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MORANG, 63 Vonge St. THE STUDY OF CHILDREN AND THEIR SCHOOL TRAINING BY FRANCIS VVARNFR, M.D., (Lond.) F.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., (Eng.) Physician to a.ni> Lkchrkr at thk Lonlon HosPiTAr.; Phvskun to THK Royal Ai.bkrt Orphanagk; formerly Pmysician to thk East London Hospital for Children Honorary Member oi- the Hungarian Society ok Public Hkalth AT BlDAl-EST. WITH A\ INTROOITTION BV JAMES L. HUGHES INSPKCTOR OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, TORONTO. TORONTO : GEORGE N. MORANG 1898 I zf5 ///5 2071) y I Entered accordiiiu to Act of Parliament of Canada in the year one thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight, by Georgh N. Morang. in tht office of the Minister o» Agriculture. INTRODUCTION TO CANADIAN EDITION. Dr. Warner was one of the first to study the child scientifically. He ranks among the great child students of the world in the extent of his investigations, in the definiteness of his conclusions, and especially in the practicability of the plans he proposes for the system- atic, scientific study of children, and the natural pro- cesses which he suggests for remedying and removing weaknesses and defects, when they are discovered. Dr. Warner has published several very instructive and suggestive books, notably: "The Children, How to Study Them"; "Mental Faculty"; "The Anatomy of Movement"; "Physical Expression, its Modes and Principles"; and "A Report on the Scientific Study of the Mental and Physical Conditions of Childhood.'* These books contain the results of his investigations in the examination of one hundred thousand children in London. The present volume is written chiefly for teachers, as it deals with the training of children during the period of school life, but interested and intelligent parents will find it helpful in its facts and recommendations. All truv students of childhood will welcome the book. Nearly all the works on child study have been written by educators interested in physiological psychology ; VI. INTROnUCTION TO CANADIAN EDITION Dr. Warner is an eminent physician interested in psychological physiology. The foundation on which both the philosophy and the practical recommendations of the book are based is that teachers are responsible for the development of the brain and neurological system of the child as well as for the culture and training of its mind. The external manifestations of brain conditions are carefully considered. The size, shape, poise and motion of the head, the position, motion and clearness of the eyes, the shape of the bridge of the nose, the muscular control of the face, the accuracy of articulation, the rate and mode of speech, the bodily posture, tne shape and attitude of the hand, and especially the movements of the body, both spontaneous and controlled, are re- garded as indicative of the condition of the brain and nervous system. Simple and definite directions are given for observing and recording these external revel- ations of brain and nerve states. The great import- ance of recording systematically the results of observa- tions is strongly urged. In studying children most attention should be paid to those below the normal condition in development and power. Dr. Warner classifies the manifestations of a child's condition and power under three general heads : {a) Body ; development, features, etc. ; (b) Nerve Signs ; postures, movements, action, expression ; and (r) Phy- sical Health and Nutrition. INTRODUCTION TO CANADIAN EDITION VII. land )f a ^ds : fns ; >hy- The chief remedies recommended for discovered de- fects are happy conditions, physical culture, and proper nutrition. No educator but Froebel has recognized so clearly as Dr. Warner the great value of physical cul- ture in the development of the child's body and brain. Physical culture as recommended by Dr. Warner be- comes an essential element in the work of every school, not merely for the improvement of the muscular sys- tem, the bodily carriage and action, and the general health, but especially to develop the vital organs, and to co-ordinate the brain and neurological system. In regard to the last function of physical exercise t Dr. Warner is clearly a leader, and his philosophy and practical suggestions are worthy of careful study. The brain is the dominant organ of the body, the ner- ves are the means by which the brain in both its sensor and motor departments is related to all other parts of the body, and the condition of the body as a whole depends mainly on the condition and co-ordin- ation of the brain and nerves. The evil effects of working children in school when they are approaching the fatigue point is clearly shown, and the signs by which the conditions of fatigue, insufficient nutrition, and weakening over-spontaneity of action may be re- cognized are fully explained. The subject of brain and nerve nutrition is one of prime importance in education, and Dr. Warner's book will aid in the study of the subject by directing the vin. INTRODUCTION TO CANADIAN EP'.TION attention of teachers to the evidences of the imperfect supply of the food elements required to repair the waste of brain and nerves, and qualify the neuroloj>^ical system for higher work at a lower rate of expenditure of nerve force. The specific cases ot type children reported through- out the book form one of its most interesting features. Dr. Warner's new i)ook will do great service by revealing to teachers their responsii)ility for l)rain training and nerve co-ordination. The culture of the mind, and the improve- ment of the methods by which culture may be communicated and acquired, are not the highest functions of the teacher. The new education includes methods for the development of brain cells, for the perfect co-ordination of the sensor and motor brain, and the extension of nerve connections through- out the body. By these methods the race ma) be made executive and operative, and thus each individual will become a positive agent in a progressive civilization. This is the true educational ideal. James L. Hughes. Toronto, April 4th. i8q8. PREFACE This work is addressed chiefly to teachers, parents, and others in daily contact with children ; but contains information that is likely to interest those engaged in directing education, philanthropy, and other forms of social work as well as those concerned with mental science. The book has been written in the hope of aiding an advance in the care of children, and in the practice of educational methods, by promoting a more exact study and classification of the children to be cared for and trained ; while giving an account of some conditions of childhood in its many varieties as seen from the stand- point of the observer who records what he sees as in other branches of physical science. For the purposes of observation, a clear account of the pomts to look at, what to look for, and what may be seen, normal or sub- normal, forms the alphabet of our subject. Child study has of late years been actively carried on in America and in other countries. The psychological researches of many American, and some English and German inquirers, are well known, and give most inter- VI PREFACE esting records of the sayings and doings of young chil- dren, and their modes of thought and expression. In the psychological laboratory investigation has shown something of the laws of mental fatigue, and the re- action of the senses on the brain. The application of such knowledge, however, as well as the means of devising special methods in training needs, as a scien- tific basis, a fuller understanding of the groups of chil- dren to be educated, and the means of discriminating and describing them. Considerable differences are to be found among observers, both in the purpose of their studies, the points of view from which their work is undertaken, and the methods of procedure and descrip- tion adopted. Problems in child study may be looked at from dif- ferent points of view ; as mainly psychological, or as mainly physical questions, with the determination to follow the methods of observation, and the modes of description used in the conduct of biological study and the physical sciences ; in the latter case it is important to describe phenomena by the use of terms indicating what we see and such as are employed in physical in- vestigation. I think the best results will be obtained by keeping the two methods distinct, and suggest that in the scientific (physical) study of children in their modes of brain-action, and bodily conditions, we should describe what we see, and employ no terms implying results of consciousness and states of feeling. Child I 1 PR r: FACE vii ymg :hild study conducted by any method is advantageous as directing attention to the individual child ; it increases knowledge of child life, and tends to cultivate a fellow- feeling with the child as an object of interest. I shall here use points for observation which I began to study twenty years ago, indicating brain-power and mental expression, such as render it possible to give descriptions of children, as of other living things, by describing facts seen. The study of such observations shows many new relations among growth, movement, and mental power. The principles used in biological study and natural history are here applied to child ^.tudy. In 1888 a committee was formed by the British Medical Association to study school children as to their mental and physical status, and in conjunction with medical men on that committee, and others, I was enabled to examine individually 100,000 children upon a fixed plan, taking a written description on a schedule for each child in any one point subnormal, or reported by the teacher as dull or backward. Groups of boys and girls can be studied when their classification is arranged on a basis of points observed in individual children. Observation shows the child's strong points w^hich should be cultivated, as well as his weak ones which must be combated. The interaction of classmates on one another may be ob.served by the teacher who observes the individual child under varied • •• Vlll PRbirACE conditions. The importance of what have been called eye-mindedne?s and ear-mindedness, as well as action of the hand controlled through the eye, becomes emphasised to the mind of the observer. Some generalisations, in the form of Propositions concerning Childhood, are given in the last chapter ; it seems possible to attain a working consensus in inter- preting much that we see for the practical purposes of education and the care of children. When the groups of children to be cared for are clearly discriminated, the educational methods needed for each can be more readily worked out. Studies in psychology often emphasise the great mental differences among children ; observation of the children themselves shows points of resemblance and difference, normal and subnormal, by which they may be grouped and compared. F. W. 5 Prince of Wales Terrace, Kensington, \V. London. NOTE OF EXPLANATION In case the system of grading pupils by Standards in use in the London schools in which Dr. Warner made his examinations is not perfectly familiar to all his readers, it should be stated that bright children at six years of age should be found in Standard I. ; at seven in Standard II. ; at eight in Standard III. ; at nine or ten in Stand- ard IV. or V. ; at eleven or twelve in Standard VI. or VII. Possibly the majority of children will he from three to six months behind this estimate. 1 CONTENTS CIIAPrKR I Introductory The i)urposcs of education. The children to he ediicatcih Chihl study. Classitication in the schoolroom. Observation {^ives ])o\ver. I'raining to observe. Observing and descriltiiig a flower. A kitten as a live object. Tarts of the object ol)serveil; the body, movements, i'roublesome children. Training to look, observe, and describe. Mind and body. A nervous child, nuutal c(jnfu- sion. IMiysical facts observed. Varieties of childhood. Classiti- cation of children as to their difTicult points; as to their make. Report on a school. Visit to a high school; the boys seen; nerve- signs. Illustrative cases. PACK 1 CHAPTER II The Body of the Chh.d: its Construction and Growth The infant, weight and measurements. The head and the nose. Head at nine months. Teething; second teetli. Tal)le 1, show- ing periods of dentition. The head at school age. The lower jaw. The eyes and their orbits. The face, its muscles, and muscles of expression and of mastication. Tlushing. Openings for eyes. The nose; its importance in l)reathing. Mouth breathing; its harm. External ears. The trunk ; sjiine and chest. The arm, forearm, wrist, and hand. Measuring the cliest. (Jirl outgrows the boy about the thirteenth year. Weighing and mea.i;iring. Crowth and development. Signs of good nutrition, tlyes out of focus. Hat eyes (hypermetropia). Tong eyes; short-sighted. Squint- ing. Testing sight; point of near vision. Testing hearing. Tables. ix i6 X COXTKNTS CHAITKK III The Brain: its Develoi'mkni and Kvoi.ution .... Description of the brain. Nerve-cells; nerve-fibres, nerve-force, and nerve-currents. Movement resviltiiig from brain-action. Anal- ogy to a galvanic cell. Xerve-lil)rts passing up tu the brain, and others passing from it to the muscles. Diagram of brain, nerves, and muscles. Nerve-centres or parts of l)rain act separately. Kvery movement is due to action of a nervc-centic. A series of movements indicates a series of nerve-centres acting, controlled through the senses. Stimulation producing movement. .\11 expression of the action of mind is by movement. Kxprcssiun of emotions. A child in sleep. lkain-actiiana. Nervous hand-posture. I'.nergetic hand, the two contrasted. Hand-postures express mental state. Drooping the thumb. Hand in rest; feeble han(l-p(jsture. H;. " 1 in fright. Convulsive hand. The Cain antl Niobe at 1-lorence. Postures observed in parts that are free, as face and hand. Obser- vation of movements; lingers, large parts. Prain-centres in action corresponding. A long-continued, similar series of acts fatigues. Occupations involving movements of small parts. Symmetry of balance and movement. Antithesis of posture. Principles for classilication of movements. Spontaneous and stimulated move- ment; reflex movement. Series of movements; uniform, sprearl- ing area, diminishing area, or as adapted by circumstance. Try to improve the child's expression. PAC.E 69 CHAPTER VI Points for Observation, indkaiinc; r"Ari,r.s in Budyor Brain- action, OR A SlATlS HEI.OW THE XORMAL Description of card for recording defects. Cranium : large, small, bossed, forehead defective, frontal ridge. External ear. Eyelids. Palate, narrow, V-shaped, arched, cleft. Nose. Growth small. Other defects in development : face small; features plain; hands blue; mouth small; eye-openings small. Abnormal nerve- signs. General balance. Expression. Irontals. Corrugation. 97 Xll CONTENTS PAGE Fulness under eyes. Kye-movements. llcail-l)alancc. Hand- balance weak, nervous. I'inger twitclit's. l,t)rdosis. Other al)nor- mal nerve-signs. Dcariuss. (irinning. ()ver-m(>l)ility. Response faulty. Speech; stammering. Two cases of stammering. cHArriCK vii EXA.MINATION OF MkMAI. AIMI.ITY ANK I UK FaII IS THAT MAY BE OHSKHVEI) 119 Examination by speaking, reailiiig, talking. ICxpression in words. Repetition of the (lucstion : imitation and (K l,\yed mental action. Limited vocabulary : aiticulatioii; spacing words. Social sense. Memory. Arithmetic. ('om])arison of size and form. Imitation of movements : linger cxrrcises for imitation, .\nalogous modes of movement aMol o- ;n I LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PICURB I. The muscles of expression in the face. After Sir Charles Hell The spine, chest, antl bones of the upper extremity. After Sir Charles Hell 5 6 7 8 9 lo II 12 13 14 1 6 17 i8 19 nerves m Hones of the forearm : the radius ami ulna. After Sir Charles Hell Diagrammatic representation of the brain and its connection with the eye, the ear, and the muscles Hand in straight balance .... Hand in nervous l)alance .... Diana. British Museum .... Hand in energetic balance Hand in straight balance with tliunib drooped Hand in balance of rest .... Hand in fright Convulsive hand Cain. Museum, Florence Face : showing complete paralysis on the right si le Face : showing partial paralysis of the right side disease Face : showing partial paralysis on the left side Hand in feeble balance Imbecile, smiling ...... The same: quiescent and expressionless . from brain PACB 21 23 24 37 68 8o 8i 82 83 84 85 85 86 108 109 no III 112 "3 XVI LIST OF I'AHLKS tell irles PACB 21 23 3 II ain 24 37 68 80 81 82 83 84 8S 85 86 108 109 no III 112 "3 lAill.K i. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Slu.wing perio.ls of tifiitition Showing average l.eiglits an20 jars 32 of y t. See Table V. The head has acquired a distinctive shape, expanding from the base at the level of the ears, its widest diameter being behind the situation of the ears, but with good expanse of forehead. The head contains the bony skull, the upper part of which forms the brain-case. The lower jaw is the only part of the skull that can move separately from the rest. This bone is jointed on to the skull ; it is depressed when the teeth are separated, and brought up again by the muscles when the mouth is closed ; the lower jaw can be moved up and down as well as laterally in mastication. The eyeballs are set in their sockets or cavities in the skull, called the orbits, resting among the fatty tissue which supports them. The movements of the eyes are produced by small muscles attached to the eyeball and arising from the walls of the orbit. These muscles are supplied by three different pairs of nerves from the brain. If the fat in the orbit be diminished in quantity, the eyeball s'.nks further into the orbit ; if it receives more blood, it swells up and pushes the eyeball more forward. The coloured portion of the eye is called the iris ; it is a muscular curtain with a hole in the centre which appears black : this aperture is called the pupil, and may contract or become very large. In description we must not con- fuse the eyeballs with the eyelids, which frame the openings for the eyes. The face consists of the soft parts which lie in 20 THK STUDY Ol' CHILDRKN front of the skull ; under the skin there is a layer of fat, and muscles passing in various directions which, being attached to the skin, move it and produce the expression of the face. A circular muscle surrounds each of the op'^n'^ . of the face: the circular muscle around each eye-opening is called the orbicularis oculi ; when it contracts, the eyelids are closed : the mouth is closed in th-^ same way. These muscles, when stimulated b itic nerves from the brain, move the face, as will be xpluUied in the next chapter. Two pairs o' rnuL- ^.os in ttiv ' "'^:head are of special interest to us: the fronlai ri^^i.-c : are placed verti- cally and by their contraction raise the eyebrows and produce horizontal creases in the skin of the forehead ; the corrugators are two small muscles, placed in a horizontal position in the middle part of the forehead which, when they contract, draw the eyebrows together, producing vertical creases in the mid-frontal region. Two pairs of muscles seen in the face are concerned in mastication, rather than with expression : these are called the masseters — they are situated about the angle of the jaw on either side ; and the temporals, which are placed at the side of the head, in those parts called the temples. If you strongly clench your teeth, you will feel these muscles become hard as they contract and swell out. All these structures which make up what is called the face are supplied with THE BODY OF THE CHILD 21 I I Fig. I. — Muscles of Facim, Extrkssion. — From Sir Charles Bell's .-/wa^ omy and Fhilosophy of Expression, Third Edition (Bohn Library), AA The frontal muscle. BB The corrugator muscle. It is inserted into the integument under the eye- brow. It lies nearly transversely, and its office is to knit and draw the eyebrows together. CC The circular muscle of the eyelids (orbicularis palpebrarum). DEL Muscles moving the nostrils. A'A' The circular muscle of the mouth and lips. Its office is to close the lips; ill excessive action it produces pouting. HH The zygomatic muscle. It is inserted at the angle of the mouth ; by its action its widens the mouth, as in grinning. NN Depressor labiorum. It depresses the angles of the mouth; other mus- cles of expression are also represented. 22 TIIK srUDY 01" CHILDREN U i blood-vessels, and the quantity of blood in them is also under brain control, through ;i nerve called the sympathetic. When much blood lushes to the face, the child is said to blush ; when the sympathetic nerve allows but little blood to par.s into it, the face is pale. The openings for the eyes (palpebral fissures) are placed between the upper and the lower eyelids ; the line joining the angles of the openings is horizontal. The nose has been referred to as a feature in the face. It is necessary to understand its importance as the proper entrance for the air breathed ; a free en- trance of air by the nose is important to the child, and a knowledge of some points in the structure of the nose, throat, and organ of hearing is necessary to our purpose. Air entering by the nose passes above the hard and soft palate to the back of the throat, where a tube (eustachian) leads air into the portion of the ear which is concerned in hearing. If there is any obstruc- tion to this free entrance of air, the child becomes deaf or dull of hearing. The nose is the proper way of entrance and exit for the air breathed, and the child should be able to breathe easily with the mouth closed and the lips together. If the child cannot breathe thus, but habitually keeps the lips parted, there is probably something wrong with the throat or nose. Such habitual mouth-breathing is very important; mouth-breathers need medical examination. THE BODY OK THE CHH.D 23 The external ears should be alike in form, and stand out but slightly from the head. The external ear con- sists of parts each of which should be present: the rim or margin curls over slightly ; in front of this is the pleat of the ear (antehelix) jutting out in front, and you will find it is thrust forward from the back; the lobe or drooping •portion of the ear should come below the point of attach- ment to the head. The trunk or body has a bony frame- work, of which the spine is the main prop or support. The spine consists of a number of small bones, united by pads of cartilage or soft material, which allow of a certain amount of movement in the column formed Fig. 2. — Bones of the Spine, Chest, Shoulder, Arm, and Hand. — From Sir Charles Bell's work on The Hand. »■ 24 THE STUDY OF CHILDREN by the bones, so that the spine can be bent to some degree forwards and backwards or laterally. The skull is jointed to the top of this column. The ribs are attached to the spine behind and to the breast bone in front, forming the walls of the chest. The chest and the important organs, the heart and the lungs, which it contains, grow as the child grows. The average chest girth for children at various ages is given in Table IV. It is very important that the chest should be free to move in breathing : it should never be compressed by the dress. Fig. 3. — The Radius and Ulna. — In this sketch, the upper bone of the forearm is the radius, and in revolving on the lower bone, the ulna, it carries the hand with it. — C. Bell. The arm or upper extremity consists of the blade bone placed over the back of the trunk ; the collar bone stretches horizontally from the blade bone to the breast bone, and helps to keep it in its proper place ; the arm is hung from this blade bone. The upper arm contains the bone called the humerus jointed at the shoulder to the blade bone. The forearm has two bones — the radius on the outer or thumb side, and the ulna on the inner side : these two bones are jointed THE BODY OF THE CHILD 25 to the humerus at the elbow, and allow of two kinds of movement. The elbow can be bent or, as we say, flexed, and it can be straightened or extended : a rota- tory movement or half a circle can also be performed at the elbow. When the palm of the hand is brought forward or laid upward, the forearm is said to be supine, and this movement is called supination ; when the back of the hand is brought forward, the movement is called pronation. This rotatory action at the elbow is due to movements of the radius on the humerus. The wrist is composed of eight small bones, and this joint allows of movements in all directions. The hand has four fingers and a thumb, spoken of collectively as the digits ; these are united to five bones, which form the palm of the hand and are jointed at the wrist. The palm of the hand can be moved at the wrist in flexion or extension as well as laterally ; it can also be contracted or screwed up by bringing the bones together, so as to form the hand like a cone. The digits can be flexed or ex- tended, and they can be moved laterally. These parts have been particularly mentioned be- cause we are concerned with their separate movements. When we look at a child we see these parts clothed with their muscles and soft tissues, and covered with skin ; we observe the members, their form and pro- portions, and in some degree we judge of the develop- ment and state of nutrition of the child by such facts. 26 THK STUDY OK CHILDKKN When examining a child, you should, if possible, weigh him and measure his height and chest girth, and also test sight and hearing. In taking a chest measurement let the child stand with his arms hanging by his sides, and make him count aloud the while to assure he is not holding in his breath. The measur- ing tape is then passed horizontally round the child on a level with the breast, and the number of inches in girth is recorded. With growth from infancy the child becomes taller and increases in weight; this is shown in Table II., copied from Dr. Bowditch's article on the growth of children whom he measured in Boston.^ It is here necessary to consider the boys and the girls separately and to compare them in age groups. It is interesting to note that, though at earlier ages the boys are on the average taller and heavier than the girls, yet at 13 to 14 years the girl outgrows the boy in each par- ticular : after this age the boy again grows quicker to the stage of full development. Children are best weighed in the morning in their ordinary indoor clothes, and measured in their stock- ings, without boots. The average increase in height and weight is given in Table III., to which reference will again be made in Chapter X. Growth, however, is not simply indicated by the 1 See the Annua/ Report of the State Board of Health, Massachusetts, tSjj. TllK HODV OK TIIK CHILD V on at par- te he height, chest measurement, and weight of the child ; he may grow well developed or badly developed. A boy may be tall and heavy, yet not well developed in body and in features. It will be shown upon ample evidence from my observations, that defective physi- ognomy in make and proportioning of the features is apt to be accompanied by low brain-power with de- fective nutrition in after life. To study the general character of the development of the child's body the separate features of the face must be observed. You want to know, as to the child's body, not only whether it is well grown and well developed for his age, but also whether he shows the indications of a well- nourished and healthy body in hi^ physical life, as apart from his brain condition and mental power. Do not be guided in making your observations by indications of poverty, but satisfy yourself by what you see, that the child is not pale, thin, or delicate. The following points may help you : look at the face as to colour ; do not mistake a fair complexion with light hair and blue eyes for paleness, or a dark complexion for its absence. Look also at the colour of the lips, and the colour seen through the finger-nails, which disappears upon pressure. A pale child may flush in the face, but such flushing is temporary. When you note the colour of the lips and skin, as signs of the general nutrition, observe also the hair and the eyes ; when these are dark, it is owing to the amount of pigment 28 THE STUDY OF CFIILDREN I in these structures, and then the skin is usually darker in its tint. Observe whether the colour comes and goes ; such changes are due to the action of the nerve- system on the blood-vessels. If there be permanent paleness, it may be due to a poor state of the blood, called anaemia ; then the child is out of health. A pale child may flush much. Defectiv^e colon: may be due to ill feeding, to living in rooms badly ventilated, hot and close, or too dark. The fulness, fatness, or plumpness of the child may not be alike all over the body. The face may be fairly full, while the limbs are thin. This is particularly the case In the nervous children, in whom the body weight may at times fall rapidly, dropping one or two pounds a week without any disease or even any failure of ap- petite ; this is a condition in which a child commonly develops chorea (St. Vitus's dance); as the body weight drops, the face may continue to be the best nourished part, but the child is apt to become more infantile and over-mobile ; is is specially apt to occur in girls. Weigh- ing the child will add accuracy to your observations. The eye may have a wrong focus. The eyeball is an optical instrument, which if properly arranged produces a clear picture of objects upon the retina, which is the sensitive layer at the back of the eye ; it is something like the camera of the photographer, but its focus must be properly adjusted to produce clear sight : if the eye is out of focus, sight will be defective. There are I THE BODY OF TFIE CHILD 29 r\. two principal forms of badly built, badly proportioned eyes : — 1, The small flat eye. (Hypermetropia.) 2. The long eye, which causes short sight. (Myopia.) The small flat eye is irregularly developed or propor- tioned at birth, the condition is congenital ; it is under- sized and the condition is often inherited. It does not produce clear pictures on the retina, and the focussing apparatus (muscle of accommodation) is strained, to pro- duce clear vision of the letters in a book. This may lead to headaches or to squinting. Squinting is usually due to the eye being small and flat ; such children, when old enough, should be provided with proper spec- tacles, and they should always use them when reading or writing. The eye too long from front to back leads to such bad focussing that vision is indistinct and the child near-sighted. This condition is not found at birth, though the tendency to short sight may be inherited ; it usually develops during school life, and is in part preventable by the use of glasses and attention to the position of the child when at work. Do not let chil- dren bend over their desks ; still, remember that the short-sighted child cannot sit up and see his book on a flat desk. To save children from becoming short- sighted, prevent them from using their eyes too long and too closely on near objects. The boy should sit up well, with his head upright and his eyes at least twelve 30 THE STUDY OF CHILDREN li It ' In inches from his book ; the desk should have a sloping top, and the seat must be properly adjusted to his height : books of bad type should always be avoided, and the light should be sufficient, especially at night. Each child should be tested as to sight when he enters the school and at least once a year afterwards. A set of printed type should be provided for the pur- pose: such are published, and arranged as to the size of the letters so that with clear vision each line can b«j seen at the distance named on the sheet ; this should be hung on the wall in a good light. A child, standing j at the proper distance, should be able to read the letter;; readily : test each eye separately, covering the othe.r with a card in front of it ; if the child cannot thu.* see the letters with each eye, there is some defect of sight. Again : let the child stand and look at a small coin held before his face two feet from his nose ; if you see that his eyes then turn inwards with the appearance of a slight temporary cast or squint, he probably has flat eyes (hypermetropia) and requires convex glasses. You may test hearing by your watch or by your voice. In using your watch ascertain previously how far from the head it can be heard by persons with good hearing ; use a measuring tape, holding one end against the ear and the other at the watch. Direct the child to close his eyes, and hold a sheet of paper or a fan to prevent him from seeing the watch, while you make h THE BODY OK THE CHILD 31 '<7. him close the openinf:^ of the other ear, which you are not testing. Carry your watch to different distances from the side of his head, square with it, not in front of him. When he says he hears the watch, note the distance, move it to a further distance, and then back again to the former place, and see if he adheres to what he said before : test him thus several times and examine each ear separately, noting the greatest distance of hearing with each ear. TABLE n. Showing Avkkagk Heic;hts and Weights of Boston School Chh.dren of American Parentage After Dr. Bowditch. See Annual Report of the State Hoard of Health, Massachusetts, 1877. Height taken without shoes ; weight in ordinary dress. Boys Girls Inches Pounds 41.20 Inches Pounds 5 years 41.74 41.47 39.82 6 " 44.10 45-14 43.66 43.81 7 " 46.21 19-47 45.94 48.02 8 " 48.16 54-43 48.07 52.93 9 " 50.09 5997 49.61 57.52 10 " 52.21 66.62 5'.78 64.09 11 " S4.0I 72.39 53-79 70.26 12 " 55-78 79.82 57-16 81.35 ,3 u 58-17 88.26 58.75 91.18 14 » 61.08 99.28 60.32 100.32 «5 •' 62.96 110.84 61.39 108.42 16 " 65.58 123.67 61.72 112.97 17 " 66.29 128.72 61.99 115.84 18 " 66.76 132.71 62.01 115.80 32 THE STUDY OF CHILDREN Testing with your voice has the advantage that if the child repeats what you say you know that he heard you. You should stand a distance of several yards from the child, while he keeps his eyes shut ; he must not see your face, as he might read the sound from your lips ; test first both ears together, then one at a time. An audible whisper may be heard much farther than the ticking of the watch ; according to Mr. T. Mark Hovell, whispered speech should be heard at about twenty-five yards. To pronounce single words is better than to ask a question, which may be guessed at. TABLE HL Showing the Annual Increase in Height and Weight After Dr. Bowditch. Vi'tie ante. Boys Girls Age Last Birthday Inches Pounds Inches Pounds 5 years — — — — 6 2.36 3-94 2.19 3-99 7 2.II 433 2.28 4.21 8 1.95 4.96 2.13 4.91 9 1.93 5-54 1.54 4-59 lO 2.12 6.65 2.17 6.57 II 1.80 5-77 2.01 6.17 12 1.77 7-43 3-37 11.09 13 2.39 8.44 1.59 9.83 14 2.91 11.02 '•57 9.14 »5 1.88 11.56 1.07 8.10 l6 2.62 12.83 •33 4.55 17 •71 505 .27 2.87 i8 " •47 3-99 .02 0.04 I f THE BODY OF THE CHILD 33 TABLE IV. Showing Measure.\ients of Chest Girth in Children at Ages Corresponding After Dr. C. Roberts' observations on the English artisan class. Age Last Average Chest Age Last Average Chest Birthday Girth in Inches Birthday Girth in Inches 5 years 21.40 13 years 25.24 6 " 21.68 14 " 26.28 7 " 22.54 15 " 27-5 » 8 " 23.09 16 " 28.97 9 " 23-79 17 " 29.38 lO " 24.08 18 " 30.07 II " 24-34 19 " 30.56 12 " 2493 20 " 30.86 TABLE V. vShowing the Average Weight of the Brain of Children in Ounces Avoirdupois After Dr. Boyd, as observed by him in 2030 cases, London. See Dr. Thurman's article on Weight of the Brain, Journal of Mental Science, 1866. Males Females New born 11.67 17.42 21.30 27.40 33-25 38.70 40.23 45-96 48.54 10.00 Under 3 months From 3 to 6 months From 6 to 12 months From I to 2 years From 2 to 4 years PVom 4 to 7 years From 7 to 14 years From 14 to 20 years 1594 19.76 25-70 29.80 34-97 40.11 49.78 43-94 ■I I CHAPTER III The Brain : Its Development and Evolution We now pass on to consider the brain itself, its func- tions, and the signs of its action. The brain is a part of the body hidden from our view, and enclosed in its bony case in the head. The brain of the child is care- fully protected from injury, being surrounded by deli- cate membranes and a slight layer of fluid ; it is well supplied with blood, which circulates and supplies it with needful nourishment. The brain is a soft and delicate structure, seated in the brain-case, and carefully protected ; it consists es- sentially of two kinds of material, the nerve-cells and the nerve-fibres. The nerve-cells are the makers of nerve-force when duly nourished ; for their proper nutrition they need a good supply of blood in their vessels. A nerve-fibre passes off from each cell and conveys the force generated in it, which is then called a nerve-current; there are millions of such cells in the structure of the brain. When the nerve-force generated by a nerve-cell is carried by a fibre to a muscle, say in the face, or in the limbs, this nerve- current causes the muscle to contract or shorten, and THE IJRAIN 35 visible movement results ; the movement being pro- duced by the force sent from the nerve-cell. The movement seen indicates to us the time and quantity of the discharge of force from the nerve-cell : such a movement is conveniently called a nerve-muscular movement. The substance of the brain is thus mainly made up of groups of nerve-cells, many of which are connected with one another by nerve-fibres, while many of them are connected with the muscles of the body, and send nerve-currents to them, thus causing the movements of the face and limbs. The nerve-cell generates force iis the outcome of its nutrition, and may be compared to a galvanic cell which generates electrical force as the outcome of chemical action taking place in it. The electrical force formed in the galvanic cell may be conducted to a distance by a wire, and if this end be connected with a galvanometer, it may produce movement of its needle at a distance from the bat- tery. If several electrical cells be connected together in series by means of wires, the force generated by one cell is communicated to the next, and increases the strength of the current circulating in the wire that passes off from the battery ; this force may be dis- tributed to parts at a distance fror its origin. As time goes on, the strength of the battery will run down, the chemical action in it lessens, the mate- rial in the battery is used up, and no more force is sent 36 THE STUDY OF CHILDREN 111 I .i,. out till the materials in the cell are renewed. Simi- larly : while the brain is giving out force, it must be replenished by nutrition, or it will run down and be less capable of producing energy after a short time ; it will then need food and rest, and the stimulus which aids brain-nutrition. I have spoken of the nerve-cells of the brain as being connected with one another, and with the muscles of the body, which produce movements of its parts. It must now be explained that there are other nerve- fibres which connect the organs of special sense — the eye and the ear, etc., and the skin all over the body — with the cells of the brain, and convey cur- rents of force from these parts, respectively, to the cells of the brain ; such nerve-fibres are called afferent, because they convey currents upwards to the nerve- system ; in distinction from these, the fibres which convey currents from the nerve-cells to the muscles are called efferent. The fibres, which pass in both directions, are collected into bundles or strings, and are commonly called the nerves of the body ; the in- going or afferent nerves convey stimuli to the brain, the outcoming or efferent nerves carry motor currents from the nerve-cell ;> to the muscles. Figure 4 may explain further what has just been said : the brain is represented by the shading as divided into areas A, B, C, D, E, which can act more or less independently ; each area or section of I I THE BRAIN 37 brain is represented as connected by nerve-fibres with a muscle corresponding. Plach section of brain may receive a stimulus from the eye or the ear. The representation is purely diagrammatic, for the B _C O^ Fig. 4.— Diagrammatic Rki'reskntation of the Brain and its Nerves in connection with the Eye, the Ear, and the Muscles. sake of clearness of description. The brain-areas A, B, C, D, £ each receive nerve-fibres carrying im- pressions from the eye and the ear, so that they can separately be stimulated by sight and sound. 38 THE STUDY UK CIIILDKEN '; ' ■ Fibres pass from each brain-area to the muscles a, if, c, (/, f, respectively; when A is stimulated, the muscle a contracts; if the centre E be stimulated, the corresponding muscle c contracts, and so for each centre and muscle respectively ; the muscle is the visible index of nerve-currents proceeding from its own centre. If we see the muscles a, b, contract at the same moment, that indicates that the centres Ay B acted together. If you sec my arm move, you know this means that the muscles of my arm are contracting, and that this is due to currents of nerve-force passing out to them from certain nerve-cells by means of the efferent or motor nerves. Place an orange in front of a child ; then you will see his head and eyes turn towards it, next his hand is moved over the orange, his fingers are closed over it, and it is seized. This series of movements is due to a series of nerve-currents passing from the nerve-cells to the muscles of the parts moving ; this series of nerve- currents from the nerve-cells to the muscles follows the impression produced upon the brain, by the sight of the orange, or, by the afferent currents passing from the eye to the brain, and these are stimulated by the light reflected from the orange. Many parts of the brain can act separately : every movement corresponds to the action of a certain portion of the nerve-system, or, as we call it, nerve- THK HkAIN 39 centre. It is probable that every movement indi- cates the discharge of force from a certain area of nerve-substance, and that such discharge of force necessitates not only a supply of good blood to that piece of nerve-tissue, but also that the nerve-tissue shall be stimulated by some force. Stimulation is necessary to movement as well as a supply of blood to the nerve-centre ; sights and sounds are the more common stimuli to movements. Important as the functions of the brain are, and much as we desire to study its action, there is only one way in which we can watch the effects of its working, and that is, by the movements which it produces in the parts of the body by its action on the muscles. All movements in the body are pro- duced by the action of the nerve-system upon the muscles ; this is very important to remember. Hence, we shall have much to say about movements, the outcome of movements, and mobile expression as signs of brain-action and the brain-condition. ^ It may occur to you that, as much has been said by physiologists about the connection between the mind and the brain, we might study mental action as signs of brain-action. Let me make an assertion, and then support it by illustrations. All expression of the action of mind is by nwvevicnt, and the results ')f movement. A child is at lessons, he repeats what ^ See author's work on " Anatomy of Movement." 40 THE STUDY OK CHILDREN he has been taught, accompanied by gestures or movements ; his speech is produced by the movements of his chest, larynx, and the parts used in articula- tion. The written exercise is the outcome of the movements of his hand acting upon the pen. His intelligence may be shown in a game, in the house he builds with his bricks, or in the paper-folding which he does so neatly with his fingers ; in all such cases the signs of the action of mind are the move- ments produced by the brain. The general condition of the nerve-system is ex- pressed by motor signs — freshness, fatigue, irritabil- ity, may all be indicated to us by the movements of the child, the absence of movements, or by the atti- tudes or postures of the body, which depend upon motor action. Examples will be given in Chapter V. The expression of the emotions is by the action of the brain upon the muscles of the body, and their contractions produce the signs which indicate to us what are called the emotions of the mind. We shall here ?*-udy movements produced by the brain, not mind itself, in the child. Look at a child before he wakes in the morn The body is quiet; if you raise his hand gently, it falls lifeless — no muscular energy is being expended. The body is motionless in full sleep, except for the movements of breathing, which are quiet, regular, uniform. If sleep is full and complete, on raising THE BRAIN 41 the eyelids the pupils iire seen to be very small or eontracted. The body and brain are in complete rest ; in a healthy, well-fed child the whole system is in the state of quiet nutrition of organic life ; no currents are beinj? generated by the brain in j)erfect, dreamless sleep. As time goes on, you hear sounds in the house which send currents from the child's ear to his brain ; we then see some movements of the limbs — the elbows, wrists, and fingers move. Soon all is seen to be quiet again in the limbs — sleep continues, and the brain rests and grows without expending force. As sounds grow stronger in the house, and the light pours in between the opened curtains, you may again see movements in the limbs, and the eyelids open ; the pupils now dilate ; the brain becomes active, indicated by movements in the limbs and face, as the child sits up. Nerve-currents are now passing from the brain to the muscles. Before school he is full of movement ; limbs, fingers, head, eyes, are all moving, owing to spon- taneous brain-activity. As he stands in his place, and the teacher calls for attention, we see him .still and quiet (or at least that is desired), and the teacher tries to control his brain-action under instruction. Spon- taneous brain-action will be shown to be the basis I'non which you work in producing mental aptitude; i must be coordinated or regulated, but so as not to ostroy spontaneity. Two circumstances are necessary in order that a 42 THE STUDY OF CHILDREN l;'ii I nerve-centre may produce action of the muscles and movement, — it must be nourished by good blood, and it must receive some stimulus. This gives us the clue as to how we must act upon the brain of the child : there are two ways, — by feeding it and by stimulating it through the organs of sense. Brains do not grow by feeding only ; they must be impressed or stimu- lated from without; hence the importance of good education as an aid to brain-development. Feeding the child often lessens spontaneous movements, when they are in excess ; fresh air may have a similar effect ; various modes of stimulating a child through the eye and ear may control spontaneous movements, but these must be used with due caution. Do not stop a child's movements unless you know why you do so. You should no more wantonly arrest a child's movements with- out due cause than throw a stone at an animal without cause, or destroy a flower because you do not see any use in it. This should be known by those who con- fine the hands and feet of little infants under bulky and cumbersome clothes. Children should have their hands free, and not carry bags and books, and should not be compelled to stand in class with their hands behind them. Common observation of a healthy young infant shows abundant spontaneous movement in all parts of the body while he is awake. Look at a well-nour- ished baby, say seven days old, as he lies on his nurse's Tllfc: BRAIN 43 lap, unfettered by clothes. Movements are seen in the limbs, especially in the fingers and toes ; the move- ments are slower than most of those seen in adults, and are apparently spontaneous and irretrular, occur- ring in no special order, uncontrolled by external stimu- lation, and are not directly useful to the ctiild. A short period of wakefulness is, at this early age, usually followed by sleep, indicated by subsidence of all move- ments except those of breathing, and the eyelids are closed. The movements of the chest in breathing are estab- lished at birth, and continue without interrui)tion. The child cries when cold, and when food has been with- held more than two hours. Contact of an object with the lips stimulates the movements of sucking ; a strong light causes closure of the eyelids ; and if the eyelid be raised, the pupils are contracted by the light. In an infant a few hours old, the rxctempt to straighten the elbow, when flexed, may be strongly resisted. Spontaneous movements may likewise be seen in young animals. Charles Darwin has shown that in young seedling plants the root, the seedling leaves, and the head of the plant move much, as growth takes place, though the movement is slow. This is due to unequal growth of the cells of which the young plant is built up. Spontaneous movements, thus universal at birth, must have some important signification ; they do not 44 THE STUDY OF CHILDREN It'' appear to produce any direct effect upon the body of the infant and do not supply him with food or minister to his wants. Each movement seen corresponds to action in a nerve-centre of the brain ; the mass of movements cor- responds to a mass of nerve-centres in action. Further, these movements, as far as we can see, are not at birth controlled through the senses. We conclude that in the very young infant the brain-centres act separately and independent of special stimulation, if he is healthy, well made, and well nourished. It may be said that at birth the infant does not show the faculties of mind, because we do not see that he is controlled through the senses by sight and by sound : his hands do not move towards objects placed within his field of vision. When a month old, movements appear in the face, first about the mouth, later in the forehead. The limbs move with more force, they are moved in a greater degree, and begin to effect some mechanical results : an object placed in the hand is grasped by the fingers, and movements of the elbow carry the object to the mouth, but soon spontaneous movements return, the fingers open, and the object falls from the hand. When the infant is three months old, we may observe some control of movements through the senses, and the head may turn towards a bright light ; still we do not see the hand move straight towards an object Vv^ithin the field of vision, and when a part of the body is I I I THE BRAIN 45 irritated the hand docs not move towards it. I have known a child in whom one leg was irritated, and the hand was not moved to scratch it, but the other leg moved up, and did so with the foot. Spontaneous movement remains as a marked character at this age, but sight of a bright object may temporarily arrest it ; this is the earliest indication of a brain-faculty that may develop into the power of attention. Later we see associated movements in such an act, as transferring an object from one hand to the other : as the muscles grow stronger the head is held up, when the body is supported, and the eyes are moved. At four or five months we find commencing signs of im- pressionability to stimulation through the senses ; sound and the sight of objects begin to control and regulate the spontaneous movement. At five months, further indications of the control of brain-action may be seen; the sight of a red box may momentarily stop all movements, and this may be fol- lowed in a few seconds by turning the head, eyes, and hands towards the object seen ; that is called a coordi- nated movement ; movement controlled through the eyes occurs after momentary arrest of spontaneous action in the brain. At three years of age much change has taken place in the brain as the body has grown: the child runs and talks or chatters. Spontaneous movement continues to a great extent, but action controlled through the senses 46 THE STUDY OF CHILDREN h\ I' :i is established, complex actions are performed, an im- pression received at one time may be retained and lead to special action at a later period. Case 12. A boy of three years went to sit on the bed of his mother, who was tired and ill. He played with some reins fastened to the end of the bedstead, which pleased him : next day he said to his mother, " You go and be nice ill ; I play horses." A brain-impression had been retained (memory), leading to his action. I dwell on the simple signs of brain-action in the infant, because they seem to afford a foundation for observation of the more complex functions of the brain of the child, as the processes of development or evolu- tion proceed. The infant at the earliest ages does not walk or talk, or turn his head and eyes towards objects ; movements are not modified in any marked degree by the action of light or of sound. The infant's brain is, in some respects, less impressionable than that of the adult, and the impressions are less retained. During the early months of infant life movements are the only signs of mental development. Compare the action seen at five months with that seen at birth ; spontane- ous movement continues, but is capabu of some control through the senses. It may be temporarily arrested by sight or sound, and this, after many repetitions, may be followed by new series of movements, occurring upon less and less stimulation, and with increasing quickness and accuracy, as time goes on. We infer a correspond- 1 i ;■ THE HRAIN 47 ing change in the nerve-centres or parts of the brain : it appears that, at birth, they act slowly and inde- pendently of one another, as far as we know without any order in their acting — and, at this time, this action is not determined through the senses. At the age of five months movement may be temporarily suspended, and during the time when no (efferent or motor) cur- rents are passing from the nerve-centres, they undergo some change, indicated subsequently by special combi- nations and series of movements, such as are commonly spoken of as commencing voluntary action. This appears to be a great advance in the infant's brain-evolution.^ When a year old, action well adapted by impressions received becomes very marked, and the child makes certain characteristic sounds on sight of certain objects; its spontaneous brain-action becomes more and more capable of coordination. It appears that, whereas at birth the most marked character of the nerve-centres is the spontaneous action of individual loci of nerve-tissue, this spontaneity is not lost, but remains in advancing evolution as the foun- dation of so-called voluntary and intellectual action, becoming more controlled by circumstances. Apti- tude for mental action appears to depend upon the capacity of nerve-cells (or control through the senses, such impressions temporarily inhibiting their spontane- 1 The Study of Cerebral Inhibition, " I'.rain," XMII., published by The Macmillar\ Company. I 48 THE STUDY OF CHILDREN I ftl- ity and arranging them functionally for coordinated action. In the imbecile infant action does not show this spontaneous movement (microkinesis) in the nor- mal degree ; its nerve-centres are wanting in sponta- neity, and later in capacity for coordination. It is not my intention here to branch off into the study of physiological psychology, but it is quite pos- sible to follow the apparent grouping of action in nerve-cells corresponding to many well-known modes of mental action. It may be shown that well-co- ordinated visible movements usually accompany well- controlled mental action, and that a spreading area of movement, not controlled, often accompanies men- tal confusion. This spontaneous movement, slightly under control, is the character of healthy brain-action of children in the infant school, so that postures are less available as signs among these very young children, and spon- taneous movement of their fingers is the normal action. The parts of the infant are then full of spontaneous movements ; an exception is in the eye movements, which are not frequent in many cases. One of the endeavours of infant training should be to encourage eye movements, then to control them. The most interesting signs of brain-condition are those which indicate to us the action of mind. One method of determining the signs of mind is to com- pare subjects, possessed of mind, with others, devoid THE BRAIN 49 of mind or nearly so. It will be granted that an infant at birth does not show well-marked signs of mind. The principal signs of mind are absent. An infant at birth may be said to possess none of the actual faculties of mind, although he is healthy; he may possess potentialities, but he shows no actual present signs of mind. An idiot, in growing up from infancy, does not show those signs, appropriate to his age, which indicate the functions of mind. The infant is said not to show actual signs of mind, though he may show potentialities. The infant at birth does not walk, talk, or turn his eyes and head towards a bright object within his field of vision ; movements are not modified, in any marked degree, by the action of light or sound, except that the eyelids contract spasmodi- cally in the light. The infant is, in some respects, less impressionable, and the impressions are less perma- nent than in the adult. We say that the new-born infant does not give ex- pression to the faculties of mind, because he does not present signs showing that he is impressed, even temporarily, by the sight of surrounding objects ; he does not move his hands towards objects within his field of vision, and no movements indicate that he is impressed thereby. Reflexes of sight and sound are almost entirely absent. The muscles of the face are seen to act earliest in the lower zone, those about the mouth causing expression before those on the fore- E 50 THE STUDY OF CHILDREN I ii head (corrugators), which seem to be specially con- nected with expression of mind. Now as to the child when four months old, we say that the attention is easily attracted, because the sight of objects and sounds causes the head to be moved (by reflex action) towards the light or source of sound. More than this, after the stimulus of the sight of an object has caused the head and eyes to be turned towards the object, the further stimulation of the brain may arrest all movement : this often happens when the attention is attracted. On the other hand, the sight of an object, after it has caused the head and eyes to be turned towards it, may increase the amount of movement in the child. Playfulness is probably the result of spontaneous movement, together with an increased susceptibility to reflex action. The ** playful child " has a happy face, owing to the healthy tone of the facial muscles and their nerve-centres. The following observation of a child eighteen mouths old, illustrates how the dawning intellectuality is indi- cated by the complication and fitness of certain sets of movements : — Case 13. The child, having both hands full of toys, desired to grasp a third ; he then put the toy from one hand quickly between his knees, and thus set one hand free to take hold of the desired object. The following kinds of movements as signs of a • THE URAIN 51 healthy infant brain deserve separate attention : move- ments following certain external agencies, light, sound ; movements, the outcome of the essential (untrained) properties of the nerve-mechanism ; movements result- ing from (training) the acquired association of nerve-cen- tres ; movements, similar to those previously occurring from a like cause, showing retentiveness ; movements in different areas, such as the small joints in contrast with large joints, or a different condition of movement of adjacent parts, such as the fingers. There may also be a symmetry of movements. m CHAPTER IV Observing the Child : What to look at and what to look for The training of children and the improvement in methods of education have become so important that there has arisen a general demand for exact knowledge as to the conditions of children at home and in the school. It is necessary that we should learn to study children in a scientific manner, that we may know how best to train their development in mind and body, and take our part in aiding them to grow up with a sound constitution and full mental power. The care of all classes of children is a very respon- sible work, demanding intelligent study and earnest care. It is not enough to study methods of education and school practice, the subjects to be taught and the methods of teaching them. Some knowledge of physi- ology is very useful ; but it is also necessary to observe and study the children themselves individually, and collectively in groups, that we may know their indi- vidual tendencies, good and bad, and that their ever- varying condition may be at once perceived. We should see the signs of fatigue before exhaustion and 5» .1 OBSERVING TIIF CHILD 53 . irritability are obvious in imperfect lessons and bad behaviour ; hence the necessity for an intelligent and precise knowledge of children enabling us to detect early signs of failure of strength and to classify them for the purpose of study. It seems to me very desirable, if not essential to the proper study of children, that we should form a judg- ment by the signs which we observe, not by the answers to questions put to the child as to his thoughts and re- specting health. I seldom ask a child if he has a head- ache, but often look for the signs of healthy brain strength and activity ; or of exhaustion, and direct indications of headache. Such observations may be made by any one who is in personal contact with children, by the mother among her children, or the teacher in the schoolroom. Let me give a few examples. At an elementary school I visited the girls in its highest standard, or grade, in company with some friends, and asked the teacher to point out, unknown to the children, those who gave most trouble. Among them were two small, but well- made children — the nerve-system in each was exhausted. Had this been known by those in authority, might not these children have been exempted from examination, and the teacher from the necessity to press them on, though still requiring their attendance at school .<* Case 14. In a high-class school, a boy presented a general good development, but his nerve-system was exhausted ; he had far too much movement, showing 54 THE STUDY OF CHILDRKN brain irritability. The master said he work. J well, but his father often expressed his desire that the lad might do more work, and rise in the school quickly ; the head- master wished the same. Here is a case where know- ledge of a precise kind, possessed by the master, would necessarily put power in his hands to act for the boy's real good. On the other hand, where development is slightly defective, but nutrition good, it is for the child's benefit that he should not be excused from due work, except when knowledge shows that the work is harmful. Regular and appropriate work is essential to due brain development and healthy growth. There are many points of view from which we may study children ; many lines of thought which may be followed. The method I would urge upon you is that of systematic ob.scrvation, — that which I want you to study is that which you actually see, apart from any in- ferences drawn from facts : it is essential, in scientific work, not to confuse what you see and what you believe to exist. Let us study the child as we see him, with the best powers of our mind, and careful earnest thought. To see the child well you need a good light ; do not touch him, but look without stating your purpose. It is desirable to prevent the child from looking straight at you, i.e. at your eyes ; for this purpose fix the child's eyes by telling him to look at some small object held in your hand, such as a shilling. Then you proceed to observe the head and the physiognomy of the individual UIJSERVING TIIK CHILD 55 features and their parts, the facial condition and expres- sion, the eye-mov'ements and other points in action. Let him hold out his hands in front, with the palms downwards, showin*^ him the position for a moment ; thus you can see how he responds to command and imitates your action, while you can observe the points described as " nerve-signs," indicating his brain status. Judging from the various points thus seen, and witiiout asking questions or speaking to the children, it is easy to group their conditions in various classes thus : — A. As to Development of the body and features. B. As to the Brain condition indicated by nerve-signs. C. As to Nutrition and health of body. Such observations may give new knowledge for your use. Those who acquire the most practical knowledge of childhood will, in the end, acquire power and success in the work of education and training. Here is a schedule form for use in describing sys- tematically what you see in a child : three headings. A, B, C, group the classes of points to be looked for. Under A, describe signs of development in the sepa- rate parts, and any special characteristics. Under B, note nerve-signs in parts of the body. Under C, the state of physical health and nutrition. Under School Report the mental and general char- acter is described ; and in the Report on the Child his mental and physical condition is briefly summarised. 56 THE STUDY OF CHILDREN SCHEDULE FOR REPORT ON A SCHOOL CHILD Number. Age last birthday. Name. Place in school A. Body : Develorment, features, etc. Head. Face. Ears. Nose. Palate. Growth. B. Nerve-signs : Postures, movements, action. Expression. General balance of body. Expression. O. Oculi. Eye-movements. Head-balance. Hands. C. Physical health and Nutrition. School Report. Report on Child. OBSERVING TI1I£ CHILD 57 As you look at the child, bear in mind the normal or healthy type of development ; fix in your mind an ideal of good form, so that your attention may be arrested by the sight of any point in form or action that is below the normal. Now, as to what to look at : there is each part of the body named in the schedule and described in Chapter II. The Head. — Look at the head full-face, carrying your eyes from ear to ear over the top of the head, following its curve and estimating its size ; again carry your eyes from one ear to the other in a horizontal line, looking first at the right ear and its parts, then at the right eye-opening, the bridge of the nose, the left eye- opening, and the ear. Looking at the profile, follow the bridge of the nose up the forehead, noting if it be nearly vertical, or slope backwards, then over the curve of the top of the head and down to the nape of the neck. You may thus inspect the head in its configura- tion and estimate its volume by inspection. Place your hand flat upon the child's head, with your fingers spread, and thus estimate its volume by feeling it, noticing its form and any lumps or ridges of bone. Then, if you think necessary, you can measure the head round with a tape. Measure carefully the greatest hori- zontal circumference round the forehead : taki jl trans- verse measurement from one ear-«'penin^ to the other over the top of the head , and a_;ain from thi- bridge of I 58 thp: study of children the nose over the top of the head to a projection you will feel at the back of the head just above the nape of the neck ; such measurements taken at intervals of a few months will enable you to appreciate growth and increase of volume of the head. As you look at children, observing their form, you will see some with a shapely, well-moulded head of good size, while others are ill-shapen or small ; the features may be well-cut or defective in form. Physiognomy is defined by Lavater as " the art or science of discerning the character of the mind from the features of the face." Such modes of study in- clude notice of such proportions of the head as the following: the height and width of the forehead, or its narrowness from temple to temple, and the shallow- ness from the hair margin to the eyebrows ; the great- est circumference of the head, which is something like 21 inches at eight years old, the measurement from ear to ear over the vertex being about 12 inches. The greatest transverse diameter of the head in a child is behind the ears , and the outline of face and head as seen full-tace should give the greatest trans- verse diameter high up, well above the cheek-bones in the part forming the brain-case. The facial angle is seen best in profile. In estimating the volume of the head, first look at it ; note its form, and not solely the circumference or other measurements. A further idea of its volume i OBSKRVIXt; HIE CHILI) 59 nuiy be gained by placing your hand on the head with your fingers open. Heads may be too large or too small; the forehead may present a lump on each side, or a ridge down its centre ; it may be shallow from above downwards, or narrow laterally. These defects of the head are of great importance, often being accompanied with a tendency in the child to be thin, deliccVte, and dull : much depends upon how ic treated at home and in school. At every possible opportunity observe the outline, form, and size of people's heads, paying special at- tention to the points mentioned ; study the physiog- nomy of children and persons known to you, and draw your own conclusion as to the value of your observations. Study also well-selected art representations of the human figure, in rest and in action, and learn from them the rule of perfection. In some school-rooms, photographs, engravings, and casts of the best an- tique statues are to be seen. I wish it were so in all cases, that we might learn from those who have long observed the hun.an body what is excellent in form and outline, as well as graceful in movement and attitude. The Face. — Looking at different types of faces, we are at once struck with the fact that the passive appearance of some expresses intellectuality, while others are marked by inborn vulgarity, apart from any spe* ill mobile expression. Elements contributing 6o THE STUDY OF CHILDREN to the low vulgar type are a narrow and receding forehead, a large, prominent under-jaw, thick lips, and a thick immobile make of skin. Such signs are, however, not to be trusted too far. The features, separately, may be well made with- out being proportioned to one another or rising well from the surface of the face. If the openings for the eyes and mouth are small in proportion to the face, it imparts a blank look. The size of the jaw- bones gives an appearance of firmness to the physi- ognomy, while either the upper or lower jaw-bones may be too small. If the upper-jaw is too small, the cheeks at this part are too close together, the palate is often narrow, and the teeth overcrowded. The Nose and the Palate are very noteworthy ; they are described in Chapter II. As a sign of develop- ment or make of body the form of the bony palate is only second to the head in importance. The mouth should be noted, when at rest, as to its size. A small mouth is a defect, and often accompanies throat obstruction leading to mouth-breathing. The Ears should be observed separately, noting their size and symmetry ; see if they lie fairly against the head and that ail parts are present in the ear as the) are described in Chapter II. The Growth of Body is estimated by the height and weight of the child as compared with the normal (see Table II.). OBSERVING THE CHILD 6i Passing from the observation of points indicating development in the body, we have to consider the nerve-signs, which indicate the make, status, and action of the brain and nerve-system : these are mainly post- ures or attitudes of the body or action and movement of its parts. Following the sub-headings of the Schedule, look at the general balance of the body, the face, eyes, head, and hands. The General Balance of the body of the child, when standing quietly, should be symmetrical, equal on the two sides, so that the shoulders are at the same level and the spine balanced straight ; while the feet are equally planted on the ground with the knees straight. When the arms are held out in front, symmetry should be maintained in the equal height at which they are placed with the elbows straight : no slouching or listless attitude. The Face and Expression. — The human face in its expression and movements is a most accurate index of the brain and of the nerve-changes in it, which corre- spond to the emotions, feelings, and thoughts. When we look at a face, we may observe its form, colour, and conditions of mobility. The general form and outline of the face are largely determined by the shape of the skull beneath. Either side of the face can move separately ; hence the necessity of observing whether a facial expression is symmetrical. The muscles that move the face are sufficiently ex- 62 THK STUDY (JF CIIILOKEN plained in Chapter II. ; their action in producing move- ment is caused by nerve-currents coming to them from the brain. The healthy normal face of a child is calm, without wrinkling or puckering in the forehead, and is alike in its action and expression on the two sides. It is convenient, for the purpose of description, to divide the face into three zones ; the frontal above the line of the eyebrows, with a middle zone separated from the lower by a line at the level of the lower margin of the orbits. To observe each in turn, hold a sheet of paper with one margin horizontal, leaving the forehead above th»5 eyebrows uncovered — this shows the upper zone; next view only that part of the face which is below the lower margin of the orbits, or sockets for the eyes, showing the mouth, the -"reater part of the cheeks, and the openings of ilie n^ se— this is the lower zone. Lastly the m.iddlc zone may be demonstrated alone by holding the horizontal m.argin of one sheet of paper so as to cover all above the eyebrows, and another sheet so as to cover all below the orbits, thus leaving to view the eyebrows, the eyelids, and eyeballs, with the bridge of the nose. By these methods you may readily examine the symmetry of a face, both as regards form and action, and you may also define the particular zone in which any mode of expression is seen. The greatest degree of expression is, I think, seen in I 1 I OBSERVING THE CHILD 63 ; I the frontal region, mainly produced by action of the frontal and corrugator muscles. In looking at the mid-zone of the head and face, the observer's eye traverses it from ear to ear, noting these features, the palpebral fissures, and the tone of the large orbicularis oculi muscles, the bridge of the nose both in its bone and soft tissues, as well as the eyeballs and their movements. Signs are given for each of the three zones. There are some special movements in each of the facial zones worthy of notice. In the upper or frontal zone the movements are almost always symmetrical or equal on both sides ; they may produce horizontal fur- rows, or vertical furrows with a drawing of the eye- brows together — the former is a movement not of an intellectual kind ; the latter is often highly expressive of mental action. In the middle zone the opening of the eyelids is usually equal on either side ; we shall find that in this region we may have marked indications of exhaustion of brain-action. The parts in the lower zone about the mouth move in eating and in speaking. The mouth can be widened, its angles may be drawn upwards or down- wards, and the upper lip may be raised at a point a little within the angle, s" as to uncover the canine tooth, as in sneering. Widening of the mouth is seen in laughter, when the angles are drawn some- 64 THE STUDY OF CHILDREN what Upwards, so also, to a less degree, in smiling. The circular muscle of the ..louth contracts in clos- ing the lips, and its action is excessive in pouting. The Eye-movements are of great interest. In ex- amining a child, notice whether the eyes follow ac- curately a small object you hold two or three feet in front of his face, as you move it from side to side, and up and down. The two eyes move together, so that, when one turns to the right, so does the other ; or, when one eye turns upwards, they both turn up equally. In looking at near objects, say at lo inches from the face, the eyes turn slightly but equally towards one another. Movements of the eyes are not equally common in all directions — more movements are horizontal than vertical; in turning the eyes to the right or left, there is no necessary movement of the eyelids ; the eyes turn towards objects, their muscle.'^ being stimulated by brain-currents which are generated by the sight of objects around. In observing movements of the eyes, notice whether they are obviously guided by the sight or sound of objects around, or whether it be not so. Movements of the eyes, not controlled as to their number and direction by obvious circum- stances, must be looked upon as signs of nervous- ness. Irregular movements of the eyes are common in children, and are very indicative of their brain- I <# OBSERVINC. THE CHILD 65 ^# condition : they may be looked upon aB analogous to spontaneous twitchings of the fingers. In these wandering, irregular movements of the eyes we find an illustration of a common law, that excessive movement is often an indication of weakness, not of strength ; the same thing is seen in the twitching movements of nervous children. Movements of the eyes in the vertical direction are accompanie(' by movements of the u])per eyelids, and very often the eyes and head move upwards together. The movements of the eyeballs are effected by small muscles attached to the eye and arising from the wall of the orbit ; these small muscles are sup- plied b) three different pairs of brain-nerves. The iris, or coloured portion of the eye, is a muscular curtain, with an aperture in its centre called the pupil, which m\y enlarge or contract. Light causes the pupil to contract; the pupil also contracts, when the eye is looking at near objects, dilating when looking into the distance. A widely dilated pupil may indicate a state of mental excitement; it is con- tracted in sleep. The Head, its Postures and Movements. — It is con- venient, for the purposes of description, to speak of three modes of movement of the head : flrxion and extension, i.e. bending forwards and backwards, as in nodding; rotation in a horizontal plane, the head re- F 66 THE STUDY OF CHILDREN maining erect, but the face turning to the right or the left side ; inclination, i.e. lowering one or other side of the head, so that the two ears are not on the same level and the eyes not in the same hori- zontal plane — inclination is said to be towards that side on which the ear is lowest. The only sym- metrical movements of the head are those of nod- ding and bending back the head. In a strong and healthy child the head is held erect unless some- thing changes its posture. A slight sound may cause rotation of the head ; a slight condition of weakness of the nerve-centres is indicated by drooping of the head. The posture or balance of the head may in- dicate the brain-condition. The simplest postures of the head are those called flexion and extension ; they involve equal action of both sides of the brain. The weight of the head makes it fall forward, if the muscles do not hold it up ; hence, as fatigue comes, and passes on to sleep, the head may fall more and more forward, till it is bowed on the breast. This bowed position of the head indicates something about the condition of the brain, but the posture is not solely caused by the brain-action. Do not let children, when writing, bend much over their desks — the face should be as nearly vertical as may be, and as far as possible removed from the horizontal. You may notice the drooped head and the stooping and spiritless gait of OBSERVlN(i 11 IK CHILD 6; a tired man, as comjjarccl with that of the same in- dividual when rested and refreshed. The head is seen firmly upri[;"ht in defiance, drooping in shame, and held on one side in nervous girls. The Hand. — The hand in its balance and movement is second only to the face in importance as an index of brain-action. In observing it for this purpose, the liand should be held out free in front of the body, not engaged in holding anything, but simj)ly balanced, as the brain controls the muscles. I have described eight typical hand-postures : two of these will be given among abnormal nerve-signs. When the hands are held out to command, the average balance is with both upper extremities horizontal on a level with the shoulders, the hands turned palm downwards, the width of the chest apart, the elbows being quite straight. The arm and the hand and its parts being all balanced in the same plane, the palm of the hand spread flat, and the fingers and thumb straight with the palm. In observing a child, I say to him, " Put out your hands with the palms downwards and spread the fingers." The movements and balance of action in the parts of the arm can thus be seen under favour- able circumstances. A strong and healthy child, say of five years old and upwards, will hold out his hands fairly straight with the arm and shoulder ; the limbs may not be held quite at the same level — the left is often a little weaker and is held a little lower than the IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 I.I »'.5 ill 11112.5 22 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 .4 6" - ► m >Vm / "■^ "> '%