (shown by the barometer as read off). 2. The amount, taken by itself, of vapour, moisture, wet, rain, or snow, in the wind or current of air (direction and strength remaining the same), seems to cause a change amounting in an extreme case to about half an inch. 3. The strength or force alone of wind from any quarter (moisture and direction being unchanged) is preceded, or foretold, by a fall or rise, according as the strength will be greater or less, ranging in an extreme case to more than two inches. Hence, supposing the three causes to act together — in extreme cases — the mercury might rang