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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la methods. rrata o }eiure, I a 3 }2X 1 2 3 1 2 3 4. 5 6 I EDUCATIONAL WORKS BY MR. HUGO REIO. In 12mo., price 6s. f>d. THE PEI'^CXPLEI^ OF EBUCATIOH : Ad Elementary Treatise, for the use of Parents, Schoolmasters, &c. CONTENTS : 1. NATURE OP THE BEING TO BE EDUCATED 2. OBJECTS OF EDUCATION. 8. DISCIPLINE. 4. MORAL TRAINING. 5. INSTRUCTION. 6. INTELLECTUAL TRAINING. London: Lonoman, Beown, Geeen, and Longjians. ites earaestly *1 Mr- Reid entertains ju3t views of his subject, ane and well.»--ATHEN^rrM. "Mr. Eeid'8 treatise ia one of the ablest and most satisfactory that has yet appeared on this important subject ; we cordially recommend it Gaz "^ luterested in the education of the young.— Litkrart "A useful manual for the schoolmaster and tutor. ... He comes S^? as another stout opponent of the purely classical and mathe- matical system of education."— .Critic, '"^wic .n'/fS^i^l .S"*"«^'^ll and well-written volume. ... It is especially suit^ to the correction of pon.* narrow, partial, and prejudiced views which still linger in the popular estimat^ of the range and means of J sufficient education."— Nonconformist. • " ^M-.?^"^ ^^^ addressed himself to existing difficulties and existine !5f S'^'f '°r '?"?"''' ^'^^"^^ »°d philosophical spirit, and SslK Lba^b. ^"*^ observation and practical suggestions. "- t^oS'^K,® ''^^P^ll oo *he nature of the being to be educated is verv valuable. . . 1 he principles to be observed in the practic? of teLE Sos tio?,'T^«:t' ""^ "% ^^^ '' appendeu^ short b?tlud! exposition."— Papers for thb Schoolmaster. nf J r*""^ H ^'i.^ °^ * ''^'■^ ^^^ character, and we know of no class of f.ducaton, of whatever age a experience who may not reap Sfat advantage from a careful study of the volume. It contaJns a v^t dSl LtetSonstn'^'r'* r" ^^'^i^' '"*^*«^' ^»d eSlSS mo^t^lS'ufS^ IKSArAoSr '" '"^ t«*cI^er.»-ScoTtiSH EnuCATIONA. " One of the best contributions our educational Uterature has r#»- ceived for some time."-THE School and the Teacheh ELEMENTS OF ASTRONOMY. Third Ed'Mon nrice Sa oh ' TH] 1 OUl Prol ELEMENTS M.S. OP QEOailA^PHY ADAPTED FOR CSB IM BRITISH AMERICA, CONTAIMN'Q THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE LEADING COUNTIIIES OF THE World, With britisH America fully DEVELoi^^Di AND THB OUTUNES OF PHYSICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. — ™ ■ II I m BY HUGO REID," Profcssoi- of Language and Logic, and Principal of the Day fcjhools Dalhousie College, Halifax. ' MONTREAL: B. DAWSON. HALIFAX: A. Jc W. M A C K I N L A Y. 1856. ^w I '-^ 1 'V I I TkB CorniiGHT of this \rotk is securefl hv f^a «»*u H. RBID. Printed by Javm ^oWes & Sows, Halifax, N. 8. \/ I PREtWCE. GEOonAP,,v is 80 useful and so essential a branch of knowledge, and, in the seientifie form it is now assumine. so valuable as a means of intellectual traming, that I trust no apology is needed for an attempt to provide for the youth of British America, a text book on this very inter- esting and important subject, in which they will find some nrformahon on their own country as well as on the other countrres of the world. The British and United States Gyaph.es are fitted for the youth of these countries, and give full mformation on Britain or the UniteJ States, but say Uttle or nothing on British America. On the same pnnciple, a Geography for use in Bri and as few books or maps of authority are to be tnd .n this place, I am afraid that there may be several erro™ .ow»rrr« f- ''"^' ' ""'"^ *» -»-* --Juig-o be JmL r. r '"'"P' *" ^"PP'y ""'"■ 1 "-ink, must be adm,tleduction ; British America ; Europe and Asia in umieu ivrngciom ; and tlic their ttcnpva'i ft.ofi,,.->„ it- - I£fi6}^ PREFACE. VII. J really a study, and faculties of [•aphy — aro ncorporated ing treated relating to 3i manufac- m is usual, iry bones of >8, Towns, ould not be the begin- tnore inter- differences i results of historical, ties it to a al powers, need some lid not be United States. These are treated with great fulnew- (about one-fifth of the work being devoted to British Ame- rica) -other countries more cursorily ; although it will be found that the salient points of all are included. The book contains as much as can 6e learned or retained by those who leave school at from fourteen to fifteen vears of age ; who, considering the claims of English Grammar and Composition, Writing, Arithmetic, Mathematics. I)rawing, Modem Languages, History, and Physical Science, have not time to acquire at school minute geogra- phical information on countries in which they have no special interest : for such, a selection is necessary, which Should embrace principle, and essential detaUs. lore fully, 3 in which more coni ^rts given fraphy, in d Asia in and the Ml COJS^TENTS. Y. PAUL PhEUMIMAHV DKFINmOMS - - . . I. IiVTRODCCTIOM Form of the 1i}arth, lO—MagnltuUe, 12. ~ Motions, 12 —Imaginary Lines, &c., 14.--Thtf Map, 13.-Leading Circles, 18.~Zones, 19- Day and Night, 20.-Climate, 21— The Soil, 23.- Geographical Terras, 23.-"PoIitical Divisions, 25 n. Qenkhal View ok tub Surface ok the Eabtk - 2t III. North America British America, 39.-Upper Canada, 45.- Lower Canada, 48.-N(?w Brunswick, 64.-Nova Scotia, 58.— Cape Breton Isle, 61.— Prince Edward Island, &c., 62.-Newfoundland, 63.- Hudson's Bay Territory, 65. IV. EUBOPB - - _ " " ■ • - • Afi England, 75.-Scotland, 87— Ireland, 92. V. Asia ... VI. The United States OP North America . . io2 Vn. Other Countries of North America . n* VIII. South America IX. Other Countries op Europe X. C0UNTRI}.3 op ..-SIA - . - . XI. Africa ... " " XII. Oceania - 149 161 NOTICE. The reader is requested to insert the followiiiff between ^^CrZ""^^ ^nd eighth lines from the top of Vge 34^ Great Slave Lake ; the river Athabaska into :'' fnd in Ca'^liljff^^r^t '''.' P^^^ ''' '' subslitute ti: wora winter for the word " annual." FAQI. • • - 10 2. — • -The 9.-. 3.— ,25. I 9.1 - 32 > — ova ^ nee 5— ELEMENTS - 65 06 • 102 116 120 125 142 149 161 g between page 34 : ;" and in ttitute the OP QEOOI^.A.I=>I3: PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS. 1. A Circle is a curved line, every point in which is at the same distance from a point within it, called Thk Centre. 2. A Diameter op a circle is a straight line from any point in the circle, through the centre to the opposite side. It divides the circle into two equal parts, called Semicie- CLEs, or Half Circles. The half of a semicircle, or quarter of a circle, is called a Quadrant. 3. Every circle is supposed to be divided into 860 equal parts, called [Degrees, and marked®. Each degree is divided into 60 equal parts, called Minutes, marked'. Each minute is divided into 60 equal parts, called Seconds, marked ". Thus, 12" 34' 56" means "twelve degrees, thirty-four minutes, fifty-six seconds." 4. There are 180 « in a semicircle ; 90® in a quadrant. 6. A Sphere is a round body, every point on the sur^ face of which is at the same distance from a point within it, called The Centre. 6. A Diameter of a sphere is a straight line from any 10 ELEMENTS OF GEOGH/ HY. point on the surface of tUe aphero, through the centre to w»e opposite Side. whL'^/T^^'^''^ '^ ' ''''^''' '' * '^'^' round it which divides Its surface into two equal parts, called Hemispheres, (half spheres.) 8. A Small Circle of a sphere is a circle on it which divides Its surface into two unequal parts. .J^ ^ ^Z'^^T '" "" ^"^^ "^" ^ «P^^^'^'' »>"t I^-'^ving its surface flattened at two opposite points, like an orange 10. P..,allel Lines are those which are every where at tne same distance from each other. 11. Rotation is the act of a body turning round w'*h- out monng out of its place, as when a top sleeps in spin- ning. The body is then said to rotate or revolve J^''^.7 tr "^ ' '''"*"^ ^^^^' ^« «» i^^aginary straight line through it, which remains in the same place while every other point in the body moves round som^ point m that line. 13. A body may have a motion of translation, that is ^continually changing its place, at the same ti.;e th t U rotates ; as the wheel of a carriage in motion. The earth ^d many (perhaps all) of the heavenly bodies have both I. INTRODUCTION. vll ^!°«^^P^y/« ^ description of the surface of the Earth ; from the Greek word, ,e, the earth, and graphe, » writmg, or description. ^ * FORM OF THE EARTH. 16. The earth is a round body, like a ball or globe. This IS proved by the following circum«t.«n..« ._i ..._ . c^ften sailed round it ; that is, a ship:;eUin^ ;,;:^:^ h the centre to ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 11 le on it which place, and sailing onwards continually, never turning back, only moving a little to the right or left to avoid run- ning upon the land, has come to the same place again. This was first done by the Expedition of Magellan, in the years 1518-21.-2. The earth's surface bulges out every where between us and a distant object, so that when it recedes from us, or we from it, its lower parts go first out of view ; when it approaches us, its upper parts are first seen, and the lowest parts come last into view. This is best exemplified by ships at sea. —3. The sun does not give light, nor a star appear, to the whole world at once ; they rise successively later to places further west ; which shews that the world is round from west to east.— 4. When we go south, the sun and certain stars rise higher in the heavens, and other stars sink ; and the reverse as we go north. This shews that the world is round from north to south.— 5. In eclipses of the moon, the earth's shadow has always a circular edge, whatever part of the earth may be turned towards the moon, which shews that the earth is round ; for only a round body can cast a circular shadow in whatever position it may be placed. We know that it is the earth's shadow, thrown by the sun upon the moon, that causes an eclipse of the latter, for such eclipses occur only when the sun, earth, and moon are in one straight line, with the earth between the other two. 16. The earth is so large, that the very small portion of its surface we can see at one time appears fiat, though the whole is round ; just as a very small part of a circle is almost a straight line. The mountains and valleys do not interfere with the earth's roundness, more than the roughness on the rind of an orange : for the height of the Highest mountain is as nothing compared with thesize of the *rth— bemgonly aboutone 1580th of the earth's thickness. 12 ELEMENTS OF GEOt^mAPHY. , [17. The earth i« «^f , ing oat at the part of ite w ?"<""« P™»«». and bnlg. 'ounditiaa^^SSTi^iks if! '7* °^ " g«at eirck 860 (8), gives 69 mile, 84 v. . ''"""'"^ *>ided by "■e extent Of iu7:^'.ZZT''T''''^'^^^- of square miiee. '""* ''*« '^an 197 laiffioM flS. The shortest diameter is 789^ . .v , ».le«. The average density oft J ea'™^'^' "^^4 »"»"' 5i times greater tha« thlt of " "^J""^" *« "« -a'^ria.s at the surface art o t /l T/"- ^' '"^ -''^ ^''ter. the interior part mus f **"""' ''«*''" than Werthan.ate.nVaX:;:;;;:'";'' ^* «-« ."■-a^^imrors::::- -'.epHncipai^. Its vearlv »«^*- ^^-^ lotion rounrl ,•+« • sf i? "" '"'^''''^ t^e sun *' ^^'«' a^d ' ""'' ^® ""»>««». i seconds 1 t fi ■ f^'^^Oy. ^ __^ J ^ ""8 motion it * 'pHft QViVi '— — — ELEMENTS OF aEOaRAPHT. 13 7 Mar*-li 9rt ti a • ^ 'ay and Night equalTve^ltf '^ '^""^ ^^'^^"^^• Taurus, the Bull, 8, April 20. Gemini, the Twins, n, Mt,y 21. Cancer, the Crab, os Jnnp 9t "^i c^ .««« ^ J . ' ® "^^^ -^^-e Summer SoIstW JLeo, the Lion, $1, July 23. Virgo, the Virgin, njj, August 23. Libra, the Balance, £-, September 23. The Autumnal -qumox. Day and Night equal every where Scorpio, the Scorpion, iti, October 23. Saqittariub, the Archer, f , November 22. ^APRI^ORNUS. thft G'^«* 1*0 T. V .,« . iop Ta««.« 4 J '. "■"'"-'' ^-^'^"iwer ijz. Winter Soi- Btice, . liemisphi ere. 1^ ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. Aquarius, the Waterman , a^ , January 20 Pisces, the Fishes, K, February 19.] ' IMAGINARY LINES, &c., UPON THE EARTH'S SURFACE. 24. The Poles are the ends of the earth's axis where it comes to the surface. That nearest Europe i aHed A. nom,ole; the opposite one is called t.e soZ^^T' '' extiemely cold, barren of life or vegetation, uninhabitable an4 impassable from severe frost, snow, floating"^^ and vast moving fields of ice. ] iceoergg, 26 The Equator is a great circle round the earth equidistant from both poles It is 04 «qs ^^^/^^th, 27. The equator .iv4 L ^llitC^lS- are eoul? h?"?'-" "" '""'"■"^'"^ ""•=• ^^^ '«=<' -'S^t are equal there durmg all the veiv ti,« . • • setting at six o'clock Th. . r T ~"'* '"" ™mgand it i. d,rt !, r '''^''* '' ™y ^hort, so that I « da.k almost immediately after aunset ; the sun ie s^ Xs T:' ""'""^ "" *"" ^«"- »"'"<= "-^ ealal atall '"'"'"^^^ *>"> ^eat is great, and nearly 82T f1 rr"'' *'"' "'^° '^'"Porature being aboul Zn thtt ''f ■"' '"^ *" """^ heavens may te pr::c:;i^::^:eri:r--^^^^^^^^^^^^ ,rn-rj;-K--^-.ec:ri-^^^ 29. A MERiBi^K-cmcLE is a great circle round the earth, passing through both poles ; and is 24 S'^tT m in lenffth Po«i. r -j .. ^s^jbd?! aiiles "1 length. Each divides the earth's surf^n. ,-.;'. .^. ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 15 hemisphere., which may be temed east and west in respect to each other. 30 A Meridian is a half-circle from pole to pole. Each meridian is called the meridian of any place through which It passes. Each meridian-circle contains two meri- (lians, called opposite, in respect to each other. [31. People on the same meridian have the same time. mid-day at the same nioment, mid-night at the same moment, and so on.] 32 Parallels of Latitude, (shorily called -paral- lels ) are small circles round the earth, parallel to the equator. [33 Those M'kP live on the same parallel of latitude have the same length of day and night, the sun at the same elevation at noon, and see the same stars.] 34. Latitude is the distance of a place north or south from the equator. It is expressed in degrees, minutes, &c. and IS marked on the parallels, at the sides of the map. Every place on the same parallel has the same latitude. 36. fhe greatest latitude is that of the poles, 90° N. orS. At the equator the latitude is o . The length of a degree of latitude is 69 miles 84 yards. ^ 36. Longitude is the distance of a place east or west of ^me meridian agreed on, called the first meriZ. It IS expressed in degrees, minutes, &c. and marked « and r:; r:f"^ *'^^ ^^^^« *^^ ^^-^-^ - at the top and bottom of the map. Every place on the same meri! dian has the same longitude. 87. The British reckon longitude from the meridian of Greenwich a small town in England, in the county of Kent, about four miles east of London wieenwich, 180 <=, east or west longitude. Thia 16 :0 ! ( i I I' ELEMENTS OP GEOORAPUY. .' > meridian passes through the north-east of Asia, 10 » west of Behring's Straits, and through the Pacific Ocean, about 2»E. ofNcVfZeaUind. 89. Places less than 180 * west of the meridian at Gi-ecnwich, are said to be in west longitude (W. Long •) places less than 180 o east of that meridian, are said to bo in east longitude (E. Long.) [40. The people of the United States of America are beginning to reckon their longitude from the meridian of Washington, the capital of that country, which is about 77 (77® 1' 80") west of the meridian of Greenwich ] 41; As men regulate their time by the sun, and the world turns once from west to east every ^4 hours the time of day is earlier at any place than at one further west— the former coming to the sun before the other To find the difference of time at any two places, divide the dLfference of longitude by 15. The degrees of the quotient WiU be the hours of the answer, and the other terms, the minutes, and seconds, will correspond. Thus 33 « 6' diTided by 16, gives 2^ 12', 24", which, turned'into time, gives 2 hours, 12 minutes, and 24 seconds This must be added to find the time of a place east ; subtracted to find the time of a place west of us. Or, take one hour for every 15 o i^ the difference of longitude, and four minute« lor each degree of the remainder. THE MAP. 42. A Map is a representation of the surface of the earth, or of a part of it, on a flat sheet. The upper part of a map is called the north ; the lower, the south ; the nght side, the east; the left side, the west. These. are called the cardinal points of the compass. A place I towards the top and left is sniri +^ k« ,•„ *u ., . 1 towards the top and right, m the north-east; towards tie ELEMENTS OF QEOaRAPnY. 17 Hin, 10 => west ! Ocoan, about ) meridian of '■ (W. Long ;) are said to be America are ! meridian of Inch is about Ireenwicli.] sun, and the .4 hours, the t one further tie other. To a, divide the ' the quotient jr terms, the us, 33', 6' i6d into time, This must be acted to find ►ne hour for four minutes bottom and left, in the south-west; towards the bottom and right, in the south-east. Any place is said to be north of places below it on the map ; south of places above it ; cast of places at its left ; west of places on its rights and so on. 43. A small part of the earth's surface is nearly flat, and may be correctly represented on a flat sheet, when the directions of the points of the compass will be as just described. But any large portion of the surface of the earth has considerable roundness or convexity, and in a map of it, the directions of north, &c., will not bo exactly between the top and the bottom, or from right to left. But, in all maps, north, south, east, and west may always be found correctly by this: — The meridians run due north and south ; the paralhls and the equator due east and west. 44. The direction of north at any place may be found by looking towards the 'north polar star ; by the sun at noon, which is then in the south, exactly opposite to north ; or by the magnetic needle, called the mariner^s compass, one extremity of which points nearly north. [45. The deviation of the needle from due north is called the variation of the compass. It is different at different places, and also undergoes a gradual change at the same place.] 46. In maps of the world, the earth's surface is usually shewn in two circular figures, each representing a hemi- sphere ; and called the eastern and ivestern hemispheres. The line of division between them is the circle composed of two opposite meridians, 20 ® W. Long, and 160 ° E. Long. This divides little of the land, and that not of great impor- 4ai^/1A «\ACfaimv ^v^l-vr 4-Va*iJM1 ml« T^^aIi- tiilVUfiiJ. iVVltVilVSj ^/1 »r.A owards tbQ north-east of Asia, about 10 ® West of Behilug's Straits. .18 I i.j^ If! 1 ^i-^^NTS OP OEoORAPnr. "■o meridian, i„ ,,,e midd o „f T'' '^'"' <'1"'"<"- <^Bd *an appears a, a .r„e se,^ict,r ^ ^''""'- ^» ■»»■■- wheroas thei^e are only twn ■ f '^°""' Po'^^ appear -luse together eveiy 48- There are v''^''""'" '"^CI-^S. S-^-„CCT;|;;^-»«d.eear.;,^ t'fclea iernunator, and two Polar 4«- The Eqitatoh k„ 21, ♦ * /i^ator , and the sun f« i ^^^ ^o^th ^i« of June. ''^^ ^« vertical there on the 51. The Tropic op CA-or, P-aiiel at Which the sun :~ ^-thest south *he equator ; and the sun is v 'r /* " ''^ ° «««t^ of of December. ""^ '" ^^^tical there on the 22d ^fcetween the dart and the mu'"'''"^'^ ^^"^^ *he earth between dar o«^ "^"^'^^ted part^^u^. ^ «a^ and night, it ]« ^,„.. *^® boundary coucuiuaiiy Changing its It' ELEMENTS OF GEOGUAPHY. 10 d surface on a ■ equator and ere appear as nearly of the 'e, and every equator are<( Pai'ts of the (^(^)- The equator, nor • No.meri- - outer ones ■es appear, joining the iching only Jther every ^rth ; the ^0 Polar I parallel i ^ north on the t south outh of Sie 22d earth ndary og its position ; but is always 00 * from the spot at which the sun is vertical. 53. The Arctic Circle is the parallel at the greatest distance of the terminator from the north pole. It is 23i ° from that pole, or 06i« N. Lat. 54. The Antarctic Circle is the parallel at the greatest distance of the terminator from the south pole. It is 23i ® from that pole, or 06^ = S. Lat. 55. The Arctic and the Antarctic Circles are called " the Polar Circles." THE ZONES. 56. The tropics and polar circles divide the earth's sur- face into five zones. 57. The Torrid Zone is the part of the earth's surface between the tropics. It is 47 ° in breadth, and is the only part of the earth's surface where the sun is ever vertical. 58. The torrid zone is very hot, from which it takes its name. This is owing to the sun rising. higher in the hea~ vens than at any other parts of the earth's surface. This zone partakes in some degree of the characters of the equa- tor, as described in par. 28, the more the nearer the place is to the equator. 69. The North Temperate Zone is that part of the earth's surface between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle. 60. The South Temperate Zone is that part of the earth's surface between the tropic of Capricorn and the antarctic circle. 61. Each of the temperate zones is 43^ in breadth, and has a climate comparatively mild and temperate. surface within the arctic circle. •20 ^!;l ■ f i JWMENTS OP OEOQnAPUv. ! 6a. TjiK Sooth Po, .. «4- Each frigid ,,„^ i "«■ ^ ' «u«hed by .over, and ,o„l " ''"'"^"'- ■""! i» di,ti„. 'l"a«titic,„ne,„„j^,;j°"«-«»n'>nued cold. witi. g,e„t '«">S Wgi i« the heave J: ^" '" ""'"« *« '"""n „e J 65 TI,. I ■ ^^^ ^^'^ NrOHT, &c «--.a;r::r"-::r-.«-3„he.ear^^ ^^ cannot see the earth bev n . . ^ ""' o" ^i^"- &<• """^on ; »,„,„ When he i t,!! .■; "'" ""^ '^ '"'»ve the -"i mean, one co^pt, t^, 7 ' / ''""'"'"'f «■« ^"r;-«'«e,e,,L: ";::r "^ «- ""^o-. « P^re.ofit/snX^trair;""' *"' '"^^ "'ffo-nt "-d thus eauses the chanlef 'l T* """•'''■•'"• «■<> -"-n : ^ day There is al.a^e "'"^ /^ "'«"' "^ -'K-t '"■"■•e it is day, .h^ other hi ' '" *"''"''^ ™'-&ce oo. At the Poles flin«^ • ^ -^ M»rch 20th to September 2 I ., "■"""•" '»»«■ F^m ■^'e. »i.ht at the'son p^t* :^^';'^''^ »' the nort^ ""■•»•' 20th, there is ni.ht at m '""""'^^ ^.Sd to «»«h pole. "'«'" "' "'e north pole, day at the -"-. (e4t rieTol ;i If "'«'" - e,„a, eve^ fch. At these times, the ll ^T'- "' '^ """^'^ ^uratb? *> *e opposite. ' '' '"" *^ ^'-g to oae pole, setting "•Attheequatordayandni,.ht....,.._. the earth's ^•^ is diatin- ^ith great esun never (lere earth ' view, fop 'low it. ibove the >^ of the which is different he sun ; d night surface the two ■ night From north '3(i to at the Jvery ition tting ELEMENTS OF GEOaRAI'HY. 21. 72. On the 21st of June, when the sun is vertical at the tropic of cancer, it is longest day in the northern hemi- sphere, shortest day in the southern hemisphere. 73. On the 22d of December, when the sun is verticat at the tropic of Capricorn, it is longest day in the southern nemisphere, shortest day in the northern hemisphere. 74. In the frigid zones, there is sometimes day during several rotations, • sometimes night for several rotations even for weeks together. At other times, there are both day and night during each rotation. 75. In the torrid and temperate zones— that in, from the arctic to the antarctic circle-there are always both day and night during each rotation. 76. Over all the world, day and night are more nearly equal, the nearer the place is to the equator, and the nearer the time of the year is to an equinox. CLIMATE. 77. The climate of a place means the prevailing charac- ter of the weather -that is, the condition of the place as to heat, the pressure and moisture of the air, the direction- and force of the wind, the fall of dew, rain, or snow, the sky, whether clouded or serene, and electricity. 78. There are eight causes of differences in climate ■ the first four of which are wy important. 1. The- amount of the sun's rays received at the place. 2 The elevation. 3. The position as to large tracts of land and water. 4. The position as to oceanic currents. 5 The- character of the prevailing winds. 6. The position as to leading mountain ranges. 7. The aspect or slope of the wuntry. 8. The composition and state of cultivation of the soil, an f/t Armi^n^^ -i > /> /> --. .„„^^a„_^ vi~ariug 01 loreStS, 6L0. 79. The amount of sun's rays received at any place S2 KEMKNTS O* atOtlRAray. t^e heating e,tr„f h' ^'r^'^^ :?'; .""^«-- '' greater, the nearer the place i to .1 n ' "'"■'"''° '^ i3 then very I„„o. „ ' ., * "' '"""""'■• »» ">« clay even 9a i! ^' "" ""■ """"nues a very 1„„, „•„; even 24 hour. „r „,„re, above the horizon. ' ^ ""' curate "\v:;':Lfe"';,:'""^ -"' - "■"^-^ "•«— ore above the Le oft^ " "*"' '""%"- they --^.revejxtr:e;™icr'=-^- '^eitXHiriirr^^^^^ above that height are cove 'j ^r'"" ''"""' ""'^ '"""^ Tte p„i„t. called th^ lZ7\ P'^P"""" """' "■•ice. J- M,ocK, to iCri::: r./r,'e::; :;:r"""- - tomd zone ; from about 3000 to 8 oon , '^' ''" '" ""' temperate .ones ; and gradual J ^^(1,?^ ' ,"■ "" surface of the ground in tb. ft ''''**'" "'e above the limit of pei:, ^.'i* jr ' *'»"■"-' Perpetna, snow and ice. even i„ tilt id ^T"^' """ orwatr:.c::ct::trtir;^:«^f"^- perature ; and generallv nif •^' ^^^*"""^'^«iero'e.; tea., have a more eS:'!'' e - :S:er r "f '■'"^' ^" hot in summer-than places in .T„ . '" ""^ '«™ tin'ents, far removed from tl i """ '"' S"-^"' «<"- body of water. " "'^•'''"=* "^ ""y extensive -?;o?s:~ taLtr: ""^'^ — «-. or ioe and icebergs, :::a:Lr;C-t ELEMENTS OF OEOOBAPUY. 28 mte of which they thus render wartter or colder than tliey othoiwise would be. THE SOIL. of the a„,l have ate an important influence on the oondi- rr n* T '■ '^°°""°"" are stony or sandy, quite meapabie o supporting vegetation ; some are so rLb'ba others require constant manuring ; some are dry and need irngafon ; some need con^ant draining. The land in one place .s covered with fo?Wts ; in another, it is me.dow land er prairie, or low green hil.s, adapted for pasTu^e Some countr,es are rich in inlets of the ocean, natuL harbours, and rivers fitted for navigation, and s adapt^ - for commerce ; others abound in minerals->on, coaT 1-e, lead, coppe,, &c. ; or afford facilities for wate P^wer ,n the fall, of the rivers. Su„u countries are Thtn t 7-f-"-. AU these circumstances it is tlie province of Geology to describe. 86. The natural vegetation of a country (it. jiora,) the It IS capable of reanng, its capacities, as a place for the habitation of man, for commerce or manufactures, and ita mfluence on his health, vigour, character, and longevity depend on the climate, tl.e soil, the structure of the land' and disposition of its outer and inland waters. GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS * 87. The surface of the earth consists of land and water »». A conhnent is any very large tract of land. An uW IS a small portion of land entirely surrounded by '-W.. .. pcmnsula i« a piece of land almost surrounded 24 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. M by water. A cape or promontory ig a portion of l.n7 stretching out into the sea : called a!so, poZZd 'a ness, mull. An isthmus is a narrow ne^Hf wf '• """'' tuc sea. The More is the p„t of the land close to th! sea. A *„,,, i. the Ia„a at the side of a river Ueril otw is the .,. jr r;:ir ;r •: r l r: country which pours its watersTSTo it. ZVaierlZ I a r^ion is the high land frou. which its rivers rt' "' fid. An elevated mass of land is called n h.-j? tain ihen it is above 1000 feet in he^ t A .1 """"^ -uutuins connected is ca„ed a .ot „ rlrT::" ffan";, T"" ''""™'" ^'"'''''•^•> ■•-» ^evlted tl also, in certain conntries, i^J^ ^ .tf :-ri:i.s:::ov^e;r-t;^°---- ..0 0, .4 CLafirr- orwr::i:e;~n::t::^e:,t:^^^^^^ gut, or sou«rf is a narrow piece of waf p> • "''* ttr ? '^'' " ^'-^'' '-Ctdrordri r »^«wi IS a stream nf wat^.. « .... ,, _ ^ "* ^^^' wMle the wateT on clch s^deTc'^^t^, I^r ! portion of land ^int, head, naze, f of land joining lands adjoining 'Hd close to the iver. The right ie when we look ater flows. The Jr is the tract of he watershed of pers rise. hill ; a moun- A succession of 'ange. A table elevated tract t tract of land IS are called llanos, silvas, or stony tract ino is a moun- ', or mud. ailed oceans,' I archipelago 'ake is a piece led also loch, urrounded by ider opening, nd are called 's- A siraity ing two seas, ader. A cur- sea or ocean, ely at rest ; teLEXtENTS OP GECX^APHY. 25 a sort of ocean-river TT,o k^ • ., nnd recess of the wa ^1 " *■"" ''"^™'"« ""v-- take p,ace twice eve^l ho^rr:-"",' "^ "^^ ""«- yi. A river is a stream of wnin^^ « • \ into »me sea, lake, or „tUer rC H ' "" *" """■ ^ where it begins or rise, ' ! ' "'""''' '' "•« I»" "'to some other :ZT A IT'f ' '"^ P"' *- " A"™ " another river flowing it 7 ^ ,f ""* »^ " "- •--w arn, of the si, me^in. a-^ri t" rr"* '' * A rapid is the nart nf « • f ^* '*® "^^uth- :-.an.thert:ri:cr:p;:;^'^^^^^^ •'^- The chief authority or rrlino. „„„ ■ '» called the ,o.ernn,enl wh h 1 sX?"; """"•' •■omitutional, when the ,>^ , ■ ° ""^ ''""'""^ <»• 'rol over its pr^c^-" t f" '"" """^ '<'S'"»' "o"- make and revise fteTws ! ^!' ""'" '"^ *"^ ?«-?■« <« government, is va C^ ,;i::t,'r ' ^ " <"'-' »Pon the ™me states a second as«=mbly c^UM «■ ' *"° '" CTa«*.r 0/ p,„s, Sevat, orVT w < " ""^ ^'"'''' ™ler, called ^„^, l," X^™"™' ""I- a hereditary --o--.noteboserb;r;:::--r::; 1>1) ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPUr. t'f' i i« u government in which the great body of the people vote the hiws themselves, or elect those who do. An empire consists of several countries ruled by a monarch called an e-mperor. A kingdom is governed by a king or gueen. In a r.^«A/^•c there is no monarch, the persons governin.^ «^emg elected for a limited tinfe only by the people. 94. Empires, kingdoms, and republics are subdivideil into states, provinces, counties, districts, territories departments, cantons; and these are subdivided into parishes, hundreds, townships, communes, Src Some states, separate and independent in general, are united for certain purposes, into a Federal Union or Confederation Jo In most civilized communities, all religions are olerated. When one is more encouraged or supported by Ue government it is called the Established Religion, ank tJ^oso who do not belong to it are called Dissenters. The principal religions of civilized nations are, the Christian K he Moaam,nedan, and the Jewish : other religions are termed Pagan or Heathen. Christians are divided into -any sects, of which the chief are, the Roman Catholics, ho acknowledge the Roman Pontiff or Pope, as head o When thealrairsof achurch are under the direction of b^ ops placed over the other clergy, the formiscallel ^>-opaUan. When the clergy are equal in rank, an ^c. Some ire united for \nfede ration. eligions are supported by eligiony and inters. The * Christian, eligions are divided into I Catholics, , as head of Protestants. iirection of •m is calle I rank, and the clergy )n the con- in the Bri- opalian ;) iting Prea- gregation- ELEMENTS OF GEdORAPHST. port tlieaiselves oi. the milk or tlcU of tl,„ fl u '^" thc^r rear. Others till o 7 "'^''^ '''''°'' -^istenco from I^r ^™"""'' '''"' '^'^''"^ "">!■• «">>- U^ . e ^'^.^'.^f '^ -"'-d. - they live a more J! .»:.; rc :^r^^^ rr r "" " :-" - .•ovow f.em«e,ve3 to lea nij an tl.?aT;r " "'' II. GEKEBAt VIEW OF THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH. »«. The earth's surftc* consists of abont 5U millions of pri^ip!';;::;:::^::'^''"^'^-^''-— -""ve I. Ame«,ca, or the New World, discovered by Chris topl'er Columbus in the years 1492, 1498 "• lajs Ckeat Continekt or Old World III. 0CE.1NH. IV. Lakes around the North Pole. v. Lasds around the South Pole m. Amerioa is divided into two parts. Noeth A«Ea.0A 28 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAMlT^ Ifi' llii ■i fi and South America, joined by the narrow lythmus of Panama. 101. The great continent consists of three parts • Europe, in the N. W. ; Asia, in the N. E. ; and Africa ' m the S. W., joined to Asia by the narrow Isthmus of Suez. t02. Oceania consists of the gi'cat island of Australia and numerous islands north and east of it scattered through the Pacific Ocean. 103. Little is known of the lands around the north and Bovtth poles. 104. There is one great body of water extending round . the world, and running into the land in many places It 18 usually described as consisting of five great oceans. I. The Arctic or Northern Oceax, around the north pole. II. The Antarctic or Southern Ocean, around the south pole. HI. The Atlantic Ocean, east of America. rV. The Pacific Ocean, west of America. V. The Indian Ocean, south of Asia. [105. Tlie Atlantic Ocean is about 4000 miles broad af ■.ts widest part, from Florida east to Africa ; 930 miles •!TA*(S^'nnn'' -f Greenland east to Norway 5 and its arca^ o n^ ; ''^''''"' """''• ^^' ^'^«^fi« ^««^« is about 12,000 miles broad at the equator, and gradually narrow^ towards the north, to 36 miles at Behring's Straits ; it. urea is 50,000,000 square miles. The Indian Ocean il about 4,600 miles in breadth, and its area is 20,000.000 ijquare miles.] l^'^^"" T!^"" liemisphere (4G) contains the greater pa?. 0. the Tavmc Ocean, America, Greenland, a very lunan part of Aaia, New Zealand, and a number of emalj row lathmus of I the north and N, around the ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 29 Hands ; in all, about 15 millions of square miles of land. 107. The eastern hemisphere contains all the Indian Ocean, a small part of the Pacific Ocean, all Europe, -A uca, and Australia, and nearly the whole of Asia : iu »1U about ,S6i millions of square miles of land, 108. The other oceans are found in both hemispheres. lOJ. The northern hemisphere contains all North Au^ nca, a small part of South America, the whole of Europe and Asia, and about two-thirds of Africa .--about 38 millions of square miles of land. lia The southern hemisphere contains the greater part of South America, about one-third of Africa, and the whole ofJAustralia and New Zealand :- about 13* mil- lions of square miles of land. 111. There is nearly three times as much land in the northern as there is in the southern hemisphere 112. North America, Europe, and Asia are mostly m the north temperate zone ; South America and Africa tnostly in the torrid .o«e, Australia, partly in the torrid' «one, partly m the south temperate ^one. [113 The north temperate tone contains much more and than any of the other xones-about as much as the land m all the other ,one«. The climate there is more favorable to the development of the industry, activity, and genius of man. than in the torrid or frigid .ones ; and it is in the north temperate zone (or chiefly there) that we find the greatest nations of anciei^ aad »odem times :-the Egyptians, Assyrians, Hebrews. Persians, Indians, Chinese. Oreeks, Romans, Italians, French, Germans, British, and the people of the United States of America.] ^k" \Tu ""' :""" '^' "^^ "^'"^ ^ """^^^y i» one great belt about the region of the north temperate zone, for Asia aiKl America approximate and mvVy meet at the north of the 30 EtEMENTS or GEOGRAPnr. Pacfic Ocean ; and Kuropc and An..rica are nearly co„- great belt ofUnd sends oat three leading prolongations t„. Islands with Australia.] [115 If we suppose the world to be divided into two hemispheres by a great circle_90= al, ™,„d from W don we should then find that city nearly m the middl -...ondon. .he otr^^i s^r: tx':: .^ter containing only Australia, New Zealand, ol^irl m ThuTr' "l? ™'^ '""^ «^«» -th'of Asia no. Thus the north-west coasts of EuroDe wlti, tK ports of Hamburg, Bremen, Amsterdam:^Rot; ^ Hvre, London, Liverpool, are nearly i„ the middle mj and of the world, ,,„d i„ very favorable positions for bcmg great eommereial dep«., and transit stains for *'■ m:"V™r"^'^ ^■•''™ "» P--'^ of the world. " Jtl 'and^of "'''*° " *™"=^'" ^'»P^. P«-«»g r'^::::rin^— :rh::i:-~^^ Sweden, Sp.'n and zCr: Z^:::!:^^ W plainT' """ """"'*■ *'*'«'" '>°--' - »-% .-.and American r-r;:;iZr:^:s:: ■.-?^«*:*.'!«<««SW«*, ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 3| .ub-races, tribes, &c. These differ from each other in the formation of the head, the countenance, the figure, in phy- srca powers, in moral and intellectual character, religion. endenc.es, mode of life, language, and in their capacities for war government, learning, civilization, and the art... 119. Ihe greater number of the nations of Europe and VVestern Asia, and the civilized nations of America, are ,"TliT '^^"'' «f -E^^tern Asia, and the Esquimaux of ISortli America, are Mongolians. The inhabitants of the Malay peninsula, and the Indian Archipelago, are Malays. The thick-lipped, woolly-haired people of Africa and Oceania, are Ethiopians ; and the Indians of America are of the American race. _ 120. The population of the world is believed to be about nine hundred millions (900,000,000). 121. Of these, about 485 millions are Pagans • 000 millions, Christians ; 110 millions, Mohammedan.,' and o millions, Jews. 122. Of the 300 millions of Chr'stians, about 140 mil- hons are Roman Catholics ; 80 millions, Protestants ; 70 , millions, Greek Catholics, and 10 millions, other sects of - Christians. £123. In point ofeducation, the leading Christian couu. nes stand nearly as follows :- Saxony, 98 ; N. eastern of the United States of America, 95 ; Holland, 94 ; Prussia, 1^ 84 ; Switzerland, 80 ; Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, 77 ^ '" Belgium, 73 ; Austria, 64 ; Scotland, 54 ; England, 46 • ^ Ireland, 38; France, 36; Spain, 27; Portu*, 15;'~^ Uoman States, 10 ; Sicily, 8 ; Russia, 6. The numbers after each country shew how many out of every 100 chil- dren, between the ao-Ps of 7 o«/i i^ ^«„^^ . . , . =" " • '^ j-cixia, aiu receiving instruction. This must be looked upon as not strictly cor" rect—only an approximation.] ""f*^^ ILBUmTS OF CUiOOKAI-ar. in. NOEXH AMEEICA. MO..CO and the N. Paeifio Ocean ; on the W. b^ ^ Guatemala. West Indian Mand«, E. of the 6^^ Mex.c« ; Havana, The is,and.,f^„,and, at the N B 126. Outer Watfb<« Rn^^T-^T ^' i. , , »''ATERs. Jiaffin'sBay, at the N W ^*- irnca " ^ '^"""^'^ «*-"«■ "«'-- Asia and 127. Peninsulas. Labrador, at the INT P „<• d •.• . AmerioH; Nova Scotia, at the S E !i R » k / '*"'' Florida, at the S. E. of the Un ted St t v ""™" ' Central j»n,„ri„ r '''*^ ' Yucatan, N. of t entral America ; Lower California, W. of the Galf of Cal^rma ; Aliaska, at the S. W. of Russian Amerta - 12_8._IsLANDs. Greenland, at the N. E. : N.^f.'^l.. ^- 01 xsritish America ; ■ Cape Breton Me; N^K^'Z^: ELEMENTS OP GEOGRAPHY. 3a Scotia ; Prince Edward Island, N. of Nova Scotia • the Bermudas, in the N. Atlantic Ocean, E. of the United States ; the West India Islands, of which Cuba, Haiti, and Jamaica are the largest, E. of the Gulf of Mexico ; Vancouver's Island, S. W. of British Ameiica. 129. Capes. Point Barrow, in the N. of Russian Ame- rica ; Cape Farewell, at the S. of Greenland ; Cape Charles, the most easterly point of British America ; Cape- R«ce, at the S. E. of Newfoundland ; Cape Breton, at the E. of Cape Breton Tsle ; Cape Sable, at the S. of Nova Scotia ; Cape Hatteras, at the E. of the United States ; Sable, or Tanoha Point, at the S. of Florida ; Cape St.' Antonio, at the W. of Cuba ; Cape Catoche, at the N. E. of Yucatan ; Cape St. Lucas, at the S. of the peninsula of California ; Cape Prince of Wales, at the W. of Russian America, adjoining Behring's Straits. 130. Mountains. Mount St. Elias and Mount Fair- weather, at the S. E. of Russian America ; the Coast Range, from about 60=* N. lat., along the coast, to the ex tremity of the peningula of California ; the Rocky Moun- tains, in the W. of British America and the United States, continued in the Mountains of Mexico, and Mountains of Central America ; the Ozark Mountains in Arkansas and Missouri ; the Alleghany or Appalachian Range, in the E. of the United States ; the White Mountains and Green Mountains, in the N. E. of the United States. 131. Leading Rivebs, 1. Flowing into the Arctic Ocean. The Colyille, in Russian America ; the Macken- zie in British America. 2. Flowing into the Atlantic Ocean or its Branches. The St. Lawrence at the S. E. of British America, flowing N. E. into the Gulf of St. Law- rence ; the Susquehanna, in the United States, flowing into Chesapeake Bay. 3. Flowing into the Gulf of Mexico. W'T If I'Jl I ^ ff '.' ELEMENTS OF OEOORAPnv. Tho Mi8,is,ippi, in the United State, (L.. Ohio • R „■ sour,', Ai-li.vnsas, Red Riv^,. .^ .1 „. ' ' *'"^ ".0 Unite-i State and Me "c '' IT- "™"*' ''^'"-' /i^; 0«„. TI,„ P- ': '°"'"S '"'" the Pad. sute.':„in? „rt,^t;'V" :;r- •^'- -f "■- ^"""^ 5- no«^!i" ;:/"";:/• ''• "' *"" '^""«' s^tea. ^""1/ig into /.'//a/irf IVater'i Tl,,^ n t^. Tnl-n iM ! 1 '^y liters, iiie Peace River inf/^ 1-«. L.J" o™ t B at iT' r'" ^""^ ^^■'""'Po^- Lake Athabaska r „i w ' *^™*' ^''"'^ J-a'<"<^. Wood. e.ts ft t r;r„;rt!';r ."' '"^ a S, E. direcMon • I i T' ^''' ^""^noti, in Ontario, I t JJI citl ^"!^'™'' ""™' J^™' ■'n" Lake M;chirLru:;^:,rri "" ^"*^ ^ Lake Cha„,p,ai„. i„ the N. E of «^ L ted Stlte^tv ' ^'^^ in the S. of Central Ameriea. ' '^'* J 00. UCEAXIC CURRENT'S Tl,« • • , rent., near the NorthAl ''"""'"" """'''' ««■•- tI.ro„.h Bel,ri„f.'t r r""""*"^-'- A current Ocea„: 2 The' eti ' T "" ^"'"^ *° "'-^««'= -=«eoeea„::rx:i::rj^::-/^^^^^ N. eastern coast, of N. fw ^ "f !;■" ™'- to the Stream, a warm current J *^'''"" *^""' Mexico, throu/t e f"1 a 'T" "™ "'^ ''"'^ <>' !ng the great" NeCf n Id H' 'T ""• ^•' ''''^- Atlantio Ocean in several bride" Pn ""™' "" rents among the West India Istads '™™'" ""- circfe a^irr t: ™:,'?"-^-° ^■— '^-^e arctic «r=t.ccirc,e.tra:;:r;%::i~t':^--^'>^ * T .. . . ^■' °'' '''' '^" ^^"^^""^T^nlJir;^^;^^;;^ IPHY. (L.* Ohio ; R. Mis. io Graiulo, between wing into the Pad- S- W. of the United rnia ; tlic Columbia the United States. Peace River, into ito Lake Winnipeg, rreat Slave .Lak*e, 1 the Lake of the British America, in luvon, Erie, and ;he United States ; of Lake Superior ; ited States ; Lake' pal oceanic cur- e — 1. A current ific to the Arctic w S. W. from the nd, and S. along d, JVova Scotia, 'Old water to the 'he Great Gulf I'om the Gulf of sesJY.E., skirt- d crossing the N'umerous cur- 'S. The arctic ^mc;-ica. The mtcrb Russian ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 35 America a little N, E. of Behring's Straits, crosses tliat country, and enters Britisli America, passing across the Mackenzie River, Great Rear Lake, and Davis' Straits, into Greenland. The tropic of capnfeorn passes a little N." of Cape St. Lttcas, crosses tlie mouth of tlte Gulf of Cali- fornia, Mexico, ai7d the Gulf of Mexico, passes a Httle N. '•f Havana, in Cuba, and through the Bahamas into the Atlantic Ocean. 135. Zones. Pai-t of Russian America, a small part of British America, and a considerable part of Greenland, arc in the N. frigid zonp. Part of Russian America, the greater part of British America, a small part of Green- land, the whole of the United States, part of Mexico, the Bermudas, and some of the Bahamas, are in the N. tem- perate zone. Part of Mexico, all Central America, the West India Islands, and some of the Bahamas, are in the torrid zone. • * 136. Extent, &c. North America extends from Point Burica, in Central America, about 8° N. lat., to Point Barrow in Russian America, about 72° N. lat. ; and from Cape Charles, in Labrador, 55° 20' W. long., to Cape Prince of Whales, in Russian America, 1G8= W. long. Its length, from N. to S., is about 4400 miles, and its hrladth, from the E. of Nova Scotia to the E. of the Columbia River, about 3000 miles. Its area is 8;| mfllions of square miles. Population, about 39 millions. 137. General Features. North America, like other divisions of the land, is broad and expanded at the north, narrowing towards the south ; to about 160 miles at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, at the south of the Gulf of Mexico, and a little more at the Isthmus of Chinuimnla. at the S. of the Gulf of Honduras ; less than 100 miles broad in the S. of Central America ; and tapering to fi-owt 36 EUSAIOTS OF UEOGKAPHV. k 1 1 4« t« 60 miles at P.in.imn n "tending „I.,„g ,t„ " "'«■« '« a c„,„i„,„„« sea ■^'^'^- ^"0 western part of JV A,. • «-"o.,an<,. .,sin« .^ ,oo„ tX"™'' --"^ "' tewocnthcCoastlUn^oandl^ii , '" <''''^''«™. -".t lower on t.,o e,u, J.. ^LL'! fT^f f "•""--. -me- part from around HmlJ'T^ ! ^ '"'""'■ '^''<' "^to™ <'t Mexico and AOa„l Ocea;' "" ""'''" "'' "'o ^-'f ■^ Kiver and fhe MiLour "t ^IrT"^' "«'--" th the United State, • the r! '^""'«'>anie« i„ the E. „f «' prairies, wateld by the .r! T?"!"' «™''^ "">»<'«» •^uri and Mississippi /„«! f;^' '""""aries of the Mis- from about 3.5 = to«oN I! "^ "^ ""= ««*y Mountains, « an extensive stony dl!t. ' ''°**'^' '^ <"-'tio», »'"u se'rnr,.,fj :lr^^^^^■ ^."''''-' "■ «» n- «-o-. Tempo«.tu^ are glfall'v T'"'";. " '"''""'^ ponding latitudes in the old I m ^ "■ "■*" '» <""<^ « broad n.ass of iand 1 1?:2 "' f ^--a pre«nt, •■'0 - narrow in the trol'l re ' "'"" "°" P'-""- As in the old world th. . *"°™ "'' ""^ "'uth (88 ) -ee,„ab,ein:::;ert„:rt:r ^-^ ™™- -^ Island, in the x\. W ,.„ : ""' '»'*<=™- At Sitka • - ".^li aniiuai temperature is IV. Mt part ; which, nuch explored in l>y I>avi8' Strain '^^t juissage. It •< continuous sea »eso tu'o straits ; ' ice, so that it •nsiats mostly of in elevation, >untain«, some- «•• TJie eastern ^e« of the Gulf io great plain, . between the « in the E. of >untains E. of brador. The i-ssy meadows 3 of the Mis- y Mountains, iii elevation, » in the N., is extremely i-n in corres- ica presents d prevails : »«th (88.) armer and At Sitka ^erature ia ttEMENTS OV OECKiRAPlIY. sr about 40®, and the dlfforence between the mean winter and summer temr)cratures, 21^°. At Portland, on the east coast, TO » farther south, the mean annual tempera- turc is 4Gi ° , u nd the difference between summer and win- ter is 45°. From about 62° N. lat., S. E. to the south of Ifudson's Bay, and thence N. E. to the south of Gi-eonland, and north of this line, the mean annual temperature is ;{2=» (the freezing point) or under ; the mean winter tem- perature, from about zero to 28° below zero. From the mouth of the Gulf of California, across Mexico, and alonj; the north shores of the Gulf of Mexico, the mean annual temperature is about 70°. 141. North America is inhabited by many different laces of men, of whom the following are the chief: — 142. Native Races. Esquimaux, in the north ; Red Indians (American Indians) in the N., the W., and the centre ; and Mexicans, &c., descendants of the ancient civilized native races, in the south. 143. Immigrants and their Descendants. 1. J]urope- ans. — British, Spanish, French, Dutch, Germans, chiefly in the E. and 8. E. 2,— Africans. The Negro or Ethiopian race, in the southern U. States, mostly in a state of slavery. 144. The Esquimaux are Mongolians ; the Indians and native Mexicans of the American Indian race ; the Negroes are Ethiopians ; the others are CaucasianSi 145. Mixed Races. These are very numerous, espe- cially in the south. Slulattoes are descendants of Euro- peans and Negroes ; Mestizoes, of Europeans and Indians ; Zamboes are the descendants of Indians and Negrbes. 146. Discovery, &c. North America was discovered^^ by the Danish and Norwegian navigators about the year \ 1000, A. D. From Iceland and Greenland, where they ( had settlements, the transition wi^s easy to Labrador and / ( \ t lii,, ■! tVl I US ELEMENTS Of" GEOQIlAPfiy. V ••".(1 Connecticut wtt "„ ^'T"^ "*"'' ^*'""'<' '"''""J. from tho K W ! .:I 7 "'" '' " "'« «»»« Finland." / Labit of sending vIL t h ^ f" V " "''' ™" '" '"" S Hth .ontury. ° '"'' '^''""^ '^ '""= as the it -- -^nown, the new clw wo ":!:: t"" .?"" ■»» »on,o new lands near GreenlanU "^ ""'"'' U-olwrrTsaiM '"?•"""■'' '•^"' '"—Of »o,*;-ch fora t,t ,etd™ " """"""^ "^f «''«™ •" from I'ulos, in the S y "f'T "" ^«™- «- Atlantic, o« the 12lh of O ober in t, ?'"■ '" ^'"«'"'' ''•'-• "">' "« of the AtlaZ' *^r""" "" "'^'""^^ of land tUo same yea. .the r"'"' '''"'" '"«' H""' "> j^cij, ana tJie mam land nonv fi.« n • ^'^•^ tJiird voyage, in M98 ° ^""^^^' "» "oS m-^ritr:: '-^.r-^;'-" "'oomp,„,„e„tof a""«>""' t-ated country, and lafgr itaw/tH' ^'r'""^ ""'- ml,.ibif„„^, f , > ^^'^^^^^ ^"J» fine buildino-^ „^., aucea m the arts. In 1 52 J, tliese were APfiy. 5cotia, which they s, Rhode Island, Good Vinhmd," [soil. They went said, were in Urn ? so late as the America was un- and even where ydhly considered 'al discoverer of 'le expedition to s the Atlantic, nst, 1492, and led San Salva- istence of land I- and Haiti in 10 Orinoco, in employment of liscover JVorth examined it tl inhabitants ■til ; the wild iind northern and Central h a polished, establishe.i ii-efully cul- _... a.s.x{.i y these were I ELE.MENTS OF GEOGRAPIIi'. 39 conquered by the Spaniards, under Hernandu Cortez. In the 17th century, the eastern parts were colonised by othe:- Europeans, chiefly English and French. BRITISH AMERICA. 151. Boundaries. British America is bounded on tiie N. by the Arctic Ocean- and Bafiin's Bay ; on the E. by Davis' Straits and the Atlantic Ocean ; on the S. by the Atlantic Ocean and the United States ; on the W. by the Paciiic Ocean and Russian America 152. Divisions, and Chief Towns of each. Canada, in the S. E., (consisting of Upper Canada or Canada V»'est, and Lower Canada or Canada East;) Toronto — Quebec. New Brunswick, S. E. of Canada ; Fredericton. Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island, S. E. of New Brunswick ; Halifax — Sydney. Prince Edward Island, N. of Nova Scotia ; Charlottctown. The Island of Newfoundland, at the S. E. of British America ; St. John's. Hudson's Bay Territory, sometimes called Noav Britain, includes the re- mainder of British America ; Fort York. 150. Besides these, the British have in N. America, British Honduras or Belize, in Central America ; a num- ber of the West India Islands, of which Jamaica is the largest under the British dominion ; and the Bermudas, in the Atlantic Ocean, about N. lat. 32®. 154. Outer Waters. 1. In the South. The Straits of Belleisle, N. W. of Newfoundland ; the Gulf of St, Law- rence, W. of Newfoundland ; Bay of Chaleurs, between Lower Canada and New Brunswick ; Miramichi Bay, at tne iL. Oi xiorvi Brunswick ; North umberhind Strait, S. of Prince Edward Island ; St. George Bay, N. E. of Novu M'i II :i II Jii . 40 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. -Bras ...Or, i„ Cap„ B^;;?,"! f ;. "^ ^o™ Se„«a ; ^fahoncliav, on the S.„f wl' ''"'«« "'"'bour a,„! ^^-^ S. W. of Nova Scot r^M IV ^''•''■^'''^^"^.a' ^«va Scotia ; n.y of F,,;,! . '^ '^ 'f^' "' ">« '^^ »f , -^«w Br„„„,,„^ . ^,.^ ^ ;; ;:;,^'^'--;> Nova Scotia ,„„ ';"lf of Geo,.g|„„ K., Str" t of T '™"™'-'' I»l«d ; Nootka So.,,,.,, , ,.arb„,„. : , V"";.;'" P"-, K, a„,' I"''- Tlie G„?f of St r "'^'1"'* fela,,,,. f'"'-ad„,, o,„a.,a, }LJZT'": I"' ™" '^ "-io^^l by ■ 'r«B-to,.r„a„„', e::„„™ ::;::> .f- «™tia, a„a "•rco opo„ings-tl,e St,-.,it, If n n'""'' ""' ^"""o by '..go abo„t 70 „,i,e,, ;„ j , " f^"--'- i" fto N., a p„Z ;^»P.o Breton Ma„,^ a , ,"c,. fr; ^^'»«*'"«"-/««:, ™v,g,xtio„ i« ,,,,„„,, ..iffilf ",;;;'--'<•. ". .bos. r.,e P'-ovalo„t, an,, i,„p«,,,, „y ','^.,/°«»' "'"oh a,.„ very "'0 yoar. ■'' "=« ''"'lag several ,„ontJ,s „f 156. 2. Onter Wate,-, i„ ,, v '""N. ; Davis. Strait, sjy'" ^T ''"«"'' ^-y> i" I'-lot. a W. of Davis^ St,.l p" f.^"^ '• Northumberilnd :„".:'-;'-<' i»'et; Hut .;t":T•rr'^•°^^- «'»» Bay; Hu.1son.s Bay, ^ vo" , "'"«' "'*» Hud- «''-">w.a Strait; G„,f „f ^ ' ',f 8^"* Tnlot, S. W. of Fury and Hecia St,.„it. P ..T^'.^" "^ Rogent !«,„ . - " -0 «.,if Of B«,thia ; Bel,„; WW othi and Cape Bre- - of Nova Scotia ; '^'ix Harbour and lownshoad Bay, at ^^•^y* at the W.'of ^ova Scotia and Minas Bay, ^ ^f ^- of tlie Bay of ^•ofiVewBruns. iponver's Inland • ^ ^»««. a, and ^t Island. '' ^J enclosed by "^'••^ Scotia, and *J'o Atlantic by "*^«^^apa..- W'foundland and ' in the S. 'f },^ ^^"ch are very ei;al months of 'ffin'8 Bay, ,>, ^rthumberland *i^ S. of JVor- "g into Hu(j_ 'nJet ; James' '«*' ^. W. of ^ Chesterfield y ; Barrow 'ji et, S. W. of egent Inlet : *hia ; Bellot ELEMENTS OP GEOGRAPHY. 41 Strait, W. of the Gulf of Boothia ; Melville Sound, m the N ; Bank's Strait, W. of Melville Sound ; Maclure Strait, (Irinceof Wales Strait,) S. W. of Melville Sound ; Liver- pool Bay, Franklin Bay, Dolphin and Union Strait, York Archipelago, Coronation Gulf, Bathurst Inlet, Dease Strait 158. Peninsulas. Boothia Felix, W. of the Gulf of J oothia ; Melville Peninsula, N. W. of Fox Channel • the Labrador Peninsula, E. of Hudson's Bay ; Gaspe' Peninsula, E. of Lower Canada 5 Nova Scotia ; Prince Ldward Peninsula, in Upper Canada, at the N. of Lak^ Ontario ; Indian Reserve Peninsula, E. of Lake Huron 159. Islands, 1. In the Seas. Parry Islands, in the Arctic Ocean ; Cockburn Island, N. E. of the Gulf of Boothia ; Cumberland Island, E. of Fox Channel • New ioundland ; Anticosti, in the N. of the Gulf of St Law rence ; Magdalen Islands, S. of Anticosti ; Prince Edward Island ; Cape Broton Island, N. E. of Nova Scotia ; St I aul Island, N. of Cape Breton Islana ; Sable Island, S E of Nova Scotia ; Seal Island, S. W. of Nova Scotia ; Van- couver's Island, S. W. of British America ; Queen Char- lotte Island, N. W. of Vancouver's Island. 2. In the Lakes and Rivers. Great Manitoulin Island, in the N of Lake Huron ; Amherst, Wolf, and Howe Islands, at the N. E. of Lake Ontario ; Islands of Perrot, Montrc tl, and Jesus, at the meeting of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers ; Isle of Orleans, in the St. Lawrence, below Quebec 160. Capes. Cape Chudleigh, at the N. of Labrador : Cape Charles, at the E. of Labrador ; Cape Race, at the S. E. of Newfoundland ; Cane Rav. a^ ^h^ « w ^^ at.„ foundland ; East Point, at Jhe £ of the Island of Ant!-' costi ; Cape Roziere and Cape Gaspe, at the E. of Low«r «* (I m i'Z ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. "-' C'.re Ii,eto„, at the I^f c p bTI' "t V ^ ''^ ""■• Omso, at the I.' c. ^ , , ^^ ^'"'™ I'l'""' i Cape C ^::;:ra rrifr =-'--- «'" ">o>v„, nearly lo OOO fcl „ , ,r '•""' """'"''"" *'»"»' '.i«i., a little N. „;«" i ;'',."! ;'"■■"' """"'■' ^'''^"" f-' '1'^ Wotclu., Mountains in 7 , "«l»<>»'» Bay ; ■Mountains of Vern.on 1 ' '""" "^ "'« ^wn '"'tween tl.at ]^^:T^"'T' ^""" ^^»»-"> "" '.ms Of n,„ae,.:te ere: t t'c^Tf ' 7' ^"""'^ «ova..e„tia, and C,y,o BrJton l',r ' '" ''""""""'^^' -• Flowing nto th At,,n • n "" '^'*" "'"^ «"•"■• '■'-,,ii,rtne^r:r;:::::;';f-;;f-;^''''^ (i^. Ottawa Tutt 7 """ "' ''■ ^■'-™- ^ ;;-a4a ana Kow B™.!::,::::"-'^;- .''f-" Lowe, '^^haleurs ; St. Join, ^^•v„ * ■'^- "'*« *^e 13ay of 'i.'.un«.iei;.flowwyrL„";r .^ " "^ '• ^^- °^ ^- ">«i^to tUe Paeiti^ Oct:"'"- :t4.: "■"'^:. " ""'^- -a.a...Ho...,intoin.^..a;r^:~^^^^^^^ 11 1(. ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY, 43 Slave Lake ^ Athabaska, into Lake Athabaska ; Saskat- chewan, into Lake Winnipeg ; the St. Mary's, from Lake buperior to Lake Huron ; the St. Clair, from Lake Huron to Lake St. Clair ; the Detroit, from Lake Si. Clair to Lake Erie ; the Niagara, from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, with the celebrated Falls in its course ; the Severn, from Lake bnucoc to Georgian Bay, Lake Huron. U58. Lakes. There is a succession of Lakes from N. \V to S. E., commencing with the Great Eear Lake on the Arctic Circle ; Great Slave Lake ; Lake Athabaska ; Lake AVollaston; Deer Lake; Lake Winnipeg; Lake Winni- pogos ; Lake of the Woods. Lake Superior ; Lake Huron witli Its eastern branch, Georgian Bay ; Lake St. Clair • Lake Erie ; Lake Ontario. These five lakes are con- nected as mentioned above. Lake oi' the 1000 Isles Lake St. Francis, Lake St. Louis, and lake St. Peter arc expansions of the lliver St. Lawrence ; Lake Nipissin- ' in Upper Canada, N. of Georgian Bay ; Lake Simcoe,' in Ippcr Canada, N. of Lake Ontario ; Lakes Champlain and Memphramagog at the S. of Lower Canada ; Lake St John, in Lower Canada, from which the Saguenay flows • Mistassinie Lakes, E. of James' Bay. lol. The Boundary between British America and the •united States, commences on the E. at Passamaquoddy Bay, passes up the lliver St. Croix, N. W. to Grand Lake thence N. along the meridian 67° 63', W. till it meets the St. John River ; along that river a little, and N. W. till it comes to about 25 miles from the river St Lawrence ; thence S. W. in an irregular line, partly along the moun- tains to the parallel 45- N. lat. ; along that parallel to the St. Lawrence, which it m^pfs nf fi.o v ^f t^i.^ a. francis; S. W. up the St. Lawrence; .arough Lake Ontario ; up the Niagara River, on the W. side of Graud 44 ELEMENTS OP OEOORAWIY. {W» U. ur bt Cla,,. R,vo,-, Lake U,„„„, between Dn.„„„„„,I »mi Cookbura Ma.ul., „,, „,„ ,;;,„,• St. M,„.y,, thiougl. Uk„ S„pe,™, N. of I»le ll.,y„l„, t., Fort Cl.a.-.otte on the W. Mde of that h.' • » ,, , , 72» N lat „f ,1 » t „ ' ^ "'"' ^"'""J '0 "bout E to W ' ! ^°""'' *'«"''■ I'^ '"•'"«lth from of IbOO n,i,es. Its area is about 2i millions (2,500 W) square miles ; »»,j- '"" ^""*""* » o«t . J^ Z ' ^"'^'''''' scattered through- out ; and Esqmmaux, in the N. and N. E, ■roit, Lake St. en Druminon«l lily's, through ifirlotto on the 10 Lake of the it., to the seft, iau 141° W. tweeu UusBian of the Unite intervening V Hampshire, icbigan, Wis- Biitish Ame- Bcar Lake, ver, Melville I and thence f. temperate e. tilling New- to 141° W. e) to about readth from S. upwards :2,500,000) be a little descent in and Prince t through- ELEMBNTS OF OEOORAl'lIY. 45 CANADA. 170. BouNDAWTES. Canada is Iwunded on the W. by Lakes Superior, Huron, and St. Olair, and their connect- ing rivers ; on the S. by Lakes Erie and Ontario, the St. Lawrence, New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, New Brunswick, and the Bay of Ohaleurs ; on the E. by the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Labrador ; on the N. by the Hudson's Bay Territory. It extends N. to the liigh grounds which form the watershed (88) between the riverg falling into the St. Lawrence and those flowing into Hud- son's Bay. 171. Canada has long been divided into Upper Canada, or Canada West, and Low«r Canada, or Canada East. These aro separated by the River Ottawa, to about 40 miioe above the Isle of Montreal, a ci-ooked line from that point ' to about the middle of Lake St Francis, and the St. Law- rence. All <^anada on the left bank of the Ottawa And right bank of the St Lawrence, is Lower Canada ; also, the left bank of the St Lawrence, below the Ottawa, and » small angle of lantl between the two rivers, near their confluence. UPPER CANADA. 172. The cultivated or settled part of Upper Canada may be divided naturally into three parts ; a weaterti, a central, and ar eastern division. 173. The western division is a peninsula, of a flomewhat triangular form, nearly surrounded by the Lakes Geor- gian Bay, Huron^ St Clair, Erie and Ontario. The nedk of the peninsula, from Nottawasaga Bay (S. of Georgian Bay) to the mouth of the Humber, is about 70 miles in breadth, and the land terminates in three small pen- iiwulas 5 the counties of Lincoln and Welland, between 4e ELEMENTS OF GEOQRArHT. 'il ^m Lake, Ontario .„d K.-io ; Rscx, betwcn Lake, Eric a„,J ^.t:;;i:: : ; "j;:;:,r- -- '-««::: 174 tL r 1 ■' "" '" """"y " l''"!"' OxforO. „n<, Br,x„t. ruUn., e„::!l;; ' ''''''"' ''"'''^^^^ joining Lake On tirin .. q- , v v m.uio, lork, ad- ViotoHa ^M^:,!^:i:^";^ «-•«;« Ba,; to tto Otta™ and to the c!"r of." f °'''''''' ""'^^ mostly of „n,„,,,,yed crown Cr ™"' "''™'^*' aa":r Tc^ir ;:: .^r trt "- '■'^* '^^- Ottawa. ^ ^ ^^- I^awrence and ,io"f j;:;~="r "^"7"" "' '"^ '^^"^ 0'- leMs. on rL^^rrt L "r'r ' •^'^"^'"'- -* Ku,«>l. Carleton, and Ec„f ^ on ^TT I'T'' Ottawa ; W.k. inland. Mwe^ I e 1 "d 1^,^,: ''^ ELEMENTS OF GEOaRAPIIT. 47 lios Kric an(? I -lakes IIuiDii plain. iVestcrn divi- »5 adjoining %in,Kent„ ton, Huron,, >'umig; Geor- Middlesex,. (la is tJiat " tlic SOUtJl ortlu TJiis. ^ and con- iike Sinicoe. ntral divi- 3f?s, Prince York, ad- ?ian Bay ; I'liam and •giau Bay,, ', consists ! that tri- ence and tern divi- ille, and* Prescott,. k of the- 179. RrvRTis OF Uiter Canada. The Thames, flowing S. W. into Lake. St. Clair ; the Ouse or Grand Klvcr, flow- ing S. E. to the N. E. of Lake Erie ; the WcUaud, or Chip- pcvay, flowing E. to the Niagara, above the falls, in its course forming part of the Welland Canal, joining Lakes |]rie and Ontivrio ; the Otonabcc, flowing S. into Rice Lake ; the Trent, flowing from Bice Lake S. E. into the Bay of Quinte, between Hastings and the Prince Edward Penin- sula ; the Kideau, flowing N. to the Ottawa, on its L. bank, fornnng in its course part of the Ridcan Canal. 180. ToAv.xs OF Ui'i'ER Canada. Toronto, fi»vmer]y York, the capital, in the county of York, on the banks of Lake Ontario, is a fine town, with many public buildings, a good harbour and considerable trade with Buffalo in the United States. Population, 40,000. Hamilton, in tlie county of Wentworth, is at the W. of Lake Ontario. Population, 20,000. London, in Middlesex, on the Thames, has a population of about 10,000. Niagara, in the county of Lincoln, at the mouth of the Niagara River. Queens- town, above Niagai'a, below the Falls. Kingston, in the county of Frontenac, on Lake Ontario, (on the site of I^ort Frontenac- ) Population, • about 8,000 ; close to it is Navy Bay, the chief naval station, and from it the Rideau Canal proceeds to Ottawa, on the Ottawa. Brockville, in Leeds ; Prescott, in Granville, at the southern ter- minus of the Railway ; and Cornwall, in Stormont, all upon the St. Lawrence. Ottawa (formerly Bytown,) on the Ottawa, at the terminus of the Rideau Canal. Popu- lation, 10,000. Peterborough, in Peterborough, on the Otonabec ; Cobourg, in Northumberland, on Lake Onta- rio, and Belleville, in Hastings, 6n the Bay of Quinte, Qre also risinf towns^ 48 BWMKNTB OF OEOailAl'UV. LOWEIl CANADA. I»l. Lowor C,u,u,l,. may bo divide,! imturally i,„„ tlu« ,«,„.„. ; a „„,..l,.we,to,.„ division. „,. „,„ ,„„ ,„ ^ «f .Ue nvc-s Ottawa and St. I.aw.en„„ ; a »«utll.e™ .■..on on t.,0 ri«,.t „ank of .,,„ St. W^noo ; d 1' follow, .'"'Vo"';rfi''° ■'"'"— "«™ '«vi,i„„ arc,, Ott,»w», Argenteuil. Two Mounbtins, Tcnvbonnc LA, rn7srL7'- "^'r-' "^ -«-- -^ «. ot^wt -S'fst^zi::t:-:t^^^^^^^^^ the Sf T „, 1 — ^°^ Quebec to the mouth of 188 The small, triangular portion between tbo .„„ .-.*.. .nolndes tbe counties of Vaudreuil (witTperLt I^t lawren,;. ' ^ *=«>"»''«««. a>ijoi..ing the St. 184. The counties of the south 0i»a*««« j- ■ . follows- 1 Ar • • soutn-eastern division ai-c a» Chambly, Veroherr r12,- *^'«''«"'euay. La Prairie. binie^/wiJ^r AST'the sT?' '''"'""' ""'■ Q^boo. round to the"; ^ V chaLrr'In' ^""' Montmaffuv L'IsIp^ ir«. , ^^>a^eurs. Bellechasse, «k; fi«« « ' Kamom-aska, Temiscouata, Rimou ..^ Duwum of the next page. ELEMENTS OF UEOCJRAPUY. 49 ^>ally into ) left banks ith-eaatern ce ; »>.nd a St. Law- «on are as Pontiac, "e, L'As- 10 Ottawa ti-oal (Isle o Quebec. L»nge, St. inland , mouth of B Isle of St. Law- tbe two •rot Islo) the St. ai-c m Quebec. I*l-airie, )t. Lot. 1 below !chasse» Rimou- Sta,to8. nstead. romptoii, Beauce, Dorehostcr, Bellechasse, Montmagny, L' Islet, Kamouraska, Temiscouta. 8. Counties in the interior. Napierville, llouvillo, SheflFord, Sherbrooke, St. Hyacinthe, Bagot, Drummond, Artliabaska, Wolfe, Megan tic. 180. Lower Canada is also divided into five districts, as follows: — Montreal, St. Tiancis, Three llivers, Quebec, and Gawpe. 187. Ill VERS OF LowKji Canada. The St. Lawrence is tlio great river of Lower Canada. It flows from Lake Ontario N. E. to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, a course of 0(K) miles. It is studded with islands along a great part of its course, except between Lake St. Peter and Quebec. It forms the Lake of the 1000 isles, where it leaves Lake Ontario, expands into Lake St. Francis, and then to Lake St. Louis, a little above its junction with the Ottawa ; to Lake St. Peter, a little above its confluence with the St. Maurice ; to which point alpo the tides ascend. At Que- bec, it is about three quarters of a mile in width. It is navigable to Montreal for vessels of GOO tons burden. Above Montreal, there are many rapids which prevent vessels ascending, but which do not prevent large vessels, steamers, and others, from descending. To enable shijts to ascend, there is a magnificent series of canals with locks, into which vessels pass aside at the more difficult rapids. From about the beginning of December to May, the navi- gation of the St. Lawrence is interrupted by ice. The real source of the St. Lawrence is the small river St. Louis, which enters the west angle of Lake Superior, the great * Those in italics have already been mentioned as adjoining the St. Lawrence. This repetition is of importance in impressing on the mind the gengraphicai positions of the counties, their relation to rirere, seas, or the adjoining states. ill.; i: u I lii' ; itv 60 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. f, I. 'n'»!els. 4/;"; f ™"' *■;•/»* liru„,,„iek extends from 45= to 4S 8' N. lat., and from fi;)= M' to n7» r,!j' w ,„_. ,, ..«00 miles in length, and ,8,1 in breadth ; itfarea IS 27,(,20 square mdes, and population, 212 000 211 Towns. FuK-niiaicTON, the capital, is in the county of^ork,on the U. bank of the St. John River aboTso ■mles fron. the sea. Popniation, 5000. S. J„ ^ ,* larg^t town in the p-wince, is in St. John county a't mouth, and on the L. hank, of the Uiver St. .Tohn Popu lafon «5.0,X.. St. John is a place of great trlde, Xh n acfve and enterprising population. St. A.,.„1 „" Passamaquoddy Bay. Population, 4000. S.okv, u on Cumberland Basin ; 0..at„,v„ and Nkw,h,t,k I^H B..y Of Miramichi ; „„„™sr and Dv.„::, ^ '..r, ; oJ^Chaleurs ; and Wooostook. in Carleton, are l^ 21Z CUMATK. The climate of New Brunswick is con- stdered very healthy. The winters are long and seve^ but eoosulerably milder than in Lower Canada. iZTii much fog on the shores of the B.y of Fundy durin^Ium mer, but this does not extend far inland. tZ^LZ' meter ranges at St. John fl.om 18» below ze™ IZ^ above wro ; and the range is still greater inland. 14 ELEMENTS OP GEOQKArHY. 57 218. From the great extent of sea coast, and niimeroufc- navigable rivers traversing all parts, New Brunswick is admirably adapted for commerce. . 214. Products and Trade. The forest and the fisheries are the great commercial features of New Brunswick. 'J'lie forest furnishes the principal export, lumber, and also tiie materials for the chief manufactures, wood-sawing and ship-building ; the latter of which is carried on extensively at St. John, St. Andrew's,- Sackville, and the ports on tlic Miramichi. The saw-mills are worked, some by water power, which is abundant, some by steam. Considerable quantities of grain, including Indian corn, are raised ; also, potatoes and turnips, and good sugar from the maplo tree. Coal, iron, a|id lime, 'and good building stone, a; x- abundant in New Brunswick. The coal is found chiefly in Queen's County, near-Grand Lake, and in Albert County, near the Petitcodiac River : the iron at Woodstock, near the St. John, where there are extensive iron-works, (imd material for grind-stones is found in several pbices, and there is a considerable export of this article. In King's County and Victoria, there are salt springs fi.,m whjcii good salt is procured. The soil is fertile, but a large por- tion is yet uncleared. 216. Besides lumber, the leading exports are gyi-sum, coal, and grindstones. The exports exceed £T,000,()0{) sterling in value. 216. The population consists mostly of those of British descent ; -with a few sprung from the early French settlers, and some Indians, -— Mic-macs in the N., Milicetes near the St. John River. It was originally a French colony, ••'.'.v TT iic vv— v^ ixx \Ai.^tii. jmiLwIXi (Villi v^ciiiciiUui ill j «ij?». iiil! constitution is similar to that of Canada, being vested in a Governor, Legislative Council, and a Hoiiee of Assen^i)ly 58 ELEMENTS OF GEOGSAPHT. IrF f ii^ m of 41 memtes, chosen by the people. The most numerou, Itanan Cathohcs, Church of Scotland, and Dissenting Rresbj-temns and Congregationalists. ^ NOVA SCOTIA ai7. BouKDAitiEs. No™ Scotia is bounded on the N bv Nor hu,„berland Strait, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence '• 1 ''-].. by the Gut of Canso, Chedabucto Bay and the r.,'»n- c Ocean ; on the S. by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the W bv he Atlantic Ocean, the Bay of Fundy, Chegnlto Ba^^ 218. Nova Scotia is a peninsula, touching the sea on -,v s,de except at New Brunswick, to which it s jl J the .sthmus of Chegnecto, 10 miles in breadth Tnd *.'0.n Which it is separated by the river MissagJth ' -1 J. Divisions. Nova Scotia is divided into 14 counties -ach of wluch adjoins the sea -.-i i„ ,„« N., :„„ ^j' n, (^onnng New Brunswiclc, and touching the sea on t^ .-.d .,) Colchester, (touching the sea on both sides,) Picl ■■■"I %dney ; 5 in the S. E., Guysborough, Hahfrx Unenhurg, Queen's, and Shelburne ; 2 in the W Vnr -;. - Bigby , a in the N. W., AnnapoirKi:;: .x::::s:x.rrrro^r:^c"'- und Chedabucto Bay in the / cT V 'n ^''''' X. ,r , ^' ^® ^- 5 Country Harbour TTpli iax Harbour or Chebucto Bay, Margarets Bay^M^oL" Bay, Lunenburg Harbour in the S. E. ; Shelburne nlr "our, Townshead Bay, and Yarmouth h:..,™ L™ "f" f Mary's Bay, and Annapolis Basin'and'Gu't" Br„f Nndy, Cheguecto Bay, Cumberland Ba.in, in h! (y y ELEMENTS OE GEOGllAPHY. 59 Minas Channel, Minas Basin, and Cobequid Bay, E. of the Bay of Fundy. 221. Peninsulas. Digby Neck, in the W. ; the W. of Cumberland ; the E. of Guysborough ; and the S. W. of Halifax County. 222. Islands. Pictou Island, in Northumberland Strait ; McNab's and St. George's Islands in Halifax Harbour ; Sable Island, in the S. E., GO'' W. long. ; Cape Sable Island, Seal Island, and Mud Island, in the S. ; Long Island, and Brier Island in the W. 223. Mountains. The Cobequid Mountains, in Cum- berland and Colchester, about 1100 feet in height ; the North and South Mountains of Annapolis ; and a range extending AY. S. W. from the Gut of Canso. 224. Rivers. St. Mary's, Musquodoboit, Sackville, Lahave, Liverpool, flowing into the Atlantic Ocean ; Anna- polis River, flowing into Annapolis Basin ; Shubenacadie River, flowing into Cobequid Bay ; and the East and West Rivers, flowing into Pictou Harbour. 225. Lakes. The principal Lakes are, Rossignol Lake, in Queen's County ; Sherbrooke Lake, in Lunenburg ; and Ship Harbour Lake, in Halifax. 226. Extent, &c. Nova Scotia lies in a direction from N. E. to S. W., between 61° 10' and 66° 20' W. long., and 43° 25' and 46° N. lat. Its greatest length is 256 miles ; its greatest breadth about 100 miles ; area, 15,600 square miles ; population in 1851, 221,239. 227. Towns. Halifax, on the W. side of Halifax Har- bour, is the capital. Population, upwards of 26,000. It is the chief naval and military .station, and has a fin« dockyard, a fortilied citadel, on Citadel Hill, an elegant Provincial Building for the Legislature, a University and public schools in Palhousie College. There is considerable -I 60 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. at which there is condderable ship-building. Annapolis ^reuoh n 1605, has an m French fort. Windsor in Han.., the seat of Windsor College. Wo.muK. in kLv tounty, wth Acadia College, belonging to the Bap^s HoETON, also in that county. Tevbo, in Colchester wt the Normal School. Pxoxou, in Pictou, where Lit considerable sllip-building. * " " 228. Cl,m.*™. Nova Scotia has a ver. hcalthv cH 2*« ; though fogs are frequent on the ist P^' Z!7coia :r " '""" ""■""""" "'•--terised by seyeie co d and an extensive ocean, it has a somewhat changeable c mate. It i, io«. i.„. • 'omewnat „,.ij • • . **'' ™' "» summer and lea.s cold m winter than Camd^ tv„ tare of H«.if r*" 7"''«'''- The mean annual tempera- ture of Halifax is 43«' ; mean winter temperature 24= • mean summer temperature 68= ' .:iS:;;co:\^ti:';rc:;r'j :"L^rn;X"'•rca"r^^'■-''— - t^ay from Halifax to Windsor, now open to Bedford at the head of Halifax Harbour. ' * 230. The government is carried on by a Lieutenant Go ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 61 231. There are about 70,000 Roman Catholics in the province (including Cape Breton ;) 87,000 adherents of the Church of England, and 19,000 of the Church of Scot- land ; 53,000 Dissenting Presbyterians ; 48,000 Baptists ; 24,000 Methodists, and nearly 3000 Congregationalists. 232. History. Nova Scotia was first colonised by the French, under the name of Acadie. After many strug- gles, it was ceded to the British in 1718 ; and the first con- siderable settlement was in 1749, when a large body of British emigrants arrived, and founded the city of Hali- fax, so called after the Earl of Halifax, but which many wish to retain the old Indian name, Chebucto. 233. Sable Island, about 60° W. long., and 43° 30' 11 lat., is mostly of sand hillocks, and the scene of frequent shipwrecks. There is a superintendant, with several as- sistants, on the island, for the purpose of rescuing and assisting shipwrecked seamen. It is notable also for its wild ponies. There are many shoals near it, and a great bank extends a considerable way from it in a S. W. direc- tion. CAPE BRETON ISLE. 234. Cape Breton Island is at the N. E. of Nova Scotia, separated from it by the Gut of Canso. It is nearly cut in two by a large inlet, called Le Bras d'Or Lake, con- nected with the Atlantic Ocean by two narrow straite, called Great Bras d'Or Entrance and Little Bras d'Or. Between these is the Island of Boulardri€. Its leading other waters are St. Ann's and Sydney Harbours in the N., Mire and Gabarus Bays m the E., St. Peter's Bay in -.«^ ^'. ±iiv loixniiua or ot. Feter'8, which joins the two parts, is about half a mUe in breadth. At the S. of Si Peter's Bay, is Isle Madame. . 1 1 K *' iii 62 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 235. Capo Breton Me is M 1)4 ELEMKNT3 OF OEOOBAPBY. \ Ht the JV. W. by the narrow Straite „f Belleisle about J- nu e, ,,. broadth. It, pHnoipal outer wate™ a e Fortule and Placentia Bays „„ the S., Conception Bay, Tri^ arl«ur, Bonavista, Notredame, and White Bay I^ the '•■• tane and St. George's Baya „„ the W. nJ^S^ Z :„;r'7'»' -«• Avalon. nearly cut off fL tit '«st of the „land by Tmity and Placentia Bays and J..,ned by an isthmus of about a mile in breadth. -47. S. and S. E. of the island are the Great Basks T^'TZoTr ^"o «-"' ^'■"'c extends fZ' iron ^ to S., and about 230 from E. to W. The denth of water is from'lS to 80 fathoms. ^ "* m. The towns are St. Joun's, the capital, on the S E t.on Baj ; PtACENiiA, on Placentia Bay. St. John's has been .several times destroyed by fire. «Jt. The climate is severe during a great nart of th^ year, with much.fog, and frequent sL Lrmsftle shm e"":::: ::: *^ tv'°'- ^-- =' ^'^ - -a t^ f„b'»H f ™'™'"' """"•'"' '■ "»* '"«« «»ber. The nhabuants are almost entirely employed in the fisheril ; ' of cod, salmon, herring, and seals. The cod fishery is thj most extensive in the world, and is carried on from June ' to October, on the banks and the adjacent shores The exports are dried fish, oil, seal-*i„s, s'almon and Zrin ' ^rewf„„ndland is also not.ble for its fine breed of rg7" Ji-oorzr ;:^"'^ ."» -'^ =- ■»"-. oreaatn. The area is about 38,000 sauarft ""^1 ' Tt?"'""'"'' '''"*"'• "'"^'■^ ^■»- O^tOo^ ^ol. There ,s a governor appointed by the British tJovernment, an Executive r„..„„.-. .... .' ^"^'" •r. member,, chosen by the peopir" """ "" ""'""''"' ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 65 252. The islands of St. Pierre and MiqueloUi off the S. coast, belong to the French. HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY. 253. The remainder of the British Territory is under the control of the Hudson's Bay Company, who maintain posts or stations at different places, and a numerous staff of oflBcers for collecting the furs brought by the Indians and others, which, with fishing and hunting, forms the princi- pal occupation of the scattered inhabitants. These are Esqui\naux in the N. and N. E., Indians of various tribes, and a few of British descent, mostly the servants of the Company. The leading tribes of Indians are the Assini boines, the Crees, the Blackfeet. 254. The climate is exceedingly severe' throughout the greater part of this region, except the southern part of the west coast. The northern part is bound up in ice and snow during great part of the year. In some places, the mean annual temperature is many degrees below zero. 255. The principal stations are Moose Fort, at the S. of James' Bay ; Fokt York, at the mouth of the Nelson River, on the W. side of Hudson's Bay ; Fokt Churchill, N. of Fort York ; Fort au Liard, about 60° N. lat, a little E. of the Rocky Mountains ; Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie River, N. of Fort au Liard ; Fort Macphee- 80N, in the N. W., on Peel River, a little W. of the Mac- kenzie River. On the coast of Labrador there are some Moravian missionary settlements, for the religious instruc- tion of the Esquimaux. Of these, Nain, 56j|° N. lat., i» the chief. ' 266. Vancouver's Island has a fine, mild climate, abundance of timber ; a soil fitted for the growth of corn ; and coal, lead, and limestone. It is nearly 300 mile* i, " m ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. mi J " """^ "'"^-' -0 -veral thousand IV. EUEOPE. Eivo,-, and Cajl gl ^ "" ^'■"^ M»»ntoin., Ural «>e a b, the ^:::'.;:::^'2^ r f ''-^ ^ »" ofO.eatBHr^al:,''"^-/'';^':"^''^^'"^'^™. 8- In the E. kLh-v"""*; ''™^' "''" Sw«Iea. ^. I" the ■ Jr;;;;,r 'Hr:^T"^ ^ «-«'• zerland ; Italy. ' ' <^<^^'"^any ; Swit- 259. The following are the capital town, with H,n or nvers on which they stand :- " "'' ''*' Ignited Kingdo^n. London, on the Thame. g^r^ I'-- Seine. ^P'^in Madrid \r p^'-s-' Lisbon. ::: ^^,r'- I^"""!^ Copeuhaj "^ ^® gen Sound. ^^■.■::::::S:^!:::^ ^^^o^ch^stiania. ^"•^^'^ St. Petersburg Prussia t?.,.i:„ '^ ^^*^^** Vienna... "' . JLake Maelar. Neva. Spree. Danube. ELEMENTS OP GEOGRAPHY. 67 n settled, thousand COtNTRIES, CAPITAL TOWNS. SBAS OR RITEBS. ^. by the Qs, Ural Asia ; on Straits of mlaneJ- ia; and , wJiich Ocean, ingdoni Portu- »weden. Grreece. ; Swit- le seas Straits of Constantinople Gulf of Egina. Sennc. Amstel or Y. Maine. Turkey Constantinople . Greece Athens Belgium Brussels Holland Amsterdam . . . Germany Frankfort Switzerland Berne Aar. Italy Rome Tiber. 260. Norway and Sweden are now united under one government. 231. Germany consists of several states, of which the chief are the kingdoms of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxony, and Hanover ; and the Grand Duchies of Baden, Hesso Darmstadt, Hesse Cassel, Oldenburg, and Mecklenburg. 262. Italy is also divided into several states, of which the principal are the kingdoms of Sardinia and Naples ; Lombardy and Venice ; the Ducliy of Tuscany, and the States of the Church. 263. Outer Waters. North Channel, between Scotland and Ireland ; Irish Sea, between England and Ireland ; St. George's Channel, between Ireland and Wales ; Bristol Channel, S. of Wales ; the English Channel, between England and France ; the Straits of Dover (21 miles) at the S. E. of England, joining the English Chan- nel and the North Sea ; the North Sea or German Ocean, E. of Britain ; the Skager Rack, between Denmark an« tH':ai:i\rri:Lr:;vT'' '"^ ''»- «' to Russia. ' "'^ ^"'^OP. joins the Crimea 267. Islands. Nova Zembla nl.fi,. •wrgen, N. of Norway • T^ , ""™* ^ ^pite- Norway, all in the Z'i; Oclt" ' T' "* "'" ^- ^- "^ «ooan, N W. of Eur p! "rs 'f tl "a"' '" '"" ^«'"'"'= Faroe Isles, S E of V/J , " ^'"■"' Circle ; tl,e thochief ai-e oLt Briw : a'. ; f "* '''^^' "^ "'-" Channel Isles nZT " ^''"*""'' '" "'e W. ; the ' isies, near France, at the W «f ,i „ Channel ; Zealand, S. W of s„ T . "^ ^"^'i^'' oonaisting of Iviza »/„."'"'* ""'^"'■'''I^'es. terraneafsea ; cli'ca ^T.' *"""■■"• '" '"^ "odi- &• orUorsica ; Sicilv. a v «*-r.J,^ -- -^ ^cuua ; oardinia, 8icU7,S.E.ofItaly; Malta and Gozo, 8. of ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 69 laming the Vfediterra- >f France ; Straits of Straits of ic Sea or between 'danelles, ; the Sea horus or lora anci ssia ; the Sea and sk Sea ; i'ay anti imark ; 3e; the a with Crimea, Spitz- W. of lantio ); the ivhich ; the glish fsles, ledi- inia, 3. of Sicily ; the Ionian Isles, W. and S. of Greece ; Candia, S. of the Archipelago ; the Cyclades, scattered through the Archipelago. 208. Capes. North Cape, on an island at the N. of Norway ; the Naze, at the S. of Norway ; the Skaw, at the N. of Denmark ; Cape Clear, at the S. W. of Ireland ; Cape Wrath at the N. W. and Duncansby Head, at the N. E. pf Scotland ; Land's End, at the S.W. of England ; Cape Fini»- terre, at the N.W. of Spain ; Cape St. Vincent, at the S.W. of Portugal ; CapeTarifa, in Spain at the Straits of Gibral- tar ; Cape Passaro, at tlieS.E. of Sicily ; Cape Spartivento, at the S. of Italy ; Cape Matapan, at the S. of Greece. 269. Mountains. The Grampians, in Scotland ; the Pyrenees, between France and Spain ; the Alps separating Italy from France, Switzerland, and Germany, and ex- tending S. E. into Turkey ; the Apennines, extending through Italy ; Haemus or the Balkan Mountains in Tur- key ; the Carpathian Mountains in the N. and E. of Aus- tria ; the Hercynian Mountains, in Germany and the N. of Bohemia ; the Dovrefield Mountains in Norway ; the Kolen Mountains, between Norway and Sweden ; the Ural Mountains, at the E. of Europe, and the Caucasus at the S. E. separating Europe from Asia. 270. Rivers. 1. Flowing into the Arctic Ocean. The Petchora, in the N. E. of Russia ; the Northern Dwina, in Russia, flowing into the White Sea. 2. Flowing into the Baltic Sea or Us branches. The Duna or Western Dwina, in Russia, falling into the Gulf of Riga ; the Niemen, in Russia and Prussia, falling into the Baltic Sea ; the Vis- tula, in Russia and Prussia, flowing into, the Gulf of Dant- zic ; the Oder, in Prussia, flowing into the Baltic. 11 Flowing into the A'orth Sea. The Elbe, in Austria, Prus- sia and Germany (L. Saale, R. Spree ;). the Weser, in 70 ' ELEMENTS OF GEOGKAPUY and the Scheldt, in f ranee lirf ■ '° "^ '*^'"''' 4. Flowing into the J, 7 J^ ^""" "'"' """""d- TI.e Seine, in reN oft: •""" "' "' *''"-*- «.o w ;„<: tL'^Gai! :Tt:e?:f r '■' ".'""^' ^ Uav of Biscay • t),^ r>n, L ^ ''"'^^' "^^o the Lyons (K,.Saono;) ti.e Cur'tCp "'•?'' ^^ toving into the Gulf of Venice P „. !"' '" "'"^'' *V«. The Danube, in G ™ nv a!!? '' '"" "" ^''"^^- yi'oiss, Truth, E. inn d™!"^; '"?'"' "'"'■'"^ <''■ MepeisintheS W of'n ' ^ ™ '' "'" "'"'''^'" ""^ J ''"""^»> "-of Russia; the Don, in tims „fi3 "■a, flowing into the Sea of Azolf T - ^-.of Kus- lS«.4e ami Asia ° ""'"'" ' "'-•' "™'' •'^'"oe" 271 1 VKES. . LaUoga an ' Onega, in the N W „. r »« ; Woucr and Wetter, in : Vcdo^, r„ "^ ^^'"- of Switzerland ; C„nsta;„e, Tt , ' '^TX.!'"'- ''■ Neagh, iu tho N. of Ireland •'-w.tzerland ; J«af 70:"'::::'%,:''" r *" '-■""' ""•' *»» «- looland, passes thrlgh .1 ^ r f 7'" ^''"-'^ ""^ ^- "^ Kolen „,„„ntai„s into Swec n enters n''' T'^ ""^ the Gulf of Bothnia and .! , "* " '""« «. of White Sea. Th L IJv, ' ""«" ''" '"<'""' "^ '!"' little K oftheStelandT ^ """" *'" ^"■«' «^«. » «..ire, cros^c/th tuth IT "'" ^"*'""' '" ^■"'*- bridge and through Grelt'ch 7 I 'T "^" ^^^'"- i„__. ^ . *= "ieenmcii, 4 miles K. r.f t^»,j„_ '"'"^ -«'-d in S«^.., near Brighton, "itcr^rh; ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 71 France and id Holland ie or Maas, Holland. branches. Channel ; ', into the > in Spain >• Flowing »ain ; the :icGulfof in Italy, lie Black irlvcy (L. s^ter and . of Rus- into the I'etwecn [)f Hsu- ie S. -VV. erland ; he first te N. of 5es the e JV. of of the ^ea, a Vork- Cam- n-aOIi , ee the mouth of the Seine, Fri^uce and the Pyrenees, and leaves Spain near Alicant. 273. Zones. Europe is in the N. temperate zone, ex- cept small parts of the north of Norway, Sweden and Rus- sia, forming Lapland, which are in the N. frigid zone. 274. Extent, &c. Europe extends from 3G° N. lat., (Cape Tarif-i,) to 71 ^N. lat., (Cape Nordkyn, in' Nor- way,) and from 9^80' W. long, (Cape Roca, near Lisbon,) to about GS^-E. long., intlie.xN. E. of Russia. Its length, from N. to S., is about 2400 miles, and its breadth, from E. to W., about 8000 miles. Its area is 3| millions of square miles ; and the population is about 270 millions. 275. General Features. Europe on i\\e N. W. and S., is much indented by arms of the sea, which is favour- able to commerce, and conduces to a mild, temperate cli- mate. It is mountainous in the N. W., W. and S., and mostly one great plain in the N. E., E. and S. E. ' The chief mountain ranges are the Scandinavian range in the N. W., the Ural Range in tlie E., and one great range ex- tending from the W. of the Spanish peninsula to the Black Sea, sending many spurs N. and S., rising to 15,700 feet in i.Iont Elanc, in Savoy, the highest mountain in Europe. The plains are, from the Baltic Sea N. E. to the l^ral Mountains ; from Belgium E. to i\iQ Volga ; the N. shores of the Black and Caspian Seas ; the Hungarian plain, watered by the Danube and the Thciss ; the plain of Lombardy ; the plain of the Seine and the Loire, in the N. of France ; the E. of England. The interior of the Spanish peninsula is a table land, about 2200 feet in elevation ; also, Bavaria in the S. of Germany, about 1800 feet ; and the S. of Norway. 270. Climate. Europe has three climates ; an arctic climate, in the N. ; an insular temperate climate, in the W. ^ ■ - L--. 72 n ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. .■ f ^nd S., where nearly surrounded and penetrated by the 00 d, in the middle and E., where remote from the mod^ ratmp: influence of wfttor "Vu. v . "^" "^e moae- Hes close to the AtTantk; i. l r*"*^ of I^urope, which Asia ; of the BrH sh /!« rn '\*^'"P^^*'*^ *h^° that of Europe ; of Irelan^lih^^^^^^^^^ than that of than that of the interior nl?!. ^"t»im, more temperate of Britain to^Sl^n Si^ whi h^ tTJ ntP"'"^"^ are so much exnosml in h.« L^ wjiK^'i tJie northern parts renders .„meSf'^l"':ort^^Z''"r"°^"^^ leys actually wanner tlwn 1 1 1 ""•''' ""'''heOrk- ■nonth of the war thm t^ ^ m °" ']"""« *''« ^^'^t JiiinburRh and 1 ,^.„„T ""';'""■ "' "■"■o«'er times. 56 °N lat J™ "'"'"""W are nearly on the same parallel i^S8=\5-„yiheTaSr-r="''r*,"";P"'''"'''-'"»'«'^^ rerature of MolVw i, «4= ' i",'? ''° i™"" «'"«""«'• ««»>- south ; and t7« mean wt „//'""""' ■""""'' '» « ° f«'*er 7'fu,.ther.o„th..--.,„-.V«^;2!:-'J^^^^^^^^^ reland, Scotland, and even Norway, ia believed to owe its ■u dness, .n part, to the influence of the Gulf S ITam wh.ch pours a large body of warm water on these e*":' 27,. Imiab.ta™. The inhabitants of Europe are of Magyar m Hungary, and the Turks, who are mostiv Mongohans. The Russians, Poles, and inhabitants f ome part, of Austria and Turkey, are of the n,„> iamily, and speak Slavonic langoao-es Tl,,. P^w Spanish, Italians, French, and some^oT'the ^^tf B^' geans are of mixed Celtic, Gothic, 'and „tl.er famiUes !fd" peak languages derived from the ancient Lat^'^^ '^^'^'r '." "'^ N- °f '^^ W, also speak a dialect JZ --".. iue ocottish Gaels, native Irish, Welsh, and .ome ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 73 J^i by the heat and the mode- pe, which i^n that of fi that of eniperate arrowing ern parts f water, the Ork- i coldest r times, parallel, e former ler tem- )f Edin- 3fUJ°is further iburgh, , about iraphy. e W. of owe its 'trcam, asts. are of th, tlie mostly nts of ivonic ?uese, 1 Bel- I, aiid The "J^the some of the Bretons (in the N. W. of France) are Celtic, and speak Celtic languages. The other leadiri.; nauons, oc- cupying the N., are of the great Gothic or Teutonic family, and speak Gothic languages. These languages are Scandinavian, as tlio Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish ; or German, as the Dutch, Flemish, English, and German. The Turks speak an eastern or Tartar tongue, and Arabic. The Greeks spoak the Eomair, like the ancient Greek. The Jews, .of the Semitic family, are scattered throughout Europe. * 278. The inhabitants of Euro, o are Christians, excepting the Turks, who are Mohammedans, and the Jews. 279. The western nations, speaking Latin languages, (Portuguese, Spanish, Italians, French, Belgians, and part of the Swiss,) the majority of the Irish, and the Aus- trians, Bavarians, and a few other Germans, are Homan Catholics, acknowledging the Pope as the head of their church. The northern nations, from Switzerland to Nor- way, and Britain to Prussia, are mostly Protestants, (English, Scotch, Dutch, Germans, Prussians, Danes, Swedes, Norwegians.) Generally, the Gothic races in- cline to Protestantism. The Eastern nations, including the Russians, Greeks, and many of the Turks are Greek Catholics. Generally, the Slavonic races are of this com- munion. 280. The governments of Europe are monarchies, ex- cept that of Switzerland, which is a republic. 281. The governments of the United Kingdom, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Prussia, Sardinia in * The Caucasian race is divided into a Semitic section, embracing the Jews, Arabs, and ancient Assyrians ; and an Indo-European section, including the Hindoos and Persians in Asia, and in Europe, the Sla- ▼onic, Gothic, Celtic, and Pelasgic (Greek and Latin) families. 5 74 ElEMENTS OF GEOOBAPHI. ut ,. at present in a state of revolution. rurryT«; tHe Set:; r /or :::r r"" ''"-" ^"' veality despotic. ^' governments are in ...etutier::; we:t:;:;:'f/rr ^■'^^■■«— , H^ed parts, were uTdrtur;:. Lo:7«' 'T'' T'' pe..rs. In the year 880, ConZ tltre^TTh" ^ the Turks have .een .oZ7' r ' ''^'' ^^"^^ ^^^^^ overran the we.,t of JJurope The rt I ™ "^ '""* aud changes, supervell !'„ . ^ ''«^''' *■"" »' ''»" dated in «.eir pLntW^tStirsr"":"""''" Moors, a Mohammedan «.„n^! "''"'■>'' ""' of Spain, from whW> «!':!' /^""^ » '"«« P»" AH western E Jpe ,twlZ. ^ \. Tf ^ "«^- of the Pope till tl^ middle of tt 1 u, T " """''"'"''^ Reformation, begnn by L«, er n slT 7.' ?"" '"' -them states from the'RomarCalufc^^r '^' ""^ XHE UNITED KINGDOM OF GKEAT BRITAIN '^^'^ IRELAND. "^ .-^^f ™^^''"'''' Kingdom consists of *!,„ ;.,._.. ., ^...t Bruan, and Ireland, in the N. W. <^'i^;2 nstitutional :overnment, rurkey and rcliies. In forms, but lents are in listian era, ' only civi- oman Em- t, who had Qpire front continued i53, whea I'hich time the end of ni Roman ribes who H of wars e close of e consoli ^tury, the ^rge part in 1492. ipremacy ivhen the !hed the PAIN ^r with ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 76 leveral small adjacent islands. It extends from about 60° to 61 <= N. lat., including the Shetland Isles, and from about 1°46'E. long, to 11°W. long. The area is 121,779 square miles ; the population is upwards of 28 millions It includes the countries of England, Wales, and Scotland (forming Great Britain) and Ireland. These were once separate, and still differ more or less in race, language, laws, religion, or manners and customs. 284. The crowns of England and Ireland were united by Henry II. in 1172, the parliaments in 1801. Wales was annexed to England by Edward I. in 1283. The crowns of England and Scotland were united in 1603, under James I. ; the parliaments in 1707, in the reign of Queen Anne. ENGLAND. 285. Boundaries. England is bounded on the N. by the Solway Frith, and Scotland, from which it is sepa- rated by the Cheviot Hills and the river Tweed ; on the E., by the North Sea or German Ocean ; on the S., by the Straits of Dover and the English Channel ; on the W., by the Atlantic Ocean, St. George's Channel and the Irish Sea. 286. Divisions. England, including Wales, is divided into 52 counties. 1.-6 northern counties, nearly cut off from the others by the rivers Mersey and Humber ; Northumberland, Durham, and York on the E. ; Cumberland, Westmore- land, and Lancashire on the W. 2.-4 on the E. coast, from the Humber to the Thames ; Lincoln, Norfolk, Suf- folk, Essex. 3. — 8 southern maritime counties, from the Thames to the Severn ; Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, Dorset, Devon, Comwali, Somerset, Gloucester. 4.-4 adjoin^ ing Wales ; Monmouth, Hereford, Shropshire, Cheshire, \ u > ■'. i w- a 16 ELEMENTS OP GEOGRAPHT. Warwick, NoTthann,..,.!., Lo., ester, Eutland. 6.-7 in and, Mu,een tlu Thames and the Mn ; Oxford Buck' .ngham. Middle.. «„ the L. bank of the Thai;''. Hm' rl'll'Sf: ^*""'"- ^"'^■'■-' ''-"^tlre, Surrey. 287 OcTEB Wa^bs. Humber Mouth, between York »nd Lmooln , the Wash, between Linooto and Nor&ll Mouth of the Thames, between Esse, and Kent the' Dowm E of Kent, between it and the Goodwin Sa'nd" Sp.thead .n the E., the Solent, in the W., two Strata between Hampshire and the Me of Wight ; Mount's Bav m Cornwall ; Bristol Channel. S. of Wales ; Swansea and Caermarthen Bays, in the S. of Wales ; Cardigan bIv W " n r™ ti: E f ""' '"■""'• ''^'''^'=- ^"«'-y »^ cLeT: 288. IswNDS. Sheppey Isle, at the mouth of the Wight, S. of Hampshire ; the Channel Isles : Jersey ocmy isles. S. W. of Cornwall ; Anglesey, at the N W of Wales ; Isle of Man, in the Irish Sea. "-'J^-W-of 289 Capes. Flamborough Head and Spurn Head in Yortahire ; North Foreland and South Foreland^ir he E »nd Dungeness in the S. of Kent ; Beachy Head in s,f«" BUI, at the S. of Dorset ; lizard Point, at ti,. .« .-., -^0 E^a at the W. of CornwaU ; Great Orm^ Held:;* , Worcester^ 6.-7 in- ford, Buck- fnes ; Hert- 7 — 3 in- re, Surrey, me ; Flint, Merioneth, m, Breck- w^een York I Norfolk ; ^ent ; the in Sands ; wo Straits lilt's Bay, ansea and 1 Bay, W. ' md Caer- [orecambe i of the '' ; Isle of 1 Jersey, France ; ^. W. of Head, in ntheE., inSus- Portland lead, at ELEMENTS OF OEOORAPHY. 77 the N of Denbigh ; St. Bees Head, at the W. of Cum- berland. m Mountains. Cheviot Hills, at the N. of Northum- and , tl.e Pennine Range, extending from Cumberland through the W. of York into Derbyshire, where it is called f f JTM' ^^'''*' ''''^'"^"' '^ Cumberland, 3055 521 r. f T' ''^^'"'' ''^^"'^^' ^" ^--arvonshire. ^521 feet ; the Wrekin, in Shropshire ; Cotswold Hills, in Gloucestershire ; Malvern Hills, on the borders of Worces- tershire .uKl Herefordshire ; M.ndip Hills in Somersetshire. 291. R,^, 1. j,i^^.^^ .^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ The Tyne, at the S. of Northumberland; the Wear, in Durham ; the Tees, between Durham and York ; the Ouse m Yorkshire (R. Aire), flowing into the Humber ; th^ Trent, xn Stafford, Derby, Nottingham, Lincoln, (L. Der- went ;) flowing into the Humber ; the Humber, formed by the confluence of the Ouse and Trent, between York and Lmcoln; the Nen, in Northampton, and the Great Ouse in Cambridge, Norfolk, &c., flowing into the Wash ; the Thames, or Isis, from Gloucester, flowing east (R. Kennet ;) the Medway in Kent, flowing into Thames Mouth 2. Flowing to the W. coast; the Avon (or Lower Avon) flowing between Gloucester and Somersetshire into Bristol Channel ; the Severn, from Mount Plynlimmon in Montgomeryshire, flowing into Bristol Channel (R. Wye L. Avon ;) the Dee, at the E. of Cheshire, flowing into the Irish Sea ; the Mersey, at the S. of Lancashire, flowing into the Irish Sea ; the Eden, in Westmoreland and Cum- berland, flowing into the Solway Frith. 292. Lakes. There are few lakes in England. Der- went Watpr in niiT^K^^i^-j TTiT . ... ....xri,^.cii«,iiu, uiieswaier, and Winder- mere, at the W. of Westmoreland, are notable for their oeautiful scenery. \' J- I- f : r 3 78 ELEMENTS OF OEOGRAPIIY. 298. Extent, &o. England extends from Lizard Point, 49° 68' N. lat, to Berwick, C6°4(V N. lat., and from Land's End, S^Sl' W. long., to Lowestoft in SuflFolk, 1 *46' E. long. It is about 860 miles in length from Ber- wick to the S. of Dorset, and about 240 miles in breadth, from Lowestoft to Aberystwith in Cardiganshire. Area, 68,320 square miles. Population, 18j millions. 294. Towns. London, in Middlesex, mostly on the L. and N. bank of the Thames, is the capital, and the largest town in the world. It is about 8 miles long, and 4 miles broad ; and its population is upwards of 2^ mil- lions (2,600,000.) It is composed of several cities or towns, once separate, but now joined to each other, namely, Chelsea, Westminster, Londouy and Tower Hamlets, on the N. bank of the river, and Marylebone and Finsbury, K. of these ; and Lambdh and South- wark, on the S. bank of the river, in Surrey. The houses in London are mostly built of yellow bricks, but there are many fine public buildings, the greater number of which are of stone, as Buckingham palace, the town residence of the Queen ; the New Palace of Westminster, where the par- liament meets ; the government buildings at Whitehall ; Westminster Abbey, St. Paul's Cathedral, Somerset House! the Tower, the Royal Exchange, the Bank of England* and the British Museum, which is filled with antiquities* curiosities, specimens of animals and minerals from all parts of the world, and books. London is a port, with vast docks and great trade ; and is remarkable for its miles of splendid shops and dwelling houses, crowded streets,^ beautiful parks, its silk manufactories at Spital- fields, its great breweries, its innumerable omnibuses and river steamers, its banks and public companies, its exten- sive publication of books and newspapers, its fine bridges,. ELEMENTS OP OE0ritAPii>. 79 the tunnel under the Thames, ,.^ the . entre to which all railways point, as the seat of lay m,: ivernment, and a« the place where many great cvenv. history have oc- curred. In London, in each wueV , jvards of 1100 per- 6ons die, and more than 1500 ar. ouxu. Manciiestee, in the S. E. of Lancashire, on the Irwell, is the next largest town to London : population, more than 401,000. It is the greatest manufacturing town in the world. Its chief manufactures are. cotton-spinning, cotton-weaving, calicc prmtmg, and the manufacture of steam-engines, machi- nery, and tools. LivEKpooL, in the S. W. of Lancashire, cm the R. bank of the Mersey, is the second port in Eng' land. It has more than 370,000 inhabitants, very fine docks extending four miles along the river, great trade with America and the West Indies ; a remarkable Institu- tion, called The Sailor's Home, for the benefit of seamen ; and one of the most beautiful buUdings in England, a Orecian structure, called St. George's Hall. BirmiLq. HAM, in the i\. W. of Warwickshire, is the next largest town in England. It has more than 233,000 inhabitants. Birmingham has been called "the work-shop of the world." There are manufactured all sorts of hardware, steel-pena, buttons, tools, machinery, steam-engines, fire- arms, trinkets, toys, plated goods, glass, papier-mache and japanned articles. At Soho, close to Birmingham, the celebrated James Watt settled, and introduced the steam-engine he had invented. In the remotest corners of the earth, something may be found manufactured at Bir- mingham. Leeds, in the S. W. of Yorkshire, is the chief seat of the woollen manufacture and trade. It has more than 172,000 inhabitants. Sheffield^ in the S= of York^ shire, is the principal town in the world for the manufac- ture of cutlery, edge tools, .and plated goods. It has more ■■n f?^" 80 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. lih than 135,000 inhabitants. Newcastle- under -Lynit, iiuESLEM, and several other small towns in the N. W. of Staffordshire, are called The Potteries, and are the chief seats of the manufacture of porcelain and earthenware. 295. Ports. The other leading ports in England are as follows : — Newca8tle-on-Tyne, in the S. E. of Northum- berland, population 113,000, in the midst of a rich coal held, notable for its great export of coal, its manufactures of iron, glass, and locomotive engines. North and South vShields and Tynemoutii, at the mouth of the Tyne. Sunderland, population 68,000, in Durham, where there is much sh^-building carried on. Hull, in the S. E. of Yorkshire, on the Humber, population 85,000, the chief seat of tho Baltic trade. Yarmouth, at the W. of Nor- folk, population 31,000, notable for its herring fishery, 5ind trade with the north of Europe. Harwich, at the N. E. of Essex. Dover, at the S. E. of Kent, population 23,000, the chief steam-packet station for Calais in France (distance 21 miles) and Cstend in Belgium ; with M fine old castle, and celebrated chalk cliffs. Southamp- ton, in the S. of Hampshire, on the inlet called Souths ampton Water, population 36,000, the station for steam- packets to Havre, the Peninsula, the Mediterranean, and the West Indies. Falmouth, on Falmouth Harbour, in Cornwall. Bristol, in the S. W. of Gloucester, on the Lower Avon, population 137,000, the third sea-port in England, has considerable trade with the West Indies, and celebrated mineral hot baths at Clifton, in the vicinity. Swansea, at the S. E. of Glamorgan, population 32,000, •» notable for the smelting of copper-ores, and export of coal from the great S. Wales coal field. Birkenhead, in Cheshire, population 25,000, on the L. bank of the Mersey, opposite Liverpool, a rising port. Whitehaven, in th» mi ELEMENTS OP GEOaRAPHT. 81 der-Lynit, e N, W. of :'e the chief 3nware. land are as ' Northum- a rich coal nufactures and South the Tyne. rhere there he S. E. of , the chief ^. of Nor- ig fishery, DH, at the population Calais in urn ; with SoUTHAMPi- ed South'- hr steam- lean, and irbour, in !r, on the sa-port in idles, and vicinity, a 32,000, •» •rt of coal HEAD, in B Mersey, f, in thtt W. of Cumberland, population 20,000, exports coal from the Cumberland coal field. 296. Arsenals and Naval Stations. Deptford, popu- lation 28,000, and Woolwich, population 83,000, in the N. W. of Kent, on the R. bank of the Thames. Chatham, in the N. of Kent, at the mouth of the Medway, population 29,000. Portsmouth, in the S. of Hampshire, on the piBninsula of PortsP'\, strongly fortified, is the chief British naval station ; inoculation 72,000. Plymouth, with Devonport, at the S. W. of Devon, with a citadel and for- tifications, population 102,000. 297. Other Towns of Interest. Durham, in Durham, with a fine cathedral. York, in York, a walled and very old town, with York Minster, the finest cathedral in Eng- land, population 41,000. Bradford, Halifax, Hudders- FiELD and Wakefield, in the S. W. of Yorkshire, seats of the woollen trade. Derby, in Derby, and Maclesfield, in Cheshire, seats of the silk manufacture. Nottingham, in Nottingham, on the Trent, the chief seat of the lace trade, also notable for silk and cotton hosiery, population 00,000. Norwich, in the E, of Norfolk, with a fine cathe- dral, and manufactures of crapes and bombasines, popula- tion 68,000. Cambridge, in Cambridgeshire, on the Cam, the seat of an old, rich, and celebrated University, population 28,000. Eton, in the S. of Buckinghamshire, on the L. bank of the Thames, the most celebrated school in England. Windsor, in Berkshire, opposite Eton, with Windsor Castle, the chief Royal residence in England. Greenwich, in the N. W. of Kent, on the R. bank of the Thames, has a fine Astronomical Observatory, and a magnificent Naval Hospital, for old or disabled seamen who have served in the British navy. This is one of the finest buildings in England. The meridian of Greenwich 82 ELEMENTS OP GEOaBAPHY. Jih iTfi , m uie Ji. ot Kent, is a very old citv thp RPnt n^ racHEsfEB, in Hampshire, on the Itchen, is a verv oM ty, with a fine cathedral, and a celebrated .choolfJl! Avon is „„ „^7 Wiltshire, on the Wiltshire d^'of „h w, "" '•^"'»*''Wo for "3 very fine cathe- a™t™ t;?;r„rs™"™r' ^-"^ «™^"^ jivAn „„ ,"-^-"*^S"n«'"'s«'shire, on the Lower p;i:ion:;v'-jrj;r^^^^^ "-: — umre, has great iron-wor]r<3 Tf ;<. +i i Wales ,^p„pnlation ea.oT^ oIL ^ ^ Ti: ::i:''r^Vt''^r " ^-"'"-'-^ ^eiTa'teru:^ v^ity population 28,000. Steaipoed-cpon-Avon a ptT„;Vh:if • "'• "' '"''''^''- ""'""^ - ^^^ place of Shakspeare. Coventry, in Wr ickshirp .i.. noMioZ T"""- " ^"^ ^- "' Staffordshire, i, noted for the manufacture of locks and keys, brass work -8,000. Peeston. BiACKBuEN, Bolton, BuEr, Wioan CARLISLE, in the N. of Cumhprl«nri «« ♦! - t,_,_. . [fl 11 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 83 city with a castle, and fine cathedral, near the Scottish border, and the scene of many a fight in former timeb ; population 27,000. 298. The towns of England are built mostly of red bricks. In the south, many cottages and even houses of considerable size are built of the large flints that are found amongst the chalk. In the north, from the geological formations that prevail, good freestone is more abundant and is much used. Newcastle-on-Tyne and Carlisle are built mostly of stone. 299. Geneeal Features. England is mountainous in the N. and W. , mostly a gently undulating plain in the middle and S. E. , the older geological formations prevail- ing in the N. and W., the newer, oolite, chalk, tertiary, &c. , in the S. E. It is from 200 to 300 miles broad in the S., and narrows towards the N., to 70 miles between the Solway Frith and the mouth of the Tyne. There are few forests, the country being mostly cleared and brought into cultivation or occupied as pasturage, but it is sprinkled every where with trees and hedges, and there are many very fine old trees, as in Warwickshire, Greenwic^ and Windsor Parks, &c. The beautiful verdure of the mea> dows, especially in the S. and W., is much admired. 300. Climate. The climate of England is temperate, but variable, owing to its insular situation, and to its position midway between poi'^': and tropical influences, and between a great continent and a great ocean. Unge- nial east winds are frp'^uent on the E. coast, and rain on the W. coast. The ■"■ uud S. western coasts enjoy a sin- gularly mild, temperate, and agreeable climate. The annual fall of rain is from 40 to 60 inches on the W. side — 20 to 30 on the E. side. The mean temperature in- creases from E. to W. as well as from N. to S. The mean 84 ELEMENTS OP GEOGRAPHY. K m: cspcomlly in winter Tl!. 1 ' • ', """^ ""■''h-east, weather Lh CL ; J'f ■"» '- -^.oudeC. and the «esceff i'^ 1 m [ 11 '1 1 88 ELEMENTS OP GEOGRAPHY. i 512. Divisions. Scotland is divided into thirty-three counties ; 15 south of the river Forth, 10 in the east and centre, 8 in the north and west. 15 Counties S. of the Forth. Stirling, Linlithgow, Edinburgh or Midlothian, Haddington, Berwick, Rox- burgh, Selkirk, Peebles, Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Wig- ton, Ayr, Lanark, Renfrew, Dumbarton. 10 Counties in the E. and centre. Nairn, Murray or Elgin, Banff, Aberdeen, Kincardine, Angus or Forfar, Fife, Kinross, Clackmannan, Perth. 8 Counties in the M and W. Orkney and Shetland Caithness, Sutherland, Cromarty, Ross, Inverness, Argyle, Bute. 313. Outer Waters. Pcntland, Dornoch, Cromarty and Moray Friths, at the N. E. The Friths of Tay and Forth, at the E. Solway Frith, Wigton Bay, Glcnluce Bay at the S. Loch Ryan, the Frith of Clyde, Loch Long, Loch Fyne, Loch Linnhe, the Minch, at the W. 314. Islands. The Orkneys, in the N. ; the Shetland Isles, N. E. of the Orkneys ; Arran and Bute, in the Frith of Clyde ; the Hebrides or Western Isles, in the W., of which the chief are Islay, Mull, lona, StaflFa, Sky,' Lewis, N. and S. Uist. 315. Capes. Cape Wrath, at the N. W. ; Duncansby Head, at the N. E. ; Buchan Ness, the most easterly point ; Burrow Head and Mull of Galloway, in the S. ; Mull of Cantire, at the S., and Ardnamurchan Point, at the W. of Argyleshire. 316. Mountains. The Grampian Range, from Aber- deenshire W. to the N. of Argyleshire ; of these, the loftiest are Ben Macdhui, in the S. W. of Aberdeenshire, 4305 feet ; and Ben Nevis in the S. of Inverness, 4368 feet, the highest mountain in Britain ; Ben Ledi, in* I ii ELEMENTS OP GEOGRAPHY. 89 the S. W. of Perthshire, 2863 feet ; Ben Lomond, in Stir- lingshire, adjoining Loch Lomond, 3190 feet ; the Ochill Range, at the S. E. of Perthshire ; the Lammermuir Hills, between Haddington and Berwick ; the Lowther and Lead Hills, between the counties of Lanark and Dumfries. 317. RivEEs. 1. Flowing into the German Ocean. The Spey, in the N. ; the Don, Dee, N. and S. Esk, Tay Forth, and Tweed, in the E, 2. Flowing into the SoL way Frith. Esk, Annan, Nith, Dee. 3. Flowing to the W. coast. The Clyde, into the Frith of Clyde. 318. Lakes. Loch Leven in Kinross ; Loch Lomond between Stirling and Dumbarton ; Loch Ketterin and Loch Tay, in Perthshire ; Loch Awe, in Argyleshire ; Loch Lochy and Loch Ness, in Inverness, forming part of the great Caledonian canal. 319. Extent, &c. Scotland extends from the Mull of Galloway, 64° 38' N. lat., to Dunnet Head, 68° 42' B lat., and from Buchanness, 1° 47' W. long., to Ardnam- urchan Point, 6° 15' W. long. It is about 276 miles in length, and 160 in breadth. Its area is 31,324 square miles ; and the population is now about 3 millions. 320. Towns. Edinburgh, the capital, is in the county of Edinburgh, near the Frith of Forth. It is remarkable for Its romaiitic situation, being built amongst steep rugged hills, the elegance of the buildings, all of stone, its castle, Holyrood palace, the residence of its ancient kings, and its celebrated University. It is the seat of the Courts of Law and of the meetings of the General Assem- bly of the Church of Scotland, the only remnants of the ancient independent government of Scotland. Population 164,000. Leith, the port of Edinburgh, is about 1^ mHe from it, on the Frith of Forth. Population 31,000. i:rLA»Gow, in the JV. W. of Lanarkshire, on the Clyde, is m 90 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. tUc largest city in Scotland. Population 330,000 It is built of stone, has a fine cathedral, a celebrated Univer- Bity extensive cotton manufactures, a port with ,.reat trade with America and the West Indies, and is notable tor Its marine steam-engines. There are extensive coal mines and iron-works in the vicinity. Paisley, in Ren- irew near Glasgow, is notable for silk, muslin, thread, and shawl manufactures. Population 48,000. Greenock, la Renfrew, on the Clyde, a sea-port with considerable i^de, IS notable as the birth-place of James Watt, in ./ r .. rJ''^''' ^^'^^^' ^^^^^^^' ^" Forfarshire, on the Inth of Tay, is notable for linen and sail-cloth manu- factures and the Baltic trade. Population 80 000 Abeedeex. in Aberdeenshire, a sea-port, has considerable trade and manufactures, iron-works and shipbuilding aud IS the seat of two Universities. It is built of granite Population 72,000. Stirling, on the Forth, in Stirling ' shire ;. Perth, on the Tay, in Perthshire ; and St Andrews, on the E. coast of Fife, are old towns, remark- able as the scenes of interesting events in Scottish history Kear Stirling, was fought the Battle of Bannockburn, in 1314, when Robert Bruce secured the independence of Scotland by the defeat of the English under Edward If Inverness, the cliief town of the Highlands. 321. General Features. Scotland is a mountainous country, and deeply intersected by arms of the sea, espe- T^l Z *';/• ''''' ''''''' *^^ '^'^'^y - beautiful. Ihe Friths of Forth and Clyde penetrate far inland, in the a, and in the N. W. Moray Frith and Loch Linnhe form a N. western peninsula. The W. and N. are the most mountainous parts, and large tracts in this region and some m the S. are fitted only for pasturage. The S. E is levd, or more gently undulatincr ^r.^ k.;. jiifU- ELEMENTS OF GEOOBAJPHY, 91 )0. It is I Univer- ith great s notable isive coal , in Ren- . thread, lEENOCK, iiderable iVatt, in 'hire, on li manu- 80,000. iiderable uilding, granite. Jtirling- md St. femark- history. urn, in ence of ard II. tainous 1^, espe- lutiful. in the e form 3 most >n and !. E. is fully cultivated, produces fine grain and other farm pro- auce. The older geological formations prevail. Coal and iron are abundant in the region between the Frith of Clyde on the W. and the Friths of Tay and Forth on the E. Salt and chalk do not occur. There is good building stone every where, and the greater number of houses are of stone, and very high, the dwellings being in Jlats or storeys, as in Paris. The climate is similar to that of England, but cooler, in both winter and summer, owing partly to its more northern position, partly to its elevation. 322. Inhabitants. The Scotch, like the English, are of two distinct races, a Germanic race, occupying the lowlands in the E. and S., speaking a language of the same family as the English, and now hardly to be distinguished from it except in accent ; and a Celtic race, called the Gaels or Highlanders, occupying the mountainous regions of the N. and W., and speaking a Celtic tongue, the Gaelic. 323. The Presbyterian form of the Protestant religion was finally established in Scotland at the Revolution in 1689 ; and at this day, the great majority of the people are Presbyterians, though large numbers dissent from the establishment ; from which several secessions have taken place, of which that of 1843, forming the Free Church, is the most notable. Considerable numbers of the gentry adhere to Episcopacy, which for a time was the estab- lished religion of the country. There are a few Roman Catholics, Congregationalists, Baptists, Methodists, and other Christian sects. 324. The government of Scotland has been incorporated with that of England, ever since the union of the Parlia- saents, in 1707. But Scotland retains her own system of ?f IMAGE EVALUATION TS=bT TARGET (MT-S) V // 4. :/ 5r «:^ 1.0 I.I 1.25 IM i;4 M 22 IIM IIIW lA mil 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 iV iV %^ \\ % V <*. 'f\^ o^ <1? ^^^ f/i I EI*EM1NTS OF QEOQRArHY. law, and Law Courts, Judges, &c., quite distinct from those of England. 325. Pboducts, Commence, &c. Scotland is a consi- derable manufacturing country. There are extensive iron-works in the counties of Stirling, Lanark and Ayr, The cotton manufacture, in all its branches, is carried on m Glasgow and the vicinity, where also machinery and steam^ngines are made. The linen trade is carried on extensively in Fife and Forfar, at DunfermUne, Dundee, &c. Scotland is notable also for a certain des^-nption of woollens, tweeds, tartans, carpets, the manufacture of wr ch 18 chje^y in towns in the S. as Galashiels, Hawick Jedburgh, Kilmarnock. Large quantities of fine ales and whisky are also manufactured, the latter chiefly in the west. Considerable quantities of cattle are exported ; and as farmers and horticulturists, the Scotch stand high. Scotland has made very great progress since the Union and the suppression of the rebellion in 1745-6 gave her internal tranquillity. Her peculiar system of banking is believed to have contributed much to that rapid progi-esa and improvement. IRELAND. 826. Boundaries. Ireland is bounded on the N., W., and S. by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the E. by St. fieorge's Channel, the Irish Sea and North Channel. 327. Divisions. Ireland is divided into four provinces • Ulster, in the N. E. ; Leinster, in the S. E. ; Munster, in' the S. W. ; Connaught, in the N. W. These are sub- divided into thirty-two counties. Leinster has 12 counties ; Longford, West Meath, East Heath, Louth, Dublin, Wicklow, Wexford, Kilkenny, Queen's County, King's County, Kildare, Carlow. ELEMENTS OP GEOGRArHY. 93 Ulster has 9 counties ; Donegal, Derry, Antrim, Down, Armagh, Mouaghan, Cavan, Fermanagh, Tyrone. Munster has 6 counties ; Clare, Tipperary, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Limerick. Connaught has 6 counties ; Mayo, Sligo, Leitrim, Ros- common, Galway. 328. Outer Waters. Lough SwiUy, Lough Foyle, on the N. ; Belfast Lough, Strangford Lough, Dundrum Bay Dundalk Bay, Dublin Bay, on the E. ; Waterford Har- bour, Youghal Bay, Cork Harbour, on the S. ; Bantry Bay, Kenmare Bay, Valentia Bay, Dingle Bay, Mouth of the Shannon, Galway Bay, Clew Bay, Donegal Bay, on the W. 329. Capes, Malin Head, in the N. of Donegal ; Howth Head, in Dublin ; Wicklow Head, in Wicklow \ Camsore Point, at the S. E. of Wexford ; Cape Clear, on a small island at the S. of Cork ; Mizzen Head, in Cork, W. of Cape Clear ; Dunmore Head, at the W. of Kerry ;' Loop Head, at the S.W. of Clare ; Slyne Head, at the W. of Galway ; Achil Head, at the W. of AchU Island, in Mayo. 330. Mountains. Mourne Mountains, in the S. of Down ; Wicklow Mountains, in Wicklow ; Slieve-Bloom Mountains in King's and Queen's Counties ; Nephin and Croagh-Patrick Mountains, in Mayo; Magillicuddy'g Reeks (3,400 feet) in Kerry. 33L Rivers. The Foyle, in the N. falling into Lough Foyle ; the Lagan, in the N. E. falling into Belfast Lough ; the Boyne, in the E. flowing into Droghecla Bay ; the Liffey, in the E., flows into Dublin Bay ; the Barrow, (R., Nore, Suir,) m the S. foils into Waterford Harbour ; the Blackwater, in the S. flows into Youghal Harbour ; the Shannon, in the middle and W., flows through Loughs Allen, Ree, and Derg, into the Atlantic Oc^ap.^ fmi^wfmfm 94 ELEMENTS OP GECGRAPHY. 332. Lakes. Lough Neagh, in the N at the S. W. of Antrim ; Lough Earne, in Fermanagh ; Loughs Allen, Ree, and Derg, expansions of the Shannon ; Lough Cor- rib, in Oalway ; Lakes of Killarney, in Kerry. 833. Extent, &c. Ireland extends from Mizzen Head, 51 « 26' N. lat., to Malin Head, 65 = 22' N. lat., and from 6* 26' W. long., to Dunmore Head, 10* 29' W. long. It is about 248 miles in length, and 170 in breadth ; area, 31,741 square miles ; population, 6,663,178 (6^ millions.) 334. Towns. Dublin, the capital, is in Dublin county, on the E. coast, at the mouth of the LifFey. It is a fine city, with a castle, a University of celebrity (Trinity Col- lege,) many fine streets and public buildings, and con« siderable trade. Population 262,000. It is th« residence of the Governor, called the Lord Lieutenant. Kingston on Dublin Bay, 7 miles S. E. of Dublin, is the mail packet station. Belfast, in Antrim, at the head of Bel- fast Lough, the chief manufacturing town of Ireland, notable for the linen and cotton manufacture, has also a considerable coast and foreign trade. Pv^pulation 100,000. Londonderry, in Londonderry, on the Foyle, has some foreign trade, and is notable for the seige it sustamed against the army of James II., in 1688-9. Population 20,000. Drogheda, in Louth, at the mouth of the Boyne, has some trade in grain and cattle ; near it was fought the famous Battle of the Boyne, in 1690. Popula- tion 17,000. Newry, in Down, population 14,000 ; Waterford, in Waterford, population 26,000 ; Cork, in Cork, population 86,000 ; Limerick, in Limerick, popu- lation 54,000, and Galway, in Galway, population 21,000, are ports with considerable trade. Kilkenny, in Kilkenny, has an old castle and cathedral, some woollen trade, and fine marble iu the vicinity. Population 16,000. Elements op geograpuy. 385. Geneeal Features. Ireland is mostly a plain of small elcvacion in the central regions, but mountainous towards the coasts. On the N. W. and S. it is deeply penetrated by arms of the sea, and having many lakes and navigable rivers, particularly the Shannon, traverB- ing almost the whole extent of country from N. to S., j» admirably adapted for commerce. There are many ex- tensive bogs, the remains of ancient forests. The climate is very mild— more temperate in both winter and sum- mer than that o^ Great Br-itain ; and as the air is moist, the grass is rich, imparts a beautiful verdurr to the coun- try, and fits it for pasturage. The mean annual tempe- rature of Dublin is 49° ; winter, 39.8* ; summer, 69.6°. On the N. coast, in Antriri , is the celebrated GianVs Causeway, a remarkable range of basaltic columns. 336. Ikhabitants. The majority of the Irish people are of the Celtic race, and speak a Celtic tongue, resem- bling the Gaelic and Welsh, and quite different from the English. The others are Gothic or Germanic, descend- ants of the Scotch and English. 837. About five-sixths of the people are Roman Catho- lics ; of the remaining sixth, one-half are Episcopalians, belonging to the Established Church, the Church of Eng- land and Ireland ; and one-half are Presbyterians : the latter body is numerous in Ulster. There are two Arch- bishops (Armagh and Dublin) and ten bishops in the Established Church in Ireland. 838. Producis, Commerce, &c. The linen manufac- ture, carried on in Belfast and Antrim, in Antrim, Coleraine in Londonderry, and other places, is the chief manufacture of Ireland. The principal exports are linen, cattle, pigs, butter end potatoes. 339. History. Ireland, though highly endowed by 7i 1'"' ■ip^ m ELEMENTS OP GEOGEAPHY. nature in a fine soU and cUmate, and in the genius of its people, has been one of the most unhappy countries in Europe. The antipathies of race and religion —the discordant feelings between a Celtic and Roman Catholic majority and a Saxon and Protestant minority —the neglect of the landowners, many of whom lived in another country, taking no interest in the soil or the people, except to draw rents from them— have led to much irritation and discontent and several rebellions. In 1829, the British Parliament passed the celebrated Emancipation Act, which enabled the CathoUcs to enter Parliament and hold offices. Since that time the British Government has been anxious to deal more justly and generously with Ireland. In 1846, Ireland suffered severely from famine, from a disease affecting the potato, which thinned the population considerably. In 1848» there was a rebelUon, soon suppressed. Smce that time,' vast numbers have emigrated from Ireland. V. ASIA. 340. Boundaries. Asia is boun. A on the K by the Arctic Ocean ; on the E. by Behring's Straits and the Pacific Ocean ; on the S. by the Pacific and Indian Oceans ; on the W. \y the Red Sea, the Isthmus of Suez, the Medi- terranean Sea, the Archipelago, the Straits of the Darda- nelles, the Sea of Marmora, the Straits of Constantinople, the Black Sea, and Europe, from which it is separated by the Caucasus Mountains, the Caspian Sea, and the Ural River and Mountams. 341. Divisions. The following are the countries of Asia, with the chief town of each : ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAFUY. 97 couimuKs. CHIEF TOWNS. Turkey in Asia . . . Smyrna Arabia Mecca Persia. Teheran Afghanistan Cabul Hindostan Calcutta Eastern Peninsula. Ava COnNTBira. CHIEF TOWNS. China Pekin Tibet Lassa Chinese Tartary . . Yarkand Turkestan Bokhara Asiatic Russia. . . . Tobolsk Japan Jeddo 842. Outer Waters. The Levant, the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea ; the Red Sea, W. of Arabia ; the Straits of Babelmandeb, joining the Red and Araoian Seas ; the Arabian Sea, between Arabia and Hindostan ; Gulf of Oman, N. W. of the Arabian Sea ; Persian Gulf, between Arabia and Persia ; Palk's Strait or Passage, between Hindostan and Ceylon ; Bay of Bengal, E. of Hin- dostan ; Gulf of Martaban, S. W. of the Eastern Pen- insula ; Straits of Malacca, between the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra ; Straits of Sunda, between Sumatra and Java ; Gulf of Siam, E. of the Malay Peninsula ; Straits of Macassar, between Borneo and Celebes ; China Sea, S. of China ; Yellow Sea, N. E. of China ; Sea of Japan, between Chinese Tartary and the Japan Islands ; Sea of Okhotsk, between Siberia and Kamtschatka ; Sea of Kamtschatka, between Kamtschatka and America. 348. Peninsulas. Arabia ; Hindostan ; the Eastern Peninsula, E. of the Bay of Bengal ; the Malay Peninsula, at the S. of the Eastern Peninsula ; Corea, at the S. E. of Chinese Tartary ; Kamtschatka, at the N. E. 344. Islands. Cyprus, in the Levant ; Ceylon, at the S. of Hindostan ; Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes, in the S. E., on the Equator ; Java, S. E. of Sumatra ; the Moluccas or Spice Islands, E. of Celebes ; the Philippine Islands, E. of the China Sea ; Formosa, S. E. of China ; the Japan Isles, E. of Chinese Tartary. 'iff P Ml iifl 98 ElBMENTS OP aUOGRApnr. ■'-ton ; Negrai!' „ S W IfT^i"' "' *"» «' "^ «- Romania. at U,e S of Im > „ ° ^''"'"' '"""'"'"» < Kamteohatka ; East C^TT ' '"'""'• " *'"' «• "^ Ifehrmg-sSt^ita l.^r ^t' ""'' '"^'^"^ P<»»'. O" H4fi \r ' ° "'■ '^^ ^»' Cape. i„ the N AsiaUo Eu^a and Chinl tIh' ^'"'^'"''' ^'•''«'" N. E. in the Yablonoi *? '^' """"""^ "'» ««= W. to E, through the N Tf r. .*'°""*'"""' «'™*ng from Mountain,, fr„Swtfp,?T ^""^"^ ' "^^ '^"»""' ' ta^, oontinurir'tlel.; W-M "" '^ "' '^""■«^"- Hindoo.K«»h MounuLlr^ T't'^'"' "" C""" ^ *^<' '*»ti the Himalaya M?l? '^*'"'"''''»' 20,000 f. "8 feet, VinaClTt7jT:\''''''''T'''' "ton ; the Eastern and Weston Oh ^ ""'^ "''"'»- W. coasts of Hindostan . H t^? ""^ "'*'' ^'"^- »"<• - .siati; rerrrrcar f-mi r^ ^r„!t:Si:Verr;i-^^^^^^^ •■i^. KivKEs ', ^-^'^^ Of ^«'a«o Turkey. The Amoor or Saehali.,, In.- " *"■ * '"■'"'ches. 1.0. in the N of Ctoa r • T ^"**'^ ' *"* «<""'«- the yang-tee^Kiant • « ^^ ^^ '"*» *''^ ■>'«"<"' Soa ! laug-ise-itiang, m the middle of riiii,™ a™- ,7 the Canton Eiver, in tl>e S Jn^- ' ^"^^ ^- ' China Sea ; the Camh! • ^'"''*' '^*"™« »*« '!>« flowing S. i^to t^e r^:; .Tj^/-'^™ ^---la. ^ »ea , the Memam, in the Eastern ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 90 rkey ; Ras 8. of Hin- 'enineula ; abodia, at t the S. of point, on between d in the untains ; ing from Kuenlun lose Tar- ina ; the i, 20,000 idostan, injinga, Hindo- E. and theN. Persia et ; the ains of Ocean. iberia, nches. 'oang- Sea; gE. ; ) the isula, stern Peninsula, flowing 8. into the Gulf of Siam. 8. Flowing into the Indian Ocean or its branches. The Irawaddy, in the Eastern Peninsula, flowing S. into the Gulf of Martaban ; the Brahmapootra, ft-om the N. of the Hima- laya Mountains, flowing into the Bay of Bengal ; the Ganges, in the N. of Hindostan (R. Jumna) flowing S. E. into the Bay of Bengal, by several branches, of which one, having Calcutta on its banks, is called the Hoogly ; the Nerbuddah, in Hindostan, flowing W. into the Gulf of Cambay, in the Arabian Sea ; the Indus, in the N. W. of Hindostan (L. Jelum, Chenab, Ravee, Sutlej,) flowing S. W. into the Arabian Sea ; the Tigris and Euphrates, in the S. E. of Asiatic Turkey, uniting into the Shat-el-Arab, and falling into the Persian Gulf. 4. Flowing into in- land waters. The Ural, flowing S. into the Caspian Sea ; the Amoo or Oxus, and the Sihon or Jaxartes, in Turkes- tan, flowing into the Sea of Aral. 848. Lakes. Caspian Sea, salt, in the W. ; Sea of Aral, salt, in Turkestan ; Balkash, salt, at the E. of Tur- kestan ; Baikal, in the S. of Asiatic Russia. 349. Notable Circles. i.he arctic circle and tropic of cancer cross Asia. The arctic circle crosses the mouth of the River Obi, passes through the north of Siberia, crossing the Yenisei and Lena, and leaves Asia at Beh- ring's Straits. The tropic of cancer passes through Arabia between the cities of Mecca and Medina, leaves Arabia near Muscat, crosses the Arabian Sea, enters Hin- dostan a little S. of the mouth of the Indus, and leaves that country a little N. of Calcutta and the mouth of the Ganges. It then passes through the Eastern Peninsula and China, and leaves the latter country near Canton, a little. N. of the British settlement of Hong-Kong. Th« Equator passes about Iji ° S. of the S. point of Asia. ■ip- ^ considerably ele-ated ; Tibet, on the N rfThe Himalayas, is a high plateau elevated from 3000 or 4I te ,n the N. E. to 12,000 feet in the W. Chtoe" T^ te'y, between the Thian-Shan and Kuen-lun mountain " TTf " r'^ '""'■ •"'''^ «"•'■• -<• 380oTeS' Theplaeauof Afghanistan is in some parts nearlv 70M f^m elevation, of Persia 3000. to 4000 feet, "rirmln^ bmt^t, and the W. of Arabia from 8000 to 4^ ~ almost eveiy variety of climate. The N. and N W ave an arctic climate, distinguish«, by e*lf J, <'unns nmo months, with a short period of heat. In ELEMEHTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 101 the N. E., on the lower course of the Lena, is found the coldest known part of the world. At Yamulsk, in this dis- trict, the mean temperature of [the year is 18.4°, of win- ter — 86 ° , of summer 61 ° . The middle region is mostly cold and dry, with hot summers. The south, in or near the torrid zone, is characterised by great heat and moist- ure. At Calcutta, the mean temperature of the year is 82.4 «, of summer 86.7*, of winter 72.2°. Tlie quan- tity of rain that falls in the southern region, is very great, chiefly from June to September —at Calcutta, about 81 inches yearly. The heat and moisture of the atmosphere, the richness of soil, in the S., as in Hindostan and the Eastern Peninsula, give rise to a vegetation of the most varied and luxuriant character ; — every description of wood, with teak, sandal wood, and the palm-tribe, fruits, as the banana, citron, Indian-fig, dates, cotton, coflFee, tea, the mulberry, the olive, the pomegranate, the sugar cane, the vine, rice, and other valuable grains, are pro- duced in this singularly rich and favoured region. The elephant, rhinoceros, camel, lion, leopard, tiger, serpents, and innumerable birds of beautiful plumage are found in the southern parts of Asia. 364. Inhabitants. Tne Asiatics are mostly of the Cau- casian race in the S. W.-— as the Arabs, Syrians, Persians, Afghans, and Hindoos ; Mongolians in the N. and E., as Tartars, Chinese, &c., and Malays in the Malay Peninsula and adjacent islands. The inhabitants of Asia are mostly of a dark or brownish-yellow complexion. W. of a line from Lake Balkash to the Indus and along that river, the religion of Mohammed prevails ; that is, in Turkestan, Afghanistan, Persia, Arabia, and Turkey in Asia, and this religion spreads also a little E. of that line. The majority E. of that line, are Pagans of various descriiv- *<«, I m f « ■ I {. 102, ELEMENTS OF OrOOBAPUV. rernments of tions, Buddhists, Brahmins, &c. The Asia uro mostly despotic mouurchios. iMorded m tho Biblo, which took placo chiefly in .h.t BUN and IW,AS. Ninovch, on the banks of tho Tiarb Babylon, on tho Euphrates, lower down, wore in the S are very old nafons that had attained a high degree „r crnhzafon, before the Christian era. The Mohamml, VI. THE UNITED STATES OF KOETH AMERICA. he N^by British America; on the E. by BriUsh America (New Brunswick) and the Atlantic Ocean ; on th S t" 357 The'T?'"™' °" ''""'■ "y "'"P-ifioOcC .mAr.„<, ,m,-, sects, in order. Roman Catholics Regular Baptists ELEMENTS OP GEOORAPHY. 113 Episcopal Methodists ; Presbyterians ; Orthodox Congre- gationalists ; Evangelical Lutherans ; Reformed Baptists ; Protestant Episcopalians ; German Reformed ; Univer-, salistB. 382. The United States, particularly the New England and middle states, are pre-eminently distinguished among the nations of the earth for the liberal provision made by the several legislatures for the efficient education of the humblest classes. 383. The Government of the United States is a Federal Republic ; each State regulates its own internal concerns itself ; and all the States unite to appoint one Government for the whole country, which takes charge of the general interest, intercourse with foreign nations, as to corumer- cial regulations, war, &c. 384. This General Government consists of a President, a Senate, and House of Representatives. The two latter are termed Congress or the Legislature. 385. The members of the House of Representatives are chosen by the people, for two years. The Senate is com- posed of two members from each State, chosen by the Legislature of the State for six years, one-third being elected every two years. The President and Vice Presi- dent are chosen by certain electors appointed by the peo- ple in all the States, each State having as many electors as it sends members to Congress. The President holds office for four years, commencing on the 4th of March. 386. Each State has its own legislature for regulating its own aflFairs : as roads, police, education, &c. 387. Products, Commerce, &c. The climate and soil fit the United States, especially the centre and south, to surpass any region of tie earth of like extent for the rich- ness of its agricultural produce, embracing chiefly wheat, 11 L'l 114 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. Inaian corn, rice, tobacco, sugar, and cotton. Wheat is produced chiefly in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Virginia ; Indian corn in Ohio, Indiana. Virginia, Ken- tucky and Tennessee ; tobacco in Virginia, Kentucky i-ennessee, Maryland and N. Carolina ; rice in the Caro^ Imas ; sugar, from the sugarcane, in Louisiana, from the maple in New York, Ohio and Vermont ; cotton, mostly south of the parallel 36«30', in Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Alabama, the two Carolinas, and Tennessee 888. New York, Maine and Pennsylvania yfeld lumber • coal IS obtained from the mines of Pennsylvania and Vir-' gima ; the cotton factories are chiefly in Massachusetts, Rhode Island and New Hampshire ; woollen factories in Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York ; ship-building mostly in Maine and Massachusetts. 389. The exports are upwards of 137 millions of dollars in valu« ; 72 cotton, 11 tobacco and snuff', 8 flour and wheat, 8 pork, bacon, hogs and lard, 5 cotton goods H Indian corn and meal ; 3^ lumber, &c. ; fisheries - beef, hides, butter and cheese- rice -^ gold and silver upwards of 2 millions each. _ 390. The chief trade is wit- P'-c,in, the exports to and imports from that country amounting to upwards of 75 milhons of dollars each ; next, in order, France, Cuba and i orto Rico, British North America. 391. History. The thirteen States referred to in para- graph 359 constituted a British Colony previous to the year 1776. During the few years preceding they had dis- puted the right of the British Parliament to impose taxes on them. The British persisted ; and war broke out in the Battle of Lexington, in Massachusetts, on the 19th of April, 1775. The Battle of Bnnlror'c w;n *.n ,i •_ x,.. aame year ; and on the 4th of July, 1776, the colonies ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 115 declared that they would no longer submit to Great Bri- tain, but would separate from her, and form free and in- dependent States. The contest continued till 1781, when, the Americans being assisted by the French, the war was ended by the British Forces under Lord Cornwallis sur- rendering at Yorktown. In 1788, peace was established ; and the independence of the States acknowledged by Britain. V 392. In 1803, the United States purchased from France Louisiana and some adjoining territory W. of the Missis- sippi and N. of the Red River. Florida was ceded by Spain in 1819. Other States were acquired by treaty or conquest from the Indians. Texas, which broke off from Mexico in 183G, entered into the United States in 1846. In 1848, at the conclusion of the war with Mexico, the latter power ceded California, Utah and New Mexico, for which some millions of dollars were given. 393. The United States now forms one of the greatest, richest and most powerful of the civilized countries in the world, and exceeds them all (except Canada) in the rate of increase of her wealth and population. In 1800, there were little more than 5 millions of inhabitants ; there are now, probably, more than 25 millions. Owing to the vast quantities of rich and unappropriated lands in the middle and west, which are granted to cultivators on easy terms, the labouring classes are in better circumstances than in the old countries of Europe ; as the emigration to the west from the crowded districts adjoining the Atlantic, lessens the pressure of the population there, and thus maintains a high rate of wages. But the United States suffer greatly from the weakness of the government, which, in the south and west, can hardly preserve law and order among its own subjects, or prevent turbulent bands of them from in- i,m H i.i' 116 ELEMENTS OP GEOORAPItY. vad.uff neighboring? States ; an.l from the unfortunate sla- very ,uest,pn, which places the southern and northern States in violent opposition to each other, and h.s lately led to something almost approaching to civil war in Kansas, m the heart of the country. VII. OTHER COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 394. Russian America includes the N. W. part of America W. of 141 ^W. long., with a narrow tract along ^ eoast as far as 55«N. lat. The area is 871,000 square n^ les Population 6G,000. New Archangel, on Sitka Inland, IS the capital. The seal-fishery and fur trade are tiie principal occupations of the inhabitants. 396 Mexico. Bouxdaries. N., United States. E., <.ulf of Mexico and Central America. S. and W. , Pacific 7 roTom'^'tr' y^''^ ^^"^^^ "^"^«- P«P-^-tion 7,700,000 Mexico is a country of mountains and table ands in the interior and low lands on the coasts. The Hor!^'/? "'''''^"^^^ ' '^' i^t^rior plateau, from 3000 to «000 feet m elevation, affords a delightful climate. It is traversed fiym N. to S. by lofty mountains, a continuation of the Rocky Mountains. Of these, Popocatepetl and IJTL'JT^"^'^" P^^^«' ^'^ ^-^- '^^--^htof upwards of 17,000 feet. The capital is M . i,., a. elegant cicy on t^ie W. side of Lake Tezcuco, at an elevation of 7000 feet Population 150,000. The other inland towns are Guadal " axara (60,000) in the W. ; La Puebla (34,000) in the E • nTnnnTVT^* "^ ^^'^''' ^^^'^^^') ®^" ^^^^ Potosi,' Ut),uuu,) N. of Quoretaro ; and Valladnlid- f'^fi^irin^Mr of Mexico. The principal ports are Matamoras, Tam'pico! ELEMENTS OP QEOGRAPUY. 117 E., and Vera Cruz, on the Gulf of I\[exico ; Mazatlan and San Bias, on the W ; Acapulco, on the 8. — Tlic Boil is fertile, l)rofi? is the capital of San Salvador ; Comayagua, of Honduras ; Leon Hiiil 118 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. ut Nicaragua ; San Jose, of Costa Rica ; Merida, of Yucatan ; Belize, of British Honduras. The ports are Belize, Truxillo in the N. of Honduras ; San Jimn i,k Nicaragua or Greytown at the S. E. of Nicaragua. The population is like that of Mexico. At tlie E. of Nicaragua IS the Mosquito Territory, claimed by a tribe of Indian.-, under the protection of the British Government. The pro^ ducts are similar to those of Mexico, with the addition of mahogany and logwood, which are exported from Belize. The country is naturally rich, and would be highly pro- razii ; ±Jstuary of the La Plata, at the S. E. of las a few tives are hunting. Jral hun- jlimate is pt July, ban 200 ; Carib- 3 Atlan- e called c Ocean TOWNS. lisaca go s Ayres ption Video g little ; Gulf Vene- stuary its, at . E. of ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 121 La Plata ; Straits of Magellan, at the S. between the main land and the island of Tierra del Fuego ; Gulf of Guya- quil, in Ecuador ; Gulf or Bay of Panama, S. of the Isthmus of Panama. 402. Capes. Point Manzanilla, at the N. of the Isthmus of Panama ; Point Gallinas, at the N. ; Capes St. Roque, Branco, and Frio, at the E. of Brazil ; Cape Horn, on an island at the S, ; Point Mala, at the S. E. of the Bay of Panama. 403. W. of Chili is the small island of Juan Fernandez, where Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch sailor, resided alone for several years— the foundation of the tale of Robinson Crusoe. 404. Mountains. The Andes, near the west coast, of which Chimborazo, in Ecuador (21,440 feet) and Acon- cagua, in Chili, (23,910 feet) are the loftiest. Pichincha and Cotopaxi in Ecuador, Osorno and Corcovado, in Chili, and several others, are volcanoes. The Mountains of Brazil, in ridges running N. and S. The Parime Mountains in Guiana and Venezuela, running E. and W. 405. Rivers. FlowiJig into the Caribbeati Sea. The Magdalena, in New Granada (L. Cauca.) Flowing into the Atlantic Ocean. The Orinoco, in Venezuela ; the Maranon or Amazon, in Peru and Brazil (L. Negro, Japura ; R. Ucayale, Purus, Madeira, Tapajos ;) the Tocantins, continued in the Rio Para, flowing N. through Brazil (L. Araguay ;) the San Francisco, in Brazil ; the Parana, continued in the Rio de la Plata (R. Paraguay, L. Uruguay ;) the Colorado ; the Negro. 406. Notable Circles. The equator and tropic of can- cer cross S. America. The equator enters S. America in the W. of Eeuador, passes a little N. of Quito, crosaee th»j S. of New Granada, through Brazil, and leaves that o I 122 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. country at the mouth of tho Amazon. The tropic of can- cer enters S. America at tho W. in Bolivia, crosses La Plata, Paraguay and Brazil, and leaves S. America a little S. of Rio Janeiro. 407. Extent, &c. S. America extends from 12 = 20' N. lat. to Cape Froward on the Straits of Magellan, 53® 53/ «. lat. ; and from Cape Branco, 35 °W. long., to about i " W. long. Its length from N. to S. is about 470O miles ; its greatest breadth 3200 miles. Its area is about H mUlions of square miles ; population about 16 millions. 408. General Features. The W. side of S. America ex- hibits a continuous range of lofty mountains— the Andes, or Cordilleras of the Andes ; and on the flanks of these ,i series of table lands, attaining in Peru the remarkable height of nearly 14,000 feet. With the exception of tlu^ ridges in Venezuela and Brazil, the rest of S. America may be regarded as one great low plain. This is in three prin- cipal divisions ; the Llanos, plains of the basin of the Orinoco ; the Silvas, or forest plains of the basin of tho Amazon ; and the Pampas, or grassy plains of the Parana and its tributaries. The rivers rise mostly on the E, sid^ of the Andes, and flow towards the W. into the Atlantic Ocean. The climate is hot and unhealthy on the low lands ; very fine in the elevated regions ; cold and bleak at the S. of Patagonia. It scarcely ever rains at the W. of Peru. Earthquakes are of frequent occurrence in Venezuela and Chili. In 1812, Caracas, and in 1835, a number of towns in Chili, were destroyed by earthquakes 409. Inhabitants. The inhabitants of S. America are descendants of Portuguese, and Negro Slaves in Brazil • descendants of Spaniards and of Indian native races in the other countrifls. ev/io^* «„;««_ _i- XI ~ , „....,..^^._. ._,.^iaiiu,, TTiiuiu mere are Jing- Ksh , Dutch and French. The upper waters of the Amazon ELEMENTS OF QEOGKAPHY. 123 And Patagonia are inhabited only by native races in a rude and savage condition : and there are mixed races through- out. Brazil is an empire, ruled by a Prince of the Royal family of Portugal : the others, excepting Guiana and 1 atagoma, are independent republics. They were once subject to Spain, but revolted, and after a long contest in which Bolivar played a chief part, made themselves in- dependent, between the years 1810 and 1824. They are mostly Roman Catholic. Peru was inhabited by a highly civilized people at the time of Columbus, who were con, quered by Pizarro in 1531-2, and subjected to the Spanish crown : and soon after, the rest of the north and west was i)rought under the dominion of Spain. 410. Countries, Towns, &c. New Granada ; popuk- tion 1,700,000. Towns; Cartagena, Portobello, Aspin- wall, Chagres, porta on the Caribbean 3ea. Panama, on the Bay of Panama. Santa-Fe-de-Hogota, the capital ; population 30,000, elevated 8,700 feet. There is a rail- way from Aspinwall to Panama. ^ Venezuela ; popula- tion 1,000,000. Towns ; Caracas, the capital, (60,000,) and the ports of La Guayra, Cumana, and Maracaybo Ecuador ; population 600,000. Towns ; Quito, the capi- tal, population 70,000, elevated 9540 feet; Guayaquil, the principal port. New Granada, Venezuela, and Ecual dor were once united under the name of Columbia.— Brazil ; population 6 millions. Towns ; Rio Janeiro, iU capital, in the S. E. ; population 200,000, a port of great trade ; Bahia (100,000,) and Pernambuco or Recife, (90,000,) are considerable ports on the E. coast. Maran- ham and Para are ports in the north. -Peru ; population 1»380,000. Towns; Lima (54,000,) the caDital. with Cailao, its port ; Truxillo, in the N., and Arica, in the S.. 4)ort8 of considerable trade ; Pasco, elevated 13.670 feet. 124 ELEMENTS OP GEOGRAPHT. in the midst of silver mines ; Cuzco (40,000 ;) the capita! of the ancient Inca» jf Peru.— Bolivia, population 1,830,000. Towns; Cbuquisaca (12,000,) the capital,- La Paz (40,000) Cochabamba (25,000 ;) Potosi (9000,) formerly famous for its rich silver mines. — Cnin ; popu- lation 1,200,000. Towns; Santiago, the capital, (65,000;) Coquimbo, Valparaiso (30,000,) Conception, ValdiviJ, ports. La Piata, (called also Buenos-Ayres ; Argentine Kepublic ;) population 700,000. Town ; Buenos-Ayres, the capital, 80,000, at the mouth of the La Plata, on its L. bank.— Paraguay ; population 250,000 ; Assumption, 12,000, the capital. Uruguay or Banda Oriental; population 120,000 ; Montevideo, the capital, (12,000,)' at the mouth of the La Plata, on its R. bank. - British Guiana is divided into Essequibo, Demerara and Berbice Population 130,000. Towns; Georgetown, the capital, (20,000 ;) New Amsterdam. 411. Products, &o. The products of S. America, gene- raUy, are similar to those of the West Indies— with the addition of gold and silver, abundant in Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Brazil, and some of the N. western States ; dia- monds, found in Brazil ; rice, hides, horns, tallow and beef, from the wild cattle of Brazil, or the pampas of La Plata ; furs and wool from the Alpaca and other animals in Peru and La Plata ; dye woods from BrazU ; the valuable Cinchona or Peruvian Bank, from Peru, &c. ; other drugs and gums ; Mate or Paraguay tea ; in many places, copper, mercury, platinum, tin, iron, salt ; guano from the Peruvian islands, &c. With its navigable rivers, extensive sea coast, fertile plains, and valuable mineral treasures, S. America will one day bfr> ^-r—, v**v V* vuy iiuuuist regions or tiie earth. ELEMENTS OF OEOGRAPHT. 125 IX. OTHER COUNTRIES OF EXTROPE. 412. France is bounded on the N. by the EngUsk Channel and Belgium ; on the E. by Germany, Switzer- land and Italy ; on the S. by the Mediterranean Sea and Spain, from which it is separated by the Pyrenees ; on the W. by the Bay of Biscay. Area, 204,825 square mUes ; population 36 millions. Its principal rivers are, the Seine (R. Marne) in the N. flowing into the English Chan- nel ; the Loire in the middle, and Garonne in the S. (R. Dordogne) continued in the Gironde, falling into the Bay of Biscay ; the Rhone (R. Saone) in the S. E. flowing into the Gulf of Lyons 5 the Rhine (L. Moselle) in the E., separating it from Germany. Towns ; Paris, the capital* on the Seine, population 1,200,000, one of the most ele- gant cities in the world ; with the Tuileries, a magnificent royal palace, the Louvre, a celebrated museum of the fine arts and antiquities, and many beautiful public buildings. It is built of white stone, in lofty houses, arranged in flats or storeys. Paris is famous for its public libraries, lite- rary and scientific institutions, public amusements and gaieties, and for its terrible revolutions, of which four, causing desperate battles in its streets, have occurred since 1830. Lyons, in the S. E., at the confluence of the Rhone and Saone, is the great manufacturing town ^ population 156,000. It is the great seat of the silk manu- facture. Its other leading towns are Rouen, Lille and Amiens in the N. ; Orleans, S. of Paris, on the Loire ; Toulouse, in the S. W., on the Garonne ; Avignon, on the Rhnnp • Stu AaT»TTt>r< ^vj *-u^ ■Di,:^- tj.~ i.- -i? — , _^ , «VT3 xjh liic ivuiiic. ii3 iuauiiig ports are Calais, in the N., taken from the English in 1568 ; Boulogne, in the N. — these two being the chief stations 126 ELEMENTS OF OEOQRAPHT. for steamers to England ; Dieppe^ in the N. ; irAVRK, in the N., at the mouth of tlie Seine, the station for gteaniers to New York ; CuEiiuouRfl, in the N., and Brkst, in the N. W., great naval stations ; Nantei^, on the Loire, and BoEDKAux, on the Garonne, in the W. ; Marseilles, a great steam packet station for tin} Mediterranean, popula- tion 185,000, and Toulon, a gi'eat naval station, both on tUe Gulf of Lyons. Tlie climate is steady, and vei'y tine in the south. The chief products are grain, sugar from beetroot, wine, brandj, silk ; the principal manufacitures are silk, cotton, iace, jewelry and porcelain. Ir^n and coal are found in some places, but not abundantly ; tlie chief article of fuel is wood-charcoal. 413. The inlmbitants are of mixed Celtic and Gothic mces ; the latter prevailing in the N. and E. The French language is derived from the ancient lijitin, which it re- sembles considerably. The French are mostly Romarv Catholics, but all religions are tolerated, and there are jkbout two millions of Protestants. The estates of landed proprietors are divided at their death among all their children, so that there is a vast number of small proprie- tors, and few large proprietors. The government is at present an empire, nearly despotic, the emperor being Louis Napoleon, the nephew of the great general and for- mer emperor, Napoleon Bonajjarte. The French revolu- tion, so famous in history, began in 1789. France was then for a short time a constitutional monarchy, and then a republic till 1799 ; — a Consulate and Empire till 1814 under Napoleon ; — a Constitutional Monarchy under the elder and younger branches of the Boui-bons^ till 1848 ;: a republic from 1848 to 1852 ; and since that year, aa «mpire. 414. Spain forms the greater part of the peninsula im ELEMENTS OP aBOGRAPIIY. 327 the S. W. of Europe, surrounded by the sea, except in tlic W., where it adjoins Portugal, and in the N. E. where it is next to France. Area, 182,000 square miles ; population Hi millions. Spain is a mountainous country, lui'ing the mountains of Asturias and the Pyrenees in the N., and S. of these, extending from W. to E., the mountains of Castile, Sierra de Tole "-"• Wulatio," Poyuwine. „n. .1 ana S„ t^r^TZ •• 'I?'. '^^'^ ^^^^^^^i« I«i^s (267) belong to Spain • Palma of Portugal, belong to that country. Anfjra in T.r ceira. and Ponte Dolgada in Sf Ar- i , ®^" +^,.,« nr ^^'fe'tua, m fet. Michael, are the ohiof Portugal. ™'' ^- "^ "«''"• "'»<• belong to 417. iTAir is a peninsula, stretching S W i„t„ „ Med,tcrra„ean Sea which surrounda it elnl'i' ttv Where t a^oi,, , ,^^^^^^^^^ ^^. ^^ n '^^f 119,493 square mUes ; population 24 millions ImT-' divided into eight States, as follows T;./^ " S^Dtm.iatheN. W.. ;.:i.,...:T'":~^"""""' <" '■ — '""'"S "«i isiauu of Sardinia, ELEMENTS OP GEOQRAPIIY. 129 II '\ ^- '^- ""'■''■ "'" '!»"'"""■• "f Austria capital M,,.., (iH5,o«0 PAn«., capital. Parma ami ■lorn of Lombanly an,l Venice ; tlic Vvcm or Tuspavt oap,ta. F,.„„..,, ,„(.,00«,) s. E. of Mdela" ..1111' Cit«ml„,g from „ea to sea, K. and 8. of Tuscany th„ ^ta,a of S,c,ly, capital NAr,,.s («80,0(K)), i„ the S *"'"'«''•'.• "'"Alps extend alouR the N W and N t toy. highest Mont Blanc in Savoy in th^N W „f t amta, the highest mountain in Europe. l^WO^eet .": 8 'ol't ,v "'° °"^ "'*'!"-• »' 'I'O W. side n!' • T, , ' «"-0'"l'0li, in Stromholi, one of the ho P« L. 'r,c.n„, Adda, Ogli„, i„ ,,,„ n., flowing S„; the N. t falling ,„to „,„ Adriatic Sea ; the Arno in T, " cany, and Tiber, in the States of the Churd fl the Mediterranean Sea T,„„ n ' "'"^ '"'" auc.iu sea. ■'ot»«s,- Oknoa, on tlie fiiilf «<■ Kenoa, m Sardinia, population 115,000 a no, „f I trade ; the hirth-place of Columbus vlX t! H on the Adriatic, population 114,00^ • bu^^t „! V' Of ..an islands, formerly a glj .rof^Ure" P. A m Tuscany, p„p„,atio„ 20,000, the birth pTacrof : ;%„„^™ ""\"^*"« -- -artable'cim . "' "' ^*' ^'*'*^ ""d the palace of the Vatican are tht "•» 130 ELEMENTS OF OEOGRAPUY. most notable ; its magnificent collections of sculptures anj paintings ; and itH numerous remains of the architecture of ancient Homo. Rome is the rcHidence of the Pope, the i"uler of the Roman States, and head of the Roman Catho- lic Church ; Civita Vkccjiia is the principal port on the W. of the Roman States. Nai'lks is bcautifuUj situated on the Bay of Naples, near Vesuvius ; and near it are the re- mains of the ancient cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, buried by lava and ashes from Vesuvius in 71) A. 1)., and discovered in the last century. Palkumo, the capital, in the N. of Sicily, jKipulation 180,000 ; and Mkssina, in the E., are the chief towns of Sicily. Nice, in Sardinia, on the coast near France ; Mantua, in Lombardy ; Padua and Verona in Venice ; Bologna, Fkbrara, and Ancona (a port,) in the Roman States ; and Syracuse and Mar- sala in Sicily, are also towns of interest. 418. Italy has a fine climate and fertile soil, and its in- habitants, a people of great natural genius, have been celebrated since long before the Christian era; in ancient times, for war, policy, commerce and literature ; more recently, in the fine arts. In music and painting, she has been unrivalled in all ages ; and at present she is unsurpassed in sculpture and architecture. Her rich soil and extensive sea coast fit her for commerce, and but for the despotic governments which cramp her energies, she would be a highly productive country. Sardinia is the only constitutional government. Venice and Lombardy are under the rule of Austria, who has great influence also in the Tuscan and Roman States. In 1848, all Italy re- Mled against its rulers, except the Sardinians, who in- vaded Lombardy with the view of assisting the inhabitants to throw oflf the Austrian yoke, but they were defeated by the Austrian General Radetsky. The Pope fled from ELEMENTS OF OEOORAPUT, 181 Rome, where a republic, under Marzini, was for a timt- cstablishcd. ]^it the Frencli besieged and captured Horn*?, nud restored the Pope ; Jind a body of French troops «till occupy the city, Tlie people are Roman Catholics, and iire not permitted to embrace any otlier form of Christia- nity ; but foreign ProtcHtants are allowed the excnnse of their religion. The hmguage is a corruption of the ancient Latin, admired for the melody of its t(me. 419. Italy is a mountainous country, full of beautiful .scenery. The (nf/.i, o«p ^f x,.. ^ ., . ' - — •" "i^e ot thu Gothic race, and Fpeak Dutch, or Low German, a Gothic tongue like the ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 133 English ana German. They are Protestants, mostly Cal- vinistic, but all sects are tolerated. They revolted from the persecuting rule of Philip II. of Spain in 1579, and after a long war, succeeded in establishing their indepen- dence. At first they formed a republic ; but Holland is now a constitutional monarchy. Holland and Belgium were formerly termed the mtherland. or Low Countries. 422. Germany extends from France to Austria and from Switzerland to Denmark. Area, 90,910 square miles • population, 16 millions, exclusive of the German parts of Prussia, Austria, Denmark and Holland. The followinc are the leading States : — STATES. CHIEF TOWNS. Bavaria. Munich. Wurtemburg . . Stuttgard. Saxony Dresden. Hanover Hanover. Hesae-Cassel . . Cassel. Hesse-Darmstadt Darmstadt. CHIEF TOWJJg. Wiesbaden. STATES. Nassau . . . ^^en Carlsr^^e! Brunswick Brunswick. Oldenburg Oldenburg. Mecklenburg > „ , Schwerin. j Schwenn. I Mecklenburg i _, ,.^ I Strelitz. jStrehtz. Also the following very small States :- Saxe-Weimar S. Coburg-Gotha, S. Meiningen, S. Altenburg, Anhalt Deel sau A Bernburg, A.Cothen, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, S. Rudolstadt, Waldeck, Reuss, Lippe-Detmold, Schaum- burg Lippe, Liechtenstein, Hesse-Homburg. Luxemburg belongs to Holland ; Holstein and Lauenburg to Denmark Frankfort, on the Maine, (68,000,) Hamburg (148,000 \ LuBECK (25,000,) and Bremen (49,000,) four free citi^ are also German States. Rivers ; the Rhine (R. Neckar' Maine, L. Moselle) from Switzerland, flows through Ger- many and Holland into the North Sea ; the Ems and Weser flow N., and the Elbe (L. Moldau, Saale, R. Spree) Sows N. W. into the North Sea ; the Danube, (R. Isar ) flows E. across the S. of Germany. Towns; capital. A t ;| 134 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. FuANKFOttT-oii-tbe-Maine ; Munich, Augsburg, an in Hesse- Darmstadt, on th-^ Rliine, tlie birtli place of Gutenberg, the inventor of printing. Ports ; Lubeck, on tlic Trave, at the S. E. of Denmark ; Hamburg, or the Elbe, about 70 miles from its mouth, one of the first ports in the world ; Bremen, at the E. of Oldenburg, on the Wcser. Germany in mostly a plain in the N. ; mountainous, with some table land, ill the S. The climate is fine and steady, thougli somewhat severe in winter. The S. W. is noted for its fine wines ; among the Hartz mountains at the S. of Hanover, and in Saxony, there are valuable mines of iron, lead, topper, tin and cobalt; and of rock-salt in Bavaria. There arc extensive forests in various parts. Saxony manufactures a fine kind of woollen cloth, and exports wool ; at Dresden there are celebrated porcelain manufac- tories. The Germans are of the Gothic race, and speak a Gothic tongue— -the German or High German. They arc distinguished by their intellectual tendencies and philoso- phic spirit. The Italians, French, English &nd Ger- mans may be regarded as the founders and leaders of modern civilization and intellectual progress. To the Germans mankind are indebted for printing, the reforma- tion, and the systematic development of national educa- tion ; and some of the greatest names in astronomy, meta- physics, music, philology, classical research, and physical geography, belong to this highly endowed people. Tlie Roman Catholic religion prevails in the southern States ; Protestantism in the north. The governments are some- what despotic, except in Hanover and Rnmrh. t»h«."- there are national assemblies. There is a federal diet,. ^*.#*" ELEMEiNTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 135 meeting at Frankfoi-t, to regulate general interests, 8uch as those of commerce and war. 423. Switzerland is a small inland countiy, havin- France on the W., Germany on the N., Austria on the e'' Italy on the South. Area 15,315 square miles ; population 2,400,000. Capital, Bkrne (28,000), on the Aar. Swit- zerland is a mountainous country. The Alps bound it on the S. and penetrate into it. Their summits are covered with perpetual snow, and between the snow and the lower regions are tlie Glaciers, remarkable masses of ice. There are also many lakes, as Constance in theN.E., through which the Ilhine passes ; Zurich, S.W. of Lake Constance ; Lucerne, in the middle; and the Lake of Geneva, at tlu' S. W., through which the Rhone flows. The scenery of Switzerland is the most beautiful in Europe, perhaps in the world. The government is a federal republic the country being divided into cantons, each having its own laws, but all uniting for the general interests. The people are protestants in the majority of the cantons, mostly ot the Calvinistic persuasion, the others are Roman Catholics. French is spoken in the parts next France ; German in those next Germany; Italian in those adjoining Italy. The people are mostly engaged in agricultural pursuits? , and in the rearing of cattle, goats, and sheep, and hunt- ing the chamois, valuable for its leather. Geneva (on the lake of Geneva) and Neufchatel are notaole for watches. Silk and cotton manufacturer have been introduced. The Swiss are celebrated for their war of independence with the Austrians, whom they defeated at the battle of Mort- garten in 1315 ; and for their wars with Charles the Rash. Duke of Burgundy, whom they defeated several times, finally at Nancy in 1477. 424. Denmark. This small country consists of a penin- 136 ELEMENTS OF GEOaRAPHY. sula, projecting into the N. Sea from the N. of Germany, and several adjacent Islands, of which the largest are Zealand, next the Sound, Iceland, Funen ; and Bornholm in the Baltic Sea. Iceland and the Faroe Isles also belong to Denmark. Area (exclusive of the two latter) 21,856 square miles. Population, 2,400,000. Capital, Copen- hagen at the E. of Zealand, on the Sound (123,000.) The chief ports are Elsinore at the N. E. of Zealand, on the Sound, where the Sound Dues on vessels passing must be paid ; Altona, in the S. W. on the Elbe, two miles below Hamburg ; Kiel, in the S. E., on the Baltic. The country is flat, and the people are employed in raising grain and dairy produce, and in the fisheries. They are of the Gothic race and speak a Gothic tongue. Holstein and Lauenburg in the S. are German ; and the disputes between Danes and Germans led to a war in 1848. In re- ligion they are Lutheran Protestants ; and the government is a constitutional monarchy. Reikiavik, at the S. W. is the capital of Iceland. 425. Norway and Sweden form the great Scandinavian peninsula in the N. of Europe. They are separated in the N. by the Kolen mountains, which are continued in the Dovre-field, in Norway. Area of Norway, 122,752 square miles ; population, 1,380,000. Area of Sweden, 170,628 square miles ; population 3,400,000. Capital of Norway Christiania, at the S. E., on the Bay of Christiania \ population 33,000. Bergen and Drontheim on the W., are ports of considerable trade. Capital of Sweden* Stockholm, on Lake Maelar, an arm of the Baltic Sea • population 93,000, Upsal, N. of Stockholm, is an old town with^ a celebrated university ; GoTTENBURa on the CatteCrat. is Jl, r»nvf. xri+li n-^nof f«„J„ mu- _ • ■-■ ' r Q'^tvi liuac. iuu mines, loreaia and fisheries furnish the chief occupation of the people, ELEMENTS OF GEOaRAPHY. 137 the coantry being iiiountaiuous and barren. But barley, oats, flax and hemp are grown. The Swedish iron is of a superior quality ; the exp-)rts are iron and steel, copper, timber, tar and pitch, alum, potashes and dried fish. The Swedes and Norwegians with the Danes, form the Scandinavian section of the great Gothic race. The lan- guage is a Gothic tongue. The people are Lutheran Pro- iestants, and the government is a constitutional monarchy. Norway was formerly subject to Denmark ; in 1814, it was united to Sweden, under Bernadotte, a French General, who was chosen king : his son is now on the throne. The north, with the adjoining part of Russia, is called Lap- iiAND, and is in the N. frigid zone. The climate is severe, with much snow, along which the Laplanders travel in sledges. Their principal support is the rein-deer, its milk and flesh furnishing food, and its skin clothing. At the N. W., south of the Lofoden Isles, there is a remark- able whirlpool, called the Maelstrom. 426. Prussia is mostly at the S. of the Baltic Sea, be- tween Russia and Germany. A part, called Rhenish Prussia, separated from the rest by Hanover and Bruns- wick, lies E. of Holland and Belgium. Area, 108,350 square miles ; population 16| niillions. Capital, Berlin, on the Spree, population 408,000. The principal rivers are, in the eastern part, the Elbe (R. Spree,) the Oder, Vistula and Niemen ; the Vistula flowing into the Gulf of Dantzic ; in the western part (the Rhenish part,) the Rhine (L. Moselle,) and the Ems. Towns in the interior ; Frankfort-gn-the-Oder, a place of great trade ; Mag- deburg, on the Elbe, a strong fortress ; Treves, a very old city, with Roman remains, on the Moselle ; Coblentz, a Owi'Uugiy iuiiiiicvt luriii lii, Luc vuiiuUciiVJC ui luc xvuixic IIIIU Moselle ; Cologne, c i the Rhine, with great trade, an old 9 138 ElEMENTS OF GEOORAPnr. c_^y ,„th a magnificent cathedral ; Aix-LA-CumiE, n German. Aachen.) near Belgium, ,ith hot bath/ the residence of Charlemagne ; E.BE«rEi,n, Bah!* D„ssE.„o„. on the Ehino, and Cukpku., with cotton, Jift sl . 7-f-t-es. Ports : Mkmel, Da.tz.c an^ Stettin, at the moutha of the Niemen, Vistula, and Oder w. h great corn trade ; and export of timber from Memel Prusm ,a a level country, especially at the K, where i!ctw';? ""' ""''"^ ""^ ™'^'>^- ^"^ ^»»'-n Par^ IS celebrated for its fine wines. The exports are timber corn, hnseed, wine, flax, linen and wool. There are valu-' aMe mmes near the Hartz mountains. The inhabitanfa are Germans in the Khenish part and the W. of the eas^ em divis.^a ; at the E anrl .•« mostly roles of the Slavonic race, speaking i\,^ Polish language and belonging to the an.^ent kingdom of Poland, whS Russia, Austr^ and Prussia divided amongst t lem n 1772 and 1703. The government is a constitution^ talvmistic Protestants ; hut all sects are tolerated. 427. Austhia extends from Switzerhnd E. to Russia Aiea. 208,262 square miles ,- population, 36,514,000 Capital Viekna, near the Danube, population, 410 Oo6 Mounta^n. ; CaT,athian Mountains, in the N. E. and E Mountains of Bohemia, in the N. W. ; Tyrolese and other' Alps, in the W. and S. W. River. ; the Danube (K. Inn Drave, Save. L Theiss.) flowing from W. to E. The Hbe f sev»a::;'t " *'^ '': ^"'™ "' "" -''-' --i rf several ates or nations united under one government ae!i!T; f ^^ "^ ""'"y """■"«'"'"> "^-d tii« part, L':hlrri:{/r:!-- =^"-» — «^ «•» empire ;' •'= -^- -i^^ ^caiian i^iiaies ; in the B., Slavonic; ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 131) and Croatia, and in the N. W. Bohemia, are inhabited by Slavonic races, Avhile the N. E., Galicia, is also Sla- Tonic, being part of ancient Poland. In the E. is the ancient kingdom of Hungary, inhabited chiefly by the Hungarians or Magyars, a different race from any of the others. Towns ; Prague, on the Moldau, the capital of Bohemia, is a place of grent trade, population 75,000 ; BuDA and Pesth, on opposite sides of the Danube, popula- tion 126,000, form the capital of Hungary ; Presburo, higher up, on the Danube, population 41,000-, was the ancient capital of Hungary ; Trieste, in Illyria, and FiUME, in Croatia, both on the Adriatic Sea, are the only ports. The government is nearly despotic ; the people are, for the most part, Roman Catholics. There are many Lutheran Protestants in Hungary. There are mines of gold and silver at Kremnitz and Schemnitz in Hungary ; near Cracow, in the N., there are very extensive salt- mines. The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Carniola, have long been highly productive. Galicia and Hungary grow large quantities of corn, and the Tokay wine of Hungary is highly esteemed. In 1848, the Italians, Viennese and Hungarians rose against the Government, but all wej-« subdued — the Hungarians, only by the aid of the Rus- sians, after a long campaign. 428. Russia. This vast country occupies the N. E. and E. of Europe, adjoining Norway and Sweden at the N. W. ; Prussia, Austria and Turkey, at the S. W. Area 2,099,903 square miles ; population 62,000,000. Capital! St. Petersburg, population 500,000. Russia is mostly one great plain. Rivers ; the Petchora, flowing into the Arctic Ocean ; the Dwina and Onega into the White Sea ; the Duna, or Western Dwina. into tTiA finif nf p;«.n . +u.» Niemen and Vistula into the Baltic Sea ; the Dniester and 140 ELEMENTS OF OEOGRAPHT. Dnieper into the Black Sea ; the Don into the Sea of Azof ■ rhe Volga and Ural into the Caspian Sea. Moscow, in the centre, population 350,000, is the ancient capital ; it has a fine citadel and palace, called the Kremlin. Ports - Archangel, in the N., at the mouth of the Dwina ; Cron^ -•TADT, at the E. of the Gulf of Finland, the port of St Petersburg ; Revel, at the S. of the Gulf of Finland • lOA (71,000,) on the Gulf of the Riga, at the mouth of the Western Dwina ; Odessa (70,000,) at the N. W. of the Black Sea ; Astrakan (45,000,) near the mouth of the Volga ; Warsaw, on the Vistula, population 154,000, i^ the capital of Poland. The exporcs are grain, timber, flax and hemp, tallow, potashes, leather, wool and furs Russia has valuable mines of gold, copper, iron, and pla- tinum, chiefly among the Ural Mountains. The people are of the Slavonic section of the Caucasian race ; and mostly belong to the Greek Catholic Church. The government is H despotic monarchy under an emperor called The C-ar A large number of the people are serfs, like slaves, to*the nobles. Russia has encroached much on her neighbours withm the last 100 years, having taken the greator part of Poland in 1772 and 1793-Finland from Sweden, in 3«12, and been continually gaining territory from Turkey Till the late war, the Pruth and Danube formed the boun^ dary between Russia and Turkey ; but the Allies made l.ussia give up a portion of Bessarabia, pushing her back entirely from the Danube and lower course of the Pruth 429. Turkey m Europe is in the S. of Europe, having Austria on the N., the Adriatic Sea on the W., Greece and the Archipelago on the S., the Black Sea and Russia on the E. Area, 210,000 square miles ; population 12 mil- lions. Capital, Constantinople (or Stamboul.^ on ti- btraits of Constantinople ; population 600,000. The Bal~ ELEMENTS OP GEOGRAPHY. 141 kan Mountains extend through Turkey from W. to E. Ity principal rivei-s are, the Danube (L. Aluta, Sereth, Prutli. R. Save, Morava,) flowing into the Black Sea ; the Maritza, falling into the Archipelago. The northern part, between Russia and Austria, is called Moldavia, capital Jassy ; the province N. of the Danube is Walachia, capital BuKAREST (78,000.) Towns; Varna, on the Black Sea ; Adrianople, N. W. of Constantinople ; Salonica, in the S., on the Gulf of Salonica ; Belgrade, a strong fortress, in the N., at the confluence of the Save and Danube ; Galatz, at the junction of the Sereth and Danube ; Ismail, on the N. of the Danube, in the part recently taken from Russia. The inhabitants are partly Turks, who are Mohammedans, partly Christians of the Greek Church, the protection of whom formed the pretext for the recent attack on Turkey by the Russians. The government is a despotic monarchy, the people being op- pressed by the Pashas appointed to rule the several pro- vinces. The climate is fine and the soil rich. The pro- ducts are grain, olive oil, fruits, wine, coffee, rhubarb, myrrh ; and numbers of cattle are reared. The chief manufactures are carpets, silk, leather and sword blades' The S. of Turkey formed part of ancient Greece ; and the country, with modern Greece, constituted the Greek Em- pire, till that was overthrown by the Turks, in 1453. 430. Greece. This small country lies S. of Turkey, having the Mediterranean Sea on the W. and S., the Archi- pelago on the E. Area, 18,434 square miles ; population 1 million. Capital, Athens, on the Gulf of Egina, in the E. ; population 26,000. Greece is a mountainous country, with a fine climate, and beautiful scenery. The southern peninsula, called the Morea, is nearly separated from the northern part by the Gulfs of Patras and Lepanto, and is 14^ ELEMENTS OF GEOORAniY. joinea to it by the nn nw Istlimus of Corinth. The pro- .lucta are grain, wine, honey, olive oil and fruits. The people are the (lesccnaants of the ancient Greeks, and f^peak a similar language, called the Koniaic. They are Catholics of the Greek Church, and their government is a constitutional monarchy. They were long under the domi- nion of the Turks, against whom they revolted in 1821 and in a few years, under the protection of Britain' France and Kussia, secured their independence. Greece is full of remains of the beautiful architecture of the ancient Greeks, which are numerous and magnificent at Athens ■ and It abounds in places notable as the scenes of events of interest in the history of that intellectual people -the uncient Greeks, who may be said to Iiave laid the founda- tions of literature, science and the arts. The Ionian Islands, Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, &c., at theW., and i'erigo at the S. of Greece, arc under British protection. X. COUNTRIES OF ASIA. 431. Turkey in Asia has the Black Sea on the N., th« Archipelago and Levant on the W., Arabia on the S Persia on the E. Area, 500,000 square miles ; population 15,000,000. Capital, Smyrna, a great port, on the Archi- pelago (150,000.) The N. W. part is called Asia Minor. In It are the towns of Brusa (60,000) and Kutaiam (50,000) in the interior ; Scutari, opposite Constantino- ple ; SiNOPE and Trebisond, ports on the Black Sea. Troy is believed to have been in the N. W. near the Straits of the Dardanelles. Khars is in the N. E. The S. W. part is called Syria, in whiVh ot. "•"«''' ''''» *«'•'= onfy allowed ,0 ?hn f; .Tm ^''' ««t««™«"t8 also in Sumatra ami Bornt The Lnghsh have a^ settlement at Sarawak in Borneo a^i XI. AFRICA. ro.t^'^' "^^^i"-^ ''2.'* "'<> Mediterranean Sea in the N fl,« At.„„'r f«®"?f • '^"'^ «'-''' ™'' I"'"™ Ocean „n he e" e q7oin,°-;; , ? "■ It extends from 34 = uO' S lat t^ ZJ n "'•'■ "'"' *■'•»» "'20' E. long, to ]7 = 3o; W A?e^ in J,.""™' ^"°" "'■''•' '""K> ^'l 4B00 broad' the E., Good Hope and Agulhas at the S., GuaSui at the L. Its rivers are, the Nile in tlm ivr v ^""^'r'*^"/ "^ the Mediterranean Sei he Sene^^^^^^^^^ thTs 1.1 ^ r ";r^ ' *^^ ^«"S0 ^^^1 Orange, flowing nto N thp V ' 'T'^^^K^' are, the Atlas Mountains in the N the Kong Mountains N. of the Gulf of Guinea tht Mountains of the Bloon, in the E. ; the Lpata Mountat I 150 ELEMENTS OP GEOGRAPHT. ^\f ?® Mozambique Channel ; the Nieuveld Mountain* ^^A4Q mu ^^^^^ ^®^®^* ^^ Sahara is in the N. 44«. The tropic of cancer, equator, and tropic of Capri- corn cross Africa, which is thus in the N. and S. temperate and torrid zones, chiefly in the latter. From its position mostly in this zone, its compact form, little penetrated by arms of the sea, and the extensive sandy deserts, Africa id the hottest part of the world. It is little known in the in- terior. Africa is inhabited by Moors in the N., of the Mohammedan religion ; Negroes in the nnddle ; Hottentots ^''^4^''B''^}V^^. ^- ^^^ *^^e« I'^st are idolaters. 449. The following are the chief divisions :~ OOUKTBIKS. CHIEF TOWNS. Egypt Cairo. Nubia Khartoum. Abyssinia . . . Gondar. Tripoli Tripoli. Tunis Tunis. Algeria Algiers. Morocco Morocco. Senegambia . . Bathurst. Upper ( Cape Coast Guinea . . { Castle. COUNTRIES. Lower C Guinea. . ( Soudan Cape Colony. Natal 5 Sofala Mozambique . Zanguebar . . Ajan Adel CHIBP TOWNS. St. Paul.de Loanda. Timbuctoo. Cape Town. Pietermau- ritzburg. Sofala. Mozambique. Zanzibar. Magadoxo. Berbera. i^?^ a7- ' ''V.*^'^.^; ^•' is the most interesting coun- i^ in Afnca. Capital Cairo, on the Nile (250,000 ) Ports; Alexandria (60,000,) Rosetta, Damiet ta, at the mouths of the Nile ; Suez, on the Red Sea. EgVpt was one of the earliest civilized countries in the world ; near Cairo are the famous Pyramids of Ghizeh, and the ruins ofMemphis; and further up the Nile, ihe stupendous rums of Thebes. Egypt is nominally a province of Tur! key; really under the rule of the Pasha of Egypt, the office being hereditary in his family. Egypt has recently be! come of great interest to Europeans, on account of th^ overland passage to India. A railway is now completed from Alexandria to Cairo, and will be continued to Sue? N^^«t' S^' ^- f '^' ^^^^' '^''^'^'' ^"d ^^^'O'^o in the N are Mohammedan states. Algeria, in the N., the in- habitants of which are mostly Moors or Arabs, Moham- bThe Fito) 1^ ^T ^^"^^^^^dji^d taken possession of by the Fiench, who also possess the islands of Goree and ELEMENTS OP GEOGRAPHY. # St. Louis on the W. The Abyssinians (S. of Nubia) pro- fess a form of Christianity. 601. The British settlements are Sierra Leone, and Gambia, in the W. ; Gold Coast settlements in the Gulf of Guinea ; Cape Colony in the S. ; Natal in the S. E. ; the islands of St. Helena and Ascension in the Atlantic Ocean ; Seychelles and Mauritius (Isle of France) in the Indian Ocean. 502. The middle and S. from Soudan southwards are in- habited by various nations of the Negro or Ethiopian race. Their religion is some form of idolatry. Their govern- ments arc cruel and despotic. Many of their chiefs sell those whom they have taken in battle, or even their own people, to planters in America, who send ships across the Atlantic for them. This is called the Slave Trade, which is carried on chiefly at the coasts of Guinea. The French and British have in vain tried to put a stop to it. At the N. W.. of the Gulf of Guinea, is Liberia, a country of civi- lized Negroes or Mulattoes ; many freed from slavery in America. 503. Many parts of Africa are rich in the vegetable products of tropical climes. Egypt produces rice, tobacco, sugar, indigo, cotton, dates, and other fruits. Morocco yields fine wool and leather. Gold, ivory and palm oil are exported from the W. coasts. Myrrh and other aromatic plants are found in the E. The island of Socotra is celfr- brated for its aloes. Madagascar, a large island at the E., is about 1000 miles in length, and 300 in breadth. XII. OCEANIA. 504. Oceania consists of Australasia and Polynesia. 505. Australasia consists of the great islands of Aus- tralia, Tasmania or Van Dieman's La^d, New Guinea, with adjacent islands, and New Zealand. 60G. Australia lies between the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is about 2400 miles long and 1200 broad ; area nearly 3 millions of square miles ; population, nearly 600,000 British Colonists, with a few of the original natives. The parts colonised are in the S. and W. New South Wales in the S. E., capital Sydney, on the E. coast (60,000 ;) Victoria or Port Philip, W. of New South Wales, capital Melbourne (70,000,) near the chief gold region ; l^ ELEMENTS OP GEOQRAPHY, South Australia, W. of Victoria, capital Adelaide (15,000 :) Western Australia, in the S. W., capital Perth (2500.) Australia has few large rivers, and is rather deficient in moisture. The land is chiefly occupied in pas- turage, great numbers of sheep and cattle being i-eared. Wool and gold are the chief exports ; and the discovery of rich mines of the latter has drawn great numbera to Aus- tralia within the last few years. Tasmania is separated from Australia by Bass' Straits ; capital Hobart Town (21,000.) New Zealand consists chiefly of two large islands S. E. of Australia ; chief towns Auckland (10,500,) Wellington (5000 ;) Nelson (3000.) In Tas- mania and New Zealand, the grains and fraits of England flourish ; in New Zealand there is also good timber, and a valuable kind of flax ; these are also British Colonies. New Guinea, with the adjacent islands of New Britain, New Hebrides, New Ireland, Queen Charlotte Islands, New Caledonia, aftbrds many valuable products of tropical climes. They are inhabited by semi-savage tribes. New Caledonia has been taken possession of by the French. 507. Polynesia includes the numerous clusters of islands spread out through the Pacific Ocean. The prin- cipal of them are, the Ladrone Islands, in the N. W. ; the Caroline Islands, N. E. of New Guinea ; the Sandwich Islands, just S. of the tropic of cancer ; the Friendly or Tonga Islands, E. ( f the New Hebrides ; the Society Islands, with Tahiti, E. of the Friendly Islands ; the Low Archipelago, with Pitcairn Island, S. E. of the Society' Islands ; the Marquesas, N. E. of the Society Islands. Many of these islands are of volcanic origin ; others are coral reefs, elevated a little above the water. They enjoy a fine climate, and are fertile, yielding the cocoa, banana, plantain and bread fruit, the sugar cane, and other valua- ble plants. TliQiinhabitants are a dark or brown semi- savage race, somewhat like both Malays and Negroes. The Sandwich Isles, of which Owhyhee or Hawaii is the principal, are in some degree civilized and have a regular government, many British and Americans being settled there. The mountains MoAvna Roa and Mowna Koa are nearly 14,000 feet high ; and the volcano Kirauea is often in eruption, pouring out vast streams of lava. Adelaide >ital Perth I is rather pied in pas- ing i-eared. liscovery of era to Aus- ! separated lART Town two large Auckland ) In Tas- of England iber, and a li Colonies. !W Britain, te Islands, i of tropical ibes. New 'rench. ilusters of The prin- N. W. ; the Sandwich EiENDLY or le Society i ; the Low the Societ}' ty Islands. otheis are They enjoy a, banana, ther valua- rown semi- d Negroes. waii is the B a regular ing settled Qa Koa are lea is often ■35- ^< ys •> V j^, ... J-// U I U ' -f I /f y ^4^-^**>Cf I