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Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., ^uvent dtre filmds d des taux de reduction diffdre i<». Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reprodult en un seul clichd, il est filmd <^ partir de Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m6thode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 PHI AUTUOft OF '< KA.MIL ^UTHORIZ ^ ^ Ji h I s n FIRST BOOK OK ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, ' il' FOR \ SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. WITH EIGHT Y-TIIRKE E.NGRAVINGS. By CALVIN CUTTER, M.D., AUTHOR OK "ANATOMY, I'lIYSIOLOOY, AND IIVUIENK, KOR fOLLKUKS, ACADE.MIiW, AM. FAMILIES ;" 'SECOND BOOK ON ANATOMY, 1M1Y8I0L00Y, AND IIYOIEXK, TOR ACADEMIES, SCHOOLS, AND FAMILIES;" "ANATOMICAL OCTLINE PLATES FOR SCIIftOLS," ETC. AUTHORIZED BY THE COUNCIL OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. P ■ >'. ** '.<-■ •» A. DKKDME & CO., PUIJLISHERS, WflOLESALE STATIONERS, ice, 63 YONGE STREET, TORONTO. • 1871. r r, s ) I a f ( ,. DUDLEY & BURNS. I'lUNTER.S, COLBORNE STREET. TORONTf). McMA^lLER UNIVtLHblTY LISRARX I i i i 1 i 1 ; , i ' J » I I PREFACE. Ik «« In presenting this work to the public, the author would indulge in a few prefatory suggestions. Education, to be complete, must be not only moral and intellectual, but physical. As the culture of the mind and of the affections is the subject of systematic attention in early life, should not the education of the physical powers be commenced as early ? It will demand no more maturity and thought to understand the reasons for adequate clothing, bathing, the neces- sity of an erect position in standing and sitting, regu- larity in taking food, the supply of pure air to the lungs, &c., than to comprehend geographical details or moral truths. Is not a knowledge of the laws upon which health depends, as important to the develop- 'ment of a vigorous physical constitution, as moral instruction is to the formation of correct moral prin- ciples .'' Can any reason be given why both should not be taught in the school-room ? A ciMld should be taught to call each organ by its correct name. No more effort is required to learn the meaning of a proper, than an improper term. For example : a child will pronounce the word as readily, and obtain as correct an idea, if you sa)- lungs, as if you used the word lights. In preparing this work, it has not been deemed necessary to use low, vulgar terms, for the purpose of being understood ; but such words have been selected ';i T VI PREFACE. as good usage sanctions. Should the pupil meet with any word he does not understand, let him consult his dictionary, as he should do in perusing works upon history, when a similar difficulty occurs. To insure a correct pronunciation of the technical words interspersed with the text, they have been divided into syllables, and the accented syllables des- ignated. An ample Glossary of technical terms has also been appended to the work, to which reference should be made. To the teacher wc would suggest the propriety of calling on a pupil of the class, to describe the anatomy of an organ from an anatomical outline plate ; after- wards call upon another to give the physiology of the part, while a third may state the hygiene ; after which, the questions at the bottom of the page may be asked promiscuously, and thus the detailed know- ledge which each pupil possesses of the subject will be tested. With advanced pupils, it is recommended that the' subject be examined in the form of topics. The ques- tions in Italics are designed for this method of reci- tation. For a more full and complete explanation of Anato- my, Physiology, and Hygiene, the pupil is referred to the Author's treatise, of 450 pages, for Colleges, Acade- mies, and Families, or to his second book, of 3CX) pages, for Academies, Schools, and Families. To the instructors of youth, and the patrons of education, this work is respectfully submitted. Toronto, 1871. C0IS^TEN1\^. ANS Chapter. 1. General Remarks 2. Anatomy of the Bones 3. Anatomy of the Bones, continued 4. Physiology of the Bones 5. Hygiene of the Bones 6. Anatomy of the Muscles 7. Physiology of the Muscles . 8. Hygiene of the Muscles 9. Anatomy of the 'J'eeth 10. Anatomy of the Digestive Org 11. Physiology of the Digestive Organs 12. Hygiene of the DiiiESTivE Organs 13- Anatomy of the Circulatory Organs 14. Physiology of the Circulatory Organs 15. Hygiene of the Circulatory Organs 16. Absorption 17. Secretion 1 8. Nutrition 19. Anatomy of the Respiratory Organs 20. Physiology of the Respiratory Organs 21. Hygiene of the Respiratory Organs 9 II 16 21 24 27 30 36 43 47 S3 56 62 67 70 76 82 86 89 93 98 ,1 n ■ } i? & u Vlll CONTENTS. (;ha|>ter. 22. Page Animal ((kat lo^^ 23. Anatomy of the Vocai, Orcjans . 24. Anajomy Of iHK Skin 25. Physiolo(;v of thf. Skin .... 26. Hy(;ii:n!; of thf Skin 27. ANATOM^• OF THK Nf.RVOUS SySTEM 28. Physioi.ocjy of thf Nkrvous Svstkm 29. Hygifnf of the Nervous System . 30. Sense of Touch Sense of '['asti: Sense of Smem 31. Ana'iomv of the Organs of Vision 32. Physiology of the ()r(;ans of Vlsion 33. Anatomy of the Organs of HEARiNr 34. Physiology of the Or(;ans of Hearing 35. Means of Preserving the Health 36. Directions for Nurses .... r 10 119 122 127 131 134 138 139 r4i 143 149 152 155 164 APPENDIX (ILOSSARV INDEX . 170 176 181 FIEST EOOK ON ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE. AND CHAPl'KR I. aEXP:KAL REMARKS. 1. Anatomy is a description of the (mjans, or i)arts of a body. • Ej-amj}le,i. 1st. Flowers have roots, stems, and blossoms. These are their oi-gans. 2d. Tlie teeth, stomacli, and heart, are some of the organs of the liuman body.* 2. PiiYHioLoav is a description of i\\o. function, or use of an organ. Example^;. 1st. Tli«^ roots of flowers suck up water, to make them grow. This is tluur function. 2d. The stomach, in man, is one of tlie organs that j)rei)iire the food for his growth. Tin's is its function. 3. Anatomy and Physiology are divided into two kinds, namely, Animal and Vci/afahlc.' * Where exampUs are given, let the i>iipil mention other analo- gous ones. r I I » -1 %< 1. What is acatomy? Give examples. 2. What is physiology? Give examples. .3. How many kinds of anatomy and physiology are there ? 10 GENERAL REMARKS. 4. Animal Aimtoniy and Pliysioloj^y arc a^ain divided inUi Hinririii and (Join/Ktrafirc. 5. Human Anatomy and Physiology dcHcrilx! the structure and functions of tin; organs of nxin. 0. (.'onii)arativ(' Anatomy and Pliysiology dcscrihe the struc- ture and ' inctions of the organs oi' otlwr (UiiiudlH than man. Exiatiples. As the liorse, the monkey, and the whale. 7. Vegetahlo Anatomy and Physiology describe^ the struc- ture and functions of differtmt ])arts of trees, sliruhs', plants, and llowers. 8. Hygiene is the art ot preserving health, or that depart- ment of medicine whi ih treats of the preservation of health. 9. All ])odies in nature; are dividend into Organic and In- orgame. Organic bodies include animals and plants. Inor- ganic bodies include earths, metals, and other minerals. 10. All organized bodies have a limited period of life, and this pei'iod varies with every species. The duration of some plants is limit(id to a single summer, as many garden flowersj while some trees, as the olive, live many hundred years. Some animals live but a short time, while the elephant lives more than a century. 11. The life of man is shortened by disease; but disease is under the control of fixed laws — laws which we are capa- ble of understanding and obeying. How important, then, is the study of physiology and h^-giene ! For hc'.v can we expect to obey If.Avs which we do not understand i 4. How are animal anatomy and physiology divided? 5. What do human anatomy and physiolggy describe ? 6. VViiat do compa- rative anatomy and physiology describe ? 7. What do vegetable anatomy and physiology describe ? 8. What is hygiene ? 9. How are all bodies in nature divided ? What bodies are called organic ? What bodies are called inorganic ? 10. Have all animals and plants a limited period of life? Does this period vary with different species of animals and plants? Give some examples. 11. How is life usually shortened ? Why is the study of physiology and hygiene important to every person ? ANATOMY OF THE B0NE8. CHAPTER II, THE BONES. 11 12. The honos arc firm and hard, and of a dull white coloi-. In all tho higher order of animals, among which is man, thoy are in the interior of the hody, whih; in lobsters, crabs, &c., they are on the outside, forming a case, which j)rotect8 the moveable parts from injury. ANATOMY OF THE iJONES. 13. There are two hundrccl and eight* bones in the human body, beside the teeth. 14. These, for convenience, are divided into four parts : 1st. The bones of the Head. 2d. The l)ones o{ the Trunk. 3d. The bones of the Upper Extrcnnitics. 4th. The bones of the Lower Extrenntipn. 15. The bones of the iikad are divided into those of the Skull, Ear, and Face 16. The SKur.L is formed of eight bones. These arc; joined together by ragged edges, called Hufiirctt. (Fig. 2.) Observation. The sutures stoj*, in a measure, the jare caused by external blows. ( 'hildren should never strike each • Some anatorpists reckon more than this number, others less, for the reason that, ut difTcrcnt periods of lilV, the number of pieces of which one bono is formed, varies. Example. The breast-bone, in infancy, has eight pieces : in youtli, three ; in old a;^o, but one. 12- Describe the bones, lo. How many bones in the human body? 14. How are ^cy divided? Name them, 1.0 — 18. Give the anatomy of the bones of the head. 15. How are tho bones of the head divided V 16. How many bones in the skull? How arc the bonesof the skull joined together? I i< il ".1 ? a 12 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY. AND HYOIENE. other ui)oii tlio head, because the bones in tlie skull in them are softer than iu adults. 17. In each i:ar are four small hones. They aid in hearing. 18. In the face are fourteen ^ones. They sup])ort the softer parts outside of th(nn. 19. The TRUNK has fifty-four bones — twenty-four Ribs ; t .venty-four bones in the Sjn'ncd Col'iinm, (})ack-bone) ; four in ihoiPcl'vis; the Ster'num, (breast-bone); and one at the root of the tongue. 20. All the RIBS are joined to tlie spinal (Milunin. Tliere are twelve on each side. Fig. 2. Fig'. 2. Tlio bones of the ujtper |niit ui tlio skull. 1, 1, 2, ;j, i!, The hUturos that join the bones. 21. The sovtiji upper ribs are united in front to the sternum, by a yielding substance called car'ti-laije,'^' (gristle). The Sou puriigruph 46. 17. What is the uso of sutures ? How many bones in each ear? What is their use ? 18. How many bone? in the faoe ? 19 — 29. (five the ana- tomj/ of the ltmc>< of the trunk. 19. How many bones in the trunk? NB.me them. 20. To what arc all the ribs joined? How^nany on each side? What does Fig. 2 represent? 21. How arc the lirst seven ribs united in front? ANATOMY OF THE BONES. 13 remaining five arc not attached, directly, to the sternum. Three are joined to each other by cartilage ; two are not con- fined ; hence they are called " floating ribs," 22. The cavity formed by the sternum, ribs, and spinal column, is called the Chest. It contains the heart, lungs, and large blood-vessels. 23. The shape of the chest is conical, or like a sugar-loaf. Fig. 3. Fig. 3. The form of the chest. 1, 2, 3, The htornum, (breast-bone). 4, 6, The spinal column (back-bone). (5, 7, 8, !), Tlie first rib. 10. The.Heventh rib. 11, Tl\e cartilage of the third rib. 12, Tlio floating ribs. Ohservation. The lower part of the chest is broader and fuller than the upper part, when it is not made smaller by tight clothing. The next throe ? What arc the last two called? Why? Doscribo fig 3. 22. How is the chest formed ? What does it contain ? 23, What is the shape ef the chest? How does the lower part of the chest compare in size with the uppt^r ? H it i H i ■! 14 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 24. The SPINAL* column is composed of twenty-four pieces of bone. Each ])ipce is called a rnrfe-l/ru. 25. Between the pieces, or vertebra.', is a thick pi(;ce of '•-artilage, Avhich is elastic, or springs like India-rubber. This not only unites the vertebra.', Ijut i)erniits them to move in different ways. 26. There is an opening in each vertebra. By a union of these oixniings, a canal is formed the whole length of the spinal coi'imn, in which thii .spinal nurd (pith of the back- bone) is jdaced. Fig. 4. Fig. b. Fig. 4. The form of a vertebra of the neck. 1, The main portion of the bone. 2, The .spinal canal, in which the spinal cord is placed. 4 5, 7, 8, Points, or pro- jections of the vertebra. Fig. 5. 1, The cartilage that connects the \ertebrx\ 3, 4, 5, G, Points, or pro- jections of the vertebra. 7, The spinal cord. Observation. A good idea of the structure (jf the vertcbrse may be obtained, by examining the spinal column of a domes- tic animal, as the dog, cat, or pig. * From (ho Latin spina, a horn ; so calKd from the points of vcrtebraj that are felt beni-ath the skin. 24. IIow many pieces of bone in the ppinal colnran? What is each piece called? 26. What is ])laccd between the vertebra>? (rive its use. 26. IIow is the spinal canal iormcd, and what does it contain ? De- scribe fig. 4. Describe (ig. .'). How may an idea of the structure of the vcrtobriB be obtained ? ANATOMY OV THE BONES. 15 boue. or pro- of pro- Lcbrae omes- ints of 27. Tho spinal coluinn is a very curious and perfect piece of mechanical art. By its structure, great strength and suf- ficient movement or flexibility are combined. The vertebrae are so firndy joined together, tliat dislocation of them, with- out fracture, is very rare. 28. The PELVIS is compo.sed of lour bones. They are so arranged as to form a bony basin. The spinal column rests on these bones, and they also serve to support the lower extremities. Fig. 6. Vig. a. 1, 1, Tlie hii)-bones. 2, Tlu> sacrum, upon wliich the spinal column rests. 3, The extremity of the spintil cohinm, named the coc'cyx. 4, 4, The cavl- vities for the head of the thigh-bone. 29. In the sides of these b(jnes is a deej), round cavity, called a-C(i-tab'u-Iuin, in which tho head of the thigh-bone is placed. 27. What is said of the structure of tho spinal column? 28. Of how many be nes is the pelvis composed ? What is their use ? Describe fig. 6. 29. What is found in the sides of these bones ? Cit s each ts use. De- of the ts 16 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYlilENK. CHAPTER III. ANATOMY OF THE BONES, CONTINUED. 30. The upper extremities contain sixty-fonr hones — the Scap'u-la, (shoulder-blade) ; the Clav'i-de, (collar-bone) ; and the bones of the Arm, Fore-urni, Wrid, and Hand. 31. The .SCAPULA is a broad, irregular bone, situated upo)i the upper and back part of the chest. 32. The CLAVICLE is a thin bone at the base of tlie neck. It 's joined at one extremity to the sternum, at the other to the scapula. Observation. Tlie use of the clavicle is to keep tlie arms from sliding toward the l.)reast. Children sliould frcc^uently throv their arms backward, as this exercise would tend to increa ■ the length of this bone, and also to enlarge the chest. 33. i .0 ARM is formed of a single bone, called the hn'- mer-iis. 34. Tlie FORE- ARM is formed of two bones — the uVna, on the inner side, and the ra'di-u.s, on the outside, (the side on which the thumb is placed.) liy a beautiful arrangement of these bones, the hand is made to rotate, or tuni, permitting its complicated and varied movements. 35. The WRIST is formed of eight irregular bones. They move but little upon each other. 36. The HAND consists of nineteen bones — live in tlie palm, and fourteen bones in the fingers and thumb. 30. — C7. Give the anatomy of the bones of the upper cxtremitiea. 30. Name tho bones of the upper extremities, 31. Describe the scapula. 32. Where is the clavicle situated? What is the use of the clavicle? S3. How is the arm formed ? 34. Tho fore-arm? 35. How many bones in tho wrist ? 36. How many bones in tho hand ? ANATOMY OF THE BONEO. 17 37. Each finger is formed of three boites of tlifl'erent lengths, the thuml) lius but two. Proofs of a designing Creator are nowhere more manifest tlian in the simple hut wonderful structure and adaptation of the liuman hand. 38. The LOWER kxtremities contain sixty hones — the Fe'mur, (thigh-bone ;) the Pa-tel'la, (knee-pan ;) the Tib'i-a (shin-bone ;) the Fib'u-la, (small bone of the leg ;) and the bones of the Foot. 39. The FEMUR is the longest bone of the body. It sup- ports the weight of the head, trunk, and upper extremities. Fig. 7, Fig. 8. \^ They palm, le«. 30. Icapula. laviclo? [y bones Fig. 7. V, The ulna. R, The radius, s, L, c, p, u, m, t, t, The eight bone.s of the wrist. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, The five bones of the pahn of the hand. Fig. 8. 10, 10, 10, The bones of the palm of the hand. 11, 12. 13, The bones of the fingers. 14, 15, Tlie bones of tlie thumb. 40. The TiuiA and the fihul.v are situated between the knee and ankle. 37. What is said of the bones of the fingers and thumb ? 38-41. Give the anatumy of the bonen of the lower extremities. 38. Name the bones of the lower extremities. 39. What is said of the femur? Describe fig. 7. Fig 8. 40. What bones between the Itnee and ankle ? 2 ii •l;i 18 ANATOMY, PIIYSIOLOriY, AND IIYOIEM;. 4 1 . The FOOT is fornicrl of twenty-six bones — seven in thf instoj> ; five in the middle of tlie foot ; and fourteen toe- bones. Oh,. The luumoh-bone. IC, The saerum. 17, Tlie liip-joiiit. 18, Tlie thij-h-bom;. 11», Tlie jjutelliu '20, The liuee-joint. 21, Tlie fibula. 22, Tlie tibia. 23, The ankle-joint. 24, The foot. 25, 20, The li<^anicnts of the olaviele, .sternum, and ril)s. 27, 2S, 29, The li{,'anients of the shoulder, elbow, and wrist. HO, The \a.r< the tibres and tendons of a muscle, with tlm attuchmont of the tendons to the hones. 67. Tendons have various shapes. Somctimos they are 64. IIow aro all tho groat motions of the body prodiiood ? What arc those inovin;;, CDiiiractinj? organs calioJ? 05 — 72. (iive tin; ntructure of tke muich'H. (55. Of wliat is a imiscic corii|i()sod? 60. What is a tendon ? How can tho structure of a muscle be shown? 67. What is the shape of tendons ? 4) & 28 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. long, slender stringH ; sometimes they are short and thick ; again, in some situations, they are thin and broad. They serve to fjisten the muscles to the bones, or to each other. Ohservation. In some instances, the synovial membrane, which forms the sheath of the tendons, is ruptured, and the synovial fluid escapes. This forms a tumor, called a (jan'fjU-on, (weeping sinew.) It is called a iclnd-yaU when en the limbs of a horse. 68. In the description of a muscle, its attachments are expressed by the terms origin and inmrtion. The term orujin is generally applied to the more fixed or central attachment, or to the points towards which motion is directed ; while insertion is assigned to the more mov(!;la!ul. 4, Its duct. .''., Tlie fiublingual ;land, brought to view by the removal of a .section i>i the lower jaw. 133. Has animal or vegotablo food any resomblanco to tho dififerent .parts of the body to which it gives eustenanco ? By what organs is tho first change in the food ofTeotcd? Describe fig. 32. I 13. 1 ' - r & >t tr I 48 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 134. The DIGESTIVE groans are the Mouth, Teeth, SaVi- va-ry Glands, Pha'rynx, (E-soph'a-rjuti, (gullet,) Stomach, In-tes'tines, (bowels,) Lac'te-ah, (milk or chyle vessels,) Tho-rac'ic Duct, Liv'er, and the Pan'cre-as, (sweetbread.) 135. The MOUTH is an irregular cavity, which contains the teeth and the organs of taste. 136. The SALIVARY glands* are six in number ; three on each side of the jaw. They are called the pa-rot' id, the mh- ma'xil-la-ry, and the mh-Un'rjual. (Fig. 32.) 137. The PHARYNX is a muscular, membranous sac, that leads to the oesophagus. Fig. 33. Fig. 33. A side view of tlie face, a?soplmgus, and tracliea. 1, 2, Tlie trachea (wind-pipe) and larynx. 3, Tiie oesopliagus. 4, 4, 4, The muscles of the upper por- tion of the 03sophagus, fomilng the pharynx. 5, The muscles of the cheek. 6, The m'""cle that surrounds the mouth. 7, The muscle that forms the floor of the mouth. • See paiagraph 234. 134 — 147. Give the anatomy of the digestive organs. 134. Name the digestive organs. 135. Describe the mouth. 136. Describe the salivary glands. 137. What is the pharynx ? AVhat does fig. 33 represent? ANATOMY OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 49 138. The (ESOPHAGUS is a large, membranous tube, through which the food and drink pass into the stomach. 139. The STOMACH* is in the left side of the body, below the lungs and heart. It is composed of three coats, or mem- branes, which are thin and yielding. The external is called the ae'rous ; the middle, mus'cu-lar ; the inner, mu'cous. Illustration. The three coats of the stomach (anatomi- cally) resemble tripe, which is a preparation of the largest stomach of the cow or ox. The outer coat is smooth and highly polislied. The middle coat is composed of minute threads, wliich are arranged in two layers. The fibres of these layers cross each other. The inner coat is soft, and presents many folds, usually called " the honey-comb." Fig. 34. Fig. 34. The inner surface of the stomach and duodonum. 1, The lower portion of tiie oeaophajf J.i. 2, The opening tliroujjli which the food is passed into the ■tomach. 3, The stomach. 9, The opening tlirougii wliich the food passes out of the stomach into the duodenum, or upper i)ortion of the small intestine. 10, 11, 14, The duodenum. 12, 13, Ducts throuifh which bile and pancreatic fluid pass Into it. a, b, c, The three coats of the stomach. • For sitimtioa of the stomncli, &c., .see fig. 53. 1.38. What is tho oesophsfjus ? 1.39. Where is the stomach situated? How many coats has it ? Name them. What article prepared for food does the stomach resemble in structure ? E.xplain lig. 34. •1 til fe r I 1 w ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOG\, AND HTOIENl. 140. Tho INTE8TINES, 01' alimontavy canal, are divided into two parts, tho xinall and large. The small intestine is about twenty-fivo feet in lenj^th. The upper and most important division is called tho Du-o-de'num. The large intestine is about five feet in length. The largest division is called the Co' Ion. 141. The DUODENUM (called by nurses the second stomach,) is the most essential part of the small intestine. It is about twelve inches in length, and commences at the lower orifice of the stomach. Fig. 35. Fig. 35. 1, 1, Thn duodenum. 2, 2, The small intestine. 3, The connection of the small and large intestines. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, The large intestine. 6, 7. 8, 9, The colon. 140. Uow arc the intestines divided? What is tho length of the small intestine? What is its largest division calltMli' What is tho length of tho large intestine? What is its largest division called? 141. De- scribe tho t b*- 62 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYQIBNE. CHAPTER XIII. THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 187. The blood is distributed to every part of the system. There is no part so minute, that it does not receive this circu- lating fluid. This distribution is effected by the agency of the Heart, Ar'te-ries, Veins, and Cap'il-la-ries. li ANATOMY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 188. The HEART is situated in the chest, between the lungs. (Fig. 53.) It is a double organ, or has two sides, called right and left, which are separated by a muscular sep'twn, or par- tion. 189. Each side of the heart has two cavities. The upper cavity is called the au'ri-cle, (deaf ear.) The lower cavity is called the ven'tri-cle. These cavities are separated from each other by folds of membrane, called valves. (Fig. 38.) 190. Between the auricle and ventricle of the right side of the heart, there are three valves, called tri-cvs'pid. Between the auricle and ventricle of the left side of the heart, there are two valves, called mi'tral. Observation. To obtain a clear idea of the heart and its valves, it is recommended to examine this part of an ox or calf. In order that each ventricle be opened without muti- 187. What is said of the distribation of the blood ? How is it effected ? 188 — 196. Give the anatomy of the circulatory organs. 188. Describe the heart. 189. How many cavities has it ? What is the upper cavity called ? What is the lower cavity called ? How are those cavities separated? 190. How many valves between the right auricle and ventricle, and what are they called? How many valves between the left auricle and ventricle, and what are they called ? How can an idea of the heart be obtained ? ANATOMY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 68 lating tho parts that compose its intiinuil structure, cut on each side of the septum parallel to it. This may be easily found between the ventricles, as they differ in thickness. 191. The ARTERIES are the vessels that carry the blood from the heart. The right ventricle of the heart gives rise to the pul'mo-na-ry artery ; the 1' *'^ ventricle to a large anery, called tho a-orfa. At the commeucement of both of these vessels are valves, and, from their shape, they are called sem-i-lu'nar. Fig 38. '3 I its lor Iti- ire Ind Fig. S8i 1, Tho descending rein. 2, The ascending Tein. 8, The ri^t aaricle. 4, Tho opeoing between the right auricle and the right ventricle. 6, The right ventricle. 6, The tnouspid valves. 7, The pulmonary artery. 8, 8, The branches of the pulmonary artery that pass to the right and left lung. 9, The semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery. 10, The division between the two ventricles of the heart. 11, 11, The pulmonary veins. 13, The left auricle. 13, Thi opening between the left auricle and ventricle. 14, The left ventricle. 16, The mitral valves. 16, 16, The aorta. 17, The semilunar valves of the aorta. Observation. The parts of the circulatory organs most liable to disease are the valves of the heart, particularly the mitral. 191. What are arteries ? Where does the pulmonary artery take its rise ? The aorta ? What valves at the commencoment of these vessels ? Describe tig. 38. What parts of the circulatory organs are most liable to disease ? 64 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 'I When these membmnous folds become ossified or ruptured the blood regurgitates, and causes great distress in breathing. 192. The PULMONAUY artkry commences in front of the aorta. It ascends obliquely to the under surface of the arch of the aorta, where it divides into two branches, one of which passes to the right, the other to the left lung. This artery conveys the dark-colored or " venous" blood to the lungs, and, with its corresponding veins, establishes the pulmonic circu- lation. Fig. 39. FMf,'. 39. (, The winiljipe. /*, The heart, a, The aorta, p, The puhuon^^r/ artery. 1, The bra-och of the puhnonary artery that divides in tlie left lung. 2, The branch that divides in the right lung. Tlio divisiouH of this artery continne to i. ido and subdivide, until they become no larger than hairs in size. These minute vessels pass over the air-cells, repre- sented by small dark points around the margin of the lungs. 192. Doscribo the pulmonary .artery. What is the function of this artery ? Explain fig. ."^Q. What ig said of the divisions of the pulmonary artery ? « ANATOMY OF THS OIBOULATOBY OBQANS. 66 193. The AORTA proceeds from the left ventrical of the heart and contains the pure or " arterial " blood. This vessel gives off branches, which divide and subdivide as they advance until they are distributed to every part of the body. This artery, with its corresponding veins, establishes the systemic nrculation. Fig. 40. JWgi 40. The aorta and Its branches , g.jrbft oorninenoement of the aorta. 193. Describe the aorta. 5 What is represented by fig. 40 ? 66 ' i! ANATOMY, PHYSIC. LOGY, AND UYGIENE. 194. The VEINS are the vessels whicli return the hlood t» the auvlclcs of the heart, after it has hcen circulated hy the arteries tli rough the hmj^'H and other parts of tlie body. At certain intervals, they are furnished with valves, which .sllow the blood to flo-'v toward the heart only. In general, they are nearer the surface of the body than the arteries. 19o. The CAPILLARIES constitute a microscopic net-\iork, and are so distributed through every part of the body as to render it impossible to introduce the smallest needle beneath the skin without wounding several of these line vessels. They establish the communication bcitween the termmation of the arteries and the beginning of the veuis. 190. The relation of the capillaries to the arteries and veins, is illustrated by ligs. 41 and 42. Fig. 41. Fig. 42. Pig. 4L An ideal view of a portion of the pulmonic circulation. 1, 1, Abraneh of the artery that carries the impure blood to the lungs, 3, 3, Capillary veraels 2.2, A vein through which the red blood is returned to the left s'de of the heart. F\^. 42. An ideal view of a portion of the systemic circulation. 1, 1, A branch of the aorta. This terminates in the capillaries 3,3. 2, 2, A vein through which the h'.ipurc blood is carried to the right side of the heart. 194. What arc veins? V/itfi wlmt are they furnished ? 195. What do the capillaries constitute ? What do they establish ? What docs fig. 41 represent'.' Ei^. ^2. PHYSIOLOaY OF THE OIROULATOBT 0RQAN8. 07 CHAPTER XIV. PHYSIOLOGY OF TUV. CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 197. Tho walls of all the cavities of the heart are coinposed of muscular fihroa, which arc endowed with the jjvoyerty of con- tracting and relaxing, like other parts of tiic muscular system. The contraction and relaxation of the muscular fibres of the heart increase and diminish the size of its cavities. 198. The two auricles dilate at the same instant, and also contract at the same instant. The two ventricles contract, while the auricles dilate. Thus the blood is forc(id from the heart to every pai-t of the body, and received again on its return. 199. The course of the blood through the heart, arteries, and veins, may be easily comprehended by attention to lig. 43, which gives an ideal view of the circulation of the blood. 200. The heart aids in forcing the blooil through the arte- ries, to the different parts of the body. Every time the heart contracts, there is a "pulse" or "pulsation," in the arteries. Experiment. Apply the fingers upon the artery at the wrist, at two different points, about two inches apart; if the pressiu'e be moderately made, the "pulse" will be felt at both points. Let the upper point be pressed firmly, ami there will be no pulsation at the lower point ; but make strong i)reasure upon the lower point only, and the pulsation will continue at the upper point ; proving that the blood flows from the heart, in the arteries, to different parts of the system. 197 — 203. Give the physiology of the cireulntory oryans, 197. What do the contraction and relaxation of tho muscular walls of tho heart pro- duce ? 198. What is said of tho contraction and dilatation of the auri- cles ? Of tho ventrielos ? 200. What causes tho " pulse," or " pulsa- tion," in tho arteries? How is it proved that the blood flows from tha heart in the arteries ? \ ,\ »» ■ ii 1. I ill i iii' 68 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOOT AND HYGIENE. 201. The frequency of the pulse varies according to the age, sex, and degree of health. In adults, it is usually from seventy to seventy-five " beats " in a" minute. 202. There is no pulsation in the veins, and the return of the blood to the heart through them can be shown by the following experiments. Experiments. Ist. Press firmly on one of the veins upon the back ^jf the hand, carrying the pressure toward the fingers ; for a moment the vein will disappear. On removing the pressure of the finger, it will reappear, from the blood rushing in from below. 2d. If a tape be tied around the arm above the elbow, the veins below will become larger and more prominent, and also a greater number wUl be brought in view. At this time, apply the finger at the wrist, and the pulsation of the arteries still continues, showing that the blood is constantly flowing from the heart, through the arteries, into the veins ; and the increased size of the veins shows that the pressure of the tape prevents its flowing back to the heart. 203. From the right ventricle of the heart, (2, fig. 43,) the dark, impure blood is forced into the pulmonary artery, (3 ;) and its branches (4, 5) carry the blood to the left and right lung. In the capillary vessels (6, 6) of the lungs, the blood becomes pure, or of a red color, and is returned to the left auri- cle of the heart, (9,) by the veins, (7, 8.) From the left auri- cle the pure blood passes into the left ventricle, (10.) By a forcible contraction of the left ventricle of the heart, the blood is thrown into the aorta, (11.) Its branches (1 2, 13, 1 3) carry the pure blood to every organ, or part of the body. The divisions and subdivisions of the aorta terminate in capillary vessels, represented by 14, 14. In these hair-like vessels the blood becomes dark-colored, and is returned to the right auricle of the heart, (1,) by the ve^'na cd'va dc-scen'dcns (15) and ve^a ca^va as-ceii'dens, (16.) The tricuspid valveu (17) pre- vent the reflow of the blood from the right ventricle to the right 201. What varies the frequency of tho pulse ? 202. Is there pulsa- tion in the veins ? How is it proved, by experiment Ist, that the blood is returned to the heart by the veins ? By experiment 2d ? PHYSIOLOOT OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 69 auricle. The semilunar valves (18) prevent the blood passing from the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle. The mitral valves (19) prevent the flow of blood from the left ventricle to the left auricle. The semilunar valves (20) prevent the reflow of blood from the aorta to the left ventricle. Fig. 43. (3:,, € i;4 Note. From fig. 43, give the course of the blood, through the he»rt, ■arterier ' ~^d reins, or from anatomioal outline plates 6 and 7. a- )d • ' 10 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. CHAPTEPv VIII. HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS 204. The dothing shmdd he loosoli/ worn. To have good health, the blood must circulate freely. Consequently, no article of apparel should he worn so as to prevent a free flow of blood through every organ of the body. 205. Strings, bands, or belts, however narrow, should not be worn so tightly as to cause an indentation of the skin of the trunk, or extremities. Observations. 1st. Inelastic bands, worn upon the lower extremities, are a frequent cause of enlarged veins and painful limbs. 2d. The fulness and the crimson tint of the face, giddiness, fliinting, and many derangements in the functions of different organs, are produced by pressure upon the blood- vessels of the trunk. 206. The skin should he Jcept clean, and every part of an equal temimrafure. These conditions favour free and vigor- ous circulation. Observation. When intending to ride in a cold day, wash the face, hands,' and fe(!t, in cold water, and rub them smartly with a coarse towel. This is far better than to take spirits into the stomach, to keep tin, -extremities warm. 207. Muscidar extrdac. is important in maintaining a 204 — 214. Give the h }i(j'irnv ,tf tho civi^.ulxi-ir!/ urgmM. 204. Why should theclothiiigbo loosely worn? 205. What i.- .-^aid of bands i-r bolts ? What is the effect of wcaiiiig iripjastio briuds upon the lower oxtromities ? What is a frequent cauae of }j,i(!diiH'ss. faintno^?, and derangement of the functions of many orgnns? 206. In what condition should the skin be kept ? Give.observation. 207. What is tho ofibct of muscular exercise upon the circulation of blood V HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 71 healthy circulation. The muscles, when used, force the blood more rapidly to and from the heart. Illustration. The coach-driver and teamster ihrow their urms around their bodies to warm them, when cold ; because the muscles that are called into action in swinging the arms, force a greater quantity of blood into the chilled parts, i^nd more heat is produced. 208. Idle men and women, who complain of cold foot, and take " warming bitters " to quicken the blood, would find themselves warmer and more invigorated by calling the muscles into action in the mechanic's shop, or the kitchen, or in some active employment. Observation. In cold weather, when travelling in cars, the feet will not become chilled so readily when standing as when sitting. Again, the feet will be warmer by allowing them to swing, instead of being supported the whole time, because the muscles, called into action in swinging them, increase the circulation of the blood.. 209. The quality und quantity of the blood modify the action of the heart and blood-vessels. If this fluid is abun- dant and pure, the circulatory vessels act with more energy than when it is deficient in quantity and defective in f^uality. Illustrations. 1st. In an athletic man, whose heart beats forcibly, and whose pulse is strong, if a considerable quantity of blood is drawn from a vein, as in bleeding, the heart will beat freely, and the pulse will become weak. 2d. When the blood is made impure by inhaling vitiated, air, the action of the heart and arteries is diminished, which pr iducas an eft'ect similar to that which takes place when blojd is drawn from a vein. 210. When large blood-vessels are wounded or cut, the Give illustration. 208. What is bettor for cold foot and hands than "warming bitters"? Give observation. 209. What effect have the quantity and quality of the blood upon the circulatory vessels? Give illustration 1st. Illustration 2d. 210. What is necessary when large blood-vessels are wounded or cut? I! 111! i ■! !.!, '«t;!i %\ii 72 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. flow of blood must be immediately stopped, or the pereon will soon die. If a large artery is wounded, the blood will be thrown out in jets, or jerks, every time the pulse beats. Th« flow of blood can be stopped until a surgeon arrives, either by compressing the vessel between the wound and the heart, or by compressing the and of the divided artery in the wound. Fig. 44. Fig. 45. Rg. 44. The track of the large artery of the arm. 1, The collar-bone. 9, 10, Th« large artery of the arm. Fig. 46. B, The manner of compressing the artery near the coll ar-bone. A, ni* manner of compressing the large artery of the arm, with the fingers. C, The man- ner of compressing the divided extremity of an artery in the wound, with a finger. 211. After making compression with the fingers, as described and illustrated, take a piece of cloth or handkerchief, twist it comerwise, and tie a hard knot midway between the two ends. What is shown by fig. 44? By fig. 45? 211. What is to be doM after eompressing the wound, as before deseribed ? te'' 73 HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. This knot should be placed over the artery, between the wound and the heart, and the ends carried around the limb and loose- ly tied. A stick, five or six inches long, should be placed under the handkerchief, which should be twisted until the knot has made sufficient compression on the artery to allow the removal of the fingers without a return of bleeding. Continue the compression until a surgeon can be called. Fig. 49. Pig. 47. Fig. 46. The method of applying the knotted handkerchief to make compressio n •n this artery. A, B, The track of the large art«ry of the arm. Fig. 47. A, C, Tlie track of the large artery of the thigh. ^>plying the knotted handkerchief to compress this artery. B, The method of Observation. When an artery of the arm is cut, elevating the wounded limb above the head will tend to arrest the flow of blood. In a wound of a lower limb, raise the foot, so that it shall be higher than the hip, until the bleeding ceases. Illustration. On one occasion, the distinguished Dr. Nathan Smith was called to a person who had divided one of the large arteries below the knee. After trying in vain to find the bleed- ing vessel, so as to secure it, he caused the foot to be elevated What is shown by figs. 46, 47 ? Give observation. Relate a simpli operation by Dr. Nathan Smith. l-^'t 74 ANATOMY, I'HYHIOLOOY, AND HYGIENE. higlnsr than tin; hip. At th<; iir»i inntant, the blood was forcod from tlic, wound a})outtw(;lvo inchcH ; in aiiiinuto, itwas dimin- ished to throo or four ; and, in a short timo, the blooding coasftd. This I)r, S. called his " yvva/" ojjoration ; and it was truly gr(Mit in mniplicitii and Hrienca. 212. In "flesh wounds," when no large blood-vessel is divided, wash tlx; part with cold water, and, when })l»jeding has ceased, draw the wcjund tog(;ther, and retain it witli nan-ow strips of adhesive plaster. These should he put on smoothly, and a suthcient number ai)j)lied to cover tluj wound. Jn most instances of domestic ))ni';tice, tlie strips of adhesive plaster are too wide. Tlicy should not exceed in v/idtli one-fourtb of an inch. Then Hpj)ly a loose bandage, and avoid aU " iKjalinj; salves," ointments, and washes. Fiji. 48. Tho mantior in wtiicli htrij)s of iidhuHivo plaster aro apT>lle(l to wounds. 213. The union of the divided parts is effected by the action of the divided Ijlood-ves.sels, and not by salves and ointmenta Th(» only object of the dressing is to ke(!p the parts together, and i)rotect th(j wound fromair and impurities. Nature, in all cases of wounds, performs her own cure. Sudi simphj inci- sions do not generally require a second dressing, and should not be opened till tlu; parts aro healed. In removing th« dressing from a wound, ])oth ends of the strips of plaster should be raised and drawn toward tlic incision. The lia- bility of th(! wound Tf'-oponing is thus diminishcid. 212. Ifow hIiouIiI " flcHh wounds" bo lircK.scd ? 2115. How is tho union of tho dividnrl prutu ofFcvrtcd ? What should be aviidod ? ffow nhould ( still. It is Judicious to consult a pbysician inimetliately, in punctured or lacoratod wounds, hocause tli(;y oftim induce the most dangerous diseases. {U«.i 214. Docs tho proper position of tho limbs fnvor tlio unior» of wounds? 215. How Hhoulf] puticturod and l.-icorutod wtjiindx ho drcHMod ? m 1 76 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYQIKNB. 1/ I' i ;! 1.4: CHAPTER XVI. ABSORPTION. 216. Absorption is the process by which the nutrient por- tion of the food is removed from the alimentary canal to be conveyed into the circulatory vessels. It is likewise the process by which the particles of ifiatter that have become injurious or useless, are removed from the mass of fluids and solids of which the body is composed. These renovating and remoT- ing processes are performed by two sets of vessels. ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 217. The vessels that act exclusively for the growth and renovation of the system, are found only in the alimentary canal. They are called Lac'te-ah.*' 218. The vessels whose sole function is to remove particles of matter already deposited, are called lym-phd'tics. The radicals, or commencement of the veins, in many, and it may be in all parts of the body, perform the ofiice of absorption. Fig. 50. A representation of the lymphatic vessels and glands. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, Th« lymphatic vessels and glands of the lower limbs. 7, Lymphatic glands. 8, The commencement of the thoracic duct. 9, The lymphatics of the kidneys. 10, Of the stomach. 11, Of the liver. 12, 12, The lungs. 13, 14, IC, The lymphatics and glands of the arm. 16, 17, 18, Of the face and neck. 19, 20, Large veins. 21, Tlie thoracic duet. 26, The lymphatics of the heart. • See paragraph 142. { 216. What is absorption ? 217. What are thoievossols called that act ezelusively for the growth and renovation of the body ? 218 — 221. Qi9» the anatomy of the lymphatic veasela. 218. Name thoie Teasels that ra- moTe the atoms already deposited. What other Testels perform th* offioe of absorption ? What does fig. 50 represent? ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. Fig. 50. 7t 'rH'l & w 78 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 219. The LYMPHATIC VES8ELH are very minute nt their coramenceinent ; so much so, that they cannot be seen with- out the aid of a magnifying glass. As they proceed, they unite and form larger tranks, that open into the veins. 220. Lymphatic vessels are found in every part of the body, except the brain, yet, it is supposcjd they exist in this organ. The knotted appearance of these vessels is owing to the arrangement of their internal coats, to form valves. 221. In certain parts of the body, as the neck, these ves- sels pass tlirough small, soft bodies, called lymxthatic glands, which are to these vessels what the mesenteric glands are to the lacteals. Observation. Sometimes, when we are afflicted with a cold, these glands in the neck enlarge; they are usually called " kernels." PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 222. Though the lacteals and lymphatics reseiable each other in their structure and termination, yet they differ as to the nature of the fluids which they convey, as well as the nature of their functions. The lacteals open into the small intestine, and possess the power of rejecting all substances in the passing food but the chyle. 223. The lymphatics, on the contrary, not only imbibe, or suck up, all the various constituents of the body, both fluid and solid, when their vitality has ceased, but they absorb for- eign and extraneous substances when presented to their mouths. Observations. 1st. When little or no food is taken into the stomach, life is supported by the lymphatic vessels imbibing 219. Deacribo tho lymphatic vessels. 220. Where are they found? To what is the knotted appearance of these vessels owing ? 222 — 224. Oive the uie of the lymphatic glands. 221. What are lymphatic gLinds ? Give observation. 222. What is said of the lacteals and lymphatics ? Give the function of the former. 223. Give the use of the lymphatics. How is life supported when little or no food is eaten ? HYGIENE OP THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 7» the fat, and re-convoying it into the circulatory vessels. It ie the removal of this substance which causes the emaciation of the face and limbs of a person recovering from a fever. In consumption, the extreme attenuation of the limbs is caused by the absorption, not only of the fat, but also of the muscles and more solid parts of the body. 2d. Animals which live in a half torpid state during the winter, derive their nourishment from tho^sanie source. In other words, we may say the starving animal lives for a time upon itself, eating up, by internal absorption, such parts of the body as can be spared, under urgent necessity, to feed these organs, and continue those functions that are absolutely essential to life. • 224. The most important absorbing surfaces are the stomach, intestines, lungs, and skin. Through the lungs, absorption is not only very great, but extremely rapid. Jllustratkm. In inhaling sulphuric ether, or letheon, it is introduced into the vessels of the lungs in the form of vapor, and through them it is rapidly conveyed to the brain, and thus influences the nervous system. HYGIENE OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 225. By the action of the lymphatics, substances of an injurious, as well as of a beneficial character may bo con- veyed into the system. These vessels, under certain condi- tions, are more active in their office than at other periods ; and it is of practical utility to know what influences their action. 226. The function of these vc^soh is increased by moisture, What causes the extreme attenuation of the limbs in consumption ? How do those animals dorivo their nourishment that live in a half torpid state during winter ? 224. What are the most important absorbing surfaces ? How is letheon introduced into the system ? 225 — 229. Give the hygiene •/ the li/mphatic vessels. 225. What is said respecting the action of the lymphatic vessels ? 226. What influences the function of these vessels ? n.i ,1 .; ^': 80 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYQIVNS. end lessened fry an inactive state of the lacteaU. Observa- tion shows that the ill-fed, and those persons that live in marshy districts, contract contagious diseases more readily than those individuals who are well fed, and breathe a dry and pure air. 227. The skin and the apparel of nurses and watchers shoidd he clean, and as free of perspiration as possible. The air of tlio sick-room should also be dry. The observation of these conditions tends to prevent the absorption of the poisonous matter of contagious diseases, as small-pox, measles, &c. Observation. When wo have been visiting, or attending on a sick person, it is judicious to change the apparel worn in the sick-room, and also give the skin a thorough bathing. The outside garments, also, should be aired, as poisonous matter may have penetrated the meshes of the cloth. 228. The stomach should be supplied with food of a nu- trient and digestible character, in proper quantities, and at stated periods. The chyle formed from the food stimulates the lacteals to activity, which activity is attended with an inactive state of the lymphatics of the skin and lungs. Thus due attention should be given to the food of the attendants on the sick, and the children of the family. Observation. Many individuals, to prevent contracting disease that may be communicated from one person to ano- ther, use tobacco, either chewed or smoked ; and sometimes alcohol, with decoctions of bitter herbs. These substances do not diminish, but tend to increase the activity of the lymphatics. Thus they make use of the means by which the poisonous matter formed in the system of the diseased person, may be more readily conveyed into their own. What does absorption show ? 227. Why should the skin and apparel of nurses and watchers be as free of perspiration as possible ? What sug- gestion when we have been visiting or attending on the sick? 228. Why should the stomach be supplied with food of a nutrient and digestible eharacter ? What is said of the use of alcohol or tobacco, in rreventing the introduction of the poisonous matter of contagious diseases? HYGIENE OP THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 81 i-M t8 229. Absorption htj the sliin is most vigorous when the ex- ternal layer is removed by vesication, or hlisterimj. Tlion, external applications, as ointments, are brought in immediate contact with the oi'iii(!e8, or mouths, of the lymjjhatics of the skin, and hy them rapidly imbibed and circulated through the system. The same results follow, if the skin is only punctured. Observation. 1st. In case of an accidental wound, it is best inmiediately to bathe the part thorouglily in i)ure water, and to avoid all irritating applications. In some instances, it would be well to apply lunar caustic immediately. 2d. When shrouding dead bodies, or removing the skin from animals that have died of disease, it would be well to lubricate the hands with olive-oil or lard. This affords pro- tection to the minute portions of the skin from which the external layer may be removed. 3d. In all cases where there is an idcer, or sore, the part should be covered with something impervious to fluids, as court-plaster, before exposing the system to any animal, vegetable, or mineral poison. 229. When ia abaorption by tho skin most vigorous ? Give observation Ist. Observation 2d. Observation 3tl. he ch led 6 82 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. CHAPTER XVII. SECRETION. 230. In the human body are found many fluids and solids of dissimilar appearance and character. These are produced by the action of oigans called Secre-to-ry. Some of these organs are of simple structure, while others are very compli- cated in their arrngement. ANATOMY OF THE SECRETORY ORGANS. 231. The SECRETORY ORGANS are of three kinds, namely, the Ex-hd'Unts, FoVli-cles, and the Glands. 232. The exhalents are supposed to be tei'minations of the arteries, or capillaries. They are of two kinds, external and internal. The latter terminate on the surface within the body, and the former upon the outside. Fig. 61. Fig. 51. A secretory follicle. An artery is seen, which supplies the material for its secretion. Follicles are also .supplied with veins and organic nerves. 233. The follicles are small hags, or sacs, in the deeper layer of the skin and mucous membrane. The pores seen on the skixi are the outlets of these bodies. 230. How aro the fluids and soMds of the bod> produced ? 231 234. Give the anatomy of the secretory ■rgans. 231. Name the secretory or- gans. 232. Describe the exhalents. What does fig. 51 represent? 253. Define foHioIes. PHYSIOLOST OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 83 234. The GLA2«rDS are tlie chief agents of secretion in the body. They are formed of minute arteries, veins, and tubes, wound together. These organs vary in size from a mustard- seed to that of the liver, wliich weighs from two to four pounds. Every ghxnd, liowever minute, has a small duct for collecting and carrying oil' the .secreted fluid. . PHYSIOLOGY" OF THE HI<:CRETORY ORGANS. [for )er Ion |34. |or- it? 235. Secretion is one of the most obscure and mysterious functions of the body. It has the same meaning (physiologi- cally) as separation. Not only is the process by which sub- stances are separated from the blood, called secretion^ but the same term is also applied to substances thus separated. Fig 52. Fig. 52. a, a, A secretory gland, h, b, Minute ducts that are spread through the glands. These coalesce to form the main duct, c. 1 36. All the fluids of the body are derived from the blood, and this element, when distributed to the different glan'ls and follicles, is similar in composition and character; but the ihiids secreted by them, vary in appearance in a remarkable degree. The office of the glands i-. 'nciijally to form different secre- 234. What is said of the glands ? Explain fig. 52. 235—237. Give the y^yt.' loiiy of the necretori/ organs. 235. What is secretion? 2'-)6. From what are all the fluids of the body derived ? What is the princi- pal office of the glands ? I 1 I' 84 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. tions. Thus the salivary glands secrete the insipid saliva; the liver, the yellow, ropy bile ; and the kidneys, the acrid urine. 237. When any substance which is not demanded for nu- trition, or does not give nourishment to the system, is taken up by the lymphatic vessels and conveyed into the blood, it is discharged by secretions. Illustration. A few years since, a poor inebriate was carried to a London hospital in a state of intoxication. He lived but a few hours. On examining his brain, nearly half a gill of fluid, strongly impregnated with gin, was found in the cavities of this organ. This was secreted from the vessels of the brain. HYGIENE OF THE SECRETORY ORGANS. 238. Unless the secretions are rtyularly maintained, dis- ease toill he the ultimate result. Let the secretions from the skin be suppressed, and fever or some internal intlama- tion will follow. If the bile is impeded, digestion will be impaired. If any other secretion is suppressed, it will cause a derangement of the various internal organs. Ohservation. Ardent spirits derange the secretions, and change the structure of the brain. This is one reason why inebriates do not live to advanced age. 239. The quantity of blood influences the character of the secretions. If it is lessened to any great extent, the secretions will be lessened, as well as changed in character. Illustration. AVhen a person has lost a considerable quantity of blood, the^e is a sensation of thirst in the throat, attended with a cold, pale, dry skin. When reaction comes on, the 237. What beooinos of those substances which are taken up by the lymphatics, and do not nourish the body ? How is this illustrated ? 238 — 241. (Jive the hj/f/icne of the secretory ortjnnH, 238. What is the effect on the system if the secretions are not regularly maintained ? What is t'ue reason that inebriates do not livo to an advanced age ? 239. What effect on the secretions when the quantity of blood is les- senod ? IIow is this illustrated ? T'M HYGIENE OP THE SECRETORY ORGANS. 85 led? the 3d? jge? Iles- perspiration is cold, attended with nausea, and sometimes vomiting. 240. The amount of action modifies the condition of the secretory organs. When a secretory organ is excessively stimulated, its vigor and energy are reduced. The subse- quent debility may be so great as to suppress or destroy its functional power. Illustrations. 1st. In those sectionsof the country where flax is spun on a " foot-wheel," the spinners sometimes moisten the thread with saliva. This seems to operate economically for a time; but debility of the salivary organs soon follows, and they are incapable of supplying saliva sufficient to moisten the food, producing, in a short time, disease of the digestive organs. 2d. The habit of continual spitting, which attends the chewing of tobacco and gums, induces debility, not only of the salivary glands, but of the system generally. 241. The secretions are much influenced by mental emo- tions. If we smeU savory food, there will be an increased flow of saliva ; if we hear the intelligence of the death of a cher- ished friend, the tear will quickly course down the cheek. Observation. Such is the nice sympathy which exists be- tween different parts of the body, that in the evenings of the warm season, a chill upon the impressible skin that suppresses the perspiration, is frequently followed by a diarrhoea, dysen- tary, or cholera morbus. These can be prevented by avoid- ing the chill. An efficient means of relief, is, immediately to restore the skin to its proper action. 240. What is the efifect if a scciotory orjjivn is exeossivoly stimulated ? How is this effect illustrated by the use of the salivary glands ? 241. Does the state of the mind influence the secretions ? What is said of the sym- pathy between different parts of the body ? :-1 t .'.J ► '13" iiT^nrr Ki ■) t 1 ■! I 86 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. CHAPTER XVIII. NUTRITION. m 242. The Blood is the nutritive fluid of animals. It is composed of two parts — a watery fluid, called se'ruQU, and a solid portion, called co-ag'u-lum, (clot.) Observation. That portion of' the serum which remains fluid after congulation by heat has taken place, is called se-ros'i-ty. It is more abundant in the blood of old, than in that of young animals; and it forms the "red gravy" in roasted meats. 243. The blood is not necessarily red. It may be white, as in the fish ; transparent, as in the insect ; or yellowish, as in the reptile. There is no animal in which the blood is red in all parts of the body. The ligaments and tendons, in man, are not supplied with red, but with white blood. 244. Nutrition is the vital act by which the different parts of the body renew the materials of which they are com- posed. Digestion, circulation, absorption, and respiration, are but separate links in the chain of nutrition, which would be destroyed by the absence of any one of them. 245. The nutritive process is a kind of secretion, by which particles of matter are separated from the blood, and conveyed Avith wonderful accuracy to the appropriate textures, or parts of the body. 246. The function of the nutrient vessels antagonize those of absorption ; while one system is constructing, with beautiful 242. What is the nutritive fluid of animals ? Of what is it composed ? What forms tho rod gravy in roasted moat? 243. What is said of the color of the blood ? 244 — 248. What rcmarkn respecting nutrition f 244. What is nutrition ? 245. What is said of tho nutritive process ? 246. What can you say of the function of tho nutrient vessels ? NUTIUTIOX. S7 precision, tlie animal frame, the other is diligently e uployed in pulling down tliis complicated structure. But a nid this simultaneous renovation and decay, the form and 1: iauty of the organs are preserved. Ohservation. This ever-changing state of the body is shown by giving animals colored matter, mixed w th their food, which in a short time tinges their bones with Ihe same color as the matter introduced. Let it l>e withdraw] i, and in a few days the bones will assume their former color — evi- dently from the etiects of absorption. The changeful state of the body is further shown, by the losses to >7hicli it is subjected ; by the necessity of aliment ; by the imaciation which follows abstinence from food. 247. The renewal of every part of the bodv is not per- fected merely by the passage of the blood, through the arteries of the systemic circulation, but by the smdlest capillary vessels, called the mitr'icnt arteries. 248. " As the blood goes the round of the circulation, the nutrient capillary vessels select and secrete those parts wliich are similar to the nature of the structure, and the other por- tions pass on ; so that every part takes up and converts to its own use the very principles which it requires for its growth ; or, in other words, as the vital current approaches each organ, the particles appropriate to it feel its attractive force, — obey it, — quit the stream, — mingle with the substance of its tex- ture, — and are changed into its own true antl proper nature.'' Illustration. When a bone is broken, or a nerve wounded, minute vessels shoot out from the living parts, and immedi- ately commence their operations, by depositing bony matter, where it is required to unite fractured bones, and nervous substance to heal the wounded nerve. Give a proof of the over-changing str^to of the body. Give other inslances illuatrativo of the changeful state of the body. 247. By what vessels is the renewal of every part of the body perfected? 248. What ia said of the office of the nutrient capillary vessels ? When a bono is fractured, by what process is it healed ? .- ." 88 U! \'\ n iiii ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. Fig; 53. Fig. 53. A front view of tho organs witliin the chest .and abdomen. 1, 1, 1, 1, The muscles of tlie chest. 2, 2, '.!. 2. The ribs. 3, S, 3, The upper, middle, and lower lobes of the right lung. 4, 4, The lobes of the left lung. 5, The right ventricle of the heart. 6. The left ventricle. 7. Tlie right auricle of the heart. 8, The left auricle. 0, The pulmonary artery. 10, The aorta. 11, The vena cava dcsccndans. 12, The trachea. 13, The a-nophagus. 14, 14, 14, 14, The pleura. 15, 15, 15, The diaphragm. 16, 16, The right and left lobe of the liver. 17, The gall-cyst. 18, The stomach. 26, The spleen. 19, 19, The duodenom. 20, The ascending colon. 21, The transverse colon. 25, The descending colon. 'r>, 22, 22, 22, The small intestines. 23, 23, Ths abdominal walls turned down. 24, The thoracic duct, oi)ening into the left subclavian vein, (27.) ANATOMY OP THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 89 CHAPTER XIX. THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 249. The nutrient portion of the food is poured into the vein at the lower part of the neck, and is carried to the right cavities of the heart. The fluid in these cavities consists of the chyle mixed with the venous blood. Neither of these two elements is fitted to promote the growth or repair the waste of the body. They must be subjected to a process, by which the first can be converted into blood, and the second freed of its impurities, (carbonic acid and water.) This is effected by the liesj/inifory Organs. ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 250. The organs op respiration are the Luwjs, (lights ;) the Tra'che-a, (wind-pipe ;) the Branch' i-a, (subdivisions of the trachea ;) and the Air Ves'i-des, (air-cells at the extremi- ties of the bronchia.) The Di' a-phragra, (midriff;) ribs, and several muscles, also aid in the respiratory process. 251. The LUNGS are conical organs, one on each side of the chest, embracing the heart, and separated from each other by a membranous partition. The color of the luugs is a j)inkish gray, mottled, and variously marked with black. They are com- posed of air-cells, and tubes_, beside many small blood-vessels. 252. Each lung is surrounded by a membrane, called the 249. What iluids are convcjcd into the right cavities of the heart ? "What is necessary before they can bo adapted to the wants of the body ? By what organs are these changes effected ? 250 — 256. (Uvi: the ann- tom;i of the renpiratory onjnns. 250. Name the respiratory organs. What organs also aid in the respiratory process? 251. Describe the lungs. 252. Describe the pleura. if ■''(. I h hi 90 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. pleu'ra, which not only surrounds these organs, but is reflect- ed upon the walls of the chest. The lungs, however, are on the outside of the pleura, in the same way as the head is on the outside of a cap doubled upon itself. Observation. When this membrane, that covers the lungs, and also lines the chest, is inflamed, the disease is called " pleurisy." 253. The trachea is situated in the front part of the neck, and extends from the mouth to the lungs. It is composed of cartilaginous rings, which are very elastic. 254. The bronchia are the divisions of the trachea at its lower extremity, behind the upper part of the heart. One branch passes to the right lung, and the other to the left. These branches, upon entering the lung, divide into an almost infinity of smaller branches. Ilhistraiion. The trachea may be compared to the trunk of a tree ; the broncliia to two large branches ; the subdivi- sions of the bronchia to the branchlets and twigs ; the air- cells to the buds seen on the twigs in the spring. 255. The air-cells are very small sacs, or bladders, at the end of the minute divisions of the bronchia. Their walls are extremely thin, the interior of which, as well as the trachea and bronchia, are lined by mucous membrane. These cells are variable in size, and are most numerous in the mid- dle and lower part of the lungs. Observation'. When the mucous membrane of a few of the larger branches of the wind-pipe is slightly inflamed, it is called a " cold ;" when the inflammation is greater, and ex- tends to the lesser air-tubes, it is called bronchitis. Coughing is a violent expulsory effort, by which air is suddenly forced through the bronchia and trachea to remove offending matter. What is the disease called when this membrane is iuflarned? 263. De- scribe the trachea. 254. What are the bronchia? To what may the trachea and branches be compared? 255. Describe the air-cells. Where are they the most numerous ? Mention some diseases of the membrane that lines the bronchia. ANATOMY or THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 91 Ohservation. Tho structnro of the traches and lungs, may- be illustrated by taking these parts of a calf or sheep, and inflating tho bronchial tubes by forcing air into the wind-pipe with a pipe or quill. Tho internal structure *nay then bo seen by oi)ening the different parts. Fig. 54. Fig. 54. A representation of tho larynx, traches, bronchio, and air-cells. 1, 1, 1, An outline of the right lung. 2, 2, 2, An outline of the left lung. 3, Tho larynx. 4, The trachea. 5, The right bronchial tube, (i, The left bronchial tube. 7, 7, 7 8, 8, 8, Bronchial tube of right and left lung. i>, 0, 9, y, 9, 9, Air-cells. 256. The diaphragm is a flexible, circular partition, that sep- arates the respiratory from the digestive organs, and the chest How can the structure of the trachea and lungs bo illustrated ? 256. Describe the diaphragm. 1 s 3^ I m -i\ :fc h- 92 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOOY, AND HYGIENE. from the abdomen. Its marf^in is attaclied to the spinal col- umn, the sternum, and cartillages of the lower ribs. In a state of r(())oso, its ctnitre rises into the chest in tlie form of an arch. WIku air is forcibly expelled from the lungs, its upper point reaches as high as the fourth rib. It is depressed as low as the seventh rib, when air is drawn into the lungs. Fig. 55. Fig. 56. Pig. 55. A section of the chest when the lungs are inflated. 1, The diaphragm. 2, The muscular walls of the alidomen. Fig. 56. Asectionof the chest when the lungs are contracted. 1, The diaphragm, in common expiration. 2, 2, The muscular walls of the abdomen. 3, The position of the diaphragm in forced expiration. These engravings show the diaphratrm to be more convex, and the walls of the abdomen more flattened, when tlie lunj^s are collapsed, than when they are inflated. What is its form when not in action ? How bigh does its central portion rise in forced expiration ? How low does it descend when air is drawn into the lungs ? What do figs. 55 and 56 illustrate ? PHYSIOLOGY OF THE llESPIRATORY OKGANS. 93 CHAPTER XX. PHYSIOLOGY OF TIIK IIESI'IIIATORY ORGANS. 257. Respiration, or breathing, is tluit process by wliich air is drawn into the " lungs and expelled from them. The principal object in breathing, in animals, is to free the dark blood of one of the principal substances that compose the old and useless particles of the body. 258. When air is drawn into the lungs, the muscular margin of the diaphragm contracts, which depresses its cen- tral portion ; the chest is then enlarged at the expense of the abdomen. At the same time that the diaphragm is depressed, the ribs are thrust forward and upward by means of muscles placed between and on them. Thus the chest is enlarged in every direction. 259. The lungs follow the variations of capacity in the chest, expanding their air-cells when the latter is enlarged, and contracting when the chest is diminished. Thus, when the chest is expanded, the lungs follow, and consequently a vacuum is produced in their air-cells. The air then rushes through the mouth and nose into the trachea and its branches, and fills the vacuum as fast as it is made. Tliis mechanical process constitutes inspiration. 260. After the expansion of the chest, the muscles that ele- vated the ribs relax, together with the diaphragm. The elas- ticity of the cartilages of the ribs depresses them, and the 257 — 266. Give the une of the respiratory orrfans. 257. What is respi- ration? What is the principal object in breathing? 258. Describe how the chest is enlarged in respiration. 259. Do the lungs follow the variations of. capacity in tho chest? What constitutes inspiration? 260. How is the air expelled from the lungs ? H i^i 4 .- I \V ; ' li ; . ':T • ■ i ( 1 f|^ 1 1 s 1 =^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 1.1 1.25 wmm Ik lii 12.2 20 1.8 M., 11 1.6 6" 7: "c^l c^: Photographic Sciences Corporation 2S WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 :, C>, The position of the walls of the ab- domen in inspiration. 0, C, The position of the walls of the abdomen in expiration. 261. Thus it is obvious that the enlargement of the chest, or inspiration, is produced in two ways — 1st. By the depres- What does this constitute ? Explain fig. 67. is the chost enlarged ? Name them. 261. In how many ways PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY 0R0AN8. 95 sion of the central, arched portion of the diaphragm. 2d. By the elevation of the ribs. On the contrary, the contraction of the chest, or expiration, is produced by the depression of the ribs, and elevation of the central part of the diaphragm. These movements are successive during life, and constitute respiration. Experiment. Place the oar upon the chest of a person, and a murmuring sound will be heard, somewhat like the soft sighings of the wind through forest trees. This sound is caused by the air rushing in and out of the lungs, and is peculiarly distinct in the child. 262. As before mentioned, the dark, impure blood, that passes from the heart to the lungs, is unfit to sustain the vital action of the various organs of the body. Its impurities must be removed. When this is done, the blood loses its blackish red color, and becomes of a bright scarlet red. 263. The dark color of the blood is owing to the presence of carbonic gas. This is formed in the blood-vessels by the union of carbon (the principal element of the dead, waste atoms) and oxygen. 264. There is also, mixed with the dark blood, hydrogen, which, when united with oxygen, forms water, liotli carbon and hydrogen are supplied to the blood through the food. They are carried out of the system not only by the lungs, but by the skin and other organs. Observation. The presence of carbonic acid and watery vapor in the expired air, can be proved by the following experiments. 1st. Breathe into lime-water, and in a few minutes it will become of a milk-white color. This is owing to the carbonic acid of the breath uniting with the lime, forming the carbonate of lime. How is it contracted ? What do these successive movemouts consti- tute ? Give an experiment. 262. What change must bo made in the blood before it can sustain life ? 263. To what is the dark color of the blood owing? Where is this gas formed ? 264. What element beside carbon is found in the blood? What does it form when united M'ith oxygon? '¥■ 3«" I , » : V ^hhH fsi ■ '\^ 96 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 2d. Breathe upon a cold, dry inirror, for a few minutea, and it will be covered with moisture. This is condensed vapor from the lungs. In warm weather, this watery vapor is invisible in the expired air; but, in a cold, dry morning in winter, the successive jets of vapor issuing from the mouth and nose are sufficiently obvious. 265. Atmospheric air, or that which fills the air-cells of the lungs, is composed of two gases, ox'y-gen and nUtro-fjen. Oxy- gen has the property of supporting life, while nitrogen alone would destro}'' it. But combined with the former gas, it serves to neutralize the otherwise irritating action of the oxygen. Fig. 68. Fi^y. 58. A bronclnal tube divided into three branches. 2, 2, 2, Air-cells 3, Branches of the pulmonary artery, that spread over the air-cells. Through the pulmonary artery, the dark, impure blood is carried to the air-cells of the lungs 4, Branches of the pulmonary vein, that commence at the minute termination >f the pulmonary artery. Through the pulmonarj' vein, the red blood is returned to the heart. 266. We will now pass to the change which the air effects when it comes in contact with the blood in the lungs. As the impure blood is passing in the minute vessels over the air-cells, the oxygen passes through the extreme thin coats of the air- cells and blood-vessels, and unites with the blood. At the same time, the carbonic acid and watery vapor leave the blood, and pass through the coats of the blood-vessels and air-cells, and mix with the air in the cells. These are expelled from the air- IIow aro thbdo elements supplied to the blood ? How may the pre- sence of carbonic acid in tho expired air be proved? The presence of watery vapor ? 205. Of what is tho air composed ? What property ha? oxygon? Has nitrogen ? 266. Explain how the blood is changed by the action of the air? PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ftESPIRATORY ORGANS. 97 c«11h every time we breathe. This iuterohaiigc. of ga.ses pro- duces the change in the color of th(! hlood. Experiment. To show that gases may be interchanged through membranes, fill a bladder with dark blood drawn from any animal. Tie the ])ladder doscdy, and suspend it in the air. In a few hf)urs, th(; blood uvxt th(» membrane will have become of a bright red color. This is owing to the oxygon from the air passing through the bladder, and uniting with the blood, while the, carbonic acid has escaped through the membrane. Pig. 5». Fig. 59. Au ideal view of the pulmonary circulation. 1, 1, The right iun^. 2, 2, The left lung. 3, The trachea. 4, The rijfht bronchial tube, n. The left bronchial tube. 6, 6, 6, G, air-celLs. 7, The right auricle. 8, The riglit ventricle. 9, The tricusi>i(l valves. 10, The pulmonary artery. 11, Tlie branch to the right Inng. 12, The branch to the left lung. 13, The right pulmonary vein. 14, The left pulmonary vein. 15, The left auricle. 10, The left ventricle. 17. I'iie mitral valTea. Ifote. — Let a review of the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory «rgane be given from figs. 5.3, .59, or from outline anatomical plate.s H and 7. 7 i + ;» ■ '■' if ■J. if » ; 'M ' 98 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. CHAPTER XXI. HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATOllY ORGANS. 207. For man to enjoy the highest degree of health, it is necessary that the impure " venous " blood be properly changed. As this is effected in the lungs by the action of the air, it follows that this element, when breathed, should be pure, or contain twenty-one per cent, of oxygen to about seventy-nine per cent, of nitrogen. 268. The quaUtij or xmrity of the air is ufeded by every respiration. The quantity of nitrogen is nearly the same in the expired, as in the inspired air. But the quantity of oxygen is diminished, and that of carbonic acid is increased. Thus, every time we force air from the lungs, it becomes unfit to be breathed again. Kxpcriment. Sink a glass jar that has a stop-cock, or one with a glass stopper, into a pail of water, until the air is expelled from the jar. Fill the lungs with air, and retain it in the chest a short time, and then breathe into the jar, and instantly close the stop-cock. Close the opening of the jar that is under the Avater with a piece of paper laid on a plate of sufficient size to cover the opening, invert the jar, and sink into it alighted can- dle. The flame will be extinguished as quickly as if put in water.* • As a substitnte for a jar with a 8top-cock, take a piece of lead pipe bent in the form of a siphon, and insert it in the mouth of a reversed jar. This experiment is as conclusive \.hether the air is inhaled once only, or breathed many times. 267 — 285. Give the hygiene of the respiratory organs. 267. What is nocossary that man may enjoy tho highest degree of health? What proportion of oxygen and nitrogen should tho inspired air contain? 268. What is tho difference between inspired and expired air? How can this difference be shown ? HYGIENE OP THE RKSPIRATORY ORGANS. 99 Remove the carbonic acid by inverting the jar, and place a liglited candle in it, and the flame will be as clear as when out of the jar. Observation. It is familiarly known that a taper will not burn where carbonic acid exists in any considerable quantity, or when there is a marked deficiency of oxygen. From this originated the judicious practice of sinking a lighted candle into a well or pit before descending into it. If the flame is extinguished, respiration cannot there be maintained, and life would be sacrificed s^.ould a person venture in until the noxious air is removed. 2G9. Air, in which lamps will not hum with brilliancy, is unfitted for respiration. In crowded rooms, which are not ventilated, the air is vitiated, not only by a decrease of oxy- gen and an increase of carbonic acid, but by the waste, injurious atoms thrown out from the lungs and skin of the audience. The burning lamps, under such circumstances, emit but a feeble light. Let the oxygen gas be more and more expended, and the lamps will burn more and more feebly, until nearly extinguished. Illustrations. 1st, The efl'ects of breathing the same air again and again, are well illustrated by an incident that occurred in one of our haUs of learning. A large audience had assembled in an ill-ventilated room, to listen to a lecture ; soon the lamps burned so dimly that the speaker and audience were nearly enveloped in darkness. The oppression, dizzi- ness, and faintness, experienced by many of the audience, induced them to leave ; and in a few minutes after, the lamps were observed to rekindle, owing to the exchange of pure air on opening the door, which supplied to them oxygen. 2d. The "Black Hole of Calcutta" received its name from the fact, that one hundred and forty-six Englishmen were shut Why should a lighted candle be sunk in a well or pit before a person descends into it? 269. How is the air of crowded, unventilated rooms vitiated? What oflFect has sueh air upon the burning lamps? Give an incident that illustrates the efifects of impure air upon burning lamps. I I I u'ii^J i 100 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND UYUIENK. k: w m up in a room eighteen feet square, with only two small win- dows on the same side to admit air. On opening this dungeon, ten hours alter their imprisonment, only twenty- three were alive. The others had died trom breathing impure air, that contained animal matter from their own bodies. 270. Churches, concert-halls, and school-rooma should be well ventilated. If tliey are not, the persons assembled in them will be restless, and comjilain of langour, and perhaps headache. These unpleasant sensations are caused by a want of pure air, to give an adequate supply of oxygen to the lungs. Observation. In all school- rooms, where there is not an adequate ventilation, it Ls advisable to have a recess of five or ten minutes eacli hour. During thLs time, let the pupiLs breathe fre^h air, and open the doors and windows, so that the air of the room shall be completely changed. 271. While occupying a room, we are insensible to the gradual vitiation of the air. This is the result of the dimin- ished sensibility of the nervous system, and gradual adapta- tion of the organs to blood of a less stimulating character. 272. In the construction of every inhabited room, fliers shoidd be adequate means of ventilation, as well as warmiiuj. No room is well ventilated, unless as much pure air ls brought into it, as the occupants vitiate at every respiration. This can be effected by making an aperture in the ceiling of the room, or by constructing a ventilating flue in the chimney. This should be in contact with the flues for the escape of smoke, but separated from them by a thin brick partition. 273. Provision should also be made, bj which pure air may be constantly coming into the room, as the crevices of the Of the efifects of breathing impure air. 270. Why should ohurohes and school-rooma bo well ventilated? What suggestion when a school- room is not well ventilated? 271. Why are we insensible of the vitia- tion of the air of the room iu which wo are seated? 272. What is very important in the construction of every inhabited room ? Uow can a room be well ventilated ? 273. Should provision be made to have pure air introduced into a room ? HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 101 doors and windows are not sufti(3ient. There t^hould be an .iperture at or near tlie floor, to connect ^vith tlie outer walls of the building or external air. 274. The sick-room, particularly, should bo so arranged that the impure air may escape, and pure air bo constantly coming into the room. Curtains around the bed, and the sheet over the face, are injurious!. The effect is similar to that produced by sleeping in a sm;;ll, unventilated room. 275. The change that is effected in the blood while passing through the lungs, not only depends upon th(! purity of the air, but the amount inspired. The quantity varies according to the size of the chest, and the movement of the ribs and diaphragm. Fig. 60. Fig. 61. Fig. 60. '1,'ho skeleton uf a defonued chest. Pig. .s havf; more, froedorn of motion, and the abdo- minal muscles act more efficiently ; thus the lungs have broader range of morement, than when the shoulders incline forward, and the body is Htooi)ing. 281. Til state of the mind excrciHea a f/reat irfjluenrc upon fmpiration. If we are depressed by grief, or feel anxious about friends or property, the fliaphragm and muscles that elevate the ribs will not contract with the sanu; energy as when the mind is influenced by joy, iriirth, and other enliven- ing emotions. ( consequently, our breathing is not as frequent and full in the former v.-, in the latter condition. 282. yh recover persons apparentlij dromied, it is neces- sary to press the chest, suddenly and fondbly, downward and backward, and instantly liscontinue the pressure. Repeat this witljout intermissifm, until a i»air of bellows (;an be procured. When the bellows ar(> obtained, introduce the nozzle Avell upon the base of the tongue, and surround the mouth and nose with a towel or handkerdiief, to close them. Let anotlier person press upon the projecting part of the neck, called " Adam's ap[)le," while air is introduced into the lungs through tlic bellows. Then press uj)on the chtist, to force the air from the lungs, to imitate natural breathing. 283. Continue the use of the bellows, and forcing the air out of the chest, for an hour at least, unless signs A natural breathing come o)i, Wraj) the body in warm, dr^ blankets, and place it near the fire, to preserve the natural warmth, as well as to impart artificial heat. Every thing, however, is secondary to filling the lungs with air. Avoid all friction until breatliing is restored. Send for medical aid immediately. 284. In cft.s'fty of ajjparent death froni hanging or stran- gling, the knot should be untied or cut immediately ; then use artificial respiration, or breathing, as directed in apparent death 281. Does the state of the mind iniluenco our breathing ? 382. How should persons apparently drowned bo treated ? 284. How should ap- parent death from strangling be managed ? ■ff HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 105 Irom drowning,'. In tvsphyxia from electricity, (lij^htning, ) artificial ro.sj)i ration should he resorted to. Observation. It is a common impression, in many sections of the country, that the law will not allow the removal of the cord from the neck of a body found .suspended, unless the coroner be present. It is tlujrefore pro])er to say, that no such delay is Ufices-sary, and that no time should hv lost in attempting to resuscitate; the strangled person. 285. When life is apj>arently suspended, from breathing carbonic acid gas, the person should be carried into the open air. The head and shoulders shoiUd be slightly elevated, the face and chest should be sponged or s})rinkled with cold water, or (jold vinegar and water. Apply friction to the skin, with a coarse clotli or flesh-brush, and resort to artificial respiration. Observation. 1st. Many i)ersons have died from breathing carbonic acid that w;is formed by burning charcoal in an open ])au or portable furna(;('. for tlie f)urpose of warming their sleeping-rooms. 2d. In resuscitating persons ajiparently dead fntm the already mentioned causes, if a pair of bellows cannot be pro- cured immediately, let their lungs be inflated by iiir expelled from the lungs of some person j)resent. To have the expired air as pure as possible, the person should quickly inflate his lungs, and instantly expel the air into those of the {usphyxi- ated person. Place the patient in pure air, admit attendants only into the apartment, and send for a physician without delay. What treatment should bo adopted in asphyxia fVom light.ning ? What is said of the impressioci, common in some sections of tho country when a body is found suspended? 285. What should be done when carbonic acid has been inhaled ? What sad results frequently follow the burning of charcoal in a close room ? Give tho 2d observation. I I i i i -: 1 1 J ill 106 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. JlllPil CHAPTER XXII. ANIMAL HEAT. 286. The true sources of animal heat are still imperfectly known. We see certain phenomena, but the causes arc hid- den from our view. Its regular production, to a certain degree, is essential both to animal and vegetable life. 287. The temperature of the human body is about ninety- eight degrees, whether we examine it in the Icelander in his Kuowy hut, or the Negro under an equatorial sun. 288. To enable man to maintain an equilibrium of temper- ature under such extremes of heat and cold, naturally sug- gests two inquiries. 1st. By what organs is animal heat generated ? 2nd. By what moans is its uniformity maintained 1 289. In combustion, or burning of wood, coal, oil, &c., tlie oxygen of the atmosphere unites with the carbon and hydrogen of tliese substances, and carbonic acid and watery vapor are produced. This process is attended with the disengagement of heat. 290. The (quantity of heat disengaged in combustion is always in proportion to the amount of carbon and hydrogen consumed ; thus a piece of wood weighing one pound, in burning slowly, would give out the same quantity of heat as a pound of shavings of the same wood, in burning rapidly. Upon the principle of combustion, the productioii of animal heat may be understood. 286 — 296. What in said resj'fcting animal heat f 286. Is the true source of animal heat known? 287. What is the toraporaturo of thti human body ? 28S. What inquiriea arc naturally suggested ? 289. What takes place in the combustion, or burning of wood, oil, «kc. ? 290. Upon what does the quantity of heat disengaged in combustion depend? How is this illuBtrated? ANIMAL HEAT. 107 291. As before inentioued, the food contains carbon and hydrogen. Tliese exist in the chyle. Tlie old and waste atoms of the body, likewise, contain the same elements. It is now supposed that thp oxygen of the inspired air enters the capillary vessels of the lungs, and mingles with the blood, with which it is carried to the heart, and from thence to tlie nutrient capillary vessels of every part of the system. 292. In the capillary vessels, the oxygen of the arterial blood unites with the carbon and hydrogen of the waste atoms, (which are conveyed into the blood by the lymphatics,) and carbonic acid and water are formed. 293. This change of state among the particles of bodies is attended witli the disengagement of heat. The carbonic acid and water are returned to the lungs in the blood, and car- ried out of the body by the expired air. The inference is, that heat is generated in every part of the body. 294. Our next inquiry is, by what means is the uniformity of temperature in the body mairtjiined 1 It has been ascer- tained that the principal agent in keeping the body at a uni- form temperature, is the immense evaporation that takes place from the skin and lungs. 295. When cold air comes in contact witli these mem- branes, heat is given off to restore the equilibrium. The quantity depends somewliat on the rapidity of the change of air. And this is greatest when we are in a currert of dry air, or a brisk wind is blowing upon us. 296. The skin, in an ordinary state, is constantly giving out a watery fluid, which is converted into vapor and carried olf by the surrounding air. To effect this, heat is taken from the system, and the conversion- of the perspiration into vapor 291. Fromwhatsourcearo the carbon and hydrogen in the body derived? The oxygon ? 292. Show how boat may bo produced in every part of the body ? 294. What is the principal agent by which a uniform tempera- ture of the body is maintained ? 295. What is the effect when cold air «ome8 in contact with those membranes ? When is the greatest amount of heat given off? 290. How is the surplus heat of the body removed? 4 "" A i^u il ill II If I 108 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. conveys a largo proportion of the 8urj)]us heat from the body; and in consequence, the temperature is maintained at ninety- eight degrees. Ohservation. 1st. In all ages 'and climes, it has been observed, that the increased temperature of the skin and syst(}ni in fevers, is abated as soon as free perspiration is restored. 2d. In damp, close weather, as during the sultry days of August, we feel a disagreeable sensation of heat, because the saturation of the air by moisture prevents the escape of heat through the lungs and skin. HYGIENE OF ANIMAL HEAT. 297. The amount of heat generated in the human system depends upon the quantity and quality of the food, age, exercise, the amount and character of the inspircMl air, con- dition of the brain, skin, and general system. 298. Anmud heat u niodified by tlic proportion of curhoit which the food contaiihs, and by tha (jvantity consumed. As the kind of fuel that contains the greatiist amount of combus- tible material gives off the most heat Avhen burned, so those articles of food that contain the greatest quantity of carbon produce the most heat when converted into blood. 299. Aye is another influence that modifies the yeneration of animal heat. The vital forces of the child being feeble, lees heat is generated in its system than in that of an adult. Hence the young child, and the enfeebled, aged person, need more clothing than the vigorous individual of middle age. Wha* has been observed in all ages and climes ? Why do we feel a disagreeable sensation of heat in the sultry days of August? 297 — 304, Give the hygiene of nnimul heat. 297. On what does the amount of heftt generated in the human system depend ? 298. What element of the food influences the generation of heat ? 299. Does age modify tha generation of heat V What persons^need the most clothing ? HYGIENE OF ANIMAL HEAT. 109 300. Exercise is av iiifliience that modifies the 'jeneration ftf animal heat. Whatever increaflcs the flow of blood iii the system, increases also the deposition of new atoms of matter, and the removal of the waste particles. This change among the particles of matter is attended with an elevation of temperature. For this reas(m, a [>erson in action is warmer than in n state of repose. 301. The amouiit and character of the air which iti Irreathed modify the heat of the .system. In the generation of heat in a stove, air, or oxygen, is as essential ius the wood or coal. It is equally so in the production of animal heat. The oxygen of the inspired air should l)e in proportion to the carbon and hydrogen to bi. consumed. This requires capacious lungs, together with free movements of the ribs and diaphragm. 302. The condition of the hra.in and nervous system affectts tlie generation of animal heat. If the mind is aroused from fear, the breathing becomes slow, and a chilliness pervades the body, particularly the extremities ; while, on the other hand, joyous and agreeable emotions quicken the circulation of the blood, and this increases the generation of heat. 303. During sleep, when the brain is partially inactive, le/SS heat is generated than when awake. Tliis is one reason why an individual who sleeps in the same clothing that was adequate to prevent chills while awake, contracts a cold, unless he throws over him an additional covering. 304. The system suj^ers less when the change of tem^jera- fiire is gradual. 'I'hc diange in the production of heat, as well {18 in the evaporation of fluids from the system, is gra- dual, wlien not influenced by foreign causers, IJy this means, the body is enabled to endure tro])ical heat and polar cold. .300. What effect has exercise on aniraal boat ? 301. To what should the oxygon of the inspired air be proportional ? 302. Mention the effects of sumo of the emotions on animal boat. 303. Why do we need more clothing when asleep than when awake? 304. How is the body enabled to endure tropical heat and polar cold? , ; « no ANATOMV, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIKNE. CHAPTER XXIII. THE VOICE. 305. The beautiful mechanism of the vocal instrument, which produces every variety of sound, from a harsh, unme- lodious tone, to a soft, sweet, flute-like sound, can never b« imitated by art. It has been compared, by many jjhysiolo- gists, to a wind, reed, and stringed instrument. This inimit- able, yet simple instrument, is the Lai-^ynx. ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 306. Thi L.atYNX (Adam's apple) is a kind of cartilagi- nous tube, ^vhieh, taken as a whole, has the general form of a hollow re\ -^ed cone, with its base upward toward the tongue, in the shape of an expanded triangle. 307. It is composed of several pieces of cartilage, that not only connect with each other, but with the tongue, lower jaw, and trachea. 308. There are stretched across the cavity foimed bj these cartilages, four folds of membrane, two on each side, called vocal cords. 309. The space between the cords on each side is called the (jlot'tis, or chink of the glottis. The cavity between the upper and lower vocal cords is called the ventricle of the larynx. > 305 — 310. Civc the anatomy of the vocal organs. 305. What ia said of the structure of tho vocal instrument? What instruments hare physiologists compared it with ? What is tho vocal instrument called ? 306. Describe the larynx. 307. Of what is it composed ? 308. De- Bcribe tho vocal cords. 309. What is the space between these e»»rd8 called ? PHILOSOPHY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. Ill 310. Behind the base of the tongue, is a piece of cartilage, resembling a leaf of parsley, called the ep-i-glo'tis. The dutj of this sentinel is to keep the food and drink from passing into the air-passage, or trachga. ^^Hi PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 311. In the formation of the voice, each part already described performs an important office. The cartilages give form and stability to the larynx, and by the action of muscle.^ attached to them, the width of the glottis is varied. Fig. 62. Fig. 63. Fig. 62. A side view of the cartillages of the larynx. 1, The bone at the root of the tongue. 3, 4, 5, 6, Cartillages of the larynx. 7, Thq trachea. Fig. 63. A section of the larynx. 1, 1, The upper vocal cords. 2,2, The lower vocal cords. 3, 3, The glottis. 4, 4, The ventricles of the larynx. 312. When air is forcibly driven from the lungs through the glottis, it causes a vibration, or trembling of the vocal cords. This produces sound ; and it is varied by the tongue, the teeth and the lips. 310. Whero is the epiglottis situated? 211, 313, Oive the function of the vocal organs. 311. Of what use are the cartillages of the larynx? What does fig. 62 represent ? Fig. 63 ? 312. How is sound produced ? i II I* V • 131 IP m il ■!i i : ,";" ! " I I! If 112 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 313. The size of the larynx, the capacity and liealth of the lungs, th(3 condition of the throat and nasal passages, the •lovation and depression of the chin and tongue, and the state of the mind, influence the modulations of the sound, HYGTKNK OP THfc: VOCAL ORGANS. s, and others, who are engaged in noisy occupation, exert their Tocal organs more strongly than those of more quiet pursuits. This not only affects the structure of the vocal organs, but ?arios the intonations of the voice. 315. The voice is strong in propoi-tion to the demloj/iuent of the lartfnXy and the capaeity of the chest. Singing and i-eading aloud, improve and strengthen the vocal organs, and give a healthy expansion to the chast. The enunciation of the elementary sounds of tlie English language, aids in de- Teloping the vocal organs, as well as preventing disease of the throat and lungs, {laryngitis and bronchitis.) 316. The action also affects the inodulation of the voice When an individual stands or sits with the head and trunk, erect, the move' lonts of the whole respiratory apparatus are most free and effective. Sound, in consequence, is more clear and distinct. Eocperiment. Read with thcs head bowed forward and the chin depressed ; then read with the head erect and the chin ele- ▼ated, and the difference in the movement of the vocal organs, t.c)''^^n should bathe when the body is fatigued^ either by mental or physical labor, or immediately after m meal. The best time for bathing, particularly for sick per- sons, is about two hours after breakfast. Persons in health may bathe in the morning, or in the evening. 367. The sponge bath is, perhaps, the simplest and best method of bathing. In this but a small portion of the surface of the skin is exposed to the air, and the brisk rubbing that immediately follows the wet sponge, prevents a chill of th« skin. No colds would be contracted in bathing, if persons woidd wipe dry, and use friction with a coarse towel or flesh- brush, until redness or warmth of the skin is produced. 368. The air is an agent of importance in the functions of the skin. It imparts to this membrane oxygen, and receives from it carbonic acid. It also removes from it a large portion of the perspiration and the more fluid portions of the oily mat- ter. In order that the air may accomplish these ends, it is 363. When should changes in dress from thick tojthin be made ? Why ? 364. What is said of the necessity of bathing ? 365. What temperature of water is best for the system ? 366. When should persons not bathe? When is the best time for bathing ' 367. WhatTmothod is the simplest for bathing? How are colds prevented when '[bathing ? 368. What it said of the influence of the air on' the functioHS of the skin ? I'f :*; i 126 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, tli necessary that it come in contact with the body. This is one of the many reasons why we should wear loose and porous clothing. 369. Light exorcises a salutary influence upon the skin. Thus we see, that those individuals who labor in low, damp, dark rooms, are pale and sickly. The light, permeating the skin, not only exercises a salutary influence upon this mem- brane, but upon the blood, and, through this fluid, upon the whole system. 370. This established fact shows how important it is that nchool-houHGS, mechanics' shops, kitchens, and sitting-rooms, be not only well ventilated, but favorably situated to receive light. For the same reasons, the kitchen and the sitting- room, which are the apartments most used by ladies, should be selected from the most pleasant and well-lighted rooms in the house. 371. When any portion of the skin has been frozen, apply ice, snow, or cold water. The fire and a wann room should be avoided. If the frozen parts blister, treat them as you woidd burns. 372. In scalds and burns, when there is no blister, or if one is formed, and the external skin is not broken, apply cold water as long as the smarting pain continues. After the pain has subsided, cover the blistered part with a patch of cotton or linen cloth, on which is spread lard and bees-wax. 373. If the external skin is removed, apply lime-water mixed with " sweet oil," fresh cream, or lard and bees-wax. When the dressings are applied, they should not be removed until they become dry and hard. 369. Show the effect of light on the akin ? 370. What is said of the selection of those rooms that are the most used? 371. What should be applied when the skin is frozen ? What should be avoided ? 372. In toalds or burns, what is necessary if a blister is formed ? 373. What ia necessary if the external akin is remoTed? How often should the dretsinga be removed ? ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 127 CHAPTEE XXVII. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. .^74. In the preceding chapters, the structure and use of the bones and muscles have been explained, the process by which the food is converted into chyle and mixed with the blood, together with the manner by which this fluid is con- Teyod to every part of the body, has been described. .375. It has also been shown, that lymphatic absorption commences as soon as nutrition is completed, and conveys the useless, worn-out particles of the different parts back into the circulating fluid ; while the respiratory organs and secre- tory glands perform the work of preparing the waste atoms to be conveyed from the body. These functions must suc- (;oed each other in proper order; and such is the mutual dependence of these processes, that a medium of communica- tion is necessary from one organ to another. This is effected by means of the Nervous Si/stem. ANATOMY OF THF NERVOUS SYSTEM. 376. The nervous system is composed of the Brain, Cranial Nerves, Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and the Sym- pathetic Nerves. 377. The brain is a pulpy organ within the skull-bones. The upper and front portion is called the Cer^'e-brum. The lower portion, situated at the back part of the skull, is called the Ger-e-heVlum. 374. What has been described in the preceding chapters? 375. What has also been shown? .376 — 388. Oivc the anatomy of the nervout sytttm, 370. Of what is the nervous system composed ? 377. Describe the brain. liTir ^ -f W: III -#t 128 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 378. The cerebrum, or larger portion of the "brain, ia composed of a whitish substance, with an irregular border of gray matter around its edges. 379. The CEREBELLUM is also composed of white and gray matter, but the latter constitutes the largest portion. The whit« matter is so arranged, that when cut vertically, the appearanct of the trunk and branches of a tree {afhor-vi'tce) is presented. Fig. ,69. ' Fig. (59, n, a, The s«alp turned down, h, h, b, The cut edges of the bonea of Um skull, c, The external membrane of the brain suspended by a hook, d, The left side of the brain, showing its convolutions. 380. The brain is surrounded by three membranes. Tht external membrane is thick and firm ; the middle membran* is thin, and looks somewhat like a spider's web ; the inner membrane consists of a net-work of blood-vessels. 378. Describe the cerebrum. 379. Describe the cerebellum. 380. What is said of the membranes of the brain? What does fig. 69 represent? '^mm ANATOMY OF TEE NEllVOUS SYSTEM. 129 It » .9 it 381. On removing tho u\)\n'i- part of the skull-bones and inembranes, the brain presents an luululating, folded appear- ance. These ridL^es are called con-vo-lu'tions. 382. The .spinal cjrd is composed of a whitish substance, similar to that of the brain. It is covered with a sheath, or membrane, und cxtenda from tlie brain through the whole length of the spinal co unm. The upper portion, within the skull-bones, is called tlie me.-duVla olhloiHja'ta. Fig. 70. Fig. 70. A section of the brain and spinal cord, showing the relation of the cra- nial nerves to these organs. 1, The cerebrum, 2, The cerebellum, with its arbor- vitac represented. 3, The medulla oblongata. 4, The spinal cord. 6, The first pair, or nerve of smell. 7, The second pair, or nerve of sight. 9, 10, 12, Tlie third, fourth, and sixth pair of nerves. These pass to the muscles of the eye. 11, The fifth i)air, or nerve of taste, and also the sensitive nerve of the teeth. 13, Tlie seventh jmir. This pa.sses to the muscles of the face. 14, The eighth pair, or nerve of hearing. 15, 16, 18, 19, The ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth pairs. These puss to the tongue, larjiix, and neck. 20, Two spinal nerves. 381. What is the appearance of the brain when the skull-bones and membrane? arc removed ? What are they called ? 382. Describe the spinal cord. What is the medulla oblongata ? Explain fig. 70. 9 ■If 18t ANATOMY, PUYSIOLOGY, AND UYQIENE. 383. Tho NERVKS arc small, white cords, that pass from tho brain and spinal cord. They arc distri])uted to every part of tho human system. 384. Tho CRANIAL nerves, that connect with tho base of tho brain, are arranged in twelve pairs. They aro generally distributed to the parts about the face. 385. The spinal nerves, that connect with the spinal cord, arc arranged in thirty-one pairs, each arising by two roots ; an anterior, or motor root ; and a posterior, or sensitive root. Fig. 71. Fig. 71. A, Tlie spinal cord, surrounded by its slieath (E, E.) B, A spinal nerve, formed by the union of tho motor root (C,) and the sensitive root (D.) At D, the ganglion, or knot, upon this root is seen. 386. Every nerve, however small, contains two distinct cords of nervous matter. (_)ne gives feeling, while the other ' is used in the motion of the part to which they are distributed. 387. The sympathetic nerve consists of a series of gan'gli-a, or knots, extending each side of the spinal column, forming a chain its whole length. It communicates with both the cranial and spinal nerves, and likewise distributes branches to all the internal organs. 383. What are nerves ? 384. What is said of the cranial nerres ? 385. What is said respecting tho spinal nerros? 386. What does evorj Bcrre contain ? Describe fig. 71. 387. Describe tho sympathetic ncrre. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTHM. 131 CHAFrEll XXVIII. PHYSIOLOGY OF TIIK NERVOUS SYSTEM. Lin, itk ites 388. The brain is tlio organ of tlio mind. To the coie- bruin, or largo brain, the faculties of thinkhu/f memory, and the mil, are ascribed. In the human body, this part of the braia extends so far backward as to cover the wliole of the cerebellum. To the cerebellum, or little brain, is ascribed the seat of the animal, or lower propensities. 389. The brain is the seat of sensation. It perceives the impressions made on all parts of the body, through the medium of the sensitive nerves. That the impressions of external objects, made on these nerves, be communicated to the brain, where sensation is perceived, it ia necessary that they be not diseased or injured. 390. There is a plain distinction between sensations and impressions : the latter are tlie cliauges produced in the extremities of the nerve ; the former, the changes produced in the brain and communicated to the mind. 391. What part of the brain receives the impressions, or has the most intimate relation v/itli the intellectual faculties, is unknown. 8ome portions, however, are of greater import- ance than othere. Pieces of both the white and gray matter, have been removed by injuries without impairing the intel- lect or destroying life. •TC. .^88—394. Give the functions of the brain. 388. What is said of the brain? What is ascribed to the cerebrum ? To the cerebellum? 389. Where is sensation perceived? Through what medium are the impres- sions of external objects conveyed to the brain ? 390. What is the dif- ference between sensations and impressions? 391. Is it known what part of the brain has the most intimate relation with the intdlloctual faculties ? 132 A.-MTOMYj IMIYSIOLOaV, AND HYGIENE. 392. This or^'aii, altlioiifi^li it tiikfs cognizance of ovory sensation, is, of itself, l)nt Hlij,'htly stMisiLlc, It may bo cut (ir icniovcd without jKiin, and tlic individual, at the .same time, retain his consciousnoiss. The medulla. o})longata, unlike the brain, is highly sensitiv(! ; ifsli^dltly punctured, convulsions follow; if much injtn'cd, respiration, or breath- ing, immediately ceases. 39.3. The brain is the seat of the //•///. The contraction, or movement of the muscles, is causcMl by an influence sent from the brain by an act of tlie mind, or the will. The medium of communi<'ation from this organ to the; muscles, is the motor nerves. If the brain is in a state of repose, the muscles arc at rest ; if, by an act of tlie will, the l)rain sc^nds a portion of nervous influence to a muscle, it innnediately contracts, and those parts to which the muscle is attached, move. 394. The sympathetic nerve, although it confers neither scjisibility nor power of movement, yet it gives vitality, or life, to all the im})ortant parts of the system, l^'.very portion of the body is, to a certain extent, under its influence, as filaments from this system of nerves accompany the blood- vessels throughout their course. This establishes a union, or symi)athy, with the different organs of tin; body. lU'Ustrafion. When the brain is jarr<;d by a l)low, nausea and vomiting follow. Again, when food is taken that irritates the nerves of the stomach, itproduces headavdie, from the sympa- thy ofthe ])rain with the stomach, through this system of nerves. Fig. 72. A back view of tlie brain and spinal cord. 1, The cerebrum. 2, The lerebelluin. 3. The spinal cord. 4, Nerves of the face. r>, The brachial plexus, or union of nerves. 6, 7, 8, 0, Nerves of the ann. 10, Nerves that pass under the ribs. 11, The lumbar plexus of nen'es. 12, The sacral plexus of nerve.s. 13, 14, l.'j, 10, Nerves of the lower limbs. 392. What is said of tho sensibility of this organ ? Of tho modulla oblongata? ;}9;». Describe how tho contraction of a muscle is eflfocted. 394. What is said of the sympathetic norvo ? Explain fig. 72. NotK. — Lot the anatony and physiology ofthe nervous system bo reviewed from fig. 72, or anatomical outline plato 8. ANATOMY OF THE NEIIVOUS HYSTKM. Fig. 72. l;}3 134 ANATOMY; PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. CHAPTER XXIX. HYGIE^E OF THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 395. As the different organs of the system are dependent on the brain and spinal cord for efficient functional action, and as the mind and brain are closely connected during life, the former acting in strict obedience to the laws which regu- late the latter, it becomes an object of great importance in education to discover what these laws are, and escape th« numerous evils consequent on their violation. 396. For healthy and efficient action, the brain should he, jyrimarily, sound; as this organ is subject to the same general laws as other parts of the body. If the brain of the child is free from defects at birth, and acquires no improper impres- sions in infancy, it will not easily become diseased in after life. 397. T?ie brain requires a due supply of jmre blood. It is estimated that one-tenth of all the blood sent from th« heart goes to this organ. If the arterial blood be altogether withdrawn, or a person breathes air that is filled with car- bonic gas, the brain ceases its proper action, and sensibility with consciousness becomes extinct. Tlie effects of slight differences in the quality of the blood upon the action of th« brain, are not so easily recognized. Illustration. Let a person remain, for a time, in a crowded, ill-ventilated hall or churcli, and headache or faintness i« generally produced. This is caused by the action of impure blood upon the brain. 395 — 408. (Hvc the hygiene of the ncr«oH« Kyatem. 395. Why is it important to know the laws which regulato tho action of the brain ? 396. What is necessary that the action of the brain be healthy and efficient? 397. Why does the brain require a duo supply of puw blood ? How is this illustrated ? - ^! id is HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 136 Observation. If a school-teacher wishes to have his pupik, on the (lay of examination, appear creditably, he will be care- ful to have the room well ventilated. Ventilating churches might prevent the inattention and sleepiness that are observed during the afternoon service. 398. The hrahi should he called into action. This organ, like the muscles, should be used, and then allowed to rest, or cease from vigorous thought. When the brain is properly called into action by moderate study, it increases in size and strength ; while, on the other hand, if it is not used, the action of this organ is enfeebled, thereby diminishing the function of all pai-ts of the body. 399. The number of hours that the brain should be vigor- ously used depends on its development, and the general health of the body. Tlie child with a large brain and an ac- tive mind, should not be induced to pursue studies above the capacity of children generally. On the other hand, children of sluggish minds, particularly if they have good health, should be incited to study. 400. Excessive and continued mental exertion is injurious at any time of life ; but in infancy and early youth, when the structure of the brain is still immature and delicate, permanent injury is more easily produced by incorrect treatment than at any subsequent period. Observation. It is no unusual occuiTcncc, that on " exam- ination day," the best scholars appear indifferently. This is the result of nervous exhaustion, produced by extra mental effort in preparing for the final examination. Such pupils should divert their minds from study, for a few days previ- ous to examination. During this time, indulge in lightread- ing and physical recreation. Give a practical observation. 398. Why should the brain be called into action ? What is the oflFect if the brain is not used ? 399. How long should the brain be actively used ? What is said respecting the child with a large brain? Those of sluggish minds ? 400. When is eAce.'.ive and continued mental exertion particularly injurious? Give observation. r il I A 136 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 401. We should not enter upon continued mental exertion, cr arouse deep feeling, immediately after a full meal. 8uch is the connection between the mind and the body, that even in a perfectly healthy person, unwelcome news, sudden anxiety, or mental excitement, occurring soon after eating, will impede digestion, and cause the stomach to loathe the masticated food. 402. We should euf/age in intense study in the early part of the day. Studies that require close application should be pursued in the morning. The evening should be devoted to entertaining conversation, music, and light reading. This will fit the system of the student for quiet and refreshing sleep. Observation. The idea of gathering wisdom by burning the "midnight oil" is more poetical than profitable. The best time to use the brain is during the day. 403. Those ivhose employment is arduous, and the growing child, need more sleep than the idler or the adult. As sleep is the natural repose of all organs, it follows that the more all the organs of the system are employed, the more lepose they require. The organs of the child, beside sustaining their proper functions, are busy in promoting its growth. This nutritive process is attended with a certain degree of exhaustion. 404. The condition of the brain is modified by changing the action of the mind. If we thiidc intensely of a subject, the face will become flushed, and dizziness or pain of the head will be induced. Change our thoughts to something of a more trifling character, and these peculiar sensations will cease. 405. The brain can exercise its full poiver upon only one object at a time. Tf its energies are directed to two or more operations, neither will receive that full power of exertion that it would, if only one object had engaged the mind. 401. Why should we not arouse deep feeling immediately after a full meal? 402. Whenshould wo engage in intense study ? Give observation. 403. What persons require the most sleep ? 404. Show how the action of the mind modifies the conditiuii of the brain ? 405. Why cannot the brain exercise its full powers on more than one object at a time? ^' HYGIENE OP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 137 406. Regularity is of great importance in calling the Irrain into action. Let us take our dinner at a regular hour for sev- eral successive weeks, and we at last find our appetites indicat- ing its approach with the greatest regularity. The same is true of the nervous system ; call it into action at regular pe- riods, and without previous thought, we enter upon that mode of action when the time approaches. The formation of " habits" are promoted by this principle. 407. Repetition is necessary to make a durable inip7'essi,on on the mind. Kepetition of mental action is as important as repetition of muscular action. It is by this means that thoughts are durably impressed upon the brain. This prin- ciple has been too much neglected in the moral and intellec- tual education of children. 408. In injuries of the brain the person is geneially insensi- ble, the extremities are pale and cold, the pulse feeble, and the breathing is less frequent and full. When these symptoms exist, the patient should be placed in pure air. Friction, with dry warmth, should be applied to the extremities, to restore proper circulation in the blood-vessels. There should be no bleeding until the skin of the extremities becomes warm. 406. Should the brain be called into action at regular periods ? 407. Why is repetition of mental action necessary? 408. Wliat is the effect on the system when the brain is injured ? What is necessary to be done when such symptoms exist? 138 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. CHAPTER XXX. SENSE OF TOUCH. 409. Sensation is an impression made upon the mind through the medium of the senses. There are five senses, namely. Touchy TaMe, Smell, Hearing , and Vision. 410. Touch is the sense that enables us to tell whether a body is rough or smooth, cold or hot, sharp or blunt. Thi« sense and feeling reside in the nerves of the skin. 411. The nerves that contribute to the sense of touch, pro- ceed from the anterior half of the spinal cord. Where sensa- tion is most acute, we find the greatest number of nervous filaments, and those of the largest size, as at the ends of th« fingers and lips. Observation. The sense of touch varies in different persons, and also in individuals of difierent ages. Thus the sensibili- ties of the child are more acute than those of the adult. 412 This sense is modified by the condition of the brain and nerves ; by the quantity and quality of the blood supplied to the skin ; by thickness of the cuticle ; and by cultivation. Observation. Blind persons, by whom the beauties of the external world cannot be seen, cultivate this sense to such a degree that they can distinguish objects with great accuracy ; and the rapidity with which they read books prepared for their use, is a convincing proof of the niceness and extent to which the cultivation of this sense can be carried. 409. Through what medium are sensations received ? Name the senses. 410 — 412. What ia said of the sense of touch f 410. What is touch ? 411. Why is sensation acute at the ends of the fingers and lips? What U said respecting the sense of touch in different persons ? 312, What modify this sense ? What is said of blind persons ? SENSE OF TASTE. 139 SENSE OF TASTE. 413. Taste is the sense by Avhicli we perceive the flavor ©r relish of a thing. The tongue is tlie principal organ of taste, though the sides of the checks, and upper part of the throat, share in this function. 414. Tlie surface of the tongue is thickly studded with papillae, or points; these give this organ a velvety appearance. To these points the (jiiM\'.-to-ri/, or nerve of taste, is distributed. Fig. 73. Fig. 73. T}ie distributioii of the fifth pair of nerves. 1, The orbit for the eye. 2, Tlie upper jaw. 3, The tongue. 4, Tl c Icvcr jaw 5, The fifth pair of ncrvco. 6, The first branch of this nerve, tliat pa.sseM to tlic eye. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, Divi- sions of this branch. 7, Tiie second branch that passes t^) the teeth of the upper jaw. 16, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, Divisions of this branch. 8, The third branch that is distributed to the tongue and teeth of the lower jaw. 23, The divi.sion of this branch, caHed gustatory. 24, The division that is distributot! to tlie teeth of the lower jaw. 413 — 419. What ia said respecting the sense nf taste f 413. Define taste. What is the principal organ of taste ? 414. Where is the nerve of tastt distributed ? Explain fig. 73. 'it 1,1: 140 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND IIYQIENE. Ohservation. By applying strong acids, as vinegar, to the tongue, with a liair-pencil, tliese points will become curiously hnigthencfl. 415. Substances, to be tasted, must be either naturally fluid, or partially dissolved by the saliva. When fluids are taken into the mouth, the; papilla} dilate and erect themselves, and the particular sensation excitetl is carried to the brain by the nerve of taste. lUiut if dry, solid food is taken, it must be acted upon by the saliva before the impression is perceived. 416. Tlie ns(; of taste is to guide men and animals in the se- lection of their food, and to warn them against the introduction of inj urious articles into the stomach. This sense has been made to vary more than any other by the retinoments of social life. 417. The Indian's like or dislike to particular kinds of food, generally extends to every person of the same tribe ; but among civilized men, no two individuals can be found alike in all their tastes, 418. This sense is modifled by habit, and not imfrequently those articles which at first were disgusting, become highly agreeable, by persevering in the use of them ; as in learning to chew tol)acco, &c. 4 IS. Taste, as well as touch, may be improved in acuteness. Those persons whose business leads them to judge of the quality of an article by their taste, can discriminate shades of flavor not perceivable by ordinary persons. Epicures, and tasters of wines and teas, attbrd examples. Observation. Many persons impair their tastes by bad habits, as chewing or smoking tobacco, and using stimulating drinks, &c. These indulgences lessen the sensibility of the nerve, and destroy the natural relish for food. How can these points upon the tongue be seen? 415. How must sub- stances bo, in order to be tasted ? Show how the taste of substances is perceived by the brain. 41 G. What is the use of taste? What is said of the difference among persons aa regards taste ? 418. What effect has habit on this sense? 419. What effect has cultivation ? Give illustra- tive examples. How may the taste bo impaired? T— 11 SENSE OF SMELL. 141 SENSE OF S M E L L . 420. Smell is the sense that eiiiil)les us to discern tlie odor, or scent, of a thing. This sense is located in the air passages of the nose. 421. The air passages, or nostrils, are lined hy mucous memhrane, which is continuous with the skin externally, and with the lining memhrane of other cavities which communi- cate with them. To this memhrane the ol-facfo-ry, or nerve of smell, is distrihuted. 422. To protect the delicate filaments of the nerve of smell, thus freely exposed to the air and to the painful stimulus of sharp, pungent odors, the membrane is kept constantly moist by a fluid secr«!ted by the glands, Avith which it is provided. Fig. 74. , Fig. 74. A side view of the passa^jes of tiic nostrils, and the distribution of the first pair of nerves. 4, The olfactory nerve, fi, Tlio fine and curious divisions of this nerve on the memhrane of the nose. 423. AVlien substances are itrescnted to the nose, the air that is passing through tlie nostrils brings the odoriferous parti- 420 — 427. Wha in said tu reference to smell f 420. What is smell ? Where is this sense located? 421. Describe the air passages of the nose. 422. How are the filaments of the nerve of smell protected from pungent odors ? What docs fig. 74 represent? 423. How is the odor of substances carried to the brain ? 142 ANATOMY, PIIYSIOLOOY, AND HYGIENE. cles of matter in contact wiLli the filaments of the nerve of smell, that are spread upon the membrane that lines the air passages, and the impression is then carried to the brain. 424. I'his sense is closely connected with that of taste, and aids man, as well as the inferior animals, in selecting proper food. It also gives us pleasure by the inhalation of agreeable odors. 425. The sense of smell, like taste and touch, may be im- jn'oved by cultivation. Thus the I^orth American Indians can easily distinguish different tribes, and different persons of the same tribe, by the odor of their bodies. 426. This sense is seen to be remarkably acute in the dog ; ho will trace his master's footsteps through thickly crowded streets, and distinguish them from thousands of others ; he will track the hair over the ground for miles, guided only by the odor that it leaves in its flight. 427. Acuteness of smell requires that the brain and nerve of smell bo healthy, and that the membrane that lines the nose be thin and moist. Any influence that diminishes the sensibility of the nervous filaments, thickens the membrane, or renders it dry, impairs this sense. Ohsarvation. Snuf, when introduced into the nose, not only diminishes the sensibility of the nerve, but thickens the lining membrane. This thickening of the membrane obstructs the passage of air through the nostrils, and thus obliges " snuff- takers " to open their mouths when they breathe. ■ 424. What is the use of this sense? 425. What is said of this sense among the North American Indians ? 426. In the dog ? 427. What « 4 aouteness of smell require ? What will impair this sense? What «!tect has snuff upon the nasal organ ? SENSE OP VISION. 143 CHAPTER XXXI. SENSE OP VISION. 428. This sense contributes more to the enjoyment and happiness of man than any of the otlier senses. By it, we per- ceive the form, color, size, and position of objects that surround »s. The beautiful organ of vision, or sight, is the Eye. ill 111 I : ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION. 429. The bye is shaped like a globe, and is placed in a •avity in front of the skull. The sides of the globes are com- posed of throe coats, or membranes. The interior of the globe is filled with certain substances called Hu'mors. 430. The coats are three in number : 1st. The Scle-rof'ie and Corn'e-a. 2d. The Gho'roid, I'riaydinACil'ia-ry processes. Sd. The Ret'i-na. 431. The HUMORS are also three in number : 1st. The A'que-ous, or watery. 2d. The Crys'tal-Une. 3d. The Vit're-ous, or glassy. 432. The sclerotic coat is firm , and its color white ; hence, it is frequently called the "white of the eye." From its tough- ness, it forms the prhicipal support to this organ. This mem- brane, with the cornea in front, encloses the eye. 433. The cornea is the transparent part of the eye in front, which projects more than the rest of the globe. It is shaped like the crystal of a watch, and, in health, gives the eye its sparkling brilliancy. 428 — 449. Give the structure of the different porta of the eye. 429. De- seribo the eye. 430. Namo the coats of the eye. 431. Name the humors • f the eye. 432, Describe the sclerotic coat. 433. Where is the cornea situated ? I: si 144 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 434. The ciioiioiD coat is of a dark color upon its inner surface. It contains a great number of blood-vessels, which give nourishment to different parts of the eye. 435. The iius is situateda short distance behind the cornea. It is the most delicate of all the muscles of the body. Thii part gives the blue, gray, or black color to the eye. 436. In the centre of the irisis an opening oaWcdihe 2)u'pil,*' which enlarges or contracts, according to thecpiantity of light that falls upon the eye. Fig. 75. \ I-..."* Fig. 75. A section of the eye, seen from within. 1, The divided edj,'e of the three coats 2, The pupil. 3, The Iris. 4, The ciliary i)roce.sses. 5, The scolloped border of the retina. 437. On viewing the part of the eye near the pupil, small lines, of a lighter color, will be seen passing to the outer part of the iris ; these are called dliary procetises. They are about sixty in number. » 438. The retina is the innermost coat of the eye. It is * From pu pa, Latin, a babe ; because it reflects tiio diminished image of the pereon who looks upon it. 434. Describe the choroid coat. 435. Where is the iris situated? What is said of this coat? 436. Where is the pupil of the eye ? Ex- plain fig. 75. 437. Describe the ciliary processes. 438. Give the struc- ture of the innermost coat of the eye. 8ENSE OP VISION. 145 formed, in part, by an expansion of tlie optiu nerro over the bottom of the eye, where the sense of vision is first received. 439. The aqueouh liumor occupies the space between the cornea and crystalline liuiiK^r, both before and behind the iris. 440. The crystalline humor (lens) lies behind the aque- ous humor and pupil. Its form is different on the two sides. When boiled, it may be separated into layers like those of an onion. Observations. 1st. The lens in the eye of a fish is round like a globe, and when boiled, it may be separated into layei-s, resembling the human eye. Fig. 76. Fi(f. 76. A section of the globe of the eye. 1, Tlie sclerotic coat. 2, The come*. Tills connecta with the sclerotic coat by a bevelled edj^e. 3, Tlie choroid coat. 6, 6, The iris. 7, The pupil. 8, The retina. 10, 11, 11, Chambers, or cayities of the 9je that contain the aqueous humor. 12, The crystalline lens. 13, The ritreous humor. 15, The optic nerve. 14, 16, One of the arteries of the eye. 2d. When the crystalline lens, or the membrane which sur- rounds it, is changed in structure, so as to prevent the rays of light passing to the retina, the affiiction is called a cataract. 441. The viTiiEOUs humor is situated in the back part of 439. Whero 13 tho afiiioous humor found? 440. The crystalline hu- mor? How can the structure of this Ions boseeu? Explain tig. 76. 441. Where is the vitreous humor situated ? 10 ^ 146 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND IIYOIENE. '( > the oye. It occupies more than two-tliirde of the whole im- lerior of tlic globe of the eye. Observation. The structure of thi» organ can be seen, by hfdt freezing tl»e eye of a slieep, or an ox ; it tlien can be cut in various directions, and each part separately examined. 442. The optic nerve, or nerve of vision, extends from tlie brain to tlie back i»art of the eye, where it exjjands on a j)ortion of the clioroid coat. ( )n this expansion the image of objects are first formed. Fig. 77. Fig. 77. The second pair of nerves. 1,1, The globe of the eye. The one on the left is perfect, but the sclerotic coat has been removed from the one on the right, to show the retina. 2, The crossing of the optic nerve. 3, 4, The brain. 6, 6, Tlie commencement of the spinal cord. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, The cranial nerves. 443. The eyebrows and eyelids protect the eye from too strong impressions of light, and also prevent particles of dust and perspiration from falling into it. How can the structure of the eye be seen ? 442. What is said of the optic nerve V What is represented by fig. 77 V 443. What is the use of the oyebrows and eyelids ? SENSE OF VISION. 141 le of 444. Tho EYELAHiiES aTc attached to the eyclitls ; an the brain by the optic nerve. Observations. Ist. When the cornea and crystalline lens become flattened, as in old age, the image is formed beyond the retina. This defect is remedied by wearing convex glasses. 2d. When the cornea and crystalline lens are too convex, an image of the object will be formed before the retina. This defect of the eye is called wear'-sightedness. To give such persons longer vision, it is necessary to wear concave glasses. HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OP VISION. , 455. The eye, like othei' organs of the hody, should he used, and then rested. If we look intently at an object, for a long time, the eye becomes wearied, and the power of vision diminished. On the contrary, if the eye is not called into action, its functions are enfeebled. 456. Sudden transitions of light should he avoided. The iris enlarges or contracts, as the light that falls upon the eye is faint or strong ; but the cliange is not instantaneous. Hence the 463. What parts of the oyo are used to protect this dolicato organ ? To give it form ? 454. What is said of the use of the cornea and humorg ? When do persons need convex glasses ? When concave ? 4!»4.— 461. (Jirc the hygiene of the organn of vision. 455. How should the aye be used ? What is the effect of using the eye too long ? Of not calling it into action ? 456. What should be avoided in using the eye ? Note. — Review the anatomy and physiology of the eye from fig. 76, or from anatomical outline plate 10. HYGIENE OP THE ORGANS OP VISION. 151 imperfect vision in passing from a strong to a dim light, and the overwhelming sensation experienced on going from a dimly lighted room to one brilliantly lighted. 457. As far as posdhle, avoid all oblique poffitions of the eye, when viewing objects. If the eye is turned obliquely in viewing objects, it may produce an unnatural contraction of the muscle called into action. This contraction of the mus- cle is called strabismus, or cross-eye. 458. Children should be trained to use the eye upon olrjccts at different distances. This is necessary, in order that the vision may be correct when objects at various distances are viewed, as the eye accommodates itself to receive impressions from objects remote as well as near. 459. When particles of dust get upon the eye, the indi- vidual should be placed before a strong light, the lids held open, and the particles removed with the corner of a fine linen or silk handkerchief. Sometimes the substance is cencealed under tlie upper eyelid, and it may be then exposed by turning back the lid in the following manner. 460. Take a knitting-needle, or small, slender piece of stick, which is perfectly smooth, and place it over the upper lid, in contact witli and just under the edge of the orbit ; then, holding it firmly, seize tlie lashes with the fingers of the disengaged hand, and gently turn the lid back over the stick. 461. Too many trials ought not to ])e made, if unsuccess- ful, as much infiammation may be induced ; but a surgeon ought to be consulted as soon as possible. Eye-stones ought never to be placed in the eye, as they often cause more irri- tation than the evil which they are intended to remedy. 457. What should be avoided in viewing objects? 458. Why should we view objocts at different distances ? 459. What should bo done when particles of dust got upon the eye ? 460. How can particles of dust be removed from the upper eyelid? 461. What should bo avoided? I 152 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. :«^ ■k- CHAPTER XXXIII. SENSE OF HEARING. 462. The sense of heaving is next in importance to that of vision.. Through this sense we are enabled to perceive sounds, that not only subserve to our comfort and pleasure, but are instrumental to our intellectual enjoyments. The organ of hearing, or the Ear, is one of the most complicated in the human body. ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 463. The ear is composed of three parts : 1st. The Ex- ter'nal ear. 2d. The Tym'pan-um, or middle ear. 3d. Th« Lah'y-rinth, or internal ear. 464. The external ear presents many ridges and furrows, arising from the folds of the cartilage that form it. A fun- nel-shaped tube extends from the external to the middle ear. Ohservation. Many animals have small muscles that move the external ear, in order to catch sounds from every direc- tion. The hare, rabbit, and horse, afford good examples. 465. At the internal extremity of the tube, is a thin, semi-transparent membrane, that separates the external from the middle ear. It is called niem'hra-na tym'pan-i, or drum of the ear. This and the bitter wax found around the hair* in the tube, prevent insects from entering the head. 466. The middle ear is connected with the internal and 462. What is said of the sense of hearing ? 463 — 476. Give the ana- tomy of the organs of hraririff. 463. Name tlie parts of the ear. 464. Describe the external onr. What is said of the ears of horses, rabbits, Ac? 405. Describe the drum of the car. 466. How is the middle ear connected with the internal cavity 1 'iMii ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 158 most important cavity, by four small hones, which are th« most delicate and beautifully shaped bones in the body. These are so arranged, as tq,form a chain from the drum of the car to the labyrinth. 467. From the middle ear, a tube opens into the back part of the throat, called Eu-sta'clii-an, which admits air into this part of the ear. If this tube is closed by disease of th« throat, hearing is impaired. Fig. 81. Fig. 81. a, The external ear. c, The tube that leads to the middle ear. g, The 4lrum of the ear. c, h. The middle ear. c, /, h, The internal ear. i, The tuba that leads to the throat, d, The auditory nerve. 468. The internal ear is very intricate, and the uses of its various parts are not well known. It is called the labyrinth, from its many windings. This part of the car is composed of a three-cornered cavity, called the ves'H-lnde, the coch'le-o, (from its resembling a snailshell,) andthe sem-i-clr'cu-lar canals. 467. What tube opens into the middle ear? What is its use ? Ex- plain fig. 81. 468. Describe the internal ear. I i > '4 i I . 1' 154 AlfATOMY, PHYSIOLOaY, AND HTQIENE. 469. The internal ear is the only part that is absolutely essential in hearing. Other parts, already described, may be removed, and yet the person m^ hear. i^ig. 82. Fig. 82. A view of tlio labyrinth laid open. Tiiis figure is highly magnified. 1, 1, The cochlea. 2, 2, 3, ;{, Two channels, that wind two i a half turns around a central point, (5.) 7, The central poitlon of tlie labyrinth, called the vestibule. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, IG, 17, 18, The semicircular canals. The cochlea and semicircular canals open into the vestibule. 470. The AUDITORY nerve, or nerve of hearing, proceeds from the brain, and expands upon the membrane that lines the internal ear, similar to the expansion of an optic nerve. (•» 469. What part of the ear is absolutely essential in hearing? What does fig. 82 represent? 470. Describe the auditory nerve. PHYSIOLOGY OP THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 155 CHAPTER XXXIV. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 471. Hearing is that function by which we obtain a knowledge of the vibratory motions of bodies, which consti- tute sounds. The precise function of all the different parts of the ear are not known. 472. The function of the external ear, is to collect sounds and reflect them into the tube that connects the external Avith the middle ear. The " membrana tympani " receiyes all the impressions of tlie air which enter the tube, and con- veys them to the bones of the ear. It also serves to moderate the intensity of sound. 473. The supposed office of the middle ear, is to carry the vibrations made on the membrana tympani to the internal ear. This is effected by the air which it contains, and by the chain of small bones that are enclosed in this cavity. 474. But little is known of the functions of the internal ear ; its parts are filled with a watery fluid in which the filaments of the auditory nerve terminate. 475. The auditory nerve, like the optic, has but one func- tion, that of special sensibility, or transmitting sound to the brain. The nerves which furnish the ear with ordinary sen- sibility, proceed from the fifth pair. 476. The transmission of sound through the different parts 471 — 476. Give the tixe of the or gatiH of hearing. 471. What is hearing? 472. What is the function of tho oxtornal oar ? Of the drum of thooar? 473. What is the use of the middle ear? 474. What is said of the functions of the internal ear? 475. Of the auditory nerve? I 156 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYQIENE. f^U of the ear, will now be explained by the aid of fig. 83. The vibrations of the air are collected by the external ear, and conducted through the tube (1) to the membrana tympani (2.) Fig. 83. Fig. 83. A view of all the parts of the ear. 1, The tube that leads to the inter- nal oar. 2, The membrana tympani. 3, 4, 5, The bones of the ear. 7, The ce»- tral part of the labyrinth named the vestibule. 8, 0, 10, The semicircular canalfr II4I2, The channels of the cochlea. 13, The auditory nen'e. 14, The channel from the middle ear to the throat, (eustachian tube.) 1.5, Tlie chorda tympani nerve. 10, The styloid process. 17, The seventh pair of nerves, (facial.) 18, Th« mastoid jirocess of the temporal bone. From the membrana tympani the vibrations pass along the chain of bones, (3,4,5.) The bone (5) communicates with the internal ear, (7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12, 12.) From the internal ear the impres.sion is carried to the brain by the auditory nerve, (13.) Note. — Let the pupil review the anatomy and physiology of the oar from fig. 83, or from anatomical outline plate 10. HYQIENE OP THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 157 I HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 477. Ilojiring, like the other senses, is capable of very great improvement. J>y cultivation the blind are enabled to judge with great accuracy tl distance of bodies in motion. It is also capable of improvement when all the other senses are perfect. Thus the Indian will distinguish sounds that can- not be heard by the white man. 478. If this sense is destroyed in early life, the person also loses the power of articulating words. Hence a man born deaf is always dumb. 479. Acute hearing requires perfection in the structure and functions of the difterent parts of the ear, and that portion of the brain from which the auditory nerve proceeds. 480. The common causes of impaired hearing are a thick- ening of the membrana tympani of the ear, an accumulation of wax upon its interior surface, a closure of the eustachian tube, disease of the brain, palsy of the auditory nerve, and destruction of the middle and internal ear. 481. It is injurious to put the heads of pins into the ear, ss they frequently cause inflammation. The wax can be soft- ened by dropping into the tube some oil, and in a few hours remove it, by ejecting warm soap-suds into the ear. Observation. When worms and insects find their way into the tube of the external ear, they can usually be driven out, by dropping in warm olive-oil. 477 — 481. Give the hygiene of the organs of hearing. 477. Show how tho faculty of hearing is capable of improvement. 478. What follows the loss of hearing in early life ? 479. On what does acute hearing de- pend ? 480. State some of the causes of impaired hearing. 481. What •aution is given respecting the use of pins in the ear ? How can insects be removed from the car ? I IBi; r^ 158 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. , I \i\ i CHAPTER XXXV. MEANS OF PKESERVING THE HEALTH. 482. Our "bodies are co.Qstituted according to certain laws, and every person should ioarn these, in order to regulate his actions and duties, so that the health may he unimpaired, and the power of enjoyment, activity, .and usefulness conti- nue while life lasts. 483. It is a law of the muscles, that they should either he used in some occupation, or called into action hy some social play and active sport. (See Chap. VIII.) 484. All admit that food is necessary to sustain life ; and unless it be of a proper quality, taken in })roper quantities, and at proper times, the functions of the digestive organs will he deranged and disease produced. (See Chap. XII.) 485. Pure air is essential to the full enjoyment of health. The close, impure air of heated rooms and crowded assemblies may he breathed, and the effect be so gradual as not to arreet attention ; yet it is a violation of the physical laws. (See Chap. XXI.) 486. The body also requires sleep ; and if it is not taken at the right time, or with regularity, we do not feci a full refresh- ment from "tired nature's sweet restorer." Let youth be taught that "early to bod and early to rise" gives him health and its attendant blessings. The brain, like other organs of the body, should be called into action atpropertimes. (See Chap. XXIX.) 482. Why is it incumbent on every person to learn the laws of health ? 483. Give a law of the muscles. 484. In preserving the health, why is it necessary to give attention to the food which is eaten ? 485. What beside ^ood is essential to the full enjoyment of health ? What is said of the impure air of heated rooms and crowded assemblies ? 486. What should be obseryed in regard to sleep ? REMOVAL OF UIHKA8E. 169 487. From the extent of the surface of the skin, and the close proximity that exists between it and those organs •whose office is to remove the waste particles of matter from the hody, it is, therefore, very important in the preservation of the health, that the functions of tliis membrane be pro- perly maintained. (See Chap. XXVI.) REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 488. It is seldom that a physician is called in the first stages of disease. At this period, the treatment adopted should be proper and judicious, or the sufferings of the patient are increased, and life, to a greater or less degree, is jeopardized. Hence the utility of knowing what should he done, and what should not he dont, in order that the health may be rapidly regained. 489. In all instances of acute disease, it is proper to rest, not only the body, but the mind. To effect this, the patient should cease from physical exertion, and also withdraw his thoughts from study and business operations. This should be done, even if the person is but slightly indi8i)08ed. 490. Select a room for a sick person that is exposed to as little external noise as possible, as impressions made on the ear greatly influence the nervous system. Likewise select a spacious, well-ventilated apartment, that has no superfluous furniture. The practice of placing a sick person ii^a small, ill-arranged sleeping-room, Avhen a more spacious room can be used, is poor economy, not to say unkind. 491. Care is necessary in regulating the light of a sick-room. AVhUe a strong light would produce an increased action of the vessels of the brain, on the contrary, a moderate light would be 487. Why should the functions of the skin be properly maintained ? 488. What is important in the first stages of disease ? 489. What is proper in all iustanoes of acute disease ? How can it be effected ? 490. What rooms should be selected for the sick ? Why ? 491. What is said in reference to the quantity of light admitted into a sick-room ? 1^^ J I I v. ;:■: I' I I iif 100 ANATOMY, PIIVSIOLOUY, AND HYGIENE. hi !i I- 1-! n ' V" an appropriate stimulas to this organ. It is seldom necea- sary to oxciludo all light from the sick chamber. 492. A sick person, wliothor a child or an adult, should not bo disturbed by visitors, even if their calls are short. The excitement of meeting them is followed by a depression of the nervous system. The more dangerous and apparently nearer death the sick person is, the more rigorous should be the observance? of this suggestion, 493. Ifor shoulil the sick-room be opened to privileged classes ; for the excitement caused by a visit from relations and the virtuous, will do as much injury to the sick, as that produced by strangers and the vicious. The custom of visit- ing and convei-sing witli sick friends during the intervals of daily labor, and particularly on Sunday, is a great evil. ^N^o person will thus intrude herself in the sick chamber, who eares more for the welfare of the suffering friend than the graKficatioii of a sympathetic cunosity. Inquiries can bo made of the family respecting the sick, and complimentary or necessary messages can be communicated through the nurse. Illustration. While attending a Miss B., of N. H., sick of fever, I pronounced her better, withdrew medicine, directed a simple, low diet, and the exclusion of all visitors. In the evening, I was sent for, to attend her. There was a violent relapse into the disease, which continued to inv^rease in severity^until the fourth day, when death terminated her sufferings. I learned that, soon after I gave directions that no visitoi's be admitted into her room, several particular friends were pennitted to enter the chamber and talk with the sick girl. Their conversation produced a severe head- acbe ; and, to use the language of the patient, " it seemed as if their talk would kill me ;" and it did kill her. 494. No solid food should be taken in the first stages of dis^ 492. What effect have calls on the sick ? 493. What is said of tho custom of oaliiug and conversing with tho sick during the intervals of daily labor? Give an illustration. 494. What suggestions rotative to food in the first stiiges of disease ? REMOVAL OF DISEABE. 161 18- of to enee, even if the aft'ectioii is slight. The thirst can he allayed by drinking cold water, barley-water, and other preparations of an unstimulating character. It is wrong to tempt the ap- petite of a person who is indisposed. The cessation of a do- sire for food is the warning of Nature, that the system is in such a state that it cannot be digested. 495. When a patient is recovering from illness, the food should be simple, and in (piantities not so great as to oppress the stomach. It should also be given with regularity. "Eat little and often," with no regard to regularity, is a bad practice. 496. When a physician attends a sick person, he should have the special management of the food, particularly after the medicine has been withdrawn and the patient is conval- escent. The prevailing idea that every person may safely advise relative to food, or that the appetite of the convales-' cing person will guide correctly, is dangerous, and cannot be too much censured. Illustration. In 1832, 1 attended a Miss M., sick of fever. After an illness of a few days, the fever abated, and I directed a simple, unstimulating diet. Businessjcalled me from the town two days. During my absence, an officious matron called ; found her weak, but improving ; and told her she needed food to strengthen her : and "it would now do her good." Accord- ingly, a piece of beefsteak was prepared, and given to the convalescent girl. She ate heartily, and the result was, a re- lapse into a fever more violent than the first attack. 497. It is very important in disease that the skin be hepi Glean. A free action of the vessels of this part of the body exerts a great influence in removing disease from the internal organs, as well as keeping them in health. If the thirty ounces 495. When the patient is convalescent, how should the food be given? What is said of the practice of eating " little and often" " 496. Who should have the special management of food when medicine is with- drawn? What idea prevails in the community ? Give an illustration of the evil effects attending such an idea. 497. Does the skin exert a great influence in removing disease from the internal organs, as well as in keeping them in health V 11 'Ml 162 ANATOMY, PnYSIOLOGY. AND HYGIENE. . (■ ) ;- I 1 1 [' ■'■'•M m of waste, hurtful matter, that passes through the "pores" of the skin in twenty-four hours, is not removed by frequent bath- ing and dry rubbing, the action of tliese vessels is deranged, which increases the disease of tlie internal organs. Illustration. Mrs. M. K., of N., Mass., was afflicted with disease of the lungs and cough. This was accompanied with a dry, inactive condition of the skin. As medicine had no salutary effect in relieving her cough, she was induced by the advice of the clergyman of the parish to enter upon a system- atic course of bathing twice every day. Soon the skin became soft, its proper functions were restored, the disease of the lungs yielded, and the cough disappeared. 498. The sick-room should be kept very clean, and in per- fect order. When a sick person sees everything neat and in its proper place, a feeling of comfort is induced, wliich aids in the recovery of the health ; while filth and disorder are objects of annoyance, and tend to depress the nervous system. 499. Every sick person should breathe ^>M/'eaM'. The purer the blood that courses through the body, the greater the energy of the system to remove disease. The confined, vitiated air of the sick-chamber not unfrequently prolongs disease ; and in many instances, the affection is not only aggravated, but even rendered fatal, by its injurious influences. Illustrations. 1st. In 1833, I was called, in consultation with another physician, to Mr. H., who was much debilitated and delirious. For several successive days he had not slept. His room was kept very warm and close, for fear he would " take cold." The only change that I made in the treatment, was to open the door and window at a distance from the bed. In a short time the delirium ceased, and he fell into a quiet slum- ber. From this time he rapidly recovered, and I have no doubt that the delirium was the result of breathing impure aii'. 498. How should the aick-room bo kept? 499. Why should every Hick person, particularly, breathe pure air? Are not diaeaaoa prolong- ed, and even rendered fatal, from hnjathin;; the impure, vitintcd a\t of the sick chamber? Give illustration lat. HEMOVAL OK DISEASE, 163 lie h- d, th til 10 le n- tie 2d. Fomierly, evtay precaution was used to prevent persons sick of the small-pox from breathing fresh air. Wlien Mrs. Ramsay liad this disease in Charleston, S. C.,her friends, sup- posing that life was extinct, caused her body to be removed from the house to an open shed. The pure air revived the vital spark, a;id she lived to bo an ornament to her sex. 500. Medicine is sometimes necessary to assLst the natural powers of the system to remove disease ; but it is only an a.v- tistant. While emetics are occasionally useful in removing food and other articles from the stomach, that would cause disease if suffered to remain, and cathartics are valuable, in some instonoes, to relieve the alimentary canal of irritating residuum, yet the frequent administration of either will cause serious disease. 501. Although medicine is useful in some instances, yet, in a great proportion of tlie cases of disease, including fevers and inflammation of all kinds, attention to the laws of health, will tend to relieve the system from disease, more certainly and speedily, and with less danger, than when niedieines are administered. 502. Thomas Jefferson, in writing to Dr. Wistar, of Phila- delphia, said, "I would have the physician learn the limit of his art." I would say. Have those who are continually advising "herb teas, pills, bitters," and other "cure-alls," for any com- plaint, labelled with some popular name, learn the limits of their duty, namely, attention to the laws of health. The rule •f every family, and each individual, should be, to touch not, taste not, of medicine of a?iy kind, except when directed by a well-educated and honest physician, (sudden disease from accidents excepted.) illustration 2nd. fiOO. What is said of the use of medicine ? 501 . What is said of its use in fevers and many other cases of disease / 502. What remark by Thomas Jefferson to Dr. Wistar ? What should be the r«^Ie Dforory person in regard to taking medicine f What exception f •!' m 164 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. CHAPTER XXXVl. DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES. 'ft I 503. The nurse requires knowledge and practice to enablf her to discharge «,right her duty to the patient, as much a» the physician and surgeon do to perform what is incumbent on them. Woman, from her constitution and habits, is the natural nurse of the sick ; and, in general, no small portion of her time is spent in ministering at the couch of disease and suffering. 504. As the young and vigorous, as well as the aged and the infirm, are liable to be laid upon the bed of sickness, by an epidemic, or imprudent exposure, or by some accident, it is therefore necessary that the girl, as well as the matron, may know how she can render services in an efficient and proper manner. No yirl should consider her education com- plete who is not ac(piainted with the principles of the duties of a general nurse and a temjjorary watcher. 505. It is to be regretted, that, while we have medical schools and colleges to educate physicians, there is no institu- tion to educate nurses in their equally responsible station. In the absence of such inr>titutions, the defect can be remedied to some extent, by teaching every girl Jujyiene or the laws of heaUh. To make such knowledge more available and com- plete, attention is invited to the following suggestions rela- tive to the practical duties of a nurse. 506. Bathing. The nurse, before commencing to bathe 603. Doos tlio nurse require knowledge and practice in her employment as well as the physician X 504. Who is the natural nurse of the sick * What, then, is encumbent on every girl? 505. Should there be sohoole to educate nur.-^cs, as well as physicians and surgeons ? 506. What should a nurse provide herself with before bathing a patient? DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES. 105 thti puiient, should provide liersolf with' water, two towels, a sponge, a piece of soft flannel, and a sliect, and also notice the temperature of the room. 507. When the patient is fee]>lc, use t'e2)id or warm, water. Cold water shoidd only bo used wl)ftn the system has vigor enough to produce reaction upon tlio skin. This is shown by the increased redness of the skin, and a feeling of warmth and comfort. Before using tlie sponge to bathe, a sheet, or fold of cloth, should ])e spread smoothly over the bed, and under the patient, to prevent the bed-linen on which the patient lies from becoming damp or wet. 508. Apply the wet sponge to one part of the body at a time , as the arm, for instance. By doing so, the liability of contracting chills is diminished. 'lake a dry, soft towel, wipe the bathed part, and follow this by vigorous rubbing with a crash towel, or, what is better, a mitten made of this material; then"»ise briskly a piece of soft flannel, to remove all moisture that may exist on the skin, and particularly between the fingers and the flexions of the joints. In this manner bathe the entire body. 509. The sick should be thoroughly bathed, at least twice in twenty-four hours. Particular attention should be given to the parts between the fingers and toes, and about the joints, as the accumulation of the waste matter is most abun- dant on these parts. In bathing, these portions of the sys- tem are very generally neglected. The best time for bathing, is when the patient feels the most vigorous, and freest from exhau^^tion. The practice of dabbing the face and hands with a towel dipped in hot rum, camphor, and vinegar, does not remove the impurities, but causes the skin soon to feel dry, hard, and uncomfortable. 507. When should cold water be used ? 508. IIow should the bath- ing then bo performed, so that the patient may not contract a cold? 509. How often should asick person be bathed .* What is said of daub . ing the face and hands merely with a wot cloth * I 166 ANATOMY, PHY8IOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 1 f I r I :?: ih 510. Food. It is the duty of every woman to know how to make the simplest preparations adapted to a low diet, in the most wholesome and the most palatable way. Water-gruel,* which is the simplest of all preparations, is frequently so ill made as to cause the patient to loathe it. Always prepare the food for the sick in the neatest and most careful manner. 511. When the physician enjoins abstinence from food, the nurse should strictly obey th«} injunction. She should be as particular to knoAV the physician's directions about diet, as in knowing how and wbon to give the prescribed medicines, and obey them as implicitly. 512. When a patient is convalescing, the desire for food is generally strong, and it often requires fiimness and patience, together with great care, on the part of the nurse, that the food is prepared suitably, and given at proper times. The physician shoidd direct how frequently it should be taken. 513. Pure Air. It is the duty of the nurse to see that not only the room is well ventilated in the morning, but that fresh air is constantly coming in during the day. Great care must be taken, however, that the patient does not feel the current. 514. Bed-linen, as well as that of the body, should be aired every day, and oftener changed in sickness than in health. All clothing, when changed, should be well dried, and warmed by a fire previous to its being put on the patient or the bed. 515. Temperature. The warmth of the chamber should be carefully watched by the nurse. The feelings of the patient * Directions for making the simple preparations for the sick are found in almost every cook-book. 510. Should every woman know how to make the eimplo preparations adapted to a low diot? 511. Should the nurse strictly obey the injunc- tions of the physician relative to food f 512. AVhat period of a person's ill- ness requires the mostcaro in regard to food ? 513. Give another duty of the nurse. 514. What directions respecting the bed-linen of the patient ? What is necessiiry when there is a change of clothing '/ 515. Why shonid there be a well-adjusted thermometer in every sick chamber? UEMOVAL OP DISEASE. 167 or nurse are not to be relied on, as an index of the tempera- ture of the room. There should he a well-adjusted thermo- meter in every sick-room. This should be frequently con- sulted by the nurse. 516. The temperature of the sick-chamber should be mod- erate. If it is so cold as to cause a chill, the disease will be aggravated. If, on the other hand, it is too warm, the patient is enfeebled and rendered more susceptible to cold on leaving the sick-chamber. The Latin maxim, " In medio tutissimus ibis" (in medium there is most safety,) should be regarded in the rooms of the sick. 517. Quiet. The room of the patient should be kept free of noise. The community should be guided by this rule, that no more persons remain in the room of the sick, than the welfare of the patient demands. It is the duty of the physician to direct when visitors can be admitted or excluded from the sick-room, and th*^ nurse should see that these directions are enforced. 518. The movements of the attendants should be gentle and noiseless. Shutting doors violently, creaking hinges or shoes, and all unnecessary noise, sliould be avoided. Most persons refrain from loud talking in the sick-cliamber, but are not equally careful to abstain from ivhispering, which is often more trying than a common tone. 519. The deportment and remarks of the nurse to the patient should be calm and encouraging. The illness of a friend, or persons who have recently died, should not be alluded to in the sick-room. No doubts or fears of the patient's recovery, either by a look or by a word, should be communicated by the nurse, in the chamber of the sick. 616. What is said of the toniporature of the sick-chamber. 517. Should the sick-room bo kept quiet ? 518. What is said of noise in the sick- chamber? Of whispering ? 519- What should bo the deportment of the nurse toward the patient ? Should doubts and fears of the patient's recovery be communicated in the sick-room f 168 ANATOMY, PUY8I0L0GY, AND HYGIENE. n: 11 1 r< III nr I 520. When such information is necessary to be commu- nicated, it is the duty of the physician to impart it to the sick person. 521, The nurse should not confine herself to the sick-room more than six hours at a time. She should eat her food regularly, sleep at regular periods, and take exercise daily in the open air. To do this, let her quietly leave the room when the patient is sleeping. A watcher, or temporary nurse, may supply her place. There is but little danger of contract- ing disease, if the nurse attends to the simple laws of health, and remains not more than six hours at a time in the sick- room. DIRECTIONS FOR WATCHERS. 522. These necessary assistants, like the nurse, should have knowledge and practice. They should ever be cheerful, gentle, firm, and attentive, in the presence of the patient. 523. A simple, nutritious supper should be eaten before entering the sick-room; and it is well, during the night, to take some plain food. 524. When watching in cold weather, a person should be warmly dressed, and furnished with an extra garment, as a cloak or shawl, because the system becomes exhausted toward morning, and loss heat is generated in the body. 525. Whatever may be wanted during the night, should be brought into the sick-chamber, oi the adjoining room, before the family retires for sleep, in order that the slumbers of the patient be not disturbed by haste, or searching for needed articles. 520. When necessary to impart aach intelligence, on whom does u de- pond.^ 521. How long should a nurse remain in the sick-chamber at a time ? 522 What qualifications are necessary in a watcher f 523. What directions in regard to the food of the watcher ? 524. When watching in cold weather, what precaution is necessary f 526. What suggestion to watchers f DIRECTIONS FOR WATCHERS. 169 526. The same general directions should be observed by A^'atchera, as are given to the nurse ; nor should the watcher deem it necessary to make herself acceptable to the patient by agreeable conversation. 527. It can hardly be expected that the farmer, who has been laboring hard in the field, or the mechanic, who has toiled during the day, is qualified to render all those little attentions that a sick person requires. Hence, would it not be more benevolent and economical to employ and pay watchers, who are qualified by kno^vledge and training, to perform this duty in a faithful manner, while the kindness and sympathy of friends may be pi^actically manifested by assisting to defray the expenses of these qualified and useful assistants 1 526. What should watchers obserye ? 527. What is said of employ- ing those persons to watch who labor hard during the day ? iti r< t APPENDIX. ! I ' POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. '"1 ■ * 528. FuisoNiNG, either from accident or desigo, is of such frequeney and danger, that it is of the greatest importance that every person should know the proper mode of procedure in such cases, in order to render immediate assistance when within his power. 629. Poisons are divided into two classes — mineral (which will iuclnde the acids) and vegetable. 530. The first thing, usually to he done, when it is ascertained that a poison has heon swallowed, is to evacuate the stomach, unless vomit- ing takes place spontaneously. Emetics of the sulphate of zinc, (white vitriol,) or ipecacuanha, (ipecac,) or the wine of antimony, should be given. * 531. When vomiting has commenced, it should he aided by largo and frequent draughts of the following drinks : flaxseed tea, gum-water, slippery-elm tea, barley-water, sugar and water, or any thing of a mucilaginous or diluent character. MINERAL POISONS. #♦ 532. Ammonia. — The water of ammonia, if taken in an over-dose, and in an undiluted state, acts as a violent corrosive poison. 633. The best and most effectual antidote is vinegar. It should be ad- 628. Is it useful to know the antidotes or remedies for poison? 529. Into how many classes are poisons divided ? 630. What is the first thing to be done when it is ascertained that jwison has been swallowed? 631. What should be taken after the vomiting' has commenced? 632. What cf.ect has an over-dose of ammonia? r,33. The antidote? APPKNDIX. 171 I ministered in water, without delay. It neatralizes the ammonia, and renders it inactive. Pimotics should not be given. fi34. Antimony. — The wine of antimony and tarttir emetic, if taken is over-doses, cause distressing vomiting. In addition to the diluent, mn- oilaginous drinks, give a toa-spoonful of the sirup of poppies, paregoric, or twenty drops of laudanum, every twenty minutes, until five or six doses have been taken, or the vomiting ceases. 535. The antidotes are nut-yalln and oak bark, which may be admin- istered in infusion, or by steeping in water. 536. Arsenic. — When this has been taken, administer an emetic of ipecac, speedily, in mucilaginous teas, and use the etomaeh-pump m soon as possible. 537. The antidote is the hydrated peroxide of iron. It should be kept constantly on hand at the apothecaries' shops. It may be given in any quantity, without injurious results. 538. CoppEB. — The most common cause of poisoning from this metal, is through the careless use of cooking utensils made of it, on which the acetate of copper (verdigris) has been allowed to form. When this has been taken, immediately induce vomiting, give mucilaginous drinks, or the viliite of tggs, diffused in water. 539. The antidote is the carbonate of soda, which should be adminis- tered without delay. 540. Lkad. — The acetate (sugar) of lead is the preparation of this metal which is liable to bo taken accidentally, i^ poisunous doses. Induce immediate vomitins, by emetics and diluent drinks. 641. The antidote is diluted nulphuric acid. When this acid is not to be obtained, either tho nulphatc of magnesia, (epsom salts,) or the 9ul- phute of soda, (glauber's salts,) will answer every purpose. 542. Mercury. — The preparation of this mineral by which poisoning Should an emetic be given for this jtoisoti ? 5.S4. What effect has an over-dose of the wine of antimony on tartar emetic? 535. What is the antidote? 536. What should immediately be done svlicn arsenic is swallowed? 537. What is the anti- dote? Can any qviantity of this preparation of iron bo given without injurious re- sults ? 638. What should be given when verdigris has been taken into the stomach ? 539. What is tlie antidote? 540. What should immediately be given when sugar of lead is talien ? 541. What is the antidote ? 172 APPENDIX. , -I is commonly produced, is corronivt'. Huhlimatc, The mode of treatment to be pursued, when this poison has been swallowed, is as follows : The whites of a dozen eggs should bo beaten in two quarts of cold water, and a tumbler-full given every two minutes, to induce vomiting. When the whites of eggs are not to bo obtained, soap and water should be mixed with wheat flour, and given in copious draughts, and the stomach-pump introduced as soon as possible. Emetics or irritating substances ought not to bo given. 643. NiTRK. — Saltpetre. This, in over- doses, produces violent poison- ous symptoms. Vomiting should be immediately induced by largo doses of mucilaginous, diluent drinks ; but emetics, which irritate the stomach, ought not to be given. • 544. Zinc. — Poisoning is sometimes caused by the sulphate of nine, (white vitriol.) When this takes place, vomiting should be induced, and aided by large draughts of mucilaginous and diluent drinks. Use the stomach-pump as soon as possible. 546. The antidote is the carbonate or auper-carbonate o/ noda. I I 546. Nitric, (aqua fortis,) muriatic, (marine acid,) or suLPHtfaic (oil of vitriol) acids, nfay be taken by accident, and produce poisonous effects. • 647. The antidote is calcined magnciia, which should be freely admin- istered, to neutralize the acid and induce vomiting. When magnesia cannot bo obtained, the carbonate of jwtanh (salajratus) may be given. Chalk, powdered ^d given in solution, or strong aoaj) auda, will answer a good purpose, when the other articles are not at hand. It is of very great importance that something be given speedily to neutralize the acid. One of the substances before named should be taken freely, in diluent and mucilaginous drinks ; as gum-water, milk, flaxseed or slippery-elm tea. Emetics ought to be avoided. (*♦ 548. OxAMC Acin. — This acid resembles the sulphate of magnesia, (epsom salts,) which renders it liable to be taken, by mistake, in poison- ous doses. Many accidents have occurred from this circumstance. They can easily be distinguished by tasting a small quantity. Epsom 542. Give the treatment when corrosive sublimate has been swallowed? 543. AVliat effect has an over-dose of saltpetre ? Wliat treatment should be adopted ? 544. What is the treatment and antidote for white vitrol ? 547. What is the antidote for aqua fortis and oil of vitriol ? Should emetics be avoided ? 54S. How can oxalic acid be Uistinguished from epsom salts ? APPKNUIX, 178 talta, whon applied to tho tunguo, have :i very bitter tasto, while oxalie acid ia intonsoly sour. 540. The antidote is mr(,7nc«(», botwoon which and the aoid a chemical action taken place, producing tho oxalate of magnesia, which is inert. When magnesia is not at hand, chalk, lime, or carbonate of potash, (ealioratu.^,) will answer as a substitute. 550. Give tho antidote in some of the mucilaginous drinks before named. No time ought to be lost, but tho stomach-pump should be introduced as soon as tho surgeon can be obtained. 351. Ley -The ley obtained by tho leaching of ashes may bo taken by a child aucidontally. The antidote is vinegar, or oil of any kind. The vinogar neutralizes tho alkali by uniting with it, forming tho acetate of potash. The oil unites with tho alkali, and forms soap, which is less caustic thau tho Icy. Give, at the same time, large dranghtti of maei- lagiuous drinks, as flaxseed tea, See. VEGETABLE POISONS. 5b2. The vegetable poisons are quite as numerous, and many of them equally as violent, as any in the mineral kingdom. Wo shall describe the most common, and which, therefore, aro not liable to be taken. 553. Opium. — This is the article most frequently resorted to by those, wishing tu commit suicide, and, being used as a common medicine, is easily obtained. From this cause, also, mistakes aro very liable to be made, and accidonts result from it. Two of its preparations, laudanum a.nd paregoric, are frequently mistaken for each other; tho former being given when the latter is intended. 554. Morphia, in solution, or morphine, as it is more commonly called by the public, is a preparation of the drug under consideration, with which many oases of poisoning are produced. It is the active narcotic principle of tho opium ; and one grain is equal to six of this drug in its usual form. 555. Whon an over-dose of opium, or any of its preparations, has been 549. What is the antidote for an over-dose of oxalic acid ? When maffncsia can- not be obtained, what will answer as a substitute '! 551. What is the antidote when ley is swallowed ? 552. Are vegetable poisons as numerous and as violent in their effects an mineral ? 553. What is said of opium and its preparations ? 555, 566. What treatment should bo adopted when an over-dose of opium or any of its preparation is taken ? •5 t > I' 174 Vl'l'KNDlX. ii ! I'M •I , If i iiwhilowod, tho Htomaoh should be ovaoiiatod uh speedily as possible. To offoot this, as inuoh tartar emetic as oan bo hold on a ton cent piece, or as much ipecacuanha as oan be hold on a twonty-fivc cent pioee, should bo dissolved in a tutnblor of warm water, and one half given at onoe, and the remainder in twenty minutes, if the first has not, in tho mean time, operated, in the interval, copious draughts of warm water, or warm sugar and water, should be drank. j56. The uHfl of tho stomach-pump, in these cases, is of the greatest importance, and should bo resorted to without delay. After most of the poison has been evacuated from the stomach, a strong infusion of coffw ooght to bo given; or some one of tho vegetable aoids, such as vinegar or lemon-juice, should be administered. 557. The patient should be kept in motion, and salutary effects will often be produced by dashing a bucket of cold water on tho head. Artificial respiration ought to be established, and kept up for some time. If the extremities are oold, apply warmth and friction to them. After tho poison has been evacuated from the stomach, stimulants as warm wine and water, or warm brandy and wator, ought to he given, to keep ■p and sustain vital action. * 568. ^■vvLK.u.omvti.—Thorn- Apple. This is one of the most aotive narcotic poisons, and when taken in over-doses, has, in numerous in- 4tanoea, caused death. 55tt. Htosoiahus — Henbane. This article, which is used as a medi- cine, if taken in improper doses, acts as a virulent irritating and nar- eotio poison. 560. The treatment for the two above-mentioned articles is similar to that of poisoning from over-dose of opium. I I 501. Qomxm..-Hemlock. Hemlock, improperly called, by many, c»ot»(«, when taken in an over-dose, acts as a narcotic poison. It was by this narootio that the Athenians used to destroy the lives of individuals eondemnod to death by their laws. Socrates is said to have been put to death by this poison. When swallowed in over-doses, the treatme nt \b similar to that of opium, stramonium, and henbane, when over-doses are taken. 567. Should the person bo kept in motion? What is said of artificial respira- tion, warmth, friction, and stimulants? 560. Wliat should be the treatment when an uver-dose of stramonium or henbane is taken ? 601. What name is sometimetn Improperly given to conium, or hemlock ? How was this narcotic poison used hj iihe Athenians ? How are the effects of an overdose counteracted ? ^ APPENDIX. 175 582. B Ki.hKDi)ti\— Deadly Niyhtiihade. Camphor Aconitk — Monkuhood, Wolfubane. Bryony — liri/nnia. Digitalis — Foxglove Dulcamara — Bitter-nweet. Gambook. Lobelia — Indian Tobacco, Sanouinabia — Bloodroot. Oil ov Savin. Si'iqelia — Pinkntot. Strychnink — Nux vomica. Tobacco. All of those, when takon in ovor-doses, are poisons of greater or less activity. The treatment of poisoning, by the U80 of any of theso articles, is similar to that pursued in ovor-doses of opinm. (See Opium, page 173.) S6S. In all cases of poisoning, call a physician as soon as possible. MEANS OF DISTINGUISHING DEATH FROM ASPHYXIA. 584. It is no uncommon occurrence, that persons considered dead, hare, been restored to life at the moment when a post mortem examination was to have been made, or oven when they were in the coffin or tomb. This mistake arrises from the difficulty of distinguishing real from apparent death . 565. In death, although the limbs are stiff, their position is easily changed, but they remain whoro last placed. When a limb is stifT from, eonvulsions or asphyxia, its position is changed with difficulty, and it immediately returns so its former state. Cessation of breathing, or the " beating " of the heart, coldness, or insensibility, are no certain indica- tions of death. The sign most certain, is well-marked putrefaction; but it does not belong to the unprofessional to decide whether putre- faction has commenced ; the physician alone can establish the fact. 588. What ia tho treatment when an ovor-dose of deadly nightshade, monkshood, fozg^love, bitter-sweet, ^mboge, lobelia, bloodroot, tobacco, &c., is taken? .568. Should a physician be called in all cases when poison is swallowed ? .065. How can 4«aUi be distiuguislied from asphyxia 1 t:l hi Ifi GLOSSARY. m ' i ill X J. P' ^5 li Ab-sohp'tion. From the Latin ah- Horhere, to suck up. A-CE-TABU-LUM. From the Latin acetum, vinegar. The cavity in the hip-bone, so called from its resemblance to the ancient Greek vinegar vessel. A-NAT-o-MY. From the Greek ana, through, and tenmo, I cut. A de- scription of the structure of ani- mals. A-OKT A. From the Greek aorte, to keep in air. The largo vessel that carries blood from the heart. Ap-pa-ka'tus. From the Latin ad, for, and parare, to prepare. A collection of organs. Ap-pend'ix. From the Latin ad, to, and Tjendtre, to hang. Some- thing added. A'que-ous. From the Latin aqua> water. A humor of the eye. Aete-ry. From the Greek arteria, formed from aer, and terein, to keep. The ancients believed that the arteries were filled with lir, like the wind-pipe. Aa-PHYx'i-A. From the Greek a, priva*'vo, and aphuocia, pulse. Suspenued animation. At'mos-fhkrk. From the Greek at- moiv, vapor, and xphnira, a sphere. The air which surrounds th. earth. AnD>T-o-RY. Belonging to the sense of hearing. AuRi-CLE. From the Latin uuria, an ear. The two cavities of the heart derive the name from their resemblance to ears. Bi-cus'p'DS. From the Latin bia, two, and cuepin, a point. The name of certain teeth. Bile, A yellow, bitter, nauseoas fluid, secreted by the liver. Brain. The pulpy mass enclosed in the cranium, or skull-bones. Bronchi-a. From the Greek hroy- choSfthe throat. The two branches of the wind-pipe. Cap'il-la-hy. From the Latin e«- pillua, hair. The capillary ves- sels are the extremely minute terminations of the arteries, and commencing branches of the veins Carbon. Erom the Latin earbo, a coal. An elementary combusti- ble substance. Car-bon'ic. Containing carbon. Carpus. From the Greek kurpoa, the wrist. There are eight bones in the wrist. Car Ti-LAGE. (iristlo ; a part of the animal body, softer than bone, but harder than ligiunont. Cava. Latin. Hollow. V^ena Vuvu, the hollow, or docp-scatod vein. Ckr-k-bei/lum. The lower and smaller portion of the brain. GLOSSARY. ITT CwR'R-Bii'jM. Tho upper and largor portion of tho brain. Chk3T. The part of tho body be- tween the nock and the belly. Choroid. From the Greek chori- on, the skin, and ciUos, resemb- lance. A coat of the eye. Chylk. From tho Greek chulos, nutritious juice. CHYMfi;. From the Greek chumoi, a grayish juice. Ch'ia-ry. Latin. Relating to tho eye-lid. Clavi-clk. From the latin clavi^, a key. The collar-bone. Coo'CYx. Latin. The lower ex- tremity of the spinal column. CociiLiK-A. Latin. A snail-shell. A name given to one of tho three cavitios of tho internal oar. Colon. Greek. A portion of the largo intestine. Concave. Hollow; as the inner surfaco of a spherical body. CoNVKX. Bulging; as tho exter- nal surface of a spherical body, CoRNE-A. From the Latin coniu, a horn. One of the coats of tho eye. Crystal-link. A humor, or lens of the eye. It servos to transmit and refract the rays of light. Cuspid. From tho Latin cuspin, a point. Tho nama of certain teeth. Cu Ti-CLK. Tho external layer of the skin. Cutis Vk ra. Latin. The true skin. The internal layer of the skin. Di'a-phraom. From the Greek din- phrayma, a partition. Tho mus- cle that separates tho ' "s and heart from the siomi "' 'ivor, and intestine?. Di-OESTioN. Tho process of dia- 1 olving food in the stomach, and preparing it for circulation and nourishment. Du-o-DENUM. Tho first of tho 12 small intestino, being about twelve fingers' breadth. E.v-am'kl. Tho smooth, hard sub- stance which covers tho crowns of the teeth. E?-i-glot'ti3. From tho Greek epi, upon, and i/fottii, the glottis. A kind of cartilaginous valve at the upper part of the larynx, be- hind tho base of the tongue. E'j-STACHi-AN TuBK. So callod from its discoverer, Eustachut. A tube that connects the middle ear with tho throat. Ex-HALENT. From the Latin exhal- are, to throw out. Ex-trem i-ties. Tho limbs ; as the legs and arms. Fasci-a. Latin. A thin mem- brane that surrounds the mus- cles and tendokH. Femur. Latin. The thigh-bone. Fibre. An organic filament, or thread, of a solid consistonje, which enters int) tho composi- tiojj of every animal and vege- table texture. Bibu-la. Latin. A clasp. The outer and les.^er bona of tha leg. FiLA-MRNT. a thread. Fol'li-cle. a bag. Very cavities. Fore-arm. That part of tha arm between tho olbow and wrist. Fuvc TioN. From tho Latin/un- gor,l act, I perform. Tho action of organs, as tho funotio. or action of the eye is to seo, tho ear to hear. Gan'gli-on. From the QvaoVgngg. lion, a knot. An enlargement upon a nerve or tendon. Gust'a-tory. From the Latin (fui'its, the tasta. Belonging to ', tho sonso of taste. Gastric Juice. From the Greek ganter, tho stomach. Tho fluid secreted by the stomach. From tho Latin,^ifu»i, A small libre. From tho La.lin follia, minuta secretins if 178 GLOSSARY. It:! ill Wl Glottis. A small, oblong opening at the upper part of the larynx. Glands. From the Latin glans, a nut. Soft, fleshy organs of vari- ous sizes. Heart. A muscular organ, situ- ated in the left side of the chest. nu'uEK-us. The bone of the arm, situated between the shoulder- joint and elbow. Hu'mor. Every fluid substance of an organized body ; as the chyle, the blood. Hy'dro-gkv. From the Greek hy- dro, water, and (jeinomai, I en- gender. A gas which constitutes one of the elements of water. IIy-oi-enk'. The science of pre- serving the health. Ik-Ci'sor. From the Latin incido, I cut. The fore-teeth. Ik-testine. Latin. The alimen- tary canal. I'bis. Latin. The rainbow. The colored mcmbrano around the pupil of the eye. Laby-rinth. From the Greek la- burinthos, a place full of turn- ings. A name given to the wind- ings of the internal ear. Lach'ry-mal. From the Latin lachryma, a tear. Lao'te-al. From the Latin lar, milk. The vessels that convey the chyle, or a milk-like sub- stance, into the veins. Larynx. From the Greek larugx, a whistle. The upper part of the windpipe. Lio'a-mekt. From ligo, I bind. A strong fibrous substance, which binds bones, &c., together. Liver. A large gland situated below the right lung, Lym-phat'ics. Vessels that per- form the office of absorption. Mr-dul'la. From the Latin medul- la, marrow. Me-ddl'la Ob-lon-oa'ta. The spinal cord that is situated with- in tl'd skull-bones. Mem nRANK. From the Latin mem- brana, u film, a delicate web. A name given to diflfercut thin or- gans. Mes'en-ter-y. From the Greek mcHos, in the middle, and cuteron, an intestine. A mcmbrano in the middle of the intestines, by which they are attached to the spinal column. Met-a-car'pcs. From the Greek vieta, after, and karpoa, the wrist. That part of the hand be- tween the wrist and fingers. Met-a-tar'sus. From the Greek »if!^o, 'after, and /arso*, the instep. That part of the foot between the instep and toes. Midriff. T' diaphragm. Mitral. Resembling a mitre, or bishop's bonnet. The name of two valves of the heart. Molar. From tho Latin mnlo, I grind. The name of certain teeth. Mucus. A viscid fluid secreted by the mucous nismbrane, which it serves to moisten, and also to defend. Muscle. A number of fibres en- closed in a sheath. Nerve. An organ of sensation and motion in animals. NiTRO-GEN. From the Greek vi- tron, nitre, and gcnnao, I beget. One of tho gases that compose atmospheric air. Nu-TRiTioN. Tho act or process of promoting the growth, or re- pairing the waste of tho system. Q3-8oph'a-gus. From tho Greek nio, I carry, and phagn, I oat. The tube that leads from the mouth to the stomach. Ol-fact'(,-ry. From the Latin olfactun. Belonging to tho sense of smell. O-MENTDM. Latin. The caul, so called bee luse tho ancient priests prophesied from an inspection of this membrane. i. GLOSSARY 179 Organ. From the Greek orgnnon, an instrument. A part of the system destined to exercise some particular function. OxT-OEN. From the Greek oxwi, acid, and geinomai, I engender. A gas which constitutes about one fifth of our atmosphere. Pan'cre-as. From the Greek /jan, all, and kreaa, flesh ; that is, quite Jleahy. A gland situated behind the stomach. Pa-pil'l^. From the Latin papilla, nipple. Small, conical promi- nences seen on the tongue and skin. Pa-rot'id. From the Greek para, about, and ou», the ear. A gland situated under the ear. Pa-trl'la. From the Latin /jattna, a dish. The knee-pan. Pbl'vis. Latin. A basin. The name of a bony structure at the lower part of the trunk. P«R-i-oa'TK-UM. Fromjoeri, about, and o9, bono. The membrane, or skin that surrounds the bone?. Per-spi-ra'tion. The evavom, 24 70 123 CoNiUM, Antidote for 174 Copper, Antidote for 171 Cuticle 115 119 Cutis Vera 117 D. Diaphraom 91 DioKSTiVK Organs 48 , Physiology of 63 , Hygiene of 66 61 Drinks 59 Drowned, Treatment of Persons , . . 104 Duodenum 60 E. Ear, Anatomy of 152 , Physiology of 155 , Hygiene of 157 Exiialknts 82 Eye, Anatomy of 143 , Physiology of 149 , Hygiene of 150 , Method of removing Dust from 151 P. Fascia 29 Fibres 27 Follicle 88 B'ooD, Changes of, during the Diges- tive Process 64 , Quantity of 60 .Quality of 67 , Manner of taking 68 , Time for taking 60 Frozen Limbs, Treatment of 120 G. G.vstric Juice 54 Glands, Structure of 83 , Lachrymal 147 , Lymphatic 78 , Mesenteric 61 , Oil .-. 118 120 — , Perspiratory 118 120 , Salivary 4& Glottis 110 11 i ! ii 182 INDEX. H. riai IlBALTH, Means of preserving 168 Hkarino, Sense of 152 Hbart 62 , Contractions of the 67 69 Heat, Animal 106 , Hygiene of 108 109 Hbmorriiaok, Meonti of arresting. .. 72 L Iktcstikeb so J. Joints, Structure of 19 , Use of 21 L. l acteals si Larynx 110 Lead, Antidote for 171 LlGAMENTB 20 Light, Influence of 37 120 Liver 52 Lungs 89 Lymphatics 76 , Physiology of 78 , Hygiene of 79 81 of the Skin 177 MEDULIiA ObLONOATA 129 Membrane 21 Mercury, Antidote for 173 Mineral Poisons 170 Muscles, Anatomy of 27 , Physiology of 30 , Hygiene of 36 42 , Compression of 38 113 N. Nervous System 127 , Physiology of 131 , Hygiene of 134 137 Nerves 130 , Sympathetic 130 of the Skin 117 119 , Gustatory 139 , Olfactory 141 — , Auditory , l.')4 — , Optic 146 Nitre, Treatment for an Over-dose. 172 Nurses, Directions for 1C4 0. CEsoriUGUs 49 Omentum 52 Opium, Treatment for an Over-dose . 173 P. Pancreas 52 Periosteum 21 Pharynx ' 48 Poisons and their Antidotes 170 B. PAM Reading, the proper Position in IIX Removal of Disease 150 Respiratory Organs 8t — f , Physiology of 18S , Hygiene of 98 lOS Retina 44 Ribs It B. Saliva 5t Secretory Oroaks 82 , Physiology of 88 .Hygiene of 84 8fc Senses ISS Skin, Anatomy of US , Physiology ol IW , Hygiene of 122 126 Smell, Sense of 141 SOU.VD Ill 15» Spinal Column 14 , Curvature of M Cord 120 Spleen 52 Stramonium, Treatment for an Over- dose 174 Stomach 40 Synovia , t\ Synovial MEMBRANn 20 T. Taste, Sense of ISO Teeth, Anatomy of 4S , Physiology of 44 , Hygiene of 45 44 Tendon JT Thoracic Duct 62 Throat, extraneous Bodies in 114 Touch, Sense of 1X8 Trachea 00 U. Ulna H V. Valves of the Heart 08 of the Aorta 62 of the Pulmonary Artery. . . 62 Veins 66 of the Skin lit Vegetable Poisons 1T2 Ventilation 100 Ventricles of the Heart 62 Vertebrae 14 Vision 142 Vocal Organs 116 , Physiology of Ill r. Hygiene of 112 114 W. Watchers, Directions for 162 Wounds, Treatment of T4 KKT TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 183 KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. In using theso plate?, wo would suggest, that the pupil carefully ex- amine the illustrating cuts interspersed with the text, in connection with the lesson to be recited. The similarity between theso and the platei will enable the pupil to recite, and the teacher to conduct his recitation* from the latter. Let the pupil show the situation of an organ, or part, on an anatomical outline plate, and also give its structure; while other members of the class note all omissions and misstatements. Another pupil may give tli« use of that organ, and if necessary, others may give an extended ex- planation. The third may explain the laws on which the health of th» part depends, while other members of the class supply what has been omitted. After thus presenting the subject in the form of topios, questions may be proposed promiscuously, from each paragraph, and where examples occur in the text, let other analogous ones be given. If the physiology and hygiene of a given subject have not been studied, confine the recitation to those parts only on which the pupil is prepared. When practicable, the three departments should bo united j but this can only be done when the chapter on the hygiene has been learned, whilo the physiology can be united with the anatomy, in all chapters upon physiology. PLATE I. A FRONT VIEW OF THE SKELETON. Boneto/the Uead. 7, The sphenoid bone. 8, The frontal bone. 10, Th» parietal bono. 11, The os unguis. 12, The superior maxillary bone, (upper jaw.) 13, The nasal bono. 14, The ethmoid bono. 15, The malar bone, (cheek-bone.) 16. The vomer. 17, The inferior maxiliary bone, (the lower jaw.) a. Its body, h, Its ramus, or branch. 18, The teeth. Boneaof the Trunk. 1, 1, The spinal column. 2, The sternum. 3, 1, Vhe ribs. 4, The sacrum. 5, The innominatum. ^ Bonet of the Upper Exirsmitiet. 19, The clavicle, (collar bono.) 20, Th« 184 KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. i lii i I icapula, (sboulder-blade.) 21, Tho humerus. 22, The ulna. 23, The radius. 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, The bones of the carpus, (wrist.) 32, 32, 32, The five bones of the metacarpus, (the palm of tho hand.) 33, 33, 33, The first range of finger bones. 34, 34, Tho second range of finger bones. 35, 35, 35, The third range of finger bones. Jiones of the Lower Ex.tremitiea. 36, The femur, (thigh-bone). 37, The patella, (knee-pan.) 38, Tho tibia, (shin-bone.) 39, The fibula. 40, 40, 40, The bones of the tarsus, (instep.) 41, 41, The bones of the metatarsus (middle of the foot.) 42, 42, The bones cf the toes. Articulatioks. (Left side of the plate.) Ligaments of the Trunk. 1, 1, Tho common spinal ligament. 2, 2, The intervertebral ligament, (cartilage between the vertebrae.) i), 10, 11, 12, Articulations of the ribs with tho epinal column. 13, 13, 14, 15, 16, Lig- aments that connect tho cartilages of the ribs with tho sternum. Ligaments of the Upper Extremities. 25, Tho ligament that connects the clavicle and sternum. 27, Tho ligament that connects tho upper rib and clavicle. 28, 29, 30, Ligaraoiitsthat connect the clavicle and scapu- la. 31, 32, 33, 34, Ligaments of the shoulder-joint. 35, 35, 36, Lifia- ments of the elbow-joint. 37,38, 39,40, Ligaments of the wrist. 41,42, 43, 44, Ligaments of the fingers. Ligaments of the Loicer Extremities. 49, 49, Ligaments of the hip- Joint. 60, 50, Ligaments of the patella. 51, 52,53, 54,55, Ligaments of the knee-joint. 56, A largo bursa mucosa. 57, The ligament of the tibia and fibula. 58, 58, The interosseous ligament. 59, 59, Liga- ments of the ankle-joint. 60, 01, 62, Ligaments of the metatarsus. 63, 64, Ligaments of the toes. A, The brachial artery. B, Tho brachial vein. C, The radial artery. D, Tho femoral artery. E, The femoral vein. F, G, Tho anterior tibial artery. PLATE II. A BACK VIEW OF THE SKELETON. Bones of the Head. 5, The occipitalbono. 6, The parietal bono. 7, The temporal bone. 8, The frontal bono. 9, The sphenoid bone. 15, The malar bone. 16, Tho nasal bone. 17, Tho superior maxillary bone, (up- per jaw.) 18, The inferior maxillary bone, (lower jaw.) 19, The teeth. Bones of the Trunk, 1, 1, Tho spinal column. 2, The sacrum. 3, The coccyx. 20, Tho innominatum. 4, 4, The ribs. Bones of the Upper Extremities. 21, The clavicle, [collarbone.] 22, Tho scapula, (shoulder-blado.) 23, The humerus. 24, The ulna. 25, Tho radius. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, The bones of tho carpus, (wrist.) 33, 33, 33, Tho bones of the metacarpus, (palm of the hand.)34, 34, 34, The first range of finger-bones. 35,35, Tho second range of finger-bones. 36, 36, 36, The thirdTange of finger-bones. m KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 185 Bones of the Lower Extremities. 37, Tho fomur, (thigh-bono.) 38, The patella, (kneo-pan.) 39, tho tibia, (shin-bono.) 40, Tho fibula. 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, Tho bones of tho tarsus, (instep.) 46, 46, Tho bones of tho metatarsus, (middle of tho foot.) 47, 47, Bonos of tho toes. Articulations. (Left side of the pluto.) Ligaments of the Trunk. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Ligaments of tho npinal column. 14, 14, 15, 15, Ligaments that connect tho ribs and apinal column. 11, 11, 21, 22, 23,24, 25, 26, Ligaments that connect the sacrum and innominatum. Ligaments of the Upjier Extremities. 27,28, Ligaments that connect the clavicle and scapula. 29, Tho capsular ligament of tho shoulder- joint. 30, 30, Ligaments of the elbow. 31, 32, 33, 34, Ligaments of tho carpus, (wrist.) Ligaments of the Lower Extremities, 9, Tondon of tho gluteus muscle. 35, The capsular ligament of the hip-joint. 36, 36, Licaments of the knee-joint. 37, The ligament that connects tho tibia and fibula. 38, The terosseous ligament. 39, 40, Ligaments of the ankle-joint. PLATE III. A FRONT VIEW OF THE MUSCLES. Muscles of the Head and Neck. 7, Tho sterno-mastoideus muscle. 8, The storno-hyoidous muscle. 9, The omo-hyoideus muscle. 10, The trapezius musclo. 11, Tho orbicularis oculi muscle. 12, Tho frontal muscle. 14, Tho orbicularis oris musclo. 15, The elevator muscle of the nostrils. 16, The zygomatic muscle. 17, Tho depressor of tho lowei lip. 18, The depressor anguli oris muscle. 19, Tho triangular muscle of the nose. 20, 21, The aural muscles. 22, The masseter musclo. Muscles of the 'Trunk. 2, 3, The external oblique muscles. Muscles of the Upper Extremities. 1, The grand pectoral muscle. 3, 4, The serratus musclo. 23, Tho deltoid muscle. 24, The biceps brachialis musclo. 25, Tho coraco-brachialis musclo. 26, The anterior brachial musclo. 27, The triceps brachialis muscle. 28, The long su- pinator musclo. 29, Tho external radial muscle. 30, Tho pronator teres musclo. 31, The anterior radial muscle. 32, The palraaris brevis muscle. 33, The anterior ulnar muscle. 35, Tho palmar musclo. 36, Tho abductor muscle of tho thumb. 37, Tho abductor muscle of tho thumb. 38, 39, Small flexor muscles of the thumb. 40, The abductor muscle ,.' the little finger. 41, 41, The lumbricales muscles. 61, 61, The bifurcation of tho tendons of tho superficial flexor muscle, in tho fingers. Muscles of the Lower Extremities. 42, Tho fascia lata muscle. 43, The sartorious muscle. 44, The rectus femoris muscle. 45, The vastus externus muscle. 46, The vastus internus musclo. 47, The internal straight musclo. 48, Tho pectineus muscle. 49, Tho abductor muscle. 50, The psoas 186 KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 'I ■I- i IN I masole. 51, Tho tibialis antious musclo. 52, The long extensor muscle of tho groat toe. 53, Tho long extonsor muscle of the toes. 54, Tho anterior peroneal mnsclo. 55, Tho long lateral peroneal musole. 56, 57, The gastrocnemii muscles. 58, Tho long flexor muscle of the great toe. 59, The short extensor musolos of tho toes. 60, The abductor musclo of tho groat too. The figures and letters on tho loft side of the plate, indicate the po- • ition otimportant fasciae, that cover tho musulos and enclose tho tendons. PLATE ly. A BACK VIEW OF THE MUSCLES. Mutclea of the Head and Neck. 4, Tho sterno-mastoidoas musole. 5, Tho complexus musclo. 6, The mylo-hyoideus muscle. 7, 8, The oocipito-frontalis musclo. 9, The massoter musclo. 10, 11, 12, Tho anterior, middle, and posterior aural muscles. 13, Tho temporal musole. MuHcles of the Trunk. 1, 1, The trapezius musclo. 2, The latissimus dorsi musclo. 3, Tho rhomboideus muscle. 4, Tho external oblique muscle. Muscles of the Upper Extremities, 5, The deltoid musclo. 6, 7, The infra-spinatus muscle. 9, The triceps extonsor muscle. 10, The inter- nal brachial muscle. 11, Tho long supinator musclo. 12, The external radial musclo. 13, Tho second external radial musole. 14, The an- coneus muscle. 15, 16, Tho extonsor digitorum communis muscle. 17, Tho extor.sor carpi ulnaris musclo. 18, Tho flexor carpi ulnaris. 19, 20, Tho extonsor ossis motacarpi polliois muscles. 21, An extensor musole of tho thumb. 22, 28, Intorossil muscles. Muscles of the Lower Extremities. 29, Tho gluteus maximus musole. 30, The gluteus modius musclo. 31, Tho biceps flexor cruris musole. 32, The somi-tendinosua muscle. 33, Tho somi-mombranosis musole. 34, Tho gracilis musclo. 35. The abductor musole. 36, Tho rastua exturnus muscle. 37, Tho sartorius musclo. 38, 39, Tho gastrocnemii muscles. 40, Tho long poronoal musclo. 41, Tho oxtornal peroneal muscle. 42, Tho long flexor musclo of tho groat too. 43, Tho long extensor musclo of the toes. 44, Tho short extonsor musclo of the took. 47, The short flexor muscle of the toos. The figures and letters on tho loft side of tho plate, indicate tho posi- tion of membranous fasoiaa which envelop tho muscles and tendons. PLATE V. ORGANS OF THE THORAX AND ABDOMEN. Fig. 1. The Afouth and neck. (A side view,) 1, The upper lip. 2, Tho lower lip. 3, Tho upper jaw. 4, The lower jaw. 5, The tongue. 6, The hard palate, (roof of tho mouth.) 7, Tho parotid gland. 8, Tho sub- KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 187 lingual gland. T, Tho larynx. 10, The pharynx. 11, The ocsophagns. 12, Tho upper portion of the spinal column. C, Tho ppinal cord. The Cheat and ite Organ*. 9, 9, Tho trachea. R, Tho right auricle of tho heart. L, Tho loft auricle. 13, Tho loft ventriclo of the heart. 14, Tho right vontricle. 15, The aorta. 16, The pulmonary artery. 17, Th« vena cava doscendons. 18, Tho right subclavian voin. 19, Tho loft subclavian vein. 20, Tho right jugular vein. 21, Tho loft jugular vein. 22, The right carotid artery. 23, Tho loft carotid artery. 24,25,28, Tho upper, middle, and lower lobes of the right lung. 27, 28, Tho upper and lower lobes of tho IcL lung. 29, 29, 29, The diaphragm. P, P, P, P, The pleura, that lines tho cavity of tho chest. S, S, Tho clavicles. 0, 0, 0, 0, The ribs. M, M, M, M, Muscles of tho chest. 40, Tho thoracic duct, opening into the subclavian vein. The Abdomen and itH Orfjans. 30, Tho stomach. 31, 32, Tho right and left lobo of tho liver. F, The fissure that separates the two lobes. 33, Tho gall bladder. 34, 34, Tho duodenum. 35, Tho ascending colon. 36, Tho transverse colon. 37, The descending colon. 38, 38, 38,38, Th« small intestine. 39, 39, Tho walls of the abdominal cavity turned down. 41, Tho spleen. Fig. 2. The Relation of the LacteuU and Thoraxc Duct. 1, 1, A section of tho small intestine. 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, Mesenteric glands, through which tho lacteals from tho iutcstino pass. 3, Several lacteal vessels entering tho enlarged portion and commencement of the thoraic duct. 6, 5, 6, The thoraic duct. 6, Tho thoracic duct opening into tho left sub- clavian vein. 7, (See 40, Fig. 1.) 8, Tho right subclavian vein. 9, Tho vena cava dcscendens. 10, 11, 11, Tho aorta. 12, Tho carotid ar- teries. 13, 13, Tho jugular veins. 14, Tho vena azagos. 15, 15, Tho spinal column. 16, Tho diaphragm. Fig. 3. The Relation of the Larynx, Trachea, Bronchia, and Air -eellt. 1, 1, 1, An outline of tho right lung. 2, 2, 2, An outline of tho left lung. 3, Tho larynx. 4, Tho trachea. 5, Tlio right bronchia. 6, The left bronchia. 7, 7, 7, 7, Divisions of tho right bronchia. 8, 8, 8, 8, Divi- sions of tho left bronchia. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Air-cells. Fig. 4. An ideal view of the lateral and vertical Section of the Larynx. 1, 1, Tho superior vocal eords, (ligaments.) 2, 2, The inferior vocal cords. 3, 3, Tho glottis. 4, 4, Tho vontiiclos of tho larynx. PLATE VI. HEART, ARTERIES, AND VEINS. Fig. 1. The Heart and large Artertea. 1,, Tho right auricle of the heart. 2, Tho right ventricle of tho heart. 3, The left auricle. 4, Tho loft ventriclo. 5, Tho pulmonary artory. 6, Tho aorta. 7, 7, Tho descend- ing aorta. 8, The arteria innominata. 9, Tho loft carotid artery. 10. The left subclavian artery. 56, The right subclavian artery. m *t\V .% IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) I 1.0 I.I 1.25 Li 12.8 13.2 15 2f m '^ ^ 1^ 12.0 1.4 1.8 1.6 m M ^;j ^% % > •> *»*' '/ :5§ f Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 n>^ ^^4 % V 4^

6^ «i L^ £# i^ 188 KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. Arterie$ of the Neck and Head. \b, Tho right caiotid artery. 16, The left carotid artery. 17, TLe right temporal artery. 60, Tho right facial artery. 54, Tho left temporal artery. Artoriee of the Upper Extremities. 11, 11, Tho 'eft brachial artery. 12, The left radial artery. 13, 13, Tho right brachial artery. 14, Tho right radial arterj'. 51, The right ulnar artery. Arteries of the Lower Extremiticn. 18, Tho loft iliac artery. 19, Tho ri;,'ht iliac artery. 20. Tho left femoral artery. 21, Tho right femoral •rtery. 22, Tho peroneal artery. 23, Tho left anterior tibia' artery. 24, Tho muscular artery. 25, 25, Tho right and left artoria profunda. 20, Tho right anterior tibial artery. 27, Tho right peroneal artory. The Veins of the Neck and Head. 28, Tho vena cava doscondens. 29, Tho left subclavian vein. 30, Tho right subclavian vein. 31, Tho right jugular vein. 32, Tho left jugular vein. 53, Tho right temporal vein. 55, Tho left temporal vein. 49, Tho right facial vein. Veins of the Uj^per Extremities. 33, The left brachial vein. 34, The loft radial vein. 35, The right brachial vein. 36, Tho right radial vein. 61, Tho right ulnar vein. Veins of the Loxcer Extremities. 37, The vena cava ascendens. 38, The left iliac vein. 39, Tho right iliac vein. 40, The left femoral vein. 41, Tho right femoral vein. 42, Tho left anterior tibial vein. 43, Tho left peroneal vein. 44, The right anterior tibial vein. 45, Tho right peroneal vein. 46, 46, The profunda veins. 47, Tho muscular veins. 48, 48, 48, 48, 48. 48, Intercostal arteries and veins. Fig 2, The Relation of the Cavities of the Heart to the large Blood-vesids. 1, Tho vena cava dcscdidens. 2, The vena cava ascendens. 3, The right auricle of tho heart. 4, The opening between the right auricle and right ventricle. 5, Tho right ventricle. 6, Tho tricuspid valves. 7, The pul- monary artery, 8, 8, Tho branches of tho pulmonary artery that pass to tho right and left lung. 9, The semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery. 10. The left pulmonary veins. 11, The right pulmonary veins. 12, Tho left auricle. 13, The opening bet^veon tho left auricle and left ventricle. 14, Tho left ventricle. 15, Tho mitral valves. 16, 16, The aorta. 17, The semilunar valves of tho aorta. 18, The septum between the right and left ventricle. Fig. 3. An ideal view of the Heart, Arteries, and Veins. A, The right auricle. B, Tho right ventricle. C, The tricuspid valves. D, The open- ing between the right auricle and right ventricle. E, The left auricle. P, Tho left ventricle. G, Tho mitral valves. II, The opening between the left auricle and left ventricle. I, Tho septum between the right and left ventricle. K, The pulmonary artery. L, The scmilunur valves of tho pulmonary nrtcry. M, M, Tho right pulmonary artery. N, N, The left pulmonary artery. 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, Tho capillary vessels of the lungs. P, P, P, Tho right pulmonary vein. Q, Q, Tho left pulmonari vein. R, R, The aortn. S, The semilunar valves of the aorta. T, T, A branch of tho aorta to the upper extremities. U, U, U, U, A branch to the lower extremities. V, V, V, V, V, V, Tho capillary vessels at tho extremity KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 189 of tho branches of the aorta. W, W, The dosocnding vena cava X, X, X, The ascending vena cava. In Figs. 1, 2, 3, tho courao of the blood thro'igh tbo circulatory vosaola is indicated by arrows. PLATE VII. THE PULMONARY CIRCULATION. Fig. 1, ], The right auricle of the heart. 2, The left auricle. 3, The right ventricle of the heart. 4, tho left ventricle. 5, The pulmonary artery. 6, The branch of the pulmonary artery to tho left lung. 7, The branch of the pulmonary artery to the right lung. 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8 Branches of tho pulmonary artery in tho right and left lung. 0, 9, 9, Q 9, 9, Air-cells. 10, 10, 10, TO, 10, 10, 10, Small pulmonary veins in tho right and loft lung. 11, Tho loft pulmonary vein. 12, 12, The right pulmonary vein. Fig. 2. An ideal View of the Pulmonury Circulation. 1. 1, Tho right lung. 2, 2, The left lung. 3, The trachea. 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, Th c right bronchia. 6, 5, 5, 5, 5, The left bronchia. 6, 6, C, C, 6, 6, Air-cells, with arteries and veins passing around them, 7, The right auricle of tho heart. 8, Tho right ventricle of tiio heart. 9, The tricuspid valves. 10, The pulmonary artery. 11, 11,11, 11, Tho right pulmonary artery. 12, i2, 12, 12,12, The loft pulmonary artery. 13, 13, 13, 13, Tho right pulmonary vein. 14, 14, 14, 14, The left pulmonary vein. 15, The loft auricle. IC, The left ventricle. 17, The mitral valves. 18, The septum between the right and left ventricles. Fig. 3. An ideal Vieio of the Cdpil'nries. 1, 1, A branch of the pul- monary artery. 2, 2, A branch of the pulmonary vein. 3, 3, Capillary vessels between the artery and vein. Pig. 4. An ideal View of the lielationi of the Bronchia, Air-celU, Pul- monary Arteries, and Vcini. 1, A bronchial tube. 2, 2, 2, Air-colls. 3, A branch of tho pulmonary artery. 4, A branch of the pulmonary veil. PLATE YIII. TlilL CEREBRUM, CEREBELLUM, SPINAL CORD, AND NERVES. ^ 1, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3, 3, The spinal cord. 4, The brachial plexus of nerves. 5, The Inmbar plexus of nerves. 6, The s»- cral plexos of nerves, 7, The facial nerve. 8, 17, Tho radial nerve 9, 9, 16, The ulnar nerve. 10, The molian nerve. G, Tho circumflex nerve of the shoulder. 11,11, The great soiatio nerve. 12, The external popliteal, or peroneal !i r 190 KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. norve. 13,13, The posterior tibial nerve. 14, The external tibial nerve. 15, the muscular branch of the external peroneal nerve. 18, The muscu- lar branch of the sciatic nerve. P, Q, The posterior tibial nerve. The letters and other figures indicate minor nervous filaments dis- tributed to the various muscles and the skin. PLATE IX. THE SKIN. Fig. 1. A perspiratory Tube and Gland. 1, 1, The contorted portion of tVe tube that forms the gland. 2,2, Two branches which uuite to form the main duct of the gland. 3,3, The perspiratory tube. 4, The cuticle. h, its colored portion. 6, The cutis vera, (true skin.) 7, 7, Fat vesicles in which the gland is imbedded. Fig. 2. A Papilla: of the Skin. 1, 1, Two papilla;, formed of an artery, vein, and norve. 2,2,2,2, Nerves forming a loop in the papilloe. 3,3, Ar- teries of the papillae 4, 4, Veins of the papilla;. 5, 5, A net-work of arteries, veins, and nerves. C, 6, Nerves of the skin. 8, 8, Arteries of the skin. 7, 7, Veins of the skin. Fig. 3. A Hair, and its Oil Glands. 1, 1, The hair. 2, 2, The sheath of the hair. 3, Oil-glands that surround the bulb of the hair, the ducts of which open into the sheath of the hair, (2, 2.) Fig. 4. A Section of the Skin. 1, 1, The cuticle. 2, 2, its colored por- tion, 3, 3, The papillary layer. 4, 4, A net-work of arteries, veins, and nerves, upon the upper surface of the cutis vera. 5, 5, 5, 5, The cutis vera, (true skin.) 6,6,6 Hairs that originate in the cutis vera. 7,7,7, Oil- glands, the ducts of which connect with the sheath of the hair. 8,8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, Perspiratory glands and their ducts. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Nerves of the skin. 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, Arteries of the skin. 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, Veins of the skin. 12, 12, 12, 12, Papilla;, or ridges of the skin. PLATE X. AN ANTEUO-POSTElUOIl SECTION OF THE EYE. Fig. 1. 1, 1, The sclerotic coat. 2, 2, The corneas. 3, 3, The choroid ooat. 4, 4, The ratina. 5, 5, The iris. 6, 6, The posterior chamber of the eye that contains the aqueous humor. 7, 7, The anterior chamber. 8, 8, The p jpil. 9, The crystalline humor. 10, 10, The vitreous humor. 11, The optic nerve. 12, A representation of a pen. 13, An inverted inaje of the pen (12) on the retina. 14, 14, A eanal surrounding the trystalline humor. 15, 15, The bevelled junction of the cornea and scle- ■ KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 191 i- rotic coats. A, a perpendicular ray of light from the pen. B, B, oblique rajB, that are refracted in poBsing through the humors of the oyo. Fig. 2. A view of the External, Middle, and Internal Ear. 1,1, The ex- ternal car. 2. The meatus auditorium externus, (the tube that connects with the middle oar.) 3, The membrana tympani, (drum of the ear.) 8, 8, The tympanum, (middle ear.) 4, The malleus. 5, The incus. e. The orbicularis. 7, The stapes, (stirrup bone,) that connects with the vestibule of tho internal oar. 9, 9, (4, 5, 6, 7, The small bones of the middle ear,) 10, 11, 12, The semicircular canals. 13, 13, The eochlea. 14, The auditory nerve. 15, Tho division of tho auditory nerve to the semicircular canals. 16, Tuo division to tho cochlea. 17, 17, The Eustachian tube. 18, Tho chorda tympani nerve. 19, Tho aeventh pair (facial) nerve. 20, The styloid process of the temporal bone. 21, 21, 21, 21, 21, The petrous or hird portion of the temporal bone, in which the parts of tho middle and interial oar aro situated.