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Les diagrammas suivants illustrant la mithoda. errata to > palura, on d D 32X 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 n *•■ AN ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS, AND OP THE WHALE-FISHERY. .1 ( AN ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS, TVITH A HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION -} \ OF THE NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY. BY W. SCORESBY Jun. F.R.S.E. ILLUSTRATED BY TWENTY-FOUR ENGRAVIXeS. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. EDINBURGH : HINTED FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLK AND CO. EDlXDURGNi A.\» HURST, ROBINSON AND CO. CHEAPSIDK, LONDON. 18^0. ^ r N UA- .^•i- N( I 1 /^ ATctrt, Printer, •i To ROBERT JAMESON, Esq. raOPIBSOR or natural BISTORY IM the university or CDINBUROn, PRESIDENT or THE WBRNERIAN SOCIKTY, &c. &c. &c, AT WHOSE SUOOESTION THIS WORK WAS UNDEUTAKKX, AND TO WHOSE EAHLY AND UNIFORM FRIENDSHII" THE AUTHOR IS DEEPLY INDEBTED, THESE V()LU:MES ARK HESPECTFULLY INScninKD. L 'V.. PREFACE. X HOUGH the Natural History of the Coun- tries within the Arctic Circle, and the nature and practice of the Whale-Fishery, possess peculiar, and I may add almost universal, interest ; yet it is remarkable that no original work, published in Britain, excepting a single Tract by Henry Elk- ing, appears to have been devoted entirely to ei- ther subject. In this respect, notwithstanding our important and extensive annual adventures to the Seas of Greenland and Davis' Strait, we have been anticipated and our supineness tacitly reproved by several works that have appeared in other countries. Among foreign authors who have treated of the Regions of the North, or of the ,■■! Vlll PRF.FACK. Whale- Fishery, may be mentioned, La Marti- nicre, Pierre tie Mczangc, Hoisgelin and Fortia, though these are writers, it should be observed* who cannot be altogether followed ; — M. La Pey- ronie, and Bernard de Reste, who have given translations in French, not altogether accurate however, of works of some value ; — and Torfajus, Otho Fabricius, Olafsen, Olaving, Egcdd, Crantz, Zorgdrager, Eggers, Morinierc, and a few others, who have produced works of real merit. The Accounts of Greenland by the faithful and enterprising Moravian Missionaries Hans Egedd and David Crantz, whose zeal and philan- thropy carried them into one of the most un- comfortable and inhospitable regions of the globe, but particularly the latter, are works of peculiar fidelity and value ; and the account of the Whale- Fishery given by Zorgdrager, though written considerably above a century ago, is, perhaps, on the whole, the best that has appeared in any language. The works of Egede and Crantz have been translated into Englisli, and, with the article of Sir Charles Giescckc, in Dr Brewster's En- cyclopaedia, and some others, included in works l:l I) '1.. In niKi'Ari:. IX 1 \ on inisccllancuiis literature ur science, I'urni the principal sources of in formation on the Natural History of Greenhuul, puhlislied in the English language. The tract hy Henry Klking, al- ready alluded to, entitled " A A'iew of the " Greenland Trade and Whale- Fishery, with " the National and Private iVdvantages there- *' of," is, I believe, our only original work on tliis interesting suhjcct. A considerable quantity of miscellaneous in- fonnation, however, relating to Arctic Countries and to the AVhale-Fishery, is to be found inter- spersed through the Collections of Voyages, &c. by Hakluyt, Purchas, Churchill, Harris, I'ickersgill, Goldson,Forstcr, Midler, Coxe, Pinker ton, Kerr, Clarke, Barrow, Burncy, &c. ; in the translations of the Voyages or Narratives of liarentz. Mar- tens, M. Le Hoy, &c. ; and in the original \'^oy- ages of Ellis, James, Fox, Boss, and others, into Baffin's or Hudson's Bay ; of Cook into Beliring's Strait ; and of Phipps towards the North Pole. The work now submitted to the J'ublic is in a great measure original, being chiefly derived from researches carried on during seventeen voyages to 'li PREFACE. the Spitzbergen or Greenland Whale-Fishery. It consists of two distinct parts, each occupying a volume. The £rst relates to the progress of Dis- covery in the Arctic Regions, and the Natural History of Spitzbergen and the Greenland Sea ; the second is devoted to the AVliale-Fishery as conducted in the Seas of Greenland and Davis' Strait. Numerous authorities have been consulted in preparing these sheets for publication, and in all cases, as far as I am aware, a proper reference has been made to the works from which any infor- mation has been derived. For a small but inte- resting Memoire by M. S. B. J. Noel, Sur VAn- tiquite de la p^che de la Baleine, from which I have drawn some valuable historical information, I was indebted to the kindness of M. Noel de la Moriniere, author of an extensive work on An- cient and Modem Fisheries, now in the course of publication in France. Access to some valuable works which I had not in my own possession, and different acts of kindness or assistance were afforded me by the Right Honourable Sir Joseph Banks, Professor Jameson, P. Neill, Esq. Dr Traill, and my Father. By means of some va- 1 PREFACE. XI luable instruments, &c. furnished me by Sir Jo- seph Banks, whose friendly suggestions and en- couragement I am happy to acknowledge, and whose kindness and liberality I shall ever re- member with gratitude, I was enabled to make some experiments on sub-marine temperature, the result of which proved novel and interest- ing. These, with some facilities kindly given me by William Swainson, Esq. of Liverpool, the Reverend George Young, and Mr Thomas Par- kin of Whitby, and occasional obligations from other friends, noticed in different parts of the work, constitute, I believe, the amount of the assistance which I have received in preparing the materials which occupy the following pages. fe h |r CONTENTS .» I ( ^^ ) CONTENTS OF VOLUME FIRST. ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS, Page CHAP. I. — Reimarks on the celebrated Ques- tion, of the existence of a Sea-communica- tion between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by the North ; with an Account of the Progress of Discovery in the North- ern Regions, - - ^ Sect. 1. General Remarks, indicating the existence of a Sea-communication between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by the North, ib, 2. Remarks on the supposed Communication between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by the North-east, - - 13 3. Remarks on the supposed Communication be- tween the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by the North-west; with hints for conduct- in,{; Discoveries in the Polar Regions, 16 xiy CONTENTS OF VOLUME FIRST. \ Page Sect. 4. Remarks on the opinion of a Sea-communi- cation between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by the North Pole, - 40 5 , Account of the Progress of Discovery in the North, - - Cl CHAP. II. — Descriptive Account of some of the Polar Countries, Sect. 1. Account of Spitzbergen, and the Islands immediately adjacent, n. Spitzbergen, b. MofTen Island, c. Low Island, (I. Hope Island, e. Cherie Island, 2. Account of Jan Mayen Island, 92 ib. ib. 149 150 151 152 154 'I CHAP. III. — Hydrographical Survey of the Greenland Sea, Sect. 1. Situation and Extent, — Colour and degree of Transparency, — Quality, Specific Gra- vity, and Saltness of the Greenland Sea, 2. Temperature, Depth, and Pressure of the Greenland Sea; with a Description of an Apparatus for bringing up Water from great depths ; and an Account of Expe- riments made with it, 3r Remarks on the Currents of the Arctic Sea ; with Observations respecting Waves, 170 ib. 184 203 CONTENTS OF VOMIiMl-, I'lHST XV Page 40 61 92 ib. ib. 149 150 151 152 154 1' ro CHAP. IV. — An Aceount of the Greenland or Polar Ice, Sect. l. A Description of the viuious kinds or de- nominations of Ice, 2. On the Formation of Ice on the Sea, 3. Description of Ice-Fields, and Remarks on their Formation and ti'cmendous Con- cussions, 4. Description of Ice-bergs, and Remarks on their Fonnation, 5. On the Situation or general Outline of the Polar Ice, 6. Changes which take place, with the Ad- vance of the Season, in the situation of the Ice, in the Seas of Greenland and Davis' Strait, 7- Situation of the Ice in the Region visit- ed by the Greenland Ships, with Ob- servations on the Alterations which have occurred, during a series of Sixteen Years, 8. Remarks on the Properties, peculiar Move- ments, and Drifting of the Ice, 9. Effects of the Ice on the Atmosphere, and of the Ice and Sea on each other, 10. Remarks on the closest Approximations to- wards the Poles hitherto accomplished, under different Meridians, 11. Abstract of tlie preceding Observations on the Formation, Properties and Si- tuation of the Polar Ice, age 225 ib. 238 241 2."")0 2()2 270 284 296 306 :n8 XVI CONTENTS OF VOLUME 'lUST. if CHAP. V. — Observations on the Atmosphero logy of the Arctic Regions ; particularly re- lating to Spitsbergen and the adjacent Greenland Sea, Sect. 1. Remarks on the Climate of the Arctic Re- gions, and the effects of Cold, 2. General Remarks on Meteorology, with an Investigation of the Mean Monthly, and Annual Temperature of the North Polar Regions, including some inferences on the constant tendency to Equalization of Temperature in the Atmosphere, 3. Remarks on the Pressure of the Atmosphere, with Observations on the Use of the Ba- rometer in predicting the Weather, 4. Appearance, Colour, Transparency, Densi- ty, degree of Dryness, and state as to Electricity, of the Atmosphere, 5. Atmospheric Phenomena, dependent on Re- flection and Refraction, 6. Observations on the Winds of the Polar Re- gions, with some Notices respecting Me- teors not aqueous, 7. Aqueous Meteors, including Observations on Clouds, Rain, Hail, Snow, Frost-rime, Hoar-frost, and Fog, CHAP. VI.—A Sketch of the Zoology of the Arctic Regions, Sect. 1. A Description of Animals of the Cetaceous Kind, frequenting the Greenland Sea, Balaena Mysticetus, or Common Whale, Balaenoptera Gibbar, or Physalis, Page 323 ib. 345 370 377 383 S95 419 446 449 ib. 478 I Page liero- y re- icent Re- h an and 'olar 3 on m of tiere, iBa- ensi- is to Re- Re- Me- lons ime, 323 ib. 345 370 377 383 395 419 the 446 ous 449 ib. 478 CONTENTS OF VOLUME FIRST. Xvil Page Balacnoptera Rorqual, - 482 Jubartes, - 484 acuto-rostrata, - 485 Monodon Monoceros, - 486 Delphinus Deductor, - 496 Delphinapterus Beluga, - 500 Sect. 2. Some Account of tlie Quadrupeds inhabit- ing Spitzbergen, and the Icy Seas adja- cent, - - 502 Trichecus Rosmarus, or Sea-horse, ib. Phocae, or Seals, - 508 Canis Lagopus, or Arctic Fox, - 517 Ursus maritimus, or Polar Bear, - ib. Cervus Tarandus, or Rein-Deer, - 526 3. Remarks on the Birds frequenting the Sea and Coast of Spitzbergen, - 527 Anas Bemicla, - ib. mollissima, . ib. ■ arctica, - ib. Alca Alle, - . 528 Procellaria Glacialis, . lb. Colymbus Grylle, - 532 Troile, - fb. glacialis, . 533 Sterna hirundo, - . ib. Larus Rissa, . 534, parasiticus, - ib. crepidatus, - ib, ebumeus, - 535 glaucus, - ib. Tringa hypoleucos, . 537 Emberiza nivalis, . ib. Fringilla Linaria, . ib. i, I' t I' f ' '11 if f *' 'd ^ xvm CONTENTS or VOLUME FIRST. Page Sect. 4. A brief Account of Amphibia, Animal- cules, &c. inhabiting the Spitzbergen Sea, 538 Class Amphidia. Squalus Borealis, - ib< Cyclopterus Liparis, • 540 Class Pisces. Gadus carbonarius, - ib« Mullus barbatus ? - 541 Class Articulata. Gammarus Arcticus, - ib. Cancer Pulex, - - 542 Boreas, - ib. ' Ampulla, - ib. ■ Nugax, - ib. Larunda Ceti, - 543 Class Vermes. Ascaris, Echinorhynchus, Teenia, &c. ib. Ascidia gelatinosa & rustica, - ib. Lernona branchialis, - ib. Clio helicina, - ib. Clio Borealis, - - 544 Sepiae, - - ib. Medusa?, Animalcula, &c. - ib. T"' CONTENTS OF VOLUME FIRST. XIX Page 53S ib. 540 ib. 541 ib. 542 ib. ib. ib. 543 ib. ib. ib. ib. 544 ib. ib. APPENDIX. Page No. I.— Meteorological Tables, - - (1) II.— Meteorological Results, - Fronting (48) A. General Abstract of the foregoing Register, (ib.) B. Table for determining the Mean Annual Temperature of latitude 78* N., and of the North Pole, - (49) C. Table for ascertaining the Mean Tempe- rature of the month of April, lat. 78°. N. (50) D. Table for ascertaining the Mean Tempe- rature of the month of July, lat, 78°. N. (ib.) E. Abstract of Thermometrical Observations made at the Apartments of the Royal Society, London, - (51) F. Abstract of Fifty Years Observations on the Temperature of Stockholm, . (52) G. Formulae for Calculating the Mean Tem- perature of unobserved months, - (^53) III. a.—- Chronological enumeration of Voyages under- taken by the different Nations of the World, in search of a Northern Communication be- tween the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans ; in- cluding such other Voyages as have been conducive to the advancement of Discovery in the North, - (54) 6.— Notice respecting the Effect of the Sun's Rays, and the Decrease of Temperature on ascending in the Atmosphere, - (72) I v.— iTable of Latitudes and Longitudes of Capes, Bays, &c. in Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen, derived chiefly from original Surveys, - (73) XX CONTENTS OF VOLUME FIRST. Page No. V. — Catalogue of Plants found in Spitzbergen, (75) VI. — Notice respecting the Minerals of Spitzbergen, (76) VII.— -State of the Wind and Weather, from August to May, in the Island of Jan Mayen, as collect- ed from the Journal of Seven Dutch Sailors, who wintered there in the year 1633-4, (78) VIII.— Experiments for determining the Specific Gra- vity of Ice, - - (81) ACCOUNT V.^: Page (75) ?en, (76) istto llect- ilors, (78) Gra- (81) CCOUNT ACCOUNT OP THE ARCTIC REGIONS, CHAPTER I. KEMARKS ON THE CELEBRATED QUESTION OF THE EXISTENCE OF A SEA COMMUNICATION BE- TWEEN THE ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC OCEANS, BY THE NORTH *, WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY IN THE NORTHERN REGIONS. SECT. I. General Reinarks indicating the Existence of a Sea Communication between, tJte Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by the North. Perhaps there is no question connected with geo- graphical science, which has been so long in agi- tation, without being resolved, and so often re- vived with the most sanguine expectations of suc- eess, and then abandoned as hopeless, — ^as the; VOL. I. A. I i;i '•> ■K 1 1 It; 1-1 8 ACCOUNT or Tin: auctic kegioxs. question of the existence of a navigublc commu- nication between the European and the Chinese seas, by the north. The first attempts to reach China hy seai were made by steering along the coast of Africa towards the south, and the next by proceeding from the European shore in a westerly direction. The former, which first proved success- ful, was accomplished by Vasquez de Gama, a Por- tnguezc, in the year 1497-8 ; and the latter was undertaken by the renowned navigator Columbus, in 1492. The notion of steering to India by the north-west, as the shortest way, was suggested about the middle, or latter end of the fifteenth cen- tury^ by John V^az Costa Cortereal, who performed a voyage to Newfoundland, about the year 1463-4* ; or, according to a more general opinion, by John Cabot, the father of the celebrated Sebastian Cabot, who attempted the navigation in 1497, and perhaps also in 1494-5 f . Tlic idea of a passage to India, by the North Pole, was suggested by Robert Thome, merchant, of Bristol j, as early as the year 1527 ; and the opinion of a passage by the north- cast, was proposed soon afterwards. The universal interest which has been attached to this question of a sea communication between * Baiihow's " Chronological History of Voyages into the Arctic llogions," p. 37. ' t Harris's Voyages, vol. ii. p, Ifjl. I Fhiits' Voyage towards the North Fole, pi. NOUTHKUN I'ASSAdi: TO INDIA. foinmu- Chinosc reach jng the next by westerly success- i, a Tor- itter was minis, in 1 by the Liggested !iith ceii- erformed L463-4*; by John n Cabot, perhaps India, Robert the year c north- ittachcd Ibctvvecn S3 into tho the Atlnntic and Pacific Oceans, by the Nortli, ever since it was first suggested about S'.iO or 1350 years ago, is fully proved by tlic facts, — tliat tbe speculation lias never but once been abandoned by the nations of ]Miro])e, for more than twenty-five years together, — and that there have been only three or four intervals of more than fifteen years, in which no expedition was sent out in search of one or other of the supposed passages, from the year 1500, down to the present time. And it is not a little snqirising, that, after nearly a hundred different voyages have been undertaken, with the view of dis- covering the desired communication with the Indian Seas, all of which have failed, J Britain should again revive and attempt the solution ol" this interesting problem. It has been advanced as a maxim, that xc//at rvc tvhh to he trnc^ we readily befievc ; — a maxim which, however doubtful in general, has met with a full illustration in the northern voyages of discovery. A single trial is often sufficient for satisfying us as to the truth of a disputed point; but, in this instance, though nearly an hundred trials have been made, the problem is still considered as unresolved. Several facts may be brought forward, on which arguments of no mean force may be founded, in support of the opinion of tlic existence of a sea communication by the north, between Europe and - o 4 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. •li i' ,■ !?■ ' i ■ t ■ ; I. : 1 ,\' 1 i* • '^ '}> f! ^ China. Among these arguments, I sliall only men- tion the nature of tlie currents and tides, — the fact of an amazing body of ice being yearly dissolved in the Greenland sea, above what is there generated, — the common occurrence of drift wood, and some of it worm-eaten, in most parts of the Polar seas, — the nature of the northern termination of the con- tinents of Europe and Asia, as well as that of Ame- rica, as far as yet ascertained, — and the facts of whales having passed from the Greenland sea to the Sea of Tartary, and from remote regions in the north, to the sea of Greenland ; all of which cir- ciunstanccs I conceive to be in favour of the exist- ence of such a communication. ; i i^i ;j 1. The prevailing current in the Spitzbergen sea, flows, we are well assured, during nine months of the year, if not all the year round, from the north-east towards the south-west. The velocity of this cur- rent may be from 5 to 20 miles per day, varying in different situations, but is most considerable near the coast of Old Greenland *. The current, on the otlier hand, in the middle of Behring's Strait, as observed by Lieutenant Kotzebue, sets strongly to the north-east, with a velocity, as he thought, of two miles and a half an hour, wliicli is greater. I * As tlie proofs of tliis current will be brought forward under the division of the I ly droj^raphy of the Polar Seas, it iu needless in this place ta enter into particulars. I 4 ly men- thc fact )lved in [icratcd, id some seas, — the con- )f Ame- facts of I sea to IS in the liich cir- le exist- »en sea, IS of the >rth-east lis cur- rying in ble near on the rait, as ngly to jjht, of reater, forward jeas, it i^L NORTHERN PASSAGE TO INDIA. 5 however, hy one-half, than tlic rate observed by Captain Cook *. 2. By the action of the soutli-westerly cuiTent, a vast quantity of ice is annually brought from the north and east, and conducted along the cast shore of Old Greenland, as far as Cape Farewell, where such masses as still remain undissolved, arc soon destroyed by the influence of the solar heat, and the force of the sea, to which they then become -expos- ed from almost every quarter. This ice being en- tirely free from salt, and veiy compact, appears ori- ginally to ha\ e consisted of field ice, a kind which perhaps requires the action of frost for many years to bring it to the thickness which it assumes. The quantity of heavy ice, in surface, which is thus annu- ally dissolved, may, at a rough calculation, be stated at about 20,000 square leagues, while the quantity annually generated in the regions accessible to the whalefishers, is probably not more than one-foiurth of that area. -^Vs such, the ice, which is so inex- haustible, nmst require an immense surface of sea for its generation, perhaps the whole or greater part of the so-called " polar basin," the supply re- quired for replacing what is dissolved in IJehring's Strait, where the current sets towards the north, being probably of small moment. The current, in opposite parts of the northern hemisphere, being * Barrow's Voyages into tlie Arctic Regions, p. 358, 6 ACCOUNT OF THE AKCTIC REGIONS. ■H thus found to follow the same line of direction, in- dicates a communication between the two, across the Poles ; and the inexhaustible supply of ice, affording about 15,000 square leagues to be annually dissolv- ed, above the quantity generated in the known parts of the Spitzbergen seas, supports the same conclu- sion. S. The origin of the considerable quantity of drift wood, found in almost every part of the Green- land sea, is traced to some country beyond the Pole, and may be brought forward in aid of the opinion of the existence of a sea communication between the Atlantic and Pacific ; which argument receives ad- ditional strength from the circumstance of some of the drift-wood being worm-eaten. Thislast fact, I first observed on the shores of the Island of Jan May en, where I landed in August 1817, and confirmed it by more particular observation, when at Spitzbergen the year following. Having no axe with me when I observed the worm-eaten wood, and having no means of bringing it away, I could not ascertain whether the holes observed in the timber, were the work of a Ptinus or a Pholas. In either case, how- ever, as it is not knovm that these animals ever pierce wood in the arctic countries, it is presumed that the worm-eaten drift-wood is derived from a trans-polar region. Numerous facts of this nature might be adduced, all of which support the same conclusion. In the I s. NORTHEUN PASSAGE TO INDIA. tion, in- .cross the affording J dissolv- wn parts e coiiclu- antity of le Green- thc Pole, )pinion of ween the ceives ad- f some of act, I first n Mayen, ifirmed it |itzbergen me when |aving no ascertain were the Lse, how- lals ever ►resumed from a idduccd, In the iJanish settlement at Disco, is a mahogany table made out of a plank which was drifted thither by the current, and is now in the possession of the go- vernor. A tree of logwood was also picked up not far from the same place. Another log of mahogany was picked up at sea by Admiral Lowenorn, in 1786, when on his voyage attempting the re-dis- covery of Old Greenland. This piece of wood, which was so large that they w^ere obliged to saw it in two before they could get it on board, they found within sight of the coast of Greenland, in latitude Q5'' li; longitude 35° 8' west of Paris. It was much perforated by worms, which circumstance the Admiral conceived might assist in giving it suffi •cient buoyancy to swim in the water *. These logs of wood, the produce of the Isthmus which connects North and South America, could only reach the places where they were severally found, by floating up the west coast of America, towards the north, through Behring's Strait, and so along the northern face of Asia or America, or across the Northern Pole. Had they come by the way of the Gulf of JVIexico, they might have floated to the banks of Newfoundland, bv the action of the Gulf Stream, and been carried from thence to any part of the western shore of Europe ; but they could not possibly have passed northward from Newfound- * Quarterly Review, No. 36. p. 445. ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. land into Davis' Straits, or to the east coast of Greenland, in direct opposition to a current which perpetually flows towards the south-west *. 4. The northern faces of the continents of Eu- rope and Asia, as well as of that of America, so far as yet known, are such, as renders it difficult, even to imagine such a position for the unascertained regions, as to cut off the communication hctween the frozen sea, near the meridian of London, and that in the opposite part of the northern hemisphere, near Bch- ring's Strait. 5. And, another argument wliich goes still far- ther to support the opinion of the existence of the communication in question, is the fact of whales which have been harpooned in the Greenland seas, having been found in tlie Pacific Ocean ; and whales with stone lances sticking in their fat, (a kind of weapon used by no nation now known,) having been caught both in the sea of Spitzbergen, and in Davis* Strait. The following are some of the authorities for this fact, which, of all other arguments yet of- fered in favour of a trans-polar passage, seems tp me to be the most satisfactory. A Dutch East Indiq, captain, of the name of Jacob Cool, of Sardam, who had been several tiipes at iGrcenland, and w^s of course well acquainted witji the nature of the apparatus used in the wh^le- -rwr Quarterly Review. No. 36. p. 445, s. NORTHEKN PASSAGE TO INDIA. 9 coast of (It which 5 of ^u- , so far as even to I regions, le irozen it in the ear Beh- still far- e of the f whales md seas, i whales kind of ng been Davis* horitie^ yet of- s tome ame of ^1 tiipes 3d with Iwh^ljB- fishery, was informed by the Fischal Zeeman of India, that in the sea of Tartary there was a whale taken, in the back of which was sticking a Dutch harpoon, marked with the letters W. B. This cu- rious circumstance was communicated to Peter Jansz Vischer, probably a Greenland whaler, who discovered that the harpoon in question had belong- ed to William Bastiaanz, Admiral of the Dutch Greenland fleet, and had been struck into the whale in the Spitzbergen sea *. MuUer refers to a similar circumstance when re- cording the first discovery by sea, of the peninsula of Kamtchatka by the Kussians, in the year 1716L The crow of tho discovery vessel having wintered ou the western coast of Kamtchatka, he infonns us> t;hat during their stay there, '* the sea cast upo^ the shore a whale that had in its body a harpoon of European workmanship, marked with Koman let- ters f ." Another account of the same nature, given \ty Hendrick Hamel, in his " Unfortunate Voyage of the yacht Sparwcr, in the year 1653," and pu- blished in the *' liecueil des A'^oyages," con'oboratea the testimony of Muller. Hamel, in his narrative of the loss of this vessel on the Island of Quel- p^ert, observes, that " in the sea to the north-east * Bpschryving der Walvisvangst, vol. ii. p. 38. t Muller's Voyages from Asia to America; Jeffrey's Translation, p. 4<2. 10 ACCOUNT or THE ARCTIC EEGIONS. . f >»:! ■%■ of Korea, they take every year a great number of whales, in some of which arc found harpoons {or striking-irons) of the French and Dutch, who prac- tise the whale-fishery at the extremities of Europe ; whence we infer (he continues) that there is surely a passage between Korea and Japan, which com- municates to the Strait of Waigatz *," separating Nova Zembla from the Continent of Europe. Other circumstances can be adduced to the same effect. The master of the Volunteer whaler of Whitby, when near the coast of Spitzbergen, Ju- ly 19. 1813, shewed me part of a lance which had been taken out of the fat of a whale killed by his crew a few weeks before. It was formed of a hard grey stone, of a flinty appearance, about three inches long, two broad, and two-tenths thick. Two holes were pierced in one end of it, by which, it appeared the stock or handle had been secured. It was com- pletely embedded in the blubber, and the wound was quite healed. A small white scar on the skin of the whale, alone marked the place where the lance had entered. In the year 1812, the crew of a Hull fisher (the Aurora) met with a whale in the same region having a harpoon made of bone, sticking in its back ; and a few years ago a lance of stone, somewhat like the one above mentioned, fixed to a piece of bone, forming a socket for the stock, was like- * Quarterly Review, No. xxxv. p. 217. NORTHERN PASSAGE TO INDIA. 11 wise found in a whale by the people of another Green- landman of Hull : this stonc-lance is now deposited in the interesting collection of natural rarities belong- ing to ^Ir Hornsea of Scarbrough*. To these facts we might add many of a similar kind, together with others of whales stnick in Davis' Straits ha- ving been killed near Spitzbergen, and vice versa ; but the above will be sufficient for affording a strong confirmation of the opinion, that a sea communi- cation between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by the North, does exist. For, with regard to the stone-lances and bone-harpoons found in the bodies of whales, it may be remarked, that as the Esqui- maux of Davis' Straits and Hudson's Bay, have now, from their long intercourse with Europeans, become well supplied with weapons calculated for the capture of the whale made of iron, these in- struments of stone and bone, so much inferior, must have been used by some other persons who have not yet had intercourse with the civilized world ; but as they arc precisely the kind of wea- pons which were in common use among the Esqui- maux a century ago, it is probable that the in- struments alluded to were stmrk by some tribe of the same nation, inhabiting the shores of the fro- zen ocean, on the northern face of the American Continent, yet unexplored. If so, these facts go Plate II. fig. 1. is a representation of this instrument. ir:i 12 ACCOUNT OF THE AllCTIC REGIONS. far towards establishing the existence of a communi- cation between the Spitzbergen sea and the Pacific Ocean. SECT. II. jtemarks on the supposed Communication betzveen the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by the North- East. \ i The Hussians, it appears, have at intervals dis- covered all the navigation between Archangel and the Strait of Behring, excepting a portion of about 200 miles, occupied by the eastern part of a noss or promontory lying between the rivers Khatanga and Piacina. The northern extremity of this noss, called Cape Ceverovostochnoi, appears to have been doubled by Lieutenant ProntschitschefF, in the year 1735, so that ice, and perhaps some small islands, seem in this place to form the great ob- struction to the navigation. As far as can be well substantiated, the portion of the route between Archangel and Kamtchatka, which has been hi- therto accomplished, was perfonned in the following manner. Lieutenant Morovieff accomplished the naviga- tion from Archangel towards the river Obe, as fai* as the latitude 72" 30' on the west coast of the pc- INS. communi- lie Pacific NORTH-EAST PASSAGE. 19 n betzveen he North- jrvaJs dis- angel and ti of about of a noss Khatanga ■ this noss, have been in the me small great ob- ,n be well between been hi- following naviga- y as far the pc- ■■•j\ niiisula separating the Gulfs of Kama and Obc, in the years 1 73-1-5. This navigation was continued in 1738 by Lieutenants Malgyin and Skurakoff, who doubled Cape Jalmal on this promontory, and sailed into the Gulf of Obc. Lieutenantii OfFzin and Iwan Koskeleff, the same year performed the route from the Obe to the Eniesi or Jenisei. And the pilot, Feodor Menin, sailed in the same sum- mer from the Eniesi towards the Lena. He reach- ed the latitude of 73° 15', and when he came to the mouth of the I'iaciua, his progress was stopped by the ice ; and finding the passage completely block- ed up, he returned to the Eniesi. Thus the navi- gation from Archangel to the Piacina, a distance of 47 degrees 'of longitude towards the east, was completed. Lieutenant Prontschitscheff sailed in 1735 from Yakutsk down the Lena, then to the westward to the Olonec, where, owing to numerous interruptions from the ice, he found it necessary to winter. In the month of August of the following year, he passed the rivers Anabara and Khatanga, then penetrated the ice as far as latitude 77* 25', and coasted along the western side of the most north- erly promontory of the Samoieds' country towards the Piacina, alittle beyond the Bay of Taimourska, where he was stopped by an impenetrable barrier of ice * * Coxe's " Account of the Russian Discoveries between Asia and America/' p. 308. — According to MuUer, Prontschit^* sclieft' did not quite readi the Bay of Taimourska. J1» ACCOUNT OF THE AUCTIC REGIONS. fl I i M - : W ■' From near Taimourska, therefore, to near the Pia- cina, was not accomplished *. In the same sum- mer, Lieutenant Lassenius sailed from the I^ena eastward towards Kamtchatka, and wintered in the river Charaulack, lying between the Lena and the Jana, where, of 52 persons composing his crew, 46 died of the scurvy. Lieutenant Dmitri Lap- tiefF, after an attempt which failed in 1736, was again sent from the Lena in 1739 towards the east. He wintered in the Indighirsa, where he lost his vessel, but prosecuted his voyage in another, the following spring, as far as the river Kovima, from whence he crossed the Isthmus of the Tchuktchi country to the river Anadir, communicating with the sea of Kamtchatka f . The navigation round the great promontory of the Tchuktchi, constitu- ting the north-eastern termination of Asia, was ac- complished by one of three vessels which sailed from the Kovima, in order to penetrate into the Eastern Ocean, on the 20th of June 1648. This expedi- tion, indeed, is said to have originally consisted of seven kotches, four of which were never heard of after they sailed. One of the other three, which proceeded for some time in company, was wrecked * Muller mentions^ that in 173S Lieutenant Chariton Lap- tielT was sent from Petcrsburgh, to take up the task assigned to ProntschitschcfF, and to go through with it by sea or land ; but it appeal's he also failed. — Translation, p. 1 9. t Mullcr's Voyages^ — Translation, p. 19, 5iO. \ DNS. ir the Pia- samc sum- the Lena crcd in the na and the his crew, mitri Lap- 1736, was ds the east, he lost his Qother, the ivima, from Tchuktchi eating with ktion round i, constitii- sia, was ac- sailed from ;he Eastern [lis expedi- fonsistcd of ir heard of iree, which ,s wrecked hariton Lap- [ask assigned Isea or land ; NOEI -EAKT "ASSAOE. 15 on the ^ ■?: which communicates with tlie frozen ocean on the jiorth-west. Just within the entrance of Hudson's Strait, at Cary-Swan's-Nest, the tide was found by Captain Fox to rise but six feet ; whereas, on the west side of the bay, where, from the great expan- sion of the waters, the tide, according to theory, ought to have been scarcely perceptible, it rises in different places ten, thirteen and seventeen feet. The flood-tide on the west side of Hudson's Bay flows towards the south ; and the time of high-water is soonest the farthest towards the north ; both of which circumstances, supposing Hudson's Bay to be an inland isea, with only one entrance from the east, should, Kllis conceives, according to the doc- trines of tides, have been just the contrary. And, lastly, the highest tides on both sides of Hudson's Bay, arc produced by north and north-west winds; whereas, were it an inland sea, it is clear, that east or south-east winds, blowing directly through the strait, or in the direction of the ilood-tide without, would produce the highest tides. Hence he con- cludes, that the tide of flood flows into Hudson's Bay, through some other entrance than that called Hudson's Strait ; not from BaHln's Bay cither, be- cause the tide is there inconsiderable ; but from the north-west, or from the icy sea*, by which conclu- c 2 * It is not .'it all reasonable to sui>i)ose, that the consider- able tides observed in Hudson's Bay should be occasioned by f '? % '.': 'i' 2a ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC I EGIONS. ^ i I! , ( ! sion, all the difficulties with regard to the tides are easily solved. How far Ellis may be correct, will, perhaps, be soon determined. Other arguments which have been offered in fa- vour of the separation of Greenland from America, are deduced from the existence of a current setting from the north, — from the circumstance of ice-bergs and drift wood being brought down by the current^ — from whales wounded in the Spitzbergen seas ha- ving been caught in Davis' Strait, — from the posi- tion of the land, as represented on skins by the na- tive American Indians, and from the occurrence of certain plants in Greenland, which are natives of Europe, but have never been found on any part of the American continent*. As, however, it would take up too* much of this work to enlarge on, or even to enumerate all the ar- guments founded on the nature of the tides, cur- rents, ice, winds, country, &c. which have been brought forward to prove the existence of a north- west passage, I shall proceed to make a few general remarks on the probable advantages of such a discov- the flood flowing through some strait communicating with Baffin's Bay, where the tide is so much less, unless this bay be connected with the Frozen Ocean ; as the tides, in penetrating an extensive sea, and pursuing a long circular course, must evidently be diminished, rather tlian increased. Quarterly Review, No xxxvi. p. 439. NS. ! tides are rect, will, red in fa- America, nt setting f ice-bergs le current, in seas ba- the posi- by the na- urrence of natives of my part of ch of this all the ar- tides, cur- lave been a north- w general a discov- iting with I this bay be [penetrating burse, must NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. 21 ery, and to offer a few hints for conducting discover- ies in these frozen regions. I conceive the opinion to be quite incorrect, that if a passage were discovered, it would, probably, be open above half the year ; for, supposing there real- 13^ be a sea communication, near the parallel of 70°, between the southern part of Baffin's Bay, or the northern part of Hudson's Bay and Behr- ing's Strait, it would not only, I believe, (judg- ing from the known situations occupied by the ice, and the known coldness of these regions,) not be open above half the year, but, I ima- gine, it would be at intervals only of years that it would be open at all ; and then, perhaps, for not longer thin eight or ten weeks in a season. Hence, as affording a navigation to the Pacific Ocean, the discovery of a north-west passage could be of no ser- vice ; for no one would have encouragement to at- tempt a passage, if the chance of succeeding were so small, for the sake only of the possibility of gaining a few months in an India voyage, when it could always be accomplished in the old way with so much more certainty. Nevertheless, the expectation of improving our geographical knowledge, and the pos- sibility of discovering something which might lead to an extension of our commerce, as well as the pros- pect of discovering more of the nature of several physical phenomena, which are more observable in high latitudes than in any other part of the globe, and of extending our knowledge in the several i: rn n ACCOUNT OF THE AHCTIC UEGIONS. i I'fi 1 .'. ■9 ', i il' branches, of natural history, relating to polar coun- tries ; these, togetlier with the popular feeling of cu- riosity, peculiarly attached to every thing connected with those remote and dangerous regions, are of themselves sufficient to render the examination of those interesting countries, an object worthy of the attention of a great nation. The advantages that have already arisen to Bri- tain, from the voyages hitherto undertaken in search of a north-west passage, are the establishment of the Davis' Straits whale-fishery, and of the trade of the Hudson's Bay Company ; so that the expence incurred, though it has certainly been great and of- ten fruitless, has not altogether been lost to the na- tion. The adventurous spirit manifested by our early navigators, in performing such hazardous voyages in small barks, in which we should be scrupulous of trusting ourselves across the German Ocean, is calculated to stril lis with surprise and admiration ; while the correctness of the investigations resulting fi-om their laborious exertions, notwithstanding the many disadvantages under which they were conduct- ed, gives us a high opinion of their perseverance and talents. These two remarks are easily illustrate l The famous voyage of Baffin, in which the bay hearing his name was discovered, was performed ia a vessel of only 55 tons burden ; that of Hudson^ in which, also, the bay called by his name was first ^^R nportant is ^B ips become AS increase in j.^ d unscien- M l lading of m irface, and ■m ed sloops, m I a sandy m leavy sea, -^nH off with- B e; where- m 1 built of 1 scientific 1 situation, 1 zes, is of- 1 ten ruined. The fact is, that the materials of which the largest vessels are built, are only of the same strength as those used in the construction of the smallest, while the timbers and planks in a line-of-battle ship, when compared with those of a small vessel, are by no means of a thickness proportionate to its tonnage. Hence a large vessel, however firmly built, can never possess the same comparative strength as a small one. Besides, the momentum of a large heavy vessel striking a rock, a mass of ice, or other similar body with a given ve- locity, is so much greater than that of a small ship, that the difference of the shock is vastly greater than the difference of the strength of the two. Thus, we will suppose, the weight of two vessels with their ballast and stores, one of 400 tons and another of 100 tons burden, to be proportionate to their tonnage, and that they both strike an immove- able mass of ice with the same velocity, say, six miles per hour. Then the momentum of the for- mer will be represented by the number 24, and of the latter by 6, or as four to one, being in the same relation as their tonnage. But the comparative difference of strength of the two, we know, will pro- bably be not greater than as two to one; consequent- ly, the capability of the smaller vessel for resisting the concussion, will be twice as great as that of the larger ; or, in other words, the vessel of 100 tons burden, would bear a blow impinged with a velo- city of eight miles per hour, as well as the larger 2G ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC HEGIONS. one would beat a stroke given under half that velo- city. With regard to pressure between two sheets of ice, it is clear, that a large vessel would have an advantage over a small one, were it not that a small vessel, if of a proper construction, often rises, when squeezed, several feet above her usual floating-mark, while a large heavy ship, under the same circum- stances, remains nearly fixed, and is, consequently, much more compressed. In tlie perilous and remarkably disastrous voyage performed by Captain James, in the years 1631 and 1632, when he wintered in Hudson's Bay, the smallness of his vessel affording an extraordinary degree of strength, compared with a larger vessel, was the means of saving himself and his crew under a variety of dangers. This vessel, of only 70 tons burden, endured six or seven such beatings against rocks and ice, as would doubtless have occasioned the destruction of almost any vessel of such a size as was lately employed for discovery in the Polar re- gions *. Captain James's little vessel, besides en- during its full share of heavy storms and high seas, both under sail in the main ocean, and at anchor in shallow water ; besides beating and driv- ing about among ice for twenty days together, and Ivinff all winter, full of water, on an uneven and * The four vessels equipped for discovery in the year 1818^ were from 250 to 'JHO tons burden. KOllTII-AVEST TASSAOE. 27 stony bcacli, — was two or three times exposed to a dreadful beating from ice, agitated by a heavy sea, and was four times on sliorc upon rocks, during strong winds or considerable swells, in one of which instances, she was left by the tide hanging on the point of a sharp rock, so that the greatest appre- hension was excited that she woidd upset ; yet, after passing through all this uncommon series of dangers, the little bark took home its crew in safe- ty* Hence, it is evident, that a vessel intended for discovery in the Polar Seas, should be just large enough for conveying the requisite stores and pro- visions, and for affording comfortable accommodation to the navigators, but no larger. Perhaps a vessel of about 150 tons burden, would be fully sufficient to answer every purpose. The numerous disasters to which Captain James was exposed, are to be attributed to his total igno- rance of the nature of the ice, and of the countries which he explored ; and to his having refiised, on his outset, to take along with him any persons, who, in these respects, were better infonned thanhimself. But he soon had occasion to regret his want of practical knowledge of these ]?eculiar regions, his deficiency in which led him into numerous diiriciiltics. His * Captain James's voyage is induded in ChurchiU's " Col- lection of ^1)yages ;" in Clai-ke's " NaufVagia," &c. The original edition was published hy the command of Kin^- Charles I. in 1633. S8 ACCOUNT OF THK ARCTIC AEGIONti. .lil'n'; i' I! ■4 first mistake, was to get entangled among the ice lying about Cape Farewell, where he had nearly lost his vessel ; and his subsequent errors were also pro- ductive of many distresses. It is strange, that any one should have imagined, that unacquaintance with the country intended to be explored, could be of advan- tage to the voyager. The navigation of the Polar seas, which is peculiar, requires in a particular man- ner, an extensive knowledge of the nature, proper- ties, and usual motions of the ice ; and it can only be performed to the best advantage, by those who have had long experience in working a ship in icy situations. It may be remarked, in support of this assertion, that all the great discoveries to the north and west of Greenland, have been made by persons well acquainted with the navigation of the arctic seas. Baffin, wien he discovered the bay bear- ing his name, and boldly traversed it with only one small bark, had been employed on three several voyages of discovery before, as well as on one or more voyages to the Spitzbergen whale-lishery. JDavis and Hudson also had each had experience in the navigation of these seas, before they made discoveries of any consequence *, Hudson- we know, having been three voyages on discovery, and Davis two, before they found the straits and bay which are still called by their names*. * Want of experience in the navigation of icy seas, is the only objection to Officers of the Royal Navy having thedirec- nohth-west passage. 29 It might be a material assistance to those em- ployed in completing the examination of Baffin's Bay, as well as productive of some interesting in- formation in meteorological phenomena, were a ves- sel or two to remain in the northern part of this bay during the winter. Vessels having to penetrate the ice from the main sea in the usual way, cannot probably obtain a passage into the Bay before the middle or end of the month of July, when the sea- son is so far advanced, that if the navigators intend to return, they can only calculate upon an interval of six or eight weeks, before it will be prudent fon them to make their escape out of the Bay. But by wintering in the northern part of the Bay, there i» little doubt but that the vessel would be released by the ice as early as May or June, and thus be afforded about double the time for research that could be obtained by wintering out of the Bay ; at tion of expeditions intended for discovery in the arctic regions. Nd one has a higher opinion of the nautical skill and bravery of our naval commanders than I have, (having myself served some time in the Navy, and witnessed their talents,) — ^yet I cannot yield the palm to them for that description of talent re- quisite for performing to the best advantage the navigation among ice. No officer, I believe,, would expect to equal the river pilots, or the masters of the Gravesend boats, in working their little vessels up or. down the Thames ; — for no judgment, however profound, — no talent, however acute, could supersede the necessity of practice for performing this navigation with the beauty and correctness with which it is accomplished by these practised pilots and boatmen. « 'V, J, 80 Accor'NT OF Tin: auctic ukgions. ■u ft '■in least, sucli \\c know would bo the case in other si- milar ]>{irts of tlie Polar countries. In Hudson's Hay, for instance, the ice clears away from the nor- thern shore \o\\g before the southern j)art is at all accessible * ; and at Spitzbergen, though the sea should be so encumbered with ice as to ])revent our approaching its coasts beyond the 76th degree of latitude until the end of May or beginning of June, yet near the western and northern parts of the shore, there is usually a navigable sea much earlier. There would not, I imagine, be any very great danger in making this experiment, provided a suf- ficient quantity of fresh provisions for the prevention of the scurvy among the crew were taken out f , and certain precautions for the preservation of the ships adopted. An ingenious apparatus now in use at Leith, invented by Mr Thomas Morton, ship- builder, and for which he has recently taken out a patent, might, I think, be made use of to advan- tage by any vessel proceeding to distant regions on discovery. A trifling damage sustained by a ship employed in such a voyage, is often sufficient for putting a stop to any further research ; but the use * See Ellis's Voyage to Hudson's Bay, p. 321. + Fresh provisions certainly form one of the best preventives of the scurvy, and may be taken out in any quantity to the polar countries, without any preparation wliatever; the action of the cold to which tliey soon become exposed, preventing putrefaction. N OUT H-W F.ST PASSAti V.. tn :i I of Mr Morton's aj)paratus would afford tlic incuus of repairing every ordinary damage in almost any country, 'i'he contrivance consists of a simple frame of wood, adapted for supporting a vessel in an up- right position, traversing on a kind of rail-way, fixed on an inclined plane at the nuirgin of a river or the sea, and extending from above the reach of the tide down to the low-water mark. This frame being launched into the sea, as far as the lower end of the rail-way, receives the vessel upon it at high- water, when, by the use of blocks or chocks of wood placetl on the sides of the frame, moveable by means of ropes towards the centre, the vessel is snp])orted in an upright position, and then, by the application of a mechanical purchase, consisting of a combination of wlicels and axles, constituting a powerful winch, the frame and the contained vessel are drawn up together on dry land. With this apparatus, a ^es- sel of 200 to 300 tons burden, might be taken, by 12 or 18 men, entirely beyond the reach of the tide in the course of about an hour *. The advan- tage of such an apparatus in a vessel bound to the * The intention of Mr Morton's invention is to supersede tlie necessity of dry docks, over whicli it j)ossesses several ad* vantages. An apparatus calculated for taking up a vessel of 300 tons burden, can be built for the sum of 500/. or 600/. ; and, when once fixed, vessels can be taken up for an expence of '^5*. to 30s. , whereas the common charge for putting a sln'p into a graving-dock, is, in sgme places, as high as 10/. 32 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. 1 ii^'i''M ' ml Jt i'' llf' '' I 'I m ' I' r 'X ' Polar regions on discovery, might be very great, provided, in the place where there should prove a necessity for using it, the rise of tide should be sufficient for admitting its application, and the beach should be of a sloping nature. It could be prepared in short pieces, so as to be fitted together with screws ; and though intended for sustaining the weight of a ship, would be by no means very cumbrous. Indeed, any vessel of 200 tons burden or upward, might easily carry it out in her hold, without materially, if at all, interfering with the room requisite for her stores. Thus a vessel having occasion to winter in Baffin's Bay or Davis' Strait, would require only tlie adjustment of the frame and xvaySi which three or four skilful mechanics might effect in a few days, before she could be hauled up on dry land, quite beyond the reach of either ice or tides, where she would constitute as comfortable a dwelling as could be expected in such a country. The apparatus could even be applied where there was not a fall of tide equal to the depth of water drawn by the vessel, by the use of a small coffer- dam, sufficient only to stop out the tide at low- water, until the rail-way should be adjusted so ftu* down that at high-water the vessel could float up- on the frame while resting on the rail-way. Then the force of the ship's company would be amply suf- ficient for drawing the vessel up on land. In seas perpetually enciunbered witli ice, and probably crowded with islands, if not divided by K O IITII- WE ST PA SS AG E . 63 necks of land, the cliancc of great discoveries and of extensive navigations toward the north-west, even under the best arrangements, and under the boldest seamen, is but small. The most certain method of ascertaining the existence of a communication between tlie Atlantic and Pacific, along the nor- thern face of America, would doubtless be by jour- neys on land. JNlen there are, who, being long used to travel upon snow in the service of the Hudson's Ray Company, would readily undertake the journey from the interior lakes of North America to the Frozen Ocean, or, in case of a continuity of land being found, to the very Pole itself; of whose suc- cess we should certainly have a reasonable ground of liope. The practicability of this mode of ma- king discoveries has been fully proved by the jour- neys of Mackenzie and Ilearne ; and the possibility of performing very long jounieys on snow, can be attested, from personal experience, by any persons wlio have wintered a few times in Hudson's Bay. The mode of travelling in these nortliern countries, is peculiar. A. long journey can best be performed when tlie gTomid is covered with snow. In this case, eacli tv;)vcller i;-: pro\i{le(l with a pair of snow- shoes, and ii sledge ol" eiglit to twelve feet in length, and one foot iii Iricadtli, on which, all the appa- ratus and provisions re(piisite for tlie journey, are drawn by hand. Soriietinies dogs are used to assist in drawing the sledii:os ; but a:> the travellers are VOL. I. c " '•■'III ?i; ? ff. Ill I ;■ 11.1 ■ iiB: !i < ; \ - .! I i :-h^ 34 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC IlEGIONS. apt to fall short of provision for them, they cannot place absolute depcndance on their continued help. Without the use of dogs, a strong experienced tra- veller can perform, on an average^ about twenty miles a-day, dragging after him 100 to 150 pounds weight of articles upon his sledge. When the sur- face of the snow is frozen and firm, he can occasion- ally accomplish forty miles in a day, but this re- quires an effort too laborious to be continued for many days together. The best opportunity for passing these almost desert countries, is when the ground is covered with snow ; the best time of the year, perhaps in the spring months ; and the most favouraM. hour, from one or two in the morning until i, i ). After sun-rise, the surface of the snow is ..^.v to become soft, on which the further progress of the traveller is suspended ; he then rests until the evening, or until the following morning, when the snow having become encrusted with ice, he advances with ease and celerity. If he finds himself much pinched with cold when he rests, he sets out and walks until the proper heat of his body is restored, tlicn refreshing himself with a little nourishment, composes himself to sleep. He must bivouac on the snow. Here, without shelter from hut or tent, he rests, if not as comfortably, at least as contentcdlv, as those accustomed to more re- finemcnt can, in their well-arranged couches. He usually hollows out a plnce in the snow to sleep in, and KORTH-WEST PASSAGE. 85 on the windward side places his sledges on their edges for a defence against the wind ; then laying down a few twigs of bushes or trees, when he can meet with them, in place of a bed, he wraps him- self in his blanket, covers himself with his upper garments, which he makes a practice of throwing off when he rests, and enjoys his repose. The principal articles provided by the experienced tra- veller for his subsistence, consist of tea, oatmeal, bacon, bread, and sometimes a few fish or fowls, but no spirits ; and whenever he finds it necessary to use artificial stimuli for accelerating the circulation of the blood, and promoting the heat of the system, instead of resorting to spiritous liquors, knowing them to be injurious, he drinks freely of warm tea, which the plentifuhiess of wood for fire in the in- terior of North America, generally affords him a ready opportunity of preparing. His relish, with his tea, consists of a bit of broiled bacon, and perhaps a little oatmeal porridge ; which articles, when other supplies of fowl, fish or quadruped, fail, being effectual for his nourishment, he lives on with contentment. AVith these measures and re- sources, travelling usually in the night or morn- ing, and bivouacking on the snow ; subsisting, when necessary, on the scanty provision taken out with him, but always depending on occa- sional supplies of birds, fishes and quadrupeds, which seldom wholly desert these countries ; and c 2 i; ': / 36 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. f:l!i ^. i| I! directing his route by the compass, with the assis- tance generally of Indian guides, he performs jour- neys of 1000 or 1500 miles in the course of two or three months. The ptarmigans or willow-par- tridges, which are generally plentiful in winter near Hudson's Bay ; the musk-oxen, the wild buffaloes, the rein-deer, and the hares, which are found in cer- tain situations throughout the northern parts of America, even to the Frozen Ocean, together with the quantity of fishes which occur in almost every river and lake, afford a tolerably regular supply of provisions *. * The willow-partridges are caught in a very simple way. They are attracted by an artificial surface of gravel spread on a hillock of snow, on sight of which, these birds requiring this article for assisting digestion in the winter time, when they feed on the tops of the willows, descend in large flocks upon it with precipitation : A net extended by poles is erect- ed near the edge of the surface of gravel, and a string con- nected with the props by which it is supported, is held by a person on watch in any neighboiu-ing cover, who, on observ- ing a sufficient number of birds on the gravel, pulls away the supports of the net, so that it falls upon them, and often en- tangles above fifty at a haul. In this way 200 or 300 birds have frequently been taken in a winter's morning. Hares are commonly taken with snares, sometimes to the amount of forty or fifty in a night; — the oxen, buffaloes and deer are hunted or shot; — and fishes are caught with nets extend- ed beneath a surfiice of ice in a lake or across a river, or taken by a baited hook iiitroduced into a small hole made in the ice, which, to be effectual, is kept in continual motion. ] 'A t mi. I rs. he assis- •ms jour- e of two Uow-par- nter near buffaloes, id in cer- parts of ther with lost every supply of imple way. ;1 spread on s requiring ;ime, when arge flocks es is erect- string con- leld by a on observ- away the often en- 300 birds Hares are amount of i deer are ;ts extend- •, or taken in the ice. KOllTH-WEST PASSAGE. 37 The plan of performing a journey in this way, for discovering the northern termination of the American Continent, and for tracing it round to its junction with the coasts of the same countiy washed by the Atlantic, might be in some measure as follows. The party intended for this expedition, which should consist of as few individuals as pos- sible, ought, perhaps, in the course of one summer, to make their way to one of the interior settlements of the Hudson's Bay Company, or of the Canadian traders, sach as Slave Fort, on the Great Slave Lake, situated in the 62d degree of latitude, or Fort Chepewyan, near the Athapescow I^akc, in latitude 58° 40', from whence Sir Alexander Mackenzie embarked on his voyage to the Frozen Ocean ; and there abide during the first winter. Supposing the travellers to winter at Slave Fort, they might cal- culate on being within the distance of 200 leagues, or thirty or forty days journey, moderate travelling, of the Frozen Ocean *. In the month of March * Mackenzie performed his voyage from the western angle of the Great Slave Lake to the island in latitude 69° 14', which formed the termination of his navigation towards the north, in fourteen days. Here, if not actually in the frozen ocean, he was evidently very near it, and in a sea communi- cating with it, of which we have full proof, from his having observed traces of Esquimaux, fragments of whalebone, boats covered with skins, and most particularly from the circum- stance of his having seen several white-whales, {Balcena al- bicans,) animals a hich, though common in the rivers of Hud-> son's IJay, are never seen far from the sea. m iH- i' :t <(, I] I'jM.'l ) i! ,■» -.' M . i S8 ACCOUNT OF THE AllCTIC llEGIONS. or April, the party consisting of two or three Eu- ropeans, one or two Esquimaux interpreters, and two or more Indian guides, provided with every thing requisite for the undertaking, might set out towards the north. The bad effects to be appre- hended from the enmity known to exist between the Indian and Esquimaux, would probably be pre- vented, by having persons of each nation along vr n them ; indeed, that enmity, which was a few years ago so implacable, and of which such a horrid in- stance was witnessed by Hearne in the year 1771, is now, happily, considerably assuaged *. On the arrival of the, travellers among the Es- quimaux, their Indian guides, from fear of this nation, would probably desert them, but the pre- sence of their Esquimaux interpreters would secure them a good reception. When once they should meet with these people, they would have a strong evidence of their being near the sea, as it is well * Between the Indians and the Esquimaux a mortal enmity used to exist. An Indian who was unfortunate in losing his friends, or in suffering any other particular calamity, was in the habit of superstitiously attributing it to the agencies or witcheries of the Esquimaux: to revenge himself, there- fore, and to soften the anger of his tutelar deity, he thought it necessary to engage in an " Esquimaux hunt," and thus glut his vile passion for bloodshed, by destroying a certain number of these unoffending people. This horrid practice, however, is now, from the advance of civilization, rapidly sinking into ciisuse. )NS. NORTH-WEST PASSACJE. a9 three Eu- reter8, and vith every lit set out be appre- t between )ly be pre- along ' li I, few years horrid in- j^ear 1771, y the Es- ;ar of this : the pre- Lild secure ey should a strong it is well rtal enmity I losing his ity, was in :gencies or elf, there- thought it thus glut lin number lowever, is Iking uito known tlio Esquiniraix never retire far from the coast. This is a strong confinnation that the waters seen both by Hearnc and Mackenzie, were arms of the sea. On their arrival at the coast, it would be necessary to associate with the Esquimaux, to sub- mit in some measure to their mode of living ; and to effect any considerable discovery, it might be requisite to spend a winter or two among them ; in which case they might trace the line of tlie Frozen Ocean to such a length, that the place where it joins the western coasts of Baffin's Bay, or Hud- son's Bay, or the eastern side of Greenland, would be determined. Or, if it should be objection- able wintering among the Esquimaux, several expeditions might be sent out at the same time from different stations, and on different meri- dians. One, for instance, might start from the north-westeni part of Hudson's 15ay, and pro- ceed to the north-west, and another from the same place towards the north ; a third might start from the Slave Lake towards the north-east ; and a fourth from the same station towards the north or north-west ; the expence of all which would pro- bably be less than that of one expedition by sea. We have several proofs of the practicability of this plan ; — from the journeys which the settlers at Hud- son's Bay and the North American Indians fre- quently make ; from the voyage of Mackenzie, and the journeys of Hearnc ; and from the willingness 1 1^. 40 ACCOUNT Ol' TIIF. AllCTlC RKdIONS. of persons well ac(}uaiiitcd with tlie nature and dan- gers of tlie enterprise, to undertake it *. ill SECT. IV \ ./ i h Remarks on the Opinion of a Sea Commmiica- tion between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, hy the North Pole. The scheme suggested by liohert Thorne of Bristol, of finding a passage to India across the North Pole, about tlie year 1527, appears to have been immediately attempted, by an expedition con- * I have conversed with some persons who have performed journeys of above 1000 miles, over a surface of snow, during the winter, in the way above described, and Avho would not be unwilling to undertake an expedition for making discoveries m the Frozen Ocean. Since this sheet wae sent to press, I have learned with sa- tisfaction, from authority which is unquestionable, that Qo- vemment, in concert with the Hudson's Buy Company, have taken measures for the immediate investigation of the coast of the Frozen Ocean, from the mouth of the Copper Mine River, eastward to Hudson's Bay, or Baffin's Bay, or other coast, with which it may, on examination, be found to be connected. Lieutenant Franklin, it is said, accompanied by persons expe- rienced in the modes of travelling in that country, is to be em- ployed on tliis interesting service. From this officer's known zeal and activity, and from the promising chai'acter of this mode of making discoveries, the most satisfactory results are to be anticipated ; for, whatever progress may be made in tracing tlie shores of the Frozen Ocean to the eastward, will be a certain step towards the completion of the discoveries which have ey., cited such uncoftimon interest. 'i TRAKS-I'OI All PASSAGE. 41 Uscovencs m sisting of two ships, sent out l)y order of Henry V II 1 . One of the ships, we arc informed, was h)>!< : oi' tlic nature of tlie success of the other, wc liavc hut a very unsatisfactory account *. After this voyage, l^arentz, Heeniskerkc and Hyp, attempted the trans-polar navigation in 1596 ; Hudson in 1607 ; Jonas Toole in 1610 and 1611 ; Baffin and Fotherby in 1614 ; Fotherby in 1615 ; Phipps in 1773, and Buchan and Franklin in 1818. The higlicst latitude attained by any of these navi- gators, did notjit would appear, exceed 81*^. Hudson's highest latitude hy observation, was SO'^ 23', Poole's greatest latitude attained, was 79° 50' on his first voyage, and about 80^ on his second. Baffin and Fotherby reached about SO'^ 16'. Captain Phi})ps 80° 48', and Captain Buchan about 80" 20'. My Father, in the ship llcsolution of Whitby, in tlie year 1806, with whom I then served as chief-mate, sailed to a much higlicr latitude tlian any of these voyagers already ciiunierated. Our latitude, on three occasions, in tlie month of May, as derived * riackluyt's Voyag'es, vol. iii. p. 129. One of the ships employt'il in this ser\'ice was called the Drnmnvs Volif!cum ; but as to the names of the voyagers we liave no account. From the bare infoiTnation Hackluyt was able to collect, it would appear that the endeavours of the commanders had been directed more towards the north-west tlian towards the North Pole, though tlie latter appears evidently to l-.nve been the original design of the \oyi\p\ ^ .*^)l ^2 ACCOUNT or THi: AUCTIC IIF.C; ION'S. f i' from observations taken with a sextant by myself and my tatlicr, was 80" 50' 2H\ 81" 1' 53'', and 81" 12' V2'' ; after wliicb, wc sailed so far to the north- ward, as made it about 81" 30' ; which is one of the closest approximations to the Pole which I conceive has been well authenticated. The Honourable Daines 15arrington, it is true, informs us, in his dis- cussion on " the probability of reaching the North Pole," of several vessels having sailed nuich farther towards the north. In his first two papers, of " in- stances of navigators who have reached high northern latitudes," he produces four examples of vessels ha- ving sailed to latitude 81^ " ; seven to 82" or upward ; three to 83" or more ; six vessels in company to 86" ; three examples to 88" ; two ships in company to 89'*, and one to 89^° *, besides several others brought for- ward in his later papers. But with regard to these ex- amples, I may observe, that all the instances of navi- gations having been performed beyond the 84th de- gree, are given from very loose authority, such as the vague reports of the Dutch whale-fishers ; and in no case, I believe, from the direct communi- cations of the voyagers themselves. As such, I conceive, there is no reliance whatever to be placed upon these extraordinary instances. It may not, however, be so easy to get rid of the accounts of ships having sailed as far as 82' or 83°, the instan- ces being so very numerous, and some of them so MitJCcUanic?," p. Jj-'iO. TllANS-VOl.All PASSAliK. 48 very particular ; but still, there is room for some re- marks ou them. It may be observed, that though the latitudes in some of the cases noted by Bar- rington, are said to have been derived from celestial observations, yet it appears, that they all, or nearly so, were given from memory, by the persons who them- selves performed the voyages, or by others who had had intercourse with them. But with regard to those accounts, communicated by the voyagers who had themselves made the observations, we find, that above half of them were from oral testimony only, at the distance of eighteen to thirty years, from the time when the several navigations were pcrfonucd. Hence, the faithfulness ot their memories, after a lapse of so many years, may reasonably be question- ed. One of the most modem instances, indeed, may be objected to, on very good grounds. Captain Clarke is said to have sailed to 81^°, and Captain Bateson to 82° 15', in the year 1773*. Now, this was the year in which Captain Phipps proceeded on discovery towards the North Pole, who, notwith- standing he made apparently every exertion, and exposed his ships in no common degree ; though he repeatedly traced the face of the northern ice from the longitude of 2° E., where the ice began to trend to the southward, to 20° E., where he was so dan- gerously involved, was never able to proceed beyond * Barkinuton's " MisccUiiuies/' p. 38 aiid il. 44 ACCOUNT or THE ARCTIC llEGIONS. \ 'k I 80° 48' N., and even tliat Iciigtli only once in the season. Is it reasonable, tlicreforc, to snppose, that whale-fishers, sailing in clear water, without any particular object to induce them to proceed far to- wards the north, should exceed the length to which Captain Phipps attained in the same year, and within a few days of the same time, by eighty-seven miles towards the north ? I imagine, on the con- trary, that both Captain Clarke and Captain Bate- son had been mistaken in their latitude, and had not been so far as Captain I'hipps, or at least not farther. But I by no means wish to infer, that all the cases brought forward in Barrington's Miscel- lanies are equally objectionable, or that no voyager has ever sailed beyond the latitude of 81" or 82" ; though I feel persuaded, that, among the numerous instances produced to prove this point, few of them can be relied on. The prevailing desire, indeed, to communicate extraordinary circumstances, has a tendency, in some measure, to bias the judgment of the most candid person, and has, no doubt, occasion- ed very many exaggerated statements ; for all navi- gators who have proceeded to a very great extend into any unknown region, especially where thcj have little opportunity of determining their real si- tuation, naturally give tlie farthest point in laeir opinion, when they are in doubt, rather ^h in the nearest. Even so late as the year 1817, we have a striking illustration of this fact. The Larkins of TIlANS-POLAll PASSAGE. 45 Lcitli, whicli succeeded in the whale-fishery in Baf- fin's Day, at an unusual season, and in an unusual latitude, was reported, on her arrival in Britain, even, I believe, by the mascer himself, to have been as higli as 80° in Baffin's Bay ; but on minute inquiry being made, as to the authority on which the Cap- tain founded the belief of his having been to so high a latitude, and so far beyond what was supposed to have constituted the limits of the Bay, he could only declare with full confidence, that he had been to about 77°*. Now, had this circumstance passed r^ver unnoticed for fifteen or twenty years, as was ? ^le case with the greater number of the instances quoter^ by Barrington, the master of the Larkins himbcii, though without the least design to deceive, would, in all v.obability, have stated it as a fact, and would have believed his own statement to have been correct, that he had actually proceeded as far as the latitude of 80°. Many other illustrations might be brought forward, of the tendency to add to any thing extraordinary, rather than to detract ; so that persons relating tlie same circumstance oc- casionally through a series of years, and thus pre- serving the ('Collection of the story as thev last communicated it, thougl) they might have long for- gotten the original event, have, by the most trifling, and at the time apparently unimportant additions. Quarterly Review, No. xxxv. p. 212. 46 ACCOITNT or TIIK AllCTIC KEGIOXS. ■■■f Ml ^'1. 8; ' been can ied at last to the most extravagant lengths. And that they themselves believe to be true what they communicate, can be shown, from the circum- stance of their not scrupling to tell the story in the presence of persons, who, they well knew, were joint- ly with themselves, observers of the original fact. Such cases I have often met with ; and such have probably been noticed by almost every person who has attended to things of this nature. Hence, the uncertainty of oral testimony. However dubious we may be of receiving the ac- counts brought forward by the Honourable Daines liarrington, to prove the occasional accessibility of the 8f3d or 84th parallel of north latitude, to enterpris- ing voyagers, of this, I conceive, wc may be as- sured, that the opinion of an open sea round the Pole, is altogether chimerical. AVe must allow, indeed, that when the atmosphere is free from clomls, the influence of the sun, notwithstanding its obliquity, is, on the surface of the earth or sea, about the time of the summer solstice, greater at the Pole, by nearly one-fourth, than at the equator*. Hence it is urged, that this extraordi- nary power of tlie sun, destroys all the ice generat- ed in the winter season, and renders the tempera- ture of the Pole, wanner and more congenial to feel- ing, than it is in some places lying nearer tlie cqua- * iMlinburgli Review, No. i.xx. p. 11. oxs. THAXS-VOI.AU PASSAGK. 47 lit lengths. ! true what ;he circum- tory in the were joint- iginal fact. I such have person who Hence, the 'ing the ac- ihle Daines ihilityofthe enterpris- may he as- [i round the iiust allow% free from [ithstanding rth or sea, ce, greater an at the extraordi- Ice gencrat- (e tcmpera- lial to feel- [r the c(pia- tor. Now, if it he admitted, that the influence of the sim at tlie time of the summer solstice he near- ly one-fourth greater at the Pole than it is at the equator, it nuist he allowed, from the same principle, tliat this influence in the parallel of 78", where it is only ahout one forty-fifth part less than what it is at the Pole*, nuist also he considerahly greater than at the equator; and, therefore, that whatever effects arc produced hy the sun's peculiar action at the Pole, the sanu% in a proportionate degree, must he felt at the parallel of 7S°. AVe shall endeavour to ascertain, whetlier the presence of the sun during several months together in the Spitzhergen sea, produces any thing like. the effect presumed hy the advocates of an open sea at the Pole. From various meteorological calculations, founded on a careful investigation of the laws of tempera- * As the solar influence is proportional to the sines of tlio sun's altitude, the power of tlie sun at the Pole^ is to its power at the sjune time in any other latitude where it does not set, as the sine of the sun's altitude at the Pole, is to half the sum of the Hines of the sun's greatest and least altitude during the day in tlie other latitude referred to, nearly. Tims tlie solar influence at the Pole at the solstice, on a given hori/onlal surface, repre- sented by the number 1, is ecjuivalent to the sine of tlH^, the sun's altitude (the multiplier in this case being 1, and divider or radius being also 1) or .'jy88. And in the latitude of 78", the sine of .'?5.^, the sun's greatest altitude or 5H07, added to the sine or 11^, the sun's least altitude or IfjJ)!-, and the amount divided by 2, gives .'J.OOO, for the solar influence at the solstice in latitude 78"; which is less by about ,', th part, than tlio solar inlhience at the Pole, but greater tiinii it is at the lM|uat()r. ^8 xVCCOU>;T or THE AUG TIC JJKGIOXS. H ■ turc, it lias been deduced by Professor Kirwaii, that the means of temperature oi ;he months of May, June and July, in latitude 78", arc respectively as high as i>7°, 51°. 5, 50\5, and the mean of the year 3u''.2 or, according to other meteorologists 34°.2, notwithstanding no allowance appears to have been made for the supposed extraordinary power of the sun when continually above the horizon. But from calcu- lations founded on twelve years observations on the temperature of the icy regions, I have determined the mean temperature of the month of May, latitude 78°, to be L>2°.5, of June 31°.4, of July sr; and of the whole year 1 7°, being below the temperatures calculated, by 14°.5 in May, 20°. 1 in June, 13°.5 in July, and 16° or 17° in the mean annual tempe- rature *. Hence, so far from the actual influence of the sun, though acknowledged at a certain season to be greater at the Pole than at the Equator, be- ing above what it is calculated to be by the ordi- nary formulae for temperature, it is found in lati- tude 78° to be greatly below it,— how then can the temperature of the Pole be expected to be so very different ? From the remarks in the ensuing pages it will be shown, that ice is annually fonned during nine months of the year in the Spitzbergcn sea ; and that neither calm weather, nor the proximity * Appendix No. I., contains the whole series of Meteorolo- ffical Tables for the year 1807 to 1818 inclusive j from whence these results, as included in No. II., are derived. '¥ No. II.— METE Year. iBor, 18()H, 1811, 1813, 181.5, 181(), 1817, Month. April, Q "A 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 Extremes of Latitude. el a •-4 01 Extremes of Lon- gitude. 60. 9—75.36 66°.54'6°.3«'W, IS'IO'E 6,5.11—76.20 69.40-77, 8 60. 9—80.10 61.52—78.30 59.10—77. 54.29-78.23 1807, 'Way, 1808, 1809, 1810, 1811, 1812, 1813, 1814, 1815, 1816, 1817, 1818, 1807—1818, Generals mean of 12 years ob-C servations in May, j Sums& Extremes^ 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 74.26- 76. 6- 73.38- 76.58- 76.46- 72.38- 77. 9- 76.46- 76.40- 77, 4- 75.12- 70.50- -76. 2 -78.37 -79. 79.20 -78.34 76.37 -79.54 78.20 -78.45 79.55 ■80. 5 -78..36 71.49 7.3.34 73.12 74.34 71.43 69.13 6.40 W, 10.40 E 3.31 W, 16.32 E 1. 8W, 1L18E 0.21 W, 10.20 E 2. W, 9. 48 E 1.20 W, 13.22 E 75.45 77.48 75.49 78.21 77.26 75.30 78.24 77.43 77,46 78.49 77. 7 76.55 77.17 1372 (70.50—80. 5) 7. 3 E, 5, E, 5.40 E, 2.50 E, 5.35 E, 8. 8 E, 1.10 E, 0. E, 3.15 E, 4.50 E, 11.20 W, 6.50 W, 12.20 E 9. E 23. E 10.10 E 9.50 E 15.13 E 8.15 E 8.30 E 9.40 E 10.30 E 5.50 E 6.20 E .lune. 1809, 1810, 1811, 1812, 1813, 1814, 1815, 1816, 1817, 1818, 1809—1818, General^ mean of 10 years ob, > servations in June, j Sums and Extremes, 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 t300 77.40- 70,50- 78. 0- 77.14- 77.25- 77.45- 75.47- 78. 6- 76. 4- 75.10- -79.57 • 78.34 -79.20 -79.26 -78,54 -79. 79.15 80. 1 •78.34 70.30 79. 7 77.11 78.35 78.19 78.23 78.27 77.45 79. 6 77,39 78. (70.50—80. 1) 5. 4E, 3. OE, 5. OE, 5.27 E, 3.38 E, 4. OE, 2.55 E, 2. 5W, 5.40 W, 7.10 E 12.30 E 8. OE 9. 5E 6.20 E 7.30 E 8. OE 6.50 E L OE 8. OW, 4.22 E 3 3 8 9 9 9 9; lOi lOi 9 10( |9.'j (8.0 W, 12.30 E) 30 72 88 92 90 95 91 91 92 90 •{•831 96 94 94 92 95 96 1812, 1813, 1814, 1815, 1817, 1818, July, 31 31 31 31 31 31 68.24—78.58 67.10—78.20 62.45-80.25 58. 6—76.57 73.27- 76.20 74.20—79.22 77. 75.21 74.32 70.21 75. 8 77.30 1. 7E, 6.48 E 1. E, 10.56 E O.IOW, 10.35 E 2. OW, 14.40 E 10.37 W, 13.10 E 9. OW, 9.55 E N. £.— Those sums marked thus |, are not means, but the general an * Where this mark occurs in the column of «• remarkable variations," the because, in several of the instances, these extremes occurred in difiereat davs, o; No. II.— METEOROLOGICAL RESULTS.— TjzitE A. i! Vcav 1&07, IhOS, 1811, I8i;j, 181,3, 181(i, 1817, Month. Q y. April, 30 WO 30 30 30 30 30 Extremes of Latitude. ri 3 Extremes of Lon- gitude. (iO. 9—75,36 66°.54.'«°.3«'W, 13°10'E (i,5.11~7(i.20 16 9 5 — 4 + « 12 4 31 22.84 31 25.64 31 22.52 89 18.30 93 19.71 96 23.97 93 22.39 98 20.64 100 21.90 100 24.57 94 27.48 100 23.80 31 32 36 36 3.3 34. 32 34 34 .«) 38 32 1809, 1810. 1811, 1812, 1813, 1814, 1815, 1816, 1817, 1818, June, '30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 1809—1818, Generan i mean of 10 years ob. > ' servations in June, j ' I Sums and Extremes, i'j"300 '( 70.50- 77.40—79.57 70,.jO- 78.34 78. 0—79.20 77.14—79.26 77.25—78,54 ; 77.45-79. o| 75.47—79.15 1 78. 6—80. 1 7(i. 4—78.34 75.10— 70.30 I 79. 7 77.11 78.35 78.19 78.23 78.27 j 77.45 I 79. 6 : 77.39 78. ' 5. 4E, 3. OE, 5. OE, 5.27 E, 3.38 E, 4. E, 2.55 E, 2. 5W, 5.40 W, 8. OW, 7.10 E 12.30 E 8. OE 9. 5E 6.20 E 7.30 E 8. OE 6.50 E 1. OE 4.22 E 22.81 ^9.i6 — 34.6 (40 14 18 10 8 5 10 12 7 8 8 10 12 Hi 39 27 32 54 49 33 52 Remahkable Va- HIATI0N8. OBSERVi Date. ^ -1 c > 9 • 25 • 19-20 2t • 10 •15-16 3 20 14 26 28 28 24 20 27 26 32 28 20 10.2 24.4 35) 30 72 8H 9i 90 95 91 91 92 90 • 80. 1) — 1812, 1*^13, 1814, 1815, 1817, 1818, July, 31 31 31 31 31 31 (8.0 W, 12 30 E) 68.24—78.58 67.10—78.20 62.45-80.25 58. (i_76.57| 73.27- 76.20 I 74.20—79.22 I 77. 75.21 74.32 70.21 75, 8 77.30 1. 7 E, 6.48 E 1. E, 10.56 E 0. low, 10.35 E 2. OW, 14.40 E 10.37W, 13.10 E 9. OW, 9.55 E 29.96 29.12 31.15 29.99 34 15 31.83 30.86 .33.87 31.09 30.95 35 39 38 37 48 40 40 45 43 40 8 11 4 31 13 18 3 11 18 14 15-16 8 (11,1814 Hou. 12 16 18 22 15 9 7 ra 4.* 3 -Z yi _fl3 3 a > J S § ] * £ Days. Days. Boister- ous. is « 3 3 £5 SB S g Date. C " 1 ^2 ■«-' c ' ■4-) y,2 N° of Da. 1 1 J.Deg, 1 Inch. 12 29.730 30.16 29.21 95 17 24 0.55 5.46 0.182 13 9.8 5.5 1.7 0.6 4.6 2.2 2.0 1 6 1.2 0.8 9 3 4 9 1 17 ; 13 29.736 30.48 28.03 2.45 4 24 0.92 7.24 0.241 13 5.2 7.8 5.0 0.B 1.5 0.6 2.6 5.5 0.5 0.5 2 8 5 11.5 18 1 22 30.006 30.47 29.50 0.97 • 3 12 0.50 4.88 0.163 13 4.6 5.9 1.9 1.3 2.6 2.5 3.6 3.2 9.0 2.4 4 8 8 r 22 ! 24 29.538 30.35 28.70 1.65 • 13 12 1.02 10.69 0.356 15 5.6 2.5 3.1 1.3 3.6 2.3 1.3 4.7 ?.6 3.0 2 5.5 10 15.5 24 i 19 29.718 30.33 28.79 1.54 29 20 0.80 9.42 0.314 20 5.7 1.5 2.6 2.2 4.3 3.1 4.2 0.7 3-2 2.5 4 5 8 10.5 22 1 20 29.730 30.36 29.35 1.01 14-15 16 0,53! 6.37 0.212 23 4.2 4.2 6.1 4.3 1.6 0.4 0.4 4.6 2.6 1.6 3.5 5 8 ill 28 12 29.840 30.72 28.75 11.97 18-19 21 1.12 9.35 0.312 i 21 6.9 3.6 0.9 0.4 2.5 3.5 2.9 4.9 2.3 2.1 1 3.7 4.5 8 I12.5 24 2 14 4 8 29.851 29.806 30 31 20 4fi 0.85 1.31 12-13 11-12 24 0.33 24 0.72 2.44 4.55 0.079 0.147 15 11 4.8 1.8 1.1 1.5 1.6 1,9 3.7 1.4 6.1 7.6 1.5 2.2 1.2 4.3 10 4 ^ 1 1 11 30.54 29.23 15 4.0 4.4 1,9 7 2 2 22 4 16 29.876 30.20 29.35 0.85 5-6 24 0.62 4.94 0.159 13 7.8 4.1 4.1 2.2 1.4 2.(1 2.9 5.1 0.9 1 0.5 5 7 5 6 17 1 l(i 29.945 30.40 29.47 93 7-8 24 0.50 4.94 0.159 15 11.1 4.8 0.9 0.8 i.9 1.1 1.4 6 1.8 i 1.2 4 9 6 G.5 25 5 20 29.928 30.17 29. (i3 0.54 22.23 24 0.38 3.82 0.123 14 6.2 3.5 2.2 1,9 0.8 0.8 3.8 9.6 1.3 , 0.9 35 6.5 4 7 5 24 13 29.931 30.37 29.40 097 2 12 0.77 5,02 0.162 13 7.0 2.7 2.8 1.9 1.2 J' '. 1.2 8.0 3.9 1.8 2.8 ,5.4 4 10.5 18 9 15 29.782 30.20 29.,34 0.86 3 24 1O.50 4.27 0.138 17 6.2 4.6 0.8 1.8 2." 2.3 1 2.8 5.4 3.2 1.6 8 7.5 4 6. 16 2 20 30.019 30.51 29.40 1.11 4 24 0.40 4.22 0.136 13 12.8 4.0 1.9 2.0 1.0 1.4 1.6 3.6 1.1 1.6 6 7. 6 7. 20 15 30.046 30.57 29 66 0.91 2 24 ,0.44 3.59 1 0.116 16 66 0.4 0.4 2.0 1.3 2.5 2.2 6.9 5.9 2.8 2.5 5.0 4 5.5 18 4 14 29.844 30.20 j 29.37 0.83 25 12 0.43 4.94 0.159 19 3.9 1.1 0.2 7.5 9.1 1.4 1.1 3.4 2.1 1.2 1.6 7,4 5 8.8 23 4 16 29.926 30.25! 29.39 0.86 16 12 0.40 5.08 0.164 16 8.0 6.4 3.9 4.6 1.2 0.4 0.7 2.3 1.5 2.0 4.0 5 3 4.5 24 4 13 29,953 30.54 29.30 1.24 27-28 24 0.48 5.19 0.167 13 4.6 6.3 2.7 1.1 2.2 2,6 2.8 3.1 3.4 2.2 2.5 ^ 5 8.5 18 29.909 30,36 29.42 0.94 — — 0.142 7.4 3.7 2.0 2.3 2.1 1.6 2.1 5.6 2.4 1.8 4.5 6.6 4.1 6.1 19.7 2 20) ,_ (30.57 129.23 1.34) (2.1812 12 0.77) 153.00 — 1179 ) 15 29.873 30.24 29.50 0.74 18 24 0.28 2-90 0.097 10 2.2 3.7 2.0 4.7 3.9 2.8 2.0 1.3 4.6 2.8 5 3 1 1 22 ) 12 29.865 30.25 29.60 0.65 • 1 24 0.57 3.94 0.131 16 4.3 1.4 1.3 1.4 4.7 2.5 4.0 6.4 1.4 2.6 1.5 5 2 1.5 19 i 11 29.823 30.10 i 29.50 0.60 27-28 24 0.41 2.67 0.089 15 6.6 2.7 2.3 2.3 3.6 1.2 1.2 1 7 ,5.3 1 3.1 5,5 3 1 1 25 I 8 29.861 130.37 ! 29.50 0.87 24-25 24 0.40 3.47 0.116 17 10.5 2.4 0.5 2.8 2.7 1.3 2.3 5.2 1.4 i 0.9 8.0 4.5 6 6 20 ) 13 29.993 i 30.30 129.67 0.63 9 24 0.45 2.97 0.099 16 4.7 1.6 — 2.9 5.4 4.7 1.0 4.7 1.3 i 3.7 4.5 5.0 3 3.5 29 i 10 29,841 .30.11 29.42 0.69 12 24 0.42 5.23 0.174 23 2.6 0.7 2.5 4.2 8.3 4.7 1.2 1.6 2.5 1 1.7 1 5.0 6.5 5 4.0 24 ) 17 29.878 30.21 2934 0.87 30 24 0.40 3.75 0.125 18 5.7 1.3 .' 1 2.6 3.2 3.5 1.9 5.8 3.1 i 2.4 3.5 6.5 4 2.5 22 ) 13 29.813 i 30.36 [ 29.42 0.94 22 24 0.30 3.65 0.122 12 3.8 1.6 1.1 2.0 3.5 6.1 1.8 1.6 4,1 4.4 4.0 5 2 2' 28 t 10 29.908 ! 30.25 29.50 0.75 13 24 0.35 3.38 0.113 15 4.7 0.7 0.7 1.6 4.9 1.1 1.6 7.4 ,5.6 1.7 3.4 3 4 8.3 21 > 10 29.840 30..30 29.25 1.05 8 24 0.71 4.54 0.151 9 5.3 2.5 3.1 2,9 3.0 4.3 3.9 3.2 1.2 3.1 3.0 2.0 5.0 4 1 3 1 3.5 3.3 29 239 29.869 30.25 29.47 0.79 0.122 15.1 5.1 1.9 1.4 2.7 1.8 3.9 3.2 2.5 4,5 4.6 3.1 1 13) (30.37 29.25 1.12) (8.1818 24 0.71) t36.50 — |151 3.6 > () 29.906 30.32 29.40 0.92 • 17 24 0.50 3.89 0.125 13 ,5.2 6.1 4.4 1.0 3.5 3.2 1.2 1.3 1.5 6.5 4.5 4 6 29 J 11 29.825 30.30 29.50 0.80 4 24 0.45 4.98 0.161 17 1.1 0.5 0.7 2.3 8.1 7.7 2.4 1.4 3.0 ' 3.8 4.3 8,3 4 3.8 27 t 16 29.836 30.17 29.32 0.85 31 8 0.42 5.31 0.171 16 0.7 0.4 1.3 2.6 7.9 5.6 2.3 1.0 ,3.8 5.4 3. 6.5 3 5 28 J 12 29.945 i 30.27 29.66 0.61 20 24 0.23 2.49 0.080 9 4.4 3.5 1,6 — 1.4 2.3 4.5 6.7 .3.7 2.9 5.5 5.5 1 1 21 ) 10 29.851 i 30.08 29.65 0.43 24 12 0.19 2.17 0.070 15 1.2 1.3 1.0 1.1 ' 5.6 8.5 3.8 1.2 3.6 3.7 9.0 3.5 1 0.5 28 I 12 29.883 : 30.10 29.38 0.72 29 12 0.63 4.84 0.1.56 15 3.4 ' 0.9 1.5 1.9 6.5 4.3 0.9 1.9 3.2 6.5 5.5 'J.0 1 4 2.5 26 •spective columns ; unci those in parentheses are neither means nor sums, but the extremes or the most remarkable ol)servations in the whole period, not appear in the preceding Tables, because the time of the day in ;vhich the barometer and thermometer were in certain extremes, is not registered therein ; L'curred before the commencement of the journal in the series of Tables. ,' ii :OROLC Tables. iount of all tU , ~" i_ ttlANS-POI-AU PASSAGE. ^ i^ of land, is essential for its fonnation. Can it then be supposed, that at the Pole, where the mean an- nual temperature is probably as low as 10"*, that the sea is not full of ice ? And as the quantity of ice dissolved every summer near Spitzbergcn, by the action of the sun only, is very small when com- pared with the quantity that is there generated, — can it be imagined, that the whole quantity gene- rated at the Pole during the year should be dis- solved by the power of the sun in the course of two or three summer months ? Were the mean temperature of the Pole, indeed, above the freezing point of sea-water, that is, as high as 31° or 32°, as it is usually estimated, and the mean heat of latitude 78^ as high as 33° or 34°, then the circumpolar seas would have a chance of being free from ice ; but while the temperature of the former can be shown to be about 18°, and the latt'^r 11° below the free- zing temperature of the sea, we can have no rea- sonable ground, I conceive, for doubting the con- tinual presence of ice in all the regions immediate- ly surrounding the Pole f . VOL. I. D * Sec Appendix, No. II. t Should there be land near the Pole, portions of open water, or perhaps even considerable seas, might be produ- ced by tlie action of the current sweeping away the ice from erne side of it alinost as last as it could be formed j and vacan- 50 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC HEOIONS. *i -.1 ■ it Thongh the extent to which our early navigators attained in their attempts to reach the Pole, may be a little doubtful, yet the limit to which tlic Po- lar Seas arc now navigable towards the north, will have a fair chance of being determined, in conse- quence of the alteration which has been made in the act of Parliament offering a reward of 5000 /. to the person who shall first sail beyond the 89th degree of north latitude. This premiiun was first oflTered by act l6th Geo. III. c. 6. ; but though it has now been in force 43 years, it has never produced any discovery, nor even, perhaps, a single attempt. The reason is obvious. No one employed in the whale- fishery, who had the opportunity, would hazard his life, his property, and the success of his voyage, in seeking after a reward which he had every reason to believe was quite beyond his reach ; especially as he well knew, that although he should sail to within a few miles of the extent, which would entitle him to the premium, and there be interrupted by some insurmountable obstacle, yet he could have no claim on the reward. Hence, while he considered the prize as beyond his reach, the adventurous voyager had no stimulus to lead him forward ; cies in such a. case miglit also be produced on the leeward side of the land during any powerful and continued winds ; but the existence of land only, I imagine, can encourage an expec- tation of any of the sea northward of Spitzbergen being annu- ally free fi-om ice. ) : ONS. rilEMIUMS FOIl rOLAU DlMCOVEttlES. 51 ' navigators Pole, may •| ich tlie Po- \| iiorth, will 1 , ill conse- 1 nade in the 1 100/. to the ^ i9th degree \ first oflPered •> it lias now ■| oduced any 1 empt. The I the whale- ■ hazard his : 5 voyage, in 1 •y reason to m tially as he '■ to within a ■j ntitle him i* i d hy some 'j have no 1 considered ' venturous ; forward ; .* eeward side 'f winds; but e an expec- )eing annu- wherpas, had a proportionate reward been offered for a proportionate success, he would have had every encouragement to make the attempt. In the ses- sion of 1818, this subject was brought before Par- liament, and the law respecting rewards for dis- t~']verics in the Polar Seas, &c. underwent revi- sion, and was modified and improved by the pas- sing of a new act. After the nomination of " commissioners for discovering the longitude at sea," and for " judging all proposals, experiments and improvements relating to the same, and for rewarding persons making useful discoveries and improvements in or connected with navigation," — this act offers encouragements for the discoveiy of the longitude, and other useful inventions tend- ing towards the improvement of navigation, and then gives the regulations and conditions on which rewards may be claimed for finding a nor- thern passage into the Pacific, and for approach- ing within a degree of the North Pole, or for ac- complishing certain proportions of the said passage, or approach. The act still offers a reward of 20,000 /. to the owners of such ship or ships, if be- longing to subjects, or to the commanders, officers, seamen and marines, of such ships, if belonging to his Majesty, which shall first find out and sail through any passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, in any direction or parallel of the Northern Hemisphere *. And a reward of 5000 /. * Act 58th Geo. III. c. 20. § 10. I) 2 i m ll nil i it 'i;i *ii| ;< ''i ,•1 ^i ii ' I 52 ACCOUNT OV THE ARCTIC RE(}I0N3. to tlic owner of any incrchaiit vessel, or to the com- mander, &c. of any King's ship, wliich shall first ap- proach witliin one degree of the Northern Pole, (hed in the omplishing s of them, onimission- ite sums as imissioners two scales he North 1 the sanc- gent, and lised to take Ihe correct- It of disco- lily satisfied ithorised to the claim- Ibe entitled PREMIUMS FOn POLAR DISCOVERIES. .53 have hecn puhlislied in the London Gazette accord- ingly *. They are to the following effect : •' 1. To the first ship belonging to any of his INIa- jesty's sulyects, or to his Majesty, that shall pro- ceed to the longitude of 110^ west, or the mouth of Hearne's or Coppermine River, by sailing within tlic iVrctic circle, 5000/. ; to 130^ west, or the Whale Island of Mackenzie, 10,000/.; to 150' west, by sail- ing westward, within tlie Arctic circle, 15,000 /. ; to the Pacific Ocean, by a nortli-vvest passage, as before allotted, the full reward of !20,000 /. " 2. To the first ship, as aforesaid, that shall sail to 83^ of north latitude, 1000 /. ; to 85^ 2000 /. ; to 87", 3000 /. ; to 88°, 4000 /. ; and to 89', as before allotted, the full reward of 5000 /." As this scale for discoveries towards the North Pole, commences with a latitude which there may be at least a hope of attaining, there will be no doubt of attempts being made to penetrate to the farthest navigable point, and of that extreme accessible point being soon ascertained. * The memorial of the commissioners, presented to the Prince Regent, includes the remark, " That the progress of discovery has (it appears) already advanced on the eastern coast of America, and within the Arctic circle, as far as 90" west longitude, or thereabouts, from Greenwich ;" but that " northwards it has not yet arrived, according to any well authenticated accounts, so far as 81° of north latitude." — > (London Gazette, 23d March 18 1<)). This corresponds with Avhat has been advanced in the foregoing pages, respecting the instances of high navigations, given in liarrington's Mis- cellanies. 54 AC'COITNT OF THE ARCTIC IIKOIONS. J .♦ i M if If the itiJisscs of ice which usually prevent the advance of navigators beyond the 82d degree of north latitude, be extended in a continued series to the Pole, (of which, unless there be land in the way, I have no doubt), — the expectation of reach- ing tlie Pole by sea, must be altogether chimerical. \\\\t though the access by sea be effectually inter- cepted, I yet imagine, notwithstanding the objec- tions which have been urged against the scheme, that it would by no means be impossible to reach the Pole by travelling across the ice from Spitz- bergen. This project having been given at some length in the Memoirs of the Werncrian Society *, it may be unnecessary here to repeat the arguments in favour of its practicability. Yet it might not be well to dismiss the subject without a few brief remarks. As the journey would not exceed 1200 miles, (600 miles each way), it might be perfonned on sledges drawn by dogs or rein-deer, or even on foot f . Foot-travellers would require to draw the appara- tus and provisions necessary for the undertaking, on sledges by hand ; and in this way, with good des- patch, the journey would occupy at least two months ; but with the assistance of dogs, it might • Vol. ii. p. 328. t When the paper on the Polar Ice, in which this project is included, was presented to the Wernerian Society, I was not aware of the extensive journeys, occasionally performed on snow without the assistance <;f any quadruped, which have re- cently conic to my knowledge. M I ONS. •revcnt tlic degree of mied series land in the I of reach- chimerical, lally inter- the objec- le scheme, le to reach om Spitz- ch at some Society *, arguments night not few brief 3eed 1200 bnned on on foot f . e appara- ;aking, on good des- cast two it might project is I was not brnied on 1 Iia\e re- \-^U I'llACTKAIJlIJTY Ol A I'Ol.All .lOlMlNKY 55 prol)ably he accomplished in a little Icsh time. With fav(uirable winds, great ad\ antage might be derived from sails set upon the sledges ; which sails, when the travellers were at rest, would serve for the erec- tion ot' tents. Snndl vacancies in the ice would not prevent the journey, as the sledges could bo adapted so as to answer the purpose of boats ; nor would the usual unevenness of the ice, or the depth or softness of the snow, be an insurmountable diffi- culty, as journeys of near ecpial length, and under similar inconveniencics, have been accomplished. The Russian adventurers who occasionally proceed from Archangel andneighbouring places to Spitzber- gen, and spend the winter in this dreary country, for the purpose of taking sea-horses, seals, and other ani- mals frequenting the coast, have been supposed, from their uncommon opportunities for observation, capa- ble of giving an opinion of T>iuch weight, on the prac- ticability of the journey to the Pole. As such. Co- lonel Beaufoy (who it seems entertained the same opinion as myself, that the only access to the Pole was by a journey over the ice) proposed to them several judicious queries on this subject, with others on the nature of the climate at Spitzbergen in winter, their replies to which were altogether dis- couraging *. But these men, it may be observed, * These queries, with their answers, which are uncommon- ly interesting, first appeared in Dr Thomson's Annals of Phi- losophy, vol. ix. p. 381. ; and were afterwards (in 1818) reprint- ed in a sBiall volume, including Barrington's Polar Tracts. I?! i im M 56 ACCOUNT or THE ARCTIC REGIONS. who know little or nothing of the nature of field- ice, must be less adequate judges of the praetica- bility of the scheme than any of the whale-fishers ; as it is in expectation that field-ice would be met with throughout, that renders the project feasible. On the kind of ice, indeed, which occurs generally on the coast of Spitzbergen, in small irregular mas- ses, constituting what is called drift-ice, heaped one piece upon another to a considerable height, intermixed with fragments of ice-bergs, and form- ing as rough a surface as cini well be imagined, the journey would doubtless be impracticable ; but on field-i(e, found commonly within a few leagues of the sea in high latitudes, in sheets of many miles in diameter, and frequently of very even surface, the difficulties of travelling would be very inferior *. * Few of tlie Russian fishevs, it is probable, avIio only fre- quent the coast, ever saw any field ice. In the answer lo queries 19- and 25. of Colonel Eeaufoy, we find the ice ro};resented as mountainous ; as appearing " monstrously large and lofty ;" and as running flake upon flake to a great height, so as to make the passage on foot very difficult. Now, this kind of ice is pe- culiar to the coast, and is totidly ditlerent from field ice. In- deed its roughness is chiefly occasioned by the resistance of the coast, when the ice is forcibly driven against it by the power of strong winds. And the large openings of water ob- eerved, also result from the same cause ; for whenever the wind blows for a length of time from the shore, the ice, being afloat, is generally drifted away. Bi;t such effects do not take place at a distance from land. I have myself, indeed, been many times so closely fixeil among ice, that not the smallest opening could be observed frokii the mast liead, in any direction. \ ■ I »w,irj»i!»>>*!«o»>;ww<(rWR^ ■■ ■• sK'^-'^iimimm'-r r»< , "M. IONS. ire of field, le i)ractica- lale-fihliers ; iild be met ect feasible. rs generally 'gular mas- ce, heaped ble height, and form- igined, the le ; but on leagues of nany miles 3n surface, inferior *. lio only fre- l"!' lo queries ;resented as and lofty;" as to make 'i' ice is pe- Id ice. In- 'sistance of it by the water ob- '1' the Avind ing afloat, take place 'en many it opening- Ion. TRAVELLING OVER ICE OU SNOW. 57 Were, however, the opinion ever so general, that the journey could not be accomplished, I should if still conceive, that one established fact of a journey having been performed in a similar region on si- milar ice, and under similar disadvantages, would be a sufficient answer. But several accounts can be brought forward to establish the fact of similar journeys, and some of them equally difficult, ha- ving been accomplished. I shall mention a few instances. Ellis informs us, in his " \'^oyage to Hudson's Bay*," that the North American Indians, who trade with the factories of the Hudson's Bay Company, frequently " travel 200 or fJOO miles in the depth of winter, tlirough a wide open country, without meeting with any house to receive them, or carry* ing any tent to protect them." And that on such journeys, when benighted on any open plain, they are forced to lie down without fire, under shelter only of the snow. He also mentions, that a man can conveniently draw a load of above an hundred weight upon a sledge, a distance of fifteen or sixteen miles, in a winter's day |. INIore recent travellers and voyagers inform us, that the Indians frequently perform much longer journeys in wiiitcr ; and it is an established fact, that many persons in the service of the Hudson's Bay * Pjge 195. t Id. p. ]GS. I m 58 ACCOUNT OF THK ARCTIC llECilONS. m m' 1^ I n , Company, wlio reside at their settlements, have travelled 1000 or 1500 miles through snow on foot, in the course of a winter. MuUer makes mention of the Tchuktchi nation, being in the habit of travelling on the ice of the sea, in sledges drawn by rein-deer*. The same author, speaking of the power of the dogs of the Kamtchadales in drawing gi*eat burdens, illustrates the fact by stating, that in the year 1718, the go- vernor, Knees IVIischewski, ordered a whole pipe of brandy to be brought from the convent of Kctskoc to the city of Bcresowa, which was accomplished by sixteen dogsf. After the lamentable death of the illustrious na- vigator Captain Cook, the Resolution and Dis- covery, on their second advance into the Polar Sea, put into the bay of Avatscha in Kamtchatka, for obtaining a supply of naval stores and provisions. No supplies, however, being to be had at the neigh- bouring town of St Peter and St Paul, a dcspatcli was sent off in a sledge drawn by dogs to Bolshe- rietzkoi, a distance of 135 English miles, an an- swer to which was returned on the fourth day ; so that a journey of 270 miles upon snow, was per- formed in little more than three days and a-half|. • " Voyages from Asia to America," Transl. p. vii. t III. p. xi. X Cook's Third Voyage, Journal, 3d of May Xlld- IONS. TRAVKLLING ACROSS ICK. 59 leiits, have ow on foot, tchi nation, ice of the The same logs of the illustrates 8, the go- ole pipe of f Ketskoc plishcd by strious na- and Dis- Polar Sea, hatka, for revisions. he ncigh- (Icspatch lo Bolshe- k an an- day; so |was per- a-half|. 111. i 1 -.Jy. I IJiit this s-peed, though so considerable, ^vas by no means equal to what the Kamtchatka dogs are ca- pable of performing ; the governor of Kamtchatka, ]Major Behm, (who so liberally and so disinterest- edly supplied the wants of our voyagers,) having as- sured the officers belonging to these discovery ships, that the journey from St Peter and St Paul to Bol- sherietzkoi and back, was usually performed in two days and a-half ; and that he had once received an ex- press from the bay of Avatscha, which is the harbour of St Peter and St Paul, in twenty-three hours*. But the argument which goes farthest tovvards proving the practicability of travelling over ice, is the fact, of a Cossack having actually performed a journey of about 800 miles, in a sledge drawn by dogs, across a surface of ice lying to the northward of the Russian dominions. This remarkable ex- ploit, as related by Muller, is to the following ef- fect. Alexei Markoff, a Cossack, wai^ sent from Yak- utsk, to explore the frozen ocean, in the summer of the year 1714, by order of the Russian govern- ment ; but finding the sea r.o crowded with ice, that he was unable to make any progress in disco- very, he formed the design of travelling in sledges, during the winter or spring of the year, over the ice, which might then be expected to be firm and Id n, Journal, 3d May 1779- 00 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. compact. Accordingly, he prepared several of the country sledges drawn by dogs ; and, accompanied by eight persons, he set out on the lOtli of March*, from the mouth of the Jana, in latitude 70° 30', and longitude about 138° E. He proceeded for seven days northward, as fast as his dogs could draw, which, under favourable circumstances, is 80 or 100 versts a-day f , until his progress was impeded about the 78tli degree of latitude, by ice elevated into pro- digious mountains. This prevented his further ad- vance ; at the same time, falling short of provisions for his dogs, his return was eft'cctcd witli difficulty : several of his dogs died for want, and were given to the rest for their support. On the 3d of ^Vpril he arrived at Ust-Janskoc Sirnowie, the place from whence lie started, after an absence of twenty-four dayst, during which time, he appears to have travel' led about 800 miles J. Hence, I conceive, that jMarlcoff" must have met with every inconvenience wlii'-li could be anticipat- ed, in a journey from Spitzbcvgen to the Pole, or * March the l.jth, o wording to Forter, in his " Obse-va- tions m;ule (hiring a WijUge round the World," }). 82. + The vei-st, being about '),} furlongs, (:J500 English feet,) the average progress of 90 versts pei' day, is equal to about 0"2 miles, amounting to liJt miles in 7 days. :}: According to Forster, I <) days. ^ Mullcr's Voyages, &c. Transl. p. 18. r'Hia^T^'itfifY-' :'..™^,j^^w«?«s^«ief(!«! 3NS. pral of the [•ompanicd f March*, 3'' 30', and I for seven aw, which, 100 vcrsts about the into pro- arthcr ad- provisions lifficulty : ! given to ^Vpril he lace from ;enty-fonr e travel' avc met [nticipat- Pole, or ( H)se^ Wi- ll sh feet,) Ito about 1 '0 DISCOVERIES IN THE NORTH. 61 to the nearest land in the direction of the Pole. And as tliis account, derived hy TNluller from the archives of Yakutsk, shows us that INlarkofF's jour- ney, whicli was nearly equal in extent to the pro- jected journey to the Pole, was accomplislied with safety to the travellers, there appears no very great reason why a person equally adventurous as INlark- off and better provided, might not, in a similar man- ner, reach the Pole. SECT. V. Account of the Progress of discovery in the Some brief remarks have already been made, in the foregoing pages, relative to tlie discovery of se- veral of the polar countries, since the period when a northern passage to China and India became a po- pular speculation ; but for tracing the progress of discovery in the north with any degree of fulness, it will be necessary to go back to a period of many centuries, before the passage to India in this way was, perhaps, ever thought of. The first considerable discovery which appears to have been made in or near tlie Arctic Circle, was the result of accident ; one of the numerous Scan- dinavian depredawors, who, in the ninth century. ; M 62 ACCOUNT OF THE AIlCTIt: RlUi ION'S. 1)^ I ll ll Hi ■'■' 1 Villi J m 1 1, cruised tlie iiortbcrn seas in search of plunder, ha- ving been driven by a long continued storm from the eastward, upon the coast of Iceland, in the year 861. This island, from the quantity of snow seen on the mountains, was by its discoverer Nad- l)ox)D, at first called Schncc or Snoxvland, It was visited by a Swede of the name of Gardar Suaffarson, three years after its discovery, who win- tered there ; and afterwards by another Swede cal- led Flocke, who, for assisting him in the naviga- tion to this remote country, the compass being then unknown, is said to have carried out ravens along with him, by the flight of which, when set at liber- ty, he directed his course, £md was led to the re- quired country. This island, which had been deno- minated Iceland by Flocke, was again visited in the year 874 by Ingolf and Lief, two Norwegians, to whom the country presented so many natural ad- vantages, that they, with a few followers, were in- duced to settle there about four years afterwards. In the course of a few years, they were joined by a number of Norwegian families, who resorted thither from political oppression ; so that they soon consti- tuted a considerable colony. The coast of Norway, to the entrance of the White Sea, was examined about this period by a person of the name of Ohtiieri:, a Norwegian, who himself gave an account of his voyage to Al- fred the Great, by whom it has been handed down ^1 aoxs. DISCOVERIKS TX THE NORTH. 63 plunder, lia- storm from , in the year f snow seen verer Nad- xvland. It of Gardar y, who win- r Swede cal- thc naviga- 5 being then avens along set at liber- d to the rc- l been deno- n visited in •J^orwegians, natural ad- were in- afterwards. oined by a ;ed thither •on consti- |ce of the ^riod by a i'wcgian, :e to AI- l down :l I i i 1 if" to us along with his translation of the Ormesta of Orosius. About the middle, or towards the end of the tenth century, an extensive country to the west- ward of Iceland was discovered, by one of the colo- nists of the name of Guxbiorn *, which country was visited in the year 9H2, by one Eiuc Hauda, a person who had iled from Norway to Iceland, to avoid the punishment due to the crime of murder, with various other misdemeanours, of which he had been guilty. Rauda wintered in the southern part of the country ; and after spending part of three years in exploring it, returned to Iceland. For the purpose of encouraging persons to become settlers in the newly discovered country, he deno- minatetl it G-rcenland, and gave a most exagger- ated account of its products and appearance. In consequence of his representations, a fleet of twenty- five sail was shortly afterwards equipped, which, laden wth people of both sexes, and the requisite stores and cattle for forming a settlement, put off for Greenland ; but only alwut one-half of the fleet arrived safe at their destination.. These people wore soon joined by others, both fiom Iceland and Nor- way ; so that, in a few years, they also became a re- spectable colony. * Forster's " Voyages and Discoveries made in the North," p. 79. ' i 64 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC RKGlONS. i 'i»s I 'J A regular trade being now cstablislied bctweeil Norway, (Greenland and Iceland, one of the Iceland colonists, l^ioiiN by name, about the year 1001, while following his father to Greenland, from whom he had been separated while on a trading voyage in another ship, was accidentally driven by a storm considerably to the south-west of Green- land, where he discovered a new country covered with wood. This discovery being made known on his return to Iceland, lief, the son of Eric Rauda, fitted out a vessel, and with Biorn as a pilot and a crew of thirty-five men, revisited the country just discovered. Here he traversed a considerable extent of coast, and sailed iip a river to a lake from which it took its rise, where he wintered. In this country, called by the discoverers IVinland or Vin- land, from the circumstance of grapes having been found in it, the day was eight hours long in winter ; from whence it appears, that they must have been somewhere on the coast of North Ame- rica, or contiguous islands, near the parallel of 50", probably on the shore of Newfoundland. Lief returned to Greenland the following spring. His brother Thorwald afterwards proceeded to Win- land, where he pursued the discovery of the adja- cent countries during two years, without seeing any inhabitants ; but, in the third year, he met witli three boats upon the coast, covered with leather, containing three Indians each, which he seized, and 3 Ions. lied bctwcefl f the Iceland year 1001, iiland, from 11 a trading ly driven by St of Green- iitry covered Ic known on Eric Raiida, ; a pilot and the country considerable a lake from cd. In this and or Vhi- Ihaving been irs long in they must orth Ame- lel of 50% md. Lief ring. His to Win- the adja- seeing any \ met with I i ! - ■ \ ;li leather, eized, and PIIOGRESS OF DISCOVERY IN THE NORTH. ^5 wantonly and barbarously murdered the whole of the men in them, excepting one who made his escape. An attack was made a little while after by the injured natives upon Thorwald's vessel ; and, tliough the assailers were repulsed, Thorwald met with a just rctiibution for his cruelty, by the wound of an arrow, which occasioned his death. These savages, on account of their low stature, were called Skrallingers, signifying dwarfs. They were pro- bably the same race of people as are at present known by the appellation of Esquimaux. Other adventurers then visited AVinland, and succeeded in establishing a good understanding with the na- tives, and in carrying on among them an advantageous traffic for furs and other produce of the country. Thorfin, one of these adventurers, attempted to establish a colony in W inland, and allowed the people with him a free traffic with the natives in any articles excepting weapons of war, the barter- ing of which he expressly forbid. One of the na- tives, however, contrived to steal from the Iceland- ers a battle-axe, trial of which he presently made on one of his companions, and killed him on the spot. The dangerous weapon was immediately seized by another of his countrymen, and thrown into the sea*. VOL. I. E * Forster'8 Voyages, p. 85. 66 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. I I The Christian Religion was introduced into Ice- land and Greenland ahont the year 1000, and with- in a hundred years afterwards genernlly difl'used. Above sixteen churcht's were then built, and two convents. These buildings, as well as the habi- tations of the colonists, were erected near the south- ern point of Greenland. They had two settle- ments, the most western of which increjjsed up to four parishes, containing one hundred farms or vil- lages ; and the most eastern to twelve p- hes, one hundred and ninety villages, one bisho|, .^ see, and two convents *. The intercourse between Green- land and the rest of the world, was intercepted about the year 1406, when the seventeenth bishop attempted to reach his see, but was prevented by ice. Since the beginning of the fifteenth centuiy, these unfortunate colonists have been, of necessity, left to themselves, and, not having been heard of, arc supposed to have perished ; but whether they were destroyed by their enemies the Esquimaux, who inhabit the same country, or perished for want of their usual supplies, or were carried off by a de- structive pestilence, as some have imagjined, is- still matter of doubt. It is not indeed known that none of them yet remain, though, from the circum- stance of several of the ruins of their convents ha- ving been seen by the zealous missionary Hans Egede, in the year 1723, it is clear, that the west- Baruow's Voyages, p. 12. Iff i' J IONS. cd into Icc- 0, and with- ly difliised. It, and two IS tlie habi- ir the south- two settle- ?{jscd up to farms or vil- p hcs,one >p s sec, and ieew Green- intercepted jenth bishop revented by nth ccntuiy, ){ necessity, Du heard of, lether they isquimaux, for want fF by a de- iiasjined, is- nown that he circum- invents ha- nary Hans the west- ruoGRKSS OF DISCOVKRY IN TITV. XdUTII. 6? rrn colony is not now in existeinu ; but as to the eastern colony, Kgedo was of opinion, that there was a prohabihty of sonic of the people bein;;- yet alive *. A'^arious attempts have been made by order of the Danisli (Tovernment, for the recovery of this coun- try, and f(»r ascertaining the fate of the unfortunate colonist*^ but most of them were spiritless, and all of them failed In their object. llichard Ilackluyt, in his " Voyages, Navigations, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the iMiglish Nation," gives a quotation from the History of W'ales, by Dr David Powel, stating the discovery of Ame- rica or the AVest Indies by Madoc, the son of Owen Guyneth, prince of North AValcs, in the year 1170. Madoc left his country, it is said, in consequence of family contention, ..nd jioceeded in search of adventures by sea towards the west. Leaving Iceland far to the nortli, he arrived at length at *' a land unknown, where he saw many strange things." Here he left most of his compa- nions, and retuiTied home for more people '* to inha- bit this fair and large country," and then went out again with ten sail of ships f . E 2 • One of tlie Iceland bishops, who was driven very near the coast of Greenland, while on a voyage to Norway, about the middle of tlie sixteenth centurj', is said to have seen the inhabitants driving their cattle in tlie fields. — Thormoder Ter- fager. + Hackliiyt's Voyages^ &c. vol. iii. ]). J .<^, 1r, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I tarn Ut IL25 iu 2.0 I 1.6 Hiotographic Sciences Corporation f\ k L1>^ KN >. 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MSSO (716)872-4503 \ 5 m > lii I- I'l Hi I . ■ -■i|i," ' |i ^' ''I'l ' I '' D' ir r ' ;-i 1 I! il ,i Ji i il 68 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. Near the close of the fourteenth century, Nicho- las and Antonio Zeno, two Italians, made voy- ages of discovery in the north and west, from the islands of Shetland or Faroe, as is generally believed. Nicholas, it appears, visited Greenland, and Antonio, according to Forster, sailed to a country supposed to have been that of ancient Win- land, and afterwards visited Greenland and Ice- land. After this period, a new stimulus was offered to the enterprising trader, which was the well-found- ed hope then entertained, of performing the passage from Europe to India by sea, from whence immense riches were expected to be derived. The celebrated navigator Columbus, conceiving India, to be much more extensive than it really is^ calculated, from the Vnown spherical form of the earth, that he should soon reach it by sailing to the westward, and was very anxious to make the at- tempt. After a number of disappointments and much tedious delay, he was employed, for the purpose of putting his project into execution, by the Queen of Spain. He sailed from Palos in August 1492; and the result of his voyage was the discovery of the West Indies, the islands of which were so named, from the supposition that they lay contigu- ous to the coast of India. Soon after Columbus's voyages, the Portugueze navigator, Vasquez de Ga- ma, succeeded in reaching India by sailing round tlie Cape of Good Hope ; but beiore this successful GIONSr. i PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY IN THE NORTH. 69 tury, NiCHO- IS, made voy- l west, from i is generally d Greenland, sailed to a ancient Win- md and Ice- vas offered to e well-found- ig the passage ?nce immense s, conceiving n it really is, form of the ailing to the ake the at- tments and the purpose he Queen of gust 1492; discovery of ch were so ay contigu- Colum bus's uez de Ga- ling round Is successful attempt, another expedition by the same nation, it appears, tried the passage by the west, on a parallel far to the northward of that pursued by Columbus. This was undertaken by John Vaz Costa Cor- TEREAL, about the year 1463 or 1464, in which voyage the land of Newfoundland appears to have been seen *. After Cortereal, Sebastian Cabot, a Venetian, resident in England, seems to have been the next to attempt the voyage to India by the north-west, in the year 1497, on which occasion he coasted the American shore from the parallel of 67^° down to that of 38° ; though it is supposed his father, John Cabot, made a voyage to Newfoundland, or Prima Vista, as he called it, in 1494, and discovered the island of St John, which he so named, because it was first seen on St John's day f . Sebastian Cabot having, after this time, been several 3/ears employed in the service of the King of Spain, returned to England in 1548, when he was placed at the head of the Society of jVIerchant Adventurers, afterward, called the Muscovy or Russia Company ; and was subsequently endowed by Edward VI. with a pen- sion of 166/. 13*. 4f/. a-year, for good and accept- able services done and to be done by him. Gas PAR Cortereal, son of the voyager John Vaz Costa Cortereal above mentioned, sailed from • Barrow's Voyages, p. 37. + Harbis's Voyages, vol. ii. p. I90. ,1. I' I >!i ro ACCOUNT OF THE APCTIC KKGIONS. ■'!) J.isboi) ill the year 1.500, on a voyage of tliscovery towards tlic north-west, in search of a passage that way to the Spice Islands. He first saw the promon- tory of Greenland, then discovered the coast of La- brador ; and after proceeding as far towards the nortli as the mountains of ice with which he met would admit, he coasted towards the south, and discovered the Bher St Latere nee, together with several islands contiguous to the North Ameri- can coast. The following year the same naviga- tor, with two vessels, undertook a second voyage, when he again saw Terra Verde (Cireenland) ; but being separated from his companion in a storm, it is apprehended his vessel was wrecked among the ice of Cape Farewell, as his consort return- ed to Lisbon without him, and he was never heard of afterwards. Search for the unfortu- nate Cortereal was immediately commenced by his brother, ^Iiciiai:l Corteueal, grand door- keeper of the king Don IManuel, who sailed from Lisbon with three vessels on the 10th of May 1502. But the result of this voyage was as disastrous as the former ; for, on tlie vessels separating, with the view of making a more effectual search for the lost navigator, IMichael shared a similar fate as his bro- ther, and perished. A third brother was anxious to renew the search, but the King determinately refused permission for him to embark personally in the undertaking, lest he should also be lost, but EGIOXS. ^c of tliscoveiy a passage tliat iw the promoii- lie coast of La- ir towards the which lie met ;he south, and together with North Ameri- saiiie naviga- secoiid voyage, eeiilaiid); but ti in a storm, recked among Dnsort return- he was never the unfortu- >mmenced by f grand door- sailed from of May 1502. disastrous as ing, with the h for the lost e as his bro- was anxious [eterminately )ersonally in 1 be lost;, but 3 i PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY IN THE NOHTH. 71 readily permitted other individuals to pursue the humane design, though without effect *. An unimportant voyage was undertaken by one Aubert or Hubert, a Frenchman, in the year 1508, wherein he visited Newfoundland ; and another in 1524 by Estevan Gomez, a Spaniard or Portugueze, of the result of which little or nothing is known. An English voyage was attempted three years af- terwards towards the North Pole, one of the vessels employed in which was called the Doviinus VohiS' cum ; but the proceedings in this first expedition undertaken entirely by the English, for sailing in a northerly direction to India, are little known. A few more unimportant voyages undertaken by the French, Spanish, and English, bring us down to the period when the spirit for adventure among our countrymen burst forth, under the auspices of Edward VI., and under the judicious assistance and suggestions of Seba.stian Cabot, with a degree of brilliancy scarcely before known. The first voyage undertaken for discovery towards the north-east, was commenced by Sir Hugh Willoughby, in the year 1553, at the charge of " The Company of Mer- chant Adventurers." This expedition, consisting of tliree ships, with a pinnace aiid a boat belonging to each, left Ratcliffe, and dropped down to Deptford, * Barrow's Voyages, p. iQ. 7a ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. i 'i >'■; I i ' on the 20th of May. The following day it passed Greenwich with great display, in view of the Court, who were then there, and amid the warmest accla- mations of a great numher of people of all ranks, who had assemhled to witness its sailing. One of the ships, the Edward Bonaventnrc, commanded hy Richard Chancellor, pilot-major of the fleet, was se- parated from the rest of the little squadron, in a storm, on the 3d of August, when they were near the northern termination of Laj)land, called, hy Ste- phen Burrough, who accompanied Chancellor, the North Cape ; on which Sir Hugh '''.V illoughhy, in the Bona Esperanza, accompanied oy the Bona Coiifidentia, proceeded in seardi of Wardhuus, the place appointed for a rendezvous ; but, missing it, stretched to the eastward, vnitil the 14tli of August, when he discovered an unknown coast, lying in la- titude 72°. On this coast, now called Nova Zem- bla *, he was unable to land, from the shoalness of '™^^^— ^— »' IMM-.IIII— I ■■ I I ■,■■■-11— . I , .M.-.J ■.■-■. — I II 1^—^^ • As Sir Hugh Willoughby was l60 leagues, by estimation, E. by N. from Seynam, an island on the east coast of Norway, in latitude 70**, when he discovered land ; and the distance to Nova Zembla, according to Arrowsmith, is not more than 220 leagues, I have no doubt but the coast seen by him was Nova Zembla. Besides, from the length of time he was in getting to the westward, to his wintering harbour, it is evident he was much farther to the eastward than he imagined. Indeed the courses and distances given in his journal, imperfect as they are, give sufficient westing for the distance between Nova Zembla and Lapland. And had he been mistaken in his lati- iGIONS, ilay it passed [)f the Court, armest accla- of all ranks, ing. One of mmanded by fleet, was se- uadron, in a ley were near ailed, bv Ste- isncellor, the ilioughby, in >y the Bona ardhuus, the ;, missing it, h of August, ying in la- Nova Zem- shoalness of )y estimation, St of Norway, le distance to (lore than 220 im was Nova ^as in getting ident he was Indeed the rfect as they ween Nova in his lati<' '^. PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY IN THE NORTH. 73 ^hc water. After beating three days to the north- ward, and probably making very little progress, he bore up with the wind at north-east, and ran about 70 leagues towards the south-south-east, when, fall- ing into 7 fathoms water, without seeing land, he hauled by the wind to north-westward. From that time, 21st August, until the 14th September, he coasted to the westward, seeing the Russian shore occasionally ; and, on the 18th, took up his winter quarters at the mouth of the river Arzina, a har- bour in the 70th degree of latitude, on the north- eastern face of Lapland. Here, owing to the seve- rity of the cold, and the want of proper food, him- self and two ships' companies, consisting of 70 per- sons, exhausted by the combined effects of cold, hunger, and disease, pcrislicd in the ensuing spring. In the mean time, Chancellor, with the Edward Bonaventure, was more fortunate. He proceed- ed to Wardhuus, the place of rendezvous, from v/hencc, after waiting seven days, he sailed a short distance to the northward, and then changing his course, fell in with the Russian territory, on the east side of the White Sea. In one of the Russian harbours, in this region, the ship remained through- out the winter. Chancellor, during their stay, tra- velled to Moscow, where he was handsomely enter- ^ude, and had the land seen been any of the islands lying near the northern part of Russia, it is evident he could not have steered 70 leagues to the S. S, E., as he afterwards did. 74 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC RF.OIONS. ' .1 ' M taincd by Juan Vasilovieli, Cz;ir of Moscow, and re- ceived pcnnission of a free trade. He returned to England in 1554, and tlie following summer was sent out again accompanied by llichard Gray and George Killing^vorth *, " factors," for establishing a regular trade with Russia by the way of the White Sea, which was accomplished under various privi- leges. Stephen Burrouoh also, was sent out in a small vessel the following year (1556), for making discove- ries to the eastward. He visited Nova Zembla, and discovered the Island of Weigats, near which, in fruit- less endeavours to get to the eastward, he spent above three weeks, and tlicn, proceeding to the westward, he wintered at Colniagro ; and, after making some search for the Bona Esperanza, and Bona Confiden- tia, returned to England in 1557. After tliC complete establishment of the Russian trade, and the discovery of all the northern face of Russia, Irom the White Sea to the eastward of the Weigats, the chance of further discovery in that di- rection appeared so little, tliat a passage to Cathay or India, by the north-west, again became a popular spe- culation. Martin Frojusher, who was one of the most sanguine advocates of the practicability of this * This Killingworth was remarkable for the lengtli and I>eauty of his beard. It was of a yellowish colour, thick and broad, pleasuring 5 feet 2 inches in length. F.GIONS. [oscow, and rc- de returned to ^ summer was hard Gray and establishing a r of the White various privi- t out in a small taking discove- I Zembla, and ivhich, in fruit- he spent above the westward, making some ona Confiden- the Russian rthern face of stward of the py in that di- to Cathay or . popular spe- [as one of the )ility of this \ie lengtli and )ur, thick and 1'I100RE38 OF DISCOVERY IN THE NORTH. 75 scheme, after having for above fifteen years endeavoiuf- ed in vain to accomplisli an expedition, was at length, through the assistance of Dudley, Earl of Warwick, and a few friends, enabled to effect the equipment of two small barks of 35 and 30 tons, and a pinnace of 10 tons, with which he proceeded on discovery, on the 8th of June 1576. In this voyage he dis- covered a strait, in latitude 63° 8', afterwards na- med Frobisher's Strait; but its situation being long supposed to be on Greenland, instead of on the Labrador side, the name of Lumley's Inlet was applied to the same place. Omitting the two subsequent voyages of Fro- bisher, which were chiefiy undertaken in search of treasure, and others in which nothing was discover- ed, we come to the commencement of a period of about thirty years, when all or the greater part of the discoveries which have been made towards the north-west, and nortli, were accomplished. The first important voyage was performed by John Davis, who, with two vcsf^Is, the Sunshine of 50 tons, and the Moomhini of 35 tons, sailed from Dartmouth in search of a north-west passage, on the 7th of June 1585. They fell 'w with ice on. the east side of Greenland, on the 19th of July ; and the following day got sight of a rocky moun • tainous land, appearing as if above the clouds, i i form of a sugar loaf, to which Davis gave the nair i' of the Land of' Desolation. After doubling Caj »c 76 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. ti i{ Farewell, they stood to the iiorth-westward ; and in four days saw land to the eastward, in latitude 64° 15', being the west side of Greenland. It eon- sisted of islands, sonic of them inliabited, and con- tained many harbours, in one of which they an- chored. They afterwards stretched across an open sea to the north-westward, and again discover- ed land in latitude G6° 40', on the 6th of August, and anchored under a mount which they named Mount Raleigh. To different parts of this coast, since denominated Cumberland IslamU they ap- plied names. The foreland to the northward of them, they called Dicr's Cape ; that to the south- ward Cape Wahingham ; and a great bay between the two capes they named J^lveter Sonml ; and their anchorage they called Totnesa Road. On the 11th of August, having returned a little to tlie south- ward, they sailed to the westward, in a strait 20 or 30 leagues in width, and free from ice, which has since been denominated Ciimbeiiand Strait. The cape which they rounded to enter this strait, they called the Cape of God's Mercy ^ as being the place of their first entrance for discovery. On proceed- ing 60 leagues to the westward, they fell in with a cluster of islands in the midst of the passage, which, with the commencement of fog and unfavourable weather, put an end to their discovery. After re- maining six days in expectation of a change of ireathei', they sailed homeward, and arrived safe at Dartmouth on the 30th September. They met OIONS. vard ; and in in latitude md. It con- tcd, and con- icli they an- ross an open lin discover- of August, they named )f this coast, uU they ap- lorthward of ;o the south- bay between d ; and their 3n the 11th tlx; soutli- strait 20 or , which has rait. The strait, they g the place |n proceed- in with a |ge, which, avourable [After re- ihange of d safe at 'hey met PROGRESS or DISCOVEllY IN THE NORTH. 77 with a iiiultitude of natives in the course of the voyage, whom they found a very tractable people, and liberal in their mode of trafficking. The discovery by Davis of a nation with whom it seemed practicable to enter into an ad\antagcous traffic, with the great expectations, excited by the open navigation of the strait into which he sailed, of a communication with the Pacific Ocean, occa- sioned Davis with his two barks, to which were added a trading vessel of 120 tons, and a pinnace of 10 tons, to be again dispatched the following year. They left Dartmouth on the 7th INIay. After making the land near Cape Farewell, they proceeded along the west coast of Greenland, where the natives came off to their ships in 40, 50^ or even 100 canoes at a time, bringing with them skins, fish, fowls, and other produce of the country. Davis having, on his passage across the Atlantic, sent two of his vessels to the eastward of Green- land, with orders to seek a passage to the north- ward between Greenland and Iceland, as fiir as la- titude 80°, was now deserted by his only remaining companion, and proceeded alone on his discovery, in the Moonshine of 35 tons. From the coast of Greenland, in 66° 33', which he discovered, he sail- ed westward 50 leagues until he fell in with land again in latitude 66° 19' ; he cruised about this coast for some time, and then stretched to the southward, examining inlets in the Labrador shore as he went, until the 11th September, when he left the 78 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC UECIONS. "I'M » I coast about tlic latitude of 54", and arrived in England in October. The North Star of 10 toni burden, one of the vessels sent to tlic eastward of Greenland, parted from her consort in a storm on the 3d of September, and was never afterwards heard of. Though this voyage was productive of no discovery of any consequence, yet Davis was sent out again the next year (1587) with three vessels. They proceeded as before along the west coast of Greenland, but to a greater extent, hal- ving had an observation in latitude 72° 12'. This land, lying on the east side of the strait now called Davis' Strait, they named the London Coast. From hence, the wind shifting to the northward, they stretched across the strait to the westward, got entangled among ice, and made their way through it to the southward. After again sailing up Cumberland Strait as far as before, they went across the mouth of the strait discovered by Fro- bisher, which they named Lumley'% Inlet, and passed a headland called by them Warwick's Fore- land; then crossing a large gulf forming the en- trance of the strait afterwards sailed through by Hudson, they came to the southermost cape of the gulf lying in latitude 61° 10', to which they ap- plied the name of Cape Chidlcy. Soon afterwards they returned to England. A passage to India and China by the north-east, presenting many apparent advantages, the Dutch, '.r.ioNs. > » d arrived in ar of 10 tone e eastward of i in a storm on 1 er afterwards i productive of ;t Davis was J 7) with three : iloDg the west ' r extent, ha- tor 12'. This ait now called yndon Coast. \ le northward, the westward, ■ ie their way ' again sailing >re, they went Tred hy Fro- s Inletf and 'wick's Fore- ning the en- ' through by 1 ; cape of the 1 ch t?;ey ap- m >n afterwards 1 e north-east, 1 the Dutch, 1 niOOTlESS OF niSCOVKTlY IN THE NOnTlI. 79 as soon as relieved from the yoke of Spain, em- barked in the cnterprizc of discovering it. Four ships were equipjicd for this purjxisc in the year laQ-t, pjirt of which, under the command of Cor- NEl-is CouxF.MSov, passcd iIjc strait of Weigatz, and proceeded about 10 Icngues to the eastward, when, finding the sea clear, and every prospect of a passajfc, instead of pursuing the discovery, they turned back to communicate the news of the happy probability ! Another part of the expedition un- der the direction of AVii.liam Barkntz, exa- mined at the same time the western side of Nova Zembla, giving names to several remarkable parts of the coast from latitude 77° 25' down to 71". After another expedition of seven ships, expen- sively prepared, had been sent out in the same di- rection, and altogether failed, two ships under the command of Jacob Van Heemskcrke and Cor- nelis Ryp, with Wili.iaai Barentz as chief pilot, were sent out from Amsterdam on the 10th JNJay 1596, for discovering a north-east passage. On an island that they discovered in latitude 74° 35', they killed an immense bear, from which circum- stance the place was called Sear Island. From hence, at the suggestion of Comelis Ryp, they pro- ceeded to the northward, with the hope of getting round the ice with which the coast of Nova Zem- bla is encumbered, and thus discovered land when in latitude 80° 10', on the 17th of June, which they 80 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. rm'"$: 'I I named Spitzbergen, or Sharp Mountains. They examined tlie coast hastily, as far to the southward as latitude 76^ 50', and then saw no more land un- til they approached Bear Island, (afterwards called Cherry Island,) on the 1st of July. Being douht- ful of the situation of the newly discovered region, with regard to the continent of Europe, or any other known land, the two ships pursued different courses, that the navigators might satisfy them- selves of its true position ; and Cornelis, sailing back again from Bear Island, direct north, arrived at a place on the west coast of Spitzhergen, which they had before denominated the Hay of Birds*, Barentz, in the mean time, proceeded to the eastward, with the hope of accomplishing the main object of his voyage, and reached the coast of Nova Zembla on the 17th of July. Then persevering to the northward and eastward, with the expectation of getting round Nova Zembla, they got entangled among the ice on the coast, and were brought to the dreadful necessity of wintering in this desolate and frozen country. To attempt any description of their proceedings, their observations, or their afflic- tions during this severe trial, would, within the limit of a few lines, to which it is my wish to con- fine my remarks in this place, but spoil a most in- teresting and affecting narrative. " The journal * De Brve, Indite Orientalis pars undecima, torn. iii. p. 48.- 51. I. ' ■ EGIONS. ntains. They the southward more land un- tcrwards called Being doubt- covered region, iUrope, or any irsued different , satisfy them- 'ornelis, sailing ; north, arrived zhergen, which ly of Birds*. Qceeded to the shing the main le coast of Nova persevering to le expectation got entangled re brought to n this desolate description of or their afflic- d, within the y wish to con- )oil a most in- The journal ^a, torn. iii. p. 48.- 4 VROGllESS OF DISCOVERY IN THE NORTH. 81 of the proceedings of these poor people, as Mr Bar- row beautifully observes, " during their cold, com- fortless, dark and dreadful winter, is intensely and painfully interesting. No murmuring escapes them in their most hopeless and afflicted situation ; but such a spirit of true piety, and a tone of such mild and subdued resignation to Divine Providence, breathe through the whole narrative, that it is im- possible to peruse the simple tale of their suffer- ings, and contemplate their forlorn situation, with- out the deepest emotion *." Part of the sufferers made their escape in two open boats from this dismal country in the follow- ing summer ; and, after a perilous and painful voy- age of above 1100 miles, arrived in safety at Cola; but Barentz, with some others, was overcome by the severity of the climate, and the extraordinary exer- tions which he was obliged to make, and died. George Weymouth, who was sent out by the Muscovy and Turkey Companies, with two vessels, in the year 1 602, found an inlet in the land to the northward of the Labrador coast, in lati- tude 61° 40', into which he said he sailed W. by S. a hundred leagues. If so, he must have been in the channel now called Hudson's Strait, and of course was the discoverer of it. VOL. I. F ♦ " Chronological History of Voyages into the Arctic Re- gions," p. 151. 82 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. ! i' '« ; < id i> i* Three voyages towards the north-west by James Hall, and one by John Knight, were performed after that of Weyniouth,but the next discovery worth mentioning was made by Henry Hudson, who, in 1607, in a voyage towards the North Pole, traced the cast coast of Greenland, from a little to the northward of Iceland, as high as latitude 73°, which extreme point of his navigation this way he called Hold with Hope. He then proceeded more to the eastward, made the coast of Spitzbergen, sailed as high as latitude 81", and explored a bay between the north end of Charles' Island and the Main, and returned home in safety. This navigation was perfoiined in a very small vessel, with a crew only of ten men and a boy. In the year I6O8, Hudson was employed in search of a north-east passage ; the year afterwards, in a nor- thern and western voyage in the Dutch service, the design of which is not well understood ; and in the season of 1 610, this enterprising navigator embarked on a voyage of discovery from England, towards the north-west, in a vessel of fifty-five tons burden. On this occasion, which terminated fatally to him- self, he passed the Strait, the mouth of which was first observed by Davis, and said to have been entered by Weymouth, then discovered the bay which bears his name, hauled his ship on shore in a convenient situation, and wintered there. The ship being victualled only for six months, they fell ■i i f REGIONS. ■west by James , were performed t disco Very wortli [UDSON, who, in rth Pole, traced I a little to the itude 73°, which is way he called >ceeded more to itzbergeii, sailed d a bay between and the Main, s navigation was (vith a crew only iployed in search irwards, in a nor- tch service, the lod ; and in the igator embarked igland, towards |ve tons burden, fatally to him- |outh of which d to have been vered the bay lip on shore in [l there. The iiths, they fell m PllOGRESS OF DISCOVERY IN THE NORTH. 83 short of provisions ; and soon after the vessel was got afloat in the summer of 1611, the crew mutinied, barbarously forced their Captain, his son, and seven of the crew, mostly invalids, into a boat, with a most scanty supply of the necessaries of life, and abandoned them to a miserable fate. The chief of the mutineers, one Green, who had received the most distinguished favours from Hudson, being preserved by him from ruin, taken into his own house, and afterwards allowed to accompany him on his voyage, met with a speedy requital for his base in- gratitude. He landed with some of his companions near the western extremity of Hudson's Strait, where he met with some savages, who, though at first they appeared on friendly terms, unexpectedly attacked his party, killed the base ingrate, and mortally wounded three others. Another person, said to be also among the chiefs in the mutiny, died of want on the passage homeward. Sir Thomas Button, with two ships, proceed- ed towards the north-west in the year 1612, on the same track as the unfortunate Hudson pursued. He first stretched across to the western shore of Hud- son's Bay, examined a part cf the coast, and then took up his winter quarters in a creek on the north side of a river which he discovered, and named Nel- son's River. As soon as the ice cleared away, he examined the western side of the bay, as high along Southampton Island as latitude '65°,, gave names F 2 84 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS r.jl ; t ?■ to several headlands and islands, and returned to England in the autumn of 1613. In the year 1615, IIobert Bylot, accompa- nied hy the celebrated AVilliam Baffin as mate .and companion, with one small vessel, visited the same quarter, and examined the eastern side of South- ampton Island, as high as latitude 65° 26'. After spending three months in the frozen sea, without making any considerable discovery, they returned to England. The next year, (1616), Bylot, accom- panied by William Baffin as Pilot, proceeded to the examination of the sea lying north and west of Davis' Strait. They had but one vessel, the Discovery^ of fifty-five tons burden, which had be- fore been employed in four similar voyages, under Hudson in 1610, Button in 1612, Gibbon in 1614, and Bylot in the preceding year. In this little vessel, with seventeen persons on board, Baffin traced the west coast of Greenland up Davis' Strait, as high as the extremity of the extensive sea in the 78th degree of latitude, now named after him, as the discoverer ; proceeded round by the western part of the bay as near the shore as the ice would permit, and down to tlie latitude of Q5° 40' ; ha- ving seen land, probably, all the way, excepting in the openings of some of the sounds^ and in the in- terval between the latitudes of 70° 30' and 68\ where he fell in with a large body of ice, and was under the neccssitv of taking a circuit to the east- ward. L .»» C REGIOVS. and returned to Bylot, accompa- Baffin as mate and , visited the same nn side of Soutli- de65°26'. After ozen sea, without ry, they returned 16), Bylot, accom- 5 Pilot, proceeded ng north and west it one vessel, the en, which had he- ir voyages, under , Gibbon in 1614, r. In this little m hoard, Baffin up Davis' Strait, extensive sea in |tmed after him, as by the western las the ice wouhl of 65° 40'; ha- •ay, excepting in i?, and in the in- 70° 30' and 68\ )f ico, and was luit to the east- 'I >'llO(JKKSS OF DISCO VERY IN THE NOUTll. 85 i This voyage of Baffin's being one of the most re- markable and important navigations ever accom- plished in the same quarter of the globe, is worthy a more particular description. I shall, therefore, give an abstract of Baffin's narrative, as published by Purchas *. They sailed from Gravcsend on the 26th of March 1616 ; but owing to bad weather and con- trary winds, did not clear the Channel until the 20th of April. After a good passage across the Atlan- tic, they proceeded without interruption, excepting from contrary winds, up Davis' Strait to latitude 70° 20', where they anchored in a " fair sound" near Davis's liondon Coast. Here the tides rising only eight or nine feet, and keeping no certain course, Baffin was discouraged in the hope of a passage. After remaining two days at this place, from whence all the inhabitants had fled, they weighed and plyed to the northward. On the 26th of JNIay they fell in with a dead whale, and made the ship fast, to se( lire it : after having obtained 160 fins or blades of whalebone from it, a storm ensued, and it broke away from them. INIay 30th, they reached Hope Sanderson, the northernmost land visited by Davis, lying between the parallels of 72° and 73° ; and on the same evening fell in with ice, wh?ch they immediately entered, andpass- * Pilgrunes, vol. iii. p. 841. 86 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. r.iii^' '■■)■ I I I ■ HI :i n '■ ed through the following day. The wind then blow- ing very hard at N. N. E., they put in among some islands, in latitude 72" 45', from which the in- habitants fled on their approach, leaving only a few women behind, who hid themselves among the rocks. From this circumstance, the group was cal- led fVomcn's Islands. The wind being moderate, though still contrary, they sailed on the 4th and plyed to the northward, in a channel seven or eight leagues wide, between the ice and the land. Being much pestered with ice on the 9th, they anchored near three small islands, lying eight miles from the main, in latitude 74° 4'. The flood- tide here was very weak, but the ebb ran with a considerable stream, which Baffin attributed to the melting of the snow on the land. From hence they attempt- ed to get to the northward and north-westward ; but finding the ice impervious, though in a rapid stateof dissolution, they putin among some islands in latitude 73° 45', until there should be more room. Here they were visited by the natives to the amount of forty- two persons, who bartered skins and pieces of the tusks of sea-horses, and what are usually cal- led unicorn's-horns, for beads, iron, and such like ; from which the anchorage was named Horn Sound. On the 18th they put to sea, and found the ice astonishingly dispersed, having stood to the west- ward nearly twenty leagues, and to the northward, as far as latitude 74° 30', before they met with any ! J| r ij. REGIONS. rUOGIlKS:^ OF DISCOVERY IN THE NORTH. 87 ; wind then blow- yr put in among Dm which the in- caving only a few jlves among the he group was cal- l being moderate, on the 4th and nel seven or eight the land. Being th, they anchored ht miles from the ood-tide here was th a considerable to the melting of ice they attempt- north-westward ; hough in a rapid ng some islands in I be more room, es to the amount skins and pieces ,t are usually cal- , and such like ; id H(rrn Sound. Ind found the ice (od to the wcst- the northward, ly met with any 1 I 'I m interruption. Afterwards, liowever, they experi- enced considerable inconvenience from ice, being occasionally beset, (yet never passing a day with- out making some progress,) until the 1st of Ju- ly, when, in latitude 75° 40', they got into an open sea. Here they stood twenty leagues off shore, be- fore they fell in with ice, and the hope of a passage was again revived ; but, on trying the tide on their return to the coast, this hope was again depressed. The wind, on the 2d of July, veered to the south- east, and blew hard ; and though the weather was thick, they were bold enough to run along the land to the northward. On the morning of the 3d, they passed a headland, in latitude 76° 35', which they called Sir Dudley Diggs' Cape; and twelve leagues beyond it, they opened a bay, having an island in the midst, under which they anchored ; but, in two hours time, the wind still blowing very hard, the ship drove, with two anchors down, and obliged them to set sail. This bay, which Baffin reckons a fit place for killing whales, he named Wosten- holme Sound. On the 4th, the storm veered to W. by S., and was so furious that it blew away their fore-sail, and obliged them to lie adrift. Finding themselves embayed when the weatlier cleared a little, they set sail, and stretched across to the south-eastward, into a little cove, where they attempted " to bring up ;" but the squalls from the hills being violent, i nNS. SPITZnERGF.V. 93 rni: vo- ids iru- the north rrouiuled (1 though the public ft^ repeated pg regions, of all the excellent Ebenezer I, and the le work of inounced, of these 1, by ex- Green- [ich, from give ail the occasional resort of persons, drawn thither for purposes of hunting and fishing, docs not appear to liuvc ever heen inhahited. It lies between the la- titudes 70' 'JO' and 80' f N., and between the lon- gitiules of 9° and perhaps 22° E. ; but some of the neighbouring islands extend at least as far north as 80° 40', and still farther towards the east than the mainland of Spitzbergcn. The western part of this country was discovered by Bauentz, Heemskerkc and Kyp, in two vessels fitted out of Amsterdam, on the 19th of June 1596, who, from the nume- rous peaks and acute mountains observed on the coast, gave it the appropriate name of SpitzbcrgC7i, signifying sharp mountains. It was afterwards named Ncwland, or King James' Ncivland, and then Girenland,\mng supposed to be a continuation towards the east of the country so called by the Icelanders. It was rediscovered by Henry Hudson, an English navigator, in 1607, and four years af- terwards became the resort of the English, for the purpose of taking whales, since which period, its shores have annually been visited by one or other of the nations of Europe, with the same ob- ject, to the present time. And though the soil of the whole of this remote country does not produce vegetables suitable or sufficient for the nourish- ment of a single human being, yet its coasts and adjacent seas have afforded riches and indepen- dence to thousands. 94 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. '■■h t h 'iTf, ■If ' * P This country exhibits many interesting views, with numerous examples of the sublime. Its stu- pendous hills rising by steep acclivities from the very margin of the ocean to an immense height ; its surface, contrasting the native protruding dark-co- loured rocks, with the burden of purest snow and magnificent ices, altogether constitute an extraor- dinary and beautiful picture. The whole of the western coast is mountainous and picturesque ; and though it is shone uj)on by a four months' sun every year, its snowy covering is never wholly dissolved, nor are its icy monuments of the dominion of frost ever removed The val- leys opening towards the coast, and terminating in the back ground with a transverse chain of moun- tains, are chiefly filled with everlasting ice. The inland valleys, at all seasons, present a smooth and continued bed of snow, in some places divided by considerable rivulets, but in others exhibiting a pure unbroken surface for many leagues in extent. Along the west coast, the mountains take their rise from within a league of the sea, and some from its very edge. Few tracts of table-land of more than a league in breadth are to be seen, and in many places the blunt termination of mountain-ridges project beyond the regular line of the coast, and overhang the waters of the ocean. The southern part of Spitzbergen consists of groups of insulated mountains, little disposed in chains, or in any de- terminate order, having conical, pyramidal, or ridged 3XS* BPITZBERGEN. 05 ing views, . Its stu- )m the very leiglit; its ng dark-co- snow and an cxtraor- lountainous i uiK)n by a covering is monuments The val- minating in n of moun- ice. The smooth and divided by :hibiting a in extent, take their some from more than d in many [tain-ridges coast, and southern insulated n any de- or ridged summits, sometimes round-backed, frequently ter- minating in points, and occasionally in acute peaks, not unlike spires. An arm of a short mountain- chain, however, forms the southern Cape or Point- look-out ; but a low flat, in the form of a fisli's tail, of about forty square miles in surface, consti- tutes the termination of the coast. Other promon- tories lying nearly north and south, are of a similar nature. The middle of Charles' Island is occupied by a mountain-chain of about thirty miles in length, rising on the west side from the sea, and on the east from a small stripe of table-land, only a few feet above the level of the ocean. In some parts of the coast, indeed, the table-land, from which the mountains take their rise, is even below the level of the high water mark, and is only prevented from being covered, by a natural sea-bank of shingle, thrown up in many places to the height of ten or fifteen feet. To the northward of Charles' Island, the moun- tains are more disposed in chains than they are to the southward. The principal ridge lies nearly north and south; and the principal valley ex- tends from the head of Cross Bay to the northern face of the country, a distance of 40 or 50 miles. An inferior chain of hills, two or three leagues from the coast, runs parallel with the shore, from which lateral ridges project into the sea, and termi- nate in mural precipices. Between these lateral 96 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. « s'l. "ll I % I ridges, some of the most remarkable icebergs on the coast occur. Along the northern shore of Spitz- bergen, and towatds the north-east, the land is neither so cleyated, nor are the hills so sharp-point- ed, as on the vvestern coast. Iiideed, some, oi the islands, and cpnsidcrable tracts pf the main, consist of comparatively low land. With regard |:q the land about Red Hill, it has been observed, that there is more natural earth and clay, though with even less vegetation, than on almost any other p^rt of the coast which has been visited. The most remarkable mountains I have seen, are situated near Horn Sound, on Charles' Island, and near King's Bay. Horn Moimt, or Hedge-hog Mount, so called froili an appearance of spines on the top when seen in sonie positiotis, takes its rise from a small tract of alpine land, on the southern side of Horn Sound. It has difTerent summits, chiefly in the form of spires, one of which is remarkably acute and elevated. I had an opportunity of deter- mining its height in the year 181^. From one set of observations, its altitude came out 1457 yards, and from andthci' 1473, the mean of which i^ 1465 yards; or 4fS95 feet *. Another pealc,' a fev^ niil^s fettber to the northward; appeared to be 3306 feet high. . ' <;v.')|j.sj jcisfM.;- u-^r^ '!»': ; t i H J..- y>'- "•'iSee a representation of this Mountain in Plate 3 ^'«iii/ |l' ! SPtTZBEHGEiV. — MOUNTAI . 97 be 3306 feet On Charles* Island is a curious peak, which juts into the sea. It is crookcil, perfectly naked, be- ing equally destitute of snow and verdure, and, from its black appearance or pointed figure, has been denominated the Devil's Thumb. Its height may be about 1500 or 2000 feet. The Micl- dle-Hook of the Foreland, as the central part of the chain of mountains in Charles' Island is called, is a very interesting part of the coast. These mountains, which are, perhaps, the highest land adjoining the sea which is to be met with, take their rise at the water's edge, and by a con- tintied ascent of an angle at first of about 30% and increasing to 45° or more, each comes to a pointy with the elevation of Jibout six-sevenths of an Eng- lish mile. This portion of the chain exhibits five distinct summits, the elevation of the highest of which, as determined by Captain Phipps, is 4500 feet, and of the lowest, by estimation, above 4000 feet. Some of these summits are, to appearance, within half a league, horizontal distance, of the margin of the sea. The points formed by the top of two or three of them, are so fine, that the ima- gination is at a loss to conceive of a place, on which an adventurer, attempting the hazardous exploit of climbing one of the summits, might rest *. Were such an undertaking practicable, it is evident it could not be effected without imminent danger. vol.. I. G * See Plate 3. fi^. ",. 9i ACCOUKT or TH« ARCTIC HEOXONS. i i I ■ I. i h \ !i I ,; I, %w i i 'i r i> Besides extraordinary courage and strength requi- site in the adventurer, such an attempt would need the utmost powers of exertion, as well as the most trresistihle perseverance. Frederick Martens, in las. excdlent account of a *' Voyage to Spitzhergen," undertaken in the year 1671, describes some of the eliiis as consistiiiig of but one stone from the bottom to the top, or as appearing like an old decayed wall, and as smelling very sweet, where covered with lichens. la Magdalene Bay, the rocks he describes as lying in a semicircular form, having at each extremity two high mountains, with natural excavations, " ^fter the fashion of a breast-work/' and at their summits, points and cracks like battlements. 8^ne 0£ the mountains <^ Spitsbergen are well prc^rtioned four-sided pyramids, rising out of a base; of A mile or a mile and a half, to a lei^ue square ; others form angular chains, resembling the roof of ft house^ which recede from the shore in pa- inllel ridges, untilthey dwindle into obscurity in th^ distant perspective^ S<)me exhibit the exaet resem*- Uance of art, but in a style of g^mdeur exceeding the famed pyramids of the East, or even the more wpnder^l Tower j»f Babel, the presumptive design Hnd ftrrogant eontinuation of which, was checked by the miraculous cKM0UNTAINS. 99 irength rcqui- »t would need ill as the moft Martens, in ► Spitzbergen," es Siwne of the om the bottom ;cayed wall, and 1 with lichens, scribes as lying ?ach extremity il excavations, ' and at their lements. )ergen are well ising out of a to a league resembling the he shore in pa- )6curily in th^ ie exact reaem^ l0ur exceeding even the more imptive design [as checked by n instance of of Nature, is consisting of known by the name of ^e Three Crmons. They rest on the top of the ordinary mountains, each commen- cing with a square tabled or horizontal stratum of rock, on the top of which is another of similar form and height, but of a smaller area ; this is continued by a third, a fourth/ and bo on, dach succeeding stratum being less than the next below it, until it fo^rms a pyramid of steps, almost as tegular, to api pearance, as if worked by art I do not Jmow that the Three Crowns have ever been visited, or what may be their actual form ; but the appearance I have attempted to describe, is that which they exhibit at the distance of from five to ten leagues. In Plate 3. is a representation of these ilrteresti ing objects, «een at the distance of at least thirty miles.-'' ',^'-"-'> . -w.. .-.■ :::■..: .■•:.:\:;--i ■..^;j_ Many of the mountains of Spitz^beigeti are iimc^ cessible. The steepness of the ascent, and the loose* ness of the rocks, with the numerous lodgments of ice in the clefts or sides of the cliffs, constitute, ift many places, insurmountable obstacles. Bohie hills, indeed, may be climbed with tolerable safety^ but generally the attempt is ha^rdous. Mutens no- tices the necessity of marking every step with dhalk, as the adventurer climbs the riigged motititain, otherwise he will not know how to get ao'Wfi. In advancing, he obsearves, it seems easy enough to be done, but in descending, it is :^nd so difficult ai»d ! i Hi' li ny \ ilijlifl: 1;;: ^ f '^ ■riM , ; c f ;|, It 100 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. dangerous, that many have fallen and lost theii' lives in the attempt*. ' - When Batentz and Heemskcrke discovered Cherry Island, on their advance towartls the north, when they also discovered Spitzbei^en, some daring fellows among their sailors, who had been collecting birds' eggs, climbed a high steep mountain, Resem- bling those of Spitsbergen, where they unexpect- edly found themselves in a most perilous situation ; for, on turning to descend, the way by which they had advanced presented a dismal assemblage of pointed rocks, perpendicular precipices, and yawn- ing chaisms. The view of the danger of the de- scent struck them with terror. No relief, however, Goiild be afforded them, and they were obligied to make the attempt. They soon lost the track by which they had reached the* summit, and were bewildered among th6 rocks. At length, after a most anidous andpainliil exercise, in which they found it necessary to »lidte down the rock», while lying flat on their bodic-s, they reachtd the foot of the eliff in safety. Barentz, who had observed their conduct from the shore, gave them a sharp reproof for their rash te- merity'f. * Martgns' Voy^e, originully printed in tlie Putsch lan- guage, has ll^een translated into E^gUsh, and published in " An .Vccount of seyeral late Voyages and Discoveries to the South and North." Londtm, \6()^, 8vo. ' ' "■ ^ i '^ , , + 13c«chryving, &c. vol. iii; '" '" lEGIONS. SPITZBERGF.N.— ICEBElUiS. 101 md lost their A merchant of Holland, of the name of Kiin, who accompanied the first Dutch ship which sailed to the Spitzbergen whale-fishery, in the year 1612, undertook the dangerous achievement of climbing one of the principal mountains on Charles' Isladd. He made some progress in the bold attempt, but slipping his foot, he fell down the steep acclivity and broke his neck. , . , One of the most interesting appearances to be £)und in Spitzbergen, is the Iceberg. Tins term, written Ysberg by the Dutch, signifies ice-moun- tain. J speak not here of the islands of ice which are home to southern climates on the bosom of the ocean, but of those prodigious lodgments of ice whieh occur in tho valleys adjoining tlie coast of Spitsbergen and other l*olar countries, from which the floating icebergs seem to be derived. Where a chain of hills lies pamllcl to the line of the coast, and within a few miles distance of the sea-beach, having lateral ridges jutting towards the ^a, at in- tervals of a league or two, we have a most IJivour- able situation for tlie formation of icebergs. Such is precisely the nature of the . situation a little to the northward of Charles' Island, where the con- spicuous bodies of ice noticed by IVIartcns, Phipps and others, and known by the name of the Seven Iccbet'gs, occur. Each of these occupies a deep valley, opening towards the sea, fonned by hills of about 2000 feet elevation on the sides, and termjna- lOfc ACCOUNT b'r THE AHCnC KEGIOKS. ii't '• ' I ' « <: IrP •i' % .jplj. ted in the interior by the chain of mountains, of perhaps 3000 to 3300 feet in height, which follows the line of the coast. They are exactly of the n*. ture and appearance of glaciers ; they coininenec at the margin of the sea, where they frequently con- stitute a considerable precipice, and extend along the valley, which commonly rises with a gentle slope, until they are either terminated by the Brow of the mountain in the back-ground, or interrupted by a precipitous summit. Besides these icebergs, there are some, equally large, near the north-west angle of Spitzbergen, in King's Bay and in Cross Bay, and some of much greater magnitude near Foint-look-out, besides many others of various sizes, in the large sounds on the western side, and along the northern and eastern shores of this remarkable country. The Seven Icebergs are each, on an averiige, about a mile in length, and perhaps near 200 feet in height at the sea-edge ; but some of those to the southward are much greater. A little to the north- ward of Horn Sound, is the largest iceberg I have Been. It occupies eleven miles in length, of the sea-coast. The highest part of the precipitous front adjoining the sea is, by measurement, 403 feet, ^nd it extends backward toward the summit •of the mountain, to about font times that elevation. Its surface forms a beautiful inclined platie of isTRiOoth snow ; the edge is uneven and perpeodieu* ! « SPlT2B£llGi!:N.-^ICEB£JiGl>. JkOii lir. At the distance of fifteen miles, the front- edge, subtended an angle of ten minutes of a de- gree. Near the South Cape lies another iceberg, nearly as extensive as this. It occupies the space between two lateral ridges of hills, and reaches the very summit of the moimtain, in the back-ground* (r- li: to his shoulders, and might, but for the sudden ex- tension of liis amis, have been buried in the gulf. In the first ages of the Spitzbergen fishery, when the ships frequented tho bays and harbours, and sometimes moored close to the shore, many serious disasters were occasioned by the full of pieces of icebergs. An instance is recorded by Purchas in his " Pilgrimes." One of the Russia Compa- ny's ships, which was on the whalo-fishery in the year 1619» was driven on shore in Bell Sound, by ice setting in from the sea. The Captain, with most of his crew and boats, was absent at the time of the accident ; but on the first intelligence, caus- ed his boats to be hauled up on the ice, and proceed- ed on board to endeavour to get the ship off. After they had been using every endeavour for this pur- pose during about an hour, a main piece of an ad- joining ice*clifF came down, and almost overwhelm- ed the vessel and her crew in its ruins. The shock must have been tremendous. The ice which fell, struck the ship so high and so forcibly, that it carried away the fore-mast, " broke the main-mast," sprung the bowsprit, and flung the ship over with such violence, that a piece of ordnance was thrown overboard from under the half-deck ; and the Cap- tain and some of the crew were projected in the same way. The Captain, notwithstanding his im- minent danger, with fragments of ice flying in all directions, and the masts of the ship falling around ^,1; aEUIONKt the auddcn ex- ed in the gulf. I en fishery, when I harbours, and e, many serious till of pieces of 1 by PURCHAS Russia Compa- lo-fishcry in the Bell Sound, by Captain, with lent at the time clligcnco, caus- M 26, and proceed- ; ship off. After r for this pur- piece of an ad- ost overwhelm- The s ruins. The ice which orcibly, that it be main-mast," ihip over with !e was tlirown and the Cap- •jected in the ^nding his im- flying in all {ailing around SPIT^BEROKX. — FORMATION OP ICEBKRc;s. 107 him, escaped unhurt ; but tlie mate, and two more of the crew, were killed, and many others were wound- ed* Icebergs are probably formed of more solid ice than glaciers; but in every other respect they arc very similar. The ice of which they consist is, indeed, a little porous ; but considerable pieces are found of perfect transparency. Being wholly prol, iii. p. 734. ■if 'U i II I - r ■41. i:i;:1:::;i I II ill iH lit (' It \y i' 1 1, J,pflili (■ t '■ ': ih ■ * Ji; I', l«1 , ' is p.- ' i ; ■■ 1 - I,, ' 1 !' 1 ' ' ! 1 1 IL 'Mlii:; i'Cl- Nlil 108 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC BEG IONS. the sun break out and operate on the upper surface so as to dissolve it, the water which results runs into the porous mass, proj^ressively fills the cavi- ties, and being then exposed to an internal tempe- rature sufficiently low, freezes the whole into a solid body. Or if, when the ice has been cooled by a low temperature, a fog or sleet occur, it is frozen as it falls, and encrusts the body of the iceberg with an additional varnish of ice. Icebei^ are as permanent as the rocks on which they rest ; for though large portions may be fre- quently separated from the lower edge, or,, by large avalandies from the mountain summit, be hurled into the sea, yet the annual growth replenishes the loss, and, probably on the whole, produces a perpe.^ tual inci^ease. But the annual supply of ice is not ow)y added to the uppesrpart^ but also to the ptecir pitou^eiest facing the sea; whiefa addition beiing run into, or suspended over the ocean, admits of new fragments being detached^ and of the renewal of the ritreouis surface which it presents to the eye after each separation. In some places, indeed, where the sea is almost perpetually covered with ice, the berg ©r glacier makes its way to a great ex* tent iato the sea, until it reaches th(? depth in the water,; of several hundreds of feet ; and then being capable of large dismemberments, gives rise to the kind of > mountainous masses or ; icebergs, found afloat in such abundance in the sea to the westward REGIONS. 10 upper surface cli results ruBs r fills the cavi- intcnial tempe- lole into a solid sen cooled by a r, it is frozen as le iceberg with rocks on which US may be ire- ge, or., by large mit, be hurled replenishes the oduces a perpe^ ly of ice is not o to the precir addition being an» admits of f the renewal nts to the eye laces, indeed, covered vwith to a great ex* depth in the d then being es rise to the [bergs, found he westward SPlT;?BERGKN.-*SCENEIlY. 109 of Greenland. Thus, the extent of surface occupi- ed by each iceberg, is limited by the mountains on three sides, and by the sea, in a measure, on the fourth *, but as to its thickness, there seems no na- tural obstacle to its perpetual increase. Spitsbergen and its island^ with some other countries within the Arctic circle, exhibit a' kind of scenery which is altogether novel. The princi- pal objects which strike the eye, are innumerable mountainous peaks, ridges, precipices, or needles, rising itnmediately out of the sea, to m elevation of 3000 or 41000 feet, the colour of whichj at a mo- derate distance, appears to be blackish shades of brown, greeni grey and purple ; siiow or ice in striae or patches, occupying the various clefts and hollows in the sides of the hills, capping sorhe of the motin- t«in' summiti^, and filling with extended beds the most* considerable Valleys; and ice of the glacier ibrmf occurring at intervals all along the coasts in particular situations as already described, in prodi- gious accumulatioBs* The glistening or-vitiseous appearance of the iceberg precipices ; the purity* whiteness, and beauty of the sloping expanse/ form* ed < by tlieir ; snowy surfaces ; the gloomy shade pre* sentedby the adjoining or intcrnjiixed mcmntains and rocks, perpetually " covered' with a mourning veil of black lichens," with the sudden transitions into a robe of piu^est whitc^ where patches or beds I ii M 111 iii I « mm ill I 'f ^ m (*■ '*3, 'il ki.,t 110 ACCOUNT OP THE ARCTIC REGIONS. of snow occur, present a variety and extent of con- trast altogether peculiar ; which, when enlightened by the occasional ethereal brilliancy of the Polar sky, and harmonized in its serenity with the calmness of the ocean, constitute a picture both novel and magnificent. There is, indeed, a kind of majesty, not to be conveyed in words, in these «xtraordinary accumulations of snow and ice in the valleys, and in the rocks above rocks, and peaks above peaks, in the mountain groups, seen rising above the ordi- nary elevation of the clouds, and temninating occa- sionally in crests of everlasting snow, especially when you approach the shore under shelter of the impenetrable density of a summer fc^ ; in which «ase the fog sometimes disperses like the drawing of a curtain, when the strong contrast of light and shade, heightened by a eloudless atmosphere and powerM sun, bursts on the senses in a brilliant exhibition, resembling the poroduction of magic. To this strong contrast of light and shade, with 4he great height and steepness of the mountains^is io be: attributed a temarkable deception in the ap- parent distance oS the land. Any strange9*s to the Arctic countries, however well acquainted with oUier regions* and however capable of judging of the dis- tance «f land g^iierally, must be completely at a horn m their estimations when they approach within sight 4o£ Spkzbergen. When at tiie distance of twenty «aiks, it would be no difHcult matter to induce even LEGIONS. 8PIT2!B£RO£N. in extent of con- len enlightened f the Polar sky, 1 the calmness }oth novel and :ind of majesty, e extraordinary lie valleys, and ahove peaks, in above the ordi- tTninating occa- now, ei^ecially r shelter of the fc^; in which ke the drawing ,8t of light and itmosphere and in a brilliant of magic. |nd shade, with mountains, is ion in the ap- rangea^ to ihe ted with other of the dis- etelyatak>86 within sight ee of twienty induce even a judicious stranger to undertake a passage in a boat to the shore, from tlte belief that he was within a league of the land. At this dit^tance, the portions of rock and patches of snow, as well as the contour of the different hills, are as distinctly marked, as simi- lar objects, in many other, countries, not having snow about them, would be at a fourth or a fifth part of the same distance. Not, indeed, strangers only, but persons who have been often to Spitzbergen, such as the officers and seamen of the whale-ships, have not unfrequently imagined, that their ship could not stand an hour towards the land without riimning aground; and yet, perhaps, the ship has sailed three or four hours directly " in shore," a^ d still been t-emote fromidasiger. This is a fact which I have seen realissed among my own officers repeat- etUy. There are circumstances, indeed, when, by a slight change in the density of the atmosphere, a ship, after sailing towards the land for some hours, may appear to be as far off as at fet. Thus, in elear weather, the high land of Spitabergen is per- fectly well defined^ and every thing on it a^^ars distinct, when at the distance of forty miles. If, after saiUng fire hours towards the shore, from this situation, at the rate of four or five knots jp(?r hour, the atmosphere should^^become alittle haiy,or even only dark and cloudy, the land might appear to be liirther distant than before. Hence we caft account, OB a reasonable ground, for a curious circumstance 1 In ' * -75,1 112 ACCOUNT OF THE AKCTlC REGIONS'. ■ i^iii related in a Danish \oyage, undertaken for the re^ eovery of the last colony in Greenland, by Mogens Heinson. This person, who passed for a renowned seaman in his day, was sent out by Frederick II. King of Denmark. After encountering many dif- ficulties and dangers from storms and ice, he got sight of the east coast of Greenland, and attempted to get to it ; but though the sea was quite free from ice, and the wind favourable, and blowing a fresh gale, he, after proceeding several hours with- out appearing to get any nearer the land, became alarmed, tacked about, and returned to Denmark. On his arrival, he attributed this extraordinary cir- cumstance, magnified, no doubt, by his fears, to his vessel having been stopped in its course by " some loadstone rocks hidden in the sea." Most authors who have had occasion to refer to Heinson's voyage, have speculated on this circumstance ; but no one, I believe, has satisfactorily explained the origin of his fears. The true cause, however, of what he took to be a submarine magnetic influence, arose, I doubt not, from the deceptive character of the land as to distance, which I have attempted to describe. From this character of Spitzbergen, there is lit- tle probability of strangers getting to^ near the shore, or running into danger ; for even in hazy or snowy weather, the effulgence of the land penetrates the density of the atmosphere, to several times the extent to which other objects are >isible ; and even lis Hi i:i lEGIONS. SPITZBERGEN. 113 veil for the re^ id, by Mogens br a renowned Frederick II. •iug many dif- nd ice, he got »id attempted tvas quite free and blowing a al hours with- laftd, became I to Denmark. raordinary cir- ds fears, to his rse by " some Most authors iison's voyage, but no one, the origin of of what he lence, arose, I ;r of the land to describe. there is lit- oj near the n in hazy or d penetrates al times the le ; and even m fogs, the tops of the mountains frequently appear above the region occupied by the densest stratum of mist, and warn the navigator of his advance into danger. The same deception in the distance of terrestrial objects, and, consequently, in their real magnitude, prevails when a person is on shore, as when he views them from a station at sea. Whenever a little table land is found between the beach and the foot of the mountains, the distance across it will seldom appear above a furlong or two, though it actually should be nearly a league. Martens alluding to this deception, says, " The miles in Spitzbergen seem to be very short ; but when you attempt to walk them upon the land, you will soon be weary, and unde- ceived*" . . Spitzbergen abounds with dedp bays and exten- sive sounds, in many of which are excellent har- bours. Instead of describing the situation and ex- tent of each of these bays and sounds, which may be known by inspection of the accompanying map*, or by reference to the table of latitudes and longi- tudes in the Appendix, No. IV., I shall only no- VOL; I. H * In the map of Spitzbergen, an extent of coast of above 200 miles, included between Point-look-out and Hackluyt's Headland, i;i laid down from an original survey. In several particular situations I found an error of 10 miles of latitude and 2 or 3 degrees of longitude, in our most approved charts. 114i ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. 111 n mm Mb i ii kt ,1 i|; ,;^: .;W!;W.; M VrJ' W(. tice such of the haihours, or other particular paxt» of the coast, as have been visited by myself or de- scribed by others. From Point-look-out to Hackluyfs Headland» the west coast of Spitzbergen forms almost a series of rocks i»nd foul ground ; few parts, excepting the bays, affording anchorage for ships. In many places the rocks run off shore, to the distance of two or three miles, or even as many leagues, especially be- tween Point-look-out and Horn Sound, and between the latter and Bell Sound ; also near Black Point on the Foreland, as well as near some of the projections of this island ; at Mitre Cape on the main, and near one of the Seven Icebergs, &c. Some of these rock& are dangerous to shipping, drying only at low water, or only showing themselves when the sea is high ; others are constantly above water, or altogether so fkr below the surface, that they can either hi seen and avoided, or sailed over in moderate weather without much hazard. On the east-side of Point- look-out, a ridge of stony ground stretches five leagues into the sea towards the south-east, on which the sea occasionally breaks. Horn Sound affords tolerable anchorage ; within Bell Sound are several anchoring places and some rivers; and in Ice-Sound, at Green-Harbour, is good anchorage near the bank, in ten to eight fa- thoms water, or less. In several other places, when not encumbered with ice, there is pretty good •''«! '».>t»il of walking ; for in this attempt the ground gave w.iy at every step, and no progress was made : hence tlio only mcthotl of succeeding was by the effort of leap- ing or running, which, under the peculiar ciraun- stances, could not be accomplished without excessive fatigue. In the direction we travelled, we met with angular fragments of limestone and quartz, chiefly of one or two pounds weight, and a few naked rockH protruding through the loose materials of which the side of the mountain, to the extent it was visible, was principally composed. These rocks appeared solid at a little distance, but on examination were found to be full of fractures in every direction, so that it was with difficulty that a specimen of five or six pounds weight, in a solid mass, could be ob- tained. Along the side of the first range of hills near the summit, was extended a band of ice and snow, which, in the direct ascent, we tried in vain to surmount. By great exertion, however, in tra- cing the side of the hill for about 200 yards, where it was so uncommonly steep that at every step showers of stones were precipitated to the bottom, we found a sort of angle of the hill free from ice, by which the summit was scaled. Here we rested until I took a few angles and bearings of the most prominent parts of the coast ; when, having collected specimens of the minerals, and such few plants as the barren ridge afforded, we proceeded on our excursion. In our way to the 122 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. ( ■' ^1^ !■ :3;.ni!! I It (ill 2 ji :• ? iii ijfji i^^ : ■"If t principal mountain near us, vk passed along a ridge of the secondary mountains, which was so acute that I sat across it with a leg on each side, as on horse- back. One side of it made an angle with the ho- rizon of 50°, and the other of 40°. To the very top, it consisted of loose sharp limestones, of a yel- lowish or reddish colour, smaller in size than the stones generally used for repairing high roads, few pieces being above a pound in weight. The frac- ture appeared rather fresh. After passing along this ridge about three or four furlongs, and crossing a lodgment of ice and snow, we descended by a sort of ravine to the side of the principal mountain, which arose with a uniformly steep ascent, similar to that we had already surmounted, to the very summit. The ascent was now even more difficult than before: we could make no considerable pro- gress but by the exertion of leaping and running ; so that we were obliged to rest after every fifty or sixty paces. No solid rock was met with, and no earth or soil. The stones, however, were larger; appeared more decayed ; and were more uniformly covered with black lichens ; but several plants of the saxifraga, salix, draba, cochlearia, and juncus gene- ra, which had been met with here and there for the first two thousand feet of elevation, began to disap- pear as we approached the summit. The invariably broken state of the rocks appeared to have been the effect of frost. Gn calcareous rocks, some of which I REGIONS. SPITZBERGEN.— EXCURSION ON SHORE. 123 art not impervious to moisture, the effect is such as might be expected ; but how frost can operate in this way on quartz, is not so easily understood. As we completed the arduous ascent, the sun had just reached the meridian below the Pole, and Still shed his reviving^ rays of unimpaired brilliancy on a small surface of snow which capped the moun- tain's summit. A thermometer placed among stones in the shade of the brow of the hill, indicated a temperature as high as 37°. At the top of the first hill) the temperature was 42° ; and at the foot, on the plain, 44° to 46° : so that, at the very peak of the mountain, estimated at 3000 feet elevation, the power of the sun, at midnight, produced a tempera- ture several degrees above the freezing point, and occasioned the discharge of streams of water from the snow-capped summit. It may appear a little remarkable, that an effect of cold, amounting to perpetual frost, that is ob- served in eUvated situations, in temperate, and even in hot climates, does not occur on the tops of consi* derable mountains in Spitzbergen : and it is really extraordinary, that inferior mountains, such as Ben Nevis, in Scotland, the elevation of which is only about 4380 feet* should sometimes exhibit a crest of snow throughout the year; while, in Spitzbergen, where the mean annual temperature is about 30° lower than in Scotland, and the mountains little inferior in elevation, the snow should sometimes be wholly ;l ^!f n nm 124 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. (I I'' ft II liisi Ji: !^ i i'^ r I dissolved, at the most considerable heights. The higher Alps, excepting what is absolutely perpendi- cular, remain constantly covered with snow ; and perhaps no instance of a thawing temperature ever occurs on any of the most elevated summits. But, in Spitzbergen, the frost relaxes in the months of July and August, and a thawing temperature pre- vails for considerable intervals on the greatest heights which have been visited. INIartens ob- serves, that in some of the countries of Europe, when rain falls in the valleys, snow descends upon the mountains, even in the height of summer ; but that in Spitzbergen, rain falls on the tops of the highest hills. As the capacity of air for heat increases as its density decreases, and that in such a degree that about every ninety yards of elevation in the lower atmosphere produces a depression of one degree of temperature of Fahrenheit, we find that the eleva- tion of some of the Alps, Pyrenees, and mountains of Nepaul, in the temperate zone, and of the Andes and others in the torrid zone, is such, that their summits are above the level where a temj)erature of thawing can at any time prevail ; and though, by the application of this principle to the mountains of Spitzbergen, we find that a thawing temperature may be occasionally expected ; yet we do not see how the prevalence of a thaw should be so continual as REGIONS. iicreases as its SPITZBERGEN. — EXCURSION ON SHORE. 125 to disperse the winter's coat of snow, where the mean temperature of the hottest month in the year must, on a mountain of 1500 feet elevation or up- ward, probably be below the freezing point *. Per- haps the difficulty is to be thus resolved : The weather in the months of June, July and August, is much clearer at Spitzbergen than it is near the neighbouring ice, where most of my observations on temperature were made ; and, as such, the tempe- rature of these months on shore must be warmer than at sea, and so much higher indeed, as is re- quisite for occasioning the dissolution of the snow even on the tops of the mountains. And this is no doubt the fact ; for, besides the increase of tempera- ture produced by the prevalent clearness of the at- mosphere, we may bring into the account the cir- cumstance that, from the steepness of the hills, the sun is always actually vertical, to one surface or other * The mean temperature of July in the Greenland sea, latitude 78", as determined from a considerable series of ob- servations (Appendix, No. II.), is no higher than 37"; and of August about 2 degrees less ; as such, the mean temperature of July on a hill 500 yards high, must be below the freezing point : For 500 yards divided by 90 yards, the elevation re- quisite for producing 1 degree depression of temperature, give a product of 5^®, which, subtracted from 37*, the tempera- ture at the level of the sea, leaves 31 ^<', as the mean tem- perature at the top of the hill. k '< 126 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONf. I 1 i i ■I n m f"'['& Nil of the mountainous coast, throughout its daily course. The ]iigliest temperature I ever observed in Spitzbergen was 48" ; but in the summer of 1773, when Captain Phipps visited Spitzbergen, a tem- perature of 58^' once occurred *. Supposing this to be the greatest degree of heat which takes place, it will require an elevation of 7791 feet for redu- cing that temperature to tlic freezing point ; and hence we may reckon this to be about the altitude of the upper line of congelation, where frost perpe- tually prevails f. The form of the mountain-sumr^it whidi I vi- sited, is round-backed ; the area of the part ap- proaching the horizontal position not being above a quarter of an acre. The south side where we ascended, and the south-east, are the only accessible parts ; the east, north and w{;st aspects being pre- cipitous nearly from top to bottom. What snow still remained on the summits was but a f^w inches deep^ and appealed to be in a state of rapid disso^ lution ; the sides of the hill were almost entkely free from snow. The masses of stone on the brow • Voyage towaids the North Pole, p, 46. t See Profesisor L'^slie's Geometry, 2rf edition> Table, p. 496. ■ ■-'■■'■'■>■ ^ ' '-■> REQI0N9. SPITZBEEGEN. — EXCURSION ON IIHORE. 127 edition> Table, of the mountain were larger than any we had yet met with, the fracture was less fresh, and they were more generally covered with lichens. From the hrow of the mountain, on the side by which we ascended, many masses of stone were dis- lodged by design or accident, which, whatever might be their size, shape or weight, generally made their way with accelerated velocity to the bottom. A» they bounded from rock to rock, they produced con* siderable smoke at each concussion, and setting in motion numerous fragments in their coiurse, they were usually accompanied by showers of stones, all of which were lodged in a bed of snow, lying 2000 feet below the place where the first were disengaged. This may afford some idea of the nature of the incli- nation. Most of the larger stones which were set off, broke into numbers of pieces ; but some consideri- able masses of a tabular form, wheeled down upon their edges, and though they made bounds of several hundred feet at a time, and acquired a most asto- nishing velocity, they sometimes got to the bottom without breaking. The prospect was most extensive and grand. A fine sheltered bay was seen on the east of us, an arm of the same on the north-east, and the sea, whose glassy surface was unruffled by a breeze, form^ an immense expanse on the west ; the ice- bergs rearing their proud crests almost to the tops of the mountains between which they were lodged^, 1^8 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIOKS. nnd. defying the power of the solar beams, were scattered in various directions about the sea-coast and in the adjoining bays. Beds of snow and ice filling extensive hollows, and giving an enamelled coat to adjoining valleys, one of which, commencing at the foot of the mountain where we stood, extend- ed in a continued line towards the north, as far as the eye could reach ; mountain rising above moun" tain, until by distance they dwindled into insigni- ficancy ; the whole contrasted by a cloudless canopy of deepest azure, and enlightened by the rays of a blazing sun, and the effect aided by a feeling of danger, seated as we were on the pinnacle of a rock* almost surrounded by tremendous precipices, — ►all united to constitute a picture singularly sublime. Here we seemed elevated into the very heavens ; and though in an hazardous situation, I was sensible only of pleasing emotions, heightened by the persuasion, that, from experience in these kind of adventures, I was superior to the dangers with which I was sur- rounded. The effect of the elevation, and the brightness of the picture, were such, that the sea, which was at least a league from us, appeared with- in reach of a musket shot; mountains a dozen miles off, seemed scarcely a league from us; and our vessel which we knew was at the distance of a league from the shore, appeared in danger of the rocks. * ■ If \ 'i\ lEGIOKS. SPrTZBERGEN. — EXCURSIOX ON SHORE. 129 After a short rest, in which we were much re- freshed with a gentle hrecze of wind that here prevailed ; and after we had surveyed the surround- ing scenery as long as it afforded any thing striking, we commenced the descent. This task, however, which, before the attempt, we had viewed with in- difference, we fov^. really a very hazardous, and in some instances a painful undertaking. The way now seemed precipitous. Every movement was a work of deliberation. The stones were so sharp that they cut our boots and pained our feet, and so loose that they gave way almost at every step, and frequently threw us backward with force against the hill. We were careful to advance abreast of each other, for any individual being below us would have been in danger of being overwhelmed with the «,tones, which we unintentionally dislodged in showers. Having by much care, and with some anxiety, made good our descent to the top of the secondary hills, to save the fatigue of crawling along the sharp ridge that we had before traversed, we took down one of the steepest banks, the inclina- tion of which was little less than fifty degrees. The stones here being very small and loose, we sat down on the side of the hill, and slid forward with great facility in a sitting posture. Towards the foot of the hill, an expanse of snow stretched across the line of descent. This being loose and soft, we entered upon it without fear, and oiur progress at voi,. T. I 130 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC BF.GION& l.il ■ tm first was by no means rapid ; but on reaching the middle of it, we came to a surface of solid ice, perhaps a hundred yards across, over which we launched with astonishing velocity, but happily escaped without injury. The men whom we left below, viewed this latter movement with astonish- ment and fear. On the flat of land next the sea, we met with the horns of rcin>deer, many skulls and other bones of sea-horses, whales, uarwhales, foxes and seal&, and some human skeletons laid in ehcst-like coffins, exposed naked on the strand. Two Russian lodges formed of logs of pine, with a third in ruins, were also seen ; the former, from a quantity of fresh chips about them, and other appearances within them, gave evidence of their having been recently inhabited. One of them, though small, seemed a middling kind of lodging, but smelt intolerably of the smoke of wood and steam of oil. 3Iany do- mestic utensils were within and about it. A new hurdle lay by the door, and traps for foxes and birds were scattered along the beach. These huts were built upon the ridge of shingle adjoining the sea. Among the shingle on the beach, were numbers of nests„ containing the eggs of terns, ducks, and burgomasters, and in some of them were young birds. One of the latter, which we took on board, was wry lively, and grew rapidly ; but having taken a k:i: EGIONS. Sl'ITZBERGEN. — E:JCCUIlSION ON SHORE. 131 n reaching the i of solid ice» iver which we ^ but happily whom we left ; with astonish* , we met with md other bones )xes and seal&, iiest-like coffins, Russian lodges in ruins, were antity of fresh sarances within r been recently mall, seemed a intolerably of il. Many do- lut it. A new for foxes and These huts adjoining the Iwere numbers IS, ducks, and le young birds, m board, was iving taken a fancy to a cake of white lead, with which the sur- geon was finishing a drawing, he was poisoned. The nests were all watched by the respective birds they belonged to ; which, with loud screams and bold attacks, defended them from the arctic gulls and other predatory birds that hovered about the place. They even descended within a yard or two of some of the sailors, who were so cruel as to take their eggs or young, and followed them for a considerable time, screaming most violently. Several of these eggs were afterwards hatched in warm saw-dust, but the young birds generally died soon after they left the shell. The only insect I saw was a small green fly, which swarmed upon the shingle about the beach. The sea along the coast teemed with a species of helix, with the clio borealis, and with small shrimps. But no animal of the class Vermes was seen on the shore. The birds seen were the puffin, tern, little auk, guillemot, black guillemot or tyste, kittiwake, fulmar, burgomaster, arctic gull, brent-goose, eider- duck, crimson-headed sparrow (Fringilla flammea), sandpiper, &c. ; but no living quadruped was ob- served. Drift-wood was seen in some abundance ; but all of it seemed to have lain long on the beach, being much battered and bleached, and some of it was worm-eaten. A strong north-west wind having recently pre- vailed, the shore was in many places covered with i2 l!* Ti 132 ACCOUNT OF THE AUCTIC REGIONS. ^"M im ik deep beds of sea-weed. Among these we distin- guished the Fucus vesiculosus, esculentus, saccbari- nus, filum, phimosus, sinuosus, clavcllosus, &c. and some species of Conferva. Of all the objects, however, that we met with in the course of our research, none excited so much interest as the carcase of a dead whale, found strand- ed on the beach ; which, though much swollen, and not a little putrid, at once fixed our attention, and diverted us from objects of mere curiosity. It proved a prize to us of the value of about 400 /., but was not secured without much labour. Being embedded in the shingle, and surrounded by rocks, we found it would be impossible to float it off; we were, therefore, imder the necessity of flensing it where it lay, and of taking its produce to the ship in boats. After the first incision was made into its side, oil sprung out in streams, and required the attention of several persons to collect it and put it into the boats. From the dangerous nature of the coast, we were unable to bring the ship within two miles of the shore ; our progress was, in consequence, uncommon- ly slow. The blubber and oil were put into casks as received on board. After we had secured the lading of five boats, the weather, which had hitherto been fine and calm, suddenly changed. The sky became overcast, rain-clouds appeared, and a fresh gale of wind with heavy rain, succeeded. The sixth boat had mucli difficulty in reaching the ship. By the hii EGIONS. SPITZBEROEN. — EXCUBSION ON SHORE. 133 lese we clistiii- ientus, saccbari- cUosiis, &c. and it wc met with sxcited so much le, found strand- ich swollen, and attention, and osity. It proved )0 /., but was not i\g embedded in ks, we found it e were, therefore, here it lay, and in boats. After side, oil sprung intion of several into the boats, coast, we were wo miles of the nee, uncommon- lut into casks as jured the lading hitherto been 'he sky became |a fresh gale of 'he sixth boat ship. By the time its lading was discharged, the sea had become high, and the ship had drifted some miles from the place where nearly one-half of the crew were on shore. We were six hours before wc could beat up to this station, when, having stoo:l!' ' iii i i ^ i 'i Jill. jM not averaging more than 34>h degrees, it is then sub- ject to ii cold occasioually of three, four, or more degrees below the freezing point. It has the ad- vantage, however, of being visited by the sun for an uninterrupted period of four months in each year, thus having a Summer's Day, if so long an in- terval between the rising and setting of the sun may be so denominated, consisting of one-third part of the year, liut its winter is proportionally desolate ; the sun, in the northern parts of the country, re- maining perpetually below the horizon tiom about the 22d of October to about the 22d of Februar}'. This great Winter Night, though sufficiently dreary, is by no means so dark as might be expected, as the sun, even during its greatest south declination, aj)- proaches witliin 13^° of the horizon, and affords a faint twilight for about one-fourth part of e\ery twenty -four hours. Added to this twilight, tlie au- rora borealis, which sometimes exhibits a brilliancy approaching to a blaze of fire, — the stars, which shine with an vm common degree of brightness, — and the moon, which, in north declination, appears for twelve or jfourteen day^ together without setting, — altoge- ther have an effect which, when heightened by the re- flection of a constant surface of snow, generally give sufficient light for going abroad; — ^but, with the light afforded by the heavens, when the moon is below the horizon, it is seldom possible to read. All that is known respecting the climate of Spitz- bcrgen, or nearly so, is derived from the three or GIONS. SPITSBERGEN. — CLIMATE. 13/ it is then sub- four, or more ; has the ad- •f the sun for mths in each so long an in- »f the sun may j-third part of lally desolate ; ; country, re- n fiom about L of Februar}'. ciently drear)', qjected, as tlie jclination, ap- ,- and affords part Oi e\'er} iliglit, the au- s a brilliancy '8, which shine ess, — ami the ars for twelve ing, — altoge- |ned by the re- enerally give ith the light oon is below lateofSpitz- the three or four published jbunials of persons having wintered by accident or design in this desolate region, togc- tlier with the interesting information already allu- ded to, received by Colonel Beaufoy from those Rus- sian adventurers, who not unfrcquently resort hi- ther and remain throughout the winter, for the purposes of hunting and fishing. From these sources of information, I am enabled to give the following sketch of the progress of the seasons. It is, how- ever, designedly brief, as the climate of tlie arctip seas in general, which is very similar, forms a sub- sequent chapter of this volume. After tlie sun passes the equinox, the approach* es of winter, in the Polar countries, become very rapid. This gloomy season commonly sets in at tlie latter end of September or beginning of Octo- ber, with winds from the N., N. N. W., or N. \^^ ; or with calms, hard frost, and snow^', 15y tlie end of September or the beginning of October, all the birds which are' only summer visitors to Spitzbergen, com- mence their flight towards milder regions; and by tlie middle of the latter month, the frost has, in some instances, been so Intense, that casks of beer have been frozen in a hut, within eight feet of the fire- In November, the sun having disappeared, the frosts rapidly increase, both in frequency and intensity ; but throughout the year, when strong southerly ■ 1 * Col. Beaufoy's Queries, Nos?, 2. & uo. 13$ ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. In: I. I . ; ' ■■': I 'I , ? ,>t'li!i: M ! /I r winds occur, they are generally accompanied with mild weather, and sometimes with thaw. About December and January, hard frosts with calm wea- ther are common, but seldom a month passes with- out storms ; storms, indeed, are so frequent, that two-thirds of the winter may be said to be boister- ous * The highest winds occur about the time of the equinoxes, and blow most frequently from the southern quarter. Snow storms are common, often continuing for several days, and, perhaps, once or twice a year, for some weeks together f . Hence, a great quantity of snow falls during the winter, which accumulates principally in sheltered glews ; but on level ground, it seldom lies above three to five feet deep. Bears seem to be tiic oiily quadrupeds which stir abroad throughout the winter; for, though foxes and rein-deer remain constantly in the country, they are only to be met with, in any quantity, at certain seasons. Foxes begin to appear in the month of February, and arc to be seen in March in great numbers. Bears, at the same time, become more abundant, and the birds re-appear in the month of April. The first human beings who are known to have passed the winter in Spitzbergen, were two parties of seamen belonging to English whalers, who were tm Beaufoy's Queries, No. 4. t Idem, No. 26. 11? tEGIOXS. BPITZBERGEN. — MEN WINTEIIING. 139 jompanied with thaw. About with calm wea- th passes with- frequent, that d to be boister- )ut the time of icntly from the common, often erhaps, once or her f . Hence, ng the winter, heltered glens; I above three to peds which stir , though foxes le country, they tity, at certain L the month of arch in great become more the month of Lnown to have [re two parties 2rs, who were Idem, No. 2(5. 1 ieft on shore by accident on two different occasions ; the first party, consisting of nine persons, all perish- ed ; but the latter, composed of eight individuals, survived the rigours of the winter of 1630-1, and wer . all rescued. In the year 1633, seven volun- teers belonging the Dutch fleet, were induced, by certain emoluments, to attempt the same entcrprize, and succeeded in passing the winter without sus- taining any injury; but on the same hazardous experiment being tried by seven other persons, the following winter, they all fell a sacrifice to the ra- vages of the scurvy. Some Russians seem to have been the next to attempt this adventurous exploit, who, from being inured to a winter little less severe at home, were enabled to accomplish it with more safety. Four men who landed on an island on the cast side of Spitzbcrgcn, in the year 1743, and were deprived of the means of getting away by an unexpected calamity having overtaken the vessel to which they belonged, remained there during six years. Being exposed to uncommon privations, they were led by their necessities to adopt some most ingenious devices, for provid- ing themselves with food and raiment, in their long and severe banishment. One of their number died ; but the others were relieved after a stay of six years and three months, by a vessel providenti- ally driven upon the coast, and restored to their uo ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. ^fm\ friends, euiiclied with skins and other produce of the country, in which they had heen exiled. In modern times, people of the same nation have been in the habit of submitting to a voluntary transportation, with the object of making some con- siderable advantage, by the opportunities which such a measure affords them, of hunting and fishing. These persons were formerly employed in the ser- vice of the " White Sea Fishing Company ;" but this company being now ^ longer in existence, the trade is conducted by private adventurers*'. They now proceed from Megen, Archangel, Onega, Rala, and other places bordering the White Sea, in ves- sels of 6*0 to 160 tons, some intended for the sum- mer fishing, and others for the winter. The former put to sea in the beginning of June, and sometimes return in September ; the latter sail about a month later, and wintering in the most secure coves of Devil l^ay ? Bell Sound, Horn Sound, Cross Bay, Magdalena Bay, Love Bay, and others, return home in the month of August or September of the following yearf . The fishermen reside on shore during the winter, in huts of the same kind as those used by the peas- * From a communication in answer to queries sent to Arch- angel by myself, in the year 1815, through Mr Edward Stew- ard of Whitby. t Co). Beaufoy's Queries, No. 1. EGIONS. SPITSBERGEN. — RUSSIAN HUNTERS. 141 ants in Russia, which being taken out with them in pieces, are constructed with little trouble in the most convenient situations. They build their stoves with bricks, or with clay found in the country. Their largest hut, which is erected near the place where their vessels or boats are laid up, is from twenty to twenty-five feet square, and is Used as a station and magazine ; but the huts used by the men who go in quest of skins, and which are erect- ed along shore, at the distance of ten to fifty versts from each other, are only seven or eight feet square. The smaller huts are usually occupied by two or three men, who take care to provide themselves, from the store, with the necessary provisions for serving them the whole winter *. I have visited several of these huts, some con- structed of logs, others of deals two inches in thick- ness. The one constituting the most comfortable lodging I have seen, I met with on the north-west point of the Foreland, in the year 1809. It was built of logs of half round timber, (the original trees being slit up the middle) ; the round sides were put outward, and the ends of the timbers forming two adjoining sides stretched beyond the corner, and be- ing notched half way into each other, formed a close joint. The logs were placed horizontally, and were built into a rectangular form, about fourteen feet " Col. Beaufoy's Queries, No. 10- I \W' rl l!^ ' '."I i I 'i'(.'f,., :,i '■ '■" d h.s] 142 ACCOUNT or THE ARCTIC REGIONS^ long, ten broad and six high. The seams were caulked with moss. Near the ground were twa windows, of six panes of glass each, one on the east side and the other on tlic south. The roof, which was flat, was formed t)f deals, and loaded with stones. A barrel without ends composed the chimney. Tof the north end of the building was attached a small square court, open at the top, having a door-way on the east side of it, communicating with, and afford^ ing some ..helter to, the door of the hut. In the outer court were two casks of about 100 gallons ca- pacity each, which were found to be filled with meal. Several tubs lay near the casks, and a quan- tity of pease. In the interior of the hut we found a variety of domestic utensils, consisting of platters, a stool, an earthen pot, horn-spoons, a tomahawk, a boat-hook, a spear, and several small wax-tapers, with a variety of trifling articles. On a wooden bench fix- ed against, the west side of the apartment, were ranged in order with pendant necks, at least twenty ducks, with a number of eggs about them; they were all in a state of putrefaction. From these ap- pearances, I judged this hut had been occupied by some Russian hunters, who, from the quantity of provisions left behind, seemed to have either perish- ed prematurely, or had some intention of returning. Lest the latter should happen to be the case, I caused the meal casks to be secured from the wea- ther, and forbid the sailors from removing any artr- SPTTZBEKGEN. — RUSSIAX HUXTEHS. 143 cle of value. I only took with me the wax-tapers, which appeared to have been intended for religious purposes. During the stay of the hunters, they employ themselves in killing seals, sea-horses, &c. in the water ; and bears, foxes, deer, or whatever else they meet with, on land. They are furnished with pro- visions for eighteen months by their employers, consisting of rye-flour for bread, oatmeal, barley- meal, pease, salt beef, salt cod, and salt holibut, together with curdled milk, honey, and linseed oil ; besides which, they procure for themselves lion- deer in winter, and birds in summer, the use of which is found to be very conducive to health. Their drink chiefly consists of a liquor called nuas^ made from rye-flour and water; malt or spiritous liquors being encirely forbidden, to prevent drunken- ness, as these persons, when they were allowed it, drank so immoderately that their work was often al- together neglected. For general purposes, they use spring-water, when it is to be had ; or, in lieu of it, take water from lakes : but when neither can be got, they use melted snow *. Their fuel, consisting of wood, is brought with them from Russia, and landed at their station-hut, from whence it is conveyed by water, in boats, or by land in small hand^sledges, to the diiferent hutj* Beaufoy's Queries, No^. 12, IS, 18. ■H'y If" 114 ACCOUS'T OF TliE AKCTIC REGIONS. 11 i '■' m m \pfm m Ill !tii|i "■': i disposed along the coast. Drift-wood is often met with, and used for the same purpose. The hunters defend themselves from the rigour of the frost, by a covering made of skin, over which they wear a gar- ihent called kusky, made of the skin of rein-deer, with boots of the same. A warm cap called a tniechiji defends the whole head and neck, and part of the face ; and gloves of sheep-skin, the hands. They seldom travel far in winter; but the short excursioniSi they have occasion to make, they per- form on foot, on snow skaits, and draw their food after them on hand-sledges ; but such as have dogs, employ them in this service. If surprised with a gale of wind, accompanied by snow drifts, when out of shelter, the traveller is obliged to lie down, cover* ing himself with his kushy and his sledge, as well as he is able, until the hurricane is over ; but when it continues for any length of time, the poor wretch often perislies*. Inured to cold, as these hunters are, they seldom suffer much from its effects. And they are never prevented by cold from going abroad, thdugh the accumulation of snow about their huts, and the ftiiy of storms, sometimes confine them- to their dwell- ings. They make a point of taking exercise in the air, for the prevention of tlie scurvy ; so that wfhen they cannot with safety or convenience-walk about, they exercise themselves by throwing the gaow off •» II, ii I . * Col. Beaufoy's Queries, Nos. 11, 14, 15, l6, 17, & 21. SFlTl^CRGfEN. — RUSSIAN HUNGERS. 14^ and from around their huts, which, in stormy weather, arc often buried. In such cases, they are obliged to make their way through the chimney to get out. As an antiscorbutic, they make use of an herb produced in the country, a stock of which they generally provide themselves with on the approach of winter ; but sometimes they are under the neces- sity of digging through the snow to obtain it. They either eat it without any preparation, or drink the liquor prepared from it by infusion in water. For the same purpose, they make use of a kind of rasp- berry, which is preserved by baking with rye-flour :; this they eat, or drink the expressed juice of the fruit. A decoction of fir-tops, in water, is another beverage intended as an autidcte against the scur< vy *.. . ,. , .'■ ... •.■...'',•: . ' These men, however, hardy as they aure, do not always escape the bane of these regions, the scurvy. Perhaps their hardihood in stopping, so long a» three years in Spitzbergen, which some of them have been knowu^ to do, might give a predisposition for this disease, and render it more fatal.- In tlie year 1771i Mr Steward of Whitby, formerly a Greenland captain, landed on a projection of low table land, forming the south-westerly point o^ King's Bay, for the purpose of procuring drift wood * fieftUfoy's Queries, Nos. 8, & 9. VOL. I. :«'i-=l 146 ACCOUNT OV THE ARCTIC KKOIONS. i t; I W0l E '■ i m 'M ' i':»Ji !>■ 11. > ^tiit for fuel ; — a practice very common among the Lon- don fislicnnen, at this period, who often sailed with a very scanty stock of coals on hoard. Here the first wintering of the Russians, to the northward of the Forelaiiu, had heen attempted, their jfirst hut having heen huilt the preceding year. This hut having heen seen hy the party in search of wood, on their first landing, motives of curiosity led them to examine it. They hollowed as they approached it ; but no one appeared. The door be- ing defended by a small open court,, one of the par- ty entered it • and, applying his eye to the hole for the latch, observed a man extended on the floor, at he thought, sleeping. Receiving no answer to tiiei* shouts, they at length opened the door, and found the man a corpse. His cheek, whkh was laid on the ground, was covered with a green concretion of mould; and his covering, besides his clothes^ was only a Russian mat^ Several jaekets, and other articles of clothing, were seen on & bench, on \thich the inmates appieared to have sl^pt; but no other individual, living or dead» wa8 observed. It was supposed, that his tompanions had shai'ed the same fate, and had been buried by him, who, as the last survivor, had no one to perform the same kindly of- fice on himself. The yawl belonging to the suffer^ ers was found hauled up on the beach; it was fully equipped with oars, together witli mast ami sail. ' " BOIONS. SPITZBKllOEN. — Tir)ES. 147 long the Loa- ten sailed with rd. Here the the northward ;ed, their first ig year. Thia \f in search of es of curiosity [lowed as they The door be- one of the par- to the hole for on the flooT, at answer to theif loor, and found :h was laid on ;n concretion of lis clothes^ was :ets, and other ench, on Which ; but no other rved. It was ai'ed the same ho, OS the last me kindly of- to the suffer* it was fully fst and sail. Near the shore of Spitzbcrgen, tlie south-westerly cunent, so very evident at the distance of twenty or thirty leagues to the westward, is not ohservedr Such, indeed, is the effect of the land on this cur- rent, as well as on the tide, that the course of the stream is alt(^ether uncertain. Captain Phipps^ when in the Racehorse, in the year 1 773, lying be- calmed about two and a half leagues N. N. W^ from Cloven Cliff, had a current setting to the westward, though his consort, the Carcass, at no great distance from him, was, at the same time, in a current running toward the eastward. Facts of a similar kind, proved by the singular move- ments of the closest bodies of ice, are frequent- ly occurring. Captain Phipps observed that the tide of flood came from the southward, in lati- tude 794% ^^ ^^ ^^'^^ coast ; and that the time of high water, at full and change, was half an hour past one : this corresponds exactly with an observa- tion made by Baffin in 1613. In the harbour of Vogel Sang, the tide was observed to rise about four feet ; and at Smeerenberg, a little more : the time of high water in each, being half an hour past one, as above. At Moffen Island, the tide appear* ed to flow eight or nine feet perpendicular. In ge-t neral, the rise of tide may be stated at about six feet during the springs, and about two feet less during the neaps. The highest tides seem to be produced by south-westerly winds ; and though the most general direction of the stream of flood-tide is / K 2 148 ACCOUNT or 7Fr. T?CTIC REGIONS. Mill ■ I* ':;i|j,lf«l ii'i i from the south towards u:'^ north, vet it runs by n« means regularly at all times, even in the same place. The products of Spitzbergcn, in animals^ are of some worth ; but in vegetables they ate neither nu- merous, nov, as far as yet discovered, of much value ; and, in minerals, they are very little known. A& an account of the animals inhabiting this country, is included in the general view of the zoology of the Spitzbergeii sea, it is unnecessary to notice them here. ^tzbergen does not afford many vegetables. Of those which I was enabled to collect in the course of several excursions to the shore in 1818, I have been furnished with a catalogue, by Sir Joseph Banks, as drawn up by his librarian, Mr Robert Brown, and have given itr in full,- in the Appen- dix *. It may be remarked, that vegetation goes on uncommonly quickly in this country. Most of the plants spring up, flower, and affiord seed, in the course of a month or six weeks. They are chiefly of dwarfish size ; some of the flowers are really pretty, but exhibit few colours, excepting yellow, white, and purple. And it is not unworthy of ob servation, that the only plant I n^t with. in Spitz- bergcn, partaking of the nature of a tree, (a Salix allied to S. herbaceaj grows but to the height of three or four inches. - - • See No. V. Ill itm M .111! EOIONS. t it runs by n« in the same inimals, arc of are neither nu« of much value ; c known. Afr g this country, the zoology of Bsary to notice my vegetables, collect in the hore in 1818, I B, by Sir Joseph ^n, Mr Robert in the Appen- vegetation goes M)untry. Most id afford seed, eks. They are owers are really ;epting yellow, nworthy of ob with in Spitz- tree, (a Sftlix the height of MOFFEN ISLAND. 149 Though Spitzhcrgen is probably rich in mineraK yet the examination of it has been so partial, and indeed trifling, that nothing of any value, except- ing marble and coal, has yet been met with *. The former is found in some parts of King's Bay, of teal beauty ; and the latter, of a tolerable quality, near the same place. The coal is so easily procur- ed, that many of the Dutch fishers, a few years ago, were in the habit of laying in a stock of this useful article, for fuel, on the passage homeward. Captain Jacob Broerties, an intelligent whalc-fisher of Amsterdam, informed me that lie had in his pos- session, a slab table of great beauty, manufactured out of a block of Spitzbergen marble, which he himself procured. What has already been advanced concerning the appearances and productions of Spitzbergen, applies in general to the islands adjacent. A few remarks, however, on the peculiarities which have been no- ticed, may not be superfluous. Mqffen Island^ a small low island lying on the north side of Spitzbergen, in latitude 80° 1', longi- tude 12° 43' E, was visited and described by Cap- tain Phipps, who intimates that none of the old imvigators have taken any notice of it, though it is remarkably different from any thing to be seen on the west coast. This, considering their usual accu- * A list, by my valued friend Professor Jameson, of a few specimens of the rocks occurring in arid about King's Bay« is included in Appendix No. VI. inm /"Ml }| ,,,ri ji '%U r' ^■'ff\ lll)i ISfi„i Urn ■"•.til'' I ..'iws'f \\i pi i: !u i'" ' ;;, III;.: . 'I Kill iit m 150 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC IIKCJIONS. ^'1 racy and minuteness, he deems rather extraordi- nary, and suggests the possibility that it had not long existed, but might have been thrown up, by the currents from each side of Spitzbergen meet- ing here. This island is of a roundish form, about two miles in diameter, and has a shallow lake of water in the middle. This lake Was frozen over, except thirty or forty yards round the edge, near the end of July. The whole island is covered with gravel and small stones, without the least vegetation of any kind. It is but a few feet above the level of the sea. The only piece of drift-wood found on it by Captain Phipps, which was about three fathoms long, and as thick as a ship's mizen mast, had been thrown over the sea-bank, and lay on the declivity near the lake. It was low water at 11 p. m. of 25th of July (1773,) when the boat landed ; and the tide appeared to flow eight or nine feet The velocity of the tide, which €et N. W, and S* E., wa« About a mile an hour *. Low I^landy lying E. N. E. from Moffen Island* in latitude 80° 15', and longitude IT 35' E-, was vi- sited on the 29th of July 1773, by Dr Irving, who accompanied Captain Phipps on bis expedition to- wards the North Pole. The island is about seven miles in length, very flat, and covered chiefly with stones from eighteen to thirty inches in diameter, many of tliem hexa- * I^hipps' Voyage, p. 5'3> I ;(i IlKCilONS. HOPE ISLAND. IW ther extraordi- that it had not thrown up, hy tzbergen meet- mn, about two w lake of water ;en over, except e, near the end red with gravel ;t vegetation of ove the level of x)d found on it it three fathoms mast, had been on the declivity at 11 p. M. of it landed ; and line feet The . and S* E., was Moffen Island) 35' E., was vi- Dr Irving, who expedition to- n length, very from eighteen of tliem hexa- i ^ns, and commodiously placed for walking on. On the middle of the island, they found vegetation abundant. Two rein-deer were seen feeding; and" one of them they killed. It was foiind to be fat, and of a high flavour. Several large fir-trees, at this time, lay on the shore, sixteen or eighteen feet -above the level of the sea. Some of them were se- venty feet long, and had been torn up by the roots ; others had been cut down by the axe, and notched for twelve feet lengths. This timber was not in the least decayed ; the marks of the axe indeed, were still fresh. There were likewise some pipe- ;staves, and wood fashioned for use. The beach consisted of old timber, sand, and wlialebones *. Hope Island, on the south-east coast of Spitz- bergeu, lies ip latitude 76'20', longitude about 20° E. It was discovered in the year 1613, by one of the English Russia, Company's vessels, which accom- panied their whale^fishing expedition. It is nine leagues long, but scarcely ». mile bi-oad, and lies N. E. by E. and S. W. by W. It consists of five mountains ; the northewimost one is the highest ; and those succeetling, diminish progressively in size. On the north side is good anchorage in twenty fa- tlioms water. About half a league from each ex- tremity of the island, the water is very sh^dlow ; on the south side the bottom is rocky, and unfit for an- chorage ; but the coast is there pretty bold. * Phipps' Voyage, p. />8. 152 ACCOUNT or THE ARCTIC EEGIONS. ■ i III •isi:!!* ill' I' '■!? Cherie Island, though not immediately adjoining Spitzbergen, is, however, nearer it than any other country, and may be noticed here. It lies in lati- tude about 74° 30', and longitude 20° E., being 130 miles S. S. E. (true) from Point-look-out. It was discovered in the year 1596, by the Dutch naviga- tors Barentz, Heemskerke and Ryp, on their ad- vance towards the north, in search of a northern, passage to India, and named by them Bear Island, from the circumstance of a large bear, whose skin was twelve feet in length, having been killed upon it. Stephen Bennet, wl t> »v'as sent by Sir Francis Cherie^ in the year 1603, on a voyage towards the north, partly for trading and partly for discovery, fell in -with this island, and in honour of his patron and owner, called it Cherie Island. Abounding in sea-horses or morses, it soon became an important place for taking these animals, of which a thousand were once killed in seven hours. Hence it was the constant resort of adventurers in this traffic for se- veral years, until the morses began their retreat to the northward, and the discovery of the whale- fishery presented a much more lucrative occu- pation. The greatest extent of this idand is about ten miles. It is somewhat of the saddle form, being high at each end, and low in the middle. On the north-east end are tliree regular hills of consider- able elevation, covered, in general, entirely with '«' GIONS. CHElllE ISLAND. 153 tely acljomirig ban any other t lies in lati- E., being 130 t-out. It was 3utch naviga- on their ad- of a northern Bear Island, ar, whose skin en killed upon by Sir Francis tge towards the r for discovery, ir of his patron Abounding in an important rich a thousand nee it was the s traffic for se- Ihei^r retreat to f the whaJe- crative occa- suow ; the south-west end is more irregular *. Be- sides morses, the island abounds with bears, foxes and sea-fowl, and its shores, at certain seasons, are said to be visited by cod and haddock. Much drift-wood also occurs on the coast. Lead-ore, in veins, at the surface of the ground, has been found here ; likewise coal of a tolerable quality, and specimens of virgin silver. Lead-glance also occurs on an adjoining rock calle 111 '^' i i'-i m\^P'^ .'1 lit • ! SECT. IL *-'■ .. ■■■'■.■•,;.;;" ' .. • , / ■' ■». ■ Accmint of Jan May en Island. Jan Mayen Island derived its name from that of a Dutch navigator, who is said to have first seen it in the year 1611 *, though it may be suspected, as the whale-fishery of this nation did not com- mence until 1612, that it was not discovered uiitil a later period. It was once named Mauritius' Island^ or St Maiirice, in honour of Prince Maurice of Nassau. This country was also discovered by the whalers of Hull about the same time, and na- med Trinity Island ; in consequence of which, when the Russia Company attempted to monopo- lize the fishery of the whole of the Polar countries, this isknd was granted by the King to the Corpo- ration of Hull, on their petition in the year 1618, as a fishing station. The Dutch, who were con- stantly in the habit of visiting Jan Mayen from the time of its discovery to the year 1630 or 1640, where they derived great advantage from the whale- fishery its coasts afforded, have given the principal accounts of it^ appearance, situation and naviga- tion which have yet appeared. These accounts, be- sides being exceedingly meagre, arc likewise inaccu- Bdschryving der Walvisvangstj vol. ii. p. 62. EGIONS. JAN MA YEN ISLAND. 155 sland. ' ^ name from that I have first seen y be suspected, did not corn- discovered uiitil led Mauritius* Prince Maurice ) discovered by ! time, and na- lence of which, ted to monopo- Polar countries, to the Gorpo- the year 1618, who wTre con- In Mayen from 1630 or 1640. Ifrom the whale- in the principal in and naviga- se accounts, be- ikewise inaccu- P 62. rate. They place this island in latitude 71" to 71° 23', and longitude (corrected to Greenwich) 5° 55* to 7° 22' W. * ; and our charts place it about the same latitude, and in the longitude of 9° to 10" or 11° W. From a survey, however, of the east coast, which I accomplished on the 3d and 4th of August 1817!» and from solar observations for lati- tude and longitude (by chronometer), I found its limits to be between the latitudes of 70° 49' and 71° 8' 20'' N., and between the longitudes of 7° 26' and 8° 44' Wf. This island, which extends in length about ten leagues, from N. E. to S. W., is in no place above three leagues in breadth. The northern extremity is of a rhomboidal form, each side being about three leagues in length, and affords a base for the remark- able peak called Beerenberg, or Bear Mountain. The southern extremity, connected by a narrow isthmus to one of the acute angles of the northern land, is from Ij to about 5 mil&s in breadth. The coast affords several road-steads, with good anchorage in five to ten fathoms water, black sandy ground, but no harbour for a ship ; all the ancho- rages being open to the sea in an angle of at least ten points of the compass. Few dangers occur on " Beschryving der Walvisvangst, Map, vol. ii. p. 64. + The positions of several remarkable parts of the coast, are included in the Table of Latitudes and Longitudes, Appendix, No. IV. if" I ''I 156 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. 'BIS: the coast at a moderate offing, but what may be seen ; perhaps the greatest known danger is a rock lying about three leagues south, a little easterly, from the S. W. point of Little Wood Bay, having only eleven feet water upon it when the tide is at the lowest. It is about a stone's cast over, and was discovered by a fisher belonging to Delf-haven, who bilged his ship upon it. The soundings about the island ai*e very irregu- lar, and the bottom generally consists of rocks or black sand. At fch^ distance of eleven or twelve leagues S. S. E. from Cape South, are soundings in thirty-five and thirty-six fathoms water ; but on the northern face of the island, there are 300 fatlioms tdept'^A, a cannon shot from the shore. C^i the north-eastern coast the depth is also great ; and al- so near Cape South-East ; but in most other places, the depth, at the distance of half a league from the beach, varies from ten to fifty fathoms. Between Capes North- West and North-East, between Capes North-East and South-East, and in part of the dis- tance be^.ween Little Wood Bay and Cape South, as well as in a few portions on the west side of the island, the coast consists of a kind of wall, being generally precipitous and inaccessible. The west side affording the greatest number of anchorages, having th- best convenience for landing, and being better sheltered from the most frequent storms, was selected by the Dutch for their boiling stations. lEGIONS. JAN MAYEN ISLAND. 157 what may be inger is a rock little easterly, d Bay, having the tide is at over, and was elf-haven, who *e very irregu- ts of rocks or ven or twelve e soundings in 2Y ; but on the •e 300 fatliom* lore. Chi the great ; and al- it other places, ague from the ms. Between )etween Capes art of the dis- l Cape South, jst side of the f wall, being 3. The west if anchorages, |g, and being t storms, was ling stations. \ I ; ■• I ITiey had apparatus for the manufactiu:e of oil, toge- ther with tents, cooperages and warehouses, erected in South Bay, Rooberg, Wood Bay, English Bay, West Cross Cove, and East Cross Cove. In South Bay, the Dutch once suffered the loss of three of their tents or huts, nine oil vessels, and thirteen boats, from the ground on which they stood being washed away by the sea. Mary Muss Bay, was the first place where oil was manufactured in the island, and was so called after an industrious woman of that name belonging to Rotterdam, who sent the first ship out for the purpose of reducing the blub- ber whidi might be taken, into oil on the spot. Three places on this island, called Wood Bay, Great Wood Bay, and Little Wood Bay, received their names from the great quantity of drift-wood found ill them. The western navigation of Jan Mayen is prefer- red to the easteni, as being less incumbered with ice, and less subject to calms, squalls and whirl- winds, whicn are often encountered on passing to the eastward of Beerenberg. The whole island is generally surrounded with ice in the spring of the year ; but in the autumn, or even in summer, the ice sometimes sets so far to the westward, that it is not visible from any part of the land. Though the Dutch, as well as the whalers of Hull, were, in the early part of the seventeenth century, annual visitants to the island of Jan Mayeu^ yet we have no account or description of it, except nil !«•■:; ^i 158 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. '^Ifiali I, /•' m 111 ti IP' |!J!lli:!ill 'Jli; ;;' I'^i what relates to its navigation, with a few brief noti- ces respecting its principal mountain and glaciers. The British fishers are now in the frequent habit of making this land in their outward passage, but seldom approach near the shore. I was, therefore, fortunate, in my passage homeward in the year 1817, in effecting a landing upon it. A narrative of my excursion upon this interesting island, was read be- fore the Wernerian Society in December 1817; and the substance of that paper I shall now repeat in this place. On approaching Jan Mayen with a clear atmo- sphere, the first object which strikes the attention, is the peak of Beerenberg. This mountain rears its icy summit to an elevation, as ascertained on this visit, of 6870 feet above the level of the sea. It frequently appears above the clouds, and may be seen, in clear weather, at the distance of thirty or forty leagues*. It is seated on a base, which is it- self mountainous, being about 1500 feet in height ; but in a small interval between two cliffs on the south side, the slope of the hill is continued with little variation, at an inclination of perhaps 40° to 50°, from the summit to the margin of the sea. The general appearance of the land, has a strik- ing resemblance to that of Spitzbergen, both, in col- * I s»w Beerenberg from the deck of the ship Fame, on the 29th April 1818, when at the distance, (by observation^) of 95 to 100 miles. f.iM iGlOXS. JAN MAYEN ISLAND. 159 3W brief noti- and glaciers, uent habit of passage, but as, therefore, ;he year 1817, native of my , was read be- •ember 1817", all now repeat a clear atmo- tie attention, is ntain rears its tained on this f the sea. It and may be :e of thirty or le, which is it- eet in height ; cliffs on the ffntinued with erhaps 40° to if the sea. , has a strik- , both in col- i t'l ship Fame, on [by observation^) our and character. As at Spitzbergen, your ap- proach to it, seems amazingly tardy. At the dis- tance of ten or fifteen milcb, a stranger to polar lands would suppose himself within a league of the rocks. At this season (August 4th) all the high lands were covered with snow and ice ; and the low lands, in those valleys and deep cavities, where large beds of snow had been collected, still retained part of their winter covering, down to the very border of the sea. Between Capes North-east and South-east, are tliree very singular icebergs. They occupy recesses in the cliff, where it is 1284 feet high by observation, and nearly perpendicular, and extend from the base of Beerenberg down to the water's edge. These polar glaciers differed in appearance from any thing of the kind I had before seen. They were very rough on the surface, and of a greenish grey colour. They presented the appearance of immense cataracts, suddenly arrested in their progress, and congealed on the sjwt, by the power of an intense frost. Like cascades, their prominent greenish colour was vari^a- ted with snow-white patches resembling foam, which were contrasted with the jet-black points of the most prominent rocks peeping through their surfaces. As^ in cataracts also, they seemed to follow in some mea- sui*e the figui-e of the rocks, over which they lay> t '] 160 ACCOUNT OF THK AllCTlC REGIONS, ■Pjif t'-" ,?j:i->! I in:; ; f,-': and were marked with curvilinear striae from top to bottom. I left my ship (the Esk of Whitby,) at three quar- ters past one in the inoniing, accompanied by Cap- tains Jackson and Bennet, whose ships were near at the time, and landed at half-past two, amidst a consi- derablesurf, on a beach covered with coarse black sand. This sand, which consisted of a very thick bed, oc- cuiTed through an extent of two or three miles in length, and about a furlong in breadth. It was a mixture of iron-sand, augite and pyroxene *. The black parts, which were very heavy, and readily at- tracted by the magnet, hatl an appearance exactl)' resembling coarse gunpowder. Tltis beach was the first place from Cape North- east, four leagues distant, where the coast seemed as we passed it, to be at all accessible. Great Wood Bay was immediately to the westward of us, and Cape South-east, about five miles distant to the eastward. After a few feet rise, forming a sea-bank of black sand, the strand proceeded inland, on a horizontal level for about a fourth of a mile, where it was ter- * This latter substance, which was mistaken for olivine^ was pronounced by Dr WoUaston, to whom a specimen was gives! by the Reverend Dr Satterthwaite, to be pyroxene.—' (Annals of Phik)sophy, by Dr Thomson, vol. xi. p. 195., Pcq^r by Dr D. Claike.) irff;; P' H» CilONS, E from top to at three quar- mied by Cap- s were near at midst aconsi- krseblacksand. thick bed, oc- threc miles in Ith. It was a 3xenc *. The md readily at- arancc exactly 1 Cape North- !oast seemed as Great Wood rd of us, and listant to the -bank of black u a horizontal re it was ter- ten for olivine^ 1 specimen was be pyroxene.—' ci. p. 195.i Paper .7AN MA\T,N ISLAND. 161 ; ] ininatcd by irregular cliffs. This strand appeared to have been occasionally covered with the sea, as it was strewed with drift-wood, part of which was tolerably good timber, and the rest bruised, and a little worm-eaten. One log, that I observed, had been squared, and was marked with the letter G. I had not advanced many paces, before I observ- ed signs of a volcano. Fragments of lava were scea at every step ; blocks of burned clay were next met with ; and, nea ^.he cliff, large masses of red clay, partly baked, but still in a friable state, occurred in great abundance. Numerous pointed rocks, proba- bly of the trap formation, were sticking through the sand. One of these, which was vesicular ba- salt, had numerous beautiful crystals and grains of augite imbedded in it. Along with this, was a rock which appeared to be very nearly allied to the ce- lebrated basaltic millstone of Andemach. After leaving the sea-shore, I perceived no other mineral, but such as bore undoubted marks of recent vol- canic action, viz. cinders, earthy-slag, burned clay, scoriae, vesicular lava, &c. The place from whence these substances appeared to have been dischargc'd, being near, we attempted to reach it. In perform- ing the ascent, the steepness of the hill, and the looseness of the materials, made the undertakin*>- not a little arduous. We frequently slid backward several paces by the nodules of lava giving way be neath our feet ; in which case, the giound generally VOL. J. \. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT.3) 1.0 I.I ^ ^ 12.2 I us. 12.0 a 1:25 |, .4 J, .6 ^ 6" » Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MSSO (716) 872-4503 w 162 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. 11 4-- h ' - resounded, as if we had been travelling on empty metallic vessels, or vaulted caverns. The baked clay, and other loose rocks, con- sisted chiefly of large masses at the bottom of the hill ; but, about the middle of the ascent, these substances were in smaller fragments. To- wards the top, blocks of half baked red clay, con- taining many crystals of augite, were again met with ; and, about the southern part of the sum- mit, a rugged wall of the same occurred, giving the mountain a castellated form of no small mag- nificence. On reaching this summit, estimated at 1500 feet elevation above the sea, we beheld a beautiful crater, forming a basin of 500 or 600 feet in depth, and 600 or 700 yards in diameter. It was of a circular form, and both, the interior and exterior sides had a similar inclination. The bot- tom of the crater was filled with alluvial matter, to such a height that it presented a horizontal flat of an elliptical form, measuring 400 feet by 240. A subterranean cavern penetrated the side of the cra- ter at the bottom, from whence a spring of water issued, which, after running a short distance to- wards the south, disappeared in the sand. From this eminence we had a most interesting prospect. Towards the north appeared Beerenberg, now first seen free from clouds, rising in majestic importance into the region of perpetual frost. At the foot of tlie mount, on the south-cast side. JAN MAYEN ISLAND. 163 near a stupendous accumulation of lava, bearing the castellated form, was another crater, of similar form to the one above described. Towards the south- west) the utmost extent of the island was visible; while, towards the north, a thick fog obscured the prospect, which, as it advanced in stately grandeur towards us, gradually shrouded the distant scenery, until the nearest mountains Were wrapped in im- penetrable gloom. The sea, at the same time was calm, the sun bright, and the atmosphere of half the hemisphere, without a cloud. Excepting the interest excited by the volcano, Beerenberg sunk every other object into comparative insignificance. A sketch of the appearance of this mountain from the sea, at ten miles distant, when seen above the clouds, is given among the engravings, and may af- ford some notion of its magnitude and beauty *. The colour of the cliffs around, was different shades of brown or black ; and the general character of <^the country seemed to indicate the action of vol- canic fire. A rocky hill, with a precipitous side towards the sea, lying a little to the westward, I descended to- wards it, from the ridge of the crater, with the ex- pectation of finding some other kind of rock than yihat had yet been met with. It was found to con- i^st only of a cliff of yellowish grey friable earth or * Pkte r*. t 2 \i 164 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. Prte- ' 1 i y ■■^i' ;( (: clay ; in which crystals of augite, along with dark roundish granular pieces of hasalt lay imhedded. A piece of iron, which appeared to have heen de- rived from ironstone, by a smelting process con- ducted in the fiimace of nature, was found near the volcanic mount; being very cumbrous, it was laid aside by our party as we ascended, and unfortu- nately left behind us when we quitted the shore. Of every other metallic, mineral, vegetable, or ani- mal substance we met with, we took specimens. As the icebergs observed on this island suggested the idea of frozen cascades, a poetic imagination would, in the hollow metallic sound of the earth on the volcanic mount, have conceived the cavern of Vulcan ; and in the iron manufactured in the bowels of the earth, the fabrication of the same deity, for the use of his parent Jove. The cliffs here afforded but few specimens of plants. Indeed we travelled a considerable distance before we could perceive the least sign of vegetation. As we advanced, however, we met with tufts of plants in full blossom, scattered widely about among the volcanic minerals ; but under the last cliff we visited, the variety was greater, and the specimens more vigorous. Among the plants seen, we recog- nized the Rumex digynus, Saxifraga tricuspidata and oppositifoHa, Arenaria peploides? Silene acaulis, Draba vema, &c. A black sandy earth, or a yellowish-grey kind of clay, constituted the general soil where any occur- red. I hons. y with dark ibedded. ,ve been de- )roces8 con- ind near the it was laid md unfortu- d the shore, able, or ani- ecimens. id suggested imagination the earth on he cavern of in the bowels me deity, for specimens of able distance »f vegetation, nth tufts of about among last cliflP we e specimens we recog- tricuspidata lene acaulis, ey kind of le any occur- JAN MA YEN ISLAND. 165 Near the sea shore, the burrows of foxes were seen, and traces of their feet below high water- mark ; but none of these animals were met with. The feet-marks of white bears, and probably of rein-deer, were also perceptible. The binls were not so numerous as I anticipated. We only saw bur- gomasters, fulmars, pufHns, guillemots, little auks, kittywakes, and terns. Several cetaceous animals, principally of the species Balaena Physalis, were seen, but no mysticete. We returned to our ships at six in the morning ; when the weather being clear, I took bearings of the most remarkable parts of the coast, with azi- muths and altitudes of the sun, for determining the variation of the compass, and the longitude of the island by the chronometer. A fishing party, which I sent out, proving unsuc- cessful in the ofiing, approached the shore, about two miles to the eastward of the place we visited, where, though the surf was very considerable, and the strand very contracted, they effected a landing. They observed much drift-wood, a boat's oar, a ship's mast, and some other wrought wood scattered along the shore. Every mineral they noticed, and all the specimens they brought away, bore the same vol- canic character as those I observed. Near some large fissures, which here and there occiurred in the rocky and precipitous difF, immense heaps of lava were seen, which appeared to have been poured out llff t*'"''! |: !«i m^ I , I PiStI !h.: f^!!' :!'1- iw 160 ACCOUNT or THE AllCTIC REGIONS, of these chinks in the rock. Cinders, earth-slag, iron-sand, and fragments of floetz rocks, covered the beach and so much of the cliff as they had an op- portunity of examining. The volcano discovered on this excursion, I ven- tured to name Esk Mount, after the ship I com- manded at the time ; and I named the first point of land to the eastward (within Cape South-east) Cape Fishhurn, and the point within Egg Island, forming the east side of Great Wood Bay, Cape Brodrickf out of respect to my friends Messrs Fishbum and Brodrick, the owners of the Esk. The intermediate Bay, where we landed, I named Jameson Bay, in remembrance of my respected friend Professor Jameson. Some volcano in this neighbourhood, probably Esk Mount, was, I believe, in action in the spring of the following year. On the 29th of April 1818, we made the island of Jan Mayen, bearing north, in the ship Fame ; and having the wind from the eastward, weathered it the next day. We stretch- ed up to the northward among bay-ice, until we came abreast of Jameson Bay, and could see dis- tinctly Egg Island, the three icebergs, and other objects of magnitude. From about the north side of Egg Island, near Esk Mount, we were surprised with the sight of considerable jets of smoke dis- charged from the earth, at intervals of every three or four minutes. At first we imagined the smoke 'i^iy^; \\: ^A: GIONS. JAN MAYEN ISLAND. 167 I, earth-slag, , covered the jr had an op- rsion, I veit- ship I corn- first point of South-east) Egg Island, d Bay, Cape ends Messrs of the Esk. led, I named my respected od, probahly in the spring April 1818, •aring north, ind from the We stretch- ce, until we mid see dis- s, and other le north side ere surprised smoke dis- every three id the smoke was raised by some sailors, having suffered the ca- lamity of shipwreck ; but after personally examin- ing the phenomenon from the mast-head, for up- wards of an hour, I was convinced that it could be nothing else than the feeble action of a volcano. The smoke was projected with great velocity, and seemed to rise to twice the height of the land, or about 4000 feet. On mentioning this circumstance to Captain Gilyott of the Richard of Hull, he in- formed me, that, while employed in killing seals in the neighbourhood of this island, in the same month of the year 1818, he observed a similar appear- ance. The smoke he saw frequently ; and once he noticed a shining redness resembling the embers of an immense fire. He called his officers to observe it, and humorously intimated that the Moon had landed on Jan Mayen ! This fact serves to account for some strange noises heard by seven Dutch seamen, who attempt- ed to winter here in the year 1633-4. In the be- ginning of the night of the 8th of September, in particular, they " were frightened by a noise, as if something had fallen very heavy upon the ground, but saw nothing." This, instead of being the fall of an iceberg, as some have supposed, was probably a volcanic phenomenon. These seven seamen seem to have been the only human beings who ever passed the winter in Jan Mayen. They belonged to the Dutch whale-fish- I * li h ''\] :' r 'I IM I, ^'^ ; ' I 168 ACCOUNT UF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. ing fleet, and voluntarily offered themselves to the " Greenland Company," for trying the practicabi* lity of living in the winter, and establishing a co- lony in this island. This scheme, masked under the pretence of determining the true condition of the country in winter ; " concerning the nights there, and other curious observations, disputed among astronomers," was doubtless intended as a colonizing experiment, with a view of facilitating the capture of whales, and enhancing the value of the fishery to the adventurers. Their journal, which is given at some length in Churchill's ** Collection of Voyages and Travels *," gives a better description of the state of the wind and weather, from the 26th of August to the 31st of April following, than almost any other account of observations, made in winter, in so high a latitude, that has yet been published. As such, I have extracted some particulars out of each day's remarks, and have given them, in a ta- bular form, in the Appendix, No. VII. This little party survived the severities of the winter, without much hazard of their lives, until the scurvy began to make its appearance among them. The requisite supply of fresh provisions not having been met with, its ravages were very rapid. One of the par- ty died on the l6th of April ; and all the jrest shar- * Vol. ii. p. 367,-378. EOIONS. JAN MAYKN ISLAND. 169 selves to the le practicabi- ilishing a co- ced under the dition of the nights there, luted among I a colonizing r the capture the fishery to ;h is given at n of Voyages ption of the the 26th of , than almost ide in winter, en published, [culars out of em, in a ta- This little ter, without jscurvy began he requisite |g been met e of the par- ihe jrest shar« ed the same fate within about a month afterwards. Their journal terminates on the 31st of April ; and, on the 4th of June, when the Dutch fleet ar- rived, they were all found dead in their huts. r I ' t , , •■' f i-. • ■ i 1 J .. t ■ I ■ i M ■ - If i 1 170 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC HEGIONS. > (f 1 I. r. ;||f fil'i^Nj, 'irhte'l r**! ^ .1! ?• i lii :'! ! r Ml i! m tf..:i ■1 1 CHAPTER III. HYOROORAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE GREEN- LAND SEA. SECT. I. Situation and Extent^ — Colour and Degree of Transparency y — Quality y Specific Gravity, and Saltness of the Greenland Sea. Of all the substances which contribute to the com- position of the surface of the globe, there is none so uniform in appearance, or so similar in reality, — none more important in its application, or so gene- ral in its distribution, as the water of the ocean. In all parallels, and on all meridians, it consists of one kind of liquid, known by the general name of sea-water. From the Tropics to the Arctic Circle, its composition and its saltness, as far as yet exa- mined, appear to be pretty nearly the same. 11!;:!^! lEGIONS. rHE GREEN' nd Degree of c Gravity, and ite to the Gom- there is none ar in reality, — n, or so gene- of the ocean, it consists of meral name of Arctic Circle, ■ar as yet exa- same. SURVEY OF THE GREENLAND SEA. 171 There are, no doubt, many circumstances which must tend to produce I y >» / ■■■ ■ — — ■ ■■ ■!■ I. ^ — * Annals of Phil. vol. xii. p. 32. t In some inland scas^ the degree of saltness is less than in any part of the ocean. In Baffin's Bay, for instance, the \iii 172 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. I ' i;s I f tents of these two extremes, do not differ above one- eighth part of the whole. As it is not my intention to consider the liy- drography of the globe, but only that of a small portion of it, called the Greenlajid Sea^ I shall proceed to state the limits under which this part of the Arctic Ocean is comprised. According to a section of a public statute, intend- ed for the r.'f^'ulation of the Northern Whale-fish- eries, the Greenland Sea commences with the pa- rallel of 59° 30' of north latitude *, included be- tween Europe and America, and extends as far to- wards the Pole as can be navigated. In general language, however, among the whalers, the sea ad- joining Spitzbergen, in which the first considerable whale-fishery was conducted, together with the is- lands in this quarter, receive more particularly the title of Greenland ; while the sea to the west- ward of Old Greenland, Hudson's and Baffin's Bays excepted, maintains the name of Davis' Straits. In the Spitzbergen quarter, the hydrography of surface of the sea^ (into which had been poured the water from snow and ice^ melted in consequence of a summer's heat^) was observed by Captain Ross to be of as low a specific gravity as 1.020; and the specific gravity of the water of the Baltic Sea, is stated at 1.014. — (Annals of Phil. vol. vii. p. 42.) In the Mediterranean, however, the specific gravity of the water ap- pears to be greater than that of the ocean.— (Annals of Phil, vol. iv. p. 206.) " 26th Geo. III. cap. 41. § 16. m r^i'i lEOIONS. liffer above one- insider the hy- thut of a small ^id Sea^ I shall lich this part of statute, intend- em Whale-fish- ces with the pa- *, included be- xtends as far to- ;ed. In general ilers, the sea ad- first considerable .her with the is- particularly the to the west- pd Baffin's Bays vis' Straits. hydrography of ired the water from immer's heat,) was specific gravity as \r of the Baltic Sea, m. p. 42.) In the of the water ap- [— (Annals of Phi). SURVEY OF THE GREENLAND SEA. 17J5 which I have most particularly to consider, the sea is different in colour, transparency, saltncss, and temperature, from what it gtin^rally is in the At- lantic Ocean. The water of the main occnn is well known to be as transparent and as colourless as that of the I most pure springs ; and it is only when seen in very deep seas, that any certain and unchangeable co- lour appears. This colour is commonly ultramarine blue, differing but a shade from the colour of the atmosphere, when free from the obscurity of cloud or haze. Where this ultramarine blue occurs, the rays of light seem to be absorbed in the water, without being reflected from the bottom ; the blue rays only being intercepted. But, where the depth is not considerable, the colour of the water is affect- ed by the quality of the bottom. Thus, fine white sand, in very shallow water, affords a greenish grey, or apple-green colour, becoming of a deeper shade as the depth increases, or as the degree of light de- creases ; yellow sand, in soundings, produces a dark green colour in the water ; dark sand a blackish green ; rocks a brownish or a blackish colour ; and loose sand or mud, in a tide-way, a greyish colour. From this effect of the bottom, the names of the White Sea, the Black Sea, and the Red Sea, have doubtless been derived. Near the mouths of large rivers, the sea is often of a brownish colour, owing to the admixture of mud and other substances held in suspension, together with vegetable or mineral dyes. i^^ir H liill^l' ^'fi HI ||ri;!te;:tf. ^ jHt'':, '\m 174 ACCOUNT or THE AIICTIC REGIONS. brought down with the fresh water from the land. But, in the main ocean, in deep water, the prevailing colour is blue, or gi'eenish blue. It may be observed, that there is a good deal of deception in the colour of the sea, owing to the effect of the sun, and the co- lour of clouds ; and its true tinge can only be ob- served, with accuracy, by looking downward through a long tube, reaching nearly to its surface, so as to intercept the lateral rays of light, which, by their reflection, produce the deception, and thus obtain a clear \iew of the interior of the sea. The trunk of the rudder answers this purpose tolerably well. When thus examined, the colour of the sea is not materially a£Pected, either by sun or clouds. But, if examined superficially, from an exposed situation, the sea, in all places, will be found to vary in appear^ ance with every change in the state of the atmo^ sphere. Hence the surface generally partakes of the colour of the clouds ; and, when the sky is chiefly clear, a small cloud partially intercepting the sun's rays, casts a deep brown or blackish shadow pver the surface,and sometimes gives the appearanceof shallow water, or rocks, and thus occasions, in the navigator, unnecessary alarm. It is not, therefore, the varying aspect of the surface of the water that is meant by the colour of the sea ; but the appearance of the in- terior of a body of waters, when looked into through a perpendicular tube. The only effect then pro- duced by a change in the aspect of the sky, is to [lEGIONS. SURVEY OF THE GREENLAND SEA. 175 f from the land. r, the prevailing nay be observed^ I in the colour of lun, and the co- can only be ob- wnvrard through surface, so as to which, by their ad thus obtain a sea. The trunk ;e tolerably well, f the sea is not r clouds. But, if xposed situation, o vary in appear- ite of the atmo- y partakes of the he sky is chiefly lepting the sun's shadow pver the laranceof shallow m the navigator, [fore, the varying ;hat is meant by trance of the in- ed into through ffect then pro- the sky, is to give the water a lighter or darker shade ; but it has little effect on its real colour. For, observed in this way, the same colours may be recognised in storm, or calm, in fine weather or foul, clear or cloudy, fair or showery, being always nearly the same. • The colour of the Greenland Sea varies from ul- tramarine blue to olive green, and from the most pure transparency to striking opacity. These ap- pearances are not transitory, but permanent; not depending on the state of the weather, but on the quality of the water. Hudson, when he visited this quarter in the year 1607, noticed the changes in the colour of the sea, and made the observation, that the sea was blue where there was ice, and green where it was most open. This circumstance, however, was merely accidental. Captain Phipps does not ap- pear to have met with any of the green water. This kind of water occurs in considerable quantity, form- ing, perhaps, one-fourth part of the surface of the Greenland Sea, between the parallels of 74° and 80°. It is liable to alterations in its position, from the action of the current ; but still it is alws^s re- newed, near certain situations, from year to year. Often it constitutes long bands or streams, lying north and south, or north-east and south-west ; but of very variable dimensions : sometimes, I have seen it extend tw» or three degrees of latitude in length, and from a few miles, to ten or fifteen leagues in breadth. It occurs very commonly about the meri- « % [f|i'"': W -;'«! I ::* lf:i IB i i flMi 176 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. dian of London, in high latitudes. In the year 1817, the sea was found to be of a blue colour, and transparent, all the way from 1^ east, in the pa- rallel of 74° or 75°, to the longitude of 0° 12' east, in the same parallel. It then became green, and less transparent. The colour was nearly grass- green, with a shade of black. Sometimes the transition between the green and blue water is pro- gressive, passing through the intermediate shades in the space of three or four leagues ; at others, it is so sudden, that the line of separation is seen like the rippling of a current ; and the two qualities of the water keep apparently as distinct as the waters of a large muddy river, on first entering the sea. In 1817, I fell in with such narrow stripes of va- rious coloured water, that we passed streams of pale green, olive green, and transparent blue, in the course of ten minutes sailing. The food of the whale occurs chiefly in the green coloured water ; it therefore affords whales in great- er numbers than any other quality of the sea, and is constantly sought after by the fishers. Besides, whales are more easily taken in it, than in blue water, on account of its great obscurity preventing- the whales from seeing distinctly the approach of their enemies. Nothing particular being observed in this kind of water, sufficient to give it the remarkable colour it assumes, I at first imagined that this appearance I REGIONS. s. In the year blue colour, and east, in the pa- Ldeof0°12'east, jame green, and s nearly grass- Sometimes the tlue water is pro- jrmediate shades es; at others, it ation is seen like two qualities of let as the waters entering the sea. ow stripes of va- d streams of pale jnt blue, in the efly in the green whales in great- of the sea, and shers. Besides, t, than in blue rity preventing he approach of led in this kind larkable colour Ithis appearance HYDROGRAPHICAL SURVEY 177 was derived from the nature of the bottom of the sea. But on observing that the water was very im- perfectly transparent, insomuch, that tongues of ice, two or three fathoms under water, could scarce- ly be discerned, and were sometimes invisible, and that the ice floating in the olive-green sea was of- ten marked about the edges with an orange-yellow stain, I was convinced, that it must be occasioned by some yellow substance held in suspension by the water, capable of discolouring the ice, and of so com- bining with the natural blue of the sea, as to pro- duce the peculiar tinge observed. For the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the colouring substance, and submitting it to a future analysis, I procured a quantity of snow from a piece of ice that had been washed by the sea, and was greatly discoloured by the deposition of some pecu- liar substance upon it. A little of tliis snow, dis- solved in a wine glass, appeared perfectly nebulous ; the water being found to contain a great number of semi-transparent spherical substances, with others resembling small portions of fine hair. On examin- ing these substances with a compound microscope, I was enabled to make the following observations. The semi-tran^areut globules appeared to consist of an animal of the medusa kind. It was from l-20th to l-30th of an inch in diameter. Its sur&ce was marked with twelve distinct patches or nebulae, of dots of a brownish cplour ; these dots were disposed VOL. I. u nn ACCOUNT OF THE AllCTIC IIEGIOXS. 4:«!li',1' ^...M in pairs, four pairs, or sixteen pairs alternately, com- posing one of the nebula. The body of the me- dusa was transparent. When the water contain- ing these animals was heated, it emitted a very strong odour, in some respects resembling the smell of oysters, when thrown on hot coals, but much more offensive. The fibrous or hair-like substances, were more easily examined, being of a darker colour. They varied in length from a point to one-tenth of an inch ; and when highly magnified, were found to be beautifully moniliform. In the longest spe- cimens, the number of bead-like articulations was about thirty ; hence their diameter appeared to be about the l-300thpart of an inch. Some of these sub- stances seemed to vary their appearance; but whether they were living animals, and possessed of locomotion, 1 could not ascertain. From one of the larger speci- mens I observed some fine collateral fibres. They possessed the property of decomposing light ; and, in some cases, showed all the colours of the spectrum veiy distinctly. The size of the articulations seemed equal in all, the difference in length being occasioned by a difference in the number of articulations. The whole substance had an appearance very similar to the horns or antenna; of shrimps, fragments of which they might possibly be, as the squillaB are very abun- dant in the Greenland Sea. I afterwards examined the different qualities of sea-water, and found these substances very abun- ;!f''^ IGIOXS. ernately, com- ly of the mc- tvater contain- nitted a very ling the smell )ut much more bstances, were darker colour. ;o one-tenth of ;d, were found e longest spe- iculations was appeared to be ne of these sub- e; but whether 1 of locomotion, le larger speci- fibres. They light ; and, in the spectrum ations seemed ng occasioned ilations. The ery similar to ents of which ire very abun- it qualities of ts very abun- JIYDROGKAPIIICAL SURVEY. 17» «> ^1 ^1 .-1 o» 2; 0> Cn {;» Cn Cff S p -c ^ X X ?: r* p jO 7^ j4 j-» M H 1 ^ t ' f . Oi 9n 9. 5,T VJ P Ti^'hf^Pt r o ,sggco=a » o w X c» 5J s .-^ - c C3 -a X cific mp. X cbbcbqbbbbbbbbb m 1 hS to *0 <« (« AC (« (« w Si-'jsiObtQOjai-i-iM+^ioxei « — OH-4»i-ix««*»X««5t-C« 3 > r. Temp. . at Surf. o top— ^^oa-th-^^^fotox^t > ■ooooooooocbbbob X o 5' 5' 2 5' 5 3 ? s^" f* f? E" r* ?»" « 3 S3 o a t^ ish bl. ish bl. [n.blue ish bl. green p X W ^;S^:::^'~''*-^«*t«*»-wo5Wi*»if» ^3 X to t(r 0> X ftO. o ® t. 5> l« 1^ 1— b 1. C X X CCtj a - — 1— 1-L i 3 O. O ©T C 1 S > 1 1 i s ;«< H nel811 ay 1816 D C - ^ 5 ; — 1810 — 1810 — 1810 ir. 1814 ar. 1811 — lain Ml 1.^ C X 5 4* a • ?3 1 At sea Ditto In Murray Fr. In Cromarty At sea In Brassa Sou. Ditto Ditto At sea tuelds and floes Drift ice & str. Bay & drift ice Drift ice & str. 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Temperature, Depth, and Fresmire of the Green- land Sea, with a Description of an Appai'atus for bringing up Water from great Depths, and an Account of Experiments made ivith it. * II: 'J In a sea perpetually covered with ice, the tein- peratiue of the surface might he supposed to he at or near the freezing point, in all seasons. This is no douht generally the case ; hut it is remarkable that, in some situations, even in the keenest frost, and in the midst of ice, the temperature of the sea, in latitude 76' to 78°, is sometimes as high as 36° or ^8° of Fahrenheit. As far as experiments have hitherto heen made, the tc'^^ierature of the sea has generally been found to diminish on descending. But, in the Greenland Sea, near Spitzbergen, the contrary is the fact. For determining this interesting point, I first made use of a ciisk, capable of containing about ten gallons of water, composed of two-inch fir plank, as being a bad conductor of heat. Each end of the cask was furnished with a valve, opening and shutting simul- taneously, by means of a connecting wire. With the top of the upper valve, moveable with it, was connected a horizontal lever, having a flat circular extremity projecting beyond the chime, or edge of HYDUOGRAPHICAL SUnVEY. 185 the cask. This Jever, on tlie descent of the vessel, being forced upward, lifted the valves, and allowed a free course to the water, through the cask ; but, on the motion downward being suspended, the valves fell down by their weight, and prevented the water from changing. It was generally allowed to remain about half an hour at rest, that the wood might attain the temperature of the sea in that situation, and then hauled briskly up without stopping, and the temperature of the contained water immediately ascertained. In the ascent of the apparatus, the lever connected with the upper valve, met the cur- rent of water in a contrary way, pressed the valve firmly down, and secured the water more effectually within the vessel. The results thus obtained were highly satisfac- tory ; the water brought up being invariably wanner than that at the surface ; but, after a few experiments had been made, the wood of the cask became soak- ed with water ; several of the staves rent from end to end ; and the apparatus became leaky and use- less. Sir Joseph Banks, who manifested much interest in these experiments, and favoured me with valua- ble hints on the subject, from time to time, then furnished me with an apparatus, made by Carey, under the inspection of Messrs Cavendish and Gil- pin, both of whom, it is remarkable, died before it was completed. It was made chiefly of wood, and bound with brass. But the first time it was sent rm^ W '% f •*, 1 1 •. k ^1' •" i ■•'!; '( ': 1 !; 186 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC llEGIOXS. to the depth of 300 fathoms, the wood swelled, opened, and became leaky, and two plate glass illu- minators, intended to admit light for reading off the degrees on a Sir's thermometer, which accom- panied it, were broken. Thus this apparatus was also rendered useless. After this, I made a model of a similar instrument, and got it cast in brass. This I fitted up, with the assistance of an ingenious mechanic, and applied to it the valves made by Carey, which then proved an elegant and useful apparatus. This instniment, which I called a via- rine diver, is represented in plate 2. fig. 2. It was 14 inches in length, 5 inches in diaweter at the top, and 6 at the bottom. The illuminators, consisting of plate glass, were each 8 inches long, and 2 to 2^ inches broad, and were placed on opposite sides. The form of the instniment was an octagonal ta- pering prism. A slender spring operated on a qua- drant t)f brass, fixed to the hinge-part of each valve, and was so adjusted, as merely to support the valve, when placed in its most open position, but no more. The top of the instrument was fixed on by two thumb screws, and could be removed in a few se- conds, for facilitating the examination of the water. The weight of the whole being 23 pounds, it never required any load for sinking it. With this instniment, and the fir-cask before mentioned, I completed a series of experiments on submarine temperature, as far as contained in thq following table. cs. HYDROGllA'PHICAl. SURVEY 187 swelled, jlass illu- ading off h accom- ratus was ! a model in brass. ingenious made by Qd useful led a via- 5. It was it the top, [consisting d 2 to 2i dte sides. igonal ta< on a qua- ich valve, ;lie valve, no more. by two a few se- le water. it never ik before ments on 1 in thl. '' M\ 196 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. On the occasion when the marine-diver was lost, I had a very extensive and improved experiment in view, on the effect of the pressure of tlie sea, at one of the greatest depths ever sounded. ^Vttached to the apparatus, were specimens of wood and otlier substances, to the amount of twenty articles, all carefully weighed and adjusted, that the increase of specific gravity might be accurately determined. This failing, however, by the breaking of the line, I repeated the experiment on the 18th July 1818 ; but having no apparatus for bringing up the water, or for ascertaining the temperature below the sur- face, my object was confined solely to the effect of pressure. Finding, on former trials, that pieces of fir wood sent down 4000 feet, were more impreg- nated with sea-water than others immersed only half that depth, I was in hopes that the degree of impregnation of similar pieces of the same kind of wood, might be applicable as a measure of depth. If this were the case, it would serve a very valuable purpose, since all the plans hitherto contrived for weight of a cubical inch of the same, at the usual temperature of the sea. This^ multiplied by 12, gives the weight of a co- lumn of sea-water, an inch square and a foot long, equal to 3114.91 grains; which, multiplied by 4566 feet, the depth to which the specimens of wood were sent, and divided by 7004, the number of Troy grains in a pound Avoirdupois, affords the result of 2030.65 lb. for the weight of a column of water an inch square, and 4565 feet high. 8 INS. f was lost, eriment in sea, at one attached to and oilier irticles, all increase of letermined. of the line, July 1818; ) the water, ow the sur- thc effect of lat pieces of ore impreg- nersed only he degree of ame kind of e of depth. ;ry valuable ontrived for lal temperature Treight of a co- llong, equal to ]t, the depth to Irided by 7004, [lupois, affords in of water m HYDROGHArillCAL 8UJIVEY. 197 measuring depths from a vessel, when sailing slow- ly, or drifting through the water, cease to be useful beyond 200 or f^OO fathoms*. With this view, I not only attached pieces of wood of different kinds, to the lead, and provided counterparts for immersion in a bucket of water; but I also fastened cubes of ash, from the same piece of timber, of about one inch solid contents, and of the same exact weight, to the line, at intervals of about 500 feet ; by the weight of which, when taken up, I could ascertain whether the increase of specific gravity was in any way proportionate to the depth. When the speci- mens of wood for this experiment were procured, a clear grained piece, of double the size wanted for sending under water, was prepared, and then cut in two, and the two parts dressed to the same shape, and to within a quarter of a grain of the same weight : one of these was then adopted as a princi- pal, and fixed to the lead or line ; and the other as a counterpart, and put into a bucket of water. The specimens affixed to the lead were eleven in number, and consisted of wood of different kinds, shapes, and dimensions : they were sunk to the * A very recent contrivance, for obtaining soundings from a vessel under- way, founded on the small change in bulk which takes plac in water when strongly compressed, promises to answer the design at still greater depths than 200 or 300 fa- thoms. -•- " ,p-40 |"^1^^ :: 198 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. depth of 6348 feet. The line was almost perpen- dicular for nearly an hour ; and when the lead was hauled up, I was assured, from its appearance, (the end being covered with soft grease, that would have retained an impression had it struck the ground,) that it had not been at the bottom. Each piece of wood attached to the line, was ta- ken off as hauled in, plunged in a basin of water, and conveyed into the cabin, where its weight in air and in fresh water was immediately taken. The interval between any two pieces was such, that I had just time to determine the specific gra- vity of one, before the next came up. On the ar- rival of the lead, the attached specimens were im- mediately immersed in water, and weighed as quick as possible, together with their counterparts, which had been secured at the bottom of a bucket of sea- water, during the time the experiment was in pro- gress. As the counterparts would have floated, they were each loaded with a piece of copper, weighing 880 grains when under water. Hence the excess of 880 grains, above the weight of any specimen in water, with this load attached, gave the buoyancy of the wood ; which excess, added to the weight of the specimen in air, afforded the weight of an equal bulk of water ; and the compari- son of the weight in air, with that of an equal bulk of water, gave, of course, the specific gravity of the wood. ,' '*[: ■' t : i.'i i>-»; GIONS. HYDllOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 199 nost perpen- the lead was jarance, (the t would have the ground,) line, was ta- isin of water, its weight in liately taken. jes was such, e specific gra- ,. On the ar- nens were im- ighed as quick lerparts, which lucket of sea- tnt was in pro- have floated, ice of copper, later. Hence weight of any attached, gave jess, added to afforded the the compari- an equal bulk igravity of the The following Table exhibits the results of this experiment *. • It may not be amiss to explain the method by which the calculations, in the annexed Table, were made. I shall take the first line as an example. A cube of ash, weighing in air 157 grains, weighed in snow-water, temperature 60°, with a load of 880 grains attached, 797 grains, (col. v.) Hence 880 — 797 = 83+ 157, (col. iv.) = 240, (col. vi.) Then, as 252^ grains, (the weight of a cubic inch of water, at temperature 60",) is to 1 cubic inch, so is 240 grains, (col. vi.) to 0.951, (col. vii.) And as 240 grains, (col. vi.) is to 1 .000, (the unit of specific gravity,) so is 157, (col. iv.) to 0.654, (col. viii.) The diffe- rence between col. x. and xi. gives col. xii. Then, as 252^ grains, is to 1 cubic inch, so is 238 grains to 0.943, (col. xiii.) And as 238 grains, (col. xii.) is to 1.000, so is 278 grains, (col. X.) to 1.168, (col. xiv.) The difference between cols. iv. and x. gives col. xv. And, finally, as 0.943, (col. xiii.) is to 121 (col. XV.), so is 1.000 to 128 (col. xvi.) All the results in columns iv, v, x, and xi, were found by means of an excellent hydrostatical balance, sensible to the twentieth of a grain. The scale-beam, which was made under my own inspection, and after a new plan, by an excellent workman, has two adjustments, derived from a perpendicular motion in the centre of the beam, and a horizontal motion in the centre of one of the ends'. The former moving up and down by two opposite screws, adjusts the centre of gravity of the beam, in any way that may be required, either for a quick or a slow motion : and the latter, moving horizontally, adjusts the two arms to the same length. With this balance, most of the specific gravities, and other weights of any consequence, given in these volumes, were determined. 200 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. it .j! ilKi !f(v',: w pp o o bo aS .5 ^-'^ t3 ♦» ^1 ^ 0-5 a t« «!I3 acS ^ V S S u CD > 2 CA o i<>«G>IOI^*O«5C0N0>»0>«»» • aD*'5»OeOOJCC»»«!fCO'^'«f^-HU50>Ji-i«?0«0i> -a t-ciCDt-ccxxt-cooicj05»aD«cocCi-ib-M-E o o«C'*'aDXxaDXccxcDcc»xcoccao«T _ „., „--- - .. ....eOMM ;? en a> OS U4 OS o w S aj ^ »#» ♦^ «•> t/3 k > c5 c5 6 d d 6 d c5 d c5 d d © © d d © c5 d d c o 'XI C<1 f- 1/5 1 M C 111 'O 'O "C "l '.'5 «5 '0 ■'■'5 -t X X 00 'O "5 "S ^- . . - •— "-J OVOi 0lO1050l«^Ss"5XXt~t-t-;XXt-;XWX »|* -S ddd©ddddd-Hrt-Ho>ic«i«F^.-ii-H.^i.NC 1^ n o tr* « -s s o ©©000©OCOJ»0«0»fi050>01C>lXMf-* -. -. ^ ... - - ^ ^ ^ J, 2 c>i(?*o«o>«ovo>jav»o«o>*c'3'J''*t-aiai'«*"ri< w »^ X .3 O .SPS & X ■5 X (M. h e"t~t»t->t-l:"t->t"t^t-t-t"«0*'5''3tOt-Xt-t"t" o C «-t-*-t-r-«r.^"r— h«C>JXXO5tO?S©©t-'O0>Ci ifl 10 «--) JO »0 «5 'O «C «5 "O '.-< f-i Tf"©©o«»coi-X' WMCO^tOWWOO'i'COW 1/2 M .2 a 3 •a >- -^ -^^ •« 3:_Hay: i-HO»e0'*»'?5Ot-XOi©>-i(MM^'OtOI*XOiC-i ONS. Mr^i-lO'-'Wi-li-l-.C HYDllOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 201 CCCDtOCDCDCCCCCC CDOVOiCOOOSiNM'lj oodoooddd' wcd(«"-'-5'-i'-<'^c; 1 1 's " C OS r- Fir Oak Hickery ,Teak Kim Cork ■S2S2*I::22nJL From this Table we may observe, that the great- est increase of specific gravity, by pressure, in the specimens of the different kinds of wood submitted to experiment, was obtained by the fir ; the next greatest by the ash ; the next by the elm ; the next by the oak ; the next by the teak ; the next by the hickery ; and the least by the mahogany. The cork gained still less than any of the pieces of wood. The proportion of impregnation of the same kind of wood, in specimens of different sizes and shapes, is derived from the experiments made on the ash ; and it is curious to observe, that the largest cube of ash, No. 14. and the parallelopipedon of the same, No. 10. received the greatest proportional in- crease of weight ; while the smaller pieces received less and less additional weight, per cubic inch, as they decreased in size. Thus, No. 14. containing about 4 solid inches of wood, gained 145 grains ^^cr cubic inch ; No. 13. of about 3 solid inches, gain- ed 143 grains per cubic inch; No. 11. of 2 solid inches, gained 137 grains per inch ; and the spe- cimens of 1 inch, solid contents, gained from 127 to 135 grains. It is also a little curious, that the specimens sent to the depth of 2058 feet, were as much impregnated as those sent down above 6000 feet. The cube of ash. No. 11. consisting of 2 solid inches of wood, gained 137 grains per inch, at the depth of 6348 feet, while a similar specimen gained 138 grains, at the inferior depth of 3708 feet. In the same way, a cube of 4 solid inches gained 145 grains per inch, at the extreme depth ; and 144 grains per inch, at the depth of 4836 w 202 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC EEGIONS. I:. ,;,, ■ . , feet. The degree of impregnation of the one-inch cubes of ash, produced by immersion to the depth of 2058 feet to 6348 feet, varies irregularly, but is evidently as great at the depth of 2058 feet, as un- der any superior pressure ; so that it is probable that the greatest permanent impregnation by pres- sure, of such open-grained woods as ash, elm, fir, &c. is produced at the depth of 300 or 400 fathoms. Hence it is clear that no use can be made of this effect of pressure, for determining the depth, unless it be within 2000 feet of the surface ; and even in this limit, the results may be uncertain. From a comparison of column vii. with xiii., and column IV. with xv., it appears, that an effect of the impregnation of the wood with sea-water, was to in- crease its dimensions, as well as its specific gravity ; each specimen, on an average, having swelled 0.05 cubic inch in every solid inch of original dimen- sions, and gained "^4 giains on every 100 grains of ori- ginal weight; that is, an increase of one-twentieth in size, and twenty-one twenty-fifths in weight. I have little doubt, but the degree of impregna- tion always increases with the increase of pressure ; but the air contained in the pores of the wood, which is never wholly disengaged, exerting an ex- pansive force when the load of pressure is removed, forces part of the water out again. This was clear- ly discernible in some of the specimens used in the foregoing experiments, at the moment they were hauled up, their surfaces being covered with a thin |)ellicle of froth. Hence pieces of fir sometimes be- !«■• ■i-- HYDROGRAPHICAIi SURVEY. 20S come buoyant, after being a few hours relieved from pressure, though kept constantly under water ; but all other kinds of wood yet tried, though they lose a little of their moisture, yet remain specifically heavier than water, as long as they are kept immersed. Blocks of wood, indeed, are now in my possession, that were soaked with sea- water in the year 1817, and yet re- main, at the bottom of a vessel of water, nearly as heavy as when first drawn up out of the sea. The degree of pressure at the depth to which I sounded in my last experiment, is not a little asto- nishing, being, under a column of water, 6348 feet in length, at least, 2823 lb. or 25 cwt. 23 lb. on one square inch of surface *. Hence on the larger cubes of ash used in the experiment, though mea- suring only 1.59 inches in diameter, the whole pres- sure must have exceeded nineteen tons ! SECT. III. Jiemarks on the Currents of the Arctic Sea, with Observations respecting Weaves. The determination of the various horizontal mo- tions in the great body of waters of the ocean, is a * In this calculation, as well as others of the same nature, the weight of the column of sea-water is taken throughout^ the same as at the surface, where a cubic inch, temperature SO", weighs 259-58 grains. As, however, water is found to be somewhat compressible, its weight, at great depths, must be greater than at the surface ; and consequently the whole pres- sure on the specimens of wood, greater tlian in the above estii mation. 204 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. T% it !i^' •: ^■1'!; :i-y'' If ft.; •I-:'! ' ii ) problem attended with much difficulty and uncer- tainty. These motions, denominated Currents, be- ing under the influence of some of the same princi- ples as regulate the winds, are found to be some- what similar to the movements of the atmosphere, though more regular and steady. The general agents employed in the production of currents, are considered to be the rotatory motion of the Earth, the varying attractions of the Sun and Moon, diffe- rences in temperature, and particularly strong or prevailing winds. These, when combined with the peculiarities of form in sea-coasts, and in the bed of the ocean, with other topical circumstances, may serve to account for many of the currents hitherto observed. Currents, as regards their permanency, are either general^ particular, or variable ; and, as relates to their situation, or to the depth at which they pre- vail in the sea, are called either bodily, upper, or under currents. General currents are such as are always directed towards the same point of the compass. Particular currents change their direction periodically: and variable currents are such as have no stated period, being chiefly produced by the action of the wind. A bodily current prevails where the whole mass of waters, from the surface to the bottom, moves in the same direction, and with similar velocity. An upper or superficial current, is where a stratum at the surface of the sea is in motion, while the lower REMARKS ON CURRENTS. 205 parts are either at rest, or have a different motion : and an under current is where a deep stratum of water moves in a different direction from that at the surface. Hence where the motions in the water are so va- rious, there must evidently be great uncertainty in the usual methods of ascertaining the set and velocity of currents in deep seas. Superficial and bodily curr'jnts, indeed, may be discovered by their effects on the progress and course of vessels sailing in them, or by their influence in conveying wood, fruit, and other produce of one country, to the shores of another ; as also in conducting buoyant articles, cast into the sea, in known situations, to remote regions, where they may be recognized. And, in shallow water, or wherever the depth is such as to be fathomed with sounding lines, a heavy body, with a line attached, being sunk to the bot- tom, shows, by the relative motion of a boat at the surface, to which the weight acts as an anchor, the true set and velocity of the current. As, however, there are doubtless under currents, as well as super- ficial and bodily currents, it is evident that the usual method of sinking a heavy bulky body, such as an iron kettle, mid-way in the sea, and connect- ing it by a line to a boat, and thus forming the kettle into a sort of floating anchor, and estimating the set and velocity of the current by the motion of the boat through the water, cannot be depended on for discovering the real nature of the current, but i^ r- :'^i-# H: .;;ni'^lT:ip' fiOti ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. can only give the relative motion of the superficial water, as compared with that of the stratum of water in which the kettle is suspended. In fact, this plan for determining the course and velocity of currents, goes on the supposition that currents are only su- perficial, or that the waters below are always at rest, which is not true. In a deep sea, therefore, where no soundings can be obtained, the determination of currents mu&t always be a matter of difficulty ; and, in some cases, of impracticability. By the effects of currents on vessels and other floating bodies, the courses of many general and some particular currents, have been determined in a most satisfactory manner. That general and ex- tensive current setting westward in tropical regions, a branch of which, after doubling the Cape of Good Hope, and extending considerably to the northward along the western coast of Africa, crosses the At- lantic, accumulates in the Gulf of Mexico, passes out by the Bahama Islands towards Newfoundland, and constitutes what has been called the Gulf Stream, — ^is too well known to need any proof or particular description. On the great bank of New- foundland, this stream meets with a current setting southward from Baffin's Bay and the coasts of Greenland ; and is deflected, perhaps, in two bran- ches, towards the E. S.E. and E.N, PI By the influence of these, plants, timber, fruits, &c. the produce of America and the West Indies, are fre- quently washed on shore on the coasts of Ireland, '11 llf REMARKS ON CURRENTS. 207 the Hebrides, or Orkneys, as well as on the different shores of the continent of Europe * ; and various articles belonging to vessels wrecked in Davis' Straits, or thrown overboard from vessels on the passage thither, have, by the same influence, been conducted to the shores of Britain and the adjacent islands. Thus, a bottle thrown overboard off Cape Farewell, on the 24th of May 1818, from the Alex- ander, (one of the ships lately employed under Captain Koss in search of a north-west passage,) was picked up on the island of Bartragh in the Bay of Killala, on the 17th of March 1819, ha- ving floated across the Atlantic at the rate of about four miles a-day f . But as some very light substances might be drift- ed across the Atlantic by the prevailing westerly winds, instead of being conducted by the current, it may be of moment to mention, that among the dif- ferent articles known to have drifted from Davis' Straits into the neighbourhood of Britain, were some casks and shakes |, which, from the marks upon them, were found to have belonged to the Royalist and London, two Hull whalers, that were wrecked between the latitudes of 61° and 62'-', and • Quarterly Review, No. 36. p. 44-1. — C Note. J t Idem. No. 41. p. 255. J For convenience in stowage, empty casks are sometimes taken to pieces, and the staves closely packed up in a cyliu* drical form, constituting what are called shakes or packs. 208 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. p i^i't 'iw'm about the longitude of 56° W ; the former in the year 1814, and the latter in 1817. The staves of blubber casks being generally soaked with oil, shakes formed of them float almost entirely un- der water, and are, therefore, defended from the influence of the wind; and these shakes being of a cylindrical form, are rolled over on their axes by the force of the waves, instead of being pro- pelled through the water. Hence, on any reason- able calculation, founded on the influence of pre- vailing winds, such bodies could not be expected to accomplish a passage across the Atlantic, unless by the operation of a current, under the period of many years. But the casks above mentioned, were picked up off the Butt of the Lewis, within twelve months of the vessels to which they had belonged being wrecked ; and a shake that had belonged to the London, was found by the crew of the Royal George, drifting through the Orkneys, about eleven months after the accident. The latter had, there- fore, performed a passage of about 1600 nautical miles within the year • that is, at the average rate of five miles per diy. It might be reasonably ask- ed. How is it, when such a current always prevails, that no iceberg was ever conveyed across the Atlan- tic to the British shore ? This does not appear to arise from the icebergs being dissolved in their pro- gress ; because they perform a passage equally long in other directions, having been known to drift to the southward as far as the 40th degree of latitude, llVDHOGRArMlCAI. SURVEY.— CUmiENTS. 209 • in the taves of ith oil, ely un- om the B heiiig icir axes ng pro^ ' reason- ! of pre- Bxpected c, unless period of led, were in twelve belonged onged to le Royal it eleven J, there- nautical 'age rate ibly ask- prevails, Atlan- ippear to leir pro- Jly long drift to atitude, which is as remote from Cape Farewell, as some parts of Orkney or the Western Islands ; but it would seem to be owing to the circumstance, of these bodies of ice floating so deep in the sea, as to be within the influence of an undet current of cold water setting out of Davis' Strait towards the south, while the upper current takes an easterly direction^ and carries all light bodies along with it. If thiia be the fact, the heaviest or deepest icebergs should be found pursuing a southerly direction, and ths lightest or shallowest should be found more to the eastward. From the coast of Britain, the northern branch of the Gulf Stream probably extends, superficially, along the shore of Norway, towards the north-east< About the North Cape, its direction appears to be changed, by the influence of a westerly current from Nova Zembla ; so that it afterwards sets towards the north-west, as high as the borders of the ice, and thus operating against the polar current setting to the south-westward, may be the means of preventing the polar ice from spreading across the North Sea. From the fact of the sea near Spitsbergen being usually six or seven degrees wanner at the depth of 100 to 200 fathoms, than it is at the surface, it seems not improbable that the water below is a still farther extension of the Gulf Stream, which, on meeting with water near the ice lighter than itself, sinks be- low the surface, and becomes a counter under-cur* rent. VOL. I. o ■{ ■■h-'.(. Hl-M 4' no ACCOUNT OV THE AllCTIC KEGIONS. Tliat fresh water obtains its greatest density at » temperature a few degrees above the freezing point, and that it expands on any farther reduction of the temperature, arc facts well established ; but that sea- water follows a different law, and continues to contract down to the point of freezing, is a question which has not been sastisfactorily decided. Count Rumford, in his " Essays," (vol. ii. p. 302.) says, in- deed, that "sea- water continues to be condensed, as it goes on to cool, even after it has passed the point at which fresh water freezes;" but from the circumstance of an under stratum of water in the Spitzbergen Sea, being generally warmer by some degrees than that at the surface, though of similar specific gravity, it would appear that the warmer water is in this case the most dense, or why does it not rise and change places with the colder water at the surface ? Hence I think there is reason to believe, that sea-water follows the same law as fresh water, with regard to the extreme of density being a few degrees above the freezing temperature, and that the under-stream of comparatively warm water, observed in the Spitz- bergen Sea, which is of a temperature 16"* to 20° above the mean temperature of the climate, is an under-ciurent derived from a southern region. In some situations near Spitzbergen, the warm water not only occupies the lower and mid regions of the sea, but also appears at the surface. From inspection of the preceding Table of the Specific nYnnOGRAPTIICAI. survey. — CURRENTS. 211 ity at » g point, li of the lit that inucs to question Count says, in- ised, as it point at Limstance rgen Sea, m that at ravity, it this case id change ? Hence sea-water regard to les ahove ler-stream ;he Spitz- L6° to 20° Ite, is an ton. the warm |d regions From Specific Gravity, &c. of Sen-water, it will he seen, that, in .some instances, even among ice, the temperature of the sea at tlic surface, has hcen as high as 36^ or 38", when that of the air has heen several degrees helow freezing. This circumstance, however, has chiefly occurred near the meridians of 6° to 1 2" east ; and we find, from observation, that the sea freezes less in these longitudes tlian in any other part of the Spitzhcrgen Sea. Within the Arctic Circle, from tlic north-eastern point of Russia to the coasts of Cirecnland and La- brador, the prevailing current at the surface, is from east to west, from north-east to south-west, or from north to south. In Behring's Strait, between East Cape and Cape Prince of Wales, (it has been before observed,) Lieutenant Kotzebue, the Russian navigator, found a current setting strongly to the north-cast, with a velocity, as he thought, of two miles and a half an hour, which is more than double the velocity of the current observed by Captain Cook*. Along the northern face of Russia, the current is decidedly from the east towards the west, following the line of the coast f . After passing Nova Zembla, it sets westerly to Spitzbergen, where one part proceeds round Point-look-out, and along the western shore * Barrow's " Voyages into the Arctic Regions," p. 358. t Russian Voyages, pp. 339 and St) 1 . — Quart. Rev. No. 36. p. U3, 444. o 2 UliiJ --l 212 ACCOtNt OF TUfi ARCTIC ftEOlON"^. towards the nortb, until it meets with another branch passing to the northward of these islands ; thes2 two branches then reuniting, proceed a Kttle to the westward ; and afterwards, being deflected to- wards the south by the coast of Greenland, proceed regularly towards the south-west, setting with a much greater velocity near the Greenland shore thaihi in the vicinity of Spitzbergen. Pursuing its course along the east side of Greenland, the current passes to the Westward of Iceland, down to Cape Farewell. Ha-* ving doubled this promontory, according to the opi^ nion of O. Fabricius*, it is urged northward f but meeting with another current setting down the strait of Davis, before it reaches Disco Island, it is probably deflected to the westward, when the accu- mulation of waters on the western side of the strait^ escapes to the southward, along the American shore. The general route pursued by this current, is proted by the movements of the floating ice, which, between Spitzbergen and Greenland, being of the field or drift kind, follows, in a great measure, the motion of the superficial water. Some illustrations of the preceding remarks shkll be brought forward. Four Greenland whalers, the Leviathan, Daunt- less, Fortitude and Lion, were wrecked in the Arc- * From a MS. translation of Fabricius, " Nye Samling af del Kongelige Danske Videnskabers Selskabs Skrivter,"— communicated to me by Sir Joseph Banks. i islands ; id a little ftectedto- I, proceed thamwjh hafi in the irse along 3ses to the ?ell. Ha^ to the opi^ ward f hut down the sland, it is ti the accu* 'the strait, American current, is ice, which, jing of the jasure, the larks shkll "I m, Daunt- In the Arc- ire Samling af Skrivter,"— HYDROGRAPHICAL SURVEY.— CURllENTS. 213 tic ice, in latitude 78°, longitude 3° W., during a severe storm, May 5th 1817. One of these vessels, the Dauntless, after filling with water, floated in an upright position, and was drifted along with the ice towards the south-west. On the 18th of May, while the ship under my command was navigating the recesses of the ice in latitude 75° 28', longitude 10° W., I discovered this vessel still floating, which we found had drifted 182 miles, in a S. W. hy S. direction, in thirteen days, heing at the rate of four- teen miles a-day. The winds, however, during this period, having prevailed chiefly from the N., E., and S. E., some of this drift must be attributed to their influence, but not a large proportion, as, on the wind becoming light, and shifting occasionally to a south- erly quarter, the wreck continued to set to the southward ; and before the end of May, was seen iii latitude 73° 30'. In the same season (1817,) being far immured among ice, near the main western body, we moored to a floe, and maintained our position for four days, during a strong gale of wind from the N. W., N. and N. E. When the storm subsided, we found, that we had drifted along with the ice, sixty miles to the southward, and considerably to the west- ward, at the average rate of near twenty miles per day. Our drift commenced in latitude 78° 34', lon- gitude 2° W. On the 1st of July following, we penetrated the ice in latitude 75® 30', as far as the h-H I ' II' 1 214 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC llEGIONS. meridian of 8° W., and remained during a thick fog until the 9th, generally moored to ice, or drift- ing to the northward, with the wind constantly from the south-westward. As the ice was light, and had considerable drift in the water, we expected we must have set at least eighty or ninety miles to the north- ward ; whereas, from our first observation of the sun, we found we had set nearly thirty miles to the southward. Hence, allowing for the drift of the ship by the wind, the current appeared to have set 110 or 1210 miles to the southward in nine days, be- ing twelve or thirteen miles per day, southing, or half a mile per hour, besides the distance it might have set to the westward. In the year 1803, the Henrietta of Whitby, while prosecuting the whale-fishery, was, by a south- erly storm, entangled among the ice in latitude 80" north, longitude 6° east ; and afterwards accompa- nied it in its drift, first to the westward, and then to the south-westward or southward, at the daily rate of from five to fifteen miles. They saw bears in uncommon numbers ; and at one time the coast of Greenland, they believed, was in sight. The ice pressed dreadfully around them, and accumulated in amazing heaps ; but the ship always escaped the heaviest crushes, and was wonderfully preserved. After a state of complete inertion during seven weeks, the ice began to slack ; when, with vigilant and laborious measures, they were enabled to make I'fi'ii'i:!' HYDIIOGRAPHTCAL SURVEY. CURRENTS. 215 their escape, in latitude 73^°, and longitude 9" west. In this involuntary passage along with the ice, the ship was conveyed in a S SW. ^ W. di- rection, (true) a distance of about 420 miles; or with the average rate of 8j^ miles per day. These facts, then, I conceive, are conclusive as to the prevalence of a south-westerly current in the Greenland sea in high latitudes ; and the following, will perhaps, be considered as establishing the con- tinuance of the same current down to Cape Fare- well. From a narrative of the loss of several of the Dutch Greenland fleet in the year 1777, we leam, th. ^ the ship Wilhelmina was moored to a field of icv 'le 22d of June, in the usual fishing-station, alo..^ with a large fleet of other whalers. On the 25th, the ice having rapidly closed around, the Wil- helmina was closely beset. The pressure of the ice was so great, that the crew were under the necessi- ty of working almost incessantly for eight days, in sawing a dock in the field, wherein the ship was at that time preserved. On the 25th of July, the ice slacked, and the ship was towed by the boats to the eastward. After four days laborious rowing, they reached the extremity of the opening, where they joined four ships, all of which were again beset by the ice. Shortly afterwards, they were drifted with- in sight of the coast of Old Greenland, about the parallel of 75^° north. On the 15th of August, :■!..■ -v. ii:'!# r': nmi^&^ if'.,..' 1- ' ! J««1ifel:'''"' 216 ACCOUNT OB THE ARCTIC REGIONS. » nine sail werecoUected together ; and about theSOth* after sustaining a dreadful storm, and being subject- ed to an immense pressure of the ice, which accumu- lated around them twenty or thirty feet high, two of the ships were wrecked. Two more were wreck- ed four or five days afterwards, together with two others at a distance from them. On the 24th, Ice- land was in sight ; some of the ice was in motion, and two ships seemed to escape. Another was lost on the 7th of September ; and, on the 13th, the Wilhelmina was crushed to pieces, by the fall of an enormous mass of ice, which was so unexpected, that those of the crew who were in bed, had scarce- ly time to escape on the ice, half naked as they were^ One ship now alone remained, to which the crews of four, and the surviving part of the crew of a fifth, (that was wrecked on the 30th September,) repair- ed. By the beginning of October, they had drift- ed to the latitude of 64° ; and on the 11th, the last ship was overwhelmed by the ice and sunk. Thus, between three and four hundred men were driven to the ice, and ej^posed to the inclemency of the weather, atmost destitute of food and raiment, and without hut or tent to shield them from the pier- cing wind. On the 30th of.O^ober, the miserably su^erieri^ divided. The greater part betook themselves to the land, and attempted to travel along its rugged shores, while the rest remained on a field of ice, un- til it drifted as far as Staten Hook, and then pro^ ... 1 1. HYDROGRAPHICAL SURVEY. — WAVES. 217 heaoth, subject- accumu- igh, two e wreck-r yvith two 4tli, Ice- i motion, was lost I3th, the fall of an expected, j;d scarce- hey were* the crews of a fifth, r,) repair'' ad driftr , the last Thus, ire driven ;y of the lent, and thepier- suierfers res to the rugged ice, un- [hen pro^ ceed^ in their boats along shore. The want of shelter and proper clothing, exposed them to dread- ful fatigue and suffering, being often under the ne- cessity of walking to and fro on a sheet of ice during the obscurity of nighty to save themselves from be- ing frozen to death. At length, after experiencing several acts of kindness from the native Greenland- ers, about 140 of the men reached the Danish settle- ments on the west coast of Greenland ; the remain- der, consisting of about 200 persons, perished*. Thus, it appears, that the ship which survived to the latest period, set with the ice in a south-wester- ly direction from the usual fishing-station, (proba- bly in latitude 78* to 80°) to the latitude of about 62° ; and, at the same time, from the longitude, per- haps, of 5° to 6° east, to about 40° west ; and that the ice still continued to advance along the land to the southward. This extensive drift, at the lowest calculation, must have embraced a distance of about 1300 miles, on a course S. 43° W. (true), and ha- ving been performed in about 108 Jays, averages twelve miles a-day exclusive of the advance that was made towards the east, from the 25th to the 28th of July, That remarkable agitation produced in the surface of the sea by the action of the wind, called Waves, * Beschryving der Walvisvangst, vol. iv. p. 18.<-32. &c TTTT 11 ., 'II 218 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. is, ill nautical language, distinguished into different kinds. The first effect of the wind on the water, such as that observed in small lakes or rivers in strong winds, is denominated Upper or wind-Upper, and constitutes in the high sea or in large waters, the rudiments of all larger waves. The higher waves observed in the ocean, carrying inequalities and in- ferior waves in all parts of their surface, are, collec- tively or individually, called a sea, and are distin- guished into different kinds, according to their cha- racters, properties or appearances ; such as, " a high sea," " a heavy sea," " a short sea," " a long sea," " a true sea," " a cross sea ;" or, as relating to the position in which a ship traverses the surges, a ." head-sea," a " beam-sea," and so on. But the smooth undulations of the sea which remain after a storm, or which extend beyond the influence of the wind into a calm region, where no such waves took their rise, is most frequently denominated a swell. Lastly, The sublime appearance of waves in shallow water, seen also occasionally in deep seas, in which their towering summits overrunning the velocity of the hollows, are reared beyond the perpendicular, and fall over like a cascade, is, the well-known and dreaded breakers, or broken water, of the mariner. It has been intimated by Boyle, that the highest natural or ordinary waves do not rise more than ^s. HYDROGRAPHICAL SURVEY. — WAVES. 219 ► different ^ater, such in strong ppeVt and raters, the her waves les and in- are, coUec- are distin- I their cha- is, " a high long sea," ing to the ! surges, a , But the jmain after nfluence of such waves ominated a se of waves ly in deep verrunning beyond the ade, is, the ken water, he highest lore than six feet above the general level of the sea. Such an elevation of the water occasioning an equal de- pression, produces waves of twelve feet perpendicu- lar height. Accidental or extraordinary waves, however, such as where cross seas meet, or where parallel waves over-run one another, are sometimes much higher. The first cause of w'« ?s is doubt- less the action of the wind ; but .} e undulations which continue for many hours after the producing cause ceases to act, are attributed to the same causes as those which occasion the continuation of the vi- brations of a pendulum for some time after any impulse. The apparent progressive motion of waves has been shown, by Sir Isaac Newton, to be in the sub- duplicate ratio of their breadth, and the time in which a wave moves its breadth forward, (measured from the top of one wave to the top of the next), to be about the same as that in which a pendu- lum will perform one single oscillation, " whose length between the point of suspension and the cen- ter of oscillation, is equal to the breadth of the wave." Thus, while the particles of water have no horizontal motion whatever, the ridge of each wave may move with a velocity of 16 or 18 miles per hour. The progressive motion of waves resembles considerably the progress of a vibration on a very long tight cord or wire. If a cord of 20 or 30 yards in length, moderately extended in the air, be struck near one end, a vibration resembling a wave will 220 ACCOUNT OF THE AHCTIC RECIOXS. BM jirocced to the other extremity, with a velocity pro« portionate to the degree of tension. If, by put- ting the thumb above the cord, and a finger below, a small portion of it be made to assume the form pf the letter S, and then the hand be suddenly withdrawn, a vibration of the very form produced by the hand will proceed to the opposite end, and from thence be reflected back, and then forward again for several successive times; and indeed, whatever impression be made on the cord, if in the form of two or three waves, the same will advance from end to end, preserving continually the same form. In this case, as well as in the case of waves, though the cord has itself no progressive motion, yet the undulations move with great freedom and celerity ; not in proportion to their height, indeed, but, what operates in the same way as gravity on the water, namely, in proportion to the degree of tension of the cord. In cords of different thicknesses, with the same tension, the velocity of the vibra- tion will of course be the greatest in the smallest cords. As there is nothing very remarkable in the waves that occur in the Greenland Sea, excepting as to the effects produced on ice, hereafter to be noticed, any observations on this subject will equally apply to the waves in other seas. Waves, though the entire product of the wind, are dependent, as to their magnitude, on the.nature ■ 3. HYBUOOUAPrttCAli StJRVEY.— -WAVES. 221 fttid extent of the sea in which they take their rise, and on the state of dryneBs and degree of pressure of the atmosphere, The natural progressive motion of waveis being in the same direction as the wind, the windward or ** weather-side" of a lake, river or sea, is generally almost as smooth in a storm as in a calmi Waves increase in size, accotdingly as the strength of the wind and the distance from the windward-shore, become greater; but after they attain a certain magnitude, any greater distance from shore is pro* dttctive of no further increase in size. Then they move forward, maintaining a similar elevation and velocity, (excepting where they are accidentally augmented by two or three waves of different ele- vations overtaking one another, and combining in the formation of one great seu,) to a distance often of many leagues beyond the limit to which the wind that produced them extends. Were the atmosphere without pressure, it is pro^ bable, that no waves, unless of the smallest kind, would*be produced. The pressure of the atmos- phere bringing the wind and sea into immediate contact, produces more or less friction in proportion to the dryness or dampness of the air. Thus, whe^i the air is very dry, it possesses a great attraction for water, passes over the surface of the sea wit)i more friction, and produces more considerable waves; but whenever it is saturated with moisture, the , t- fell '^0 \ ■f.r 'MU 222 ACCOUNT OF THE AllCTIC REGIONS. traction is diminished, and the waves are not so high. Most seamen will have observed, that in strong winds accompanied with heavy rain, the sea is seldom very high, and that much less forcible winds, with a dry air, produce higher waves. In this case, it is said, " the rain keeps the sea down." Whatever, therefore, diminishes the friction of the wind in passing over the water, or prevents the attraction of air and water, must operate against the formation of waves. Thus oil scattered on the sea, soon spreads over a great extent of surface, inter- cepts the attraction between the wind and water, and by its smoothness diminishes the friction be- tween the two elements, so as to prevent the for- mation of the rudiments of waves. By subduing the inferior waves, it prevents the higher waves from overrunning them and producing breakers, and thus keeps the surface of the water, however undu- lated, in a smooth and pretty regular surface. A pellicle of ice formed on the sea, interrupts the free mobility of the superficial particles of the water, possibly reduces the friction, and produces a simi- lar effect. In temperate and frigid regions, where the winds are very variable and partial, two or three distinct swells, pursuing different courses, are sometimes ob- served at the same time ; and it is a very usual circumstance, in traversing the ocean, to meet with various swells, the evident result of powerful winds. iSi h\\ NS. IIYDROORAPHICAL SURVEY. — WAVES. 223 •e not so , that in I, the sea 8 forcihle aves. In lea down." riction of events the igainst the m the sea, ace, inter- md water, riction he- nt the for- subduing rher waves jakers, and ever undu- irface. A )ts the free ;he water, !s a simi- I the winds 26 distinct Btimes ob- rery usua.1 leet with |-ful winds. indicating the prevalence of stonns in the imme- diate neighbourhood, without ever being reached by the storms by which such swells are produced. Thus, in latitude 68°, in the month of July 1813, I experienced heavy swells from the E. N. E. and W. S. W., distinctly visible at the same time, while the wind was from the south. In latitude 63°, in April 1815, we had strong swells from both the northward and southward, indicating storms on both sides of us, while we had light variable winds; and before these subsided, an additional swell from the eastward made its appearance ; occasionally the three distinct swells might be observed at the same time, but most generally only one of them was very conspicuous. In the month of July 1816, while crossing the North Sea, swells from the N. E., S. W. and E. occurred together; and in April 1817, heavy distinct swells from the W., N. W. and S. S. E., prevailed at the same time. Swells in the polar seas are often the harbingers of storms. Thej^ are more considerable near the edge of firm ice, or among loose drift-ice, than in the open sea. And in the same way waves are often higher near shore and in shallow water than in the Main Sea. In the Greenland Sea, intermitting swells are not uncommon, especially among ice. I call them intermitting, because several waves of re- markable magnitude appear in succession, and then, for an interval of perhaps some minutes, the swell is almost imperceptible. w m: S24 ACCOUNT OF TIIR AllCTlC REGlOJfS, The original direction of waves is capable of be- ing altogether changed by a particular form of an adjoining sea-coast, body of ice, or channel of the sea. When the wind blows directly along or pa- rallel to the line formed by the shorci the waves incline towards the land« If a high sea takes its rise where the wind blows along shore, and the coast falls gradually back, so as to bring the direction of the wind ofF land, the sea will usually continue to roll along shore, following the form of the land, and changing its direction with every alteration in the line of the coast. In this way, where no large points interrupt its progress, the sea makes its way along an irregular coast of ice, until in some cases it is actually so inflected, as to proceed, obliquely, against the wind. >KS. POLAR ICE. — DIFFEllENT KINDS. 225 lie of bc- ►nn of an lel of the >ng or pa- ;he waves , takes its I the coast irection of mtinue to the land, teration in re no large kes its way some eases , obliqwely. CHAPTKll TV. AN ACCOUNT OF TUT. OllEENLAND OR POLAR ICE. SECT. I. ji Descriptimi of the Various Kinds or Deft 'mi- nations of' Ice. Of the inanimate productions of the Polar Snas, none perhaps excites so much interest and astonish- ment in a stranger, as the ice in its great ahundance and variety. The stupendous masses, known by the name of Ice-islands^ or Ice-bergs, common to Davis' Strait, and sometimes met witli s ihe Spitz- bergen Sea, from their height, varioiis forms, and the depth of water in which they sfiound, are cal- culated to strike the beholder wit): wonder ; yet the prodigious sheets of ice, cnWed fields, more peculiar to the Spitzbergen Sen. are not less astonishing. Their deficiency in elevation, is sufficiently com- VOL. I. ^ tikdJiii 226 ACCOUNT OF THE AUCTIC REGIONS. pcnsated by their amazing extent of surface. Some of them have been observed extending many leagues in length, and covering an area of several hundreds of square miles ; each consisting of a single sheet of ice, having its surface raised in general four or six feet above the level of the water, and its base de- pressed to the depth of ten to twenty feet beneath. The ice in general is designated by a variety of. appellations, distinguishing it according to the size or shape of the pieces, their number or form of ag- gregation, thickness, transparency, situation, &c. As the different denominations of ice will be fre- quently referred to in the course of this work, it may be useful to give definitions of the terms in use among the whale-fishers, for distinguishing them'. ?i'fH4/ llfii 1. An ice-hcrg or ice-mountain, is a large insu- lated peak of floating ice ; or a glacier, occupying a ravine or valley, generally opening towards the sea, in an arctic country. 2. Afield is a sheet of ice so extensive, that its limits cuiinot be discerned from a ship's mast-head. 3. Ajioe is similar to a field, but smaller; inas- much as its extent can be seen. This term, how- ever, is seldom applied to pieces of ice of less dia- meter than half a mile or a mile. 4. Drift-ice consists of pieces less than floes, of various shapes and magnitudes. 5. Brash-ice is still smaller than drift-ice, con- >NS. POLAU ICE. — DIFFERENT KINDS. 227 ■e. Some ly leagues hundreds e sheet of bur or six ; hase de- , heneath. variety of, to the size )rTn of ag- Lon, &c. Arill he fre- is work, it ;rms in use ng them. large insu- ccupying a s the sea, re, that its nast-head. ler; inas- erm, how- )f less dia- m floes, of ■t-ice, con- sisting of roundish nodules, and fragments of ice, broken off by the attrition of one piece against an- other. This may be considered as the wreck of other kinds of ice. 6. Bay -ice is that which is newly formed on the sea, and consists of two kinds, common bay-ice, and pancake-ice ; the former occurring in smooth exten- sive slieets, and the latter in small circular pieces with raised edges. 7. Sludge consists of a stratum of detached ice- crystals, or of snow, or of the smaller fragments of ])rash-icc floating on the surface of the sea. This generally forms the rudiments of ice, when the sea is in agitation. 8. A hwmiwck is a protuberance raised upon any plane of ice above the common level. It is frequent- ly produced by pressure, where one piece is squeezed upon another, often set upon its edge, and in that position cemented by the frost. Hummocks are hkewise formed, by pieces of ice mutually crushing each other, the wreck being heaped upon one or both of them. To hummocks, principally, the ice is indebted for its variety of fanciful shapes, and its picturesque appearance. They occur in great num- bers in heavy packs, on the edges and occasionally in the middle of fields and floes, where they often attain the height of thirty feet or upwards. 9. A calf is a portion of ice which has been de- pressed by the same me£.ns as a hummock is ele- u 2 'dim. !i*^^'» .1 !.,«-4 . "H '' ! :^JI^ »;' '■ Ml .1'" i i' ' *i «?'':.: ;-i' »''>' : ' ■■'■ !:iKi' ii|i^H- Inii'!'' i'.'" 228 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. vated. It is kept down by some larger mass ; from beneath which, it shows itself on one side. I have seen a calf so deep and broad, that the ship sailed over it without touching, when it might be observed on both sides of the vessel at the same time ; such an experiment, however, is attended with consider- able danger, and necessity alone can warrant it, as calves, when disturbed by a ship sailing over them, have not unfrequently been called from their sub-marine situation to the surface, and with such an accelerated velocity, as to damage the vessel, or even to occasion shipwreck. 10. A tongue is a point of ice projecting nearly horizontally from a part that is under water. Ships have sometimes run aground upon tongues of ice. 11. A pack is a body of drift-ice of such magni- tude, that its extent is not discernible. A pack is said to be cypen, when the pieces of ice, though very near each other, do not generally touch ; or close, when the pieces are in complete contact. 12. A patch is a collection of drift or bay-ice of a circular or polygonal form. In point of magni- tude, a pack corresponds with a field, and a patch with a floe. 13. A stream is an oblong collection of drift or bay-ice, the pieces of which are continuous. It is called a sea-stream, when it is exposed on one side to the ocean, and affords shelter from the sea, to whatever is within it. il ' •■I I s ■ -I, , iOllgll lie gres'tor ii are com- n heavy ss of ten low, thin thickness iCe hefore I a bed of - pth; this forms ex- me of the iiough ge- ummocks. chains, in [ once saw :e or hum- rom snow, agues over r danger, lity of in- |lds,by ex- e hollows, ly passing [face of the is gener- travclling >r sledges ; Lvelling on The tribe oss, made use of sledges drawn by dogs, for conveying them across the rough land-ice, lying between the ships and the shore; — a journey they performed with such celerity, that Captain Ross conjectures " they could travel fifty or sixty miles a-day*." Hence, if such a distance were practicable on the drift-ice occurring near shore, it would be much more easy on the smoother ice of fields. The term field, was given to the largest sheets of ice by a Dutch whale-fisher. It was not until a pe- riod of many years after the Spitzbergen fishery was established, that any navigator attempted to pene- trate the ice, or that any of the most extensive sheets of ice were seen. One of the ships resorting to Smeerenberg for the fishery, put to i?a on one occa- sion, when no whales were seen, persevered west- ward to a considerable length, and accidentally fell in with some immense flakes of ice, which, on his re- turn to his companions, he described as being truly wonderful, and as resembling fields in the extent of their surface. Hence the application of the term Field to this kind of ice. The discoverer of it was distinguished by the title of " Field Finder." As strong winds are known to possess great influ- ence in drifting off the ice, where the resistance is not too considerable, may not such winds form open- " Voyage to Baffin's Bay," p. 133. Q 2 f? TTT ^i.^ii 1^1$. iiii < h. 244 ACCOUNT OF THE AllCTIC IIKGIONS. ii^ in the ice far to the north, as well as in lati- tudes within our reach and ohservation ? Notwith- standing the degree in which this cause may pre- vail is uncertain, yet of this we are assured, that the ice on the west coast of Spitzhergen has always a tendency to drift, and actually does advance in a most surprising manner to the south or south-west ; whence, some vacancy must assuredly be left in the place which it formerly occupied. These openings, therefore, may he readily frozen over, whatever be their extent, and the ice may in time acquire all the characters of a massy field. It must, however, be confessed, that from the den- sity and transparency of the ice of fields, and the purity of the water obtained from them, it is difficult to conceive that it could possess such characters if frozen entirely from the water of the ocean ; — ^parti- cularly as young ice is generally found to be porous and opaque, and does not afford a solution altogether pure. The following theory, therefore, is perhaps more consonant to appearances; and although it may not be established, has at least probability to recommend it. It appears from what has been advanced, that openings may occasionally occur in the ice between Spitzhergen and the Pole, and that these openings vill in all probability be again frozen over. Al- lowing, therefore, a thin field or a field of bay-ice to be formed in such an opening, a superstructure may s. POLAll-ICE. — FORMATION OF FIELDS. 245 3 in lati- S^otwith- may pre- that the always a mce in a ath-west ; eft in the lily frozen ; ice may ,ssy field, n the den- 5, and the is difficult laracters if n ; — ^parti- be porous altogether is perhaps though it [bability to iced, that be between |e openings over. Al- ' bay-ice to Ictuie may probably be added by the following process. The frost, which almost constantly prevails during nine months of the year, relaxes towards the end of June or beginning of July, whereby the covering of snow an- nually deposited to the depth of two or three feet on the ice*, dissolves. Now, as this field is suppos- ed to arise amidst the older and heavier ice, it may readily occupy the whole interval, and be cement- ed to the old ice on every side, in such a manner as to prevent the melted snow from making its escape. Or, whatever be the means of its retention on the surface of the young field, whether by the adjunc- tion of higher ice, the elevation of its border by the pressure of the surrounding ice, or the irregularity of its own surface, several inches of ice must be ad- ded to its thickness on the returning winter, by the conversion of the snow-water into solid ice. This process repeated for many successive years, or e^en ages, together with the enlargement of its under- side from the ocean, migltt be deemed sufficient to produce the most stupendous bodies of ice that have yet been discovered ; at the same time, that the ice tip. formed would doubtless conespond, in pu- rity and transparency, with that of fields in gene- ral. • That snow is deposited on the ice in high northern lati- tudes, is here allowed, because no field has yet been met with which did not support a considerable burden of it. 2 I I il • ■'!'! '•:»' mm mm i246 ACCOUNT OF THE AKCTIC IIEGIONS. Fields may sometimes have their origin in heavy close packs, which, being cemented together by the intervention of new ice, may become one solid mass. In this way, are produced such fields as exhibit a rugged liummocky appearance. ' Fields commonly make their appearance in the month of May or June, though sometimes earlier. They are frequently the resort of young whales. Strong north and westerly winds expose them to the whalers, by driving off the loose ice. The invariable tendency of fluids to drift to the south-westward, even in cahiis, is the means of many being yearly destroyed. They have frequent- ly been observed to advance a hundred miles in this direction, within the space of one month, notwith- standing the occurrence of winds from every quarter. On emerging from amidst the smaller ice, which before sheltered them, they are soon broken up by the swell, are partly dissolved, and partly converted into drift-ice. The places of such, are supplied by others from the north. The power of a swell in breaking the heaviest fields, is not a little remarkable. A grown swell, that is so inconsiderable as not to be observed in open water, frequently breaks up the largest fields, and converts t!iem wholly into fioes and drift-ice in the space ef a few hturs ; while fields composed of bay-ice or light-ice, being more flexible, endure the same swell without anv destructive effect. s. POLAII-ICE.— PllOrKRTIES Ol' I'lELUS. 247 in heavy ;r by the lid mass, exhibit a cc in the ss earlier. r whales, em to the lift to the means of ; frequent- les in this I, notwith- ry quarter, ice, which en up by converted Lpplied by |e heaviest )Von swell, )servcd in jest fields, Idrift-icc in Lmposed of mdure the The occasional rapid motion of fields, wi<^^h the tjtrange effects produced by such immense bodies on any opposing substance, is one of the most striking objects the polar seas present, and is cer- tainly the most terrific. They not unfrequent- ly acquire a rotatory movement, whereby their cir- cumference attains a velocity of several miles per hour. A field thus in motion, coming in con- tact with another at rest, or more especially with another having a contrary direction of movement, produces a dreadful shock. A body of more than ten thousand millions of tons in weight *, meeting with resistance, when in motion, produces conse- quences which it is scarcely possible to conceive ! The weaker field is crushed with an awful noise ; sometimes the destruction is mutual : pieces of huge dimensions and weight, are not unlrequently piled upon the top, to the height of twenty or thirty feet, while a proportionate quantity is depressed be- neath. The view of those stupendous effects in safety, exhibits a picture sublimely grand ; but where there is danger of being overwhelmed, ter- • A field of thii-ty nautical miles square, and thirteen feet in thickness, would weigh somewhat more than is here men- tioned. Allowing it to displace the water in which it floats, to the depth of eleven feet, the weight wouki appear to be 10,182,857,14'2 tons nearly, in the proportion of a cubic foot of sea-water, to 64 lb. 1 11 .'!■ I t\ \^. '■4 ..(.''.. jit 'J!48 ACCOUNT OF THE AMCTIC REGIONS. lot and dismay must be the predominant feelings. The whale-fishers at all times require unremitting vigilance to secure their safety, but scarcely in any situation so much, as when navigating amidst those fields : in foggy weather, they are particularly dan- gerous, as their motions cannot then be distinctly observed. It may easily be imagined, that the strongest ship is but an insignificant impediment between two fields in motion. Numbers of vessels, since the establishment uf the fishery, have been thus destroyed; some have been thrown upon the ice, some have had their hulls completely torn open, or divided in two, and others have been overrun by the ice, and buried beneath its heaped fragments. The Dutch have lost as many as twenty-three sail of ships, among the ice, in one year. In the sea- son of 1684, fourteen of their ships were wrecked, and eleven more remained beset during the winter. In the year 1804, I had a good opportunity of witnessing the effects produced by the lesser masses in motion. Passing between two fields of bay- ice, about a foot in thickness, they were observed rapidly to approach each other, and before our ship could pass the strait, they met with a veloci- ty of three or four miles per hour : the one over- laid the other, and presently covered many acres of surface. The ship proving an obstacle lo the course of the ice, it squeezed up on both sides, shaking her in a dreadful mannc, and producing POl.All-lCE. — CONCUSSIONS OV FIELDS. 249 feelings, jmitting y in any ist those irly dan- listinctly that the pediment ►f vessels, been thus 11 the ice, )rn open, verrun by ragments. three sail the sea- wrecked, e winter, rtunity of er masses of bay- observed lefore our a vcloci- one over- lany acres le io the ith sides, iroducing a loud grinding, or lengthened acute tremulous noise, accordingly as the degree of pressure was di- minished or increased, until it had risen as high as the deck. After about two hours, the motion ceased; and soon afterwards, the two sheets of ice receded from each other, nearly as rapidly as they had be- fore advanced. The ship, in this case, did not receive any injury ; but had the ice been only half a foot thicker, she might have been wrecked. In the month of May of the year 1814, I wit- nessed a more tremendous scene. While navi- gating amidst the most ponderous ice which the Greenland sea presents, in the prospect of making our escape from a state of hesetment, our progress was unexpectedly arrested by an isthmus of ice, about a mile in breadth, formed by the coalition of the point of an immense field on the north, with that of an aggregation of floes on the south. To the north field we moored the ship, in the hope of the ice separating in this place. I then quitted the ship, and travelled over the ice to the point of col- lision, to observe the state of the bar which now prevented our release. I immediately discovered, that the two points had but recently met ; that al- ready a prodigious mass of rubbish had been squeez- ed upon the top, and that the motion had not abated. The fields continued to overlay each other with a majestic motion, producing a noise resembling that of complicated machinery, or distant thunder. The £, » 1 250 ACCOUNT or THE ARCTIC JIKGIOXS. pressure was so immense, that numerous iissurcs were occasioned, and the ice repeatedly rent be- neath my feet. In one of the fissures, I found the snow on the levl to be three and a lialf feet deep, and the ice upwards of twelve. In one place, hummocks had been thrown up to the height of twenty feet from the surface of the field, and at least twenty-five feet from the level of the water ; they extended fifty or sixty yards in length, and fifteen in breadth, forming a mass of about two thousand tons in weight The majestic unvarietl movement of the ice, — the singular noise with which it was accompanied, — the tremendous power exert- ed, — and the wonderful effects produced, were cal- culated to excite sensations of novelty and gran- deur, in the mind of the most careless spectator ! I SECT. IV. Dc'>cription of Icebergs, and Remarks on their Formation. The term Ice-bergs has commonly been applied to the glaciers occurring in Spitzbergen, Greenland, and other arctic countries. It is also as commonly extended to the large peaks, mountains or islets of ice, that are found floating in the sea. The fixed ice-bergs, or polar glaciers, have been described in ♦. ii'ous iissureu (lly rent be- , I found the ilf feet deep, I one place, le height of field, and at f the water; length, and of about two stic unvaried ise with which power exert- iced, were cal^ Ity and gran- spectator ! i7'ks on their been applied |n, Greenland, as commonly IS or islets of , The fixed described in I'OLAK ICK. MACiNlTUDE OF ICE-«i:K(iS. 251 the account of Spitzbergen ; it is only necessary, therefore, in this place, to mention the floating ice- bergs. Ice-bergs occur in many places in the Arctic and Antarctic regions ; some of them of astonishing magnitude. In the Spitzbergen sea, indeed, they are neither numerous nor bulky, compared with those of other regions ; the largest I ever met with in this quarter not exceeding 1000 yards in cir- cumference and 200 feet in ickness. But in Hudson's Strait, Davis' Stru.t, and Baffin's Bay, they occur of a prodigious size. Ellis describes them as sometimes occurring of the thickness of 500 or 600 yards. Frobisher saw one ice-berg which was judged to be " near fourscore fathoms above water." Captain INIiddleton states the oc- casional size of bergs as being three or four miles in circumference, 100 fathoms under water, and a fifth or sixth part above. Captain Ross, in Davis' Strait and Baffin's Bay, observed a variety of ice- bergs ; at one time at least 700 being in sight, of which some were of astonishing magnitude, and of very singular form. One berg is described by Cap- tain Ross as being 40 feet high and 1000 feet long; another 85 feet high and 1200 feet in circumfe- rence ; another 325 feet high and 1200 feet long ; another aground in 150 fathoms water, and several together aground in 250 fathoms ; and one, he par- ticularly describes, (the dimensions of which were M I V f IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) k A {./ /. ,% r/^ [/. 4^ f/. 1.0 I.I 11.25 ^U4 i Hiotographic Sciences Corporation ^ m .^V V <%. o^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) S72-4503 I?. 252 ACCOUNT OV THE ARCTIC llEGIONS. 1 given in by liieutenant Parry,) as having nine un- equal sides, as being aground in 61 fathoms, and as measuring 4169 yards (paces) long, 3689 yards broad, and 51 feet high. The weight of this ice-berg, ta- ken at somewhat smaller dimensions, was estimated by an officer of the Alexander, at 1,292,397,673 tons. This amount, however, is greater than the truth, the cubical inch of ice being taken at 240 grains, whereas it does not exceed 231.5 grains. Captain Cook, when exploring the regions [be- yond the antarctic circle, met with ice-bergs on every course, in great abundance, as well as of vast size ; many, according to Forster, were one or two miles in extent, and upwards of 100 feet above the water. On the 26th of December 1773, they count- ed 186 ice-bergs from the mast-head, whereof none were less than the hull of a ship. The most abundant source of floating ice-bergs known in the arctic regions, is Baffin's Bay. From this remarkable sea, they constantly make their way towards the south, down Davis' Strait, and are scat- tered abroad in the Atlantic to an amazing extent. The banks of Newfoundland are occasionally crowd- ed with these wonderful productions of the Frigid Zone ; beyond which they are sometimes conveyed, by the operation of the southerly under- current, as low as latitude 40° north, and even lower, a dis- tance of at least 2000 miles from the place of their origin. POLAR ICE. — MAGNITUDE OF ICE-BERGS. 253 Ice-bergs commonly float on a base wbicb is larger in extent tban the upper surface. Hence the pro- portion of ice appearing above water, is seldom less in elevation than one-seventh of the whole thick- ness ; and when the summit is conical, or of the steeple form, the elevation above water is frequently one-fourth of the whole depth of the berg. Perhaps the most general form of ice-bergs, is with one high perpendicular side, the opposite side very low, and the intermediate surface forming a gradual slope. When of such a form. Captain Ross found that the higher end was generally to wind- ward. Some ice-bergs have regular flat surfaces ; but most usually they have different acute summits, and occasionally exhibit the most fantastic shapes. Some have been seen that were completely perfo- rated, or containing prodigious caverns, or having many clefts and cracks in the most elevated parts, 80 as to give the appearance of several distinct spires. On some ice-bergs, where there are hollows, a great quantity of snow accumulates ; others are smooth and naked. The naked sides are often fill- ed with conchoidal excavations of various magni- tudes ; sometimes with hollows the size of the finger, and as regular as if formed by art. On some bergs pools of water occur stagnant : on others, large streams are seen oozing through crevices into the sea. In a high sea, the waves break against them mil 254 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIOI^S. as against a rock ; and, in calm weather, where there is a swell, the noise made by their rising and falling is tremendous. When ice-bergs are aground, or when there is a superficial current running to leeward, the motion of other ice past them is so great, that they appear to be moving to windward. Fields of ice of considerable thickness, meeting a berg under such circumstances, are sometimes com- pletely ripped up, and divided through the middle. Ice-bergs, when acted on by the sun, or by a tem- perate atmosphere, become hollow and fragile. Large pieces are then liable to be broken off, and fall into the sea with a terrible crash, which in some places produces an extraordinary echo in the neighbouring mountains. When this circumstance, called cah vingi takes place, the ice-berg loses its equilibrium, sometimes turns on one side, and occasionally is in* verted. The sea is thereby put into commotion ; fields of ice in the vicinity are broken up ; the waves extend, and the noise is heard to the distance of several miles ; and sometimes the rolling motion of the berg not ceasing, other pieces get loosened and detached, until the whole mass falls asunder, like a wreck *. Ice-bergs differ a little in colour, according to their solidity and distance, or state of the atmos- phere. A very general appearance is that of cliffs • Fabricius, Translation by Sir Joseph Banks. ler, where rising and B agronnd, unning to them is so windward, meeting a times com- ;he middle, by a tem- rile. Large nd fall into !ome places jighbouring called col- jquilibrium, mally is in* :ommotion ; ; the waves distance of r motion of osened and ider, like a cording to the atmos- lat of cliffs POLAR ICE. — DESCRIPTION OF ICE-BERGS. 255 of chalk, or of white or grey marble. The sun's rays reflected from them, sometimes give a glisten- ing appearance to their surfaces. Different shades of colour occur in the precipitous parts, accordingly as the ice is more or less solid, and accordingly as it contains strata of earth, gravel, or sand, or is free from any impurity. In the fresh fracture, greenish- grey, approaching to emerald-green, is the prevail- ing colour. In the night, icc-bergs are readily distinguished, even at a distance, by their natural effulgence ; and, in foggy weather, by a peculiar blackness in the at- mosphere, by which the danger to the navigator is di- minished. As, however, they occur far from land, and often in unexpected situations, navigators crossing the Atlantic in the gloom of night, between the pa- rallels of 50° and 60° of latitude, or even farther to the south, require to be always on the watch for them. In some places, near Cape Farewell, or towards the mouth of Davis' Strait, they sometimes occur in ex- tensive chains ; in which case, fatal accidents have occurred, by vessels getting involved among them in the night, during storms. But ice-bergs occur- ring singly, have rarely been productive of any se- rious mischief. Ice-bergs, though often dangerous neighbours, oc- casionally prove useful auxiliaries to the whale- fish- ers. Their situation, in a smooth sea, is very little affected by the wind : under the strongest gale, they are not perceptibly moved ; but, on the contrary, have , '5 ^ 256 ACCOUNT OF THE iVRCTIC REGIONS. the appearance of advancing to windward, because every other description of ice moves rapidly past them, on account of its finding less resistance from the water, and consequently drifting faster to lee- ward, in proportion as its depth beneath the surface is diminished. From the ice-berg's firmness, it often affords a stable mooring to a ship in strong adverse winds, or when a state of rest is required for the performance of the different operations attendant on a successful fishery. The fisher likewise avails him- self of this quiescent property, when his ship is in- commoded or rendered unmanageable by the accu- mulation of drift ice around, when his object is to gain a windward situation more open. He moors under the lee of the ice-berg, — the loose ice soon forces past, — the ship remains nearly stationary, — and the wished-for effect seldom fails to result. Mooring to lofty ice-bergs, is attended with consi- derable danger : being sometimes finely balanced, they are apt to be overturned ; and, while floating in a tide- way, should their base be arrested by the ground, their detrusion necessarily follows, attended with a thundering noise, and the crushing of every object they encounter in their descent. Thus have vessels been often staved, and sometimes wrecked by the fall of their icy mooring ; while smaller objects, such as boats, have been repeatedly overwhelmed, even at a considerable distance, by the vast waves occasioned by such events. )NS. ■d, because ipidly past jtance from ister to lee- the surface less, it often jng adverse ired for the ittendant on I avails him- s ship is in- by the accu- 5 object is to He moors ►ose ice soon ;tationary, — s to result. I with consi- ly balanced, hile floating Dsted by the s, attended ing of every Thus have wrecked by lUer objects, erwhelmed, vast waves 1M>|,AU ICE. — FHA(iII.ITY OV ICK-nEU(;N. '257 ^Vll ice becomes exceedingly fragile towards the close of the whale-fishing season, when the tem- perate air thaws its surface, and changes its solid structure into a brittle mass of imperfectly attached columns. Bergs, in this state, on being struck by an axe, for the purpose of placing a mooring anchor, have been known to rend asunder, and precipitate the careless seamen into the yawning chasm, whilst occasionally the masses are hurled apart, and fall in contrary directions with a prodigious crash, burying boats and men in one common ruin. The awful effect produced by a solid mass many thousands or even millions of tons in weight, changing its situa- tion with the velocity of a falling body, whereby its aspiring summit is in a moment buried in the ocean, can be more easily imagined than described. Though a blow with an edge-tool on brittle ice does not sever the mass, still it is often succeed- ed by a crackling noise, proving the mass to be ready to burst from the force of internal expansion, or from the destruction of its texture by a warm tem- perature. It is common, when ships moor to icebergs, to lie as remote from them as their ropes will allow, and yet accidents sometimes happen, though the ship ride at the distance of a hundred yards from the ice. Thus, calves rising up with a velocity nearly equal to that of the descent of a falling berg, have pro- duced destructive effects. In the year 1812, while vnr,. I. K ' .1 i i ;» JT:;ISf' fei •i iiii; 258 ACCOUXT OF THE ARCTIC KEG IONS. the Thomas of Hull, Captain Taylor, lay moored to an ice-berg in Davis' Strait, a calf' was detached from beneath, and rose with such tremendous force, that the keel of the ship was lifted on a level with the water at the bow, and the stern was nearly im- mersed beneath the surface. Fortunately the blow was received on the keel, and the ship was not ma- terially damaged. From the deep pools of water formed in the sum- mer season, on the depressed surface of some bergs, or from the streams running down tlicir sides, the ships navigating where they abound, are presented with opportunities for watering with the greatest ease and despatch. For this purpose, casks are landed upon the lower bergs, filled, and rolled into the sea ; but from the higher, the water is convey- ed by means of a long tube of canvas or leather, called a hosc^ into casks placed in the boats, at the side of the ice, or even upon the deck of the ship. The greater part of the ice-bergs that occur in Davis' Strait, and on the eastern coast of North America, notwithstanding their profusion and im- mense magnitude, seem to be merely fragments of the land ice-bergs or glaciers, which exist in great numbers on the coast, forming the boundaries of Baffin's Bay. Th^se glaciers fill immense valleys, and extend in some places several miles into the sea ; in others, they terminate with a precipitous VOLAK ICK. — OllltllN OF ICE-BKllCS. Ji59 edge at the gcneriil line formed by tlie coast. In the sunnner season, when they are particularly IVa- j^ile, the force of cohesion is often overcome by the weight of the prodigious masses that overhang the sea ; and in winter, the same effect may be pro- iluced, by the powerful expansion of tbe water lill- ing any excavation or deep-seated cavity, when its dimensions are enlarged by freezing, tliereby exert- ing a tremendous force, and bursting the berg asunder. Pieces tbus or otberwise detacbed, are burled in- to tbe sea witb a dreadful crash. When they fall into sufficiently deep water, they are liable to be drifted off' tbe land, and down Davis' Strait, accord- ing to the set of the current ; but if they fall into a shallow sea, there they must remain until suffi- ciently wasted to float away. In tlieir passage down the Strait, they often ground on tbe reefs or shallows wbicb occur in different situations, wbere they interrupt tbe passage of the drift-ice, and be- come formidable barri(r; to tbe advance of the whale-fisbers into liaifinV Bay. On tbese reefs, and in the bays in Davis' Strait, ice-bergs have l)een known to take the ground, and remain station- ary for some years. Fabricius and Crantz men- tion two immense ice-bergs baving grounded in Soutb-P^ast Bay, wbere they remained several years. From tbeir vast size, they were named by the Dutch, Amsterdam and Haarlem. R 2 illKT']!' ../L.: ,..•.!. I % il60 ACcouN'T or Tin: aiu ric inunoxs. Spitzbcrgfcn is possessed of every cliaractcr which is supposed to be necessary for the formation of tlie largest ice-bergs : — liigh mountains, tleep exten- sive valleys, intense frost, occasional thaws, and great falls of sleet and snow ; yet here a berg is rarely met with ; and the largest that occur are not to be compared with the productions of Uaffin's Bay. The reason of the difference between Spitz- bergen and Old Greenland, as to the production of ice-bergs, is perhaps this : That while the sea is generally deep, and the coast almost continually sheltered by drift-ice at the foot of the glaciers in Baffin's Bay ; in Spitzbergen, on the contrary, they usually terminate at the water's edge, or where the sea is shallow, so that no very large mass, if dis- lodged, can float away, and they are at the same time so much exposed to heavy swells, as to occasion dismemberments too frequently to admit of their at- taining a very considerable magnitude. Some ice-bergs, it is possible, may have their ori- gin in deep-sheltered coves or narrow bays, which, from their contracted outlets, may prevent the ice annually formed from being disembogued, and may thus form a secure basement for a superstructure of any magnitude. Such coves being at length filled, the ice may protrude beyond its capes, and give rise to floating ice-bergs. Miiller, in his " Summary of Voyages made by the Kussians on the Frozen Sea," relates a circum- l«li^ ;s. I'oi.Ai.'-ii i;. — ()iti(;iN (»i It r.-in:K(;.s. 'J()l tcr which [Oil of the ;p exteii- aws, aiul a berg is ur are not rf Baffin's cen Spitz- production ic the sea lontinually glaciers in trary, they where the lass, if dis- t the same to occasion of their at- e their ori- ays, which, jnt the ice I, and may Structure of igth tilled, id give rise )S made by a civcum- !stancc, from wliicli there is reason to infer, tliat stnne ice-bergs have their origin in the wide expanse of the ocean. He informs ns, in a brief account, al ready noticed, of the expedition of i\lexei Markoff', across an extensive body of ice, in tlie year 1714; that after tliis traveller had proceeded seven days northward, from the mouth of the .lana, as fast as liis dogs could draw, his progress was impeded by ice rising in the sea like monntaiiis, from tlie top of which no land could be seen, hnt oidv ice. Here, therefore, is a fact of a continent, if we may so speak, of monntainous ice existing, and probably constantly increasing in tlie ocean, at a distance of between three and four hundred miles from any known land : indeed, it mnst, in such a situation, be so completely sheltered by the exterior drift or field-ice in all directions, that evcrv facilitv seems to be aftbrded for its growth, that a sheltered bay in the land could supply : For if we can conceive, from the fore-mentioned process of the enlargement of fields by the addition of the uir.mally deposited humidity, that a few years ma} be suflicient for the production of considerable fields of ice, what might be the effect of fifty or sixty centuries, affording an annual increase ? And if, to the precipitations from the atmosphere, we add the store of ice sup- plied by the sea during intense frosts, and conceive also of a state of quiescence, for the full operation of these causes, secured for ages, — the question of Ml mm-'' EH 1*'' ; '^i 262 AccoiNT or riir. aiuth ur.(;i()NS. the possibility of icc-bcrj^s bcin^j produced in tbi* sea, would svvm to have u sutlicieut solution. Should this conclusion be admitted, that ice- bergs may in sonic cases have their origin at a dis- tance from land, then it wouhl appear that e oc- currence of ice-bergs in the antarctic zone, is by no means decisive of the existence of land around the Southern Pole. SECT. V. Oft the Situation or General Outline (if the Polar lee. That extensive body of ice, which, with occasion- al tracts of land, occupies the northern extremity of the earth, and prevents all access to the regions im- mediately surrounding the Pole, lills, it appears, on an average, a circle of above 2000 geographical miles diameter ; and presents an outline which, though subject to partial variations, is found, at the same season of each succeeding year, to be generally simi- lar, and often strikingly uniform. The most remarkable alteration in the configura- tion of the polar ice on record, is that said to have taken place between Iceland and Greenland, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, whereby the in- tercourse between the Icelanders and the colonics I'jifc, s'S. POLAR ICE. — SITUATION OF. 263 (I ill the 1)11. that ico- i at a (lis- lat e oe- L% is hy no uouiul the c of the \\ occasion- xtrcmity of regions im- appears, on Iphical miles ^ch, though t the same erally simi- le configura- Laid to have hand, in the Irehy the in- Ithe colonics in Greenland was interrupted ; and although many attempts have been made on the part of Denmark, for the recovery of these colonies, and for ascertain- ing the fate of the colonists, they have not yet suc- ceeded in cither. It appears, that a considerable trade had been carried on between Iceland and Greenland, for upwards of 400 years, (the coasts of the latter being always accessible in the summer,) when a suspension of the intercourse took place, in consequence, it is imagined, of the polar ice ha- ving suddenly extended its usual limits, launched down by the land to Cape Farewell, and having so completely barricadoed the whole of the eastern and southern coasts, as to render them totally inaccessi- ble. Whether this was the real and only cause of the loss of the Greenland colonics to Denmark and Ice- land ? Whether any of the inhabitants yet remain, or the whole race is extinct ? Whether the change in the position of the ice was partial or permanent ? And whether the coast where the settlements were made, may not now be aijproached ? Are questions at present unanswerable ; but which, in the main, might, perhaps, be resolved by a single examination of the coast. In various countries, changes of climate to a cer- tain extent, have occurred, within the limits of his- torical record ; these changes have been commonly for the better, and have been considered as the ef- fects of human industry, in draining marshes and I \> ^■''^^ W>ii\:W %:% ^64< ACCOrNT Ul THK AliC'lR KECaONS. lakes, felling woods, and cultivating the earth : but here is an occurrence, if indeed true, the reverse of common experience, concerning the causes of which it is not easy to offer any conjecture. Another alteration in the position of the Green- land ice, of little importance, however, compared with the above, took place since the year 1815 ; a body of about 2000 square leagues of ice, having drifted out of the Greenland Sea, from between the parallels of 74^ and 80°, This dispersion of ice, however great as it appears to be, is probably only temporary ; and may, in a very few years, nay, in a season or two, be entirely replaced. With each recurring spring, the north Polar ice presents the following general outline. Filling the bays of Hudson and Eafiin, as well as the straits of Hudson and part of that of Davis, it exhibits an irregular waving, but generally continuous line, from Newfoundland or Labrador, to Nova Zenibla. From Newfoundland it extends in a northerly di- rection, along the Labrador shore, generally pre- venting all access to the land, as high as the mouth of Hudson's Strait ; then turning to the north-east ward, forms a bay near the coast of Greenland, in latitude, perhaps, QQ° or 67°, by suddenly passing away to the southward, to the extremity of Green- land. The quantity of ice on the east side of Davis' Strait, being often small, the continuity of its bor- der is liable to be broken, so as to admit of ships ONS. I'Ol.All-K i:. — SITUATION Ol". 265 arth : but reverse of s of which :he Green- compared ir 1815 ; a ice, having etween the iion of ice, obably only •s, nay, in a lorth Pohir le. Filling IS the straits exhibits an IS line, from uibla. ortherly di- ner ally pre- the mouth north-east- eenland, in nly passing of Green- e of Davis' of its bor- it of ships reaching the land ; and sometimes the bay of the ice usually occurring in the spring, in latitude 66° or 67% does not exist ; but the sea is open up the strait to a considerable distance beyond it. After doubling the southern promontory, or Cape Farewell, it advances in a north-eastern direction along the east coast, sometimes enveloping Iceland as it proceeds, until it readies the island of Jan Mayen. Passing this island on the north-west, but frequently enclosing it, the edge of the ice then trends a little more to the eastward, and usually in- tersects the meridian of London, between the 71st and 73d degree of latitude. Having reached the longitude of 5' or 6° east, in some instances as far as 8^ or 10° ; in the 73d or 74th degree of north latitude, it forms a remarkable promontory, and suddenly stretclies to the north, sometimes proceed- ing on a meridian to the latitude of 80° ; at others, forming a deep sinuosity, extending two or three degrees to the northward, and then south-easterly to Cherie Island ; which having passed, it assumes a more direct course a little to the southward of east, until it forms a junction with the Siberian or Nova Zemblau coast. During the winter and spring months, the Polar ice seems closely to embrace the whole of the north- ern shores of Russia, to the eastward of Nova Zem- bla ; and filling, in a great measure, Behring's Strait and the sea, to the northward of it, continues in contact with the polar face of the American conti- 'M .:;.«i 266 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. nent, following the line of the coast to the eastward, until it effects a junction with the ice in the Spitz- bergen Sea, or in the great north-western bays of Hudson and Baffin, or is termii:ated by land yet undiscovered. That remarkable promontory, mid-way between Jan Mayen and Cherie Islands, formed by the sud- den stretch of the ice to the north, constitutes the line of separation between the east or whaling, and west or sealing ice of the fishers : And the deep bay laying to the east of this promontory, which may be called The Whale-fisher's Bight, invaria- bly forms the only previous track for proceeding to fishing latitudes northward. When the ice at the extremity of this bay occurs so strong and compact, as to prevent the approach to the shores of Spitzber- gen, and the advance northward beyond the latitude of 75° or 76°, it is said to be a close season ; and, on the contrary, it is called an open season, when an uninterrupted navigation extends along the west- ern coast of Spitzbergcn to Hackluyt's Headland. In an open season, therefore, a large clianucl of wa- ter lies between tlie land and the ice, from 20 to 50 leagues in breadth, extending to tlic latitude of 79 or 80°, and gradually approximating tlie coast, un- til it at length effects a coalition with the north- western extremity, by a semicircular head. When the continuity of the body of ice, intervening be- tween Old (ireculand and Nova Zembia, is thus in-< rOLAll ICE. SITUATION Ul' 267 tenupted in an open season, the ice again makes its appearance on the south of Spitzbcrgen, proceeding from thence direct to Cherie Island, and then cast- ward as before. Such is the general appearance of the margin or outline of the polar ice, which holds, with merely partial changes, for many successive seasons. This outline, however, is necessarily more or less affected by storms and currents ; their more than ordinary prevalence in any one direction, must cause some variety of aspect in particular places, which becomes more especially apparent in the vicinity of land, where its coasts afford marks by which to estimate the advance and retreat of the ice. The line formed by the exterior of the ice is va- riously indented, and very rarely appears direct or uniform. Open bays or arms occur, from a few fa- thoms to several miles or leagues in depth. None of them, however, have any determinate form or place, except the Whale-fisher's Bight, or great bay before described, in which the Greenlandmen al- ways seek a passage to the fishing stations. The place where whales occur in the greatest abundance, is generally found to be in the 78th or 79th degree of north latitude, though from the 72d to the 81st degree they have been met with. These singular animals, which, on account of their prodigi- ous bulk and strength, might be thought entitled to reign supreme in the ocean, are harmless and timid. 1 i # .^^: I ■ tit ..a: ! % . !■ a*^: J^- Vi id' 11268 ACCOUNT Ol TIIK ARCTIC KKGJONS. They seem to prefer tliose situations wliich afford them the most secure retreats. Among the ice, they have an occasional slielter ; but so far as it is permeable, the security is rather apparent than real. That they are conscious of its affording them shel- ter, we can readily perceive, from o]»serving, that the course of their flight when scared or ^vounded, is generally towards the nearest or most compact ice. The place of their retreat, liowc^ cr, is regulated by various circumstances ; it may sometimes depend on the quality and quantity of food occurring, the dis- position of the ice, or exemption from enemies. At one time, their favourite haunt is amidst the huge and extended masses of the field ice ; at another, in the open seas adjacent. Sometimes the majority of the whales inhabiting those seas, seem collected within a small and single circuit ; at others, they are scattered in various hordes, and numerous single individuals, over an amazing extent of surface. To discover and reach the haunts of the whale, is an ob- ject of the first consideration in the fishery, and oc- casionally the most difficult and laborious to accom- plish. In close seasons, though the ice joins the south of Spitzbergen, and thereby forms a barrier against the fishing-stations, yet this barrier is often of a li- mited extent, and terminates on the coasts of Spitz- bergen in an open space, either forming, or leading to, the retreat of the whales. Such space is some- ilONS. krliich afford ng the ice, 3 far as it is it than real. 1 them slici- ng, that the Avounded, is compact ice. •ogiilated by 's depend on ing, the dis- ;nemies. At List the huge t another, in 2 majority of Dm collected others, they lerons single I surface. To lie, is an ob- lerv, and oc- is to accom- is the south \rier against Iften of a li- |sts of Spitz- or leading kice is some- POr.All UE. — SITUATION OV. 269 times frozen over until the middle or end of the month of May, but not unfrequently free of ice. Tlie barrier here opposed to the fisher, usually con- sists of a body of ice from 20 to 30 or 40 leagues across, in the shortest diameter. It is generally com- posed of packed ice, and often cemented into a con- tinuous field by the interference of bay ice, which incredibly augments the difficulty of navigating among it. As the time that can be devoted to the whale- fishery is, by the nature of the climate, limited to three or four months in the year, it is of importance to pass this barrier of ice as early as possible in the season. The fisher here avails himself of every power within his command. The sails are expand- ed in favourable winds, and withdrawn in contrary breezes. The ship is urged forward amongst drift- ice by the force of the wind, assisted with ropes and saws. Whenever a vein of water appears in the required direction, it is if possible attained. It always affords a temporary relief, and sometimes a permanent release, by extending itself through in- tricate mazes, amidst ice of various descriptions, un- til at length it opens into the desired place, void of obstruction, constituting the usual retreat of the whales. 270 ACCOUNT or thk aiutic regions. >n.' ''iiii 'H- SECT. VI. Changes which take place, with the advance of the Season, in the Situation of the Ice, in the Sea of Greenland and Davis' Strait. Tlie formidable barrier before described, when it occurs, is regularly encountered on the first arrival of the Greenland ships in the month of April, but is generally removed by natural means as the season advances. However extensive, heavy and compact it may be, it is usually foimd separated from the land, and divided asunder by the close of the montli of •Tune ; and hence it is, that however difficult and laborious may have been the ingress into the fishing country, the egress is commonly effected witliout much inconvenience. That the ice should envelope the whole coasts of Spitzbergen in the winter season, and expose the western shore about the month of June ; that the ocean should be almost annually navigable on the meridians of 5° to 10° E., to the 80th degree of north latitude, while the ice in other parts of the world can rarely be penetrated beyond the 73d or 74th degree, are facts that appear to be worthy of consideration. ji:":: 3XS. POLAR ICE. — CHANGES IX ITS SITUATION. 271 advance of ', Ice, in the ait. betl, when it irst arrival of /Vpril, but is LS the season id compact it I'om the land, the month of difficult and ;o the fishing [cted without whole coasts id expose the me; that the [igable on the |th degree of parts of the Id the 73d or be worthy of On the recession of the ice from tlie west side of the land, a lane of water must be left from one extremity to the other ; while to the south of Point Look-out, a parallel motion of the ice leaves no opening or evidence of its change of place ; for here, the ice meeting with no obstruction to cause it to divide, moves on in a solid body, retained firm and unbroken by the tenacious cement of the inter- jacent bay-ice. In the month of ]\Iay, the severity of the frost relaxes, and the temperature occasionally approaches within a few degrees of the freezing point : the salt in the sea then exerts its liquefying energy, and destroys the tenacity of the bay-ice, makes inroads in its parts by enlarging its pores into holes, diminishes its thickness, and, in the language of the whalc-fisher, completely rots it. The packed drift-ice is then liberated ; it submits to the laws of detached floating bodies, and obeys the slightest impulses of the winds or currents. The heavier having more stability than the lighter, an apparent difference of movement obtains among the pieces. Holes and lanes of water are formed, which allow the entrance and progress of the ships, without that stubborn resistance offered earlier in the spring of the year. Bay-ice is sometimes serviceable to the whalers, in preserving tlieni from the brunt of the heavy ice, by embedding their ships, and occasioning an .<*«!■!<«!• . I . mf. m fey.' If' . 272 A(!COT'Nr f)F TIIK AlUTIC IIKCJIONS. equable pressure on every part of the vessel : but, in other respects, it is tlie greatest pest they meet with in all their labours : it is troublesome in the fishery, and in the progress to the fishing ground ; it is often the means of bcsetment, as it is called, and thence the primary cause of every other cala- mity. Heavy ice, many feet in thickness, and in detached pieces of from 50 to 100 tons weight eacli, though crowded together in the form of a pack, may be penetrated, in a favourable gale, with to- lerable despatch ; whilst a sheet of bay-ice, of a few inches only in thickness, with the same advantage of wind, will often arrest the progress of the ship, and render her in a few minutes immoveable. If this ice be too strong to be broken by the weight of a boat, recourse must be had to sawing, an opera- tion slow and laborious in the extreme. When the warmth of the season has rotted the bay-ice, the passage to the northward can generally be accomplished with a very great saving of labour. Therefore it was, the older fishers seldom or never used to attempt it before the 10th of May, and fo- reign fishers in the present day, are in general late. Sometimes late arrivals are otherwise beneficial ; since it frequently happens, in close seasons^ that ships entering the ice about the middle of May, ob- tain an advantage over those preceding them, by gaining a situation more eligible, on account of its nearness to the land. Their predecessors, mean- 1 mi ONS. •OLAR ICE. — CHANCES IX JTS SITUATION'. 273 cssel: but, : they meet some ill the ng ground ; it is called, other cala- less, and in weight each, 1 of a pack, ale, with to- •ice, of a few ic advantage of the ship, noveable. It the weight of g, an opcra- is rotted the :an generally [ng of labour. )m or never [ay, and fo- I general late. |e beneficial; seasons^ that of May, ob- Lg them, by account of 2ssors, mean- while, are drifted off to the westward with the ice, and cannot recover their casting ; for they are encompassed with a large quantity of ice, and liave a greater distance to go than when they first entered, and on a course precisely in opposition to the direction of the most prevailing winds. Hence it appears, that it would be economical and bene- ficial to sail so late, as not to reach the country before the middle of May, or to persevere on the sealing stations until that time. There are, how- ever, some weighty objections to this method. Open seasons occasionally occur, and great progress may sometimes be made in the fishery before that time. Also, although the majority of the whalers do not commonly succeed in passing the barrier in close seasons before a certain period, yet some individu- als, by a superior exertion, perseverance, ability, or good fortune, accomplish the end considerably be- fore the rest, and thereby gain a superiority in the fishery, not to be attained by later arrivals. A week or fortnight's solitary fishing, under these circumstances, has frequently gained half a cargo, — an advantage of the most interesting importance, in a voyage of such limited duration. The change which takes place in the ice amidst which the whale-fisher pursues liis object, is, to- wards the close of the season^ indeed astonishing. For, not only does it separate into its original in- dividual portions, — not only does it retreat in a VOL. I. s I>u^ tf '^1 I ? Xfi,;'!: :•! 'Nf%^,^ "iMI 274 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REC.IONS. body from the western coast of Spitzbcrgen, but in general, that barrier of ice which encloses the fishing site in the spring, which costs the fisher immense labour and anxiety to penetrate, by re- tarding his advance towards the north, and his pro- gress in the fishery, for the space of several weeks, — spontaneously divides in the midst about the month of June, and on the return of the ships is not at all to be seen ! Then is the sea rendered freely na- vigable from the very haunts of the whales, to the expanse of the Atlantic Ocean. This quality of the ice, is of the first import- ance to the navigator. It is this known property which gives him confidence in his advance, and en- ables him to persevere without restraint, calculating on an easy return. As one-half of the fishing sea- son is often spent in the ingress were the regress as arduous, there would be no time left for fishing : besides, the return would be rendered doubly ha- zardous by the prevalence of the summer fogs, which are thick in the extreme, and sometimes con- tinue for days together, without intermission. Were the barrier of ice not passable, the haunts of the whales could not be attained; and were the regress not favoured by natural facilities, every attempt to prosecute the whale-fishery with effect, would be attended with imminent danger ; I may say, with almost certain destruction. i! nNS. POLAR-ICE.— CHANGES IN ITS SITUATION. 275 crgen, but [icloses the the fisher ate, by re- ind his pro- •al weeks, — t the month s is not at d freely na- lales, to the first import- )wn property nee, and en- t, calculating ^fishing sea- the regress [t for fishing : doubly ha- [ummer fogs, letimes con- ission. the haunts and were filities, every with effect, iger ; I may Similar changes as those above described, also take place in the ice of Hudson's Bay, Baffin's Bay, and Davis' Strait. The navigation of the former bay is first interrupted by ice, generally, in the month of November ; but on the east side of Davis' Strait, the ice does not usually make its appearance under the land until the spring. Little progress can be made .through the ice into the great bays of Hudson and Baffin, until the month of June or July, in the course of which all the bay-ice that serves as a cement to the heavy ice being dissolved, or very much reduced, a passage to the extremity of each bay is gradually opened. Baffin accompUshed the navigation to the extremity of the bay called by his name, without much difficulty, in the be- ginning of July ; but Captain Ross, in his late voyage, had much trouble in effecting the same, about the middle of August. In the months of August and September, the ice in the bays seems to be the most open, and in the Straits of Davis and Hudson almost entirely dispersed. s2 276 ACCOUNT or thk auctic uegions. SECT. VII. Situation of the Ice in the Region visited by the Greenland Ships, with Observations on the Al- terations which have occurred during a Series of' Sixteen Years. 5 ^J. ■ii 'n m •fi!'.,, ^r;.,: jjii m iij, li What has hitherto been advanced on the situa- tion of the polar ice, refers to its most general and permanent characters. It will now be my object to give a sketch of the most prominent appearances which have annually marked the ice in the region visited by the Spitzbergen or Greenland whale- fishers, during a period of sixteen years. The year 1803 was an open season. So early as the middle of April, there was no obstruction to the navigation to the 81st degree of north latitude ; that is, on a meridian about 5° east of Greenwich. The weather was tempestuous ; the most prevailing winds from the north-east. No particular change took place in the ice during the stay of the whalers. The egress was consequently without obstruction. The fishery, on the whole, was unsuccessful. In 1804, the entrance into the northern fishing stations, was obstructed by a barrier composed of open drift-ice, consolidated by bay-ice of peculiar tenacity and strength. The bay-ice was broken up and dispersed on the 12th of May, and a sufficient N8. POLAR ICE. — ANNUAL SITUATION. 277 ited by the (yn the Al- ga Series in the situa- gcneral and my object to appearances n the region iland whale- s. n. So early bstruction to rth latitude ; Greenwich. ist prevailing !ular change the whalers. obstruction. ssful. [hem fishing composed of of peculiar Ls broken up a sufficient passage Lr the ships opened. Tlic fislicry was to- luraltly good. The egress was easy. In 1805, the fishing-stations were open, by the end of April, up to the 7Htli degree of latitude. The fishery was moderately gooil ; tlie egress easy. The singular position of the ice, in the year 1806, was the occasion of a most interesting voyage ; ha- ving afforded us the opportunity of performing an extraordinary navigation, and of advancing nearer to the Pole than on any other occasion since I have been in the habit of visiting the Spitzhcrgen seas. It was a close season ; .ind the barrier of ice was so uncommonly extensive, and continued so long, that not more than three ships accomplished a passage through it. Tliis barrier extended from latitude 75° 20' to 79" 30' ; being 250 miles across. Beyond it was an open sea, from .30 to 50 miles nortli and south ; from a western situation in which, we sail- ed in an E N E direction (true) nearly .300 miles, without observing any signs of its termination. As an abstract of the journal of the proceedings in this extraordinary navigation, is given in a following sec- tion, it is unnecessary to enter into more particulars here. A close season again occurred in 1807. The mar- gin of the ice was, however, pervious to a consider- able extent, wherein many large whales being seen, some ships made a successful fishing in latitude 75° or 76° ; other ships, which persevered to the northward, and passed the barrier, likewise sue- ^f in' ■ i'' ■ (S ■L .: iky 'i-a ::m m t 278 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. ceeded tolerably well. The prevailing wind was from the north-east. Though ice occurred in the place usually occupied by the barrier, in the year 1808, yet being open, and in a great measure free from bay-ice, it afforded shelter to the fishermen without obstructing their progress. Whales being plentiful, the weather fine, and the ice generally open, the fishery was uncom- monly good. No difficulty was experienced by the whalers on their return, until they reached the la- titude of 74", when a remarkable barrier presented itself. It consisted of loosely packed ice, and was found to extend from the main western ice, above 100 miles to the eastward, with a general breadth of 10 to 20 leagues. A few ships forced their way through it, but most of the fleet doubled the east- ernmost extremity. In 1809, we had a close season. Few ships pas- sed the barrier before the end of May. Those which first succeeded made a prosperous fishery. At the close of the season, a free navigation led to seaward in a south-westerly direction, from la- titude 79° and longitude 6° E, But near the coast of Spitzbergen, a vast body of ice was accu- mulated. The season of 1810 was similar to that of 1804. Young ice cemented together the detached pieces of heavy ice that lay in the passage to the north- ward. A severe storm occurred on the 6th and 7tli DNS. wind was ily occupied )eing open, , it afforded acting their veatlier tine, was uncom- nced by the hed the la- ,er presented ce, and was irn ice, above icral breadth cod their way led the east- BW ships pas- Vlay. Those jrous fishery, gation led to >ii, from la- ut near the cc was accu- hat of 1804. ached pieces the ^north- 6th and 7th 1>0LAR-ICE.^ANNUAL SITUATION. 279 of May, which, producing a heavy swell from the northward, annihilated most of the bay-ice in one day. The retreat of the whales was soon afterwards attained, and the fishery proved partially successful. At the close of the season, an isthmus of ice stretch- ed 50 or 60 miles from the main western body to the eastward, the extremity of which lay in longi- tude 12" 30' E. The season of 1811 was uncommonly close. Though the most arduous exertions were made by the fishers for four or five weeks, few ships passed the barrier before the 26th of May. Whales occur- red in great plenty, and the fisheiy was generally good. During the stay of the ships, a pack of heavy ice, formed between them and the land, join- ing the main ice in the 80tli degree of north lati- tude, and preserving its continuity in a southerly di- rection, with a breadth of 15 to 20 leagues, as far as latitude 73" 40'. In latitude 77" 30', it approach ' ed the main ice within a few miles, but still leaving a channel leading in a south-westerly direction to seaward. This channel, however, ^was so narrow, that the majority of the ships did not discover it, but forced through the eastern pack, and then per- formed the passage to the southward along its east- em margin. A season more singularly close than this occurred in 1812. The barrier consisted of a compact body of floes and fields. In each of the preceding years,. 280 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. mm 1 1 S'liiirffllM..' i' ',VBifi.-*- -' 't ■.■; the obstruction invariably consisted of packed ice, consolidated by the intervention of bay ice into a continuous sheet ; but, on this occasion, the most ponderous field-ice barred the navigation. This singular barrier extended from the eastern pack, lying between Point-Look-out and Cherie Island, in a north-western direction to the main western ice. JMuch open drift ice covered the south-western side of it, and preserved the fields and floes from being destroyed by the sea. This barrier was one of the most formidable that had ever been encountered. All attempts to pass it before the close of the month of May were attended with imminent dan- ger, and were generally nugatory. But after a week's continuance of mild calm weather, the fields and floes were released by the partial destruction of the bay-ice among them, and a winding naviga- tion of about sixty miles in extent, opened into a dear sea adjoining the land. For some time after passing the barrier, but few whales were seen ; the fishery was late, and only partially successful. The remarkable change which occasionally takes place in the polar ice, is rarely more striking than that which occurred in this season : for, notwithstanding the compact, extensive, and formidable nature of the barrier which opposed the entrance of the ships into the northern fishing stations, yet, on their return, in the month of July, they did not meet with the )NS. lacked ice, ice into a 1, the most ion. This stern pack, ie Island, in western ice. A estern side I from heing 5 one of the encountered, close of the minent dan- But after a er, the fields II destruction [ding naviga- »ened into a te time after ^re seen ; the iessful. The ikes place in [n that which tanding the iture of the le ships into Dheir return, leqt with the POLAR ICE. — ANNUAL SI \TION. 281 least ohstruction, hut found an o\ n sea extending from the latitude of 79° into the Atlantic Ocean. The year 1813 was an open season. So early as the beginning or middle of April, many ships ad- vanced beyond the 80th degree of latitude. The weather was uncommonly tempestuous. Several of the storms prevailed with almost unabated violence for three successive days ; and it was not until the month of June had commenced, that the weather became settled and moderate. In consequence of the prevalence of easterly winds, the ice was gene- rally packed, and the fishery was bad. Scarcely more than three or foiu* ships obtained full cargoes, and several returned without a single whale. This year, it is somewhat remarkable, the fishery in Da- vis' Strait was still more unsuccessful. In conse- quence of the failure of both fisheries, whale-oil at- tained a price before unequalled ; having risen, to- wards the close of the year, as high as sixty pounds per ton ! In 1814, we had an open season. The ice was not packed, as in the preceding year, but was gene- rally open and navigable. AVhales occurred in great numbers in the open water ; the weather was generally favourable ; and the fishery proved very successful. After the middle of May, the wind prevailed from the southern and western quarters, whereby the main western ice was still more opened, and drifted up to the very shores of Spitzbergen. mm irt' tt -H ! it ■i it: 282 ACCOUNT OF THE AllCTIC REGIONS. Among this ice, many whales were seen and caught at a very late season. The season of 1815 was also open in the month of April. In May a loose body of ice, partly occu- pied the opening in the 79th degree of latitude, and remained about a month. In June it dispersed. The fishery to the northward was closed by the mid- dle of June ; but it lecommenccd about the end of the month, in latitude 76°, at the edge of the ice, and continued during two or three weeks of July, a little within the borders of the ice, in the same parallel. In 1816, we had a season partially open ; tlic most early fishers having sailed without obstruction to a high northern latitude, while the later arrivals had to pass through a considerable open pack. The northern parts of the country were filled with bay ice most of the month of May. The fishery became general in June, but was not very prosperous. The season of 1817 was remarkable, on account of its openness, and on account of the westerly posi- tion and peculiar penetrability of the ice. To the northward of latitude 74°, the Spitzbergen Sea is seldom navigable to the westward of the meridian of London ; but, in this season, I had an opportu- nity of sailing as far as longitude 11° 40' W. in la- titude 75° 28' N. ; to longitude 10° W. in latitude 75° 10' N. ; and to longitude 10° 37', (by chronome- ter,) in latitude 74° N. In the two first instances^ POLAll-ICE. — ANNUAL SITUATION. 283 the weather was thick, and our position a little un- certain ; but, in the last, the weather was clear, and my observations, both for latitude and longitude, were good. The east side of West Greenland, a coast never, I believe, approached, excepting by ships beset in the ice, since Hudson's voyage in 1 607, was at this time seen by myself fi'om the mast-head ; but the commencement of a fog put a stop to our farther advance, otherwise the ice appeared suffi- ciently open to have permitted us to reach its shores. We were then a distance of 80 or 90 miles within the exterior limits ot the ice. In this season, from the too great extent of the sea open to the whales, and the wide dispersion of them, the fishery was in general very bad. In the month of June the northern land-ice joined the western ice, in the 79th degree of latitude, and extended in a line to the south-eastward, as far as Point-Look-out. At the point of junction of the land-ice, and main wes- tern ice, a successful but partial fishery occurred. An open season, a good deal similar to the last described, again occurred in 1818. The edge of the ice, however, lay farther to the eastward, be- tween latitude 76° and 80°, and farther to the west- ward, between 73° and 76°. On the 1st of July, we reached the longitude of 9° W. in latitude 74° 54', without entering the ice. Indeed the edge of the ice, from latitude 74° to 77", was, about this period, firm and impervious. The fishery, on the Jl 284 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. as-" ° ' ii' whole, was only moderately good. In the early part of the season, the prospect was excellent ; but the latter fishery almost entirely failed. In these two seasons of 1817 and 1818, the sea was more open than on any former occasion remem- bered by the oldest fishermen ; an extent of sea amounting to about 2000 square leagues of surface, included between the parallels of 74° and 80° N. being quite void of ice, which is usually covered by it*. SECT. VIII. *:ni mm n%.hi Remarks on the Properties, peculiar Movements, an^ ' Drifting of the Ice. 1, The ice always has a tendency to separate du- ring calms. This property holds, both with regard to field and drift ice ; and seems to arise from a re- pelling tendency between the individual m,asses, or from the action, of a very superficial current, carry- ing the light ice away faster than the heavy ice. Hence it is, when a body of heavy ice is released from its confinement and continuity, by the disso- • Plate VII. shows the particular position of the Greenland ice, in the seasons of 1817 and 1818, as well as its general out- line in close and open :.D-ons. -■flit- ? rf-'i'i J?:! t ONS. e early part nt ; but the 18, the sea sion remem- Ltent of sea 3S of surface, > and 80° N. y covered by POLAR-ICE. — DT?IFTIXG. 285 Movements, separate du- witli regard Ise from a re- il masses, or irrent, carry- ie heavy ice. is released )y the disso- the Greenland Its general out- lution of the intervening bay-ice, the pieces gene- rally spread abroad in a calm, so as to allow a free passage for ships, which before, could not be urged on by the power of the wind, combined with every ef- fort of art. From the same cause, it is, that ice which, with strong winds, is formed into streams or patches, and allows a safe and commodious naviga- tion amidst these large aggregations, will, on the occurrence of two or three days of calm weather, be disseminated into every opening, and seem to occu- py every space, allowing only a troublesome and si- nuous passage for ships. In this case, the dispersion is so general, that scarcely any two pieces can be said to touch each other. 2. Openings in packs and among fields or floes, frequently break out or disappear, without any appa- rent cause. It is often of importance to the fisher to determine, whether any space be in the course of diminishing or enlarging. The freezing of the water frequently affords an intimation of its closing, as it rarely takes place to any considerable extent, on the extension of the bounding ice. The birds likewise instinctively leave the closing spaces, and fly in search of such as are in the course of opening. The closing of heavy ice, encircling a quantity of bay-ice, causes it to run together with such force, that it overlaps wherever two sheets meet, until it sometimes attains the thickness of many feet. In this case, when a ship happens to be in the midst of 286 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. »*; ! ■■'^■N: W'^4 '^^^ him m: the pressure, the ice sometimes rises to the height of the gunwale, squeezing and shaking her in a terrible manner. Drift ice does not often coalesce with such a degree of force, as to endanger any ship whicli may happen to be beset in it ; when, how- ever, land opposes its motion, or the ship is immu- red in the centre of a heavy body of it, the pressure is sometimes alarming. 3. Fields often open, close, and revolve in the most extraordinary way, in calms as well as in storms. Sometimes these motions may be accounted for ; at other times they are altogether anomalous. Fields, floes, and compact bodies of drift-ice, are disturbed by the wind, by currents and tides, or by the pressure of other ice against them. The wind forces all ice to leeward, with a velocity nearly in the inverse proportion to its depth under water ; light ice, con- sequently, drives faster than heavy ice, loose ice faster than fields, and fields faster than bergs. Fields may approximate each other from three causes, dependent on the influence of the wind. First, If the lighter field be to windward, it will ne- cessarily be impelled towards the heavier, by the in- fluence of the wind. Secondly, As the wind fre- quently commences blowing on the windward-side of the ice, and continues several hours before it is felt a few miles distant to leeward, the windward field begins to drift, before any impression is produ- ced on tlie ice to leeward of it ; and, thirdly, Fields ., ^.r. i '.;' .'■ •Miili'ii!)!' !3»|:v* Mil ONS. the height ig her in a ten coalesce rcr any ship when, how- p is immu- the pressure volve in the as in storms, nted for ; at [)us. Fields, disturhed by the pressure forces all ice the inverse ight ice, con- ;e, loose ice than bergs, from three if the wind. ■d,itwillne- r, by the in- le wind fre- [ndward-side before it is iC windward .11 is produ- •dly, Fields rOI.AK-TCE. — DRIFTING. 287 arc not unfrequently impei .1 towards each other by winds, acting upon each from opposite quar- ters. Though the set of the current in the Greenland Sea be generally towards the south-west, yet near the shore, where there are eddies and tides, it is very irregular. This irregularity produces striking effects upon the ice. Near Hackluyt's Headland, and, indeed, at the distance often to twenty leagues from it, in and about the same parallel, the influ- ence of a tide or irregular current is observed. This occasions ripplings in the water, and periodical closings and openings of the ice. At the borders of fields connected with the main body of ice, a striking movement in the drift-ice may be often ob- served ; the loose ice adhering closely to the edge of the adjoining fields for a few hours, then moving off in a body for a short period, and alternately ad- vancing and retreating at regular intervals. Fields are liable also to be put in motion, by the force with which drift-ice occasionally presses against them. Thus, a body of loose ice drifting against and grazing along the side of a field in its course to leeward, becomes deflected, and its re-action causes a circular motion of the field. 4. The amazing changes which take place in the most compact ice, are often unaccountable. They astonish even those who are accustomed to their oc- currence. Thus, ships immoveably fixed with regard asH ACCOUNT 01' THE AUCTIC REGIONS. - 'if; to the ice, have hecii known to perfonn a complete revolution in a few hours ; and two ships beset a few furlongs apart, within the most compact pack, have sometimes been separated to the distance of se- veral leagues within the space of two or three days, notwithstanding the apparent continuity of the pack remained unbroken ! On the 7th of May 1798, the Dundee of Lon- don, (then commanded by my Father,) while for- cing to the northward on the most eligible course, was suddenly stopped by a shift of wind, and en- veloped by the ice at a very short distance from the land. The Volunteer of AVhitby, and three other ships, were likewise arrested, a little way from the Dundee. During the day, three Russian hunters visited them, coming over the ice from the nearest shore ; but as none of the crew could speak their language, i,hey were prevented from deriving any information from them. The next day, a heavy gale of wind prevailed from the north-west ; the frost was intense, and much snow fell. The pressure of the ice was very severe ; insomuch, that their iron-tiller was broken, the ship lifted above two feet, and forced within a mile and a-half of the land. All the bay-ice was squeezed upon the top of the heavy ice, and the whole was rendered so compact, that they could not find a hole sufficient to admit a lead, for the pur- pose of ascertaining the depth of the water. They ONS. POLAR-ICE. — DIllFTlNfS. a complete lips beset a mpact pack, stance of se- ■ three days, r of the pack dee of Lon- ,) while for- igiblc course, ind, and en- ance from the id three other way from the ssian hunters m the nearest speak their deriving any [ind prevailed intense, and ice was very \r was broken, ^rced within a le bay-ice was ice, and the ley could not I, for the pur- Lvater. They got their provisions upon deck, considering tlie sliip in great danger. On the 9th, they were in latitude 77" 38' N. The intensity of the pressure was not diminished. The Volunteer lay beset three miles off, under a like dangerous pressure. On the 10th, the Dundee and Volunteer began to separate, though the ice continued close, and the ships were firmly beset. In my Father's journal of the 12th, appear the following remarks : " iV. JB — 1 cannot, from the top-gallant-mast-head, see over the fiat of ice to the north-east, into which the ship is frozen : and yet in fifty hours it has revolved from the south-south- west, westerly to north, and carried the ship with a semicircular motion 15 or 20 leagues : On the 10th instant, we w^ere witliin a mile and a-lialf of the land, whereas our distance is now 10 leagues, and our advance to the northward even greater. The Volunteer has drifted out of sight in the south-west quarter." On the 15th, after labouring eight and forty hours without rest, they escaped into a place of safety. On the 17th of June 1813, I observed a strange commotion among the Greenland ice, without being able to discover any cause at all comparable with the effect. The wind had blown a fresh gale, but was now moderate ; the sea was smooth, and the si- tuation of the ice was remote from any swells. Tlic latitude was 78°10'N., longitude 3°10'i:. We VOL. I. T •^■« .<'!v -j 9m 290 Acco(^N'T OF Tin: arctic regions. passed through a patch of drift-ice into a consider- able opening, bounded by a field on the west, drift- ice on the east, and floes and heavy drift-ice on the north and south. Here, the motion of the ice was wonderful. I^arge masses of drift-ice were advan- cing to the southward, with a velocity of two to three miles per hour, leaving eddies in the sea like those produced by a strong tide in shallow water, while other masses of ice, similar in kind and situa- tion, were at rest. We passed between a floe and some drift-ice, which actually closed as fnst as the ship sailed. Some insulated pieces of ice astonish- ed us with their motion ; and proceeded with a steady velocity and undeviating course across the middle of the opening. The ice on every side but that on the north, being nearly at rest, the lake we navigated was rapidly filled up ; on our approach to it, there was a space of some leagues in circumfe- rence free from ice ; but in a few hours, the largest space to be seen was not fifty yards in diameter. With difficulty we made our escape to the eastward ; but still remaining by the edge of the packed ice, we could observe the eflPect produced. Drift-ice continued pouring down from the north against the side of the field ; so that in the course of twelve hours, the intervening ice formed a body of seven or eight miles in width. 5. When speaking of the currents of the Spitz- bergen Sea, I remarked, that the polar-ice, in this sitiintion, ling » coiMfnnt * i »out;,.wcst,v.,ri'sc the influ. ;<-v.r.H,..ee:t::;™t:''r7'r""^- 'rom land, its ui.iver,,! ,„ . ^' " ''""""'••'• S<""e of those ft s tv t^'l """""' -'^""™<»- In the beginning „f i, 'he ship Ksk of VVhithv ' ' "" """'"' '""> '<='. in latitude 78» loLlT^'' "P'"""K "^ the often or twelve ^^"^^^"ff ^° «• »» a distance 've were tempted to st,vT ,' ""'""'• '^''"'="' great number of ,vhalc,' n"?, "PP^^^nce of a "eather, whieh had p"vi ^l t ■" "^ ''"'' "'" '"ted, when, the fro,t h^i„ ^ ™ '^"""y- '""''e- «xed in bay-ioe. A t ? '"'"".• "'^ *'P «- -»" sheets of ice on the norJ 'T"/"""' ""^ ^"'^^a' ;-^. completely enclosed u uZT''''' ^'"^ 'ay.mmoveabIe;abreak„f H V *''* ^<'*'>> «•« ^d abont half a mile ftl , ''! ''■^^■''='' ">«' Wear- boured with e„ert\,7i;^'.'" 'T'" "'"'='' "« '- -^ a passage for S 2 o""':! ''""^^ "-"-"Piish- "1 the same openi„? to i. " '" '""'■ "« P"'™" -deavoured. but without trr"'"-;''-''.^. -<' a narrow neck of ice i„t„ ' !u '"''''' ""•«"g'> T 2 '^'^ri} ' MM' mm »''*i IS'. ?lii ]'i»: 292 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC llEGIONS. tempting this object, we endured a heavy pressure of the bay-ice, which shook the ship in an alarming manner. The next day, we made a small advance; and on the 22d, after a fatiguing effort in passing through the midst of an aggregation of floes, against the wind, we reached a channel which led us several miles to the south-eastward. On tlie 23d, we lay at rest together with four other ships. The day fol- lowing, having sawn a place for the ship in a thin floe, we forced forward between two large masses, where bay ice unconsolidated had been compressed, until it had become 10 or 12 feet thick. We were assisted by about a hundred men from the accom- panying ships, which followed close in our rear ; and after applying all our mechanical powers during eight or nine hours, we passed the strait of about a furlong in length, and immediately the ice collaps- ed and rivetted the ships of our companions to the spot. As they declined our proffered assistance, (which indeed, at this time, would have been quite unavailing), we determined to improve the advantage we had acquired, by proceeding to the utmost li- mits of the opening. Accordingly, we advanced, on various winding courses, amidst bay-ice and fields, in narrow obscure passages, a distance of several miles. We then discovered a continua- tion of the navigation between two immense sheets of ice ; but the channel was so narrow and in- tricate, that, for the distance of near a mile, it did not appear more than 10 to 20 yards in width. The n!3 ONS. POLAR ici'.. — nini'TiNc;. 293 ivy pressure an alarming all advance; L-t in passing loos, against ed us several 23d, we lay The day fol- hip in a thin large in asses, \ compressed, k. We were im the accom- our rear; and )owers during ait of ahout a he ice coUaps- anions to the ed assistance, ,ve been quite the advantage [he utmost li- we advanced, bay-ice and a distance of a continua- mense sheets rrow and in- a mile, it did n width. The prospect was indeed appalling ; hut, perceiving indi- cations of the enlargement of the passage, rather than the contrary, we advanced under a press of sail, driving aside some disengaged lumps of ice that op- posed us, and shortly accomplished our wishes in safety. Here, an enlivening prospect presented it- self: to the extreme limits of the horizon, no inter- ruption was visible. We made a predetermined signal to the ships we had left, indicative of our hopes of a speedy release. In two hours, however, our sanguine expectations of an immediate escape received a check, for we then met with fields in the act of collapsing and completely barring oiu- pro- gress. As the distance across was scarcely a mile, and the sea to appearance clear beyond it, the inter- ruption was most tantalizing. We waited at the point of union, in the hope of the separation of the two fields ; and on the morning of the 26th of ]May, our anxiety was happily relieved, by the wish- ed-for division of the ice. The ship, propelled by a brisk wind, darted through the strait, and entered a sea, which we considered the termination of our dif- ficulties. After steering three hours to the south- eastward, as directed by the northern ice, we were concerned to discover that our conclusions had been premature. An immense pack o])ened on our view, stretching directly across our track. There was no alternative, but forcing through it : we therefore pushed forward into the least connected part. By availing ourselves of every advantage in sailing, mm fli!iiHi.jf i# '■M-i' f'':m !Sli Eiffel" b>.V''^' r m :pfc:f L p mii 294 ACCOUNT OF THi: AUCTIC KLGIONS. where sailing was practicable, and horhig^ or drifting, where tlie i)ieccs of ice lay close together, we at length reached the leeward part of a narrow channel, in which we had to ply a considerable distance against the wind. When performing this, the wind, which had hitherto blown a brisk breeze from the north, increased to a strong gale. The ship was placed in such a critical situation, that we could not for above an hour accomplish any reduc- tion of the sails ; and while I was personally en- gaged perforaiing the duty of a pilot from the top- mast-head, the bending of the mast was so uncom- mon, that I was seriously alarmed for its stabilit}-. At length, we were enabled to reef our sails, and for some time proceeded with less danger. We continued to mancEUvre among the ice in those situations where its separation was most considerable. Our direction was now east, then north for several hours, then easterly ten or fifteen miles ; — when, after eighteen hours of the most difficult, and occasionally ha- zardous sailing, in which the ship received some hard blows from the ice ; after pursuing a devious course nearly ninety miles, and accomplishing a distance on a direct north-east course of about forty " Boring is the operation of forcing a ship through crowded ice by the agency of the wind on the sails. The impetus of the ship is studiously directed against the opposing pieces, and a passage thereby effected. It can be performed only with h- .^oiirable •winds. ^ii POI.AIl ICE. — DRIFTING. 295 miles,— ^we found ourselves at the very margin of the sea, separated only by a narrow sea-stream. The sea was so great without, and the wind so violent, that we durst not hazard an attempt to force through this remaining obstacle. After waiting about thirty hours, on the morning of the 28th of May, the weather cleared, and the wind abated. The sea-stream which, the preceding day, did not exceed two hundred yards in breadth, was generally augmented to upwards of a mile broad. One place alone was visible, where the breadth was less con- siderable ; to that we directed our course, forced the ship into it, and by prompt and vigorous exer- tions, were ena;bled to surmount every difficulty, and accomplish our final escape into the open sea. I have been thus minute in the relation of the progress of our extrication from an alarming, though not very uncommon, state of bcsetment, both for the purpose of giving a faint idea of the difficulties and dangers which those engaged in the whale- fishery have occasionally to encounter, and also more particularly to show the extraordinary manner in which ships are imperceptibly immured amidst the ice, and carried away from their original situation, by the regularity of its drift to the south-westward. From this narrative, it will appear, that, not- withstanding we only penetrated 25 or 30 miles on our ingress, and among ice most widely dispo- sed ; yet, before our extrication was accomplished, j'^* II If. ^»'r'.:':f tl! 596 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC IlKtilONS. we had passed on a direct course a distance of 35 or 40 leagues, whereof one-half Wus in contracted channels, amidst compact and formidable ice. And, further, that in less than a fortnight, while at rest with regard to the ice, our drift, as ascertained by astronomical observations, had been 60 or 70 miles to the south, and a distance nearly as great to the west. I'H' w% mi !^|i: m SECT. IX. Effects of the Ice on the Atmosphere, and of the Ice and Sea on each other. The profusion of ice in the polar regions, produ- ces peculiar and marked effects on the surrounding elements. The sea, in consequence, exhibits some interesting characters, and the atmosphere, some striking phenomena. Of these, the power ^^3 ice exerts on the wind, — on aqueous vapour, — on the colour of the sky, — and on the temperature of the air, are the most prominent ; and of those the re- sults are varied accordingly as the ice or swell has the ascendency, 1 . When the wind blows forcibly across a solid pack or field of ice, its power is much diminished ere it traverses many miles : Insomuch, that a storm ^vill frequently blow for several hours on I'OLAlt ICE. — INFLUENCi: ON ATMOSPHERE. 297 one side of a field, before it be perceptible on the other ; and, while a storm prevails in open water, ships beset within sight, will not experience one- half of its severity. 2. It is not uncommon for the ice to produce the effect of repulsing and balancing an assailing wind. Thus, when a severe storm blows from the sea di- rectly towards the main body of ice, an opposite current will sometimes prevail on the borders of the ice ; and such conflicting winds have been ob- served to counterpoise each other, a few furlongs distant from the ice, for several hours : the violence of the one being, as it were, subdued by the frigo- rific repulsion and greater density of the other. The effect resulting, is singular and manifest. For, 3. The moist and temperate gale from the south- ward, becomes chilled on commixture with the north- em breeze, and having its capacity for moisture there- by diminished, discharges its surplus humidity in the thickest snow * As the quantity of the snow depends considerably on the difference of tempera- ture of the two assimilating streams of air, it fol- lows, that the largest proportion must be preci- pitated on the exterior of the main body of ice, • It is almost needless to say, that the foundation of this, and some of the following remarks, on the same subject, is de- rived from Dr Hutton's ingenious Theory of Rain, an able and beautiful illustration of which we have in Professor Les- lie's Essay " On the Relations of Air to Heat and Moisture," D 12*^ S98 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC IlEGIONS. Un. m :'*j.' ! i m^ m (ulH .;^:l:i imn fr'i'fi where the contrast of temperature is the greatest : and since that contrast must be gradually diminish- ed, as the air passes over the gelid surface of the ice, much of its superabundant moisture must ge- nerally be discharged before it reaches the interior. Hence we can account for the fewness of the clouds, — the consequent brightness of the atmosphere, — and the rareness of storms, in situations far immu- red among the northern ice. From this consideration, it might be supposed, that after the precipitation of a certain small depth of snow on the interior ice, the atmosphere could alone replenish its moisture from the same surface, and that whatever changes of temperature might occur, it could only discharge the same again : or, in other words, that the very same moisture would be alternately evaporated and deposited, without a possibility of adding to a limited dept^i of snow. Now, this would assuredly be the case, if nothing more than the same moisture evaporated from the snowy surface of the ice, were again deposited. But, it must be observed, that notwithstanding winds from the north, east or west, may not furnish any considerable quantity of snow ; and that although those warm and humid storms which blow from the south, may afford a large proportion of their hu- midity to the exterior ice ; yet, as the temperature of the northern regions would be gradually eleva- ted, by the long continuance of a southerly gale, IONS. rOLAH ICE. — INFLUENCE ON ATMOSPHERE. 299 J greatest : >' diminish- face of the e must gc- lie interior, the clouds, losphere, — far immu- 3 supposed, small depth :)hcre could ime surface, iturc might J again : or, sture would 1, without a 1 of snow, if nothhig [ from the sited. But, iding winds furnish any it although )W from the their hu- emperature ally eleva- lierly gale, the advance of the wind must in consequence he farther and farther before it be reduced to the tem- perature of the ice ; and, therefore, some snow would continue to be precipitated to an increasing and un- limited extent. Hence, as winds blowing from the Pole must be replaced by air that is both warmer and damper, it is not possible that they should carry away more moisture from the circumpolar regions than the air which replaces them brings : but, on the con- trary, as the snow deposited on the interior ice by southerly storms, (from the nature of the circum- stances), must be derived from evaporations out of the sea ; it is evident, that there must be an in- crease of snow in the icy latitudes, and that we can- not possibly determine any limit beyond which it may be affirmed that no snow can be deposited. 4. On approaching a pack, field, or other com- pact aggregation of ice, the phenomenon of the ice-blink is seen whenever the horizon is tolerably free from clouds, and in some cases even under a thick sky. The ice-blink consists in a stratum of a lucid whiteness, which appears over ice in that part of the atmosphere adjoining the horizon. It appears to be occasioned thus : Those rays of light which strike on the snowy surface of the ice, are reflected into the superincumbent air, where they are rendered visible, either by the reflective property of the air, simply, or by a light haze, which, on such occasions. .V lS*f: 300 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. probably exists in the atmosphere ; but the light which falls on the sea, is in a great measure absorb- ed, and the superincumbent air retains its native ethereal hue. Hence, when the ice-^Hnk occurs under the most favourable circumstances, it affords to the eye a beautiful and perfect map of the ice, twenty or thirty miles beyond the limit of direct vision, but less distant in proportion as the atmo- sphere is more dense and obscure. The ice-blink not only shows the figure of the ice, but enables the experienced observer to judge whether the ice thus pictured be field or packed ice : if the latter, whether it be compact or open, bay or heavy ice. Field-ice affords the most lucid blink, accompanied with a tinge of yellow ; that of packs is more purely white ; and of bay-ice, greyish. The land, on ac- count of its snowy covering, likewise occasions a blink, which is more yellow than that produced by the ice of fields. 5. The ice operates as a powerful equaliser of temperature. In the 80th degree of north latitude, at the edge of the main body of ice, with a norther- ly gale of wind, the cold is not sensibly greater than in the 70th degree, under similar circumstances. 6. Fogs are most prevalent among loose ice; but they are dispersed, and a clear sky generally produced, at the borders of a solid body of ice. The approach to solid ice is sometimes announced by this clear- ing of the air, and by the reduction of the tempera- W:M mi .Ui..... , POLAR ICE. — INFLUENCE ON THE SEA. 301 ture. On coining near a body of ice, from off which the wind blows, a remarkable increase of cold is felt ; as much sometimes as ten degrees in an hour's sail- ing. 7. The reciprocal action of the ice and the sea on each other, is particularly striking, which ever may have the ascendancy. If, on the one hand, the ice be arranged with a certain form of aggrega- tion, and in due solidity, it becomes capable of re- sisting the turbulence of the ocean, and can, with but little comparative diminution or breaking, sup- press its most violent surges. Its resistance is so effectual, that ships sheltered by it, rarely find the sea disturbed by swells. On the other hand, the most formidable fields yield to the slightest grown swell, and become disrupted into thousands of pieces; and ice of only a few weeks growth, on being assail- ed by a turbulent sea, is broken and annihilated with incredible celerity. Bay-ice, indeed, which for weeks has been an increasing pest to the whale-fisher, is sometimes removed in the space of a few hours. The destruction is in many cases so rapid, that to an un- experienced observer, the occurrence seems incredi- ble, and rather an illusion of fancy, than a matter of fact. Suppose a ship immoveably fixed in bay-ice, and not the smallest opening to be seen : after a lapse of time sufficient only for a moderate repose, imagine a person rising from his bed, — when, be- hold, the insurmountable obstacle has vanished ! 302 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. ,»!» ' III ill'-' Instead of a sheet of ice expanding unbroken to the verge of the horizon on every side, an undulating sea relieves the prospect, wherein Hoats, the wreck of the ice, reduced to a small fraction of its original bulk ! This singular occurrence, I have more than once witnessed. That ice should be forming or increasing, when exposed to the swells of the ocean, while the anni- hilation of bay-ice is so sudden and complete, might seem an anomaly or impossibility, were the circum- stances passed over in silence. It must be observ- ed, that the operation of a swell is merely to rend the bay-ice in pieces, while its destruction is princi- pally effected, by the attrition of those pieces against each other, and the washing of the •wind-Upper * Herein the essential difference consists : pancake ice is formed in masses so small and so strong, that the swell cannot divide them ; and the eflect of the wind-lipper is repressed by the formation of sludge on its seaward margin. Hence, whenever ice does occur in agitated waters, its exterior is always sludge, and its interior pancake ice, the pieces of which gra- dually increase in size with the distance from the edge. When a swell occurs in crowded yet detached ice, accompanied with thick tempestuous weather, it presents one of the most dangerous and terrific na- * The first effects of a breeze of wind on smooth water is by seamen called wind-Upper. From it, all high seas are de- rived, and it is always apparent on their surfaces. NS. en to the ndulating the wreck cs original more than ing, when the anni- ete, might he circum- hc ohserv- jly to rend n is princi- ices against d-lippcr *. r. pancako Tong, that Pect of the of sludge er ice does ays sludge, which gra- from the t detached sv'eather, it terrific na- )oth water is seas are de- POLAR ICE. — INFLUENCE ON THE SEA. 303 vigations that can be conceived. Each lump of ice, by its laborious motion, and its violent concussions of the water, becomes buried in foam, which, with its rapid drift, and the attendant horrid noise, in- spires the passing mariner with the most alarming impressions ; whilst the scene before him, is, if pos- sible, rendered more awful, by his consciousness of the many disasters which have been occasioned by similar dangers. When exposed to a high sea, the largest and heaviest pieces of drift-ice are forced to leeward with much gi'eater velocity than small and light pieces. Masses of ice capable of holding a ship to windward in a storm, when the sea is smooth, frequently drive, in a swell, with a velocity of two or three miles an hour. This renders loose ice very dangerous in a swell, particularly with light winds or calms. In the season of 1818, the ship I commanded, the Fame, w^as exposed to great danger by an insulated piece of ice running against her in a calm. We were in latitude 78% lying at a short distance from the western ice, at the conclusion of a gale of wind. A fog, intensely thick, prevailed, the sea was very high, but the wind had just subsided to a calm. No chance of danger from ice was apprehended, un- til a prodigious lump was heard approaching. It was not a hundred yards distant when it made its ap- pearance, and, in a state of tremendous agitation, with the sea beating, roaring, and breaking upon it 2 mr ao4 ACCOUNT OF THE AllCTlC REGIONS. m the same as on a Ice shore, advanced directly to- wards us vvitli a velocity of about three knots. All hands were instantly roused, the boats were manned and lowered into the water to tow the ship ; but be- fore she could be moved from the place, the ice was alongside. Happily the ship rolled from it at the moment the first blow was struck, which weakened the shock, and, perhaps, prevented the sliip from being stove. The succeeding blows, though all re- ceived under the ship's bottom, near the keel, proved less and less formidable, until the ship was fairly beaten out of the way ; so that the ice passed to leeward, and was in a few minutes out of sight. When a swell operates against the side of a stream or pack of ice, it washes away the snow from the sur- face of the most exposed pieces, as well as part of the ice, and forms every corner into a tongue. These tongues, from the different depths they occupy in the sea, are forced one upon another, and so locked together, that the most violent waves, being inca- pable of moving them at a little distance from the edge, become totally suppressed. Hence a stream of heavy ice, however narrow, provided it consist of half a dozen or more pieces in breadth, and be well compacted, is capable of resisting the highest swells in an astonishing degree, and for a considerable period. Under shelter of such a stream, though the waves of the Atlantic beat against it, the navigator finds a comfortable retreat, in a sea almost as smooth as a 2 '8 ,^^r rOLAll ICE. — INFLlJENCi: ON THE SEA. 305 river. So long as the ice hangs together, and pre> serves its continuity, it sustains but little loss from the most violent surges ; but whenever the sea breaks through it, like an army dispersed and re- treating in confusion before a victorious enemy, the pieces flee before the sea, increase rather than di- minish the swell, are overrun by the foaming waters, and subjected to a rapid dissolution. Thus, while a small stream of compact ice sup- presses a swell, a large body of heavy ice, when loose or unconnected, produces little effrct, the sea being found to penetrate with little diminution for many leagues. A swell among ice is discovered by the breaking of fields, or by the motions of loose pieces, when it cannot be otherwise observed. In some cases it becomes a useful guide to the invol- ved navigator, by pointing out, in the direction in which it penetrates, the way of escape. In thick weather, especially, it is often the means of extri- cation to ships the most awkwardly entangled among ice, and preserves them from being deeply and dangerously beset. 8. A balance of power seems to be preserved be- tween the wasting influence of the waves and the solidity and increasing property of the polar ice ; the former preventing the undue enlargement of the boundaries of the ice, and the latter defying any extensive, or at least permanent, inroads into the situations usually occupied by it. For, as fast as VOL. I. u IL !" il'if i: 306 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. »'' the borders of the ice are destroyed by the sea, or the mildness of the climate under southerly winds, all the losses are made up by the prevalence of the current proceeding to the south-west, which conti- nually brings fresh supplies of ice, and presents a new front to the action of the waves. SECT. X. Remarks on the closest Approximations towards the Poles hitherto accomplished, vnder different Meridians. It has already been remarked, that the 80th or 81st degree of north latitude, is generally accessible to the Spitzbergen or Greenland whale-fishers, under the meridian of 6° or 8' E. ; and that on some par- ticular occasions the latitude of 80° or even 81° has been exceeded. None of the naiigators, how- ever, who have been sent on this or any other track, with the express object of exploring the Po- lar regions, have been able to reach the parallel of 81°. From this circumstance,- from the general ex- perience of the whale-fishers, and from an expe- rience of seventeen voyages which I have myself made into the Spitzbergen Sea, I think I may ven- ture to assert, that the navigation of the North Polar Sea is generally terminated by an impervious body of ONS. APPROXIMATIONS TOWARDS THE POLES. 307 the sea, or lerly winds, ence of the rhich conti- l presents a yns towards der different t the 80th or illy accessihle fishers, under on some par- or even 81° Tators, how- )r any other )ring the Po- le parallel of general ex- )m an expe- have myself : I may ven- North Polar ious body of ice, in the latitude of 80° or 81" ; and that althougli some instances may have occurred in which vessels have proceeded a little farther, yet few of these in- stances can be authenticated. One case, and only one, I can myself establish. While I served in the capacity of chief mate, in the Resolution of Whitby, commanded by my Fa- ther, (whose extraordinary perseverance is well known to all persons in the Greenland trade,) we were enabled, by astonishing efforts, and with expo- sure to imminent hazard, to penetrate as far as latitude 81" 30'. This being, I imagine, one of the most remarkable approximations towards the Pole yet realized, it may not be uninteresting to give an abstract of a part of my journal of this voyage. On the 23d of March 1806, we sailed from Whitby, and, on the 12th of April, saw the first ice, near the Island of Jan Mayen, which was then in sight. The next day we penetrated the loose ice in search of seals, until we reached the edge of a solid pack ; but seeing nothing to induce our stay, we made the best of our way to the eastward for the whale-fishery. Until the 20th, the winds were mostly unfavour- able ; our progress was in consequence only eighty leagues on an easterly course. We then steered to the north-eastward, and soon fell in with ice, which, however, did not put us out of our course until the u 2 m'^" r-r 308 ACCOUNT OF THE APvCTlC REGIONS. following day, when we were obliged to bear more away, on account of close ice, which trended to the E., S. E., and afterwards S. S. E. At 8 p. M. of the 24th of April, supposing our- selves near land, both from our reckoning and from the vast quantity of birds seen, the ship was laid too, the weather being thick with snow. At 10 r. M., the weather cleared, and we discovered Cherie Island ten leagues distant to the north-east, with the appearance of ice around it. This induced our prompt return along the edge of the ice, judging that direction the most prudent, though seventeen out of twenty ships in company continued to pro- ceed to the south-eastward. Whether the 'masters of these ships did not see the land, or, s ~; it, were determined to search for a new passage .o die fishing stations on the east side of Cherie Island, we could not ascertain ; but we considered it more safe to pursue the accustomed track, though ap- parently blocked up with an impervious body of ice. Having surveyed the margin of the ice for four days, without discovering any material inlet, we penetrated the borders with a northerly wind, as far as practicable, and then moored to an ice-berg. Two ^days afterwards, the wind veered to the south, with which we forced a little farther to the northward, and, on the 2d of May, moored to ano- ther ice-berg. IM I I IONS. io bear more mded to the pposing our- ng and from hip was laid ow. At 10 vered Cherie th-east, with 3 induced our ice, judging trh. seventeen aued to pro- ir the '■"! asters , or, h ■; it, passage vo tlie lerie Island, ered it more though ap- ious body of ice for four ial inlet, we lerly wind, as an ice-berg, eered to the ^arther to the loored to ano- APPROXIMATIONS TOWARDS THE POLES. 309 On the 4th, we observed, that some ships which, four days before, were several miles to the south- ward of us, had, by the peculiar set of the current, revolved to the northward. On the 5th, with a light breeze of wind, we pro- ceeded several miles through various intricate chan- nels in the ice, and on the wind dying away to a calm, we advanced hy towing*. Struck a whale, but lost it by the breaking of the line. A heavy swell, with a strong wind from tlie S. W., prevailed on the 6th, by which the situ- ation of the ship was rendered very hazardous. Lay to'^. On the 7th, towed to an ice-berg, and made fast. An opening appeared in the ice on the 9th, lead- ing to the northward. Made sail, and pursued a devious channel during six hours, with the velocity of eight or nine miles an hour. The wind having then increased to a heavy gale, and the ice having become crowded and dangerous, we were obliged to moor. The Foreland in sight. The next day the wind was easterly, but mode- rate, and the ice a little slack ; as such, we plied towards the land, and after much critical sailing * The process of dragging a ship, or any other body float- ing in water, forward by boats, is called towing. The boats are all connected by ropes to the ship, and are then rowed for- ward, by which the ship is drawn after them. 310 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. U V( Umw ^M among dangerous ice, we entered an opening so con- siderable, that we could not discover its extent from the top-mast-head. We now flattered ourselves that our exertions were about to be rewarded, by having an immediate opportunity of commencing the fishery. Our hopes, however, were soon frustra ted ; the open space we now navigated did not pre- sent us with a single whale, and though of an ex- tent of 400 or 500 square miles, was, within three days, contracted to an area of a few acres. This circumstance, so unexpected, at the same time so uncommon, would have had a tendency to paralize our efforts, had not a swell, apparently from the north, and the appearance of water in that direction by the sky, encouraged us to per- severe. On the 13th, therefore, we again pushed forward into a continuous sheet of ice ; being a combina- tion of bay-ice with scattered pieces of drift-ice. During five days we persevered in the most labo- rious exertions, in towing, boring, warping * and mill-dolling f ; frequently dragging heavy boats * Warping is the process of moving a ship by means of ropes, called warps, which being attached to some distant fixed object, a large piece of ice, for instance, admit of the ship's be- ing drawn forward, by the application to the ropes of the diffe- rent mechanical powers on board. t Mill-dolling, consists in breaking a passage through thin ice, for a ship, by a sort of ram, let fall from the bowsprit ; or IONS. APPROXIMATIONS TOWARDS THE POLES. 311 ning so con- extent from ed ourselves ewarded, by commencing soon frustra did not pre- orh of an ex- "within three res. at the same , tendency to 1, apparently ; of water in :d us to per- ished forward a combina- of drift-ice. most labo- varping * and heavy boats lip by means of Lme distant fixed I of the ship's be- tpes of the difFe- Ige through thin le bowsprit; or across extensive plains of bay-ice, for the purpose of breaking a passage for the ship ; scarcely allowing time for refreshment, with very limited and distant periods for rest ; when, on the 18th of May, after having passed a barrier of most extraordinary ex- tent, we accomplished oui wishes, and exceeded our most sanguine expectations, by getting into a sea, to which we could see no bounds, but the ice we had passed through on the south side, and the land to the eastward. Our latitude, at this time, was about 79° 35'; Hakluyt's Headland bearing E. N.E. 35 miles distant. We now proceeded a little towards the N., after- wards towards the N. W. or W., accordingly as ap- pearances in the ice or sea suggested a greater pro- bability of meeting with whales. As we advanced, we found that a pack lay to the northward, as well as to the southward of us ; the two bodies of ice be- ing ten to twenty leagues apart. The wind blow- ing very strong from the southward, and the sea be- ing quite open, our progress to the westward was very rapid ; so much so, indeed, that among the contracted meridians in the 80th degree of latitude, we advanced almost a degree of longitude every hour by one or more boats attached to the jib-boom, having several men in each, who move from side to side, and keep them in continual motion. As the ship advances, the rope by which the boats are attached to the jib-boom, draws them *brward. and prevents them from being run down. IJ121 ACCOUNT OF THE AllCTIC REGIONS. r:,« ill during the day ; the interval between the sun com- ing to the meridian, below the Pole, on the 18th, and to the same meridian on the 19th, being near- ly twenty-five hours. When we reached the lon- gitude of about 8° W., in latitude 79° 30', no whales having been seen all the way, we tacked. Our ad- vance to the west, in this parallel, was unex.impled ; and yet an expanse of sea lay before us, of which, from the appearance of the sky, we could with con- fidence affirm, that neither ice, in any considerable body, was within thirty miles, nor land within sixty miles of us, in a westerly direction. On stretching to the northward, from this, we met with a compact body of ice, in latitude 80° 10', along the edge of which we sailed on an E. or E.NE. course (true), a distance of nearly three hundred miles, examining every sinuosity, and keeping a vi- gilant watch the whole way, without seeing any whales, excepting a dead one. On the 23d, our latitude, by a careful observation, at mid-night, was SV 12' 42" ; and, on the morning of the 24th, we considered ourselves nearly a degree to the north- ward of Captain Phipps's farthest advance, our lati- tude being estimated at 81° 30', and longitude 19° E. Here a similar expanse of sea presented itself, as on our western reach. The margin of the ice continued to trend to the E. N. E., (true), as far as it was vi- sible ; and, from the appearance of the atmosphere, it was clear that the sea was not incommoded by 2 APPROXIMATIONS TOWAUUS THE POLES. 313 ice, between the E. N. E. and S. E. points, with- in thirty miles, or limited by land within 60 or even 100 miles of the place of the ship. Had the purport of our voyage been discovery, instead of whale-fishing, we should certainly have been enabled to add something more to our know- ledge of the ^obe, by the exploration of a region seldom attaiudble. Discovery, however, being only in a limited degree compatible with our object, consi- derations of safety and prudence induced our return. Our situation was solitary indeed. No ship, or hu- man being, it is believed, was within 340 miles of us. We, doubtless, occupied the most northerly situation of any individuals in the world. The sea began to freeze, and threatened our detention. We had made no progress in the fishery ; nor could we find any whales : and the sailors began to be anxious, fearful, and troublesome. Such were the considera- tions that induced us to return. We now proceeded to the south-west, at a dis- tance from the ice that we examined on our ad- vance. On the 24th, at noon, we were in latitude 81° 1' 53'', longitude 17° 30' E. Having run to the south-west about 120 miles, Hakluyt's Headland was seen, bearing S. E. dis- tant 19 or 20 leagues. On penetrating a body of open ice encompassing the Headland, we saw a whale, and pursued it with all our boats, but with- out success. From hence we steered to the west- "■n 314 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC llEGIONS. ward, and found the ice, which was very compact when we passed it on the 21st of the month, now loose and navigable. The drift-ice from the north, had formed a chain of communication between the two packs, among which, on the 28th of May, in latitude 80° 8', longitude 0° 40' E., we met with whales so numerous, that, in the course of a month, we succeeded in capturing twenty-four of the spe- cies. These, with two seals, two sea-horses, two bears, and one narwhale, afforded an excellent car- go*. On the 30th of June, we prepared for our passage home ; and the day following, entered the icy bar- rier that we encountered on our advance, which now consisted of an open but heavy pack. After a troublesome navigation of two or three days, we emerged from the ice into the open sea, and did not afterwards meet with any obstruction. From the 9th of May, until the 10th of July, we saw but one ship. On our arrival in England, we were informed, that two French frigates had cruized the fishing country during the latter end of the season, and had destroyed several of the whalers ; one of which frigates we narrowly escaped on our passage home, it having been captured near the Faroe Islands, within a day of our passing the same. This an- * The whole produced upwards of 216 tons of oil. APPROXIMATIONS TOWARDS THE POLES. 315 noyancc from an enemy, together with the unfa- vourable situation of the ice, and the scarcity of whales on its southern aspect, was the occasion of a very general failure in the fishery. In no part of the Globe has any navigator been able to approach within ten degrees of the Pole, excepting on the west side of Spitzbergen. In Baffin's Bay, between the longitudes of 60" and 70° west, ships have seldom advanced beyond the 74th or 75th degree of latitude ; and only one in- stance is upon record, wherein the latitude of 77^°, near the extremity of the bay, has been reached. Through Behring's Strait, the adventurous Cook, on the meridian of 161° or 162° W., (very near the American shore), advanced to the latitude of 70° 44' N., on the 18th of August 1778 ; and, on the 26th, in longitude 176° W., they found the ice impervious beyond the latitude of 69* 45' N. After the lament- able death of this illustrious navigator, Captain Clerke directed the proceedings ; and, on the 18th of July, in the following year, reached the la- titude of 70° 33', being about four leagues short of their former advance. Along the greater part of the extensive northern face of the Russian dominions, the polar ice closely adheres during two-thirds of the year ; and, in the height of summer, seldom recedes far from any part of the coast comprised between Nova Zembla and 2 '♦ill> 316 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC UEGIONS. the north-eastern termination of Asia. From some parts of the coast, indeed, it is doubtful whether the ice ever recedes at all ; though, in some situations, near extensive promontories, a considerable north latitude has been obtained. Between the meri- ridians of 60° and 70° E., along the coast of Nova Zembla, Barcntz in 1596, observed in latitude 76" 15', and is supposed, in doubling the northern Cape of this country, to have reached at least the latitude of 77° N. ; and in a preceding voyage, undertaken in the year 1594, the same navigator reached the la- titude of about 77° 25', when in sight of Nova Zembla, being prevented from going further by an extensive field of ice. In longitude about 100° E., Lieutenant Pront- schitscheff, in the year 1736, penetrated the ice, near Cape Ceverovostochnoi, as far as latitude 77° 25'. And about the longitude of 175° E. a little Russian vessel, being part of an expedition of seven ketches, is said to have doubled the north-eastern promontory of Asia, in the country of the Tchukt- chi, supposed to extend into a high northern la- titude, at any rate considerably beyond the extent reached by Captain Cook, about 60 leagues farther to the eastward. Hence it appears, that the nearest approach towards the North Pole, between the meridians of Nova Zembla and the north-eastern Cape of Asia, has, as might reasonably be expect- APPROXIMATIONS TOWARDS THE POr.ES. 317 cd, been made by the Kussians ; th.T,t on the me- ridian of Nova Zcmbla, the highest northern la- titude has been attained by the Dutch ; and that in the sea of Spitzbergen, in Hudson's and Baffin's Bay, in the sea beyond Behring's Strait, and towards the sea, washing the northern shores of America, the highest northern latitudes, have been reached by the British. Towards the southern Pole, the most careful and extensive explorations have also been made by our countrymen ; Captain Cook, with indefatigable perseverance, having ad- vanced towards the Pole on various meridians, as far as the ice would permit. On his first attempt, in the year 1772, they met with ice in about 51° S. latitude, and longitude 21° E. They saw great fields in 55° S. on the 17th January 1773; and on February the 24th, were stopped by field ice in 62° south latitude, and 95° east longitude. Again, on the second attempt in December of the same year, they met with ice in about 62° south la- titude, and 172°-173° west longitude ; and on the 15th, saw field ice in latitude QQ°. On the 30th of January 1774, they were stopped by immense ice- fields in latitude 71° 10' 30'' S., and in longitude 107° W., which was the most considerable approxi- mation towards the South Pole that had ever been effected. 11 318 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. ^' ^mtiy. SECT. XI. Abstract of the preceding Observations mi the F^ormation, PropertieSt and Situatmi of the Polar Ice. From what has been advanced respecting the si- tuation, properties, and manner of formation of the ice surrounding the Pole, the following conclusions seem naturally to result ; and as far as relates to the formation of ice, will apply generally to all situa- tions within the Polar circles where ice occurs. I. Bay-ice. — That much bay-ice is annually formed in the seas of Spitzbcrgen and Davis' Strait; in the Bavs of Hudson and Baffin, and in other si- tuations near the Pole, where it sometimes attains such a degree of strength and solidity, as to produce light fields and floes, and when broken up, light drift-ice. That the kind of bay-ice called Pancake or Cake Ice, is frequently formed in bodies of considerable extent, and in sheets of considerable thickness on the southern face of the main body of the polar ice, even where exposed to the swells of the Atlantic Ocean; and that bay-ice is necessarily derived en- tirely from sea-water. >NS. POLAR ICE. — ABSTRACT OF ODSERVATIOKS. 319 ms 071 the tion of the ;ting the si- ation of the conclusions elates to the to all situa- occurs. s annually avis' Strait; in other si- mes attains to produce in up, light tkc or Cake konsiderablc lickness on ^e polar ice, |e Atlantic lerived en- II. Drift-ice. — That the light packed or drift ice is the yearly product of the bays of the Arctic lands, and of the interstices in the body of older ice, and that it is wholly derived from the water of the ocean. I'hat the heavy packed or drift ice generally arises from the disruption of fields. III. Icebergs' —Tlmt most of the ice-mountains or icebergs that occur m Baffin's Bay, Davis' Strait, Hudson's Strait, and on the eastern const of North America, are derived from the f'laciers generated on the land between the moun ains of ^he sea-coast, and are consequently th ^ioduct of si.ow or rain water. That some icebergs may possibly be formed in narrow coves and deep-sheltered bays in any of the polar countries, where th?" set of the current or pre- vailing winds has not a tendency to dislodge them. Such having their bed in the waters of the ocean, must be partly the product of sea-water, and partly that of snow and rain water. And it i* not im- probable. That a continent of ice-mountains may exist in regions near the Pole, yet unexplored, the nucleus of which ijiay be as ancient as the earth itself, and its increase derived from the sea and atmosphere combined. rm Si ft-4: i 320 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. IV. Fields. — That some fields arise from the cementation, by the agency of frost, of the pieces of a closely aggregated pack, which may have con-, sisted of light or heavy ice ; and, consequently, which may have been wholly derived from the ocean, or from the sea and atmosphere combined. That the most considerable masses are genera- ted in openings of the far northern ice, produced by the constant recession towards the south of that body lying near the coasts of Spitzbergen ; and, that such fields are at first derived from the ocean, but are indebted for a considerable portion of su- perstructure, to the annual addition of the whole, or part of their burden of snow. V*^. Ice 'm general. — That however dependant the polar ice may have been on the land for its for- mation and preservation, from the time of its first appearance, to its gaining an ascendency over the waves of the ocean, sufficient to resist their utmost ravages, and to arrest the progress of maritime dis- covery, at a distance of perhaps from 600 to 1000 miles from the Pole, — it is now evident, that the proximity of land is not essential, either for its ex- istence, its formation, or its increase. VI. Freshness ofiec. — That the ice of bergs, of heavy fields, floes, and drift-ice, and indeed of all other kinds when solid, whether formed from rain- ONS. POLAR ICE. — ABSTRACT OF OBSERVATIONS. 321 » from the the pieces y have con- iisequently, (1 the ocean, d. are gcnera- p, produced filth of that srgen ; and, the ocean, )rtion of sii- :he whole, or r dependant d for its for- i of its first [cy over the ;heir utmost laritime dis- 10 to 1000 int, that the ;r for its ex- of bergs, of lideed of all from rain- water or sea-water, is, excepting such parts above water as have been recently washed by the sea du- ring frost, perfectly free from salt. That porous light ice, and even bay-ice, when well drained in a mild temperature, and washed with fresh water, generally produce potable water, tliough not always entirely free from salt. VII. Quantity of ice. — That an equilibrium be- tween the quantity of new ice produced and of old ice destroyed, is so well preserved, that the abso- lute quantity of ice in the polar seas is always nearly the same ; the south-westerly drift of the ice renews the front exposed to the sea, and prevents the in- roads of the swell, while the general action of the waves of the ocean, and the influence of a compa- ratively mild temperature, prevent the ice from spreading over the Atlantic. That when the quantity of ice in any place is en- larged or diminished, the variation is only tempo- rary and partial ; the usual equality being general- ly restored in the course of a few years by the re- versed operation of the very causes which produced the inequality. VIII. Quantity of ice greater in the southern than in the northern hemisphere. — That there ap- pears to exist a remarkable difference between the two hemispheres with regard to the extent from the Poles occupied by the ice ; the ice which en- voi,. I. X I! :|ni»; 322 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC KEGIONS. circles the Southern Pole, being much less per- vious, and extending to much lower latitudes than that around the Northern Pole. That the 73d or 74th, and sometimes the 76tli or 78th degree of North latitude, can be attained at any season of the year, and the 80th degree, if not higher, at least once in every summer ; whereas the 71st degree of South latitude is probably but seldom attainable, and has only been once passed : — And, That while the antarctic ne plus ultra appears to be the 72d degree of latitude, that of the arctic zone extends at least to the 82d degree, or 600 miles further, so that while the closest approach to the South Pole is not nearer than 1130 miles, the common and annual approach to the North Pole is within 600 miles. ATMOSPHEIIOLOGY. — CLIMATE. 333 CHAPTER V. OBSERVATIONS ON THE ATMOSPHEROLOGY OP THE ARCTIC REGIONS ; PARTICULARLY RELA- TING TO SPITZBEPvCEN AND THE ADJACENT GREENLAND SEA. SECT. I. Remarks on the Climate of the Arctic liegions» and the Effects of Cold. X. HE climate of Spitzbergen and the adjacent sea, is, in the autumn and spring seasons, variable and tempestuous. The temperature passes through its extreme range, which probably exceeds fifty degrees in the same season, or even in the same month, with a rapidity unknown in countries situate within the temperate zones. North, west, and east winds bring with them the extreme cold of the icy regions X 2 ;i, «■■ i 5' N 324 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. immediately surrounding the Pole, whilst a shift of wind to the south-west, south, or south-east, elevates the temperature towards that of the neighbouring seas. It is not easy to associate with our ideas of sum- mer, the view of eternal ices and snow, and the sen- sation of almost perpetual frost ; yet, as the power of the sun is sometimes such as to produce a com- fortable degree of warmth, — as much ice and snow is dissolved, and especially as on some parts of the shore vegetation appears, advances, and is perfected, — the name of Summer to such a season may, for a limited period, be applicable. An Arctic winter consists of the accumulation of almost every thing among atmospheric phenomena, that is disagreeable to the feelings, together with the privation of those bounties of Heaven, with which other parts of the earth, in happier climates, are so plentifully endowed. Here, during the whole of the winter months, the cheering rays of the sun are neither seen nor felt, but considerable darkness perpetually prevails ; this, with occasional storms of wind and snow, and a degree of cold calculated to benumb the faculties of man, give a character to those regions most repugnant to human feeling. The most severe cold, says Crantz, that occurs in Greenland, sets in, as in temperate climates, " after the New- Year, and is so piercing in February and ATMOSPHEROLOGY.— CLIMATE. 3S5 March, that the stones split in twain, and the sea reeks like an oven ♦." When the sun returns to enlighten the benight- ed north, the arctic countries become more tolerable. The months of May, June and August, are even occasionally pleasant ; but with July, and partially with June and August, the densest fogs prevail. On these occasions, though the temperature of the air be mild, the feelings are much more annoyed, and the spirits much more depressed by this tedious and painful obscurity, than by the enduring of a much colder atmosphere. The temperature of the atmosphere, in the polar seas, is, in the summer months, very uniform.- In the month of July, when fogs occur, the thermo- meter is generally near the freezing point, and is found not to be above three or four degrees higher at mid-day than it is at mid-night, and sometimes, with steady winds and constant fog, the tempera- ture does not vary above a degree or two for several days together. But in the spring and winter sea- sons, the atmospheric temperature is subject to very great and rapid alterations ; and it is worthy of ob- servation, that the most remarkable of those chan- ges are frequently simultaneous with the greatest changes of pressure. History of Greenland, vol. i. p. 43. 820 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. The following Table affords a view of the most considerable variations of temperature which have occurred within the sphere of my own observation, but it is probable that they bear no comparison with those alterations of temperature which take place in the winter months. Those instances dis- tinguished by an asterisk, will be found, by reference, to the Table of remarkable Barometrical Variations hereafter given, to have been attended with corres- 3K)ttdent changes of atmospheric pressure. Table ATMOSPHEROLOGY. — CLIMATE. 3S7 Table of Remarkable Changes of Temperature. Year. 1804, 1805, 1811, 1814, 1815, 1816, 1817, Month, &c. May May Latitude. 76M0' 78.30 70.33 70.52 76.21 77.34 77. 2 75.35 78.44 77.56 80. 7 80.10 80.10 80.10 77.28 78. 2 69.45 71. 71. 78. 78. 78. 77.36 78.23 74.56 77.50 78.16 77. 7 79.10 78.33 71.24 73. 4 73. 5 73.55 78.10 78.45 79.47 78.20 76.15 75.12 78.17 9 6 9 Thennometric Changes. 17° 14 20 20 18 14 21 16 9 7 11 18 25 32 14 14 12 25 32i 20 11 18 18 12 17 14 14 12 8 14 19 13 17 14 12 14 15 13 8 13 9 Interval. Hours. 18 3 21 12 22 2 24 7* 16 11 8* 12* 24* 30* 10 12 16 22 24* 12 2 8 12 12 12 14 8 10 12 20 19 10 24 11 10 12 14 9 10 9 16 'mU mm 328 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. From the circumstance of the thermometer and the barometer frequently suffering great and rapid simultaneous changes, the thermometer becomes a valuable appendage in assisting in the prognosti- cation of the weather. Thus, when the thermome- ter rises with a falling barometer, a stonn may be expected from the south. When the barometer rises and the thermometer falls, during a southerly storm, the return of fine weather is indicated, with a change of wind towards the north. When the barometer falls, together with the thermometer, du- ring a southerly or easterly breeze, a northerly or westerly wind may be expected, but not of great intensity, unless the fall of the barometer be very considerable. The great depression of temperature which takes place in the proximity of ice with a northerly wind, appears equally as considerable to the feelings in low as in high latitudes. Thus the ice, when ac- cumulated into a connected body, extending, ap- parently, from the place of observation to the Pole, causes an equalization of temperature between the two situations, so that whatever may be the lati- tude, it is probable, that the cold under a strong northerly gale, will be very nearly as intense as at the Pole. In confirmation of this, I may re- mark, that as great a degree of cold as ever I no- ticed, in a series of twelve years' observations, (once v. i h ATMOSPHEllOLOGY. — CLIMATE. 320 excepted), was in the latitude Tli'*, April 12. 1814, when the mean of three thermometers indicated the temperature of zero ; and on the same occasion, during an interval of three days, the mean tempe- rature was less than 5". The wi!id, in the mean time, was constantly from the north-eastward, ge- nerally blowing a gale, but sometimes moderate. On the 25th April 1813, latitude 80°, the thenno- meter fell to — 4" during a hard gale from the north- east (per compass), but, on account of the ship be- ing driven away from the ice, it soon rose to lOo or 15°. These are the only instances in wliich I have observed the thennometer at zero ; though on one occasion, in the year 1803, April 23., when we had no thermometer in the ship. I am persuaded the cold was still more intense, as I never observed its effects so apparent. Ten or fifteen men were em- ployed on the main-yard in an operation which oc- cupied them about a quarter of an hour ; of these, it was found, when they descended the mast, that scarcely one had escaped being frost-bitten ; some in the hands, some in the feet, and others in different parts of the face. The effect of the ice in reducing the temperature, is so considerable, that our proximity to it is often announced by the cold- ness, before it can be seen. In consequence of this, the difference of a few leagues in position some- times produces a surprising increase of cold. On the 29th of April 1815, in latitude 78" near Spitz- \m^^^ 330 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. bergcn, wc had a temperature of 19o to 24°, while ships at the distance of only 14 or 15 leagues to the north-west of us, had a uniform cold of 8 de- grees. The Greenland sailors being well defended from external cold, by a choice selection of warm clothing, generally support the lowest temperature, after a few days habitude, without much inconvenience. When, however, its attacks are not gradual, as when a ship, which has attained the edge of the ice under a southerly gale, is suddenly exposed to a northerly breeze, the change of temperature is so great and so rapid, that the most hardy cani.ot con- ceal their uneasiness under its first impressions. In one of the instances above quoted, in the year 1814, when a temperature of zero occurred, we reached the latitude of 70o, without experiencing any cold below 30° ; but in less than twenty -four hours, the thermometer fell 25", and indicated a temperature of 5°. Thus, between the time of my leaving the deck at night, and arising the following morning, there was an increase in the cold of about 20°. Tliis remarkable change was attended with singular effects. The circulation of the blood was accelerated, — a sense of parched dryness was excited in the nose, — the mouth, or rather lips, were contracted in all their dimensions, as by a sphincter, and the articulation of many words was rendered difficult and imperfect ; indeed, every part of the body was more or less sti- !to:::.r>4i»Jl!£ ATMOSPHEllOLOGY. — EFFECTS OF COLD. 331 mulated or disordered by the severity of the cold. Tlie hands, if exposed, would have been frozen in a few minutes ; and even the face could not have re- sisted the effects of a brisk wind, continued for any length of time. A piece of metal when applied to the tongue, instantly adhered to it, and could not be removed without its retaining a portion of the skin ; iron became brittle, and such as was at all of inferior quality, might be fractured by a blow ; brandy of English manufacture and wholesale strength, was frozen ; quicksilver, by a single process, might have been consolidated ; the sea, in some places, was in the act of freezing, and in others ap- peared to smoke, and produced, in the formation of frost-rime, an obscurity greater than that of the thickest fog. The subtile principle of magnetism seemed to be, in some way or other, influenced by the frost ; for the deck compasses became sluggish, or even motionless, while a cabin compass traversed with celerity. The ship became enveloped in ice ; the Hwws, sides, and lower rigging were loaded ; and the rudder, if not repeatedly freed, would, in a short time, have been rendered immoveable. A consider- able swell at this time prevailing, the smoke in the cabin, with the doors closed, was so intolerable, that we were under the necessity of giving free admission to the external air to prevent it. The consequence was, that in front of a brisk fire, at the distance of a yard and a-half from it, the temperature was 25° ; fct>; 332 ACCOUi-' OF TIH^ ARCTIC REGIONS. water spilt on the tabic fVoze, and, indeed, conge- lation took place in one situation, at the distance of only two feet from the stove. Hoar-frost also ap- peared in the sailors bed cabins, arising from their breath, and was deposited upon their blankets. Under a temperature such as this, the effects of which have just been described, the whale-fishery could not be prosecuted ; for nature could not sus- tain any continued exposure to the pungent force of the wind. With a calm atmosphere, however, the sensible effects of cold are singidarly diminished ; the cold of zero then becomes equally supportable with the temperature of 10, 15, or even 20 degrees, when impressed by a brisk wind ; hence, the sensa- tions produced on the body, become a very equivocal criterion for estimating the degree of cold. The effect of cold in preventing the traversing of compasses exposed to its influence, has been noticed by some navigators. Ellis, in his voyage to Hud- son's Bay, in conclusion of some remarks on this subject, states, as a remedy against this inconveni- ence, the propriety of removing the compasses into a warm place, by which the needles speedily resume their activity. It does not appear, from experiments made on this subject, that the inferior activity of a com- pass when exposed to a cold atmosphere, arises from any diminution in the magnetic energy, but rather from some peculiar effect produced in the needle, or in the centre on which it turns. For nei- HONS. ATMOSPHEROLOOy. — EFFFXTS OF COLD. 333 (Iced, coiigc- c distance of lost also ap- g from their lankets. he effects of whale-fishery >uld not sus- igent force of however, the diminished ; ^ supportahle n 20 degrees, ;e, the sensa- ery equivocal ^old. traversing of jeen noticed age to Hud- arks on this is inconveni- mpasses into edily resume ther the attractive nor directive power of the mag- net, appears to suffer any diminution hy an. increase of cold. A magnet which, with difficulty, support- ed a weight of seven pounds in my cahin, where the temperature was 50°, on being removed into the air, where a cold of 8" prevailed, also supported the same, and after some interval one pound more ; but on another pound being added, the weight fell off, and it would then only carry seven pounds as be- fore. Hence, the attractive property of the magnet could not be said to be diminished, and scarcely to be increased, by a reduction of temperature amount- ing to42°. A theodolite needle, 5.55 inches in length, when made to oscillate horizontally in the cabin, performed ten vibrations in sixty seconds, and then ceased. On the deck, it oscillated five times in thirty seconds, and then ceased. Thus, the time re- quired for performing a vibration, was the same both in a high and in a low temperature ; conse- quently, the directive force is unaffected by changes in temperature ; but the number of vibrations per- formed by the needle, though equally deflected from the magnetic meridian when set in motion, was much fewer in a cold situation, than it was in a warm one. Hence, though the magnetic influence, both as to its attractive and directive property, be fully as great in low as in high temperatures, yet there appears to be an increase of friction, or an in- troduction of some unknown principle, which occa- 1 mi 334 ACCOUNT or ihe arctic regions. sions a diminution in the mobility of magnetic needles, when the degree of cold is very much in- creased. JNlany remarkable effects of severe cold, are to be met with in the journals of the polar navigators, who have wintered m Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, Greenland. Hudson's Bay, Iceland, and other situa- tions, subject to the visits of the polar-ice, or where ice is formed on the sea. Captain James, when wintering in Hudson's Bay, latitude 52° N., experienced such a severity of cold, that on the 10th of December, many of the sailors had their noses, cheeks, and fingers frozen as white as paper. On the 21st of the same month, their sack, vinegar, and oil, with every other thing that was liquid, were frozen so hard, that hatchets were required for cutting them with ; the inside of their luit, at the same time, was lined with ice, to within a yard of the fire ; and the clothes on their beds were sometimes covered with hoar-frost. Ellis, who wintered in Hudson's Bay in 1746-7, m a creek of Haye's River, latitude 57° 30', remarked several curious effects of cold. In the creek where tlic vessel lay, much ice appeared on the 5th of October ; on the 8th, it was covered with a sheet of ice ; and on the 31st, the river was frozen over quite hard. By the 3d of November, bottled beer, though wrap- ped in tow and placed near a good constant fire, was found to be frozen solid; and in the course of 'm-MrJ' ^ nf^ ATMOSPHEROLOGY. — EFFECTS OF COLD. 335 the winter, beer casks placed in the ground, at tlie depth of several feet, froze almost solid, and some of them burst; many of the sailors had their faces, ears, and toes frozen ; iron adhered to the fingers ; glasses used in drinking stuck to the mouth, and sometimes removed the skin from the lips or tongue ; and, a sailor, who inadvertently used his finger for stopping a spirit bottle, in place of a cork, while re- moving it from the house to his tent, had his finger fast frozen in the bottle, in consequence of which, a part of it was obliged to be taken off, to prevent mortification. Captain Middlcton, in describing the cold of Hud- son's Bay, notices the bursting of ice, rocks, trees, joists and rafters of buildings, with a noise like the firing of cannon, as an effect of severe frost. He also states, that those persons who go abroad in north winds, are liable to have their arms, hands and faces blistered and frozen in a shocking man- ner ; in such a degree, indeed, that the skin occa- sionally peels off when they enter too suddenly in- to a warm apartment. A Hamburgh whaler, under the command of Ja- cob Janaen, was beset by the ice near Spitzbergen, in the year 1769, and detained until the middle of November, during which, thougli they were con- stantly driving to the southward, a most intense cold was sometimes experienced. On one occasion, early in November, the efi'ect of the frost was such, 1 r,, JJ H 2 I m§fn 'I 336 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC llEGIONS. that the seams in the upper part of the ship's sides cracked, and opened with a noise resembling the re- port of a pistol, so that it was apprehended the ship would either sink or fall to pieces. These openings, at first, rendered the vessel very leaky, but after she was liberated and got into open water, and into a milder climate, they closed and became again im- pervious to water *. In the interesting narrative by Pelham, of the preservation of eight seamen, who were accidentally left in Spitzbergen, in the year 1630, and wintered there, are some iTi^iarks on the effects of cold. The sea of the bay where they took up their abode, froze over on the 10th of October. After the com- mencement of the New- Year, the frost became most intense. It raised blisters in their flesh, as if they had been burnt with fire ; and if they touched iron at such times, it would stick to their fingers like birdlime. Sometimes, when they went out of doors to procure water, they were seized in such a way by the cold, that their flesh felt as sore as if they had been cruelly beaten. Seven Dutch sailors who wintered in Spitzber- gen in the year 1633-4, were exposed to such a de- gree of cold, that as early as the 13th of October, " Beschryving der Walvisvangst, vol. iii. p. 17, This et- tect, it may be observed, was probably caused by dryness ra- ther than cold. CLIMATE. — EFFECTS OF COLD. 337 casks of beer placed within eight feet of the fire, froze three inches thick, and soon afterwards became al- most entirely consolidated. In all cases of beer, ale, wine and spirits, freezing, it may be observed, that the aqueous parts only freeze so as to become solid ; whereby, even in ale or beer, the liquor be- comes concentrated in the centre, until almost as strong as spirits. When the Dutch navigator, Barentz, wintered in Nova Zembla, in 1596-7, a most extraordinary de- gree of cold was sometimes felt. During the month of November, in the hut erected by the miserable sailors for their accommodation, ice two inches thick formed on the floor, anu their beds were covered with hoar- frost ; and when the people washed their linen in- doors, it would sometimes freeze almost immedi- ately on being taken out of the warm water. In December, wine froze in their hut, so that they were obliged to melt it every time an allowance was served out. At the close of the year, the intensity of the cold almost deprived the suffering sailors of sensation ; they had recourse to hot stones, as an application to th.eir feet and bodies, for keeping them warm ; and though sitting before the fire, their backs would sometimes be white with frost, and their stockings would be burnt before they felt any warmth in their feet. The effects of cold at Disco, as observed by jM. Paul Egede, on the 7th January 173^ and re- corded by David Crantz, in his excellent History VOL. L Y « 338 ACCOUNT OF THE ABCTIC REGIONS. Vl ItSi,-, Ta I. i, ; !, ■' ■ of Greenland,'* are too striking to be omitted. " The ice and [hoar-frost," says Egede, " reach through the chimney to the stove's mouth, without being thawed by the lire in the day-time. Over the chimney is an arch of frost, with little holes, through which the smoke discharges itself The doors and walls are as if they were plastered over with frost, and, which is scarcely credible, beds are often frozen to the bedsteads. The linen is frozen in the drawers. The upper eider-down bed and the pillows are quite stiff with frost an inch thick from the breath." These effects of cold, so different from any thing experienced in Britain, are not greater than might be expected, when we consider the lowness of the temperature which sometimes prevails. The morbid effects of a low temperature, in the degree in which the Greenland sailors are exposed to it, are principally confined to the partial freezing of particular members. Thus the hands, feet, or even the face, are occasionally yrr><^^- hitten. The prompt application of spirit of vviue with friction, or a hearty rubbing with snow, so as to keep the temperature of the part low until the circulation is restored, seldom fails as a specific. The principal diseases incident to this cause, may be comprised under the genera catarrhus and scor- butus, although intermittents, asthmas, &c. somc- , ,. .ill iiibi CLIMATE.— EFFECTS OF COLD. 339 times attack persons who have been subject to such complaints. Catarrhs are very rarely followed by any dangerous consequences, but are generally ex- pelled without proving the harbinger of other dis- orders. It is a prevailing opinion, that sudden transitions from heat to cold, are very inimical to health. Where the heat is productive of copious perspira- tion, the sudden exposure to cold might operate un- favourably; but where no sensible perspiration pre- vails, I have never seen, in a healthy person, any ill effects resultingfrom the greatest transitions. For my own part, indeed, whenever I have occasion to expose myself to a severe cold, I like to get the body well warmed, finding that the more I am heated the longer I can resist the cold without inconvenience. Inter- nal warmth, however, is clearly preferable to super- ficial heat, and the warmth produced by simple fluids, such as tea or soup, preferable to that occa- sioned by spirits. After the liberal use of tea, I have often sustained a cold of 10^, at the mast- head, for several hours without uneasiness. And though I have often gone from the breakfast table, where the temperature was 50 or 60 de- grees, to the mast-head, where it was 10°, and without any additional clothing excepting a cap, yet I never received any injury, and seldom much inconvenience from the uncommon transition. Hence when the sea is smooth, so that the smoke Y 2 340 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC llEGIONS. fa f^'i. ¥■ I 'i-l! •ki: m Oi-f ip ' t'1 !, 1 ! t 1 .1. tIfiPIII of the stove can make its escape, I generally have my cabin heated as high as 50 or 60 degrees, and sometimes upward, though I am liable to be called upon deck or even to the mast-head, at a mo- ment's warning. In these frigid regions, the scurvy becomes a very alarming disease. It is, however, rarely seen in a Greenland ^ship, and is chiefly known to be destructive here, from the miserable manner in which many individuals have perished, by attempt- ing to winter in Spitzbergen and the neighbouring countries. It seems, however, pretty certain, that this disease is not so much influenced by the seve- rity of the climate, as by the use of improper ali- ment. From an excellent paper on this subject, by Dr John Aikin, published in the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Man- chester, we may very satisfactorily deduce the con- clusions following : — That the intense cold which prevails, is probably the proximate cause of the scurvy attacking persons attempting to winter in arctic countries. That the mode of living is nevertheless of such essential importance, as to be capable of either bringing on or repelling the attacks of the disease. That the use of salted provisions and spirituous 1 ^nors, form a regimen the most inimical to health, by inducing a state of the body so liable to the at- tacks of the scurvy, that under all recorded instan- ces, this disorder, in all its severity, has constantly CLIMATE. — EFFECTS OF COLD. S41 followed, and has seldom failed to produce its most deleterious effects. And, That, on the contrary, the constant use of fresh provisions, whether cured by cooking, freezing or smoking, the occasional use of oleaginous substan- ces, together with frequent exercise, a warm dwel- ling and warm clothing, may be considered as a plan of living which, if judiciously pursued, would be the best calculated for the preservation of health, and so probably effectual, that there would be little danger of resisting disease throughout the severi- ties of a Spitzbergen winter. Though the weather in the polar regions is very damp and unpleasant in some of the summer months, yet the very equable temperature which prevails, renders this season of the year particular- ly healthy. The antiseptical property of frost is rather re- markable. Animal substances, requisite as food, of all descriptions, (fish excepted), may be taken to Greenland, and there preserved any length of time, without being smoked, dried or salted. No prepara- tion, indeed, of any kind, is necessary for their pre- servation, nor is any other precaution requisite, ex- cepting suspending them in the air when taken on shipboard, shielding them a little from the sun and wet, and immersing them occasionally in sea- water, or throwing sea-water over them after heavy ^ •■! 1' ;■' Sfc^ilfl.. P^«i:i:1-: 343 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. rains, which will effectually prevent putrescency on the outward passage; and in Greenland, the cold becomes a sufficient preservative, by freezing them as hard as blocks of wood. Beef, mutton, pork and fowls, (the latter neither plucked nor drawn,) are constantly taken out from England, Shetland or Orkney, and preserved in this way. When used, the beef cannot be divided but by an axe or a saw ; the latter instrument is generally preferred. It is then put into cold water, from which it derives heat by the formation of ice around it, and soon thaws ; but if put into hot water, much of the gravy is extracted, and the meat is injured with- out being thawed more readily. If an attempt be made to cook it before it is thawed, it may be burnt on the outside, while the centre remains raw, or actuiiUy in a frozen state. The moisture is well preserved by freezing, a little from the surface only evaporating, so that if cooked when three, four or five months old, it will frequently appear as pro- fuse of gravy as if it had been but recently killed. But the most surprising action of the frost, on fresh provision, is in preserving it a long time from pu- trefaction, even after it is thawed and returns into a warm climate *. I have eaten unsalted mutton and * In the year 1808, a leg of mutton which was taken out to Greenland in the ship Resolution, returned to Whitby un- salted. It was then allowed to remain on board of the ship, exposed to the sun during two remarkably hot days, when the CLIMATE.— EFFECTS OF COLD. 343 beef nearly iive months old, which has been con- stantly exposed to a temperature above the freezing point for four or five vveeks in the outset, and occa- sionally assailed by the septical influences of rain, fog, heat, and electricity, and yet it has proved per- fectly sweet. It may be remarked, that unsalted meat that has been preserved four or five months in a cold climate, and then brought back to the British coasts during the warmth of summer, must be con- sumed very speedily after it is cut into, or it will thermometer in the shade was as high as 80^ After this^ it was presented to an epicure in the town ; and although it was reduced to about half its original dimensions by the loss of fat, &c. it was declared, when cooked, to be the most exquisite mor- sel that he had ever tasted. Another remarkable instance of beef and mutton being kept a long time unsalted, under very unfavourable circumstances, occurred in my visit to the Spitzbergen fishery, in the year 1817. Our stock of fresh provision was killed on the 17th of March, soon after which the ship was expected to sail ; but un- favourable winds detained us in port until the 1st of April. During this interval, the weather being very mild, our fresh meat was himg up in a large warehouse, to shelter it from the sun and rain. Until the 21st of April, we had so little frost, that it remained soft ; but soon afterwards it was hard frozen. After the middle of June, the weather became mild, the sum- mer-fogs set in, and the meat soon thawed. Every day in Ju- ly, but four, we had either fog or rain, with an average tem- perature of 36°.8. The last of this provision was cooked about the 13th of August; and although the average temperature for fourteen days, had been above 50*. yet it proved sweet and pa- latable. If? I i:4i:l?i n "i -J 4 'J- ilM *, IHH *l If . 344 ACCOUNT OP THE ARCTIC REGIONS. fail ill a day or two. It will seldom, indeed, keep sweet after being cooked above 20 or 30 hours. A further antiseptical effect is produced by the cold of the polar countries, on animal and ve- getable substances, so as to preserve them, if they remain in the same climate, unchanged for a period of many years. " It is observable," says Martens, in his " Voyage to Spitzbergen," " that a dead car- case doth not easily rot or consume ; for it has been found, that a man buried ten years before, still re- tained his perfect shape and dress." An instance corroborative of this remark, is given by M. Bleau, who, in his Atlas Historique, informs us, that the bodies of seven Dutch seamen, who perished in Spitz- bergen in the year 1635, when attempting to pass the winter there, were found twenty years after- wards, by some sailors who happened to land about the place where they were interred, in a perfect state, not having suffered the smallest degree of putrefaction. Wood and other vegetable substances are pre- served in a similar manner. During my explora- tion of the shores of Spitzbergen, in the year 1818, several huts, and some coffins built entirely of wood, were observed. One of the latter appeared, by an adjoining inscription, to contain the body of a na- tive of Britain, who had died in the year 1788 ; and though the coffin had lain completely exposed, ex- cepting when covered with snow, during a period of METEOROLOGY. 345 thirty years, the wood of which it was composed, not only was undecaycd, but appeared quite fresh and new. It was painted red ; and the colour even seemed to be but little faded. Things of a similar kind, indeed, have been met with in Spitzbcrgen, which have resisted all injury from the weather, during the lapse of a century. SECT. II. General Remarks on Meteorology^ with an In- vestigation of the Mean Monthly, and Annual Temperature of the North Polar Regions, in- cluding some Inferences on the Constant Ten- dency to Equalization of Temperature in the Atmosphere. Though in a state of rapid improvement, the science of Meteorology is acknowledged to be yet in its infancy. Prior to the 17th century, no accurate mode of ascertaining the variations in atmospheric tempera- ture was known ; and, before the discovery of the weight of the atmosphere by Torricelli, about the year 1630, no means of registering its variations of pres- sure could be known or practised. Hence we can have no very correct idea of the relative tempera- ture of climates, in the present and remote periods, 1 9» '^ 'V BMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I M 125 US 140 IL25 Wl 1.4 |22 1.6 % V2 ^>. V HiotDgraphic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WBftSTER.N.Y. USSO (716) S72-4S03 ^ •it' II 346 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. unless from occasional historical remarks of the form- ation of ice in particular lakes, rivers, or parts of the sea, or from the capability of the earth, in any region, for producing certain fruits or grain which cannot now be raised, or the contrary. Until after the 17th century, meteorology seems to have been principally attended to, at least as far as regards the indications of wind and rain, by illi- terate persons ; tTie success of whose occupations de- pending considerably on their ability to anticipate the most particular atmospheric changes, necessi- tated them to study the face of the sky. The va- rious appearances of the clouds, of the sun, moon, and stars, together with the notes or peculiar ac- tions of certain animals, were their principal signs. But since the invention of the barometer, and more particularly of late years that it has become of ge- neral use, the farmer avails himself of its oscilla- tions, in predicting such changes as affect his inte- rests, by endangering the fruits of his industry. In consequence of this increased use of the thermome- ter and barometer,- — instruments approaching so near to perfection, that their indications in the most dis- tant quarters of the globe can be compared, and the comparison relied on, — ^meteorology, as a science, has made a considerable advance. Not only has it received an increased attention from professed philosophers, but also from retired persons of a scientific turn, who, >vithin the last few years, have been in the habit METEOROLOGY. 347 of attending to the phenomena which these instru- ments indicate, in the vicinity of their different places of abode. These records have ah:eady been useful ; but, by continuing to register their obser- vations upon the atmospheric changes, until a suf- ficient number shall be obtained, they will confer an important obligation on the generalizing meteo- rologist, and contribute to the advancement of the science of the atmosphere. Among philosophers, Mayer, Kirwan, Hutton, Franklin, Playfair, Leslie, Wells, Forster, Halley, De Luc, Fontana, La Place, Humboldt, D'Alem- bert, and numerous others, have laboured in the science of meteorology with various credit and suc- cess. Among these. Professor Mayer has given us a formula for determining the temperature of any situation on the globe, where observations have not been made. Dr Hutton has presented us with a theory of rain, ingenious and plausible, and calcu- lated to explain some phenomena, which could not before be accounted for, on any allowed principle. Kirwan, Humboldt, and others, have advanced our knowledge of the climates of different countries, by their laborious researches on atmospheric tempera- ture. Dr Wells, by his investigation of the phe- nomena of dew, has accomplished a most interesting result in the discovery of the cause on which its for- mation depends. Professor Leslie, by the invention of several curious and useful instruments, and by his 1 348 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. ■ ^i\ profound researches on the relations of air to heat and moisture, and on the propagation of heat and cold through the atmosphere to distant regions, has contrihuted very largely to the advancement of me- teorological knowledge, and to our information on the properties of the atmosphere ; and, in his inven- tion of a correct hygrometer, the action of which is dependent upon known and calculahle philosophical principles, he has presented the meteorologist with a gift, which, when more generally known and adopt- ed, will afford results, on the dryness and dampness of the atmosphere, as satisfactory as those on its tem- perature and pressure. Such researches as these have not heen made in vain ; yet the knowledge of atmospheric phenomena must remain in imperfection, until the relations to each other, of heat, electricity, pressure, &c. the principles on which these phenomena are supposed to depend, be ascertained, and the laws by which they are individually governed, be fiiUy discovered. But when we consider the difficulty of investigating the characters and properties of principles so ob- scure, and fluids so subtle as air, aqueous vapour, electricity, light, heat, &c. there is reason to believe that their various combinations and effects on each other, will never be wholly elucidated. In the economy of Nature, we find that varying and fluctuating phenomena are produced by oppos- ing or counteracting forces or principles ; and that METEOROLOGY. 349 whenever one or more of these forces, by any dis- turbing cause, gains an extraordinary advantage over the counteracting principle, the latter, in its turn, by a kind of oscillation produced by the pre- vailing tendency to equilibrium, recovers nearly an equal advantage over the other ; and hence, when- ever any extraordinary disarrangement takes place, it is seldom evidenced by the appearance only of a single great oscillation, or wave, as it were, which immediately subsides ; but it is usually followed by Other lesser fluctuations, until the equilibrium of the repelling forces be in some measure restored. Though, in some phenomena, this equilibrium ne- ver exactly takes place, yet the tendency to it is fully evidenced by the re-action which may general- ly be observed. This doctrine is applicable to the phenomena of waves, tides, winds, pressure and temperature of the atmosphere, as well as numerous other inequalities discoverable in the operations of Nature. The temperature of the atmosphere, in any particu- lar region, is one of those phenomena, which, however they may fluctuate, or whatever may be their daily, monthly, or yearly variations, and however unequal and capricious these variations may appear to be, will, on the average of numerous corresponding pe- riods, be found to be dependent upon some certain laws, tending to produce equilibrium ; so that the general results are remarkably uniform. This is a fact now generally received ; — a fact which becomes li I! 350 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. Ill liVh i: ri.'.. \n\- the more interesting and striking, the more it is in- vestigated. When we experience particularly cold winters, or particularly hot summers, we might suppose that the mean temperature of the years in which the for- mer occur, would be greatly below, and that of the years in which the hot summers occur, would be great- ly above the general standard. But this will seldom be found to be the case*. For here the causes, whatever they may be, which tend to produce the equilibrium, exert their influence, and compensate for the disarrangement, by an extraordinary supply or abstraction of heat, whereby the general mean is still preserved nearly uniform. Hence in temperate climates of the northern hemisphere, the mean tem- perature of any one year, derived from the mean of the daily extremes of heat and cold, or from any particular number of daily observations, continued • When the frost was so severe in London, that the Thames was passable on the ice, in 1788, the mean temperature of the year was 50°.6, being within a small fraction of a degree of the standard ; and in 179^, when the greatest cold ever observed in London occurred, the mean temperature of the year was 50M, which is likewise within a small fraction of a degree of the standard temperature. In the severe winter of 1813,-14, when the Thames, Tyne, and other large rivers in England were completely frozen over, the mean temperature of the two years was 49', being a little more than a degree below the standard. And in the year 1 808, when the summer was so hot that the temperature in London was as high as 93°.5, the mean heat of the year was 50°.5, which is about that of the standard. ATMOSPHEUOLOGY. — TEMPERATUEE. 351 through the course of twelve successive months, sel- dom differs from the general mean temperature, as derived from the observations of a great number of years, more than two or three degrees *. The mean temperature of any single month, can- not be supposed to be equally uniform ; since the uncommon prevalence of a south wind in winter, or a north wind in summer, may cause the particular month in which such winds occur, to be considerably colder or warmer than the standard. This, however, does not differ so widely from the general mean of that month as might be expected f . • From the meteorological register kept at the apartments of the Royal Society, we find, that in twenty years, included between 1795 and 1814, the mean annual temperature was 50*. 4. Now, in eight of these years, the mean temperature was within 0'. 5, or half a degree of the general mean ; in thir- teen years, within one degree ; in sixteen years, within two de- grees ; and, in no instance, differed more than two and a half degrees from the general mean. Hence in similar climates, by one year's thermometric observations, we derive the mean temperature thereof, within 2^°, by a probability of at least twenty to one : that is, it is more than twenty to one, in the way of chance, but the annual mean temperature asceitained, is within 2^"* of the general mean, or standard temperature ; four to one that it is within 2" ; three to two that it is within 1* ; and two to three, that it is within half a degree. t The mean temperature in London, of the months of March, April, May, June, July, and August, never, in one instance, dif- fered so much from the general mean temperature of the rela- tive month, as 5" ; and February, October, and November, ne- ver more than 6"; but the greatest difference in December, amounted to 8°.4; and in January, to 11°.4. — (Phil. Trans. 1796 to 1815.) i n-ff'k 353 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. II il .;('■. I My object in bringing forward these facts, is, to show what degree of reliance may be placed upon a limited number of observations upon the tempera- ture of the atmosphere of any country ; and the con- sequent degree of approximation to the truth, which may be reasonably inferred. As the mean annual temperature of a country is probably given, by one year's observations only, to within two or three de- grees of the truth, the mean of a period of eight or ten years, will probably come within one degree of the truth. Therefore, whenever we have a series of accurate observations conducted through such a pe- riod, we may, I think, consider the temperature of that place determined to the fraction of a degree. Thus, by a series of thermometrical observations, continued through the space of a few years, the mean temperature of different parts of the earth, particularly of most of the capital cities, and other remarkable places in Europe, has been ascertained to the satisfaction of the philosopher. From the comparison of the results of observations made in different countries, with each other, tracing the changes of temperature which appear, with certain changes of latitude or situation, some ingenious and philosophical men have endeavoured, by principles of analogy and induction, to determine the mean temperature of every parallel of latitude from the Equator to the North Pole. For facilitating this purpose, Professor INIayer contrived a simple for- ATMOSPHEROLOr.Y. — TF.IMPERATURF,. 35J? mula *, which, through tlic extent of the Atlantic Ocean, determined a temperature that was found to correspond with most of the observations which had been made, to a surprising nearness. For the estimation of the temperature of regions peculiarly situated as to elevation, or remoteness from the sea, either of which circumstances was found to dimi- nish the mean heat, different philosopliers have presented appropriate formula?. From Mayer's for- mula, and from all the tables of the mean tempera- ture of the polar regions, which 1 have met with, the temperature of the North Pole comes out about 31° or 32°, and that of latitude 78°, about 33° or 34° f . This has been considered as a near approxi- mation ; and, so long as observations were wanting, served for purposes of investigation, to complete the scale of the temperature of the globe. But though an approximation, it will be found to be very wide • The following is Mayer's formula as given by Professor Plavfair, in his " Outlines of Natural Philopophy," vol. i. p. 296. 3d edit. : " Let t be the mean temperature of any paral cl of which the latitude is L, M the nxean temperature of the parallel of 45", and M + E the mean temperature of the equator, then is / = M + E cos 2 L. In this formula, M = 58% and E - Tt". When 2 L >^ f)0, cos 2 L is negative." t Mutton's Philosoph. and M.ithem. Dictionary, edit. 1815, Art. Temperature, (by Mayer's fonnula from Kirwan) ; — Temperature of the Pole, .SP oflat. 78° 'ATM According to Leslie, Elem. of Geometry, p. 49(), 3'2° IhT ,'M /,' VOL. L y^ !:-*iC. 354 ACCOUNT or THK ARCTIC llF.GIONa. H\^k of the tnith ; for when we rcacli the regions of per- petual ice, a remarkahle anomaly is discovered, the mean temperature falling below the estimation by the formula, at once 17° ! As this fact is of much importance in generalizing our knowledge of the temperature of the globe, I have subjoined to this vo- lume a series of observations on the temperature, &c. of the polar regions, conducted witli care during twelve successive voyages to the Greenland sea *, from whence I am enabled to deduce the following conclusions as to the probable temperature of the polar regions, in different latitudes, during every month of the year. The mean temperature of the months of April, May, June and July, are satisfactorily derived, di- rectly from the means of the latitudes and of the observations of temperature contained in the Appen- dix ; — but the mean temperature of the whole year, and of the winter months, wherein no observations in such high latitudes have yet been made, can only be ascertained from analogy. From the examination of numerous thermometrical registers, particularly one consisting of 54,750 observations made in a suc- cession of fifty years, at Stockholm, the valuable re- sults of which are published in the Annals of Philoso- phy, (vol. i.p. 113.) it would seem, that the month of April (Old Style) affords a temperature which, in northern latitudes, is the mean of the year ; or tliat a month, of which the middle is called the 27th-28th • Appendix, No. I. ATMOSPHEROLOOY. — TEMrERATURE. 355 of April (New Style,) furnishes a mean tempera- ture, whicli (Iocs not materially differ from that of the whole year * ; — that a month, the middle of which falls on the 24th of July is the warmest of tlic year ; or that in the average of centuries, the 24th of .Fuly is prohahly the warmest day in the wliolc year ; — that the 22d-23d of January is the coldest of the whole year ; — that the 19th-20th of Octohcr, and the 27th-28th of April, arc each, on a \on^ average, of tlic same mean temperature as tliat of the year ; — that the difference between the mean temperature of the year and that of January, is nearly tlie same, though probably not quite so great, as tlie difference between the mean of the year and that of July f ; — and that in high northern latitudes, the progressive increase of temperature from January to July, and the decrease from July z 2 * From the fifty years observations at Stockholm, wherein the mean temperature of every five clays throughout the year isgiven, the mean of the penthemeron, which beai'S the mean tempera* ture of the year, is the 27th-28th of April, which is later by one day only, than the middle-day of April (O. S.) And the mean of thirty days, or fifteen preceding and fifteen following the 27th-28th of April, differs from the mean of the penthemeron by only a small fraction of a degree ; consequently, a month, of which the 27th-28th of April is the middle, may be con- sidered as affording a temperature corresponding with that of the year. The 19th of October, taken as a mean of five days, likewise affords the mean temperature of the year. — (See An- nals of Phil. vol. i. p. 114, & 266.) + The difference between the mean temperature of the year and that of January, in Stockliolni, is one-fourteenth part less ill fi . i l"^,! •bs. reduced tuluUof 78" N. 14".23 22.52 31.37 37.00 17.00 Menu Temp. by C ale. from formu. App.Cx. Differ, betw. Mean Temp. by Ciil. & Obs. o 9) 370 956 831 548 656 Mean Temp. Table ill App. April, May, June, July, Mean of year. 17*. 23 22.81 31.30 37.28 18.86 C A A D B 13''.74 23.28 31.72 0M«) 0.76 0.35 15.13 K,l 1.20 W. 14. to E, 10.37 W. Having now discovered by observation, chiefly, the mean temperature of the months of April, May, June and July, and the probable mean temperature of the year, in the icy regions adjoining Spitzber- gcn, I conceive it not difficult to calculate, on very reasonable data, the temperature of the remaining months, in which no observations have yet been made. I shall still proceed on the basis of the Stockholm register, as being one of the most com- plete and minute registers that I have yet met with, besides having the advantage of referring to a high- er latitude f than any British register. • Appendix, No. II. Table G. t Latitude 59" 20' 31". ATMOSPIlEROLOt; Y. — TEMrEllATUllE. 359 The (lifFcrcncc between the mean tempcratnre of the year and that of July, is 21 J" in Stockhohn, and 20* near Spitzbergen. Finding not only that the differenee of temperature between the mean of the year and .Fuly, near Spitzbergen, but that the progressive increase of temperature from April to .Inly, also bore a strong analogy to the relative cir- cumstances at Stockholm, I formed a scheme of de- cimals connected with a simple formula, by which the same proporticm of change which has been ob- served to take place every month at Stockholm, may be very readily applied to any other country*, whence, situation and circumstances being near- ly similar, the temperature of unobserved vionths may be calculated. The data requisite, are the tem- peratures of January and July, or themean of the year and July. My observations on the temperature of the atmosphere in the Cireenland sea, afford the lat- ter data, from which, by the formula in the Ap- pendix, I have calculated the last column but one in the foregoing table, which agrees so nearly with the results by observation, as to afford a strong pre- sumption of the fairness of the inferences. By the same rule, the temperature of January, latitude 78', comes out — 1', that of February 0°.7, March 6M, August 34'.9, September ST'.S, October 18*.5, November 9.8, and December 3M. It might be urged against the truth of these in- ferences and calcidations, that southerly winds may * See Appendix, \^o. II. Tables F and G. 360 ACCOUNT OF THE AUCTIC llEGIONS. K'> •:•* ' prevail more in winter than in those months where- in the temperature has heen tried by observation, and consequently, that the weather would be warmer than it is here made out. I cannot find, however, any reason for supposing tliat this is the case, but rather the contrary, as will more particularly appear from the observations, in a following section, on the winds. Before I quit this speculative subject, I am na- turally led to the consideration of the probable tem- perature of the North Pole. Following the ex- ample of every generalizing meteorologist, I may, with some propriety, extend my speculations to the verge of the Earth, provided I can proceed on data not merely arbitrary or fanciful, but founded on ob- servation and analogy. It has been observed, that Professor Mayer's theorem for ascertaining the temperature of every latitude, becomes exceedingly wide of the truth, when we approach the regions of perpetual ice, not- withstanding in most other situations on the sea, or bordering thereon, it holds sufficiently near. The anomaly is evidently the frigorific effect of the ice. Admitting, then, that Mayer's formula, which has been received with very slight limitations, by almost every meteorologist, is founded on philosophical principles and correct observation, and consequent- ly that it would have applied with accuracy through- out the northern hemisphere, provided there had ATMOSrHEllOLOGY. — 1 EMVEllATUKK. 361 been no particular cause to affect it, — then the mean temperature of latitude 76' 45' near the western coast of Spitzbergen, would have been 33* 8 instead of 18°.8, as shown by my observations, and the mean temperature of the Pole would have been about 31' *. Now, the difference between the mean tem- perature of latitude 76° 45' by observation and cal- culation, which is here 15°, may be considered as the frigorific effect of the ice, because there is no other known cause why there should be any differ- ence at all. But if the ice be the sole cause of the anomaly, it must chiefly produce its effect through the medium of those winds which brush over its surface f , whilst the mild winds from the south and east, will generally bring a temperature uninfluenced by it, and consequently tending to elevate the mean temperature above what it would be in a situation in the ice, so remote from the sea, that the milder winds could never reach it unchanged. Now, at the Pole, no wind whatever could convey the mild influence of a temperate climate, because, from • I here follow Kirwan, who, from Mayer's formula, cal- culates the temperature of latitude 77* at 33.7, and of 76* at 34.1 ; hence 76° 45' or 76" f = 33.8. Professor Leslie, in the second edition of his Geometry, p. 496. calculates the temperature of 76° 45' at 34°.7, assuming that of the North Pole at 32'. t The effect of what has been called Radiation, being incon- siderable, under a dense atmosphere, subject to almost daily obscurities by snow or fog, is not here brought into considera- tion. 2 U Hi'' ■,■14. ii' . liii^' ^^ 362 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. whatever direction it should blow, it must be cooled down by brushing over an extensive surface of ice ; consequently the full frigorific effect of the ice must be greater at the Pole, than in places situated at or near the borders of the ice. For if Mayer's formula be well founded, and if the difference between the observed temperature of the polar seas and that by estimation on this formula, be entirely the frigorific effect of the ice ; — then the frigorific effect of the ice in the parallels which have been observed near the sea, will be to the same at the Pole, as the amount of frigid winds (or winds blowing over an extensive surface of ice,) during any period in those places whose temperatures have been observed, is to the amount of frigid winds during the same period at the Pole. Lotus apply this proposition for examin- ing into the frigorific effect of the ice at the Pole. From the meteorological results, contained in the Appendix, (No. II. Table B.), it appears, that du- ring nine years observations made in the months of April and May, or such parts thereof as are used in the estimation of the mean temperature, as stated above, the wind blew off the ice, or from the land covered with snow and ice ; that is, in the quarters included between the S. W. b S. and N. E. points, (north about) 147.4 days* ; but in the remaining quarters, included between N. E. and S. S.W. only 58.8 days ; to the former of which, (147.4) if we See the next following Note. 3 AT3I0SPHE110L0GY. — TEMrEllATUKK. 363 iidd 25.6 days (out of 35.8) of variable winds and calms, being the proportion of frigid winds in 206.2 days, we find, that in the total period of 242 days, the temperature of the air was more or less influenced by the ice during 173 days of that period, whilst there were only 58.8 + 10.2 = 69 days, in which the winds blowing from the south and east (increased by their proportion of the variable winds and calms) could not be said to be cooled by the ice*. Hence, as 173 (the number of days in which the temperature was influenced by the ice,) is to 15"* " These numbers are derived from Table B in Appendix, No. II. in the manner following. Frigid Winds, No. of days they being cooled by prevailed in 9 yrs. passing over ice. in part of April and May. No. of days they MildWinda,hloW' prevailed in 9 ing out of the Sea. years, in part of April and May, ENEtoNEbN,(half) 17.0 S S W to S b E, 9.6 N N E to N b W 51.8 S S E to B E b E, 12.5 N N W to N W b W, 40.2 E S E to E b N, 19.7 W N W to W b S, 35.3 EN EtoNEbN, (half) 17.0 WSWtoSWbS, 13.2 UT.4 58.8 Proportion of variable Proportion of variable winds and calms, ha- winds and calms not ving their tempera- having their tem- ture reduced by the perature reduced by ice, 25. 6« 173,0 the ice, 10.2 69.0 * Remark. — As the frigid winds blew 147.4 days, whilst the milder winds blew only 58.8 days, the variable winds and calms may be consider- ed as influenced by the frigid winds, more than the mild winds, or in the proportion of 147.4 to 58.8. Hence, as (147.4 + 58.8) = 206.2 is to 35,8, (the amount of variable winds and calms,) so is 147.4 to 25.6, the proportion of the variable winds and calms to be added to the frigid winds. p .11^ (■• 364 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC KEGIONS. >ir* I F-i =f ;' (the anomaly thereby occasioned in the mean tem- perature,) so is 242 the wliole number of days in consideration, to 21°, the probable anomaly which might be expected, were the temperature always in- fluenced by the ice, or the anomaly which may be supposed to occur at the Pole. Therefore, if from 31°, the calculated temperature of the Pole, we de- duct 21», we have 10° for the corrected mean tem- perature thereof. This result will be farther corroborated, if we ap- ply the same mode of investigation to another series of observations. In the former, the observations made in the Greenland Sea, in part of the months of April and May, or in the mean temperature month, have been the data for determining the frigorific effect of the ice on the temperature of the Pole ; we shall now make use of the observations made in the month oi May, during a series of twelve years, for the same purpose. The amount of frigid winds, including the pro- portion of variiible winds and calms, that occurred in the 78th parallel of latitude in the month of May, during a period of twelve years, comprising 372 days, was 257.2 days ; and the mild winds which prevailed during the same period, amounted to 114.8 days. The mean temperature of May, lati- tude 78°, appears by observation to be 22°.5, but by calculations made by IGrwan, founded on Mayer's formula, it comes out 37° ; so that the frigorific ef- Hfif!; ATMOSPHEROLOGY. — TEMPERATURE. 365 feet of the ice in the month of May, in this parallel, appears to be 14o.5. Hence, as 257.2, the number of days in which the temperature was influenced by the ice, is to 14o,5, the anomaly thereby occasioned in the temperature of May, so is 372, the whole number of days under consideration, to 21°, the pro- bable anomaly which may be supposed to exist in the month of May at the Pole. Now, it is not a little pleasing, that the anomaly thus found, is precisely the same as that discovered by the former process. As an objection to this conclusion, it might be urged, that the place where the meteorological ob- servations were made, from whence all the deduc- tions are derived, was not always at the margin of the solid ice, but, on the contrary, rarely so ; conse- quently, that the northern winds would pass over a surface of water as well as one of ice, and that the full frigorific eflPect of the ice would be thereby di- minished. The force of this argument must be al- lowed when singly considered ; but when it is like- wise remarked, that southerly winds as frequently passed over a small surface of drift-ice, as the north- erly winds passed over water, the effects may per- haps be admitted to compensate each other ; at least I have thus considered it, and leave the reader to determine with wliat degree of propriety. Another objection to the conclusion might be suggested, on the possibility of there being a basin of water at the Pole, unencumbered with ice. But should this be the case, though I conceive vv^c have no 366 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. I ifill;||; lit" good ground for imagining such a thing, I presume tlic objection would not bear upon the conclusion ; because, though a basin of water might occur, it must be entirely surrounded with ice, whereby every general wind which could blow, must pass over such an extent of ice, that nearly the full fri- gorific effect might be supposed to be produced, of which its influence was capable. I might, in connection with this subject, enter in- to an investigation of the probable range of tempe- rature in the winter months, from a similar mode of reasoning as has been hitherto adopted ; but the subject being so entirely speculative, I shall content myself with mentioning the range of tem- perature in those months, in which my observations have been conducted. The mean annual range of temperature in the polar seas, observed in April du- ring seven years, was 26°, the greatest range 41° ; the mean highest temperature 30°.6, and the mean lowest 4°.6. The following table, however, will show these matters more conveniently. » JC s « c > i: 1 April 7 May 12 June 10 July 3 Extremes of La- titude. 70° 0', to 80°. 10' 70.50 to 80.5 70.50 to 80.1 68.24 to 79.22 I4 76,''0' 77.17 78.15 76.13 Monthly range of Temperature. 30.6 34.6 10.5 46.0 o (U 4.6 10.2 21.4 30.0 •^ 3 to " « S g 17.6 22.4 31.0 38.0 g, c S c Extremes of Tem- perature. 26.0 24.4 19.1 16.0 u V > .-I a> uo > JS ti he M x o 37 40 48 48 > > in JO — 4 + 5 15 28 41 35 33 20 o s 1^ 16.5 22.5 31.5 38." fJS. ATMOSPHEROT.OGY. — TEMPEHaTUTIE. 367 presume nclusion ; occur, it whereby nist pass e full fri- duccd, of enter iii- >f teinpe- ilar mode ted ; but (, I shall e of tem- servations range of A-pril du- nge 41° ; he mean ever, will EMKS OF TeM- 'ERATURE. s d) . > 1 03 ". s ^ 2 ^J ;-S o ^^ JO « •' -4 41 16.5 - 5 35 22.5 15 33 31.5 28 20 38.'» From this table we find, that as the temperature decreases, the range of the thermometer increases ; hence it is probable, that in the winter months, the range is nearly, if not fully, double of what it is in summer. That tendency to equalization, which has been ob- served to hold very generally in the varying appear- ances and effects of meteorological phenomena, de- rives a beautiful illustration from the investigation of the extremes of temperature and pressure of the atmosphere, as indicated by the range of the baro- meter and thermometer. From a great number of registers of temperature which I have had occasion to examine, I am enabled to suggest the following general inferences. \st^ That in a period of several years, the mean of the highest and lowest temperature observed in the course of each year, agrees with the mean tem- perature of the place, generally to the fraction of a degree. Thus, from the twenty years register kept at the Royal Society's apartments, between 1795 and 1814, the sum of the highest temperature ob- served each year is 1628°, and of the lowest 372° 5, the amount of which, 2000.5, divided by 40, the number of observations, gives 50.01 for the mean of the whole, which differs only 0.39 of a degree from the mean temperature. 368 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. (leiived at least from 14,600 observations, sup- posing only two observations to bavc been macle each day. 2dt That in a period of years, the mean of the extremes of temperature observed in any one month, agrees with the mean temperature of that month, generally, to the fraction of a degree. In Table A of meteorological results. No. II. of the Appendix, the sum of the highest tem- peratures observed in the month of 3Iai/ for twelve years is 415°, and of the lowest 122°; the amount, 537, divided by 24, the number of observations, gives a mean of 22.38, differ- ing from the mean temperature of this month, as derived from 956 observations, only 0.43 of a degree. From the same Table, it appears, that the sum of the highest temperatures ob- served each year for ten years in JmiCt is 405, and of the lowest 214, the amount of which, 619, divided by 20, the number of observa- tions, gives 30.95 for the mean, differing only 0.35 of a degree from the mean temperature as derived from 831 observations. In the same way the mean of the extremes of tem- perature in jlpril is 17.6, differing from that derived from the mean of 370 observations only 1^ degrees; and of Julyf 37.86, differ- ing from the mean of the month, by 548 observations, only 0.89 of a degree. ATMOSPHEUOLOGV. — TKMrEllATUllE. 360 3f/, That the mean of the highest and lowest temperature, occurring in every month during one year, corresponds with the mean temperature of that year, generally to within two or three degrees ; and in a series of years to the fraction of a degree. At Okak, on the coast of I^abrador the mean temperature of the year 1779-80, from 1460 observations, was 31°.0, the mean of the highest and lowest observations, [ — ji — J = 32.3^ differing 1°.3 from the mean ; and at the same place in 1777-8, the mean temperature was 21°.7, and that of the monthly extremes 27*'.7, difference 3°.0. At Nain, on the same coast, the mean temperature in 1779-80 WPS 30°.3 ; the mean of the monthly extremes, |- 6U+J94 j ^ 3Q0 g^ difference 0°.5 ; and at the same place in 1777-8, the mean temperature Was 24°.6, and the mean of the extremes 27°.9, difference 3°. 3. 4///, Tliat the mean of the greatest heat and greatest cold, which occur in any fixed place, in temperate climates, in any particular year or pe- riod of years, affords a temperature which, in many instances, corresponds very nearly, with the mean temperature of that period. In London, from the Royal Society's register, the greatest cold which was observed in the 20 years included between 1795 and 1814, was 4°, vol.. I. A a I 4 ill PDW ill S70. ACCOUNT OF TIIK ARCTIC REOIONS. tlic greatest heat 9^-5 ; the mean is 48<'.75 or 1°.65 less than the mean temperature of the same period. Even tlie mean of the extremes of temperature observed in any one year, does not differ so considerably from the mean of tlie year as might be imagined. One year, in- deed, in London, the mean of the yearly ex- tremes was 8M below that of the mean tem- perature ; but in the 20 years, the mean of the extremes corresponded with tliat of the year, 4 times to within a degree, 10 times to within 2°, 12 times to within 3°, 15 times to within 4°, 17 times ta within 5", and 19 times to within 6°. Hence it is as great a probabi- lity that the mean of the yearly extremes of temperature is within 2° of the mean tempe- rature of the same year, as that it differs more. jil' i;' SECT. III. I ^''i'' ■ il ilii H M^ m *M^BE 1 1 .if jiff lii |1 Remarks on the Pressure of the Atmosphere, with Observations on the Use of the Barrnne- ter in predicting the Weather. In the winter and spring months, the pressure of the atmosphere, in polar latitudes, as well as its temperature, is liable to sudden and very consider- able variations. But as my observations have been 2 ATMOSIMIEROLOI.Y. — llAUOM KTKU. :i7l conHiicd to the spring nul sumuiev sonsons, 1 can- not give a precise account <)( the niagnitndc of those changes. I sluill, liowevcr, specify ii few of the most remarkable tliat have occ'urreil witliin my own observation. Year. Month, &c. 1808, 1809, 1812, 1813, 1814, 1813, 1816, 1817, Apri April 4. May 12. — - G. 2. ii. 7. la. 23. 24 13. 12. 27. 28. 29. 14. 13. 18. 20. Latitude. 77.40 73.49 75.23 75.35 m.r>o 73.11 8007 80.10 71. 77.21 78.20 78.10 78. 72.54 G8. 3 71.56 73.25 Chan^e^ of tfie Bn- roinctcr. Interval. fc-ll, fell, fell, fell, fell. Incheii. 0.92 0.72 0.62 0.77 0.92 rose, 0.50 fell, 1.02 fell, 0.82 rose, 0.86 fell, 1.00 rose, 0.60 fell, 0.81 rose, 0.67 0.80 0.53 0.73 1.12 1.01 rose, fell, fell, fell, rose, Hours. 24 24 24 12 24 12 12 24 24 24 14 24 12 20 16 24 21 35 The greatest lieight of tlie mercury I ever ob- served during twelve Greenland voyages, was 30.57, which occurred on the 2d of May 1815; and the greatest depression 28.03, when near the ice in la- titude 66° 50', on the 5th of April 1808. Hence A a2 1,4 *<'i.ii 57^ ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC llECIOXS. Mil' t PI '11 il ;■■ . b ^ii'^ !rl liii 1 i" ii' t .. 11 i Wi M-'i U; If*' if'-' •?iK«^,|;U' '' MIST? 1 . iLj 1 ft i A/ |. the greatest range of tlic barometer between the 1st of April and the close of July, observed within the Arctic circle during the twelve years, was 2.54 inches. It may be observed, however, that I have never seen the mercury lower than 28.7.5 to the northward of the 71st degree of latitude; so that the above range in the months of -^Vpril to July, must be very uncommon. The greatest range of the barometer observed in the month of April du- ring seven years, was from 28.03 to 30.48, or 2.45 inches ; the greatest range in May during 12 years, was from 29.23 to 30.57, or 1.34 inches; the greatest range in June during 10 years, was from 29.25 to 30.37, or 1.12 inches; and the greatest range observed in July during six years, was from 29.30 to 30.30, or 1 inch. The average range in April is about 1.30 inches; in May 0.94, in June 0.79, and in July 0.72. The changes in the pressure of the atmosphere, in the spring of the year, as indicated by the baro- meter, are not only great and rapid, but frequently portentous. I never knew the barometer mark a pressure of less than 29 inches, without its being followed or accompanied by a gale of wind, either at the place of observation, or in the immediate neighbourhood of it ; and in the course of my ob- servations of the oscillations of the mercury during sixteen successive voyages, not above five or six storms have, I think, occurred, which were not pre- ATMOSPIlEUOLOfiV. — BAROMETER. 373 dieted by the barometer. Tlie value of this instru- ment, therefore, in a country \vlicre there is fre- quently not an interval of uve minutes between tlic most perfect calm and the most impetuous storm, is almost incalculable. The faithfulness of its in- dications are certainly not sufficiently apjireciated, else it would be more generally used. At one pe- riod, I amused myself by registering my predictions, from the changes observed in the barometer ; and on reviewing those memoranda, I find, that of 18 pre- dictions of atmos2)heric changes in the year 1812, whereof several were remarkable, 16 or 17 proved correct. During the wliole period in which I have been in the habit of observing the barometer, I have never been able to detect any small periodical changes in- dicative of atmospheric tides. Two remarks, how- ever, I may offer, as being pretty general : That the greatest fall of the mercury is frequently preceded or followed by the greatest rise : And that the same tendency to equality takes place in the pressure, as has been traced in regard of the temperature of the atmosphere ; the mean of the highest and lowest observations in a long series corresponding to a great minuteness with the mean pressure. The former observation will be found frequently to hold, by examination of the series of mcterological tables in the Appendix ; and the latter, most particularly, if we refer to the first table of meteorological re- 374 ACLOUXT or THE ARCTIC REGIONS. ill ?ll li!. m suits *. Ill the month of Miiy, during 12 years, the mean maximum pressure, being the mean of the highest observation each year, is 30.36, the mean minimum pressure 29-^3, and the mean of the two 29.89, corresponding with the mean pressure to within two hundredth parts of an inch. And from tlic observations during ten years in June, a similar result is obtained: Mean maxi- mum 30.25, mean minimum 29.47, mean of the two 29.86, and mean pressure 29.869 ; difference only 0.009. l^ut the comparison of the greatest with the least pressure that occurred during the se- ries of years, is scarcely less striking : Highest observation in June 30.37, lowest 29.25, and mean 29.8I ; differing from the mean pressure 0.059. And highest observation in May 30.57, lowest 29.23, mean 29-90 ; differing from the mean pres- sure, by above 1000 observations, only 0.009. m.i\ The following are the relations which, in polar latitudes, I have been enabled to trace between the barometer and the weather. 1. A hard westerly gale with snow, occasions the greatest depression of the mercury, and a light east- erly wind with dry weather, the greatest elevation. 2. The rising of the mercury foretels the sub- sidence of wind or rain, a change of wind, or fine J'. ■ ^11 • Appendix, No. II. Table A. ^.t-^ ATMOSPHEllOLOGY. — LARO>xETEK. 371- weather ; and its falling, rain, snow, or n change or increase of wind. 3. The mercury rising unusually high, and then becoming stationary, indicates, in the months of April and May, a continuance of fine weather^, but in June or July, ^oggy weather. 4. If, in the month of April, the mercury fali with some rapidity, an inch or more, a storm will most certainly succeed, however contrary appearan- ces may be, which will probably be the more severe in proportion as it approximates the east, atid will frequently continue with unabated violence for fifty or sixty hours. 5. The rising of the mercury usually precedes the cessation of a storm ; but does not invariably determine the period of its continuance, as storms frequently blow for a day or two after the first rise t)f the mercury. 6. Sudden and repeated fluctuations in the ba- rometer are indicative of unsettled weather; but the rapid fall of the mercury is no indication of a short gale, though in other regions the reverse is said to be the case ; for before storms that con- tinue two or three days, the barometer frequently falls an inch within twenty-four hours, and, indeed, in a gale as long and as heavy as I almost ever witnessed, the fall of the mercury was above an inch in twelve hours. li 'n ( 41 I I 376 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC llEGIONS. H"] m m ': 7. Before very heavy storms, when the barometer falls uncommonly low, the mercury seems to get below its natural level, and often rises two or three tenths of an inch as soon as the predicted storm commences : hence this first rise of the mercury is no indication whatever of an abatement of the wind. 8. On account of the different states of the ba- rometer in west and east winds, the usual level of the mercury with a moderate wind at west, not be- ing much higher than with a gale at east, a change of wind from one of these quarters to the opposite, may be accompanied with the greatest alteration in the strength of the wind, without producing any effect on the barometer. Thus a storm at east veering to west, may subside, or a gentle breeze at west veering to east, may increase to a storm, with- out any alteration taking place in the mercury o£ the barometer. But in these cases, it has already been observed, that the change which takes place in the temperature, often compensates for the imper- fect action of the barometer. pi.4i*i. ATMOSPIIEROLOGY. '^77 o/ SECT. IV. Appearance^ Colonic Transparency^ Density, de- gree of Dryiicss, and state as to Electricity, of the Atmosphere. The appearance of the Greenland atmosphere, corresponds in some degree with the winter sky of Britain ; the colour of the former is, however, of a deeper azure ; and its transparency, when clear, and free from icy crystals, perhaps more perfect. Far within the borders of compact ice, the atmo- sphere, in summer, is often cloudless, and the wea- ther serenely pleasant, though cold. But in the usual fishing-stations, and on the exterior of the ice in general, a clear sky is not frequent ; neverthe- less, when it does occur, its transparency is peculi- arly beautiful. The sun sometimes sweeps two or three times round the Pole, without being for a mo- ment obscured by a cloud. Objects the most re- mote, may be seen perfectly distinct and clear. A ship's top-gallant-mast, at the distance of five or six leagues, may be discerned when just appearing above the horizon, with a common perspective glass ; and the summits of some mountains are visible at the distance of sixty to a hundred miles. This perfect clearness, occurs most frequently before east- erly winds. In general, however, especially in very r I ■ :* I 1 I'"" '(Ml,, ;!'■ in I] 'i ■ -i'*! fP li il(t"•' ^■1* M :. Si "If I; I ih J'/iJiitr'l J M 388 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC llEGIOXS. minutes extent of the altitude, showed the divisiou of the true and refracted horizons. This disunion in tlie horizon, was very similar in appearance to the natural horizon^, when viewed through the hori- zon glass of a sextant, having a considerahle index error. Viewed from the mast-head, the refracted horizon extended ahout 30° farther westward than when seen from the deck. It had the appearance of a line drawn nearly parallel to the true horizon, distant from it 7 minutes, with an open space be- tween. Two ships lying beset about fourteen miles off, the hulls of which, before the density came on, could not be wholly seen, seemed now from the mast head, not to be above half the distance, as the hori- zon was visible considerably beyond them. The ap- pearance of these ships was singular. Their hulls were much enlarged and elongated, and their masts very much shortened. They had precisely the pro- spective appearance of ships in a heeling position. Again, on the l6th of the same month, the ship I commanded being similarly situated with regard to the ice, the phenomenon was repeated, with some alteration* . The refracted portion of the horizon appeared again in the south-east quarter : it was at •Latitude 77' 56', longitude 3°54/E. ; barometer 30.51; thermometer at noon 19°, at 10 P. M. 10° ; wind N. E. by N. to N. N. W., blowing a fresh breeze. oxs. ATMOSPHEROLOGY. — REFRACTION. 389 he division s disunion )earance to h the hori- able index e refracted ward than appearance le horizon, I space he- [•teen miles y came on, [n the mast is the hori- , The ap- rheir hulls ;heir masts ly the pro- position ► the ship I regard to with some le horizon it was at (ter 30.51; N. E.byN. first direct and undivided ; but, in a short time, it se2)arated in several places, and each distinct portion was inclined at a small angle towards the true ho- rizon. The effect of refraction was six minutes of altitude. A particular haziness was evident to the east and north of the broken horizon. On the 28th of April 1811, I had an opportuni- ty of ascertaining the exact effect of a singular re- fraction, by the alteration produced in tlie distance of the visible horizon. A ship, the Henrietta of Whit- by, bearing easterly from us, lay beset at such a dis- tance, that her hull was not visible ; and when view- ed from an elevation of ninety feet, with a good te- lescope, half her lower masts were intercepted by the ice on the horizon. Now, at the elevation from which this ship was seen, the horizon, under common circumstances, would be nine miles distant ; and from the knowledge of the dimensions of her masts, I estimated the portion of the hull and masts inter- cepted by the horizon, at about 22 feet ; consequent- ly, hei distance beyond the horizon must have been at least 4|^ miles, and her distance from us not less than 13^. The day had been almost cloudless, the sun powerful. At 11 p. m.*, I was informed by the • Latitude 77° 4'; longitude 8° 50* 52" E. ; baiometer 30.17 ; thermometer at noon 26*, at 1 1 P. M. 1 6° ; the wind had been easterly, but now blew a brisk breeze from the north. '?!* I m 390 ACCOUNT OF THK ARCTIC REGIONS. ,.. ' ,jiii#i' T-1 VM- t '; .Mi' •: -C*"' II 11 f|.-.j mi' ^' officer of tlie watch, that the ship to the eastward of us, appeared to be forced by the ice upon her beam ends, or into an heeling posture. I immediately as- cended the dect, and having cleaned the glasses of a good telescope, I hastened to the mast-head. I at once attributed the cause of the deception to unequal refraction. This ship, which, two hours be- fore, was 4^ miles beyond the visible horizon, now appeared as far within it, and was in every respect deformed like the ships above mentioned. The ice between us and the Henrietta, was compact and motionless ; in confirmation of which, a few hours afterwards, we found she had resumed her former appearance ; that is, she had apparently returned to her situation beyond the horizon. Now, the dis- tance of the Henrietta, 1 3i miles, as before deter- mined, added to about 4 miles that the horizon was visible beyond her, gives 17* miles for its distance, which is greater by 8^ miles, than we derive from estimation, on the principle of the earth's curvature, with an elevation of 90 feet. The horizon on this occasion, between the east and north, though continuous, appeared curiously undu- lated. There appeared a'difference of nearly a quar- ter of a degree, between the elevation of the highest and lowest portions of the circumferential boundary. I have occasionally observed other effects of at- mospheric refraction, such as produce an inverted image of distant ships ; an elevation of the bow or ATMOSl'HEROLUGY. — IIEI'IIACTIOX. aoi stern, and a peculiar distortion of the masts ; a di- vision of a ship in the middle, and a lengthening of the hull, &c. ; but the preceding having been more attentively studied in connection with the state of the atmosphere, they are more satisfactory, and con- sequently more worthy of particular detail. From the whole of these facts, the following re- marks may be deduced. 1st, That the curious refractions of the atmos- phere in the polar regions, as far as they have been observed, have usually occurred in the evening or night, after a clear day. 2df That they are most frequent on the com- mencement or approach of easterly winds. And, 3d, That they are, probably, occasioned by the commixture, near the surface of the land or sea, of two streams of air of different temperatures, so as to occasion an irregular deposition of imperfectly con- densed vapour, which, when passing the verge of the horizon, may produce the phenomenon observed*. Ill Those phenomena, considered as the effects of re- fraction, &c. which remain to be mentioned, are not I • Perhaps the refraction of the dense vapour incumbent on the surface of the Thames, which at high water brings into the view of a spectator on the opposite bank, objects that are invisible at low water, may, in some measure, illustrate, or serve to account for this phenomenon. •i: li Mik 'I I yf 1: ':i* ■"i 392 ACCOUNT Ol THK AllCTlC iUidlONS. peciilijir to the i)oliir seas ; they may, however, be briefly noticed. Parhelia and coronw are, perhaps, not so frequent in Greenland as in some parts of America. I do not recollect to have observed these phenomena more than thrice. The first occurred on one of my earli- est voyages to the fishery, and passed off merely as a wonderful appearance, without inducing me to mi- nute the particulars. I perfectly recollect, however, that there were two or three parhelia, and four or five coloured circles. The primary one encompassed the sun, the remainder had their centres in its cir- cumference ; and some of the intersections exhibited the splendour of the parhelion. Some of the circles almost equalled in their colours the brilliancy of the rainbow ; a grand arch resembling which, was at the same time displayed, in the opposite quarter. The other two instances occurred on the passage. The one, when outward bound, April 14. 1807, la- titude 64° or 65°, consisted of several parhelia, which, accompanied by coloured circles and arcs of circles, and succeeded by a lunar halo, together with the aurora borealis, proved the harbingers of a tremen- dous tempest. The last phenomenon of this kind which 1 saw, appeared on the passage homeward, in July 1811. It consisted of a large circle of lumi- nous whiteness, passing through the centre of the sun, in a direction nearly parallel to the horizon, inter- sected in various places with coloured circles of smal- o )NS. vevcr, be ► frequent ca. I do lena more my earli- merely as me to mi- , however, id four or compassed in its cir- 1 exhibited the circles incy of the ATMOSPHEIIOLOGV. — I'AUHELIA. 393 ler dimensions. At two of the intersections of the coloured with the white circle, were exhibited bril- liant parhelia of an irregular form. Huygens accounts for these phenomena, on the supposition that the sun's rays are refracted by cy- lindrical hail. It is, however, probable, that such a form of hail does not occur in nature, though snow or hail of a prismatic or spicular form is not uncommon in the polar regions. These prisms or spiculae are so slender, that they assume the appear- ance of white hair chopped into portions of one- twentieth to one-fourth of an inch in length. They fall most frequently when the temperature is about the freezing point, and sometimes in great profu- sion. Several appearances resembling the rainbow, pro- duced by the refraction and reflection of the sun's rays, in particles of congealed vapour, have been observed. On the 5th of June 1817, in particular, a beautiful iris was produced in a snow-shower ; and on the 1st of June in the same year, in latitude 78° 29', a similar arch was impressed on a shower of a kind of frozen fog. The colours, however, were not so brilliant as those of the rainbow, and the arch was much broader. The chord of this arch at midday, measured 50°, and its versed sine or al- titude 9°. The rainbow itself is an appearance so common, that there is no need of dwelling upon it. The 394 ACCOUNT or the arctic regions. It- *-!' ill* %m> K,6''' 1^: -Mm' &' mm fog-bow, or rather fog-circle^ is, on the contrary, more rarely observed, and is consequently entitled to some of our attention. The intense fogs which prevail in the polar seas, at certain seasons, occa- sionally rest upon the surface of the water, and reach only to an inconsiderable height. At such times, though objects situated on the water can scarcely be discerned at the distance of 100 yards, yet the sun will be visible r .'d effulgent. Under such circumstances, on the 19th of July 1813, being at the top-mast-head, I observed a beautiful circle of about 30° diameter, with bands of vivid colours, depicted on the fog. The centre of the circle was in a line drawn from the sun through the point of vision, until it met the visible vapour in a situation exactly opposite the sun. The lower part of the circle descended beneath my feet to the side of the ship ; and although it could not be an hundred feet from the eye, it was perfect, and the colours distinct. The centre of the coloured circle was distinguished by my own shadow, the head of which enveloped by a halo, was most conspicuously pourtrayed. The halo or glory was evidently impressed on the fog, but the figure appeared to be a shadow on the water, the different parts of which became obscure in proportion to their remoteness from the head, so that the lower extremities were not perceptible. I remained a long time contemplating the beautiful phenomenon before me. Notwithstanding the sun was ATMOSPHEROLOGY. — WINDS. 395 brilliant and wann, the fog was uncommonly dense beneath. The sea and ice, within 60 yards of the ship, could scarcely be distinguished. The prospect thus circumscribed, served to fix the attention more closely on the only interesting object in sight, whose radiance and harmony of colouring, added to the sin- gular appearance of my own image, were productive of sensations of admiration and delight. SECT. VI. Ohservatimis on the Winds of the Polar Regions^ with some Notices I'especting Meteors not aqueous. In my researches on the phenomena of the Green- land atmosphere, I have not attempted either to establish any particular theory, or to frame a new one ; but have principally devoted my attention to the object of forming such a combination of facts as may be applied with advantage by those natu- ralists who engage in the arduous task of genera- lizing the phenomena of nature. Excepting where my observations happen to afford an illustration of some popular or ingenious opinion, I have generally avoided theories and speculations, contenting myself with stating the plain matter of fact. At the same II ! 396 ACCOUNT or TIIK AUCTIC REGION'S. time, 1 have been careful in mentioning every little particular which has come under my own notice, that my researches may in some degree compensate for that great deficiency of observations in the po- lar regions, which has hitherto rendered the natu- ral history of this part of the world so incomplete. Respecting atmospheric temperature and pres- sure, I have been enabled to offer the result of se- veral years observations, which, from the perfect na- ture of the instruments employed in the investiga- tion, may be received without reserve. In the phe- nomena of the Winds, however, which I am now about to describe, I cannot be so precise ; being able to give a correct idea only of their peculiarities and direc»! ATMOSriIEROLOGY. — WINDS. 39T rectioii across a great portion of the circumference of the globe. In temperate climates, the winds are capricious, and, if we except forcible gales, are in general local. A very little attention, indeed, will discover, that at certain seasons the wind blows from some particular (piartcr more than any other, though, in the same seasons, winds of various de- grees of force and generality are observed to occur in every point of the compass. Advancing to- wards the polar regions, we find the irregularities of the winds increased, and their locality more stri- king : — storms and calms repeatedly alternate, with- out warning or progiTssion ; — forcible winds blow in one place, when at the distance of a few leagues, gei tie breezes prevail ; — a storm from the south, on one hand, exhausts its impetuosity upon the gentle breeze, blowing from off' the ice, on the other, without prevailing in the least : — ships within the circle of the horizon may be seen enduring every variety of wind and weather at the same moment ; some under close-reefed topsails, labouring under the force of a storm ; some becalmed and tossing about by the violence of the waves ; and others ply- ing under gentle breezes, from quarters as diverse as the cardinal points. The cause of some of these phenomena, has, in the last chapter, been referred to the frigorific influences of the ice, the accuracy of which opinion, experience and observation con- firm. li ! S98 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC It 1.(1 ION'S. ■tiv'^ These irregularities in the aretic winds, will he now more particularly noticctl, heginning with the phenomena attendant on unddcn storms. The most general preliminaries to such are, perfect calm ; cu- riously variable breezes with strong squalls ; singu- lar agitation of the sea ; together with thick snow, which often changes from flakes to powder, and falls in such profusion as to occasion an astonishing gloominess and obscurity in the atmosphere. If the snow clear away, the gale is often at hand, whilst a luminousness on the horizon, resembling the ice-blink, sometimes points out its direction, and a noise in the upper regions of the air announces its immediate approach. As these appearances are subject to some variety, they may be more clearly explained by reference to a few of the most striking instances I have observed, in which the value of the barometer, studied in connection with the thermo- meter, in this variable and occasionally tempestuous climate, will be satisfactorily proved. In the evening of the 5th of April 1811, latitude 70° 49' N., and longitude r 15' E., the wind blew a fresh gale from the northward, and the barometer which had been stationary for 35 hours, stood at 29.88 inches. At noon, on the following day, we had a moderate breeze of wind from the north-west, which, towards evening, increased to a fresh gale, exceedingly variable and squally, accompanied by thick showers of flaky snow. At 9 a. m., the ther- ATMOSPIIF.llOI.OGY. — WINDS. 399 momcter stood at 10', at 4 i». ivi., it had risen to 17\ and at 6 p. m. to S>7°. This remarkable rise, of 17' of temperature in nine hours, indicated a southerly or easterly wind, and, because the barometer had fallen to 29.50, a severe stonn was expected. Since the barometer stands highest on easterly winds, had it remained stationary, we should have expected a stonn, on the veering of the wind fronr the N. \V. to the opposite quarter ; but, when this change was preceded by a fall of near four-tenths of an inch in the column of mercury, a violent gale might be an- ticipated. I now walked the deck somewhat alarmed at the awftil appearance of the sky, in the short intervals of the showers. At one time, a luminousness re- sembling the ice-blink, appeared in the horizon, ex- tending from the N. N. E. to the E. S. E *. It did not, however, proceed from any ice, as I was after- wards perfectly satisfied ; neither was it likely to arise from the effects of the sun, as it was in the western quarter. • A few weeks afterwards, when mentioning this circum- stance to an old Greenland commander, he told me he had seen the phenomenon I described, and always considered it as the prognostic of a storm, while the position of the lumi- nousness pointed out the quarter from whence the wind would commence. 400 ACCOUNT OF THE AUCTIC REC.IOXS. It m .IK^-''^! J Mi': « :,^^M,i:■ mi*. Tr' 111 the midst of a thick shower, the snow was ob- served to clear away to leeward, which warned me of an approaching shiji of wind. Immediately, all hands were ordered on deck, to attend the sails, and every man at his station awaited the event. In about ten minutes the sails gave a violent shake, and were the next instant taken fiat aback. The wind, though blowing a fresh gale, veered in a moment from N. N. W. to E. S. E. We steered by the wind, after reefing sails, about an hour and a half to the north-eastward, when the snow began to abate, but the wind of a sudden became so violent, that the utmost exertions of all the crew were but just sufficient to prevent the sails from blowing to pieces. At length, all was made snug ; a close-reef- ed main-topsail, and storm try-sail, were alone ex- posed to the fury of the tempest. On the second day of the storm's continuance, a heavy sea struck the ship, and with dreadful violence mounted the deck ; it had nearly precipitated a boat suspended from the weather quarter, over the rail, — it lifted and removed an eighteen pounder carronade ; — filled two boats with water, — and stove or washed away the whole of the bulwark, fore and aft. During the whole of this gale, which lasted three days, the barometer remained perfectly stationary. On May 17. 1812, lat. 76°. 7' long. 9J° E. the ship which I commanded was immured among ice, and the wind blew a hard gale from the N. N. W. ATMOSPIIEROI.OGY. — WINDS. 401 The clay following it subsided, and a moderate breeze prevailed, veering from N. N. W., gradually to W., S., E., and finally settling again at N. N. W., after touching on every point of the compass. The barometer, meanwhile, was depressed. In the even- ing it was nearly calm. While we were in the act of towing the ship through a narrow opening be- tween two floes, a heavy shower was observed in the N. W., advancing towards the ship. On its approach, the vane at the mast-head whirled round, the sails were violently shaken, and in a moment the snow enveloped the ship in obscurity, and a violent storm of wind dashed her, spite of every exertion, stern first, against a floe of ice which she was in the act of doubling. The concussion, though violent, was prevented, by the prompt activity of the sailors, in getting out a rope to one of the ad- joining sheets of ;ice, from producing any particular injury. After enduring considerable pressure from the two floes, which, at the same instant, collapsed, we were enabled to make our escape, from a situa- tion of the most perilous nature, and happily without any serious damage being sustained by the ship. May the 10th 1813, the barometer indicated a storm ; and tlic singular appearance of the atmo- sphere strengthened the indication. After twelve or eighteen hours of calm and variable weather, oc- casioned evidently by conflicting winds, a sudden and impetuous storm arose, which continued with little intermission for six davs. VOL. I. If., C C mM $' 402 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. 11 K sM u ;■ The approach of sudden storms, it has been ob- served, is sometimes announced by a noise in the the air. My Father once removed his ship from a most dangerous bight in the main ice, where she would probably have been lost, had she remained a few minutes longer, in consequence of his having heard the rushing of a storm in the air, when at the mast-head. Before the ship was out of danger, a heavy gale commenced ; but the sails being set, and the ship under command, she was extricated from the perilous situation. From this circumstance, he imagines, that sudden storms frequently commence at some height in the atmosphere, and gradually descend to the surface. A phenomenon of a description similar to that of sudden storms, and almost equally common, is inter- mitting gales. The nature of these winds will be best explained, by mentioning two or three instan- ces. April the 22d 1814, latitude 73° 29', we had in- termitting gales, snow-showers and high sea. The squalls continued from five minutes to half an hour at a time ; and the intervals of calm weather were a little longer. During the squalls, the ship could only bear close-reefed topsails and courses ; but in the intervals she might have carried royals. This kind ofweather prevailed from 8 a. m. until 3 P. M., when, in a shower of snow, a sudden calm occurred and continued for an hour. The gale then sudden- i'- ATMOSPHEROLOGY. — WINDS. 403 ly recommenced with increased severity. At 9 P. M. the wind veered at once from N. N. W. to E. N. E., and then subsided. From 9 to 12 p. m., a thick- ness of six inches of snow fell upon the deck. The morning of the 18th of April 1815, in the 78th degree of latitude, near Spitzhergen, was beau- tifully clear and serene. At 11 a. m. clouds began to obscure the face of the sky, and soon afterwards much snow fell. In the evening we experienced fresh gales from two or three quarters, with intervals of calms, in the space of an hour. North, east, and south gales, alternately prevailed, in rapid but irre- •Tular succession, during several hours. The winds being dangerous, the appearance was uncom- r iy interesting. Fariahle winds, and local or partial winds, are common in all temperate, and in some of the warm- er climates ; but not in that striking degree in which they occur in the frigid zone. The winds, indeed, among ice, are generally unsteady in their direction, and attended with strong gusts or squalls, particularly in very cold weather, and towards the termination of a storm. This variableness being the effect of the unequal temperature of the ice and water, is curious ; but the phenomenon that is most calculated to excite surprise is, that several distinct, and even opposite winds, with the force, in many instances, of a fresh gale, will occasionally prevail at the same moment of time, within the range of the c c 2 m its k-H rt, I ? I 404 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC BEGIONS. horizon. The situation in which this circumstance occurs, would appear to be the point where conflict- ing winds contend for the superiority ; and as in some instances their forces are effectually balanced, the winds which simultaneously blow from the south- ward and northward, or from the eastward and westward, have their energies almost destroyed at the place of combination. Thus, it sometimes hap- pens, that ships within sight of each other, will, at the same period of time, experience every variety of weather, from calm to storm, from fair weather to thickest snow, together with several distinct and contrary currents of wind. An instance or two ^ay not be uninteresting. On the morning of the 30th of April 1810, the ship Resolution, in which I served in the capacity of chief mate and harpooner, was, during thick showers of snow, sailing by the edge of a stream of ice, with the wind from the north-westward. About 10 A. M. the snow abated, and several ships were seen within the distance of three or four miles. As all of these ships were sailing " on a wind," it was easy to ascertain the direction of the wind where they were, and curious to observe its variableness. Two ships bearing north-east from us, had the wind at N. E. ;• two bearing east, at E. or E. N. E. ; two bearing S. E., had the wind at S. E. ; while witli us, it blew from the N. W. In each of these situa- tions a fresh breeze prevailed; but in some situations^ ATMOSPHEROLOGY. — WINDS. 405 where there happened to be no ships, there appeared to be no wind at all. The clouds above us at the time, were constantly changing their fonns. Showers of snow were seen in various places at a distance. Another instance occurred also witliin my own n\y- servation, in April 1 813. The crew of the ship Esk, under my command, were engaged in pursuit of some whales, near the edge of the main western ice, in latitude 80° 7', during which the ship was laid- to, near the scene of the chace. In the course of the day, we had winds from every point of the com- pass, and with every degree of force from storm to calm. While a gentle breeze of wind from the N. prevailed with us, a heavy swell from the S. S. E. came on, and a dense black cloud appeared in the southern horizon, which rapidly arose into the ze- nith, and shrouded one-half of the heavens. The commixture of this dense air with the cold wind from the N., produced a copious discharge of snow. When the snow ceased, though we were nearly be- calmed, we observed several ships a few miles to the south-eastward, under close-reefed topsails, having evidently a gale of wind blowing in the direction of the swell. About two hours afterwards, the south- erly wind reached us, and, as we stood to the eastward, gradually increased to a gale. On returning towards the ice, however, at 5 p. m., the wind again subsid- ed, so that when we came within four or five miles of it, the sky cleared, and we were again becalmed. ir ;ii»*»'i Jit' urn f l*«;':iHl Hm 406 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. From the clear atmosphere to the northward and westward, and the dense sky to the southward and eastward, with the heavy swell from the S. S. E., it was evident that we were between two winds ; — a southerly storm to the southward of us, and a northerly breeze to the northward. At seven p. m. of the same day, a north-east wind commenced, and soon blew a tremendous storm. All the previous winds had been partial; this was general, and extended several degrees of latitude to the south- ward. This storm was particularly predicted by the barometer and thermometer ; the mercury in the former, having fallen from 29.74 to 28.98 ; and in the latter from 30° to 12°, in about twelve hours. Instances of local stwrns are not uncommon in temperate climates ; but, in the arctic regions, they are frequent and striking. Their locality is such, that a calm may occur when a storm is expected, and actually does prevail at a short distance ; so that the indications of the barometer may appear to be erroneous. In such cases, however, the reality of the storm is often proved by the agitation of the sea. Swells from various quarters make their appear- ance, and frequently prevail at the same time. My Father, whose opportunities of observation hftve been very numerous, relates the following in- stance of the locality of a storm. When command- ing the ship Henrietta, he was on one occasion na- vigating the Greenland Sea, during a tedious gale ATMOSPHEROLOGY. — WINDS. 407 of wind, accompanied with snowy weather. As the wind began to abate, a ship appeared in sight, un- der all sails, and presently came up with the Hen- rietta. The master hailed, and inquired what had happened that my Father's ship was under close- reefed topsail in such moderate weather. On being told that a storm had just subside i, le declared that he knew nothing of it : he observed, indeed, a swell, and noticed a black cloud a-head of his ship, that seemed to advance before him, until he was over- shadowed with it, a little while before he overtook the Henrietta ; but he had had fine weather and light winds the whole day. The last example of local storms that I shall give, occurred in the year 1817. At noon of the 4th of May, the Esk, under my command, was in latitude 78« 55', near the ice, with a brisk breeze of wind from the E. S. E. In the evening we stood to the southward, experienced a considerable increase of wind, and at midnight tacked. We then steered under a brisk sail to the N. E., as high as latitude 80*10', finding less wind and clearer sky as we went to the northward ; while dense clouds appeared in the south- em quarter, and a heavy swell from the same direc- tion pursued us. The wind was light in the evening of the 5th ; tacked at the edge of the northern ice, and returned to the south-westward. During the whole of the next day, we continued our course, under all sails, having a fresh breeze of wind at I 11 f •i„!'f n m The south-westerly and southerly storms of the autumn blow with particular violence, not only about Hakluyt's Headland in Spitzbergen, but in most other countries in high northern latitudes. In West Greenland, it is observed by Crantz, " when it once begins to be stormy, which happens mostly in autumn, the wind rages so vehemently, that the houses quiver and crack, the tents and lighter boats fly up into the air, and the sea-water scatters about in the land like snow dust. Nay, the Greenlanders say, that the storm rends off stones a couple of pounds weight, and mounts them in the air. If any one is obliged at such times to go out of the house to bring the boats into shelter, he must constantly lie and creep upon his belly, that the wind may not make him its sport. In slim- mer, whirlwinds also spring up, that draw up the waters out of the sea, and turn a boat round several times. The most and fiercest storms rise in the south, and take a compass round to north, wliere they again subside and terminate in clear weather. At such times, the ice in the bays is torn from its bed, and hastens into the sea in heaps*." Stonns as tremendous as those described by Crantz, also occur in Iceland. Some facts of this na- ture have been given by Sir George Mackenzie. On the 6th of November 1809, a most awful gale * History of Greenland, vol. i. p. 47. v\TMOSl'HKllOLOGY. — WINDS. 419 of wind occurred in Iceland, which blew from the north during the whole twenty-four hours. The country, to an extent of several miles from the shore, was covered with salt-water driven from the sea iu tlie form of ruin ; boats on the beach were taken up into the air, and dashed to pieces*. When the countries of temperate climates sufTer under tempests in frequent succession, the polar re- gions enjoy a comparative tranquillity. After the autumn gales have passed, a scries of cain weather, attended with severe frost, frequently sue oedr, Crantz makes the general remark, that *' in Di' o it is often for two or three months constantly calm, and the air clear, though tilled with vapours." So striking, indeed, is the stillness of the northern vm- ter, and even that of Russia, in parts which merely border on the frigid zone, that Dr Guthrie, in his Dissertation on the Climate of Russia, after observ- ing, that hail is a rare appearance in the winter ea- son, and that tempests are equally uncommon, pro- ceeds to remark, that nature seems " to have studied a perfect equality in the distribution of her favours, as it is only the parts of the earth which most enjoy the kindly influences of the sun, th^: uffer by the effects of its superior heat ; so that if the atmo- sphere of the north is not so geiyal as that of the south, at least it remains per!e.tiy quiet and serene. Travels in Iceland during the Summer of 1810. '-Mi' < I i .' ;-ii.. 414 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC EEGIONS. without threatening destruction to man, and the pro- duct of his industry, as in wliat are commonly call- ed happier climates*." The reciprocal eflfects of the ice, sea, land, and wind, on each other, have, in different places of this work, been alluded to. One fact which applies in this place, yet remains to be noticed. A striking and very singular effect of the land on the wind, is frequently observed in Davis' Strait. The island of Disco, lying in latitude 69° 40' and longitude 54* 30' W., presents towards the sea, on the west side, a considerable cliff, with mountainous land beyond it. In the season corresponding with our summer, the sea near it is commonly open. At this time, when ships lying in the middle of Davis* Strait, have a hard gale of wind blowing from the west, on steering towards this island, which is then a lee shore, they gradually find the force of the wind abate, until when come within a certain distance of the land, it subsides almost into a calm ! As this cir- cumstance is said invariably to occur, ships naviga- ting lu Davis' Strait, when oppressed by the violence of the westerly winds, are generally enabled to at- tain a situation in which the wind blows with such a diminished degree of force, as may best suit their convenience. Whether this effect is produced by the height of the land, or is the effect of the repul- * Edin. Phil. Trans., vol. ii. lisl'^! ATMOSPHEROLOGY. — LIGHTNING. 415 sioii of an ofF-Iand wind, I am not prepared to de- cide. The principal meteors, not being of the aqueous kind, that remain to be considered, are Lightning and the Aurora borealis. As we approach the Pole, the former phenomenon becomes more rare, and the latter more common. Lightning, indeed, is seldom seen to the northward of the arctic circle; and when it does occur, is almost never accompanied by thunder. In Hudson's Bay, Ellis, James, Hud- son, and other voyagers, have observed heavy storms of thunder and lightning ; but in West Greenland, where, according to Crantz, a thunder cloud some- times gathers, and emits flashes of lightning, thun- der seldom occurs ; " and when something like it is heard, one cannot decide whether the sound proceeds from a distant thunder clap, or from the crack of ice and stones rending and precipitating from the rocks." In Spitzbergen, neither thunder nor light- ning has, I believe, ever been observed. For my own part, I have never seen lightning to the north- ward of latitude 65°, and only in two instances, when at any considerable distance from land. July the 25th 1815, latitude 63° longitude 0°55'W., lightning was seen in the western quarter ; and on the 4th of April in the same year, much lightning with thunder, occurred in the latitude of 65° and longitude 0°10'W. In no other cases have I seen 3 1 * I ( *!^ . 3»' ST I ' 1 if 416 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. lightning at sea, excepting wlien within 20 or 30 leagues of land. The aurora borealis, on the contrary, occurs in- dependent of land and of cold, becoming more fre- quent in its appearance as we approach the Pole, and enlivening by its brilliancy, and peculiar gran- deur, the tedious gloom of the long winter's nights. This phenomenon having been described by many authors, some of whom have exhausted the powers of language in the elegance of their representations, renders it unnecessary for me to attempt any ge- neral description of this interesting spectacle. I shall, therefore, confine my remarks to a few par- ticulars. This appearance, though not very frequently seen in Britain, is very common as far south as Shetland and Feroe. In Iceland, and other countries border- ing on the arctic circle, the northeni lights occur almost every clear night during the winter. But in summer, the season in which I have been in the habit of visiting the polar seas, they can seldom be seen, on account of the continual presence of the sun. On the passage from England to Spitzbergen, indeed, they occur occasionally ; but the general ob- scurity of the atmosphere in the spring of the year, prevents their frequent exhibition. It may not be altogether uninteresting, to give a table of the state of the weather, on the different occasions on which I have observed them. GIONS. thin 20 or 30 ATMOSPHEROLOGY. — ATllORA BORKATJS. 417 Table of the S*ate rfthe Weather xvhen the Aurwa Bm-ealis was seen. Year. 1807, 1809, 1810, 1811, 1815, 1817, !l818, Month & Day. April 15 Mar. 19. April 4. Mar. 28 — 29. — 30. — 31. April 5. — 6. — 7. — 5. — 8. — 22. — 23. Lati- tude, Longi- tude. 66.10 6M 7' W 58.521.20 71.303, OE 66.522. 67.203 10 68.204.10 68.50;*. 67.4.0,2.10 69.223.45 70.104.40 Zet 65. 6 62.10 62.16 land. 1.45 0.30 W 2.10 E « g 29.64'25 30.09- 30.4016 30.3l|20 30.32,16 30.2016 29.2637 29.1836 29.82'30 30.62'46 29.45.28 29.7242 29.7040 E.erly NW SE W.erly E.erly E N E NNW EbS E Calm N N.erly E.erly NbW Weather. Remarks, Fine, mod. Fine, clear Moderate Boisterous Variable Fine Fine & clear Boisterous Ditto Variable Fine Stormy Windy Windv Bril. aur. ; fol. by a trem. storm Slight aur.; fine weath. contin Consid. aur. ; follow, by storm Bril. aur. ; fol. by chang. wea. Slight aur. ; fine weath. fol. Bril. aur. ; fine weather cont. Ditto ditto Slight aur.; windy weath.cont. Conside -able aur. ; ditto Bril. aur. ; followed by storm Slight aur. ; fine weath, cont. Bright aur. ; storm increased Slight aur. ; squally wea. fol, Bright aur. ; do. with high sea Among uiioTiliglitened nations, the appearance of the northern lights is generally associated with some curious or absurd superstition. Some uncivilized peo- ple regard them as portending national calamities ; others consider them as the effect of the merriments of the dead *, or attribute them to causes equally ridiculous. However vain the notions of savage nations may be, as to the causes or efiPects of the northern lights, there is reason to believe that their connection with other atmospheric phenomena is such, that their occurrence, under certain circumstances or ap- pearances, is portentous. In several of the instances in the preceding Table, stormy weather followed the appearance of the brilliant aurora ; and one of the Robson's Account of Six Years residence in Hudson's Bay, p. 4(). VOL. I. Dd "'J, 41$ ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. most tremendous stonns I was ever exposed to, sue-* ceeded a splendid exhibition of the northern lights. From an intelligent old man, one of the Lerwick pilots, I received the following information on the connection supposed to exist between certain ap- pearances of the northern lights, and the weather. When seen in the north-west quarter, resting near the horizon, without extending their rays to the zenith, they arc (in winter) considered indicative of calm frosty weather. When they appear in bril- liant display, extending towards the south-west, a gale of wind is to be expected ; or, extending to- wards the south-east, a southerly gale, with rain or sleet ; and, when they are seen at a considerable al- titude above the horizon, having a red or copper colour, and shooting their rays into the zenith, they are supposed to be indicative of a violent storm. The first and the last of these observations corre- spond with general experience ; but of the accuracy of the intermediate opinion, I have had no oppor- tunity of judging. Neither have I had opportuni- ty of observing any agitation of the magnetic needle, or any peculiarities of an electrical nature, in the lower atmosphere, during the prevalence of the nor- thern lights. These are subjects which I yet hope to have the means of investigating. ATMOSPHEROI>OGT. — CLOUDS. 419 SECT. VIL Aqueous Meteors^ including Observations on Clouds, Bain, Hail, Snoiv, Frost-rimey Hoar- frost and Fog. Vejiy little clear weather occurs in the Green- land Seas ; for o^ten when the atmosphere is free from any visible vapour on the land, at sea it is ob- scured by frost-rime in the spring of the year, and by clouds or fog in the summer ; so that scarce- Iv one-twentieth of the season devoted to the whale- m fishery can be said to consist of clear weather. The clouds most generally consist of a dense stra- tum of obscurity, composed of irregular compact patches, covering the whole expanse of the heavens. The cinus, cirro-cumulus, and cirro-stratus, of How- ard's nomei lature, are occasionally distinct ; the nimbus is partly formed, but never complete ; and the grandeur of the cumulus or thunder-cloud, is never seen, unless it be on the land. A cloud bearing some resemblance to the cumulus, some- times appears near the horizon : this, when partly intercepted by thq horizon, has an appearance so very similar to that of the mountains of Spitzber- gen, that it is often mistaken for land. In the at- mosphere over the coasts of Greenland and Spitz- bergen, where the air is greatly warmed by the con- i)d 2 420 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. '-Mv PI m ccntration and reflection of the sun's rays in the sheltered valleys, a small imperfect cumulus is sometimes exhibited. The most common definable cloud seen at sea, is a particular modification, some- what resembling the cirro-stratus, consisting of large patches of cloud arranged in horizontal strata, and enlightened by the sun on one edge of each stra- tum. Rain is a meteor too well known to need any description ; but the cau ^es which operate so as to produce it, under the great variety of circumstances in which it occurs, are not altogether understood. The known agents made use of, in the economy of Nature, for the production of rain, are changes of temperature and electricity. The latter principle is supposed to act most powerfully in the production of thunder showers ; in which case it is not unlike- ly but a portion of the air of the atmosphere is, by the passing of the lightning from one cloud to an- other, converted into water. The former seems to be the chief agent in the colder regions of the globe, where electricity is either i^iore equal in its distribu- tion, or not so active in its operations, as in the warmer climates. Were the capability of the at- mosphere for absorbing moisture, the same at all temperatures, or were its capability increased in a similar ratio with the increase of heat, no change, however great, produced by the admixture of two streams of air of different temperatures, could occa- ATMOSPHEllOLOGY. — THEORY OF IIAIN. 421 sion the precipitation of any rain. But, from the beautiful theory of the late Dr James Hutton, supported by the able and ingenious researches of Professor Leslie, it appears, that " while the tem- perature advances uniformly in arithmetical progres- sion, the dissolving power which this communicates to the air, mounts with the accelerating rapidity of a geometrical series * ;" and this, in such a ratio, that the " air has its dryness doubled at each rise of temperature answering to fifteen centesimal de- grees," or twenty-seven of Fahrenheit f. Hence, " whatever be the actual condition of a mass of air, there must always exist some temperature at which it would become perfectly damp J;" and hence, whenever two streams of air, saturated with mois- ture, of different temperatures, are mixed together, or brush against one another, in the form of diffe- rent currents of wind, there must always be a quan- tity of moisture precipitated. For, if two masses of air of different temperatures, but equal in quantity, and both saturated with moisture, were mixed to- gether, the resulting temperature would be nearly the mean of the two ; but, at that temperature, the capacity of air for moisture, being less than the quantity contained in the two commixed masses, * Leslie ; — " A Short Account of Experiments and Instru- ments, depending on the relations of Air to Heat and Mois- ture," p. 123. f Idem, p. 122. Idem, p. 123. ijfV 422 ACCOUNT or THE ARCTIC BEG IONS the surplus must be deposited. By the help of the following Table, derived from measurements of the curve representing the dissolving power of the air, this subject may be more familiarly illustrated *. S u ce -24' -21 -18 -15 -12 - 9 - 6 - 8 s o 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.81 0.87 0.93 1.00 B u 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 V it o a< a 1.08 1.16 1.25 1.35 1.46 1.58 1.71 1.85 2.00 30^ 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 'a * I I fig' d, S H 2.16^ 2.34 2.53 2.73 2.95 3.18 3.43 3.70 4.00 ^1 :: ^ V .2 0« J3 Q bo 57° 60 63 69 72 75 78 81 4.33 4.68 5.06 5.47 5.91 0.38 6.88 7.42 8.00 d.< 84' 87 90 93 96 99 102 105 108 > *> % o 8.64 9.33 10.07 10.87 11.74 12.68 13.70 14.81 16.00 m^ Now, a mass of air at temperature zero, can sup- port, it appears, about one three hundred and sixty- fifth part of its weight of moisture ; or a mass of air 365 lb. in weight, can contain, when saturated at temperature 0°, 1 lb. of water ; at temperature • This Table, though very nearly correct, is yet but an approximation. It, however, serves evei*y purpose of illus- tration. What is here called the dissolving power of the air, is perhaps, correctly speaking, the dissolving power of caloric, the water itself tliat is evaporated being con- verted into an elastic vapour, by its combination with the matter of heat. This vapour forms a part of the air of the at- mosphere. Decrease of atmospheric pressure and increase of temperature, accelerate its formation. ONS ATMOSPHEllOLOGY. — THEORY OF RAIN. 428 elp of the nts of the if the air, rated *. Dissolv* ingPower. 84° 8.64 87 9.33 90 10.07 93 10.87 96 11.74 99 12.68 102 13.70 105 14.81 108 16.00 can sup- md sixty- a mass of saturated nperature yet but an se of illus- wer of the ing power being con- n with the ;r of the at- increase of 27°, 2 lb. ; at temperature 54", 4 lb. ; at temperature 81°, 8 lb. and so on. As such, the numbers in the second column of the above Table, show the quan- tity of water in pounds which 365 lb. of air can contain at any temperature between — 24" and 108». Suppose, then, for example, two masses of air of 365 lb. weight each, one of the temperature 18°, the other 36°, a case quite within the limits of pro- bability in the polar regions, to be mixed together, the resulting temperature would be nearly the mean of the two, or 27°. But the two masses of air be- fore commixture, if saturated, must contain respec- tively 1.58 lb. and 2.53 lb. of moisture, the sum of which, 4.11, exceeds by 0.11 lb. or one-ninth of a pound, the quantity of water, as shown by the Tabic, which twice 365 lb. of air could possibly sustain at the mean temperature of 27°. This 0.11 lb. of water must therefore be precipitated after the commixture of every 730 lb. of saturated air of the temperatures proposed. At higher tem- peratures, however, the precipitation must be great-!- er ; for, suppose the two assimilating streams of air to be of the temperatures 42° and 84° ; then the quantity of water suspended by 365 lb. of each, would be respectively 2.95 and 8.64, amounting to 11.59 lb. ; but the quantity of moisture which 730 lb. of air could at most support, at the mean temperature 63°, would be only 10.12 lb., so that the excess 1.47 lb. must be precipitated. m ^lijiim-^ii'u 424 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. I merely give these illustrations, for the sake of those readers who are not acquainted with the writ- ings of Dv Hutton and Professor Leslie on this subject; considering them, at the same time, the more necessary, as this ingenious theory of rain, of which I have attempted a brief explanation, is re- ferred to in different parts of this volume. Rain is by no means common in the polar coun- tries, excepting in the months of July and August, and then only with southerly or westerly winds. Du- ring all seasons of the year, however, withstronggales blowing from a southern climate, rain is occasional- ly observed in situations near the edge of the ice ; but snow or sleet are more common even under such circumstances ; and in remote situations among ice, near the 80th parallel of latitude, rain seldom or never occurs. m Hail is a much more familiar meteor in temperate than in frigid climates. In the Greenland Sea, in- deed, this aqueous concretion is very rarely seen ; and if we define it as consisting of pellucid spherules of ice, generated in the atmosphere, it may be said to be unknown in very high latitudes. This fact is in favour of the electrical origin of hail, as it is well known to be common in temperate climates, where the air is in a high state of electricity, and to be the frequent concomitant of thunder and lightning. The only substance resembling hail, that is gcnerat- ATMOSrHEllOLOG Y. — SNOW. 425 cd in the frigid zone, consists of a white porous spherical concretion, of a light and snowy texture. Snow is so very common in the arctic regions, that it may be boldly stated, that in nine days out of ten, during the months of April, May and June, more or less snow falls. With southerly winds, near the borders of the ice, or in situations where humid air blowing from the sea, assimilates with a gelid breeze from the ice, the heaviest falls of snow occur. In this case, a depth of two or three inches is some- times deposited in an hour. The thickest precipi- tations also frequently precede sudden storms. The form of the particles of snow, presents an endless variety. When the temperature of the air is within a degree or two of the freezing point, and much snow falls, it frequently consists of large irre- gular flakes, such as are common in Britain ; some- times it exhibits small granular, or large rough white concretions ; at others, it consists of white spi- cule, or flakes composed of coarse spiculae, or rut^e stellated crystals, formed of visible grains. But in severe frosts, though the sky appears perfectly clear, lamellar flakes of snow, of the most regular and beautiful forms, arc always seen floating in the air, and sparkling in the sun-beams; and the snow which falls in general, is of the most elegant texture and appearance. 4S6 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC rEOT''»NS. *• .. I &^:'s 'x "if' ;n ,!;..;; ■! ^■!:i',.ia;' Snow of a reddish or brownish colo r^ '0£ un- frequently seen. The brownish stain which ocenrs on shore, is given by an earthy substance brought from the mountains, by the streams of water deriv- ed from thawing ice and snow, or the fall of rain ; the reddish colour, as far as I have observed, is given by the mute of birds ; though, in the example met with by Captain Ross in Baffin's Bay, the stain ap- pears to have been of a vegetable nature. The little auk (Alca alle), which feeds upon shrimps, is found, in some parts of the polar seas, in immense numbers. They frequently retreat to pieces of ice or surfaces of snow, and stain them all over red with their mute. Martens saw red snow in Spitzbergen, which he con- sidered as being stained by rain-water running down by the rocks. The extreme beauty and endless variety of the microscopic objects procured in the animal and ve- getable kingdoms, are perhaps fully equalled, if not surpassed, in both the particulars of beauty and va- riety, by the crystals of snow. The principal confi- gurations are tho stelliform and hexagonal ; though almost every shape of which, the generating angles of 60° and 120' are susceptible, may, in the course of a few years observation, be discovered. Some of the general varieties in the figures of the crystals, may be referred to the temperature of the air ; but the particular and endless modifications of similar class- es of crystals, can onlv be referred to the will and ATWOSPHEUOLOGY. — SNOW. 477 : .^'1 Tioic uri- plcasure of the Great First Cause, whose works, even the most minute and evanescent, and in regions the most remote from human observation, are altogether admirable. The various modifications of crystals may be clas- sed under five general kinds or genera. 1. Lamellar. 2. A lamellar or spherical nucleus, with spinous ra- mifications in different planes. S.Finespicula; or six- sided prisms. 4. Hexagonal pyramids. 5. Spicules having one or both extremities affixed to the centre of a lamellar crystal. 1. Lamellar crystals. The varieties of this kind are almost infinite. They occur at nW temperatures, and in the greatest abundance ; and most of the spe- cimens are extremely thin, transparent, and of an exquisitely delicate structure. They may be sub- divided into several distinct species. a. Stelliform ; having six points radiating from a centre, with parallel collateral ramifications in the same plane. This species, represented in Plate VIII. Fig. 1, is the most general form met with. It va- ries in size from the smallest speck, to about one- third of an inch diameter. It occurs in greatest profusion when the temperature approaches the freezing point. b. Regular hexagon. This occurs in moderate as well as in the lowest temperatures ; but it be- comes more delicate and thin, and diminishes in size as the cold increases. Some specimens consist of simple transparent plates, (Plate \'III. Fig. 23.) I 428 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. iV? 1» 4vt others are beautifully variegated, within the perime- ter, by white lines, forming smaller hexagons or other regular figures, in immense variety; Plate IX. Fig. 25, 27, 28, 30 ; Plate X. Fig. 49, &c. The size of this species is from the smallest visible speck to about one-tenth of an inch diameter. c. Aggregations of hexagons. This beautiful spe- cies admits of immense variety. It occurs chiefly at low temperatures, and presents great limits of di- mensions ; Plate VIII. Figs. 2, 9, 10, 14, 17 ; and Plate IX. Figs. 29, 34, 37, 39, &c. afford examples of this species. d. Combinations of hexagons, witli radii or spines, and projecting angles. This constitutes the most extensive species in the arrangement ; and af- fords some of the most beautiful specimens. Fig. 7, Plate VIII. is an elegant combination of spines and hexagons ; and Figures 50, 55, 58, 59, 60, &c. Plate X. together with all the others distinguished by the letter s after the numbers, constitute a novel and beautiful variety, which I have only once observ- ed. The parallel lines that appear in these figures, are not intended as shadings, but actually occurred in the crystals, though with this difference, that the lines which appear black in the plate, were all white in the originals. Figures 56, 63, 64, and 93, were opaque crystals, and were not so thin as the others. The latter of these, as well as Fig. 94, each having twelve spines, appear to be accidental varieties, and ,5*? *■ '', I ATMOSPHEROLOGY. — SNOW. 429 are produced probably by the correct application of two similar crystals upon one another. 2. A lamellar or spherical nucleus, with spiTums ramifications in different planes. — This genus not being easily represented, is not illustrated by any figure. It consists of two or three species. a. The fundamental figure, consisting of a lamel- lar crystal of any of the species above described, from the lateral and terminal planes of which arise small spines, similar to the collateral ramifications of Fig.l . Plate VIII. These spines arise either from one or both of the lateral planes or principal surfaces, or from both lateral and terminal planes ; and always maintain the usual angle of 60° with the plane from which they take their rise. The diameter of this figure sometimes exceeds the fourth of an inch. This species falls most frequently at a temperature of 20" or 25°. h. Having a spherular nucleus, giving rise to ra- dii in all directions. In the former species, the cen- tral figure is a transparent crystal ; in this it consists of a small rough white concretion. The spines or radii are similar in both figures. The diameter of this seldom reaches a quarter of an inch. The form is echinose. This species falls when the degree of cold is near the freezing, and sometimes in rather low temperatures. 3. Fine spicules or six-sided prisms. — These are sometimes very delicate and crystalline; at otliers white and rough. Tlic finest specimens, Ml I 4d0 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. ^1 INI'' ;! ■> !;■': J lilH''V''l which resemhle white hair cut into lengths not ex- ceeding a quarter of an inch, are so small and clear, that the exact figure is not easily determined ; and the larger exhibit a fibrous or prismatic structure. Some of these are occasionally the third of an inch in length. This genus is only seen when the tempera- ture is near the freezing point. When the thermo- meter is about 28 degrees, the finer specimens occur; when about the freezing, the coarser appear. The latter are very common during fog showers, and ap- pear to be composed of aggregations of the frozen particles of the fog^ and to have their f^; -gin in the lower parts of the atmosphere. 4. Hexagonal pyramids. — This kind of snow- crystal I have but once seen. A variety, consisting apparently of a triangular pyramid, was observed ; but whether its base was a triangular or six-sided figure, similar to No. 96. Plate XI. is doubtful. These pyramids were about the thirtieth part of an inch in height, and fell along with some other curi- ous figures, during a fresh gale of wind from tlie northward, in very large quantity. Figures 44, and 47, Plate IX. represent this kind of crystal. 5. Spiculco or prisms having one or both ex- tremities inserted in the centre of a lamellar crys- tal. — This is the most singular genus I have ever seen, and has been observed but twice. It re- sembles a pair of wheels, united by an axletree ; the wheels consisting of hexagonal or other lamellar crys- ATMOSPHEROLOOY.— SNOW. 4S1 ' 141 i tal8» and the axle of a slendet prism. Figure 43, 45, 46, and 48, represent this modification of snow-* crystal. Figure 46, consists of hut one tahular crystal and a prism ; and Figure 45, of three lamins and two prisms. The length of this was one- sixth of an inch ; of the other kind, from one- thirtieth to one-tenth. Some of this extraordinary figure occurred along with the last-descrihed genus : Of which kinds, principally, a quantity of snow three or four inches in depth, onoe fell on the deck of the ship in which I sailed, in the course of a few hours. The temperature, when tliis kind of crystal fell, was in one instance 22°, and in the other 20*. Plates VIII, IX, X, and XI. contrin represen- tations of ninety-six different snow-cryptals, magni- fied from thirty to about four hundred times. The Italic letter following the number of the figure, refers to the second column of the annexed Table, by which, the state of the atmosphere and weather, when each crystal was observed, may be seen. The fractional number which succeeds the Italic letter, shows the diameter of the crystal in parts of an inch. The largest crystal represented was one- third of an inch diameter ; the smallest one-thirty- fifth. They were all perfect figures. Many in- stances, it may be observed, occur of mutilated and irregular specimens ; some wanting two or three ra- dii, and others haT'ing radii of different sizes and shapes. But in low temperatures, the greatest pro- 432 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. portion of crystals that fall are probably perfect ijcometrical figures. This constant regard to equa- lity in the form and size of the six radii of the stellates ; the geometrical accuracy of the different parts of tlic hexagons ; the beauty and precision of the internal lines of the compound figures, with the proper arrangement of any attendant ramifications, and the general completion of the regular figure, — compose one of the most interesting features in the Science of Crystallography. Table %-ff* h' u l'l:i ■ !U i ^1 :4^ V. • -'•« ATMOSPHEROLOGY. — SNOW. 433 ^ ^ 1^ i <;i g 1 s «0 ^ CO en J?; o O ^ o S 3 S .. ^ cr' .^ t" rt f5 — ' o 2 o •I SS §-•2 J-8'^l, C/3 o s (A a 31 CO -a ^ •-^ 3 "^ D >-i' So li £i £:.£«2 2J 2 2i fa fa hj CTi fri CD tH H ;z; f" w -^ Ji So -a Soii So -5 e s IB £1 > -a £ ,£i C O '1 a5 ^J !;;z; iz; ^ •".ir ^ ^ ;^:^ 7 Cn 3>{ "* a CO i£i io 00 or: >-^ G^ ©< Ot O' GO X'*oox©ti:-p»ot£^o oosrcidcioioiojojoj r>? GC "5>? o? q^ f?> S'? g^ c^ Q^ &< »-i Ci C5 ©? O X ■* ©? i—i i—i I— I ,— I ,-j f-j ©i O i-< O^ g? r-H ©? I Q '^ 'u "^^^ lyo^ -IS -^i "^ 8 -. 1 0) 73 >>^ >^ 0.. « g 33^ X p-4 i O r-H X 1816, 1817, VOL, I. i<: e I If V'f' **¥ .:ii-t>l 434 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. Frost-rime or frost-smoke, is a meteor peculiar to tliose parts of the globe, where a very low tem- perature prevails for a considerable time. It con- sists of a dense frozen vapour, apparently arising out of the sea or any large sheet of water, and as- cending, in high winds and turbulent seas, to the height of 80 or 100 feet ; but in light breezes and smooth water, creeping along the surface. The particles of which it consists are as small as dust, and cleave to the rigging of ships, or almost any sub- stance against which they are dvxven by the wind, and afford a coating of an inch or upwards in depth. These particles adhere to one another, until the v/indward surface of the ropes is covered ; and form long fibres, somewha*^^ of a prismatical or pyramidal shape, having their points directed towards the wind. Frost-rime adheres readily to articles of clothing ; and from the circumstance of its lodging in the hair, and giving it the appearance of being powdered, the sailors humorously style it " the barber." Such of the frost-rime as is dislodged from the rigging whenever the ship is tacked, covers the deck to a coTisiderable thickness ; and when trod upon, emits ;tn acute sound, resembling the crushing of line par- ticles of glass. When collected in heaps, it has the appearance ( f si.ow dust, and if dissolved, affords pure water. Frost-rirar sometimes appears at a tempera.ture of 20° or 22° ; but generally, it is not observed until ? 'y '1)1 l\ ATMOSPHEROLOGY. — FROST-RIME. 435 the cold is reduced to 14°. It is ttiost abundar' in the lowest temperatures, with aliigh sea and strong winds ; but diminishes as the swell and wind subside, or whenever the sea begins to freeze. When the air is clear and apparently dry, it commences at a higher temperature than when it is dark and damp. Indeed, this meteor is most common when the air is free from clouds. Hence, though it sometimes oc- casions such an obscurity in the lower atmosphere, that objects near the surface of the water cannot be seen at the distance of 100 yards ; yet, at the mast- head, where the observer is lifted above the mist, ships can be distinguished at the distance of five or six miles, and high land at the distance of ten or fifteen leagues ; and when the frost-rime does not rise above forty or fifty feet, objects on the water, such as ice^ may be discovered three or four miles off, though they may be invisible from the deck when within a furlong. The cause of this phenomenon may, perhaps, be similar to that producing rain, as it can be very well explained on Dr Hutton's theory, already described. The wind that brushes over the surface of the water, and is, by the pressure of the atmosphere, brought into immediate contact, being much colder than the sea, must receive heat from it, and have its tempe- rature somewhat elevated. This increase of tempe- rature, enables it to abstract some moisture from the sea, and being thus rendered specifically lighter, Ee2 f. ii I *■)■**?.»» &if;a -P V ''m I I I 436 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC EEGIONS. it exchanges situations with the stratum of air im- mediately above it, and rises in the atmosphere un- til it gets cooled down, by admixture with other air to the common temperature. But its capacity for moisture diminishing more rapidly than its tem- perature, prevents it, on Dr Hutton's principle, from sustaining the water absorbed from the surface of the sea, in consequence of which, the surplus moisture is gradually deposited, and being immediately frozen, is exhibited in the air in the form of frost-rime.^ An aqueous vapour, consisting of very minute frozen particles, sometimes occupies the lowest re- gion of the atmosphere, in both temperate and fri- gid climates, during frosty weather ; and is deposit- ed upon the ground, upon surfaces of ice, or almost any other substance with which it comes in contact. This vapour, which seems to be of the nature of hoar-frost, generally appears in the evening, after a bright sunshiny day. When the sun declines towards the horizon, and its rays, struggling through the obliquity of a dense atmosphere, begin to lose their power, the excess of moisture evaporated du- ring the meridian heat, is again precipitated. The fitst precipitation is discovered in a slight mistiness appearing to rise from the surface of the ice : as the cold increases, this mistiness attains a greater eleva- tion, until an obscurity, like that of frost-rime, or of a considerable fog, is produced. Such of the particles »J . . J, atmospherolo(;y. — hoar-fkost. 437 as are bome by the breeze into contact witli a ship's rigging, affix themselves to the windward side of the different ropes, and form a thick fringe of fro/eii vapour. In some states of the atmosphere, the coat- ing of hoar-frost resembles the coating of frost-rime, consisting of an irregular fringe; but in others, every particle affixes itself in a determinate order, so that the most delicate, and in some cases the most beautiful crystals are produced. I have never, how- ever, observed more than two different forms of these crystals ; one, consisting of a combination of angular cup-like figures, inserted into one another in an her- baceous form, not unlike a species of erica or heath, was seen upon the land ; the other, having the form and texture of a feather, occurred when the ship was in the midst of a compact body of ice. The circum- stances under which the latter appeared were these. Ice of the field kind encompassed the ship to an ex- tent of many leagues ; the latitude was 78°9'; the lon- gitude about 2° E. ; the wind easterly. At mid-day a thermometer exposed to the sun's rays rose to 54°, while the air in the shade was only 18°. At mid- night the temperature fell to 10°, and the frozen va- pour made its appearance. It soon increased to the density of frost-rime, and was carried by the wind in clouds or showers. In the course of the night, the rigging of the ship was most splendidly deco- rated with a fringe of delicate crystals. The general form of these, was that of a feather having half of M ..'.f-i 'i , t ,-M.. iir* 438 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. the vane removed. Near the surface of the rojies, was first a small direct line of very white particles, constituting the stem or shaft of the feather; from whence, at an angle of 60 degrees, exteiided a colla- teral series of finer fibres in close and parallel order, forming the vane of the feather ; and from each of these fibres in another plane, proceeded a short deli- cate range of spiculae or rays, discoverable only by the help of a microscope, with which the elegant tex- ture and systematic construction of the feather were completed. Many of these crystals, possessing a per- fect arrangement of the different parts correspond- ing with the shaft, vane, and rachis of a feather, were upwards of an inch in length, and three-fourths of an inch in breadth. Some consisted of a single flake or feather ; but many of them gave rise to other feathers, which sprung from the surface of the vane at the usual angle. There seemed to be no li- mit to tlie magnitude of these feathers, so long as the producing cause continued to operate, until their weight became so great, or the action of the wind so forcil)le, that they wore broken off, and fell in flakes to the deck of the ship. Whatever may be the predisposing cause of crys- tallization, it is clear, from these facts, that regular crystals may be formed in an aerial as well as in an aqueous menstruum ; by slow and progressive addi- tions, as well as by sudden shoots ; and by a combi- nation of visible particles, as well as by the applica- GIONS. ATMOSPIIEItOLOGY. — lIOAll-lllOST. 431) of the ropes, hite particles, reather; from Gilded a colla- )arallel order, from each of I a short deli- rable only by J elegant tex- feather were essing a per- 3 correspond- ►f a feather, three-fourths of u single ?ave rise to irfacc of the to be no li- h so long as until their the wind so ■ell in flakes luse of crys- hat regular ell as in an essive addi- )y a combi- he applica- tion of molecules to one auother, when in a state of invisible solution. In the cr\stallization of water, and of many salts, an accurately formed needle or other regular figure, is consolidated by an instan- taneous shoot or rapid progression through tlic sub- stance of the crystallizing liquor ; but the fonnatiou of hoar-frost crystals is accomplished by a slow and gradual deposition of particles, brought into contact with the crystallizing surface by the motion of the air. And it is a fact worthy of tice, that a con- tinued accession of new partic. , adds nothing to the thickness of the crystal that first appears, but merely extends its principal surface, and as it ex- tends, completes the several arrangements of the particles corresponding with the shaft, vane, and rachis of a feather. This principle in crystallogra- phy, which tends to produce a perfect figure, and operates so beautifully in the formation of snow flakes, as to complete each of the six-sides or radii of the crystal, after the same plan and dimensions, suggested to me not only an argument for giving to the molecules of crystals a certain polarity, or attrac- tion for inducing them to unite together by one side rather than another, but also induced an opinion, that complete figures are formed in consequence of the mu- tual attractions of the crystallizing integrant particles, requiring an equilibrium of weight or of attractions round the nucleus or central particle of the crystal. Thus, in the formation of snow-crystals, it appears, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) tA 1.0 I.I 11.25 ■^1^ Mil *• I. MJUu Mm u mil 1.6 PhotDgr^hic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 145S0 (716) 872-4503 6^ '^ > ^ <^^ '>^^^ v.%^ <^ 440 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. that whatever fonn the first few particles that com- bine may assume, others, which afterwards come within their attraction, can adhere in no other than correspondent positions, until the figure is perfect- ed by the bdancing or the neutralizing of their united polarities. And as the connecting of the two poles of a magnet by a piece of iron, suppresses its power and intefcepts its attraction for other iron, so, the perfecting of a snow-crystal, after a regular geometrical form, it appears, suspends the attractive property of its substance for extraneous atoms ; but 80 long, it would seem, as one single particle is wanting, the annexed surfaces exert their attraction, until some particle comes within their influence and completes the crystal. Fog or mist, is the last meteor that remains to be considered. This is one of the greatest annoy- ances that the arctic whalers have to encounter. It frequently prevails during the greater part of the month of July, and sometimes for considerable in- tervals in June and August. Its density is often such, that it circumscribes the prospect to an area of a few acres, not being pervious to sight at the dis- tance of 100 yards. It frequently lies so very low, that the brightness of the sun is scarcely at all in- tercepted ; in such cases, substances warmed by the sun's rays, give to the air immediately above them, an increased capacity for moisture, by which evapora- ^■!xx^^:3#»-— ^.^ ATilOSPHEaOLOGY. — FOG. 441 tion goes briskly on during the densest fogs. In Newfoundland, I understand, on occasions when the sun's rays penetrate the mist, and heat the surface of the rocks, fish is frequently dried during the thickest fogs. In July 1817, latitude 74°, when the temperature of the air was 45°, Leslie's hygro- meter indicated 6" of dryness, during a most intense fc^ ; and on another foggy day, in the same month, when a temperature of 40° prevailed, from 5 to 6 degrees of dryness was indicated, in a situation on which the sun had not shone during the day. Fre- quently I have observed the fog to be wetting at the height of 40 or 50 feet above the surface of the sea, when, on the level of the ship's deck, about 14 feet high, there was no appearance of dampness. Fogs are more frequent and more dense at the borders of the ice, than near the coast of Spitzbergcn. They occur principally when the mercury in the ther- mometer is near the freezing point ; but they are by no means uncommon with a temperature of 40 or 45 degrees. They are most general with south-westerly, southerly, and south-easterly winds. With norther- ly or north-westerly winds, they generally disperse ; though, after a considerable continuance of southerly winds, they sometimes prevail for a good many hours after the wind changes to the northward. Fogs sel- dom occur with high winds ; yet in one or two in- stances, I have observed them very thick even in storms. Rain generally disperses the fog ; but after -C^ET^^/S 442 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. , the rain ceases, when the air is warm and damp, the fog often returns with increased density, so that it passes the eyes like smoke, and contracts the circle of vision to a radius of fifty or sixty yards. Fogs, by increasing the apparent distance of objects, ap- pear, sometimes, to magnify men into giants, hum- mocks of ice into mountains, and common pieces of dnft-ice into heavy floes or bergs. When fogs pre- vail with a freezing temperature, they usually var- nish the rigging, yards, masts, and other apparatus of ships, with transparent ice. Sometimes the ice in- creases to the thickness of near an inch, and is apt, when dislodged by any motion produced in the rig- ging, to fall in showers, and cut the hands or faces of those on deck. Columns of several yards in length often descend at once. To navigators in general, fogs are productive of inconvenience and danger. To the whale-fisher, they prove a special annoyance, by usually putting a stop to his most important occupations, and by preventing him from discovering the nature and si- tuation of the ice, and other dangers with which he is surrounded. They also perplex the navigator, by preventing him from obtaining observations for the correction of his latitude and longitude ; so that he often sails in complete uncertainty. In icy situations, indeed, where the sea is commonly smooth, and where the sun occasionally shines tlirough the fog, an artificial horizon may be used 3 ATMOSPHEROLOGY. — FOG. 443 with tolerable accuracy, even upon a ship's deck ; and upon a sheet of ice, with excellent effect. Where, however, there is the least motion, this in- strument cannot be made use of, though a very sim- ple contrivance, which I adopted some years ago, may often be substituted with considerable advan- tage. The data for the latitude, it is well known, are the sun's declination ; the angle subtended be- tween the sun and the horizon ; and the height of the eye of the observer. Obtaining the correct alti- tude of the sun, therefore, is the principal object. But, in fogs, the apparent horizon is brought much nearer the observer than in clear weather ; and the angle found between it and the sun, must be too large, and the result therefore erroneous. The dis- tance of the proper horizon, however, increasing with the elevation of the observer, and decreasing as he descends, he has it in his power, by taking a boat, and placing his eye near the surface of the water, to bring the horizon within less than half of the distance at which it appears from a ship's deck. At the height of 15 feet, the horizon is seen at the distance of 4f miles ; but, at the height of 3 feet, it is reduced to about two miles. So that, from the latter situation, if the eye can penetrate near two miles, a correct observation can be obtained. But, if not, the error of observation will be much dimi- nished. For, should the fog or land constitute an apparent horizon, at the distance of a mile, the er- 444 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. ror of observation, at an elevation of 3 feet, would not be a quarter of a mile ; whereas, at the height of 15 feet, the usual situation of the observer in merchant ships, the error of observation would amount to 5", And if the visible horizon were on- ly half a mile distant, the error of observation, at the height of 3 feet, would be still only ST ; but, at 15 feet, 13'. Again, if, by estimating the distance of the visible horizon, we attempt to make allow- ance for the increased dip, according to tables cal- culated for the purpose, we shall find that a small mistake in the estimated distance of the horizon, will be productive of a considerable error in the la- titude, as deduced from an observation from the deck ; but that the error at the elevation of 3 feet will be trifling. Suppose the estimated distance of the horizon to be one-fifth of a mile, but its true distance one-tenth, which is an error that might easily be committed i the dip of the sea correspond- ing to these two distances, at the height of 3 feet, is respectively, about 8^.4, and 16'.8, the difference 8'.4 being the error which would be produced in the latitude ; but, at 15 feet elevation, the dip of the sea, at the two distances of one-fifth and one-tenth of a mile, is 42| and '85, the difference 42 1 miles being the error of the latitude ; and, at 20 feet height of the eye, the error would be 56 miles. Hence, when the sea is so smooth that a boat can be lowered to the waterVedge, and the eye placed within 3 feet of ATMOSPHEROLOGY. — FOG. 445 the surface, there is scarcely a chance of a greater error than 8 miles ; whereas, in an observation taken upon deck, there is an equal chance of a mistake of near a degree. This method of observing the sun's altitude, is equally useful when the horizon is intercepted by land, as when it is obscured by a fog. Fogs are more common near the ice, than in the vicinity of land ; more frequent in open seasons than in close seasons ; and more intense and more com- mon in the southern fishing stations, than in the most northern. 446 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. '.» ;i iU CHAPTER VI. .i 1 « A SKETCH OF THE ZOOLOGY OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. ^ t I HE view here given of the arctic zoology, is not intended as a systematic Fauna Arctica, but mere- ly as the skeleton of such a work ; consisting almost solely of original observations on, and descriptions of, the more remarkable animals inhabiting or fre- quenting Spitzbergen, and the adjacent seas. Of such animals as have already been well described, or of such as are familiar to almost every one, a simple list only is given, excepting an occasion- al remark, illustrative of their habits or characters. Some animals, however, of the cetaceous kind, which we occasionally meet with in the Greenland Sea, are not even named in this sketch, because, I frankly confess, that, although I have seen them more than once, I could not ascertain to what ge- nus even they belonged. Indeed, the distinguish- ing characters of many of the Cetacea are so im- perfectly known and described, that when any spe- cies, not very familiar, comes under the eye of the ZOOLOGY. 447 naturalist, he is often at a loss to find its place in any system of Cetology. Besides, the drawings hitherto given of many qf the whale trihc are so unlike, and so preposterous, that they tetid rather to mislead than to assist the practical zoologist. Tlie mysticetus, or common whale, for insttoce, is figur- ed hy our most respectable naturalists with the most extravagant inconsistency. The diameter, in many of the engravings that I have seen of it, mea- sures fully one-third of the length, making the cir- cumference, (the body being circular), and the length of the animal, nearly equal ; whereas, the actual cir- cumference very little exceeds one-half of the length. Hence, also, as another step towards an improved system of Cetology, I have confined my engravings, as well as my descriptions, to those animals which have come immediately under my own examination, or have been sketched by persons on whose accura- cy and faithfulness I could fully depend; while draw- ings and descriptions that I have met with, when the least doubtful, have been .together rejected. The arrangement I have adopted, is principally that of linn^ ; but, ^ith regard to the Cetacea, I have combined Linn^ with La CepMe. The latter author, who has published the most voluminous and pleasing account of cetaceous animals * that has ever * " Histoire Natiirelle des Cetacees." de la Repiiblique. A Paris, Van xii. 448 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. appeared from the press, has, I conceive, made some judicious changes in the Linnean arrangement, though the advantage of all his alterations is not very apparent. The separation of the whales ha- ving the dorsal fin, from those without it, is cer- tainly judicious, the difference heing marked and characteristic All whales, for instance, with homy laminae in place of teeth, having no dorsal fin, are, agreeably to the arrangement of Linn^, included under the generic name JBalcena ; but those posses- sing the dorsal fin, are, by La CepMe, called Sake- nqpterce, signifying whales with a fin. In a somewhat similar way, animals of the genus Delphinus of Linn^, having no dorsal fin, are sepa- rated from those which possess this characteristic, and are distinguished by the name of Delphinapteri, or Dolphins without the fin. In these two particu- lars I have followed La CepMe *. * Though La CepMe's work is evidently the result of much research, and the production of an enlarged mind, yet it is by no means accurate. In several of his departures from the Lin- nean arrangement, the author has fallen into great mistakes. The Balsena Mysticetus and the Balaena Nordcaper, for in- stance, are considered by Liun6 as varieties only of the same animal. La CapMe makes them two species. Now, La Ce- pdde's figure of the Baleine franche (Mysticetus), has not it» counterpart in nature ; but his Baleine Nordcaper is a fair re- presentation of the Mysticetus. A similar error occurs with ZOOl.OQYi, — BAL/ENA AnSTICKTUS. 449 SECT. I. A Description of Animals, of the Cetaceous Kitidy frequenting the Greenland Sea. Bklmva Mysticetus : — The Common Whale^ or Green- land Whale, This valuable and interesting animal, generally called The Whale by way of eminence, is the object of our most important commerce to the Polar Seas, regard to the Narwal. The Narwal Vulgaire, as represented and described by La Cepcde^ does not^ I am persuaded, exist; vrhile the figure and description of the Narwal Microcephale, though not a little erroneous, may easily be understood as re- presenting the common narwal. The engravings, indeed, in general, are unlike the originals. The style of La Cep^e is animated and poetical ; and his Histoire Naturelle des Cetacees is a most interesting work ; but the interest, in many cases, is augmented at the expence of truth. After this assertion, an example or two may be neces- sary,— One can hardly doubt, says he (p. 3.), but that the Mysticetus may have been seen, at certain times, and in certain seas, 100 metres, that is 328 feet, long. In the present day, he adds, they are from 20 to 30 metres (65^ to 98^ feet) in length, (p. 5.) : They spout the water to more than the height of 13 metres or 43 feet, (p. 8.) : They swim with the velocity of 11 metres j)er second, or 21 1 nautical miles an hour, (p. 56.) And, speaking of the narwal, (Narwal Vulgaire,) he says, it is 14 to 20 metres (47 to 6Q feet) in length (p. 151), and is VOL. I. F f MiO ACCOUNT OF TIIK AllCTIC %KC.IONS. - — is productive of more oil tlian any other of tli(* Cetacea, and, being less active, slower in its motion, and more timid than any other of the kind, of similar or nearly similar magnitude, is more easily captured. Large as the size of the whale certainly is, it has been much over-rated ; — for such is the avidity with which the human mind receives communications of the marvellous, and such the interest attached to those researches which describe any remote and ex- traordinary production of nature, that the judg-- ment of the traveller receives a bias, which, in cases of doubt, induces him to fix upon that ex- treme point in his opinion which is calculated t6 afford the greatest surprise and interest. Heiice, if he perceives an animal remarkable for its mi- nuteness, he is inclined to compare it with some- thing still more minute ;— if remarkable for its big- ness, with something fully larger. When the ani- mal inhabits an element where he cannot examino arfned with a very hard, sharp weapon, measuring 5 metres or l6i feet, (p. 151). Now, so far from these particulars being correct, I am per- suaded that the Mysticetus, which is now seldom found of a length greater than 60 feet, is as large as at any former period ; that the steam of its breath (not water) is ejected to thv^ height of some few yards, perhaps 4 or 5 ; that it swims with a velo- city, at the greatest, of 8 or 9 miles an hour ; that the average size of the narwal i» otily 15 feet ; and that its tusk seldom ex- ceeds 8 or 9 feet in length. i^OOI.OClV. — IJAL.'RNA MYSTICETtJS. 451 Tietres or it, or is seen uiuler any circumstances which pre- vent the possibility of his determining its dimen- sions, his decision will certainly bo in that extreme which excites the most interest. Thus a mistake in the size of the whale would be easily made. And there is evei7 probability of such an error havingbeen committed two or three centuries back, from which period some of our present dimensions have been derived, when we know that whales were usually viewed with superstitious dread, and their magni-< tude and powers, in consequence, highly exagge- rated. Besides, errors of this kind having a ten- dency to increase rather than to correct one another, from the circumstance of each writer on the subject being influenced by a similar bias, the most gross and extravagant results arc at length obtained. Thus authors, we find, of the first respectability in the present day, give a length of 80 to 100 feet, or upwards, to the Mysticetus, and remark, with unqualified assertion, that when the captures were less frequent, and the animals had sufficient time to attain their full growth, specimens were found of 150 to 200 feet in length, or even longer ; and some ancient naturalists, indeed, have gone so far as to assert, that whales had been seen of above 900 feet in length. But whales, in the present day, are by no means so bulky. Of 322 individuals, in the capture of which I have been personally concerned, no one, I Ff2 453 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC HEGIONS. believe, exceeded 60 feet in length ; and the largest I ever measured, was 58 feet from one extremity to the other, being one of the longest, to appearance, which I ever saw. An uncommon whale that was caught near Spitzbergen, about 20 years ago, the whalebone of which measured almost 15 feet, was not, I understand, so much as 70 feet in length ; and the longest actual measurement that I have met with, or heard of, is given by Sir Charles Gieseck^ who informs us, that, in the spring of 1813, a whale was killed at Godhavn, of the length of 67 feet. These, however, are very uncommon instances. I therefore conceive, that 60 feet may be considered as the size of the larger animals of this species, and 65 feet in length as a magnitude which very rarely occurs. Yet I believe that whales now occur of as large dimensions, as at any former period since the com. mencement of the whale-fishery. This point I en- deavoured to prove, from various historical records, in a paper read before the Wemerian Society, on the 19th of December 1818, and since inserted in the " Edinburgh Philosophical Journal/' No. I. p. 83. In this paper, I brought forward the authorities of Zorgdrager, the writer of an account of the whale- fishery, and one of the early superintend^its of the Dutdi northern fisheries, together with opinions or remarks of Captains Anderson, Gray, Heley, and ZOOLOGY. — BALiENA MY8TICETUS, 453 m I. ties others, who were among the earliest of the English whalers, which satisfactorily pro^e, that the average and largest produce of a whale in oil, was not greater, near two hundred years ago, than it is at the pre- sent time ; and to these are added, the testimonies of Captains Jenkinson and Edge, as to the length of the whale, which likewise corresponds, pretty near- ly, with the measurements I have myself made. Jenkinson, in his voyage to Russia, performed in 1557, saw a numher of whales, some of which, hy estimation, were 60 feet long, and are described as being " very monstrous." Edge, who was one of the Russia Company's chief and earliest whalefishers, having been ten years to Spitzbergen, prior to the year 1625, calls the whale " a sea beaste of huge bigness, about 65 foot long and 35 foot thick," ha- ving whalebone 10 or 11 feet long, (a common size at present,) and yielding about 100 hogsheads of oil ; and, in a descriptive plate accompanying Cap- tain Edge's paper on the fishery, published by PuRCHAS in 1625, is a sketch of a whale, with this remmrk subjoined, — ** A whale is ordinarily about 60 foot long." Hence I conceive we may satisfactorily conclude, that whales of as large size are found now, as at any former period since the Spitzbergen fishery was dis- <»vered ; and I may also remark, that where any re- spectable authority affords actual measurements ex- ceeding 70 feet, it will always be found that the spe- 454 ACCOUNT OF THE AIICTIC REGIONS. cimen referred to, was not one of the Mysticctus kind, but of the B. Physalis, or the B. Musculus, animals which considerably exceed in length any of the common whales that I have either heard of, or met with. When fully grown, therefore, the length of the whale may be stated as varying from 50 to 65, and rarely, if ever, reaching 70 feet; and its greatest circumference from 30 to 40 feet. It is thickest a little behind the fins, or in the middle, between the anterior and posterior extremes of the animal ; from whence it gradually tapers, in a conical form, to- wards the tail, and slightly towards the head. Its form is cylindrical from the neck, to within ten feet of the tail, beyond which it becomes somewhat quadrangular, the greatest ridge being upward, or on the back, and ruiming backward nearly across the middle of the tail. The head has somewhat of a triangular shape. The under-part, the arched outline of which is given by the jaw-bones, is flat, and measures 16 to 20 feet in length, and 10 to 12 in breadth. The lips, extending 15 or 20 feet in length, and 5 or 6 in height, and forming the cavity of the mouth, are attached to the under-jaw, and rise from the jaw-bones, at an angle of about 80 degrees, ha- ving the appearance, when viewed in front, of the letter U. The upper-jaw, including the " crown- bone," or skull, is bent down at the extremity, so as to shut the front and upper parts of the cavity of I ZOOLOGY. — BALiENA MYSTICETUS. 455 the mouth, and is overlapped by the lips in a squa- mous manner at the sides. When the ipouth is open, it presents a cavity as large as a room, and capable of containing a mer- chant-ship^s jolly-boat, full of men, being 6 or 8 feet wide, 10 or 12 feet high (in front), and 15 or 16 feet long. The fins, two in number, are placed between one^ third and two-fifths of the length of the animal, from the snout, and about two feet behind the angle of the mouth. They are 7 to 9 feet in length, and 4 or 5 in breadth, The part by which they are attached to the body, is somewhat elliptical, and about 2 feet in dia^ meter ; the side which strikes the water is nearly flat. The articulation being perfectly spherical, the fins are capable of motion in any direction ; but, from the tension of the flesh and skin below, they cannot be raised above the horizontal position. Hence the account given by some naturalists, that the whalo supports its young by its fins, on its back, must be erroneous. The fins, after death, are always hard and stiff; but, in the living animal, it is presumed, from the nature of the internal structure, that they are capable of considerable flexion. The whale has no dorsal fin. The tail, comprising, in a single surface, 80 or 100 square feet, is a formidable instrument of motion and defence. Its length is only 5 or 6 feet; but its width is 18 to 24 or 26 f^et. Its position is hori^ if.- m 456 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. zontal. In its form it is flat and semi-lunar ; in- dented in the middle ; the two lobes somewhat point- ed, and turned a little backward. Its motions are rapid and universal ; its strength immense. The eyes are situated in the sides of the head, about a foot obliquely above and behind the angle of the mouth. They are remarkably small in pro- portion to the bulk of the animal's body, being little larger than those of an ox. The whale has no external ear ; nor can any orifice for the admission of sound be discovered until the skin is removed. On the most elevated part of the head, about 16 feet from the anterior extremity of the jaw, are si- tuated the blow-holes, or spiracles; consisting of two longitudinal apertures 6 or 8 inches in length. These are the proper nostrils of the whale. A moist vapour, mixed with mucous, is discharged from them, when the animal breathes ; but no water accompa- nies it, unless an expiration of the breath be made under the surface. The mouth, in place of teeth, contains two exten- sive rows of " fins," or whalebone, which are sus- pended from the sides of the crown-bone. These series of fins are generally curved longitudinally, although they are sometimes straight, and give an arched form to the roof of the mouth. They are covered immediately by the lips attached to the lower jaw, and enclose the tongue between their lower extremities. Each series, or " side of bone," t1 e^ tl ZOOLOGY. — ^BALiGNA MYSTICETUS. 457 3ir » as the whalefishers term it, consists of upwards of 30(^ laminae*; the longest are near the middle, from whence they gradually diminish away to no- thing at each extremity. Fifteen feet is the great- est length of the whalehone ; hut 10 or 11 feet is the average size, and 13 feet is a magnitude seldom met with. The greatest hreadth, which is at the gwniy is 10 or 1 SI inches. The laminae, composing the two series of hone, are ranged side by side, two- thirds of an inch apart, (thickness of the blade in- cluded,) and resemble a frame of saws in a saw-mill. The interior edges are covered with a fringe of hair, and the exterior edge of every blade, excepting a few at each extremity of the series, is curved and flat- tened down, so as to present a smooth surface to the lips. In some whales, a curious hollow on one side, and ridge on the other, occurs in many of the cen- tral blades of whalebone, at regular intervals of 6 or 7 inches. May not this irregularity, like the riiigs in the horns of the ox, which they resemble, afford an intimation of the age of the whale ? If so, twice the number- of running feet in the longest lamina of whalebone in the head of a whale not full grown, would represent its age in years. In the youngest whales, called SuckerSt the whalebone is only a few inches long ; when the length reaches 6 feet or up- wards, the whale is said to be size. The colour of the whalebone is brownish-black, or bluish-black. • In a very small whale, the number was 31 6 or 320. 458 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS, In some animals, it is striped longitudinally with white. When newly cleaned, tlie surface exhibits a fine play of colour. A large whale sometimes af- fords a ton and a half of whalebone. If the " sam- ple blade/' that is, the largest lamipa in the series, weigh 7 pounds, the whole produce may be estimaT ted at a ton ; and so on in proportion. The whale- bone is inserted into the crown-bone, in a sort of rab- bit. AU the blades in the same series are connected together by the gum, in which the thick ends are in- serted. This substance, (the gum,) is white, fibrous, tender and tasteless. It cuts like cheese. It has the appearance of the interior or kernel of the cocoa-nut, The tongue occupies a large proportion of the ca- vity of the mouth, and the arch formed by the whale- bone. It is incapable of protrusion, being fixed from root to tip, to the fat extending between the jaw-rbones. A slight beard, consisting of a few short scattered white hairs, surmounts the anterior extremity of both jaws, The throat is remarkably strait. The male organ is a large flexible member, and is concealed in a longitudinal groove, the external opening of which is 2 or S feet in length. This member, in the dead 'animal, is 8 or 10 feet in length, and about 6 inches in diameter at the root. It tapers to a point, and is perforated throughout its length by the urethra. ZOOLOGY. — BALiENA MYSTICETUS. 459 and tenial This et ill root, ut its Two paps in the female, afford the means of rear- ing its young. They are situated on the ahdomen, one on each side of the pudendum, and are 2 feet apart. They appear not to be capable of protrusion, beyond the length of a few inches. In the dead animal, they are always found retracted. The milk of the whale resembles that of quadru- peds in its appearance. It is said to be rich and well-flavoured. The vent is about 6 inches behind the pudendum of the female ; but, in the male, it is more distant from the organ of generation. The colour of the Mysticetus is velvet-black, grey, (composed of dots of blackish-brown, on a white ground,) and white, with a tinge of yellow. The back, most of the upper-jaw, and part of the lower jaw, together with the fins and tail, are black. The tongue, the fore part of the under-jaw and lips, sometimes a little of the upper-jaw, at the extremi- ty, and a portion of the belly, are white. And the eye-lids, the junction of the tail with the body, a portion in the axillas of the fins, &c. are grey. I have seen whales that were all over piebald. The older animals contain the most grey and white ; un- der-size whales are altogether of a bluish-black, and suckers of a pale bluish, or bluish-grey colour. The skin of the body is slightly furrowed, like the water-lines in coarse laid paper. On the tail, fins, &c. it is smooth. The cuticle, or that part of 460 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REOI0N8. the skin which can be pulled off in sheets after it has been a little dried in the air, or particularly in frost, is not thicker than parchment. The rete mu- cosum in adults, is about three-fourths of an inch in thickness, over most parts of the body ; in suckers, nearly two inches ; but on the under side of the fins, on the inside of the lips, and on the surface of the tongue, it is much thinner. This part of the integuments, is generally of the same colour throughout its thickness. The fibres of which it is composed, are perpendicular to the surface of the body. Under this lies the true skin, which is white and tough. As it imperceptibly becomes impreg- nated with oil, and passes gradually into the form of blubber, its real thickness cannot easily be stated. The most compact part, perhaps, may be a quarter of an inch thick. Immediately beneath the skin lies the blubber or fat, encompassing the whole body of the animal, together with the fins and tail. Its colour is yel- lowish-white, yellow or red. In the very young ani- mal it is always yellowish-white. In some old ani- mals, it resembles in colour the substance of the sal- mon. It swims in water. Its thickness all round the body, is 8 or 10 to 20 inches, varying in diffe- rent parts as well as in different individuals. The lips are composed almost entirely of blubber, and yield from one to two tons of pure oil each. The tongue is chiefly composed of a soft kiii.d of fat, that ZOOLOGY. — BALiENA MYSTICETUS. 461 affords less oil than any other blubber : in the cen- tre of the tongue, and towards the root, this fat is intermixed with fibres of a muscular substance. The imder jaw, excepting the two jaw-bones, consists al- most wholly of fat ; and the crown-bone possesses a considerable coating of it. The fins are principally blubber, tendons, and bones, and the tail possesses a thin stratum of blubber. The oil appears to be re- tained in the blubber in minute cells, connected toge- ther by a strong reticulated combination of tendinous fibres. These fibres being condensed at the surface, appear to form the substance of the skin. The oil is expeUed when heated ; and, in a great measure, dis- charges itself out of the fenhs, whenever putrefac- tion in the fibrous parts of the blubber takes _,place. The blubber and the whalebone are the parts of the whale to which the attention of the fisher is directed. The flesh and bones, excepting the jaw-bones occa- sionally, are rejected. The blubber in its fresh state, is without any unpleasant smell ; and it is not until after the termination of the voyage, when the car- go is unstowed, that a Greenland ship becomes disa- greeable. Four tons of blubber by measure, generally afford three tons of oil* ; but the blubber of a sucker con- The ton or tun of oil, is 252 gallons wine measure. It weighs^ at temperature 60°, 1933 lb. 12 oz. 14 dr. avoirdu- pois. 462 ACCOUNT or 1 HE auctic regions. tains a very small proportion. Whales have been caught that afforded nearly thirty tons of pure oil ; and whales yielding twenty tons of oil, arc by no means uncommon. The quantity of oil yielded by a whale, generally bears a certain proportion to the length of its longest blade of whalebone. The ave- rage quantity is expressed in the following table*. Length of whale- bone in feet, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 — 12 Oil yielded in tons - H 2i 2| H 4 5 6i 8^ 11 m 1721 Though this statement on the average be exceed- ingly near the truth, yet exceptions sometimes oc- tur. A whale of .2^ feet bone, for instance, has been known to produce near ten tons of oil ; and ano- ther of 12 feet bone, only nine tons. Such instan- ces, however, are very uncommon. A stout whale of sixty feet in length, is of the :enonnous weight of seventy tons; the blubber weighs about thirty tons, the bones of the head, whalebone, fins and tail, eight or ten ; carcass thirty or thirty-two. • This table is somewhat different from that given in Wer- nerian Memoirs, (vol. i. p. 582) ; an increased number of ob- servations having enabled me to improve it. 3 J^OOLOOY. — BAI-^NA MYStlCVTUS. 4GS 11 17! of the ubber head, thirty The flesh of the young whale is of a 'red colour ; and when cleared of fat, broiled, and seasoned with pepper and salt, does not eat unlike coarse beef; that of the old whale approaches to black, and is exceed- ingly coarse. An immense bed of muscles surround- ing the body, is appropriated chiefly to the move- ments of the tail. The tail consists principally of two reticulated beds of sinewy fibres, compactly in- terwoven, and containing very little oil. In the central bed the fibres run in all directions ; in the other, which encompasses the central one in a thin- ner stratum, they are arranged in regular order. These substances are extensively used, particularly in Holland, in the manufacture of glue. Most of the bones of the whale are very porous, and contain large quantities of fine oil. The jaw-bones, which measure twenty to twenty-five feet in lengthy are often taken care of, principally on account of the oil that drains out of them, when they come into a warm climate. When exhausted of oil, they readi- ly swim in water. The external surface of the most porous bones, is compact and hard. The ribs ^re pretty nearly solid ; but the crown-bone is almost as much honeycombed as the jaw-bones. The number of ribs, according to Sir Charles Giesecke, is thirteen on each side. The bones of the fins are analogous, both in proportion and number, to those of the fingers of the human hand. From this peculiarity of struct ture, the fins have been denominated by Dr Flem- 4()4 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC KEUIONB. ing ** ewimming paws." The posterior extremity of the whale, however, is a real tail ; the termination of the spine or os coccygis, running through the middle of it almost to the edge. Few opportunities of examining the internal struc- ture of the mysticetus occur ; hence, what is known respecting its anatomy, is deduced principally from its analogy to other cetaceous animals. Table qfthe Comparative Dimensions of Six Mys- ticete,Jrom my own Measurements. Longest bladeof whalebone, Extreme length, Length of the head, . . Bremlth of under^aw^ Length from tip of lip to fin, to greatest circumf. Circumference at the neck, Greatest circumference, Circumfer. by the genitalia, ■near the t£ul,... Fin, — Length, Breadth, Tail,— Length, Breadth, Lip, — Length, Breadth, Produce in oil, (tons). Sex, Ft. In. 1.0 17.0 5.0 5.6 7.0 10.0 12.0 9.0 2.11 2.3 1.3 4.9 F. Ft. In 6.0 ^8.0 8.6 10.0 186 20.0 15.6 4.0 8.2 4 M. Ft. III. Ft.In. 10.10 il. 16. 6.6 7.0 4.0 6.6 20.0 15.6 11.2 50.0 15.6 9.6 18.0 24.0 31.6 34.0 190 6.8 6.4 4.0 5.6 17.6 15.0 16 16 F. Ft.In. 11.6 58.0 19.0 12.0 Ft. In< 13.7 52.0 20.0 35.0 8.6 5.0 6.0 24.0 18.6 19 34.0 9.0 6.0 20.10 19. 6 6. 2 24 M. The whale seems dull of hearing. A noise in the air, such as that produced by a person shouting, 2 ;?00LOOY. — my»ttoi:ti;s. 46.) is not noticed by it, thoiip;h at the distance only of a ship's length ; but a very slight splashing in the water, in calm weatiier, excites its attention, and alarms it. Its sense of seeing is acute. Whales are observ- ed to discover one another, in clear water, when un- der the surface, at an amazing distance. When at the surface, however, they do not see far. They have no voice ; but, in breathing or hlowinfft they make a very loud noise. The vapour they discharge, is ejected to the height of some yards, and appears at a distance, like a puiF of smoke. When the animals are wounded, it is often stained with blood ; and, on the approach of death, jets of blood are sometimes discharged alone. They blow strongest, densest, and loudest, when " running," when in a state of alarm, or when they first appear at the surface, after being a long time down. They respire or blow about four or five times a-minute. The whale, being somewhat lighter than the me- dium in which it swims, can remain at the surface of the sea, with its " crown," in which the blow- holes are situated, and a considerable extent of the back, above water, without any effort or motion* To descend, however, requires an exertion. The proportion of the whale that appears above water, when alive, or when recently killed, is probably not a twentieth part of the animal ; but, within a day after death, when the process of putrefaction com- VOL. I. G g 466 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. Ill mences, the whale swells to an enormous size, until at least a third of the carcase appears ahove watei^ and sometimes the body is burst by the force of the air generated within. By means of the tail, principally, the whale ad- vances through the water. The greatest velocity is produced by powerful strokes against the water, im- pressed alternately upward and downward; but a slower motion, it is believed, is elegantly produced, by cutting the water laterally and obliquely down- ward, in a similar manner as a boat is forced along, with a single oar, by the operation of skulling. The fins are generally stretched out in an horizon- tal position : their chief application seems to be, the balancing of the animal, as the moment life is ex- tinct, it always falls over on its side, or turns upon its back. They appear also to be used, in bearing off their young, in turning, and giving a direction to the velocity produced by the tail. Bulky as the whale is, and inactive, or indeed clumsy as it appears to be, one might imagine that all its motions would be sluggish, and its greatest exertions productive of no great celerity. The fact, however, is the reverse. A whale extended motionless at the surface of the sea, can sink in the space of five or six seconds, or less, beyond the reach of its human enemies. Its velocity along the sur- face, or perpendicularly or obliquely downward, is the same. I have observed a whale descending. ZOOLOGY. — MYSTICETUS. 467 after I liail haq)ooned it, to the depth of 400 fa- thoms, with the average velocity of seven or eight miles j)er hour. The usual rate at which whales swim, however, even when they are on their passage from one situation to another, seldom exceeds four miles an hour; and though, when urged hy the sight of any enemy, or alarmed by the stroke of a harpoon, their extreme velocity may be at the rate of eight or nine miles an hour ; yet we find this speed never continues longer than for a few mi- nutes, before it relaxes almost to one-half. Hence, for the space of a few minutes, they are capable of darting through the water, with the velocity almost of the fastest ship under sail, and of ascending with such rapidity as to leap entirely out of the water. This feat they sometimes perform as an amuse- ment appai'ently, to the high admiration of the dis- tant spectator ; but to the no small terror of the un- experienced fishers, who, even under such circum- stances, are often ordered, by the foolhardy har- pooner, to " pull away" to the attack. Sometimes the whales throw themselves into a perpendicular posture, with their heads downward, and, rearing their tails on high in the air, beat the water with awful violence. In both these cases, the sea is thrown into foam, and the air filled with vapours ; the noise, in calm weather, is heard to a great dis- tance; and the concentric waves produced by the con- cussions on the water, arc communicated abroad to Gg2 468 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. a considerable extent. Sometimes the whale shakes its tremendous tail in the air, wliich, cracking like a whip, resounds to the distance of two or three miles. When it retires from the surface, it first lifts its head, then plunging it under water, elevates its back like the segment of a sphere, deliberately rounds it away towards the extremity, throws its tail out of the water,, and then disappears. In their usual conduct^ whales remain at the sur- face to breathe, about two minutes, seldom longer; during which time, they " blow" eight or nine times* and then descend for an interval usually of five or ten minutes ; but sometimes, when feeding, fifteen or twenty. The depth to which they commonly descend, is not known, though, from the " eddy" occasionally observed on the water, it is evidently, at times, only trifling. But, when struck, the quan- tity of line they sometimes take out of the boats, in a perpendicular descent, affords a good measure of the depth. By this rule, they have been known to descend to the depth of an English mile ; and with such velocity, that instances have occurred, in which whales, have been drawn up by the line attached, from a^ depth of 700 or 800 fathoms, and have been found to have broken their jaw-bones, and some- times crown-bone, by the blow struck against the bottom. Some persons are of opinion, that whales can remain under a field of ice, or at the bottom of the sea, in shallow water, when undisturbed, for ZOOLOGY. — MYSTICETU, 469 many hours at a time. Whales are seldom fouud sleeping; yet, in calm weather, among ice, instances occasionally occur. The food of the whale consists of various species of actinisB, cliones, sepise, medusae, cancri, and helices ; or, at least, some of these genera are always to be seen wherever any tribe of whales is found stationary ■and feeding. In the dead animals, however, in the very few instances in which I have been enabled to open their stomachs, squillae or shrimps were the only substances discovered. In the mouth of a whale just killed, I once found a quantity of the same kind of insect. When the ivhale feeds, i+ swims with consider- able velocity below the surface of the sea, with its jaws widely extended. A stream of water conse- quently enters its capacious mouth, and along with it, large quantities of water insects ; the water escapes again at the sides ; but the food is entangled and sifted, as it were, by the whalebone, which, from its compact arrangement, and the thick internal co- vering of hair, does not allow a particle the size of the smallest grain to escape. There does not seem to be a sufficient dissimi- larity in the form and appearance of tlie mysticete found in the polar seas, to entitle them to a division into other species ; yet such is the difference observ- ed in the proportions of these animals, that they may be well considered as sub-species or varieties. 470 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. In some of the mysticete, the head measures four- tenths of the whole length of the animal ; in others scarcely three-tenths ; in some the circumference is upwards of seven-tenths of the length ; in others less than six-tenths, or little more than one-half. The sexual intercourse of whales is often ohserved about the latter end of summer ; and females, with cubs or suckers along with them, being most com- monly met with in the spring of the year, the time of their bringing forth, it is presumed, is in Febru- ary or March ; and their period of gestation about nine or ten months. In the latter end of April 1811, a sucker was taken by a Hull whaler, to which the funis umbilicalis was still attached. The whale has one young at a birth. Instances of two being seen with a female are very rare. The young one, at the time of parturition, is said to be at least ten, if not fourteen feet in length. It goes under the protection of its mother, for probably a year, or more ; or until, by the evolution of the whalebone, it is enabled to procure its own nourishment. Sup- posing the criterion before mentioned, of the notches in the whalebone being indicative of the number of years growth, to be con-ect, then it would appear that the whale reaches the magnitude called size ; that is, with a six feet length of whalebone, in twelve years, and attains its full growth at the age of twenty or twenty-five. Whales, doubtless, live to a great age, T^ie m^rks of age are an increase ZOOLOGY. — MYSTICETUS. 471 in the quantity of grey colour in the skin, and a change to a yellowish tinge of the white parts about the head ; a decrease in the quantity of oil yielded by a certain weight of blubber ; an increase of hard- ness in the blubber, and in the thickness and strength of the ligamentous fibres of which it is partly com- posed. The maternal affection of the whale, which, in other respects, is apparently a stupid animal, is striking and interesting. The cub, being insensi- ble to danger, is easily harpooned ; when the tender attachment of the mother is so manifested as not un- frequently to bring it within the reach of the'whalers. Hence, though a cub is of little value, seldom pro- ducing above a ton of oil, and often less, yet it is sometimes struck as a snare for its mother. In this case, she joins it at the surface of the water, whenever it has occasion to rise for respiration ; en- courages it to swim off; assists its flight, by taking it under her fin ; and seldom deserts it while life remains. She is then dangerous to approach ; but affords frequent opportunities for attack. She loses all regard for her own safety, in anxiety for the preservation of her young ; — dashes tlirough the midst of her enemies ;^-despises the danger that threatens her ; — and even voluntarily remains with her offspring, after various attacks on herself from the harpoons of the fishers. In June 1811, one of my harpooners struck a sucker, with the hope of its 472 ACCOUNT OF THE AlKJTIC KKGIONS. leading to the capture of the mother. Presently she arose close by the " fast-boat ;" tmd seizing the young one, dragged about a hundred fathoms of line out of the boat with remarkable force and velocity. Again she arose to the surfece ; darted furiously to and fro ; frequently stopped short, or suddenly changed her direction, and gave every possible intimation of extreme agony. For a length of time, she continued thus to act, though closely pursued by the boats ; and, inspired with courage And resolu- tion by her concern for her offspring, seemed re- gardless of the dajnger which sun-ounded her. At length, one of the boats approached so near, that a harpoon was hove at her. It hit, but did not at- tach itself. A second ' arpoon was struck ; this also failed to penetrate : but a third was more effectual, and held. Still she did not attempt to escape ; but allowed other boats to approach ; so that, in a few minutes, three more harpoons were fastened ; and, in the course of an hour afterwards, she was killed. There is something extremely painful in the de- struction of a whale, when thus evincing a degree ef affectionate regard for its offspring, that would do honour to the superior intelligence of human be- ings; yet the object of the adventure, the value of the prize, the joy of the capture, cannot be sacrificed to feelings of compassion. Whales, though often found in great numbers jiogcther, can scarcely be. md to be gregarious ; fpr i^ii ZOOLOGY. — MYSTICETUS. 473 they are found most generally solitary, or in pairs, excepting when drawn to the same spot, by the at- traction of an abundance of palatable food, or of a choice situation of the ice. The superiority of the sexes, in point of numbers, seems to be in favour of the male. Of 124 whales which have been taken near Spitzbergen in eight years, in ships commanded by myself, 70 were males, and 54 were females, being in the proportion of five to four nearly. . The mysticetus occurs most abundantly in the frozen seas of Greenland and Davis' Strait, — ^in the bays of Baffin and Hudson, — in the sea to the northward of Behring's Strait, and along some parts of the northern shores of Asia, and probably America. It is never met with in the German Ocean, and rarely within 200 leagues of the Bri- tish coasts : but along the coasts of Africa and South America, it is met with, periodically, in con- siderable numbers. In these regions, it is attacked and captured by the southern British and Ameri- can whalers, as well as by some of the people inha- biting the coasts to the neighbourhood of which it resorts. Whether this whale is precisely of the same kind as that of Spitzbergen and Green- land, is uncertain, though it is evidently a mysti- cetus. One striking difference, possibly the effect of situation and climate, is, that the mysticetus found in southern regions, is often covered with '^i; 474. ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. barnacles, (Lepas Diadema, &c.) while those of the arctic seas are free from these shell-fish. It would be remarkable, if an animal like the whale, which is so timid that a bird alighting up- on its back sometimes sets it off in great agitation and terror, should be wholly devoid of enemies. Besides man, who is doubtless its most formidable adversary, it is subject to annoyance from sharks, and it is also said from the narwal, sword-fish and thrasher. With regard to the narwal, I am per- suaded, that this opinion is incorrect, for so far from its being an enemy, it is found to associate with the whale with the greatest apparent harmony, and its appearance indeed in the Greenland sea is hailed by the fishers, 'the narwal being considered as the harbinger of the whale. But the sword- fish and thrasher (if such an animal there be) may possibly be among the enemies of the whale, not- Avithstanding I have never witnessed their com- bats ; and the shark is known certainly to be an enemy, though, perhaps, not a very formidable one. Whales, indeed, flee the seas where it abounds, and evince, by marks occasionally found on their tails, a strong evidence of their having been bit by the shark. A living whale may be annoyed, though it can scarcely be supposed to be ever over- come by tlie shark ; but a dead whale is an easy prey, and aifords a fine banquet to this insatiable creature. 3 ZOOLOGY. — MYST' ^^.TUS. 475 easy [able The whale, from its vast bulk and variety of pro- ducts, is of great importance in commerce, as well as in the domestic economy of savage nations ; and its oil and whalebone are of extensive application in the arts and manufactures. A description of its most valuable products, and of the uses to which they are applied, being included in the account of the whale-fishery, in the second volume of this work, it will only be necessary, in this place, to mention the purposes to which parts and products, not now objects of commerce, are or might be applied. Though to the refined palate of a modem Euro- pean, the flesh of a whale, as an article of food, would be received with abhorrence, yet we find that it is considered, by some of the inhabitants of the northern shores of Europe, Asia, and America, as well as those on the coasts of Hudson's Bay and Davis' Strait, as a choice and staple article of subsis- tence. The Esquimaux eat the flesh and fat of the whale, and drink the oil with greediness. Indeed, some tribes who are not familiarised with spirituous liquors, carry along with them in their canoes, in their fishing excursions, bladders filled with oil, which they use in the same way, and with a similar relish, that a British sailor does a dram *. They also eat the skin of the whale raw, both adults and chil- dren; for it is not uncommon, when the females visit the whale-ships, for them to help themselves Ellis's Voyage to Hudson's Bay, p. 233. 476 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC KliGIONS. to pieces of skin, preferring those with which a little blubber is connected, and to give it as ibod to their infants suspended on their backs, who suck it with apparent delight. Blubber, wlien pickled and boiled, is said to be very palatable ; the tail, when par-boiled and then fried, is said to be not unsavory, but even agreeable eating ; and the flesh of young whales, I know from experiment, is by no means indifferent food. Not only is it certain that tlie flesh of the whale is now eaten by savage i;ation«, but it is also well authenticated that, in the 12th, 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, it was used as food by the Iceland- ers, the Netherlanders, the French, the Spaniards, and probably by the English. M. S. B. Noel, in a tract on the whale-iishery *, informs us, that about the ISili century, the fleshy particularly the tongue, of whales, was sold in the markets of Bayonne, Cibourre, and Beariz, where it w^s es- teemed as a great delicacy, being used at the best tables ; and even so late as the 15th century, he conceives, from the authority of Charles Etienne, that the principal nourishment of the poor in Lent, in some districts of France, consisted of the flesh and fat of the whale. Besides forming a choice eatable, the inferior pro- ducts of the whale are applied to other purposes by • (( Memoire sur TAntiquite de la Peche de la Baleiiie par les Nations Europeennes." thi an So ZOOLOGY. — MYSTICETUS. 477 par the India/, or Unicom oi the Whalers. La Cep^de notices three species of narwals ; I have seen but one; and, perhaps, the other species are only imaginary, for the animal varies in appearance. This animal, when full grown, is from 13 to 16 feet in length, exclusive of the tusk, and in cir- cumference (two feet behind the fins, where it is thickest,) 8 to 9 feet. The form of the head, with the part of the body before the fins, is paraboloidal, of the middle of the body nearly cylindrical, of the hinder part, to with- • La Cepede states the length at 8 or 9 metres, which is 26 to 29 feet. ZQOLOGY. NAIIWAL. 487 in two or three feet of tail somewhat conical, and from thence a ridge commencing, both at the back and belly, the section becomes first an ellipse, and then a rhoipbus at the junction of the tail. At the dis- tance of 12 or 14 inches from the tail, the perpen- dicular diameter is about 12 inches, the transverse diameter about 7. The back and belly ridges run half way across the tail, or more ; and the edges of the tail in the same way run 6 or 8 inches along the body, and form ridges on the sides of the rump. After a very slight elevation at the blowhole, the outline of the back forms a regular curve ; the belly rises or seems drawn in near the vent, and expands to a perceptible bump, about two feet before the^ genitalia. From the neck, three or four feet back- ward, the back is rather depressed, and appears flat. The head is about one-seventh of the whole length of the animal ; it is small, blunt, round, and of a paraboloidal form. The mouth is small, and not ca- pable of much extension. The under lip is wedge- shaped. The eyes are small, the largest diameter being only an inch, and are placed in a line with the opening of the mouth, about 13 inches from the snout. The blowhole, which is directly over the eyes, is a single opening, of a semicircular form, about Sa inches in diameter or breadth, and 1^ ra- dius or length. The fins, which are 12 or 14 inches long and 6 or 8 broad, are placed at one-fifth of the 488 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. length of the animal from the snout. The tail is from 15 to 20 inches long, and 3 to 4 feet hroad. It has no dorsal fin ; but in place of it i.. an irregu- lar sharpish fatty ridge, two inches in height, ex- tending two and a half feet along the back, nearly mid-way between the snout and the tail. The edge of this ridge is generally rough, and the cu- ticle and rete mv.. osum being partly wanting upon it, appear to be worn off by rubbing against ice. The prevailing colour of the young narwal is blackish-grey on the back, variegated with nume- rous darker spots running into one another, and forming a dusky-black surface, paler and more open spots of grey on a white ground at the sides, dis- appearing altogether about the middle of the belly. In the elder animals, the ground is wholly white or yellowish-white, with dark-grey or blackish spots of different degrees of intensity. These spots are of a roundish or oblong form : on the back, where they seldom exceed two inches in diameter, they are the darkest and the most crowded together, yet with in- tervals of pure white among them. On the sides, the spots are fainter, smaller, and more open. On the belly, they become extremely faint and few, and in considerable surfaces are not to be seen. On the upper part of the neck, just behind the blow-hole, is often a close patch of brownish-black witliout any white. The external part of the fins is also gene- rally black at the edges, but greyish about the ZOOLOGY. — NiMlWAI,. 489 middle. The upper side of the tail is also hlackish round the edges : but in the middle, grey, with black curvilinear streaks on a white ground, form- ing semicircular figures on each lobe. The imdcr parts of the fins and tail are similar to the upper, only much paler-coloured ; the middle of the fins being white, and of the tail a pale-grey. The co- lour of the sucklings is almost wholly a bluish-grey, or slate-colour. The integuments are similar to those of the mys- ticetus, only thinner. The cuticle is about the thickness of p^aper : the rete mucosum three-eighths to three-tenths of an inch thick ; the cutis thin, but strong and compact on the outer side. A long prominent tusk, with which some nar- wals are furnished, is considered as a horn by the whale-fishers; and as such, has given occasion for the name of Unicorn being applied to this animal. This tusk occurs on the left side of the head, and is sometimes found of the length of 9 or 10 feet ; according to Egede, 14 or 15*. It springs from the lower part of the upper-jaw, points forward and a little downward ; being parallel in its direction to the roof of the mouth. It is spirally striated from right to left ; is nearly straight, and tapers to a round blunt point ; is of a yellowish- white colour, and consists of a compact kind of ivory. It is usu- ally hollow from the base to within a few inches of • ii Description of Greenland," p. 77- 490 ACCOUNT OF TUK ARCTIC REGIONS. <■? IS'! the point. A five feet tusk, (about the average length), is about 2^ inches diameter at the base, IJ in the middle, and about f ths within an inch of the end. In such a tusk, there are five or six turns of the spiral, extending from the base to within 6 or 7 in- ches of the point. Beyond this, the end is without striae, being smooth, clean and white ; the striated part is usually grey and dirty. Besides this external tusk, which is peculiar to the male, there is another on the right side of the head, about 9 inches long, imbedded in the skull. In females, as well as in young males, in which the tooth does not appear externally, the rudiments of two tusks will almost always be found in the upper- jaw. These are solid throughout, and are placed back in the substance of the skull, about 6 inches from its most prominent part. They are 8 or 9 inches in length, both in the male and female ; in the former they are smooth, tapering, and terminate at the root with an oblique truncation ; in the latter they have sn extremely rough surface, and finish at the base with a large irregular knob placed towards one side, which gives the tusks the form almost of pocket pistols. Two or three instances have occurred, of male narwals having been taken, which had two large external tusks. But this is a rare circumstance. I have never seen an external tusk on the right side of the head r though I think it not improbable, but that some which I have been shown having no per- tu ZOOLOGY — NAllWAL. 491 foration up the centre, might he tusks of the right side. Sir Everard Home, in his examination of the tusks of the narwal, found, on sawing one, that ap- peared solid, in a longitudinal direction, " a hollow tube in the middle through the greater part of its length, the point, and the portion at the root, only being solid*. All the male narwals that I have at different times seen killed, excepting one, had a tusk of 3 to 6 feet in length, projecting from the left side of the head, of which about 8 inches in length of each, was imbedded in the skull. The perforation, in all, ex- tended from the base to within 10 or 12 inches of the small end of the tooth. The use of the tusk in narwals is ambiguous. It cannot be essential for procuring their food, or none of them would be without it ; nor is it, per- haps, necessaiy for their defence, else the females and young would be subjected to the power of enemies without the means of resistance, while the male wouid be in possession of an admirable weapon for its protection. Dr Barclay, with whom I have communicated on this subject, is of opinion, that the tusk is principally, if not solely, a sexual distinc- tion, similar to what occurs among some other ani- mals. Though it cannot be essential to the exis- tence of the animal, it may, however, be occasional- ly employed. From the extremity being smooth • Phil. Trans, for 1813. 492 ACCOUNT or THE AllCTIC llKCilONS. and clean, while all the rest is rough and dirty ; and especially from tlic circumstance of a broken tusk being fouiiu, with the angles of the fractured part rubbed down and rounded, it is not improbable but it may be used in piercing thin ice for the con- venience of respiring, without being under the ne- cessity of retreating into open water. It cannot, I conceive, be used as many authors have stated, in raking their food from the bottom of the sea; because these animals are most commonly met with in deep seas, where they would be incapable of sur- viving under the imtnense pressure of the column of water resting on the bottom. A quantity of blubber, from 2 to 3^ inches in thickness, and amounting sometimes to above half a ton, encompasses the whole body. This affords a large proportion of very fine oil. The skull of the narwal, like those of the Delphinus deductor, por- pus, beluga, grampus, dolphin, &c., is concave above, and sends forth a large flat wedge-shaped process in front, which affords sockets for the tusks. Upon this process is a bed of fat extending to the thick- ness of 10 or 12 inches horizontally, (as the animal swims,) and 8 or 9 perpendicularly. This fat gives the round form to the head ; and by its greater or lesser deposition, occasions a considerable difference in the shape and prominence of the forehead. In consequence of this, what has been called the facial ZOOLOGY. — NAtlWAL. -m angle, is in some narwals less than 60 degrees, in others upwards of 90. The blowliole communicates with a large double cavity or air-vessel immediately imder the skin ; and this is connected with the narcs of the skull, where the opening is divided by a bony septum. In a line fatty substance about the internal ears of the narwal, are found multitudes of worms. They are about an inch in length, some shorter, very slen- der, and taper both ways, but are sharper at one end than at the other. Tliey are transparent. With- in, is the appearanceof a canal ; without, is a brown- ish ridge, running longitudinally along the body. The vertebral column of tlie narvval is about 12 feet in length. The cervical vertebra; are seven in number ; the dorsal twelve ; the lumbar and caudal thirty-five. The whole are fifty-four, of which twelve enter the tail, and extend to within an inch of its extremity. The spinal marrow appears to run through the processes of all the vertebrae, from the head to the 40th, but does not penetrate the 41st. The spinous process diminishes in length af- ter the 15th lumbar vertebra, until it is scarcely perceptible at the 19th. Large anterior or belly processes, on the opposite side of the column to the spinous processes, attached to two adjoining verte- brae, commence between the 30th and 31st, and ter- minate between the 42d and 43d vertebrae. The ribs, which are twelve on each side, six true and six 494 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. false, are slender for the size of the animal. The sternum is of the shape of a heart, with the broad- est part forward. Two of the false ribs on each side, joined by cartilages to the 6th true rib ; the rest are detached. The principle food of the narwal seems to be molluscous animals. In the stomachs of several that I have examined, were numerous remains of sepiae. Narwals are quick, active, inoffensive animals. They swim with considerable velocity. When re- spiring at the surface, they frequently lay motion- less for several minutes, with their backs and heads just appearing above the water. They are of a somewhat gregarious disposition, often appearing in numerous little herds of half a dozen, or more, to- gether. Each herd is most frequently composed of animals of the same sex. When harpooned, the narwal dives in the same way, and with almost the same velocity as the mys- ticetus, but not to the same extent. It generally descends about 200 fathoms, then returns to the sur- face, and is dispatched with a lance in a few mi- nutes. The only good description of the common narwal hitherto published, is contained in the Memoirs of the Wemerian Society, vol. i. p. 131. It was writ- ten by Dr Fleming, who had an opportunity of in- specting a small animal of this species, that was stranded on one of the Shetland islands in the year ZOOLOGY. — NARWAL. 495 1808 ; and as far as one specimen could be relied on for genial appearances, is uncommonly accurate and characteristic. The following dimensions and particulars, of a male narwal, killed near Spitzbergen in the year 1817, are from my own observations. Feet In. Length, exclusive of the tusk, 15 Length from the snout to the eyes, 1 IJ — ^ fins, 3 1 i ■ ■ back-ridge,,.. .6 : vent, 9 9 Circumfere»ce, 4^ inches from the snout, 3 5 at the eyes and blowhole, 5 3 J just before the fins, 7 5 — — at the forepart of back-ridge, 8 5 at the vent, 5 8 Tusk, length externally, , 5 OJ diameter at the base, 2^ Blowhole, length 1« in., breadth, 3J Tail, 14 in., , 3 IJ Fins, 13 in., , 7^ The heart weighed lllb. ; the blood, an hour and a-half after death, was at the temperature of 97**. 490 ACCOUNT or THE AIICTIC REGIONS. Delphinus Deductor, (Traill). — CcCing or Leading Whale. Two original descriptions of this animal are be- fore the public, the one by Mr P. Neill *, the other by Dr Traill f . The paper of Dr Traill is accom- panied by a drawing, taken by Mr James Watson on the spot, where 92 of the species had just been driven on shore. This drawing, judging from the known accuracy of Mr Watson, in connection with the opinion of different persons acquainted with the animal, is doubtless, in the general appearance, faithful representation. In the engraving, Plate . j fig. 1, this drawing is minutely copied, excepting a small reduction in the diameter, which, with the permission of Dr Traill, I was induced to make, in consequence of the comparative diameter of the fi- gure not exactly corresponding with the actual ad- measurement of the animal. The following are the specific characters, as given by Dr Traill. Body thick, black ; one short dorsal fin ; pectoral fins long, narrow ; head obtuse ; upper jaw bent forward ; teeth subconoid, sharp, and a lit- tle bent. * " Tour through some of the Islands of Orkney and Shet- land." Edin. 1806, p. 221. \ Nicholson's Journal, vol. xxii. p. 81. ZOOLOGY. — DEI-nilNUS DEDUCTOU. 497 This animal grows to the length of about 24 feet ; the average length of the adults may be about 20, and their greatest circumference 10 or 11 feet. The measurements of one examined by Mr Wat- son, were as follow. Length 19 i feet; greatest cir- cumference 10 ; pectoral fin (the external portion) 3i feet long, by 18 inches broad ; dorsal fin 15 in- ches high, by 2 feet 3 inches broad ; breadth of the tail 5 feet. Another individual was 21 i feet in length; and a third 20 feet in length, and 11 3 in circumference. The skin is smooth, resembling oiled silk; the colour is a deep bluish-black on the back, and gene- rally whitish on the belly ; the blubber is 3 or 4 in- ches thick. The head is short and round ; the up- per-jaw projects a little over the lower. Externally it has a single spiracle. The full grown have gene- rally 22 to 24 teeth, fths to l^th inches in length, in each jaw. Mr Watson observed one with 28 teeth in the upper-jaw, and 24 in the lower. In the aged animals some of the teeth are deficient ; and in the sucklings none are visible. When the mouth is shut, the teeth lock between one another, like the teeth of a trap. The tail is about 5 feet broad; the dorsal fin about 15 inches high, cartilaginous and immoveable *. This kind of dolphin sometimes appears in large herds off the Orkney, Shetland, and Fcroe Islands. m • Dr Traill, MS. paper. VOL. L I 1 498 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC TIEOIOWS. " Being of a gregarious disposition, the main body of the drove follows the leading whales, as a flock of sheep follows the wedders. This disposition is well known by the natives of Shetland and Orkney, and improved to their advantage ; for, whenever they are enabled to guide the leaders into a bay, they sel- dom fail likewise to capture a considerable number of the followers *.'* From the property of following a leader, this animal is called, in Shetland, the Ca'ing Whale ; and, for the same reason, Dr Traill suggests the name of Deductor. There is a considerable similarity between this ani- mal and the grampus ; but there are also such marked and essential differences between the de- ductor and the grampus, or indeed any other ani- mal mentioned in systems of zoology, that it is con- sidered both by Mr Neill and Dr Traill as belong- ing to no species yet described. » v Of these cetacea, many herds have, at different periods, been driven on shore in Orkney, Shetland, Feroe, Iceland, &c. In a small volume, containing an account of the Feroe Islands f , which was put into my hands by Dr Traill, is a description of the method of capturing the deductor, as practised by the natives of Feroe in the 17th century. From • Neill's Tour, &c. + " FaerosB, et Faeroa Reserata ; that is, a description of the islands and inhabitants of Feroe." — " Written in Danbh by Lu- cas Jacobson Debes," liOndon, I676, 12nio. 1 ZOOLOGY. — DELPHINUS DEDUCTOIl. 499 killed two bears in Cherie Island, the skin of one of which measured 12 feet, and of the other 13. Its weight is generally from 600 lb. to above half a-ton. It is covered with long yellowish- white hair, and is par- ticularly shaggy about the inside of the legs. His paws are 7 inches or more in breadth ; his claws 21 inches in length. His canine teeth, exclusive of the portion imbedded in the jaw, are about an inch and a half in length. Having an amazing strength of jaw, he has been known to bite a lance in two, though made of iron half an inch in diameter. ZOOLOGY. — POLAR DKAR. 519 gh He may be captured in the water without much danger ; but, on the ice, he has such power of resis- tance at command, that the experiment is hazar- dous. When pursued and attacked, he always turns upon liis enemies. If struck with a lance, he is apt to seize it in his mouth, and either bite it in two or wrest it out of the hand. If shot with a ball, unless he is stnick in the head, in the heart, or in the shoulder, he is enraged rather than depressed, and falls with increased power upon his pursuers. When shot at a distance and able to escape, he has been observed to retire to the shelter of a hummock,^ and, as if conscious of the styptical effect of cold, ap- ply snow with his paws to the wound. Though possessed of courage and great means of defence, he always, unless urged by hunger, retreats before men. His general walk is slow and delibe- rate ; but when impelled by danger or hunger, he proceeds by a galloping step ; and, upon ice, can easily outrun any man. It feeds on the kreng or carcasses of whales, in the state in which they arc relinquished by the fishers ; on seals, birds, foxes and deer, when it can sur- prise them ; on eggs, and, indeed, on any animal substance that comes within its power. The skin of the bear, when dressed with the hair on, forms beautiful mats for a hall, or the bottom of a carriage. Prepared without being ripped up, and the hairy side turned inward, it forms a warm sack- * 520 ACCOUNT OT' THE ARCTIC llEGIONS. like bed, and is > ''i ^ :>uch, in some parts of Greenland. The ilesh, whrii cleared of the fat, is well flavoured and savoury, especially the muscular part of the ham. I once treated my surgeon with a dinner of hcar's-ham, who knew not, for above a month afterwards, but that it was beef-steak. The liver, I may observe as a curious fact, is hurtful and even deleterious ; while the flesh and liver of the seal, on which it chiefly feeds, are nourishing and palatable. Sailors, who have inadvertently eaten the liver of bears, have almost always been sick af- ter it : some have actually died ; and the effect on others, has been to cause the skin to peel off their bodies. This is, perhaps, almost the only instance known of any part of the flesh of a quadruped prov- ing unwholesome. Bears, though they have been known to eat one another, are remarkably affectionate to their young. The female, which has generally two at a birth, de- fends its young with such zeal, and watches over them with such anxiety, that she sometimes falls a sacrifice to her maternal attachment. A pleasing and very extraordinary instance of sagacity in a mo- ther bear was related to me by a credible and well informed person, who accompanied me in several voyages to the whale-fishery, in the capacity of sur- geon. This bear, with two cubs under its protec- tion, was pursued across a field of ice, by a party of «rmed sailors. At first she seemed to urge the ZOOLOGY. — POLAU-BEAU. — ANECDOTES. 521 young ones to an increase of speed, by running be- fore them, turning round, and manifesting, by a pe- culiar action and voice, her anxiety for their pro- gress ; but finding her pursuers gaining upon them, she carried, or pushed, or pitched them alternately forward, until she effected their escape. In throw- ing them before her, the little creatures are said to have placed themselves across her path, to receive the impulse ; and, when projected some yards in ad- vance, they ran onwards until she overtook them, when they alternately adjusted themselves for a se- cond throw. Several instances of peculiar sagacity in these ani- mals have been observed. A seal, lying on the middle of a large piece of ice, with a hole just before it, was marked out by a bear for its prey, and secured by the artifice of diving under the ice, and making its way to the hole by which the seal was prepared to retreat. The seal, however, observed its approach, and plunged into the water ; but the bear instantly sprung upon it, and appeared, in about a minute afterwards, with the seal in its mouth. The captain of one of the whalers being anxious to procure a bear, without wounding the skin, made trial of the stratagem of laying the noose of a rope in the snow, and placing a piece of kreng within it. A bear, ranging the neighbouring ice, was soon en- ticed to the spctj by the smell of burning meat. 522 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. He perceived the bait, approached, and seized it in his mouth ; but his foot, at the same moment, by a jerk of the rope, being entangled in the noose, he pushed it off with the adjoining paw, and deliberate- ly retired. After having eaten the piece he carried away with him, he returned. The noose, with an- other piece of kreng, being then replaced, he pushed the rope aside, and again walked triumphantly off with the kreng. A third time the noose was laid ; but, excited to caution by the evident observation of the bear, the sailors buried the rope beneath the snow, and laid the bait in a deep hole dug in the centre. The bear once more approached, and the sailors were assured of their success. But bruin, more sagacious than they expected, after snuffing about the place for a few moments, scraped the snow away with his paw, threw the rope aside, and again escaped unhurt with his prize. In the month of June 1812, a female bear, with two cubs, approached the ship I commanded, and was shot. The cubs, not attempting to escape, were taken alive. These animals, though at first evidently very unhappy, became at length, in some measure, reconciled to their situation ; and, being tolerably tame, were allowed occasionally to go at large about the deck. While the ship was moored to a floe, a few days after they were taken, one of them, having a rope fastened round its neck, was thrown overboard. It immediately swam to the ZOOLOGY. — POLAR-BEAR. — ANECDOTES. 523 ice, got upon it, and attempted to escape. Find- ing itself, however, detained by the rope, it endea- voured to disengage itself in the following ingenious way. Near the edge of the floe was a crack in the ice, of a considerable length, but only 18 inches, or S feet wide, and 8 or 4 feet deep. To this spot the bear returned ; and when, on crossing the chasm, the bight of the rope fell into it, he placed himself across the opening ; then suspending himself by his hind feet, with a leg on each side, he dropped his head, and most of his body, into the chasm ; and, with a foot applied to each side of the neck, at- tempted, for some minutes, to push the rope over his head. Finding this scheme ineffectual, he re- moved to the main ice, and running with great im- petuosity from the ship, gave a remarkable pull on the rope ; then going backward a few steps he re- peated the jerk. At length, after repeated attempts to escape this way, every failure of which he an- nounced by a significant growl, he yielded himself to his hard necessity, and lay down on the ice in angry and sullen silence. Accidents with bears occasionally occur, though not so many, by any means, as the ferocity of these animals, and the temerity of the sailors, who em- brace every opportunity of attacking them, might lead one to expect. Some of the early voyagers to the polar seas, had hard conflicts with bears. Barents' crew especially, 524 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC BEOIONS. were often in danger from them, but always succeed- ed either in conquering or repelling them. Another party was less fortunate. Two of the crew of a ves- sel which had anchored near Nova Zembla, landed on an island at the mouth of the Weigats, and, im- pelled by curiosity, wandered some distance from the beach ; but, while unconscious of danger, one of them was suddenly seized on the back by a bear, and brought to the earth. His companion ran off and gave the alarm, and a party of his shipmates came to their assistance. The bear stood over its prey during their approach, without the least ap- pearance of fear ; aLJ on their attack, sprung upon one of their number, and made him also a victim to its ferocity and power. The rest now fled in con- fusion, and could not be induced to renew the con- flict. Three sailors only among the crew had suf- ficient courage to combat with this formidable ani- mal ; they attacked it, and after a dangerous strug- gle, killed it, and rescued the mangled bodies of their two unfortunate shipmates. Captain Cook, of the Archangel of Lynn, being near the coast of Spitzbergen in the year 1788, landed, accompanied by his surgeon and mate. While traversing the shore, the captain was unex- pectedly attacked by a bear, which seized him in an instant between its paws. At this awful juncture, when a moment's pause must have been fatal to him, he called to his surgeon to fire ; who, with ad- mirable resolution and steadiness, discharged his aOOLOGY. — PGI,AR-BEAll. — ANECDOTES. 525 piece as directed, and providentially shot the bear through the head. The captain, by this prompt assistance was preserved from being torn in pieces. On a more recent occasion, a commander of a whale ship was in a similar danger. Captain Haw- kins of the Everthorpe of Hull, when in Davis' Strait, in July 1818, seeing a very large bear, took a boat, and pushed off in pursuit of it. On reach- ing it, the captain struck it twice with a lance in the breast ; and, while in the act of recovering his weapon for another blow, the enraged animal sprung up, and seized him by the thigh, and threw him over its head into the water. Fortunately it did not re- peat its attack, but exerted itself to escape. This exertion, when the attention of every one was di- rected towards their captain, was not made in vain, for it Wii;' Uowed to swim away without further molestation *. Various other accidents and adventures with bears are familiar to the whale-fishers ; but the above may be sufficient as illustrations of the cha- racter of the animal. I shall only remark, with regard to curious adventures, that, on one occasion, a bear which was attacked by a boat's crew, in the Spitzbergen Sea, made such a formidable resistance that it was enabled to climb the side of the boat, • This account I received in a letter from Captain Bennet, of the Venerable of Hull. 526 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. and take possession of it, while the intimidated crew fled for safety to the water, supporting themselves by the gunwale and rings of the boat, until, by the as- sistance of another party from their ship, it was shot as it sat inoflPensively in the stem. And, with regard to narrow escapes, I shall only add, that a sailor, who was pursued on a field of ice by ^ bear, when at a considerable distance from assistance, preserved his life, by throwing down an article of clothing, whenever the bear gained upon him, on which it always suspended the pursuit, until it had examined it, and thus gave him time to obtain some advance. In this way, by means of a hat, a jacket, and a neck handkerchief, successively cast down, the progress of the bear was retarded, and the sailor escaped from the danger that threatened him, in the reftige afforded him by his vessel. Ckrvus Tarandtis.'^Rein-Deer.' I have never seen this animal myself, though it is known to inhabit almost every part of Spitzber- gen. It is always lean in the spring of the yesr ; but, after the wasting of the snow, and the advance of vegetation, it feeds rapidly, and its flesh, towards the end of July, is found to be excellent venison. ZOOLOGY. — PUFFIN. 527 SECT. III. Remai'ks on the Birds frequenting the Sea and Coast of Spitzhe^'gen. ^ , Anas. — Gooss, Duck, &c. 1. Anas Bernicla. Brent-goose. — Occurs in considerable numbers near the coast of Greenland, but is not seen in any quantity at Spitzbergen. 2. Anas moUissima. Eider-Duck. — These birds are very abundant during the summer, in all the islands situated in the Greenland Sea. They are also met with solitary, or in pairs, near the ice, at the greatest distances from land. They fly in large flocks, near the coast, and generally arrange them- selves in a regular form. Their appearance in great numbers is an intimation of the proximity of land. The variety found at Spitzbergen is not so large as generally described, exceeding very little in size the domesticated duck. AxcA.— -4wA: or Penguin. 1. Alca arctica. The Puffin, or Greenland Parrot. — This bird is very common near the coast of Spitzbergen, but is rarely seep out of sight of €.• 5^.8 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC 21EQI0NS. land. It feeds principally on shrimps, and a small species of helix *. 2. Alca Alle. The Little Auk, or Roach. — This is an extremely numerous species in some si- tuations in the Polar Seas. They occur in the wa- ter in thousands together ; and sometimes in like abundance on pieces of ice. They are active in the water ; but rather slow in .flight. When on the ice, they generally sit in an erect posture. They dive quickly on being alarmed, and pass through the water, by the use of their wings, with great veloci- ty. Feeding on shrimps, they are found in great- est numbers in the turbid dark-green coloured sea. On the approach of thick weather, they are particu- larly noisy. Procellaria glacialis. — Petrel, Fulmar^ or MaUemuk. The fiilmar is the constant companion of the whale-fisher. It joins his ship immediately on pass- ing the Shetland Islands, and accompanies it through the trackless ocean to the highest accessible latitude^. It keeps an eager watch for any thing thrown over- board ; the smallest particle of fatty substance can scarcely escape it. As such, a hook baited with a piece of fat meat or blubber, and towed by a long twine over the ship's stem, is a means employed by * My friend, Mr WiEiam Swainson, of Liverpool, on ccra- paring a drawing of this bird with the British puffin, consider- ed it as a different species. It, however, corresponds very near. \j with the Alca arctica of Latham. ifOOLOGY. — FULMAR. 5i>9 the sailor- boys for taki?-^ them. In the spring of the year, before they have glutted themselves too frequently with the fat of the whale, they may Le eaten ; and, when carefully cleared of the skin, and of every particle of yellow fatty substance lying be- neath it, and well soaked in water, they are pretty good, particularly in " sea-pies." They arc remark- ably easy and swift on the wing. They can fly to windward in the highest storms, and rest on the water, with great composure, in the most tremen- dous seas. But it is observed, that, in heavy gales, they fly extremely low, generally skimming along by the surface of the water. The fulmar walks awkwardly, and with the legs so bent, that the feet almost touch the belly. When on ice, it rests with its body on the surface, and presents its breast to the wind. Like the duck, it sometimes turns its head backward, and conceals its bill beneath its wing. Fulmars are extremely greedy of the fat of the wiiale. Though few should be seen when a whale is about being captured, yet, as soon as the flensing process commences, they rush in from all quarters, and frequently accumulate to many thousands in number. They then occupy the greasy track of the ship ; and, being audaciously greedy, fearlessly advance within a few yards of the men employed in cutting up the whale. If, indeed, the fragments of fat do not float sufficiently away, they approach so VOL. L Ll 530 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. near the scene of operations, that they arc knocked down with boat-hooks, in great numbers, and some- times taken up by the hand. The sea immediately about tlie ship's stem, is sometimes so completely covered with them, that a stone can scarcely be thrown overboard, without striking one of them. When any thing is thus cast among them, those nearest the spot where it falls, take the alarm, and these exciting some fear in others more remote, sometimes put a thousand of them in motion ; but as, in rising into the air, they assist their wings, for the first few yards, by striking the water with their feet, there is produced by such a number of them, a loud and most singular splashing. It is highly amu- sing to observe the voracity with which they seize the pieces of fat that fall in their way ; the size and quantity of the pieces they take at a meal ; the cu- rious chuckling noise which, in their anxiety for dispatch, they always make ; and the jealousy with which they view, and the boldness with which they attack, any of their species that are engaged in de- vouring the finest morsels. They frequently glut themselves so completely, that they are unable to fly ; in which case, when they are not relieved by a quantity being disgorged, they endeavour to get on the nearest piece of ice, where they rest until the advancement of digestion restores their wonted powers. Then, if opportunity admit, they return with the same gust to the banquet as before : and. ZOOLOGY. — FULMAK. 531 though numbers of the species may be killed, and allowed to float about among them, they appear un- conscious of danger to themselves. The fulmar never dives, but when incited to it by the appearance of a morsal of fat under water. When in close view of any men, it keeps a conti- nual watch on both the men and its prey ; having its feet continually in motion, and yet perhaps not moving at all through the water. Its boldness in- creases with the numbers of its species that sur- round it. It is a very hardy bird. Its feathers being thick, it is not easily killed with a blow. Its bite, from the crookedness, strength, and sharpness of its bill, is very severe. Fulmars differ in colour ; some are a dark dirty grey ; others are much paler, and totally white on the breast and belly. In size, this bird is a little smaller than a duck. Beneath its feathers is a thick bed of fine grey down. When carrion is scarce, the fulmars follow the liv- ing whale ; and sometimes, by their peculiar motions, when hovering at the surface of the water, point out to the fisher the position of the animal of which he is in pursuit. They cannot make much impres- sion on the dead whale, until some more powerftil animal tears away the skin : the epidermis and rete mucosum they entirely remove, but the true skin is too tough for them to make way through it. l12 I! B33 ACCOUNT OF THK AllCTlC IlEOIOysf^ CoLYMBUs. Cuillimot. 1. CohY MiiV a gry He. — Tyste or Doveca. This is a beautifully formed bird. It occurs in consider- able numbers in icy situations, at various distances from land. I have never seen it on the ice or on land ; but commonly swimming on the water. It is so remarkably watchful, and quick in diving, that if fired at without any precaution being taken to con- ceal the flash of the powder, it generally escapes the shot. In diving, it uses its wings under water, as in flying. It frequently dips its bill in the water, as if to keep it wet. It feeds on shrimps and small fishes. Its flesh, which is very dark-coloured, tastes a little like the liver of some animals, and is not unplea- sant eating. The common colour of this species is black, with a white patch on the coverts of each wing. Some are all over grey, consisting of small alternating patches of black and white. The feet of all are red. In flying, the tail being short, the feet are used as a rudder. 2.C0LYMBUS Troile. — Foolish guillemot or Loom. Occurs almost equally common in the Polar Seas with the doveca. It is a clumsy bird, weighing two pounds or upward, and measuring only 16 or 17 inches in length, and 28 inches across the wings, when full spread, in breadth. The colour on the back and wings is principally brownish-black ; of the belly and breast, white. On ice or rocks, it sitf ;^ooi.oc;y. — tkrm. .533 upright, like the penguin. It cannot rise on tlic wing in any direction excepting to windward. If it attempts to fly to leeward, it runs for a consider- able distance along the surface of the water, and at length falls into it. It swims and dives well. It also evades the shot when fired at ; but not so cer- tainly as the doveca. Its feet compensate for the shortness of its tail in flying, and are Tised as a helm. 8. ( ^YMJiVS glacialis. — Great northern Diver. Seen by Captain Phipps on the Coast of Spitzber- gen. Sterna hirundo. — Great Tern, or Sea Swal- low. — This elegant bird is common on the shores of Spitzbergen, but is not met with at a distance from land. The length of its body is 7 or 8 inches, but including the tail, 14. Spread of the wings 29 or 30 inches. It flies with great ease and swiftness, and ascends to a considerable height in tlie air. It defends its eggs and young with great boldness from the depredations of the arctic gull ; and even de- scends within a yard of the head of any person who ventures to molest them, and startles him with its loud screams. It lays its eggs among the shingle of the beach, above high water-mark, where the full power of the sun falls. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 I.I ■^ Bii 12.2 ^ 1^ 12.0 1.25 III 1.4 1.6 < 6" - ► 'm A /. %'j^ Photographic Sdences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SS0 (716)S73-4S03 %^ <" 534 ACCOUNT OF Tlir, AKCTIC KrOIOXS. Lauus : — Gull. 1. Larus rissa, Kitty wake. — Occurs in con- siderable numbers in the Spitzbergen Sea, and fol- lows ships on their passage. It is seen in every part of the Northern Atlantic from Britain to the highest latitudes ever visited. It feeds eagerly on the blubber of tlie whale, but generally seizes its morsel on the wing. 2. Larus parasiticus. Arctic gull. — This pre- datory bird is rarely seen at a distance from the land, except about the parallel of Jan Mayen, where it is observed in constant pursuit of the kittywake. The kitty wake being a better fisher than the former, is constantly chaced until it gives up any food it may have procured, which the arctic gull generally catches before it falls into the water. The arctic gull occurs about the shores of Spitz- bergen, where it not only feasts itself at the expence of other birds, on food obtained by them, but also preys upon their eggs and young. It is rarely seen in the water ; being generally on the wing. It is easily distinguished by two tapering tail-feathers, which extend 5 or 6 inches beyond the rest of the tail. 3. Larus crepidatus. — Black-toed gull or boat- swain. The habits of this are similar to those of the former species, and it occurs in similar situations. ZOOLOGY, — IJUUGOMASTER, 535 The two intermediate tail-feathers are much short- er than those of the parasiticus, and not so pointed. 4. Larus cburncus. (Captain Phipps.) — Snow- bird. This bird is not so elegantly formed as the kittywake, but is more remarkable for its immacu- late whiteness. Its length is 19 or 9,0 inches, breadth across the wings about 3 feet. The feet and legs are black, the bill blackish-grecn and yellow, or- bits red. The young birds have sometimes black spots on the wings. The snow-bird, though so delicate in its appear- ance, is almost as ravenous as the fulmar, and as little nice in its food. It is, however, more cau- tious. It is a constant attendant on the Hcnsing operations of the fishers, where it generally seizes its portion on the wing. It rarely alights in the water, but often sits on the ice, preferring the most elevated situations. Its voice is a loud and disagree- able scream. 5. Lahus glaiicus. Burgomaster. — Larus im- periosus might perhaps be a more characteristic name for this lordly bird, and would correspond pretty nearly with the name Burgomaster or Burgcrmeister, as generally given to it by the Dutch. It may with propriety be called the chief magistrate of the featliered tribe in the Spitzbergen regions, as none of its class dares dispute its authority, when, with unhesitating supe- riority, it descends on its prey, though in the pos- 536 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC llE(VIONS. session of another. The hurgomaster is not a nu- merous species, and yet it is a general attendant on the whale-fishers whenever any spoils are to he ob- tained. It then hovers over the scene of action, and, having marked out its morsel, descends upon it and carries it off on the wing. On its descent, the most dainty pieces must be relinquished, though in the grasp of the fulmar, snow-bird, or kitty- wake. It seldom alights in the water. When it rests on the ice, it selects a hummock, and fixes itself on the highest pinnacle. Sometimes it con- descends to take a more huiible situation, when it affords any advantage in procuring food. It is a rapacious animal, and when without other food, falls upon the smaller species of birds and eats them. 1 have found the bones of a small bird in its stomach, and have observed it in pursuit of the rotch. The burgomaster is a large powerful bird. Its length is about 28 inches, breadth across the wings about 5 feet. Its colour, on the back and wing coverts, is bluish-grey, the rest of the body beauti- fully white. The bill is of a yellowish colour, with a little red on the lower mandible, and measures 2\ inches in length ; the irides are yellow ; legs and feet yellowish flesh-red. Its eggs I have found on the beach of Spitzbergen, deposited in the same way as those of the tern. The kitty wake, snow-bird and burgomaster, are sometimes shot for the sake of their feathers, wliich are ZOOLOGY. — SPAllllOW. 537 thickly set, fine and valuable. The two latter species being very shy, will not always approach within gun- shot. From a sort of house, however, built of snow on any large sheet of ice, they may be shot with more certainty and in greater numbers than by any other contrivance that has been adopted. A piece or two of blubber or kreng being laid as a bait near the hut, which has the appearance of a hummock, they approach within gunshot without fear, and arc fired at through small loop-holes made in the hut for the purpose. Tringa hypoleucos. Sandpiper. — Seen in con- siderable flocks on the beach of Spitzbergen. Embebiza nivalis. Snow-bunting. — Occurs not only on the land, but also, less frequently how- ever, on the ice adjacent. To some places on the shore it resorts in large flocks. Fringilla linaria. Lesser Redpole. — On our approach to Spitzbergen, several of this spe- cies alighted on different parts of the ship, and were so wearied apparently with being on the wing, though our distance from the land was not above ten miles, that they allowed themselves to be taken alive. How this little creature subsists, and why a bird of such apparent delicacy should resort to such a barren and gelid country, are questions of 5S8 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. some curiosity and difficulty. It must be migra- tory ; and yet how such a small animal, incapable of taking the water, can perform the journey from Spitzbergen to a milder climate, without perishing by the way, is difficult to conceive. Supposing it to take advantage of a favourable gale of wind, it must still be at least 10 hours on the wing be- fore it could reach the nearest part of Norway, an exertion of which one would imagine it to be to- tally incapable. SECT. IV. u4 hriefaccount ofAmphihiay Fishes, Animalcules, &f. inhabiting the Spitzbergen Sea. Class AMPHIBIA. Squalus borealis. Greenland shark. — This ani- mal has not, I believe, been described. The ven- tral fins are separate. It is without the anal fin ; but has the temporal opening ; it belongs, therefore, to the third division of the genus. The spiracles on the neck, are five in number on each side. The colour is cinereous grey. The eyes are the most ex- traordinary part of this animal. The pupil is eme- rald green ; the rest of the eye blue. To the poste- rior edge of the pupil, is attached a white vermiform >:o<)i.oc;v. — uueenland shauk. rm substance, one or two inches in length. Each ex- tremity of it consists of two filaments ; but the cen- tral part is single. The sailors imagine this shark is blind, because it pays not the least attention to the presence of a man ; and is, indeed, so apparent- ly stupid, that it never draws back when a blow is aimed at it with a knife or lance. Figures 3. and 4. of Plate XV., represent this animal ; and Fig. 5. shows the appearance of the eye, with its singu- lar appendage. The squalus borcalis is 12 or 14 feet in length, sometimes more, and 6 or 8 feet in circumference. Its liver, which is remarkably oily, will fill a barrel. In its general form, it very much resembles the dog-fish. The opening of the mouth, which extends nearly across the lower part of the head, is 21 to 24 inches in width. The teeth are serrated in one jaw, and lancet-shaped and denticulated in the other. On each side, there are at least 4 or 5 rows ; on one side sometimes 7 or 8. This shark is one of the foes of the whale. It bites it and annoys it while living, and feeds on it when dead. It scoops hemispherical pieces out of its body, nearly as big as a person's head ; and con- tinues scooping and gorging lump after lump, until the whole cavity of its belly is filled. It is so in- sensible of pain, that though it has been run through the body with a knife and escaped; yet, after a while, I have seen it return to banquet again 540 ACCOUNT or the arctic regions. on the whale, at the very spot where it received its wounds. The heart is very small. It performs 6 or 8 pulsations in a minute ; and continues its heating for some hours after taken out of the hody. The body, also, though separated into any number of parts, gives evidence of life for a similar length of time. It is, therefore, extremely difficult to kill. It is actually unsafe to trust the hand in its mouth, though the head be separated from the body. Though the whale-fishers frequently slip into the water where sharks abound, there has been no in- stance that I have heard of, of their ever having been attacked by the shark. Besides dead whales, the sharks feed on small fishes and crabs. A fish, in size and form resembling a whiting, was found in the stomach of one that I killed ; but the process of digestion had gone so far, that its species could not be satisfactorily discovered. In swimming, the tail only is used ; the rest of its fins being spread out to balance it, are never observed in motion but when some change of direction is required. Cyclopteiius liparis. The unctuous sucker. — Two of these animals were taken by Captain Phipps to the northward of Spitzbergen. Class riSCES. Gadus carhonnrhis. Tlie Coal-fisli. — This fisli was also procured by Captain Phipps ; which, with ZOOLOGY. — SHKIMF. 541 tlie species last mentioned, formed the wliole of the produce of his trawling and fishing, in animals of this kind, during his stay in the vicinity of Spitzbergen. A small species of Gadus, nearly allied to the G. carbon arius, was found by myself among the arctic ice, in the parallel of 78° N*. MuLix's barbatus ? — Taken by a seaman out of the nioutli of a seal near Spitzbergen. The body was wholly red ; the length about 12 inches. It was boiled for our officers, and proved an excellent dish. Class AllTICULATA. Gammarus arcficus (lieach). — The characters of this animal (PI. XVI. Fig. 14), I have been fa- voured with from Dr Leach. They are as follow : " G. oculis sublunatis ; pedum pari tertio, secundo " majori." The actions of this species suggest as a fa- miliar name, the mountebank shrimp. It frequent- • The only specimen I got of this li h, was put into the hands of Mr William Swainson, who considered it as a variety of the coal-fish ; though, from the contraction and change of colour produced, by the spirit in which it was preserved, the lateral line, so essential in the determination of the species, could not be traced. The number of rays in each of the fins of this specimen, was as follows : First dorsal 13, second dor- sal 18, third dorsal 20; first anal 22, second anal 20, &c. The third ray of the ventral fin was lengthened into a subulate point; and the hinder dorsal fin rounded, peculiarities not no- ticed by any author who has described G. Carbonarius. M 54S ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC llECIONS. ly turns over when in the water, with singular ce- lerity, and swims with equal ease in every position. Tlie four feet raised in the figure above the back, are made use of in that position, whenever its back comes in contact with any solid substance. This species occurs in all parts of the Spitzbergen Sea, and at the greatest distance from land ; it inhabits the superficial water, and affords food for whales and birds. Gammarus ? — Another small species of this family, was found in large quantities in the stomach and mouth of some mysticete. It is re- markable for the largeness of its eyes. Cancer Pulex (Linn^'). — Taken by Captain Phipps in a trawl, near the coast of Spitzbergen. Cancer Boreas (Phipps.) — ^This singular spe- cies of crab, was first described and figured by Cap- tain Phipps *. It was found in the stomach of a seal. An animal that I have occasionally met with, resembles this species in several of its characters. It is figured (from an indifferent drawing, however,) in PI. XVI. Fig. 18. Cancer Ampulla (Phipps). — Found by Cap- tain Phipps f in the stomach of a seal ; by myself in the stomach of a shark. Cancer Nugax (Phipps.) — Taken in the trawl by Captain Phipps, near MofFen island \. • See " Voyage towards the North Pole," p. IQO. t Idem, p. 191 t Idem, p. 19«. ZOOLOGY. — SEA-SNAIL. 543 Oniscus Cetiy (Lin.) Larunda Ceti (Leach.) Whale's louse. — This little animal, about half an inch in diameter, firmly fixes itself by its hooked claws, on the skin of the mysticetus. It is found principally under the fin, or in other situations where the skin is tender, and where it is not liable to be dislodged. A similar animal, but smaller, is sometimes found on the body of the narwal. Class VERMES. ASCARIS, ECHINORHYNCHUS, T^NIA, &C. In- testina. — Found in various animals, inhabiting the northern seas. AsciDiA gelatinosa and A. rustica, — Taken by Captain Phipps, in a trawl on the north side of Spitzbergen. Lern^a branchialis. — Found by Captain Phipps in the gills of the Cyclopterus liparis. Clio helicina. (Phipps, p. 195.) Sea-snail. — An animal covered with a delicately beautiful shell, similar in form to that of the nautilus. The dia- meter is from two-eighths to three-eighths of an inch. It is found in immense quantities near the coast of Spitzbergen, but does not, I believe, occur out of sight of land *. • See Fig. 1 1, and .12. of PI. XVI. In these figures, this animal is magnified to about twice the natural size. 1,1 , I 5i'^ ACl'OLNT OV Tlir. AUCTIC UECMONS. Clio horealis. — Occurs in vast numbers in some situations near Spitzberj^cn, but is not found ge- nerally throujjjhout the Arctic Seas. In swim- ming, it brings tlie tips of its fins almost into con- tact, first on one side and then on the other. I kept several of them alive in a glass of sea-water for about a month, when they gradually wasted away and died *. Sepia ? Cuttle-fish. — Found by myself in large quantities in the stomachs of different nar- wals, and appearing to constitute their principal food. The species not known. Medusa, or Sea-blubber ; Animalcula, &c. — A great number of species of these animals occur in the Arctic Seas, and appear immediately or re- motely to be the chief subsistence of the greater part of the marine and feathered animals frequent- ing the Polar regions. The Greenland Sea, frozen and extensive as it is, teems with life. The variety of the animal crea- tion is not indeed very great; but the quantity of some of the species that occur, is truly im- mense. A calculation of the number of minute medusas, in a small district, has already been attempted, (p. 179. of this volume); if to these we add the number of the animalcula that I have observed, the amount, throughout the Spitz- • See Fig. 10. PI. XVI., natural size. ;^()OI.O(JY. — VKIIMF.S. 545 bergcn Sea, if not surpassing the jwwcr of numbers, would at least exceed all the powers of the mind to conceive. The minute mcdusaj (PI. XVI. fig. 16.), and monilifonnes (fig. 17.), have already been describ- ed ; the animalcula may be just noticed. Though I could not speak positively to the vitality of both the former substances, yet the animalcula were so active in the water, as to prevent a moment's doubt on tlie subject. Three kinds of animalcula arc fi- gured in I*latc XVI, Nos. 18, 19, and 20. No. 18. examined by a double microscope, appeared of the size of a coarse grain of sand. It seemed of a brown- ish colour, and moved nearly in a direct line. No. 19* about half the size of the former, appeared globular, had a dark-coloured sort of tail, and advanced by a curious zig-zag motion. No. 20. was still smaller : It moved witli amazing rapidity, by sudden starts, pausing for an instant between each impulse, and then springing in a new direction. Besides these five minute animals, figure 15, Plate XVI, represents a beautiful creature thato was brought up by the marine-diver, in the Spitz- bergen Sea. Its length, excluding the antenna?, which were as long as the body, was one-tenth of an inch in one specimen, and one-fourth of an inch in another. Its body was beautifully transparent, and had quite a crystalline appearance. The an- tennae and tail were red. In swimming, it proceeded by starts, and appeared very active. AOL. I. M m >l I 546 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. The economy of these little creatures, as consti- tuting the foundation of the subsistence of the largest animals in the creation, has already been noticed. The common whale feeds on medusae, cancri, actiniae, sepiac, &c. and these feed probably on the minor medusae and animalcules. The fin- whales and dolphins feed principally on herrings, and other small fishes. These subsist on the small- er cancri, medusae, and animalc^iles. The bear's most general food is probably the seal ; the seal subsists on the cancri, and small fishes ; and these on lesser animals of the tribe, or on the minor me- dusae and animalcules. Thus the whole of the larger animals depend on these minute beings, which, until the year 1816, when I first entered on the examination of the sea- water, were not, I be- lieve, known to exist in the polar seas. And thus we find a dependent chain of existence, one of the smaller links of which being destroyed, the whole must necessarily perish. It is not a little interesting to trace the physio- logy of the preservation of these smaller animals. Aa the mean temperature of the atmosphere in the Spitzbergen Sea, has been shewn to be 10 or 12 degrees below the freezing point of salt-water, it is evident, that, were the water of the sea stationary, it must, in the course of ages, be frozen to the bot- tom, and along with it, as a matter of course, all the smaller animals, not having sufficient instinct or ! . ;jOOLOGY. — ECONOMY OF VERMES. 547 fin- ysio- is. As the or 12 it is inary, bot- |e, all net or power of motion to enable them to retire into a more southern region. Now, such an event is provided a-r gainst, by the constant prevalence of a current setting towards the south-west, which carries away the ice into a parallel where it can be dissolved, and occa^ gions a circulation of water into the frozen regions, from a warmer climate. And this circulation of the water is beautifully accomplished: for, while the superficial current is performing its office, in carrying away a portion of ice, an under-current Betting to the northward, is acting an equally im- portant part, in affording warmth to the seas of the higher latitudes, and preventing the too great accu- mulation of the ice. But how is it, it might be asked, when a current in the waters, inhabited by the minor medusae, is constantly setting to the southward, that these animals are not carried away into a southern region altogether ? This question, if we may be allowed to argue hypothetically, ad- mits of an easy solution. Animals, we find, when possessing any power af moving, though they be of the most imperfect kind of organization, generally employ that power by a sort of instinctive faculty, as may best serve the purposes for which they were called into existence. Now, it would be no stretch of commonly received principles, to suppose, that whenever the minor medusae, &c. are carried to a certain extent southward, they may sink in the water, as far as the stream of the undcr-current4 548 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. if h and by it be conveyed back again into their proper element. The fact of the olive-green coloured sea- water maintaining a great similarity of position, for many years together, while surface after surface of ice is carried away by the current and dissipated, is in support of this conjecture. Thus, by a most beautiful contrivance, a large portion of the surface of the globe is rendered habitable, which would otherwise be a solid mass of ice ; and, by the warmth of the lower stratum of the polar sea, it is rendered congenial to many tribes of animals which must otherwise have incumbered other regions, now af- fording products useful for the subsistence of man. Medusa ? (Plate XVI, Fig. 3. natu- ral size.) An extremely sensitive animal. When touched, or indeed when the vessel in which it is contained is moved, it shrinks into an irregular glo- bular mass. It is divided into eight segments by as many rows of finny fringes. These, though only perceptible by their iridescence when in motion, are capable of moving the animal through the wa- ter. Its colour is greyish-white, but reddish, (pale lake red), in the longitudinal cavity. Occurs in the Spitzbergen Sea. Medusa' ? (PI. XVI. Fig. 5.. natural size.) Eight segments. Sensitive. Iridescent frin- ges, Single cavity. Occurs in the Spitzbergen Sea. Colour similar to the former. ZOOLOGY. — MEDUSiE. 549 Medusa ? (PI. XVI. Fig. 6. natural size.) Form ovoidal. Eight segments. A double cavity united by a small canal. Sensitive. Irides- cent fringes. Found in latitude 75© 40' N., longi- tude 6" or 6* west. Colour similar to the former. Medusa pileus. (PI. XVI. Fig. 4. natural size.) This is one of the most curious of the me- dusae. It consists of eight lobes, with a beauti- fully iridescent finny fringe on the external edge of each. A canal, four-fifths the length of the ani- mal, penetrates the centre of it ; and two red cirrhi, which may be extended to the length of nearly a foot, proceed from a crooked cavity in opposite sides. The animal is semi-transparent. Its colour is white, with a blush of red ; the finny fringes of deeper red. It is found of various sizes ; one specimen taken up in latitude 75° 40', longitude 5* or 6° W., in a green-coloured sea, was three inches in length. Medusa ? or Purse-shaped Medusa. (PI. XVI. Fig. 7. nat. size). The substance of this is tougher than that of any other species which I have examined. It has one large open cavity, and is divided by the finny fringes into eight segments, each alternate pair of which are similar. The co- lour is a very pale crimson, with waved purple lines ; finny fringes deeper crimson. This animal appeared to be almost without sensation. The only evidence it gave of feeling was in an increased vi- bration of the finny fringes. Though it was cut \\yn > H i! 550 ACCOUNT OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. into pieces, each portion, on which there was any of the fringe, continued, by its incessant p^ay, to give evidence of life during two or three days ; after which it became putrescent, and began to waste away. This animal was found in the Spitz- bergen sea. I have seen but one specimen. Medusa ■ ? or Bottle-shaped Medusa. (PI. XVI. Fig. 8. natural size). Caught in a trans- parent green sea, in latitude 75° 48', longitude 8° W, A sensitive animal. Large single cavity. Eight segments. Finny fringes white and irides- tpent. Form ovoidal, with compressed mouth. ^ Medusa ? ? or Orange-coloured Medusa. (PI. XVI. Fig. 9. natural size.) This singular spe- cies I have seen but once. It was sent me by Cap- tain Bennet of the Venerable, being found in lati- tude 75' 20', longitude 11* 50' E. On the under- side of the right hand extremity, (in the plate), there was a transverse slit or opening. This animal was convex above, and concave beneath. The length was three inches, its breadth nearly an inch ; its thickness one-third of an inch. When slit opep, it exhibited a number of transverse bands and thre^ cavities. Its colour was a brilliant orange. It was^ not transparent. It was not tenacious of life ; ha- ving died, to appearance, soon after it was taken. AsTERiAS : Star-fish. Several species of this animal occur on the coast of Spitzbergen. Captain Phipps procured, by means of a trawl, specimens of ZOOLOGY. — VEKMES. 551 AsTERiAs pappostty A. ridjens, A. ophhira, and A. pectinata. Chiton rnhcr. Coat-of-mail- shell. Taken in a trawl by Captain Phipps on the north side of Spitzbergcn. Mya truncata and Mytilus I'ugosus. Found on the beach in Smeerenberg Harbour *. BucciNUM carinatum. (Phipps, p. 197.) Found also on the beach at Smeerenberg. Turbo helicinus. (Phipps, p. 198.) Taken up in a trawl on the north side of Spitzbergen. Sebpula spirorbis and S. triquetra. Found in Smeerenberg Harbour, adhering to dead shells. S AHELh A frustulosa. (Phipps, p. 198.) Taken up in a trawl in on the north side of Spitzbergen. MiLLEPORA polymorphay and Cellepora pumicosa. Found on the beach at Smeerenberg. Synoicum turgens, (Phipps, p. 199.) Pro- cured by means of a trawl on the north side of Spitzbergen. Flustra pilom and jP. mevihranacea. Found in Smeerenberg harbour, adhering to stones. • These two shells, together with the succeeding specie* mens of shells and zoophytes were found by Captain Phipps. APPENDIX. APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. VOL. I. APPENDIX. (a) iiii Xo. I. 1 • METEOROLOCaCAL TABLES. :fl WINDS. H 1807 c 1 Latitude. Therm. Hnr Meteors and Weather. III 29.86 Direction. Force. 60« 9' N \ Lerwick, / 43 X N W to V E K'csli breezes Snow ill < 2 47 29.90 toN N W Ditto Ditto 11 ^ 3 — 50 30.04 N.erly Moderate breezes Cloudy III 4 60 30 41 29.79 S S W Little wind Ditto i 1 5 60.43 45 29.35 to VV Strong breezes Snow 1 ' 6 Balta Sound, 48 29.65 to N b W Strong gales Rain :' 7 — 55 29.99 Serly Moderate Cloudy i 8 _ 50 29.78 VV Strong breezes Rain 9 — 38 30.05 Variable Fresh {{nies Showers of Rain. 10 — 42 29.70 Ditto Light airs Rain i 11 62.34 36 29.21 E S K, E N E Fresh breezes Ditto 1 J 12 63.26 33 29.74 E N' E Hard gales Ditto i; 13 63.52 29 29.77 NE Ditto Dry Weather 1 1 14 64 20 28 29.90 NE Strong gales i'loudy j 15 66.10 25 29.65 to I': s E Ditto Ditto \ \ 16 66. 8 17 29.53 N Hard gales Snow i 1 17 65 24 29 ;i0.08 N Ditto Ditto ' ' 18 65.13 32 30.16 N Light airs Cloudy 19 6721 39 30.00 S Strong breezes Ditto ' i 20 69.47 35 29.97 S S AV I'resh breezes Hazy ' 21 72. 4 36 29.96 s s w Ditto l<-oggy i .1. 22 73.40 34 29.90 s \v Ditto Ditto 1 23 75. 9 29 29.76 to W b S Strong breezes Clear Ml 21 74.59 24 29.7!) N W to 1£ b N Moderate breezes (Noudy V^: 25 75. 26 29.67 to N Fresh breezes Ditto ■ \r 26 75.19 26 29.6'; N Ditto Ditto i!; 27 75.36 24 29.f;H N Light airs Ditto i i 28 75.30 16 29.51) N E b E Fresh breezes Snow l| S9 75.20 20 29. -18 N Strong gales Ditto ij 30 75.10 16 29.70 N Ditto Snow showers S- 1 75.20 18 30.05 N to N N W Fresh gales jMuch snow 1 S 2 75. 7 28 30 07 S W.eriy Light airs Cloudy 1 3 74.26 20 30.16 to N.erly Strong gales Ditto 1 4 75.55 14 30.18 N b W to K N I-. Strong breez s Ditto i 5 75.57 18 30.31 toN N E 1" resh gales Clear i| 6 75.47 27 30.20 N N E .Moderate breeze Ditto i 7 75.51 34 30.00 N Gentle breeze Cloudy 1 1 1 8 76. 20 29,87 N Kresh breeze Ditto ! 9 75.31 19 29.80 N Brisk gale Snow 10 7530 21 29.81 N Fresh gale Ditto 11 75.30 22 29.75 to E N E Fresh breezes Ditto 1 12 75.20 io 29.81 toN Ditto Ditto 13 75.30 17 29,48 N W.eriy Strong breezes Ditto i U 75.22 15 29.46 W N^ W Fresh breeze Ditto 1 15 75.22 18 29.47 WN W Fresh breeze Cloudy 16 75.32 26 29.60 ss w Light airs Ditto 17 75.45 24 29.78 s. w. Gentle breeze Ditto 1 1 -- ■- AFP. N' I.] METEOR()LOC;iCAl. TAHl.KS. (8) 1 907 Latitude. Therm. Bar. WINDS. IIT _ A At. ^u 1 Weather. n Direction. Force. 1 l?l» 75" 50' 27 29.78 W Gentle breeze SnoMT S19 75.35 22 29.76 N W to N E Light airs Cloudy 1 80 75.55 22 29.80 N W to N E Fresh breezes Ditto 1 21 75.55 22 29.76 N Light airs, calm Ditto 22 76. « 28 29 76 — Culm Clear 23 75.58 31 29.66 N Moderate breeze Cloudy 1 24 75.56 26 29.80 N VV Gentle breeze Ditto 1 25 75.55 29 3000 N N E Light airs Clear [ 26 75.55 26 30.01 N E Ditto Ditto 27 75.57 25 29.88 N b E Fresh breeze Cloudy 1 28 75.56 26 29.91 toN N W Ditto Snow 1 29 75.56 23 29.84 to N W Ditto Ditto ' 30 75.55 18 29.78 N W Strong breeze Ditto 31 75.51 22 29.81 N N VV Fre.sh breeze Cloudy g 1 75-48 25 29.93 Calm Calm Ditto 4 2 75.46 28 29.99 SE, WS W Moderate breeze Ha/.y 3 75.49 32 29.88 S W Light airs Ditto 4 7.5.59 33 29.82 S b W Strong breeze Ditto 5 76.16 [i'i 29.97 to WS W Brisk gales Rain 6 76.20 31 29.97 SE Light iiirs Ram, fog 7 76.36 30 29.83 N W Ditto Thick fog 8 76.35 28 29.60 S W Ditto Cloudy 9 76.48 32 29.78 W bN Fresh gales Ditto 10 76.48 32 29. T9 WbN Light airs Foggy 11 76.50 32 29.88 W N W. S E Nearly calm Clear 12 76.49 32 29.93 E, E S E Fresh breezes Cloudy 13 76.52 29 30 00 E SE Brisk gales Ditto 14 77. 31 29,97 E Fresh gales Snow 15 76.54 31 29.68 toE N E Ditto Ditto 16 76.50 30 29.65 E N E Fresh breeze Ditto 17 77. 33 29.66 N E Ditto Ditto 18 77.34 32 29.72 N E Moderate breeze Foggy 19 76.26 34 29.81 N N E, W N W Fresh breezes Ditto ! 1808 ^ 1 76.17 24 29.23 N N E to E Strong gales Showers of snow TO ^ 2 76.50 28 29.50 E to S S E Fresh gales Ditto I 3 77. 2 28 29.40 to E S E Ditto Snow 4 76. 6 27 29.67 ESE Light breeze Cloudy 5 77.20 29 29.54 N.erly Fresh gales Snow 6 78. 28 29,73 E S E to E N E Strong gales Ditto 7 78. 26 30.20 to N N \V Fresh breezes Cloudy 8 78. 27 30.23 S E to E Moderate breeze Snow showers 9 78. 28 30.10 to N N W Strong br. calm Ditto 10 77.50 18 30.54 N N W Li-jht air Cloudy 11 77 50 26 30.45 Calm Calm Ditto 12 77.40 32 29.73 S Fresh gale Fog 13 77.45 25 29.53 Variable I'rcsh breezes Snow 14 77.50 22 29.47 \v, s s sv to Moderate br. Ditto 1 I (4) MKTKOUOLDtilCAl. TABLIUS. [aI'1'. N" 1. WINDS. 1808 Latitude. Therm. Bar. Weather. STlS Direction. Force. 77" 50' 20 29.50 Variable. to Calm Ilnzy Slfl 77.K) 2^ 29.55 W N W to .\ Moderate breeze Ditto 17 77.30 27 29.60 N Fresh breeze Snow 18 77.50 25 29.60 N Ditto Ditto 19 77.55 24 29.81 to N W b N Strong breezes Cloudy 80 78. 4 20 29.H0 N.erly Light airs Ditto 21 78. 8 2(i 29,«5 W.crly Moderate breeze Snow 22 78.10 29 29.98 Culm. C:ilm Cloudy 23 78.13 2!) 29.86 S W Moderate breeze Fog 2i 78. 4 24 29.78 VVNWtoNNW Light breezcb Clear 25 77.55 20 29.70 N.erly Ditto Cloudy 26 77.50 22 29.80 N VV Strong breeze Snow 27 77.58 24 30.09 N W Ditto Ditto 28 78.30 25 30.00 E S E Light breeze Snow showers 29 78.37 21. 29.90 Var. W N W to Fresh gales Much snow 30 78.36 32 29.93 N E Light aira Fog, cloudy 31 78.36 26 29.96 N E to Calm Snow showers " 1 78.37 24 29.99 N E Fresh breeze Snow ■5 2 78.43 36 29.97 N E Nearly calm Fog 3 78.43 28 29.97 Var. calm Ditto Fog 4 78.35 31 29.90 Cnim Calm Clear 5 78.25 30 29.90 SSW Fresh breeze Hazy G 78.20 32 29.83 S.erly Light breeze Fog or snow 7 78.20 29 29.87 S\V Ditto Ditto 8 78.10 29 29.88 S.erly Nearly calm Fog, cloudy 9 77.50 27 29.78 Variable. Ditto Cloudy 10 77.18 27 29.79 W N W Light or Mod. br. Clear 11 77. 6 30 29.80 S Strong breeze Fog 12 76.37 33 29.83 S.erly Fresh gales Ditto 13 76.35 33 29.90 SSW Fresh gale Haze or fog U 76.30 34 29.99 SSW Strong breeze Fog 15 75.58 34 30,06 SSW F'resh breeze Fog 1809 &• 1 74.15 12 29.68 N E Moderate breeze Frost rime 1 2 74. 5 10 29.84 NEbN to Strong gale Ditto 3 73.54 20 29.87 to N E 1) E Strong galcH Snow 4 74.10 36 29.94 to S E b S Fresh gales Ditto 5 74.10 36 30.00 toSbE to Light breezes Clear 6 73.49 32 29.38 E S E to S W Light breezes Itain 7 73.48 25 29.53 S W. N Fresh Gales Snow 8 73.38 27 29.72 to W. to Fresh b eezis Cloudy 9 73.50 21 29.76 toN N E Fresh gales Snow showers 10 74.10 19 29.80 N E, calm to Calm Snow 11 74.45 13 .30.20 N, N N E Fiesh breezes Snow showers 12 75. 16 30.15 N N E, calm Strong br. calm Coudy 13 75. 8 16 30.04 W N W, W S W Fresh breezes Ditto 14 75.48 19 30.00 Variable Moderate breeze Ditto 15 76. 3 20 30.02 E.erly Nearly calm Ditto Al'l'. N I.] Mr/ri",01lOI,Ol!ICAL TAHI.r.S. (5) WINDS. 1909 Latitude. Tlicrm. Har, Weather. Direction. Force. 76"^ 4' 22 29.78 !•: to (,'alin Snow S17 76. H 30 29.35 i: s !•: Slronjj[ gale Ditto IH 7(), 6 23 29.79 toN'xi;,\v\\v to Moderate br. Snow showers 15) 76.16 32 29.65 to S S W Fresh breezes Olear 80 7 79. 20 : 10.05 N l';.crly Ditto Ditto 30 79. 20 30.05 to N. to SiroTig gales Snow shower* 31 79. 23 30.06 N I'l.erly Fre>h gale Ditto S 1 7H.56 23 30.02 N N 1.; Ditto Cloudy A 2 79. 4 22 30.24 N N I-: Fresh breeze Ditto 3 79. 4 28 30.20 K.eriy Xearly calm Clear 4 79. 1. 26 30.10 E.erly to Moderate br. Cloudy 5 79. 24 3(t.06 N I-; to Light airs Ditto 6 79. 30 29.9.-, XE Light breeze Haze, snow 7 79. 4 31 29.88 S E.crly Ditto Cloudy, snow 8 79. 8 29 29.88 SE to Calm Snow showers 9 79. 2 27 29.86 to W Strong gales Ditto 10 79. 25 29.93 s vv Moderate breeze Ditto 11 79. 2 30 30.06 S W.eily Ditto Snow 12 78.56 29 30.07 toS Ditto A little snow 13 78.52 31 29.97 toW Ditto Fog showers 14 78.56 31 29.82 W Xearly calm Fog 15 79. 30 29.68 SE Fresh breeze Snow showers 16 79. 32 2.9.50 toEN E to Light breezes Much snow, fog 17 79. 32 29.62 to S, S S W to ['"resh breezes Snow, fog 18 79.30 27 29.90 X N VV, S S W Moderate breezes Clear 19 79.30 27 29.91 S W.erly Strong breeze Snow showers 20 79.50 42 29.67 to 1'. X E Xearly calm Clear 21 79.50 30 29.81 to S S W, S S E to Fresh breezes Fog 22 79.45 32 29.81 Variable Light breeze Fog, snow 23 79,45 32 29.82 Ditto Ditto Ditto 24. 79.57 32 29.59 N X W, var. Moderate breeze Snow showers 25 79.30 'M- 29.64 Variable to Fresh breeze Fog showers 26 79. 32 29.84 W N W, S Strong breezes Snow, fog 27 78.50 32 29.94 Var. calm Xearly calm Ditto S8 78.48 32 29.82 Variable Ditto Cloudy, fog ^9 78.36 32 29.82 to S.erly to Fresh brcc/Co j Cloudy 30 1 77.40 35 29.80 to W X W Moderate breezes i Thick fog 1 (6) AIETKUUOLIJGICAL 1 AUl.KS. [aIT. N* 1. Al Li ii 1810 =5 9 5-10 12 13 li 15 16 17 IB 19 20 21 22 2'A 24 25 2fi 27 28 29 30 ►. 1 I 2 Latitude. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 7i''.6 73.41 7kl6 73.42* 73 .0!) 74.50 75. 4 75.40 76. 6 76.18 76.1 2!).»7 l"^ 30.0)i !« 30.11. )H 30.17 )(' 2!).09 >0 29.9 1 yi 30.00 fit) 29.H3 j^ 29.5!) )0 29.80 )0 30.0(i 72 29.98 iO 29.. "i I «' 29.19 i» 29.7(> ^.5 29.HS >1 29.9,j »H 30.01 )0 30.02 >f) 29.9S )rt 30.00 )l 30,03 U 29.91 i7 29.<)9 >0 29.62 r5 29.92 )9 30. K) !2 30.20 12 30.33 13 30.33 13 30.37 >\ 30.30 ;G 30.03 () 29.7« 6 29.H2 G 29.HS 4 29.87 AIM*. N" I. J MLTi:olU)I.O(i]l'AL TABLKSi. (7) WINDS. 1810 - 9 <1? 12 13 U 13 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 25 2« 27 28 29 30 ^ 1 ; 2 3 4 .'i 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Eii'cction. N F.cily to I-: S li to K K.erly to N N E to N N to E S E Colin Viiri(il)lc N W, S W W.erly E S E, vnr. E N E to N N N W, N VV N.crly, vur. ES E Var. W M W W N W to N.crly W N W to W to S S \V, var. Variable N W to E, S E to N E toNN W.NNE to N b W toN E to N b E, N b W lo N b E, N.erly N b E to N N W N.erlv N W, N N N VV to W.erly to N E.crly N N E to N N W to N W b N N.erlv N W b N. N to N E N E.erly to Variable I'orce. Hard galen Kic'sli, liglil br. lo Stron<; ^alus Strong galui to Modcratu br. Fresh gales to Light aira to Calm Fresh breezes Fresh gales Light br. calm Light br. fr. gales Strong gales to Light breezeii Light breezes to Fresh gale Strong ga. calm to Moderate breeze to Fresh breeze to Light breezes CaliTi to frc.
  • 77.59 3.40 30 28 2 29.0 30.25 30.20 30.23 17 78. 4 3.30 31 30 2 30.5 30.20 29.97 30.08 18 78. 7 3.20 32 30 3 30.4 29.97 29.68 29.82 19 78. 3.45 33 27 3 29.3 29,68 29.60 29.64 20 77.58 3.38 39 27 3 33.0 29.62 29.60 29.61 21 78. 3.44 32 25 3 29.3 29.72 29.62 29.67 22 77.50 4.10 28 27 2 27.5 29.93 29.72 29.82 23 70.55 7.30 31 30 2 30.5 30.0(i 29.93 30.00 24. 76.40 6.30 35 32 3 33.7 30.04 29.91. 29.99 25 76.10 7. 32 31 3 31.7 .30.14 29.S8 30.01 2(i 75.40 6.10 33 32 2 32.5 29.74 29.62 29.68 27 75. 8.30 32 32 2 32.0 29.86 29.74 29.80 28 74.20 12.30 39 35 2 37.0 29.86 2.9.78 29.82 29 73. 12.28 35 33 3 34.0 29.81. 29.78 29.81 30 70.50 10.20 36 35 2 35.5 .30.24 92.84 30.04 1» B 2 2 2 Q 2 2 2 3 AVP. V I. IKTER. n. Mid. .!)0 2J).f)3 .Hi 2f).H5 Ail 29.(i8 ..•>8 29.«ti .71 2!).85 .96 29.99 .Hi 29.92 .72 29.78 .85 29.95 .9[i :^o.03 (il 29.77 4.7 29.61 75 29.89 86 29.90 88 29.89 91 29.93 81. 29.88 75 29.80 73 29.71 G9 29.71 34 29.66 58 29.73 rn 29.82 ^5 29.8G tfi 29.91 )7 30.05 2 30.16 !0 30.23 7 30.08 8 29.82 29.64. 29.61 2 29.67 2 29.82 :i 30.00 I 29.99 4 30.01 2 29.68 1. 29.80 * 29.82 J 29.81 '. 30.04. AY?. N" I.] MKTF.OROI,OGU AI. TABLES. (9) 1810 ^20 ^21 22 23 21. 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 S 1 ^ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 WINDS. Direction. N to W.erlv, S S W to S W to N K or E.erly N K.crly to N W W N W N.cily, var. F..ciiy, vnr. E.erl/, S.crly S N.orly N W b N, S.erly V. to N N li to X I) W X.oi-ly to N \ K, N N W N.crly N, N N W N b W to N W yf N w to W. N' W, W 1) S to S b K, var. S ^V to S I'', to W. var. S S W, S K, var. S to \V, var. W \ W, toSbW S to W N \V to N N W N W, N K.erly N K I) N to N VV b N Variable S.crly Var. 1-: S K to S, N W to S, S W S, N W S, N W to 8 W Force. to Light breeze Light breezes to Fresh gales to Calm Brisk gales nitto to Light breeze Light airs Nearly calm Fresh or lig-ht hr. Fresh gale ("aim, fresh gales Ditto to Light breeze Light breeze Moderate breeze Ditto Light breeze to Strong gales to Fresh gales Fresh gales Calm, moderate br. Light breeze to Moderate breeze Light airs to Moderate breeze to Calm to Moderate breeze Fresh gales to Moderate breeze Strong or light breeze to Calm to Moderate breeze to Fresh breeze to Moderate breeze Light airs, calm to I.'resh gales to Fresh breeze Strong ga. mod. br. Fresh gales Calm to str. ga. to Light breeze Weather and M eteors. Some cry.st. snow Clear Showers cryst. snow Coarse cryst. snow Showers cryst. snow Showers of sno\r Some snow Fine cryst, snow CloMdy Some snow Snow bhowers Clear Ditto Coarse cryst. snow Small snow Cloudy Snow Snow showers Some snow Snow showers Ditto Some snow I-og Hazy I'ine clear weather I'og showeri Clear A little snow Some snow Fog, snow Some snow ('loudy Ditto Clear Ditto Showers of snow Ditto Snow, fog A little snow Itain Some snow A little snow Sitnation and itemarks. Fields and floes Ditto Ditto Many floes Heavy drift ice Floes and drift ice Fiehl and drift ice Fields and floes Ditto Ship embayed among do. Ditto Ditto l"'ields and floes Floes and drift ice l-'ields, Hoes, &. drift ice Floes and drift ice Crowded drift ice Ship beset by a field, 30.09 29.92 J 29.77 I 29.72 \> 29.77 > 29.85 : 29.96 1 30.04 > 30.08 r 30.11 I 29.94 J 29.72 ^ 29.76 i 29.88 r 29.91 1811 WINDS. Meteors and Weather. Situation and Remarks. Til Direction. Force. W b N to N b W Fresh breezes Clear At sea - 2 Variable to Calm Some snow Ice streams 3 S S W to W N W Fresh br. to st. ga. Much snow Drift ice 4 VV to N N W to Moderate br. Cloudy Ice near 5 N N W Fresh gales Snow, frost rimo Ditto 6 to W N W, E to Light br. hard ga. Snow showers No ice 7 toNE Very hard gales Some snow At sea 8 NE Very hard gale Some hail Ditto 9 to N to Fresh gales Snow showers Ditto 10 toN N E to Strong gales Ditto A little ice 11 toN E to Fresh gales Some snow showers Drift ice 12 N E, NEbN Fresh gales Ditto Ice streams 13 N N E to W N W to Calm Cloudy Ditto 14 Var. E.erly to Strong gales Snow showers Sea open 15 E S E to S S W Fresh gales Clear Bay ice 16 to W S W to Strong gales Hazy A little drift ice 17 toSS W to Fresh gales Rain A pack of ice near 18 to W Strong gales Some snow In a bight of ice 19 VV N W to S S W to Calm Snow showerd Among drift ice 20 W S W to N N E Fresh br. light br. Clear Much drift ice 21 EbN Nearly calm Ditto Much ice 22 E.erly, W N W to Moderate breeze A little snow Crowded ice 23 W N W to Calm Clear Ship beset 24 E S E, W N W to Fresh gale Much snow Bay and heavy ice 25 to N to E N E Light br. strong ga. Ditto Crowded ice 26 toNN W to Light breeze Some snow showers Ditto 27 N E.erly to Fresh gale Ditto Ditto 28 N E to N N W to Light breeze Clear Ice more open 29 to N N E, W N W to Calm Snow showers Ice crowded 30 S S W to S E Fresh breezes Continual snow Ship frozen up ^ 1 N fl E to S E Moderate breeze Snow showers Ditto S 2 toE NE Ditto A little snow Ship beset 3 toES E Fresh breezes Snow showers Ditto 4 toNE Freih gales Much snow Ditto 5 Variable lo Cnlni Snow showers Ditto 6 N iW.eriy Fresh breezes Ditto Ditto 7 N WbW Strong gales Ditto Ditto 8 N W to Strong breeze Cryst. snow Ditto 9 S S W to W N W Fresh gales Snow showers Ditto 10 to N N W to Fresh breeze Ditto Ditto 11 toN W Fresh gales A little snow Ditto 12 S b E to S E b S to Light airs Ditto Ditto 13 to S S W, W b S Hard gales Snow showers Ditto 14 to W N W Strong gales Ditto Ice more open 15 W N W, var. Fresh gales Much small snow Ice rather oi>en 16 E.erly Calm, light breeze Snow showers Ditto 1 II I'! I'' 'I (12) METEOROLOGICAL TABLES. [AI'P. N^ I. 1811 Latitude, Longitude. THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. Max. Min. No of Max. Min. Med. Obs. Med. S'lT 77°.0' 9. E 24 16 3 21.4 29.90 29.80 29.85 S18 76.46 8.46 23 20 3 21,3 30.00 29.90 29.95 19 76.54 8.38 23 22 3 22,7 29.97 29.87 29.92 20 77. 5 8.30 22 20 3 21.0 29.87 29.77 29.82 21 77.20 8.28 24 20 3 22.3 29.89 29.78 29.84 22 77.22 8. 33 24 3 27.0 29.88 29.68 29.78 23 77.16 8.16 24 23 3 23.4 30.11 29.88 30.00 24 77.14 8. .50 28 23 3 25.0 30.16 30.07 30.11 25 77.24 9.10 26 23 3 24.6 30.07 29. 9 1 30.00 2« 78. 9.50 27 24 3 25.7 29.94 29.88 29.91 27 78.15 9.30 23 20 3 21.7 29.88 29.86 29.87 28 78.20 9.30 25 21 3 23.0 29.99 29.88 29.94 29 78.22* 9.27 24 21 3 22.3 30.08 29.99 30.03 30 78.28 5.40 23 21 3 21.6 30.09 30.03 30.06 31 78.34 5.35 29 24 3 26.7 30.03 29.98 .30.01 S 1 78.34 5.38 26 24 3 25.0 30.04 30.01 30.03 ^ 2 78.30 6.10 23 22 3 22.3 30.04 30.00 30.02 3 78.34 6.10 34 28 3 31.3 30.00 29.96 29.98 4. 78.38 5.58 34 24 3 28.0 29.96 29.90 29.93 5 78.29 5.54 34 23 3 29.7 29.90 29.82 29.86 6 78.40 6.10 29 28 2 28.5 29.82 29.71 29.76 7 79.20 8. 32 30 3 30.7 29.71 29.63 29.67 8 79.10 7.50 30 29 3 29.4 29.78 29.63 29.71 9 78.58 7. 31 30 3 30.3 29.94 29.78 29.86 10 78.58 6.58 38 31 3 33.6 29.95 29.94 29.94 11 78.58* 6. 32 30 3 31.0 29.94 29.93 29.94 12 78.56 5.50 30 26 3 28.0 29.95 29 91 29,93 13 78.40 5.30 31 27 3 29.0 29.91 29.82 29.87 14 78.45 5.15 33 28 3 30.3 29.82 29.76 29.79 15 78.45 5.13 34 32 3 32.7 29.80 29.77 29,78 16 7^-'.42 5.10 35 30 3 33.0 29.85 29.80 29.83 17 78.40 5. 8 34 30 3 32.4 29.87 29.85 29.86 18 78.36 5.10 31 30 3 30.3 29.89 29.87 29.88 19 78.15* 5. 4 33 29 3 30.7 2991 29.89 29.90 20 78.10 5 37 31 3 33.6 29.92 89.77 29.84 21 78.15 5 32 31 3 32.0 29.77 29.62 29.70 22 78.11 5.15 37 33 3 35.3 29.64 29.62 29.63 23 78.17 5.25 34 32 3 32.7 29.67 29.64 29.65 24 78.20 5.36 35 .33 3 34.0 29.68 29.59 29.64 25 78.21 5.26 35 30 3 33.0 29.59 29.50 29.,'^ .. 26 78.35 5.54 33 32 3 32.4 29.64 29.58 29.61 27 78.15 5.50 36 34 2 35,0 29.73 29.53 29.63 28 78. 4 5. 34 30 3 32.3 30.02 29.73 29.88 29 78. 0* 5.15 35 30 3 32.7 30.10 30.02 30.06 30 78.50 6.40 37 34 3 35.3 30.02 29 94 29.98 • Al pp. N' I. KTER. Med. 29.85 29.95 29.92 29.82 29.81. 29.78 30.00 30.11 30.00 29.91 29.87 29.91. 30.03 SO.OG 30.01 30.03 30,02 29.98 29.93 29.86 29.76 29.67 29.71 29.86 29.91 29.94. 29.93 29.87 29.79 29.78 29.83 29.86 29.88 29.90 29.84 29.70 29.63 29.65 29.64 29.5 :. 29.61 29.63 29.88 30.06 29.98 A PP. N" I.] M KTKOIlOl .0(;u: A 1. TAJn .KS. (la) wi\ns. 1811 Meteors and Weather. Situation and Ucmarks- Direction. Force. S-IT N.crly Moderate breezes Much snow Ice rather open ;^i8 N.erly, var. Eight breezes Ditto Ditto 19 to S J<;.cily to Strong gales Some snow Ditto 20 S H.eiljr Hard gales Much small snow Ditto 21 to N K.eriy to Calm ('lear Ditto 22 to S K.eily Moderate breezes A little snow Ditto 23 N, var. Eight breezes Clear Ditto 24 to N \V Ditto Cloudy Ditto 25 N W.erlv to Fresh breezes Some snow Ditto 26 to N N W to Strong gales Clear, cloudy Ship at liberty 27 N b W Hard gale Some snow showers A little ice 28 Nh W Strong gale Cloudy Ditto 29 Nb W Ditto Clear Ditto 30 to N N W, Ttir. Fresh breezes Cloudy Near a pack of ice 31 to N W.erly to Eight breezes Snow showers Loose ice S 1 W b N to N X K Light to fresh br. Some snow showers Floes, loose ice ^ 2 N.erly to Moderate breeze Cloudy, hazy Drift ice 3 Variable Eight breezes, calm Thick snow showers Scattered drift ice 4 K.eriy to N to Eight breezes Snow showers Ditto 5 N W.erly, var. l''rcsh to light br. Hazy, some snow Ditto 6 N N K to 1-; N ]•; to Fresh gales Snow showers Ditto 7 to s ]•: Strong gales Snow showers, hazy Ditto 8 to s b I-: Fresh gales Snow, hazy Sea open, ice near 9 to S S W to Moderate breezes A little snow Ditto 10 to E s i<; Eight breezes ('loudy, snow Ditto 11 to N E.erly to Moderate breeze Clear Ditto 12 N K.eriy Moderate breeze Clear, cloudy Ditto 13 N K.eriy Light airs Small showori snow Ditto 14 Variable to Calm Uain, haze Drift ice 15 E.erly, S E to Light airs Cloudy Streams of drift ice 16 Variable t» Calm Haze, fog Ditto 17 N N :: to Fresh breeze Clear, hazy Sea open, ice in sight 18 N b E Fresh gale Clear, cloudy Ditto 19 N b E Fresh breeze Cloudy, clear Sea open 20 to W, S S W to Light breezes Fog showers Drift ice, floes 21 S w.erly to Calm Ditto Ditto 22 S E.erly, var. Light airs, calm Small rain l^oose ice 23 E.erly, S S W to Moderate breeze Fog showers Ditto 24 to S, W.erly Light breeze to calm Fog, clear Much drift ice 25 Variable to Moderate breezes Snow showers Ditto 26 N W to S S E to Fresh breezes Snow, fog Field, drift ice 27 to S S W, N VV b W Fresh or Mod. br. Ditto Ditto 28 to S W, S S E Fresh ga. light br. Clear, fog Ditto 29 to E.erly to Fresh breeze Fog, Show Ditto 30 E.erly to Strong breeze Ditto Sea ojicn a (14) MF/rKOilOI,OGICAL TAIJLKS. [ait. N 1. 1811 Latitude. Latitude. THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. Max. Min, Med. of Mux. Min. Med. 3-4 Obs. ^ 1 78«.40' 7.18 E 38 31 3 35.0 30.09 29.99 30.04 ^ 2 78.20 6.30 36 33 3 34.3 30.13 30.08 30.11 3 78. 6. 37 35 2 36.0 30.08 29.96 30.02 4 77.58 5.40 42 35 3 39.7 29.96 29.88 29.92 5 77.56' 6. 42 41 2 41.5 29.96 29.91 29.93 6 77.48 6.58 44 36 2 40.0 30.03 29.96 .30.00 7 77.48 7.20 45 36 3 41.0 30.07 30.03 30,05 8 76.36 9.20 40 38 2 39.0 30.03 29.98 30.00 9 75.40 11.36 42 39 3 40.0 29.98 29.98 29.98 10 75.15 12. 40 38 2 39.0 29.98 29.92 29.95 11 74.52' 11, 41 40 3 40.3 29.99 29.95 29.97 12 74.10 11, 42 40 3 41.3 29.95 29.85 29.90 13 73.10 9.40 42 39 3 40,4 29.89 29.85 29.87 14. 72.17 8,27 46 36 3 41.0 29.99 29.89 29.9 J. 15 72.10" 6.57 44 40 2 42.0 30.10 29.99 30.05 1812 ^ 1 74.30 15.13 28 20 3 25,0 30.28 30.20 30.24 S 2 75.23 14.25 30 i9 3 23.7 30.37 29.60 29.98 3 75.35 10.43 14 13 3 13.3 29.70 29.40 29.55 4 74.36 10. 13 12 3 12.7 29.89 29.70 29.80 5 73.41 10.40 13 12 3 12.6 29.81 29.60 29.70 6 73.10 10,18 21 10 3 17.0 29.76 29.60 29.68 7 72.38 10.19 23 21 3 22.0 29.91 29.76 29.81 8 73.33 10.21 26 22 3 24.0 30.00 29.91 29.95 9 73.57 10.21 26 24 3 25.0 30.10 30.00 30.05 10 74.28 9.37 30 25 3 27.0 30.10 29.96 30.03 11 75.36* 8, 8 32 .30 3 30.7 29.96 29.86 29.91 12 75.38 8.20 31 23 3 27.0 29.86 29.80 29.83 13 75.52" 9.20 24 22 4 22.7 29.83 29,77 29,80 14 76.12 10.20 26 20 4 23.3 29.88 29.79 29.81. 15 76.15" 9. 32 30 3 30,6 29.79 29.60 29.69 16 76,20 9.40 30 30 3 30.0 29.67 29.50 29.59 17 76. 7" 9.30 22 20 3 21.0 29.85 29.67 29.76 18 76.37" 10.45 30 17 3 22.0 29.84 29.74 29.79 19 76.30 10.45 20 19 3 19.7 29.98 29.84 29.91 20 76.30 10.30 20 18 3 18.7 .30.03 29.91 29,97 21 76.30 10- 19 19 3 19.0 29.91 29.73 29.82 22 76.20 10. 21 20 3 20.4 29.78 29.66 29.72 23 76.10" 10. 25 24 3 24.3 29.95 29,78 29.87 24 76, 5 10. 30 25 7 8 9 10 U 12 13 H rf. 77".i5' 77.50* 77.59 78. 78 <8. 78. 'it^. 79. t,« VH 20 7 7. 11 7(). 4 73.26 71.18 70. 3 CS.21' 7<). 2 7(i..>7 78.. >» 78.57 7S.5i« 79. 5 79.12* 80. 80. 7* 80.10 7f).15 78.20 78. 7» 78.19* 78.31.* 7<>. 5 79.15 79.51* 79.36* 78-50 79.33 79.29* 78.50 78.4;* 79.10 79-10 79.20 78.59* 78,50 78.45* 78.25 Tiii:nM()Mi:Ti;n. Lungiludc. 5.30 E 5. 7 5. 5. 6. 4.50 4.30 •1.30 5.15 (i. 5 .75 29.80 2f».90 28.90 29.07 29.60 29.90 2f>.90 29.83 29.05 29.74 2f).74 29.78 2f).95 30.15 30.33 30.35 30.35 30.12 29.70 29.70 30.20 30.20 2f).95 30.10 30.10 29.95 29.70 29.65 2f).55 2 9. .55 29.51. 29.42 29.40 MIn. 29.60 29.85 30.22 30.12 30.12 30,10 30.22 30.20 30.14 30.00 30.00 29.90 29.75 29.70 29.70 29.80 28.85 28.90 29.07 29.60 29.83 29.53 29.53 29.65 28.92 28,92 29,78 29,95 30,15 30.33 30.12 29,70 29.50 29.50 29.70 29.95 29.95 29.f)5 29.95 29.70 29.65 29.50 29.50 29.34 29,31. 2f).l() 29.40 Med. 29.73 30.03 30.27 30.17 30.14 30.19 30.23 30.22 30.17 30.10 30,03 29.95 29.83 29.72 29.75 29.88 28.88 28.98 29.34 29,75 29.80 29.68 29,59 29,70 29.33 2f),35 29.80 30.05 30.24 30.34 30.24 29.91 29.60 29.60 29.95 30.08 29.95 30.02 30.03 2}).82 2f).68 2f).57 2!). 53 29.44 29.44 29.41 29.1-0 \" r. Al'l* N" 1.] Ml::'na>U()L(^GICAi. TAni.KS. iHH t \H\9 ' ' 1 WINDS. Weather and Situation and loi « Direction. Force. Meteors. Itcniurks. >.ifi to E S K Strong gales Thick fog Dril't ice ^17 i<: S K Ditto l''og, snow shower Ice near 18 toN Moderate breeze Much Know, fog Ditto 19 to W, var. Light airs, calm Ditto F3itto 80 S W.erly to Fresli breeze Fog showers DritY ice 21 to« Strong breezes (Jlear Embayed lu ice 22 K.erly l"'rcsh breezes Hazy Ditto 23 ssi-: Light airs Fog Ditto 2t S.erly Ditto Clear, fog lea open 2j toW to Calm Thick fog Ditto 2(5 to N N E Strong breezes Ditto Sea open 27 N K.erly Moderate breezes Ditto Ditto 28 N I-: Fresh gale Cloudy At sea 29 N I-: to Strong gale Iliiin Ditto 30 to S E, var. Light breeze Fog, raiu Ditto 31 N W.erly Fresh breeze, calm Fog, clear Ditto 1813 Cl5 E N E to K S !•; Very hard gales Much snow At sea ^16 to E N i<: Ilurd gnles Snow, cloudy Stream of ice 17 Variul)Ie Light br. to fr. ga. Ditto Charles' Isl. in sight 18 N E Strong gale to calm Snow, clear A pack of ico 19 Vu iablc Calm, light breeze Clear Ditto 20 S S E to E Very hard gales Constant snow Ditto 21 to S to N W to Calm Snow, clear Ditto 22 S W, var. to Fresh breeze Fog, cloudy Sea open, pack 23 Variable Calm to strong ga. Snow showers Pack near 24 N N E Hard or fresh ga. Snow, frost rime Drift ice 25 N E b N Hard gale Thick frost rime Sea open 2« to N N W Ditto Frost rime, snow Ditto 27 Nb W to Moderate brce.-;-' Clear Streams cf ko 28 N to ("aim Ditto Ditto 29 S W to Strong gale Snow, clear Sea open 30 to S Strong gal Clear, cloudy Ditto J? 1 S S W to W N W Fresh gales Cloudy Ice near S 2 to N N E Fresh breezes Fog, clear A pack in sight 3 to 1':, s Mod. to fresh gales Delightful weather Spitzbergen in sight 4 S S E, var. Strong gale to calm Much snow Sea open 5 N E Fresh gale Clear Ice near 6 toN W to Light air Ditto Ditto 7 to S, S W to Fresh breezes Ditto Ditto 8 to W, N W Fresh breezes Cloudy, snow Ditto 9 S W, var. to I-.ight breeze Cloudy, clear Ditto 10 S.erly to FVesh gales Snow, cloudy Spitzbergen in sight 11 N N 25. N N W Hard gales Snow showers Sea open 12 to N E b E Very hard gales Cloudy Streams of ico 13 N N E to E S E to Fresh gale Thicii snow Ditto 14 N E to N b E Strong gales (,'lear, snow Sea open 15 10 N N W Ditto Showers of snow Ice near ^UO) .\iu:ti:uuoi,()i;icai. TAiii.i:.s. [API*. N' I. iH!:i 19 21 2 J 2f) = 2 -' li 1 .5 (i 7 H 9 10 11 12 l.'i li 1,5 Id 17 IS 19 20 21 22 2S 2-1. 2.5 2fi 27 28 29 :jo l.t'.titiulc ?>•:. 7H.I0 TH. r?.l(t 7;.:i.5 7r.2H 77. ID" 77. y« 77.20 77.20 ; 7.:5.j 77. J..5 7S. ()• 7H,I.5 77.M* 75.2.5 7S.14* 7,^.45 7rt.4H 7H.41* 7.S..16 78.54 78.49* 7a 50 78.50 78.50 78.48 78.38 78. f 6" 78.20 78.14 7a 1* 70.20 78. 4 7a 2* 7ai2« 7a30 7a 26 7a25 7a 1 9* 7a 9 77.44» 77.50 77.50 I.ungitudc. 1..50 K 1.10 l.UO 2. 2. 2.:w 2.:J5 2.30 2.45 3. ;j. 3.15 ;{.i5 ai5 3.15 2.15 U 4.50 5.10 5. 4. 4. 3.45 3.40 3.:<8 3.40 3.41. 3.40 3.50 4.10 4. 3.50 3.45 .3.50 4. 5 4. 5 4.40 6. 6. 5.55 5.50 5.46 5 48 6.20 6. 6. THKRMOMETKH. Max. Mia 20 18 22 22 30 30 32 27 83 26 27 24 27 26 22 30 32 29 31 30 35 34 44 37 48 38 35 34 33 35 34 38 39 42 35 35 42 36 37 39 40 40 38 33 35 35 Med. 14 16 16 IH 22 20 18 20 16 25 25 23 25 18 16 20 30 29 25 27 31 32 35 35 35 34 31 27 28 34 32 3+ 34 32 32 28 35 32 34 34 35 35 34 32 32 33 17.0 17.0 19.3 19.7 24.7 26.<> 27.3 24.4 19.0 25.7 25.7 23.3 «6.0 22.0 lao 2.'i.0 31.0 29.0 2a3 28.3 33.0 32.7 38,0 3.5.7 41.0 35.4 33.0 31.3 30.6 34.3 33.0 36.4 36.3 37.3 33.4 32.0 3a3 33.7 353 37.0 37.0 37.4 36.0 32.6 33.3 34.0 BAROMKTEIl. Mux. Min. Mud 29.55 29.60 29.70 29.78 29.89 30.02 30.02 29.93 30.06 30.06 30.04 29.97 29.98 29.98 30.02 30.02 29.95 29.77 29.77 29.77 29.83 29.85 29.86 29.87 30.25 30.30 30,26 30.18 30,24 30,20 30. 1() 30.16 30.10 29.97 29.8B 29,90 30 00 30.02 29.96 30.03 30.03 30.08 30. 8 30.16 30.28 30,30 29.40 29.55 29.60 29.70 29 78 29.89 29.65 29.65 29.93 30.04 29.97 29.92 29.92 29.95 29.95 29.95 29.67 29,67 29.77 29.75 29.75 29.75 29.75 29.80 29.80 30.25 30.12 30.12 30.18 30.13 30.13 30.10 29 97 29>H 29.76 29.73 29.90 29.88 29.86 29.96 30.03 30.1.4 30.08 30.08 30.16 30.28 29.48 29.57 29.65 29 74 29.84 29.95 29.84 29.79 29.99 .30.05 30.01 29.94 29.95 29.97 29.98 29.99 2981 29.72 2977 29.76 29.79 29.80 29.81 29.83 30.03 30.27 30.19 30.15 30.21 30.17 30 14 30.13 .30.04 29.92 29.82 29.82 29.95 29.95 29.9' 29.95/ 30.03 30.06 30.08 30.12 30.22 .30.29 s 3 N' I. TKK. « Med. S0.48 & «9.A7 29.6A 29 74 8 89.H4 9 29.95 & 29.84 5 29.79 3 29.99 4 30.0.5 7 30.01 2 29.94 2 29.95 5 29.97 5 29.98 5 29.99 7 2981 7 29.72 7 29.77 > 29.70 5 29.79 5 29.80 3 29.81 ) 29.83 ) 30.03 i 30.27 1 30.19 < 30.15 1 30.21 30.17 30 14 30.13 30.04 29.92 29.82 29.82 29.95 29.95 29.9^ 29.95/ 30.03 30.06 30.08 30.12 30.22 30.29 AI'l'. N l.J .MKTKOiiOL(u;iLAI. TAllLi:.S. (iil) 1813 WINDS. Meteors and Weather. Situation and HcmarkK. !»»••* Direction. Force. U"!" toN W Fresh gnlcs Clear Loose Ice 7?,n to X to Moderate gulcii Cloudy Floes and lojfcc ice 18 tf. N N \V Fresh guli-H Snow, cloudy Near a pack 19 N. vur. tn Calm Ditto Ditto 20 N. var. Light breeze, calm Ditto Floes and drift ice 21 to K to S K to Fresh gule.s Much snow Ditto 22 S S K to W N VV to Strong gale Hazy, snow Ditto 23 to N N \V to Light airH Clear Ditto 84 N Fresh breeze (■lear, cloudy Ditto 25 N b !■: Ditto Cloudy Sea open 26 N. var. Light airs Ditto Ditto 27 N K, N W, var. to Moderate breeze Ditto Loose ice 28 N.erly, vnr. Fresh breezes Cloudy, snow Drift ice 29 N W to Moderate l)recze.s Frost rime Ditto 30 W toS to Culm Ditto Ditto 31 S.erly Fresh breezes Cloudy Ditto § 1 S ii K Strong gale, calm F'og, rain At sea ^ 2 N VV Fresh br. to calm Uain, cle.ir Ice noar 3 S to W Light br. to calm Snow, cloudy Ditto 4 W.criy Light breeze Cloudy, snow Drift ice 5 S W toS to Fresh gale» (.'leur, fog Much ice C ' SS Ii Fresh gale Fog, snow Ditto 7 to S S VV to Moderate breeze Snow, fog Floes and drift ice 8 to s 1-: Strong gales llain, sleet, fog Ship beset 9 S W, K.rly Fresh breeze, calm Clear, fog Do. among floes 10 S VV to Fresh breeze Fog, cloudy Do. Hoes and dr. ice 11 S W, N VV, N Light breeze, calm Ditto Ditto 12 N E to VV N VV Fresh breeze Fog showers Ditto 13 S W, W S VV Calm to fresh br. Thick fog Open drift ice 14 toN Moderate breeze Cloudy Sea open 15 toN N W to Fresh breeze Fog, cloudy, snow In a bay of ice 16 N Moderate br, calm Fog, cloudy Di-ift ice 17 N F'resh gale Snow showers Ditto 18 NW to Strong gai^ Ditto Ditto 19 NW Strong gale Snow, sleet Floes and drift ice 20 N to N VV to Moderate breeze Snow showers Ditto 21 toS to Fresh gales Fog, snow Ice streams 22 SbW Fresh gale Fog, cloudy Drift ice 23 toSSE Moderate breeze Fog Ditto 24 toSS W Light breezes Thick fog Ditto 25 to W^ S VV to Moderate breeze Fog showers Ditto 26 to N, N E Moderate br. calm Snow showers Ditto 27 Variable to Moderate breeze Snow, fog Sea o|)cn 28 N N E Fresh breeze Fog, snow No ice 29 NNE Moderate breeze Snow shower Ice near 30 toENE Ditto Ditto Ditto 1 (32) METEOIIOLOGICAI. TABLKS. [\Vl\ \* i. m m i\ IB13 Latitude. Longitude. TH1< Max. IIMOMRTKR. PAllOMKTKK. iMiii. Med. Mux. Mill. Med. •3 ^ ? 2 77^.25' 3.30 !•: 46 35 40.0 30.30 .30.30 30.30 77.20 3.10 36 35 35.3 30.30 30.23 30.27 3 77.18 3.20 38 33 36.3 30.23 30.03 30.13 4 77.29* 2.40 35 33 31.0 30.03 29.58 29.80 5 77.24 2. 35 33 34.0 29.80 29.56 29.68 6 77.26* 2.20 40 35 37.7 29.83 29.78 29.81 7 77.46 aio 36 35 3.5.7 29.86 29.78 29.82 8 77.35 2. 38 34 3.5.4 30.00 29.86 29.93 9 77.38 2. 38 33 35.3 30.05 30.00 30.02 10 77.30 2.10 36 34 35.0 30.06 29.70 29.88 11 77.20 1.50 36 35 35.3 29.70 29.53 29.62 12 77. 2. .■^8 36 37.4 29.64 29.53 29.58 13 76.54 4.20 40 38 39.3 29.66 29.54 29.60 14 77.10 2.30 39 39 39.0 29.54 29.50 29.52 15 77.30 2. 39 36 37.3 29.77 29.48 29.63 16 78. 2* 1.10 37 34 35.6 29.92 29.77 29 84 17 78.12 1.15 37 33 34.4 29.98 29.92 29.95 18 78.20* 1. 33 33 33.0 29.98 29.64 29.81 19 77.40* 1.10 42 37 39.3 30.00 29.62 29.81 20 77.10 7, 40 38 3a 7 30.04 29.70 29.87 21 76.42 7.30 40 36 37.7 29.70 89.53 29.62 22 75. 9* 7.45 37 36 36.3 29.75 29.68 29.71 1814 ^ 1 77.52* 6.48 15 14 14.4 29.74 29.63 29.69 S 2 78.20* 7.50 20 16 18.0 29.63 29.41 29.52 3 77.48* a30 27 17 22.0 29.50 29.40 29.45 4 77.17* 7.54 24 21 23.0 29.90 29.50 29.70 5 77.51* 6.50 25 21 23.3 30.03 29.73 29.88 ii 78. 5* 5.10 27 20 23.3 29.73 29.(;o 29.66 1 78.10 4.50 16 10 14.0 29.63 29.61 29.62 8 7a 3 4.50 17 9 13.7 29.97 29.63 29.65 9 78. 5* 4. 26 13 ia4 30.13 29 97 30.05 10 7a 4 4.10 15 13 14.0 30.14 30.13 30.14 11 7a 9* 4.10 30 10 17.5 30.15 30.14 30.14 L2 7a 8 4.10 18 9 14.3 30.17 30.15 30.16 13 7a 6 4.10 16 7 12.3 30.20 30 10 30.15 14 7a 9 4 2 25 19 20.7 30.24 30.12 30.18 15 7a 2 4. 23 11 ia4 30.27 30.24 30.26 16 77.56* 3.5 1 19 10 15.0 30.51 30.27 30.39 17 77.46* 0.30 16 14 14.6 30.50 30.46 30.48 18 77.36 0. ;io 12 21.3 30.46 30.32 30.39 19 77.34 0. 27 17 22.7 30.32 30.32 30.32 1 1 N* I. [KTKU. in. iMed. 30 30.30 23 30.27 03 30.13 58 29.80 Mi 29.68 78 29.81 78 29.82 8G 29.93 .00 30.02 70 29.88 53 29.62 .53 29.58 .54 29.60 .50 29.52 l48 29.63 77 29 84 92 29.95 (il 29.81 62 29.81 70 29.87 53 29.62 68 29.71 63 29.69 41 29.52 40 29.45 50 29.70 73 29.88 CO 29.66 61 29.62 63 29.65 >7 30.05 13 30.14 14 30.14 15 30.16 30.15 2 30.18 !4 30.26 •7 30.39 ■6 30.48 (2 30.39 12 30.32 AW. X" T.] ^IKTEOllOLOG rCAI. TAHLE.'^. (i>3) 1813 « 1 ' 3 ! 4 ' f- I 6 ! 7 ! 8 I » 1 10 I 11 I 12 I 13 I 14 15 16 17 18 19 •eo 21 22 1814 ^ 1 < 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 WINDS, Direction. E to S, var. S W.erlv N E to N N, S S W.erly \ X E to N W N W to S W to S S W to S S S E to S W S W, vnr. 8 VV to S, van S b W to S S E S S to S S W 8 W to W S W 8 S W, S S E S, var. N. N, var. S S E to W S W W S W W to N N W N N E to N VV N N Variable N N W, N N N N W.erly E.crly N.erly si<: S E.crly N E to N N W to W N W X W to E N E N W to S W Force. ^Meteors and Weather. Moderate breezes Ercsh breezes Li}?ht br. to str. ga. to Moderate gales Strong to fresh ga. Calm to fresh br. to Moderate breezes Fresh ga. to calm to Strong breeze Strong gales Moderate breezes to Fresh breezes Fresh gales Ditto Ditto Strong gales to Light breeze Fresh gale, to calm Calm, moderate br. Fresh gales Ditto to Moderate breeze Fresh gales Hard gale Ditto to Moderate breeze to Strong gales to h'resh breeze Fresh gale Ditto to Light breeze Light breezes Light airs, calm Light breeze Calm to nioder. br. Moderate breeze Fresh breeze Fresh breezes to Strong breeze to Light airs Calm to fresh br. Showers of snow Ditto Cloudy, snow Snow and sleet Thick snow Snow, hazy Cloudy Snow, fog Cloudy, hazy Fog, haze, rain Heavy rain, fog Fog, rain Ditto Ditto Fog, rain, clear Fog Fog, rain Fog, snow Fog Rain, fog Fog showers Cloudy Snow, frost rime Snow showers ('loudy Cloudy, clear Clear, hazy Cloudy, clear Snow, clear Frost rime Ditto Frost rime, snow Hoar frost Thick hoar frost Great refraction Snow showers ("loudy (ireat refraction Clear Fine weather Hoar frost Situation and Remarks. Ice near Sea ojieii Xo ice Ice near Ditto Ditto No ice A tloe Ditto Floes and drift ice Ditto Drift ice No ice Drift ice Drift ice, streams Ditto Ditto Floes Floes and drift ice At sea Xo ice Ditto Ice streams Ditto Detached drift ice Ice streams Ice fields and iioes Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Beset among ditto Ship beset Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto (24) i\fi:TE()llOI.OfiI(\VL TAIJI.ES. [aI'P. N' I. I i'Mi 181i Latitude. Longitude. THKRMC Max. Min. 1 METE It. BAROMETER. Med., Max. Min, Med. ^•20 77".35' 0. 5 K 29 15 20.2 30,33 30.32 30.32 :5 2i 77.37 - 0.15 28 20 24.0 .30.31 30. 9 30.20 22 77.23 0.15 31 20 25.3 30. 9 30. 30. 5 23 77.18* 0.40 27 22 25.0 30.20 30.10 30.15 24. 77.lt 0.40 28 20 25.0 30.20 30.18 30.19 25 77. 6 1. 25 19 21.4 30.18 .30.15 .30.16 2tf 7H.50 1.40 22 20 21.0 30.15 30.12 30.14 27 77. 4.16 25 19 22.3 30.12 30.94 30. 3 28 76.t6« 4. 6 34 23 30.0 29.94 29.82 29.88 29 77.38 6. 28 24 26.0 29.95 29.79 29.87 30 78. 4. 30 26 28.3 30.00 29.95 29.97 31 77.50 4.20 31 30 30.4 .30.00 29.62 29.81 S 1 77.*5 4. 29 26 27.3 29.95 29.62 29.79 ^ 2 78. 4.39 26 21 23.3 30.01 29.95 29.98 3 78. 5 4.10 25 23 24.0 30.06 30.01 30.03 4. 78.11* 4. 30 22 26.4 30.10 30.06 30.08 5 78. 6 5.40 29 27 28.0 30.11 .30.09 30.10 6 78.25 4.55 31 29 30.0 30.09 29.90 30.00 7 78.28» 4.50 32 29 30.7 29.90 29.86 29.88 8 78.40 5.40 31 28 29.0 29.93 29.85 29.89 9 78.47 5. 29 27 27.7 29.93 29.84 29.88 10 78.50 5. 5 32 31 31.6 29.90 29.60 29.75 U 79. 5.10 34 32 33.0 29.60 29.44 29.52 12 78.25 7.30 34 28 31.7 29.84 29.42 29.63 13 78.23 6.25 40 30 35.0 30.04 29.8* 29.94 14 78.40 6. 34 34 34.0 30.04 29.93 29.99 15 78.27 6.20 34 29 32.5 30.00 29.88 29.94 16 78.17 7..30 35 34 34.3 30.00 29.72 29.86 17 78.27 7.10 38 34 35.0 29.84 29.72 29.78 18 78.20 7.25 35 33 34.0 29.84 29.84 29.84 19 77.58 5.40 36 34 34.8 29.80 29.75 29.77 20 78.15 5.55 36 35 35.7 29.85 29.74 29.80 21 78.30 5.15 35 35 35.0 29.85 29.77 29.81 22 78.38 4.50 33 33 33.0 30.00 29.72 29.86 23 78.40 4. 34 33 33.3 30.04 29.86 29.95 2i 78.35 4.40 34 30 32.0 29.98 29.86 29.92 25 78.28 5.20 34 33 33.4 29.98 29.76 29.87 2<> 78.35 4.50 34 32 33.0 29.90 29.60 29.75 27 7H.50 5.25 35 34 34.3 29.80 29.54 29.67 28 78.40 5.25 34 34 34.0 29.54 29.50 29.52 29 78.20 4. 34 34 34.0 29.76 29.50 ?9.63 30 78.35 5.20 37 33 35.0 29.85 29.76 29.80 1 1 28 29 I 30 4 I'P. N° I. TEK. Med. 2 9 8 5 2 n i2 r9 )5 32 32 95 pi )6 9 10 16 15 i >2 i 3 i8 ■2 30.32 30.20 30. 5 30.15 30.19 30.16 30.14 30. 3 29.88 29.87 29.97 29.81 29.79 29.98 30.03 30.08 30.10 30.00 29.88 29.89 29.88 29.75 29.52 29.63 29.94 29.99 29.94 29.86 29.79 29.84 29.77 29.80 29.81 29.86 29.95 29.92 29.87 29.75 29.67 29.52 ?9.63 29.80 A PP. N' T.] METEOKOLOOICAI. TABM'.S. (23) I 1814 5*20 S21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 S 1 = 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 WINDS. Oirection. SW toS S W to N I) W N, NNE N, var. N E.erly toN N E.erly toN to Var. S W, W, var. Variable E N E, N E N E.erly N.erly, var. N.erly Variable S.erlv, W.erly S W, var. N.erly, var. toS W S W toS toN W Nb W Var. S W to S E, var. Var. E.erly E, E S E toSSE to W S VV toSS E S S b E, W.erly Variable S S.crlv, W.erly S S E to S S W to S E S E, S S W SE toS SSEtoSb W S to E.erly Force. Meteors and Weather. Fresh nales to Strong gales Fresh gales Light airs Calm to fresh br. to Strong gale to Fresh breeze to Hard gales to Moderate breeze Light breezes to Fresh gales Strong gales Fresh to Mod. ga. Fresh to Mod. br. to Calm Moderate breezes Ditto Fresh to light br. Calm to moder. br. Calm to fresh br. Fresh gale Ditto Strong ga. to lig. br to Fresh gale to Calm Fresh br. to lig. airs Calm to fresh bi-. to Strong gales to Fresh gales to Fresh breeze to Strong gales Strong gales Moderate breezes Ditto Brisk gales Gentle breezes to Strong gales Fresh gales to Strong gale Fresh to Mod. br. to Strong breeze to Gentle breezes Fog Fog, snow Snow, fog Fog Fog, snow Snow showers Snow showers Thick snow Snow, clear Rain, cloudy Constant snow Much snow Ditto Cloudy Ditto Fog showers Ditto Haze or fog show. Clear, cloudy Cloudy Much smiiU snow Thick fog Hazy Cloudy, snow Clear Clear, snow Charming weather Snow, aleet Fog Dense fog, snow Fog, rain Dense fr)g, rain Much rain Fog Snow, rain Dense fog Rain, sleet Fog, snow Fog, rain, snow Fog, snow Dense fog. snow Fog, snow, clear Situation and Remarks. Ice rather slack Ditto Ditto Ship partly beset Ditto Ditto Ice more open Ice slack Sea open Ditto Drift ice No ice Near ic; No ice Ice near Drift ice Sea open Ditto Ice near No ice In a bay of the ice Ditto Sea open No ice Charles' Island near Ditto No ice Charles' Isl. 25 miles Ditto : no ice No ice Sea open A little ice Ditto Ice in sight Drift ice Ice near Ditto Ice distant Ditto Ice sti-eams Much ice Spiulwrgen in sight VOL. I. APrExnix. (^1) M (26) METEOROLOGICAI- TABLES, [API'. X" T. n :1a IH i&< 18H 3 1815 ;23 i24 ^25 26 27 28 29 30 31 r 1 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Latitude, 1 79«'.30' 2 79.25 3 79.22" 4 79.10 5 79.21 6 79.42* 7 80.25 8 80. 10" 9 79.33" 10 79.23 11 79.10 12 78.58 13 78.50* 14 78.40 15 78.20 16 77.50 54.29 56.10* 58.24* 60. 8 61.52* 62.58 64.32 64.55* 66.56 69.14* 70. 9* 71.16 72.37* 74,56* 76.33 77.21 77.34* 77.56 7a 4* 77.50 77.40 77.35 77.42 THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. Longitude. Max. Min. Meil. Max. Min. Med, 6. OE 34 33 33.7 29.85 29.60 92.72 6.10 33 30 32,0 29.62 29,45 29.54 5.45 35 34 34.7 29.70 29.62 29.66 4.20 33 31 32.0 29.81 29.70 29.75 5.20 35 33 34.0 29.90 29.81 29.86 8. 40 36 38.3 29.90 29.89 29.89 8.10 39 37 38.0 29.89 29.83 29.86 8. 5 36 31 32.6 29.83 29.79 29.81 7.50 42 36 39.0 30.17 29.79 29,98 7.55 35 31 34.7 30.17 30.07 30.12 6. 34 34 34.0 30.07 30.06 30.07 7.50 36 35 35.7 30.17 30.06 30.11 7.10 37 33 34,6 30.17 30.15 30.16 8.55 34 31 32,3 30.15 29.92 30.03 9. 5 48 32 41,0 29.92 29,90 29.91 9. 46 40 42.5 29.90 29.79 29.85 0.30 W 29.20 29.06 29.13 — 29.55 29.06 29.31 0.12 — — 47.0 29.55 29.08 29.31 0.42 45 42 4a5 29.40 29.08 29.24 1. 8 46 43 44.5 29.40 28.89 29.15 46 44 45.0 29.07 28.91 28.99 49 43 46.0 29.79 29.09 29.44 49 43 46.0 29.79 29,64 29,7 49 47 47.7 29.74 29.64 29,1., 0. 7 55 50 53.0 29.84 29.74 29.79 0.14 E 46 46 46.0 29.80 29,50 29.65 0.39 44 40 42,7 29.50 29.06 29.28 0.21 W 42 37 39.0 29.60 29.06 29.33 1. 6 E 40 37 39.0 29.60 29.38 29.49 :i.l2 39 35 36,7 29.38 29.18 29.28 4.22 36 30 33.6 29.75 29.16 29.46 5.36 42 33 38,3 29.95 29.75 29.85 8.31 36 34 35.0 29,95 29.36 29,65 10.14 22 15 17.3 29.40 29.29 29.35 10.20 16 10 12.4 29.44 29,33 29.38 8.27 15 7 12.0 30.00 29.40 29.70 7.40 10 6 8.2 30.10 29,95 30.03 7.25 10 8 9.3 29.95 29.82 29.83 5.25 13 7 10.0 29.82 29.82 29.82 . 6.50 20 (> 12.0 29.82 29.65 29.74 5.50 19 17 18.0 29.65 29.50 29.57 8. 24 20 22.0 29.90 29.50 29.70 7-20 24 19 21.0 30.03 29.90 29.97 ^ 1 l»l\ N" T. ;TER. Med. 92.72 29.54 29.66 29.75 29,86 29.89 29.86 29.81 29,98 30.12 30.07 30.11 30.16 30.03 29.91 29.85 )6 29.13 )6 29.31 )8 29.31 )8 29.24 9 29.15 )1 28.99 )9 29.44 i4 29,7 i4 29.t. 4 29.79 29.65 )6 29.28 )6 29.33 i8 29.49 8 29.28 6 29.46 5 29.85 16 29.65 9 29.35 )3 29.38 29.70 >5 30.03 12 29.83 »2 29.82 5 29.74. <0 29.57 •0 29.70 29.97 Al'P. N' ].] iMKTK<)tt01A)01CAl. lAliLl.vS. (27) 1814 WINDS. Meteors and Weather. Situation and Remarks. Direction. Force. J> 1 E.erly, var. Moderate br , calm Rain, dense fog Near much ice ^ 2 S W loS Gentle breeze Fog, snow showers Ditto 3 S to W.erly Strong gales Constant snow Ditto 4 SWtoS Fresh gnles Snow, fog Drift ice and floes 5 S Strong gale Cloudy Ditto 6 S b E, S S W Hard gales Clear, cloudy, fog Insolat. patch of ice 7 toSW Ditto Dense fog, clear Ditto 8 to N W, N, N E to Gentle breeze Ditto Near the N.em ice 9 E.erly, S Calm to fresh gale Ditto Ice streams 10 S, var. to Calm Fog. cloudy Ditto 11 N E.erly, var. to Light airs Constant fog Floes and patches 12 8 Fresh breeze Fog, cloudy Ice strea. and floes 13 S.erly, var. Light breeze, calm Fog, clear Much drift ice 14 S.erly, var. Mod. breeze, calm Fog Charles' Isl. 3 lea. off 15 Variable Light airs, calm Dense fog, clear Charles' Island near 16 Variable Light breezes Dense fog At sea. 1815 •5 23 S E to W, N W Hard gales Much rain Whitby harbour §24 Variable Strong to light br. Some rain Ditto ^25 S W to N W to Fresh gales Showers of rain At sea 26 WtoS Strong gales Hnzy, clear Ditto 27 S E to S S W Hard gales Rain Brassa Sound, Shet. 28 WbS Very hard gale Some rain Ditto 29 N W to W, S E Fresh gales Much rain Ditto 30 W S W, s w Ditto Cloudy, rain Ditto 31 Sb W Fresh breeze Clear Ditto =2 1 S b W, S E.erly Fresh br. light air Clear, hazy At sea *l E S E to S S W Light breezes Hazy Ditto S S W, N N E to Hard gale Hozy, rain Ditto 4 to S E.erly to Calm, fresh br. Thunder & lighten. Ditto 5 ESE Fresh gale Showery Ditto 6 E b S to N N E Ditto Aurora borealis Ditto 7 N, N N W Strong gale, calm Ditto Ditto 8 S.erly, S b W to Strong gale Much rain Ditto 9 W b S to S to Fresh gale Hazy, snow Ditto 10 wsw, w Strong gales Snow showers Ditto 11 N W, S E to E to Calm Thick snow Ditto 12 Var., N Mod. to fresh br. Small snow Spitzbergen in sight 13 N N E to N Fresh breezes Frost nme Ice streams 14 N b E to E N E Fresh to mod. gale Frost rime, clear Charles' Isl. 15 lea. 15 toN Str. ga. to Mod. br. Clear Ditto 10 lea. 16 Variable Light airs to fr. ga. Charm, clear weath. Ice streams 17 N N W, N N E Fresh gales Snow showers Ditto 18 E.erly, var. Fresh gales, calm Great fall of snow Ditto 19 Var. E S E Strong gales Much snow A little ice ! (S8) METLOKOl.OGICAI. TAULKS. [AIM', N" 1. m 1815 Latitude. Longitude. THl Max. ^:rmo.\ieter. BAROMETER. Min. Med. Max. Min, Med. r20 77", 50' 7.54 E 22 18 20.3 30,33 30.03 30.18 ^21 22 78. 7.30 25 23 24.0 30.33 30.30 30.31 78.15 7.10 29 22 25.8 30.30 30.00 30.15 23 78. 5.50 30 25 28.0 3000 29.05 29.98 24 78.1fi» 6.20 28 14 20.2 30.03 29.95 29.99 25 78.25 8.30 26 22 24.4 30.01 29,75 29.88 26 78.30 7. 24 20 22.3 29.75 29.65 29.70 27 78.20 8.30 30 28 29.0 29.65 29,35 29.50 28 78.10 9.35 26 23 24.3 29.46 28.79 29.12 29 77.29» 9.40 24 19 21.0 30.07 29.27 29.67 30 78.10 6.20 21 16 18.0 30.20 30.07 30.14 J? 1 78.25 7.30 17 12 13.7 30,13 29.90 30.01 S 2 7S.15 6.10 12 11 11.7 3057 30.13 3a35 3 78. 0* 6.35 17 8 11.6 30.57 30.51 30.54 4 77.45 5.10 16 10 13.0 30.51 30.17 30.34 5 77.50 6.20 18 15 16.3 30.1? 29.91 30.04 6 78.15 5.30 22 18 20.0 29.93 29.91 29.92 7 78.25 6.25 25 19 21.8 29.93 29.90 29.92 8 78.15* 6.20 22 14 18.3 29.90 29,75 29.62 9 78.35 9. 14 9 12.0 29.85 29.73 29,79 10 78.45* 7.45 20 14 16.8 29.83 29.73 29.78 U 78.22 6.46 16 13 14.4 29,73 29.66 29.69 12 77.50 5.50 12 10 10.6 29.83 29.66 29.75 13 77.20 4. 18 16 17.0 29.90 29.83 29.86 14 77. 7* 4.30 27 15 20.6 29.92 29.85 29.89 15 77.17* 4.10 20 15 17,7 29.85 29.83 29.84 16 77 AO 5.10 24 21 22.2 30.04 29.85 29.94 17 77.30 6.10 32 29 30.3 30.05 29.95 30,00 18 77.20 5.45 32 17 23 3 29.95 29.89 29.92 19 76.40 4.20 23 19 20.7 30.10 29.90 30.00 20 77.20* 4.55 25 22 23 2 30.24 30.10 30,17 21 77.32 6 25 27 25 26.0 30.23 30.15 30.19 22 77.36* 6.54 33 25 30.0 30.15 30.06 30.11 83 77.48* 7.10 34 32 33 3 30.07 30,06 30.06 i* 78. 6.56 34 31 32.4 30.18 30,06 30.18 25 78.10 5.40 32 28 29 7 30.22 30.18 30.80 26 77.26* 9.40 32 30 30.6 30.30 30.22 30.26 27 77,20 7. 31 28 29.3 30.30 30.15 30.23 28 77.35 5.10 31 27 29.0 30.15 30.11 30.13 29 ?7.27* 3.16 27 23 25.7 30.27 30.11 30.19 30 77.32 3.15 28 25 26 7 30.28 30.16 30.82 31 77.23 3.35 33 29 31.0 30,16 30.15 30,15 ■ r~'" 1 1 [ j ! 1'. N- 1. I'ER. t Med. 30.18 30.31 30.15 29.98 29.99 29.88 29.70 29.50 29.12 29.67 30.14 30.01 30.35 30.54 30.34 30.04 [ 29.92 ) 29.92 ■ 29.82 J 29,79 » 29.78 » 29.69 1 29.75 ; 29.86 • 29.89 ; 29.84 , 29.94 , 30.00 1 29.92 1 ■ 30.00 30.17 30.19 1 30.11 30.06 30.12 30.20 30.26 30.28 30.13 30.19 30.22 30,15 A 14'. N' 1.] 1815 c20 ^21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 fe- 1 S 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 MKTEOIIOLOGICAA- TAlil.KS. m WINDS. Direction. S E. var. Var. W.erly s s w SW to W W N W, var. E.erly, N b E N, S.erly S E to W S W toW NW to W S W N W to W S W N W to N N N N W to N W to N N W toN Variable SE. SW W N W to N N N W, var. to W.erly, var. NNW to N N W. var. N N W, N N.erly, var. Var. W, S S W S to W to S.erly to Var. N. N N W to N E N N W, N . N N.erly, E.erly N.erly, var. Variable N W to N N E to Var. W, S W.erly Var. N b W WS w toS SSE Force. Str. ga. to Light airs Light airs to Strong gale Strong gales Moderate br. calm to Fresh breeze to Calm Very hard gales Ditto Strong gales Fresh breezes Strong gales Fresh gale Strong gales to Fresh gales Strong gales to Calm to Strong breeze Light br. to fr. ga. Strong breezes Light airs to Fresh gale Strong breezes Light airs Ditto Gentle breeze, calm to Moderate breeze Calm, to light br, to Strong gales to Hard gale Mod. to fresh gale Fresh'breeze to Calm Calm, light breeze to Calm to Moderate breeze to Calm to P'resh breeze Light breeze Fresh breeze to Gentle breeze Moderate breeze Meteors and Weather. Situation and Remarks. Snow, clear Much snow, clear Snow showers Ditto Charming weather Ditto Fine clear weather Cloudy, hazy Snow, clear Cloudy Clear Thick frost rime Frost rime Frost rime, clear Snow showers Thick snow showers Thick snow Great fall of snow Snow showers Some snow Great fail of snow Much snow Snow sho«vers A little snow Clear, snow Some snow Cloudy Ditto Snow showers Much snow Clear Ditto Fine clear weather Charming weather Clear, fog Clear Cloudy Snow showers Cloudy Fog showers Fog Cloudy Spitzbergcn near Ice streams Ditto Much ice Ice streams Charles' Isl. 7 lea Ditto 9 lea Much ice Charles' Isl. 12 mil. No ice Ice streams Scattered drift ice Sea open Ice near Patches of ice Ice streams Much ice Ice streams Ditto Charles' Isl. 3 miles Bay ice, &c. Much bay ice Scattered ice Ditto Ice streams Dillo Ditto Sea open Some ice Ice streams Ditto Much drift ice Ditto Floes and drift ice Ditto Ditto Spitzhergen 30 mil Ice streams Floes and drift ice Floes and bay ice Ditto Ditto Kltit (m)) MKTE(jU(li.UUICAl- TAUl.i:s. [aI'1'. N i. A I ■■:^!l! 1815 Latitude. Longitude. THKHMOMKTER. BAROMETER. Max. iMin. Med. Max. Min. Mcid. S 1 79». 0' 6.35 E 32 32 32.0 30.15 30.10 30.13 a * 2 2 79.10 6.45 33 25 30.2 30.10 29.80 29.95 3 79.15* 6.45 20 16 18.3 29.80 29.72 29 76 4 7a53» 5.5C 25 20 21.7 29.78 29.72 29.75 5 78.53 5.56 21 18 19.7 29.78 29.77 29.77 6 7a27« 6.50 19 18 18.6 29.77 29.73 29.75 7 78.30 5.10 -^1 18 19.3 29.94 29.72 29.83 8 78.34 5.15 24 18 20.7 30.06 29.94 30.00 9 7425 5.10 30 26 28.0 30.06 30.02 30.04 10 78.20 5.30 34 32 33.0 30.02 29.94 29.98 11 78.30 7.50 34 34 340 30.02 29.96 29.99 12 78.15 6. 38 34 36.4 30.02 29.84 29.93 13 78.23* 5.40 39 34 37.0 29.90 29.80 29.85 14 78.33 6.25 26 25 25.3 29.93 29.80 29.87 15 77.57* 6. 31 28 29.7 29.80 29.76 29.78 16 78.11* 4.30 34 29 31.0 29.82 29.76 29.79 17 78.30 6.10 36 32 340 30.02 29.82 29.92 18 78.34 6.10 34 28 31.6 30.13 30.02 30.0'l 19 77.22* 5-40 32 m 31.0 30.21 30.09 30.15 20 75.59* aso 34 32 32.7 30.09 29.90 30.00 21 75.53* 3. 37 32 34.7 29.90 29.82 29.86 22 75.55* ai5 37 32 346 29.84 29.82 29.83 23 75.48 2.55 37 34 35.7 29.94 29.84 29.89 24 76. 4.20 36 33 34.3 29.93 29.80 29.86 25 75.47* 5. 37 35 36.0 29.94 29.7^ 29.83 26 76.20 5.50 39 35 36.4 29.74 29.72 29.73 27 75.^4 430 36 35 35.7 29.74 29.38 29,56 28. 77.50 5.50 38 35 36.3 29.38 29.34 29.36 29 77.55 6.50 40 38 39.3 29.50 29.34 29.42 30 77.42* 8. 40 37 38.6 29.90 29.50 29,70 ■5 1 76.15 1440 40 40 40.0 30.02 29.90 2M6 ^ 2 75.13* 12.37 41 39 40,0 30.08 30.02 30,05 3 74:5s* 10.50 39 39 3d.o 30.10 3!),08 30,09 4 74.30 8.30 38 38 38.0 30.10 80.04 3o;o7 30:oo 5 7435 7.30 38 36 37.0 30.04 29.96 6 7445 6.30 37 36 36.8 29.96 ?9.9S 29.96 7 74.55 455 37 37 37.0 29.95 29.^5 2<).i»0 8 75.10* aio 42 37 39.0 29.85 29.81 29.83 9 75.27* 3. 39 36 37.3 29.81 29.76 2^.78 10 75.34* 3. 40 37 38.7 29.76 29.72 29.74 11 76.16 3.30 40 36 3a4 29.72 29.72 29,72 12 76.36 425 38 32 35.7 29.77 29.72 26.75 13 76.57* 4 5 37 31 340 29.90 29.77 2M3 14 75.15* 4S0 , 40 28 38.0 30.05 29.90 29.98 15 73.35*' 4.55 40 38 39.0 30.05 2?.d5 30.00 16 73.06 415 42 40 41.0 29.95 29,84 29.89 ! t 1 s 3 3 N J. VIETKR. Aia. M«d. 0.10 30.13 9.80 29.95 9.78 2976 9.72 29.75 9.77 29.77 9.73 29.75 9.72 29.83 9.94 30.00 0.02 30.04 9.94 29.98 9.96 29.99 9.84 29.93 9.80 29.85 9.80 29.87 !9.76 29.78 ►9.76 29.79 '9.82 29.92 W.02 30.07 10.09 30.15 89.90 30.00 19.82 29.86 '9.82 29.83 ^.84 29.89 9.80 29.86 9.72 29.83 9.72 29.73 9.38 29,56 9.34 29.36 9.34 29.42 9.50 29,70 9.90 2M6 0.0S 30,05 0,08 30^09 9.04 30,07 30K)0 ).96 >.95 29.96 ),65 2^.190 >.81 29.83 >.76 2^.78 >.72 29.74 >.T2 29,72 >.72 26.75 J.77 2083 ).90 29.98 >.d5 30.00 >,84 29,89 AIM'. N' I.] :>fETEOUOT.OCJirAI. TABLES. (151) 1815 S 1 'I 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 19 13 U 15 16 17 18 19 20 ^ 2$ 26 it 28 30 ^ 1 ^2 3 4 5 6 ,7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 WINDS. Direction. S S E to S to W, N N W N N W Var, S W to N W to N N E N WtoN N W to N N E N toSW S. eriy S SE toS W S W toS SE . . S tQ S E, var. W.er]y, van N N toW S W to E.erly Var. N.erly N W WKWtoN to W, var. N N W toSW to S S W Variable S E to S Variable N E N W, var. N W, W N W toW to N, var. N E.erly to N.erly J^ W, N . N W to N N E to E N E E.erly N W.erly W N W to N W toN WNW toN W W.erly WSW Force. Fresh gales Hard ga. fresh br. Brisk breeze Gentle breeze to Strong breeze to Light breeze Light breeze Ditto Moderate breeze to Light breeze to Fresh gale Hard ga. to calm to Fresh breeze Moderate breeze Fresh gale P'resh breezes to Calm Light breeze, calm Fresh breeze Strong breeze Moderate breeze to Calm Light airs to Fresh gale Strong gales Light breezes to Strong gale Fresh gale, calm Moderate breeze Light breeze Moderate breezes Light breezes Ditto Fresh breeze to Light breeze Moderate breeze Fresh gales Light airs Ditto , Ditto Moderate breeze to Fresh gales Fresh gale Fresh breeze Fresh ga. light br. Fresh gales Weather and Meteors. Situation and Remarks. Hazy Snow, sleet Clear Fog showers Fog, snow Snow showers Fog showers Clear Showery Cloudy Hazy Snow, fog Ditto Cloudy Some snow Charming weather Clear, cloudy Clear Fog, clear Ane clear weather Fog, snow Thick snow showers Fog Fog, clear Snow, hazy Hazy, fog Much rain, fog Rain, thick fog Rain, clear Clear Fog showers Clear Fog showers Thick fog Fog showers Ditto Rain, clear Clear Cloudy Cbami. clear weath. Fog, snow Thick snow . Sno\y shower ! Thick show, of snow Clear, fog, rain 1 Rain, fog Floes near A body of floes Ditto Sea 600 fath. deep Large floes Ditto Floes and fields Ditto Ditto Ditto Scattered ice Drift ice and floes Ditto Charles' Isl. 85 mil. Crowded ice Ditto and floes F'loes Floes and drift ice Sea open Ditto In a bay of the ice Ditto Ditto Drift ice At sea Ditto A little ice Charles' Isl. 15 lea. Spitzbergen near Ditto No ice At sea A little ice Drift ice Ditto Open ice Drift ice Ice near Ditto Ditto Ice streams Ice near Djtto , Ditto ,; Ditto ; : Dittb f I !.•»! !'1 (Si?) M I'.T KOHOl .()(. U' A 1 . I'A \\l. ('S. [AIM' N f. 1815 Latitude. Longitude. .M7 If) 20 21 22 23 2i 2.5 26 27 28 29 :k) 31 1816 1 2 •c < 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 l(i 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 2.5 20 27 28 29 30 73«. 5' 72.4.5 72. 6 (>9.12 67.50 66.18 64.26 63 38* 63.28« 62.43" 01.45" 61.15 61. 7 60.1.5" 58, 6 59.10 00. 8 (iO. 8 01.23 63.59" 60.54" 67.54" 09,30 09.50" 71.24" 73. 4 73 5 r?.45 72.54 73.55 73.30 73.23" 74.1.3" 71.40 75.17 75.37 75.50 70.14" 76.59" 77. 70.55 70.45 76.28 70 26" 76.20 3.45 E 2.40 2. OW 2. 1.30 0.43 O.tO 0.52 0.55 1. 1. 1.48 K 1. 0.25 W 1. 6 2. W 1. 8 1. 8 0.10 32 E" 2.18 3. 2 5. 5.32 9.10 9.34 7. 2 8. 2 5. 7.20 6.30 5.40 2. 3. 4 .3.47 4.41 7.44 9.48 9. 6 8.30 8.35 8.40 8.40 8. 9 8.10 THlillMOMKTKR. Mux. 41 40 38 48 53 48 50 52 50 58 57 58 50 54 40 42 43 43 44 42 45 42 42 24 34 20 34 20 28 34 24 20 26 30 32 27 32 32 29 20 21 27 24 30 Min. 40 39 37 42 51 47 47 50 53 54 56 56 57 53 53 40 38 39 40 40 40 41 37 31 21 29 12 10 20 14 27 20 16 28 28 26 30 29 23 17 15 14 21 27 Med. 40.4 39.3 37,3 44.0 51.6 47.7 48.7 51.4 54.6 5.5.0 56.7 56.7 57.6 54.3 53.5 40.0 40.0 40.3 41.5 42.0 40.7 42.3 39.7 37.6 22.7 31.7 16.4 20.6 20.0 20.0 31.0 22.0 18,0 25.7 29.0 30.7 26.3 30.6 30.7 26.3 18.4 17.7 20.6 22.7 2a3 BAROMETER. Max. .Min. Med. 29,84 29.80 29.93 29.89 29.08 29.75 29.92 30.00 30.08 30.20 30.20 30.20 30.26 30.23 30.27 30.36 .30.10 30.20 30.20 30.00 29.80 29.70 29.80 29.80 29.80 29.80 29.07 29.80 .30.00 29.78 29.02 29.50 29.70 29.70 29.65 29.60 29.85 29.90 29.75 29.65 29. .55 29.55 29.00 29,95 30.05 29.70 29.77 29.86 29.06 29.06 29.68 29,75 29.92 30.00 30.08 30.20 30.26 30.13 30.13 30.23 30.10 30.00 30.00 30.06 29.86 29 50 29.56 29.70 29,75 2.9.75 29.50 29.38 29.67 29.78 29.47 29.56 29.40 29.40 29.60 29.60 29.35 29.43 29.75 29,50 29.45 29.45 29.49 29.49 29.60 29.95 29.80 29.81 29.90 29.77 29.67 89.72 29.83 29.96 30,04 30.14 30.23 30.26 30.20 30.18 30.25 30.23 30.05 30.10 30.13 29.96 29.68 29,63 29,78 29.80 29.78 29.65 29.52 29.73 29.89 29.62 29.59 29.48 29.55 29.65 29.63 29.47 29,64 29.83 29.62 29.55 29.50 29.52 29.55 29.77 30.00 vv. N r. fiTRR. 1 n. Med. 76 20.80 77 29.81 H6 29.90 06 29.77 66 29.67 68 39.72 75 29.83 92 29.96 00 30.04 Oft 30.14 20 :«).23 26 30.26 13 30.20 13 30.18 23 30.25 .10 30.23 .00 30.05 lOO 30.10 ,06 30.13 86 29.96 50 29.68 56 29.63 70 29,78 75 29.80 75 29.78 50 29.65 38 29.52 67 29.73 78 29.89 47 29.62 66 29.59 iO 29.48 10 29.55 W 29.65 )0 29.63 ia 29.47 13 29,64 r5 29.83 K) 29.62 i5 29.55 ■5 29.50 9 29.52 9 29.55 iO 29.77 '5 30.00 A PP. N" 1.] :\rr.TF,onoi,or.FrAi, tabi.f.s. (.S3) 1815 WINDS. Weather and Situation and Direction. Force. Meteors. Remarks. S Wto W Moderate 1>r, calm Fog Some ice E.erly to Fresh breeze Fog, rain, hazy Ice in sight 19 K S E to N E to Strong gale Thick fog, rain Ditto 20 to E.erly to Light airs Ditto No ice 21 E.erly, var. to Calm Fog, rain At sea 22 N N W, W N W to Fresh breeze Cloudy Ditto 23 to W, var. Moderate breeze Ditto Ditto 24 Var. Calm, light breeze Ditto Ditto 25 Var. N. W. Moderate breeze Hain Ditto 86 N W.erly Fresh breezes Ditto No soundings 27 to W.erly to Calm Clear Soundings, 105 fa. 28 Sb W Moderate breeze Cloudy Soundings, 86 fa. 29 to Var. Strong breeze, calm Rain, hazy Soundings, 90 fa. 30 N W to W Fresh gales Rain, fog Zetland in sight 31 N Fresh breeze Cloudy Kinnaird's Head,45' 1816 t * SSE Fresh or strong ga. Snow, sleet, hail At sea < « toSE Strong gales Show, of hail, sleet In Brassa Sound, 1 Zetland j 3 to S S E Fresh gales Cloudy 4 S F'resh breeze Hail, sleet At sea 5 StoSE to Strong gale Showers of hail Ditto 6 toE to Moderate breeze Hail, rain, sleet Ditto 7 E Light br. squally Snow, rain Ditto 8 E Lir.ht air, calm Snow showers Ditto 9 N W.erly '. J Fresh breeze Clear, snow Ditto 10 N W. E S E Fresli gales Snow showers Ditto 11 W.erly, var. Strong gale, calm Much snow Ditto 12 N Hard gale Snow showers Ditto 13 N N E to N N W to Fresh breeze Snow showers Saw a piece of ice 14 to N N E, S E Lig. br. to hard ga. Constant snow Drift ice 15 to E N E Very hard gales Snow, sleet, haze One piece of ice 16 toE Hard gales Snow showers No ice 17 toNNE Ditto Thick snow Ditto 18 toN to Fresh breeze Snow showers Ice streams 19 N N E to E to Strong gale Ditto Ditto 20 E N E, var. to Light breeze Thick snow, sleet Ditto 21 Variable Fresh breeze, culm Snow, haze, sleet A little ice 22 Ditto Moderate br. calm Snow, thick fog Loose pieces of ice 23 ESE Very hard gale Fog, haze Ice streams 24 S E.erly Strong gale, calm Thick snow Much Drift ice. 25 E N E to N N W Fresh gales Cloudy Ditto 26 N W Fresh gale Crystallized snow Ditto 27 N W, E.erly to Gentle breeze Much crys. snow Ditto 28 toNNW Light airs fcinow showers Ditto 29 NNW Moderate breeze Fine snow crystal^ Ditto , 1 30 N, E, ?SE Cahn, strong gale Very thick snow Ditto ', \ t )].. I. -AIM'KXDTN 1 :. (t •) (34) MKTEUKOLUUICAL lABLKS. [a IT. N" I. ■J! 1 ill ••, «i 1816 Latitude, Longitude. THERVOMETEH. BAROMETER. iviax. Min. Med. Max. Min. Med, &• i 77>». 4' 10.30 E 26 21 23.0 30.06 29.96 ;io.oi » 2 77.30 9.10 22 18 20.3 29.96 29.78 29.87 3 77.40 9. 5 22 21 21.3 29.98 29.96 29.97 4 77.58 8.50 28 25 26.4 29.98 29.90 29.94 5 78.10 8.40 28 17 24.7 29.90 29.90 29,90 6 78. 5 8.40 14 10 12.3 29.90 29.80 89.85 7 77.59 8.30 10 8 9.5 30.03 29.83 89.93 8 78.50 8. 12 9 10.3 30.03 30.02 30.02 78.55 7.50 20 10 15.4 30.02 29.90 89.96 10 78.53 7.40 20 10 16,0 29.90 29.65 89.78 11 78.45" 7. 26 20 23.5 29.90 29.65 89.77 12 78.40 7.50 28 16 22,5 29.97 29.90 89.94 i:j 78.48 8. 24 18 20.0 29.92 29.86 89.89 14 78.40 8. 24 10 17.8 29.86 29.82 29.84 l& 7a38" 7.25 15 8 10.7 29.87 29.82 29.84 Iti 7a40 7.35 16 15 15.6 29.85 29.80 89.83 17 78.40 8.36 23 16 19.0 29.98 29.80 89.89 18 78.30 8.50 28 22 24.7 30.20 29.98 30.09 19 78.50* 7,50 34 30 32.0 30.20 29.88 30.04 20 78.58 5.50 34 30 32.0 29.88 29.76 89.88 81 79. 4 5.55 38 33 35.0 29.96 29.76 89.86 22 79 14 5.40 35 32 33.7 29.90 29.60 29.75 23 79.23 5.30 33 30 32.0 29.63 29,55 29.59 24 79.27 4.50 35 26 31,7 29.55 29.40 29.47 25 79.32* 5,50 28 21 24.6 29.80 29.37 29.59 26 79.36 5.20 38 29 33.5 29.86 29.68 29.77 27 79.40 5.20 34 32 33.0 29.68 29.56 29.62 28 79.42* 5.30 36 33 34.3 29.63 29.60 29.61 29 79.46 5,30 37 35 36.0 29.95 29.63 29.79 30 79.50 5.20 40 34 36.0 30.03 29.95 89.99 31 79.55 5.10 36 34 35.0 30,03 29.85 89.94 a 1 80. 5.15 37 34 35.7 29.85 29.81 89.83 80. 1 5.20 41 39 40.0 29.83 29.77 89.80 3 79.59 5.25 42 34 39.0 29.77 29.59 89.68 4 79.58 5.21 39 33 35.3 29.59 29,50 89.55 5 79.58 5.20 38 33 34.7 29.50 29.42 29.46 6 80. 5.10 36 32 34.0 29.53 29.52 89.52 7 79.56 5. 37 32 34,6 29.67 29.53 29.60 8 79.53* 4.55 42 32 36.0 29.80 29.67 29.74 9 79.49 4.53 32 30 30.7 29.88 29.80 29.84 10 79.47* 4.50 45 32 37.0 29.89 29,88 29.88 11 79.46 456 34 30 32.0 29.89 29M 29.77 12 79.40 4w45 34 33 33.3 29.64 29.58 29.61 13 79.44* 4.55 34 33 33,7 29.70 29.61 29.66 14 79. 5. 35 33 34.0 29.70 29.56 29.63 15 79. 5. 35 31 33.6 29.62 29.53 29.57 AIT. N- I. KTER. In. Med, .96 30.01 .78 29.87 .9(i 29.97 .90 29.94 .90 29.90 .80 29.85 .83 29.93 .02 30.02 .90 29.96 .G5 29.78 165 29.77 >.90 29.94 >.8(i 29.89 ).82 29.84 ).82 29.84 ).80 29.83 ).80 29.89 J.98 30.09 J.88 30.04 9.76 29.82 ).76 29.86 ).60 29.76 >.55 29.59 ).40 29.47 ).37 29.59 ).68 29.77 ).56 29.62 ).60 29.61 ).63 29.79 ).95 29.99 ).85 29.94 ).81 29.83 ).77 29.80 ).59 29.68 ).50 29.55 ).42 29.46 ).52 29.52 ).53 29.60 ).67 29.74 ).80 29.84 ),88 29.88 ).64 99.77 ).58 29.61 ).61 29.66 ).56 29.63 >.53 29.57 A PP. N" I. J 1816 S i 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IB 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 S 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 METEOIIOLOGICAL TAULliS. (35) WINDS. Direction. SK SK S B, S S K S 8 R, S b E S to W N W, N N N. N W NWtoN Var. S K.erly W N W, N N E toNE N.erly N.erly E N E to N NtoN W Var. 8 W N.erly, var. S 8 to S S W S, SW S to S S E SE 8 E to S S W 8 E. var. N W.erly, var. SSE toS 8 8 E to S S W 8 8toS W SSW 8 b W to S b E E b N to S S E to N E 8 E to N E S E to S 8 W 8 E to S b E Variable W.erly, N.erly N to W var. NNE N E to N b W Variable Var. N E.erly toNNW Force. Very hard gale Hard gale Strong gales Very hard gales tu l^ight breezes Strong gale Fresh galea Moderate breeze Calm, fresh breeze Strong gales to Light breeze Light airs Ditto to Fresh gales to Light breeze Calm, mod. breeze to Calm Strong gale Fresh gales to Moderate breeze Freih gales to Moderate breeze to Fresh gale to Calm, str. br. Fresh breeze Strong gale to Light breeze to Fresh gales Strong breeze Moderate breezes Fresh gale Fresh ga. mod. br. Light airs to Fresh gale to Light airs Fresh br. str. ga. to Moderate breeze to Calm to Light airs Fresh breeze Light breeze, calm Light br. to fr. gale to Light airs Gentle breezes to Strong breeze Strong breeze Meteors and Weather. { Thick snow Ditto Snow showers Thick snow shower Constant snow Snow showers Frost rime Cloudy Strong snow show. Cloudy Some snow Clear Show, of crys. snow Clear, cloudy Clear A little snow Cloudy Clear, snow Much rain, fog Thick fog, snow Fog shower, rain Fog, rain, snow Much snow Snow, fog Clear Snow, fog, rain Rain, haze, fog Fog or snow show. Ditto Constant fog Fog showers Snow showers Fog showers Fog, rain, sleet Fog, snow, sleet Much snow Snow, sleet Snow, fog Fog, clear Snow showers Fog, clear Fog, snow Haze, fog, snow Fog or snow show. Curious refraction Fog showers Situation and Remarks. Amo. heavy dr. ice, with tremend. swell, ship driv. intoahcavy pack, and damaged Among much ico Ditto Ditto Sea open Ditto Ice near Surrounded by ice. Sea open Bay Ice Spitzbergen in sight Ice near Drift ice Frozen in bay ico Ditto Ice streams Floes and drift ice Large floes Ditto Many floes Ditto Ditto Charles* Isl. 22 lea. Many floes Surrounded by floes Ship beset by ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ship closely beset by floes and heavy ice Hackl. Headlan. 45^ Ship close beset Made a small rem. Ship immoveable Ditto Ditto Moved a little way Removed some dist Gained smaller ice Escaped to sea Drift ice Ice streams Sea open >i\ i! (36) M ETEOllOLOC; ICAL TABLES. [A1'1\ N" 1. Al> 'I 1816 Latitude. Longitude. THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. Max. Min. Med. Max. Min. Med. §16 |l7 79M2'« 4.50 E 37 31 35.0 89.79 29.62 29.71 79.10 6,50 33 32 38.7 89.86 29.79 29.82 18 79. 4.40 33 31 38.4 89.96 29.86 29.91 19 7a 40 5.10 34 32 33.3 30.05 29.96 30.01 80 78.20 4.45 38 33 35,7 30.83 30.05 30.14 21 78. 7 4.50 36 34 35.3 30.36 30.23 30.89 28 78.16 1. 34 33 33.6 30,36 30.06 30.81 23 78.24 2. 34 38 33.4 30.06 29.82 29,94 24 78.11 0.30 38 31 34.7 89.85 29.82 29.84 25 78.15 0. 31 87 2a7 30.00 29.85 89,92 26 78.20 LOW 29 88 2a6 30.10 30.00 30.05 27 78.16 1.25 31 89 30.0 30.07 29.84 29.96 28 7a 8« 1.30 33 30 31.0 89.84 29.77 29.80 29 78. 8 2. 34 89 32.0 29.80 29.77 29.79 30 78. 6 2. 5 38 34 36.0 29.90 29.80 29.85 1817 =2 1 5429 0.88 W 50 44 47.0 30.57 30.43 30.50 Oi 9 ''I 56.20 1, 48 45 46.5 30.57 30.54 30.55 56.53* 1.20* 56 44 49.3 30,67 30.54 30.61 4 57.57" 1.18 44 38 41.3 30.72 30,67 30.69 5 60. 8 1. 8 46 44 45.0 30.68 30.62 30.65 6 60. 8 1. 8 50 43 46.5 30.65 30.62 30.64 7 62.47 1. 1 E 46 44 45.0 30.65 30.05 30.35 8 65. 6 1.35 36 88 38.6 30.05 29.45 29.75 9 64.39* 8. 6 28 86 87.0 29.65 29.45 29.55 10 64.29 a30 88 86 27.0 29.95 29.65 29.80 11 65. 5.13 31 89 29.7 29.95 29.70 29.82 12 65.48 4.19 34 31 32.7 29.80 89.55 29.68 13 6a 3 6. 3 40 30 36.0 29.80 89.07 29.43 14 69.25 6.32 35 34 34.6 89.45 89.07 29.26 15 70.27* 4.42 38 28 30.4 89.35 89.10 29.23 16 70. 6.52 30 28 29.0 89.68 89..35 29.48 17 70.12* 9,40* 30 28 29.0 89.85 29.62 29.74 18 71.56 10.16 38 32 32 29.87 29.23 89.55 19 73.13* 11.46 35 34 34.7 29.25 2a75 89.00 20 73.25 11.30 34 28 31.0 29.76 29.25 89.50 21 76. 5* ia22* 88 21 25.0 29.65 29.20 89.43 22 7.5.50 1L50 84 21 22.3 29.73 29.30 29.51 23 77.24 7. 82 18 20.7 29.90 29.73 29.82 24 7a21 2.23 21 16 19.0 29.88 29.75 29.78 25 7a 2.35 W 11 7 9.3 30.08 29.82 29.92 26 7a23 1.55 14 8 10.8 30.02 89.86 89.94 27 7a20 2.10 28 12 16.8 89.86 29.76 89.81 28 7a 5 4. OE 14 18 13.4 89.76 29.67 29.72 29 77. .54 2.40 W 8 4 fi.3 29.75 29.67 29.71 30 77.48 3.20 8 5 fi.fi 29.80 29.75 29.78 ' I I 1 N^ I. AIT. N T.] MLTKOUO LOGIC Ah TABLES. (37) BR. Med. 29.71 29.82 29.91 30.01 30.14 30.29 30.21 29,94 29.94 29.92 30.05 29.96 29.80 29.79 29.85 30.50 30.55 30.61 30.69 30.65 30.64 30.35 29.75 29.55 29.80 29.82 29.68 29.43 29.26 29.23 29.48 29.74 29.55 29.00 29.50 29.43 29.51 29.82 29.78 29.92 29.94 29.81 29.78 29.71 29.78 1 01 i2 — WINDS. Meteors and Weather. Situation and 18Jo Remarks. Direction. f orce. S16 N W.erly to Light airs Clear Sea open ^17 W.erly, S b W Moder. breeze, calm Snow showers 1 ce streams 18 W b N to S S W to Moder. breeze Ditto ] ce in sight 19 toW Fresh or light br. Thick fog, snow Sea open | 20 toSS W to Fresh breeze Snow, fog 1 Drift ice 21 S W Strong breeze Fog Ditto 22 S WbS Strong gale Fog, haze, rain Much drift ice 23 to S W b W Fresh to light br. Thick fog Ditto 24 Van N W to N E to Fresh br. calm Snow showers Much heavy ice 25 toN F'resh br. to calm Snow, fog Floes and drift ice 26 Var. S b W to Moderate breeze Snow showers Ditto 27 S W to Fresh breeze Ditto Ditto 28 toWNW Strong breezes Ditto Ditto 29 Variable Light br. calm Some snow J Fog or snow \ Ship in great dis* 30 Ditto Ditto tress, fills with water 1817 X 1 S W to E S E Gentle breezes Clear In Whitby harlwur ^2 SW,NE F'resh br, to calm Cloudy At sea 3 N.erly, S.erly Light breeze, calm Fine clear weather Ditto 4 S. to Fresh gale Dense atmosphere Buchanness, 6 leag. 5 SSWtoWNW.N Fresh breezes Aurora borealia In Brassa Sound 6 N.erly to S W Calm, fresh gale Cloudy Ditto 7 sw Strong gale Rain, haze At sea 8 to W, N E to N Mod. br. strong ga. Snow, aurora bor. Ditto 9 toNNE Hard gales Much snow, hail Ditto 10 N b W, N W Intermittent gale Snow showers Ditto 11 W N W to N Ditto Opaque hail Ditto 12 N N E, S W Fresh ga. light br. Snow, sleet, rain Ditto 13 S S W to W Strong or fresh ga. Sk'ct, rain, snow Ditto 14 N N E to E Mod. br. hard ga. Ditto Ditto 15 E N E to N N E Very hard gale Rain, snow Ditto 16 to N W b N Strong gales Snow showers Ditto 17 N b W to N W Fresh breezes Some snow Ditto 18 S to S E, W b S Cal. to exces. ha. ga. Constant snow Ditto 19 to Var. to Calm, light br. Showers of snow Heavy sea, no wind 20 N.erly, S W, var. to Fresh gale Cloudy, snow Temp, of sea, 36° 21 W S W to W N W to Hard gales Snow showers Spitzbergen 30', Ice 22 to N W, E, var. to Calm Snow Ditto 40', Ice 23 E S E to N E Strong gales Snow shower Ice near 24 E N E to N b W Fresh or strong ga. Much snow Loose drift ice 25 N N W, N W Fresh breezes Frost rime Streams, &c. of ice 26 toN N E to Light airs Frost rime, clear A little ice 27 toN E to Fresh gale Clear, snow shower Scattered ice 28 N N E to N N W Strang gales A little frost rime No ice 29 NN W Ditto Frost rime Loose ice 30 N N W j Fresh gale Thick frost rime Ice streams 1 1 (38) METfiOllOLOGlCAL TABLES. [APr. N' I. m 1817 Latitude. Longitude. THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. Max. Min. Med. Max. Min, Med. ^ 1 77°.55' 2.40 W 16 10 13.3 29.90 29.80 29.85 S 2 78.15 2.35 19 15 17.3 29.90 29.80 29.85 3 78.28« 1. 5 20 13 17.4 29.80 29.50 29.65 4 78.55 0.45 20 20 20.0 29.85 29.50 29.68 5 80. 5 5.50* E 30 28 28.7 29.95 29.85 29.90 6 79.18 3.58 28 26 27.0 29.95 29.80 29.87 7 78.55 0.40 31 30 30.3 29.85 29.80 29.83 8 78.50 L20W 30 30 30.0 29.89 29.81 29.85 9 77.20 J. 40 31 30 30.3 29.80 29.43 29.61 10 77.52» 1.50 31 30 30.4 29.53 29.39 29.46 11 78. 2 2.40* 30 29 29.7 29.83 29.53 29.68 12 77.50 2.20 32 26 29.3 30.15 29.83 29.99 13 76.50 2.30 32 28 30.3 30.25 30.15 30.20 14 75.52 8. 5* 23 15 19.0 30.20 30.09 30.15 15 75.53« 6.40 18 15 16.4 30.10 30.09 30.09 16 75.12 6. 31 27 29.3 30.10 29.70 z: '-.o 17 75.16 8.30 31 28 29.6 29.97 29.90 a- " 18 75.28 11.20 34 31 32.7 30.00 29.97 i. 19 75.23 10.40 34 32 33.0 30.07 30,00 Sl .' 20 75.30 9.50* 32 30 31.0 30.07 30.07 30.0'/ 21 75.30 9.40 31 31 31.0 30.07 29.85 29.96 22 75.34 9.40 31 30 30.3 29.85 29.73 29.79 23 75.45 9.10 32 29 30.4 29.95 29.73 29.84 24 75.58 8,50 29 28 28.3 30.14 29.95 30.04 26 76.15* 7.32* 30 24 27.7 30.16 30.02 30.09 26 76.37* 5.35* 38 32 35.3 30.02 30.00 30.01 27 77. 7* 3.20 32 31 31.6 30.10 30.00 30.05 28 77.25 2.50 32 30 30.7 30.25 30.10 30.18 29 77.34* L50 30 27 28.7 30.25 30.20 30.22 30 77.39* 1.40 27 25 26.0 30.20 29.93 30.07 31 78. 2 0.30 28 26 27.0 29.93 29.84 29,88 §1 *^ 2 7a29* 1.20 28 22 247 29.89 29.84 29.87 78.15 0.25 E 30 26 28.7 29.95 29.89 29.92 3 77.56* 0.20 36 33 34.3 29.94 29.92 29.93 4 7a 0.20 34 33 33.6 29.96 29.87 29.91 5 77.54* 0.10 33 33 33.0 29.87 29.81 29.84 6 77.56 0.15 40 33 36.3 29.87 29.79 29.83 7 78. 2* 0.20 43 36 38.4 29.93 29.87 29.90 8 78.10 0.10 30 28 29.0 29.95 29.93 29.94 9 78.12 2. OW 30 27 28.3 30.04 29.95 30.00 10 78.20 0.24 E 30 27 28.3 30.06 30.04 30.05 11 78.26* 0.30 W 27 25 25.7 30.09 30.06 30.07 12 78.34 1.40 26 25 25.4 30.07 29.95 30.01 13 78.28* 1.30 28 22 25.7 29.95 29.60 29.78 14 78.17* 2. 5 29 20 25.0 29.60 29,50 29.55 15 78. 4 2.50 25 22 2a3 29.55 29.52 29.53 N" ) 3 [) 5 1 3 t9 >3 J3 15 39 39 70 90 97 00 07 85 73 73 95 02 00 00 10 20 93 29.85 29.85 29.65 29.68 29.90 29.87 29.83 29.85 29.61 29.46 29.68 29.99 30.20 30.15 30.09 z: '".0 1 3c i^ 30.01 29.96 29.79 29.84 30.04 30.09 30.01 30.05 30.18 30.22 30.07 29,88 29.87 29.92 29.93 29.91 29.84 29.83 29.90 29.94 30.00 30.05 30.07 30.01 29.78 29.55 29.53 Arr. N"^ I.] METEOROLOGICAL TAUI-ES. im 1817 WINDS. Weather and Meteors. Situation and Remarks. Direction. Force. ^ 1 N b E, van Light or fresh br. Frost rime, snow Near the main ice S 2 E to N, var. to Fresh gales Cryst. snow Ditto 3 NbE, SEbE Strong gale, calm Much cryst. snow Ditto 4 S E to E N E to Fresh gale Snow showers Ditto 5 Ditto to Light breeze Clear, cloudy Spitz. 40 to 50 miles 6 E S E to S E Fresh ga. light br. Fine snow crystals Near the W,rn pack T S S E to E N E Moderate breezes Hazy weather Ditto 8 toSEbE to Fresh gales Snow, sleet, haze Ditto 9 E to S S E Strong breezes Thick fog, snow At sea 10 E S E to S b E to Light breeze Fog or snow show. Ice in sight 11 S W to S b E Mod. or strong br. Snow showers Ditto 12 S S W, N b E to Calm Fog, snow Ditto 13 toENE Fresh breezes Thick fog, snow No ice 14 N b W, N N E Mod. br. strong ga. Fog, snow Near a pack 15 NbE Very hard gale Thick snow Amongst loose ice 16 toNb W Strong gales Haze, snow A few pieces of ice 17 NbE F'resh breeze Haze, fog Ice streama, &c. 18 N Light breeze Thick fog, snow Much heavy ice 19 N N E to E b N to Fresh breeze Fog, haze An open pack 20 NE Strong gale Haze, snow At sea 21 NEbN to Fresh gale Haze, snow, fog Ditto 22 N E b N to Calm Thick fog, snow Brash ice 23 NtoN W Calm to moder. br. Snow showers Near the W. pack 24 toN Moderate breezes Ditto Ditto 25 N, S E b E Moder. br. calm Cloudy Ditto 26 toSS E Light airs Clear Much heavy ice 27 toE b N Light breezes Cloudy Ditto 28 E.erly Light breeze, calm Clear, fog Ice near 29 N E to N b W Moderate breezes Clear, cloudy Drift ice, &c. 30 toW to Fresh breeze Clear At sea 31 toN N W to Moderate breeze Cloudy Much crowded ice c 1 N b W to N W Moderate breeze Frost rime Much ice ° 2 Var. S b W to Strcr.g breeze Cloudy At sea ^ 3 S b W to S b E Moderate breeze Snow showers A little ice 4 to E b S, var. Ditto Ditto Ditto 5 EbStoSEbS to Light airs Brilliant rain-bow Ditto 6 toS bE Moderate breeze Snow showers Ditto 7 Variable Light airs Ditto Ditto 8 Jitto to Calm Fog showers Drift ice and floes 9 Ditto to Light airs Ditto Floes, &c. 10 W.erly, N.erly to Moderate breeze Clear, cloudy Drift ice 11 N W to W Fresh breeze Clear In a bay of the ice 12 NW to Hard gale Cloudy, snow Solid ice near 13 N b W to W N W to Strong breeze Thick snow Drift ice and floes 14 toN Hard gale Snow showers Ditto 15 to N W b N to Strong gale Cloudy Ditto (40) METEOROLOGICAL TABLES. [aPP. N" I. Al'P. 1817 Latitude. Longitude. THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. Max. Mill. Med. Max. Min, Med. gl6 77''.44' 3.15 W 26 23 24.0 29.52 29.50 29.51 ^17 77.20 1.25 32 25 29.0 29.75 29.50 29.63 18 77.27" 2.16" 34 29 31.0 30.05 29.75 29.90 19 77.36« 1.15 40 34 36.6 30.15 30.05 30.10 20 77.41" 1. OE 37 32 34.5 30.22 30.15 .30.18 21 77.58* 0.20 34 30 32.3 30.25 30.09 30.17 22 78.20 1,20 W 33 30 31.4 30.09 30.00 30.05 23 77.30 2.20 35 30 33.0 30.16 30.00 30.08 24 76.30« 150 38 33 35.3 30.24 30.16 30.20 25 76.17" aio 34 30 32.3 30.24 30.20 30.22 26 76.33 4.40 35 34 34.4 30.20 29.98 30.09 27 76.26 5. 35 34 34.3 29.98 29.80 29.89 28 76.30" 5. 5" 34 32 32.7 29.80 29.60 29.70 29 76.24" 5.20 38 32 35.3 29.71 29.68 29.69 30 .76- 4 5.40 38 36 37.0 29.72 29.68 29.70 I" 1 75.59 7.20 38 36 37.3 2^.92 29.72 29.82 ^ 2 75.25 8.10 38 35 36.3 29.92 29.92 29.92 3 75.40 7.30 36 35 35.7 29.92 29.85 29,88 4 75.50 5.20 36 33 34.6 29.85 29.80 29.83 5 75.54" 7.10 38 32 35.4 29.80 29.78 29.79 6 75.46 7.20 42 32 36.7 29.88 29.82 29.85 7 75.53 7.40 35 3i 33.7 29.88 29.88 29.88 8 75.50 8.35 36 33 34.7 29.88 29.88 29.88 9 75.12 9.10 36 34 35.0 29.88 29.83 29.85 10 75.20 7.10 40 35 37.0 29.83 29.72 29.78 11 75.12" 6.40 40 32 36.0 29 78 29.70 29.74 12 75.20 4.50 35 32 33.6 29.83 29.78 29.80 13 75.18 4.20 33 32 32.3 29.83 29.78 29.81 14 74.59" 2.50 37 33 35.0 29.80 29.78 29.79 15 75.54 L OE 38 33 35.7 29.87 29.80 29.83 16 76.20" 0.33 W 40 35 37-7 29.92 29.87 29.90 17 75.56 3.49 E 36 34 35.3 29.93 29.92 29.92 18 75.45 6.30 40 36 37.4 29.94 29.93 29.94 19 76.20 10.30 37 36 36.5 30.08 29.94 30.01 20 76. 4 13.10 40 38 39.0 30.08 29.95 30.01 21 75.15 12.42 39 37 37.6 29.98 29.97 29.98 22 75. 5 11.38 42 41 41.3 30.01 29.96 29.98 23 74.25 6.58 45 44 44.3 29.96 29.92 29.94 24 73.49 1.58 45 40 42.4 29.92 29.73 29.83 25 7a55 0. 1 W 40 38 39.3 29.97 29.83 29.90 26 7135 0.30 41 39 40.0 29.97 29.85 29.91 27 7127 0.35 41 35 38.3 29.85 29.83 29.84 28 73.56" 4.47" 39 35 36.7 29.83 29.65 29.74 29 74. 10,37" 36 33 34.7 29.70 29.65 29.67 30 73.46 8.50 38 32 35.0 29.70 .29.70 29.70 31 1 73.46" 8.10 40 33 36.0 29.75 29.70 29.73 I 1' 1 1817 S16 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 ^ 1 s 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 TER. Med. 29.51 29.63 5 29.90 5 30.10 5 .30.18 9 30.17 30.05 9 30.08 S 30.20 1) 30.22 8 30.09 29.89 29.70 8 29.69 8 29.70 2 29.82 2 29.92 5 29.88 29.83 8 29.79 2 29.85 ) 29.88 i 29.88 } 29.85 i 29.78 ) 29.74 ) 29.80 i 39.81 ) 29.79 ) 29.83 ' 29.90 ! 29.92 ) 29.94 . 30.01 » 30.01 ' 29.98 ) 29.98 ! 29.94 1 29.83 ; 29.90 29.91 APP. N' I.] METEOROLOGICAL TABLES. (41) 1817 WINDS. Meteors and Weather. Situation and Remarks. Direction. Force. gl6 NWbN Hard gale Much snow Drift ice and floes ^n to N E b N to Strong breeze Hazy, clear Ditto 18 toN W to Light breeze Clear Drift ice 19 N.erly, W.erly Light airs, calm Ditto Much drift ice 20 NN E Fresh breeze Clear, cloudy At sea 21 toNb W to Strong gale Much snow Ice streams 22 NtoN W Very strong gale Snow Ditto 23 N W to Fresh breeze Cloudy, snow Ditto 24 N W. var. Light airs Clear At sea 25 SWbStoSbW Fresh gales Hazy, showery Ice streams 26 S to S b E Strong gales Fog or snow Ice-field, &c. 27 SbE Strong gale Thick fog Ditto 28 Variable Fresh br. light airs Hazy, clear Ditto 29 Ditto to Calm Snow showers, hazy Drift ice and floes 30 S.erly, var. Moderate breeze Hazy, thick fog Ditto ^ 1 S.erly, S E Ditto Thick fog Much drift ice ^ 2 S b W, S W b W Light or mod. br. Ditto Ditto 3 SbW Fresh breeze Ditto Ditto 4 S b E to S W Light airs Ditto Ditto 5 toSbW Moderate breeze Fog showers, fog Drift ice and floes 6 Variable. to Calm Foggy Ditto 7 S.erly, to S W to Moderate breeze Fog, snow Crowded ice 8 S W b W to S Moderate breeze Fog showers Much drift ice 9 to S W b W Ditto Thick fog Floes and drift ice 10 toSbW Fresh breeze Ditto Ditto 11 W b S to S W Moderate breeze Fog, rain Ditto 12 SW Fresh gale Rain, fog Ditto 13 WS W Moderate gales Constant fog Ditto 14 toW Fresh breeze Fog, clear Loose ice 15 N W to N b E Ditto Fog, cloudy At sea 16 S W to S b W to Calm Thick fog, clear Fioe and loose ice 17 S W, W, var. Strong breeze Cloudy, fog At sea 18 N W, var. Calm, mod. breeze Cloudy, clear No ice 19 S W to W N W to Strong breeze Cloudy Spitzbergen in sight 20 N to W S W to Moderate breeze Cloudy, hazy Ditto 21 W.erly, var. to Calm Cloudy No ice 22 Variable to Moderate breeze Cloudy, rain At sea, no ice 23 EbStoSSW Fresh breeze Cloudy, rain, fog Ditto U StoW Ditto Rain, fog Ditto 25 W, var. Str. br. light airs Fog Ditto 26 Variable Chiefly calm Thick fog Ditto 27 N E to E S E Calm, light airs Ditto Ditto 28 EtoNEbN to Strong gale Fog showers Ditto 29 30 NEtoN W N.erly Variable Fresh breeze to Calm Ditto Thick fog Drift ice and floes W. Greerd. in, sight 31 Calm, moderate br. Fog, clear Crowded drift ice VOL. I. APPENDIX. (O (42) METEOIIOLOGICAL TA1U.ES. [app. N" 1. 1818 Latitude, 1 THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. uiongitude. Max.Min. Med. Deck. Mast- Max. Min. Med.l 1 head. S" 1 70''.50 6.50 W 27 25 26.3 27 24,5 30.45 30.25 30.35 S 2 71.10 6.20 28 25 26.7 27 |24 30.54 30,45 30.49 3 71.34 5,28« 29 26 27.3 29 t26 30.47 30.44 30.46 4 72. 1" 4.26 31 30 30.4 30 26.5 30.44 30,04 30.21 5 72.30 3, 32 30 31.3 32 130 30.04 29.60 29.82 6 74,40 1.44 E 27 24 25.7 26 |23 29,80 29.60 29.70 7 75.39 2.40 32 29 31.0 32 + 30 29.82 29,74 29.78 8 78.10 5.10 29 16 22,3 16 12 29.74 29.40 29,57 9 78.30 6,20 22 19 20.4 22 17 29,70 29,40 29,55 10 78.16 4.10 22 14 17.0 16 12 29.90 29.70 29.80 11 78.10 4. 19 14 17,0 18 14 29,90 29,88 29.89 12 78. 6» 3.10 22 13 16.3 14 flO 30.05 29.88 29.96 13 78. 3.30 28 20 24.0 24 t20 30.29 30.05 30.17 14 78.27* 1.50 28 24 26.0 24 +20 30.32 30.29 30.31 15 78.35 2.20 30 28 28.6 28 t25 30,34 30.20 30.27 16 78.26 1.40 30 25 28.0 29 126 30,20 30,14 30.17 17 78,36 1.30 24 24 24.0 24 t20 30.14 30.02 30.08 18 78.26 0.10 W 22 18 19.3 18 |14 30.02 29.80 29.91 19 78.10 0.50 18 12 15.2 14 tio 29.85 29.73 29.79 20 77.55 0.55 20 13 15,8 20 16 29,88 29.85 29,8(i 21 77,59 0.40 26 19 22.4 22 tl8 30,00 29.88 29.91 22 78. 1. 30 27 28.7 29 t26 30.00 29,90 29.9i 23 77,58 1. 2 26 23 25.0 26 23 30.02 29.88 29.95 24 77.55 0.42 22 19 20.3 20 |16 30.06 30,02 30.04 25 77.59 0,30 E 19 18 18.8 19 tl5 30,08 30.06 30.0? 26 77.40 0,10 w 20 16 18,0 18 114 :'>0,20 30.08 30.U 27 77.31* 0,40 29 24 25,7 24 120.5 30,22 30.18 30.20 28 78. 0.50 30 30 30.0 30 128 30.18 29.70 29.94 29 78. 5 1.20 E 30 25 28.4 25 23 29.70 29,30 29.50 30 78.30 0.19 28 24 25,5 28 25 29,30 29.30 29.30 31 78.28 0.30 24 22 22,5 22 20 29,40 29.30 29.3.5 1 ^ 78,25 0.10 24 23 23,3 29.50 29.40 29.45 ^ 2 78,20 0.10 W 27 25 26.0 29.70 2'J.50 29.60 3 78.28 1.10 E 27 26 26,3 29.85 29.70 29.71 4 78,35" 0.55 27 26 26,4 29,86 29.85 29.8C 5 78.50 0.20 W 28 26 27.0 30,02 29.86 29.94 6 78.22» 0,40 E 29 26 27.7 30,02 30.00 30.01 7 78.28 0.30 33 31 32.0 30,00 29.96 29.98 8 78.25 0.30 W 34 33 33.7 29.96 29,25 29.60 9 78.20 0. 5E 34 32 33.3 29,63 29,25 29.44 10 78.30 2. 33 31 32.3 29.90 29,63 29.7T 11 78.34 1.40 32 30 30,G 30.15 29,90 30.02 12 78,50 2.20 40 32 35.4 30.22 30.15 30.19 13 78.47 a 34 31 32,3 30.30 30.20 30.25 14 79.10 3.25 32 30 31,0 30.20 30.20 30.20 IS 79,18 3.12 32 13 31.3 30.22 30.16 30.19 1 ) i [ait. N^ 1, 1 AW. N" I.] METEOROLOGICAL TABLES. BAROMETER. ax. Min. Med ).45 )..54. ).47 ).44 ).04 9.80 9.82 9.74 9.70 9.90 9.90 0.05 0.29 0.32 10,34 10,20 !0.14 10.02 !9.88 10.00 10.00 ;().02 0.06 10,08 (\20 10.22 I0.I8 19.70 19.30 9.40 I9.5O 70 19.85 8G ',02 ,02 .00 .96 1.63 .90 15 .22 •.30 20 ,22 30.25 30.45 30.44 30.04 I 29.60 29.60 29.74 29.40 I 29.40 29.70 29.88 29.88 30.05 30.29 30.20 30.14 30.02 29.80 29.73 29.85 29.88 29.90 29.88 30.02 30.06 30.08 30.18 29.70 29.30 29.30 29.30 29.40 2'J..)0 29.70 29.85 29.86 30.00 29.96 29.25 29.25 29.63 29.90 30.15 30.20 30.20 30.16 30.35 30.49 30.46 30.21 29.82 29.70 29.78 29.57 (43) 29.55 29.801 29.89: 29.9C 30.17 30.31 30.27 30.17 30.08 29.91 29.79 29.86 29.94 29.9J 29.9o 30.04 30.0?: 30.U 30.20 29.94' 29.50 29.30 29.3,5 29.45 29.60 29.77 29.8C 29.94 30.01 29.9S; 29.60, 29.44: 29.7T. 30.02 1 30.19i 30.2 J, 30.20, 30.1 9 1 1 ■ 1818 WINDS. Direction. 1 N E b E to E 2 EbN 3 E NE * to E b S 5 S E to S W 6 toN W ^ Variable, S 8 S b W to W 9 W b N, W S W, N 10 N N W, N 11 NNE, NW 12 N W, var. 13 S, W S W to N 14 N N E to E S E 15 S E.erly 16 Variable 17 N E bE 18 NEbN 19 to N b E 20 NbE 21 N to W b N 22 W.erly, var. 23 Vaiiable 24 E b N, N E b E 25 NEbN to NbE 26 to W b N 27 to S S W 28 to S E & S W 29 to W b N 30 to S, var. 31 N, N N VV 1 N ; 2 N N W, W N W 3 VV b N to N W 4 N N W to N W 5 W N W, var. 6 VV S VV, S VV 7 SSWtoSSE H to E to N b E 9 toN 10 NNE,NE 11 NNE.var. S 12 SbVVtoESE 13 S S E 14 to S VV 15 VVSVV, var. Force. Weather and Meteors. Strong breezes to Light breeze to Frt'^' .eze to S.n , gale Strong gales to Light airs to Strong gale to Fresh breeze Light breezes Light airs Fresh gales to Calm to Moderate breeze Light airs Near calm to Fresh breeze Strong gale Hard gale Ditto Ditto to Calm Light airs, calm Ditto Fresh breeze Fresh gales to Moderate breeze Fresh gales Strong ga. light br. Calm, fresh gale to Calm to strong gale Fresh breeze Strong breeze Light airs to Moderate breeze ?/Ioderate breeze to Fresh breeze Strong gales Fresh ga. mod. br. Fresh gales Light airs Calm, light breeze Light airs to Moderate breeze to Fresh breeze Gentle breeze Situation and Remarks. Snow showers Cloudy, clear Cloudy Clear, snow Fog showers, cloudy Cloudy Snow, fog, cloudy Cloudy, snow show. Clear, cloudy Cloudy Snow, clear Clear Ditto Partially clear Clear in the N VV Cloudy, ditto Thick snow Snow, hazy Clear, snow Clear Cloudy, snow Snow showers Cloudy Ice blinks, snow Snow showers Ditto Clear, cloudy Foggy, hazy, snow Hazy, snow Clear, snow Snow showers Ditto Cloudy Hazy, clear Snovv, fog, rain Fog or snow show. Fog or snow Fog, hail, rain, snow Snow, rain, sleet, fog Snow or fog show. Cloudy, snow Snow showers Thick fog, snow Fog shower, cloudy Hazy Ditto Bay and drift ice Ice streams Ditto Drift and bay ice A little ice Ice streams No ice Drift ice Ditto Ice streams Much ice Much drift ice Ice streams An open pack Ditto Ditto Drift and bay ice Ditto Near a west pack Ditto Floes and heavy ice Ditto Much ice Heavy drift ice Floes and drift ice Drift ice Bay and drift ice Some ice Ice streams Floes near Heavy drift ice Ice streams Ditto Ditto Floes, drift ice Fields, floes, &c. Field Ditto Ditto Floes, drift ice At sea Loose ice A pack near Ditto Ditto Field near (44) METEOROLOGICAL TABI-ES. [APP. N" I. 1818 Latitude. Longitude. THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. Max. Min. Med. Max. Min, Med. |16 79'.26' 2.42 E 34 29 31.7 30.16 30.04 30.10 |17 18 79.30 2.11 34 30 31.7 30.04 30.02 30,03 79.28 2.20 34 31 32.4 30,02 29.98 30.00 19 79. 4.22 32 29 31.0 29.98 29,96 29.97 20 78.31" 4. 34 31 32.0 29.96 29.93 29.94 21 78.10 2. 32 31 31.3 29.93 29.87 29,90 22 77.45 3, 4 32 30 31.0 29.87 29.78 29.83 23 77.40 2.44 31 29 30.0 29.78 29.76 29.77 24 77. 1 2.30 34 3J 32.3 29,76 29.65 29.70 25 75.40 2.30 35 34 34.4 29.65 29.35 29.50 26 75.44* 0.10 w 38 32 35.3 29,55 29.35 29.45 27 76.10 2. 32 31 31.3 29.70 29.55 29.62 28 75.40 3.40 34 30 31.4 29.76 29.70 29.73 29 75.40 8,20 32 30 31.0 29.76 29.70 29.73 30 75.10 8. 34 32 33.0 29.70 29.62 29,66 •-s 2 74.54* 9. 36 30 32.7 29.82 29.70 29.76 74.20 7. 32 30 30.7 29,96 29.82 29.89 S 74.50 8 20 30 34 36.5 29.98 29.96 29,97 4 75.50 5. 36 34 34.5 29 98 29.90 29.94 5 76. 4.30 36 34 34.6 29.90 29.80 29.85 6 76.10 4. 33 30 31.7 29.86 29.80 29.83 7 75.56 3.30 33 32 32.3 29.86 29.78 29.82 8 75.50 3.10 36 34 35.0 29.86 29.78 29.82 9 75.58* 3.40 35 32 34.0 30.06 29.86 29.96 10 76.30 3. 35 33 34.0 30.08 30.06 30.07 11 76.30 3.20 35 34 34.3 30.08 30.08 30,08 12 76.30 3.30 35 34 34,4 30.08 29.92 30,00 13 76.25* 2. 36 28 32.3 30.08 29.92 30.00 14 76.20 1.10 32 29 30.7 30.08 29.98 30.03 15 77.10 1.30 E 36 34 34.6 29.98 29.88 29.93 16 77.55 1.10 38 35 36.3 29.88 29.74 29.81 17 78.40 7. 38 36 37.4 29.74 29.62 29.68 18 79.10 9. 4 36 34 35.0 29.70 29.62 29.66 19 79.15 5.30 38 33 35,7 29.95 29.70 29.83 20 79.22* 5.55 34 34 34,0 30.08 29.95 30.01 21 79.19* 6.10 46 34 40.0* 30.08 30.08 30.08 22 79.11* 6.10 44 40 42.0 30.08 29.90 29.99 23 79.14* 7.30 44 42 42.7 29.90 29.88 29.89 24 79. 8 9.15 48 44 46.0 29.88 29.80 29.84 25 79. 5 9.22 45 38 41.6 29.80 29.68 29.74 26 79. 5 9.24 38 36 37.3 29.82 29.62 29.72 27 78.55 9.55 46 40 42.3 30.10 29.82 29.96 28 79.10 7.30 41 39 40.0 30.10 29.79 29.94 29 78.40 6. 5 41 39 40.0 20.01 29.38 29.70 30 T8.48 6.30 36 34 34.7 39.88 29.38 29.63 31 78.18* 4.30 41 33 38.0 29.98 29.88 29.93 • Thermometer hung over the ship's side, against the black paint work, on which the sun shone, rose to 92° I •p. N" I. TER. Med. t 30.10 2 30.03 8 30.00 6 29.97 3 29.94 7 29.90 8 29.83 6 29.77 5 29.70 15 29.50 t5 29.45 >5 29.62 JO 29.73 JO 29.73 62 29.66 70 29.76 82 29.89 96 29.97 90 29.94 80 29.85 80 29.83 78 29.82 78 29.82 86 29.96 06 30.07 08 30.08 92 30.00 92 30.00 98 30.03 88 29.93 74 29.81 62 29.68 62 29.66 70 29.83 1 95 30.01 08 30.08 90 29.99 88 29.89 80 29.84 68 29.74 62 29.72 82 29.90 79 29.94 38 29.7C 38 29.61 8 8 \ 29.9: 1 k, on whi ch APP. N' I.] METEOROLOGICAL TABLES. (45) 1818 S16 WINDS. Meteors and Weather. Situation and Remarks. Direction. Force. Variable Calm, light breeze Snow shovirers Field near ^17 Var. N E b N to Calm Ditto Ship inclosed in ico 18 Var. S W.erly to Moderate breeze Ditto Ditto 19 S S W to W S W to Strong breeze Ditto Spitzbcrgen in sight 20 W b S to S S W to Moderate breeze Snow, clear No ice 21 to W S W, var, to F' esh breeze Fog, snow Ice streams 22 N toNE to Calm Snow showers Ditto 23 N N E Fresh breeze Cloudy, snow Ditto 24 N to E N E Fresh or Mod. br. Snow, hazy At sea 25 toE Strong gale Haze, rain No ice 26 to E S E, var. to Light airs Thick fog, cloudy Ditto 27 E b N to E S E Strong br. mod. br. Fog, snow A pack nc:.r 28 to S E b S to Fresh breeze Thick fog Brash ice 29 Var. N E to N b W to Calm, strong ga. P'og, snow, rain Crowded ice >,^ to N W b W to Fresh breeze Ditto Ship beset 3 1 Var. W S W Calm to strong br. Clear, fog Near a pack of ico "^ 2 S W b S to W to Moder. breeze Thick fog Ditto 3 to N W, var. S to Calm Beautifully clear In a bay of the ice 4 S b W to Strong gale Ditto, cloudy Ice near 5 to S W, var. Moder. br. calm Fog Ice streams 6 E.erly, N E Calm, fresh breeze Fog, rain, snow, hail Pack near 7 NbE to Moderate breeze Ditto Heavy streams 8 N.erly to Calm Fog Ice streams 9 S bE to Fresh breeze Fog, haze, cloudy Ditto 10 S E to E b S Fresh breeze Fog, rain In an open pack 11 N E b E to S E to Light breeze Thick fog, rain Sailing ice 12 N b E to N b W Moderate breeze Thick fog Crowded ice 13 S W.erly, var. to Caim Constant fog End. in a bay of ice 14 S W.erly Light airs Fog, snow At sea 15 S WbS Fresh breeze Fog, rain Ice in sight 16 S W to S E Fre.sh gales Much rain Ditto 17 toSS W to Calm Rain, fog Near Spitzb. no ice 18 N W Fresh or mod. br. Rain, fog, snow Spitzb. 3 miles off 19 Var. W S W to Calm Fog, clear Lo osc ice 20 S W Gentle br. calm Fog In open pack 21 E,erly, var. Light airs, calm Fog, clear Ice and land in sig. 22 Var. Calm, light airs Clear, rain, fog Char. Isl. S S E, 25' 23 Ditto Calm, light breeze Rain, clear Ditto, S S E, 20' 24 Ditto Chiefly calm Fine clear weather Mitre Cape, S E 5' 25 Var. S.erly Calm to strong gale Clear, rain, fog Ditto, E 1' 26 W N W to N N V, ' Fresh br. light airs Cloudy, clear Ditto, E i' 27 S S W to S S E Fresh gale C ii; rain In King's Bay 28 StoS W Strong ga. fresh br. Cloudy, rain, fog Fair Foreland in sig 29 S to E N E to Hard gale Rain, fog, hazy At sea 30 S to W & N Very hard ga. calm Hazy, cloudy Ditto 31 N Calm, gentle breeze ' Cloudy, clear Char. Isl. E b N 60' (46) METKOllOI.OdlCAL TAIJLKS. [aI'I". V I. « EM ARKS ON THE FonEOOINO METEOROLOGICAL TABLES. 1 HE winds in the preceding Tables, are estimated from the true north, being in all cases corrected by the application of the variation of the compass. In the first three years, 1807, 1808, and 1809, the dai/ commences at tv elve at noon, according to the usual nauti- cal estimation, and is twelve hours earlier than the day by civil reckoning ; but the time, in every succeeding year, is the civil day, commencing at twelve at night. Those Latitudes and Lonmtudcs, having an asterisk annexed to them, were deduced from celestial observations, and are consequently accurate. The others, being from estimation, are liable to some error ; but nothing sufficient to affect the general results. In the Tables for tlie first three years, the column superscribed " Thermometer^'' consists cmly of a single daily observation ; but as this observation was intentionally made at a different hour almost every day, and as often near the hour of mid-night as of mid-day, it is presumed that the mean temperature derived therefrom, will be very nearly the same as if more observations had been registered. In these three Tables also, the Barometer is merely marked once a^day, and that at the time of noon. In the last nine years observations, however, the Ta- bles are more complete ; the columns headed " Barometer^ including the daily extremes, and those entitled " Thermo- meter^^ consisting of the result of three or four daily obser- vations. But as common Thermometers only were used, the extremes of temperature that occurred may not be al- ways shown, excepting when these extremes were remark- able; in which case, I was very particular in registering them. As all these observations on the temperature, were made at irregular hours of the day and night, they will doubtlehc aft'ord a very close approximation to the mean temperature. All the thermometers used, were graduated according to Fahrenheit''s scale. For the sake of brevity, m the two columns of " Winds^"^ I have distinguished the progressive veering of the AIT. N' I.] UKMAllKS. (47) Ta- Her;'' rmo- bser- ised, De al- lark- iring Iwere will lean [ated \ids;'' the wind bctwi'c'ii twi) jumiUs, and the progressive change between two dcnominutions of strength or ''^ force,'"' by the intervention of the j)artiele to. Thus when tlie wind is niarketl as having blown from east to north, it must be un- derstood to have either veered I'roni the fcirnier to tlie lat- ter, or to have fluctuated between the two extremes ; or, in most instances, to have blown from every intermediate |)oint. And the same ajjplication of the word to, has been used to connect the winds of two contiguous days. Thus on tlie 24th of Api-il 1807, the wind is registered " N W to E b N," and on the following day, " to N ;"" that is, on the former day, N. W. progressively to N. N. E., and as far as E. by N.; and, on the latter, from E. b N. back again to N. On the other hand, on April 11th, the wind stands E. S. E., E. N. E. In this case, the change of wind from E. S. E. to E. N. E. has been sudden, and not progressive, as in the eases where the particle to is placed intermediately. It may also be right to mention, that whatever may be the interval be- tween two points ccmnected by tlie })artlcle to, the change in the wincl has always been performed in the shortest way round the compass. Thus April '20. 1811, the wind is registered W. S. W. to N. N. E. ; that is, from AV. S. W. towards the W., N. W., N. and N. N. E., and not from W. S. W. to S., S. E., E. and N. N. E., because the interval in the latter instance is above a semicircle. In the register for May 1818, are introduced two addi- tional colunms under " Thermometer ,•"" showing the rela- tive temperature of the air near the deck, and of the n)ast- head, 90 feet higher, or 106 feet above the surface of the water. The mean temperature by the deck thermometer, is 23°.6 ; but of the mast-head thermometer, the mean is 20°.3, being 3°.3 lower. As this reduction of temperature is greater by 2°.3 than what is supposed to be the simple eft'ect of elevation, it may perhaps be occasioned by the com- parative warmdi of the water, or the radiation of heat from the ship. If the latter be the cause, the mean results of the thermometric observations given in the following Ta- ble, will be somewhat too high. The figures in the " mast- head"" column of this register, having this mark -j* prefix- ed to them, are not actual observations, but are derived from estimation, by the application of the usual difference between the temperature of the mast-head and that of the deck. In the last six years journals, the state of the Baro- meter marked each day, is inclusive between the noon 'm (48) IIEMAIIKS. [aI'P. n» r. of that niul the iux)M of the prcci'cnn^ duy, or un interval correspoiuhii^ with the day hy nautieal coinpiitatioii ; con- seciuently the " mediimr eohimn represents tlie state of the Haronjeter (nearly) on the first mid-night, or beginning of caeh day. The registers of tiie first six years, from 1807 to 1812 inelusive, have ah-eady been laid nefore the Public, in the " Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society *.** Ah, on comparison with the present series, there will appear some dissimilarity, to prevent a hasty censure of inconsis- tency, some explanation seems j)roi)er. The *' latitudes,"' ♦' longitudes,"" " force of wind," ami " nieleors,"aspul)lislv- ed in the Wevncrian Memoirs, will be found to agree with this scries, excepting so far as the necessary abridgment in the remarks on the weather, may have caused some things to appeor in the one, which do not aj)pear in the other. The thermometrical observations in this series, though extended in their ])Ian, and carried to decimals of a de- gree in the colunm " medium," will be found to cor- respond, as nearly as ]K>ssible, with the column headed " Thermometer," in the Wernerian Memoirs, excepting in the case of three or four trifling typographical errors, and a few instances where the fractions of a degree had been omitted ; the fraction of one day in excess com- j)ensating for the deficiency of a similar fraction on a sub- sequent day. The means of the two series, however, will be found the same. The plan of the barometrical regis- ter being now also altered and extended, occasions some dissimilarity between the two series. The apparent uilfe- rence is thus produced. In the re.* t- t OB W ,• ujScn ca CO «0 I I <0 N »> « M r-' ' ' C' : J -J I.H 1* ««• |ri.-<0>CC -"CD O) 5?; 0> CC ,i "■; * •♦ OJ M «0 Oi i-i >. '> 3> ■»# d *0 fH CO oxoqo^ococoQi} en ^ U) ^ ^ .^ ^ o • • • _j 9 . t _; rH©"-: rw3ui«0 Cfi M»X-HCO(Ni-(»~«!5 OCOCOUi'HXmQCQ « — to t- 1-1 © M 2? •SAj,'? O0C5OC0»*H M Ot« r-l PH iH 04 I "*t-o»5©"^ao«5ot- 0©0i-li-<.-il^^«.-4 XaOXCCXOQCCQUGO f i2eo •J CK 01 V I VOL. I. APPENDIX. (g) ■s i i INo. II. (50) MKTKOUOLOOICAL RESULTS. [aPP. N' II. .J. C3 O ,«^ o*' a^ -' tj r> o = S a •^ •S CJ ., _c pq^ rt 4-- c SiC 3 rt c o) "!i "^ 'y t * CA ^ «? O Oi •» «0 00 ■^ 1-H o ^ "5 'O 0*1 Jh *~ »» *~ o oi5 w 00 ^ O W O (S 04 ^ (N W O CD "O »» 1-H f- «woapt-«5co 00 ^ 1-H »J W 05 — rt Q*; CO CM i-i »H e<5 CO S I I M I I t- •» eo '* *<5 »- 00 t- 1^ i-^ »H »-^ I— 1 r^ t> 00 OD 00 00 00 O) •a ^ S .2 .. tj t; = tj "o d £ o lu >J a » 5 » .J, c « « ^ S C PL- 8 «^ "'"^ .5 o fc ^'S 2 00 "* cj o eo e<5 ^ rH t- S J:; S «w u5 to o 1-1 (N J- p^ ,1^ O) MS 04 + O 06 A &< ^ a ff» OT m «s ^ w £- ^ ^ CO Oi Oi 05 S5 o« •>* «> 05 Q Tft * CO to w CO "5 — I CO o S s S3 a 1-4 e<5 <^ p-t 1 I. i-H 1:5 «0 »- ft 00 t- CO Q CO CD '^ (O «o M o JOoN «e 9) o to ^ ^ o W CO ^ •» 0>» I-' 7§ CO CO CC CO CO v^ A s I I I i I I "5 0> i-i «> O O — < 91 Kri >4 ,_i 04 ofcTi-rcf "Tto t^ Q w^ pH pH p^ "^ rH OB CD CD 00 X X OD F^ i-H -H IH 1-t i-H 1-4 I Cfl P. i!^" APP. N' II. J a .a ■s c •3 e o u c •3 B O > 1 •H Q ^ > 1—1 p^ St .2 I .fi * METKOHOLOr.ICAL RKSULTS. TABLE E. (51) Abstract of Thermometrical Observations made at the Apart- ments of the Royal Society of I..ondon. [Referred to j). 287. & 356.] Month. Menn Tcniperature. 1 Mean Teiin)erature. B,v 20 years Olv sorvatiun. By Calcula- tion, formu- la T.ible G. Diffe- rence. 0^0 1.6 0.1 0.5 1.4 0.2 0.0 1.5 1.8 0.8 1.1 0.5 By 37 By Cakiila- years Ob- tion, fi)rmu- servatjon. la Table G. Oiffe- rcnce. 0".0 2.7 1.1 1.1 1.3 0.3 0.0 1.7 1.1 0.8 1.1 0.2 January, February, .... March.... 37°.4 40.2 42.2 48.1 55.5 59.8 63.6 63.6 59.1 51.6 43.6 39.7 37''.4 38.6 42.3 47.6 54.1 60.0 63.6 62.1 57.3 50.8 44.7 40.2 3T.3 41. S 43.4 48.8 55.7 60.7 64.1 64.3 58.8 51.8 43.8 40.0 37^.3 38.5 42.3 47.7 54.4 (J().4 64.1 62.6 577 51.0 44.9 40.2 April, Mav, June, Julv " ""J ' August, September,.... Octolwr, November, December, . ... Annual Mean, 50.4 49.9 0.5 50.8 50.1 0.7 Explanation. — Column 2cl contains the Mean Monthly Tem- perature, as derived from 20 years'" observations, made between the years 1795 and 1814 inclusive. Column 3d is the Calcu- lated Temperature by the fornuila in Table G, founded on the ratio of increase and decrease of temperature, as obtained from 50 years' observations at Stockholm. In the use of this for- mula, the temperatures of January and July ar-e all the data requisite. Colunm 4th is the dilference between the calculated and observed tem})eratures, which, it will l)e observed, in no in- stance amounts to 2 degrees. Colunm 5th contains the Mean Monthly Temperature from 37 years' observations, viz. from 1772 to 1780 inclusive, and from 1787 to 1814 inclusive. Colunms 6tli and 7th are ol' the same nature as the 3d and 4th. The greatest ditPerence of the calculated and ob.served temperatures, month of February (in which there is pos.sibly some error) ex- cepted, is 1°.7, and the average difference is 0".7. m «", It' (5«) METEOnOLOGICAL RESULTS. [app. N* II. F TABLE F. Containing an Abstract of SO years Observations on the Tem- perature of Stockholm, collated for the purpose of ascer- taining the ratio of Increase and Decrease of Temperature with the Advance of the Year. [Latitude of Stockholm 59° 80' 31"; Longitude 18° 3' Si" E.] Month. Probable mean temperat. of the penthemeron, the middle day of which is the Ist of the month. Probable mean tempe- rature of each month. Decimals of difference of temperat. be- tween Janu- ary and July. Mean tem- perature of each month by Obser- vation. [Fahrenh.] Celsius* Scale. Fahren. Scale. January, February, March,... April, Mav% — 4.350 — 5.216 — 2.783 + 1.318 6.407 12.273 16.483 17.838 14.469 9.441 3.563 0.931 — 5.167 — 4.169 — 0.910 -1- 3.655 9.367 14.452 17.640 16.381 12.159 a504 1.303 — 2.715 22.70 24.49 30.36 38.59 48.87 58.01 63.75 61.48 53.89 43.70 34.34 27.10 0.000 0.044 — 0.188 — 0.388 -1- 0.639 + 0.861 -f- 1.000 0.944 0.759 — 0.512 -f 0.283 — 0.107 — 23.79 25.19 28.11 88.37 48.63 58.69 63.79 61.45 53.37 43.89 34.67 27.36 June, July v» A ugust, September, October, November, .... December, Annual Mean, 42.27 fThis Table is referred to in p, 287. 290. 356. & 359.] This Abstract is derived from an interesting Table in the " Annals of Philosophy,'* vol. i. p. 113. The last column is the result of 54.750 observations. But as the ratio of increase of temperature from January to July, and the ratio of decrease from July to January, are not exactly regular, the 2d, 3d and 4tli columns are taken from the application of the nearest regu- lar ratio to the actual observations, and are considered as bemg the probable result of the thermometric observations, had they been conducted through a series of several centuries. The difference between the temperature of January and that of July being considered as 1.000, column the 5th shows the propor- tionate difference between the temperature of January and that of any other month in the year. By the use of these decimals, in connection with the formulae in the next table, the mean tem- perature of any month, in any country situated to the northward of the 50th degree of latitude, may be calculated, provided the temperature of the months of January and July, or the mean temperature of the year and that of July be knoN^Ti. APP. N" II.] METEOBOLOGICAL RXSULTS. m being they The If July Iropor- Id that pimals, tem- Ihward led the mean G. Formula referred to in p. 288, and 358. Let the mean temperature of the year be called The mean temperature of January, The mean temperature of July, The mean temperature of April, And the mean temperature of any other month, Then ^^^^r x 1.907 = cb. or, c — {7^^^rx 1.907) = b. T b € d t (c — Tx 0.172) — T= d (c — 6 X 0.044) + b (^b X 0.188) + b t February. t March. And {c — 6 X decimal col. 5. Table F) + ft = < of the cor- responding month ; that is, the difference between the mean temperature of January and that of July, multiplied into any decimal of Table F (column 5.), and the amount added to the temperature of January, gives the temperature of the month with which the decimal used corresponds. Example. — The mean annual temperature of latitude 78° N. is by observation 17°, and the temperature of July S7° ; requi- red the mean temperature of January, and of the succeeding months ? Then, (by formula 2d), 37 —(37— 17 = 20 x 1.907) = — 0°.86, or nearly one degree below zero, the temperature of January. And, (formula 4th), temperature of July 37° Temperature of January, say — 1 Difference, - 38x0.044=1.67 Temperature of January, (add) - — 1.00 Mean temperature of February, - 0.67 m (54) i.HllONOLOGICAL LIST OF VOYAGES. [app. n" hi. By these formulae the following table of the mean monthly temperature of the Greenland Sea, latitude 78% was calculated. Jan. -1.0 Feb. Marl April May June July Aug. 34.9 Sept. 27.8 Oct. 18.5 Nov. 9.0 Dec. 3.1 Temp, by Calculation, 0.7 6.1 13.7 23.3 31.7 31.4 37.0 37.0 Temp, by Observation, — — — 14.8 22.5 By the application of these formulae, the approximate change of temperature through the course of the year, in London, in Stockholm, and in the Spitzbergen Sea, having been calculated, the curve described by the monthly differences in each place is laid down in Plate II. fig. 3. tor Mier with the irregular curve, (the dotted lines), representing the progressive changes of tem- perature by observation. No. III. a. Chronological enumeration of voyages t:ndertaken by the different nations of the world in search of a northern communication between the atlantic and pacific oceans ; including such other voyages as have been conducive to the advancement of disco- very in the north. ABBREVIATIONS. Da. Danish. Du. Dutch. E. English. A. D. F. French. Ic. Icelandic. N. Norwegian. P. Portugueze. R. Russian. Sp. Spanish. Sw. Swedish. V. Venetian. W. Welch. 861, N. Iceland accidentally discovered by one Naddodd, a Scandinavian })irate, and called by him Schneeland or Snoxoland. 864, Sw. Iceland visited by a Swede of the name of Gardar Suaffarson, who wintered there. 865 Sxo. This island was visited again by one Flocke, who na- to 870, med it Iceland. 874, N. Iceland visited by Ingolf and Lief, who formed a set- tlement there about four years afterwards. ov. ).0 Dec. 3.1 lish. ^tian. ch. )D, a irdar |) na- sct- APP. N" III. J CHRONOLOGICAL LI.ST OF VOYAGES. (55) A. D. Abt890, jY. Ohtheue coasted along the west shore of Norway towards the north and east, and discovered the en. trance of the White Sea. Abt 970, Ic. Greenland discovered by one Gunbiorn. 982, N. This country was visited by Eric Rauda, vl.o win- tered there, and spent part of three years in explo- ring it. He named it Greenland. Abt 986, Ic. A colonizing voyage undertaken by Eric Rauda to Greenland, with a fleet of 25 vessels, not above one- lialf of which reached their destination. 1001, Ic. BioRN, while on a voyage to Greenland, in search of his father, was driven out of his course by a storm, and accidentally discovered Winland. Abt 1003, Ic. Lief, the son of Eric Rauda, with Biorn as pilot, re-visited Winland, and wintered in the country in about the latitude of 50° N. 1006, Ic. Thorwald, the brother of Lief, pursued discoveries in or Winland, and in the adjacent country, during three 1008, years, and then was killed by a party of the natives. Abt 1010, /c. A voyage to Winland was undertaken by one Thorstein ; but being driven upon the coast of Green- land, himself and many of his retinue died. 1170, W. Some part o^ America or the West Indies said to be discovered by Madoc, son of Owen Guyneth, Prince of North Wales. Abt 1384, V. Nicholas Zeno, in a voyage from Shetland or Fe- roe, visited the coast of Greenland. 1384, Ve. Antonio Zeno visited Iceland and Greenland, and, to 1394, as some suppose, Winland also. 1463, P. John Vaz Costa Cortereal, on a voyage towards the or N. W., is said to have discovered the Terra de Bac- 1464, calhaos, afterwards named Newfoundland. 1492, Sj). CoLUiMDUs, in a voyage undertaken for the discovery of a western passage to India, discovered the Wes t Indies. 1494 ? En. John Cabot and Sebastian his son, are said to have discovered Newfoundland, and called it Prima Vista ? 1497, En. America discovered by Sebastian Cabot, when on a voyage in search of a N. W. passage to India, and the coast examined from latitude 672 •'* to 38". I I'' . I m Aw, m I (56) CRltONOLOGICAL LIST OF VOYAGES. (app. X< III. Eh A. D. 1600. p. Gaspar Cortereal, with two ships, fitted out for re search towards the N. W. visitea Greenland and La- brador, and discovered the River St Lawrence^ toge- ther with some islands contiguous to the American coast. IflOl, P. Gaspar Cortereal undertook a second voyage in search of a N. W. passage with two ships ; he made the coast of Greenland, but being separated from his consort in a storm, was never heard of afterwards. His consort returned home safe. 150^, P. Michael Cortereal, with three ships, proceeded in search of his brother Gaspar Cortereal, when himself and ship's company likewise perished. The two other ships imder his direction, however, got safe home. 1504!, F. Nevfoundlana and Cape Breton visited by the Biscay- ners and Bretons, for the purpose of fishmg. 1506, F. Jean Denis, witli Camart, a native of Rouen, as pilot, sailed from Honfleur to Newfoundland, and is said to have been the first who laid down a chart of this coun- try- 1508, F. The coast of Newfoundland examined by one Aubert, in a ship called the Pensee. 15S4, F. Juan Verazzani sailed to America, and proceeded along the coast about 700 leagues. This part, included between the parallels of perhaps 30° N. and 56" N. was named New France. — — Sp. Estevan Gomer, towards the N. W. No discovery ap- pears to have been made. 1527, En. Two ships, one of Avhich 'vas called the Dominub Vo- biocum, were sent out for discoveries towards the North Pole. One of the ships was lost, and little or nothing accomplished. 1534, Fr. Jaques Cartier proceeded in search of a W. or N. W. passage ; sailed up the Gulf of St Lawrence. 1535, Fr. Jaques Cartier, with three ships, performed a second voyage up the River St Lawrence^ which he examined as high as Montreal. He wintered in the St Law- rence, where 25 of his crew died of the scurvy. 1536, En. A vovage towards the N. W. of the ships Trinitie and Minion, in wljich Cape Breton and Newfoundland were vbited. The crews suffered much from fa- mine. for re ind La- e^ toge- LTierican 1 search lie coast nsort in consort n search self and ier ships : Biscay- as pilot, s said to iiis coun- Aubert, ed along included d 56° N. •very ap- inus Vo- le North nothing Ir N. W. la second Ixamined 1st Law- litie and lundland Ifrom fa- APP. n9 III.] CHHONOLOGICAL LIST OF VOYAGKS. (67) A. D. Abt 1537, Sp. Francisco Ulloa, under tiie orders of Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, appears to have made a voyage, with three shi[)s, for discoveries towards the N. or W. or respecting t!ie Strait of Anian. 1640, Fr. Jaques Cartier made u third voyage with five ships, towards the N. W. This, however, was entirely a co- lonizing expedition. For aiVcr remaining two years in North America, he was joined, by apjiointment, by llober\ al, Lieutenant-Generul and Viceroy of Canada, Newfoundland, Labi'ador, &c. who established a colo- ny near Quebec. 1542, Sp. A journey from Mexico towards the north, undertaken by one Coronado, in search of the Strait of Anian ; unsuccessful. ' ■ Sp. Alar^othing N. W. pted by towards making ther un- but the i. One age. lips, sail- he ships Entering ssage by ) leagues md then king dis- 1 by Sir (sel, with n search med the nherland f/pe WaU indf and ing and iw more naviga- e of his lands, very to- red Da- Minley^s a strait A. D. 1592, Sp. Juan de Fuca performed a voyage to the northward along the W. coast of N. America, and ima^ned he discovered a communication with the Atlantic in an easterly direction. 1594, Du. An expedition of four ships under Cornelis Coii- K£LisoN, William Barentz, &c. proceeded in search of a N. E. passage. Some of the ships passed forty leagues beyond Weigats Strait, and Barentz explored the western coast of Nova Zembla. 1595, Du. William Bauentz sailed along with another expe- dition of seven ships, intended for trading and dis- coveries towards the N. E., which altogether failed. 1596, Du. Barentz, on a third voyage, for discovery towards the N. and E., with two ships, discovered Bear Island, now called Cherie Island, and Spitzbergen. Barentz, with one ship's company, wintered in Nova Zembla ; most of his companions got home the next summer in two open boats, but himself and some others died. ,Sp. Sebastian© Vizcaino sailed above 100 leagues to the northward, along the W. coast of Amenca. In one place he lost seventeen men. 1598, Fr. The Marquis de la Rocho, in a colonizing voyage to the west coast of N. America, made some researches. 1602, Sp. Vizcaino, in a second voyage to the west coast of America, sailed as high as 42° or 43° N. in search of harbours. — — En. George Weymouth, with two vessels, for the discovery of a N. W. passage, is said to have sailed 100 leagues to the westward, in a sea nearly corresponding with Hudson''s Strait. 1603, En. On a voyage towards the N., partly for trading, and partly for discovery, by Stephen Bennet, Bear Island, of Barentz, was visited, and named Cherie Island. 1605, Da. James Hall, an Englishman, as pilot, and Gotske Lin- denau, a Dane, as Admiral of an expedition of three vessels, inteialed for the recovery of Lost Greenland and research, gave names to several places in Green- land, but discovered nothing. 1606, Da. Hall was employed in a second expedition under Lin- denau, of five ships, for research, &c. about the coast of Greenland : nothing of consequence was discover- ed. 1^ f « - (60) A. D. lt>06, En. 1607, Da. En. 1608, En. 1609, Du 1610, En En. 1611, Du or 1614, 1611, J>M En. ( IIRONOI.OGICAL LIST OK VOYAGES. [aH*. N® III. In a voyiigo in search of u N. W. passage, by John Knight, with one srfiall vessel, notning was discover- ed : Knight and three of his crew landed on the coast ol' Labrador, and were never al'terwards seen. Hull, in u third voyage, with two ships, in the same direction, only reached Cape Farewell, the crew ha- ving nuttiniea. Henuv Hi'dson, in a voyage towards the North Pole, uith Olio small vessel only, discovered the E. coast of Grceniiind, as high as latitude 73". Yoimg'a Cape, Ahmnl of GmT.s' Mcrcy^ and Hold tvith Hope., were {Kjsitions discovered and named by him : the same voy- age he visited Spitzbergcn, and sailed to the latitude of about 81°. In his second voyage, with one vessel, in search of a N. Fi. passage, Iludsoii landed on Nova Zembla. , Hudson, in his third voyage, in the Dutch service, sailed to the eastward of the North Cape, then west- erly lo Newfoundland, and along the American co^st to the southward. The design of this curious navi- gation is not known. Hudson's fourth voyage, in search of a N. W. passage, was imjx)rtant. With only one vessel he discovered (.?) and passed HudscnCs Strait., and discovered Hudsoti^s Buij., where he wintered. The crew of the vessel afterwards mutinied, and forcing Hudson and eight other persons into a boat, left them to perish. In a voyage for trade and discovery towards the N. by Jonas Pooli;, Horn Sounds Deer Sounds and some other positions in Spit/bergen, were discovered and named. The whole of the country he named Green- land. , A voyagx; by a ship belonging to Holland, is said to have been made about this time, in which a distance of 100 leagues to the eastward of Nova Zembla was accomplished (?) . The island of Jan Maijcn is stated to have been dis- covered in this year, by the person whose name it bears : it is probable, however, that the discovery was not made until a year or two later. A voyage toAvards the north, with two vessels, the prin- cipal object of which was to attempt the whale fish- ery, was undertaken hy Jonas Pool ; he sailed to lati- III. API*. N" III.] CHRONULO(.ICAL LIST UK VOVACKS. (61) said to jstance |la was jn dis- ime it fy was prin- fish- lati- A. D. tudc 80° N. and also to the S. W., from thence until lie was iSiS leagut"- to the wcHtward of Cheric Island. Both ships were lost, hut the crews were saved. Great part of the W. coast of Spit/hergcn was exa- mined, and some bays discovered. 1611, En. Our whale-fishcrs, in their early voyages, had generally to a discovery-vessel along wiih them. Their researches 16^0, about the coast were productive of several discoveries, among which, besides bays, harbours and headlands, were Hope^ Bear, Ahbofa, Edge's^ Scotfsy Wcntery Hcl'mg\ Sir Tluymas SmitlCs, and various other islands. 1612, En. Sir '^J^homas Button, with two shins, sailed in search of a N. ^V^ passage by the way of Hudson's Bay. He discoveied Nclmn''fi River, Southampton hlundy Man- veTfi Lsland, &c. and gave names to several remark- able headlands. ' En. James Hall embarked towards the N. W. for the dis- covery of a passage or treasure, beint?;^ his fourth voy- .ige, and was kdled by an Escpumaux. Cockiu Sound discovered. 1614, En. Captain Gibbons, in attcmjUing to find a N. W. pas- sago, got beset, and spent the season in a hay in La- brador : this place is said to have been named in de- rision " Gibbons his Hole.'''' > En. Robert Fotherby, having along with him the celebrated Baffin, attempted discoveries in the north and about Spitzbergen ; but nothing of c(mscquence was accom- plished. 1615, En. Robert Bylot, with Baffin as mate, attempted the finding of a N. W. passage. Discovered Savage Islands, Mill Island, &c. about Hudson^s Bay and Strait. 1616, En. William Baffin, appointed as pilot to a small vessel, of which Bylot was master, in searching for a N. W. passage, discovered and circumnavigated the bay bearing his name. Among other discoveries in this bay that are enumerated, are WomttCs Islands, Horn Sound, Sir Dudley Digges' Cape, Wostenholm Sound, Whale Sound, HakluyCs Island, Sir Thomas SmitlCs Sound, Carey's Islands, Alderman Janes' Sound, Sir James Lanraster''s Sound, &c. I •it h ' ■I' i a' M.. m CIISONOLOOICAL LIST OF VOYAUSR. [ap. N' 111. A. D. 1617, En. Wiches Land^ aft:. ■» .-da named by the Dutch llvkc Yse's Islands, di«o . aI L»y uic of' the English whale fishers. 1619) Da. Two vessels, under the direction of Jens Munk, were sent out for the discovery of a N. W. passage. They wintered in Hudson's Bay, where all the people, sixty-four in number, excepting Munk and two others, are stated to have died ot the scurvy. These three accomplished their passage home in the smaller vessel. 1620? En. In a voyage towards the N. W. by William Hawk- bridge, considerable researches in Hudson\«i Bay ap- pear to have been made, but nothing was discovered. The year in which this voyage was made, and the ships employed in it, are uncertain. 1631, En. A considerable exploration of Hudson's Bay was made by Luke Fox, in which names were given to various islands, promontories and bays. Among the islands, he named Sir Thomas Rowe\s Wdcomc, Brooke Cob- haniy Br'iggs his Mathematics, &c. among headlands, Cape Maria, Cape Dorchester, King Charles his Promontorie, &c. — — En. A similar route to that taken by Fox, was pursued bv Thomas Jamks who passed the winter in Hudson s Bay, yet discovered nothing. 1636, Da. Greenland was visited, in search for treasure, by a ves- sel or vessels, fitted out by the Danish Greenland Company. — — Ru. The navigation of the Frozen Sea conmienced by the Russians, who formed establishments on the banks of the Lena. 1643, Du. A voyage in the ships Castricom and Breskes, under the command of Martin Herizoom van Vriez, and H. C. Schaep, was undertaken from Japan towards the north. Between the Island of Ternate, from whence they sailed, and the latitude of 47°, beyond which they navigated, several islands, including per- haps the Kuriles, were discovered. 1646, -Rm. The rivers Jana, Indighirsa, Alasei, and Kovyma, having been discovered within ten years preceding this date, a voyage for trade and research from the Kovima towards the east, the first in this position, was undertaken by Isai Ignatiew, with a party of Promyschleni, under his direction : They traded Avith the Tchuktchi. III. APP. N** III.J CHRONOLOOICAL LIST OF VOYAQE*. (08) A. D. 1647, Ru. A second trading voyage, with tour kotches, from the Kovinm towards the K., was attempted under the direction of the Kossak, Seujoen Desc;hnew or Desh- nef!': this altogether failed. 1648, liu. Seven kotches, from the Kovin)a, &t. in one of which Se- MOEN Dkschkkw again sailed, were dispatched to- wards the east. Six, if not all of these vessels, appear to have been wrecked ; but one of them, connnantled bv Dcschnew, previously accomplished the passage, it is supjMjsed, round the great })romontory of the Tchukt- chi *, to the east side of Kamtchatka^ and was lost near the River Olutora or Aliutori. 1652, Da. An expcditicm of two ships under Captain Danell, was sent out fi)r the discovery of the east side of Green- land. The east coast at intervals, was seen from lati- tude Q5° 30' to Cape Farewell : but no landing was effected. 165i3, Da. A second examinaticm by Danell was undertaken. The east coast was again seen, but only at a distance, from Herjolfsness, latitude 64°, to Cape Farewell. — — Da. Three ships, sent out for the discovery of a N. E. pas- sage, passed the Weigatz, but discovered nothing. 1654, Du. Gale Hamkens Land, on the east coast of Greenland, intimated, by the Dutch charts, as having been dis- covered by a Greenland trader of the same name. 1655, Du. The Land of Edam, east side of Greenland, latitude 78°, marked in the Dutch charts as having been dis- covered. 1660, Po. David Melguer, said to have reversed the N. E. pas- sage. A pretended voyage. 1668, En. A voyage into Hudson's Bay, and for discovery to- wards the N. W., was performed by Captain Zac- chariah Gillam, accompanied by M. tie Grosseliez, a Frenchman, by whom the practicability of making an important settlement in this quarter had been suggest- ed. Gillam wintered in Hudson''s Bay, and built a small stone fort. The ap];)arent advantages to be de- rived from St ttletnents, founded on the examinations • Captain Burney is of opinion, that this voyage might have been accomplished without doubling the great promontory, by takmg the vessel in pieces, a practice not uncommon with the Russians, and carrying it over a narrow neck of land between the Kovima and the Anadii-. H i» i yi I M Q /li (66) CHBONOLOGICAL LIST OF VOYAGES. [aP?. N" HI. A. D. 1736. the height of 77' 25', aud westward to the Bay of Taimourska. Ru. A voyage from the Lena somewliat to the eastward of the Charaulack, was performed by Dmitri Laptiew. 1757, En. Two sliips equipped by the Hudson''s Bay Company, for discoveries in Hudson's Bay, and towards the N. W., appear to have accomplished little or nothing. 1738, Rn. The navigation from Archangel towards the east, by the Russians, commenced in 1734, was continued by Lieutenants Mlyagin and Skuratow, and accomplish- ed as far as the Obe. Ru. The voyage from the Obe to the Ehiesi, was accom- plished by Lieutenants Owzen and Koschelew. 1739, Ru. Lieutenant Laptieff, on his second voyage in the Fro- and zcn Sea, sailed from the Lena, wintered in the Indig- 1740, hirsa, and proceeded the next spring to the Kovima, from whence, accorc' n > to some authors, he crossed the isthmus of the Tchuktchi to the river Anadir, communicating with the sea of Kamtchatka *. 1741, Ru. An expedition of two vessels, under Commodore Behr- ing and Captain Tschirikow, was dispatched from Ochotsk in 1740, which, after wintering in Kam- tchatka, proceeded towards Americaj for the purpose of making discoveries about its shores. The ships be- ing separated on the passage, Behring discovered the Continent in latitude 58° 28', and Tschirikow in 55° 36'. The former, after discovering several islands, lost his ship on one of the Aleutians, called Behring's Island, where he died. The latter returned, having lost two boats and their crews on the American coast. 1741, En. Some part of the Welcomey in Hudson's Bay, examined and by Christopher Middleton and William Moor, with 1742, two vessels, after having wintered in Churchill River. The object of the voyage was the discovery of a N. W. passage. 1743, A reward of L. 20,000 offered by Parliament, for the dis- covery of a N. W. passage, by the way of Hudsoa's Bay, (18th Geo. II. c. 17.) • The combined result of these Russian navigations in the Frozen Sea, is briefly traced in chap. I. § 2. of this volume. APr. N° III.] CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OK VOYAGES. (67) A. D. 1746, En. Two ships, under the command of William Moor and Francis Smith, sent out in search of a N. W. passage, by the way of Hudson's Bay. Tlve (irst sunmier they examined some part of the W'.'lcome, and, after win- tering in Haye's River, made a good exploration of Wager Iliver, previously supposed to be a strait. 1753, Jm. Captain Charles Swaine, in the schooner Argo, sailed fnnn Philadelphia for the discovery of a N. W. pas- sage ; but being unable to penetrate through Hud- son"'s Strait, he examined a large extent of the Labi^a- dor Coast, from 5(i\ it is said, to latitude 65°. 1760, Ru. A most persevering but unsuccessful attempt was made to by a Russian merchant of the name of Shalauuoi-f, 1763. to sail from the Lena round the great Tchutkchi pro- montory. He first wintered in the Jana, and then twice in the Kovima. He discovered some islands and a bay, being the farthest spot he reached, which has been named Tschnoon Bay. 1761, En. A sloop, under the cominand of Captain Christopher, vas sent b} the Hudson's l>ay Company to explore Chesterfield Inlet iu Hudson's Bay, with the expecta- tion that it might be the opening of a N. W. passage. Christdj/iicr is taid to have penetrated above 150 miles, and then returned. 1762, /^M.„Cbri&topher was again sent out to complete the exami- nation of Chesterfield Inlet, when he traced it by a river into a lake, 24 miles long, and 6 or 7 broad ; and across this to the westward into another river, un- til his further progress, even in boats, was interrupted by falls. 1764, Ru. The indefatigable ShalauroflP made a findl attempt to pass from the Lena round the Tchutkchi promontory, m which he is supposed to have ])erished, as neither himself nor any of his companions ever returned. 17G0, Da. Baron von Uhlefeld through Hudson's Bay into die Pacific. A pretended voyage. 16C9 En. A journey by Samuel Hcanie, after two unsuccessful to attempts, accomplished from Prince of A\"ales Fort, 1772. Hudson's Bay, to the Copper-Mine River, supposed to fall into the Northern Ocean. 1772, Am. A second voyage for thediscovcry of a ?' W. passage, seems to have been attempted by t' ' Americans; w- I (08) CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF VOYAGES. [app. n' III. ■% [ A. D. Captain Wilder, in the brig Diligence, having sailed to latitude 69° 11' with such a design. This vessel was fitted out by means of the subscriptions of some gentlemen of Virginia. 1773, En. In a voyage towards the North Pole, with two vessels under the charge of Constantine John Phipps and SkefHngton Lutwidge, the latitude of 80° 48' was reached, and some interesting surveys and observa- tions made, but no discoveries. 1775, Sj). A voyage for discovery along the west side of North America, made, by order of the Viceroy of Mexico, by Bruno Heceta and others ; they reached the lati- tude of 57° 18' N. 1776, The reward of ^20,000 for the discovery of a N. W. pas- sage extended, not by the way of Hudson's Bay and in merchant ships only, but to any ships, even those of his Majesty, which, by a former act, were excluded, and in any northern direction between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans : A- so, an award of ^CSOOO to any ship that should apjn'oach within one degree of the North Pole. (16th (;eo. III. cap. 6.) 1776, JEii. Richard Pick« rsgill, in the brig Lion, was sent out to lialfin's Jiiiy for the protection of the whale-fishers, and for the examination of the coasts. He only readied the latitude of 68° 10', and then returned without having accomplished almost any thing. 1777, -En. Tiie same vessel was again equipped, under the com- mand of Lieutenant "^Valter Young, who was ordered to examine IJaflin's Bay, and attempt to find a N. W. ])assagc, with a view, it seems, of meeting Captain Cook, wlio was exjiected about the same time to bo trying to reverse the same track. But Young, hav- ing reached to tlu; height of 72^ 42', though so early as the mouth of June, tacked, and soon after returned home 1776 En. The adventurous navigator Ja.mes Cook, with two to ships un('or his direction, being appointed to make 1778, discoveries towards the reversing of a N. W. jias- sjige, passed Behring's Straic on his third voyage, in the summer of 1778, and discoveivd or named Cape Prince of Wales, Point Mulgrave^ Iqj Cape., Cape Lisburne, Cape XortJh^ Sec. and advanced to the north- Al'P. N" III.] CIIROXOLOGIGAL LIST OF VOYAGES. (69) ptam t(i bo hav- early Lirned two make pas- re, in Cape ,Cnpe Lrlh- A. D. ward as high as latitude 70° 44' N. ; which limit beinff unable to pass, he returned to the southward to spend the winter. In one ot the Sandwich Islands, Owhy. hee, this celebrated character lost his life. 1779, En. After the death of Captain Cook, a second examination of the icy sea, to the northward of Bchrino''s Strait, was undertaken by Charles Clerke, in which the same two ships reached the latitude of 70° 33', beyond Avliich they were niable to advance on account ot ice. 1786 Da. An expedition untler Ca})tain Lowenorn and Lieutenant and Egede, was sent out from Copenhagen for the reco- 1787. very of lost Gi-eenland. Several attem})ts were made to reach tlic coast about the parallel ol' 05", without being able to aj.proach nearer than about 50 miles on account of ice; Lowenorn returned to Denmark in July, and Egede to Iceland to refit. The latter made another attempt in the month of August, when he reached within 10 miles of the land, and then pro- ceeded to Iceland, A\here he wintered. The next year, Egede, with two small vessels, one conmianded by Lieutenant Rothe, made other trials to approach the Greenland coast, bi.'t Avith less success than before, never being able to reach the land within 30 miles. 1787 Ru. Joseph Billings, an Englishman, was employed in the to service of Russia for researches about Behring"'s Strait 1791. and the Tchutkchi Promontory. In 1787, he made a short voyage from the Kovima into the Icy Sea; in 1790, he sailed from Kamtchatka to the Alutian Islands ; and from thence, the same year, he sailed ti> the Bay of St Laurence, on the south side of Cape East, Bolning''s Strait, where he landed, and traced the coasts t;^ the northward as far as Klutshenie Bay, the eastern side of which is formed by Cape North. Erom this place he crossed the country towards the west, and arrived at the Kovima in 1791. 1789, En. Alexaxder Mackenzie accomplished a river naviga- tion from Eort Chepewyan, on the south side of the Lake of the Hills, as far as latitude 69° 14', where he was evidently at the borders of the Hyperborean Sea, or near the mouth of a river communicating with it. The river he descended is now named Mackenzie's B'/ver. 'f1 § (70) CIIIIONOLOGICAL LIST OF VOYAGES. [aPP. n" III. 1791 Eru to 1795. A. D. 1789, *S^. Two corvettes, under the orders of Malaspina, were sent to the N. W. of America, to search for a navigable communication from the Pacific to the Atlantic, be- tween the parallels of 63° and 60" N. 1790 En. Charles Duncan sailed in one of the Hudson's Bav to ships, with the view of being furnished with a small 1792. vessel on his arrival out, for making investigations to- wards a N. W. passage ; but being disappointed, both in the vessel and crew provided for him, he re- turned to England without attempting any thing. The following year he proceeded on the adventure to- wards the N. W. in a small vessel fitted out of Lon- don; wintered in Hudson's Bay, then made some slight examination of ClitsterfieWs Inlet, and again return- ed to a port in the Bay to winter. After these failures or disappointments, nothing else by him was attempt- ed. Two vessels, under the command of George Vancouver, were sent out to the west coast of North America, part- ly for receiving back some territories which had been seized by the Spaniards, and partly for discovery in regard of a navigable communication from the Pacific to the Atlantic, between the parallels of 30» and 60° N. The whole of the west coast was accordingly traced from latitude 30' to the head of Cook's Inlet, in about 61° 18'. In this lalx)rious investigation, Vancouver sailed almost 1000 miles in channels, in some places very contracter', between ranges of islands and the main. The non-existence of a passage through the continent, within the limits prescribed, was well es- tablished. Several islands to the northward of that part of Russia, included between the Jana and the Kovima, were dis- covered in different brief northern expeditions, among which was au extensive tract of country, now called Nczo Siberia. Lieii i.>nant Kotzebue, in a small vessel called the Ru- rick, was employed for making discoveries to the northward of Behring's Strait on the side of America. He passed Beh ring's Strait in 1816, and after some little time spent in research, returned to the south- ward to ^vinter. The next summer, Kotzebue pro- ceeded again towards the north ; but baring met with 1805 Ru to 1809 1815 Ru. u 1818. III. APP. N° III.] CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF VOTAGE.S. (71) A. D. a personal accident, was obliged to bear up home- ward, after reaching the mouth of Behring's Strait. 1818, En. John Ross and William Edward Parry, proceeded with two well equiprjed ships, for the discovery of a N. W. passage. They circumnavigated Baffin's Bay, proved the non-existence of Cumberland Island, dis- covered some part of the west coast that was not seen by Baffin, and gave names to numerous positions in the course of their navigation. En. David Buchan and John Franklin, with two ships, undertook a voyage for discovery towards the North Pole. One of the vessels received damage in the best part of the season, and occasioned, it is said, the re- turn of the expedition before that research had been made which was intended. 1818 En. Rewards to navigators, for advancing to latitude 83° N. and and to longitude 110° W. within the Arctic circle, 1819. with a progressive increa^^^e of premiums for sailing still nearer to the N. Pole, and making further advances in the discovery of a N. W. passage, permitted by act of Parliament, and fixed by an order in Council •. 1819, En. William Edward PaiTy was again dispatched for dis- coveries towards the N. W. with two vessels under his direction. The issue not yet known. — — En. John Franklin, with others, proceeded to America, for making researches by land about the shores of the Frozen Ocean. Ru- the lerica. I some louth- pro- wnth In drawing up the preceding abstract of northern voyages, it IS but proper to mention, that I have not been at the pains to con- sult many originals, having principally been indebted to the writ- ings of Foster, Muller, Coxe, Barrow, and Burney. The two voyages of Christopher in 1761 and 1762, of Wilder in 1772, and of Swaine in 1753, are not noticed, I believe, by any of the above authors. Christopher's voyages are mentioned in Goldson's Obser- vations on the Passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and in Macpherson's Annals of Commerce, vol. iii. p. 362 : Wil- der's voyage is also given by Macpherson, vol. iii. p. 527 ; and several particulars respecting Swaine's voyage, are contained in the Gentleman's Magazine, vol. xxiv. p. 46. Act 58th Geo. III. c. 20, and London Gazette 22d March 1819. Ill (72) EFFECT OF THE SUN S RAYS. [app. iir. No. III. b. NOTICE RESPECTING THE EFl'ECT OK THE SUNS HAYS, AM) THE DECREASE OF TEMPEKATL'RE ON ASCENDING IN THE ATMOSPHERE. In page 47. of this volume, afumiliar approximation relating to the effect of the sun^s rays, during the sunnner solstice, in the Arctic Regions, is given in a note. It may be worth while to mention, that in an admirable article (m " Climate," in the third volume of the Supplement to the fourth and fifth edi- tions of the Encyclopedia Britannica, this subject, together with several others connected with atmospheric temperature and pressure, is scientifically illustrated. The effect of elevation, in occasioning a reduction of tem- perature, forms a part of the investigations in this article. Instead of 90 yards of elevation j)roducing a depression of one degree of Fahrenheit in the lower atmosphere, as stated by the late Professor Playlair in his " Outlines of Natural Philosophy,"" and by otlier philosophers ; it would appear from the author's (Professor Leslie) researches, that the height producing a change of a degree of temperature is 100 yards. In the higher regions of the atmosphere, a similar change of temperature takes place, under a smaller difference of altitude. Thus, in temperate climates, while the mean tem- perature at the level of the sea decreases one degree of Fjih- renheit during an ascent of 300 feet above the surface, it suf- fers a similar diminution in 295 feet, at the altitude of a mile ; in 277 feet, at the height of 2 miles ; in 252 feet, at the height of S miles ; in 223 feet, at the height of 4 miles; and in 192 feet, at the elevation of 5 miles above the surface. In this ratio, the decrease of temperature, on ascending a mile into the atmosphere from the surface of the sea, would be about 17.7 degrees; on ascending two miles 36.1, three miles 55.9, four miles 78.1, and five miles above the sea 103.5 degrees. APP. N<' IV.] LATITUDES AND LOXGITVDEI. (T3) No. IV. TABI.K OF LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES OF CAPES, BAYS, &C. IM 8PITZBKUOEM AND JAN MAYEN, DERIVED CHIEFLY FROM OIUGINAL SURVEYS. Spitzbergen. Point Look-out, or South Cape (the high land) 76" 39' N. (the S. W. corner of the low land) 76' 29 1 Horn Mount, - - - 76 58 Horn Sound, middle of the entrance, - 77 2 Cape on the N. side of entrance, 77 4 S. W. ditto, Iceberg Mount, Bell Sound, middle of the entrance. Cape on N. side of entrarce, N. W. ditto, S. W. ditto, S. E. ditto. Fair Haven, Cold Harbour, Bell River, entrance, Van Keulen's Bay, Beynicre's River, Clean Bay, Ice Sound, middle of the entrance. Cape on the N. side of entrance, S. ditto. Safe Haven, Sassen Bay, Green Harbour, Foreland or Charles' Island ; — :Back Point, Middle Hook, Cape Sitoe, (?) North end, or Fair Foreland, Kings's Bay ; — Cape at S. W. side of entrance, N. W. ditto. N. side within. 16- 5'E. 15 44 20 15 77 77 13 77 35 77 38 77 42 77 29 77 32 77 40 77 50 77 45 77 37 77 38 77 32 78 9 78 12 78 7 78 14 78 16 78 4 78 13(?) 78 36 78 44 78 53 (?) 78 56 79 5 78 59 15 14 58 14 54 14 30 13 42 13 42 13 5 13 18 14 5 13 53 15 14 !jQ 15 15 27 14 37 12 46 12 42 12 49 12 48 13 40 13 24 10 37 9 35 9 20 9 17 10 18 10 87 11 % ;>ii rS. VOL. T. APPENDIX. (^0 I' (^4) IATITUDB3 AND LONGITUDES. Cross Bay ;— Mitre Cape, (the high land) 79° (the low land) 79 Cape at the W. side of entrance (within) - - 79 N. ditto (within) 79 Seven Icebergs ; — Cape to the snithward of 1st, 79 northward of 3d, 79 northward of 7th, or the south point of Ham- burgher's Bay, - 79 Hamburgher"'s Bay, - - 79 Magdalena Bay, middle of entrance, 79 Cape at the S. W. side of en- trance, or Magdalena Hook, 79 John Duncan's Bight, 79 [aPP. N" XV. lO'N.lO'll'E 7 10 12 13 15 13 17 10 33 10 44 9 40 9 27 2G 28 35 9 24 9 30 9 30 34 34 9 23 9 38 Jan Maycn Inland. Young's Foreland, or Cape North-east, Cape Neill, Cape South-cast, Cape Hope, Cape Fishburn, Jameson Bay, Cape Brodrick, Esk Mount, Beerenberg (altitude 6870 feet), Cape Traill, Cape South, '\ Cape South-west, 71° 8'N. 7' 26' 71 3 7 29 71 2 7 29 71 1 7 34 71 1 7 37 71 7 46 70 59 7 50 71 1 7 46 71 4 7 36 70 56 8 8 70 49 8 41 70 50? 8 45 AFP. N" v.] plants found IX SPITZDKnOHN. (T5) No. V. catalogue of plants found in spitzbeugen *. Hexandria. Lu/ula campostris, Juncus compcstris L. Decandria. Andromeda tetracona, LinnL Saxifrogu u})positif'ulia. L. cernua. L. var. nivalis. L. c.'cspitosa, /fl groenlandica. Wahlenh. lapp, 119 Cerastium alpinum, » hirsutuni. WahUnb. lapp. 136. Icosanduia. Dryas octopetaia. L. Polyandria. Papaver radicatum. Rotth. Vix diversum a P. nudicaulc. L. Ranunculus sulphureus. Soland. in Ph'ipps' Voyage. Didynamia. Pedicularis hirsuta. L. Tetradynamia. Cochlearia groenlandica ? Vel C. Anglica, WaJd. lapp. Cardamine bellidifolia. L. Draba alpina. L. Dkeoia. Salix polaris. Wdhlcnh. lapp. 261. Cryptogam I A. Trichostomum lanuginosum. Hypnum dendroides. rufescens ? Bryum vcntricosum. Smith brtt. ligulatum ? Dicrani species ? Andraea alpina. Ulva ? • This list includes the whole of the plants that I met with, except- ing some of the larger fuci, in three or four visits to the shore about King's Bay and Mitre Cape. Some of the specimens being imperfect, or without fructification, their species could not always be determined. ^, t^^. >, o A>.^< IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // 1.0 UilM 125 m m I.I ■ 2.2 :^ 1^ 12.0 i: 1— 11''^ 1'-^ ^ 4// ,. Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRUT WiBSTH.N.Y. 14SS0 (716) •72-4503 (76) 1IIMEKAI.S OF SPITZBERGEK. [/VPP. V° VI. forsan nov. sp. prope (datum, sed absque Fucus fructific. plumosus. sinuatus. Conferva P nigra ? Cenomyce furcata. Adiar. syn. 276. pocillum. Id. 253. Solorina crocea. Id. 8. Alectoria jubata, /3 chalybeiformis. Id. 291. Lecanora murorum, var. Id. 181. Lecidea atrovirens. Id. 24. Gyrophora hirsuta. Id. 69. erosa. AZ. 65. proboscidea. Id. 64. Endocarpum sinopicum. Id. 98. Sphffirophoron coralloides. /d. 287. Farmelia stygia. Id. recurva. Id. 206 ? sp. nov. } sed absque fructific. Peltidea canina ? Cetraria nivalis, /d. ?28. Cornicularia aculeata, /3 spadlcea. Id. 300. Usnea ? prope U. melaxantham. Id. 303. Stereocaulon paschale. Id, 284. No. vr. NOTICE RESPECTING THE MINTEBALS OF SPITZBER6XN. Specimens of the different rocks met with, when I landed in Spitzbergen in the summer of 1818, were sent to my friend Professor Jameson, who observed the following kinds : Bluish-grey foliated-granular limestone, of which some varieties are minute foliated, pasang into splintery; and others contain veins and imbedded portions of quavtz. Gneiss. APr. N° VI.] MINERALS OF sriTZBIiBGEX. (77) some ftery; IS of IVIica-slate. Mica-slate passing into clay-slate. Quartz-rock. Rhomboidal calcareous-spar. The gneiss was of a grey colour, the felspar and quartz being both grey, and the mica dark blackish-brown. Some varieties were very coarse granular and inclining to granite ; but no true granite was met with. The mica-slate had the usual characters of that rock. The quartz-rock was grey, small granular, and in some specimens splintery. Some masses contained disseminated scales of mica, but no felspar. In both varieties of quartz rock observed, were minutely dis- seminated iron-pyrites, which decaying of a yellowish-brown, tinged the rock of that colour. The calcareous-spar occurred in veins in the limestone. It was found only in the roof of a deep cavern. From these specimens, which were all the varieties met with in two or three excursions to the shore, it appeared to Professor Jameson tliat the mountains and shores of Spitz- bergen visited by me, are formed of gneiss, micc'-slate, and quartz-rock, which contain great and frequent beds v)f bluish- coloured limestone. No secondary rocks, such as sandstoiie, basalt, clinkstone, or others of a similar description, nor any rock of volcanic formation, were met with. In this respect Spitzbergen is remarkably distinguished from Jan Mayen *, where all the rocks are secondary trap or volcanic. Nova Zembla is said to have the same geognostical features as Spitzbergen ; and West Greenland abounds in primitive rocks, but contains few species of the secondary class. Pro- bably Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla, were formerly more intimately connected than they are at present. * Cherie Island appears to be composed of the same rocks as Jan Mayen. (78) WIKD AND WEATIIEH IN JAN MAYEN. [aPP. N" VII. No. VII. STATE OF THE WIND AND WEATHER, FROM AUGUST TO AIAY, IN THE ISLAND OF JAN MAYEN, AS COLLECTED FROM THE JOURNAL OF SEVEN SAILORS OF HOLLAND WHO WINTERED THERE IN THE YEAR 1633,-4*. [Referred to j). 168.] 1633 WINDS. REMARKS. tJQ26 N K Strong breeze. The Heet Miilcd ^ for Holland 27 N I? 28 N E Snow 29 Clear 30 N W, at night N E 31 N E Fresh gale, clear ^ 1 N W to N E Snow ^ 2 N E Snow 3 N F Some snow 4 N K some snow 5 N E Some snow 6 N E rainy 7 N E Fair. At night S E b S rainy 8 S E Rainy morning 9 S E Clejir and warm 10 S E Very stormy, rainy 11 S E bS to S W and N E. 12 N E Blowing hard, clear 13 S E to N E b N and N W. Foggy, rainy Fair, sun- shiny 14 W, N W b W Some snow 15 W Blowing so hard the sea foamed 16 SW Fair 1 7 S W Blowing very hard, clear 18S WbS Rainy 19 W, S E Clear, starlight at night 20 S E b S, S W Sunshiny 21 S W Misty and rainy 22 S W Blowing hard and rainy 23 E, S E Cloudy, with rain and mist 24 S E b S Rainy ,25 S E 1) E Stormy and rainy 26 E.erly Frosty weather 27 N E Fair, at night W Foul weather 28 N, S, S E Violent storm, snow 29 S E Blowing hard, with snow 30 S W b \V Rainy, stormy at night 1633 WINDS. REMARKS. tj 1 N E Frosty O 2 E Freezing hard 3 E, W Frost and snow 4 S, S VV Frosty, fog or rain at night 5 S W Much rain 6 S W b S Blowing hard 7 S W h W Very stormy 8 S W b W, N E, N Very tempestuous 9 N.erly Temi)estuous 10 N E b N Blowing strong, excessive cold 11 N E Very cold, snow 12 N E Blowing hard, very cold 13 N E Vcr)- cold 14 N E Excessive cold 15 N.erly Weather tolerable 16 N.erly Cold, snow 17 N Blowing hard, frosty 18 N Frosty 19 N Some tec a mile offshore 20 N E Fair, much ice seen 21 E, N E Blowing and snowing hard 22 N E Much snow 23 N E Cloudy 24 N E Frosty 25 S W Excesive cold, clear 26 S W, W Sea full of ice 27 W Clear 28 W Clear frosty weather 29 N Severe cold, sea full of ice, snow 30 N Freezing hard, tem|Testuous 31 N Severe frost, with snow ^ 1 N E Cold vehement z; 2 Hard frost 3 N E Tolerable weather 4 N E, W Freezing hard 5 S Heavy fall of snow 6 S to E Tempestuous weather 7 N E Still weather • See Churchill's " Collection of Vovages and Travels," Vol. ii. Ed. 1733, p. 369. APP. N" Vll. I WIND AND WEATHER IN JAN MAYEIf. (79) 1633 WIVDS. REMARKS. 8 N Excessive cold 9 N Sun 4 un huur above the horizon ION 1 1 N E Wind increased, thick clouds 12 E Thick fogs, gulls seen 13 E Freezing severely 14 E, W Cold weather, buy full of ice 15 W Saw three or four bears 16 W 1 7 N Dark snowy weather, cold relaxed IB N E Frost increased 1 9 N Sun seen just above the sea 20 N, W Dark snowy weather 21 W Sea full of ice 22 W.erly Cold weather 23 N W b N Fair, sea full of ice 24 S E, W Frosty, sea-gulls seen 25 W Frosty 28 S Mild, the ice left the bay 27 S W, E Fair weather 28 S E Fair mild weather 29 S E Land blocked with ice on S side 30 S E Violent rains 1 S.erly Uain, S K at night 2 S E Mild rainy wr. ice set off the land 3 S Rainy, blowing strong 4 S Mild, cloudy 5 S Mild calm weather 6 S E Cloudy 7 S E, S Foggy, snow and frost 8 N E, W Frosty 9 W Clear cold weather, sea full of ice low Frosty, nothing but ice at sea 11 W Ditto 12 W Cold weather, calm at night 13 S W Cloudy, S £ at night, with snow 14 S Clear frosty day, ice removed off land 15 S Dark wr. ice returned IS S W Moonlight night 1 7 S Cloudy dark weather, snow, thaw at night 18 S. E Dark rainy day 19 E Hard frost 20 E Do. calm weather, dark night 21 F., N Frost and snow 1633 ^28 Q29 30 31 1G34 c I u a WINDS. REMARKS. E, W Violent snow and wind W Clear cold wr. S E at night, with snow S W Blowing hard S W Calm, snow at night S W Dark cold weather N E Clear, ice forced to sen S E, A little rain, at night a S W storm W.erly Fierce wind, cold m c;ither, ice returned ; E.erly wind at night K.erly Thick fog and frost N Increasing wind, with snow N Snowing and freezing hard N E Frosty, excessive cold and stormy at night N E The ireheaixsd in the baylikehuts N E Bright pleasant day, but very cold N E to S & S E. Vast qantity of snow with S E wind S E Vast quantity of snow fell, wea- ther milder S E Do., ice forced to sea, cold wr. E Tolerably clear E.erly, N E. Snow, ice seen off shore S Milder wr. E at night, with frost E Fog, N at night, froze the bay up in a night N to W Cold, foggy, snow W Abundance of snow W.erly Much snow, E at night, s ow E Blowing violently, withthick snow, W at night W. A heavy fall of snow W to E Sun visible, clear frosty wea- ther, ice went off W Snowy, S wind at night, cloudy S Strong wind, cold night W Snowing hard, ice returned, S at night W Mild, E at night, snowy weather W to S E Snow, ice carried a great way off S W, W Dark rainy wr . ice returned Calm clear frosty day, sun seen an hour and a half W.erly, N with frost W.erly Clear calm wr. bay full of ica . N E Clear cold wr. Iwars grow shy E.rly, S K Cloudy, milder S E to S Milder, snow, ice went off S E and E Cold abated E to S W Clear moonlight night E Blow ing strong (80) WIND AND WEATHF.n IN JAN MAYEK. [aPP. N® YII. X) 1634 WINDS. REMARKS. 8 S Calm weather, ice was carried out of Hight 9 N.erly Snowed violently ; at night S 10 N to S W Dark and stormy 11 S to E Cloudy HE Snow ; not very cold for the season 13 £ Snowy, calm weather, moonhght night 14 E Clear day ; stormy cloudy night 15 B Stiow so high could not stir out 16 £ Mild, saw two fowls like geese and a falcon 17 E Much snow 18 E Cloudy, mild weather 19 E Fair day, no ice 20 E Mild weather SI N E Fair and calm, frost and snow at night 88 N E Much snow, flrosty 83 N E Some ice returned to the bay 84 E.eriy Intense fW)st, N at night 85 N Cloudy, dark night 86 (No remark) 27 Calm mild weather, S wind at night and thaw 88 i.' Mild ^vr. ice far off, SW at night •^. 1 a W Rainy in the evening 8 W Blowing hard, clear cold weather 3 N U to N Violent wind forced the ice into the bay 4 M E Cloudy calm weather 5 N E Cloudy, cold less severe 6 N £ Pleasant, and calm at night 7 N E Do. at night stormy 8 N E Dark cloudy weather ' 9 N E Sharp frost 10 N E Excessive cold weathei 1 1 N E A south wind brought pleasant weather 12 S, S E Ice went out of sight, do. wr. 13 S E, N E Moderately cold 14 N E Very cold 15 S, S W Milder wr. killed a bear, which was very serviceable, as the scurvy had appeared 16 S W, N at night, cold weather 1 7 N Cloudy, bay filled with ice 18 N Cloudy frosty day 19 (No remark) 20 S Calm, sunshiny day 21 S Dark rainy weather, ice went to sea 28 S E Scurvy becomes very afflictive is 1634 WINDS. ' REMARKS. •g 23 S B Pleasant day 3 84 S.erly or calm weather S 25 S E, S Ice returned 26 8 Fair clear weather 27 S E Cloudy, 10 whales seen in the bay 28 S.erly wind, Innumerable whales ap« peared 29 S.erly Plenty of whales 30 S.erly Dark night 31 N B Some snow, 4 or 5 whales seen ig 1 E Cloudy, S at night, 4 or 5 whal«i> o« 8 5 B Snow, mild weather 3 W Cloudy, two of the men only in health 4 W.erly Sunshiny day 5 S E Two large whales in the bay 6 N E 4 or < whales 7 N E Cold, sunshiny weather 8 N £ Do. innumenUtle whales 9 N Frosty, do. 10 N Cold, ice returned, some whales 11 N No whales or bears 12 N E Clear frosty day 13 N E Da bay frill of ice 14 N E, A south wind at night carried the ice away 15 W Calm mild day, 4 whales seen in the bay 16 W. Clear, The clerk diet. 17 W Cloudy, bay ftUl of ice 18 (No remark) 19 W The men much afflicted, having no refreshment left 20 S At night E.eriy, with snow ; ice drifted away 21 S E A calm day 82 N E Ice closed to the shore ; S wind at night 83 S Ice off land, rain. All the sur- vivors but one rendered helpless by disease ; the captain strug- gling with death 34 S Cloudy 85 S Sunshiny, some ice, whales seen ; A W wind at night brought the ice in 86 W Cloudy day, cabii 87 E Mild weather. Killed a dog for food 88 E Cloudy weather, ice went out of sight, N wind at night 89 N E Blowing hard at night 30 N E A line clear day Vtl. APP. N" VIII.] specific ORAVITY or ICE. (SI) Here the journal terminates with the word die ; alluding perhaps to other observations which the writer, in his usual way, had been about to set down. The first man of tliis unfortunate party died on the IGth of April, the other six seem to have expired in the beginning of May. The scur- vy was evidently the cause of their death, which, it appears, arose more from the want of fresh provisions than from the cold, as they could generally stir abroad at least once in three or four days. No. VIII. EXPERIMENTS FOR DETERMINING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF ICE. ice [Referred to p. 234.] Some attempts to obtain the specific gravity of ice, by measuring the proportion of rectangular pieces which floated above the surface in a vessel of water, having given discor> dant results, a more accurate method was adopted. Three masses of ice, of different qualities, being drained some time in air when the temperature was 30°, (the most porous in a warmer situation), were washed in pure water, dried, and carefully weighed. A copper ball, weighing 2515 grains, being then attached alternately to each mass, the weight in a vessel of fresh water, at a freezing temperature, was found. From these data the following results were obtained. VOL. I. APPENDIX. (0 .«^) Sl'ECinC GKAVITY OF ICE. [aI'P. N" VIII. WEIGHTS OBTAINED. Ice in ira. I. I. Transparent fresh water ice, without a visible pore. 2 Semi-transparent ice from a tongue of what is called talt- water ice ; tasted quite fresh. 3. Bay ice, porous and opaque ; when drained, tasted near' ly quite fresh. [Copper ball used for unking the ice. II. Grains. 3333 3661 4892 2515 1-^ III. Gr. 1922 1898 1838 IV. Gr. 2233 2233 2233 2233 * 2^ 8 Gr. 311 835 395 VI. Gr. 36U 3996 5287 282 I" « A VII. Gr. a9146 0.9168 0.925 + &918] These experiments with similar kinds of ice, and under similar circumstances, were repeated on another voyage, in which the coincidence of the results are remarkable. The specific gravity, (compared with fresh water, temperature 34",) of E specimen the same as No. 1. was found to be 0.9165; of a specimen similar to No. 2. 0.9200 ; and of another cor- responding with No. 3. 0.9215. Specimens of the same de- scriptions of ice compared with sea-water, temperature Q^ \ gave the specific gravity of No. 2.=0,8942, and of No. 3.= 0.8943. When all these experiments were made, the temperature of the air being within 2 degrees of the freezing point, was partic iOrly favourable. The experiments were conducted throughout in the open air, and the blocks of ice, when handled, were lifted with a woollen glove. All tlie apparatus that was used had the temperature of 30° to 34", so that no loss was likely to take place by the melting of any }X)rtion of the ice. £ND or VOLLMi; riJv"*!. \» I II. 146 162 )18] ider ► in rhe 4^) de- lure len Itus no of