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V*.. .'^■'.!^-^ MICHOCOrY UISOIUTION TIST CHAK (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 12.2 13^ I 4.0 2.0 1.8 A /APPL IE D IN/HGE Inc IS* 1653 Eost Mo.r -Ireel ^S Rochester, New i orh 14609 USA '.JS (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone ^5 (716) 2B8 - 5989 - Pan I A TREATISE ON THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION Of MILL BUILDINGS AND OTHER INDUSTRIAL PLANTS BY HENBY GRATTAN TYBRELL. C. E. (TORONTO UNIVEHSITY) Atlthor of Milt BuUdtng ConitrucHoH, 1900; CoHcrett Bridaei and Culrerti. Hittory of Bridge EHoineering, etc. CHICAGO AND NEW YORK THE MYRON C. CLARK PUBLIS LONDON B. * F. N. SPON. tTD.. 67 HAY 1911 COPTBIOHT 1911 BT HENRY GBATTAN TYRRELL. PREFACE This book k the outcome of a smaller one entitled "Mill Build- ing Construction," written in 1890 and given to the publiahers in 1900. These books are based on the personal experience of the writer, covering a period of twenty years in designing and esti- mating buildings, bridges and other structural work, and most of their contents is from his private notes and records. A separate part on "The Theory of Economic Design" was included in the present work because of the large amount of capi- tal being invested in manufacturing plants. A knowledge of the possibilities and requirements should precede the design, and it is only by the exercise of such knowledge that the best results are obtained. The introduction of Part I has caused some repetition, as subjects discussed generally in this part are treated more fully in Parts III and IV on details. The repetition, however, seem- necessary for clearness, as the whole contents of one part would be out of place in the other. This is particularly the case i" -'• -oters on framing of northern light and other roofs. e of required wall thickness according to the building — - ^liferent cities, is subject to change, but shows accepted l>rac..co. Before designing buildings for any of the cities men- tioned, a copy of the latest ordinance should be consulted. Chapters VI and VII, on the comparative cost of different kinds of manufacturing buildings, contain estimated costs rather than actual ones, for comparisons are then more reliable, as external conditions are considered uniform. It was at first intended to include chapters on Graphic Statics and Calculations, after those on Im&As and Framing, but these were omitted to maka room for more important ones. It appears unnecessary, in a book on building construction, to occupy valuable space in reviewing mathematical methods, with which the reader is already familiar and which are fully treated in other books. Chapters XV and XVI are purposely short, and consist chiefly of illustrations. The arrangement of members for timber framing iii " PSEFACE (Chapter XV) is similar in many respects to that for steel, which « outlined in other part. I the book, and the subject of Timber Framing has been covered by other.. Only a brief review is made m Chapter A\ I of a subject which has been completely discussed m recent treatises, but the cost., formui.e and other data riven are from the writer's personal records. -IH^T?,"'^'"! "' "■'" "'""trated/for they are important, and altlK,ugh the subject has been much studied, there is but little avn.lahle literature. The construction of upper floors and espe- cially fireproof ones, is given less space, as they differ little from those m other kinds of buildings. A hundred pages or more might easily be written on the subject, but this would appear unne^s- sary as text books on fireproof building ranstniction are abundant As modem manufacturing plants represent such large invest- mente, several chapters are given to the preservation of their ma- teria s by paint and painting, and in th., nreparation of these chapters, m order that the directions given mij.t be the best and ktest assistance has been received from The Sherwin Williams °'p \\ ^''^''*''""*^ "°d *•'« Lowe Bros. Paint Co., of Dayton. 1 art V was prepared especially for students, estimators and draftsmen and to others it may appear elementary. Tha costs given are from my own notes, and should be all the more valuable because data of this kind are generally difficult to secure Jut appro.umate costs should be very carefully used, and should be re- vised to suit the time and place in question, or serious errors may result To assist in revising them, a table is included giving the wages paid to mechanics in the building trades in all parts of North America, which should als 77 Vll VIU TABLE OF CONTEXTS CHAPTEB IX. Lighting and Ventilating . . . ""^SJ Wall lighting !* J9 Total Required Lighting Area. f? Wall Lighting ... °\ Required Skylight Area 2o Roof Lighting °- Fiat Skylights :.'.'.:'.'.[ ^i Longitudinal Monitors ', Croas Monitors °^ Box Skylights ll Northern Light Hoofs ^2 Ventilating ^^ Required Ventilation Area. . ..'. fn Roof Ventilation °^ Saw Tooth Ventilation an Open Roof Ventilation "" Individual Metal Ventilators. . «, Box Skylight Ventilators ^i Special Ventilators „- WaU Ventilation '■'■'.'■'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.]'.] 92 PART II. Loads. X. Static Roof Loads Roof Framing ^ Truss Weight FormuUe.. ....'.' „„ Weight of Roof Coverings '■'■'.'■'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'." 105 XI. Floor Loads Weight of Building ' .Materials' ! .".'.'.■.'■ i^l Weight of Merchandise '.'.'.'.'.'.'.['.'."" HI XIL Snow and Wind Loads... Velocity and Coefficients ,,'" Wind Pressures on Roofs ;\i Wind Loads | J;- XIIL Crane and Miscellaneous Loads. 1,., Weight of Cranes ,' '* Summary of Loads ..!.....!.....' {jg PART in. Fbaminu. XIV. Steel Framing Building Frames }\^ Trusses 1-" Truss Depth H2 Rafters 128 Bottom Chords J29 Truss Spacing J30 Weight of Trusses "1 Monitor Frames "; Girths and Purlins ]fz Jack Rafters .' ' "^ Crane Supports " ' ?ff Columns 136 Floor Framing ...'..'. J*2 BraHng '*" Coal Storage Sheds. ...'.;." 1^2 160 ^^SS^M^^^TTi. .ijiL. ■ lABLE OF CONrE^TS a CUAPTEK XV. XVI. XVII. PAOE Wood Framing 158 Cioncrete Framing 168 Adhesion and Bond 188 Metal Reinforcement 169 Monolithic or Separately Molded Members 169 Type of Construction 170 Floors and Boofs 172 Columns 173 Northern Light Eoof Framing, in Wood. Steel and Con- crete 179 Hoof Outlines 180 Window Area 180 Gutters and Conductors 18J Column Spacing If' Framing IL* Condensation 187 Ventilation 190 Windows 193 Cost 194 PART IV. Details or Construction. XVIII. Foundations and Anchorages 195 Loads 195 Bearing Power of Soils 190 Area on Soil 197 Side Wall Foundations 197 Piers 197 Machinery Foundations 199 Piles 199 Anchors 200 XIX. Wall Details 203 Thickness of Walls 203 Stone Walls 203 Brick Walls 204 Size and Cost of Brick 204 Mortar 205 Cost of Brickwork 205 Combination Brick and Concrete Walls 207 Reinforced Concrete Walls 207 Concrete Block Walls 210 Sheet Metal Walls 212 Plank Walls 213 Wall Anchorages 213 XX. Ground Floors 218 Kind of Floors 218 Cement Concrete Floors 219 Tar Concrete Floors 222 Brick Floors 224 Asphalt Floors 225 Wood Floors 227 Wood Block Floors 229 Special Floors 230 XXI. Upper Floors 231 Steel Trough Floors 281 Flat Plate Floors 281 w I TABLE OF CONTENTS CBAPTEB Metal Arch Floors ''poo Multiplex Steel Plate Floors .' " 234 Triangular Sheet Steel Trough oqe Brick Arch Floors .'.[ 936 Reinforced Concrete Floors "36 Steel Girder and Timber Floors 238 Slow Burning Wood Floors 940 Table of Spruce Plank '.'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 240 XXII. Roofs — Non- Waterproof 242 Wooden Roofs ' .' 242 Reinforced Concrete Roofs .....!..... 244 Monolithic Concrete Roofs With Forms •>44 Afonolithic Concrete Roofs Without Forms. ... 047 Table of Safe Loads, on Concrete Slabs. . . , "50 Tile Roofs '..'.'.'.'..'. 250 XXIII. Roofings— Tile — Slate— Asbestos— Wood or. Tile Roofing oko Slate Roofing '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. "55 Size and Thickness of Slate osg Table of Roofing Slate n'iR Table-Weight of Slate 057 Suitable Roof Pitch .".'...'.'.'." 257 Method of Laying and Fastening Slate 053 Method of Fastening to Steel Purlins 259 Cost of Slate Hoofs 261 Reinforced Asbestos Corrugated Sheathing...........'. 26' • Wood Shingles . ' "64 XXIV. Composition Roofing 266 Tar and Gravel Roofing .........".'.' 266 Asphalt Roofing .'....' 267 Prepared or Ready Roofing ^ .... .......].... . 268 Asbestos Roofing . . . 269 Carey 's Roofing ...........' "69 Flintkote ...........'.." "69 Genasco 's Asphalt Ready Roofing. ............ .].\\. "70 Granite Roofing 270 Granite Roofing Specifications 270 Monarch Roofing ............'. 271 Rubber Roofing ............'. 271 Ruberoid Roofing 272 XXV. Corrugated Iron 273 Preservation of Corrugated Iron 274 Size and Weight of Sheets 275 Table of Corrugated Iron .....' 276 Strength of Corrugated Iron 277 Table of Loads 278 Purlin Spacing !!!.!'.[ 279 Roof Pitch for Corrugated Iron 279 Laying Corrugated Iron on Roofs 279 Laying Cornigated Iron on Walls 280 Fastening Corrugated Iron 280 Standing Seam Corrugated Iron 282 Cost of Corrugated Iron 283 Tables of Weight ami Cost 283 Asbestos Covered Sheets . . . . 284 Aiili Condensation Lining 055 XXVI. Sheet Metal Roofing 286 Steel Roll Roofing 287 i^^,%A^J2*2*:i:: TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTn PAOK V Crimped Hoofing 288 Metal Shingles 289 Tin and Terne Plate Roofs 289 Standard Specifications for Tin Roofs 291 XXVII. Cornices 294 Gable Cornices 294 Metal Flashing 2^6 Ridge Rolls 296 Hip and Valley Flashing 296 Corner Capping 297 Chimney and wall Flashing 297 Door and Window Casing 298 XXVin. Gutters and Downspouts 299 Gutters 299 Hanging Gutters 301 Gutter Supports 301 Box Gutters 303 Roof Gutters 303 Combination Roof Gutters 304 Valley Gutters 304 Downspouts 305 XXIX. Ventilators 308 individual Metal Ventilators 308 Louvres 311 Shutters 314 XXX. Glass 316 Table of Weights 317 Cost of Glass 318 XXXI. Skylights , 319 Bars 320 Cost of Flat Skylights 326 Box Skylights 327 Tile Skylights 330 Translucent Fabric 330 XXXII. Windows 333 Side Wall Windows 333 Wooden Sash 333 Continuous Sash 335 Wood Window Frames 335 Cost of Wood Fr.imes and Windows 340 Metal Sash and Windows 340 Steel Sash 343 X::XIII. Monitor Windows 346 Window Opening Mechanism 352 XXXIV. Doors 368 Wood Panel Doors 360 Batten Doors 361 Table of Sizes 361 Table of Hinges 361 Tin Clad Doors 362 Corrugated Iron Doors 364 Swing Sliding Door 365 Horizontal Folding Doors 360 The Hitter Folding Doors 368 Special Pier Shed Door 968 Rolling Doors 870 xu TABLE OF CONTENTS If CHAPTEB XXXV. Factory Foot Bridges . . . 'tS •^•"•^ •:::::::::::::::::::::::::: S XXXVl. Paint Veliicles ^11 Boiled Lint «d Oil tL' Pigments or Bases ~ix White Lead HI Zinc Oxide ^^ Red Lead 'fO Iron Oxide ^°" Driers ; 38? Solvents |f J Stainers %l] Japans |5J Varnishes ^el Special Steel Paints ,?; Prince's Metallic Paint ,00 Asphalt Paint ^?f Durable Metal Coating „* P and B Paint ?f* Coal Tar Paint ^°* Carbonizing Coating ~o- Graphite Paint . . i°% Cement Coating ^°^ Comparative Merits of Steel P.;ints ttu Paint for Woodwork ,?„ Paint for Brick or « ement Wal!s 00? Cold Water Paint „t Whitewash ^2o Kalsomine ■'.'■'.'.'.'.'.'.'.['.'.'.'.]'. 3II XXXVIL Painting Preservation of .Materials tla Methods of Preservation ,„„ Cleaning Steelwork -on Pickling ; ■ 390 Sand Blast Cleaning ,„, Mixing and Applying Paint ,q.. Air Blast Painting ,„; Shop Coats * 393 Paint Table 394 Cost of Painting '■'.'■'.y.'.'.'.'.['.[['.'.'.'.'. 395 XXXVIIL Painting Specifications f„r Structural Steelwork 'lOT Quality of Oil and Paint Xa- Oaning ' ; ; 39, Shop Coat 398 Applying Paint *ll Shipping :::: 309 F.cl.i Painting 399 Repainting Old Steelwork Tnn p«"«»y ::.:;:;::;:::;:::: 400 PART V. Enginkering and DBArriNo Departments or . Structural Works. JlAAli. Engmeenng Pepartnient .„, Inquiries '"* Organization and Office. ....'." fXo Office Methods .' ' ; JXo 403 TABLE OF CONTENTS ziii CHA?TEB rtm Desisn 405 Steel Cage Column Spacing 405 Beam Spacing 406 Show Drawings 408 XL. Estimating the Quantities 410 Approximate Estimates 410 Exact Estimating 412 Listing Miscellaneous Items 414 Check Lists 414 Final Classification 416 XLl. Estimating the Costs 418 Approximate Cost Estimates 418 Cost of Material 418 Cost of Labor and Shop Work 419 Coat of Freight 423 Cost of Estimating and Time Required 424 Tenders 425 Preparation of Estimates for Drafting Room 426 ZLIL Approximate Estimating Prices 427 Materials — Delirered 427 Masonry — In Place 427 Piling 427 Concrete 427 Brickwork 428 Carpentry and Mill Work 428 Structural 8te«>l 428 Ornamental Iron 428 Roofing 429 Sheet Metal Work 429 Lath and Plaster 429 Painting 429 Plumbing 429 XLIII. The Drafting Office 430 Location 431 The Building 431 Welfare Features 433 The File and Record Room 435 Supply Boom 4S6 Inside Arrangement 437 Natural Lighting ; 41 Artificial Lighting 442 Heating and Ventilating 448 Lavatories and Plumbing 443 XLl V. Organization of Drafting Office 444 Organization 447 Subdivision of Labor 449 Chief Engineer 450 Office Superintendent 450 Head Draftsman 451 Squad Foreman 451 XLV. Drafting Office Practice 454 Preliminary Sketches 454 Ordering Material ... 455 Masonry Plan 466 Laying Out Work 456 Tracing Drawings 480 Marking Drawings 468 XIV XLVI. XLVll. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTEE Checking paob Corrected Drawingg ..." 4*4 Changing Shop Prints *^ Luting 465 Copying Lists 465 Erection Drawings 466 Filing Drawings and Lists! '.'.'.'. *5S Copying Drawings ... 467 Photo Reproduction 467 468 Cost of Structural Work Shop Drawings ^gg ^%TrllZJ°' /'l^'ti-g «f«*l Buildings 472 l,X?>T °"^ American Practice Compare,! ill Suitability of Steel Bi, ii„gs for Export 47? Design of Export Bui Mings. . . ^ !I^ !,'!!!!!♦•'"" i"' ^°'*'»° Purchasers! !!!!!! tl* Suggestions for Exporters ... *IS Marking Pieces 476 Directions to Purchasers in Comparing Plaw! !!!!!!!!! 479 TABLE NO. I. IL IIL IV. V. VI. VII. VIIL IX. X. XI. xn. XIIL XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVII L XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVIL XXVUI. XXIX. LIST OF TABLES. PABT I. Crane Clearances. Flush Bridire iii-t^ie* '***" Crane Clearances. Flush Br?d|e." "^^ "^^tons 15 Crane Clearances. Standard Bridge "^U. t ^ ?- I ' ^^ Crane Clearances. Standard BriZ' on^ t° Jj^ i""" ^^ Comparative Cost of Plants ^^ "" *" ^° **""• 18 Thickness of Walls 2!) Cost of Walls per sq ft 33 Cost of Steel Buildings ^6 Cost of Concrete Buildinas ^ Minimum Roof Pitches ** 72 PART IF. Weight of Roof Coverings Total Weight of Roofs ^05 Floor Loads . . 106 Weight of Mater -Is 107 Table of Snow Loads 108 Wind Velocities and Pressures!!! ,"1 Wind Coefficients HI Xormal Wind Pressures! "2 Combined Wind and Snow Lwds! }}^ Electric Crane Loads 113 Hand Crane Loads US 116 PART lit Weight of Cast Iron Column Bases. Snipping Dimensions ... 148 Cost of Reinforced Concrete Slibi! !!!!!!!!!!!!!;." \^ „ . PART TV Bearing Power of SoUs. . . Anchor Bolt Dimensions.. 1^ Bearing Value of Through Bolts !!!!!!!!!!.' ^'^^ TABLE OF CONTENTS XT TABLX NO. XXX. XXXI. xxxu. XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII. XLIII. XLIV. XLV. XLVI. XLVII. XLviir. XLIX. L. LI. LIL LIII. LIV. LV. LVI. LVII. LVIII. LIX. LX. Lxr. LXII. LXIII. LXIV. LXV. LXVI. LXVIL LXVIII. LXIX. LXX. LXXI. PAOK Bearing Value of Expansion Bolts 216 Cost of Wood Floors 229 Multiplex Steel Floors— Safe Loads 234 Triangular Trough Floors 236 Thickness and Strenirth of Plank 240 Concrete and Expanded Metal Slabr. — Safe Loads 248 Concrete and Tovetailed Slabs — Safo Loads 250 Slate Booflng— Number of Slutes, Cost, Etc 256 Weight of Slate Roofing 257 Corrugated Asbestos Board — Purlin Spacing 262 Corrugated Asbestos Board— Amount Required 263 Weight of Sheet Metal— Fiat and Corrugated 276 Corrugated Iron— Weight per square, laid 276 Corrugated Iron — Amount Required 276 Corrugated Iron — Dimensions 276 Corrugated Iron — Contents of Sheets 277 Safe Load on Corrugated Iron 278 Purlin Spacing for Corrugated Iron 279 Clinch Nails 281 Cost of Corrugated Iron 283 Weight of Flat Sheets 286 Size of Eave Guttijrs 299 Cost of Hanging Gutters 301 Size of Gutters and Downspouts 306 ""ost of Galvanized Iron Downspouts 306 vJost of Copper Downspouts 307 Ventilators 309 Louvres 312 Plate Glass 317 Sash 334 Batten Doors 361 Door Hinges 361 Tin Clad Doors 361 Paint Table 394 PART V. Weight of Steel Buildings 411 Checking List 415 Cost of Structural Steel 419 Wages Table 420 Cost of Shop Labor 422 Base Prines 422 Freight Rates 423 Cost of Shop Drawings 469 mi Hi PART I THEORY (JF ECONOMIC DESIGN CHAPTER I. GENERAL FEATURES AND REQUIREMENTS. Mill and other industrial buildings, in order to produce at minimum cost, must be carefull}- planned and suited to their indi- vidual needs. There is a difference of 10 to 15 per cent in the cost of labor, resulting from the convenience of these buildings and adaptability to their use. There are many old plants, long out of date, on which enough money has been spent in additions and repairs, to construct new ones. Old buildings which are wrongly located or insutficient to their needs are wasteful in production, and yet it is frequently difficult to decide just when an old manufacturing i^nilding should be abandoned and the machinery moved into a new one. ilany companies carrying on profitable business are hampered with a plant that is so out of date and so inadequate that competition with more recent ones is difficult. A complete and destructive fire is often the cause of re- building modern plants of suitable strength, containing the proper equipment and handling appliances necessary to meet competition. Before deciding on the general features of a .'ew plant, a care- ful study must be made of all the conditions and needs, with a view not only to immediate requirements, but also to future extension. Old plants are generally the product of gradual growth and enlargement. Starting with a small building, others have been added from time to time, without regard for the best ulti- niate arrangement, and often the growth of the plant has been unexpected. There are large iron works in Pennsylvania which are producing under very unfavorable conditions, owing to their wrong location, and because their rapid growth was unforeseen by their owners. If the proprietors of these industries had anticipated the inc lease of their business, they would not only have made a l)eginning in a more favorable location, but would also have drawn a plan for the ultimate arrangement of buildings, and developed * MILL BUILDINGS r»rT. to ™tr °""i' *" """*'• ™' >«' 'fc" »» the' i; too^r, ""' '"T''"' ■"•"'■ '"«' ^ "''J Pl«n'» P««i"cm,t .t pr»e„.urb,:2, ,i"„:t'' s'' ,'z ■■°' °°'\'°' '^• .M wooden ta.ldinp h.ve bir^^VvItort'v'.r "" one. am be erected on tbe old l„e.tion " '' °''' ""' and 308), are examnlL If I ^V ' ^^^^^"^'^"^^"s (Figs. 307 -stems. TheUwa/ or thUr. ^'^^ ^^^^ complete subway and si. and o^haT/flT if h'l'ir^^ ^'"^^ ^^ ''' ^^^ ^ ^^^^^ A proposed plan for the arrangement of ^ ^i rt u complete plant is shown in Fi. 1 The hn.M ^ ^^ °' " with their longitudinal axes radlat ng frtm a LS TnV'^ nected by two circular lin«» «f i ' *°** *™ "'°- oue. At the center ofthr, . f ""' "" ^"^^^ «"'^ «^ ^^t^'^ ■ ".'.TO>t'' ^■w^-»ywgrtV'«&yywiiMittF.ii^"ap£t-. ■ i,^.- FEATV&Ka ASD KEQVIREMhSTM 8 buildings are located in the shops at the ends adjoining the execu- tive building. With this arrangement, the management is in flose touch with the foremen of the shojw and can secure personal consultations on short notice, which i-< diilicult where the shop offices are scattered over a large area. While the plan has some Strtwt Utiilvray Fig. 1. points of merit, there are other features, especially that of track service, which cannot be recommended. A more practical plan, laid out on parallel lines, is shown in Fig. 2. The executive office occupies the center of the plot, with shops at either side, and a power house in the rear adjoin- ing the shipping yards. The plant is served by both rail and * >tIlL BVILDlNOa wahT. while Mroet ..«r« pa^ i„ front and a bramh lin. join, tho ..t> nnlwa.v ..v.tnn with th. .f.rage and shipping vards. At tK>th ..do. .. the plH„t ,h..n. i. additional spa., for future expansion if reiiuired The ground in front adjoining the street i« laid out in grass plots w.th ponds an.l shruhlH-ry, and contains two huil.lings devoted to w..lfnre featun-s. with a dining-roon. on one side nn.l a l.l.rarv and rest roou, on th^. other. A eomplete tunnel svsten, connect, the buddings wuh the pow.r nouse, and foot bridges join the sho,,s at eaeh story. In the plaza direc.tiv in front of the ecutne budd.ug is a fountain, and between t'he shops are bed! of flowers, shrubbery and grass. These plans are suggestions for a eonven,ent, sy,„„.etrioal and artistic arrangement, and would be modified to suit parti- ul.^r dctnands. Figs. 3, 4 and 5 show plants actually built, the first being in ^•"nnany and the others in America. ^ CHAPTER II. LOCATION AXD SITE. Most old plants are not economically located. They have grown from Bniall lK?j;inninj;«, and were built in the vicinity of their owners' resideiue, without reference to the principles of economic location and production. Their location is, in fact, an accident. Little by little these plants have developed, until larjje manufa(turin>r Industrie? have resulted, which are not only remote I'rom tiicir source of supplies, but often have poor shipjiing facili- ties and insutFiciont lalwr. Tiiere is, in one of the Eastern States, a large structural iron works on a branch railroad several miles from tlie ntain line, which was started twenty years ago as a sheet metal shop with a single wooden building. It was owned and operated by a resident of the adjacent village. A change of management was made, and in ten years the little plant developed into a large and prosperous one, manufacturing all kinds of structural iron work in addition to its original sheet metal products. The nearest labor market was ten to fifteen miles dis- tant, and raw materials were brought largely from Pittsburg, After a dozen or more buildings had been erected, it was decided to remove the entire works to the \icinity of Pittsburg, 'ar the source of supplies and the best market for structural labor. At the old loiiition, dividends were being wasted in useless freight charges, and the market area for manufactured products was liinitod in comparison to the corresponding arta when near the source of raw materials. In selecting an .-;couomical location for a manufacturing plant, the following arc the chief considerations : (1) The amount of ground required for yards and buildmgs. (2) Value and availability of land for present needs and extension. (3) The amount of labor in the vici y. (4) Proximity to source of power and cost of same. (5) Proximity to source of law niateiiflls. (6) Distance from residence of owners. 5 MILL BVILDIKGS rig. 3. LOCATION AND SITE f (7) Presence of shipping facilities, with rail and water com- petition if possible. Some kinds of manufacturing plants, such as car shops, struc- tural mill and iron works, require a large area of land, not only for the storage of materials and products, but also for spread- ing out their one-story buildings. The contents of these shops are usually too large and heavy to handle on upper floors, and single stories are therefore needed. The amount of land required for such work generally necessitates too great an investment in the Fig. i. laud itself, to warrant other than a suburban or country location. There are, however, occasional plants still existing in the large cities, occupying so extensive a ground area that the sale of their city property would more than pay the cost of land and new buildings in the countr\', where values are low and taxes correspondingly small. The importance of the proper location is therefore evident, k suhurb i= often most desirable, because, while land values and taxes are comparatively low, it is still in close proximity to a source of supplies and labor. In making a choice. 8 MILL BUILDIXGS ar.!lv ' .f " "*y "°^ '^ ^"'^"••''' th« ««J«=tion will depend largely on the comparative land values and the presence of X Land that nnght cost from $5 to $25 per square f<^t in fh. ; cou^ld prohabl, be secured in a suburb for^O^rcIrs l^:;^ foot. If a suburb be selected, it is probable that an office inT adjommg city n.ay be desirable or necessary, and the add tlna! expense of maintaining the office must be counted t the on. parxson. A disadvantage of a suburban loc-ation i ttui e man" f^turmg company n.ay have to invest capital in homes t work nen Th,s was necessary in connection with the Penn«virn7a Steel Company's new plant, the Americar, Bridge CompZ W^! at A„,bndge and the Associated Industries of Sault Ste Mart Ontarzo. \hen a force of workmen has been secure^for he suburban plant and the men with iheir families 71 L in ^eir home., the manufacturing eompanv will tin ha" mu h better employees in their shops than would be secured from t ! men have gone through one period „f depre.sion L Z ^.« >».«en e.p,„,e,. an. Z^^JT '/^h "itn T^ work n the shop, wa. small, ,t would probably be diffleult to find olher men on short notice when business revived in !, c.fes the« condition. „e reversed. Labor c " u™ J be llt^Z wbLX^i^' "■■' "" "■^" ""' "'^«"' ■"" "" - — ^yhen a n.anufacturing establishment has been located in ih. rather than to sin It al».yr from place to place It .8 much easier to finance a new enterprise for a city loc.- LOCATION AND SITE 9 tion than one in the country, because the buildings in a city can be used for other purposes if the enterprise fails. The suburb Fig. B. or rural site affords a letter opportunity for expansion, better light and purer air for its operators and owners, with correspond- ingly better results. Considered merely as a machine, there is no 10 MILL BUILDINGS in sood light „„1 pure at Z„ , "^ "■"'°* ""i "»*»« , w„e„ L ™, j„T:is,r'- ',.":n:f ""'"«™- place occupied in makinir ihS 1 ,^ '" comparison to the econondeallv eondu'ed fn Lvlft" "i' "'"'' ""''^ -° «- convenient and advisable '"■'' ^''^ ''*^ ™«^ ^^ 'nore the^^^rs^ :^^t s •; i^ r^ -? -^-^e to remembered tbat in anv .ll 7 V " '^ P'^"^^^' " ^l^o^'d be easily found in d s tricts wherH "^ "' "'"^''•'^' '^^^^ >« °^ore same kind. For tSlnre n ^T' '''''' manufactures of the tl.e most abundant ruTeVlbr^^^^^^^^ 'T'^^ ^^^-^^ as Grand Rapids while fnr « r, I ? ^ ^°"°^ '° s^^^h a city market -oulj do^btit t fn "me" l"" "'"^'^•' *^^ »^-* ^^b"' Connecticut. Skill d abor for I ™«""fa^t"ring cities of be most eaailv found a „! 7, /''' '"«°"f«^t"'-e of shoes would SITR. Having decided upon the distrinf :„ i ■ i_ ., located, and whether ft sh 11 beta ^ " or ' ' "J""* ^'"" ^ the actual site for the build n^s must tin k° T "^ '^' ^"^"^'^«' if possible, be accessible botl t rail anS wa/ T " ^'°"''^' lines of railway, in order to J I ll , ^^"^ "°^ ^y «>mpeting should be amp e Vl-^un t^ frsm' 7't '™'^''* "*^^- ^he4 site should be^^igh'^^noS^ oveT n .1" "''"^^' ^"'^ *^« valleys so it can I thoro^h v d7ain«l if "T^. ^""^'^''-^ «' ^■ity, it shorld have convenS troZl T^'^ ^""^^ ^""^ " inf? town, and be reasonabh r. J .! ' '"""*^^''"»« *« the adjoin- «bops, and the .orkmeTat\,rf:m^,::- '' '''''- '^ "^^^ tion in which :ilt;^;::d:rw!;;v'' •'"* ^" *'^ ''^^^^- the works. With a sli^bf L i f P"'' '° «°'°^ "trough move small Jctf,!^' M' '""' ''''' '''' -orkmen to through the various u di gs ' cou I'f "''' T ^^''^^'^^^ P^ The no,<=:hi)itv f i ^ '"""^^ "^ manufacture. . '"ay n..,e weight in choosing a site. LOCATIOy AND SITE 11 Occasionally land is available where sand and stone are abundant without hauling, and expense of building is thus reduced. A survey of the ground must be made, the lot lines and other external limitations established, streets laid out, sewers, water hud gas pipes shown and all buildings and sidings indicated in their proposed places. Borings should be made, if necessary, to deter- mine the strata and bearing power of the soil. CHAPTER in. PUHPOSK AXD ARRANGEMENT. The term "mill building" includes a large variety nt mn„ factunng plants, such as rolling mills cafslZ l« ). ««gar mills, car sheds, foundries, mac n'e shonf T '^J'^'"''''' MACHIXEBY ABBANGEMENT .pace «,„ired LT cLTZ m^^ ^"I'T- ""'"^ ""' rangemeni of the machinery, the space that Tim . accuracv Tl,a „,^ i • i . "esign with confidence and rrt ,rri L^r:? :- ,tT:f> - 12 BB PUBPOSE AND ASSANGEUENT 18 tion of certain machines may make it necessary to omit columns, and to provide especially large bays in side walls for admittinjs and removing large machines. It is imperative that the machinery be exactly located before plans for the building itself are drawn, to avoid the possibility of columns or other framing being placed ff" ••"'^' Fig. 8. in a position where machines must stand. The building must, in fact, be made to fit the mill. (Fig. 6.) The form, length, height and width will then depend upon tlie contents. I£ ground is unlimited, there is no difficulty in placing the machines to the best possible advantage and surrounding and covering them suita- bly, but if the size or form of the lots is limited, the building plan must necessarily conform to its outline. 14 MILL BVILDIA'08 I •I 1 HEIGHTS ASD CLKARANCE8 required aW and atunr/lJ^n ''1"'"''"'^* «' ^^^ dimensious of all materials «..,! „, \ . ***''^ ""^ maxitnuin and the general X " r e/atl"n '"T' ^;-"™^«'^ ''-wn appliances selectcnr before .ehd^itr' ^'^^ " ""'^^^^"^ determined. There must a In 7*' ^ "' ^''^ ^'^^^^ ^"^ »>« in. and ventilating duct t-ts hlf Tf? ""°^"^ ^''^ ^^•'*- eontents. General,^, high'ti^llgHi £:!""' "^ «*^- and U is easier to keep leather iJL «gKen Jhe T .""' t^- When m a lower building. Fi,, r sht T'e^me'S o7dS: Fig. 7. Pl«. 8. over .MC, prodtsTri. t/Jw.^"''''"" °' ?""- maiimum outline for anv nt.™ ^ "' «""»)»*• The .bov. ,hi. .„d o^er tt" ,2™?"'™* T" """* " """ CM bridce above il I 'V "'" ""» '"»'' ""> """ey and be allowed Leth L. and TT fT,""*''''- »'»"■•■■«» .L,d pounds 4 TTiofK^-i « weignt of the crane m ..m-M.!; oHt ot ««„,„g clearance and ,pa„ to, onenin^ -'.bT„\;„-,rrrnroL;:.r j.i'U;.'" -"- - PEINCIPAL KEQUIEEMENTS 4p:cr;ar„-";:rs '^ --« PURPOSE AND ABBANGEMEyT 16 TABLE I. I^N-^ Ol-TSIDC DIHESHIOSS OF 3% TO 15 TON STAHDARO ILICTRIC TBAVBLINO CSAKU. Table Is for hoist of about 30 ft. Higher hoist may increase wheel baae. Dimension R may be reduced if neceaaary. FLUSH BRIDGE. 1 A Ft. R J K L M N o Ftln P ill m m 'd i .Hai.Bnm ~Ui'ii« HaltiM TnL Tn>. _0 i E In. G la. a In. FLln Ftln Ftjn Ft.In FUn Ft.In LbB. Lb.. Ib. 3 Ml 3 7TI 30 1U 50 60 70 80 I'' 8 9 9 3 6 3 6 3 8 3 8 3 11 4 1 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 1 6 1 6 1 7 1 7 1 8 1 8 1 6 1 6 1 7 1 7 1 8 1 8 6 3 < 3 6 3 8 3 6 3 6 3 8 8 8 10 9 6 10 11 8 13 4 9,300 10.200 11,300 12.600 14.300 16.000 16,700 19,200 23,300 27,700 33,600 39.900 li 16 18 18 21 z: ib 36 36 40 40 46 u 11 7 8 8 10 10 & S 5 5 5 5 30 40 EO 60 TO 80 8 9 9 9 "3 11 4 2 4 2 4 4 4 6 4 " 4 8 4 8 4 8 4 8 4 8 4 8 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 9 110 110 1 11 111 1 11 6 3 6 3 5 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 l6 1 10 1 10 4 10 10 U 8 13 4 11.600 12,800 14,100 16.500 17.100 18.900 19,600 22,400 26,200 31.300 37,300 43,400 li 18 18 21 21 n 46 40 40 46 46 45 S » u u 13 IS 13 1 30 40 50 60 70 80 8H 1^ 9 10 10 4 : 4 6 4 7 4 9 4 11 6 1 6 5 5 6 5 5 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 10 1 10 8 10 3 10 6 11 8 13 4 14,900 16,200 i7,eoo 19,100 20,800 22,700 22,300 24,900 28,800 34.100 40.700 47.000 21 21 21 31 24 24 40 4B 46 46 60 60 i 8 8 10 10 12 12 10 10 10 10 10 10 ^■■ 40 60 60 TO 80 9^ 9^ 10 10 10 4 1 4 10 4 10 6 6 2 6 4 5 8 5 8 6 8 5 8 5 8 5 8 2 6 2 4 2 4 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 2 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 5 3 6 3 Id 1 10 9 1010 1011 11 8 13 4 1*.W» 19,800 21,200 22,700 24,500 2C80O 2im 28,400 32,400 37,800 43.100 62.100 ti 24 24 24 24 24 4t M) 50 50 60 66 16 10 10 12 U 12 15 IS 15 IS 15 15 40 50 60 70 80 9Mi 10 H 10% 10% 10% t 5 S 2 5 4 5 6 6 8 6 i 6 6 6 6 ( 6 6 6 « 6 i 1 2 7 2 6 2 « 2 6 2 6 3 6 3 2U 2 11 2 11 2 11 i i 6 3 5 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 11 i 11 8 11 7 11 6 U 8 13 4 ».A00 26.600 28.100 29 800 31.800 S4.30O 33,900 38.600 44.000 51,200 59,800 i4 24 24 24 24 24 u 66 66 60 flO (6 « ft 9 » 9 9 » IG MILL BVILDlNOa TABLE II. OrrsiD. DIMENSIONS OP 20 TO 50 TON 8TANDABD KLECTllC TRAVILIXO CUNM. FLUSH BRIDGE. I a 20 20 20 20 20 25 26 25 25 26 25 Ft, In. 30 30 30 3() 30 W 40 40 40 40 SO 50 50 ■} !)0 50 30 40 50 10 60 10% I TO 10% I SO 10% 40 I 10% 50 10? '0% 1'% 11 U Ft.In 6 4 5 « 6 8 5 10 6 1 6 3 I K Ptin 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8j 8 8{ 8 81 L M Ft.lD;Ft.Ill N O Ft.InjFt.Iii Pt.In, III ill II VIS' ■p. s I'R'S .^ >, tImlUat ^ fc, I Trot Tnv. :*" 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 6 2 6 3 3 3 3 fl 2 11 2 11 6 3 6 3 6 3 8 3 6 3 6 3 B 10 6 10 5 10 B 10 5 9 6 9 9 6 9 6 9 4 » B 8 13 4 26.000 26,600 28,100 29,800 31,800 34,300 29.800 33,900 38,600 44.000 61.200 69,800 24 24 24 24 24 24 65 r^ 80 60 66 18 MlhL Bf'ILDISaS 6 1 20 20 20 20 20 20 ST 2B 26 2S 25 25 30 30 30 30 30 40 40 40 40 40 50 GO 50 50 50 60 -Hr - -^_ _n n„ ■» »-p,..ii ..p,.< ,.._p — , j.^,- ^ :fi" TABLE IV. OUT8IDC OIMCNBIONB OF 20 TO 60-TON STANDARD Ef.ECTBIC TIATCLINO C*AItM. STANDARD BRITX3E. Ft. R In. Ft.In Ptln 6 10 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 9 7 11 8 2 K 88 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 » 9 9 9 1 9 1 9 1 Ft.In 2 8 2 8 M Ft-In N Ftln o FLIniFUn 3 2 11 2 11 2 II 2 11 2 11 8 i[ 8 8 10 10 10 10 10 8 6 8 8 8 10 9 9 3 9 9 10 11 6 11 6 11 6 U 6 11 6 12 11 12 11 12 11 12 11 12 11 12 11 8 2 9 2 9| 2_9| "2 hf 2 111 3 Ol 3 3 01 3 1 6 3 $ 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 5 3 6 3 6 3 J 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 9 2 9 2 9 2 97 9 9 9 11 10 10 a 8 13 4 Ftln 111 Lbs. 1^ 1^ -Sol* *ja Lb*. In 31.UUU 32,7u0 34.S0U 37,000 39.700 42.W0 37,60Ui 24 46,000 24 50,700 24 5i<,aJ0| 24 "0,6001 24 W) 60 65 66 70 70 ■u. BraM vltkoot liBiUat Tral.TiK 39,300 1 n.sooj 43,100! 44,500 i 47,5«0j 50.»I0! 43,4001 24 43,5'>0! 24 54.2001 24 5K700i 27 6»,1U0! 27 "9,ilO0| 1:7 IT 4 li 6 11 10 12 13 4 U 8 13 2 I 46.200 48,800 51,700 55,000 58.8001 3 10 4 5 I 4!).500| 27 66,800^ 27 66,600 [ 30 77,300 30 90.700 30 60,100 63.400 67,000 71.000 75,600 64,200 72.800 84.300 96,800 112,900 74,0001 77,6001 79,8001 41.200 ! 43.300 45.9001 76.100 86.700 92,200 98.500 112,700 131.200 G In. 11 I 10 11 I 10 11 I 10 12 I U 12 i U 12 I 11 f iS^J PVUFOSE ASD AMBANOSMEST i» ■u. BrM* witkoot ilBlUaf Tnl.Tim In. la. i& U 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 5 5 11 10 11 10 11 10 12 11 12 i 11 12 '■ 11 5 •6 10 16 13 13 16 16 15 n 12 12 12 16 15 10 to K) 18 18 18 18 18 li 16 16 16 16 10 15 e 19 19 19 19 19 19 16 U IS IS IS IS located that material and products may be conveniently tramtferred from one building to another. The primary requisite* are a* follows : ( 1 ) One or more working? floors of ample area. ('.') Itiiililin^H lar^e cnoufch for in<>n. machini^ry and equi|>- nient. (:t) TrotcHtiou of the (ontentt> from the weather and of tooU and materials from theft. (4) .Vvoidanie of useless travel. (.'>) Buildings well braced and rigid, and able to safel> sus- tain their maximum loads. ()>) Sufficient space for machinery and goods in process of manufacture. (*) All floor space, as far as possible, open to view. (8) The trusses and other framing strong enough, if neces- cary. to carry shafting or trolleys on the l^ttora chord. (9) Departments protlucing noise, smoke, gas, odors or fire, partitioned from the rest of the shop, but partitions used only where nceessarA', as they occupy valuable space, obstruct light and make hiding places for workmen. (10) Separate rooms for drafting or shop offices. (11) Clothes i)res8es or lockers for the safekeeping of em- jiloyees' clothing and other effects. (12) Sanitary toilets and wash rooms. (13) Buildings properly hfp.lod, lighted and ventilated, as required. (14) Cranes or other lifting, handling or conveying appli- ances wherever needed. (lo) Space for receiving, storing, loading and shipping materials. (16) Provision for admitting or removing the largest pieces of machinery that will ever be placed in the building. (17) Buildings designed with a view to future extension. (18) Separate floor space for both light and heavy manu- facturing if needed. (19) Provision for fire extinction. The essentials, therefore, are strength, simplicity, utility and economy. Buildings are for assisting in production and are sec- ondary to their contents. Poor light, a chilly atmosphere and impure air impair man's activity, and it is for the best interests of all that human producers be surrounded with such comforts and conveniences as will permit them to render their best services. -J ^^ ^iLL BUILDINGS CHAHACTER OF BUrLDIXGS-TEMPORARY OR PERMANENT are as follows ' "''"' "P"" '''''''''^'' -"- "^ which eienTt """'r* '^ "''°''' ™"^'''li«fely available mav not be suffi such .iL .; th/su ' r„ ,1 r ' " "' """""■' ""'*'■ "'"" FRAMING AND WALLS. The framing for industrial buildings vill consist af .ifi, ^a s. The ments and comparative costs of various kin^^ walls are discussed in detail under another headTnr hnf r general features of .all construction are gh^^l^!;"'' '"' ' ''^ it tlie purpose of the building is such tint it will" ,. • . . excessive condensation on the inner side fI^'h /""'^ . i«vvu/a ijfe'-a'iy • PURPOSE AND ABRANGEilEyr 2i required may liave exterior walls of sheet metal or corrugated iron laid either on girths or over plank sheathing, or the sheath- ing may he waterproofed with f?hing]es or clapboard. The nature of the walls will also to s- -.k '.i-nt depend upon the amount of light required from the oidts. As a general rule, ste< I fruning i^ pu-rerable for trusses and large girders, which are su ■J^m r.d ir, imp; "t, as, for example, shop girders carrying traveling cranes. . ' 'umns, all ordinary floor framing, girders of medium dimensions carrying static loads, and wall lintels, are generally more economical and satisfactory when made of reinforced concrete. This kind of composite construction is well illustrated by the shops at El Paso. Texas, for the Atchi- son, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad Company. FIBEPROOF OR OTHERWISE. There need be no difficulty in making a selection between wood, steel or reinforced concrete framing. For light loads, wood is satisfactory for columns, but not for trusses and other framing where difficulty is experienced in making joints of sufficient strength. Light wooden framing is easily and quickly destroyed by fire, and is therefore unsatisfactory for permanent work. It has been frequently proven that heavy wood columns resist fire much better than unprotected steel or iron. The metal columns fail by bending at a high temperature, while wooden ones are con- sumed slowly. Steel columns inclosed in masonry walls are often unsatisfac- tory and not economical because they must lie surrounded by suffi- cient brick or other fireproofing to make a pier which would be strong enough without the steel. This kind of pier and column construction being less economical, reinforced concrete columns are coming extensively into use. The reinforcing steel is in the form of light angles with just enough compressive strength to temporarily support the roof or other framing during erection, and after the various parts of the metal frame are riveted or bolted together, the concrete of the column is then placed. This type is economical because the entire area of both steel and con- crete is considered in resisting the compressive stresses. Unpro- tected steel framing is lacking in fireproof qualities, and yet to enclose the interior columns or other framing with fireproofing would make the cost prohibitive. A« a i-eault, few, if any, manu- facturing buildings have thwr steel framing enclosed. The fire at the Lewiston (Maine) car barns, the interior of S(*Wa»r..VS^i MILL BUILDINGS IS- which was made of steel, was so destructive that in seven minutes after the bcginninf; of the fire the roof fell. A similar case occurred Octoljt^r 2',, 1!)04, at the car barns of the Forest Hill Station of the Boston Elevated Railway, at West Roxbury, Massa- chusetts. In this case the steel trusses and other framing failed fifteen minutes after the beginning of the fire. There are numer- ous cases on reco-d where fires have taken place in buildings of wood mill construction, and while the buildings were ultimately destroyed, the total collapse did not happen until the cross sec- tional area of tlie framing was seriously reduced. This destructive process usually occupies half an hour or more, and therefore gives a greater time for the contents of a building to be removed. With exposed steel framing, a collapse occurs more quickly under exces- sive heat. In order to give greater protection to the contents of car sheds, it has been proposed to divide them by numerous f .-e- proof longitudinal walls, separating the various tracks ; but these walls would evidently be too great an inconvenience to warrant their use. It has been further suggested that the floors of car sheds containing cars valued at from $2,000 to $3,000 apiece shall be laid with a suflicient grade so that in case of fire the cars would run out by force of. gravity. The chief reason for not making buildings of fireproof material is the extra first cost of their construction. Wlien the valuable contents of a building and the extra expense for insurance are considered, it is a doubtful policy to carry on any manufacturing business in buildings that are not fireproof or to use such buildings for the storage of mate- rial or products. A table of approximate costs for buildings of various tvpes of construction is given in Chapter VII. f * CHAPTER IV. NUMBER OF STORIES. One of the first questic^^ Jiat will present itself in planning a manufacturing plant is in reference to the height of buildings or number of stories in them. A decision must be made as to whether work will be done all on one floor or on several. In order to intelligently and economically decide the question, it is necessary to consider — (1) Size and weight of manufactured products. (2) Size and weight of machinery. (3) Space and height required for traveling cranes. (4) Relative cost of buildings per square foot of floor sur- face for one or more stories. (5) Cost of land. (6) Relative convenience and economy of manufacturing and handling goods on one floor or on several floors. (7) Lighting. (1) When the manufactured products and the raw material used in a building are excessively heavy, there will then be little or no choice about the number of floors, for all heavy pieces and assembled products must stand upon the ground. Their size and weight would prohibit handling them on floors above the ground. In this class may be mentioned car and locomotive shops, bridge and structural plants, foundries for heavy eastings, etc. There will be certain parts, before the products are assembled, that are not too heavy for upper floors, but the general assembled product, with the need for numerous lines of tracks, will require a single- story building with perhaps galleries for some of the lighter parts. Even in these heavy plants, much light work can be done on upper floors, and for this space it is simply a choice in compara- tive cost between building a larger ground floor or making one or more upper floors of the needed area. The relative cost of galleries or upper floors compared to ground-floor space is considered more fully in a later paragraph. The comparison is plainly illustrated in Fig. 9, which shows a building of common form with high center bay and lower side 23 24 MILL BUILDINGS Fig. B. "ill depend largely; if „„t eS - """' "''"» " ^ «>» choice ^ « less llM B plus fl plm L, the peilerj- (l«>r wiU then be the more economical. (2) The second consideration m choosing between one or more stones is the size and weight of bridge plant., etc., heavy marZ """^\"^'^' I" car shops, steam hammers, etc., re 'uirTn, T'' '"f '' P^^^^''^^' P^-^- must necessarily be upoX ^u^T'" '"^ ''"'""*^ foundations, '^-^^ riie space and height rea irprl f "Pon the size of the manufactiZ / "■"""^ ^'" '^'^P'^n'l determining this height an7H« ^'''^'''''- '^^^ ™«thoJ of ^n Chapter III, ,„f ^^^ h roT«H:";r\''-^ -^-"^ed ^here high settings are requrd / f^^^" '"^ Clearances." tioable to use mor; than a s n^ fl ^ i^^"^^' '' ^« ^"P-" Products, being assembled und r th " """' ^*^'' ^''^ *« rest on a solid floor. The upner v 7l'-'' '""'* "«>e8sarih^ section of the erecting shop for^, L \v"h ^J'' '' ^'""« ' --« at Harrison, Xew JerL bui^^ in Th "^'""^ ^'^"'''^^' ^^-''ks [ines of columns are spaJed ee 1^7 '''• ^""^ *"« '"*-'- bead room in the ce!iter ba t^/ : f T^' '^' ">^ ^'-^ herefore. in this and other similar ca'etis ^^. "'"' '''"''"'''' m docdmg on a single floor onlv in fl ^overnmg factor sufficient light machine work to' c T""^ ^^"P" There is on either side of the erect g ZTJ"]' "'"^ ^""^-^^ ««- IS the machine shop for the sanT" "''' "'"^ °^ ^'^- 10 section of the machine shon for T T^"":'' ^^^^ ^^ ^' « -oss Schenectady, Xew York o'n 1 ^ fr?' n "'"^ ^"^^""-^ «* in three stories witk two L^ w m , 'f ''""° ^« '""^e ground. In the other ha^f 1.1^ ^ ™'''""''-^' ^"^"^^ the «;e erection aisle prohibits the uj'rf'nr-?""?- '^^ ^'•'»"- ^ -entire space of. feet be:r;;:e;r:ttSSS - -^ -t and heights from one t/flj- r X^^^^^ ^ XT7MSEX OF STOSIES is are for wood construction in floors and roofs, inclosed in brick walls. Building? of steel and reinforced concrete have a different cost per square foot of floor, but the relative cost {(ff- one story or many will be about tlie same. In the following table, the cost of a one-story building is taken as unity, and the cost of a build- ing, for width of 50 feet, from two to five stories i» pven in terms thereof. Machine Shop Fig. 10. RELATIVE COST OF M.\NUI ACTURINO BUILDINGS .'iO FEET IN WIDTH AND OF VARIOUS HEIGHTS, BUILT OF EITHER WOOD, STEEL OR BEINFORCED CONCRETE. Cost per gq. ft. of total floor area — one story .11.0" ( ost per sq. ft. of total floor area — two story .92 Cost per sq. ft. of total floor area — three story i 1 .!!.!!! . .87 Cost per sq. ft. of total floor area — four story , ,\ [ gg Cost per sq. ft. of total floor area — Ave story ]"..!!!.! 85 wmm 26 I t-ir-. y UMBER OF 8T0BIE8 vt It appears, therefore, that buildings of one and two stories cost more than buildings of three, four and five stories, the last being 15 per cent less per square foot of gross floor area than when all floor space is on the ground. For light products, it is therefore economical to make manufacturing buildings not less than three stories in height, for not only is the building itself less expensive, but it also occupies smaller ground space. The only probable reason that might cause tiie owner of a building for light manu- The Influence of WiiHh vnel Height on ftre Cosfofa BuiUmg of Ordinary Mill Construefion 4 1-30 » 50 75 WO Width of Building In F««t. Fig. 12. facturiiig purposes to select one fl(M)r in preference to three or more would bo the relative convenience and economy of carrying (HI the work on a single floor. Records of c>ertain factories show that the cost of Jalwr is from 5 to 10 per cent less when work is all done on a single floor rather than on several floors. It must, tlicrefore, be ascertained if the saving in the pay roll from better lighting and other conditions in light manufacturing buildings will lie enough to pay illt^>le^i on ihe cost of extra land and the increased cost of the one-story building. One of the principal reasons for one-story buildings costing so much more per square ■■■i mmaH^ 28 MILL BUILDINGS foot Of floor area than those of two or more stories is because of buildTn™ ""* ''^ sJ^yligl'ts. ^»'^1» are not required in multi-story (5) It is assumed that the possibility of using expensive city land as a site for a manufacturing plant is under consideratioa, and It IS desired to ascertain the amount of ground and correspond- ing investment that is economical. One-story buildings, whether the products and machinery be light or heavy, can generally be used; whereas buildings of two or more stories are suitable only when a large part of the work is liglit manufacturing. Therefore, before making any comparison of the relative cost between buildings of one story or more, it must be definitely known for what proportion of the entire f..or surface, solid ground will be required. If a large part of the work can as well be done on upper floors as on tjie ground, it is the . in order to add the number of stories to this ground floor area to equal the total requircl. and which is the most economical, when the cost of land building and production is considered. Fig. 13 showo a building ^ KIg. 13. With five tiers of floors and a one-story building with the same total floor area. The total cost of securing anv required floor space, enher one floor or more, may be found by first computing the relative costs of the buildings and to these costs adding the value of tlie land on which they staad. The sum of these wUl be the net investment. It can then be decided what saving in produc investment ^"'^*^'"^ ""''" ^^^ *''' '"*"'"'* *"" *^^ additional For the purpose of illustrating these operations, the following exarnple is given: A manufacturing company requires a new budding with a total floor spa. of 36,000 square feet, and it is desired to find if it will be more conom^cal to have this all on one floor or on sev;erHl floors. It i. a..,„med, for comparison, that the one-story building will cost f)0 cents per square foot for the building only. Tl,e percentages given on page 25 shew that B-mc::^- '- NUMBER OF ST0BIS8 jg buildings of two, three, four and five stories coat, respectively, 92, 87, 86 and 85 per cent of the cost of a one-story building. The cost per square foot of floor surface for buildings of from one to five stories will therefore vary from 90 to 76 cents, and the total cost for 30,000 square feet will vary from $32,400 to $27,360. The ground area required varies from 36,000 square feet for a one- story to 7,200 square feet for a five-story building, and this land, figured at an assumed value of $5 per square foot, would cost from $180,000 ^) e;?6,^00, making the total investment for the land and buildings vary from $212,400 for tlie one-story to $63,360 for the five-story building. These figures are all clearly shown in Table V. The difference in cost of land and buildings between the one and the five story building is therefore about $150,000. The annual interest on $150,000 at 6 per cent, is $9,000. There- fore, to decide whether a one-story building is more eoonomical than a five-story building, it is simply necessary to determine whether the yearly saving in production will be equal to or greater than $9,000. If the saving is more than this amount, the one- story building is then economical, even though the building and land on which it stands represent a greater cost. It has already been stated that cost records from one-etory shops show that the saving in production is from 5 to 10 per cent. Therefore, to make a total saving of $9,000, the annual production cost for the assumed shop must be from $90,000 to $180,000. TABLE V. COMPARATIVE COSTS OF SStTMED PLANTS, INCLTTDINQ BOTH LAND AND BtHLD- INGS FOR UElliUTS VA3TIN0 FROM ONE TO FIVE STORIES. Number of Stories — One. Two. Three. Four. Five. Percentage cost... 100.00 92.00 87.00 86.00 85.00 Cost per sq. ft. of floor $ .90 $ .83 $ .78 $ .77 $ .76 Total cost of build- ing $32,400.00 $29,880.00 $28,080.00 $27,720.00 $27,360.00 Lot area required, sq. ft 36,000.00 ISyOOO.OO 12,000.00 9,000.00 7,200.00 Cost of lot at $5 per sq. ft $180,000.06 $90,000.00 $60,000.00 $45,000.00 $36,000.00 Total cost of land and building. .. .$212,400.00 $119,880.0Q $88,080.00 $72,720.00 $63,360.00 (6) The relative convenience and economy of manufacturing and handling products all od8 from one . -reman-s office should be so located that eve y operator on t .. , will be directly in view and his presence can at all t.mes te seen fro„. ,ho olfice. The wisdom of this featui^ be able to see all the employees, he has no assurance that their work ,s be.ng e.ther properly or effectively done, without perscS .omg about he shop and insj.cting the products of eadi ma^^^ abor. The theory of the single floor is that there are periods in the day when an enfre floor of a many-storv factory may be left without a foreman's supervision during hours when his presence 18 needed on other floors, and at such times there is idleness and ineffective work among the men. The area of one-story factory buildings is frequently so large that It IS quite impossible for a foreman from his office to keep effective watch over the men or their work. He should be out on the shop floor inspecting at close range what is being done. \Vhen a single floor is too large for easy inspection from one point, one of the supposed merits of single-floor buildings dis- appears, for It requires as much time for the foreman to travel about a single floor as it would to travel over several floors, and f he 18 unable to see through the entire lensth and breadth of the shop, there appears to be nothing gained by the arrangement K>f*A- NVMBER OF ST0RIB8 31 The one-Btorv buiUlinp will \w most .'conomioal in shop labor Aviion the aroa is not too great. The cx|K'ricncc of some Hingle-story shojw is tliat ventilation is not as ^w^t] as in nut rower ' nildinjr.^. and that w.-rkmen be<-onie lethargic and do less work. (7) Lighting. Buildings in several stories lan be lighted only from the sides and ends, and as side lighting in low stories is not effective for a greater distance than from '20 to -^5 feet, buildings in several stories which reijuire lighting cannot, there- fore, be made in a greater width than from 40 to 50 feet. Tl>e conditions are quite different in one-story buildings, for abundance of light can then be brought 'rom the roof, and the buildings can l>e made as long and wide as desired. The chief objection to roof lighting is its increased cost. CHAPTER V. WAI.LS. In rnrl IV a dotailtd dosuription is given for various t\-pc8 of wail«s togt'tliti with their (oniparativc costg. In tliia chapter it is intenilctl only to outline soint' possible forms for use when con- Hiderinj; tiio general n'(|iiirenR'nts and features of a manufacturing building. The minimum tliitkness of walls specified in the build- ing laws of several cities is given in Table VI. In some cases the building laws may determine the kiitd or thickness of walls to use. Building laws are not so mudi for the guidance of compe- tent engineers as they are for the restriction of iBcompetents or Fig. 14. those who nught knowingly violate the principles of safe construc- tion; and while a building engineer must be governed to some ''• tent by building laws, lie should follow the principles of safe ' ■ nstruction, as well as law, and walls, like other parts, should be proportioned to their needs. It may be gireu as a general rule that brick side walls should have thicknesses about as follows: (a) Upper story, 12 ins. thick. (b) Next tno lower, 16 ins. thick. ((•) Xeitt three lower, ^0 ins. thick, (cl) .\ext three lower, 24 ius. thick. (e) Next three lower, 28 iu». tlu'k. The following types are tiiose most frequently use 24 24 2N :i2 :tti Cbl- Mlnop- raxu. lit Hi 211 2<) 20 24 24 24 2N apolU. 12 16 1(1 Hi 211 211 2(1 24 24 24 Ht. oiiU. 13 \H IN 22 1.2 2(1 2(1 .'III iiU .14 Ihn- 17 17 21 21 21 2(1 2(1 ■Ml :io Han Kran- Nmt clsii 11. ( irlvank Nlui' HI 20 20 20 20 20 14 24 2t 1(1 lU 20 20 24 24 2S L'2 il2 111 Hi 2U 20 20 24 24 24 I;. Ki 1(1 lU 20 20 20 24 24 I a IH 18 22 22 2« 2(t 30 30 17 17 17 21 21 21 20 2(1 30 i;iKLt III 2U 20 20 20 2o 24 24 JO Ki 20 20 24 24 2H 3C Ki Ki lU 20 20 20 24 24 12 Ki 10 10 20 20 20 24 13 IX 18 m 22 2«i 20 30 21 21 21 20 30 13 1» 18 18 18 22 22 22 SfVi'ii 10 _'o L'l) 20 20 20 24 KI 10 20 20 24 24 28 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 12 16 16 10 2U 20 20 13 18 18 22 22 20 20 17 17 17 21 21 21 20 13 13 18 18 18 22 22 Six 10 20 20 20 2o 24 10 18 20 20 20 24 10 10 10 20 20 20 12 10 10 10 LO 20 13 18 18 22 22 20 13 17 17 21 21 20 13 17 17 17 21 21 13 13 18 IH 18 22 I-lvo . . ... 5 10 16 16 W 13 13 13 13 4 20 10 10 12 18 17 17 13 3 20 16 10 16 18 17 17 18 '_ 20 16 20 16 22 21 17 18 1 20 20 20 20 22 21 £1 18 F Ki HI 16 16 18 17 17 18 1 20 16 20 16 22 21 21 18 Three . . . . . .1 10 12 12 12 13 13 13 IS '2 10 10 12 12 18 17 17 13 1 20 16 16 16 18 17 17 18 Two 2 12 1 10 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 18 18 18 IS 17 13 13 34 MILL BriLDINGS (3) Combination brick and concrete. (4) Concrete walls with light steel framing. (5) Concrete block walls (hollow). (6) Concrete and expanded metal— single or double. (7) Sheet metal or corrugated iron. (8) Plank walU or movable wooden panels. These raa.\ be congtnicted in any one of three general ways, as — (a) Solid masonry walls without columns. (b) Light masonry curtain walls between supporting columns. (c) Curtain walls of wood or metal sheathing between steel or con- crete columns. Solid walls should be built with pilasters having sufficient area to safely sustain the loads without causing a greater compressive stress than 125 pounds per square inch on brick work and 250 pounds per square inch on stone and concrete. Wide pilasters are preferable to narrow ones, as they present the appearance of greater strength than those which are narrower but deeper. Solid masonry walls are satisfactory for buildings in which I heavy manufacturing is conducted and where traveling cranes are used, for in such buildings the traveling cranes cau^e no vibration. Curtain walls are not so sat- isfactory for buildings with heavy cranes, for they lack rigidity, and when once the framing becomes loosened, *"* "■ it is difficult to stiffen the building. A method that has been found effective for avoiding vibration in buildings where cur- tain walls are used is to first erect the metal framing and to omit the curtain walls for a month or two, while the cranes and machinery are in operation. The bracing may then be inspected and all loose rods or pieces tightened, and the frame placed in adjustment. The walls are then built in solid between the columns and there is little or no opportunity for vibration to occur. When the pilasters of solid walls would be excessively large, steel columns may be inserted in the piers. A column made of four angle bars connected with a plate or lattice will be the most convenient (Fig. 15). If the side walls or pilasters are brick, the columns should be made the proper width so that brick can be built in and around the column with the least amount of cutting. Whether to use a steel column in a masonry pier will depend principally on the co?t nf a snlid pier compared t" the corresponding cost of a smaller pier with a steel center. In some cases a steel column may be used to reduce the size of pier, even though the pier with the WALLS 35 steel center woulrl have a jjreater cout than a larger pier without tlie steel. There are many matters of importance that must be carefullv weighed when selecting a wall for any prospective building. Cer- tain typos are suitable for buildings that must be heated, while others are not. P'orge shops or buildings where excessive smoke, gas or odors occur will need so much ventilation that the walls may well be made of movable doors or panels which can be thrown open or removed, and the whole side of the building up to a height of eight or ten feet left open. This arrangement is an excellent one for blacksmith shops, where there is not only excess- ive smoke, but where workmen are liable to be overheated at the forge. The open sides produce good ventilation and cause an upward draft to carry the smoke away through roof monitors. Buildings in which the walls are made as described above, with continuous doors (Fig. Ifi) or removable panels, should have a It-JO'-J" - 90' J,^' Uttat Lafh and Cvnenf Phistv Fig. 1«. continuous line of sash aljove the doors, for lighting the building when the panels are in place or the doors closed, if the total height beneath the trusses does not exceed about twenty feet, the entire wall space above the movable panels may then be covered with sash ; but if the height exceeds this amount, it will be sutfl- cient to use from six to ten feet of sash, with the remaining part of the wall above the windows enclosed with sheathing. Any kinds of reinforced concrete walls are inconvenient for buildings where extensions or additions are anticipated, unless provision has previously been made. As these walls have continu- ous metal reinforcement, it is ditficult to nit away portions of the wall or to make openings therein. Concrete walls. esjK^ially those of a single thickness, are. however, cjuite economical in the amount of space required. Where there is any probability of shop walls being rammed by cars at the stub end of tracks, it is a good precaution to insert lintels beneath the caves, so the roof would not oollapee, even if 36 MILL BUILDINGS a car or locomotive should be driven through the wall. In pro- portioning wall lintels, economy may result if careful examination is made to ascertain the actual load that bears upon the lintel. In solid walls, the amount of load will usually not exceed the weight of a small triangular piece of masonry above the lintel, but this will depend upon the position of the adjoining openings. Extra large doors may have t(i be provided for the admission or removal of large machines, or framing arranged so a panel can be removed and replaced again without serious inconvenience or injury. This may necessitate the omission of one of the wall columns and the insertion of a truss or girder to carry the roof. The following table gives the comparative cost, per superficial square foot, for wp.lis of various kinds. The estimates are based on panel lengths of 20 feet and the costs per square foot given include not only the wall between the columns but also the cost of the wall at the pilaster or pier. Tlicy are, in fact, the average square foot cost of tlio entire wall, including columns, pilasters, water table and plain cornice. i 4 h TABLE VII. COST OF WALL PER SQ. FT. Per 8q. Ft. 12-inch stone wall $0.50 18-incb btone wall 70 12-inch brick wall (common brick) 45 8-inch brick curtain wall (common brick), steel columns 46 8-inch brick wall (common brick), reinforced concrete columns 37 8-inch brick curtain wall (face brick), reinforced concrete columns. . . .52 8 inch concrete wall, light steel frame and steel columns 46 10-inch concrete block wall, steel columns 37 2-inch concrete and expanded metal lath on steel frame (single) 33 3-inch concrete and expanded metal lath on steel frame (single) 36 L'-inch concrete and expanded niotal lath on steel frame (double) 54 Galvanized corrugated iron walls on steel frame 28 riank walls, sheathed on steel frame 31 The above walls are those best suited for mill and factory use. Comparative cost of walls finished on tlie interior and suitable for factory offices are as follows : Per Sq. Ft. Wood stud walls, weather boardetl and painted on outside, and lathed and plastered on inside $0.18 Wood Mtud walls, with 4-in. face brick veneer, lathed and plastered inside 38 12-inch solid brick walls, face brick exterior, furred and plastered inside 62 The ehoapest of these walls appears, therefore, to be corru- gated iron supported on steel frames. Next in order of cost are WALLS 87 weatherboarded plank walls on steel frames, single concrete and expanded metal lath on steel frames, concrete blocks, and light concrete curtain walls between reinforced concrete columns. Methods of determining these costs closely for any particular case are given in a later chapter, on Wall Details. Solid walls of either stone or concrete collect condensation on the inside, and not on'y keep the interior damp but the wall and floor will become soiled and discolored, making them less desirable than brick or some form of hollow walls. Weatherboarded plank on steel framing has a low first cost, but has a high insurance rate and is a poor fire risk. An ideal factory wall is made by using reinforced concrete columns and lintels, with a thin concrete cur- tain wall between them, the whole being faced on the exterior and around the window jambs with four inches of bluff or yellow face brick secured to the concrete by projecting metal wall anchors. The wall has the merit of being rigid, the light steel angles in the concrete columns being sufficiently strong to temporal, y sup- port the trusses without any covering, and permit the frame to be erected rapidly and the joints easily made. It has the additional merit of presenting a finished appearance, while the cost is not excessive. i^ I I -h CHAPTER VI. COST OF STEEL BUILDINGS. Hill and other industrial steel buildings are so various in their forms and needs that it is difficult if not impossible to give rules for their weight and cost. The nearest costs that can be given are those estimated for a number of actual buildings of various kinds, and these may serve as a general guide in deciding upon the probable cost of proiwsed new ones. Estimated costs are bet- ter for comparison tiian actual ones, for external conditions can then be considered more nearly uniform. The buildings described in this chapter are all original designs by the author, and are classified under the following headings: Buildings with Cranes, and Brick Walls. Buildings with Cranes, and Corrugated Iron Walls. Buildings with Cranes, and Concrete and Expanded Metal Walls. Buildings without Cranes, and Concrete and Expanded Metal Walls. Buildings without Cranes, and (^ormgated Iron Walls. Steel Frame Factory Office Buildings or Dwellings. Steel frames covered with corrugated iron or metal sheathing are specially suited for low priced buildings in tropical or semi- tropical countries, where artificial heating is unnecessary. In the following panes there are several buildings of this type shown. The "ost of floors and foundations is not included in the prices given unless especially stated, for these can usually be made by local builders at a less exjiense. For this reason it is customary for foreign buyers or owners to ask for quotations on the :?teel superstructures only, not including either ground floors or foundations. Buildings for export to foreign countries may cost more in Slime particulars than those for erection in the United States. The various parts must Iw made in weights, sizes and lengths which can be conveniently loaded into vessels. Trusses or other large pieces which (ould be shop-riveted for home erection may need to be shipped in separate parts, in order to be loaded into the ship hatches. Some additional expense may be incurred on export work in preps rinjr explicit erection drawings and in mark- i»ig the various shijtping pieces so the building can be cected 38 COBT OF STEEL BUILDINGS 89 without difficulty. Occasionally the purchaser of a building for a foreign country will require complete drawings of his buildings, and these drawings may have to be made ir. metric system. ITiis wUl add extra expense, as American shops and workmen are more accustomed to working in feet and inches than in meters. There is also the expense of crating small or loose pieces for export, and the cost of ocv-n freight, as well as loading and unloading the material from the vfessel. BUILDINGS WITH CHANES— BBICK WALLS. The foundry building, 100 feet wide and 200 feet long, shown in Fig. 17, has brick walls without side columns, and the roof \ ^rt s,|uare at the street end COST OF STKEL BUILDINGS 4S This is one of tho inowt attfptal)if training outlines, for the absence of interioi gutters avoids any jwssibility of leakage and laterally tiic bents are wull braced and rigid. The center line of columns also reduces the wcijil.t of truss framing. When greater height is needed for an erecting bay. two lines of interior columns can be used instead of one, in which case they may be located in line with the monitor sides. Fig. 22 is an alternate design for the above building, with a single ridge, instead of two. The walls and roof covering are the same as in the previous design. It has five tons more steel framing in the roof, but there is less gable wall and a fewer numljer of monitor shutters, so the total cost is but little more than tlie two-gable design. The cost per square foot of ground covered is 85 cents with partitions and 75 cents without them. The corresponding costs per square foot of exterior building sur- face is 45 cents and 40J cents, respectively. Fig. 23 is a machine shop for the Southern States, 64 feet wide and 128 feet long, with 16-foot panels. The galleries have plank floors on wood joist. The roof, sides and ends of the build- ing are covered with corrugated iron on steel girths. The center erecting bay is served by a 15-ton traveling crane. The cost of the steel framing erected is T3 cr nB, and the toi.a sb - pinp weight ia 1»5 on*. Thr total cfl«t .ibo' 3 i rnd ona i 8 $18,000 — equal to 53 cents per square foo^ of area covered. *Fig. 31 is ai, market bnild 50 m e t e r .s tre, somewhat ilar to the above. It has streets on only two sides and is maci of dteel and e'° excepting thi counters. < outside are - doors, which, wru ■*! ies. ■ building is ventilated by fixed louvn veB am also on the sides of the central towe and tiie b. ilding, above the doors, two feet of wire 8 1 Ig. 28. Fig. 29 netting, winch permits a free air circulation at all times through tlie market. Stalls are generally 10 feet square. The area cov- ered by the market is 27,000 square feet. There were 76 tons of structural steel and 118 tons in the whole shipment. The cost of 48 MILL BUILDINGS : I i^ ~mac ffB TT— ir-rr i "" ■ ■ M II I I ir-r-1-Tf 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ri iiftfflj V 1 1 1 n 1 1 1 1 1 V ii' iiiiil KI^S^^iSSSI'^^^^^ »i COST OF STEEL BVILDlNnS 49 the building complete is $11,900, which is equal to 44 cents per square foot of area covered. ♦♦Fig. 32 is a market hall for the City of Mexico. It is fire- proof, the roof being covered with galvanized corrugated iron, and the walls in expanded metal lath and concrete. The open arch construction for the sides and ends, together with swinging Flf. 31. windows in the sides of the monitors and dome, give ample venti- lation. The open arches are provided with rolling steel shutters to be closed at night or when desired. The extreme outside dimen- sions of the building are 98 feet by 230 feet, while the dome is 50 feet in diameter. It covers a ground area of 22,540 square feet, and the total weight is 102 tons. The total cost of the build- ing complete above the floor and foundations is $23,000, or 95 cents per square foot of area covered. i,/»:i*TS'T m-' «!r •,as;j.'iwmie3wik:i:«iis7^mvn7;^ 60 MILL BUILDINGS ♦*Fig. 33 is a market house in Moorish style, made to confonn with the surrounding architecture. It is 26 feet wide and 481 feet long, with three towers as shown, each of which has two floors. On the second floor of the center tower is a tank to supply wuter to the building. A notable feature of this market is the line of raising shutters, supported, when open, on small round iron columns. These shutto'^ form also a continuous sun- In T i •*% Fig. 32. shade for the market and stalls. The building is ventilated by means of swinging windows over the doors, and the space in front of these windows is covered with ornamental iron grill, the win- dows remaining open over night, if desired. The roof is covered with galvanized corrugated iron, and the sides and columns are made of paneled cast iron. The filling of the sides above the doors is made of stamiHjd siieet metal and portions of the tower are ornamented with blue tiles. It contains 78 tons of steel and its Lutibk^' COST OF STEEL BUILDINGS 51 total cost above floor and foundations is $22,100, or $1.70 per square foot of area covered. •♦Fig. 34 is a market building, 39 feet wide and 481 feet long, with complete steel frame, and covered on the roof and sides with corrugated iron. The building is divided longitudinally in panels 13 feet in length. The two end houses are two stories in height. The center portion is 26 feet wide between side walls, and on each //,«?a»i>*«: p^ i ^^,^fii^^mmii«mmmm»»mmM ■ mmimmmiimlljHHHHHMHiiiHiJ ■ |i Fig. 38. side the eaves overhang by 6J feet, forming sunshades. At the center of the building is a 5,000-gallon water tank, to supply water to the market. In each panel there is a swing door 5 feet wide and 8 feet high, whi^ is raised during the day and closed at night. Above these doors is 3 feet of continuous sash, and between the sash and eaves is a continuous line of wire mesh, 8 feet in width, for ventilation. Stalls on each side are 10 feet Fts. 34. deep. Tlie total cost of the building is $12,900 — equal to 68 cents per square foot of floor. **Fig. 35 is a market building, 34 meters wide and 76 meters long, cf" ; T an area of 25,5C0 square feet. The dome is 68 feet in . ' ' ar. It has a total shipping weight of 137 tons, and there ai ' . separate shipping pieces. The space occupied on board the vessel is 13,000 cubic feet. The weight of steel is about 9.1 tons, and the tots! cnsit is $19,800, which 5a equal tn 50 cents per square foot of area covered, not including either floor or foun- dations. The building is covered on both sides and roof wiih 52 MILL BVILDIN08 galvaui/ed corrugated iron. The curvefl roof gives a pleasing apfK-iiranee. There are no partitions. Fig. M) »how8 a steel frame market building for export, 55 ffct wide and 150 feet long. It is in the form of a cross, with a ct.'.tral dome. It has steel frame and corrugated iron covering on walls and roof. The floor area is 8,630 stjuare feet, and the total cost of the building complete, not including ocean freight, is $5,800 — equal to OG cents per square foot of ground covered. Fig. 37 shows a building 80 feet wide by 180 feet long, for " I Fig. as. Wti ^^ a roller skating rink. It contains 67 tons of steel, and the cost, erected complete, with corrugated iron roof and walls, including all windows, doors, glazing, etc., is $8,975, or H? cents per square foot. SHOP OFFICES OR DWELLINGS. ♦Fig. 38 is a two-storv, eight-room portable steel house, suitable for tropical countries. It L's a wide veranda on all sides at each rtoor, and the upper story has a paneled sheet metal ceiling. Be- neath the caves are open spaces covered with galvanized wire mesh, Ipaving the =pace between ceiling and roof open for the free cir- culation of air. The arrangement prevents the upper story from becoming ex<>essively hot from the sun. The house frame is bolted ^-, ^*w>'i'iini^ COST OF STEEL BUILDINGS 58 together and may be taken apart and erected elsewhere without injury. ITiere are two floor designs, one with boards on wood joists and the other with corrugated metal flooring overlaid with Fig. se. tlat steel, and the space between filled with mud or sawdust. The total cost, erected complete, is $1,850, and the shipping weight is 24 tons. ^J^^!^^ ng. 87. iHili 64 MILL BVILDIN08 I ' Fig. 39 is a onc-ston-. six-room house or office, of similar con- struction to that aliove. It has a veranda and open space beneath the eave for ventilation. The cost, erected complete, is $1,450 and its total weight is 20 tons. ' Fig. 38, f) f ^-:, ■ ^ ^ ^""JF' T I I , Fig. Rd. Fig. 40 shows a four-room, one-story house or office, with a wide veranda on two sides for suu.,hade. The total weight of the house 18 23 tons, and its cost is $1,730. The floor is raised about 3 feet above the ground, aiid the whole is l)uilt on steel sills The COST OF STEEL BUILDINGS R5 building requires no foundation other than a level lot or site. As the joists are all bolted, it can be tuken apart and removed with- out injury. Fig. 41 is a steel frame factory office building, 40 feet square, with walls and roof of concrete and expanded metal. Its total cost is $S,760, includiag floor and foundations. It is all in one room, and has plaster finish on the inside, with an open fireplace and chimney in the center. Fig. 40. Fig. 41. TABLE VIII. SUMMARY OF BUILDING COSTS AS GH'EX IN CHAPTER VI. Buildings with Cranet and Brick WdlU. Total Cost per sq. ft. of -Vo. Size. cost. ground covered. 1. Foundry, without walls, 100x200 ft $12,640 $0.63 2. Foundry, with walls, 100x200 ft .83 2. Foundry, complete. 80x100 ft 8,840 1.10 3. Foundry, steel only, 100x120 ft 7,200 .60' 3. Fouuiiry , uuuipltsle, 100x120 ft 12,200 1,00 4. Foundry, steel only, 100x216 ft 11,200 .62 4. Foundry, complete, 100x216 19,000 .88 5. Foandry, steel and metal, 118x230 ft 14.540 .54 5. Foundry, complete, 118x230 ft 22,000 .M ■■M i ! 66 MILL BUILDINOS BuUdingi with Cranei and Corrugated Iron WaiU. vo „. ^'"<'' Cost per »q. ft. of a V A -.u ****• *'<'*'• ground covered. 6. I oundry, with partition*. 80x203 ft $12,880 $0 84 6. Foundry, without partitions, 80x203 ft ',n 8. Machine ghop, steel only, 64x128 ft jg 8. Machine shop, complete', 64x128 ft ,fj Buitdings with Crane*, Reinforced Concrete WalU. «„ „. ^"'o' Cost per, q. ft. of u M u u , *"*• *<'*'• ground covered. ». Machine shop, complete, 100x310 ft $28,900 «0 93 9. Machine shop, steel only, 100x310 ft 12,700 !« Buildings with Cranes, Reinforced Concrete Walls. Sa o ^'"*'' Cost per sq.ft. of in Qu ■ . .,,,,- ****• '^*- ground covered. 10. Shop, complete, 43x152 ft | 5,S70 ♦0.82 11. Warehouse, complete. 50x200 ft 7 500 76 12. Ore mill, complete, 83x110 ft 37,000 giso 13. Sugar house, complete, 60x110 ft 17 000 2il0 14. Shop, complete, 52x230 ft 8 200 ^ 15. Market, complete, 202x216 ft isiooo JU 16. Market, complete, 164x164 ft 11,900 44 17. Market, complete, 98x230 ft 22 000 js 18. Market, complete, 39x481 ft 21,000 1 70 19. Market, complete, 39x481 ft 12 900 'jU 20. Market, complete, 112x250 ft 12 800 JSA -1- -!^."^^**' f oraplete. 55x151 ft 5 800 M 22. Rink, complete, 80x180 ft 8|975 M Factory Offices or Dwellings. Vq Total Cost per sq.ft. of •>■» ' v.^kt . _ u *•**• ""**• grontKd covered. -J. £ight-room house $1850 24. Six-room house l'450 " " 2.'5. Four-room house '.!!.! 1730 " * ' 26. One-room house, 40x40 ft 2 760 "" Ko'Tghly speaking, one-story steel mill buildings with cranes and solid walls, erected complete without ground floor or founda- tions, will cost from 80 c-ents to $1.10 ,.■ r square foot of ground covered, while similar buildings with cranes and corrugated iron walls will cost from 70 cents to $1.00. One-story steel frame sheds or buildings without cranes, and covered with corrugated iron v ;> cost erected complete from 50 to 70 cents per square foot of grouE.l covered. One-story office buildings or dwellings erected complete, includ- ing floor and foundations, cost from 80 cents to $1.00 per squaru foot of area covered, while similar two-story buildings cost from $1.20 to $1.50 per square foot. In order to give a roufjli \ue& of the cost of steel buildings for COST OF STEEL BUILDINGS 67 export, the following prices are given for the material delivered at Atlantic seaboard. The steamship companies do their own load- ing, and the prices given are for material delivered at the wharf and not' on board ship. The prices are for all material for complete steel buildings, including steel frame, corrugated iron, doors, win- dows, flashing, gutters and conductors, but do not include ground tloors or foundations. They are in all cases for buildings covered with metal sheathing. The material for machine shops, foundries, etc., cost from 40 to :)0 cents per square foot of ground covered. Sheds and other buildings proportioned only for ordinary roof and wind loads coPt from 30 to 40 cents per square foot of ground covered. A fairly close estimate may be made for sheds and other plain iron buildings without cranes, by figuring all the exposed surface of both v.'ils and roof at 30 cents per square foot, and if the building contains a traveling crane, then add $1.00 per lineal foot of building for every ton capacity of the crane. This covers crane supports and girders only, and not the cost of crane itself. The cost of cranes may be compiled from the weight given in Tables I, II, III, IV, XXII and XXIII. • H. G. Tyrrell, in Engineering News, April 11, 1901. •• H. G. Tyrrell, in Architect 'g and Builder '■ Magazine, July, llHJl. CHAPTER Vn. COMPARATIVE COST OF WQOD, STEEL AXD REIN- F«KCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS. To ascertain definitely the comparative cost of buildiags in woo «iitiri« huildinfj. Thcsw fijnires cor- rPs|K)n<1 clofH'ly with the usual cost of slow hurning wood construction for 200 pound floor loads. (Fig. 48.) In plans A and C, if alternate courses of wall girders are omitted, and the exterior » irtiiin walls carried on the remainng girders, the total saving i.. ;he building would then be $1200, which is equal to 3 cents per square foot of floors, or Vi cent per Pianr Pbrf Steel frame woedHoer * ^-•v* 1 8^ u. 1 .''i n. '^ 4( 1 -■ — — — — ■> 1 1 5 '^ ^^^ .1 f IT ' 3f eel Columns 11 . i^od Cotuirms Plane Mood Construction Figs. 47 cubic foot of building. In case alt- . :• r.?!,. girders are omitted, n channf 1 only is then needed on the inside of the walls at th< ^<■■ floors to carr\' the floor loads. In the first five designs, plans A to E, the floors are 6 inches thick in all cases, but in plans F and G, where slow burning wood construction is used, a greater floor thickness is reijuired. The comparative cost of the floors alone in plans A, B, C and D, including the steel beams is as follows: Wood floors cost $7000, or 18 cent- per square foot, while reinforced concrete floors coat $10,000, or 26 cents per square foot. In computing the costs in all the above cases, the total area of the seven floors and basement is taken at 38,700 square feet, and the total eubi; ::! eontents of the building 484,000 cubic feet. The height of building from cellar floor to roof is 100 feet. A summary of the ahovp compaTative estimates ir. as follows: ■ittnMnKffSltf 62 MILL BVILDINGS Plan. Total cost. A $49,100 B 44,800 C 52,000 D 47,700 E 44,000 P 40,600 O 37,000 Cost per iq. ft. of Cost per nt. floor surface. ft. (cents.) $1.28 10.3 1.16 9.4 1.34 10.8 1.24 9.8 1.15 9.1 1.07 8.4 .96 7.7 Taking tke cost of the building in wood mill construction, estimate G, as a basis, and calling its cost unity, the comparative costs of the other methods is as follows: s i I ^^^ TABLE IX. A. Complete steel frame, curtain walls, plank floor $1.30 B. Interior steel frame, solid brick, plank floor 1.19 C. Complete steel frame, curtain walls, reinforced concrete floors 1.37 D. Interior steel frame, solid brick walls, reinforced concrete floors. .. 1.26 E. Entire reinforced concrete building 1.17 F. Part interior st.^el frame, solid brick walls, wood mill floors.!!..! l!o9 fl. Entire wood mill construction, slow burning, solid brick walls 1.00 The conclusion, therefore, from these estimates is that a building with complete steel frame, side curtain walls, and wood floors costs 30% more than wood mill construction, while the same building with only interior steel frame and solid side bearing walls, will cost 197, more than wood mill construction. If the first building mentioned alM)ve had a reinforced concrete floor, its cost would then 'x; .377< more than mill construction, wliile the corresponding cost of the second one with reinforced concrete floor would be 26% more. An entire building of reinforced concrete costs 17% more tlian one in wood mill construction. If steel columns and two lines of longitudinal steel beams are used at floors and roof, with the balance of floor and roof of wood mill construction, the use of this pactial steel frame increases the cost by 9%. It appears, therefore, that reinforced concrete buildings cost 17% more than wood mill construction, and akjut the same as buildings with complete interior stool frames, soli* walls, and wood floors. The second building for which comparative estimates are made, is a six-story factory building, 60 feet wide. 100 feet long, contain- ing six floors and a roof, as shown in *Fig. 49. The floors are designed to carry an imposed load of 100 pounds per square • H. G. Tyrrell, Canadian Engineer, October, 1904. COMPASATIVE COST 63 foot. Windows are on all sides and the walls carry the ends of the floor beams. The walls in the basement are 24 inches thick, while in the first four stories, they are 17 inches. The remaining two stories have 1.3-inch walls. The estimates given are for the struc- tural parts of the building only, iniluding walls, columns, floors, rf)of, excavation, dtwrs, windows and foundations, but do not include any stairs, partitions, elevators, plumbing, heating, wiring or lighting. The framing of the slow burning design is as follows: Eight tiers of ct^lumns spaced 20 feet apart in both directions, carry the floors and roof. The columns from the roof down through four stories are of yellow pine. In the lowest of these stories, the aize }" * \= i k eo YP YF 1 — a C3 - 1 , it' ii! rP ; * i.- ^ != != \= != 1*— I ~^ - - -lOOO- Flz. 49. of column used is 14x14. Below this, where a greater size would be iiM|uired than can bt' secured economically in wood, round cast v^iliimns are used, 11x1 J inches in the first story and ISxlJ inches in ilie basement. All the colunuis have cast iron bases, 3 feet !-00 Eicavatiou, yds ^ OOy ( 'ellar eenient floor, »q. tt j5q Koundation eontn-fe, cu. yds ■ ' ^^ ^jq^ Hiick, cu. ft . ._. ' ' '._)3j< Windows, 4 X 7 ft 6,000 Koofing, sq. t* ' . ' V.' n ' vi '.";'' ^ ! IIgIoOO Yellow piiif lumlier, tt. H. M 73 000 Yellow pint' rt(Miriii(;. ft. B M 46000 % matched floi.. ing. ft. B. M. ■•■ ' ^^ Iron work, tons The estiroated cost of tliis design :« $35,000, which is equiva- lent to G.l cents f"" ^^^'"^ *""* "*^ ^^'^ building, or 83 cents per square foot of the entire area of all the flo.>rs. The interior fram- ing of floors and columns, inclwJing wall plates, column caps, bases and stiirup irons, costs -^7 c^t* per sc^u8re foot of floor area. In the fireproof design, tlie arrang»-n.eut of beanw and columns i3 similar to that asefl for tm- slow burning design. Iliveted steel columns are used from cellar to roof, and t\w floors are framed with steel beams. The flooriog between the beams is reinforced concrete and the arrangeme-.t is therefore similar to plan D in the previous buildin-. Tho .iriintities hvc as follows: . . . 1,800 Excavation, tu. yof, sq. ft ' The cost of the building in thi. .aso is sTn.OOO. whi^h .-orre- sponds to 10.-> cents per cuhi.' foot ..f the building or $IM p« square foot of the entire floor arcn. Floor, an.1 volunm* e«« 7j cents p.-r s(,unrc foot of floor area. Hence .omparatue estiaww are as follows Copper 'Jostper sq.ft. for rogt per iv.ft.nf floor and ^q.fi.o' buUdim^ eol».nnlil Fireproof steel c,««.ra^t«H.. #^7 AH. ♦l.afi lO-i ^ Wood mill .•"<«»fiict on . . »P -«f" ■"■* t 's :.0 and 51 ar. views of a two-sKw AM !r»wf work- shop, with complete ^u.el frame and wall. -.A a ^imh slai, of .-oi.- erete and expanded metal, on hght siec-i purlins. It I.hs a tar and crravel r.wf The ,ntermed«tr floor is w..m1 mill c.ms.ruetion with hard pine m-buis spaced feet apart, -verlaid with two layers of COJIPASATTVE COST 66 Plank The building contains 48 tone of structural steel and it« ^rorected complete is $10,100, equal to $1.35 per square f oot o .round co-ered. If an 8-ineh brick curtain wal were ujed .nsU.d :!f the concrete and expanded metal, the cost would then be $11,000. i)r $1.45 per wutare fwt of ground. Fig. 50. A twr^storv factor>- buildmg, 4.) feet wide and 100 feet long, with a complete stc.! " frame, .s similar to tl>. la-t on. descnbed except that the -second story is free from inside columns^ It has a "ind. plnnk and gravel roof, with wall, of concrete and expanded metal The intermedial,:, floor has two layers of plank on wood beams 5 feet apart. The total coat of the building complete above T — iPW*- Flu foundations is $5,400, equal to $1.35 per square oot of ground covered. It t^mtains 26 ton* of structural st«.l. I he same bu.Ul- mg with a-inch brick curtain wall, .nstead of concrete and expandwl metal, would cost $5,800, or $1.45 f»r square foot or aiw covered. tl MILL BUILDINGS COST OF WOOD MILL CONSTRUCTION. The cost of wootl mill buildings of the slow burning type,, with plank floor, wooden beams and columns and brick v.alls, for various widths and iieights of one to live storie?, has been given on the chart Fig. 1^. For widths of 50 feet, these costs are about as follows : TABLE X COST OF WOOD MILL COXSTRUCTIOX. Cost per sq. ft. Cost per of fioor (Ilea. cu. ft. (cents). Mills, 3, 4 and 5 stories high. 50 feet wide..$ .85 to $ .95 6.5 to 7.5 Mills, -2 stories high, ."ill feet wide 90 to 1.00 7.0 to 8.0 Mills, 1 story high, 50 feet wide 95 to 1.05 7.5 to 8.5 These costs are for northern cities and do not include parti- tions, plumbing, heating or elevators. If tiiese items are ircluded, the cubic foot cost would then be increased to a maximum of about 11 cents. In country districts where labor is cheaix'r, the cost may be 15 to 20'/, less. In the South, where the price of labor and materials is from 30 to oO^ less than in the North, the prices per square foot and cubic foot will be reduced accordingly. Under the most favorable conditions in the South, wood construction mills, not including the items aliove. can be built from U to 5 cents per cubic foot. The cost of plumbing, heating, ligliting and elevators, will not vary greatly between tiie North and South and these items will add from ofi°g «J ^if- ferent qualities. Investigation of insurance charges may show that a net saving will result by a somewhat larger investment for a fireproof roof. If the interest on the extra expenditure required for a fire-nroof roof is less than the rorresponding insurance charges, there will evidently 1. « saving by the use of the expensive roof. NON-CONnENSIXO ROOFS. Condensation on the under side of roofs is caused by tlie varm air from the inside of the building coming in contact with the walls or roof that are chilled by the lower temperature f™'" *'t^«"J- Condensation, therefore, occurs only in bu.ldmgs where these dif- ferent temFratures exist. Sheds or warehouses with open s.d^ or si ra,e buildings that have no artificial heating will not be subject to condensation. . , On a certain large class of u.anufacturing b.uldmgs, it s abso- h.telv n...-ss«rv that the r.K.fs be so designed that there w.li be no ...ndensntion or dripping. (»n other buildings, the matter of con- .l,.„sation lUH-d not W considered. In the former clan, maj Ik „U,,,| all such works as machine shops. iK.wer houses dynamo n...„.s. or other buildings coniaining valuable material and prcxlu^ U that would be injured bv water falling on t'u-m. ^''-r^^"**";^ roofs are required only on such buildings that mu*t 1* heated in II t 70 MILL BUILDINGS cold weatlicr or where there is a difterence in temperature between indoors and out. Condensation may be avoided in buildings that need no artificial hcatinjr, bv providing enough ventilation and air circulation so that the interior of the building will at all times maintain the same temperature as the air without. Til is can be done bv placing ventilators in the roof and air intakes at or near the floor, so that continuous air currents may pass into the buibling and out again through the roof. Ativ form of r of is non-condensing that is built either double or with a coiling beneath, in which there is an air space between the inner and outer iui faces. Wood and paper are poor conduttors of heat and therefore roofs covered with plank, the joints of which are overlai«l with «;veral layers of building paprr so the interior warm air cannot reach the outer sheathing, will lie subject to little or no condensation. Roofs on which condensation is most likely to form, are those covered with sheet metal and slate op tile, laid directly on purlins, without lining. These forms of roof covering are desirable because they are not inflammable, and are frequently nsed on fireproof buildings. To prevent condensation without introducing any inflammable material, several patented linings hffve been used,' coe of which is shown in Fig. 54. It consists of a layer of strong galvanized poultry netting, tightly stretched orer tlic iron purlins which are trussed or braced to resist bending from the tension in the netting; over this are laid two nr three layers of asbestos paper and two layers of Xeponset iiiiilding paper, above which the roof- in" sheets are placed and secured to the purlins. The layers of paper are Pig 54 shingled one over the other, to s'-ed any water from condensation or leakage. A weak iioint about this patent lining is, tliat the layers of paper are neto.-sarily per- forated by the bolts or wire hooks use/i- COVEBISG AND DRAINAGE n • • * .n aoUlpml tiahtlv in both directions, with no chance what- r;;^ c tt tol aV through, can be laid at any slope, either fl Jol t p, - '^-ired. Tar and gravel rfs can be a.d on ly ou ' f L that are con,paratively flat, where the asphalt or ta^w H not run off In^fore it hardens, or oven after completio,. a» the tar ^n soften in hot weather and tend to run if the .nchnat.on be "Ite^^ Their slope .houhl not exceed H inch per foot and hou d preferahlv be less. Roof coverings cons.stmg of B^eeU o^ plat shingled over each other, and depending only on he.r slope ttTZ watei. nn..t have a sufficient inclination to prevent dri vin' strms fron, Mowing rain up under the joints and caus.ng le k age If, bowever. these roofing plates or sheets are la,d m FlC. 66. cement to make the joints impervious to water it - ^^^^ f « *« r them on a much flatter slope. Fig. 65 shows to «.ale the til roof slopes or pitches from i inch per foot up to a slope of 45 ""Toofs with steep pitch are more effective in quiekly shedding rain or snow, but they have a greater area to cover -^^^- ^^f csts proportionately more. Steep pitch roof. ^^^ ^^^f^' J^^'^^^^ xhan flatter ones, because they carry a larger "-* "^/^^^^ '^^f J because the truss framing is also somewhat heavier. The steep JrrLa larger area upon which the ^^'f^^'^^^^X^ be proportioned to resist tho^e additional forces. Hat roofs are ^ n MILL BUILDINGS considtTt'd sater for fire protect >ii than pitthir foot, while tar and gravel roofs aw suitable for slopes varA-ing from J indi to 1 inch per foot. n TABLE XII. MINIMUM ROOF PIT( HKS FOB DIFFERENT COVERINGS. Woo.! shinnies on plank Rise Vi, of span Slate, large R»e Ms ot span Slate, ordinary Rise % of span Slate, in cement Rise 1/8 »' spa" Steel roll roofing Rise 1/12 of span Kuberoid R'»e 1/12 of span Asbestos Rise 1/12 of span Asphalt Rise 1/12 of span Corrugated iron in cement Rise Mi of span Corrugated iron without cement Rise V* of span Composition Rise 1/12 of span Tar and gravel I^at. Tin and terne plaie Flat. Tile Rise 7/12 of span COMPARATIVE MERITS. In reference to duration, slate or day tile roofs will outlast all tiif other forms, and if desired, may lie removed and used else- where, while gravel roofr, or some of the best kinds of prepared r(K)ting will he next in durability and >vill last from ten to twenty vears. .\ny c-ommon form of slieet metal roofing will soon be destroyed by nist unless it is frequently painted, and will not gen- erally last longer than from thrw to fiv( years. In conip»riiig the cost of r(H)fings, it iipjieais that some of the \arious prepiiifd roofings are the tlnaiHst. Other kinds, in order of cost are wood .-shingles, tar and gravel, corrugated ircm, standing seams, sheet itcol, metal shingles, slate, tin, corrugated a-^bestos br.ard and tile. Iron or stec! are unsuitable for roofing buildings v.her' (i-struc- 1 ■'* it BOOr COVEMINO AND DBAINAOB n tive fumes or ga«e8 accumulate, as the thin metal i« quickly de- .troved l.V corrosion, and leaks develop. It is better on such buildings; if sheet metal is preferred, to have it lead coated as on a iMjiler shop for the Standard Oil Company, designed by the writer, where the roof and si.les were covered with a heavy grade of lead coated corrugated iron. Metal roofs have the advantage of b^ing lightning proof and, as the roof surface is smooth, they are more easily kept clean by the wind and the rain. If it is desired to collect rain water from the roofs, water will be purer when taken from a clean metal roof than if drained from one of tar and gravel. Metal has the du- advautage of ! ■ ansmitting heat and cold, and metal roofed build- inc. are harder to heat in winter and in summer are uncomfortably warm The objection to plank roofing from the standpoint of tin- risk has probablv been overestimated, for heavy plank supported on purlins 4 to 8 feet apart, will at the worst, bum very slowly, and will not ( Uapse as soon as light steel framing, which warpe and bends -i /^ Fig. 80. KlK. !t2. Fig. !tl). Fig. 03. Fig. 91. Fig. !»4. Fig. 95. nn Fig. !•«. pm m Fig. 97. M 1 Fig. OS. \i Vlg. 101. Fig. IM. Fig. on. J^J^^^v Fig. 102. Id Fix. 105. Fig. 100. Fig. 103. FiR. loe. ^"^^^rm. :k:A;:^' ^^ ^^S^^^^SSSE^^i^ SOOF COVE&ISG AND DBAISAOE 77 when placed at the eave. To prevent freezing of interior gutters, it is euBtomary to suspend a line of small steam pipes directly l)eneath the gutter, which will not only prevent trouble from freez- ing, but will also serve as a part of the general heating system. While suow will accumulate in the interior gutters in the winter .eason, severe st.^rms are not very freciuent, and even when they do come, there is little liability for snow to accumulate in large quantities on roofs which are exposed to wind. Unless the snow is heavy, it is more likely to be blown off than to remain. In any case," the roof will be sufficiently strong to safely carry a f«now load, and the expense of occasional shoveling is not great. A shop with a saw tooth roof, built in 1889 for the Straight Line Engine Works at Syracuse, New York, required snow shovel- ing from the roof only once in seventeen years. The chief objection to inside gutters is their extra expense and the care that must be taken to keep them clean. If a leak occur? in an interior gutter, it nmst be immediately repaired to prevent water running into the building, whereas numerous leaks may occur on external gutters without causing any damage, and individual leaks will not necessitate immediate attention. The usual custom is to ignore separate leaks on eave gutters and renew or repair them only when the leaks become so numerous as to make repairs posi- tively necessary. Saw tooth gutters that were formerly built as shown in Figs. 313 and 31?, are now being made from 'i to 4 feet in width or even more, in order that there may be less chance for ice forming and bursting them. The greatest danger from leakage re- sults when ice in the gutter begins to melt. The water is then drawn up the roof slopes under the ice and snow, and if there are any openings in the roof up to the surface of the ice, the water is sure to leak through. The latter form is illustrated in Figs. 101 and 103. Interior gutters should be very carefully designed and strongly built. Various details of both interior and exterior gutters are given in Part IV, Chapter XXVIII. GUTTER PITCHES. Ordinary eave gutters should if possible, have a pitch of about I inch in 10 feet and never less than 1 inch in 15 feet. Interior gutters, such as those between saw tooth trusses, should have a greater pitch, or about i inch per lineal foot. These gutters will drain to interior downspouts at the columns and their steeper inclination will h^lp to keep them clean and free from silt or dirt ^'j^^-WKmmm^'^ 78 MILL BUILDINGS Unless on narrow buildings, there should be no effort made to drain the gutters to the sides of the building. It is better to have them drained to downspouts placed either inside, or against the interior columns, and spaced from 40 to 50 feet apart. The gutters can then k' given a greater slope than if carried a longer distance to the side walls. fti '%?*- CHAPTER IX. LIGHTING AND VENTILATING. The importance of proper lighting for manufacturing buildings is evident. The amount of light must be ample but it must not be bright or glaring to cause shadows or tire the eyes of the work- men. Buildings having the entire wall surface composed of glass are apt to be so bright that the work will be less feflective than in a more subdued light. The effect of direct rays of the sun on large areas of glass, even though they are protected with shades, tends to unevenly light the interior of the building and may produce high lights where they are not needed and shadows where there should be the best light. It is also difficult and expensive to heat these buildings in winter, and in summer they are excessively warm because of the heat radiation from the glass. The subject of Lighting will be considered under two headings, (1) General Lighting and (2) Specific Lighting. It is evident tliat a good degree of general light should exist throughout the working space of ary manufacturing building, and that each ma- chine or particular location where work is done, should be well lighted in order to secure the highest class of workmanship. All manufacturing or industrial buildings will not necessarily require either the same amount of light or light from the same directions. Warehouses in which goods are piled around the walls will often require very little or no light from ^le sidsB, and per- haps none from the roof. Mar.y warehouses are in use only when he receiving and loading doors are open, and such openings them- selves may qdmit enough light. If, however, more is needed than will enter through the open doors, it is probable that light from the roof will be better than from wall windows which might be obstructed with boxes or other piles of goods. In warehouses, if wall windows are desired, it is usually better to place them high above the floor and make them only large enough to prevent the warehouse interior from being dark. General lighting will be secured in one of the foUowiog ways : (1) Side wall lighting, (2) Koof lighting through fiat sl?}'light in the plane of roof, .t!l i..:isS&f"'^?3«a!-- fi I 80 MILL BVILDISG8 (3) Boof lighting thro i longitudinal monitorg, (4) Roof lighting thro ransverse monitors, (5) R(K)f li^'hting throiijjh i>()\ skylights, (fi) Hoof lighting throngh khw tooth roof windows. Lighting from siile windows is effective for distances wA exceeding 'iO to -^5 feet and for this reason, huildings in severMl stories or tliose depending entirely on side lighting, cannot usually he made of a greater width than 40 to 50 feet. Buildings that must he wider than 50 feet must therefore receive additional light from the roof. WALL LIGHTING. Windows in factory walls have been 'e in a great variety of ways, depending chiefly on two facto .e first of which is the need of the particular building or the ki..^ of products made therein, and the second factor is the personal preference of the designer or owner. There are buildings existing with side windows made (1) Xarrow and high, (2) Low and broad, (3) With small window areas near together, (4) With large window areas far apart, (5) With continuous sash over entire wall, (6) With small and high windows al)ove the floor, etc., etc. In many of these buildings, other conditions are quite similar and products the same, so there is little reason for the great diver- sity in lighting systems. The quality of glass also differs without apparent reason. In some places ordinary window glass is used, protected inside with shades, while in other places the shades are omitted and the glass painted white. In other buildings may be seen windows glazed with ground or ribbed glass or with prisms, though the cost of prism glass is generally so great as to make its use unwarranted in ordi- nary factory buildings. The general use of plain glass for side windows is unsatisfac- tory on account of the need of either inside or outside shades. Under the most favorable circumstances, the duration of shades in factory buildings is short, and they are frequently the source of disputes or discord among the workmen. Light that is agreeable to one man, may be disagreeable to another, and it is hard to adjust shades to m\i all. On this account, ribbed glass has been adopted '^'^^^y^^m:^mm^..*hmim^^^^r^z^i'T^^^^^^^m LIOHTINO AND rSNTlLATING 81 entirely in some new factory buildings, for all si window open- ings, but the result has been unsatisfactory because the occupants of the building are then unable to get a view of the outdoors or to rest the eyes by changing the length of vision. It is well known that the eyes quickly grow weary from continuous observation of objects at the same distance, whether near or far away, and there is no better means of resting them than by changing the view to distant hills, sky or foliage, even though these cha-nges he foi a few moments only. It is therefore unwise to use ribbed or obscure f;las8 for all side windows of a factory building, but it is still advantageous to use ribbed glass in the upper half, as the ribbing tends to distribute and more evenly disseminate the light over the floor. The rough glass costs about Hie same as plain and avoids the use of shades. The experience in some factories where ribbed glass only was used for windows, was that the workmen not only were unable to do effective work, but refused to continue where no opportunity was given for seeing further than the building walls. It has been found that the amount of light inside of a building is doubled when the walls and framing are painted white, and hence it has become common practice to paint a dark colored dado of brown or green about 5 feet in height on the walls and columns, and to either paint white or whitewash the balance of the interior. TOTAL BEQTJIBED LIGHTING AREA. There is a great variation in the amount of window and sky- light area provided by different designers for manufacturing build- ings, so great indeed that it would seem impossible to establish any ■~^o\ \e rule to cover the subject. The required area of glass in . roofs depends on several conditions, some of which are, ■vind of glass used, (2) the prevailing atmospheric condi- tir. ... Mhether clear or smoky, (3) the use to which the building vill i.e put, (4) proximitv to other buildings, and (5) the angle which the glass makes with the vertical. A shop where fine detail work is carried on will need more light and a greater area of glass than a forge shop or rolling mill, and if color work is done in con- nection with detail, a still greater degree of lijht will be needed. A common rule for lighting is to make the glass area in walls and roof equal to 10% of the entire exterior surface for mill buildings, and 20% for machine shops, '^e Pennsylvania Steel Company's new buildings have windows and skylights in the proportion of one 8(,uare foot for every 82 cubic feet in the buildings, or for every 3.1 square feet of floor surface. A shop for the American Car and !!?^"E^w^>^^. "'^^^^^^M^'^si^wr-'i^ 8t MILL BV1LDIS68 I i i I ■t^^ Foundrj- Company at Detroit haa 27% of its entire exterior aurf«e composed of glass, while the new Eng.ueenng building at the Brooklyn Navy Yard has glass .fjual to 607c of its exterior. WALL LIOHTINO. \ good general rule for the amount of wall window surfaoe, ia to make such area ...t less than 20% of the entire wall. Some •lesigners make this area as largo as 507* of the wall surface, while another rule is to make the window arPS equal to the square root of the cubic contents of the shop. Other rules are to make the windows not less than lO^cof the floor area or not less than one square foot of window for every 100 c-ubic feet of shop contents. An English architect says that the breadth of a window should be one-eight' of tne sum of shop width and height, and the height of the window twice its br^adth^ The new plant of the American Bridge Company at Ambndge has side window areas varying from 20 to 30% of the wall, while tae new Canadian Pacific Railway 8h.)p8 at Montreal have side win- (lows equal to 50% of the entir walls. BEQUIBED SKYLIGHT AREA. Mill buildings over 80 feet in width should '[^f '^^ »* /f*«* half the light from the roof and the area ol roof lights should be Tut one-half the entire rocf surfac. The new General^tr. Company's machine shop at Schenectady N^ . ,\f V!^, T^e outline in Fig. 73 has skylights equal to 40% o ^e r.^f. The skylight area on th.. St. Louis tram shed is equal to 25% of the ro^f 'while a machine shop for the Chicago City Railway Com- pany has wire glass skylights covering 357 of the whole roof. BOOF LIGHTING. Figs 66 to 74, inclusive, show types of roof having two rows of interior columns, with sash or windows in the side walls above ^e side or leanto roofs. The amount uf window area m these sides may be increased or diminished as desired by ^"y\°g *« ^«'J* ^^ the center Hay. It is evident that for the same ^^'g^t ^°f ^ ^^^ trusses, ^ ,'. 69 may have a greater window area on t^e "^e ftan is possible in such a design as Fig. 66, but it is also evident that the framing shown in Fig. 66 will be st.fEer laterally thar 69 Fi-T- 70 nnd 72 are somewhat similar to 69, inasmuch as the «ide ro^fs in each case slope inward and permit a greater height of LIGHTINO AND mNTILATlNO U .to adi..ining the .entml column*. There are, >>;*;'V'^'- . "";;' i'ion be«i.l that of light which are important factor, .n tne ^Xtion of a general roof >utline and the^ will he con«dered m IrtttT pflges. FLAT 8KYLir,HT8. There are tw.. principHl ohj«tion8 to the UHe of skylight, in „H. plane of the root, nana-lv, that in winter «ea«ons .!..n he lf'i« c-overed with snow, light i. liable to l.e obscured ; and thev 7J^,i to leak. To overcome these objections the «k> hght at tl. , ige n.av l>e given a steeper pitch than the balance of the nn, . a L in Figs 68. 84, 85 and 90. The increased pitch o skyhght , e^d to more quickly shed the water, and when the slope .s as ,1 a« 45 degrees" snow will slide off by gravity. A plant of th. description built in seven transverse bays, each bay 50 feet in width, ,r bl constructed for the Deutsche Niles-Werkzeugmaschinen- Fabrilc, Berlin, and is shown in Fig. 107. The design is somev-hat .lifferent from current American practice but has «)rne /e^ com- niendable features. If it is desired to use ^^^^'fl'^J^X .lirect sunlight and resulting shadows, «'««« "dge^skyhghts may be glazed on the north slope only, the south side being covered with ordinary' roofing. LONGITTJDIN.'VL MONITOBS. To be of anv value for lighting purposes, longitudinal monitow must have sufficient width to permit the direct light to reach aU part, of the floor. Roof monitors are frequently made qmce nar- L not over 4 to 6 feet in width, to secure better yentilation. Windows in the side of such monitors are of little use for lighting l.,cau.e light shines across the monitor and very little reaches tLr. floor. A narrow monitor is preferable for ventilation, «« ^"^okf ^°J impure air, rising to the highest part of the roof, «« "^ff ^rawn out through the open sides. Monito.3 for lighting should have a width of about one^uarter of the roof spun, as shown ^^J^-J]' Light entering at the monitor windows will then be uncSstructed wfth this width, foul air and gases will collect m the upper part of the roof and, if the building is one where smoke and gas is devel- oped to anv great extent, it may be necessary to use a second narrow monitor for venf -tion. The sides of this smaller monitor may be provided with sheet metal shutters instead of windows, as the amount of light trom the sides .vill be small. Since the cost of movab e «a«h is no greater than the corresponding cost of shutters, the sash M !• 84 MILL BVlLDlSaS -.i» i~- i«- 1 :aM£eiU2ii^HaHnHHk^iiaiiiiai^^ ^:m^K .:-. i^- LWBTISa AND VSNTILATINO w arc sometimes preferred, as they will at any rate light Uu. up^ "art <.f tV" n«f, ev. if nc light from them reach^ the floor. ,„prov«i form* of monitor cnBtruction are nhown m Fig^ Hs M^ 92 1)3 and 94. In all of these forms, the glass is inclined at "an angle of about 45 degrees or lesH with .e vertical, «) snow will not UKlgc thereon, while a larger amount of light is admitted U.an when win.' -ws stand vertical. Figs. 91, 92 and 93 have no M-ntilator monitor and .^casional movable windows are required to secure circulation of air. Figs. 88 and 94 have provision for ventilation above the sloping glass and are probably the m^t appn-sod and acceptable forms for shop buildu.gs w»' .h are lighted through continuous monitors. A power house bu: .n the form of Fii: 04 for the Pullman Car Company at Pullr . Illinois has thi side walls above the sloping skylights set out a distance of sev- eral feet from the two interior rows of columns, and gives anmle clearance, not only for the traveling crane, but also for swinging a sash or an int or footwalk for the purpose of inspect- ing or cleaning the monii r windows. CROSS MONITOBS. There arc a number of mill buildings lighted through the roof by means of occasional transven-e monitors extending either part way or entirely across the roof. Fig. 79 shows an outline sketch of 'a roof recently built by the Jones and Laughlm Company. Trusses arc spaced alxnit 20 feet apart and the transverse monitors shown are of one full panel length and occur at «vorythira panel. The entire ends of these transverse monitors are filled -ith glass, and the designers of the building report that the arra Tient is preferable to one continuous monitor down the c<^nter ol e build- ing. Fig. 83 shows a somewhat similar roof, bai.i l-r the Pencoyd Iron Works. , ,, , Assuming the trusses to be 20 f ,>part, wi, .-■ full transverse monitor over every third panel, the c of this typ. of construction would 1)0 about equal to the .ost of a longitudinal one, ^'hen ^''e length of the transverse monitor is equal to three panels or 60 feet. If the transverse monitors have a less length than three panels, the cost will then be less than the corresponding cost of longi- tudinal ones. BOX SKYLIGHTS. Fifrs. 78, 80 and 82 show forms of roofs through which light i« n.lmitto,! 'fn the floor by means of numerous small box skylights. 3jJi:5X^\-fj.;? ^v jtf '-^\.jSPiafe.. ^*'. ■e.v'">^Jl»:'sS.'a}%,j a £iSj^ 86 MILL BUILDINGS These skylights may serve also as ventilators, either by having movable tops, or sides of sufficient height for swinging ventilators, sash, or louvres. Numerous skylights have the advantage of dis- tributing light uniformlv over the floor but they are apt to leak and require continual care. 'The best skylight of all is the one which, after completion, requires no attention or cost for maintenance. I ***H^ NORTHERN LIOHT ROOFS. 'I'he tyiKJ of roof shown by Figs. 98 and 99 has long been a favorite for use in southern latitudes where little or no snow falls and where the glare of the sun is generally bright. For a long time, it was not used to any great extent in northern 'i mates, because snow gathers on the roof and not only obstructs the win- dows but produces abnormal roof loads. The alternate melting and freezing of the snow from heated air within the building in con- tact with the gutters and roof, causes ice to form in the gutters which frecjuently bursts them and makes them leak. This objec- tion of snow and ice does not wcur in southern climates and the type is therefore i)articularly suitable for these locations. A room lighted entirely from the nortii without either sunlight glare or shadows is unquestionably the most satisfactory. T<> appreciate the difference in lighting, it is only necessary to examine and compare two shops, one witb side windows, and the other with northern roof light only. Tn the latter shop, while every part of the building and machinery is perfectly lighted, there is no glare and never any shadows. The principal objection to a more general use of northern light roofs is their excessive cost, but as more and a better grade of work can be done under the better lighting, the extra expenditure is freciuently warranted. Tt is evident from inspection that r..ofs in the form of Figs. 98 and 99 have a greater cost than roofs of the ordinary types, for the saw tooth roof, esi)e- ciallv that shown in Fig. 98 with vertical teeth, has a greater roof area! The wiiole glass area is, in fact, additional over the area of a plain pitch roof similar to Fig. 59. The angle which the sash makes with the vertical nmst be small enough so the noonday sun at midsummer will not strike directly on the glass. The magnitude of this angle will evidently dei^nd uiK>n the latitude, but in the United States it inav bo made from 25 to 30 degrees, or somewhat greater if a projecting cornice is placefl above the glass, to serve „nt „uU ..s a finish for the ridge, but nlsn to shade the windows from the noonday snn. LIGHTING AND VENTILATING 87 To exclude direct sunlight, tlie glass must face directly or very nearly north, and the saw teeth may be placed either trans- ve;,ely or 'longitudinally on the building. I was formerly the custom to yentilate saw tooth roofs either with circular metal or steamboat ventilators on the ridge, or by naking all or part of the side windows in the saw teeth movable, "the former method was insufficient, the windows were frequently inade moyable. and as it was difficult to make inclined movable w ndowB weatherproof, some of the more recent saw tooth roos ^e the windows vertical, as show in Fig. 98. This precaution is not so necessary for roofs with stationary windows, because the inints can then be flashed or battened. ^ taw'ooth windows should have a height of about one-fourth the tru«s span. Thev should be double glazed in northern latitudes or whereyer the difference between inner and outer temperatua- is considerable, and in any case there must be condensation gutters beneath the sash. The forms shown in 96 and 97 have the advan- tage that ventilation is secured through movable sash or shutters m tht upFr ^ Us of the center bay. and the saw tooth sash in the .ide bays mav be fixed. The improvement removes the danger of Tkage, which has always been the chief objection to saw tooth construe wn^^^^^ the general outline of a locomotive shop for the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe R. R. Co. at To^ka, Kansas A form of saw tooth has been proposed as shown by f^U hues m Fig 102, but the form has no special merit, as that shown by dotted lines could be built at a less cost and would at tli. same time give a greater amount of light. The most recent and approved tj'pe of .aw tooth roof is shown in Figs. 101 and 103, where wide gutte^ are used to prevent leaks. Ice forming i. narrow ?"ttei^ is apt to bur«t them. Fig. 101 is an outline of the new Carnegie Steel Com- ;;:•. storehouse at Waverly, New Jersey, while Fig. 103 is a roof It the Anerican Bridge Company's plant at Ambndge Pennsyl- xnnia. An objection to using wide gutters on saw tooth roofs is that beneath the gutter, there will l.e a less degree of light and for this reason the gutter width should not exceed 2 to 4 feet. Xorth li-ht mav be secured by using plain skylights on one .ide only of ordinary- pitch roofs, or may be admitted as in Figa. 88 80 90, 91 and 92, bv placing sash on the north side of monitors, hut the amount of ro^f light would be insufficient for ordinary whops. , Tt is well wherever possible, in designing roofs, to make provi- mw 88 MILL BUILDIN68 eion for some form of narrow foot walks near tlie monitor sash of skylights, for the purpose of repairing and cleaning them. There are but few features about a manufacturing building which show negligence or indifference to appearances more than numerous broken windows, and certainly no system of skylights can be effect- ive even though designed and built with the greatest care, if the glass is allowed to become covered with smoke and dirt. Beating rnin storms will partially cleanse the exterior but skylights should be accessible on the interior for frequent cleaning. VENTILATING. The subject of ventilating must be considered when deciding upon the general roof outline. There are many unfortunate exam- ples of manufacturing buildings, which have been insufficiently planned and hurriedly erected, where the resulting building has proved inadequate to its purposes. Men cannot work at their best or produce work of the best quality when they are in a foul atmosphere. Many badly ventilated buildings were originally made for some purpose in which but little ventilation WaS needed, but are now put to use as manufacturing buildings, and gas and smoke accumulate to such an extent that effective \^ rk is impossi- ble. Too often, short-sighted manp-ement refrains from adding tne necessary ventilation facilities, knowing that the cost of heat- ing in the winter seasims will be increased thereby. There are plenty of proofs of increased production in mills and factories built on modern principles, with provision and thought for the comfort and welfare of the workmen. The ventilation of manufac- turing buildings is so important that it is now being scientifically treated by companies, who give their entire attention to heating and ventilating. Forced ventilation in connection with the heating system gives the best results, and many modern shops are now using it. As artificial ventilation will not affect to any great extent the form of the roof, further than providing space for ventilation ducts, it is not necessary to discuss this part of the subject in connection with the general design. In many buildings, such as forge shops where smoke, fumes or gases occur, artificial ventilation may be neces- sary. In any case, the amount of ventilation rer there will then be no drafts. When air is admitted through Muall openings at high velocity, drafts are formed which may result in eolds and sickness. Heating by rapid air currents at high tem- peratures, lacks uniformity, as that part of the shop adjoining the air inlets will be too warm, while other parts will be too cold. The following table gives the approximate l^f'}^^"''''^'^ required in the roofs of manufacturing buildings of different kmds per 100 square feet of floor area for side wall heights of 20 to 50 feet The areas are net, and if louvres are used these areas must be increased by about 60% to compensate for the obstruction caused by the louvre slats. REQUIBED VENTILATION AREA. Height, in feet, above groun.l 20 30 40 50 ^^„tilators Machine shopa-square foot % % °^ /^ Touvre ventilators Mill8-8r ventilating very smoky build- ings where little or no artificial heating is needed, such as rolliJig mills, furnaco buildings, etc., where there is always excess heat even in the winter season, is shown in Fig. 77. Two or more lines of purlins on each side of the roof are built with upper and lower roof supports, and continuous open spaces pre thereby left, varying in height from 4 to 18 inches. The upper roof projects far enough over the lower one to shed any ordinary rain or snow, and where large volumes of gas, fumes or smoke arise, these continuous openings are effective in clearing the atmosphere. INDIVIDUAL METAL VENTILAT0B8. Ventilators of this kind are shown in figs. 62 and ',2, and in detail in Part IV, Chapter XXIX. They are suitable only when a i^mali amount of ventilation is needed. Numerous patent forms arc on the market known by various names, such as Globe, Star, etc., but thev are easilv made in almost any sheet motal shop with- out the need of paving patent royalties. An objectio. to the use of these ventilators is that the warm air from the interior of the building coming in contact with the metal at a very much lower temperature in the winter season, will cause condensation that is liable to be damaging to the contents of the building, unless con- densation gutters are used. The steamboat ventilator shown in Fig. .516 is made with double sides to prevent this. Circular metal ventilators should preferably have dampers to be opened or closed at wilt. The fuliowitig tabl.^ gives tlte area of circular ventilators for diameters from 12 to 48 inches: TT" .^¥r -yv-tfBvmair .Larav.* MILL BUILDINGS h AREA OF CIRCULAR VENTILATORS. Diameter in inB. Area in sq. ft.. , .12 18 24 36 38 42 48 1.8 3.1 4.9 7.1 9.6 12.6 BOX SKYLIGHT VENTILATORS. These are more or less effective when the curbs or sides of the boxes are provided with movable sash or shutters or covered with louvres. On account of their being separated, they require indi- vidual attention and are not as convenient as monitor windows which can be opened in groups with a single chain or hand wheel. 1 8r:CIAL VENTILATORS. Certain buildings require special ventilation. It is common practice to ventilate engine houses by lowering a funnel or smoke jack over the engine stacks. Many nio■:■ ^.: / LIOETING AND VENTILATING 93 but are troublesome to remove and replace, as they are bolted to tlie frame work. When a plant is enclosed with a fence or wall and watchmen are on guard both da_y and night, it mpy be unneoessary to close tlie buiklinga at night when the workmen arc absent, and the movable panels would then be as effective as the more expensive doors. They may !« made ■? large as can be conveniently handled, {\ or 8 feet in width and about 10 feet in height, and in the spring- time, when weather conditions will permit, may be unbolted and removed to a convenient place for storage, there to remain until ajrain required on the approach of cjol weather in the autumn. I'anels may be made of cither wood or sheet metal, as preferred. Ventilation is greatly facilitated by placing a line of shutters in the wall at or near the floor, which, when opened, will cause a current of air to circulate upward through the building, cariying the foul air and smoke out through the roof ventilators. TliL'se may be made as part of the movable panels as above descriljed, so that in winter, when the weather will uot permit the opening of the entire side, some or all of these small ventilating panels may be used as desired. When the sides are made of doors instead of movable panels (Fig. 16), the cost will be more because ox the necessity of sus- pending or hinging them. It is generally impr-.c- ticable to hingi; large doo.-? on account of trieir weight, for soouer or later the weight will cause tliem to droop and their movement to be impaired. A vortical sliding door, counterweighted at both sides, is satisfactory for continuous side-openings, if there are large window panels in the door to per- mit the light to enter from the side wall windows. folding door such as is shown in Part IV, Chapter XXXVI, is suit- able for continuous side openings. These may be mide in wood or metal, as preferred. Certain buildings may be left open at the Bi les during all seasons of the 3'ear. In this class are such buildings as storage sheds, furnace houses or others which are used both day and night and have at all seasons excessive heat. A method of wall ventilation used by the writer in designing a wool treating warehouse is shown in Fig. 109. Thi walls are 20 feet in height and are covered with sheathing in three lengths and Fig. 1U«. Some form of »*."« I i M MILL BUILDINGS at the joints where the layers of sheathing overlap each other th.> purlins are framed to jH?rmit 4-inth air spaces around the entire length of sides and ondH, interruptetl only by the windows. Beneath the overhanging eavj-s there is another continuous 4-inch air space. On the roof at the ridge is a monitor ventilator with 3 feet of •ontinuons metal louvres on either side, so that at all times there is free circulation of air through the Imilding. I %»., PART II LOADS CHAPTER X. STATIC ROOF LOADS. Mills, factories and other industrial buildings differ so greatly in their purpose and use that it is difficult to establish any rules or formulse for the weight of material in them. Each building must \)e considered separately, and after its requirements are known and its general outline selected, thn approximate amount of material jind the corresponding weight may then be determined. The amount (if material will depend upon the use and character of the building, wlietlier temporary or permanent, fireproof or otherwise, the loads that it must carry, the nature of the roof covering and the presence or absence of cranes or other handling appliances. The loads to which these buildings are subject are as follows: Dead Loadt. Live Loads. (a) Boof Framing and CoTering. (d) Snow. (b) Walls. (e) Wind. (<-•) Floors. (0 Cran«. (g) Pipes, Shafting, etc In the following pages, these various loads are considered sepa- rately in detail, and tables of weights are given. It is advisable to make liberal provision for future increased loadti, as experience shows that buildings are frequently subjected to much harder usage than anticipated. There must also be liberal additions to the stresses from cranes or other moving loads to provide for impact and vibration which tend to jar and rack the building. This impact addition must be made in designing both the frames and the foundations. The maximum loads of every nature must be positively known in order lo produce a safe and satisfactory design. as 96 MILL BriLDlNUS f M i ■ '^ - J M A Si f ROOF FRAMINO. Before undertaking n design in detail, the engineer should hare a general knowledge of the npproxininte loads. When a tlioioe has licen made as to whether the building shall lie temi)ornry or perma- nent, fireproof or otherwiKe, the weight of roof framing will depend chiefly upon the nature of the roof covering and the presence of cranes or trollcvs Ixiuinth the trusses. The capacity of cranes, and the kind of riM)f covering, should be determined when considering the general re((uireruents. Table XIII gives the weight jwr 8([uare f(M>t of roof surface for various kinds of roofing, to which must l)e added the weight of Bheathing, if any, and from 2 to 4 pounds per square foot for pur- lins, depending upon the 'lit^tance between trusses. The least weight of purlins results from close truss spacing, and this weight increases with the distance l)etween trusses. The usual allowance for combined snow and wind loads is 20 to 30 pounds per square foot, depending on the latitude. To these must be addetl the weight of pipes, shafting or trolleys on the bottom chords and the weight of trusses. The truss weight can be approximated by use of the eight original charts shown in Figs. 110 to 117, which give the total weight and also the weight per square foot of area covered, for trusses of four different types. Fig. 1 10* gives tiie actual weight of steel roof trusses in pounds, for spans varying from 20 to 80 feet in length, and total roof loads of 40 pounds per horizontal square foot. The rafters have a rise of G inches per foot, known as one-quarter pitch. The curves show the weight of trusses for spacings of 10 to 20 feet apart, designed wicli compres^ion and tension ' -its of 12,000 and 15,000 pounds per square inch, respectively. ¥ig. Ill* shows the corresponding weight of the above roof trusses in pounds per squaie foot of area covered. Fig. 112 gives the total weight of steel roof trusses in pounds, for spans varying from 30 to 80 feet, with the same rafter slope and unit stresses as used in Fig. 110. These trusses differ, however, from those previously described by having a lighter capaeitv of only 30 pounds per horizontal square foot and are suitable for tropical countries where no snow falls. Fig. 113 gives the weight of steel in pounds per horizontal square foot for the trusses referred to in Fig. 112. The curves ghow weights for trugg spacing varying from 10 to IS feet. 1/ !?*, • H. G. Tyrrell, in Engineering News, June 21, 1900. P5^«C l-''-i*£m''' STATIC ROOF LOADS ff Wrights lire rpquircnl for otlii-r spacings, tliey may be found approxi- iiiatply l)y drawing rorrcHfKjnding ourves on the weight charta. Fig. 114 gives the total woight of gtecl roof trussoa for loads of 40 pounds per horizontal scjuare ftK)t and for roof slopes of 4 indies per foot. These weights are for spans varying from 20 to GO feet in k-ngth, and truss spacings of 8 to 16 feet apart. Diagram shonyirrgr Titer/ Weiqht of ffoo-f Trusses. Capacity 40 lbs. perstf. A. Horixonta/. Pitch, 6 in. per fi: Units I?fi00 and 15,000 lbs. p«r sq. In. aooo 30 40 50 eo 70 Spon in Tieet. Fig. 110. 80 90 rao Fig. 115 shows the corresponding weight in pounds per horizon- tal scjuare foot for the trusses referred to in Fig. 114, Fig. lie is chart showing the total weight in pounds for steel viiijf trusses with a capacity of 4.5 pounds per square font, and 8 rafter slope of one-half inch rise per foot. Tliese trusses are suit- aljje for roofs with plank and gravel covering on longitudinal pur- 98 MILL B'JIIDIS'08 Wtiqhf ef Itoof V-vSMj ptr sf. 0: of 4rta Covered. Cafiacity M Ibi. f»r itf. ^. pifih, 6 in. pwr *. Units lt,t/CO ana IS,000 HU. 50 60 70 Spon in Favt. Fig. m. i f^H.. Total Weight of ffoof Tfusses. Capacity 30 lbs. per stj. A: Horizontal. Pitch, 6 in per ih. Unifs 12,000 and 15,000 lbs. eO 30 40 BO '«> 70 80 90 Span in Teet. Fig. 112. m .-.»••/ X. STATIC KOOf LOAim M \'\w. Ab purlins an* uik> top < horiln lor rciiting k'ntling ftresac*'. Fijf. 1 17 f.''^'"" *'"' "ci^'lit of shrl per liorizontnl ttqiiarc foot for ihr rrM)l' tniMws it'ferrcd to in Fij;. 11(5. All original forinuin hv the author, giving tlu; weight in |)ountr lii>rizont«l sipiHri' foot for tin- f muxes roforrctl to in Fig. 110, I- lis f(i!lr>w!': W 8 12 20 D Wtighf of Roof TruMts. per Mf.*. of Araa covtred. CapacHy JO lbs. per sq. it. Pitch, 6 in. per ft. Units IZfiOO and 15,000 lb*. Eg;: ies! \\l vi: 20 30 40 50 60 70 Span in F««rt. Fig. lis. 80 90 ♦8- i m Corresponding formulae for the weight of rfiof trugMes ^iven by KthfT engineers are as follows: Professor Merrinian's formula; for trusses in spans up to 180 f( et and distances apart up to 40 feet are : For 3teel trusses W = % (1 -|- .18) For wooil trusses W — V( (1 -j- .18) Trautwine's formula is as follows : Total weight of Fink roof trusses in pounds = 8quare of span in feet 3.1 Professor Johnson's formula is : S W 25 + 4 100 MILL BUILDINGS Formulae by C. E. Fowler are: For heavy trusses VV .06 8 + .6 For light tnisses W = .04 8 + -4 Formula by Professor N. ('. Rickcr W — + 25 6000 In all the foregoing formulas — W is the weight of steel jier square foot of area covered; 8, the span in feet, and D, the distance in feet — center to center of trusses. Tbfcr/ Weight of ffoof Trusses. Capacity 40 lbs. per sg. #. Horizontal. Pitch,4 in. per it. Units le,000 and 15,000 lbs. 40 50 60 Span in Feet. Fig. 114. 70 S 3000£ EOOOS F 1000 i I 60 ! *tu- Fig. 118 is a cliart showing comparative results of some of these formula.', including anotiier by Professor DuBois, compared with actual truss weights. From tiic chart, the appro.xinmte weight of steel roof trusses in spans up to 130 feet may easily be found by inspection. These charts are for definite total roof loads in each case, but they may also be used for loading of a lesser or greater amount by observing the following directions. Tiie weiglit of trusses depends upon the total load per lineal foot of truss carried. Trusses sup- porting a 40-pound roof load, spaced 20 feet apart, sustain the same load as those carrying a 50-pound load and spaced only 16 feet apart, 'i'lierefore, if it is desired to determine the weight of roof trusses for any other roof loading, such as GO pounds per W"""^^' STATIC ROOF LOADS 101 Weiahf of Roof Trusses, per sq. fr. of Tirva covered. Ctrpaeity 40 lbs. oer sa- ft-- Pitch 4- in. per fr. ^^ Units li,000 cind 15,000 lbs. aO 30 40 50 60 70 Span in Foe+. Fig. 115. Total Weight of Steel Trusses. Capacity 46 lbs. per sq. ft- Horizontal. Pitch, j in. per n. Units 12,000 and 15,000 lbs. Fig. 116. \\ 102 MILL BUILDINGS I I I f^ ; «Muare foot spaced 12 feet ajjart, it is only necesary to find the total load per lineal foot carried by the truss, which in this case is 12 tunes 60, or 7-iO pounds; and then dividing this amount by 40, tlie corresponding si)acing of IS feet is found for the 40-pound trusses. The weight of GO-pound trusses spaced 12 feet apart is tlierefore the same as the weight of 40-pound trusses spaced 18 feet apart. These weights may be read directly from the charts and they are therefore applicable not only for trusses to sustain the loads given but also for roof loads of other amounts as well. Weiffht of Roof Trusses per sq. « of Area covered. Capaciiy 45 lbs. per sa. jf. Pifch, i in. per fk Designed for Plank and 6rcrv'>/ Roof on Pui Roof on Purlins. » 30 „ 50 60 70 Span in Feet. Klg. 117. ao 90 ''H.. I igs. 11 1, 1 1;{, 1 lo and 1 1 7, for the weights of steel roof trusses in pounds per s.piare foot of area covered, are onlv for the total roof loads given. It is evident that if the total load ,.er square foot supported In the roof is i„,.n;ased, the corresponding weight of framing per scpiare fo(.t of area covered will also be increased Figs. Ill, ll.i, 115 and 117 are therefore applicable onlv for roof loa.ls as given on each chart. For loads of a greater or less amount, the weights per square foot will vary nearly in direct jiroportion! but not exactly, for it is not always possible to realize the reipiire.l areas in ail the meinbers, especially in the smaller ones. For exam- ple, if it is rc.|uircd to find the weight of steel per square foot of STATIC ROOF LOADS 103 area coverefl, in roof trusses to carry a total roof load 50 per cent greater than given on the chart, or 60 pounds per square foot, the increased weight of metal would be about 45 per cent, or somewhat less tlian the proportion of increased load. Comparing two trusses, if one carries twice as much load as tlie otlier, the first will not be quite twice as heavy as the lighter one. Fig. *119 is an original cliart from which the weight of steel trusses of ordinary sloiws may be determined for spans of any Comparison of Formulae for Weight of Steel Fink Roof Trusses. Loacl4Clbs.ptrs^,fh f^tch f ins. in I! ins. Distance on Centers, tO'o'lS'o'dc ZO'O' Traufwinei Formula Merrimani " Dm Bois ' •• Johnson 's " Actual Weight » Fig. 118. length and loads of any amount, as well as for varying unit stresses. It is general in its form, and is suitable for all spans and loads. The diagrams are drawn from a large number of actual cases and are therefore correct. Loads i)cr lineal foot include both dead and live loads. For I 'iiiieiilrated loads, the e({uivalcnt uniform load may be used, remembering that a concentrated load at the center of a span pro- duces Ix'ndihg moments that arc twice as great as when the same load is distributed uniformly over the entire length. To illustrate the use of this chart, suppose that it is required to lind tlie weight of a steel roof truss of 8()-foot span, to carry a ■;^ i ■ 104 MILL BUILDINGS total load of 2,000 pounds per lineal foot, with an allowable tensile unit stress of lo.OOO pounds per square ineh. The weight of steel per lineal foot of truss is as follows : w = Span in fcot X total lna- «z. / Zii^a^as _ -!r%= ittrOOO-«H krittrnJty^ ■ ^^C^L iflOOj. It. soo 1000 1500 2000 2500 "TWal Loads per lin. ft. ir Fig. 120. 3000 lbs. 3500 4000 Snow and wind loads are discussed on a later page, but it may he stated here that in the northern states, roofs should not be pro- [lortioncd for a less total load than 40 pounds per horizontal square foot. In tropical countries, where snow does not fail, a correspond- ing total load of 30 to 35 pounds per square foot is permissible. \Miere office and drafting rooms of shops or mills are ceiled, the weiglit of lath and plaster ceiling must be added to the other weights. This will be about 10 pounds per square foot, not includ- ing joists, for which extra provision must be made. TABLE XI 11. WKKiHT OF ROOF COVERING, WITHOUT SHEATHINC. IN POUNDa PER SQUARE FOOT OF ROOF SURFACE. Lh». pers<]. ft. Throo-ply prepared roofing, ruberoiii 1.0 Ht;iniling seam steel 1.0 Tin on felt ,..,.,.,,,., , . i,o < orniniited iron, painted or f^alvanizetl. No. 27 9 ( ornigateil iron, painted or galvanized. No. 26 1,0 Corrugated iion, painted or galvanized, No. 24 1.3 106 MILL BVILDINGS j i Corrugated iron, painted or galvaniied, No. 22. . i « Corrugated iron, painted - galvaniied, No. 20. . . i o Corrugated iron, painted . galvanized, No. 18. J« Corrugated iron, painted or galvanized, No. 16 a? Copper roofing in Siieets f^ Copper roofing in tiles ' ' .' ]~ Shingles, common ^Jp Shingles, 18 in 2.5 Felt and gi..vel roofing, four-pI^" '.'.'.'.'..". ^2 Felt and gravel roofing, five-ply Sa Slate, % In. thick... :..... !^.... . fi Slate, 3/16 in. thick, 6x12 ins t" Slate, 3/16 in. thick, 12x24 ins '.[ H^ Slate, V, in. thick . ] ; ] 8-25 Tiles, Roman, in one part '. ^ a Tiles, Roman, in two parts , , Tiles, Spaii;.,h, in one part .[ '^, , Tiles, Spanish, in two parts ,o„ Tiles, Ludowici ^f^ Extrn, if tiles are laid in mortar! '. ,„„ Skylight with % in. glass ' ^°" Skylight with 5/16 in. glass. . . |„ Skylight with % in. glass .' ^^ Wood sheathing, white pine or spruce '.'. , „ Wood sheathing, southern pine. ... f " Wood sheathing, chestnut or maple :„ Wood sheathing, ash or oak. . . . Z'n Wood rafters and purlins °" Reinforced concrete slabs, per inch thickness ! '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'/.' 13 q TABLE XIV. The total loads per square foot of roof surface for different kinds of roofing, inoluding framing, i.s as follows: Boof Covering. Corrugated iron, unboarded ""• '"V?" (*• Corrugated iron, on boar.ls ,« 1° ,„ Slate on laths ... 10 to 12 Slate on 1% in. boa Is '.'.'. J?!" J^ Tar and gravel 15 to 18 Shingles on laths. . 10 to 12 Tile on plank 8 to 10 Tile laid in mortar '..'.'.'.'..'. zV^f Sheet metal on boar.ls -5 to 35 3 in. reinforced concrete .1^° .^ 40 to 45 1 CHAPTER XI. FLOOR LOADS. Building laws of various cities, for the purpose of regulating the strength of floors, specify the minimum safe loads for which they shall be proportioned (Table XV). These laws, however, apply more to buildings which are subject to regular classification than to mills and factories. The loads in such buildings must be (Ictermined separately, and the floors proportioned in each case to sustain them. For such buildings as foundries, the charging plat- forms may be subjected to 1,000 pounds per square foot or more, wliile floors for light manufacturing may have no greater than •^00 to 300 pounds per square foot. The necessity is therefore evident, for investigating the requirements of each case by itself and proportioning the framing accordingly. Tlie following weight tables are given for the purpose of esti- mating these imposed loads. Table XVI gives the weight per cubic foot of various kinds of building materials, and also the weight of manufactured materials and merchandise. By the uise of theso tables the approximate amount of imposed loads can 1)6 estimated. To these must be added the weight of the floors, wliich can be computed after the general type has been determined. Green timber weighs from 20 to 50 per cent more than the weights given in the table, which are for dry woods. If partitions occur, the weight of these must also be added to tiie total loads. Ordinary stud partitions, plastered on both sides, weigh about 20 pounds per square foot. T\BLE XV. MTXTMITM SAFE IMPOSED LOADS ON F1.00R8, AOCOKDINO TO BUILDING LAWS OP VARIOUS CITIES. Minimum live loadu on /loom in povntU per square foot. New Chi- Phila- St. Kind of builxUng. York. eago. delphia. Boston. Louis. Buffalo. Dwellings 60 "O ... 50 70 40 Apartments, hotels 60 50 70 30 70 70 Ufficf buildings, l8t floor.. 150 100 100 100 150 70 Office buildings, upper floor 75 100 100 100 70 Htablos or carriage houses. 75 40100 Public assembly halls 90 100 l:;o 150 120 100 r.ight man 'f'g and storage 120 100 120 ... ... 120 Stureliouse for heavy mate- rials; warehouses or fac- tories 150 ... 150 250 107 r * 108 MILL BUILDINGS TABLE XVI. 8ea«,ned wood J''^'^"'' "^ ^^''"^^^'^'^ MATERIAL A«h »F«»^*« per em. ft. Cherry 38 Chestnut y Cypress .......'. i] Elm 84 Ileinlock ?5 Hickory ".'. ?5 Mahogany, Spanish 5, Mahogany, Honduras .' „ Maple 35 Oak, live *» Oak, white ™ Pine, white '//[ °^ Pine, yellow, northern ?? Pine, yellow, southern T* Poplar ; ; ; ; *» Spruce Sycamore 25 Walnut, black ."!'.!.".'!.'.' H Brick and stone — '* Brick, best pressed Brick, common, hard ]%)' Brick, soft, inferior J^ Cement, Rosendale ^"2 Cement, Louisville °° Cement, English Portlaml 5^ Granite, solid ?J Granite, broken 19 Limestone, solid Limestone, broken }^^ Quartz JOO Sandstone ^^ Shales, red and black. .'.".'.'.".'.'.".'.'." J'2 Slate 1«5 Gravel and sand ............'.'.' an ^ 11^ Masonry— 90 to 130 Brickwork, pressed brick Brickwork, ordinary Jfo Stone concrete " ' ^^" Cinder concrete '«« Granite or limestone, dressed. ,?5 Granite or limestone, nibble Jr^ Granite or limestone, dry [[ J^ Sandstone, dressed J?? 144 WEIGHT OF MEBfHANDISE. Alcohol ^**- P^ «♦• f*- Aluminum '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 50 to 57 Asphaltum ^§o Alum '"' 88 Brass ' ' ' 33 Bronze •'^'^ Boxwood ■■•■•.............!!... ^^" Bleaching Powder 5^ Calcite 31 Chalk }'0 Charcoal 1"* Coal, anthracite '.'.'.'.". 1, !" ,^ 81 to 100 WLOOM LOADS 109 Coal, anthracite, piled looie 47 to 88 Coal, bituminous 78 to 88 ( Dill, bituminous, piled loose 44 to 64 ( oke 23 to 32 Coppor 640 Cork 18 ( otton Kooils 11 to 33 ( arpet 12 Corn 31 Corn Meal 37 Cutoh 45 ( austic Hoila 88 Crockery 40 Cheese 30 (lay, potters 100 to 140 Clay, in lumps 66 Eartii, common loam, dry 72 to 80 Karth, soft flowing lOOtollO Klour 40 Cilass 160 (iliisHtvare in boxes 60 (iyiisum 142 (iypsum, in lumps 82 (iypsuni, ground, loose 66 (iutta percha 61 Hav, baled 24 Iron 450 Ice 57 I nilia rubber 68 I niligo 43 Oafs 27 Oils 54 to 57 Lead 710 Lard ()il 34 Lime 60 Leatlier in bales 16 to 23 Petroleum 55 Pitch 72 I'laster 53 I'apcr, Btrawboard newspaper 33 to 44 Paper, calendered book 50 to 70 Paper, writing and wrapping 70 to 90 Rosin 69 Ko|ie 42 Haff ourfiu-v. V' = prt'NHurc |>«'r|ionilii'ul;ir tii direction of wind. H ^ Pressure parallel to direction of wind. For wind pressure of 30 pounds per square foot against a ver- tical surface, normal wind pressures on roofs of varying slopes may i)e obtained bv use of the coetlicients given in Table XIX. These norniul wind pressures are given in Table XXi TABLE XX. NORMAL WIND PRESSURE ()\ ROOFS OF VARIOUS SLOPES FOB A HORIZONTAL WIND PRESSURE OF 30 LBS. PER SO. FT. AGAINST A VERTICAL SURFACE. Angle. 5° . 10° . 15° . 18°- 20° 2|o. 25° 26° 30° 33° 35° 40° 45° 50° 55° 60° Pre»$ure Lbs. Per Sq. Ft. 3.9 7.2 10.5 26' (1/0 pitch) 13. .13.7 48' {Vt, pitch) 15. 16.9 34' (Vi pitch) 18. 19.9 41' (',{, pitch) 22. 22.6 25 1 (V, pitch) 27.1 ..'. 28.6 29.7 30. Table XX from Mii .building Construction, by H. G. TyrrelL WIND LOADS. The result of wind action on building,s can only be approxi- mated. Experiments to ascertain the force of wind for various velocities show that the greatest wind pressures during violent hurri- canes amount to 40 to 50 pounds per square foot. It is impracticable to projwrtion ordinary buildings to resist the pres- sures of tornad(H's or hurricanes, for if the building were not de- BSOW AND WIND LOADS tia atroywl by the wind, it prolmbly would be from flying wreckage nnil materials. It is aufficient, excepting, perhaps, in very expo«e«l |MMitionB, Buch as unsheltered pointi* on stormy coasts, to propor- tion buildings to resist n wind pressure of 30 pounds per square loot of vertical surface. 'i'able XVIII gives the wind pressures on vertical surfaces, for vt'lotities varying from two to one hundred miles per hour. A j)ii»sure of 30 pounds per square foot corresponds with a wind voiwity of 80 miles per hour. Table XIX gives wind coefficients for roof pitches varying from 5 to t)0 degrees with the horizontal. Table XXI gives combined snow und wind loads for roofs of (lifTercnt pitches in nortliern latitudes. Roofs should never be pro- portioned for a lost* combined snow and wind load than 25 pounds |)or square foot of tool surface. Wind is more severe when acting on surfaces in cxpo>ied positions high above ground than on lower bui'dinfrs. It is, therefore, good practice to proportion building frames that are 60 feet in height or more for a horizontal pressure of 30 pounfls per vertical square foot, or 20 pounds per square foot for heights of 25 feet or less. Between these limits of 25 and 60 feet, wind pressures should be assumed from 20 to 30 pounds, depending on tbe height. In all cases the action of wind is consid- ered normal to the ]>lane of the roof or surface. The overturning effect on a building as a whole need be con- spidered only for high, narrow buildings, but the increased stress in tlie jeawnrd columns must be considered. Xo side girths should liave provision for a lew pressure tlian 30 pounds per square foot of wall. TABLE XXI. ALLOWAKf E KOR WIND AND SNOW. COMBINED, IN LBS., PER 8Q. FT. OP ROOF SURFACE. Lmatioii. «"° Northwest StatoH 30 yt'W Englan<: V, »/-. '« :io i.") ao 37 45 30 25 25 35 40 30 25 25 27 35 30 2.5 25 22 30 30 25 25 22 20 CHAPTER Xlll. ■iSsE*^ 5w^^^ l^k^il CRANE A\D MISCELLANEOUS LOADS. Tlie load on each of the two end wheels of small shop traveling cranes is a])i)roxiniately ecjual to the capacity of the crane when the fully loaded trolley is at that end. The load at the other end will then he proi)ortionate]^- less. Tahles XNII and XXIII pive in detail loads on crane g.rders from traveling cranes, Table XXIII being for hand cranes, while Table XXII is for electric traveling cranes. The necessary capacity of cranes having been decided to prop- erly serve the shop needs, the framing for the crane system can be proportioned by use of the load tables given. No feature of a modern shop is of greater importance than its appliances for handling and moving materials, for upim these much of the shop ellieiency dc^wnds. In many cases and especially for light loads, pneumatic or electric hoists with their rapid oixfration, are the most convenient. Jib cranes are too various in arrangement and design to admit of any satisfactory tabulation. The principal stresses in the frame- work will occur in the bottom chord bracing and the knee braces joining the trusses to columns. Traveling jib cranes, which are now very generally used, will also cause heavy stresses in tlie frame- work and must be carefully provided for, as there is no class of stress to which manufacturing buildings are subjected, so severe on the building as is the action of traveling cranes. The action of cranes is constant and continuous, while high winds or snow loads may seldom occur. The loads on trolley beams suspended from the trusses will cause stresses, the amount of which will depend directly upon the weight lifted and the weight of trolley and hoisting block. All crane loads referred to and tabulated include the weight of tlie materials lifted and the dead weight of the crane, with trolley and machinery, but they do not include the weight of the supp5 " 37000 39300 12 41i T^ .2 445u!J 1. 47500 12 50800 13 30 '.'.'.'.'. 43000 46200 13 4Sh . .-> '^V,->0 IJ 55000 13 58800 13 40 57000 60100 14 63400 14 6700y :3 71000 13 75600 13 50 '.'..'.'. 70000 74000 13 77600 13 82000 86600 90000 TABLE XXIII. •MAXIMUM LOAD IN LBS. ON EACH OF TWO END WHEELS, HAND TRAVELING CRANES. Span of Crane in Ft. Capacity -20— —SO— —40— —50— —60— " ',^, in Tom. Load. D. Load. D. Load. D. Load. D. Load. D. Load. D. 2 .... 2900 4 3100 4 3500 5 4' .... 5000 4 5400 4 5800 5 6400 5 6 7500 6 8000 6 8600 7 9200 7 10000 8 10700 8 8 10000 6 10500 6 11100 7 11800 7 12600 8 13400 8 10 12400 6 13000 7 13600 7 14300 8 15800 8 16100 9 10 15000 6 15600 7 16300 7 17100 8 18100 8 19100 9 16 20000 7 20700 7 21400 8 22300 8 23400 9 24600 9 00 05100 7 26000 7 27000 8 28000 8 29300 9 30700 9 25 31100 7 32300 7 33500 8 34800 8 36200 9 3S00O 9 biinension D is the distance apart in feet of two end crane wheels. Addition must be made to crane loads to provide for the effect of impact, and this should be from 25 to 50 per cent, depending upon the severity of the crane service. It is the practice of some designers to neglect the impact addition and to use lower unit stresses for the crane system than for the other parts of the build- ing; but a more scientific method of design is to consider and include all loads, and use tension units approaching one-half the elastic limit. In the Tables XXII and XXIII above, the dimension D is the distance in feet between the two wheels at either end of the crane. It will be noted that the loads given are the loads on each wheel. It may sometimes be desirable to make two or more roof trusses at either end, sufficiently strong to permit the crane bridge to be lifted from its track by pulleys attached to the trusses. This pro- vision would avoid the need of temporary staging, and the extra expense might be warranted. ^Ivom MUl BuUding Conetruction, by H. O. Tyrrell. 116 MILL BPILDING8 MISCELLANEOUS LOADS. There are numerous other loads which do not permit of any sys- tematic arrangement or tabulation, but which may exist. It is some- times convenient to provide trolleys running directly on the bottom truss chords, or provision may be desired for attaching pulley blocks, for raising light weights, to the bottom chords at any point. Steam pipes, heating ducts and shafting often add much to the load, and occasionally a plank walk is placed in the trusses for the purpose of reaching the ventilator windows, for making inspection and repairs, or oiling the shafting. Other items which may increase the roof loads are circular metal ventilators, skylights, sash operating ma- chinery, shutters, etc., provision for all of which should be liberal. Columns in exposed positions may be subject to jars or blows from passing vehicles or materials, and their strength must be increased accordingly. Other loads, such as the pull from belts and the gen- eral effect of vibration from rapidly moving machinery, should also have ample provision. It is the practice of some designers to make a general addition to the loads of from 5 to 10 pounds per square foot over the entire truss area, to cover the effect of vibration. It is convenient in shops with electric power to place motorB above the floor and thereby save useful floor space. If they are set on platforms between the roof trusses, provision must be made for this extra load. It should be noted, however, that all the above loads may not always occur at the same t ne, and provision need not be made for them all combined. I : SUMMARY OF LOADS. The weight of framing in ordinary mill roofs varies generally from 4 to 7 pounds per square foot of ground area. Adding to this the weight of roof covering, gives the combined weight of framing and covering, according to Table XIV, page 106. These weights are for roofs with spans up to about 75 feet. For spans of 100 feet, add 3 pounds per square foot to the above and proportionally between. If roois are ceiled and plastered, add 10 pounds per square foot for the lath and plaster only, and additional weight for the ceiling joist. For coml)in(Hl snow and wind in northern latitudes of the United States, add from 25 to 35 pounds per square foot of roof surface as given in detail in Table XXI. No roof, (sen where snow does not fall, should he proportioned for a less load than 30 pounds per square foot, and no purlins for lees than 25 pounds per squar " foot. CHANE AND MISCELLANEOVH LOADS 117 The weight of steel framing on sides of buildings consisting of steel columns and girths covered with corrugated iron, is from 4 to 6 pounds per square >ot of exposed surface, for the framing only. An approximate rule for the extra weight of steel in the sup- porting systems of traveling cranes is that for every 5 tons' capacity of crane there will be about 100 pounds of extra steel per lineal foot of building in the two side ^ r and crane columns. ■i^iiiiliKlll * -J . f '^ ' 1 ill ' f' PART III FRAMING CHAPTER XIV. STEEL FRAMING. All the general features of a building, with its size, shape and dimensions, must be determined as described in Part I, before start- ing the framing plans. The arrangement and location of machinery, inside height and clearance, kind and capacity of cranes, kind of building material, size and weight of contents, with tlie methods of lighting, heating, ventilating and draining, must all be considered, preliminary to laying out the framing plans or computing the sizes. The number of columns and the clear space between them, the roof pitch, amount and kind of skylights, number and width of moni- tors, must all be fixed before undertaking the work outlined in this chapter. The building must be rigid, large enough for its equip- ment and occupants, and suited to the work to be done therein. Before detail plans are made, the preliminary considerations should be reviewed, and the general arrangement verified, so expensive alterations will not result. The framing should be studied out on small sheets of paper, preferably not larger than cap size, 8i by 13 inches, single lines being used to indicate members (Fig. 32). From these small sketches, ^-inch scale details may be made, and a show drawing prepared. The design for each building should be developed according to its special requirements, and for the roof framing should begin with the kind of covering and the method of supporting it. The spacing of rafters or purlins will depend on the supporting strength of the plank or slab, and the relative arrangement of parts must be pro- portioned to each other. Pieces must be included in the design only when they have a definite purpose, and not merely to copy other designs or to follow usual methods. U8 ViO MILL BUILDINGS -'»/: -»>-^ BUlLDIMi KKA.MKS. 'I'lic frames of mill and miiinifaiturinj; linildinps arc a toinbina- tidi! of trusses, monitors, rafters, purlins, columns and girders, |)roperly hraied tojietlier. to form a shelter and enclosure, and sup- ])ort for cranes and machinery. Franiinfr ina.v consist of single-span roofs resting on side walls or columns in the walls, or may liave one or more lines of interior cohunns to support the roof and crane tracks, with or without intermediate floors or galleries. The outline of the huilding. and all its general features, will he selected accord- ing to the principles e.xplaiiu'd in Part I. Figs. Vi'i to 1()1 show a variety of building frames, the first thirteen having a single line of interior columns, while the remain- ing ones have two lines. Figs. l'M\ to ]:$;) have monitor frames over the center line of columns, with clear o])cn space beneath them. Fig i;?4 is a simple flat pitch roof with beams and columns knee 'iraced together, a double pitch being given to the center part by blocking the purlins up to the proper slope. Fig. l.'W is another sim- ple roof supported on two lines of inside columns, the rafter bases of the (entral part being tied together with rods. Fi ,'s. 117 and 148 have lean-to trusses with steep rafter pitches unde- th" skylights near the walls, the pitch decreasing towards the center, leaving a greater side window area without unnecessarily increasing the height of the buibling. F"ig. 151 receives roof liglit entirely through skylights, and is the form used for the Coventry Ordnance Works, which r.re v'OO feet wide and 980 feet long. Figs. l.iS to 155 all have inside gutters and drainage, and lack the stiffness of frames with single ])itch lean-to trusses. Figs, loti to Kit are building frames with curved trusses, suitable for exhibition halls, markets or armories. They have a mu|(earan(e than heavy trusses with hori;^nntal chords, but are not generally suitable for shops, which need horizontal suppo-is for shafting, trolleys aiul hoisting appliances. TRUSSES. Curved sheets of lorrugated iron without regular truss frames, may be used for spans up to ;50 feet. The sheets are rivcteil together at the ends and framed into an arch, the ends of which thrust against side angles tied together with rod Large 5-inch cor- rn!.^ations have a greater compression strength than smaller ones, anil are therefore preferable, and the arch may be braced with occa- sional struts. Curved form? are also largely used, especially in STEtL FUAUING 121 Vie. 12J. ^f^^ I-lg. 124. KIK. 12«. ^.^<^n\/rb^ Kig. 12S. Fig. 130. Vlu. 123. Ki;:. 1i;.-|. Fig. 12U. riir. lai. Fig. 183. Fig. 1S3. 1^1 122 MILL BVILDISGS q/vi/'M/TP gWL<">J7 SF^arspi Klg. 134. Fig. 135. rrzSZ^S. KK 2SZSZS?! rfj^s^ST^ ^J^J^lTC^iTp; Fig. 13G. V\e- 137. ^^T^^gfClW^ ,^a^^ ZtiSfc^ FlK. 138. ^Ki^vT^N^. FlK. 13it. J?-^J^^^^ ^.^g^ ^I^I^ Fig. HO. <<^VVVs, Fig. 141. „^ kkS^ /N > K . .,,.1^ ^l^^Ek^ Fig. \\l. Fig. 143. ^^Es^ <1^ Fig. 144. Fig. 14.'. t:- '■'■■. « STEKL FBAUINO lU rx Klg. 146. Fig. 148. Fig. 147. ^.^^Z^A^^pZ^z^. f^^ Fl«. 14l». _J 1-ig. ir.ii. p^i7^E>^pj^FJslAVL^14 ^^3ZSgS Fig. 152. p^ yVMAJAAtfJ Xiyi/MAI/SP L Fig. 154. Fig. 1B6. FlK. l.'.l. ^^^SZ222\ SK^^ a^22 Fig. 1 .-..'!. fi. llHi. fik. I til. ^^^\^ .<^^tA7 \Ar^ IMlf Iti.- I'iC. I'i'l Fig. 107. -<^^^ \>^ ^^W^^^>^ ^:,^<^ NNr^ Fig. U>X- Flg. lit! lig. 170. ^^I^^ ^^^J^ ^<<^)t;^ Fig. 171. Fig. 172. ^S2^ Fig. 173. . w^TVw . ^^^^^^N^^w .,.^1^1^^ Fig. 174. Fig. 175. Fig. 17r,. IS1SS2K0ZI21 Fig. 177. Fig. 178. m^. s. IZKg [N37^Ni7^^l7'^l7\I7\I7^ Fig. 179. Fig. 180. HTKEL FBAMING lis Fig. 181. |qAl^l7Sl7^sl7''^^^17M?^37^ pzSSZ53Z^Z^^IZ222SZ| Fig. 183. llg. 184 Euro|)e, for monitors and ventilators, and are bi-lievi-d to present a U'tter appearance. Standard types of steel roof trusses and building frames are ^llown ill Figs. 12-i to 184. Figs. 1G2 to 171 are Fink trusses suit- able for spans as indicated, the last one having vertical rafter braces. Fink trusses are more conunonly used than any other kind, and are economical laecause the struts are short, and the longer web members arc in tension. Figs. Vii and 173 are forms of Eng- lish roof trusses with vertical members, which in Fig. 172 are in compression and in Fig. 173 in tension. By comparing Figs. 171, 17-^, tind 173, the «onomy of the Fink truss will be seen, for the longest compression memlwrs in the ?]nglish truss are avoided. Figs. 163 and 171 are similar, except that the latter has struts in a vertical position, instead of normal to the rafter. Vertical truss mcmtjers are often necessary, as, for example, in hip trusses, for the attachment of intermediate trusses and rafters. They are also pref- erable for small, roof pitches, as the truss members can be arranged with more effectiv3 angles of intersection. Trusses with small rafter pitch are most conveniently framed with vertical and diagonal members (Figs. 124 and 178), rather than with rafter braces nor- mal to the upper chords (Fig. 174). Wlien trusses are not pro- portioned for concentrated loads at any point of the bottom chord, vertical braces are then needed only for supporting tlie top chord (Fig. 182), and the additional pieces of Fig. 179, with the corre- sponding connection plates and details, art saved. Side or lean-to trusses with a slope in one ditection only are illustrated in the various building frames. It is economy of column sections to apply the load from side truss as low down on the column as possible. The form of Fig. 142 is. therefore, preferable to 141, and is the one generally used. All parts of roof trusses, including members in tension, should l)f m.nde --tiff, for flat bars are liable to be bent in shipping, and when once bent are rarely, if ever, straightened. The center line of members should meet at panel points when stresses are large, mf. 126 MILL BUILDINGS even tliough the oonneition jilatts luiist l)e increased (Fig. 1S5), but when strcsscr* arc small it is Ipcttcr t" iiraii;:c the truss mcinl)erB at the panel points to produce the smallest plate and the fewest num- ber of rivets ( Fijr. tS(;). A common truss connection shown in Fig. 1ST is faulty in having sccomlarv or eccentric stress due to the center line of weh memhcrs meeting outside the chord, hut it makes a neater detail and is satisfactory for light members. Of Fig. 185. I'lK. ISC. FlK. 1H7. the three details for truss connections to columns (Figs. 188, 189, litO), the eccentric stress in the first one is avoided in the latter two, which arc. therefon\ j)referalile for heavy memliers. Fire curtains in the rotif at intervals of one or two hundred feet, are recommended hy insurance companies, to prevent fire from spreading under the roof, and these consist of thin solid web plates instead of separate meiidiers in occasional trusses. Klj.'. iss. Fig. 180. T"-!. >s must lie still enough to permit handling without injury, and SI ..iil ones completely riveted in the shop shouhl have bent cover j)Iates at the peak. Without such a cover, small trusses loaded on a wagon for delivery, would bend at the center (Fig. 191). Single-truss systems, or those composed of a series of united triangles, are preferable to trusses with doi'sle systems of web members crossing at the center, for in the latter case the amount of stress borne by each system is indeterminate. The number and lentrtl! of rafter i)anels depend on the method of loading the trusses. When purlins are used, the rafter bracea should preferably come under the purlin, and rafters with combined ,x^m STEEL FMAMINQ lit direct compression ami cross bending require more trussing than tiiose for compression only. The length of truss panels depends also on the depth of truss. Shallow triiises should have shorter panels thun dwper ones, to make the diagonal braces lie more nearly at an angle of I.j degrees with the horizontal. Tnisses which liavc a small end depth may have shorter web panels towards the end tiian near the center. In the design of trusses, as well as other parts, the essential r('(|Uironients must first 1h> met. and the design develojK'd according to tiiot-e re<|uirements. To arbitrarily select a Kig. mo. FIR. 191. , ^.most syntem of fraiu : without studying the needs of the t 'm sure to result in waste. The rafters, bottom chords and main struts should be made sym- metrical, as of double angles, but single angles may be used for minor braces. The proiKT form of truss is often fixed by external requirements. The wiilfii of monitor may make Fig. 17') prefer- able to Fig. 1G9, and a Hat ceiling will require a straight bottom chord. Figs. 192 and 193 show the rigi t and wrong way of outlining a ^<^^M^ Kltf. 192. Ki*:. mn. steep pitch roof with monitor, while Figs. 194 and 195 show right and wrong ways of outlining trusses with a flat rafter pitch. In the latter case, it is economical to use the shortest web members in compression and the longer or diagonal ones in tension. When a floor or other heavy load is suspended from the trusses (Fig. 197), the principal details will be at the eaves, peak and the two suspension points. 188 MILL BUILDINGS The end connection platts on long, shallow trusses may be so large as to make a .•■uiid web preferable in the end panel, but these plates may be lightened by cutting holes in them. When holes are located as shown in Fig. Iftfi, web stress is possible in one diagonal direction onlv. KlK. 1!'4 Fig. Ifl.'.. TRUSS CONNECTIONS. The choice between pins or rivets for roof connections depends largely upon the relative cost of manufacture and erection. Bolts or rivets are generally cheaper than pins for all ordinary spans ami conditions, but pins may be preferable for long spans and difficult erection, ns illustrated by several large train shed roofs. w..... /»»»• Kid. 1ii«. ;*«» WIS TRUSS DEPTH. The economical depth of truss is usually from one-fifth to one- seventh of the span, but sjjecial conditions may require a less depth, and the weight i?- not seriously affected by a small variation. Deeper trusses have lighter chords but longer web members, while shallow trusses have heavier chords and shorter web members, and these two STEEL FKAUISG 12J» variations tend to balance each other. Extra Jepth for flat pittli trusses may be sefuml as shown in Figs. 20, 17ft or IftS. RAFTERS. The most oonvcnient form of rafter for riveted trusses is made of two angles placed back to back with conne<'tion plates between them at the joints (Fig. 199). The angles should be riveted to- gether at intervals of 2 to 4 feet, so that the strength of each angle Lacinar^'i' T I f3*Srf''«'i»r V\g. 107 in compression will be at least equal to the strength of the two com- bined for its greatest unsupported length. If the rafter is subjected to bending from directly applied loads, a tontinuous plate between the angles is then economical (Figs. 197, 5>19), or larger angles and shorter panels may be used instead; or, when bending stress is excessive, the rafter may be made of four angles and a web plate (Y\an in feet, and i: = a't'onsMnt varying from 1,000 to 1,700, generally taken at 1,200. Vif. L'Ol. The truss weight is therefore more atfectort In the length of st than l)v anv other factor. span 1'^ h\ MONITOR FRAMES. Some forms of monitor frames are shown in Figs. 203 to 210 and they are further illustrated in connection with roof trusses and building frames. Only enough members are neeutd to support the covering and hold the frame in position without distortion. Fig. 202 is the kind j.onerallv used for narrow monitors not over 8 or 10 feet wide, while Fig. 203 is suitable for monitor with sloping glass sides, to better throw the light to the floor. The monitor rafter of Fig. 207 has a greater roof slope than the truss on which it stands, and is used when the monitor roof has a skylight covering. The two-story monitor (Fig. 208; has side windows on the lower * H. 0. Tyrrell in London Engineering. July 25. 1902. STEEL FSAMINO 188 rise and ventilator shutters on the upper one. Fig. 209 is suitable for ventilating only with shutters or louvres on the side. Monitors are often made as shown in Figs. 175 or 206, when a clear space is needed for coal conveyors, or for men in cleaning windows or skylights. Electric light stations often admit wires to the building through the monitors, and wire supports with insulation are then needed on the sides. One or more pane" of the regular monitor can be used for this purpose if required. Vlg. M2. KIg. 2u:t. Kig. 204. ^^^5^^^ Vlg. 20.-.. Kl)t. 2(lfi. Kl){. 20T. KlK- 208. Klg. I'OO. (UKTHiS AND PURLINS. Klg. 210. Wall girths and roof purlins are both used to support the cover- ing, and their details and connections are similar, but roof purlins must be capable of sustaining the greatest load. It is economical, for single roofing slabs or sheets, to span the ojwning between at lea«t three purlins, for the covering then lias tlie added strength of loiitiniiity. The projier purlin spacing for corrugated iron and c tailed covered ( ranc ways than shop buildings, for most of the framing iimtcrial is in the crane suiiports. Modern locomo- tive shops Jiiive traveling cranes of liJO tK have large cranes for occasional use and smaller ones for lighter loads and regular service. Carefully arranged crane framing is important because the cranes will have frecpient or constant use, while wind or snow loads may seldom or never be realized. Shop lifting and handling appliances are made in great variety, including tramrails, hoists and trolleys, traveling bridge cranes, sta- tionary and traveling jib cranes, etc. Trolleys run either on the bottom flange of beams, as in the shops (Figs. 21 and •>:]). or rat.'d hv compressed air, electricity or hand chains. Traveling bridge cranes are sujiported on girdei-s between adjoin- ing lines of columns, and are often made of different capacities, in two or more tiers, one above the (.ther. T!ie large cranes would, of course, lift the smaller loads, but as they are heavy and slower t.> o|x'rate, it is a saving of time to install smaller cranes for ordinary light service ,'Fig. ^i^^). The .nine girders and supporting columns JU- . SQV'«. .»<»*' -m TT^ . ii'Vii'" STSEL FBAMING 18T should be rigidly c-onnected to the roof trusses, for if standing alone or merely fastened to tlie walls, a slight variation between the cen- ters of crane rails may not ur. causing the crane to bind or run untrue. It is good practice to fasten rails to their Ixjarings in such ClbnCran* Fig. 218. a way as to admit of slight horizontal adjustment (Fig. 231), so the crane can always be made to run true and even. Provision is sometimes made on side wall columns for supporting traveling yard cranes, by extending columns above the roof, or framing girders into them (Fig. 2'i2). Fig. 219 shows a system of framing for traveling bridge cranes over tiie center ai.\Ns\NN^ SS\\\V\\S\VS^V\VVn^^\V^^\VXS\^^^ Ws\\V\'' Fig. 220. The older form of stationary jib crane, standing on the ground, has the upper end of the mast supported by a system of framing connected to the truss chords. These cranes produce heavy stresses in the bottom chord bracing, which must be properly transferred to the walls or columns, and thence to the foundations. Crane girders may have either a single or a double web, the latter (Figs. 200, 229) with its wide cover plate producing a stiffer frame, Side longitudinal trusses to support intermediate roof trusses, should be either disconn . entirely from the crane system or fastened with slotted joints, 80 movements of the traveling cranes, and deflections or vibrations of t!ie crane beams, will not be transmitted to t>ie side wall or roof system, and break the window glass o' skylight Fig. 221. 140 HILL HI II.DISUS tk Jl STKKh bll I ISO \\l Fi 4. li - JUL Fig. 22S. 142 MILL BUILDINGS i iji i 3 ' i': i . : ',i: I COLUMNS. The weiglit of steel in trusses and girders is affected more by the number and frecjuency of columns tlian by any other factor. Fram- ing? with wide column spacing lias a greater weight and cost, than similar framing witli columns closer together. In many lines of manufacturing, tlie presence of columns is a disadvantage, for they interfere with handling the large material and products, but in siiops for the manufacture of small goods, columns may be of benefit for supporting shafting or dividing the floor into separate parts. ^Jppt' Port of Column Track e.i-d«r for 5-Ton Wlall Cron, ' P*rWliml tng. 226. In order to have few inside columns, part of the regular roof trusses are sometimes carried on longitudinal trusses, which serve also as effective column bracing. Fig. 229 has regular transverse trusses 20 feet apart, with alternate ones on lattice girders, making a clear space of 40 feet between the principal insi.le columns, while Fig. 220 has trusses 12 feet apart, with every third one supported directly on columns 36 feet ajjart. Ilie trusses and other parts should be so arranged that loads are delivered to the columns as low down as possible, for long loaded columns require greater section than shorter ones. Diagonal com- pression mem!)ers in connecting trasses (Fig. 142) are tlieiefore s**- r*.-. !»•• .Kmmit*,w »¥- STEEL FSAMINO 143 often preferable to tension members (Fig. 141), for while the truss members are increased, the extra expense is more than offset by the saving in and greater security of the columns, which may be sub- ject to jars or impact. Fig. 230 shows a variety of common column forms, the ones most used being a, b and c. Closed sections should not be used, for connections to them are not easily made, and their inside condition cannot be inspected. Boiled H shapes (Fig. 2.lOd) with wide flanges, which have long been used in Europe, are now nade in America, and are well suit- ed for shop columns, sav- -ri M„„c,iJpL^y^Trans^^ih^. ing much riveting; but * they are sold at a higher price per pound than plate and angles, and this tends to offset the saving in shop work. A column which is quite economical, though inconvenient for connec- tions, consists of round wrought steel pipe filled with concrete, the 12-inch size being strong enough to support 100 tons or more. Bound cast iron col- umns are frequently used for supporting gallery or upper floors, but on ac- count of its brittle nature, cast iron is not recom- mended for structural use. Open sections made of plates and angles are con- venient for building into walls, as their width can be made to suit any size of brick, and they are easily enclosed. When the columns extend through the wall without being en- closed with pilasters, web 'attice is unsuitable, as the space between the angle bars of the column leaves an opening through the wall, and a solid web plate should be used instead. Enclo^ wall columns may have provision for expansion by leaving 144 MiLL BVILUISUS '' r ■! ^ 1 Ff Hi 'Ik ~i IT 20'I-B0* tSl^'Spl PtS. lifi'SfJ Pl-S. a«^*'j'M«>^ F^. 228. fri^mameA, ^^B!^^CT «v--. ',%'.Vi>.ti ^ """•'^ fonvenient when made N... Arehifects' & B„i),,e„' M^g^Ini". o<.,ober, l»ol. .-aV; '"--;A;; J;^ ^i vti^ifcl*3t-v ariCEL FBAMINO 161 FLOOB FBAMINO. Steel floor framing may have steel for all or only part of the supports. The cross floor girder at tiie panels may span the clear space between main columns (Fig. 222) or may have one or more ailditioual columns under it (Fig. 20), which will greatly lessen the combined cost of girder and columns. Heavy floor girders are shown in the pier shed (Fig. 196). Floor joist between the girders may be of either steel or wood, and may rest on top of the girder or frame into the web (Fig. 410), the latter being preferable, as it leaves greater head room below. Joists are generally placed from 4 to 10 feet apart, the distance depending on the kind and thick- ness of flooring. They should rest on angle seats on the girder web (Fig. 410), and steel beams are fastened with standard con- nection angles such as are given in any mill hand book. Plank flooring on steel joist requires nailing strips bolted or hooked to the upper flange, to receive the nails. Cupula floors carrying heavy loads must be strongly framed and supported with numerous col- umns, and are frequently covered with steel or cast iron floor plates. tJallery floors may be provided with occasional loading platforms projecting over the main erecting floor, from which material can be lifted by the center traveling crane. A machine shop designed by the author has a bridge at one end connecting the two side gal- leries (Fig. 23) and two or three lines of gas pipe fastened to the columns with intermediate pipe posts 8 to 10 feet apart for gallery railing. BBACING. The durability of a mill building depends on the efficiency of its bracing. Columns, girders, trusses or other main parts are rarely l)roken under their loads, but building frames have been racked to pieces by continuous vibration from cranes and machinery. Sta- tionary and traveling cranes, shafting, belts, eccentric column loading, and many other causes, tend to keep the frame of a mill building in constant motion, and unless this is prevented by thorough bracing, it will soon require expensive repairs. When the frame become" loosened, traveling cranes bind on their track, production is delaAeJ, and the cost of operation is increased. Broken windows and skylights are a common result of insufficient bracing, and even when replaced they are repeatedly broken again. Lack of bracing affects operating expenses, for 10 to 30 per cent more power is needed to run line shafting and machinery in a building that vibrates than in a stationary one. It also causes undue wear on machines and interferes with fine tool work. tn MILL BVILDlKOa The general outline of a building is important in securing r gdUy. A form lake Fig 142 is more seeure transversely than on! like Fig. lo5 and a hipped roof is nearly always stiffer tlian a con- tinuous pitch. Angles braced together to resist compression are preferable to rods though tlie latter have tlieir legftimate use. VUen rods arc used they should have adjustment either by means of nuts and bevel washer, or with clevises or tumbuckles. Standard rod details are shown in Figs. 242 and 243, and light bracing struts m Figs. 244, 245 and 246. ^ ^t^trMtfOMmtt^I^/ JM> Ok 35 '" — '''''"^oMCttuintHiMiOifi' Dmie. FIk. 243. STEEL FSAMINO IBS Bracing must be placed wherever needed, the most important being that on the rafter and lM»ltorn chord, ,nd Iwtwi'cn columns in the walls; l>ut other bracing may be uwd in the monitor, and verti- cally between the trusses. Rafters are the chief compression mem- ^^Wltf^MSV^^^ ^^^^^^ ric 244. Fig. 245. Fig. 246. hers of roof trusses, and cross bracing must be placed in occasional panels, corresponding with the bracing in the bottom chord, and other rafters are tied to the braced panel with the purlins and roofing. Rafter bracing is more needcl during erection than after- wards, for when applied and fastened, the rofifing itself is the most effective kind of bracing, especially when it consists of plank or Fig. 247. Fig. 248. concrete. Car sheds or buildings without machinery are sufficiently rigid with occasional panels of the bottom chord braced, and two or three lines of longitudinal spwcing angles between the chords (Fig. 2i7), but buildings with cranes require complete diagonal bracing systems (Fig. 248). The longitudinal spacing struts of Fig. 247 Fig. 240. may be omitted in car bams which have lines of trolley boards fastened to the trusses. Bottom chord bracing, to resist the action of stationary and traveling jib cranes, must be carefully propor- tioned to its maximum stresses, and these stresses must be as care- IM MILL BUlLUlSas m *. fully computwl a8 tlnwe in any other truM system. It is generally impracticable to transfer all the crane and wind loads to the foun- dations at the pnd-i .if the hiiildinjfs. and knee braces from trusses to columns arc tlicrcfore introdiu . d Wall bracing must be placed in pandit (orrcsiKinding with those in the rafter and bottom chord, and longiludiiinl tru.^cs (Fig. iiO) nialte effective bracing between interior lunins. Stiff bracing is nearly always more effective than roi'i# *fic9'^ ''^'TSSP**" FlK. 352 IM UILL BUILDINGS ( ■■m ng. 253. 249 allows details of anchors, bolts, straps, stirr > ,s, expansion bolts, etc. Large riveted sections must have field splices so arranged that no section will have dimensions exceeding those which can be accepted bv the railroads or other transportation lines over which they are carried. TABLE XXV. MAXIMUM SHIPPING DIMENSIONS ACTEPTED FOR TRANS PORTATION BY THE RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES Height above rail top of 1L> ft. 4 ins. 12 ft. 8 ins. 13 ft. ins. 13 ft. 4 ins. 13 ft. 8 ins. 14 ft. ins. Maximum width of 10 ft. ins. 9 ft. 9 ins. 9 ft. ins. 8 ft. 8 ins. 8 ft. 4 ins. 7 ft. 2 ins. T. ^°^:r^ hciRht of 4 ft. 6 ins. should he aIlowpt)). (l'<) There nni.st Iw a <>omplete and well organized .system of tire protection. W-inch planks bolteti together in the riv,|uired thickness. Observing the prisciples of simplicity and duplication will greatly cheajien construction. The genei-al arrangement of the timber fram- ing with the spacing of trusses and columns, slmuld be about the same as outlined for steel. Tlie necessary thickness of plank for various spans anil loads is given in Table XLI. Floor iieauis in the walls should bear on cast iron wall boxes or plates (Fig. 373), witli upper corners of the beams cut to a bevel as shown. In case of fire, if the beams bum through and f : • floor falls, it will not carr)- the wall in with it. Wlien wo

«p 81*. 272. ng. 278. rsaSE-HSBBaHIP^HHS" MICROCOPY RESOiUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 1.1 1^ 13.2 140 1^ 12.2 2.0 1.8 jd -APPLIED INA^IGE Inc SC '^^^ East Main 5tf«t ZTJS Rocheste'. Ne* York U609 USA '^^S (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone aag (716) 286 - 5989 - Fax CHAPTER XVI. CONCRETE FRAMING. Several comprehensive books on concrete building construction have been written ami only its application to mill buildings is given here. The material is well suited for manufacturing buildings, as It IS fireproof, durable, free from vibrations, and the concrete materials can be quickly and easily procured. Money spent in building may be paid to local people instead of to others at a dis- tance, as for structural steel. Delays in waiting for structural steel are avoided, and a building can generally be more quickly erected m reinforced concrete. Insurance charges on concrete buildings are small, usually not exceeding 15 cents per $100. Reinforced concrete buildings are cheaper than steel and cost only a little more than wood, the relative costs being given in Part I Wood construction is generally limited to six stories, but concrete can be carried to a greater height. In case of fire, water does not leak through the floor and injure goods in the lower stories, which may occur with wood floors. ADHESION AND BOND. Rich cement concrete in which iron or steel is imbedded has an adhesion thereto of .'.OO to (iOO pounds per square inch of exposed surface. Adhesion of concrete to metal occurs only when the metal is thoroughly imbedded and the concrete has opportunity to surround an.l grip the bars, but not when simply lying in contact with the metal. It has been proven by numerous experiments that concrete adheres as securely to smooth rods as it does to rough ones Fre- quent and continued shocks and vibrations tend to destroy the union between the two materials, and experiments show that con- tinuous watersoaking from six to twelve months reduces the adhesion by about r^O'Vr. Poor workmanship in placing and ramming the concrete is also probable, and it is, therefore, desir- able to use rough or twisted reinforcing rods, so the bar will have a mechanical grip on the concrete in addition to it« adhesion. 168 CONCRETE FRAMING 169 When this roughening of the bar is secured without reducing its cross section, the whole area is then available in tension, and no strength is lost. Roughening the bars can therefore do no harm, and it may be the source of extra strength. METAL BEINFORCEMENT. There is no sufficient reason from a scientific standpoint, for the use of high tension bars or rods for coucrete reinforcement. After years of investigation and experiment, brittle metal was discarded for structural use, and the only reason for a return to high tension bars now, is a commercial one and not scientific. It is well known that in rerolling bars to produce surface roughening, the tensile strength of the metal is increased. Instead of admit- ting the inferiority of the bars, interested parties have endeavored to explain that this increase in tensile strength and correspondinp' decrease in ductility is a benefit. Medium steel with an elastic limit of 32,000 pounds per square inch, and soft steel with a corre- sponding elastic limit of 28,000 pounds per square inch, are proper grades of metal for all ordinary concrete reinforcement. These may safely be stressed up to haK their elastic limit under working loads. MONOLITHIC OR SEPARATELY MOLDED MEMBERS. The present tendency in concrete construction appears to be towards tlie use of separately molded members. The objection to the method is the difficulty of handling and erecting the heavy blocks, but this is overcome by the use of a derrick car. The sepa- rately molded members (Figs. 274, 275 and 276) contain slightly more reinforcing steel, and have the extra cost of erection, but nearly all the expense of forms and carjwntcr labor is avoided. The shop floor may first be laid and used as a molding platform for the members, or a separate one adjoining the shop may be laid especially for the purpose. One set of forms will serve to cast 100 pieces or more, or previ- ously made concrete members properly placed can be used instead. I'icces are jointed with neat cement, and where bolting is needed, as when girders rest on columns, pipes are cast into the concrete in the right positions. Four-inch slabs cast in this manner, cost as follows: ?^-^: 170 MILL BVlLDlNGii TABLE XXVI. Steel $2.36 per 100 gq. ft. or 30 % of total cost t-'oncrete material 2.55 per 100 sq. ft. or — ~ - - Tarpenter labor 59 per 100 sq. ft. or Labor, mixing and placing 56 per 100 sq. ft. or Erection 1.86 per 100 sq. ft. or 23»4% of total cost 32 % of total coat 7%7e of total cost 7 % of total cost $7.91 100 % Clavotion of Sid* Wall Fig. 274. ;■« f i. i^.~ stvf [!..3yjB> .j:.. ""--^---"' =331 iiB? v* RL ■■«'4 ' J ffl Qfli rr*- .■-•.•AV.V.V--.V.-.1 3*-.-jj..i-iin^ K«J" ♦a-* J- + H -^ -' ■■ tmv..gfflii)i;.v^»:.?.yij^vA>?.« ••/»#^ - M ■■W-x M ^ D«toiU of 9lob» Forming 5id9 Wall Flj. 275. TYPE OF rONSTBUCTION. A very convenient type of construction for shops and mills, is one where columns, sills, lintel-?, foundations, floors and beams, are made of reinforced concrete, and trusses and heavy girders of steel. CONCBETE FSAUIN6 171 Fig. 277. Trusses are sometimes made in reinforced concrete, but they are clumsy and the fonn work is expensive. Heavy girders such as those carrj'ing cranes which are subject to shock, are more reliable and smaller in steel. Wall panels between the columns may be filled with brick or concrete, or a combination of the two Fig. 27T*. materials. The concrete columns are reinforced with light angles strong enough to support the other framing without roof covering, during erection. Floor beams or light girders are also reinforced with structural shapes (Fig. 278), heavy enough to support a temporary floor and to brace the columns before the concrete is placed. The steel frame can be completely jointed before placing *Atlas Portland Cement Co. 172 MILL BUILDIXGa any concrete, thus insuring connections. A very pleasing exterior is produced by facing the wall surface with 4 inches of buff or yel- low brick, anchored to the concrete, or a finish of Portland cement and white sand and (juartz. Larsje buildings of this type can be erected at the rate of about 100,000 cubic feet of building contents per week. \ u •|?^"-Si W I, "f^-^ I ^i^K-i Connection* of Boom* to 6ird«t«. FLOORS AND ROOFS. Floors and roofs may be made of the same general type of construction with the beams in the roof farther apart. Slabs are reinforced with expanded metal, wire mesh or rods, and the thick- ness of slab and area of reinforcing steel is found from the author's formulae : -V- M 1,000 A = 12 Where P is the depth of slag in inches M, the bemling moment in inch pounds per foot ^vidth of slab, and A, the area of steel in square inches per foot width. When the arrangement of beams will permit, it is economical to use slab reinforcement in two directions at righ"; angles to each other. The -ost per square foot of reinforc-ed concrete slabo 6 inches thick is as follows: CONCBSTE FBAMINO 178 ITonCrane' j- Trus5-\- ■<--65A-- Sig—'. Fig. 279. Concrete corts 12 cents per sq. ft. gjggj 5 cents per sq. It. Centeri ' \\\\'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.''- 8 cents per sq. ft. lotal 25 cents per sq. ft Flat slab floors without beams in either direction re- quire about 40 per cent more steel than floors with beams and thin slabs, but this extra cost is partly off- set by the low cost of cen- ters. An unusual form of shop roof is shown in Fig. 279, the roof slab being made in the form of an arch, 4 inches thick at the crown and 10 inches at the haunches. The arch thrusts against skewbacks at the sides, which are tied together at intervals with rods. The usual concrete slab roof construction on steel trusses is illustrated in Fig. 280. Concrete and steel cost 45 cents per lin. ft. FornLs 25 cents per lin. ft. Total 70 cents per lin. fi. Concrete girders, 12 X 20 inches, cost : Conciete and steel 60 cents per lin. ft. Forms 35 cents per lin. ft. 1 tal 95 Girders, 15 X 22 inches, with light structural reinforcing, 18 feet long and 16 feet apart, to carry an imposed load of 125 pounds r.T square foot, are shown in Fig. 281. The steel framework erected in place costs $65 to $70 per ton. Separately molded floor beams in I forms (Fig. 282) are used and have the merit of lighter weight than solid ones. COLUMNS. The practice in designing columns is to use plain concrete columns with four to eight reinforcing rods (Fig 283), for sizes up to 16 or 18 inches square, the concrete being loaded to 500 174 MILL BUI V05 pounds per square inch, neglecting the strength of tlie metal in compression. If this fonn would require a size exceeding about 18 inches square, a hooped or wound column may then be used instead (Figs. 284 and 285) with the part inside the winding loaded to 1,000 pounds per square inch, at the same time consid ering the bearing value of the steel in con.pression. Figure 285 f0 ^ o o o oj ■-T <— Q > \ C O C Ftg. 280. Fig. 281. ^ Fig. 282. ^ Fig. 283. Fig. 284. Fig. 28.1. with laced or battened angles, is cheaper than 284 with circular winding. The cost per vertical foot of a column 18x18 (Fig. 284), is na follows : COSCBETS FBAMINO 175 Concrete. 18 X 18 io C3 cenU per vertical ft Steel 75 cents per Tertieal ft. Forms 50 cents per vertical ft. Total 11. SO per vertical ft. An approximate cubic foot cost for reinforced concrete columna and girders is as follows: Concrete costs 25 cents per cu. ft. Steel 15 cents per eu. ft. Forma and form labor 25 cents per cu. ft. Total 65 cents per en. ft JS, V?;■.■v:^^-/'^■•.^^;.^••;;o6rc2•-■•^•V;••■^ Pig. £86. Reinforced concrete, including steel, costs about $18 per cubic yard in place, and forms and scaffolding about $5 per cubic yard additional, or $17 total. Concrete framing, including slabs, beams and columns only, costs from 35 to 55 cents per squa/e foot of floor area, while complete reinforced concrete buildings, including light* ing, heating, plumbing, and stairs or elevators, but without plas- tering or partitions, cost from 6 to 12 cents per cubic foot of contents. Figs. 286, 287 and 288 show three views of a model reinforced concrete mill building, 60 feet wide, 125 feet long and 40 feet dear height at the center, erected in New .Jersey in 1908. It has a complete frame of reinforced concrete, the exterior being enclosed 176 MILL BUILDINGS id Fig. 287. tip Fig. 288. f\ COXCSKTE FIIAMIKG m witli moldwl coniTete bl»xk». It was designet] by Mr. A. .V. Hazen, Ijijiineor for the Kxpandod .Mital Enjrineering Company of New York, aud losts toiii|iletc' lfs> ihan ti tents j»er cubie fiMjt. Fig. 'iH!t illustrates the method of erecting the roof. Kijr. 'ifi i« a section of a machine shop erected in Ohio, KIT IVct wide and 35(i feet \tn\ii, with (olunins 1(> feet apart lonjji- ludinaliy. The walls, thK)rn and ohunnB are of reinforced con- ( rete. with steel roof trasses and crane girders. ('o]Mmn.s have concrete brackets, supporting girders for a ten-ton traveling crane. ilan>es*e IMg. 28«. rC MM -i^liSJ^J- 178 MILL BVlLDlNOa Tlie floor i" proporlionwl to nuBtain 225 pounds per square foot, and the slalw are 8 inches thick, supported on tliin and deep con- crete Ijoarns, l(i feet apart. I'ntil the center traveling crane is installed, a temporary wo fmm tht i-uder nde of roof, producing draughts and physical ary to the occupants. Another objection is that condensation from the roof windows may drip and cause injury. The area and cost of northern light roofs exceeds that of ordinary double pitch roofs without skylight by 40 to 60%, which is about the extra area and cost of the slop- ing windows. In northern latitudes, snow may occasionally need "cmoving from the roof, for it may drift into the valleys and obstruct light, but records show that this condition is not fre- quent. The unsymmetrical form of these roofs is not pleasing, Imt this may be partially remedied by extending the gable walls high enough to onnccal them. Northern light roofs are suitable chiefly for wide one-story 179 I^^^T^P,^. 180 MILL BUILDIXGS 1 K i -i" l)uil(linj;8, but their extra expense is unwarranted mx high buikl- iufrs less than about KHI feet in width, where abundant light can lie had from the side wall windows. Multi-storv buildings have a less cost ]wt square foot of floor area than single story shops, and when loads and other conditions will permit, should generally be used with the greatest available area of wall windows, before resorting to the more expensive type of single story saw tooth roofs. ROOF OUTLINES. Glass should face directly or nearly north, and to receive tl clearest light, should be inclined to the vertical as steep as possible without admitting sunshine in the longest days of summer. An angle of 25 or 30 degrees to the vertical is usually satisfactorv. though the slope vari s with the latitude, being 6 degrees nearer the vertical in the southern states than in the north. Windows are often placed vertical for convenience in framing, weighting the sash and making them water tight, but vertical windows admit less light and make a greater roof area to cover. The south roof slope should he great enough to shed water, and to comply with the required })itch for the chosen roof covering as given in Table XTT. but it should not be so steep as to prevent light from reach- ing the floor or make the cost of windows excessive. Gutters shoulil be one or two feet wide to prevent clogging and bursting, but if wider, shadows or poorer light under them will result. Ridges are generally horizontal, but in some cases (Fig. 323) both ridge and gutter are sloped to the sides. When a roof has a scries of saw tooth sections, it is convenient to stop the sloping part or monitor a few feet from either side, leaving a flat walk, to jiermit access to the valleys without climb- ing over the ridges. Some outlines of northern light roofs are shown in Figs. 96 to 10.5, the semi-sawtooth of 101 having the disadvantage of forming dark places or shadows under the flat part or gutters. WINDOW ABEA. The general rule for area of roof light is to cover 25 to 50% of the roof with glass, the amount depending on the degree of detail work to be performed in the building. The shop will usually be sufficiently lighted when the height of windows is one- third to one-fourth of the saw tooth span. If the under side of the south slope is painted white, lighting will be improved by msm NOHIUUBS LIGHT HOOF tJtAMING 181 reflecting it to the floor. A design shown in Fig. 294 has skylight un the south slope in addition to the north light windows. GUTTERS AND CONDUCTORS. An objection to northern light roofs is the danger of leakage from the gutters. If less than 1 or 2 feet in width, gutters are liable to be clogged with snow and ice, and if wider than 3 or 4 Fig. 293. Fig. 294. wAM^tW ;/\>>-^^ Fig. 295. Fig. 296. yWTWv ^b^<^ Fig. 297. Fig. 298. 4vr4~"4^ >ff^i^F;to > i Fig. 200. Kii{. :t()0. Fig. 801. I 1 L^\:u..-m M n Ji . J !■ 1 . J L mv JJ ■ J I. ™^gf^P!WPHfl!WPWjiff*F'P»W>P^ m 183 MILL BUILDINGS feet, the uniformity of interior lighting is affected. Minimum and maximum gutter widths should therefore be 1 to 4 feet. To prevent injuring or breaking gutters when cleaning them or remov- ing snow, some designers iiave laid a board walk in them with open slats, but it is not recommended, for the walk tends to collect and liold snow and dirt. Freezing can be partly or entirely avoided by running lines of steam pipes beneath the gutter in the shop, which serve also as part of the general heating system. Some shops place one-third of the heating pipes there. Change of tem- perature causes metal gutters to contract and expand, resulting in cracks and leaks. To prevent these cracks, cast iron gutters were iofSash eunn'iCcrr.kon QZMn '■\ Fig. 302. formerly used, but they arc heavy and expensive, and the modern and better way is to use wider ones, covered with flashing or the regular roofing. (! utters should pitch i or ^ inch per foot to interior downspouts rather than to exterior ones, for when placed outside the building, conductor pipes freeze up in cold weather. Down spouts should be i)laced 40 to 50 feet apart at the columns, and should connect to drains leading to a reservoir for plant use, or to the sewer. A 3-inch pipe will drain 1,000 square feet of roof, and the pipe should be protected at the top by a wire screen or basket (Fig. 311). COLUMN SPACING. The cost of roof framing depends largely on the column spac- ing. If long bpaiis and open floor space is needed, tiie cost of framing will be increased. For many kinds of manufacture, col- 'V. HOKTUEBN LIGHT BOOF FBAMINO 183 umns are convenient rather than otherwise, and will result in much saving in the roof trusses. I'ipe columns, either plain or filled with concrete, are much used for the light roof loads in saw tooth buildings, and are quite economical, though inconvenient for connections. "^'^^^^^^^^^"' y-"^ qui — 1^ y^j, Fig. 303. 3^ k^natf I :l|rF;ia«i^||iiii|ar<<' JkMtl I iHIMk I' llll ^ili M».1 m^ 184 ^ILL BUILDINGS W ' FRAMING. The kind of framing for noi-thcrn liglit roofs depends -pon the permissible number of columns, the length of spans, amount of window area and the roof outline as determined, by preliminary investigation. Glass should face the north, but ridges may lie either transversely or longitudinally of tlie Ixiilding. The differ- ent kinds of northern light roof framing may be classified under three headings as follows : Fig. 305. ■^ (a) Trusses on columns with rafters in the slope of roof, (b) Kafters supported on longitudinal beams (Fig. 296) or lrusse:i (Fig. 2!»8). (c) Kafters supported on transverse beams or trusses (Fig. 299). Claims (a) are suitable for s])ans not e.\ceeding CO feet, and preferably net ov,.r 4(i f«M.t, but (b) and (c) can be used for much greater lengths. Class (c) has the disadvantage that the truss fram- ing lies !i. TOSS tbe windows. an<1 easts shadows on the floor. Wher- ever possible, framinjr should be arranged to avoid these shadows, and in some trusses, rods are used instead of riveted members for I)ottom choi'ds. liiit stiff chords are more convenient for shaft- NOBTHBBN LIGHT HOOF FBAUJNU iu ing. Framing across the windows is more objectionable than parallel with the trusses, but in either direction below tho window level, shadows, and light obstruction may result. Saw tooth roofs should have a clear height beneath the trusses, o/ 12 feet and Fig. 306. Klg. 307. ^^P^f 186 MILL BVILDISG8 preferably more. Low rooms are easier to heat, and the windows are down nearer to the work, but ventilation is poor and heat excessive in summertime. When tlie small tools of machine and ereotinir shops are placed all at one side of the erecting floor the need of crossing back and forth under the cranes is avoided and time is taved. ilUMlillUD — OvSa I-'lg. 308. Fig. 300. NOSTHESN LIGHT ROOF FBAUING 187 ^ V<7'4'> .J^ ..t^^ r i 7, .^ fJ«*«V /. ^ y' ^' ■"■• J ? --^ z ! a Fig. 310. A saw tooth roof of novel design, erected for a large plant in Belgium, is shown in Fig. 313. Trusses are three-hinged, and alternate ones rest on braced piers. They have spans of 53 feet and a crown angle of 90 degrees. A design made in 1898 by the author with a clear span of 58 feet and trusses 12 feet G inches apart, is shown in Fig. 2*^0. It has the advantage of no inside columns, but has lattice trusses crossing the win- dows. A similar design for a saw tooth roof on tb. rather than green glam, and in cold cliniateH nhouhl he double glazinl, the inner pane heing iHftory ribbed, with the timooth dido exposed to view. In all ta, es with either dingle or double glazing, windows must have (•o- denaation gutters (Figs. 309. 318 and 319) to prevent drip- pin •. Wood panh are cheaper than metal onei», though tlie latter 1 Fig. 324. Fig 32S. are firepriwf, and sloping sash should have muntins similar to greenhouse or skylight bars, with condensation gutters. Movable sash must be carefully designed -"nd flashetii 196 MILL SVILDlNOa sidered. Live loads must be increasetl 50 to 1009? for impact, depending upon the extent of vibration from the machinery. Floors for light macliinery will have a capacity for sustaining imposed loads of 100 to 200 pounds per square foot, and those for heavy machinery, 200 t" 400 pounds per square foot, while cupola or foundry floors where iron or lead is piled, may be pro- portioned for 500 to 1,000 pounds per square foot. The side footings and foundations on tall narrow buildings have important vertical loads from tiie overturning effect of wind on the building, which may be considered as dead load, because it will not ordinarily occur in conjunction with maximum fl(.: r loads. BEARrNG POWFH OF SOILS. TABLE XXVIL SAFK bi:arixg pressure ox soil. Hard rock on nativp Ih-.I 250 tons per sq. ft. Ledge rook .te tons per sq. ft. Hard pan % tons per sq. ft. C'ravel n tons per sq. ft. Clean sand 4 tons per sq. ft. Dry clay 3 tons per sq. ft. Wet clay 2 tons per sq. ft. Loam 1 ton per sq. ft. The sustaining power of soils may be increased by draining the subsoil with tile Vains or layers of sand and gravel, or by compressing and hardi .ng it. Greater supporting power is secured by distributing the bearing over greater areas, with spread footings of timber, steel or concrete, or by driving piles. Gravel and sand are the best foundations, for they are firm and well drained; sand will sustain great loads if held from spreading sideways. Rock is too hard and non-resisting and not often found at the surface on manufacturing sites, while loam is too soft and unreliable. Foundations on clay are greatly improved by filling the foundation pits and trenches with a thick layer of gravel and sand rammed in solid between the trench side walls. The size of most building foundations is proportioned to load the ground not more than 1 to 2 tons per square foot. Where there is any doubt about the safe bearing power of the soil, soundings should he made and a small known area tested by piling weights upon it. .\n easy way of sounding is to drive lengths of pipe into the ground with a water jet inside the pipe to force out the core, F0DNDATI0S8 ASD ANCHORAGES 197 a metliod wliich was successfully used by the author for sounding to great depth in the harbor at San Pedro, California. AREA ON SOIL. Foundations are proportioned not to resist settling, but to settle uniformly over the whole building area. If some parts of building stand on rock and other parts on yielding soil, cracks in the wall are sure to result, for the part on solid rock will have no settlement, while other parts will sink a little. For this reason partial rock foundations for manufacturing buildings should be avoided. All foundation beds should have as nearly as possible the same load per scjuare foot. It is just as injurious to have some parts of the foundation too large as it is to have tliem too small. If side walls are used, care must be taken that the wall base will not cover too great an area and make a less pressure per square foot on the soil under the wall than under interior columns. To better secure even pressure on the soil, the weight of side walls is sometimes transferred by beams or arches to individual piers under the columns at the panel points. SIDE WALL FOUNDATIONS. A continuous foundation under side walls is economical when the columns of piers are fairly close together, but for longer panels, separate piers are preferable, with a light base between them if necessari', to support the curtain wall. PIERS. Hard brick or concrete is well suited for building isolated piers, producing generally a better bond than can be secured with stone; but if stone is used, it must be laid flat on its original bed and built solid through tlie pier, rather than by making tlie exterior of dressed stone with a rubble center. Concrete piers are most economical when laid in courses 12 to 18 inches thick, with stepiied or offset edges similar to stone piers (Fig. ^4^), for a few regular size form boxes can then be used for several piers. Another conuuon form l>ox. though not as economical as the one just de- scril)ed, is made in the shape of a truncated cone with straight sloping sides (Fig. 341), and whether the sides are s1o|xh1 or offset, the angle of slope should not be loss than GO degrees to the horizontal, for if greater, the offsets are liable to crack and not distribute the pressure evenly on the base. Pier caps should he mh. 198 MILL BUILDINGS large enough to allow at least 6 inches from the boit holes to the edges of tlic stone, without producing a pressure on the pier below the cap greater than 200 pounds per square inch on brick and 250 pounds per square inch on concrete. Unless for very small piers, dressed caps of natural or artificial stone are preferable, the thickness of which should be from one- third to one-fifth their greatest length (Fig. 342). All piers and foundations should extend at least 6 inches below the frost line, and not less than hIt^^,, ■d^ .jp Set Bolt AncHorogtt. Fig. 341. Rough Bolt Anchoro^. Fig. 342. Fig. 343. 3 feet below the natural ground surface, and generally for shops without much floor filling, will be from 4 to 5 feet in height. Piers with spread footings arc economical and much used, and are made with a grillage of steel beams, old rails, reinforced con- Crete or heavy timber. The pressure on the soil under these piers IS distnbuied by the bending resistance of the lower courses. Reinforced concrete spread footings are more used and cheaper than those made with heavy steel, and more durable than timber, though in many cases, particularly for light foundations, spread footings made with double courses of timber laid crosswise to each other, are more economical and quite as satisfactory. When tim- ber is used, however, it must l)c placed below water where it will be always submerged, or must be always dry and should then be coated with lime or tar as a preservative. The dimensions of spread footings in steel and reinforced concrete can be obtained from any steel or concrete handbook, or can very easily be computed. FOUNDATIONS AND ANCHOBAGES 199 MACHINERY FOUNDATIONS. Machinery foundations are often quite different from piers supporting static loads, for the former must resist the action of continuous vibration without injurj', and heavy anchor bolts are generally needed to fasten the machines securely to the base and prevent lifting or lateral movement. Solid masonry, even though of great size, under a heavy steam hammer would soon be shattered, for it offers no spring or elasticity. Piers all or partially of timber are the best for this purpose, and machines of any kind are found to run more smoothly on timber than on stone (Figs. 344 and 345). PILES. Piles are needed under piers and foundations when the soil is loo soft to sustain a less load than one or two tons per square foot. Building sites arc often chosen adjoining deep water and well located for shipping, but which are not economical in foundatiouj. The cost of shipping is continuous and often more important than tlic first cost of the plant, and sites are sometimes chosen con- venient for shipping but requiring extra expense on the foun- dations. Wooden piles can be driven 2^ to 3 feet apart, and will generally safely sustain loads of 10 to 20 tons each. The most approved formula for the safe load on piles is : DH Safe load in tons 1000 (1 + P) Where T> is the drop of hammer in feet, H the weight of hammer in pounds, and r the penetration of the pile in inches under the last blow. a 1 Fig. 344. Fig. 345. i 200 MILL BUILDINGS Piles should be capi,ed with heavy timber or concrete, and when concrete is used it should cover and surround the pile heads for a depth of 6 to 12 inches. Wh..„ timber is alwavs below water It 18 permanentl:- preserved, and this condition is preferable to having It alternately wet and dry. for timber then rots rapidly I lies are frequently pointed to facilitate driving, and they are sometimes provided with cast iron points, though this adds expense and IS often of little bonef.t. When there is a tendency to split under the ha.,u„..r, the piles should have wrought iron rings fitted tightly over then- heads, which can be removed after the piles are driven. A (inal penetration of one inch under the last blow of a ^',^et bolts, or those which are built .solid with the masoury should be used for all towers, trestles and posts carrying jib cranes, and crane girders or posts subject to shocks or heavy moving loads. They .«hould be used also in the columns of buildings witli corrugated iron sides, or for high and narrow buildings, where the wind stresses may nearly or entirely balance the dead loads FOUNDATIONS AND ANCHORAGES 201 TABLE XXVIII. SET ANCHOR BOLTS FOB POSTS OF VARIOUS SECTIONS. Zte Bar Column*. Section. t Bolts. 6XV4, Z cols 1% 6X%, Z tolH 1% SXVt, Z cols 1% SX%, Z tol» 1% lOXA, Z eolB 1% lOXA, Z cols 1% Chunnel Columns. NectioH. 2 Bolts. 2 6-in. channels % 2 7-iii. channels % 2 8-in. channels %J 2 9- in. channels 1% 2 10-in. channels 1% 2 12-in. channels 1^ Four Angle Columns. liection. ^ Bolts. 4 angles, 2X2Xv',i % 4 angles, 2X'iXH % 4 angles, :;M(X2X A % 4 angles, 2%X2XV4 % 4 angles. 3X2X% % 4 angles, 3X2X% % 4 angles, 3% X 2% X 1/4 % 4 angles, 3%X2M;X% 1% 4 angles, 4 X3X A IWt 4 angles, 4X3 X% IWi Four Jnj//e and Plate Columns. Section. S Bolts. 4 angles. 2ViX2X>4 % 1 plate, 7XVi 4 angles, 2MJX2XV4 % t plate, 8XV4 4 angles. 21/' X2X % % I plate, 10x14 4 angles, 3X2XVt % 1 plate, 8xy4 4 angles, 3X2xy4 l'^ 1 plate, 10X% 4 angles, 3X2 X»4 ^^ 1 plate, 12XV4 4 angles, 3V2X2XVi Ts 1 plate, 8X14 t angles, .•<>.1.X2X Vi ' Wi 1 plate, 10X% 4 angles, 3ViX2Xi/i . ' % 1 plate, 12X% 4 angles. 3ViX2XVi IWi 1 plate, 14X1/4 Area of Anchor PI. 4 Bolts. sq. tiu. % 110 1 100. % 150 1% 236 1 180 m, 300 Area of Anchor PI. 4 Bolts. sq. tns. % 75 % 75 % 75 % 110 % 110 % 150 Area of Anchor PI. 4 Bolts. sq. tns. % 75 % 76 % 75 % 75 % 75 % 75 % T5 y4 110 % 110 % 110 «. Area of Anchor PI. ^ B()/f». sq. ins. % 75 % 76 % 78 % 76 % 110 % 110 % 78 % 110 % 110 % 110 202 UILL BDILDINOS liJ- Anchor plates should generally be set about i of the height of pier below the top and should have a thickness not less than i of the bolt diameter, plus i inch. The area of the anchor plate should be about eight times the value of the anchor bolts in tons. Bent anchor bolts in U form with nuts on the upper stems, require no anchor plates. Rough or foxtail bolts set 6 inches in the cap and fastened with cement, should be used for all other anchorages. The framework of a large structural shop in the East, when the erection was only partially comploted, was struck by a violent wind storm before the bracing was in place, and successive bays of framing, including trusses and columns, were blown over in one direction, but the columns had been so firmly anchored by set bolts to the piers, that their bases remained fastened in their original horizontal positions, while the columns bent or broke 4 or 5 feet above the bottom, showing the effectiveness of set anchors in producing square action for columns. The practice of the author in proportioning building columns is to consider them as square ended or fixed at the base, if they are firmly anchored or if they have load enough upon them to hold them down, but smaller columns and particularly those with only plug anchors, frequently have a tendency to pin action. Anchor bolts are located with wood templets supported on stakes above the piers, the position of the holes being carefully located on the templet with a transit and level. The bolts are suspended through holes in the templet, and are built into the piers. Holes for plug anchors are drilled after the columns have been Bet, and they are fastened to the masonry with melted lead or sulphur. W"h. CHAPTER XIX. WALL DETAILS. Walls are for the purpose of carrying loads, and forming an enclosure to retain heat ; and solid walls are made either of a uni- form thickness, or with thin curtain walls and piers at the panel points to sustain the loads. Framed walls have wood or steel columns and sheet metal or plank covering. The common types are stone, brick, combined brick and concrete, concrete blocks, reinforced concrete, sheet metal and plank. THICKNESS OF WALLS. Sufficient wall thickness must be provided under loads to produce no greater pressure than 125 pounds per square inch on brick, 200 pounds on concrete, and 250 pounds per square inch on stone, and concentrated loads must be distributed over the wall with stone or iron bearing blocks. If csolid masonry piers would be excessively large or take more epace than is available, steel columns may be inserted in the piers, with only enough covering around them to serve as fireproofing. The method of using steel columns to carry all the loads is waste- ful, because the compression value of the material around the column is not considered. A more economical method is that used for reinforced concrete columns, in which light steel is inserted large enough to support the dead load, and when completed, the whole area of both steel and concrete arc available in compression. Broad and shallow pilasters are preferable to narrow and deeper ones, as they have a stronger appearance. STONE WALLS. Stone walls are not as much used for factory buildings as for- merly, excepting in districts where stone is accessible and cheap, and other material higher in price. A notable set of large new buildings with walls entirely of stone are those for the Associated Industries at Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. The stone is a spotted pink granite, quarried on the site or in the immediate vicinity, and presents nn unusually attractive appearance. Stone walls 12 to 18 inches thick, cost 50 to 70 cents per square foot. 203 204 HILL BLILDISOS HKIC'K WALLH. Solid l.iirk walls Mithdut (olumns are ■•ij^id and free from the vibrations coiiunon in inill l.uildjn^r.s with framed walls. Bri,k walls with piers iind thin curtains Ijctween, are less rigid but much used. The recpiired (hitkness of walls, according to the building laws of several citie.s is giNcn in Chapter \-. Brick walls absorb water and are free f;om c-ondcnsation inside, hut if moisture must be excluded, paving bricks may be used on the exterior and enam- eled brick on the interior, as in the new sliops of the American Arithmometer Comi)anv. Fig. 3 SO. Pftl SIZE AND COST OF BRi, K. The standard size adopted by several brick manufacturers is for common brick, 2^ X 4 X 8J, and for face brick 2i X 4^ X Sg inches, nnd in the walls, including mortar joints, they usually lay 22J bricks per cubic foot, or \\ per s09.) Portland ct'iiicnt weijilis from !I0 to 100 pounds per cubic fiK>t, iind a barrel wcifibs ;<*') |»(» to fiO jxmnda per (iibic foot and a barrel weijrhs 300 pounds and costs 80 cents to $1.00. Seashore sand is not suitable for making mortar, for the salt which it contains forms efflorescence on the brickwork, and good sand ordinarily costs from 7-5 cents to $1.<;.'> per cubic yard. -^e^ 3IOe CLEMTION. Fig. 347. One barrel of unslacked lime will make 'IX barrels of stiff lime mortar paste, or (ij barrels of mortar of cme to three prop tion. The amount of mortar retjuired to lay 1,000 bricks is as follows : I.ime mortar, 2V2 bus. of lime and %. cu. yd. of sand. Lime and cement mortar, 2 bus. of lime, 1 bbl. cement, % ou. yd. of sand. ( ement mortar (1-3), IV'j bbls. cement and '•...! Ill between plauk forms, and tlie steel frame is afterwanls painted red or hiack in contrast to the concrete. This kind ..f wall costs more than some others, owinjj to the presence of the perman..nt anj.d.- iron frame and the need of forms; but when brick IS expensive and sand and gravel convenient, it mav be economical. It can be erected in units, and single panels can be removed more easily than monolithic walls. The objection to solid concrete walls is that eon.lensation lorms on tiic insi le in cold weather and discolors the wall and Flir. :i."iii. adjoining floor. An average square foot cost of an 8-inch con- crete wall as described above is: StPpl frame, 4 lbs., at 4 cents per lb. Concrete, 8 ins Forms, 2 sides Total Per sq. ft. (cenU.) . 16 . 20 . 10 . 46 Walls of concrete and expanded metal are used in several buildings designed by the author, illustrated in Figs. 24, 25, 26. 51 and 52. The framing consists of J-inch channels placed verti- cally 12 to Ifi inches apart, and fastened to longitudinal steel girths attached to the columns. The light channels are covered with expanded metal, which supports a 2-inch concrete wall. M WALL DETAILS 209 These walls require the use of forms on both sides for placing tlie concrete and the cost per square foot of 2-inch concrete and expanded metal wall is as follows: Per »q. ft. (cents.) 2 in. concrete, at 2% cents i"-, "q ft 5 Expanded metal 2 Forms, 2 sides '" Steel, 4 lbs., at 4 cents 16 Total cost per sq. f t 33 : ' The shop office (Fig. 41) and the market building (Fig. 32) designed by the author have double concrete walls with air space between them. The outer 2-inch slab is first formed as described above, and the inner lining of light channels and expanded metal is then applied over the girths and plastered. As the outer and inner girths are fastened to the column faces, the width of air ^mce between the double wall is equal to the column thickness. The method is appropriate in very cold or very hot climates where non-conducting walls are desired. The cost of double walls is not quite twice the cost of single ones because less forms are needed. These walls are occasionally plastered with two or three coats, the first coat consisting of 1 part of cement, 2 of liine, and 3 of sand, and later coats having 1 part of cement and 2 of sand. The inside is sometimes coated with gypsum plaster instead (if cement mortar. Concrete walls are also made by erecting separately molded slabs 3 or 4 inches thick, and 4 or 5 feet square and hooking them with countersimk bolts to the wall girths (Fig. 3.51). These slabs are reinforced with wire fabric or expanded metal, and are molded one upon another with sheets of oiled paper between them, to prevent the blocks from adhering while the concrete is green. The jrovemment coal storage pockets at Bradford, Rhode Island, have corrugated iron walls lined with concrete slabs as described above. The duplicate buildings are 725 feet long and 87^ feet wide, hold 40,000 tons of coal, and contain more than 4,000 of these concrete slabs. Molded concrete slabs may also be made with a frame of 2xJ- inch flat bars on edge, connected with ^-inch round rods 4 inches apart, passing through punched holes in frame. The metal rein- forcing is completed by weaving No. 14 wire under and over the rods, G inches apart, and the frame is then filled with stone con- crete mixed in 1-2-4 proportion. The edges are offset to fit together 210 MILL BUILDINGS and fasten over the framework, and grooves whicli are afterwards filled with cement, are left in the slabs for anchor bands. The finished slab is 2 inches thick, and is suitable for sizes up to 4 X 15 feet. They can be used both for walls and roofs, and lower side only and is patented liy The Aiken Cement House Company. Concrete walls are also made by molding complete wall sections in a horizontal position on the ground, and then hoisting them into place. The method has the advantage of requiring forms on the lower side only and is used by The Aiken Cement House Company of Chicago." CONCRETE BLOCK WALLS. Concrete block walls are made of either single or double blocks, the former going through the wall, while the bitter are facings only, an- chored in with one or more ribs. They are less expensive than brick or stone and form not only a ligliter wall than •'ither, but one which is a non- conductor of heat and cold be cause of the hollow center. Fig. 8B1. WALL DETAILS Sll Condensation on *'io inner face, which is liable on walls of solid stone or con. lete, is almost or entirely absent on a wall of hollow blocks. Some concrete l)locks have double lines of 2'/lConcrett C%p Mftol aF — TT =^ Kl(f. 332. v\}i. :i.-.4. cores alternatin^r with each other, and cross ribs never extend through the wall to conduct heat or cold and cause condensation. The hollow wall is cheaper than a solid one because it contains less material,, and it is also lighter, requiring a less expensive foundation to sustain it. Blocks are made in much larger sizes than brick, and the cost of laying them is proportionately less, 'ihe hollow spaces in the walls are convenient for pijies and there is no delay in waiting for stone or brick, as the concrete blocks can lie made at the site by the men who erect the building. Tlie cost of the best concrete block machine does not exceed $100. Cinder concrete is 8er^•iceable for interior partitions, but it is too porous to use in blocks for outer walls. Another saving from the use of hollow concrete blocks in preference to brick or stone, is that furring and lathing on the inside is unnecessary, as they contain an interior air space, and plaster can be applied directly to the blocks. Blocks are usually made from a mixture of 1 part of cement with 6 or 8 parts of sand and gravel or crushed stone not exceed- f ■' I '• ■V. ril MM 212 MILL BUILDINGS m mg J inch in dia.notor, and faced with i to ^ inch of fine mate- ml, vlii.h pivos a iH-ttor appearance and a more impervious sur- face. Different kind, of l.locks are made in tlie same molds by USUI- different cores. After being molded, the blocks require about a week to thoroughly hnrden, and during this time thev should be occasionally sjirinkled. They can be made at the rate of 300 square feet per man per day, and sing'e blocks such as those in Jigs. 3,-i3, .-5.-. I and 3.-,r), cost 10 cents per square foot, or 25 cents per cubic foot in the wall. Walls like Fig. .•^-,4, 10 inches thick, cost 20 cents per square foot, which is less than half the cost of brick walls with pressed brick face. Fig. 155. Fig. 356. Hollow nionohthic walls are made by placing concrete between wooden lorms similar to the methods used for solid walls, excopt- mg that concrete is placed around movable wooden cores 3 to 4 feet long, with concrete cross ribs between them to unite the inner and outer faces. SHEET METAL WALLS. Corrugated iron is one of the most common and cheapest walls for mill buildings, and its use is described in Chapter XXV. It is suitable only where interior heating is unnecessary, and usually has short duration owing to the formation of rust, "but it is easily renewed. It is fastened to wood or steel purlins, supported on the columns, and when well braced this type of wall is suit^ihle for buildings witl; heavy cranes. Bracing should preferably be stiflF, and capable of resisting both tension and compression, but if rods |i ''\ WALL DETAILS 213 lire used, they mus^t haw turnbuckles or other adjustments for tiiiliteiiin;.' them. Corrugated iron walls lined with conerete are -hiiwn oi\ i)age 210. These walls are also made double thickness, thickness, using 2^-ineh corrugations on the outside and l^-inch on the inside, hut the inside corrugated iron must be nailed to wood strips or purlins, for the rear side of inner sheets are not accessible for .clinching nails. Fig. 21 is a foundry designed by the writer, with side and rear walls of corrugated iron and con- tinuous sash. WOOD WALLS. Wood shop walls are made either fixed or as a series of movable piinels or doors, permitting all or half of the sides to be opened when desired. Permanent wood walls are generally made of plank standing vertically, spiked to horizontal purlins, with joints between planks .(iveredwith ^-inch battens, or of matched sheathing without liiittens (Fig. 357). If instead of battening the joints the wall is Kivered with corrugated iron or metal siding, the plank should then be horizontal, and fastened to columns and intermediate ^tuds. riank walls shown in Fig. 3G8 are weather-proofed with slate. Wood walls made of movable panels are most convenient when arranged to roll horizontally past each other, leaving ono- half of the side area open (Fig. 10). The whole wall space may he opened by using continuous counterweighted, sliding, rolling or folding doors, at an increased cost. The detail cost of a weather-boarded plank wall is as follows : Per sq. ft. Cents. Steel framework, 4 lbs., at 4 cents 16 'Jin. plank, at 3 cents °^ Sheathing paper '■» Weather boarding |J Paint, 2 coats ~ Total cost per sq. ft ^^ '^ WALL ANCHOR AtiES. Fig. 369* is a common truss and wall connection with two ^inch bolts passing through the bottom truss angles, fastened to a projecting steel plate built into the masonry. Bolts are easily inserted and the anchorage is usually satisfactory, permitting a slight variation in the distance between walls, without affecting the connection. ' Mill Building Construction, H. 'i. Tyrrell, 1900. 214 MILL BVILDINOS -Vd' Matched Sheafing Fltf. 337. Aiicliors like Fig. 370* jire more seiuie but require greater tare in .-^ettiufr tiie wail bolts, and must have slotted anchor holes in the shoe l)lates. Bolts and anchor plates are hiiilt into the walls, and the trusses placed afterwards. The trusses in Fig. 371 rest on stone seats, and after thev are placed, lioles are drilled in the stones, and plug bolts set with lead or sulphur In Fig. 372 the tnisses are built into the wall and held by angle clips at the end. Fig. 373 is a method of attadiing a new- steel truss to the inside of an -old wall without cutting it. Bolt holes are drilled through the wall to match those in the outside washer plate, the area of which in square inches must be equal to eight times the tension on the bolts in tons. The bearing value in tons for bolts of different sizes in walls of various thicknesses, ami the re,,uired area of washer plates for each bolt is given in the following table: I'Maple ., B'lP S'ldSfonei s'woii- 18 '£4 3tone' •+« I'lg. 358. Viameter in ins. «-,«. ffall. % rj % 6 % 7 ' S TABLE XXIX.» IS-in. Wall. .7 .» 1.0S 1.2 "iiii. li all, _;o.in. Wall. 1.0 1.4 1.6 1.77 Area of pi. aq. in*. 18 26 36 46 liliM M WALL DETAILS 215 KIg. 369. ,. i Rough Bolfa setinCemmt Kie. 371. i"Be»s,i!6'lb. r. Pktft ^ S'ltZiO" Fig. 372. The trusufs must !»• larefullx set, using tiller plates if neces- sary, between the truss anil wail. When bolts cannot be passed through the wall, trusses are then fastened with expansion holts, the hearing value of which, for different lengths and sizes, are as follows : Fig. 373. Ttnchon-io' /ong Fls. 374. urfllWWIHIIIIIIilWIIIIIllwhl • • • • ^t3j' '" •"""'" 1^ Fig. 3T5. Klg. 370. it 21f5 Diameter ./ jim, in ins. lonn. % 24 % •>» ■ % 1 MILL BUILDINGS TABLE XXX.» e ins. long. .36 .42 .47 .57 n tl.e soil, (•>) I'pper Floor., supported on , ran.c of bea.us and colu,nn.s, the construction of 1 1 u." two kind! .|n. .,utc difTerent. The pur,.se of the hui.din, and it ..nt " wdl determine the most suitable kind of floor in each indivi.U.a cane. Some shops containing onlv very heavv machincrv e «r-^al foun.lat.ons for each n.a.-hine, hut other shops ■forTl viork are n.ore convenient when huilt with a solid flo .r on which ».a. nnes can 1. phud anvwhere wUhout special foundations f.round floors may be made of natural cou.pacted earth or Jcrmancnt or solid floors shoul.l l>e built like a strc-t pavement w,th a f,n,shed wearing surfa.. lidded on sub.tanf ia f nd" ' ons and should ha^. ^rade of about 1 or •> inches per 100 ft for dra.nage. Cenaii. ,.ner build.ngs, such as car shops round houses, etc. m which water is freely used for vashi^,' ould I ave a greater floor slope to drain them quickiv, for men cannot tj ;: r t"- ;'"" t"''"^- ■" ^^•"*^'- '^he'ground A^r : s«d frame buddings which are usuallv made and erected bv truj-tura companies, can be laid more cheaply bv the own or a S "'f ^^; -^'"f ^'™"-^ «-- ^'>ouhl therefore not be •nehded '^:th a structural contract. '^^'uutu KIXD OF FLOOB.S. Experience has proven that different tvpes of floors are be.t BU.ted for different kinds of manufacturing buildings. lav" earth are he best suited for forge .shops of foundries where th presence of hot metrl makes wood flooring prohibitive. A floor made bv laymg v.tr.fied brick on plank foundation, water-pn^?ed ou8i>. shou d ha,e floors w,th a wearing surface of wood or a=nhalt for cement, stone or brick are too cold and unresi..ting and 218 '^^^:t:^t^':iiM>^f GSODND FLOOBS 219 tire the workmen. Asphalt is more (•oniforta[)le to walk iijwn than wood, but is not as woll suited for machine sliops. l)ocausc oil sotions asj.lialt, and wood floors arc therefore Wst, wherever oil Ih liable to drip. Flnt, and flat-head bolts are inserted into the grooves nnd turned s.vieways. Till' ..st of loncreto floors vaiies with the : "^ s of concrete and its thickness, and may be found for any partis... ar case from the following unit prices: ■ :f i Portland cement, per bbl., eostg from $l..'iO to $12.00 Sanil anil gr-ivft per on. yd., costs from 1.00 to 1.50 Crushed linn>st(n,', per cii. yd., co00 square feet of concrete floor (! inches thick in 8 hours The wages paid to cement finishers and laborers in different parfci of the Inited States and Canada are given in the table on page m. Lal,or costs from W to 60 per cent of the cost of matt rials, depending on the thickness of floor and the rate of wages TAR COXCRETE FLOORS. A foundation of coal tar or asphalt concrete is the best pre- servative for wood, for when laid over cement concrete without any protective coating, wood plank and sleepers decav rapidly f mm dry rot. Several methods of preserving floor lumber have been tned, especially the plan of spreading lime under it but no preservative is so effectual as tar or pitch, or a combination of he two materials. .V concrete floor overlaid with plank is the bes for machine shop use; it is solid, without vibration, is com- fortable to walk upon, and machines can be screwed to any part of th« floor. As there is no nir space beneath it, the floo? is practically fireproof, is not expensive, and tools falling upon it do not break. It will last for twenty-five years, while plank laid over cement concrete decays .,i half the time or less. The most approveut tamping with iron rams ,s sn„u.t.mes preferred, though a roller makes a flatter sur- face. In cold weather the sand should l,e heated bv piling it over and around an iron pipe in which a fire is kept bun^ng. Over the ^-mc^h layer of far concvte is spread one inch of dry sand, sa urated with from 40 to GO gallons of tar to the cubi'c jard. Ihe sand should be h.^ate.! to 'j.'iO degrees F. and the mix- ture spread 1^ nuhos thick, .on.pressed when rolled to one inch While this top drosmg is warm and soft, 3-inch hemlock plank is laid upon It and pressed or pounded firmly down to exclude 'n^-:^-i''?-V ill 284 MILL BUILDINGS of coal tar covered with 3-inch plank on 3 by 4 inch eleepen,, 16 inches apart, cost 8 cents per square foot for the concrete and 16 cents per square foot for the wood, or a total of 84 cents per square foot. A 4-inch base with 1-inch sand covering, laid as specified for Fig. 382, usually costs from 10 to 12 cents per square foot, not including any woodwork, and the complete floor including wood, from 25 to 35 cents per square foot. Coal tar cost from $3 to $5 per barrel. The new shops for the Sturtevant Companv, at Hvde Park Massachusetts, have 120,000 square feet of tar concrete floors,' with 3-inch hemlock plank laid in pitch. A very satisfactorv' shop floor, designed by Davis and Barnes engineers of Philadelpiiia. was used by them in several build- ings for the Sessions Foundry Company at Bristol, Connecticut (Fig. 395). It has a bottom layer, 4 inches thick, of well tarred broken stone, covered with IJ inches of tarred sand, in which is imbedded 3 by 1^ inch chestnut strips placed 4 feet apart, the top of the strips being level with t.ie sand ; over this is laid a wearing surface of 4 by IJ inch tongued and grooved maple. The new plant of the Chapman Valve Companv at Indian Orchard, Massachusetts, the repair shop of the Maine Central Railway Company at Portland ^laine, and the Columbian Rope Company at Auburn. Xew Yoik, all have tlieir main floors built of tar concrete covered with wood. "/ a BRICK FLOORS. Brick floors have been generally adopted as standard construc- tion for railroad buildings and particularlv for round houses, where the pressure on the floor from lifting jacks, trucks and driving wheels is liable to cause injury. Wooden floors in round houses wear out too quickly and concrete floors crack and break under tlie heavy loads. A good specification for laying brick floors is aa follows : First excavate the soil to the necessary depth for a solid foundation and roll or tamp the ground thoroughly, after which one, two or three layers of slag or cinders shall be laid and rolled, each layer 4 to 6 inches thick. The layers shall be thoroughly tamped and rolled before placing the succeeding one. Over the cinders sand shall be spread to a thickness of 1 to 2 inches, depending on the thickness of cinder base beneath it, a 6-ineh base having not less than one-inch layer of sand. The sand shall -rt- JM-imKnT^jBrnrstrtrif'-'^^'-riM T'"? r , iv-""rf""'nnT'' iJ^r? GEOUSD FLOOES 235 ^-■Vif rifled Brick i i '-<^ I J^ 1 r -t *' » ■ ' — »*■ £ 5/09 fi told Slag-- Fig. 3S4. be thoroughly rolled and smoothed to an even grade to receive the brick. Hard vitrified brick shall be laid on edge with staggered joints and an upper half-inch layer of sand spread and rolled. Wlien a water- proof floor is desired, the brick shall be grouted with a mixture of tar and pitch, over which is spread a layer of sand thoroughly brushed and rolled into the joints. A concrete base beneath the brick is preferred by some railroad companies for i.ieir round house floors ; but for shops with lighter loads, and particularly where machines have special founda- tions, the concrete base is unnecessary. Brick floors laid over a cinder base cost from 85 cents to $l.ir) per square yard. ASPHALT FLOORS. Asphalt is one of the oldest natural products used in building construction. Authorities believe that it was used in building the ark, the tower of Babel and the walls of Babylon. It is stated in Genesis that "the vale of Siddom was full of slime pits,' and further that "they had brick for stone and slime for mortar," while in describing the ark it is said that "the ark was pitched within and without with pitch." In modem times asphalt is very extensively used both for street paving and floors, and is used in many monumental buildings, such as the Philadelphia city hall. They are very comfortable to walk upon, do not tire the feet like stone, and are serviceable where a low first cost is not the chief consideration, as the material does not wear away, but is simply compressed. These floors are mad by mixing crushed rock asphalt with Trinidad asphalt and sand in the proportion of 60 i^'iunds of broken asphalt mastic blocks with 4 pounds of T ■ ' asphalt and 36 pounds of fine gravel and sand, the total weighing 100 pounds. The mixture is heated in kettles u '>0 degrees F. for about 5 hours and well stirred during tl. |Aaod of heating, after which it is taken out and spread. Tlie asphalt mastic, which is sold in blocks weighing from 50 to no pounds, contains 86 per cent carbonate of lime and 14 per cent of bitumen, and the blocks, when marketed, bear the maker's name or brand. Rock asphalt, as distinguished from Trinidad asphalt, is a limestone mixed with 8 to 17 per cent of bitumen, nnd the best is found in workable quantities at Seyssel, France; Linuner. near Hanover, Germany, and at Neuchatel. Switzer- i ne MILL BriLni\GS land. The mines at Kagusa, Sicily, also produce a rock rich in l.itunu.n. wliRh is largely used for street pavins; in America Beds of sandstone containing from 15 to -^0 per cent of bitumen are found in strata like coal in several parts of the United States notably near Santa Barbara, California: in Utah. Xew Mexico' Colorado and Kentucky, and this impregnated sandstone is quite extensively used for street paving in the Pacific States. The rock asphalt IS mined, and prepared for shipping by first grinding it to pow.ler, a.lding 8 per cent of Trinidad asphalt to prevent burn- ing, and heating for five hours in kettles at a temperature of 350 .legrees F. It should be stirred continuouslv during the neriod of heating and then molded into blocks weighing from 50 to 60 pounds each, known as asphalt mastic. Asphalt is not volatile at any natural temperature, and is tiierefore permanent, but there are many imitations of asphalt mastic made of tar and crushed hmestone, which are of little value, for the tar evaporates, causing (•racks and leaks, .\sphalt is not injured bv freezing and thaw- ing, and should last for ten years without repairing. It is so elastic that cracks will not form, is waterproof, and as it is laid m sheets without joints, it does not leak, and can be kept clean wi;li a hose. Trinidad asphalt contains ^^ Per cent. gg-t ^i*"r° ■ • 40 Water ,7 Earthy matter 34 ^ ' Vegetable matter q "TI7 100 ^Mien taken from tiie asphalt beds in Trinidad, it is melted in kett es. wind, causes vegetable matter to rise to the top and earthy matter to settle to the bottom. The top is then skimmed and tlie pure asphalt drawn off and allowed to harden. } lm^ \fnm -ft rp^T . ^ ^ fa^ff^ '•■"'• ■'^•" Fig. 386. For mill floors, one inch of asplialt is laid over a foundation of concrete 3 to 4 inches thick (Fig. 385) or on boards covered with sheathing paper (Fig. .386). The new locomotive shops at Parsons, Kansas, have a portion of the floor in the center of the shop made of sheet asplmlt. Uock asplialt floors, not including base, cost from 16 to 18 cents per square foot laid. GBOUND FLOORS WOOD FLOORS. 827 A very substantial wood floor on which lipht machine? can 1)0 i)laccd anvwlierc without special foundations is illustrated in cross section in ¥i^. 387. The soil is first excavated to a depth "f 18 inches, and after being rolled, and soft, sironjiy places filled with hard material, an 8-inch layer of cement concrete is spread ;md rammed. On thit ' laid 6 by 6 inch timljers, 4 feet ajmrt, which have Iwen previously, coated with tar or liquid asphalt. These nailing pieces are carefully leveled up to the required floor uiade and the space between them is filled with a second layer of (oncrete, covered on top with a half inch of lime. On these nail- 3'Plank- .■6*6 ■ Concrtfe ^7*^:? ■i^:^*^*' ^■Mifk Ml mjh lW{,yi^ Vvi.^ ■a-.-i.-^ Fig. .387. J<4 lectr Fig. 388. Concrets iiig pieces is laid 3-inch hard pine plank, toe-nailed to sleepers and jointal with 1 by IJ inch splines. Where wood floors are used the preservation of the lumber is important. The method of laying plank and sills on a ^-inch layer of lime has l)een found ' iTective, and should preserve the wood for fifty years. A more ivcent method of ])reserving wood is to lay plank and sills on a hcd of sand and tar, pressed so tightly into the tar that air is ixcluded and dry rot prevented. A coating of rosin on the under -i'le of plank and sills has also been used to prevent decay. .\. floor similar to the above, but lighter, was used in the Topeka shops of the .\tchison. Topcka and Santa Fe Railroad < ompany. Xo. 1 maple flooring, IJ inch, with 1 X J-inch splines, !- laid on 3 X 4-inch yellow pine stringers, placed 18 inches apart iiul imbedded in G inches of concrete (Fig. 388). The erecting shop of the .Mlis-Chalmers Company at West A II is, Wisconsin, has a plank floor fastened to wooden stringers imbedded in a solid concrete base 2 feet thick, and is strong 'iiough to sustain heavy machinery without removing any part of the floor for special foundations. The new shops of the Pittsburfe and Lake Erie Railroad Com- pany, at McKee's Rock, Pennsylvania, designed by Messrs. A. R. ??aymer, assistant chief engineer, ar-f B. A. T.udgate, structural • ngineer, are illustrated in Fig. 38lr The wearing surface is 1 1-inch tnngued and grooved maple over a sub-floor of 2J-inoh 228 MILL BVILDINOS ^?% yellow pine, spiked to 4x4-inch stringers filled in botweei, them with sand. These stringers are supported on 4-infh layr r )f cement concrete, made of one part of cement, five A f.od and eight of Ijroken stone, and over it is placed five layers o^ tpr felt in hot tar, covered with one inch of sand. At interv'ais oi 5^ feet tiiere are continuous open wire ducts between the nailing stringers for conveying electric power wires to the machines. A floor used in the railroad shops of the Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad Company, at Parsons, Kansas, was laid as fol- jft^rdLtiswwuufg^ «rK.*fsi Slayers Felt -4 Concrete m Hot Tar layer Sand Fig. 389. R oof ^g^^ iii-'^l^ig I^M|- S'4 6Bro>ren I iandlTor Stone Fig. 390. % lows: On the ground was first placed a 6-inch layer of broken stone, covered with a mixture one inch thick of sand and tar, on which are laid 3 X 4-inch yellow pine nailing pieces previously treated with the zinc process. The spaces between these nailing pieces were filled with dry sand and a 2f-inch plank floor laid thereon. Over this is placed a layer of roofing felt, covered with a wearing surface of 4 X li-inch dressed white oak (Fig. 390). A light and cheap floor which was used in the bridge shop of the Pencoyd Iron Works at Pencoyd, Pennsylvania, is illus- trated herewitli (Kig. 391). The ground was first leveled and covered with a layer of cinders 6 to 8 inches thick, in which slabs or half-round timl)ers were imbedded every 3 feet, to which wa-i spiked a flooring of 3-inch plank. Both planks and sleepers are coated on tlie under side with lime to assist iu preserving the wood, as noted before. This floor cost the low price of 50 cents per square yard, but it was light, and heavy machines required special foundations. Illustrations of wooden flooi-s with plank spiked to wood sleep- ers, imbedded in gravel or stone, are given in Figs. 392, 393 and 394. Where there are two layers of plank, the upper ones should be laid lengthwise of the shop, and these floors laid in stone or gravel beds should last five or six years without renewing. Floor- ing with separate splines cost less than tongued and grooved lumber and is tlierefore preferable. The disadvantage of all wood fioois is that water used in cleaning them is liable to soak into the wood, causing it to expand and form ridges. GBOUND FLOORS 229 TABLE XXXI. COST OF WOOD FLOORS (CHICAGO, 1909). Xo. 1 yellow pine, 2X6 in., T. nn'l G., costR $8 per square, laid. No. 1 yellow pine, 3X6 in., T. and G., costs $13 per square, laid. Xo. 1 yellow pine, 4X% in., T. and 0., costs $7 to $8 per square, laid. Xo. 1 yellow pine, 6X% in., T. and G., costs $5 to $6 per square, laid. White pine, 4X% in., T. and G., costs $8.50 to $10 per square, laid. Clear maple, 2V4Xi3 in., T. and O., costs $11 per square, laid. (3'PIank ? PlanK: •0 Cinders Fig. 301. Gravel ecinder jhanH: Fig. ZWi. 4PlanK-. 4'6 Fig. 393. '•—10 Broken stone Fig. 894. One man will lay 3 squares of flooring per eight hour day at the ground level, or 2^ squares per day, including hoisting, on upper Hoors. The cost of laying is not proportional to the thickness, for wliiie 3-inch plank is heavier to handle, it requires less care than i-inch pine or maple, and the average number of superficial feet laid by one man per day is about the same for thick flooring as 4 ''I'/tTteH'ivle-i, .-d'^eChesfnut I'kSand "I'k Tarred Sand 4 Stone Fig. 305. ■■AWoodBioclta T'irFicmk^--^ancl Fig. 306. for thin. The cost of laying 2 and 3 inch plahk is frequently assumed at $4 to $5 per thousand, Iward measure. The cost of ll'iors (Fig. 31)3) with lumber at $30 per thousand is 12 cents per square foot, or 16 cents per square foot with lumber at $40 per thousand. If laid over a 6-inch base of concrete, instead of lindcrs, it would cost from 25 to 30 cents per square foot. WOOD BLOCK FLOORS. A verv- simple wood block pavement is made by placing hard- \\oo(l blocks 4 or 5 inches thick on a plank base, fastened to stringers bedded in sand. The freight car repair shop for the 230 MILL BUILDINGS m Illinois Central Rnilroad at Burnside. Illinois (Fig. 3!»6). has a floor of this description, nia.lo of oak biwks 4 in.hes wide r, inches hi-h, and G to 1> indies lonfr. Beneath the muiu track rails are l^'xT^'-ineh wooden stringers. A laicje buildinjr for the American Bridge Company, at Am- ••ridge. Pennsylvania, designed under the direction of Mr James Christie, .130 feet wide and 776 feet long, has for its principal flooring a i)avement of 4 X 4-inch beech or maple blocks 8 inches long, set with the grain vertical on a ' ase of one-inch tarred sand, nveilving a (i-inch base of tarred gravel (Fig. 397). The site of this building was low and soft. and the filling Ijeneath the pavement was covered with a 15-inch la.ver of well compacted cinders. Cedar block floors laid on plank over a foundation of gravel cost about ^■i cents per square foot. Cost of wood blmk flooring simi- lar to Fig. 3f)fi. when made of new material, is IH to ■>] ..ents per square foot, but in lailroad shops tho> are sometimes made of ohj material, at much less cost i4'4 Moole or Beech Blocks l'lQrrea.sanS h farrecl Brave! ' Klg. 397. SPKflAI. FLOORS. Locomotive shuns or car sheds require siH^ciallv constructed floors with pits -} to .-, feet deep Mween the rails, for the purpose of inspection an.l cleaning the cars. The pits should be well crowned at the center and drained so men can work in them with- out having wet feet. The edges of the pits must be capped at either side by longitudinal timbers. fo.stened to the side walls and to the adjoining floors. ,i>f( ^^;^^<( safe loads are given in the hand book of the Pencoyd Iron Works and the Carnegie Steel Company. A form of trough floor, which is now more used than the one iloscribed above, is made of ]ilates and rectangular shapes (Fig. mO). Z bars being use I/ru , \- sTEKL I'l.ATE KLOOR. Another ..Juvt ....tal ,I.«„. ,„ade by tl.o lk>rger Manufacturing . npanv .s ,Uu..tra,e.l u. Fig.s 404 and 405. i, ha. ■> i,..,. un" f..r.n .„l,h groove, .nd do,, .s from •>* to 4 in.he., and Z . al gage. var. fron. ,« , x., ,, .,„„, ,,„^, ,,,. ;,^J.^^ t laid o.tlKT on 1 ,,, , l„„. ,,.„„„ „,. „„ ^,,„,f - 1.0 g.r.h.r w,.|, a.,., , .|... .it,, ,,o„,,ete m which nailin-^ !.■ M.oot« add e.xtr, ...,,.^,1.. u needs no center for plaHr. ^ hr.:r;:^rr •'■-'--- ''^'^ -. ... „.eti „., I'iL'. IM Fit 4(l.-i. T.ABT.K XXXII «AFE U,.M. ^>l- MVLTiVLK^ STKK.. P,..XTK. WITH COXCRETF HLLIN(; I IX ABOVK PLATE. 'itil/l . .'(1. . Ihptli. II tiijlit 18 17.3 17..", 16 1.)..3 14 1.3.4 1L>.' 24 ■ill. . . . 24 3 J', I'd L'4 ., l'" L'4 ;_• 1 ., S/MUl (l. I/I ■ _ 1. 10. I ,-'60 7i)L> '50 'Mm 18S IW 127 1.11.5 4S.5 •26r, 161 7l'() .{jn |sn 11.1 4l'0 l;;)|i 14.1 .).)ii 244 1.37 S8 tii.i L'!t.1 Kill HUl Kj;! l;,., IDS 69 f. ' i'l'KK Fl.OOl *n I 1 A -net'" un a iiijjs In ti»e ■un_ OW I i SHF.KI" STEEL THoli II. is made l'o<' flmirs of liridges and buil Iron and Stoel ('i)in]ianv. tlic fif' lliV nl.iings iifin ''J itidies deep ( Fi^'. 40(')). Tl> tCSM" I'll.'. 4110. ucijilis wli ■!, complete with coneiete filling; and IJ-inch wear- iiiir ^'iirface. liom ;ViJ to O.J pounds per s(|uaro foot. Like other tnni>rhs or corrugated floors, it liasj twice the stiffnes.s of a solid tloor containing the same amount of filling, or it has an average thickness of filling of onl\ one-half its depth with the stiffness 236 UILL BUILDINGS 11 of the full depth. The sheets are made in lengths up to 10 feet, with uniform width of 21 inches. TABLE XXXIII. WEIGHT OF TRIANGULAR TROUGH FLOORS. Lbs. persq. No. 16 gage, 2V2 in. deep, weight 386 No. 18 gage, 2i/i in. deep, weight 313 No. 20 gage, 2*/. in. deep, weight 241 No. 22 gage, 2\i: in. deep, weight 204 No. 24 gage, 2*4 iu- deep, weight 168 BRICK ARCH FLOORS. Brick arches, which were once much used for upper floors, are no longer used to any great extent, as brick or tile floors are not satisfactory in buildings sub- ject to vibration from heavy . machinery. Moreover, they ItV^Ai iilin^^^aftfegg^ are heavy and suitable only for Jm BndiAnii^tSr "^ spans up to about 5 feet. They tig. 407. are made of a single 4-incli ring of brick with a rise not less tliau one-eighth of the s[)an, and are filled above the arcii with concrete in which nailing strips are imbedded (Fig. 407). REINFORCED (^ONCRETE FLOORS. In addition to the floors made of metal troughs with concrete filling, industrial l)uildings frequently have reinforced concrete floors supported either on concrete or steel framing. Concrete framing is treated in another chapter and the fl(X)r slabs only are considered here. The merits of concrete floors are well known. Thoy are fireproof, free from vibration, and clean, with no open- ing for rats or vermin. A great variety of concrete floor systems are in use, including those which have numerous joist, and others with no joist, but with thicker slabs. Ribbed floors with joist are lighter than slab floors, but the latter are thinner and give either more head room or a less height of building for the same clear height of stories, while flat ceilings are preferable to tilibed ones in case of fire. Concrete floors containing tiles are not the best suited for manu- facturing buildings subject to the jars from moving machinery, as the tiles are liable to be loosened. It is common practice in steel frame factory buildings to use beams only at the panels between the columns, using a concrete floor, either flat or ribbed, in spans up to 15 or 20 feet. mm. wmmm UPPES FLOOSS 237 The weight of a concrete floor de^nds on the live load car- ried and the system used, and varies from 60 to 120 Funds Pe^ square foot. Dry cinder concrete weighs from 75 *« ^^ Pjds pjr cubic foot, though it has sometimes been assumed as low as '^ Rodt'wire mesh and expanded metal are all used for rein- forcing floor slabs, the two latter being most convement^ Wire mesh is economical on account of its high tensile strength com- Tned with its elasticity and ductility, and is best sui ed or resist ing tension stress, because the wires are in straight Imes, but heavy expanded metal has a better union with the concrete. Soft o medium steel bars are satisfactory, but not so convement on account of the number of separate pieces to handle and the d ffi- cu ty of having them uniformly placed; but high tension brittle b s resulting from cold rolling or roughening, are not reliable^ Pla n bars colt $30 to $35 per ton, while patented bars cost $40 to $45 per ton. Triangular mesh with strands of No. 4 wire 4i Lhes a'part, united A a diagonal weave of lighter wi. weighs 5T pounds per 100 square feet, and cost (m 1909) $2.30 at tt^e millT It is shipFd ill 'o^^ "P *« ^8 inches wide and 600 feet Zn^ No 10 expa-M metal with 4-inch mesh, which is gen- IZy used for fl'at reinforcement, costs $3.50 per 100 square fLt Itt economical in large .abs to use tension members n :« directions at right angles to each other, and to mak the slabs continuous bv extending the metal over th. ^'^PP^'^^/"^ spiting at the point of contraflexure, or about one^iuarter of the ^^rtun^ :f^fl!::"^ah and area of tensile metal depend upon the loads and the allowable working units hut in ordinary p actice they are quickly found from «;e/o%--/;S '^'■ mute, and the thickness will generally be from 4 to 8 inches. >l 1000 A = — 12 , . ^t J *v „* .loK ♦»nm iinner iurface to center of tension metal, '^'-"^^ l*^hWea'oftVjrrn?qCeTnche. per foot of width, and M = ', the bending moment in inch pounds. Concrete in floor- costs about $6 per cubic yard, of which $1 to $1.50 per yard is the labor cost for placing. M. 238 MILL BUILDINGS Floor slal)s, 4 to 6 inches thick, not includinj? wearing sur- face, cost as follows: romretp .(mts Ill t.i ll' oeuts iht sq. ft. Forms an.l labor 8 to 14 cents per sq. ft. "*"■' •'» to 7 i-ents per tK\. ft. The floor (oncretc in a large Kansas City building, from observation by the writer, was put in at the rate of 50 cubic feet of concrete j)er man jwr day; under an. ther superintendent, it had been placed at only half that rate. The finish or wearing surface on concrete slab may be either one-inch cement of granolitliic, costing 6 cents per square foot, or a double layer of matched wood flooring fastened to sleepers imbedded in cinders. Wood flooring is preferred because it is more comfortal)Io to stand and walk upon, and is a better base for machines, ifatched factory maple flooring. J inch thick, over ■.'-inch spruce, costs 13 cents jwr wjuare foot, and i-inch yellow pine, over •^inch spruce, 9 cents per square foot. Nailing strips or slecjwrs cost 4 cents per lineal foot in place, and 2 to 3 inches of cinder fill between the strips cost 3 to 4 cents per square foot. TIic second floor of the new templet sli.ip for the Pennsyl- vania Steel ('oin|)any lias a concrete floor reinforced with expanded metal, sii|)i)orte(l on liJ-inch steel beams {\^ feet apart and 20 feet long. Beams and girders are covered on the under side with coiicrtte. This floor has a 1 '-inch maple wearing surface over a one-inch sub-floor, on 3x4-inch strips, filled between with cinders. The Fairbanks-Morse machine shop at Toronto, Canada, has a balcony floor consisting of a 3-inch concrete slab, supported on n-inforced concrete joist 3 feet apart. Beams are -21 inches wide at the top, fi inches wide at the bottom, and are reinforced by 6 rods, Ji inch diameter each. STEKL OIRDER .VNP TI.MBEH FLOORS. Several floors of woo feet apart, and in order to secure greater head room the wood joist rest on shelf angles riveted to the girder web. The old practice was to space joist IC to 20 inches on centers, 'nit a better way is to use larger iK-ams spaced farther apart. The cost of the floor with two layers of pine, not including the steel girders, is 12 to 15 cents ])er square foot in place. Any of the above wood floors may be made more nearly fire- liroof by adding a ceiling of metal lath and plaster beneath the I)eam8, and if additional fireproofing is desired, an asphalt wear- ing s\\r may be used on top. instead of the upper layer of wood. Bctwe . > ble courses of flooring, one or two layers of asbestos paper , -^ be laid, not only as an extra fire precaution but to prevent vater usofl in washingr from running through. The new shops of the Sturtevant Company have upper floors of this eon- lllt. 4H> mgj 840 MILL BUILDINGS struetion, designed to support 250 pounds per square foot, with 12xlG-imb hard pine beams spaced 4 feet apart, resting on shelf angles fs. tened to the web of 24-inch rolled beams. SLOW-BURNING WOOD FLOORS. Tlio principle of this construction is to concentrate wood mate- rial in large sizes to secure minimum surface exposure. The required thickness of plank and the spacing of floor beams can be determined from the following table for tin.' strength of plank : TABLE XXXIV. SAFE LOAD IN LBS. PER SQ.FT. FOB SPRUCE PLANK OF VARIOUS SPANS AND THICKNESSES, FOR LIMITED DEFLECTIONS. Load per Sq. Ft. Stiperficial. 30 40 50 4. .. 0.9 . . 1.1 . . 1.2 5. 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.3 6. 1.4 1.6 1.8 ;'.3 J.6 2.9 3.1 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.1 7. 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.7 4.9 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0 -span in 8. 9. 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.5 2.4 J.7 3.0 3.4 3.4 3.9 3.8 4.3 4.2 4.7 4.5 5.2 4.8 ''4 5.1 5.6 5.4 6.0 5.6 .. 5.9 .. 6.1 .. ri. — 10. 2.4 2.8 3.0 3.8 4.4 4.8 5.2 5.8 6.0 11. 2.6 3.0 3.3 4.2 4.8 5.3 5.7 12. 2.8 3.2 3.0 4.5 5.1 5.7 13. 3.1 3.5 3.9 5.0 6.6 14. 3.4 3.8 4.2 75 100 . . 1.5 , . 1.7 5.4 6.0 125 1.9 . . 2.1 .. 2.3 . . 2.4 150 175 200 ' * 2''5 .. 2.5 250 275 300 . . . .. 2.7 . . 2.8 . . 2.9 •• 325 .. 3.1 350 375 400 .. 3.2 .. 3.3 .. 3.4 •• Figures are baded on thp formula: 3 -f- L» (4 P -1- W) D 4 B where D is depth of plank, P, superficial load per sq. ft., W, weight of plank, c, factor of 6, R, modulus of rupture oijuals 10,000, L, length of span. If yellow pine is used, take — of thicknesses given above. 10 Fig. 411 has 5-inch planic supported on 10xl2-inch beams placed 8 feet on centers. The second floors of the machine shop and pattern storage buildings of the Sessions Foundry Company have 3-inch tongued and grooved yellow pine plank on 12xl8« -^ UPPER FLOOnS 241 iiah yellow pine beams. The gallery floors of the Granger Foundry ,it Providence, Rhode Island (Fig. -ll-^), hns a double layer of tl.poring on 8 X 12-inch beams spacfd 5 feet on centers, resting on -lalf angles riveted to the web of 12-inch steel Warns 15 feet S'Plank a - lO'x nt" about e'CttC. FlR. 411. -SO • B^^ Fig. 412. u|>art. The two layers of flf)or plank should have asbestos or rosin paper between them. If woodwork is painted, it should be thor- (ni^'ldy dry and seasoned before paint is applied. The cost of wood iloor similar to Fig. 412 is as follows: Per tquare. SXl2 in. yellow pine. 6 ft. oentcr to ocntfr, <'osts * 3.50 Iron stirruiis 2-„ v."*'"" • • : 12.00 •V"- 1''""'' ':.[:'.'.:'.'.'.'.:'.'.'.'.'.'... ^. .50 ' 'if'tT m AA Factory maple floorinfx ''^^ Total *31.50 CHAPTER XII. ROOFS— NON-WATEKPROOF. This chapter describes methods of constructing roofs of planks, concrete or tile, all of which ma^>rials require a roofing over them, and the contents of this chapter must not be confused with tliu later ones on Roofings, which describe materials with which roofs are covered. The discussion here is limited to roof construction above the trusses and purlins, for the strength and spacing of wood, steel and concrete purlins are considered under the subject of framing. An economic principle in roof design is that the roofing mate- rial itself should serve not only as a covering and enclosure, but should be capable of bearing its part of the imposed loads and transferring them by arch or bending action to the walls or trusses. Coverings which act as continuous beams above the trusses and purlins^ are therefore better than non-continuous coverings, and long planks with edges matched or splined and with staggered tnd joints are more economical than roofs made of small dis- connected parts, such as flat tiles supported on purlins. WOODEN ROOFS. Wooden roofs are made of either one or two thicknesses of boards or planks supported on purlins or rafters. When slote or shingles are used, with separate pieces held in place by only two nails and nails in horizontal lines, the plank should then lie parallel to the eave, so the nails will never be driven into cracks between the boards and allow the slate to become loosened. Tar and gravel or composition roofing in large areas may have planks laid in either direction, for if occasional nails are then driven into cra.ks, the covering will not be loosened. Planks should have supports at intervals not exceeding about 8 feet, and if trusses are spaced further than 8 to 10 feet apart, it is economical to use one or more intermediate jack rafters between the trusses, with nailing pieces bolted to their tops to receive the roof boards. When the roof covering is applied in large sheets or areas, and planks laid in the direction of the slope, parallel to the gabies, the planks may then be fastened to purlins spaced 4 to 6 feet apait. 242 S00F8—N0NWATESPS00F 848 ''J^-d Plank roofs are made of one or two thicknesses, depending on requirements. Buildings ia cold climates, with valuable con- tents and machinery which might easily be injured by condensa- tion water falling from the roof, should preferably have two thick- nesses of roof boards, with a layer of building paper between tliem. An old practice with double thickness roofs is to spread a layer of lime mortar between the boards to make tlie roof a bitter non-conductor of heat and more nearly firejiroof. If fire should fall upon the roof and burn the upper Injards, the mortar niijriit tlien prevent fire from reaching the lower ones. A very good non-conducting roof for northern latitudes is Fig. 413. Fig. 414. Fig. 415. Fig. 410. made by laying l.\2-inch wood strips, spaced 3 or 4 feet apart, between the upper and lower layers of roof boards (Fig. 41-1). Tliis arrangement leaves an open air space between the boards and prevents heat from radiating through the roof. One or two layers of building paper should be shingled over the lower boards before the strips are laid. A very solid wooden roof ia made by placing 2x4 and 2x6 inch wood on edge with successive courses spiked together, the whole resting on the rafters and bolted to them at intervals of 1 or 3 feet (Fig. 416), with bolt heads countersunk on the upper side; 244 MILL BriLDlSOa m the riH)f is then covered witli Aa^ ..r tar and gravel. This style of roof can be used for long !*pans, with trusses spaced farther apart tlmn is perniissihlo with 3-incIi plank laid flat, and it requires no framing of purlins or jack rafters. It is cheap, non-oondensing and slow-burning in construction, and can 1k> built by unskilled labor. The requirecl thickneits of plank for different roof loads and purlin spacing is given in Table XXXIV. REINFORCED CONCRETE ROOFS. These roofs are made either with separate slabs molded at a factory and delivered to the building ready for placing, or by lay- ing the concrete as a solid monolith on the roof supported during construction by temporary forms or stiffened expanded metal. Molded reinforced concrete slabs arc made in panels 2 to 3 inches thick, 'I to :! feet wide, and 4 to (! feet long, the length of sial) l)eing made to suit the distance l)etween rafters. The ends of the slabs rest on the upi^er flanges of beam jack rafters, spaced 4 to G feet apart, and the horizontal edges parallel to the eaves should be tongued and gnwved (Fig. 417). The vertical joints over the jack rafters should be filled with asphaltic cement to , Ix'tter unite the separate blocks into a solid nwf. Countersunk boles for bolts are molded in the concrete when tlic slabs are cast. and they are fastened to tiic r(X)f l)y means of IJxjV-inch Isand iron dips and ^-incli l)olts. When completed, the concrete may be covered with tar and gravel or some form of ready roofing. Slabs of this kind were used in 190G on the National Guard Armory at New York City. .\fONOLITniC CONCRETE ROOFS WITH T'ORMS. •Solid monolithic slabs are made by spreading concrete either on flat expanded metal or wire mesh supports on temporary wood forms, or on some kind of self-supporting stiff expanded metal which needs no forni;,. There is a great variety of concrete sys- tems, which differ chiefly in the style of reinfoicemeut and the length of span. JIany kinds of reinforcement include expanded metal, wire mesh. roounds per sriuare foot, with IJ-inch tees, for lengths up to 16 feet (Fig. 423). Klg. 421. Fig. 422. BOOFS—NOS WATERPSOOF 247 MONOLITH iC CONCKETK ROOF8 WITHOUT FORMS. Si'voral kinds of ribbed or otiffcned expande*! metal are manu- liu turcd, and (oncrete can be spread on these in spans up to 4 or Fig. 423. 5 feet without usinjj wooden forms beneath them. Trussit (Fig. {■>[) made by Tlie (Jeneral Fireproofing Company is one inch thick, and No. 24 gage weighs one pound per square foot. The (-lici'ts are made in uniform widths of 15^ inches and lengths from r> to 10 ffot, 8 fret being standard. Allowing 4-inch end laps find sheets continuous over two panels, the purlin for 8-foot sheets slioiild 1)0 spaced 3 feet 10 inches apart, and 4 feet 10 inches apart for 10-foot sheets. Slabs only 2 inches thick can be used for spans up to 4 feet, and these light concrete slabs not only mnke the roof itself economical but also require a lighter frame than slabs ;j or 4 inches thick. The roof is light lu weight, fireproof, re- ([uircs no forms, and the concrete adheres perfectly to the metal both on the top and bottom. In til is respect it is superior to flat dovetailed sheets where the bond is inii)crfcct. Trussit metal costs 5 to 6 cents per square foot at the I'actory, and 2-inch slabs complete on the roof, including metal, cost 15 to 18 cents per square foot. This was used on a large building for The Cumberland Steel Company at Cumberland, Maryland. Fig. 424. 848 Jui.i miLDisas Another stidptitxl nietnl lath made bv The Tru«w 14" 98 7" 21^-in. slab 30 fi.fiOO 608 342 'Mg \^'^ ' \\o ^6 f,'"-. *'»?•, 3« 9.>l') 910 512 .120 22.8 166 1^8 3'i">- 8'a'' 42 11,640 l.nso 608 386 270 198 152 Like the one previou.- ' \- descriljed, it re.inircs no t.'iii|)orary forms, and tlie saving in tlic centering more than pays for the expanded metal. It is, howevi r, more diflicult and e.xiiensive to plaster these roofs on the under side tiian to place the concrete on wood forms, as is done with flat expanded metal or wire mesh. :\rctal .xlucts in dovetail form are also used as roof slab rein- forcement (Fig. 42{i). Sheets are eO inches wide and 5 to 10 lef^i long, with corrugations \ inch high. They are covered on the roof with \ inch of cement mortar above the metal, and an equal thickness of plaster below. Purlins should !)e spaced 3 feet 10 inches apart for 8-foot sheets and 4 feet 10 inches for 10-foot sheets. The metal must be blocked up ^ inch alwve the purlins on narrow strips of wood or metal and fastened to them with clinch nails or clips similar to tliose used for fastening cor- nigated iron. .\ j-inch thickness of concrete above the metal is enough for purlin spacing not exceeding 5 feet, but for distances of 6, 7 and 8 feet betuoon purliri!^. th:- thicknesg .if concrete above the metal should be 5, IJ and 1} inches, respectively. The top coat of mortar consists of one part of Portland cement with four BOOfS—yONWJ TEliFHOOf M» |.artK of B«nM>d .»f a poun0« 110 ei 35 16 7 3.-..') I'.n no 66 3i) oo 10 5S4 296 252 129 88 ."58 34 SI 830 46; 277 197 128 8.3 58 38 M74 634 422 274 152 H:! 72 5-' L506 726 506 343 228 157 113 81 1,058 880 549 359 244 176 124 91 1.758 944 .^s4 385 263 186 l"ri 103 ],«6S 1,066 64C 446 288 220 149 109 '■H TILE HOOFS. Hollow burnt clay blocks or tiles, sometimes called book tiles because of their shape, supported between lines of tees, are used Rin BOOFS—NON- WA TESPBCOF 251 for roofs, but they are heavy and expensive. The standard block sizes are as follows, the widths being uniformly 13 inches: 12 X 16 X 2 ins. 12 X 18 X 3 ins. 12 X 20 X 3 ins. 12 X 24 X 3 ins. 12 X 24 X 4 ins. It Q LONCiTuWMAL Section Fig. 4^1. Blocks 3 inches thick wcijrli from 13 to 20 pounds per square foot, dei)ending upon tiieir porosity and tlie extent to which they aro hollowed out. Tees niuet be placed one inch farther apart than the length of tiles, and as the tiles are porous, they must he covered with some kind of roofing. Nails can be driven into tiie tile as into wood. When tiie tees need plastering or firo- proofing on the under side, the tiles must then be rabbeted nt tlie bearings to make a levi' umltr surface. Porous or hollow tile prevent moisture from condensing on the under side, and tliey are. thcrefori', used for power houses and buildings contain- iivir vnluahle machinery which might be injured by the falling of condensation water. A tile roof with a 7-incl» pitch and slate covering was used on Ifi u» MILL BUILDINGS tile design made bv the writer, for a foundry building at Coper- hagen, Denmark (Fig. 20). It k a\m n..,..1 with five-p!.v felt .overing on a power house for the Chicago and Western Indiana Uailway Company at Chicago. A ix)warance than cun \>e secured with other covering*, l»i;t the roofiag has a higher c*j*t, and. as it is heavy, reijU'r s heavi»/ roof an^ truss framing to nup- j)<)rt it. It is fireproof, needs no paiaifAg, and is a noD'iC«>Dductor of heat and electricity. Roofs are prepared in seveiu! ways for receiving tile, the most (Oiumon 'ieing to sheathe ttie surface with ')oards and cover it with a layer of /.y.fing paper, on top of which are nailed strips of wood 1 inch liigh and '! inchis wide, spaced to suit the size of tile. If .-jheathing is not desired, the tile may be laid directly on wood >tiips or rafters, or if steel framing is us^, the larger tile may be .supported directly on angle iron purlins without sheathing. Tluy arc fastened to the roof either by nailing directly to the board.-, with copper wire passed through lugs on the unc'er side of the tiles (Fig. 4:?:^) or with spring wire clips (Fig. 434). Fnglazed tiles aljsorb al)o\it 'iO p-r cent of their weight of water and are liable to crack in freezing weather. To prevent absfiiption, they are olso made with a glazed exposed surface at a ■^lightly increas , .1 cost, tiie under side remaining unglazed or |)orous. and any conden.i ins. SVajns. 7'/<| ins. 7% ins. 7V4 ins. 6Vj ins. fi',i ins. 6Uins. rt'y iuH, 5>/ii ins. •>Vi ins. 3 >4 in«. iVi ins. 4^ ins. 4V^ ins. Naila to square, 3d i/alcanized. 1 lbs. ozs. libs, libs, libs, libs. 2 ozs. 4 ozs. 6 ozs. 6 ozs. 1 lbs. 1 1 ozs 1 lbs. 9 ozs. 1 lbs. 14 ozs. 211)8. lozs, 1 lbs. 13 ozs 2 lbs. 3 ozs 2 lbs. 2 lbs, 2 lbs 3 lbs. . 7 ozs. . 12 ozs. 9 ozs. 3 OZ8. 3 lbs. 11 ozs. 3 lbs. 1.'5 ozs. 4 lbs. 8 ozs. 5 lbs. 4 0Z8. Cot.t per sq. at quarries. $4.20 4.45 4.60 4.70 4.80 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.40 .5.20 5.00 5.00 5.00 4.75 4.75 4.50 4.50 4.25 4.00 BOOFISUS—TILK— SLATE— ASBESTOS— WOOD WEIGHTS OF SLATE. 257 Solid slate rock weighs 175 pounds per cubic foot. Slates of various tliicknessefi, therefore, weigh as follows: % in 1.81 Ita. per »q. ft. A >n 2.71 lbs. per sq. ft. % in 3.62 lbs. per »q. ft. A ifl 4.52 Ib». per gq. ft. % in 5.43 Ibi. per sq. ft. Vi ia 7.25 Ibg. per «q. ft. The weight of slate of various thicknesses in a square when laid is given by Professor Malverd Howe in the following table. The length of slates vary from 12 to 26 inches and the thickness from I to f inch. Ordinary large slate ■f\ inch thick will lay, when on the roof, about 650 pounds to the square. TABLE XXXVIir. WKIGHT or SLATE ROOnNT,. hcnqth per tq. ft. for the 1 ,, . j^ '« III*-. %in. •ft in. >4 in. %««. %»«. il: 483 724 967 1,450 1,936 2,419 2,902 14 460 688 920 1,379 1,842 2,301 2,760 i(i 445 667 890 1,336 1,784 2,229 2,670 H 434 6r.O 869 1,303 1,740 2,174 2,607 •Id 425 63T 851 1,276 1,704 2,129 2,553 418 626 836 1,254 1,675 2,093 2,508 ■i\ 412 617 825 1,238 \fi'-\ 2,066 2,478 -'6 407 610 815 1,222 1,631 2,039 2,445 SUITABLE ROOF PITCH. Large slates can safely be laid with a less pitch than smaller ones. The least pitch recommended for large sizes is 6 inches j>fr foot. Smaller ones sliould have a' pitch of 7 or 8 inchea w lien laid witliout cement, but if cement is used it is thea safe to use large slate on pit-hes as flat as 4 inches per foot. On flatter ioofs than these, water is liable to be blown up under the slate in driving storms and leak into the building. Slate is occasionally used as a covering for tar or asphalt reofs on slopes tiiat are nearly flat, but it ^s merely as a substitute for gravel covering, the waterproofing being d(»e by the asphalt underneath it. 258 MILL BUILDINGS METHOD OF LAYING AND FASTENING. Slate roofing is laid either directly on boards or on wood or metal purlins, without sheathing. If sheathing is used, it should be either shiplap or tongued and grooved, so no springing or irreg- ulHiities will oecur to break the slates. The boards or sheathing Bhoiild be covered with a layer of building pajwr, to assist in mak- ing the roof water-tight. When laid on wood strips or purlins (Fig. 4.3fi) these should be from 1 to 2 inches wide and from 1 to 1] inches thick, supported on rafters and spaced the proper distance apart to suit the size of slats. Steel purlina require less framing to supiK>rt then, and have the advantage of being fire- prof)f. Large slate 24 inches long are most suitable for use over steel purlins, which must be spaceil lOJ inches apart. The first and last courses at the eave and ridge must be short m KIg. 436. slates, and at tlie eave a lath must be pkced under the lower edge of slate to jiivc the same inclination as the otlier ones. Three inches is tlie .standard lap. The method known a? half slating (Fig. 437), in which the slates are spread apart *,,ual to half their width, is r-ometimes used when great economy is desired, but the roof is not as tight as when they are laid close together. Slates are fastened to the roof by passing nails or wires through holes in the slate punched either at tiie two upper comer? for connecting to the upper purlin or near the middle for tne center purlin. In the first method, the holes are overiaid by two larcrg and are therefore more nearly waterproof, but the leverage on the nulls is greater, and they are more liable to break and louden from the roof. In the latter method, witii holes nfttr ♦he SOOFUfOS—TILE—SLA TE— ASBESTOS— WOOD 259 middle, the slate is held more firmly to the roof, at the loss of one extra layer of ghingliiig. When laid on boards, they arc fastened witii galvanized iron or copper nails. Black iron nails are not suitable, as tliey soon rust out, and the slate is loosened. The fastenings are the weakest part of a slate roof, and it is, there- fore, desirable to use the best naila even at a hi^jher price to secure permanence. They must not be driven in too hard, for the slate is liable to be cracked or broken. Copper wire instead of nails should be used on metal purlins. A few courses at the eave and ridire, and around chimneys or other openings, should always be laid in slater's cement to prevent leakage, and if the expense will permit, it is better to cement the eniire roof. It will make a tighter roof and the rooms beneath will be warmer in winter and cooler in summer. On chemical works or wlarever destructive gases or fumes are produced, cemented joints are imperative, for Big. 437. Fig. 438. any kind of metal fastenings may be destroyed, and the cement is needed to hold the slate. Punching was formerly done by hand at the building site, but punching and countersinking the holes are now done by machin- ery at the quarries, with better results and less loss. METHOD OF FASTENING SLATE DIRECT TO STEEL PURLINS. As the largest size of slate manufactured is 84 inches long, and, as a general practice, calls for 3-inch minimum lap (Fig. 438), purlins should be spaced not more than 10^ inches on cen- ters for this size slate, and for smaller sizes in proportion. With this spacing, angle irons are the most economical and best shapes to use. In order to carry the roof load ae generally specified, vii., 40 pounds per square foot, it i.^ not practical to space trussed or supports more than 10 feet apart and use angle purlins. Conse- quently, when it is necessary to use a greater pun. i, jack rafters 860 MILL bv:ldinom can be inwrt.-.l aikI *ti!l havf n span of lu fp«^ or less for the purlin. Tl.L' geiKM-al Ml, t! ,.,i ,„ faM».ninK nlate to purlins i. to insert either copper, load or ...ft iron nails tlirou^rh holes in the slate, bendinjr them <.>,.r the lower flange of the nifrle. The holes in the slate lan ht- juinchctl at tli. (|uarry, thus making the spacing and laving ( asy. The cliicf merit of slat.- is its dural-ilitv. Hood slate, well laid, should last from twenty to tifty years or more. It is fireproof and th." .ts: .111 Kal^onized ilnte nails per keg $5.S0 4il Ko'^oniz'*' slAt^ nails (ht keg 5.00 :i to $7 per square, and red slate, from $10 to $12 per square, iiuludinjf jnincliinp and countersinking. A poor quality of black, |i>irple or nii.\i>d iiMif <>( blue or black slate, finished complete. v\ill cost from $7 to $\.i per square, depending on the quality of >\;\\v. (li-tance from the quarries and method of laying. When plates are punched at the quarry, they cannot be reversed if torners are broken in shipping, and some rr)ofcr8, therefore. prefer to hand punch the slates at the site, even though this costs in ii-iits per square, or double the charge for doing it at the (piarry. One slater with half the time of a helper will lay three squares >'( straight work in 8 hours, two squares on roofs with hips and \iilleys. or one square on difficult or crooked roofs. The following is a cost anal v sis per square for slate roofing. i"iiming that a slater and helper put on two squares per day of .■^ iioiirs: Slate, |>f r »q ♦•l.oo Kreight, 600 lbs -'.(M» Loading and hauling 'Jo Felt paper and nails I'o Slater, 4 hours at 40 cents l.6u Helper, 2 hours, nt :;0 cents 40 Xails 10 Total ^S-iSO SBW y^i,' J. »* 1 MICROCOPY RESOIUTION TBT OIART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 I.I Ui, 12.8 i^ I 112 114 2.5 li 1.8 ^ APPLIED IM/1GE Inc ^^ 1653 East Main Street r,S Rochester, Ne<« York M609 USA -ass (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone aaS '716) 288 - 5989 - Fox 262 MILL BUILDINGS If copper nails are used, add 60 cents per square. The cost of freight will vary accordingly to location, while the cost of haul- ing might be much less in a city than in a rural district. BEIXFORCED ASBESTOS COHBUGATED SHEATHINQ. This is a comparatively recent product, made and laid similar to corrugated iron, but it is much more durable. The regular 2i-inch corrugations are made ,\ inch tlii> k, 27^ inches wide, and in lengths varying from 4 to 10 feet. It is composed of asbestos and Portland cement with a ^-inch reinforcing wire mesh, com- pressed with heavy liydraulic pressure. Tt can be cut or sawed like wood, fitted around openings, and nails can be driven through it close to the end or edge without splitting. It needs no paint, becomes stronger and harder with age, and will not rot or rust like corrugated metal. It is very light, weigh- ing only 2 pounds per square foot, and absorbs only 5 per cent of its weight of water, and can be frozen and thawed agcin without injury. The under side of the sheets are rougher than the upper side, and condensation does not form so easily as on metal. It is water, fire and vermin proof, is not affected by steam, and will not decay. It can be used for roofing, siding, partitions, ceilings, or for panels in fireproof doors, and many other places where light sheathing is suitable. The shoots sliould have a lap of 1 or 2 inches for siding, and 3 to 6 inclios on roofs, depending upon the slope. A lap of 3 inches is sufficient for an 8-inch pitch, but a 6-inch pitch, which is the least recommended, should have a lap of 6 inches. The maximum allowable purlin spacing for roofs is 30 inches, and for walls 48 inches. TABLE XXXIX. PURLIN SPACING FOR SHEETS OF DIFFERENT LENGTHS. Sheets 4 ft. long have purlins spaced 21 Sheets 5 ft. long have purlins spaced 27 Sheets 6 ft. long have purlins spaced 22 Sheets 7 ft. long have purlins spaced 28 Sheets 8 ft. long have purlins spaced 30 Sheets 10 ft. long have purlins spaced 28*4 ins. apart, ins. apart, ins. apart, ins. apart, ins. apart, ins. apart. This roofing is fastened to steel roof purlins with bands and clips similar to corrugated iron (Figs. 440 and 441). The most approved method is by bending 1 by | inch band iron around the BOOFINGS— TILE— SLATE— ASBESTOS— WOOD 263 purlins, and bolting it through the upper corrugation to the roof- infr sheets with Btove bolts passed through 1 by iV inch lead w-rshers bent down over the corrugation. No. 8 aluminum or copper wire passed through the roof sheets without the use of bolts may be used instead of bands. The sides of sheets may be lapped either one or two corrugations as desired, the latter making a tighter roof. The side laps are bolted together with stove bolts spaced from 10 to 1'^ inches apart. One corrugalion side lap gives an exposure of 25 inches to the weather. A method of fast- ening to wood purlins is shown in Fig. 440. Fig. 440a. TABLE XL. AMOUNT OF CORLUGATED ASBESTOS REQUIRED PER SQUARE. End lap 1 2 3 4 5 8 Si.lo lap,' icorrugation Ill 112 113 115 116 117 Sule lap, 2 corruiations 124 125 126 128 129 130 :^^ore than 600 squares of this material were used on the new Baldwin Locomotive Works at Eddystone, Pennsylvania, and it is also used on the new buildings for the Indiana Steel Company at Gary, Indiana. The size with 2i-inch corrugations is sold at 13i cents per square foot, f. o. b. works in carload lots, or 15 cents per square foot for less than carloads. The cost of laying varies from $8.00 to $:i.00 per square, including nails, clips, washers, etc. This roofing has a high hrst cost, but as it needs no paint and has little or no maintenance expense, the ultimate cost is no more than other first-class coverings. Flat sheets of asbestos building lumber, and asbestoe ehinglei 12 to 16 inches square are made by the same manufacturers. The building lumber is 42 inches wide, i t" ft incLos thick and 4 to 8 feet long. The J-inch thickness weighs 1 1-3 pounds and coBts 10 264 MILL BUILDINGS cents per square foot. The weights and costs of other thicknesses increase in direct proportion. The shingles are made in three colors, slate, gray and red, and all are manufactured by The Asbestos Shingle, Slate and Sheath- ing Company, of Ambler, Pennsylvania. 'k'iolfsl'k'long.^ I Lead Washers. I'Ve ■■• Steel Band Aluirtmum Wire not Suitable m the Vicinity of Salt Water I NoB fllurninvm Wire ^ 66 Per lb - * Fig. 441. WOOD SHINGLES. Wood shingles are not used to a great extent on modern facto- ries, but they are notc:aila, washers, etc 10 P" "Mi- Labor 80 per sq. Total ^3-90 per sq. ASPHALT ROOFING. Asphalt roofing is laid similar to a tar and gravel roof, except- ing that the slope should not exceed | inch per foot. Asphalt is superior to tar or pitch because it does not dry and \k **-^,, nri mMMM^tmm 268 MILL BUILDINGS peel or ciaek like tar, and will not run at any natural temperature. A light three-ply loof is made as follows: One or two layers of dry paper 36 inches wide are lirst laid lengthwise of the roof over the sheathing boards, with edges lappe(' 1 , Inches and fastened with nails and tin washers. Over this is mopped a coating of asphalt roofing cement, using 10 pounds or 100 gallons per square, on top of which is laid a layer of wool roofing felt weighing not less than 15 pounds jkt square. A final coating of asphalt roof- ing cement is then applice, made by Warren Chemical & Macufactunng t-'o. i;arey 's Magnesia Roofing, made by Philip Carey Manufacturing Co. Elaterite Roofing, made by Western Elaterite Roofing Co. Flintkote, made by J. A. & W. Bird & Co. Oenasco, made by Barber Asphalt Paving Co. Granite Roofing, made by Eastern Granite Roofing Co. Lythoid, made by Lincoln Waterproof Cloth Co. Maltgoid, made by ParaflSne Paint Co. Monarch, made by Stowell Manufacturing Co. Paracote, made by Chatfield & Wood Co. Paroid, made by F. W. Bird & Son. Ruberoid, made by Standard Paint Co. Slag Roofing, made by Warren-Ehret Co. They are made by cementing together layers of wool felt and canvas with pitch or asphalt, and coating the e.xterior with fine gravel or broken stone, or with fireproof pair*. They are sup- plied in rolls from 30 to 36 inches wide, and can be laid on pitch roofs with edges lapped and fastened to the roof with nails and washers. Many ol' these are excellent roof coverings, and can be placed more quickly than ordinary gravel roofs, as heating and melting the cement or pitch in kettles is unnec-essary. They also have an a.lv.nntngr- over the usual gravel roofs in Ijcing suitable for steep pitches and can be laid by unskilled labor. COUioSlTIOS BOOFING M9 ASBESTOS ROOFING. This is a form of ready roofing, consisting of a canvas center, (oated on both sides with waterproof composition, asbestos felt mi top. and manila paper on tlie Iwttom. It is laid lengthwise of the roof in horizontal courses, lapped 2 inches and cemented together, and fastened to the sheathing with nails and tin washers, wliich are coated with cement after being driven. The whole is then coated with asljestos paint, using one gallon per square, cost- ing 50 cents per gallon, and it must be repainted occasionally as iv(iuired. The roofing weighs »^ pounds per square when laid, and its list price is $4.50 per square. It is fire and vermin proof, K.ntains no coal tar. and can be put on by unskilled labor. Asbestos cement for calking in valleys and around openings or chimneys costs from 5 to 10 cents per pound. Asbestos felts in rolls 36 inches wide are used also for gravel roofing, and like wool felts, are laid in several courses shingled over each other, with roofing cement between. The asbestos felt is made in three grades, light, medium and heavy, weighing 6, 10 mid 14 pounds per square, respectively. CABBY'S ROOFING. Carey's prepared roofing is sold in rolls 29 inches wide, in weights of 90 and 115 pounds per square, the former being stand- ard. With each roll are 2 gallons of magnesia paint, i gallon of lement and 2 pounds of nails. It consists of a bottom layer of wool felt covered with asphalt cement, on whicli is placed a layer of burlap coated with elastic paint, which gives the appearance of slate when dry. It is very pliable, is acid proof, and is not easily burned. The raw material costs about $3.00 per square, and laying 50 cents per square additional. FLINTKOTE. This is an excellent quality of ready roofing suitable foi- \& ^e m\\y and factories. It is used on the Birmingham Union Station. the Atlanta Terminal Depot, the Mobile Terminal and elsewhere. It is proof against rats and vermin, and does not need painting more frequently than once in two years. The weight and cost of the three grades made are as follows: l-ply weighs 35 jxiuuds per sq., and costs $1.S0 f. o. b. factory 2-ply weighs 45 pounds per sq., and costs 2.60 f. o. b. factory 3-ply weighs 55 pounds per sq-, and costs 3.20 f. o. b. factory TIW ^4'n 270 MILL BVlLDISaS OENASCO'H ASPHALT READY ROOFING. Asphalt it'ady roofing in several grades, known as Model, Stoiie Surface, Wiiitestone and Smooth Surface, is made by the Barber Asphalt Paving Company. Model I'as two layers of felt, one of burlap and four of asphalt, with a top surface of crushed granite, the whole weighing 100 pounds per s<|uni-c. Stone Surface has two layers of felt and two of asphalt with a surface of gravel, and weighs 120 poum': per sfjuarc. Wiiitestone has two layers of felt and two of asphalt, and is made one and two-ply, weighing (iO and 7.5 pounds per square, respectively. Smootli Surface is slate color, has a single layer of felt with asphah oating on both sides. It is made in four thicknesses, known as ^, 1, 2 and 3-ply, weighing 25, 35, 45 and 55 pounds per square. The two and three-ply are suited for mill and factory use. GRANITE ROOFING. This is a prepared or read roofing containing two layers of wool felt and two of waterproof composition with a top dressing of granite chips. It is sold in rolls 32 inches wide and 41 feet long, containing enough in each roll to cover one square. With each roll is 7 pounds of cement, 1^ poun„. of nails and instruc- tions for laying, so it can bf placed by unskilled labor. It is a heavy roofing, weighing 140 pounds per square, and costs, com- plete on the roof, from $2.75 to $3.75 per square. It is fireproof, needs no paint, and can be laid on roofs with greater pitches than 2 inches per foot. This roofing is used on the Pennsylvania Rail- road Depot at Washington, D. C., the Lake Shore and Michigan Soutiiern Car Shops at Collinwood, Ohio, and other large buildings. GRANITE ROOFING SPECIFICATIONS. Over the roof boards lay two-ply tarretl r(X)fing felt weighing not less than 40 pounds per square (Fig. 443). Beginning at the eaves run the first sheet of felt parallel with the eaves, following 1 inch to turn down over the edge. Nail the upper edge of felt with 3-d barbed wire nails through tin wash-jrs 12 to 18 inches apart, 1 inch from the edge. The second Siieet of two-ply felt should be lapped 10 inches over the first sheet in order to break joints with the sheets above it, but the third and all succeeding sheets of felt should be lapped onl) 2 inches. After the sheets of felt have been laid, stick the joints with c-ement and nail the edges Ipt^ COMPOSITION nooriya 271 witi 3-d barbed wire nails through tin discs 12 to 18 inches apart. After covering the roof with two-ply felt lay the granite roofing jiiirallcl with the eaves, allowing the first sheet to turn down over tlie eaves one inch. Draw the sheet out perfectly straight and nail the upper edge of the sheet one inch back frc 'n the e ... • • • • . • . . . _ ••.•.•^. .-••••■ : Fig. 443. 0. RUBBER ROOFING. This consists of felt paper soaked in a preparation of rubber and rolled. It has a very low cost and is useful principally for covering temporary buildings or sheds, which may have as flat a pitch as 2 inches per foot. It is made in widths of 32 inches and is laid lengthwise of the roof with layers overlapping 2 inches. It ig fastened with nails and tin washers or with wood strip'? placed 2 feet apart, crosswise of the paper. After laying, it is given two coats of chocolate-colored iute paint, the upper one sanded. The slate paint is very elastic, and as it contains no tar 27? MILL BVlLDtSOH it will not crack or peel and does not easily take fire. The cover- ing is a non-conductor of heat and does not make a hot upper ctory. It costs, complete with nails, paints and sand, from $2.5(t to ♦S.SO per square, depending on the thickness of fcit paper used. RL'BEROII) ROOFING. Ruberoid '\» a prepared roo.ing consisting of heavy wool felt saturated under slate or metal where condensa- tion might form and cause injury to tlie building cuutenta. When tlie roof has Imard sheathing, one or two layers of building paper or roofing felt over the boards are sufhc-ient, but where slate or metal is fastenr-d directly to steel purlins, theri jiust be n sup- ]N)rt for the paper lining. Some builders have used t» series of separate wires. No. 10 gage, spaced 8 to 12 inches apart, cross- wise of the purlins; but a better method is to stretch a light wire mesli with 2 to 2| inch openings tightly over the purlins, the eavc and ridge purlins being trussed, if necessary, to resist the tension from the wire. Poultry netting has been used, but it is not the Ijest, for the longitudinal wires are not straight, and the fabric will stretch, allowing the covering to sag. A better icind of wire fabric is one with straight longitudinal wires connected by a light cross weave. After this is tightly stretched and fastened to the jjurlins, it is covered with successive layers of asbestos and tar paper, shingled over each other to shed water which might collect from condensation. The composition of the roof from the covering downward is as follows : Corrugated iron. Tar paper. Aflbeatoa paper. Wire netting. This lining was used by the writer on numerous buildings prior to 1900, but is not entirely satisfactory, for leakage finds its way through the lining paper at the nail and bolt holes, and con- densation forms on tlie bolts and clips beneath the wire. Another form of condensation lining for corrugated iron con- sists in cementing a layer of asbestos felt ^ inch thick to the under side of the sheeia, the lining following the corrugations of the metal, and therefore having a supportiiig strength by itself. Tlie weak feature of this lining is that the cement softens when water 7oaked, and the asbestos will peel off in places and leave the metal exposed. i i CHAPTER XXVI. SHEKT METAL ROOFIXO. Stwl roofing sheets are made in standard lengths up ■ 10 feet with side seams formed at tlie factory and are shippea in crates ready for laying. Steel is preferable to iron because iron would crack when making the sharp ])ends at the edges for join- ing the sheets. The metal should be capable of l)cing bent flat and hammered down, straightened out and hammered flat again in the reverse direction without injury, and should be made from the best quality of steel. Sheets are 28 inches wiyc^ Fig. 46S. y~B--tf"[ Fig. 46«. S^2>^>^ Fig. 467. ^^■En^K Fig. 468. Fig. 469. Fig. 470. 296 MILL BUILDINGS METAL FLASHINGS. Metal flashing details can be shown better than described It 18 important that hips, valleys, chimney openings and wall joints be tight, for If not. a roof which might otherwise be first clasa may be rendered useless. Flashing should be with sheet steel or copper, for iron will crack in making sharp bends. m-- BIDOE ROLLS. The^e arc made in n great variety of patterns, many of which are qu,te ornamental, but tlio ornamental ones are better suited to steel market or other buildings with ar.hitectural features (Figs 30 and 34) than for ordinary mills. A few plain ridge details are shown in Figs. 467 to 470, the roll at the crown'giving a aprons of the cappmg must be corru,.,ated or wood fillers must be sunn h:"] ? r. ""'"' ''""'' *'^ ^'"^^^ ^"P- 'r'- --^ fibers are m ' ""T"'f '™" ™"'^'" «"'^ '^«^* ^ ^'^'^ P^^ lineal foot and galvanized ndge rolls cost from o to 10 cents per foot for plam designs as shown, or 10 to 20 cents per foot for orna- mental ones. They should be at least No. 24 gage 'y. HIP AND VALLEY FLASHING. Hips are covered with regular ridge rolls over special wood fill- ing peces ,n the corrugations, and are nailed though the cap and sheathmg and fastened either to the steel ridge rafter or to a beveled wood capping piece over it (Fig 471) A alleys arc flashed with wide sheets of flat metal, using either a heavy galvanized steel, IX terne plate or copper. l4lleys^require -"^-^Skt^ ■^_- Fig. 472. Fig. 473. Fig. 474. CORNICES AND FLASHING 297 more careful attention than riflges, on account of the greater niiiount of water in them. The flashing should be carried well lip under the sheathing and riveted thereto, tlie vertical distance from bottom of valley to edge of flashing bdng not less than 8 inches (Fig. 472). COHNEB CAPPING. Details of corner capping for buildings are shown in Fig. 473. Thcv are used either inside or outside of the building to cover the .(.rncr corrugated iron joints, and the edges of the capping are I illt'd as shown, so no sharp or ragged metal edges will appear. \vMh angle of the capping is 6 inches wide and is fastened to the .-iiling with rivets 6 inches apart. Figs. 474, 475 ai ! 476 show other forms of corner capping, the first having grn. ,es to receive and cover the edges of the ^i '' M 298 MILL BUILDINGS DOOR AXD WIXDOW CASINO. Fijrs. 480, 481 and 482 show metal casings for wood window and door frames, which are best when formed at the shop and shipped ready for placing. Some builders prefer to send this metal to tlie building in flat sheets and bend ii there to fit the windows, but tlie result is never so neat as when bends are made In- machines at the uietal shop. The work done bv hand tools at the site invariably shows irregularities that greatly injure the appearance. Tlic three views sjiow window jambs, caps and sills. Fig. 480. Klif. 481. Fig. 482. mi 't CHAPTER XXVIII. GUTTEKS AND DOWNSPOUTH. GUTTERS. Gutters for mill buiKlin;<8 are made in several forms, some of which are here described and illuHtratcd. Tliose at the eaves may Ik! either hanging, box wall, roof or combination gutters, and valley gutters are also made in several ways. TABLE LI. SIZE or EAVE GUTTERS. TTse 5-in. eave gutters for roof slopes up to 20 ft. ITge 6- in. eave j{utters for roof sIo|h>8 up to 40 ft. Use 7-in. eave gutters for roof slopes up to 60 ft. Use 8-in. eave gutters for roof slopes up to 80 ft, Tlie above are roof slopes or half the span of double pitch roofs. \ small gutter with a large slope will keep itself clean and free- from sediment, when larger but flatter ones will become • logged. Gutters are usually made of galvanized steel, though charcoal iiou at a slightly higher price is more durable. Xos. 27 or 28 gage, which is commonlv used on residences, is too thin, and no ini'tnl less than 24 gage is recommended for manufacturing build- ings. Copper gutters are moif dnrnble, but are not as much used on mills l)ecause of their ' ,her cost. Tiie slope of gutters is generally made one inch in 10 feet, but it must never be less than one inch in 15 feet, for water would not have suHicicnt tlow to keep the gutters clean. When condi- tions will permit, a slope of one indi in 5 feet is preferable, but this amount may not always be available. Galvanized iron gutters erected in place cost about 2 cents for each inch of girth per lineal foot of gutter; therefore, an S-inch girth costs 16 cents per foot, and a 10-inch, 20 cents. The price of the usual size galvanized iron gutters varies from 15 to :!•■) cents per lineal foot, complete. Copper gutters, 16 ounces, • osl 1.) cents per scpiare foot for the material and 35 cents per >agc 'MVi. Figs. 401 and 492 show malleable cast iron brackets, fastoned to the cave.> with adjustable circular supports, which may be raised or lowered to suit the gutter slope. The brackets •KIg. 401. Fig. 402. 31 From Eller Mfg. Co. irNiiiir 302 MILL BPILDIXas are fastened to the eave with bolts or nails or thev may be driven into the wood facings. This kind of bracket costs $o to $C, per 100 for 5-ir.eh jjuttpr fito , ,„.rlOOfor 7-in.-h guttor. / to 9 per 100 for lO-inch gutter. Fi-. 403 shows steel bar hangers with adjustments to regulate the gutter slope. I he siisiv-nsion bars are nailed or bolted t.. the roof and the cross bars grip the !■;'!"'■ ^'"^ .'^"tters. They cost about .>!..)() per gross. (Jalvanizod wire eave trough hangers (1-ig. 404) are easily applied and cost from $2 to $3 ])er gross. Figs. 40.5 and 40(1* .*liow two fnrm= ..r i 'io« two lorms of hanging gutter at the Fig. 40.-). Adjustable Strap Hongers I'Ig. 403, Adjustable Hong.ng Qun,r. Fig. 406. * Mill BuiMing Construction, R, 0. Tym-!1, ISOO. GUTTESS ANV DOWNSPOUTS 303 cave of a building covered with corrugated iron. Supports for liiinging gutters must be spaced not over 4 feet apart. BOX Ol'TTERS. ;! -ov- -il ;;.rm8 of box gutters are shown in Fig. 497, and one ic cave r.j a :,,,! buihling with brick walls (Fig. 498*). They . ~t .-'.ncraUv fr .a 10 to W cents per lineal foot, and double this ii! t.t.iit in place Cu^r [dge at 6uner must- be btnta*h ffoof Plane prolonged. Purhn punched with J" Holes to take Hanqers. for Honking Gutter. Fig. 497. Deta'ls rf Irork Gutter*. Fig. 498. SOOF GUTTERS. These are made of galvanized steel in two shapes (Figs. 499 iiiid 500), and come in 8 and 10 foot lengtiis. The hangers are placed so as to leave no nail or screw heads exposed. They cost from 8 to 15 cents per lineal foot. ^^Ci:^:^. Fig. 400. Fig. soo. .IP $k 804 MILL BUILDlNOa COMBIXATIOX ROOF GUTTERS. Tliese ^«' ""^ to 519) P' ''^'''^ «™ excessively war , (Fi.-8. 618 Fig- 512. Fig. 513. Fig. 314. Fig. 515. Fig. 616. fig. 617. WU^: f'ENTlLATOSS L0UVBE8. 8U Louvres are bent sheets of metal fastened into frames the shoots lapping over each other enough to exclude snow and 'rain. Thov are occasionally used on the sides or ends of buildings, but oltener on monitors, where a large amount of continuous ventila- finn .s needed. They are made bv>th fixed and movable, but the hitter forms are rarely used, as movable shutters are preferred Mnval.le louvres (Figs. 520 and 521), on account of their light woi-ht, are easily rattled by the wind, and as they cost more than stool shutters, they have no advantage over them. Louvres are i>ost suited to buildings such as rolling mills, forge shops, or V horever smoke and gas is found, requiring permanent openings in I ho roof for their removal. They must be firmly held in place, so tlio wind will not cause them to rattle, tear them loose, or close the openings, rendering them useless. 7^=\ aU ^3 shows another design for continuous louvres wiiich are made in 10-foot lengths. The slats are made with straight bends without curves and they are tied together with bolts, and Corr. Iran Rive^ V\s. 522. V\g. 623. ■ I'i'r/a Brockets af Splices Floshmcf '8 Bracket! Splices Fig. 624 ■if ^M 814 MILL BVILDINGS jop«r„fo,l by Hhort sections of pipes. The lower section is bolted to .. upright, and rests on tJ.e si.le roof, whUe tbe uppe' .n^. n.dc,e.i ,„ he fonn of a .ornic and fastened to the rlf p r H the ve'i : r r"^'""- -^ «' J-vres. which are held out' r ,n the vertua by braces at the top and bottom and united on tie outer fa., by IJ x i-inch straps at the joints. Thev «r made slat IS .et no less than G inches above the adjoining roof so the opc.„n, w.ll be effective. Fixed galvanised iron louL cL com plete in place about 40 cents per square foot Corr.lnin-Rocf £nd Flat Iron StanH Vent. Flashlncr Purlins Should hi kKoftd inPttsifiontofitBevelof JfwTdard Wntilaffr Flashing Wirt Rope \'y ,1 A r-6'-\ /■./»f «j -^)r -a ' Si. .;p.5 ^"itsa than ,x^t§ U-ngth'afShuki'r •>^ 1^1 •" 3 .•ft FiK. 5;:r,. ^W SHUTTERS. Ventilator shutters (Fur .-jor*. ■ ^„„.. ., of flat or corrugated ir n X : 1 l T T """^ ''^ """^^ flat plate shuttc;s and X^. ; f„r eorru^^aT , .7' ""h""' '°^ it is preferable to have tbe ^i-eet gaZr^i \ t^thT ^utt::: are galvanized, all flashing, bolts! clips, clinch til^orle fastening, any part of which shows on the e..terior, m.t'alfi The shutters are made in a uniform width of 30 inches and lengths varying from 5 to 10 feet, and are stiffened w « a lilt bonier fra,ne of IJ x A-inch angles with intermediate cri a g shutt r r fe'^M ^V ^'""^ ^'" '^""""^" ^- « standard ange shutter 8 feet ong They are suspended from the unner ^^Xr purlins, using two hinges for lengths of 7 feet or unierand'lh ee MCiSiJSi'SmfM^- M - i VESTILATORS 815 Iiin;je8 for greater lengths, and are held in dosed position with brass springs, as shown, one spring serving the two opposite shut- t.Ts. They are opened by a ,^„-in( h wire rope attached to a light angle iron lever fastened to the center of each shutter, and are held open by hooking the wire rope under some of the roof fram- ing, or by attaching it to a wall cleat near the floor. Shutters lunged at the top are less liable to leak than trunnioneX 60 % in. thick ■20X100 % in. thick ilany skylight makers, however, use ^-inch thick plate glass for widths of 20 to 24 inches, and find it satisfactory. Plate glass is made either plain or reinforced with wire, and the surface is either polished, rough, ribbed, or maize (Fig. 526). U'ire glass is preferable for skylights, for if the glass is broken the imbedded wire netting holds the glass together and prevents lis falling. It is also valuable for retarding fire, for while plain glass breaks with heat and leaves draft openings in the walls or roof, the wire glass, even when broken, remains in position. Wire jrlass costs more, and is 20 per cent less effective for lighting than plain glass, but a greater area overcomes the latter objection, while the extra cost is a small item in an entire building. Rough and ribbed plate wire glass (Fig. 526) are the kinds licst suited for factor)' use, and particularly for skylights. Light is not so well diffused through rough plate as through ribbed frlass, but rough plate is preferred by many because it is easier to (loan. The ribs of fluted glass become clogged with dust and soot, and unless it is thoroughly and frequently washed, the dust will obscure more light than a roughened surface. The ribs should 1)C placed on the inside or outside of the building, according as one or the other is more accessible for cleaning, and the ribs should be vertical on side windows, and parallel with the roof slopes on skylights; but for double glazing the ribs should face each other and be crossed. Factory glass has twenty-one ribs per lineal inch. Careful experiments show that ribbed glass diffuses light better than any other kind, but as there is no benefit from ribbing both sides, one side is made smooth. The best method of glazing side windows is to use ribbed glass in the upper sash, and plain double-strength sheet glass in the lower ones. Tiie new shops of the Sturtevaat Company are glazed in this way. •W itILL BUILDINGS Double glazing causes a great saving of heat in^inter seasons and 18 extensively used in nortlicrn latitudes. The Fiberoid nZ Great ^ or hern Railway shops at St. Paul have double glazed stJ hghs, witlU-inch ribbed plate glass above, and do wistfen^h 1 K^r/ 7' "'"' ""'''' "^"'°-" underneath. A saw-tSh letL '"''*/°;/'^^r-'- ^^'P«- Company at Holvoke, Malsae^u- setts has double glazed .ash on the roof, with finch ribbeddass inside and double-strength sheet glass outside. ^ COST OF GLASS. Price lists are issued by the glass manufacturers, which in 1908, were subject to the following discounts : ' Sheet glasa Polished plate glass umlVr" 5 'sq. " f t ,^ ?2 «°d glass being bedded between strips of felt. The lower angles, 324 MILL BUILDINGS & fifMm r^ [ (f N ' !!^i k ^^.^^ BS* V *•! Fig. 533. Fls- 534. Fig. 635. Brass Otud Fig. 636. Brass Bolt tNut -Olass Fig. 637. Fig. 63& ■? '.': v;-.V " ; v:-' i^v^- -. fVll-f'i'-f^^'J ■-' ■ ^-ak '^f 8KTLI6HTS 3U wliich serve as glass supports and gutters, rest in small castings on the purlins, and the upper angles are bolted through similar castings on the ridge. Spring - 'Glass -. A— Lead , Asbestos Cushion Fig. 030. Fig. 540. Fig. S41. Fig. 538 is made by the National Skylight and Ventilator Company, and used without putty, the glass being held on the steel bar with nuts screwed down on the spring caps. The bolts are fa.stened to the steel bars by being dovetailed into them. Fig. 539 is the puttyless skylight bar of the National Venti- ng. B42. Jating Company. In addition to the features shown in previous "Hps, it ha? asbestos cushions beneath the glass and outside sheet metal condensation gutters. Figs. 540 and 541 are two forms of sheet metal bars with gias.« laid in putty, the lattpr having a flat steel center. The l>iir as shown in Fig. 541, when made of No. 24 galvanized iion, is strong enough for spans up to 8 feet, and when of No, 18 326 MILL BUILDIN08 ! galvanized iron, is strong enough for spans from 10 to 12 feet. The system is sliown in perspective in Fig. 542, Fig. 54.3 shows the puttyless sheet metal ventilating bar of the Lyster Sheet Metal Company. It is similar to those last (le.scril)e(l excepting that thorn arc numerous openings in the side and cap, and it acts as skylight and ventilator at the same time. Fig. 543. Fls. 544. Figs. 544 and 545 show the Vaile and Young puttyless sheet metal sk-ylight bar for short and long spans respectively, the light one l)eing strong enough for spans up to 8 feet. Fig. 546 shows skylights with bars and framing made of wood, and is suitable only for temporary or non-fireproof buildings. COST OF FLAT SKYLIGHTS. The cost of flat skylights depends chiefly on the length of spans and corresponding weight of bars, and varies generally Fig. 545. Fig. 648. from 40 to 60 cents per square foot, including all material in place. Large skyliglits with steel channels and copper caps weigh 8 pounds jicf stiiiare foot and cost from 50 to 60 cents per square foot erected. When bars and caps are made of galva.-.lzed iron, 8KTU0ETS 387 till- cost will not excml 30 to 40 centu per square foot in place. 'Ilic cost of erecting skylights is 8 to 10 cents per square foot. BOX SKYLIGHTS. Box or individual skylights are made in small areas and pliKctl on curbs standing at least G inches above the plane of the roof. They are made in several forms w'*h single and double {litih, as shown in Figs. 547 to 552. The standard slope used on 1mi\ skylights is 8 inelies rise per foot or j^ pitch. A double pitch liDx skylight 12 feet wide would therefore have a rise of 4 feet. Ilie curbs are raised above the roof level for the purpose of flushing them and preventing slush and snow from leaking in, and their tops are generally level. F!f. 847. Wlicn it is desired to combine ventilating with lighting, the >kyli{:lits are placed on high curbs which have movable sash or I'liivrcs in the side; or one or more glass panels on the top may lie hinged, though the latter method is liable to cause leakage. Si(Ii> ventilator windows may !«! opened or closed in sets, with iiKclianisni similar to the device used for monitor windows de- sdibcd in Chapter XXXIH. High box skylights should have ,;ivc f"-" -s and spouts at the corners so watt r will not run down I'M *iiL t.,f\\ or louvres. Wire glass is preferable to plain glass, inil wlicn plain is used a wire netting must be placed beneatii it. 'iiie Pennsylvania Baihvay Locomotive shop at Wilmington, Iti'lawarc. has roof skylights as shown in Fig. 553. They are .lot continuous and are placed only between the trusses and not vv-r tliCHi. The hipped turret skylight with ridge ventilator, movable H(lc sash and locking apparatus (Fig. 548) costs from $1.25 per 328 MILL BDILDIS03 Fig. 548. FJj. B4H Fig. 561. Via 562. SKiLiaaTs 329 horizontal sqn-^ee foot for «Xll-ft. size, to ^8 per horizontal .sfjuare foot for 4 X «-ft. skvlijiht. Tht' .lippt.i turret skylight wifli stati .nar\ louvre ventilatorg in the si.tes 'Fig. 5 41)) cost* fr.. HO , .nt, jwr horizontal wiuare foot :'or 8 > 14 ft. 8iz< , increasin,. to $l.->5 for 3X5 ft. Fig. SS3. Ij 'Ploryk. •^♦-"otTopandSo.^^SK O'-ght Fig. 654. Double pitched turret skylights without aide veutilators (Fig. TioO) cost from 40 c-oiits i)er horizontal square foot for 7 X 12 ft to G5 cents per horizontal square foot for 2 X 3 ft. 330 MILL BUILDINGS Double pitch box skylights (Fig. 551) cost from 35 cents per horizontal square foot for large sizes to 75 cents for small ones. Single pitch box skylights (Fig. 552) cost 25 cents per hori- zontal square foot for 8 X 12-foot size, increasing to 40 cents for minimum size. The above costs for box skylights ar. based In all cases on the use of galvanized sheet metal bars. TILE SKYLIGHTS. Several tile manufacturers make glass tiles similar to opaque ones (Fig. 432). The glass tiles cost from 50 to 60 cents each, and they may be either scattered over the roof, alternating with opaque ones, or they may be assembled in blocks or strips similar to ordinary glass skylights. They produce an attractive appear- ance, but are too expensive for common factory use. Prism lights may also be occasionally used on manufacturing buildings in crowded city districts, where direct sunlight is pre- vented by adjoining buildings, but their use is too limit' d to merit further description here. TRANSLUCENT FABBIC. This is a flexible substitute for glass skylight made of a light wire mesh imbedded in a thin oil composition, only thick enough to cover the wire. The wire mesh is made of No. 26 gage, and the mesh has 12 openings per lineal inch. The composition Ib amber colored, and it admits a large proportion of light well diffused. Its chief merit is its flexibility, for it can be used on steel frame buildings where glass skylights would be broken. The action of jib and shop traveling cranes, steam hammers or other heavy machinery causes the framing of steel buildings to spring so much that glass skylights are frequently broken, and not only incur expense for replacing them but cause leaks; and falling skylights arc a dniijicr to (he workmen. Tlie fabric will not take fire unless exposed to excessive heat, and then the oil composition burns with profuse black smoke. All things considered, it is probably as .-atisfaitory as glass. In hot weather the composition softens somewhat and collects soot and dirt, and it must, therefore, be frequently cleaned. It is made in sheets 3 feet 3 inches wide, tj feet 3 imlics or 7 feet 3 indics long, and the strips are laid lengthwise of the roof, the horizontal seams lapped 2 inches. It is fastened witli Ij-inch (3d) nails, using 1^ pounds per hundred feet of scam. •'m'!i^^^^e3mm'^^aB^m^^tJ-^i^^'^'^^^?^^ SKYLIGHTS 831 Fig. 555* shows a method used by the author for laying trans- lucent fabric on the roof of a monitor, and the material was first used on a forge shop in the East, designed by him in 1897. A liglit wood frame was placed over the angle purlin with wood rafters 6 feet apart and nailing pieces bolted to the purlins. The i *>t- • onBtruction. H. O. Tyrrell 1900. 83S MILL BUILDINGS purlins, and fastened at the ends to prevent tlie cloth from sag- ging. Joints at right angles to the eave were locked, and the ridge was covered with metal ridge capping. At the eave was placed a neat galvanized iron cornice witli an outer drip carried up on the roof under tlie fabric and nailed to the wood purlin cap. It is now manufactured by the P. J. Ferguson Company, Norfolk Downs, Quincy, Massachusetts, and costs 10 cents per square foot, i. o. b. factory, or 22 cents per square foot with nails and wire, erecte 00 ai s» *-* M o ^^ 00 i 00 : 00 M ; 00 H 00 1— f 5(1 ■* "S" M M ^ K •»: o = ? ? ? H ? ? H M M ;3 M M M M NOOe.|MaviooiM«" to 00 OJ 1-1 F-i x M M H X M <\> t N CI CI CI QC CI if » ■* t t 1—1 fl 1-1 1^ 1-4 CI C) M CI b M « CI CI ^ ^1 OQ ^ "S gcicicicjooodadodoo Or-lr-lr-liHi-(i-li-|f(i-(rt f f •♦ •« ^ O) 01 CI O 04 WINDOWS 33S When clearance will permit, sash may be strengthened by extending the stiles an inch or two above and below the top and bottom rails. The best sash and frames are made of white pine, and without glass or paint, l§-inch sash posts from 5 to 7 cents per square foot, and IJ-inch from 7 to 12 cents per square foot. Glazing with single strengtli glass costs from 6 to 8 cents per square foot, or 1 1 d' » — 3 r/ashiny ... rtg. 5B7. 8 to 10 cents for double strength glass. The above prices are for sash only, without frames, f. o. b. Chicago. It is usual to esti- mate sash, glazed, painted and erected in place at 25 cents per square foot. CONTINUOUS SASH. A design for a foundry made by the author (Fig. 21) has 10 feet of continuous wood sash bolted to steel purlins (Fig. 556), and other details for sash on side walls are shown in Figs. 557 and 558. WOOD WINDOW FRAMES. A detail for window frame and casing, supported by steel pur* lins, is shown in Fig. 559*. The outstanding legs of the steel window angle are cut away, permitting the members to fit closely over the steel purlins to which they are fastened with counter- sunk bolts. The wood frame and casing is bolted to the steel " Mill Building Constmction. H. Q. Tyrrell. 1900. 836 MILL BVILDJNG8 Fig. 568. CtfT fiVfl— Am "^Fbshh^ □f • "^abdr tzi •flbdfc Fix. 060. "52? PD ■ 3 JSbi E i'. :'i> ^•« . -fi^ '■■■.^..'^^im ^m WINDOWS S2? Fig. 560. Fir 561. -Corrugated Steel ^ . iVt^Z Scre» Fig. ««2, 888 MILL BV1LDIN08 If ~ through T^-inch holes about one foot apart, ind the casing may 1)6 made more nearly fireproof by being covered with sheet metal (Figs. 480. 481 and 482). Fig. 560 shows details for vertical trunnioned Hash in wood frames, supported by steel purlins. The window frame is bolted to the steel work and the casing may be covered with sheet metal. Fig. 561 shows a muUion wood window frame for corrugatcij iron wall with sash omitted. Figs. 562, 563 and 564 are details for windows in steel walls, Corrujfoted Steel Purlin .r .J^.iL',' ^^lchne5s of Sash 1^ when tt '1 "Pk"tlV4- '^J^ tath Dimensions are Ie33tfm4d iFp^ i¥t when eiffierttctecb 4-0 Fig 563. which are rolling, counterbalanced, and double hung, respectively. Counterbalanced windows are economical on account of having plain frames and requiring no weights. Details for a wood window frame in trated in Fig. 565. These frames usually have from twp pAnels, and the size of wall openingF fo; inch glass are as follows: a brick wall are illus- four to forty lights or mdows with 10 X 12- NUMBEB OF LIGHTS. W^. 24. 28. 32. 40. 4x7 lI. iu. 4X8 ft. 1 in. 4X9 ft. 1 in. .4 ft. 10 in. X 9 ft. 1 in. >.'i. WINDOWS S89 ■Cor rugate a Steel Lag5crev^ Klg. 564. lAi mmamrmmm .Ii r«i; 340 MILL BUILDINGS Wood window frames sliould have eilla and pulley stiles from IJ to Ig inches thick, with J-inch parting strip«, and the joints should be put together with white lead paint. The sills should be grooved on the under side to form a drip. COST OF WOOD FRAMES AND WINDOWS. In estimating windows, it is convenient to use prices including all details, such as sash, frames, glass, painting, sills, hardware and setting. Approximate prices for common size windows in place, including the above items and double strength glass, with cost of paint, are as follows: Windows 3X7 ft. 6 in. in briok walls cost $16.50 Windows 3X7 ft. 6 in. in frame walls cost 12..')0 Winilows 2 ft. 6 in. X 6 ft. 6 in. in brick walls cost 14.50 WinJows 2 ft. 6 in. X 6 ft. 6 in. in frame walls cost 10.00 The cost of setting window frames is usual Iv one-third of the cost of material. An itemized cost estimate for a plain ',i X 0-1'oot wood window without casing, in brick walls, is as follows: Box frame $3.10 :;0 sq ft. sash, at ti cents l.'-O 16 st, and plate wire glass 95 cents, while setting glass costs 5 icnts per square foot more. The cost of complete metal win'low? will therefore l:-e the combined cost? of metal and glass, as given al)ove, depending on the kind of windows and glass selected. ^-•*^ -M.^ WlKDOWa 84S The Allitt-f'lialme™ }mttern ohup and storage building at Wert Allis, Wisconsin, has wire glaBS in iron fran.' and is a typical . \nniple of fireproof window constnirtion. =1 3^ 1 Klf. 570. Fig. 569. Fig. 571. STEEL SASH Window wasli witli solid rolled steel bars are coming into gen- ial use for manufacturing buildings. They are stronger and liiiirc durable than sheet metal sash and offer greater resistance Id fire. I'ij?. 572 shows details of patent steel bars made by the Detroit ^tcel Products Company. The bars are soft steel and vertical ^iifs arc split at the point where muntins cross, and the horizontal muntins, which are notched at intersection, are passed through -l'>ts in thf> vortical ones, and the expanded web of vertical mun- illl 344 MILL BDlLDINGa tins 18 driven back into notches in the horizontal bare, thus hold- ing the bare together. Glass is held in position with pins through holes drilled in the webs of bare, and secured further with putty. If side ventilation is desired, the sash are made to swing on side Fig. 672. trtg. 578. trunnions (Fig. 57.3). Steel sash cost 20 to -10 cents per square foot at the factor^', not including glass, and about 3 cents per square foot for erection in large quantities. A large manufac- turing building in Ohio, the plans of which were prepared in 1902, partly by the writer, had steel sash made on 1-inch channels, the' glass being hold in place by small flnls and angle bare. Other details of windows and doore are shown in Figs. 574 and 575. win DOW a 84S dMk OetrHang$i' ■Shtcrthinj Saelion through ' ,„ Ooor Jamb . |^ ji^ Section through Door Tranaem. Fig. 574. PllPf^iP mmmm Wmmmm CHAPTER XXXIII. M MONITOR WIXDOWS. Monitofji are ust'd for the double purjiobc of lighting and ven- tilating. Wide monitors are most effective for lighting and nar- row ones fo: ventilating: and when the width suitable for lighting the floor is so great that foul air. gaf or steam collects under the roof, it tii«y then U necessary tt) add a second narrow ventilation mnnrtor on the ridge. When light from the roof is not required, a narrow v>-ntilation monitor may be enough. Shutteri* '« monitors are quite as effective for ventilating as wiadows, but the windows serve the double purpose of ventilating and liglitintr. ain^ arf therefore preferable. Tlie monitor nhcatliiug should correspond with the walls and roof of the main htiildings, and if these have corrugated iron cov- ering, the monitor i^hould have the same, preferably the small cor- ruj^tions; but if ihe roof is covered with plank or gravel, wood monitor sheathing would then be more appropriate. The sash, frames and casing may te either wood or sheet metal, ami the purlins or supports for window frames should be so nrran^'cl tliat fiames can be made at the mill and shipped to the briidinj, ready for nlacing. Window frames, like other manufac- tured products, cost less when made in factories than by hand IJjor at the site, and the practice of building them during erec- tion is .va.stefu' and unsatisfactory. The choice between wood or m.^tal f.M the frames and casing depends upon the fireproof require- ments. Forge >»hop8 or similar buildings where sparks occur should Iiave little or no wood in the roof, and metal frames and caning are then preferable. Wood window c; sing may be covered with sli r metal and snade more nearly fireproof (Figs. 480, 481 and 482) and such (ovrrifij, should bc black or galvanized to correspond with the she»#airig, galvanized metal being proforrfd. Monitor sash may be either fixed or movable, depending on Ihe re6t Kig. 577. IrrtrrPbst-^^ 348 MILL BDILDJNOa Fig. 57». I'lg. 570. MONITOB WIHD0W8 849 ^i*e'i ,y e--*\\ •wS " Comer Cafip/n^ Fig. 580. -yFlnshing Fig. 681. 360 MILL BDILDINOS Kig. 68^ Z'//- t4t~~. ^ In f r r mt vhal ri' Fiim/»M Fig. B83. SS!i^4^ i MONITOR WINDOWS 361 mid the remaining ones stationary. Movable sash are eitlier sliding, hinged or trunnioned. WTien a large amount of Tcntilation is needed, sliding sasli should not be used, for they leave only a part of the monitor side open. Sash which are hinged at the top or bottom are more nearly watJw m 581 to 584 show metal-covered monitors with movable nsh, Fig. 581 has wood sash, frames and casing, with alternate sash sliding horizontally past the fixed ones, while Fig. 582* is made without frames or casings, and has tnumioned sash. Fig. 583 Fig. 585. has wood frames and casing, witli trunnioned sash. Fig. 584 bIiowb the American Bridge Company's standard monitor fram- ing for sash, eitlier fixed or movable. Fig. 585 shows the cros» monitors used on the new Keystone plant of the Jones and Laugh- iin Steel Company. The trusses are spaced 19 feet 7 inches apart and monitors witli ribbed glass windows in the sides cover every third panel. WINDOW OPENINO MEngANI«?M. Windows are opened by sliding them horizontally or vertically past each other, by hinging them < <• the edges, or by ti-jning them horizontally on center trunnions. 'Vh either sli>!« them past each other or to balance them on t-irmions, the latter method fe- MosiTon wiUDOwa 8A8 Ftg. im. Fig. 987. 854 MILL BVILDINOS I t. ti* Fig. 688. ^i;^'*Ikl''h. UOyiTOS WISD0W8 SM IptinjI preferred when In ge ventilation is desired. Windows which lite suspended and slide vertically past each other should be ar« I M lifted in pairs, one sash balancing the other, fur the expense of window weights will then be saved. FlK. S90. Fir M)i. A very simple mechanism for operating monitor windows, vvhich is similar to that in Fig. 525, is illustrated in Fig. 586. It should be used when the operating cord from the lever leads lown under the roof to the side walls and thence to the floor. Its ' ust is small, for the levers can be made in a structural shop, but it has the disadvantage of permitting one cord and lever to open ■nly the windows in one panel, though it is more effective when PP MICROCOPY RESOIUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 1.1 1.25 2.8 3.2 14,0 Mil mWIM |20 1.8 j4 ^ppLrn iM/iGE '653 Eost Mon Strfet Rochester, New York U609 USA (?16) 482 - 0300- Phone (716) 288 - 5989 -Fax 856 MILL BUILDIXGS one rord and lever are used for two sash, one on each side of the monitor. When two or three sash on each side of the monitor arc Ioi)orated in sets by one lever, the several sash on eacli side must then be rigidly con- nected by a continuous angle bar bolted to the upper rails, and the lever must be placed near the center of ihe set, with springs fastened at the middle of the end sash to close the windows automatically. Two pulleys arc needed; on^ below the ventilator window and another at the side wall below the roof. Other methods of opening monitor sash are shown in Figs. 587 to 590. Fig. 587 is the Lovell window operator, in which two lines of pipe supported on rollers are moved back and forward by a pinion between two racks, turned by a |^^2=a-J 'hain wheel. Fig. 599 is the usual worm ■^ ■ — * "°<^ g'^ar mechanism turning a continuous shaft, to which are fastened extension arms connected to the lower sash rails. . Fig. 588 is the Lord and Bumham method of opening monitor windows, by means of shafts brought down on the side walls with universal couplings in order to avoid obstruct- "'c- Flg. 592. I D Fig. 593. ing the traveling crane. When the rods connect to windows on the opposite side of the monitor, the operator can then observe the posi- ti'»n of the windows that ht is moving. Figs. 591 and 592 show other MOSITOB WINDOWS 357 applications of the same mechanism for opening clear story win- ,low8 with shafts and hand wheels brought directly down beneath tlie windows and fastened to c olumns or pilasters near the floor. Figs. 593 and 594 illustrate similar apparatus for opening s^ide wall windows both in single and in triple lines. > r? Fig. 594. m= «B-"r*'-i»-;airc:r ■•• '^"•TE*-r -^"~-- ■■■■»— ».-^-^-—~—~■^—-^l..^^—..—~c.^^■.—wT.i^-.^—~-.T, TTTSA CHAPTER XXXIV. !-1 i. 1 DOOKS. The number and location of doors in a manufacturing build- ing must be determined by the needs of travel, with a greater number for buildings in which many people are housed, and a smaller numlier where there are few employees. The doors for general entrance and exit should be separated, so crowding will not result from travel in two directions. It is a mistake to have too many doors and passageways through a shop, for each passage occupies valuable floor space. Doors for manufacturing buildings are made either of plain wood, wood covered with metal, corrugated iron, corrugated asbestos board, or light reinforced concrete. The best plain wood doors are made of white pine. Thin slabs of reinforced concrete are used in some forms of patent folding doors, examples of which are those for the Terminal Warehouse Company of Kansas City (Fig G13), the weight of which for 8 X 8-foot openings is 1,600 pounds. Many forms of doors, particularly plain wooden ones, may have large glass panels in the upper halves, which not only serve to admit light, but per- mit a person on one side of the door to observe approaching objects on the other side. The size of doors depends upon the size of material brought into the building and the products shipped out, and upon the need of admitting trucks or cars. Entrance doors for the largest box cars should be not less than 16 feet in height and 12 feet in width. Structural works and bridge shops need doors for ship- ping manufactured products large enough to permit flat cars loaded to their maximum height and width to pass through them. As large doors are usually located on the principal avenues of travel through the shop and need to be open only part of the time, it is often convenient to insert a small door in the large one for the use of pedestrians, as shown in Fig. 619, framing details of the smaller door being shown in Fig. 620. This arrangement is not entirely satisfactory, for the lower framing angle n* the large door must not be cut for the smaller one, and ped. .^trians, in using the small door, must step over the framing of the larger one, which is always inconvenient and sometimes the cause of accident. 358 ,^& .>,vr^«3M 'm 'iM.-i» ■y "-i. ^-a** DOOBa 359 Doors may be classified generally into three kinds: (1) one- piece doors, either hinged, rolling on horizontal tracks, or counter- weighted to rise vertically; (2) doors which are made in two or more pieces and open by folding together; (3) coiling or rolling doors made of wood or sheet metal slats. Exit doors, in factory buildings with a large number of em- ployees, should open outward for safety in case of fire, as specified by the city building laws. Entrance doors, or those for only occa- sional use, are more convenient and less liable to injury when 0^ I — n 1^ 1^^ EZH DD 1^ B 1 EZD n Fig. B98. Fig. 606. opening inward. Horizontal sliding or rolling doors on brick walls are more conveniently placed on the inside of the building, while similar doors on corrugated iron walls are better on the outside, for the corrugated iron doors then lie nearer to the plane of the wall sheathing, and in opening there is less liability of interfering with steel columns or other framing. The space over the door should be water-proofed with a metal hood, inserted under the wall sheathing and bent out to cover the door track (Fig. 604), Figs. 605 and 606 show alternate methods for suspending rolling doors on the inside of a building, in one case the door frame being made with wooden jambs and casing, and in the other, the jambs and head casing consisting of steel channels with webs -^^■(Jiw: T ^ipi d60 MILL BUILDINGS turned toward the opening, as designed and used by the author on a forge shop in 1896. Doors with height not exceeding 8 feet can be hinged at the sides for single doors un to 4 feet in width, and double doors up to 7 or 8 feet wide. Larger sizes up to 20 feet square must either be suspended to move vertically, roll horizontally, or coil above the doorway. Wherever serious liability to fire exists, doors should be equipped with automatic closing apparatus, consisting of a fusi- ble soft metal link in the counterweight chain which holds tlie door open. These links melt at a temperature of 160 degrees and the doors close by gravity. The pattern shop and storage building ct the West All-'- plant of the Allis-Chalmers Company is a good example of fiioproof construction, in which automatic closing doors are used. WOOD PANEL DOORS. Ordinary panel d( rs (Fig. 595) are made in single leaves up to 3^ feet in width, and in double leaves to about 5 feet, and are made in three grades, known as A, B and C, the first being the beat quality. Single doors suitable for factorv use cost from $2 to $10 each, depending on the thickness, kind of wood, and finish. They are usually made in two thicknesses, If and If inches, respectively, with a height of 2i times their width. The width of side and top stiles is usually ^ the width of opening itJpmuBas rxirv> i-i j m vmm oL-t' ::rm»s,r-aii DOORS 861 BATTEN D00B8. Figs, 596, 697 and 598* show three views of wood batten doors, the smaller being suitable for 3 feet in width, while the second ran be used for widths of 6 feet, and the last up to 14 feet. These doors are made with stile and rail halved or mortised together at the joints. The inner edges should have J-inch chambers as shown. Fig. 596 is drawn for a door 8 feet in width ; wider doors should have two or more intermediate stiles, spaced .3 to 4 feet apart. The sheathing should either be screwed to the frame or fastened with large head wire nails, bent over and thoroughly clinched into the battens. Tables LX and LXI give the proper size of material and hardware for doors of different dimensions, from 5X8 feet to 14 X 20 feet. TABLE LX. PROPER SIZES OF MATERIAL FOB DOORS UP TO 14X20 FT. Size of doors in ft. Stiles ins. .4X1% .7X1% .7X1% .8X2 .9X2% Top ins. 4X1% 7X1% 7X1% 9X2 9X2% Center ins. Bottom ins. Diagonals ins. 4X1% 4X1% 4X1% 5X2 5X2% Sheath ins. 5X 8 or less.... OX 8 to 7X 8. 7X 8 to 10X10.. mxiO to 14X14. 14X14 to 14X20.. 4X1% 6X1% 6X1% 8X2 8X2% 6X1% 8X1% 8X1% 10X2 10X2% 4X% 4X% 4X% 4X% 4X% TABLE LXI. DIMENSIONS OF HINGES AND APPURTENANCES FOR DOORS OF DIFFERENT SIZES. STANLEY WORKS HEAVY HINGES. Plain. Galv. Screws. Si:e of doors Strap T. Strap T Door Jamb Bolts in. ft, ins. ins. ins. i)is. ins. ins. ins. 3X 6 or less 10 10 10 10 1% 2 % 3X 6 to 3X 8 16 16 16 16 1% 2 % 3X 8 to 4X10 24-in. strap hinge %-in. lag screws % 4X10 to 5X12 30-in. strap hinge %-in. lag screws % 0\er 5X12 36-in. strap hinge %-in. lag screws % TABLE LXII. TOTAL WEIGHT OF METAL COVERED DOORS PER SQ. FT. IN LBS. Size of iron. Weight 3 in. thick sheathing. Weight i in. thick sheathing. Black Iron. Galv. Iron. Black Iron. Galv. Iron. No. 16 10.69 11.37 8.87 9.55 No. 18 9.41 10.09 7.59 8.27 No. 20 8.27 8.95 6.45 7.13 No. 22 7.71 8.39 5.89 6J57 No. 24 7.23 7.91 5.41 6.09 No. 26 6.91 7.59 5.09 5.77 No. 28 6.59 7.27 4.77 5.45 No. I C Tin 6.47 ... 4.65 No IX Tin..,, 6.72 ... 4.90 • H. G. T/rrell, Engineering News, April 11, 1901. •Kikwwi'w-.r I'W iiK ^w 362 MILL BVILDINGS lilass panels (Fig. 51»t)) can often be used to advantage in large wooden doors, and diagonals in the upper half • wt then he omitted and slieathing placed at an angle of 45 deg.fcs to tiic vertical, as in smaller doors. They may be covere' inside and out witli flat galvanized iron, if fire risk is excessive. Doors which ore made to slide either horizontally or vertically should lap 2 inches over the building frame at the top and side, ami must therefore be 4 inches wider than the opening and 2 inches higlier. Without hardware and evening apparatus or expense of placing, they cost from 25 to 30 *s per square foot. ■« l-Ll a-K. section E-F Fig. 509. W t^'^v.-.^i^" TIX (L^\D rX)0R8. These are made of two or throe thicknesses of J-inch tongued and grooved wood sheathing (Fig. COO), and are covered on the sides and edges with sheet steel or tin. The weight per square- foot for two and three ply doors with metal covering of diflEerent jaife'jf'.i \i ssK._rt.*,i«™*t:;-'*c- DOOBS 363 thicknesses is given in Table LXII. The sheathing must be well fastened togetlier witli wire nails driven tight and clinched. A (l(K)r of this kind witii inclinwl track, held open by weight and cord in which is inserted a fusible link, is shown in '"'ig. 001. In case of fire, the link melts and the door shuts automatically by rolling on the inclined track and is held cloeed by the iron socket Fig. 60U. Fig. 601. mar the floor. Two-ply fire doors cost 18 cents per square foot for woodwork only, and 38 cents per s(juare foot with tin covering, while three-ply doors cost 'i7 i-ents per square foot for the wood- Fig. 602. ■±^.^lKi.!!'3 viii.'=n- w^.-in^mi, ar "m. 364 MILL BllLDlSiiS work and 4T cents conipU-tc witli tin lasing. Hardware costs about $3 |)ti door and painting about $1 extra, and the labor of erection costs another $3. rOBRUGATED IRON DOORS. Fip. 602 illustrates a pair of iron doors made of flat plate or corrugated iron; each door is suspended by three hinges to an Iron Door Insidt. Fig. Detail Vtall BracWeV tiUj. Fdrl*>.7 -< II Holes in Track Hanger. Fig. 604. iron eliannel frame built into and bolted to the brickwork, as in Fig. 6U.'J. Corrugated iron doors are stronger for tlie same weight than those made of flat iron, though the construction details with ffr-/Mi« Fig. 606. rig. 607. '**% .-^ DOOSS 868 flat iron are simpler and more easily made than with corrugated iron. The frame for a corrugated iron door is shown in Fig. r.75 Fij; 604 gives onitl. "f iriiifnncil «iK'r i'i\<:> . ami iiuhIi' uitli u|>|irr aii'l liiwcr sl■ltise doois are well suited for buildings such a;- frei^iht siieds, warehouses, wliarf l.uilo needed Fig. 610. 11\ ■ : T» p DOORS 367 I r Fig. tin. l-iS. fil- Klg. 613. * 1 iiffl ■I) fi II A i .1'-V -. v 368 MILL BUILDINGS I I Fl open at the same time, and the whole side available for handling and loading goods. The doors, when open, are folded up and out of the way, and are not occupying valuable storage space. When made of wood, they may be paneled, or can be covered with gal- vanized iron, with t,'lass panels in the upper leaf. Doors, includ- ing operating mechanism, cost about 75 cents per square foot, and erection about 15 cents per square foot additional. THE BITTEB FOLDING DOOB. This patent door is made in three or more tions (Figs. 612, 613 and 614), and is opened by being folded inside the build- ing with successive leaves piled upon each other. It is balanced by counterweights hanging in boxes, to prevent goods from ob- structing or interfering with the movement of the weights or the operation of the door. As the doors occupy a large proportion of the wall surface, the upper two or three leaves may be filled with glass panels. They are will suited for use on engine houses where additional light is needed on the low or inner side. They are operated by chain and sprocket wheel and the width betweti ad- joining doors for wheel and counterweight does not exceed 18 inches. Tliey can be equipped with automatic closing apparatus, which assures positive action in case of fire. At no period of their operation do they occupy valuable space, and when partly open the leaves act as louvres and admit air while they exclude rain. Fig. 614. SPECIAL PIER SHED DOOB. A special folding door used on several Hudson Biver pier sheds is iilustrated in Fig. 615. It was designed to suit the require- ments of ocean steamships, receiving and delivering goods at the mat DOOXS 369 Chelsea piers, and is made in two sections, so it can be entirely open or either section open with the other closed. The upper sec- tion is hinged at the top. and the lower one moves up and down in grooves on the building columns ami is balanced by chain and rnunterweight. The doors were originally operated by a chain and hand hoist, but as they are very large and heavy, opening by hand power was too slow, and plans were made for installing 370 HILL BUILDINGS electric hoisting apparatus with line shafting to move several doors at one time. When all the doors are open, the entire side of the building is free for handling goods, a width of only 24 inches being required at the columns for guides, hoisting appa- ratus and counterweights. The jambs consist of two 8-inch channels on each side of a column, bolted together through their flanges and serving not only as jambs but also as counterweight ■le'e'- -^ — .. p-.^' .. ,\ ! 7 ,/'..*' \ i i i 1 Id s \ 4 ■ — '• ■t-2^K>' / j i ■-«*< Ftg. 617. boxes. Wlien tiie upper section of the door is open, and the lower section closed, ventilation is secured, while the contents of the building are protected from river thieves. The doors are covered on the outside with No. 22 gage galvanized crimped iron and on the inside with tin. ROLLING DOORS. Several views of rollinfr doors are illustrated in Figs. CIS to 622. They are made of metal or wooden slats, which are fastencfl Iftf •^>:f DOOBS 871 Fig. 018. Kltf. 619. ■•«;/ =! * Fig. 620. 372 MILL BUILDINGS 1 u FlK. 021- Fig. 622. vooss 373 ;:!;uu3 .,• wrings to ..ciuute "-F^^-j^^^";"^ ^ ':^ „l,en the large door » open 1''' ™^„ i ij „„ pUmKi for „„ .„hed .ide "7;X:"lttll tIo ^a'r.'hop (Fig. connection. Fig. «23. i^^S^^K■^^::'ii<^a^m tmum ' . M'^.l^■^.'^(^:3e^^iSi^.S^m' m^'-: *^f. CHAPTER XXXV. FACTORY FOOT BRIDGES. Foot bridges connecting factories or other buildings are fre- quently a great saving of time and labor. It often occurs that the different buildings <>f a manufacturing establishment are located on both sides of a .reet. Goods must pass, in the course of manu- facture, through several buildings before being completed, are brought into one building on the ground floor, and after passing up through the various floors of one building, cross over to an adjoining building and down through the various stories to the ground again. In this way the goods are elevated and lowered onlv once in each building, or twice in all. Without the connect- ing foot bridges for the upper stories of the adjoining buildings, Fig. 6 it ^voula be necessary to elevate and lower the goods in each of the two buildings, making four transfers. Elevated foot bridges are a great saving of time and energy. They make it jKissiblc to move goods back and forth from place to place with ease and without undue loss of time. Formerly, 374 '^M- 4ipp¥i ■i"ipiipippllip FACTORY FOOT BBIDGES 375 when these bridges were made of wood, tlie framing was heavy and expensive for spans long enough to crof.s ordinary streets but now that thev can be framed of steel with small bars and shapes that are not cumbersome, and at tlie same time safe, they are worthy of more cencral use. Buildings joined in this way with numerous bridges are almost as convenient as if the several buildings were all in one, and at the same time they possess the advantage of being lighted from side windows, -J^.ch cannot be done where the entire floor space is under one roof Well lighted buildings not only save the cost of artificial i-Ming but also facilitate production. Numerous small separate buildings «)n- nected with passages on the lower floors, and with covered foot bridges in the upper stories, afford both better sun^.ght and ventilation. , . .,, The covered foot bridges shown m the accompanying illu^ trations (Figs. 624 to 626) are framed of steel and covered ShTrrugated iron, mere the location will permit they may .lint on the inside with wood sheathing, and finis^ied in the same general stvle as the buildings they connect. Those shown 4'' 40' »' w' y ay * w^ Fig. 626. Fig. 625. are intended more especially for ordinary factory use, and are •eed on the outsidrwith corrugated iron without any inside Hning They are framed entirely of steel, with wood for the '"Ihe culL give the weight of steel (Fig. 625*) and the total cost (Fig 626*"^ for spans varying from 15 to 100 feet for a riomi width of 6 feet. In figuring the cost of these bndg^^ steel in place has been taken at 6 cents per F'""^!' «>^"««^ "J ;riO cents per square foot and wood flooring at $40 per thousand. • H. G. TyrreU, in Carpentry and Building. 1905. 876 MILL BVILDINOa These costs are only approximate, depending upon the local price of the several items included. They are proportioned for a floor load of 60 to 80 pounds per square foot of floor area. Where it is necessary to transfer heavy weights from one building to another, these capacities may be increased proportionately. It is sometimes convenient to provide for the carriage of small trucks on a pair of rails, or a trolley to carry loads overhead. It is well to have the bridges lighted, and this can best be done by alternating the windows on the two sides. The illustrations show bridges from 20 to 80 feet in length, which will cover all ordinary cases. CHAPTER XXXVI. PAINT. Paint consists of a liquid or vehicle, either fixed or volatile, thickened with a pigment or base, the materials being such that when spread in a thin layer and allowed to drj-, an imFrv.ous tihn results, which excludes air and moisture. Other substances .alled driers, are added to assist the paint in hardening, and .tainers are used for coloring. There must be enough liquid or vehicle to hold the pigment in suspension and allow every particle ,.f it to be surrounded, the theory being that the vehicle only is in contact with the painted surface. , ^x. « ■ ^„* Paint should spread smoothly and evenly, and the firtc coat should cover the surface. It should be adhesive, economical, toug^ Elastic, and should dry in a reasonable time. It should not be effected by heat or cold, rain, snow or wind, and must resist ^e action of smoke and fumes. It must contam no solvents and nothing that will corrcde the iron, must be non-poisonous dura- l.le and waterproof. It must not blister, crack or scale, and must retain its color and composition. It should have power to extract dampness or moisture from the metal, and not be easily igmt^. Scats should dry harder and -- , referred to bv ancient writers before the Christian era. It contains 70 ,u-r cent carbonate of lime and 30 per cent hydrate of lead, and i. made either bv dissolving sheet lead in acetic ac.d or mixing load oxide (litharge) with water and 1 per cent of acetate of lead Pure white lead is a heavy powder, white when made, but turning gray when exposed. It is soluble in dilute nitric acid. but not in water. It has a substantial body, is dense and perran- nent. and is u«.d as a base for all colors. It is not recommended as a base for metal because it needs too frequent renewals but it i. the l^est known pigment for wood preservation. .\8 wh, e ead nnd zinc are the pigments for all light colored pains, whj^e lead is much used for top coats on steel framing when a 1 g^^t am«hed color is desired. For exterior surfaces exposed to the weather, it should be combined with zinc oxide. White lead does no com- bine chcmicallv with linseed oil, but is a ™^^hanical mixture. It is sold in powder, but more commonly as a paste which ^com- posed of dry white lead with 9 per cent by weight of ^^^^ f-^ Five gallons of linseed oil added to 100 pounds of pa^^ make n .aUons of paint, weighing 21.3 pounds per gallon; 15 pounds .,f lead paste and 6.3 pounds of oil makes one gallon o paint Three coats of white lead paint are as effective «^ «--«*; f zinc oxide. White lead is often adulterated with sulphate of 380 MILL BVILDIS08 r^ ■ i 1* ■ j rU^^p V ^f baryta, lead sulphate. gypBum. zim- oxide, and chalk. Sulphate of baryta, the mont common adulterant, if a heavy, dense, white subfltance. and oan be detected by its gritty feeling when rubbed in the hands. zrNC OXIDE. This is the base for all zinc paints. It takes longer to dry than white lead, and costs more, but makes a thicker paint film, and retains its color tetter. It is more permanent than lead, but liable to peel. One gallon of zinc paint contains 9.5 pounds of zinc oxide and .'>.7 pounds of oil weighing 15.2 ponnds. RED LEAD. Red oxide of kad niiniuui is made by heating lead oxide (litharge) to 600 degrees F. It is poisonous, is effected by sul- phur fumes, and is therefore unsuitable where smoke and fumes occur. Red lead dries very fast and must be mixed by hand every day as required, or it will harden in the keg or pail. As a result of rapid drying, it is less permanent than other paiuts, and it cracks, permitting water to enter. When used as a first coat, it should be covered with upper coats of other paints. Red lead is often adulterated with chalk, lime, oxide of iron, and brick dust. Twenty pounds of red lead pigment, mixed with 5^ pounds of linseed oil, makes a gallon of paint. One gallon of linseed oil weighing 7^ pounds should therefore contain from 28 to 33 pounds of pigment. Some manufacturers make ready mi.sed red lead paint which does not harden or settle in the case or pail, and which they recommend as excellent for priming coats on steel. Raw linseed oil must be used with red lead, for the paint itself is a rapid drier. A paint of combined red lead and lampblack is made by mixing 12 pounds of red lead and 10 ounces of lamp- black with each gallon of raw linseed oil, the pigments being mixed dry before adding the oil, and no turpentine, benzine or driers should be used. IRON OXIDE. Iron oxide, either alone or with other materials, has been more used for metal paint than any other pigment, and the theory that it promotes corrosion is incorrect. There are three common oxides of iron: (1) the black magnetic oxide, not often used as a pig- ment; (2) anhydrated sesquioxide of iron, or red hematite, vary- ing in color from dark browi to bright red; and (3) the hydrated sesquioxide of iron, or rust, known as brown hematite. The oxide of ii-u as used for pigments often contains from 40 to 70 per cent PAIST 8S1 of clay, .nd it .hoold contain very little hyd«ted sc^qmoxide of iron. I good prop.rtion being 25 per cent .nhvdr.te. most common ones being zinc sulphate, acetate of lead, litharge red lead, and binoxide of mangane.*. Only enough are needed to ,n„ke the paint harden. Liquid driers are sold m ««;»' «^'«°« '^ that 5 to 10 per cent added to raw oil pamts makes them dry in twelve to twentv-four hours, hut more than 10 per cent should not IK. ««ed. None are needed when painters' boiled oil is used which contains driers, but when raw oil is used x»r thinnmg, they are necessary because, unaided, one or two weeks will be required to harden them. Hardening .hould not be forced by excessive drier or heat, for the paint film is then liable to crack. Structure steel paint should contain no liquid driers, neither turpentine, benzine nor thinner, for such additions to oil lessen its permanence. SOLVENTS. Spirits of turpentine is the principal solvent. It is a wlatile oil distilled from the turpentine gum of pine trees and is a limpid and colorless liquid with a strong odor. It weighs . pounds per .allon. and dries in twenty-four hours. When spirits of turpen- tine is used without oil, . : : resulting paint surface has a dul fmis^. Little or no turpentine should be used on surfaces expos^ to weather. Benzine, which is a mineral oil weighing 6^1 pounds per gallon, is sometimes used instead of tur^ntine. The market price of turpentine is 40 cents per gallon. 8TAINEB8. If the desired finish color is u.^erent from the base, other pig- nients must be added, which are called steiners. The principal ones are as follows: , . , j v * ^«,k» »nA Browns are mostly iron oxides, and include burnt umber and II 1; 382 MILL BVILDIXG8 lit burnt sienna, from Umliia and Sienna, in Italy, and Spanish brown. Reds include Indian red, wliich is ground hematite ore; Vene- tian red, made by heating ochres; vermilion or sulphide of mer- cury, Chinese red, etc. Blacks are mostly carbons in some form, and include lamp- black, ivory black and bone black, which are soots from burning these substances. Blues are Prussian blue or prus?iate of potash; cobalt blue, made by roasting cobalt ore; blue ochre, blue lead, and indigo blue, made from plants. Yellows include dironie yellow, yellow ochre or clay colored with iron, and raw sienna, wliich is clay colored with manganese. Greens are made by mixing yellow and blue, the most perma- nent ones being made from copper and arsenic. JAPANS. Japan, when properlv applied, is the best known protective for metal surfaces. Black japan is made of asphalt, linseed oil and copal rosin, usually Kauri thinned with turpentine, and is the familiar coating on door locks and hinges with a smooth black polish. The metal is dipped in japan, and then baked for several hours in an oven. The more linseed oil and the less drier that it contains, the more durable will the coating be, but to make the coating harder when baked, extra drier is often added. It was formerly used for small articles only, but investigations now under way show that it may soon be applied to large surfaces. Japan can only l)e applied in the shop, but when this coat is effective, latef ones are not necessary. The duration of steel structures with ordinary paint jnotection does not usually exceed twenty-five to fifty years, and when considering that the same structures would last indefinitely if protected witii such a coating as japan, the extra expense would be ultimate economy. Up to the present time, however, the process of application is not sufficiently devel- oped to make its use practical for structural steel work. VARNISHES. Varnish is made by dissolving gum or resin in oil, turpentine or alcohol, the gum acting like the base in paint. When the vehi- cle dries or evaporates, it leaves a smooth, solid and transparent film of resin. LinsCi;d oi! ahouid be Used as the vehicle for out- door or exposed work, but turpentine at a less cost is sometimes PAINT 383 used for inside surfaces. The quality of the varnish is determined bv the amount of gloss, and is best with linseed oil. The interiors of power houses which contain expensive machinery are frequently varnished and finished as a show place for visitors. Steel floor channels under the wood block pavement on the Williamsburg bridge at Xew York, after being washed and pickled in dilute acid, were dipped in hot varnish enamel and then put in ovens and baked at a temperature of 400 degrees F For two or three weeks after being placed, six or eight hundred workmen with wheelbarrows walked daily over the enameled metal without injuring the surface. SPECIAL STEEL PAINTS. There are many excellent prepared paints for steel, but also many worthless makes, and as some paint makers recommend their products for all conditions, care should be taken in selecting them It is better to accept the judgment of an engineer or architect, or some other competent and disinterested person. Steel paints are made of linseed oil, asphalt, tar and varnish, the oil paints liaving pigments of lead, zinc, iron oxides carbon, lampblack or graphite. For ordinary structural work, oil paints are the best. Sheet metal should have a priming coat of red lead, covered with later coats of iron oxide or carbon prepara- tions of tar being avoided. Corrugated iron or^ other metel sheathing should receive only one shop coat, for if P^^J^d t^o coats the sheets will stick together, and the paint peel off. Steel in foundations or other damp places exposed continually to mois- ture or condensation should be coated with asphalt paint or varnish. PBINCE'S METALLIC PAINT. Tins is made from blue magnetic iron ore, mined in Carbon County Pennsylvania, and contains 50 per cent of iron peroxide, [r^'cent of limestone and 25 per cent of sulphur. The or« is broken, roasted and ground to a line powder, in which form t is sold at $20 to $40 per ton. The roasting reduces ite we ght by one-third. One gallon of linseed oil mixed with TJ p und o pi.rment, after standing twelve hours, measures 1.2 gallons of Jaint. it is made in one color only-a reddish brown. The com- position and cost of the mixed paint per gallon is as follows. ,, $.09% 6H lbs. mineral, at 1% cents per lb 56 6^ lbs. raw oil at 90 cents per gal '..'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 100 Labor in applying Total cost per gal. appUed 384 MILL BVILDtNGS One gallon covers 700 square feet, and costs 22 cents per square for one coat applied. ASPHALT PAINT. Asphalt is a substance midway between coal and oil, and is composed chiefly of carbon. It dissolves in linseed oil, is very adhesive to wood or metal, and has a good covering capacity. Asphalt paint is made by dissolving the asphalt in paraffin, petro- leum naphtha, or benzine, and after applying the mixture, the volatile oils evaporate, leaving a coating of asphalt. It is applied hot at a temperature of 300 to 400 degrees F., preferably on a hot surface, and costs 80 cents to $1 per gallon. Steel waterproof floors are frequently covered with asphalt one inch thick. DURABLE METAL COATING. This is a black asphalt varnish, made by Edward Smith and Company, and composed of asphaltum, linseed oil, turpentine, and Kauri gum, without pigments. It is sold in liquid form ready for use, and requires neither thickening nor stirring, though in cold weather it is more easily applied when heated. It is said to contain neither tar, naphtha nor benzine, and dries slowly by oxidation, requiring not less than thirty-six hours for the first coat and a week for complete hardening. One gallon will cover 400 square feet, and it costs $l.r.O to $1.T0 per gallon, by the barrel. P. & B. PAINT. This i ' black paint, composed of asphaltum dissolved in bisulphide of carbon, made by The Standard Paint Company. It has a volatile vehicle which dries immediately when applied, leav- ing a coating somewhat similar to japan. It is sold in liquid form ready for use, contains no tar or oil, and when applied dries quickly. It is made in three thicknesses; a gallon of the first covers 250 square feet and costs .$1.20, while one gallon of the thickest covers only 100 square feet, and costs $1 per gallon. This paint is elastic and can be used on brick or concrete as well as steel. ■4i \: •cfs COAL TAR PAINT. A very cheap paint, which may sometimes be satisfactory, is made by mixing eight parts, by volume, of coal tar with one to two parts of Portland cement and one to one and one-half parts of kerosene oil. The kerosene oil and cement are first mixed to a thin cream and then poured into the tar. As iar lias but little Talue, and is often burned for fuel, the resiilting paint costs not -""";>iil '^i^^t^i PAINT 886 over 10 to 13 cents per gallon. It adheres well to black and to ;ialvanized surfaces, and when the kerosene dries it leaves a coat- inj: of cement and tar. This paint is used for coating steel work ;it the United States .Vavv Yards. Similar mixtures are made !)y using U-nzine instead of kero- -ciic. and dialk or lime instead of cement. It is a goolight sacrifice of permanence. Paint is applied either by hand brushes, by conipre8sed sections, leaving the metal in hot paint for about 15 minutes, at a temperature of 200 degrees F. All things considered, hand painting with brushes is the most >ati9factory. AIB BLAST PAINTING. A compressed air pai^'-ng machine consists of a tank for 100 I'ound pressure, supplied with air by means of a hand i)ump, and ^^^ rubber hose for supply and discharge. ^ #ik"7* (Fig- 629). Each ro».cbine is provided with £ spray pipe, cock and nozzle, an extra tip, a 200-pound pressure gage, galvanized sieve, suction and discharge hose, and is worked by * vo men, one at the pump and the otl r directing the nozzle. The largest size machine, cost- ing $40, is equal to the work of thirty men with brushes, while the smallest size, costing $25, is equal to the work of ten men, and will cover 800 square feet of painted surface per hour. Painting coal sheds at Key West, Flo- rida, with cement and tar paint, put on with air machines, showed that each gallon of paint put on by compressed air covered 145 square feet of surface. Machine painting has the disadvantage of (onveying moisture and air to *he surface, is wasteful, and soils the floor and surroundings. Hand painting with brushes is there- fore generally preferred. Klg. «21>. m SH MILL BUILDINGS SHOP COATS. The 8UCCP8B or failure of painting di-pends upon the first coat. If it ih applied over a wet or greany ourfatc, coattnl with «alo, rust or mufi, the first and Huccooding coats will certainly jh-cI off, leav- ing tiie metal e.\p<>«>d. The first coat should be applied on the clear grayi.sh-white metal surface, with paint or metal hot. The paint may be heated by suspending pails of it in hot water. The permanence of mill marks on steel sliows the Iwnefit of applying paint to a hot surface, for it then spreads better and adheres more firmly. Home prefer to have metal oiled at the rolling mill while it h hot and kept under cover until manufactured, and again oiK ' or painted before shipping. The disadvantage in this is that the mill scale is not then removed, and when it peels brings the oil and pain<: with it. Others do not even oil metal until after ereition, preferring rust to mill scale. Days with the proper at- mospheric conditions should be chosen for applying the first coat. The air should Iw dry and dear, so damj'ness or dew will not form on the surface to be painted, and the tempirature should be 50 degrees F. or more. Several thin coats are better than a le^^s number of thicker ones, for pores in the earlier coats will be filled by succeeding ones. Each coat should be thoroughly dry before applying another. Column bases or other inaccessible parts should be painted before setting. Turpentine is often added by the work- men to make the paint thinner and easier to sprtr.a, but tins snould be avoided. Rivet heads, projecting points and edges should be given a second partial coat, which is allowed to dry before the final field coats, for the brush drags over edges and projections, leaving less paint than on flat surfaces. TABLE LXIII. PAINT. ■D ' , ., '•■<"* **" ^Mt Graph- Car- P.jTment anrt oil— Oxide. Lead. Lead. ite. Asphalt bon. Vol. ingal8 2.6 1.4 1.7 2 4 Weight in 11,8 32.7 30.4 33. 2o!5 3o' '." Libs, of pigment per gal. of oil 24.73 22.40 25. 12.50 17 25 8q. ft. covered first coat.. 650. 700. 500. 600. 30o" l666 8q. ft. covered second coat 700. 1,000. 700. 800. 500. l!500 Hq. ft. covered two coats. 375. 400. 300. 400 250 650 Cost per gal $.53 $1.25 $ .85 $1.10 $ .40 $1.50 Cost 100 sq. ft. first coat .10 .18 .17 14 13 15 Cost 100 sq. ft. second coat .07 .13 .12 [10 !o8 10 The covering capacity of paint is frequently exaggerated, and de pends on the tiiiekncss of the mixture and the smootimess of the * Prices are based on raw linseed oil costing 60 cents per gal. (S'.c*jtr»l .1 » PAiNTiyo SM surface. It can always bo incrcascil liy the addition of thinnera, and may vary 50 per cf i.' more or less from tiie areas given in the above table. Light structural work averages 250 square feet, and heavy structural work ISO square foot of surface for every ton of steel, and in estimating the amount of paint required for two coata, it is customary to allow one gallon for every ton of light steel work, and half a gallon for every ton of heavy steel work. One gallon of tar at 300 decrees F. covers 220 square feet of surface. The volume of mixed paints exceeds that of oil by 20 to 75 per cent. C08T OF PAINTING. The cost of painting is made up of two factors: (1) cost of materials, and (2 )co8t of labor in applying it. The cost per gal- lon of several kinds of paint is given in the table on page 394, and the cost of applying it depends (1) on the rate of wages jjaid to workmen, and (2) the amount of surface that a man can paint per day. A table of wages paid to laborers and painters in differ- ent parts of North America, which is subject to change, is given on page 420. Laborers receive from $1.25 to $3 {wr day, and paint- ers from $2.75 to $4.50 per day. Structural paint can sometimes be applied by common laborers, but in many places the operation of trade unions may necessitate employing regular painters at a higl'er nito. Cenprnliy Jie fost "f applying paint is two to three times the cost ot the materials. From 80 to 90 per cent of the total cost is for the labor and the linseed oil. Mixed paint that is sold at a less price per gallon tiian the cost of linseed oil cannot contain pure oil, which is the chief essential of a good product. The average amount of surface that can be painted by a man in one eight-hour day is as follows : First coat on tin or metal roofs 2,000 8f|. ft. per day First eoat on wood builtlings 1,000 sq. ft. per day First coat on structural steel 300 to 500 sq. ft. per day A day's work on second or subsequent coats is 80 per cent of the amounts given above. The cost of painting steel structural work with three coats of graphite at $1.10 per gallon, one coat Wing applied at the shop and the other two after erection, with shop labor at $1.50 per day, and field labor at $2.50 per day, is as follows : I til ij' ■;s ,; ■ 396 UILL BUILDINGS COST PEB TON OF PAINTING STBUCTURAL STEEL. One shop coat. Heavn icork. Light work. Cost of paint p^r ton of steel $ .33 $ .55 Cost of labor per ton of steel 15 .20 Cost per ton of one shop coat $ .48 # .75 Two coats after erection. Cost of paint per ton of steel $ .47 $ .78 Cost of labor per ton of steel 80 1.10 Cost per ton of 2 erection t-oatB $1.27 $1.88 Total cost per ton of 3 coats $1.75 $2.63 Generally, one shop coat of graphite })aint costs 50 to 75 cents per ton of steel, while two field coats cost from $1.25 to $1.75 per ton. Two field coats of iron oxide paint will cost from $1 to $1.50 per ton. Coating with tar at 10 cents per gallon, and labor at $1.50 per day, costs 50 cents per ton for heavy steel work to 80 cents per ton for light work. Present union prices for painting woodwork with oil paint are as follows : One coat work $1.35 per 100 sq. ft Two coat work 2.00 per 100 sq. ft. Three coat work 2.75 per 100 sq. ft. Cold water painting by compressed air, including material and labor, costs $1 per 100 square feet. FT .m'r- rJHMaiiiMriaiii tilAPTER XXXVIIl. PAINTING SP CI :-f CATION i FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL. 1 All strucv ..' ron and =iteel, from the time of rolling till it in oiled or painted, shall he Kept under cover and protected from tlie rain and weather. . . 2. It shall be piled on skids, and care taken to avoid scraping or injuring oiled or painted surfaces. 3 Steel shall never be laid on the ground, either at the works or at the building site. 4. Corrugating of sheet metal shall be done before oil or '"t\Tmetl shall receive one coat of either linseed oil or ^^t ^XToat of oil (if usal) shall be applied to the struc^ tural shapes It the mill while the metal is hot, and it shall then be stored under over on skids till needed m the riveting shop. QUALITY OF OIL AND PAINT. 7 Oil shall be of the best quality of raw (or boiled) linseed oil, chemfcat and commercially pure. Raw oil shall contain no '- r ^U^d r^^Xd^aiot shall be bought direct f^ " t X^l^inlnit shall be opened in the P-nce "f the engneer or owner or their representative, and tested if d.ired^ 11 Paint shall contain no thinner of any kmd, and turpen tine or benle shall not be permitted on the premises for any pur^ ;^;Lcepting with written permission of the engineer, and then only in the amount specified. 387 398 MILL BUILDINGS 'V. ? CLEANING. 12. All metal, before a?senil)lin, as described above. PAINTING OF OLD WORK. 39. All dirt, dust, scale and loose paint shall first be removed, using a hot blast blow torch, or sand blast, if necessary. 40. Deep-seated rust spots, not accessible to a scraper, tool or chisel, shall be heated with a burning torch, and when the rust is decomposed, it shall be removed with a brush. PENALTY. 41. If inspection of oil or paint shows it to be different or inferior to that approved and specified, the contractor shall then pay the expense of testing, and shall clean off and remove all paint already applied, and shall repaint the surface with the proper material, without extra compensation. i PART V ENGINEERING AND DRAFTING DEPARTMENTS OF STRUCTURAL WORKS ill C'lIAl'TKH XXXIX. THE ENGIXEERlXfJ IlEPARTMEXT. INQUIRIKS. Inquiries fur designs and estimates on steel structures arc received with tlie mail in tiie general office, and referred to the engineering department. Those may include, besides mill build- ings, all kinds of steel cage factory, warehouse and office build- ings, and business blocks with only partial frames. There may he requests also for designs and estimates for standpipes, water towers, floors, platforms, observation stands or any kind of plate and bar construction, ordinarily made by bridge and structural works, ilany inquiries are received from arclutects and others who are seeking information, hut are not prospective purchasers, and the officers of the company must decide to what extent these will receive attention. Companies which intend retaining the good will of all interested in their business will probably make accommo- dation designs and estimates, even though an extra estimator be needed for this puri)OS('. Other companies may consider the expense u:iwarranted, as there are too many (Rotations to prospective buyers to permit doing accommodation work. Approximate estimates are usually close enough for this purpose, and it is better to make them than decline the inquiries. Invitations to tender on construction work must be carefully (onsidered before l)eing accepted. The work may l)e too large, too small, or have insufficient financial security, or the chances ()f securing a contract may be too remote to be worth the labor. The manager and engineer must decide v '^er or not it is liest to prepare the estimates. 401 ■H 402 MILL BUILDINGS i I ORGANIZATION AND OFFICE. The engineering department of a structural works will com- prise a chief engineer and such assistants as he may need, depend- ing on the capacity of the works and the amount of estimating that is needed to keep the shops supplied. A small plant can be kept busy by one estimator, while a larger one may do enough work to keep several engineers busy in securing it. It will be assumed that the engineering department can use the services of several men, two or three assistants competent to design and estimate, others for listing quantities and figuring; weights, and two or three draftsmen making general show drawing?. The chief engineer will give his principal attention to outlining the designs and selecting economical ones. He must examine de- signs made by his assistants and check the weights and costs by rules and formula^ to see that estimates contain no great mis- takes. Time will not generally permit checking estimates in detail, but they should be examined carefully enough to avoid serious errors. Care must be taken in checking, to see that all items are included and the large figures correct. There are unfortunate cases on record where one-half of a symmetrical building was esti- mated, but the result was not multiplied by two, or some large item like the sheathing or purlins was omitted, and the submitted price was disastrously low. Mistakes of this kind can be easily discovered, and there is no excuse for their occurrence if careful assistants are selected. The draftsmen in tlie engineering department must make neat and attractive drawings, e'en though they have little knowledge of construction detr.il. They must do good lettering and printing, for the drawings are the final result of the engineer's work, and the success or failure in securing a contract may depend on the care with which the design is illustrated. Each engineer must have a drawing table, and a desk for computations. Roll top desks are not suitable, as the tops interfere with spreading out the plans. Desks sliould have tiers of drawers at the sides, and there should be other drawer cases t r finished sheets. The engineering depart- ment should contain au abundant supply of literature on structural engineering, together with bound series of engineering and trade journals, and data of every available kind relating to designs, weights and costs. All engineering index volumes should be st hand in order that subjects may be investigated and similar designs examined in the various technical reports and journals. ■mi IH Hiniiiiiiii iiiHiiiiM THE EJfOHfEESING DEPASTMENT 403 The estimates and drawings must be numbered and recorded in a card index so they can be quickly found. Estimates can be placed in letter files, either consecutively or under subjects, putting those for buildings of the same kind together. In the latter plassfifica- tion, all foundry building estimates would be in one file, machine shops in another, store houses in another, etc. The index cards should be ruled with places for various data, so a large number of estimates can be gla -od over quickly on the cards, without the necessity of examining the actual papers. OFFICE METHODS. There is much time and energy wasted in useless refinement ill the design of ordinary steel structures. Mathematics is thought liy many to Iw the height of engineering, wliiie it is only an assist- iint to judgment. Arbitrary loadings are assumed, which in many rases are not realized within 50 per cent or more, and from these assumptions, calculations are carried out to decimals. The fol- lowing extract in this connection is taken from the preface of Trautwine's Engineers' Handbook: "Comparatively few engineers are good mathematicians, and in the writer's opinion it is fortunate that such is the case, for nature rarely combines high mathematical * talent with that practical tact and observation of outward things so essential to a successful engineer. There have been, it is true, brilliant exceptions, but they are very rare. But few even of those wlio have been tolerable mathemati<^ians when young can, as they advance in years, and become engaged in business, spare the time iiecessarv' for retaining such accomplishments. Let the savants work out the results, and give them to engineers in intelligible language. We can afford to take their word for it, because such things are their specialty. The judgment of an experienced de- signer is often preferable to the conclusions of a mathematician, inexperienced in practical work. Stresses for onlinary trusses may l)e more quickly figured by using the coefficients given in several mill handl)Ooks. If these do not suit the form of truss, new ones may easily be determined, and all such coefficients should be preserved for f"tnre use. Where there are several figures to be multiplied or divided by the same number, the use of a 8li:ie rule or calculating machine will save much time, Tn other cases, figuring can be done as easily and quickly in the ordinary way. It is also a saving of time with less liability to error to perform all similar calculations on various wl ^rFI V^i^^r- w 404 MILL BUILDINGS truss nieniberfi consecutively. For fxainple: first liml all the shears; secoml, all the uunuents; third, all the inclined web stresses; fourth, all the chor.l stresses; lifth, ail the required tension areas; sixth, all the re<|uired compression areas, etc., without waiting to finish the consideration of any one piece. The estimator will have curves i-t hand giving the weight of trusses for a variety of loadings. To find the wciglit of a truss, intermediate between those for which curves are available, it will be close enough for approximate estimates to interpolate. Care must be taken, however, to see that the loads are of the same gen- eral class. The weights of steel in a building for heavy cranes cannot he compared with a similar one without cranes, nor a roof in northern latitudes with one of the same size in the south. When bids are asked on a design furnished by the owner, it may he an advantage to also submit a price on an alternate one. Some shops can fabricate rivctc'd work cheaper than they can make pin-connected trusses, and if a price is asked for a pin- connected truss it will doubtless interest the buyer to receive a lower price on a riveted one. In order to have a systematic wav of recording all the principal data in connection witli any building, the following blank heading will be found convenient for estimate shwts. The blank spaces for size of span, loads, etc., should all be filled, and any other informa- tion not provided for in the heading should be written on the first page, together with any governing extract from the specifications which seriously affect the design. These must appear on the first page, so a review of the estimate can be quickly made : PRELIMIXABY STUDY SHEET, .1910 Estimate No. . . . Varae S''*"^* °*- " " Size .■.■.■.'.■. . . .Area Height So Stories. . . . Distance between T.usses Pitch. Covermg. . . No Pieces span clear eflfective extreme. . . Purlins Bafters Monitor Compression Sp«-ifieatiou : Tension Material Live Load per sq. f t Dead load pci l. ft Designed by Estimated by Drawing bv I I 1 I i I I ! I I I I I I I I I I I I ! — I I i I ! I I I I J_L_LJ_-i I I I I i ! I ! TbE ENOINEESING DEPARTMKSl' 405 The sheets mav be crdinary cap me, 8 by 13 inches, and tlie paper should bi a thin, Btronp linen, suitable for blueprinting, cross ruled as shown in i ineh ^^quar.s. On this paper tlie design i, ctrdied out on a small scale; large sheets or scales are not suitabk for studies of this kind, for attention is not so easily con- centrated when sketches are spread over n greater area. Office tables and reference sheets generally, to he of the greatest use, .hould be made small. A reference sheet. 6 X 8 or 8 X 10 inches that can Ik; easily handled, will 1)€ used where a larger one would "° After the general design has been studied on a small scale line diagram, a cn.ss section should l)e made to \ or } inch scale, to .how general details. These and all stress nheets should lie care- fully made with india ink. All the principal operations c^nnec ed with the calculations should Ik- preserved for reference, but multi- plication may be done on scrap paper. All principal dimensions must lie written in ink. DESIGN. In these notes on office methods, questions of design need be ,.,.n.ir chapters.^ The fact that prices submitted on the bid.lers own plans frcmentlv yary from 25 to 50 per cent above the lowest, clenrlv shows tliat skill and care are needed : and yet it is generally -ecor greater weight of steel was the wider columns spacing; both nad complete steel frames for the outside walls. The practice of designing columns in the lower stories to carry only a portion of the sum of all maximum floor loads above is rea- sonable and is allowed by the building laws of some cities, though not by all. According to the percentages allowed by the New York building law, the saving in the column amounts to about 10 per cent. This will be from 2 to 3 per cent of the entire weight of steel. BEAM SPACING. The distance between fl or three stories apart are frequently as satisfactory and have le.s weight ..f ^ttn-l than when provided at every story. Another eonunon practice is to proportion outside columns to carry the floor loads only, making the wall of sufficient thickne-s to be self-supporting. It is necessary to provide a chan- nA againnt the wall to carrj- tlie floor, whether the walls have ,„luiiins or not, though some prefer to use a continuous flat plate l.uilt into the brickwork and projecting al>out 2 inches inside to support the floor, w'-ile ethers use .1 brick corbel instead. Whether to build the outside walls of solid brick, or to use a .leel frame with a thin brick wall merely as a curtain, will depend on the following conditions: First, which method in itself, apart from any consideration of available floor space, is the cheaper; and Klg. 03t>. .econd if the steel frame and curtain wall !« more expensive, whether or not the increased floor space secured by thinner walls will compensate for the extra c^st of construction. This second consideration will occur only when the lot area is limited and land values high. If additional land can be secured at a reasonable price, the question of increasing floor space by decreasing the wall thickness would not be considered. Nearly all large business blocks and public buildmgs contain more or less iron and steel for beams, columns, wall plates, anchors, I'll 40« MILL BUILDINGS i-tc. It is friHjucntly the tiii>ti)ni to iimkc the priiuipal ttoor U-amn i»f steel, using wotmI for other hoaiiii* nml joist. In such cases the piirts must Ik' proportioned to earrv safely tiieir nuiximuni loads, and, in large eities, to eonforni with the i.uilding laws. SHOW DKAWINOS. After the general design has Isrii carpfully studied, a small seale drawing should Im- ])repared, that the huyor who may not Im- familiar with building details may see the general style of eon- struetion. Care should Ih' taken, in making general drawings and shov,- i)lans (Figs. (!3(). (!31 and (lUV), to have them neat and attraetive, for even though a design contain much merit, if it be i.l rig. 631. accompanied with a careU -sly made jiicture, it may Ijc passed by and a more attractive plan accepted instead. After the design has been made, it should ho reviewed to see where improvements are jTOSsible. Additions or reductions should be made, extra bracing added where necessary, or the weight re- duced where iudgment will permit. The capacity of the original design will probably be kept up to tlie buyer's specifications, and deductions computed, which can be made if the capacity of certain lUh h.SOISElCHI.Sli llt.ViUTMhST 409 parts are decreaml. Foi cxainpU-, "» «'«nf'- >""^ ^'""'^ ^''"* 'l*" roiiuin.. a huil.linK to carry a r.O-ton tram-, l.ut wlu'i. tl,. ..Mt .^ .-..nHi.h.rcK is uillin« to um- a crane of 30 or 40 ton. in«toa.l A -uKKCKtiona like thi« will intcrM a piosp..tiv,. l.uv.i. nn.l will in,TH««. the dunut-H of muring the work. If the ontimate i* marn .uhniittcl hy the huyer, alternate one,* would douhtles. lie attraitive. Fltf. m-i. Eveiv estimate should he anaiyzod a>^ H^an as possihle alter it i. completed, preferal)ly l.y the one who made it, and the result* preserved as a ban- for other estimates of a simdar km. 1 Ihese analyses should l>e kept on cards or thin linen paper in loose-leaf hooks, and classifitHl under different headings. Thin paper is pre- f..rred, as it can be printed. By the use of these summaries, approximate estimates for new work can be prepared m a very short time. if i.ll 'l: CHAPTER XL. ESTIMATING QUANTITIES. APPROXIMATE ESTIMATES. Quantities may be estimated, eitlier approximately by empirical rules and formula*, or exactly, by writing down tlie actual amounts. In many cases, the approximate method is sutlicient, and at all times it' forms a valuable check or guide on the final results. An experienced estimator will have weight tables for all kinds of steel structures, on a square foot basis, so that approximate estimates on new work can be made quickly. In preparing approximate esti- mates for a proposed new building, care must be taken to compare with estimates for structures of the same kind and for similar use. An approximate estimate for a building with heavy traveling cranes cannot be made by comparison with a similar building with- out cranes, nor n single-story building with a multi-story one, or short spans witli long ones. The comparison should be with struc- tures as nearly like the desired one as possible. A few rules for approximate estimating, from the author's private records, will be given. The weight of roof trusses for various spans, pitches and load- ings is given by the original charts in Part II, and the weight of trusses and plate girders for spans of any length, and loads up to 4,000 pounds per lineal foot, is given by Figs. Hi) and 120. These charts cover all kinds of loadings in ordinary construction. A formula for the weight of roof trusses to sustain a total load of 40 pounds per square foot is as follows : 12 L W=— -I- — D 20 where W, is the weight of stool in pounds per square foot or area covered; L, the length of span inside walls in feet; D, the distance in feet between centers of trusses. The weight of steel framing in mill buildings, including trusBCB, columns, purlins, bracing, etc., is approximately as follows : Framing for roofs covered with corrugated iron weighs from 4 to 6 pounds per square foot of exposed surface, while the framing 410 ESTIMATISG QVANTITIES 411 for heavier roofs, covered witii slate or plank, will weigh from 6 to 9 pounds per square foot. These weights are for roofs and side walls onlv, and do not include crane supports, floors or any other parts, excepting the plain enclosure. The weight of ste^l framing in walb, including columns, girths, purlins and bracmg, will sel- dom exceed 4 to 6 pounds per superficial foot. The additional weight of steel required to support traveling cranes in a huilding will vary from 3 to 6 pounds per square foot of the entire floor area, depending principally on the capacity of the cranes and the column spacing. This weight may be more closely approximated hy allowing 10(. pounds of steel per hneal foot of building, for every 5 tons' capacity of cranes. These weights are in addition to the regular steel framing in the roof and walls. r 4. ^# If the weigiit of Fteel be given in pounds per square foot of ground floor, or area covered, instead of per square foot of exposed exterior surface, the weight will then he approximately as follows: Lbs. per »q. ft. of ground. Simple roofs « ithout cranes, corrugated iron covering ; '. J lo 14 Light shops with cranes • ■ • • • • • 1" to 20 Heavy shops with cranes, slate or plank covering 1. to sw The Steel framing in roofs similar to Fig. 429 in spans from 80 to 200 feet weighs from 8 to 12 pounds per square foot of exposal surface or from 9 to 16 pounds per square foot of ground covered, including steel purlins, which weigh from 3 to 4 pounds per square ^"^yon^of the ahove weights include the steel in floors, which may vary from 8 to 25 pounds per square foot, depending on the arrangement of beams, the floor capacity and the distance between '"^"MuUi-storv office and warehouse buildings, not oyer eleven stories high, "designed according to modern building la-«^J^^«; columns lo f.vt apart, for various imposed loads, have steel frames weighing as follows ; TABLE LXiV.» Lbs. per ^*«- PT s<,.ft. 'l-f^ 1 i__ 1. nf fin with outside frames 1* Buildings for imposed oads of ... . 6" wu ^^^^ ^ Buildings for .mposed loads of ... 60 v^^ i ou ^^.^^ ^^^^^ ^^ Buildings for imposed oads of ... . IW v> i ^^^^^ ^^ Buildings for imposed oads of. . . . WU w ^^^^^ ^^ Buildings for imposed ^ds o . . . .250 3o0 w^ ^^^^.^^ ^^^ ^^ Buildings for imposed Joni» 01 « H. 6. t yrrell, Architects' and Builders' Magazine, Jan., 1903. 41 ^^Mi!^jim^:mm It 413 MILL BUILDINGS From the above, an approximate ostiinate of the weight of steel in any proposed new multi-story building may very quickly be made. The total weight of floors increases in direct proportion to the number of stories, while the weight of columns increases more rapidly. The weight of cast-iron column bases given in Table XXIV, Chapter XIV, is useful when estimating sted in tall buildings.* The steel framing in coal and ore pockets with plank lining weighs from 150 to 200 pounds for each ton of coal or ore in the bins, or 3 to 4 pounds per cubic foot of contents. When pockets have i-inch steel plate lining, the weight of steel is then from 200 to 250 pounds for every ton of coal or ore. Tlie weight in pounds of iron stairs with two steel stringers and cast treads and risers (not including railings), per vertical foot of building, is 70+ width in feet X 50. Cast risers i inch thick weigh 8 pounds, and treads § inch thick, 18 pounds per lineal foot. Spiral iron stairs with treads 33 indies wide, weigh 120 pounds per vertical foot, and fire escapes, including stairs and platforms, have an average weight of from 70 to 100 pounds per vertical foot. Iron lattice railing weighs from 15 to 50 pounds per lineal foot, and pipe railing usually from 8 to 18 pounds per foot. EXACT ESTIMATING. 4 Exact estimates sliould be made when time will permit or when their importance will warrant, and are usually necessary when tendering on contract work. It is desirable for the bidder to visit the site and personally examine the condition of the soil and sur- roundings, but there is seldom time for such excursions, and grade and ground lines on the plans must be followed instead. The various kinds of work should be listed in their natural order, beginning with excavations and foundations, continuing with masonry, steel "framing, roofing, etc., and ending with minor items such as painting, plumbing and electric lighting. A convenient ruling for paper on which to figure quantities is given below, tl)e various kinds of material being kept in separate columns. rt-snjtis-' H. O. Tyrrell, Architects' and Builders' Mr^azine, Jan. 1903. Name. Location. Owner. . . S8TIMATIN0 QUANTITIES ESTIMATE SHEET. 418 1910. Estimate No Sheet of No. of Pieces. Material. Weight Per ft. Beam work may be divided according to the following classifi- cation : Beams punched in either web or flange. Beams punched in both web and flange. Beams coped or framed. Double beams bolted together with separators. Plain beams not punched. i Beam fittings, such as separators, bolts and connections, should be kept separate, as a special price is charged for them. An extra Thrice may be made for beams 18 inches deep and over, and these should also be separated from beams 15 inches deep and smaller. Where only a rough estimate is required, it will be convenient to use one column for each different weight, and write down the total length when figuring off the beams. For example, in place of writing 3 I-beams, 15 inch @ 42 pounds per foot, X 24 feet long, simply write the total number of lineal feet (48) in the 42 pound column. It is easier to figure off only one piece, or if the section is sym- metrical like a double pitch roof truss, then figure off only half. The total number of pieces may be given in the weight summary. The weight of truss details is usually found by adding 20 to 35 per cent to the weight of main membera, but the total weights, in- cluding details for all ordinary trusses, can be taken diifctly from ^^W 414 MILL BDILDINGS the charts. The weight of rivets varies from 3 to 6 per cent of the whole, and allowance may be made for column caps and bases by adding 2 or 3 feet to the length of tlic column. LISTING MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS. ' 'H^^P mm '•-'■'- iH 'l ■ '■ tilJE^-^. 1 rSfe f ? i It is frequently necessary to include in the steel contract such material as lumber, paving, doors, windows, and occasionally the entire mason and carpenter work. It is the custom to place the contract for the whole building with the contractor whose share is the largest. Therefore, with steel frame buildings, where steel is the largest single item, all the other kinds of material must be in- cluded. If there is much other work, it is better to secure sub- bids, but if little, tiiis may not be necessary. Windows should be listed with outside dimensions, stating if sash are hung or fixed, with the size and number of lights in each. Windows in the side of monitors are operated from the floor either by cords or shafts and gears, and tlie number to be opened must be stated. Gutters and conductors are listed by the number of lineal feet and size; roof- ing by the number of square feet; paving by the square yard; railing by the number of lineal feet and the weight per foot; lum- ber by tl'.e number of feet board measure, keeping different kinds separate. Wall Anchors fastening floor joist to masonry are spaced about 10 feet apart, and plate anchors 5 feet apart. The number and size of other mason's and carpenter's anchors are too uncertain to classify, and where these items are large, should be figured from a schedule, but where their weight is small compared with other work, the experienced estimator will include a lump sum to cover them. If the estimate is on a design prepared by others, an approxi- mate estimate should be made on another, for the purpose of checking the economy of tlie original one, for one designer can often save on the work of another. CHECK LISTS. In order to know that all items have been included, it is con- venient to have a check list at hand for reference, which may be re- viewed before making the summary. If any items h-'.7e been omitted, they may then be included. *i SSTIMATINO QUANTITIES 416 TABLE LXV. CHECK LIST— BUILDINGS.* Bed FlatM Brackets Crane Rods ColumDS End Crane Clear rtory Lean to Main Finish Angle* Floor Beams Joist Plates Girders Crane Plate or Lattice Knee Braces I i\rlins End Gable Hoof Side Bods Longitudinal Ties Lateral Sag Ties Sways Ties Separators Struts Bottom Chord Crane Eave Bafter Sway Tmsses Lower Chords Bafters Struts Suspenders Ties Ventilators Braces Circular Frames Trusses Wall Plates Anchor Bolts Bolts Cotters Clips Corrugated Iron Crane Track Doors Door Frames Flashing Gutters and Downspouts Louvres Name Plates Pins Paint Bivets Bailing Bid^e Capping Stairs Sheet Metal Work Sheeting Bivets Wood Work Windows FINAL CLASSIFICATION. In all operations, uniform metliods should be adopted as far as possible. Therefore, in making the final classification, it is convenient to have a blank form such as given below, one of which may be filled out for each estimate. The cost of stock is first considered by giving the weight of each kind, figured at the cur- rent price per pound. The cost of drawings and templets is then found bv giving the number of sheets which are figured at a certain price per sheet. The cost of labor is next computed, by giving the number of pounds of trusses, girders, columns, castings, beams, machine work, etc., ea > being figured at its own pound price. Miscellaneous items boiiftht from other makers are figured by themselves, and paint if. eetimated by giving the number of gal- lons. Then follows the cost of transportation, mcludmg freight, ji,_..-:-^. ■:9; !9HK: i 416 MILL BUILDINGS OEXEBAL SUMMARY. .1910. Name Location Materials. Stock— Plates, slicareil Plates, rolled edge Bare, common Bars, refined Angles Beams, 24 in Beams, 20 in Beams, 15 in. and under Z bars T bars Eye bars Cast iron Bivets Bolts Pins and rollers Steel joist Office and Shop Labor— Drawin^js Templets Trusses Girders Columns Bracing Beams, cop-d cr tninii'i Beams, punched Estir itv, so, ... . Sheet of Quantities. Unit Price. Total Cost. Beams, plain Beams, with separators. . . . . Steel joists, punched at mill. Machine work Cast shoes, etc Fence Fence posts Paint, 1st coat Miscellaneous Items — Lumber Spikes Doors Windows, et<- Erection — Steel Steel joists Paint,' 2d coat Lumber Lumber joists Lumber staging Bolts, staging Fence teaming, railroad fares for erection crew, and finally the cost ot erection Uwr. Bv separating all the items in this way, a close estimate is secured. It is of much greater importance to have all items included, than to have a fine classification, though the latter ESTJUATim QUASTIIIES 417 , ae.ir.Me. One o, two in,»rt.nt i.e.. „m, «1 f~n .««'»« „igM e»ily c.u« . greater .'''f "°^ " ' i' .^^U "e. .nil price »»el. a» »TO.Ol) per ton .nd »'"'' "'''"S ^ ,,,, ,„ ^,iven, t„e .-' '"'P-f;!'.' , ".'^jS Tco^ngencie,. neJe^Hnyir i:t..in patt., they .ay ^ «r.red '-■^tra.n 'L^b. acfiniteiy atated - jhe — ^ jj«| r.,::trrrtrjrertS°tiJ^^^^^^ covered by tlie price. yr i¥~3?sr^^i^^^^^p' 1 \^m 1-4 CHAPTER XLT. ESTIMATING COSTS. APPROXIMATE COST ESTIMATES. Approximate cost estiniatps are Buffitient for many purposes, and can be made in less time than exact ones. Tliey are found from the cost units per square foot of floor area and per cubic foot of contents, for buildings of various kinds, given in Chapters VI and VII. Approximate costs are also found from the weights in the pre- ceding chapter, multiplied by their respective unit prices. Both methods can be used, one being a check upon the other. CLOSE COST ESTIMATES. To arrive at close estimates all the various items that make up the final cost must be considered separately, including designs, drawings, materials, shopwork, freight, hauling, erection, paint- ing, etc. It simplifies office work to use uniform methods wherever possible, and the quantities and cost units should therefore be writ- ten for each estimate on a blank form similar to that on page 413. The paper is conveniently ri'led in columns, and there is space left for additional items such as doors, windows, etc. The cost of the engineering department, including designs and contracting expenses, may vary from one half of one per cent to one per cent of the estimates, and this amount should be added to each estimate. Drawings should be figured at $15 per sheet, or according to the tonnage costs for drawings given in Chapter XLVI. COST OF MATERIALS. The cost of materials varies according to the condition of the market, and these costs are frequently reported in the engineering papers and trad-i journals. If the prices quoted are those at the mill where they are produced, freight charges from the mill to the shop must be included, in addition to the cost of freighting the finished products from the shops where fabrication is done, to the building site. 418 m:^ ESTIMATISO COSrS 419 TABLE LXVI. P„,CE or STRUCTURAI- HTEE. . AT THE J*'''^''. PITTHBURO. PA. (DECEMBEB. . . ♦1.45 per lb. ReaniH 3 t" 1!> in ' ' ' 1.55 j^^r lli. Bitiiiis. over 15 in 1 .65 per Hi. Tl 8hap<'H over « in . ■•■.•• . l.,50 per lb. Angles 3 to 8 in., ovpr V4 in. thick '.'..'.■.'... 1.55 per lb. Angles over 6 in V\" ii' " i,' \„"thuV 1.70 per lb. AnKles 3X3 an.l upwar.l. Ws th«.. '4 'n. thi.k • • ^ ^^^ i^^ jj^ Tees 3 in. and ove' j 50 pgf ib. Zees 3 in. and over ,•••••• 1 45 per lb. Angles, channels, tees, under 3 in ^ ^5 p,.^ jb. Deck beams and bulb angles The cost of material on the cost sheet should he the mill price, with freight charges added from mill to shops u^.ere the struc- Tu al work is fahficated, or the cost of material delivered at the Tol When material is required in too short a tm.e to perm.t Sing for rolling it in exact lengths, it is then customary when Tut from long stock lengths to charge from .2 to .3 of a cent more ''''Mces''on brick, cement, lumber, etc., are given in Chapter XLIT but thev should he revised to suit tlK- t.me and place as market pr CCS varv in different IcK-alities. In the South and \\es where it plentiful, goo' timber costs less than in the North and e':* where it mus't'be hauled. The cost of other materials is given in greater det.il under their proper headings. COST OP LABOR AND SHOP WORK. The cost of shop work depends largely on the cost of labor .hidT varies with location. The wages pa^ '\Z^Z^Z r building trades in variou. parts of the United States m 1910 given in Table LXVII. p;l %^./mmm^ I-* Vi tj3Ui«3 poH •waioqn'i ■njd)ai«d ^^"^ggSi^f.f.^liSg K gSS!2§g ■8aBp|j;3ai3 s o » a o IBJ9K laong rt 5 « o iM « to fON w M ■■i8))98«0 ,849»Bai«aiS ■uaqmnij Bi9J3>8«lc{ '¥^gl¥§l"sst^?.sgg s § s g t^. s § „• f^ „• ,i ^ V Ifli «(■■•♦« »i P5 « ■* M Tjl M '»' « •* ■^i g •* M rt M •* •♦" "5 '»' ■* f' '^ " " ■* o ^ P o o c O I- o o o c ggggg|gggs512gg g gKgggg eij •^ « ■* ■♦ in "!• gSgggSg!S>lg..'-3g?.ol g g g o g in c lo M in •* ■* ■^ U E g S § ^ ?i S g 5 ? 1- ^ o >o CI •waq^BT ^ „• „■ „■ :^ ^ ^ ,~ -^ ^i-f'fnn O Q O Q O C C O iS O O O O 5 1 n oj so ui ^ ■* r: O 1-2 u Cm O ca a 1 ^ i I aojj iB^nsniBnioi ~0 C O P '■'5 oooooococ » is o 5 I- o q q q «e ■* q q w •^ 'I* -i» M oi -1" tf^' i-*^ "^^ CO -^ ^ ■■f ^ ^ ^ ^ CO ^ ^ c o o o < O O O 9> I "T-^o o b o o © o >.o Lo o 10 o o 94 § S o o o q q 1-. «-. «■> «! « = ri « eo ■*■♦ "O* ''"''«''"" *^ " eo o q g q « q "m o o o = o o o o q g 'f5 2 J's SS t- OJ S S ?I »I o O O ffl >n t- ■><: t-; « co'cotoeoeoto in '»''>'«"«**■'" " s aa If! e ^ CO CO 6O CO CO "o ifs o o moooooooco o 'M 'p o 1^ o m 10 10 q in q in q o o c m o o o o o 94 m o ^■<5ci-«;co'5-iJi;'t-*i>'*coi! •><» -*-*-<(ico'*ei •8i3V0^ noij i^inpang "-. 1*^ £5 o in oooooooco o I- o o I- o in in in q >n q q q o o 000000 O O O OC O 91 •*ci •*•<)<■ «•*■*' ■♦■*'''''''*'''*' ■* ■*^'i"'*->»'co •Sia^Bi^wa 'BJd^BIOQ ■sio -^_ — — ,*"— i;^£^»'^L'^oooo 00 oooooqo i in g in o g i 91 0I S S 5 « q o o q q =0 q q ac x ^^^^^■^'xj in in ■*■«•*■*« CO mm-^wio-*'* -— = Ln 0000000000 0000000 .3 2 5 § J2 o § o 2 91 « ^ o q c o q q q q in q ■* cocop5e0 9icoiriin'*eO'*tcoco t c 0^=0000 0000000 in q q q q 91 q q q 00 q q q in q »- •^^■^^eoeoiniri^'^'^coco^ "■^ 00000 o m in o o o o in » in o in o » in 91 91 q o q q 94 ^-^•<*"«<'* •*■*!'! in eo-teoco-* •>f «■*■*■*■*'«' o o o o o c o 91 91 q o q >* f9 CO CO ^ i< in 000000 t>- q q in q q q CO ^' ^ ^' ■^ ■* -"l" '000000 O X w o « o >'^. ■-: e« ■ • • Sj £^ %^ M *-< '^ -T^ *j ^ ». ^ Qu -. © rT"^ V sTvT^ ^ Jd a 4) O OD 3 o -S -2 S £ H >^ ►^ S -5 -13 *- tic,a do 420 5 ..J' » -o ^ OD 2 ^ 3 > ^ 03 tft .3 "o i: 'o ii \f' w "1 t ^ An Till iii»t of drn"' inpn. HILL BUILVlSOa .lakinK wihmI templeto avvraget* $Vi for each sheet TABLE LXVIII. WORK, NOT lNCLUI>lN(i DBA\VlN00 to 3,000 lbs. each 80 per 'b. IV .110 • ,Hn 3."00 Ihtt. eni'h 70 p«r .._^..„.., l/avy ?1!P'",;' Plate Bir.l.'», i.,,'h* 'n P* lu- Bivet.'.! br ci-i - ^tnjN, ot ',2 P* ,» ■ Punched i...rrr- -'0 per lb. COST or HUoi Built colomii' Built colutni . TruMses, wei;,li Trussed, weir hi Truiwes, we t • Plate Kird?Ti Column.-, iiade < f H shajM^, roiUd by tlie li^thJehen Sl'"l Company, Imve a ifs» ^h-r- cost tlian those maile from separatu phaiM-s riveted tdRfther. hut a higher pound mkv is charged for the materiii!, so tiu- saving !) • tiieir i.-e is small. Beams and channels i;i t>e pun uased I'mm ti.' rolling mills, punched ana framed, accord iiig to sul.niitt.'! drawingB, and nhipj)ed dire( tly to the huilding site and, wherever ponsinlc, it is eeonaiiiv to huy in this way as the additional cost of handling and eight charges are saved. The following char_ must, therel\ii.:-, be added to the base prices give above, wien hrams and channels are punched or fr.imed at the m Us. TABLE LXIX CentF (1 (2) (t) (5) (6) (■^ (») (10) (11) (12) For cutting to length -R 'h le^'S varialion than plus -.r minus % in Plain punching one size liolo ' wr-b <,nly Plain punching one ?*ize hole in one or both flan>»es Plain i-nnchinK "ne size liole in either web and one flau; ..r web and both flanges .'" a Plain punchinr each a.l.iitional size hole in either web or n.v izes, web anil one flringe or web anil both flanges • • Plain punching one -ize hole in flange and another sizt Je in web .f the same tieam or channel • Puncliu,^ and assembling into girders ^ ■ ■ • Coping, or. .nary beveling, including cutting to exact 1. ^-th, with V vvitho-.t punching; incln ling th" riveting or b.. ng of stan.iard cnnevtion angles. • • For painting or oiling, one .oat. \> 'h ordinary paint or oil Cambering, beams ai..I ehannels 4 other .^hapea for ships r ^^ ,1 .If. 40 .35 35 .10 other purposes Bending, or other unusual work, - For nttingM. niieiat-r Ijose or atr;; bolts and separatom, tie rods. Ti«' rods 'I' lit cases where estimated channel's arc ' classified as fltti"x«. rates. . SUt-L 3 9Hgle --'!i?«-' ;r«'0 U» eonnectioi . 1.55 ras or ^; I EST IMA I v« coara 4f8 It u nl, rather than ^ n« h.gh.. .harge f..r p"ncluog an.l nveting. Ihe few >. nne. t on ^glrwouUi then l>e\ent with oth.r riveted ater.al from U.e '''^:^rl:^i ...: ..r. vau. .w.ider.bly. . peBdin. on the e,iuipn> t. an.l it i. needU-** to u^ cct unit. *itl lo. Bne a pradation. COST OK ' ^lOHT. When a.oi thn^ :. n, .fn-turing the 4r. ^;»lj'"^'^ » « ng - fr... th. «. raw material, -H.ch con,cs 1..^ fxom i. 1 ai..u. Ueight^cha. .«. mu., be p|ud^ , I „ , ir to the shop, und »e<' a, wnen r ZtZ . ts fron the shop to , '^ilding 8hir ng the am, •. ^^ ^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ y,^^ =,te As raw .r ■ ^^^ .^^ fahrication .ne at a ^ "■ ^«^^''" '' ' go f. t charges will >e chiefly ..nt .ear t -pow • so i' 6 un Tft'T inati TABLE LXX. PKH 100 POUNDS. OK STEUCTUKAI. STKL ITtOM rrSBDKO. ^' "^ UEC^BER. mo.) IN CARLOAD LOTS. 16 cent- «r 100 lb*. Pittsburg ' N>« York ....■• [[.[[.'.'.'.IS "' ^ '" l^" Piushurt; r o Imli 'poi'» 32 cent? IM. Pi,,, ost. 1 .1 ;;;22 wnt^ )}^ Pittiib ; i/ to ?^t. I lis 30 centu yvi ^ jM. Piitib. rg to New ' irleans ^2% cents per luO lbs. Pittgli !-R ♦" Kansas City 45 jpnts per 100 Ibf. Pitt? rg to Birmingham, Ala g^ pent 3 per 100 lb». Pittsburg to Coast cities ■'" 'gg^ cents per 100 Ibfc Pittsburg to Denver rr-, uif tn m«kP low n.^a on steel structural work de- V , lif U nor n ire iv, ^n U,e freight chargea. A shop east .- for raw material must then be shipped east from Pittsburg *4 f :i! J V ; ' ;1M i $ 424 MILL BUILDINGS -i the Pittsburg district to the building site, could pass their shop without much extra cost. There is greater variation in erection costs than in any other part of the work, for differences of 20 to 30 per cent will some- times occur, depending upon how well the drawings have been made and manufacturing executed. The cost of erecting beams and columns in buildings with brick walls is from $6 to $10 per ton, and if the mason does the hoisting, the remaining cost of erection would then be from $4 to $8 per ton. Erecting steel work in buildings with several stones, including hoisting and painting, costs from $8 to $10 per ton when the trusses are riveted and all other joints bolted, while heavy mUl buildings will cost from $11 to $15 per ton. The erection of small buildings with all joints bolted, the parts of which can be hoisted with gin poles, will not exceed about $6 per ton. There are usually about ten field rivets for every ton of struct- ural steel, and these, at 10 cents each, make the cost of field rivet- ing about $1.00 per ton. Field rivets driven under favorable cir- cumstances with the structural work on skids or on the ground, will not cost more than 5 to 8 cents apiece, while those driven with the parts erected in position and the workmen standing on scaffolding or staging, may cost from 15 to 20 cents each. Bolts are usually as good as rivets for field connection and are more economical. , ,.^ . ^ , \ pier slied in New York City, 56 feet wide and 545 feet long, was erected in nine working days by fifty men, working eight hours per day. The building was covered with corrugated iron, con- tained 350 tons of steel, and trusses were spaced 20 feet apart. Another similar pier shed in New York was erected by a crew of ten men who averaged four trusses per day including all bracing. COST OF ESTIMATING AND TIME REQUIRED. The time occupied in making an approximate estimate of any ordinary structure need not ixceed a few minutes, as weighte can be taken from curves or figured from formulae. In taking off quantities and figuring the -veight of steel cage construction, a man can estimate about 300 tons per day. There- fore, if a proposed new building contains 1,500 tons of steel, it can be tlken off and estimated by one man in five days, or several men in proportionately less time. The estimating of mill buildings and light construction requires mmtim mtM ESTIMATE J COSTS 426 more time. An engineer, who is continuously employed on build- Tng worl will proLly estimate from 10,000 to 15,000 tons of st«;l per year, and secure from 10 to 20% of this m contracts A g^Simator would then obtain contracts for 1,000 to 3,000 tons TtZ per vear. A man regularly occupied in th. .^rk. would probably average four to five estimates per week, and the cost of thet, including show drawings, would 1. from $10 to $15 each. TENDERS. After adding all the items that affect the «•«! "'^t'/'^^^^f ^^« , to 3 per cent'for contingencies, the contractor wxll add whateve profit he considers the work worth, and submit his tender. He Toud state very clearly what is or is not included in his pnoB so there will ^ no misunderstanding. If the estimate is on Plans whi!h have been submitted to him, it will probably be a b'Stt the contractor to make one or more alternate prices or ructions for proposed changes from the p ans. or he may sub- Lit a differ nt plan and a price thereon. In any case, the pro- poll must stace'that the price is based on plans and specifications, go there can be no misundrstanding. Tenders should be written in the following forms. The first is for a steel mill building erected ounplct.. while the second ^ a proposal on a building for export, and the price given is for ma- terialonly, not including ocean freight or erection. PBOP08AL FOR A STEEL MILL BUILDING ERECTED IN THE UNITED STATES. Chicago, 111., January 1, 1910. The Wrigjht Air Ship Company, Oen»=-We proper, to -PP'^ f , '^oLpTei 'rSdinf "o^tfe erect at the rite all «»«»"'»' „XTo pta,^ and tp^ifieationf, for the Wright Air Ship Comj«ny, ^ord^K^o^ flaj^^and^^ pec^^^^^^^^ sum of .» ir :„„H,,otor« ^hina, louvres, door» and windows, corrugated iron, gutteni, 'O"'^""^^",'! either eround floor or foundations, paintid two coats, but ^o^ -* -''^J^ S C^'^Iiction Company, taigneu; ^^^^ j^^^ Secretary. PBOPOSAL FOB MATERIAL IN MILL BUILDING FOR EXPORT. Chicago, 111., January 1, 1910. The Oriental Shipping Company, 426 MILL BVILD1N08 dollars, accor<»ing to the accompanying drawing. This quoU- )t include ocean freight, erection or the cost of ground floor, fou°nd1ronrpartUionB.";T;nVmTtVri;Veicept tte^ stated The shipment will ontain pieces, having a shipping weight of tnn» nnd occuDV cuWc feet in the vessel. tons ana ociuiy /gigned) The American Structural Company, * William Brown, President. PBEFARATTON OF ESTIMATE FOB DBAFTING BOOM. \Micn a contract is secured, the design should be carefully re- viewed , all dimensions verified, directions made distinct and clear, and the design plainly illustrated. After several days, places may be found where improvements can be made or the work cheapened. The picture drawing should be made to correspond with the re- vised strain sheets. All notes or instructions should be written and accompany the estimate, as some requirements can be more easily described than illustrated. Instructions about shipping, when material will be needed, and which parts first, whom to see or correspond with to secure further information. col<>! of paint and number of coats, etc., should be all noted in writing. The contract may not include all iter.18 in the estiTiiate and it should be clearly stated what it covers. When all data and papers in connection with the work have been collected, they should be blue printed for the drafting office, and the originals kept on file for record. Some shon give to the drafting office prints of only such sheets as are net U. , re- serving weights of steel and cost pages. s.'*.'-;, CHAPTER XLin. APPROXIMATE ESTIMATING PRICES. Materialth-DeUvered. * •« i>0 to * Cement, Portland, Pacific Coast, per t-bl » T'l^ to Cement, PortlantI, East, per bbl an to Cement, Bosendale, per bbl -Ti Cement, Non-staining, per bbl •"•^^ ^^ Lime, per bu. ■ ^'^ ^^ Sand, per cu. yd. j ^^ ^^ Gravel, per cu. yd • ^g ^ Crushed limestone, per cu. yd •'" Crushed granite, per cu. yd. ....... •• Stone sill, 8X12 ins., per hnea tt Stone sill, 5X 12 ins., per lineal xt Stone Bill, 4X 8 ins., per lineal ft Stone sill, 5X8 ins., per lineal ft Stone Mill, 4X 10 ins., per lineal ft Stone steps, 7 X 14 ins., per lineal ft « 00 to Brick, common, per M 2^-^^^ ^^ Brick, face per M... ■• • ^^'^^ ^^ Brick, molded, per M _ ^^ ^^ Brick, enameled, per M Masonry— In place. .,- . Rxcavating, general, per cu. yd - Excavating, trench, per cu. yd. •• . Excavating, under water, per cu. yd ^-^^ ^^ Filling, per cu. yd • • ,;„ ^ Bubbte-Masonry, Kosendale Cement, per cu. yd 4.50 to Bubble— Masonry, Portland Cement, per cu. yd 5.50 to Bedford limestone, per cu. ft Carthage limestone, per cu. "••••• Kasota or Mankota stone, per cu. ft Granite, per cu. ft • • • Bedford Ashlar, 4 to 8 ms. thick, per sq. ft Blue stone pier caps, per cu. ft • • • • • • ■ • • ■ • Ground floors, 1 in. cement on 6 '^■r'}''^^'''^Z^'lt Ground floors, % in. cement on 4Vi m. concrete, per Ground Srs,asphalton'6Jn; concrete; per sq. yd. . . . 1.40 to Ground floois, asphalt block, per sq. yd -•"" w Ground floors, wood block, per sq. yd l-S" *<> Ground floors, brick paving, per sq. yd i 80 to Concrete sidewalk, per sq. yd. .... • • • . ,, Crete sidewalk, surfa » <<' Reinforced concrete, roof slabs, 15 ft. span, sq. ft -^5 to KsD forced concrete, floor slabs, 8-10 ft. (cone, steel and forms) , per sq. f t •^" < ement floor surface finish, per sq. ft Reinforced concrete, including steel, per cu. y' '"•"" *° Keinforced concrete, including steel and forms, i>er tu. y^ 16.00 to Reinforcing bars, plain, per ton Reinforcing ba.s, patent, per ton Forms for reinforced concrete, per sq. f t ... • . .Uo to Reinforced girder and columns (cone, steel and forms), per lin. ft Reinforced columns, wouml, per lin. ft Wood forms for reinforced beams and columns, per lin. ft • ,. ^ 2-in. concrete roof slab on trussit, per sq. ft low 3-in. concrete roof slab on trussit, per, sq. ft -0 to Xo. 10 expanded metal, 4 in. mesh, per s>;. f t • ■ . . 3-in. concrete ioot slab and expanded metal, per sq. ft. . 3-in. concrete partition slabs and expanded metal, with % channel, per sq. ft Brickwork. Common, in lime mortar, per M Common, in Rosendale cement, per M Common, in Portland cement, per M Face brick, per M Moulded brick, per M Enamel brick, per M Carpentry and Mill Work. Windows and doors, complete with glass and finish, jier sq. ft • • ■ • Windows and doors, frames only, m place, per sq. it . . Sash, 1%-in. thick, not glazed, per sq. f t Sash, 2% -in. thick, not glazed, per sq. f t Sash, glazed and painted, in place, per sq. ft J-'^ to Double floors on wood joist, per sq. f t 11' to Spruce lumber, in place, per M H. P. joists, purlins, etc., in place, per M H. P. matched flooring, in place, per M Maple flooring, No. 1 factory, l%xl3/16 ins., per M. . . 70.00 to Lumber in cofferdams, per M Board fence, per lin. ft ^0 to Stairs, 3 ft. wide, good finish, per step I'.-jO to Stairs, 3 ft. wide, rear, per step i •■)0 to Structural Steel. Steel truss and column framing, in plate, per lb Steel beams, in place, per lb Plain Castings, per lb Ornamental Iron. Mason treads, per sq ft Elevator fronts, per sq. ft 1- ' ' ♦" Iron stairs, 3 ft. wide, 5c. per pound, per step sO" to Fire escape, 10c. per pound, per story Metal clothes lockers, 18X20X72 ins., in place, eacli. . Pipe railing, 1 line, per lin. ft Pipe raUing, 3 line, per lin. ft Bailing, plain lattice, ptf lin. ft r^,. Railing, fancy lattice, per lin. ft *■*}» to Cast iron cols., plain, per lb Cast iron cols., ornamental, per lb 8.00 .30 .40 .07 ia.oo •jo.oo 30.00 50.00 .08 1.00 1.70 ,50 .18 22 .035 .15 .17 18.00 19.00 20.00 45.00 70.00 100.00 .50 .20 .07 .14 .25 .16 25.00 30.00 35.00 80.00 40.00 1.00 3.00 2.00 .04 .03 .OJ 2.00 2.00 9.00 100.00 8.00 1.00 3.00 o.OO .015 .03 s APPROXIMATE USTIUATINO PRICES 429 M '^ Slate on board (boards not included), per iq ,n^ !" Tin on board (boards not included), per »q llj-"" w Gravel on board (boards not included), per sq o-uu w Composition on board (boards not included), per sq. . . -.00 to Wood shingles on board (boards not included), per sq. 3.00 to Corrugated iron on purlins, per sq ^-O" y« Metal tile, Un, per sq. »"" J° Metal tile, lead coated, per sq I"-"" " Sheet copper, per sq ^^"^ '° Ornamental clay tiles, per sq *"■"" ^° Spanish tile, per sq Lodowici, wer sq Sheet Metal Work. Metal windows, without glass, hung, per mj f t .... Metal windows, without glass, trunnioned, per sq. ft. . Metal windows, glazed, with polished wire glass, per sq. f t •.■•••, Metal windows, glazed, with ribbed or maize glass, per •q. f t :•••.■••,• ■.;■•• Bibbed or maize glass, any size, m place, per sq. ft Double strength clear glass, per sq. f t "'to Richardson metal doors, per sq. ft Rolling steel shutters, per sq. ft Corrugated iron doors and shutters, per sq. ft Metal louvres, fixed, per sq ft Metal louvres, hinged, per sq. f t rnn ♦« Round ventilators, each •^•"" ^" Corrugated iron, No. 26 galvanized, in place, per sq. . . Corrugated iron, Vo. 26, black, in place, per sq Corrugated iron, No. 22, galvanized, in place, per sq. . . Corrugated iron. No. 22, black, in place, per sq Corrugated iron, No. 20, bteck, in place, per sq Cofrugated iron. No. 18, black, in place, per sq OalvaniMd cornice, in place, per sq. ft Copper cornice, 16 ounce, per sq. f t Lath and Plaster. „ . Wood lath, in place, per sq. yd oo J" Metal lath, in place, per sq. yd *' '» Plaster, 3 coats, interior, per s(^. yd • ^" ^ PUster, 3 coats, on wood lath, interior, per sq. y »» mter^closets, in place, with pipes and attachment, ^ch Slop sinks, in place, with pipes and attachment, each. . Lavatories, in place, with pipes • ■ Msrhls toilet room partitions, per sq. ft. Marble toilet b««es, countersunk, per »q. f t 13.00 12.00 6.00 5.00 5.00 9.00 10.00 14.00 40.00 60.00 22.00 16.00 .5S .40 IJO M .25 .10 1.30 JK> J5 M JK 100.00 6.50 4i» KM 7M 9M UM M M .12 .20 .21 .33 .40 .50 .60 .90 1.50 1.00 1.50 .12 .20 .28 70.00 60.00 50.00 1.26 L85 HI i. iSli mmi' CHAPTER XL 111. THE DxiAFTIXU OFFICK. The office is the principal workshop. No part of industrial plants shows greater progress than the ol!ice and drafting rooms. Twenty vears ago many otliees were only a few dingy and ill-lightcd rooms 'partiti;-iipd off from the shop, the air loaded with gas and fnmes, the floors uiieven and the ceilings festooned with cobwehs. The modem office should contain everything necessary for the Fig. 633. convenience and comfort of its occupant**, in order that they may give their hest service. These featuivs should exist iu an equal or greater degree tlian in the shops, because office men or brain work- ers with less physical e-xercise are usually of a more nervous tern- perament. As iii.- oihio prouuius no- diirt or •..,>, •••'•< - "- reason why its interior arrangements cannot be made both con- 430 THE DBAFTiyO OFFICE 431 vnient and attractive. It nn,st Ik- light, well ventilated and have ar-angeinents for heatinjr in winter and cooling in summer. LCM'ATION. In large works it .. eu.tomary to locate the drafting office on the npper'floors of the ex«.utive building, because this office is constantly in communication with the management. The whr office building should be centrally located and convenient to t lops and the sketches in Chapter I show it as the group cente i^^^h shops around it. The drafting office ""d the templet shop I so often in consultation that many plants have these t^o de- partlnts in the same building, the former oocupymg he se nd Soor of the templet building. The arrangement is no* «ntirdy saTisfaotorv, however, for the templet shop is Boisy often dus^y, Tnd CO ta^r,; dry combustible lumber, which exposes the office con- tents to serious fire risk. The more recent practice is to house all L? !ml drawings in a fireproof building, using one or two Ter Sr^or e3ve offices and upper floors for drafting.-- The'e s^-eral stovy buildings should have elevators and stairs, the debitor taking passengers up and the stairs being u^ m commg '""here is a noticeable tendency towards moving large drafting offi^isfrom the city to the suburbs, but this is more applicable to c?y offieTwhich have no shop connection than for ^^op offices. It htt advantage of lessening the rent, while ^^f^J^^l^^^"^^^ y hf «m\ air and because of rural surroundings, can do bett.r worK. Af me suburbl o^^^^ draftsmen can spend the noon hour out m fhe SUB hine by the water or among the trees, rather than on the lot and dusVpavements in the foul city atmosphere. The dratt- ! nffioesof several architectural firms have been moved each sum- ;rST eTai::^., in the belief that the workers will not only be benefited, but will also do more and better work. THE BUILDING. A firenroof building is the only kind suitable for housing valu- A fireprooi t*^"" « fireproof in order that drawings m able drawmg. ^^ J;";f ^^//.^Cen's tables instead of being 1 * 1 1 i fn MR 1 . ^•i ■;i i- i. 4.12 MILL BDILD1S6S m mmm {•*. THK DKAFTINO OVVICK 433 rooms built like vaults, witli the least amount of combuctible nia- tenal, for storing drawingc no longer in regular use. As far as constructive features are concerned, an office building is similar to those used for light manufacturing. There is no reason why work in an office cannot be done aB well or better on several floors as oii a single floor. On the other hand, the building with several floors has better air and light, and costs less for the required floor area. The subject of relative economy of buildings with one or more stories has been discussed in Chapter IV. It hao been shown that the greatest economy for light floor loads results from using buildings of not less than three or four stories, for above the first story there is no further expense for roof or ground, the only extra expense being for the floor and enclosing walls. ;'! WELFABE FEATUBEH. Nearly all large factory oSices are making provision in some way for the comforts and needs of the workers. In structural offices it is customary to find a room devoted to library purposes, where technical and trade journals pertaining to the business are on file. This feature, while very agreeable to the employees, is not charitable, for the owners are benefited in giving the workmen opportunities to learn from the trade journals the latest and best working meth- ods. These rooms are supplied with technical books pertaining to structural engineering, so all may l)ecome proficient. Arrange- ments are made for taking books and magazines out over night, by leaving a card with some one who has charge of the room. A dining room is another provision, where meals are served for a small -^um, usually not much over cost price. Some works have their own dining room on the top floor of the office building, but this is a mistake, for many men remain in the building from morn- ing till night. It is better to have the dining room in a separate building at a distance from the office, so all will get out in the open air at the noon hour. The exercise in the open air is bene- ficial ana gives a change of thought and- outlook. Service buildings of thia kind are shown in Fig. 2. A ball ground is another com- mon provision. The game takes thought away from work, and gives the men clearer brains for the afternoon's duties. The Toledo office of the American Bridge Company, shown in Figs. 633 and 634, is located on the outskirts of the city, in a district free from smoke and dust, with a lawn around the building. I l! m I '■iw-^ 434 MILL BUILDINGS •J" ft — iisirfai - iffVfi T-FT DSAFTING OFFICE 485 and two tennis couits in the rear. The basement contains kitchen, dining room, bityclo rooms and general toilet. The best place for a printing room is in the upiwr story, or on the roof, where direit sunlight is always available. Besides the general printing room, there should be a dark room for making sensitive pajwr and for photo developing. The modern printing room is equipped with both sunlight frames and electric printing machines. The light from electric machines is so much more uni- form than the varying sunlight, that niany otfices prefer to use it exclusively. With these machines, there is no need for estimating the degree of light, as it is uniform, and the same kind of paper will always print in the same length of time. When printing by sunlight, especially on cloudy or partly cloudy days, the clouds must be carefully watched, so the print will have the right amount of light. Photography is an important part of an office equipment, for all important buildings made, should be photographed, and some shops are using photo reproduction for drawings, especially those for field or erection use. The cost of photo reproduction exceeds ordinary blue printing by only 15 to 20 per cent, and the advantage from the small'^r drawings is great. The i- pe printing machine may be kept either in the printing room or in the general drawing otlice. It is used for placing titles, or any other wording that is repeated on several drawings. The printing room of the Brown-Sharpe Company is shown in Fig. 635. There should »« heating coils and drying racks over dripping trays lined with zinc. ^ 1 THE FILE AND RECOBD BOOM. While the entire olfic' building should be fireproof, so drawings can safely be left on the i i aftsmen's tables, there should be storage vaults for complete drawings which are used only for occasional reference. These record rooms ohould be as nearly fireproof as possible, with tile floors and sheet metal filing drawers. Son. offices insist on placing all drawings every night in the safe or vault, caus- ing a daily loss of time in waiting for them. In these offices it is common for fifty men or more to lose ten to fifteen minutes twice a day in collecting drawings for the vault, and waiting their turn to be served. Drawings that are in daily use or in course of mak- ing, should be kept at draftsmen's tables, and the vault used only for those drawings which are completei(.n«lly from the generd iitor. A few drawer* or a locker pass in the drafting room ly be Butlkient. 1N8IUE ABBANOEMENT. The interior of the office should be so furnished and arrai.^ that accurate drawings cun be made witli the U-ast interruption and the greatest ease. It f.hould have a solid floor, free from vibration, and a wearing surface of pine or maple. The principal space will be used for draft: tables, placed around the wall, with the left end adjoining the windows. They should stand crosswise and not facing the wall, for then light is better, and the work of various men is separated. Tables should be spaced not less than four feet apart, so the men will have plenty of room for free movement. Down the wnter of the room should Ih" a line of drawer cases with drawers on both sides for drawings that are in u,«. The tops of these tables are convenient for sorting and spreading plans. Draw- ers should have double handles and a metal holder on each for a eard label There are many kinds of drawing tables, most of them iii « r > 41 i-JU ' ii KIg. 038. existing Wauae of patent royalties which their originators receive. No tabic i- irr-- convenient than one 3 feet wide. 6 feet long and 3 feet 6 inches high wth adjustable hinged leaf on the right end, «■■ mT' F-*fc-.V\< 488 MILL BUILDINGS which can be mad. of pine in any carpenter shop. .TJer« Jiou^i TTiAev of three drawers 6 by 15 inches at the right end. and ^riarge drawers at the center 28 by 40 inches wide and 3 inches de^T ?hVoffice should have an assortment of -hned ^^f bSs of different heights, for elevaimg the drawing board to a ^venient position. In addition to these, ^^ f ^^ ^f^^^^^^ extension legs, to be used or removed to suit. Other k nds of tables areXwn in Figs. 636 to 640. Figure 641 shows the interior of an office wher the table tops are hinged and can be rai^ or lowered af desired These vertical drawing boards are not satisfactory, for i mi Fig 638. Fig. 640. articles will not remain on them. The only sloping part should be the drawing board, and not the table top, for a level table is needed for books and papers. Adjustable drawing tables soon beco«ie un* steadv and the absence of drawers is a detriment. Each table should have a revolving high stool, with circular foot 'est^ ""^"^^ on rubl.>r tips, and a low chair for occasional use. The regn^^ drawing boards rfiould be not less than 30 X 48 inches, but rhere should te a few larger ones, 36 X 60 inches, for occasional specia work, and some .mailer ones, 18 X 24, for studies. Drawing boards should be H inches thick or more, and they may be lightened by grooving out the backs, and stiffened by two mortised cross bar. Thev must receive neither oil nor varnish. It is convenient to have a light gas pi,, frame in front of each table, from wb.eht susnend general or reference drawings, as shown m Fig. 641. Ihe upi^rad should have sliding spring clips or fasteners to grip the id THE DBAFTISG OFFICE 489 , • On thP wall adjoining the tables there should be in- drafting oHuc an.l .ap.r .ut -ff - -J^^;- "^^^^^ i/^^tis- is sold in sheets and may l.e kept in drawers. i i- WJWT ■-'■.•«g^ |ii-:i^^;^:ii Sl:^^;^^ II SC Fig. «41. ..etor, for orfin.ry ..™e.«-.. e left with the name of the bon-ower, and date taken. Sweet's io<'exed catalogue contains a summary of many others, but there k much information in the originals too bulky to be contained in it. Th* draft r^ offke should have a system of loose-leaf scrap bodcf for clippings pertaining to the business. V \* customary for manu- fftiiuring companies t" receive duplicate copies of trade journals, and on*- »* n,**;. )» nm\ for clippings. An hour or two should be sot apBft l>v the ensffW«T or chief draftsman ior reveiwing these jfiuniHis, and the work of marking, clipping and arranging in loose- leaf books can he done by a clerk. After the journals are reviewed in t'ne drafting' office, they should be passed on to another depart- ment for further dippings valuab'c to them. Tliere should also lie W*e-I«'af book? «ith views of recent plants or buildings. THE DSAFTING OFFICE NATUBAL LIGHTING. 441 BibbeJ glasa in the upper sash will better diffuse light through- oat the room than plain glass, but the lower sash should have heavy clear glass with adjustable lower blinds raising from the bottom. In upper stories, one or two box skylights are desirable with ad- justable shades, Imt they must be carefully made to , revent water from driving in during heavy storms and destroying the drawings. Klg. 642. Leakage ai night may do ^rious damage before bemg discovered Skvl- hts are «ood onlv for general lighting, as shadows are cast bvthc body on the drawing board. Light should come from the left and is lK.>8t when tables are arranged with their ends adjoin- ing' the windows. The amount of light is doubled when the m- 442 MILL BUILVINGS terior wall^ ami leiling iri white or a light color. There should be ii wninstot of dnrk color about 5 feet alwve the floor, but the re- mainder of the walls and ceiling may 1)0 colored light blue or green, which will not snil aH quickly as white and is not so tiresome to the eve?. The furniture and woold by adjustable arms or brackets, so light can be concentrated at any place. THE DRAfTING OFFICE HEATING AND VENTILATING. U3 If heating coils are used beneath the windows, the degree of heat should not be so great that air will be excessively warm near the radiators and chilly in the middle of the room. Improper heat- ing is frequently the cause of colds and sickness and can be avoided. When warm air from a heating chamber is blown into the office, it may be passed through a washing vapor, and only clean air sup- plied. This is a great advantage when offices are located in a smoky diotrict, adjoining the works. Impure air and smoke in the office is not only injurious to the occupants, but it soils and damages the drawings and other contents of the building. The process of wash- ing therefore, supplies clean air at all times, warmed in winter and cooled in summer. If ventilation is insufficient, it may be improved by a few ceiling fans, at small expense, as shown in Figs. 644 and 645. LAVATOBIES AND PLUMBING. Toilet rooms sliould be placed on each floor, with one bowl for every ten or twelve occupants. Where less provision is made, there will be loss of time at certain hou; s of the day. There must also Iw washbowls in the toilet room and several individual ones m the drafting room. Cooled and filtered drinking water may be piped through the building from a center filter, or it may be supplied from separate cooling tanks in the various rooms. CHAPTER XLIV. ORGANIZATION OF DRAFTING OFFICE. The drafting offices of many large structural plants are an im- portant part of their organization. In them designs are originated and details perfected. Drafting office practice has a double interest to the designer of mill buildings, for not only is the engineer in- terested m the organization and managemint of the office in which he himself is engaged, but he is also interested in making office buildings for other industrial plants. FlR. 644. Tlif I'UfiinctMUig dtiturtinenl of ii structural company engaged in the dt.sign and inanufacturf of >^tcel mill and industrial buildings is genfirtlly divided into two prin(i])al jmrts, (1) the designing and I'Stiniaiing, and ('i) the draftirg and detailing department*. A description of tlic usual inetliods followed in ti.e designing and 'inti- mating de}>artment is given in another ihaptcr, and the drafting OBOANIHATION OF DRAFTINO OFFICE 440 office practice only is discussed here. As the drafting depart- ment contains from four to five times as many men as are needed in estimating, tliere is need for economy and uniform working methods. Drawings are the principal medium by which knowledge of a design is conveyed from one man or set of men to another. The art of drawing has been likened lo a language, and those who understand it l)est are best able to express their thoughts by draw- ings and to read and Icam the thoughts so expressed. It is assumed here that designs and general plans are already made, and the drafting departnient is called upon to elaborate these designs and make working drawings. The purpose of details is to supply the workmen in the shop with such information as they will need, and to answer all their inquiries. The draftsman should remember that while he may liave the data by which to verify dimensions or clearances, the workmen in the shop have no such data and must make the pieces exactly as they are shown, without perhaps even knowing their location in the building, or to what other pieces they connect. He should therefore make a very careful study of two questions: (1) what information should be given to the shop, and (3) how that information can best be given. The tK!onomic organization and management of drafting offices, where the office force is engaged in designing and detailing steel mill biiiMings, is important, because nearly all rach buildings have their particular needs and require sp^-ial plans. It is very seldom that a set ot" plans made for one building is suitable for reproduc- tion. The great proportion of manufacturing done at structural shops is special work, and this requires the ser^•ices of a large num- ber of skilled workiuen. Draftsmen are well paid workmen, and the expanse of these office: is high. There is, therefore, need for careful organization to get the 1-st results for the least money. Making drawings tor structurRl steel work is important. I)ecau9e of the value of steel 5\nd the time re(iuired in proi-uring it. A building contractor iii makiug timber trusses dix-s not need elaborate details, showing the exact position of holes for nails and bolts, for those hdes can he bored ftftei- the timlHrs are as.-^e bought at h nay's notice. In stt"*! construction the condi- tions ar? differ, nt. Horinp holes in metal is not er.moniical, and the various pr.r;^ composing a trass are cut and punched before \m ii V. !f; i I 446 MILL BUILDINQB [III being n^iemblc'l. With tiinl)or trusses, if a piece is found too long, it can easily be 8liori.one«l with a hand saw without sending it back to th*^ shop or »i a fhearing inachiue. Witli steel framing, it is econonncal to have all the parts cut to their correct length and shape and al! boles punched in their exact position before the parts are assetnblwl. When the various pieces for a wooden building are shipped to the site, if mistakes are discovered, columns or purlins found too long, it will take but a few minutes to cut them off and Fix. 64S. remedj' the error, but if similar mistakes are discovered in parts of H steel building, the pieces would need shipping :)ack to the works, causiin'r «everal days' delay, or it mi«rbt l)c [Ktssihle to at off the surplus ienpth with sledjre liamiiiers and cold chisels ; in either case to remedy the error is exj)ensivi3. Accuracy If TJiercfore the chief essential in a structural drafting room. It has l>oen conclusively proven that money spent in making clear and neat drawings that can \)f read without difficulty, .*ud in checking and verifying them, is saved many times b*?foi*' fno work i; completed. Draftsmen should make c practice (tf frequeutly visitiiig the OBOAS'IZATION OF DRAFTING OFFICE 447 shops and Htvulying and examining their practices. They should be as familiar with these methods as are tlie ^i»op mt-n themselves. Draftsmen will find it greatly to their benefit to conver«e freely with the workmen ami particularly with the department foremen, who are usually pleased to give information. There is no better way for a draftsman to become conversant with shop methods. Jealousy and rivalry are often th(.' cause of scant courtesy be- tween various departments. It is better for the proprietors and stockholders, and also for the men themselves, that friendly rela- tions be maintained, for there will then be better cooperation with correspondingly better results. It is tb'; custom in some organiza- tions which have numerous departments to have frequent evening meetings of the department managers to arrange the work for the best interests of all ; this brings tlio various departments to work in unison with less misunderstanding and fewer losses. Draftsmen as a class are accustomed to moving about freely from one plant to another in order to broaden their knowledge and experieiice. The subdivision of labor, even in drafti'ig oiTicHJS, which keeps one man or set of men continuously at one kind of work, is largely responsible for this frequent moving. The monotony of constant indoor work of the same kind makes even the expense and trouble of moving a pleasure for the change secured. Changes are so frequent in structural draftir'^ offices and new men so often employed that large companies issue illus- trated pamphlets, setting forth in detail tlunr methods of making drawings and doing work. These pamphlets in ma^y cases are qt.ite elaborate and are either printed in type or bound in blue print form. They show the shop and . (fice practice, and draftsmen must familiarize themselves with these methods and incorporate them in their work. Many shops that formerly left minor details to the templet makers are now having these details figured on the drawings, and this makes extra work in the drafting room. Any set of rvdes drawn for the guidance of draftsmen will need modification to adapt it to a particular shop, f<»r tools, appliances and practice greatly vary. The directions given licre are therefore inteniicd merely as a general guide and wiil not necestiarily be suit- able for all plants. ORGANIZATION. The degree di organization needed in t iraftiTig office depends npon tVio number oi men employed. If tiiere are not over siz or eight, little -.r no organization is needed, excepting to fix the office tP Hi. n v ! t.i :•- -dULii Ill 448 Mli.L BVILDlSli.^ •I ..^^^. hours anecteill probably neglect executive duties. The present practice, therefore, in many of the largest works is to have two heads for the drafting department, one an executive ov superintendent, and the other an engineer or chief draftsman. T'ndor these heads the office should be divided into parties, each containing four to eight men, who will work unitedly on the draw- ings for separate buildings, but will not interfere with other parties. They should be assembled at tables adjoining each other, and ore man, known as "squad foreman," selected as a leader for each party, who will have charge of the work. The parties will contain men with various degrees of skill, two or three beitif^ competent to work independently in laying out and designing iletailt', while tht rest, known as tracers, may be lesa experiem>ed, giving their time chiefly to actually making the finished drawings. There must also he Lheckers for verifying drawing's after they are finished, generally one of theso men for each part v. The eheck- ers should be as«jmbled by themselves for ease in consultation, so their work will be. done uniformly. They should work under the direction of the chief draftsman and not in any of the squads, to insure greater freedom in making changes where desirable or necessary. There is usually some machine drawing in a structural draft- ing office, in connection with shop cranes or other mechanical appliances, and in an otiice of fifty draftsmen there should bo one or two mechanical draftsmen, and all druwings for the machine shop i-hould be .nade by them. In an office ■ this size there should albo be cne or two experienced in architectural w^.rk for, while mill and factory buildings are not usually works of an liiecture, it is desirable to make them look as attractive t.» poseible. The serv- ices of these men may also be needed in the designing and estimating J OMOANIZATtON OW DtAfTtNO OWriVK 449 department, in tendering for large building contracts ccMitaining architectural de»iign, either on the exterior, or interior design for offices. It may be nececsarv to make complete architectural drawings when tendering for work, and contracts are sometimes secured conditional ou the steel contractor supplying free of charge the complete drawings for the building. At other times when tender- ing for attractive work it may greatly add to the chances of getting it if the proposal is accompanied by a water color perspective of the building. In all such work the services of architectural draftsmen will be of great value. The extra expense of these drawings ia small in comparison to the prospective profits. The blue printing and photographic departments will need the services of two or three men with separate rooms, and large offices si )uld have one man whose duty it is to take charge of and file all drawings and other records. There should also be two or three boys for messenger service. In an office of fifty men, not including the printing department, messengers and filing clerk, there will be — 1 Head Draftsman, 3 Mechanical Draftsmen, 1 Architectural Draftsman, 6 Checkers, 5 Drafting Squads with 8 men each. If the shop contracts for structural work other than mill and factory buildings, it is better to divide the office into two depart- menta, giving all the mill buildings to one department, and other structural work, such as that for office buildings, warehouses, busi- ness blocks, etc., to the other. If these departments are large enough to warrant it, there should be a head draftsman appointed for eadi. SUBDIVISION OF LABOE. It is economical for all work of the same kind to be done as far as possible by the same men. These men benefit by experience, and mistakes are not repeated. Perhaps the greatest benefit that is derived from the subdivision of labor is that the various shops become accustomed to receiving drawings made by the same lot of men, and the shop man and draftsmen learr. to better understand each others' methods. The shop men become familiar with the drawings and know where to look for information, because of the fi^i ii MKXOCOrV RfSOlUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) ^ APPUEU IM/IGE Inc ^ 1653 East Main SlrMt r^ Rochester, New York 14609 USA r: (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone =S (716) 288 - 5989 - Tox 450 MILL BUILDINGS uniformity of their methods. Subdivision of labor is the source of great economy in production, though it becomes tiresome to the worivmen, who get little variety or change. The draftsmen tire of one continuous kind of work, and are often obliged to change from one office to another to relieve the monotony, but notwithstanding this, most large offices retain the system. It is practiced to such a degree in some works that men are kept continuously working on drawings of the same kind. One draftsman will make drawings of building columns, another of roof trusses, another will make bracing drawings, etc., each becoming so accustomt 1 to his par- ticular work that it is made easily, uniformly and with the least number of mistakes. The system has proved so economical that shops adhere to it, even though men leave and new ones must be employed. Draftsmen generally prefer to work in small offices, for subdivision of labor is then impractical and the duties of the men are more varied. It is quite common for men in a large office to be employed for a year or more making drawings of the same kind, and they will be so busily engaged that they may not have time to become familiar with the design as a whole. THE CHIEF ENGINEEB. The chief engineer of a plant usually gives his principal atten- tion to the designs and estimates, and his work is referred to at greater length in the chapter on "Estimating." OFFICE SUPERINTENDENT, The duties of the office superiiitcndent are to employ and dis- charge men and sec that work in the office is being carried on with the greatest economy. He must see that men are employed on work to which they are best suited, judge of their capabilities and see that office hours are enforced and employees giving good service. He should keep account of the cost of drawings made by different squads, and for different kinds of building. The superintendent should see that the office is working in liarmony with the estimating department and with the shops, and should have a system of order blanks for the various departments to issue on each other. These written orders and receipts should be given when drawings are received and delivered. He must also have an office timekeeper, who will tabulate the time spent by every man on each particular contract, as well as noting any days that the men are absent. These time records are important in eotiiputing tlic cost of drawings for ^esmna-Mti.'jiigp^ ■aummnwi'^iiA- . ' -ife". , r w OSOANIZATION OF DSAFTINO OFFICE 451 Tarions buildings. The rating of office employees will be fixed by the superintendent and he will arrange vacations. HEAD DRAFTSMAN. The head draftsman must receive from the estimating and con- tracting department all available data, stress sheets, specifications, etc., relating to each building contract. When the office contains several squads, it is better that he give his time to supervision. He must keep careful record showing when all orders were received, when drawings were started, when completed, and the date when any or all drawings were sent to the shops, that he may know on short notice what progress has been made on any particular contract. It is customary to have a great many building contracts under way at the same time, and without a detailed record it would be diffi- cult to make quick progress reports. A convenient -ecord book for this purpose is one which can be carried in the pocket, with pages ruled in columns, allowing one column for each kind of informa- tion, with one horizontal line for each job. It is possible to tabu- late a large amount of information in this way in a very compact space. When thi is kept up to date, the head draftsman can report at once the progress mj.de on drawings for each building. To avoid misunderstanding the head draftsman should give his orders only to the checkers and squad foremen, and not to the members of the squads. While his duties are principally in con- nection with the drawings, he should be a good manager and leader, 60 there will be no friction between the men under his direction. Contracts may be secured which have detail drawings, and these details must be examined to see where they need changing to suit shop practice. It is frequently easier to have such details redrawn than to change several sets of blue prints. All contracts received in the drafting office will be given a number, and the head draftsman must see that data papers come to him in duplicate, one set for his own record and the other for the squad foreman. All instructions must be written. Tlie head draftsman must consult with squad foremen and checkers, with the officers of the company, with the contracting department, and with the shop foremaa SQUAD FOREMAN. The sqnad foreman will receive from the head draftsman all papers and data relating to the buildings for which his party is to make the drawings. As he may have several buildings under way u 452 MILL BVlLDlhGS at the same time, he must keep separate files for the papers relating to each. Spring clips are convenient for this purpose, when the files are not too large, and these may be hung on the wall con- venient to the table?. For a large number of papers ordinary letter files are convenient. He must keep a record of the time when all papers are receivi-d, when drawings are completed, the number of drawings made for each building, and amount of time spent by men on different ones. This will enable him to keep account of the work under his direction. Kivalry between the squads will often result in a greater amount of work being done. Verbal instruc- tions must be written, with the date when they were received, and placed in their proper file. Drawings and papers of every descrip- tion must be dated ; this is very important, as claims often depend upon the dates when material was ordered or work completed. An experienced draftsman should make from 30 to 40 square feet of finished drawings per wwk, including making corrections after they are checked; a beginnci- will make not more than half that amount. Drawings for ordinary mill buildings, including the de- sign for details, order bills and shop lists, should not cost more than $1 per square foot. The squad foreman must be an engineer, able to design all details and check the general design as it comes from the estimating department. He must make the general sketches from which material is ordered, and either order the material or check the list as written down by the others. If time will permit, he should check the stress sheets, for it is sometimes economical to change certain sizes to suit better details. Squads should be assembled by themselves, so work can be carried on with the least amount of traveling alwut the office. The squad foreman should give his chief attention to seeing that details are properly designed and ■rawings made economically. If he is unable to design all the details himself, he must see that they are properly designed by others, or when not employed in supervision, must himself be a worker. The cost of details made by experienced designers may be from 20 to 50 per cent less than those made by less experienced men, chiefly because of the less amount of metal used. Tt is there- fore very important to have this work properly done by raftsmen who understand detail design. Where a building is large or complicated it is convenient to have the general drawings traced, and provide each man who is working on the drawings with blue prints. Blue print-'* of the gen- eral drawing should also be sent to the works with the first lot of OSOASIZATION OF DSAFl'INO OFFICE 453 details, in order that the shop men may have an intelligent idea of what they are making. Loose leaf books are pteferable to others. When calculationB are completed they can be filed away with other papers and the books tiped again. The squad foreman must know the capabilities of the men and what work he can safely entrust to them. He must see that no parts or details be shown or ordered more than once. [jiir/ .IJS^ wmmmmm! CHAPTER LXV. DRAFTING OVi E TKACTICE.* PRELIMINARY SKETCHES. The first duty of the scjuad foreman after receiving orders to make detail drawings for a building is to prepare preliminary skitthes complete enough for ordering material. If it is known that the required stock is " i the company's yard in long lengths, it is then necessary to write an order with only approximate lengths, so it may be reserved for this particular building. This is done only when the work must be completed in a time which is insuf- ficient to have special material delivered from the mill in the lengths needed. If long stock from the yard must be cut, the pur- chaser must generalh i)ay a higher price than when time will per- mit the right lengths to be ordered from the mill. In the former case there will be waste in the ends that are cut, for a portion of which the purchaser must pay. Some of the cuttings can be used for details, but as the method involves waste it is better to order in exact lengths when time will allow. Some designers prefer to use two different scales for preliminary sketches, a small one for the general outline and a larger one for the joint details. A uniform small scale of one-half inch per foot has the advantage over the above method in that many proportions can be fixed by the experi- enced eye which cannot as well be done when different ones are used. Only enough drawing need be done on preliminary sketches to vletermine the lengths and sizes of materials. Joint plates must have the number and position of rivets shown to scale. The rivets are first located, spacing tiiem not less than three diameters of the rivet apart, and then around the rivets the outline of a plate is drawn which will contain them. The size and allowable shearing and bearing pressures on rivets are given in any of the mill hand- books. For heavy work with large stresses the center lines of pieces must intersect at points, but members with small stresses, the joints of which have surplus strength, may be assembled at the panel points to produce the most compact :.nd neat arrangement. • H. CI. Tyrrt-n, Kuginci-riiig Xi-ws, Marrb 23, 1905. 454 w DRAFTING OFFICE PSACTICB 450 without regard to center lines. When the sketches are started right the work will advance smoothly, but if corameneed wrong there is likely to be confusion until it is finished. Single pieces like pur- lins may be ordered directly from line diagrams, allowing clearance at the joints. A stiifer building results when purlin splices are staggered than when joints are all at the same panels. ORDERING MATERIAL. In ordering material, a schedule should be made for one piece, and the total number of pieces given. Parts like trusses, sym- metrical about the center, should be sc-heduled by listing the ma- [Z ^ Fig. 646. tcrial in one-half the truss, giving the numl)er of half trusses. There is loss chtnce for error in this way than when the total num- ber of pieces is written at first. After the schedule has been made for all the pieces it should be recopied, writing all material of the same form and size together and separating soft from medium steel. It is better for tliis purpose to have blank forms with two columns for lengths — one for finished lengths and another for lengths in which material is ordered, which may contain only a small excess for trimming, or may be in long pieces. Fig. 64T. Beams, channels and tees are ordered by weight per foot, and all other shapes by width and thickness. Weight and thickness should not both be given, or confusion will follow. Short pieces should be ordered in long lengths not excwding 40 to 5'^^ *eet for large angles or 30 feet for smaller ones which might beua when handling. Platps should not generally be ordered longer than 20 feet for greater lengths are difficult to handle and can be raised only on a stiff frame or lifting piece. Irregular shaped connec- tion plates should be order&l in multiple lengths with edges alter^ Dating, as shown in Fig. 646. Widths of plates should always U fWT^lV 456 MILL aVlLDlSQS given in inches. If ends of pieces are to be milled, the material should be ordered one-fourth inch long for each end so fi. bed. An extra charge is made by the mill if beams and channels are required in lengths with less variation than f inch either way. Therefore, for ordinary work, beams and channels should be ordered \ inch shorter than the panel lengths. In ordering rods or eye bars requiring heads, allowance should be made for the extra length needed in forming them. The mills which make eye bars give the extra length required for forging ' ids in their machines. If plates are to be heated and bent, allowance should be made for trimming the plate afterwarc ^ it may not bend exactly to the line. Long plates which must be straight on the edges, such as girder covers, are called Universal Mill and must be so marked on the order. Turned pins are ordered ^ inch larger than the finished size, but small bracing or cotter pins are usually made of cold rolled shafting and ordered in exact size. Corrugated Iron is made in even lengths from 4 to 8 feet. In ordering matched lum- ber over one inch in thickness, from one-fifth to one-sixth should be added for the tongues. Beams, channels or angle purlins that require only a small amount of shop work, perhaps no more than punching, should be shipped directly from the mill to the building site, thereby saving freight. MASONRY J»LAN. After the preliminary sketches have been made and the material order written, the ground plan should be drawn so the foundations can be built to suit the prospective building. Unless the steel con- tract includes the foundation, which is rarely the case, it will be necessary to show only enough on the plan to enable the owner or local builder to make them fit the steel. The location of walls and piers should be shown, and a detail drawn for one pier indicating the exact position of the anchor bolts in reference to its center. If the walls have steel columns, a detail should be drawn with a general scale of J or i inch per foot, with other details to a larger scale. The general dimensions must all be given. A copy of this should be sent to the owner or local builder. If the steel contract includes the foundations, a complete plan should be drawn with all details thereon. LAYING OUT WOBK. If the design is simple, the preliminary sketches used in ordering inatorial may ho ^ sufficient giiido for the detail«rH, hut when build- ings are complicated, further general drawings are needed. It ifl DSAFTINO OFFICE PRACTICE 467 important to start correctly, for it is easier to redraw an entire sheet than to make the corrections on a drawing that was wrongly laid out. It is easier to lay out simple work directly on the cloth, using pencil as little as possible, than to draw on paper and then trace. In many cases lines can be drawn at once in ink with a great saving in time. More difficult work requiring much study must be drawn and figured first on paper, for too many changes and erasures would be needed if this kind of work were put directly on cloth. The connections are the first to be detailed when starting a layout, and these parts may be indicated in red ink on the detail drawing for the purpose of showing clearances. After connections are detailed the balance of the member can be elaborated. If the process were reversed and the connections left until the last, it would then be found that many minor details which could just as well have been made in some other way, interfere with the joints and must be changed. Purlins should be located to suit standard lengths of sheathing, allowing a 4-inch lap for corrugated iron on the sides of buildings and 6-inch lap on the roof. Widths of roof monitors should be made to suit some even length of sheet from 4 to 8 feet. It must be remembered in laying out, that the maximum sizes accepted by the railroad companies for shipping are widths up to 8 feet, heights up to 10 feet, and lengths for ordinary cars of 30 to 40 feet. In special cases, long girders may be shipped on two cars with a spacer car between them. In this way girders of over 100 feet in length may be loaded. It simplifies calculations to as<)ume rivet values in round numbers, making gussets thick enough so the bearing value of rivets in the plate will at least equal the shearing value of the rivet. It is close enough to assume working values of rivets f , f and | inch diameter as 2,000, 3,000 and 4,000 pounds, respectively. The results are quite as good with much less labor as when values are assumed in exact units. Stiff members must be used wherever possible. The practice of using flat bars for the tension members of roof trusses is wrong, for they do not hold their shape when handled, and when once bent are seldom straightened. Work should be laid out so shop rivets can be used in preference to field rivets or bolts. Shop rivets costing 2 cents each, would cost 5 cents if field riveted under favorable circumstances. In wide angles with two or more rows of rivets in each leg, it is better to place the rivets in the two legs opposite each other, rather than make any effort at staggering, the inner row in one leg being opposite the outer row of the other. This will prevent interference when driv- ing and save much time that would be consumed in figuring exact : .CTJC .-isrmifrFrM ■ *ia(Sir-«LS.PK nPK.Tiil' 458 MILL BUILDINGS stagger. Mor mt, tliere is no isection area saved by alternating in angles having two or more rows in eavh leg. The method of jiliu ing rivets opposite each other ha« the advantage of preventing ti'.i' rivets from inti i iVring .vith outstaniling legs of stiffening angles, aH happens when the rivets in one flange stagger with those in the otltor flange. If there h only one row. of rivets in eaeh flange, it will then he better to alternate the rivets, for placing *hcm oppo,«ite cuts out too great an area from the angles. When rivets alternate, the ufagger .shouhl, for appearance sake, be exact. Wherever possilile, rivets should he symmetrical al)oui a center line, for half templets may then be used with a proportionate saving in exi^nse. Bracing should be stiff, as rods sag and rattle / > L u Kt«. 648. Fig. 649. when loose. Simple angles may be used for roof purlins in lengths up to 15 feet, but from 15 to 20 feet th^y should be trussed, prefer- ably with a liglit angle. Purlins should be bolted to the trusses and fastened through clips, rather than directly to the rafters. An essential in f'' signing details is to make the joints stiff and have the whole fran.. well braced and rigid. If more than three rivets are used in the end of a piece, it is letter to use lock angles and fastifl the members by both legs. One size of rivets, especially for field joints, is preferable to several. It is better to increase the dimen- .'^ions of a few members than to use several rivet sizes, requiring material to be moved about to different punching machines. When rivets resist direct stress, as those at truss joints, it is economical to use larger ones because fewer will then be needed, but when Tfp DBAFTtNO OFFICE PBACTICB 489 they are merely stitL-h rivets for holding parts together, it is better to use smaller ones. Stitch rivets have very little stress npon them and small ones are easier to drive. The work should be designed so there will Iw the least number of hand driven rivets. Joint- should be made so thct they can be bolted up during erection and made secure in the shoi '..^st possible time. Trusws 40 Teet in length or less should usually be shipped loose, with only the connections anl detail parts shop riveted to the members. The minimum freight charge for an entire car is for a weight of 30,000 pounds. The partial carload rate is higlier per pound, but the weight to be shipped may be so small that a net saving will result by sending it loose. Joint plates such as those u?ed in trusses should, wherever possible, l)e made symmetrical, and this can generally be done by using a little care in locating the splice. Fig. 648 sliows a common way of detailing joint plates by splicing the truss chord at the panel point, but by moving the splice slightly to the right, as shown in Fig. 649, a symmetrical plate results which has a much better ap- pearance. Pin plates must have enough rivets to safely transmit the pressure on them from the pin into the chord section through shearing on the pin plate rivets. The thickness of plates must be great enough so the safe bearing pressure on pins will not be exceeded. Boof purlins at the gables must be either bolted to a continuous angle at the vail or have separate anchors or hooks holding them to the brickwork. When the purlins overhang the ends of the building, there .-liould be a fascia or finish angle jover- ing the purlin ends and the unprotected edge of the corrugated iron. At the eave, for both brick and corrugated iron walls, there should lie a strut joining the jps of the columns. When bays exceed 15 feet in length, there should he rods f or ^ inch in diameter between the purlins to prevent them from sagging. Members com- posed of two channels should have the flanges turned out to allow the rivets to be machine driven, for if turned in, it may be difficult to insert the ann of a machine. Hand riveting is more expensive and not as t 'isfattory as power driving. Struts composed of two angles placed oack to back should be united by stitch rivets from 3 to 4 feet apart. Roof trusses should be cambered not less than 2 inches in every 100 feet, and the amount of camber should be marked on the drawing at every panel point. Standard size sheets will, on an cverage, require from two to three days for laying out and making ready for tracing. N ti i'i '4 4<0 M!LL BVILDISGS TRACING DBAWINOH. Thf finished drawing is the final rusuU of the engineering and drafting departiiK'ntu, and it [■* tiicrefure important that it be neatly and i-arefuUy made. Some oliiteg still use the Bervitt* of beginnera for tracing, while others prefer a higher grade of men for this work, the latter being the better plan. It is folly for experienced engineers to spend valuable time in jHrfecting designs and carefully laying out working drawings, and then pi>rmit beginners to trace tliese drawings kd i)(M)rly that nnuh of their meaning is lost. It is iK'tter to have the men who made the drawings truee their own work, and use assistants only for putting on printing and figures. It is preferable t .. tail pieets in the position which they will occupy in the buildin-. columns being vertical, girders horizontal, etc. The top view of a pieee 8l)ouid Iw placed above it in its natural position and the l)otti>in view Ih low tlie elevation, but top and bot- tom views should not be combined in one, as it is confusing. It is better to spend more time in drawing separate view than to take chances on causing errors. Center and dimension lines should be fine black, of uniform thickness, but full enough for printing. R«l ink should never be used on tracings excepting for connw tions and for checking marks. It sliows only faintly on blue prints and not plain enough for the principal drawing. Lines showing the picture of a piece should l)e solid but not so heavy that clearness in detail is lost. When drawings are copied li\ the photograph process, lines nmst l)e heavier than is j)erniissible for blue printing, because in photo rcprouuction the thickness of lines is reduced in proportion to the reduction of the drawinp. The style of lettering should be small block, inclined for greater ease in making at a slight angle to the vertical. The letters should Ije alwut a inch higli and made with a fairly coarse pen. In writing letters and figures, care must b" taken to make them open, so adjoining lines will not run together and form blots. I^c'ers indicating assembling and shipping marks should be l'"ger end more pronounced, and from fj; to i inch high. In the upper left hand comer there should be a small dia- gram of the whole building frame drawn in fine black lines, with the particular part detailed on tliat sheet emphasized in heavy black. This diagram allows tlie rye to see at once without reading the title of the drawing, the IcK-ation of the piece detailed. Where there is doubt about details, notes on the drawing will often add clear- ne.-!'. liut ."hould not be nsailc to take the place of drawings. Home offices make a practice of so burdening drawings with notes that it DRAFT tsa OFFICE PRACTICK 461 in diflfcult to know the actual detn fn>m some other piece w ich is not shown but de«cribe«l. It is dearer to make a new drawing, Hhowi' jj the other piiw, than to trv reading it from notes on a piw-e which it resembles. Doubt alwut the makeup of a pi»HP can Ik- removed by showing a cross section. Sections at one end of momk'rs are one of the In'st means i>i making drawings plain, and should be freely used, (loth and pajK- are cheaper than time f|)ent in deciphering olwuure details, u i 3Xtra sketches should always be added where nettled. Partic- .s in reference to ream- ing, painting, size of holes, distinction In'twi-en bolts and rivets, or other uiformation which cannot easily Iw f-hown, should be described by notes. Only three ' four standard sizes of sheets should be used, the regular one beii);. '<;4 by :Jfi inches. Other convenient sizes are 18 by 24, and 12 by IS inches, or one-half and one-fourth the regular sheets. Each sheet should have a fine In^rder li' about one inch from the trimming edg- . This gives the drawing a finished appear- ance and shows, when jirinted, that no jmrts are missing. These lines should not Ije heavy, for they would then detract attention from the essential part. If there are many sheets to be joined they should be lettered, and a diagram put on one sheet showing the method of assembling them. It is convenient to make casting drawings not larger than 12 by 18 inches, and to place prints of them in a loose leaf lKX)k for future reference. he loose leaf file allows parts to be arranged in subject-, and ten castings are needed, the draftsman should see whethc. dr'vnugs previously made for other contracts can be used again, c'lfvoby saving the expense of new drawings and patt' . ■ This x ^- 'ig book should be kept in the drafting offVe, where ■ .lay be coi. ulted freely without loss of time. On the lower right hand comer of each sheet should be placed the title of the drawing, name of the manufacturing or engi- neering company, contract number, sheet number, total number of sheets in the set, date, and name or initials of tha men who made and checked the drawing. These data will appear more uniform when put on with rubber stamps, but as india ink cannot be used with stamps, the letters on the tracing cloth must be blackened with drawing ink. A title as described above is shown in Fig. 650. The contract number, by which the work ' known, rather than by the name, should be printed in large figures so it will at once be evi- dent. Most large drafting offices have small printing prc«««« fnr putting on titles or notes which are repeated on several sheets. The Hii f;.:r' :>**£>'■& ,Vj-, ^S«S!l££^l'im£lF^«iSnM^^HHP>-'t'^'; J 'j^ 462 MILL BUtLDIXGS printing is more quickly done with a niacliine and looks better than hand work. Several sheets may be printed at one time, when the drawings are completed. When pieces are right and left, it is understood that the one shown is the right hand piece, and the other one is the left hand. The words right and left have no reference to the right and left sides of the building, but simply denote that the piect? are in pairs. It is frequently possible to avoid making rights and left by simply countersinking or driving a few more rivets, or making some other minor change, which may be unnecessary excepting for this purpose. The extra exp ise is war- ranted, for it may avoid serious errors during erection. It is a common mistake in erection to put right hand pieces where left hand ones helong, and this may often be avoided by a little addi- f?oorrffU33L5 C/^/y/iDjm-/JM£ff/C/9r)f5^/FF//iGCO. 'J Built by The Smith -JONES Structural Co. Chicago, ill. ORAWM Br ... IMTS^/T.. SHUT HO../0. . CHBCKBD Br. . .-f^^.TTT OF^.S. SHEETS SCALE ^.' .=. .tFfiQT. DATE/fafZtln CONTRACT No. 3743 Fig. 650. tional shop work. Tlie numljor of parts required should be marked below each piece in letters about -j'^ inch high. In giving dimen- sions, the draftsman should consider what ones he would need, were he the shop work man about to make tlie piece, and then give these diinciisions and no more. Tracings should be made on the dull side of the cloth, and if the ink will not run smoothly, the cloth sliould be rubijcd well with powdered chalk and then wiped clean with a soft ilotli. Kach drawing should l)e complete in itself, Mlslii DRAFTISG OFFICE PRACTICE 463 and reference from one .«hcet to another should not be necessary. As drawings are the final product of the drafting office and expensive, blue prints should be made from them and the original tracings filed. Changes on cloth must be made with soft ink erasers, and never with a knife or sharp instrument. Fractions should be written with horizontal rather than with oblique lines, to avoid any possibility of confusing such fractions as ^9i6 with 1^. Section views should be hatched or blackened, and when several blackened part? join each other, white lines or spaces must be left between them. Holes for field bolts and rivets should be blackened. Sheets should be numbered in the order >a which material is required at the building, the foundation plan being Number 1, column Number 2, etc. Many dimensions on compli- cated trusses may be omitted, for such trusses will be laid out on the templet shop floor, and the position of rivets will be deter- m • ed from the layout rather than from the drawings. Details for different shops should be kept on separate sheets, forgings on a sheet for the forge shop, machine parts on another sheet for the machine shop, etc. Standard beam and channel framing as given in mill handbooks should be used wherever possible. Clevises, turn- buckles, forkeyes, loop rods, pins, washers, etc., should be shown on standard blanks printed on strong linen paper, thin enough for blue printing and strong enough for erasures. Blank forms are also used for the different kinds of franed beams and channels. These blanks are either letter or cap size, 8 by 10 or 8 by 13 inches, and they are a great saving in tire, as it is necessary only to write in the figures without any drawiug. An extra blank may be used for miscellaneous sketches to be filled in free hand. Some of these forms are shown in Figs. 242 and 243. MARKING DRAWINGS. There are two kinds of marks used on shop drawings, assembly and erection marks. The former are wholly for the use of men in the assembly shop, and it is preferable to have them written on the templet shop blue prints with yellow pencil, and the prints passed on to the assembly shop. Assembly marks are sometimes written on the tracings, and similar parts should then be similarly indicated. Truss memliers would be Tl, T2, T3, etc., gu.-^set plates Gl, G2, 03, etc., angle clips CI, C2, C3, etc. Only pieces that aie exact dupli- cates should be stamped the same. The shipping marks of indi- vidual pieces serve also for asseTTibly and all parts thnt are shipped separately, must have a different erection mark. Letters R and L i I fl Ct i li ^S^ww ■^^^i.'i4"ift.vj^l-!t.". ' .,V"-¥ 464 MILL BUILDINGS TeteT to pieces which are right and left and should be written after the regular signs. CHECKING. There should be one checker for each squad. When drawings have been carefully made by men who understand their work, little will be needed. The principal trouble in checking is in overhauling work done by inexperienced men. The several checkers in an office should be assembled by them- selves, so they may compare notes with each other and work more uniformly. They should work under the direction of the head draftsman rather than in the squads, for they will then have greater liberty in making changes if such are desirable. Some offices have the false idea that money is saved by employing low priced drafts- men, whereas records made by the writer show that drawings by inexperienced men cost more than twice as much in actual wages as those made by experienced men who know their business and are better paid. To this difference must be added the extra cost of checking poor drawings, and the additional cost if working from them in the shop, it has been conclusively proven that money spent in making drawings that are neat, plain and accurate is saved many times over before the work is completed. Especially is this true in reference to checking. If the joints are complicated it is better to make a separate layout showing all rivets, to a size which can be safely scaled. Nothing must be assumed in checking, but everything investigated. It is especially important that field con- nections be correctly drawn, as errors discovered during erection cause greater expense than if found before the pieces have left the shop. The holes in pieces for field connections must correspond and be the same size. Sections must be compared with the stress sheets to see that the correct ones are used. A drawing should never be checked by the man that made it. After figures have been veri- fied they should be marked with a lot of red ink, for red will print but faintly and will not rub off when the drawing is being cleaned. Corrections should be marked with a blue pencil, and new figures placed far enough away from the old ones so they will not be erased. The blue pencil marks will not print, are plainly seen, and easily cleaned off. The following points should be considered when verifying draw- ings and they should be checked as to — (1) Size of iiidterial compared with Btress sheet. (2) Size of holes for connecting parts. !!! DiAFIlNO OFFICE FRACTICE 466 (3) Number of field rivets at joints. (4) Beaming or drilling of field connections. (5) Number of main pieces required. (6) Right or left of shipping pieces. (7) Center lengths. (8) Milling of ends if needed. (9) Bevels for mitered joints. (10) Need of countersir'iing. (11) Insertion or driving of field rivets or bolts. A checking list of building parts such as given in Chapter XL should be reviewed to see that all matters have received attention, and all needed parts called for on the shipping list. CORRECTING DRAWINGS. In order to have a drawing checked or verified, two persons must agree upon all of it-? details and particulars. It must, there- fore, be an absolute rule that no changes shall be made until the maker and the checker have agreed. Some shops permit checkers to make changes on plans without having the changes sanctioned by the maker, but such drawings are really not checked at all, and are little better than when reviewed only by the men who made them. Blue pencil marks must be left on the tracings and not removed until the checker has again examined them, for if they are erased he will have no means of knowing whether the correc- tions have been made or not. When tracings have been altered and changes approved by the checker, the drawings should be cleaned with wool or waste saturated with gasoline or benzine, which should be kept in an automatic self-sealing metal bottle. CHANGING SHOP PRINTS. When changes are needed on drawings, prints of which have gone into the shop, the prints must either be collected and returned to the office for correction, or a draftsman must go through the shops and make the alteration on the prints with ink, marking each one with the date when changes were made. The tracings must be similarly changed and dated, and immediately corrected when dis- covered, inquiry being made to find if any work has been done on the parts affected. LISTING. There must be a bill of material for each separate shipping piece in order to know what parts to bring into the assembling '".\ I ',-,«Th..^-!>r>JLl>'^ 466 MILL BVlLDlNGa 1 'Kwn shop. This bill should list the largest pieces first, with detail parts later. There must be two columns for lengths, c e for the finished length, and the other for the lengtti in which the material was ordered. If ordered in long lengths, it may contain only a small excess for trimming or milling. Whore assembly marks are given, there should be a separate column for these in the bill. It is con- venient to write the bill of material on the drawing, though some- shops prefer to use small separate forms. There must also be a set (if rivet and bolt lists, showing in detail the size and lengtii of bolts and rivets for all joints, with marks showing parts which they connect. These lists should have one column for the grip and another for the total length beneath the heads. After they are completed, a summary of rivets and bolts should be made and written on a separate summary sheet. As there ia usually some loss, and the lengths listed are not always useO where they belong, there should be about 20 per cent more bolts and rivets shipped than are actually needed, the ones not used being returned. A shippir-r list should be made, giving the marks of all the separate pieces with the size and a brief description. On this should be written all the 8< actural steel members, corrugated iron, flash- ing, gutters, lumber, conductors, bolts and rivets, tools, spikes, rail- ings, doors, windows, shutters, and all other articles needed to completely erect the building. It is very important that all pieces be placed on the shipping list, as express charges are high on addi- tional parts which may have been forgotten. Lists should not be made until after the drawings are completed, for changes on them may seriously affect the lists or require them to be made over. Truss sections can be moat easily identified by small free-hand sketches with extreme dimensions. Lateral plates projecting from the fide of trusses or girders should be sent loose, as they are liable to be broken if shipped in place. Loose fillers should be avoided and should be tack riveted. COPYING LISTS. Lists are more quickly copied when written with ink made for printograph blocks than when blue printed.' A dozen copies can be made on one of these blocks in five minutes, which might require an hour to print. EBECTION DBAWINGS. The erection drawing is a skeleton outline on which is indicated the shipping marks of separate pieces, length and position of corru- gated iron, flashing, gutters, and all other parts going into the building. Bars and rods are described by their size and length, ^FTSiZ '» DSAFTINO OFFICE PRACTICE 467 while pins are stamped with a mark on the r ends. All general dimensions must be given, and expansion joints, if any, must be shown. Directions must also be given fc r the final painting, color, number of coats, etc. On this sheet there should also be a table of all the drawings and their titles. A? erection labor is done under unfavorable circumstances and field erro-s are expensive, care should be taken to have the erection drawings as complete as possible. If it is discovered during erection that some pieces have been made too long, these may h& e to be sent back to the shop, and perhaps delay the work several days, awaiting their return. The cost of erection often varies from 20 to 30 per cent, depending upon the quality of the drawings, accuracy of shop work and ot^ er conditions. The plan sli uld show the direction of column w^yS, the way channels turn, and all other information that the erection men ;vill need. Field riveting of trusses when required, is cheapest when done on the ground, for if rivets are driven with the truss erected in position, the cost may increase from five cents to t^tenty- five cents per rivet, owing to the need of temporary staging. No staging is required when pieces are bolted in position. f^:;^ FILING DBAWINGS AND LISTS. Drawings should be laid out flat in drawers and not rolled, for after being rolled they are difficult to handle. Lists may be kept in ordinary letter files in the order of contract numbers. Some shops make a practice of filing drawings of similar buildings in drawers by themselves, but it is better to have contract numbers consecutive. Other shops number all drawings in numerical order, instead of marking each separate set of drawings upward from Number 1. The drawers in which they are filed should be about 30 by 40 inches inside, so occasional one? of a larger size than 24 bv 36 can be included. COPYING DRAWINGS. The method almost exclusively used for copying drawings is blue printing. White prints are made by first making Van Dyke negatives, but they require twice the time and the resulting prints are no better than blue prints for ordinary use. White prints are used principally when it is desired to call attention to drawings of unusual importance. Drawings which are continuously used in the shop may be mounted on stiff cardboard and varnished. These will not soil so quickly and dust and oil may be removed with a cloth. There will usually be from twelve to fifteen sets of prints required. 1 Irij 468 MILL BUILDINGS tUstributeil as follows: Six for the shops, one for the inspector, two for approval, and two or three sets for the owners' files. FiK. nsi. PHOTO REPRODUCTION. There has been but little progress in the methods of copying drawings since the advent of blue printing. Photographic repro- duction is occasionally used, but not as extensively as its merits deserve. The reason this method is not more generally used is no doubt its extra cost, but this is small when compared to the total cost and ben.'fit gained l)y smaller sheets, especially for field use. Large sheets are awkwanl to handle anywhere, but during erection it is often impossible to open large drawings unless on a table or under the protection of a shed or office. Small size drawings, 8 by 10 inches, or even twiio as large, can be conveniently handled, but standard size sheets, U by 36, can be consulted only where a table is available. Tlie cost of photographic reproduction is from 15 to 20 per cent more than the cost of blue printing, but this is hardly a consideration when compared to its advantages. Drawings of stand- ard size can easily l>e reduced to 8 by 12 inches by the photographic process, when the lines are heavy and carefully made. On a build- ing contract amounting to $200,000 the extra cost of photo repro- duction of drawings would not exceed about $300. mm. ■-r.-riM-; THHTS CHAPTER XLVI. COST OF STRUCTURAL WORK SHOP-DRAWINGS. ' xl There are two methods of astimating the tosit of shop drawings for structural steel vork, one of which is a vmuulcle check on the other. The first is to estimate carefully the probab!" number of sheets that will be needed and to multiply this number by the cost per sheet, and the other method is to estimate by the usual cost of drawings per ton of steel work. The former method is the better one. Ordinary structural work shop drawings, 2-i by 36 inches in size, cost on an average $14 to $15 per sheet, including making, check- ing L -id correcting the drawings, checking estimates and stress sheets, designing details, machine work or mechanical appliances, and ordering material. This cost does not include making general designs, stress sheets or estimates, which is done in the estimating department Multiplying the total number of needed drawings by $15, will therefore give the total estimated cost. In using this method, the number of sheets must be arefully counted in liberal number^', for extra ones are often needed. Drawings made by experienced and better paid men may cost as low as $8 to $10 per sheet, while those made by lower priced and less experienced men or beginners may cost twice as much. A drawing that is carefully laid out at the beginning and completed by a competent workman, needs very little checking and will be more quickly made. It would seem, therefore, that an office should have uo beginners, but it is necessary to have men in training to replaci? others who may leave. The second method of estimating the cost of drawings is to figure them at a certain price per ton of steol work, which is obtained from actual office records for buildings of various kinds. These prices are as follows : hi TABLE LXXI. COST OF SHOP DBAWINGS. Per ton. Steel cage office buildings, entire steel frame $1.60 Steel cage office buildings, interior steel frs^'* only 1.2S •H. G. Tyrrell, Iron Age, July 11, 1901. 469 m ,^»- .'J. . -,♦.' r'ibl'' A. * £rVi.J*l. v», ■*.'■*...«_ ■ mi 470 I'^^i B0ILDIN08 Steel cage office buildings, interior steel frame, cast iron eola 70 Steel cage office buildings, floor framing only 85 Koof trusses only, on walls 1.26 Roof trusses and columns 2.50 Entire mill buildings 2.60 Bins and hoppers 2.50 Tipples, mining head-frames $4-00 to 6.00 Hip and valley roofs, for fine residences or monumental bld^, $6.00 to 8.00 By this method the total cost of drawings may be estimated by multiplying the estimated number of tons of steel work by the cost per ton, as given in the above table. Detail shop drawings will cost less when general details have previously been made by another engineer, but if engineers' plans have no dimensions, and these must be found from general and architectural drawings, there is then little or no saving from them. Detail drawings made by working from an architect's general plans without a structural engineer's steel plans, will cost about 30 per cent more than given in the table above. The making of drawings is 70 per cent of the total cost, check- ing and correcting them, 18 per cent, and general office expense, including service of head draftsman, rent, light, heat, stationery, insurance and janitor service, 12 per cent. Generally speaking, experienced draftsmen should make from 30 to 40 square feet of finished drawings per week, including making corrections after they are checked, while a beginner may not make over half that amount. Drawings for ordinary mill build- ings, including the design of details, order bills and shop lists, cost not more than $' per square foot. The above costs are taken from the author's private records in a drafting office employing forty men, with a squad system, and covering a period of 40 weeks, in which time 1,693 drawings were made for 515 different contracts. The wages paid were as follows : 1 Ilead draftsman, $180 per month $180 5 Squad foremen, $125 per month 625 2 Checkers, $125 per month 250 3 Checkers, $100 per month 300 3 Draftsmen, $100 per month 300 2 Draftsmen, $90 per month 180 3 Draftsmen, $80 per month 240 6 Draftsmen, $75 per month 460 6 Draftsmen, $60 per month 360 6 Draftsmen, $50 per month 800 1 Draftsman, $40 per month 40 Total per month $3,226 The actual amount of money paid in 40 weeks for 1,693 shop ■..-■..^ : rij COST OF 8TSVCTVBAL WORK SHOPDSAWISGS 471 drawings after deducting time that men were absent on Taeationa, amounted to : MaUnff dnwiBM 116,465 o? 70% of total Checkfig drawTng. 4,390 or 18% of total General Mpense 7 2,960 or 12% of total $88^15 or 100% of total In addition to the above, 114 aheeta of standard office drawing!, 8 by 13 inches, were made, costing $1,100. The 1,693 standard sheets of shop drawings, 24 by 36 inches in size, with a total cost of $33,815, had therefore an average cost of $14 per sheet. The item of general expense includes the wages of head draftsman, office boy, cloth, paper, stationery, heat, light, rent, inmirance and janitor service. ■ t ) i 'A 'Pi y.1 ■ id. . . w,i:.'4a::. ^ .1^ ..... CHAPTER XLVn. DIRECTIONS FOR EXPORTING STEEL BUILDINGS. America's export business is an important part of its entire trade. This business grew to large proportions in the decade pre- ceding 1900 and it is still increasing. Steel bridges and buildings have been exported to Japan, China, Egypt, India, South America and various islands of tlie ocean, and the entire commercial world will probably soon look to America to supply much of its manufac- tured goods. American export business was slow in starting, but when foreign countries discovered the attractive prices and deliv- eries that were made, the continuance of the trade was assured. One of the reasons for the delay was the absence of price lists in American catalogues. A few enterprising companies have for sev- eral years issued attractive albums showing special buildings made by them, but none of them, piior to 1900, issued standard designs with advertised prices and discounts from which foreign buyers could select or order without delay. Price lists of this kind have long been issued by European firms, and buyers in foreign countries found it more convenient ^ order from them, rather than wait sev- eral months in getting American quotations by mail. Two or three months' time would easily be consumed in correspondence, and cable messages costing from 30 to 80 cents per word were too expensive. Among common forms of buildings exported to other countries may be mentioned sugar houses, rice mills, warehouses, railroad stations, saw mills, barracks, hospitals, hay shelters and dwellings. There is .'•.Iso a large amount of structural work in monumental buildings. The palace of the Emperor of Japan, recently built, which was made proof against fire and earthquake, contained a large amount of American steel. EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN PRACTICE COMPARED. It is surprising that Europe so long monopolized the world's export trade in steel buildings, for European designs are not usually as economical as those made in America. Some expensive features 472 ^^ KXPOMTINO HTEKL BViLDISOS 478 ordinarily found in building designs from European shops will be mentioned. It is customary to find queen trusses or other forms used with long members in compression, rather than in tension, and this a<^<^l8 greatly to the weight. The bottom chords are frequently rui^^d at the center two or three feet above the ends, either for better appearance or for extra head room, and this adds to the chord stresses and corresponding sections. The web membera are short- ened, but the saving in the web does not equal the extra weight in the chords, and it is doubtful if the practice gives any more pleas- ing appearance than hori^^.mtal chords, while it has the disadvantage of requiring the bottom lateral plates to be bent, thus adding expense. The European method of making the roof curved on top, instead of a straight pitched roof, is also more expensive. Large roofs are often erected at the works where they are made, to see that the parts will go correctly together. American shops take no such expensive precautions, for their methods are accurate enough without it, as shop and drafting ofifice work in harmony from drawings that have been carefully verified. Many of their details are also more expensive than in America. It is common in European designs to find such details as clevises, pins, forkeyes, gibs and cotters, etc., instead of cheaper bolted joints. Special cast iron joint blocks, truss shoes, gutter heads, etc., are common features, and while the cast iron is not expensive in itself, the use of special patterns will make the cost excessive, unless there are a large number of pieces of the same kind. The practice of using heavy T irons for rafters is coram m in Europe, but the cost of cutting T irons and making connections to them is higher than the cost of double angle* which are more easily sheared, and guBset plates between the angles make symmetrical joints. The European practice of using truss pins for connections instead of bolts and rivets is an expensive one, its only merit being tae greater ease of erection. SUITABILITY OP STEEL BUILDINGS FOB EXFOBT. A large proportion of the steel buildings exported from Amer- ica are sent to warm countries. The reason for this is erident, because buildings for warmer climates need no heating, and wall and roof covering of corrugated iron is sufficient. Business is more secure when carried on in fireproof buildings than when exposed to fire risk. Steel bnildings need no insurance, but the saving by their use is not for insurance alone. The money received by a manufacturing company for a fire loss rarely, if ever, I m 474 MILL BUlLDlSaa rt'pavB them for the real loss incurred, for the Htoppage of business uiid the (ichiy in finishing contracts arc freciucntly more serious than the fire liMl and cannot be covered by insurance. Buildings for heavy manufacturing require the service of shop cranes, which are an economic necessity to meet competition. Tlie supports and framing of these cranes should be wade of steel, for heavy joints in wood are difficult to make and are apt to work loose, thus causing the traveling cranes t<» bind on the tracks. Steel buildings are preferred in foreign countries as well as at home, l)Oc-ausc the cost of repairs and insurance on wooden build* ings will more than pay the interest on extra money spent for permanent ones. DEfiIGN OF EXPORT BUILDINOH. Buildings for export to tropical or semi-tropical countries usually contain features not found on similar ones in the United States. As they re(iuire no heating, corrugated iron covering for wall and roof are suitable for buildings of low or medium cost, but they must be well ventilated, for if not, the direct rays of the sun on Ihe metal makes the interior excessively hot. Buildings for cold countries whore artificial lieating in winter is neetled, must have non-conducting walls. The buildings mu.-t irr any case l)e weather- proof, .Ktronir. with good light and ventilation, and the location of columns and other parts of framing studied, so there will be no interference with machinery or other contents. The cooling and ventilating of buildings in warm climates is quite as important as heating them in colder regions. It is therefore the practice of the writer to provide large ventilation area in the roof, and to use swinging side shutters witli continuous open ventilation from one to two feet in width, beneath the eaves. These openings should be covered with a heavy grade of galvanized wire with J-inch mesh, which will admit a continiums current of air but exclude animals, birds and insects. Another feature suitable for iron buildings in warm countrie-; is the wide, ovcrlianging eave, to protect the sides of the building from the sun. These cave projections may vary from 4 to 8 feet, depending ujion the height of side walls. Figs. 33 and 34 show market buildings designed in tliis way, and the wide eaves not only jjfotect the sides (if the building from the sun, but serve also as a shelter above the sidewalks where people congregate aiound market stalls. The overhanging eave is indispensable for dwell- ing?, for t!'>e 5>!^t",l .-i-.voring exp-o'-H"! to th.e ?un would !>e intoler- al)ly warm wore it not for the sunsiiade verandas and free air circu- iation between the upper ceiling and the roof. I EXPOMTINO STKEL BVILDINOH 475 Another method of preventing building interiors from becv-ning «xce«8ivelv warm in tropical countries Ih to line t'le walls with some kind of non-conductor, iuch as asbestos board. When put up with tight joints er, and this feature is an advantage to them in securing business. The bu3ers may be unable to corre- spond in English and may not understand quotations in dollars and cents, and it may be very attractive to them to receive letters and prices in their own language. Other companies which are not prepared to carry on corre- spondence in foreign languages and are not familiar with ocean or foreign freight charges, prefer to make quotations on material delivered on the wharf at American seaboard, giving the necessary data in reference to space required, number of pieces and tonnage, so freight charges can be computed. The latter method has several advantages. The purchaser may secure as low freight quotations as the exporting company, and by ordering the freight himself would save the profit of the middleman. Another benefit from making quotations at seaboard only, is that the risk in connection with ocean and foreign freights is not assvmied by the American manufacturer, for if he includes these freights in his prices, he will add a percentage for the risk incurred. The purchaser may save this charge by assuming the freight risk himself. Ocean freight charges depend upon three factors, (1) the weight of the shipment, (8) the number of pieces that must be handled, (3) the cubic contents which the material will occupy in the ship. It is necessary, therefore, in giving prices at seaboard, to furnish the buyer with weight, number of pieces and cubic contents, in order that he may obtain the freight charges. The shipping weight is ascertained in the usual way by weigh- ing the cars after they are loaded. The number of pieces should be a minimum, for the charges increase with the number. It is economipal to fasten small pieces together in bundles of as large size as can be conveniently handled, uniting them with wire through the rivet holes to avoid thefr falling out. Rivets, bolts, washers and other small parts must be shipped in kegs or boxes, keeping different sizes and lengths separate, and each box must be plainly marked. Bags for nails, spikes or bolts lire unsatisfactory, for they tear and expose the contents to the water, causing them to rust. Corrugated iron must be shipped in bundles tied together with wire, all the various lengths and thick- nesses being bundled by themselves, and the gage and length marked on each. Glass or other fragile articles must be packed in excelsior or straw, and carefully boxed. Ocean freight receives rough handling, and shippers must use great care that no pieces lii 478 MILL BUILDINGS are injured. Eecords from American ports show that the most carefully packed and crated export shipments come from manufac- turers of agricultural implements, and others should use the same care. The shipper should be liberal in estimating the number of pieces, as the estimated number is often exceeded. The cubic contents of a shipment is computed by estimating the space occupied by the riveted sections when piled together to the best advantage. The maximum dimensions for single cars are widths up to 8 feet, heights of 10 feet and lengths 30 to 40 feet, liivetcd sections may be piled alove each other on the cars to a height of 10 feet. Small parts, such as kegs, boxes, separate gusset plates and the like, can be placed in the open spaces between the rivettl sections, and it is net-ssary to measure only the space occu- pied by the larger pieces. In piling riveted sections upon each other, strips of wood or pieces of plank must be inserted between the steel sections to prevent their damaging each other, and in measuring the cubic contents on the cars, allowance must be made for these packing strips. The cubic contents of the various car loads may then he measured, and their sum will be the space re- quired in the vessel. The shipper should inquire as to the maximum size and length of pieces that the vessel will accept, or that can be loaded through the hatchways. Some ships will not take material longer than 40 feet and greater lengths require splicing. MARKING PIECES. The manufacturer must furnish the purchaser with erection drawings so clearly made and plainly marked that the building can be easily erected by unskilled labor. The manufacturer may be obliged to send an experienced foreman to superintend the erection of large orders, but small shipments will not require this expense. The erection drawings should show the mark of every piece, the size and length of field bolts or rivets, position of washers, splice plates, etc. Erection drawings for export buildings must be made so clear that ordinary mechanics can understand them. It may occasionally l)e necessary to mark the erection plans in both feet and meters, so either system of notation can be used, but there will seldom be need for other than the English language on the draw- ings, for in nearly all countries English speaking foremen can be employed. Where there is doubt in reference to the language, the drawings can first be worded in English and the corresponding wording of the foreign country added. EXPOSTINO STEEL BUILDINGS 479 Marking should be the same as for domestic work, and when a number of pieces of the same mark are shipped in bundles, that of the separate pieces will then be the shipping mark of the whole crate. Each piece, box, bundle or keg must have its own individual shipping mark. When steel .buildings are consigned to districts in foreign coun- tries which are not accessible bv rail or regular highways, material for the buildings is sometimes transported on mules, and the sepa- rate pieces must then not exceed about 8 feet in length nor 250 pounds in weight. Each animal is loaded with two equal pieces, the combined weight of which must not exceed 500 pounds. This method of transportction is used for cocveying material to mining districts in mountain regions before railroads or highways have i)een built. Boof purlins may l)e shipped in 8 foot lengths by mak- ing them continuous over the trusses and splicing approximately at the points of contra flexure. A sot of buildings of this kind was designed by the writer for export to a mining camp in the Andes mountains. DIBECTIONS TO FOREIGN PURCHASERS IN COMPARING PLANS. In comparing various designs that he has received for a mill building, the purchaser should carefully note what items are in- cluded in the bids. Some manufacturers, in order to make their prices low, show the building complete in all its parts on the draw- ing, but their prices include only the steel structural work and metal sheathing, charging extra for miscellanec"- items such as doors, windows, shutters, etc. Corrugated iron must be compared by weight rather than by gage, as there are several metal gages, and confusion might occur. A design with excessive strength in some parts, but lacking in others, is very little better than one which is lacking in strength throughout. Weight added where not needed is a detriment, for the buyer must pay freight on the useless weight. In comparing competitive plans, the purchaser may find that some drawings are made to an exaggerated scale, various parts and members being shown heavy with neither size nor weights marked thereon. This effort to give a design the appearance of strength on the drawing is deceptive and misleading, and the merit of the building must not be judged by the appearance of an elaborate drawing made to an exaggerated scale with sizes omitted. Many manufacturers who would not dare to erect a bridge of doubtful strength are willing to design and put up buildings which are stressed under maximum 480 MILL BUILDIN08 loads up to or beyond their elastic limit, the chief requirement iHjing that they are well braced. The loads on buildings which have no traveling cranes are mostly static, and maximum wind loads occur very seldom. Manufacturers therefore often specify sues for export buildings which are dangerously weak, knowing that the l.nycrs are far away, and even if the work is nnsati-fnotory, there will be little probability of complaint. Steel frames, such as those used for the temporary buildings for various expositions, are ordinarily proportioned with high unit .stresses from 20,000 to 25,000 pounds per square inch. The expe- dient for temporary buildings is permissible, but cannot be sanc- tioned for permanent ones. Unfortunately, however, too many buildings supposed to be permanent, are no better than others which are known to be temporary. It is the practice of some structural shops, after securing a building contract, to put designs and plans through what they call the "reduction process." The plans are again submitted to the designer or to some engineer, whose duty it is to revise them and cut out weight or expense any place that safety will allow. Every pound is omitted that is not absolutely required to make the building stand until erected and paid for. Pieces must, of course, have suffi- cient strength to prevent their bending or breaking during shipping and erection. Between this method of making extremely light de- signs, and the European method of making excessively heavy ones, there is a mean where the building is strong enough for its maxi- mum loads, and yet not wasteful. Generally speaking, designs sub- mitted by European firms for steel mill buildings in foreign coun- tries are from 20 to 25 per cent more expensive than designs from shops in the United States. This percentage is approximate only, and taken from the writer's records when bidding on this class of work. IIS INDEX PAGE Accuracy in Drawing, Need of. 448 Ailhesion of Concrete to Metal. 168 Advertising Not Intended. . . Preface Africa, Buildings for 45 Air Space in Boof :i43 Air, Amount Required 89 American Bridge Co. Office 433 American System of Reinforcing 246 Anchor Bolts, Efficiency of 201 Locating of 203 Plates 202 Test of 202 Table of 201 Anchors for Machines 221 Foundation 201 Weight of 414 Anchorages on Walls 21.) Anti-Condensation Roof Lining 6f», 28.5 Architectural Drawings 2.50 Architectural Design, Secondary 12 Area on Soil for Foundations. . 198 Armories Without Columns im Arranj;ement of Buildings 2 Artistic Arrangement of Plants 3,4 Asbestos Covered Corrugated Iron 284 Corrugated Sheathing 262 Paper Lining for Corrugated Iron 28.5 Roofing 269 Asphalt, Composition of 225 Floors 217, 22.5 Paint 384 Roofing 267 Assembly Marks 463 Bakery, Cost of 58 Beams, Cost of Mill Work on. 422 Classification of 413 Excess Length to Order 456 Spacing in Floors 406 Bearing Power of Soils 196 Bethlehem Shapes 422 Blank Office Forms 405,403 Blue Print Room 435 Blue Printing 467 Blu» Pri .ts. Changes on 465 B' le.. 250 1 Drawings . 46n E t jrds 130 481 Box Gutters 303 Box Skylights 318, 327 Bracing of Buildings. .19, 150. 1.53 Brick Floors 219, 224 Piers 198 Stanilard Size of 205 Cost of 205 Weight of .■ .■ 108 Walls 205 Brickwork, Cost of 206,428 Bridges, Factory Foot 374 Building Frames, Outline of 120, 121, 122, 123 Building Laws 69 Building Material, Presence of 10 Business Blocks 407 Calculations Preface Cambering Bottom Chord8.164, 47.1 Cambering Trusses 459 Capital Invested in Plants 20 Car Barns, Provision Against Fire 22 Car Shed Door^ 372 Carbonizing Coating 385 Carey 's Roofing 269 Carpentry Work, Cost of 428 Casings, Door and WJndow... 298 Catalogue Cases 440 Ceilings, Color in Office 442 When Permitted 159 Cement Coating 385 Changes on Drawings, How Made 463 Charts for Weight of Roofs 97, 98. 99, 100, 101 Character of Buildings 20 Check Lists 414 Checking Estimates 403 Checking Drawings 448, 464 Checkers, Duties of 464 Chief Engineer 450 Chimney Flashing 297 Cinder Concrete Roof 245 Cinders in Ground Floor 223 City or Suburban Plants 8 City Property, Value of 7, 8 Classification of fistimate 416 Cleaning Metal 39S By Sand Blast 391, 392 Inside of Buildings 14 i 48? INDEX ■ It- PAOE By Pickling 390 Clevis F Tin» 463 Clevises 132 Clinch Nails, Size of 281 Clothes Presses 19 Coal Pockets, Weight of Steel in 412 Coal Storage Sheds 156 Coal Tar Paint 384 Cold Cli nates. Roofs for 243 Cold Water Paint 387 Column Bases, Table of 148 Weight of 412 Column Brackets for Crane Girders 147 Columns, Buildings without any inside 131 Circular Covering for 148 Concrete 173 Details of 142 Forms 143, 146 H Shape 424 in Brickwork 146 in End of Buildings 146 in Masonry Walls, not economical 21 in Walls 34 Number of 142 Outline for Crane Girder... 148 Placing of to suit Machines. 13 Reinforcement for 171 Reinforced, Hooped or Wound 174 Spacing in Tall Buildings.. 405 Spacing for K ^rth Light Roofs 182 Timber preferable to Cast Iron 163 "Vent Holes in Wooden 165 Web, Plate or Lattice 143 Combination Roof Gutters... 304 Commercial Panics, Effect of . . 8 Comparing Designs 479 Comparative Cost of Buildings 58, 62 Composition Roofing 266 Computations, Time Wasted in 404 Concrete Block Walls 210 Blocks, Kinds of 210 Column Footings, Forms for. 198 Columns 173 Cost of 176 Frames for Build- ings 175,177, 178 Framing 168 Floors and Roof 172 Floors, Cost of 221 Girders, Cost of 173 PiLTS 197 Piles 200 Roof Slabs, Monolithic i;4-l PAOK Roofs without Forms 247 Slabs, Moulded 209 Slab Roofs 244 Trusses 171, 193 Walls, Forms for 210 Woll Slabs, Use of 210 Condensation on Roofs 243 Walls 37 North Light Roofs 187 Prevention of 69 Connections, Detailing. .. .454, 457 on Trusses 126 Connection Plates, Symmetrical 458 Construction Details 195 Contracts, Numbering of 451 Conveying Appliances 19 Cooling of Buildings 474 Copenhagen Foundry, Cost of. 40 Copper Downspouts, Cost of.. 307 Copying Drawings 460 467 Lists 466 Corn Products Plant 2 Corner Capping 297 Cornice and Gutter 217 Cornice, Metal 294 Correcting Drawings 465 Corrugated Asbestos Board . . . 262 Table of 263 Cost and Weight of 264 Corrugated Iron 273 Cost of Laying 283 Doors . . 363 Floors 232 Method of Laying 280 Method of Fastening 280 Method of Making 273 Moment of Inertia of 277 On Wood Studs 281 Preservation c 274 Required Root Pitch for... 279 Roof of Curved Sheets 120 Safe Load on 278 Section Modulus 277 Shipping of 477 Size and Weight of 275 Standard Weight 276 Strength of 277 Tables of 276 Walls, Cost of 41 Weight and Cost of 283 Cost Estimates, Approximate. 418 Close 418 Cost of Buildings 55, 56, 57 One or More Stories.. 23, 25, 28 Cost of Steel Buildings 38 Cranes, Capacity of 136 Clearances for 14 Cost of Buildings with 39 Crane Girders, Plate or Lattice 139 t I INDEX 483 PAGE Load* 114, 115 Hails 137, 139 Supports, Weight of Steel in 411 Systems 138 Systems, Extension of to yard 147 Systems, Weight of Steel in. 117 Tables 15,16,17, 18 Wheels, Load on 115 Crating, Small Parts for Shipping 477 Credits, Authors Preface Cupola Floors 39 Curtain Walls 34 Curved Roof Forms 473 Dating of Records 452 Design of Buildings 405 Framing 119 Details of Construction 195 Expensive £ur<»>ean 473 Development of Plants 5 Dimension Lines on Drawings. 460 Dining Room for Employees.. 433 Door Casings 298 Door Hinges, size of .... 361 Door Tracks 364 Doors, Automatic Clothing 363 Batten 360 Car Shed 372 Corrugated Iron 364 Cost of 428 Extra Large one, when needed 36 Frame for Corrugated Iron 345, 365 Glass Panels in 362 Horizontal Folding 365 Horizontal Sliding 359 Number and Location of 358 Heinf Dreed Concrete 358, 367 Bitter Folding 366 Size of 359 Side Swinging 36'2 Special Pier Shed 368 Swing Sliding 3''5 Tin Clad 362 Vertical Rolling 370 Wood Panel 360 Wooden, Size of Material in 361 Weight of Metal Covered. .. 361 Dovetail Sheets, Safe Load on. 250 Downspouts 299 Size and Cost of 305, 306 Drainage of Roofs 69, 73 Drafting Boards 438 Drafting Office 430 Cost of 470 Division of 448 Expense of 445 Location of 431 PAOE Organization of 444 Practice 454 Rules 447 Drafting Paper 439 Drafting Tables 436, 437, 438 Draftsmen 403 Capabilities of 470 The Chief 448 Duties of 451 Personal 449 Drawings, Architectural 449 Assembling of 460 Correcting of 465 Cost of 469 Erection 467 Importance of Plain Ones.. 445 Making of 445 Marking of 463 Numbering 463 Show 408 Size of 460 Working 445 Driers for Paint, Acetate Lead 381 Litharge 381 Manganese 381 Red Oxide 381 Zinc Sulphate 381 Duplication, Effect of, on Cost. 164 Durable Metal Coating 384 Dwellings for Employees 52 Economic Design, Theory of. . 1 Economy of Construction 19 Electric Cranes, Load From. . . 115 Elevators in Office, Location of 440 Elevator Service, Cost of 29 Empirical Rules in Estimating. *10 Employees, Relation to Employers 8 Housing of 8 Engineer, The Chief 450 Engineering Department 402 Engineering Magazine, Credit to Preface News, Credit to Preface Record, Credit to Preface Erecting Floors 24 Erection, Cost of 424, 469 Drawings for Export Work 38,467, 478 Marks 463 of Buildings at Works 473 Errors on Dr '.wings 446 Estimate Sheets 40.5, 41.3, 415 Estimates, Analysis of 403 Approximate .' 410 Classiflcation of 416 Numbering of 404 Preparation of for Drafting Office 426 f J !■ ■ '^sC 484 INDEX rAUE Eatimating, Costa 424 t'oHt of 424 Cost of Drawings 469 Exact 412 Prices 427 Quantitiex 410 Time Hequired iu 424 European and American Practice Compared 472 European IVgi({n». CoHt of.... 4H(i Executive 448 Expanded Metal Walls 208 Roof 246 Stiffened 248 Expan.iion Joint in Shop Wnlla '.'1(1 Rxport Buildings 3S Design of .... 474 Cost of 4'fl Export Designs, Deficient 479 Elxporting Companies 476 F^xporting, Maximum Dimen- sions for 38 .St.'el Buildings 472 F^xportiTs, Suggestions to 476 Extension of Buildings 19 Provision for 146 Federal Tile 2.55 Ferrolithic Kloor Plates 'IXi Koofs, Strength and Ost of. 248 Field Hivets, Cost of 424 Avoidance of 4.57 Files of Drawings 43."i Failing Drawings 467 Financing Manufacturing Enterprises 8 F^nk Trusses 121,122, 125 F'ire Curtains in Trusses 126 Fire Extinction 19 Fire in Car Barns 21, 22 F'ire in Shops 19 F'ireproof Buildings 473 When Needed 21 Fire Regulations in Wooden Buildings 157 Flashing, Chimncv and WhH.. 297 Hip and VaUcv 296 Metal 294 of Tin Roofs 292 nat Seam Tin Roofing 291 Flat Bars Xot Suitable in Trusses 457 Flintkote Roofing 269 Floor Anchorage for Machines 221 Floors, Area of 19 Asphalt 217, 225 Block 216 Brick 217, 224 Brick Arch 236 Cedar Block and Cn-ler 219 Cement 217 PAOK Cement Concrete 819 Concrete, To Determine Thickness 237 Corrugated Iron 238 Cost of «1 Different Kinds of 217 Flarth 217 Framing 149 Flat Iron Plate 231 Loads 107 Metal Arch 232 Multiplex Steel Plate, Weight of 234 Office 437 Openings in Wood Framing. 159 Plank 217 Safe Load on 240 Preferably Free of Parti- tions 30 Reinforced Concrete, Various Kinds 236 Slow Burning Timber 239 Special Kinds 230 Steel Beam and Wood .Toist. 238 Tar Concrete 217, 222 Triangular Trough, Weight of 233, 236 Upper 217, 231 Wearing Surface on 238, 241 Wooden 217, 227 Wood Block 230 Foot Bridges 375 F'oot Walk in Gutters 192 Footings, under Columns 199 Spread 199 Foreign Languages, Quotations in 477 Forge Shop Walls 35 F^rm of Buildings Suited to Contents 13 F^rms for Concrete 169 F'oundry Buildings, Cost of... 39 F'oundation Details 195 Foundations, Difficult Ones... 195 Settlement of 197 Timber under Machines.... 199 Freight Charges on Car Loads 459 Cost of 423 F''raming, Nature of 20 in Wood, Steel or Concrett . . 20 Strength of 19 Steel 119 F'urniture, Arrangement of in Office '>'^7 (Jables 146 Gable Cornices 294 Purlins 459 Ciiilleries, When Suitable 23 Galvanized Metal, When Preferable 475 INDEX 4«5 PAOE Corrugated Iron 274 Gaa in Bhouii It* Oenaaco'a Boofliig -'<> Oencral Features antl BequirementR 1 Oerinan Plant, Plan of 6 Girders, Weight of 105 in WalU 4o7 Girths 133 61am, Best Kind for WhIIk. . . 80 Panels in Door» 3rtl Quality of 31« Rough' and Rough Win' 316 Ribbed, and Ribbed Wir.-... 316 Tile SkvlightB 319 Walls, Glare of Light from. 79 White, Preferable to Orciii. 193 Weight and Cost of 317 Glazing, Cost of 335 Double 318 Grading of Lot 10 Granite Roofing 270 Specifications 270 Graphic Statics, Not Included Preface Graphite Paint 385 Gravel in Foundations 196 Grillage Beams 199 Ground Floors 218 Ground Space Required for Buildings •'>, 7 Growth of Old Plants 1 Gusset Plates, Detailing of... 126 Gutters, Box 3ll3, 304 Combination 303, 304 Drainage of 78 H xnging. Cost of 301 Inside, Objection to 77 on North Light Roofs 181 Pitches 77 Roof 303, 304 Siie of 299, 302 81oi)e«f 299, 302 Supports for 301, 302 Valley 3u3, 304 Hand Cranes, Loads from 115 Handling Appliances 19 Heating 1^ Heating of Office 443 Height of Clearances 14 Heisht of Buildings, Effect oncost 23, 29 Hip Flashing 296 Homes for Employees 8 Houses for Workmen 54, 53 Impact, Effect of 115 !nV. XTae of Red on Drawings. 460 F'ssurance on Buildings 474 Insurance Charges 169 f.\UK Interior Coluniu», One or Two Lines of 120 lnt«rior Light, KlTett ot Painting on 81 Iron, MiscellaneoiiM, Cost of . .. 428 Iron Oxide 380 .lack Rafters 136 .lapans 382 Jib Cranes 137, 141 Jib Cranes, Ma«t Supports for 130, 139 Joint Plates, Symmetrical.... 459 Kalsomiuo 388 Knee Braces 154 Labor Cost, Effe<-ted by Building Design 27 Market 5, 10 Subdivision of 448, 449 Land, Cost of 23, 29 Value of 5, 8 Lathing, Cost of 429 Lavatories in Office 443 Laying Out Drawings 456 Lead-Coated Corrugated Iron. . 275 Length of Stock 456 Letters on Drawings, Size of. . 462 Lettering Drawings 460 Librarv in Office 434 Lighting 19, 23. 31 Artificial 442 Area Required 81, S2 General 79 From Roof 79, 82 From Walls 79,80, 82 Of Offices 441 Of Warehouses 79 Lime, Weight of 205 Linseed Oil 378 Lintels in Walls 407 Lists, Copying of 466 Listing Items on Kstimntts. . . . 413 Listing Material 465 Loading, Assumed 404 Loads, Crane 114, 115 Floor, According to Build- ing Laws 107 Miscellaucous 116 Provision for Increase of... 95 Snow and Wind 110, 111 Slate Roof 95 Summary of 116 Location and Site 5 City or Suburban 8 Lockers for Clothes 19 Loose Leaf Books, for Office Records 440, 453 Louvres. Fixed 313 Movable 311. 314 Use of 47,48, 49 486 INDEX PAOE Machine AnchorH in Floor. , . . 221 Machine Drawingg 448 FoiindntionH 199 Shop Floort, Hoftt Kinil 217 Shopg, CoKt of 42, 44 MarhinpM, Projwr Method of Lorating 12 Removal of Large Ones 19 Machinery, Arrangement 12 Foundations 199 Location of 13 Market Buildings. .47, 48, 49, 50, 51 Stails •17,48, 49 Marking Draivings 403 Pieces for Export 478 Masonrv, Cost of 427 Plan " 456 Weight of 108 Materials, Cost of 418, 427 Ordering of 4.'}4, 453 Preserviition of 389 Weight of 108 Mechanics' Wages 420 Mechanical Engineer, Assistance of 12 Merchandise. Weight of 108 Metal Cornices 294 Reinforcement I(j9 Shingles 289 Metal Ventilators, Weight and Cost of 308, 309 Metric System, When Used... 39 Mexico Market 49, 50 Mill Building Construc- tion (1900) Preface Mill Buildings. What Included 12 Mill Construction, Cost of.... 27 Mill Stiile. Removal of 390 M;i1 Wood Work. Cost of 42'- Monient of Inertia of Corru- gated Iron -2'' Monarch Roofing 271 Monitor Frames. Outlines for 132. Kl.l Monitors for Lighting. .80, 83, M.T on Power Houses 1 33 Monitor Windows 34l( .\uglt' with Vortical SO Leakage of 101 Monolithic or Separately Moulded Memliers 109 Mortar 2ii."i Motors, Weight of 110 Movable Wall Panels 93 Mnles, Transportation on.... 479 Multiplex Steel Plate Floors.. 234 Xoise in Shops 19 Xorthern Light Hoofs .Hfi Advantages of 179 Column Spacing for 182 PAOC Cobt of 194 Method of Framing 184 Ob.jection to 179 Outlines of 180 Window Area on 180 Windows for 193 Ocean Freight, What Rased U{)on 475, 477 Office Arrangement 431, 430 Buildings at Shops 52 Buildings, Weight of Metal in High 411 Floor Plans 432, 434, 441 Furniture 403 For Shops 19 Location of 431 Methods 404 Organization 404 Oil, Linseed 379 Quality of 397 Oiling Steel Work 394 Old Buildings, Inefficient 1 Operating Mechanism for Windows 355 Ordering Material 452 Order Office 440 Schedule 455 Ore Bins 46 Ore Pockets 45 Weight of Steel in 412 OrganiTiation of Office 403 I ing Boom 444 Orij ental Iron, Cost of 428 Paint 377 Applying 392, 399 Asphalt 384 Carbonizing Coating 385 Coal Tar 384 Cold Water 387 Color of 381, 392 Comparative Merits of Different Kinds 38(5 l)a(u Table of 394 Driers for 381 Durable Metal Coating 384 For Brick or Cement Walls. 387 For Woodwork 3SG (Jraphite 385 .fapans 382 Merits of 386 Mixing of 392 Oil for 379 P. & B 384 Pigments for 379 Prince 's Metallic 383 Quality of 397 SoH-rrits for 381 Stainers for 381 Vehicles for 377 INDEX 487 rAoi Painti 389 Air bihtt 393 Cleamng Before 390 Cost of 39.J, 429 Pickling Before 390 Preservation by 389 Shop Coats 394, 398 Shop Interior* 81 Specifications 397 Surfaces in Contact 398 Tin Booflnff 292 Panels, Length of Truss.. 126, 127 Paper, Drawing 439 Partitions, Materials for 162 Absence of in Shops 30 in Office 439 Pencoyd Shop Floor 228 Permanent Buildings 20 Photo Developing Room ..... 435 Photo Beproduction of Drawings 468 Photography in Office 435 Pickling before Painting 390 Piers 195 Pier Caps, Stone or Concrete. . 197 Pier Shed Columns 146 Pigments for Paint 379 Graphite 379 Iron Oxide 379 Bed Lead 379 White Lead 379 Zinc White 379 Pilasters 34, 146 Piles, Safe Load on 200 Wood or Concrete 199 Piling, Cost of 427 Pin Plates 459 Pins, Ordering 456 Pins, Use of in Europe 473 Pipe Columns 143, 183 Pitch of Boofs 71, 72 Plank Walls 213 Safe Load on 240 Boofs, Double Thickneiis 243 Plants, Cost of 29 Plastering, Cost of 429 Plates, Maximum Length of. . 455 Plumbing, Cost of 429 Plumbing in Office 443 Portable Dwellings 54, 55 Power, Supply of 5 Preliminary Sketches 454 Prepared Roofing 72, 268 Preservation of Material* 389 Prices, Approximate, for Esti- mating 427 Price Lists of Structural Work 47B Prince 's Metallic Paint 383 Printing Machine 435 Printing Press in Office 461 ^Msm Olasa 80 rtm Skylights 819 Protection of Contents 19 Purchasers, Information for. . 476 Directions to 479 Purlins 134 Purlin Anchors 135, 216 Pnrlin Fascia 4S9 Purlins at Eave 133 Fastening of 458 Location of 457 Spacing for Corrugated Asbestos 262 Spacing for Corrugated Iron 133, 279 Trussed 134 Weight of 131 Purpose and Arrangements... 12 Qcotations at Seaboard 476 Badial Flan for Shop Arrange- ment 2, 3 Bafter Panels, Length of 126 Baf ters, Best Form of 129 Bailing, Weight of 412 Baw Materials, Proximity of. S Beady Roofing 269 Record Boom 435, 437 Records, Storage of 435 Red Lead 380 Reduction Process in Design . . . 480 Reinforced Concrete Buildings, Cost of 43,62, 66 Cost of, i-cr Cubic Foot 175 Walls 35, 208 Beinf orced Bars 169 Belative Value of Land and Buildings 29 Residence of Mill Owners..., 5 Ribbed GIi' . Where Suitable. 80 Bidges, O: or More 42, 47 Bidge Boll 296 Right and Left Pieces 462 Riveting, Cost of 424 Rivets, Location of 454 Size of 458 Staggering of 458 Stitch 459 Values of 4.57 Rod Bracing 152 Rolling Shutters, Use of 50 Roofs, Non- Waterproof 242 Moulded Concrete Slab 244 Reinforced Concrete 244 Total Weight of. With Covering 106 Eoof Coverings 69 Comparative Merits of 72 Weight of 105 Framing, Weight of 96,97,98,99, 100 488 INDKX PAOE Outter* 30,H Iixlinntion for Tin KooISuk. 291 Lonili, Htatic 95 Outlinpi 74, 7"), "(i Plti'heH Requiri'd fur Different Coveriin(ii 72 PitchPH, Diagram of "I I'lank, lTn*u|)portt>tl LeiiKtb of 242 Slabii, Monolithii" ('oiirri-t-. 245 Tniwieii, Weight of 410 Vent ilation 90 Windows, Verticnl or Sloping IS4, 18o Kooflng. AhI